Full text of "The ancient geography of India"

See other formats

CHARLES WILLIAM WASON

COLLECTION

CHINA AND THE CHINESE

THE GIFT OF
CHARLES WILLIAM WASON
CLASS OF 1876
1918

Cornell University Library
DS 409.C97

The ancient geqgraphv.of India

3 1924 023 029 485

f mm

?TR1*-

ntTrfrt-*\

GAYLORD

PRINTEDINUSA

Cornell University
Library

The original of tliis book is in
tine Cornell University Library.

There are no known copyright restrictions in
the United States on the use of the text.

http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924023029485

THE

ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY

INDIA.

A ■".'i.inMngVwLn-j inl^

THE

ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY

INDIA.

THE BUDDHIST PERIOD,

INCLUDING

THE CAMPAIGNS OP ALEXANDER, AND THE TRAVELS OF
HWEN-THSANG.

ALEXANDER CUNNINGHAM,

Ui.JOB-GBirBBALj BOYAL ENGINEEBS (BENGAL BETIBBD).

" Venun et terrena demoDstratio intelligatar,
Alezandri Magni vestigiiB insistamns." — PHnii Hist. Nat. vi. 17.

WITS TSIRTBBN MAPS.

LONDON :
TEUBNER AND CO., 60, PATERNOSTER ROW.

1871.

[All Sights reserved.']

■■{%

A\^^

TATLOB AND CO., PEIKTEES,
LITTLE QUEEN STKEET, LINCOLN'S INN EIELDS.

MAJOR-Q-ENEEAL

SIR H. C. RAWLINSON, K.G.B.

ETC. ETC.,
WHO HAS HIMSELF DONE SO MUCH
■^ TO THROW LIGHT ON

THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OP ASIA,

THIS ATTEMPT
TO ELUCIDATE A PARTIODLAR PORTION OF THE SUBJKcr

IS DEDICATED

BY HIS FRIEND,

THE AUTHOR.

PEEFACE.

The Geography of India may be conveniently divided
into a few distinct sections, each broadly named after
the prevailing religious and political character of the
period which it embraces, as the Brahnanical, the
Buddhist^ and the Muhammadan.

The Brahmanical period would trace the gradual
extension of the Aryan race over Northern India, from
their first occupation of the Panjab to the rise of
Buddhism, and would comprise the whole of the Pre-
historic, or earliest section of their history, duiing
which time the religion of the Vedas was the pre-
vailing belief of the country.

The Buddhist period, or Ancient Geography of India,
would embrace the rise, extension, and decline of the
Buddhist faith, from the era of Buddha, to the
conquests of Mahmud of Ghazni, during the greater
part of which time Buddhism was the dominant reli-
gion of the country.

The Muhammadan period, or Modern Geography
of India, would embrace the rise and extension of
the Muhammadan power, from the time of Mahmud of
Ghazni to the battle of Plassey, or about 750 years,
during which time the Musalm§,ns were the paramount
sovereigns of India.

VI PREFACE.

The illustration of the Yedic period has already
been made the subject of a separate work by M. Vivien
de Saint-Martin, whose valuable essay* on this early
section of Indian Geography shows how much interest-
ing information may be elicited from the Hymns of
the Yedas, by an able and careful investigator.

The second, or Ancient period, has been partially
illustrated by H. H. Wilson, in his ' Ariana Antiqua,'
and by Professor Lassen, in his ' Pentapotamia Indica.'
These works, however, refer only to North-west India ;
but the Geography of the whole country has been
ably discussed by Professor Lassen, in his large work
on Ancient India, f and still more fully by M. de Saint-
Martin, in two special essays, — the one on the Geo-
graphy of India, as derived from Greek and Latin
sources, and the other in an Appendix to M. Julien's
translation of the Life and Travels of the Chinese
pilgrim Hwen Thsang.J His researches have been
conducted with so much care and success that few
places have escaped identification. But so keen is
his critical sagacity, that in some cases where the
imperfection of our maps rendered actual identi-
fication quite impossible, he has indicated the true
positions within a few miles.

For the illustration of the third, or Modern period,
ample materials exist in the numerous histories of the
Muhammadan States of India. No attempt, so far as I
am aware, has yet been made to mark the limits of the
several independent kingdoms that were established

* ' Etude sur la Geograpbie et Ics populations primitives du Nord-
Ouest de I'lude, d'apres les Hymnes Vediques.' Paris, 1859.

t 'Indische Altertluimskiinde." 4 vols. Bonn.

X Etude sur la Geographie Grecque et Latine de I'lnde,' 1858. M.
Julien's ' Hiouen Thsang,' vol. iii. p. 251 ; "Mcmoire Analytique," etc.

PREFACE. Vll

in the fifteenth century, during the troubles which
followed the invasion of Timur. The history of this
period is very confused, owing to the want of a special
map, showing the boundaries of the different Muham-
madan kingdoms of Delhi, Jonpur, Bengal, Malwa,
Gujarat, Sindh, Multan, and Kulbarga, as well as the
different Hindu States, such as Gwalior and others,
which became independent about the same time.

I have selected the Buddhist period, or Ancient
Geography of India, as the subject of the present
inquiry, as I believe that the peculiarly favourable
opportunities of local investigation which I enjoyed
during a long career in India, will enable me to de-
termine with absolute certainty the sites of many of
the most important places in India.

My chief guides for the period which I have under-
taken to illustrate, are the campaigns of Alexander
in the fourth century before Christ, and the travels
of the Chinese pilgrim, Ilwen Thsang, in the seventh
century after Christ. The pilgrimage of tnis Chinese
priest forms an epoch of as much interest and import-
ance for the Ancient History and Geography of India,
as the expedition of Alexander the Great. The actual
campaigns of the Macedonian conqueror were confined
to the valley of the Indus and its tributaries ; but the
information collected by himself and his companions,
and by the subsequent embassies and expeditions of
the Seleukide kings of Syria, embraced the whole
valley of the Ganges on the north, the eastern and
western coasts of the peninsula, and some scattered
notices of the interior of the country. This infor-
mation was considerably extended by the systematic
inquiries of Ptolemy, whose account is the more valu-

VUl PREFACE.

able, as it belongs to a period just midway* between
tbe date of Alexander and that of Hwen Thsang, at
which time the greater part of North-west India had
been subjected by the Indo-Scythians.

With Ptolemy, we lose the last of our great classi-
cal authorities ; and, until lately, we were left almost
entirely to our own judgment in connecting and
arranging the various geographical fragments that lie
buried in ancient inscriptions, or half hidden in the
vague obscurity of the Puranas. But the fortunate
discovery of the travels of several Chinese pilgrims
in the fifth, sixth, and seventh centuries of the Chris-
tian era, has thrown such a flood of light upon this
hitherto dark period, that we are now able to see our
way clearly to the general arrangement of most of
the scattered fragments of the Ancient Geography of
India.

The Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hian was a Buddhist
priest, who travelled through India from the banks of
the Upper Indus to the mouth of the Ganges, between
the years 399 and 413 a.d. Unfortunately his journal
is very concise, and is chiefly taken up with the de-
scription of the sacred spots and objects of his reli-
gion, but as he usually gives the bearings and dis-
tances of the chief places in his route, his short notices
are very valuable. The travels of the second Chinese
pilgrim, Sung-Tun, belong to the year 502 a.d., but as
they were confined to the Kabul valley and North-
west Panjab, they are of much less importance, more

* Campaign of Alexander, b.c.3.30, and Ptolemy's ' Geography,' a.d.
150, or 480 years laler. Beginning of Hwen Thsang's travels in India,
A.D. 03O, or just 480 years after Ptolemy.

PREFACE. IX

especially as his journal is particularly meagre in
geographical notices.*

The third Chinese pilgrim, Hwen Thsang, was also
a Buddhist priest, who spent nearly fifteen years of
his life in India in studying the famous Vooks of his
religion, and in visiting all the holy places of Buddhism.
For the translation of his travels we are wholly in-
debted to M. Stanislas Julien, who with unwearied
resolution devoted his great abilities for no less than
twenty years to the acquirement of the Sanskrit and
Chinese languages for this special purpose, f The period
of Hwen Thsang's travels extended from a.d. 629 to
645. During that time he visited most of the great
cities throughout the country, from Kabul and Kashmir
to the mouths of the Ganges and Indus, and from
NepM to Kanchipura near Madras. The pilgrim
entered Kabul from the north-west, via Bamian, about
the end of May, a.d. 630, and after many wanderings
and several long halts, crossed the Indus at Ohind in
April of the following year. He spent several months
in Taxila for the purpose of visiting the holy places of
Buddhism, and then proceeded to Kashmir, where he
stayed for two whole years to study some of the more
learned works of his religion. On his journey east-
ward he visited the ruins of Sarigala^ so famous in the
history of Alexander, and after a stay of fourteen
months in Chinapati^ and of four months in Jdland/tara,
for the further study of his religion he crossed the
Satlej in the autumn of a.d. 635. From thence his
onward course was more devious, as several times he

* The travels of both of these pilgrims have been most carefully
and ably translated by the Eev. S. Beal.
t Max Miiller's ' Buddhism and Buddhist Pilgrims,' p. 30.

X PEEFACE.

retraced his steps to visit places which had heen left
behind in his direct easterly route. Thus, after having
reached Mathura he returned to the north-west, a dis-
tance of 200 miles to Thdnesar, from whence he re-
sumed his easterly route via Srughna on the Jumna,
and Gangadwdra on the Ganges to AhicJthatra, the
capital of Northern Panchdla, or Eohilkhand. He
next recrossed the Ganges to visit the celebrated cities
of SanMsa, Kanoj, and Kosdmbi in the Do^b, and then
turning northward into Oudh he paid his devotions at
the holy places of Ayodhya and Srdvasti. From thence
he resumed his easterly route to visit the scenes of
Buddha's birth and death at Kapilavasfu and Kasina-
gara ; and then once more returned to the westward
to the holy city of Bandras^ where Buddha first began
to teach his religion. Again resuming his easterly route
he visited the famous city of Vaisdli in Tirhdt, from
whence he made an excursion to Nei>al, and then re-
tracing his steps to Vaisali he crossed the Ganges to
the ancient city of PdtaVqmira, or Palibothra. From
thence he proceeded to pay his devotions at the mi-
merous holy places around Gaya, from the sacred fig-
tree at Bodh Gaga, under which Buddha sat for five
years in mental abstraction, to the craggy hill of
Girigek, where Buddha explained his religious views
to the god Indra. He next visited the ancient cities
of Kusdgarapura and liajagriha, the early capitals of
Magadha, and the great monastery of Ndlanda, the
most famous seat of Buddhist learning throughout
India, where he halted for fifteen months to study the
Sanskrit language. Towards the end of a.d. 638 he
resumed his easterly route, following the course of the
Ganges to Modagivi and Cham2)a, and then crossing the

PREFACE. XI

river to the north he visited Paundra Varddhana, or
Pubna, and Kdmarupa, or Assam.

Having now reached the most easterly district of
India he turned towards the south, and passing through
Samatafa^ or Jessore, and TdmralipH, or Tamluk, he
reached Odra, or Orissa, early in a.d. 639. Continuing
his southerly route he visited Ganjam and Kalinga^ and
then turning to the north-west he reached Ko^ala^ or
Berar, in the very heart of the peninsula. Then re-
suming his southerly course he passed through
Andhra^ or Teling^na to Bhanakakata, or Amaravati
on the Kistna river, where he spent many months in
the study of Buddhist literature. Leaving this place
early in a.d. 640 he pursued his southerly course to
KdncJiipura, or Conjeveram, the capital of Dravida,
where his further progress in that direction was
stopped by the intelligence that Ceylon was then in a
very troubled state consequent on the recent death of
the king. This statement is specially valuable for the
purpose of verifying the dates of the pilgrim's arrival
at different places, which I have calculated according
to the actual distances travelled and the stated duration
of his halts.* Now the troubled state of Ceylon fol-
lowed immediately after the death of Eaja Buna-Mu-
galdn, who was defeated and killed in a.d. 639 ; and it
is only reasonable to infer that the Ceylonese monks,
whom the pilgrim met at K^nchipura, must have left
their country at once, and have reached that place
early in a.d. 640, which accords exactly with my
calculation of the traveller's movements.

From Dravida Hwen Thsang turned his steps to
the north, and passing through Konkana and Ma-

* See Appendix A for the Chronology of Hwen Thsang's Travels.

XU PEEFACE.

lidrdshtra arrived at B/idroch on the Narbada, from
whence, after visiting Ujain and Balabhi and several
smaller states, he reached Sindh and Multan towards
the end of a.d. 641. He then suddenly returned to
Maffadha, to the great monasteries of Ndlanda and
Tiladhaka^ where he remained for two months for the
solution of some religious doubts by a famous Bud-
dhist teacher named Prajnabhadra. He next paid a
second visit to Kdmrup, or Assam, where he halted
for a month. Early in a.d. 643 he was once more at
Pdtalipufra, where he joined the camp of the great
king Harsha Varddhana, or Siladitya, the paramount
sovereign of northern India, who was then attended
by eighteen tributary princes, for the purpose of add-
ing dignity to the solemn performance of the rites of
the Quinquennial Assembly. The pilgrim marched in
the train of this great king from Pdtaliputra through
Praydya and Kosuinbi to Kanoj. He gives a minute
description of the religious festivals that were held at
these places, which is specially interesting for the
light which it throws on the public performance of
the Buddhist religion at that particular period. At
Kanoj he took leave of Harsha Varddhana, and re-
sumed his route to the north-west in company with
Eaja Udhita of Jalandhara, at whose capital he halted
for one month. In this part of his journey his pro-
gress was necessarily slow, as he had collected many
statues and a large number of religious books, which
he carried with him on baggage elephants.* Fifty
of his manuscripts were lost on crossing over the
Indus at Utaldianda, or Ohind. The pilgrim himself
forded the river on an elephant, a feat which can only

* M. Julien's ' Hiouen Tlisang,' i. 262, 263.

PREFACE. XUl

be performed during the months ' of December, Janu-
ary and February, before the stream begins to rise
from the melted snows. According to my calcula-
tions, he crossed the Indus towards the end of A..D.
643. At Utakhanda he halted for fifty days to obtain
fresh copies of the manuscripts which had been lost
in the Indus, and then proceeded to Lamghan in com-
pany with the King of Kapisa. As one month was
occupied in this journey, he could not have reached
Lamghflm until the middle of March, a.d. 644, or
about three months before the usual period, when the
passes of the Hindu Kush become practicable. This
fact is sufficient to account for his sudden journey of
fifteen days to the south to the district of Falana^ or
Banu, from whence he reached Kapisa via Kabul and
Ghazni about the beginning of July. Here he again
halted to take part in a religious assembly, so that he
could not have left Kapisa until about the middle of
July A.D. 644, or just fourteen years after his first
entry into India from Bamian. From Kapisa he
passed up the Panjshir valley and over the Khawak
Pass to Anderab, where he must have arrived about
the end of July. It was still early for the easy cross-
ing of this snowy pass, and the pilgrim accordingly
notices the frozen streams and beds of ice which he
encountered on his passage over the mountain. To-
wards the end of the year he passed through Kash-
gar, Yarkand, and Kotan, and at last, in the spring
of A.D. 645, he arrived in safety in the western capital
of China.

This rapid survey of Hwen Thsang's route is suffi-
cient to show the great extent and completeness of
his Indian travels, which, as far as I am aware, have

XIV PEEFAOE.

never been surpassed. Buchanan Hamilton's survey
of the country was much more minute, but it was
limited to the lower provinces of the Ganges in
northern India and to the district of Mysore in
southern India. Jacquemont's travels were much
less restricted ; but as that sagacious Frenchman's
observations were chiefly confined to geology and
botany and other scientific subjects, his journeyings
in India have added but little to our knowledge of its
geography. My own travels also have been very ex-
tensive throughout the length and breadth of northern
India, from Peshawar and Multan near the Indus, to
Eangoon and Prome on the Irawadi, and from Kash-
mir and Ladak to the mouth of the Indus and the
banks of the Narbada. Of southern India I have
seen nothing, and of western India I have seen only
Bombay, with the celebrated caves of Elephanta and
Kanhari. But during a long service of more than
thirty years in India, its early history and geography
have formed the chief study of my leisure hours;
while for the last four years of my residence these
subjects were my sole occupation, as I was then em-
ployed by the Government of India as Archaeological
Surveyor, to examine and report upon the antiquities
of the country. The favourable opportunity which I
thus enjoyed for studying its geography was used to
the best of my ability ; and although much still re-
mains to be discovered I am glad to be able to say
that my researches were signally successful in fixing
the sites of many of the most famous cities of ancient
India. As all of these will be described in the fol-
lowing account, I will notice here only a few of the
more prominent of my discoveries, for the purpose of

PEEFAC'E. XV

showing that I have not undertaken the present work
without much previous preparation.

1. Aornos^ the famous rock fort captured by Alex-
ander the Great.

2. Taxila, the capital of the north-western Panjab.

3. Sangala^ the hill fortress in the central Panjab,
captured by Alexander.

4. Sruglma^ a famous city on the Jumna.

5. Ahiclihatra, the capital of northern Panchala.

6. Bairdtj the capital of Matsya, to the south of
Delhi.

7. Sankisa, near Kanoj, famous as the place of
Buddha's descent from heaven.

8. Srdoasti, on the Eapti, famous for Buddha's
preaching.

9. Kosdmbi^ on the Jumna, near Allahabad.

10. Padmavati, of the poet Bhavabhuti.

11. Vaisdli, to the north of Patna.

12. Ndlanda, the most famous Buddhist monastery
in all India.

CONTENTS,

Preface

General Description 1

NOETHEEN INDIA 15

I. Kaofu, or Afghanistan 17

1. Kapisene, or Opian 18

Karsana, or Tetragonis, or Begram .... 26

Other cities of Kapisene . .... 31

2. Kophene, or Kabul 32

3. Arachosia, or Ghazni 39

4. Lamghan 42

5. Nagarahara, or Jalalabad . . ... 43

6. Gandhara, or Parasbavrar 47

Ptishkaldvati, or Peukelaotis ..... 49

Varwsha, or Paladheri ...... 51

Utakhanda, or JSmbolim {Ohind') .... 52

Sdldtura, or Lalior ....... 57

Aornos^ or Sdnigat ....... 58

Parashdwara, or Peshawar ..... 78

7. TJdyana, or Swat 81

8. Bolor, or Balti 83

9. Palana, or Banu 84

10. Opokien, or Afghanistan (Loi, or Eob) ... 87

II. Kashmir 89

1. Kashmir (province) 90

2. Urasa 103

3. Tasila, or Takehasila . 104

Mdnilcy&la 121

4. Singhapura, or Ketas 124

5. Punacba, or Punach 128

6. Eajapuri, or Eajaori 129

Hill-states of the Panjdh ...... 130

Jdlandhara ........ 136

Cham/pa, or Chamha ...... 141

Kullu 142

Mandi and SuJchet ....... 143

Nwrpwr., or Pathdniya .... . 143

Satadru 144

III. Taki, oe Panjab 148

1. Taki, or Kortbern Panjab 154

Jobndthnagar, or Bhira ...... 155

Bukephala, or Jaldlpur 159

Nikcea, or Mong 177

Qujar&t 179

Sdkala, or Sangala 179

XVlll

CONTENTS.

Page

Taki, or Asarur ......

191

San-si, or Nara-Sinha ......

193

Ambalcapi, or Amakatis .....

195

Loh&toar, or Lahor ......

197

Kusdwar, or Kasur

199

Chinapati, or Fati ......

200

2. Sliorkot, or Middle Panjab .

203

Shorkot ........

205

Kot Kam&lia .......

208

Sarapa . ■ ...

210

Akbar . . . ...

212

Satgarha ........

212

Bep&lpur

213

Ajudhan, or Pakpatan . ...

214

3. Multan, or Southern Panjiib .

219

Tttlamba ... . .

224

Atari ... . . .

228

lilultan . . . .

230

jLa/tror ....

241

Uchh ... ...

242

WESTERN INDIA . . . . .

248

I. SiNDH . ....

248

1. Upper Sindi.

MassancB and SodrcB, or Sogdi

253

Musikani. A lor ... .

257

Prasti, Portikanus , or Oxykanus

259

2. Middle Sindh.

Sindomana, or Sehwdn .....

263

Brahmana, or Prahmanahad .

267

.8. Lower Sindh, or Lar

277

Patala, or Nirankot . ...

279

Jarak ... . .

287

Minnagar, Manh&bari, or Tliatha .

288

Barbarike Emporium

294

Debal Sindh, or Debal

297

4. Xachh

302

Bisiricts to the west of the Indus

304

Arabii, or Arabitce . ...

305

Oritce, or Korita: ....

307

TI. GUIIJJAKA . .

312

III. Valabhadea, or Balabhi

316

1. Balabhi

323

2. Surashtra

324

3. Bharoch, or Barygaza .

326

CENTEAL INDIA

327

1. Sthaneswara ......

328

Pehoa, or Pnthudaha

336

Amin ...

337

2. Bairat ...

337

3. Srughna . . ...

345

4. Madawar ....

348

Mdi/dpura, or Earidwar

351

5. Brahmapura . ...

355

CONTENTS

Govisana, or Kasliipur .

Ahiclihatra

Piloshana

Sankisa .

10.

Mathura

Vrind&vana

11.

Kanoj

12.

Ayuto
Hayamukha .

13.

Prayaga .

15.

Kosambi

16.

Kusapura

17.

Visakha, Saketa, or

Aj udhy a

18.

Sravasti .

19.

Eapila .

Mdmagrama .

River Anoma

Pippalatana

20.

Kusinagara .

Khukhundo, Kahaon

PAwA, or Padraona .

21.

Varanasi, or Banaras

Garjjapatipura

23.

Vaisali .

24.

Vriji .

Nepala .

Magadha

BauddJia Oaya
Zuhkutapadu
Kus&g&rapura
Rajagriha
NAlanda .

Indra-sila Guha

BihAr

Ctampa

Kankjol

Panndra Varddhan

1, or Pubn

JajLoti

Mahoha

Maheswarapura

TJjain . . •
Malwa .

Kheda .

Anandapura .

. Vadari, or Eder

EAS

TERN INDIA

Eamarupa

Samatata .

Tamralipti

Eirana-Suvama

Odra, or Orissa

GanrSm .
rTHEEN INDIA

sot

Ealinga .

XIX

CONTENTS.

2. Kosala 519

3. Andhra 527

4. Donakakotta 530

5. Choliya, or Jorya ......•■ 545

6. Dravida 548

7. Malakuta, or Madura 549

8. Konkana 552

9. Maharashtra . . 553

CEYLON 557

APPENDIX.

A. Approximate Chronology of Hwen Thsang's Travels . . 563

B. Measures of Distance, Yojana, Li, Krosa .... 571

C. Correction of Error in Ptolemy's Eastern Longitudes . 577

LIST OF MAPS.

No.

I. Map of India, showing the Political Divisions in a.d.

629-642 To face Title.

II. Ancient Maps of India, according to the Greeks and

Indians 1

III. Map of ELapisene and Kophene, or Upper Kabul

Valley 17

IV. Map of Gandhaka, or Lower Kabul Valley — Map

showing the position of Taxila ..... 47

V. Campaign of Alexander in the Panjab, B.C. 327-326 . 104

VI. Travels of Hwen Thsang in the Panjab, a.d. 631-633 , 104
VII. Alexander's Passage of the Hydaspes, and Battle with

Porus, B.C. 327 ....*... 159

VIII. Hill of Sangala between the Bivers Chenab and Ravi . 179

IX. Campaign of Alexander in Sindh 248

X. Travels of Hwen Thsang in N.W. India, b.c. 635-637 . 327

XI. Travels of Hwen Thsang in the Gangetic Provinces . 388
XII. Map of Gaya and Bihar, a.d. 650, showing Hwen

Thsang's route 452

XIII. Map of the Eastern Coast between the Eivers Godavari

and Krishna 527

INDIA.

ACCORDINO TO

ERATO STHEHES
mALEXANDEr'S...!-

"B.C . 326.

MAHABHARATA

B.C.IOO(?)

\ OANOJj /--

ACCORDING TO

VARAHA- MIHIRA

A D 6&0

. D -1

THE

ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

From the accounts of the Greeks it would appear that
the ancient Indians had a very accurate knowledge of
the true shape and size of their country. According to
Strabo,* Alexander " caused the whole country to be
described by men well acquainted with it ;" and this
account was afterwards lent to Patrokles by Xenokles,
the treasurer of the Syrian kings. Patrokles himself
held the government of the north-east satrapies of the
Syrian empire under Seleukus Nikator and Antiochus
Soter, and the information which he collected regard-
ing India and the Eastern provinces, has received the
approbation of Eratosthenes and Strabo for its ac-
curacy. Another account of India was derived from
the register of the 8tatlimi,'\ or "Marches" from
place to place, which was prepared by the Macedonian

* Geographia, ii. 1, 6.

t Strabo, x. 1, 11. The name of the author of the ' Stathmi ' is
preserved by Athenseus, i. 103. The original measurements were most
probably made by Diognetus and Baiton, whose duty it was to ascer-
tain the distances and lengths of Alexander's expeditions. See Plin.
Hist. Nat., vi. 21.

1! THE ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY OF INDIA.

Amyntas, and which was confirmed by the testimony
of Megasthenes, who had actually visited Palibotlira
as the ambassador of Seleukus Nikator. On the
authority of these documents, Eratosthenes and other
writers have described India as a rhomhoid, or unequal
quadrilateral, in shape, with the Indus on the west,
the mountains on the north, and the sea on the east
and south.* The shortest side was on the west, which
Patroldcs estimated at 12,000 stadia, and Eratosthenes
at 13,000 stadia. I All the accounts agree that the
course of the Indus from Alexander's Bridge to the
sea was 10,000 stadia, or 1149 British miles ; and they
differ only as to the estimated distance of the snowy
mountains of Caucasus or Paropamisus above the
bridge. The length of the country was reckoned from
west to east, of which the part extending from the
Indus to Palibothra had been measured by schoeni
along the royal road, and was 10,000 stadia, or 1149
British miles in length. From Palibothra to the sea
the distance was estimated at 6000 stadia, or 689
British miles ; thus making the whole distance from the
Indus to the mouth of the Ganges 16,000 stadia,^ or
1838 British miles. According to Pliny, ^ the distance
of Palibothra from the mouth of the Ganges was only
637''5 Eoman miles; but his numbers are so corrupt
that very little dependence can be placed upon them.
I would, therefore, increase his distance to 737'5

* Strabo, ii. 1, 31, and xv. 1, 11. See, also, Diodorus, Hist., ii. 3,
and Dion Perieg. v. 1131. Compare fig. 1 in the accompanying plate
of small maps.

f Strabo, XV. 2, 8. Arrian, ' Indica,' iii.

X Artcmidorus makes it 16,800 stadia, or 2100 Roman miles. See
Pliny, vi. 22.

§ Plin. Hist. Nat., vi. 21.

THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA. 3

Eoman miles, which are equal to 678 British miles.
The eastern coast from the mouth of the Ganges to
Cape Comorin was reckoned at 16,000 stadia, or 1838
British miles ; and the southern (or south-western)
coast, from Cape Comorin to the mouth of the Indus at
3000 stadia more* than the northern side, or 19,000
stadia, equivalent to 2183 British miles.

The close agreement of these dimensions, given by
Alexander's informants, with the actual size of the
country is very remarkable, and shows that the Indians,
even at that early date in their history, had a very ac-
curate knowledge of the form and extent of their
native land.

On the west, the course of the Indus from Ohind,
above Attok, to the sea is 950 miles by land, or about
1200 miles by water. On the north, the distance from
the banks of the Indus to Patna, by our military route
books, is 1143 miles, or only 6 miles less than the
measurement of the royal road from the Indus to Pali-
bothra, as given by Strabo on the authority of Mega-
sthenes. Beyond this, the distance was estimated by
the voyages of vessels on the Ganges at 6000 stadia,
or 689 British miles, which is only 9 miles in excess
of the actual length of the river route. From the
mouth of the Ganges to Cape Comorin the distance,
measured on the map, is 1600 miles, but taking into
account the numerous indentations of the coast-line,
the length should probably be increased in the same
proportion as road distance by one -sixth. This would
make the actual length 1866 miles. From Cape
Comorin to the mouth of the Indus there is a consi-

* Strabo, XT. 1, 11. " Each of the greater sides exceeding the oppo-
site by 3000 stadia." (Falconer's translation.)]

B 2

4 THE ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY OF INDIA.

derable discrepancy of about 3000 stadia, or nearly
350 miles, between the stated distance and the actual
measurement on the map. It is probable that the
difference was caused by including in the estimate the
deep indentations of the two great gulfs of Khambay
and Kachh, which alone would be sufficient to account
for the whole, or at least the greater part, of the dis-
crepancy.

This explanation would seem to be confirmed by the
computations of Megasthenes, who " estimated the
distance from the southern sea to the Caucasus at
20,000 stadia,"* or 2298 British miles. By direct
measurement on the map the distance from Cape Co-
morin to the Hindu Kush is about 1950 miles,t which,
converted into road distance by the addition of one-
sixth, is equal to 2275 miles, or within a few miles of
the computation of Megasthenes. But as this distance
is only 1000 stadia greater than the length of the
coast-line from Cape Comorin to the mouth of the
Indus, as stated by Strabo, it seems certain that there
must be some mistake in the length assigned to the
southern (or south-western) coast. The error would
be fully corrected by making the two coast-lines of
equal length, as the mouths of the Ganges and Indus
are about equidistant from Cape Comorin. According
to this view, the whole circuit of India would be
61,000 stadia; and this is, perhaps, what is intended
by Diodorus,:}: who says that "the whole extent of

* Strabo, xv. 1, 12.

t Elphinstone, Hist, of India, Introd. p. 1, estimates tlie distance
from Kashmir to Cape Comorin at about 1900 miles. The Caucasus
is at least 50 miles to the north of Kashmir.

J Diodorus, Hist., ii. 3.

THE ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY OP INDIA. 5

India from east to west is 28,000 stadia, and from
north to south 32,000 stadia," or 60,000 stadia alto-
gether.

At a somewhat later date the shape of India is de-
scribed in the 'Mahabharata' as an equilateral triangle,
which was divided into four smaller equal triangles.*
The apex of the triangle is Cape Comorin, and the
base is formed by the line of the Himalaya mountains.
No dimensions are given, and no places are mentioned ;
but, in fig. 2 of the small maps of India in the accom-
panying plate, I have drawn a small equilateral triangle
on the line between Dwaraka, in Gujarat, and Ganjam
on the eastern coast. By repeating this small triangle
on each of its three sides, to the north-west, to the
north-east, and to the south, we obtain the four divi-
sions of India in one large equilateral triangle. The
shape corresponds very well with the general form of
the country, if we extend the limits of India to
Ghazni on the north-west, and fix the other two points
of the triangle at Cape Comorin, and Sadiya in Assam.
At the presumed date of the composition of the
' Mahabharata,' in the first century a.d., the countries
immediately to the west of the Indus belonged to the
Indo-Scythians, and therefore may be included very
properly within the actual boundaries of India.

Another description of India is that of the Nava-
Khanda, or Nine-Divisions, which is first described by
the astronomers Parasara and Varaha-Mihira, although
it was probably older than their time, I and was after-

* Joum. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, xx. Wilford, quoting the Bliishma
Parva of the ' Mahabharata," as communicated to him by Colebrooke.

t Dr. Kern, in preface to the ' Brihat-Sanhita ' of Varaha-Mihira, p.
32, states that Varaha's chapter on Geography is taken almost intact,
but changed in form, from the 'Parasaratantra,' and must, therefore, be

6 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OE INDIA.

wards adopted by the authors of several of the Puranas.
According to this arrangement, Pdnchdla was the chief
district of the central division, Magadha of the east,
Kalinga of the south-east, Avanta of the south, Anarta
of the south-west, Sindhu-Sauvira of the west, Hdra-
haura of the north-west, Madra of the north, and
Kauninda of the north-east.* But there is a discrepancy
between this epitome of Varaha and his details, as
Sindhu-Sauvira is there assigned to the south-west,
along with Anarta. + This mistake is certainly as old
as the eleventh century, as Abu Eiham has preserved
the names of Varaha's abstract in the same order as
they now stand in the ' Brihat-Sanhita.'| These details
are also supported by the ' Markandeya Purana,' which
assigns both Sindhu-Sauvira and Anarta to the south-
west.§

I have compared the detailed lists of the ' Brihat-
Sanhita ' with those of the Brahmanda, Markandeya,
Vishnu, Vayu, and Matsya Puranas ; and I find that,
although there are sundry repetitions and displace-
ments of names, as well as many various readings, yet

considered as representing the geography of Parasara, or perhaps yet
more ancient works, " and not as the actual map of India in Varaha-
Mihira's time."

* ' Brihat-Sanhita,' ch. xiv. 32, 3.3.

f IhUL, xiv. 17,—

Nairviti/Cim ch'si desd
Palilava K&mhoja Sindhu-Sauvira —
Wilford has given Varaha's list in vol. viii. p. 341, of Bengal Asiat.
Eesearches ; but he has made two divisions of Sindhu-Sauvira, and
omitted Kauninda. His details, however, agree with the ' Brihat-
Sanhita,' in assigning Sindhu-Sauvira as well as Anarta to the south-
west.

X The Nine Divisions of Abu Eihati are given in Eeinaud's ' Memoire
sur rinde,' pp. 116, 117. Compare No. II. Map, fig. 3.

§ Ward's ' Hindus,' iii. 10.

THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OP INDIA. 7

all the lists are substantially the same.* Some of them,
however, are differently arranged. All of the Puranas,
for instance, mention the Nine Divisions and give their
names, but only the Brahmanda and Markandeya state
the names of the districts in each of the Nine Divi-
sions ; as the Vishnu, Vayu, and Matsya- Puranas
agree with the ' Mahabharata ' in describing only five
Divisions in detail, namely, the middle Province and
those of the four cardinal points.

The names of the Nine Divisions given in the
' Mahabharata ' and the Puranas differ entirely from
those of Yaraha-Mihira ; but they agree with those of
the famous astronomer Bhaskaracharya.f They follow
the same order in all ; namely, Indra, Kaserumat,
Tmnraparna, Gabhastimat, Kumdrika, Naga, Saumya
Vdruna, Gdndharva. No clue is given to the identifi-
cation of these names, but they certainly follow a dif-
ferent order from that of Yaraha's Nine Divisions, as
Indra is the east, Vdruna the west, and Kumdrika
the middle, while Kdseru must be the north, as the
name is found in the detailed lists of the Yayu and
Brahmanda Puranas.

The division of India into five great provinces would
appear to have been the most popular one during the
early centuries of the Christian era, as it was adopted
by the Chinese pilgrims, and from them by all Chinese
writers. According to the Yishnu Purana,| the centre

* The list of the Brahmanda is given by Wilford in Bengal Asiat.
Kesearches, viii. 334, — that of the Vishnu Parana in Wilson's transla-
tion, where, also, will be found the list of the ' Mahabharata ;' that of
the Markandeya Purana is in Ward's ' Hindus,' iii. 9.

f ' Siddhanta Siromani,' chap. iii. 41.

X Wilson's ' Vishnu Purana,' edited by Hall, vol. ii. b. iii. c. 3. p. 132.
The north Division is not mentioned in the text ; but as the Hunas

8 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

was occupied by the Kurus and PdncMlas ; in tlie
east was Kdmarupa, or Assam ; in the sonth were the
Pundras, Kalingas^ and Magadhas ; in the west were
the Surdshtras, Suras, Abhiras, Arhudas, Kdrushas,
Mdlavas, Sauviras, and Saindhavas ; and in the north
the Hunas, Sdlwas, Sdkalas, Edmas, AmbasJdas, and
Pardsikas.

In the Geography of Ptolemy the true shape of
India is completely distorted, and its most striking
feature, the acute angle formed by the meetiag of the
two coasts of the Peninsula at Cape Comorin is changed
to a single coast-line, running almost straight from the
mouth of the Indus to the mouth of the Ganges. The
cause of this mistake is partly due to the erroneous
value of 500, instead of 600, Olympic stadia, which
Ptolemy assigned to an equatorial degree, partly to an
over-estimate in converting road-distance into map-
measurement, but chiefly to the excess which he allowed
for the distances of land journeys over those of sea
voyages.*

If the measures of distance by sea had been in-
creased in the same proportion, or had been estimated
at the same value, as the measures of distance by land,
all the places would have retained the same relative
positions. But the consequence of Ptolemy's unequal
estimate of the value of land and sea distances was to

and S&Tcalas certainly belonged to the north, I presume that the north
has been accidentally omitted. There is a similar omission of the name
of Kumdrika in this Purana, which has only eight names for the Nine
Divisions.

* The question of Ptolemy's erroneous longitudes is treated at length
in Appendix 0, where I have given all the data on which Sir Henry
Eawlinson has founded his correction of three-tenths of the geogra-
plier's distances in easting.

THE ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY OF INDIA. 9

throw all the places determined by land measurement
too far to the east ; and as this error went on increas-
ing the further he advanced, his eastern geography is
completely vitiated by it. Thus Taxila, which is almost
due north of Barygaza, is placed 11° to the east of it ;
and the mouth of the Ganges, which was fixed by land-
measurement from Taxila and Palibothra, is placed
38° to the east of the mouth of the Indus, the true
difference being only 20°. In fig. 4 of the accom-
panying plate of small maps I have given an outline
of Ptolemy's ' Geography of India.' By referring to
this it will be seen at a glance that, if the distance be-
tween the mouths of the Indus and Ganges were re-
duced from 38° to 20°, the point of Cape Comorin
would be thrown far to the south, and woixld form an
acute angle very nearly in its true position. The
amount of error in Ptolemy's value of land distances
is well shown in the difference of longitude between
Taxila and Palibothra. The former he places in 125°
and the latter in 143°, the difference being 18°, which
is nearly one-third too much, as the actual difference
between Shah-Dheri in 72° 53' and Patna in 85° 17'
is only 12° 24'. By applying the correction of three-
tenths, as proposed by Sir Hemy Pawlinson, Ptolemy's
18° will be reduced to 12° 36', which is within 12' of
the true difference of longitude.

India was first known to the Chinese in the time of
the Emperor Wuti, of the later Han dynasty, in the
second century before Christ.* It was then called
Yuan-tu or Yin-tu, that is Hindu, and Shin-tu, or
Sindhu. At a later date it was named Thian-tu ; ■\

* See M. Pauthier's translations from Chinese in the ' Journal Asia-
tique,' Oct. 1839, p. 257. t Ibid., Nov. 1839, p. 384.

THE iNCIENT GEOGRAPHY OP INDIA.

and this is the form which the historian Matwanlin
has adopted. In the official records of the Thang
dynasty in the seventh century, India is described as
consisting of " Five Divisions," called the East, West,
North, South, and Central, which are usually styled
the " Five Indies." I have not been able to discover
when this system of the " Five Divisions " was first
adopted ; but the earliest notice of it that I can find
is in the year 477 a.d.,* when the king of Western
India sent an ambassador to China, and again only a
few years later, in a.d. 503 and 504, when the kings
of Northern and Southern India are mentioned as
having followed his example, f No divisions are
alluded to in any of the earlier Chinese notices of
India; but the different provinces are described by
name, and not by position. Thus we have mention of
Yue-ffai, king of Kapila, in a.d. 428, and of the king
of Gandhara in a.d. 455. J It would appear also that
previous to this time India was sometimes called Ma-
ffadha, after the name of its best known and richest
province ; and sometimes the " kingdom of Brahmans,"
after the name of its principal inhabitants. § The
fii'st of these names I would refer to the second and
third centuries after Christ, when the jjowerful Guptas
of Magadha ruled over the greater part of India.

The same division of five great provinces was
adopted by the Chinese pilgrim Hwen Thsang in the
seventh century, who names them in the same manner,

* Pauthier, in Journ. Asiatique, Nov. IS.OO, p. 291.

t Ih!d.. Nor. 1839, pp. 290-292.

I Ibid., Oct. 1839, p. 273, and Journ. Asiat. See. Bengal, 1837,
p. 65.

§ M. Julien's ' Hiouen Thsang,' ii. 58 ; and Pautliier, in Journ.' Asia-
tique, Deo. 1839, p. 417.

THE AXCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA. 11

as North, South, East, "West, and Central, according
to their relative positions.* He compares the shape
of the country to a half-moon, with the diameter or
broad side to the north, and the narrow end to the
south. This is not unlike the configuration of India
in Ptolemy's Geography ; but a much more accurate
description is given by the Chinese author of the
Fah-kai-lih-io, who says, "this country in shape is
narrow towards the south and broad towards the
north;" to which he humorously adds, that "the
people's faces are the same shape as the country.''^

Hwen Thsang makes the circumference of India
90,000 //,:{: which is more than double the truth. But
in the Chinese official records, § the circuit of India is
said to be only 30,000 li ; which is too small, if we
reckon 6 li to the British mile, according to the usual
road distance of the Chinese pilgrims. But if, as was
probably the case, the measurement was made on a
map, the li may be reckoned at the full value of
1079'12 feet which it possessed in the eighth century ;
then the 30,000 li will be equal to 6130 British miles,
which is only 764 miles short of the dimensions re-
corded by Strabo on the authority of Alexander's
papers, and the published works of Megasthenes and
Patrokles.

The Five Divisions of India, or the " Five Indies,"
as they are usually called by the Chinese, are as
follows (see No. I. Map) : —

* M. Julien's ' Hiouen Thsang,' ii. 162, 163 ; see also Pauthier, in
Journ. Asiatique, 1839, p. 384.
t ' Fah-Hian's Travels,' translated by the Eev. S.Beal, p. 36, note.
J M. Julien's ' Hiouen Thsang,' ii. 58.
§ Pauthier, in Journ. Asiatique, Nov. 1839, p. 384.

THE ANCIENT aEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

I. Northern India comprised the Panjab proper, in-
cluding Kashmir and the adjoining hill states, with
the whole of eastern Afghanistan beyond the Indus,
and the present Cis-Satlej States to the west of the
Saraswati river.

II. Western India comprised Sindh and "Western
Eajputana, with Kachh and Gujarat, and a portion of
the adjoining coast on the lower course of the Nar-
bada river.

III. Central India comprised the whole of the Gan-
getic provinces from Thanesar to the head of the
Delta, and from the Himalaya mountains to the banks
of the Narbada.

IV. Eastern India comprised Assam and Bengal
proper, including the whole of the Delta of the
Ganges, together with Sambhalpur, Orissa, and Gan-
jam.

V. Southern India comprised the whole of the pe-
ninsula from Nasik on the west and Ganjam on the
east, to Cape Kumari (Comorin) on the south, in-
cluding the modern districts of Berar and Telingana,
Maharashtra and the Ivonkan, with the separate states
of Haidarabad, Mysore, and Travancore, or very nearly
the whole of the peninsula to the south of the Nar-
bada and Mahanadi rivers.

Although the Chinese division of India into five
great provinces is simpler than the well-known native
arrangement of nine divisions, as described by Yaraha-
Mihira and the Puranas, yet there can be little doubt
that they borrowed their system from the Hindus,
who likened their native country to the lotus-flower,
the middle being Central India, and the eight sur-
rounding petals being the other divisions, which were

THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INMA. 13

named after tlie eight chief points of the compass.*
In the Chinese arrangement, the middle and the four
primary divisions only are retained ; and as this divi-
sion is much simpler, and also more easily remem-
bered, I -will adopt it in the present description.

At the time of Hwen Thsang's visit, in the seventh
century, India was divided into eighty^ kingdoms,
each of which would appear to have had its separate
ruler, although most of them were tributary to a few
of the greater states. Thus, in Northern India, the
districts of Kabul, JalMabad, Peshawar, Ghazni, and
Banu were all subject to the ruler of Kapisa, whose
capital was most probably at Charik^r, or Alexandria
ad Caucasum. In the Panj§,b proper the hilly dis-
tricts of Taxila, Singhapura, Urasa, Punach, and Ea-
jaori, were subject to the Eaja of Kashmir ; while the
whole of the plains, including Multan and Shorkot,
were dependent on the ruler of TciJci, or Sangala, near
Lahor. In Western India the provinces were divided
between the kings of Sindh, Balabhi^ and Gurjjara.
In Central and Eastern India, the whole of the diffe-
rent states, from the famous city of Sthaneswara to
the mouth of the Ganges, and from the Himalaya
mountains to the banks of the Narbada and Mahanadi
rivers, were subject to Harsha Yarddhana, the great
Xing of Kanoj. Jalandhara, the most easterly dis-
trict of the Panjab, was also subject to him ; and it is
highly probable that the ruler of Tdki, or the plains of
the Panjab, must likewise have been a dependant of

* Wilson's ' Vishnu Purana,' edited by Hall, vol. ii. b. ii. o. 12, p.
309; "the lotus-shaped earth." Ward's ' Hindus," i. 9, and ii. 449.

t ' Hiouen Thsang,' ii. 59. The text has " seventy ;" but the number
actually described is eighty-two, from which, deducting Persia and
Ceylon, the true number of kingdoms is eighty.

14 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

Kanoj, as we are informed by the Chinese pilgrim that
Harsha Varddhana advanced through his territory to
the foot of the Kashmir hills, for the purpose of coer-
cing the ruler of that country to deliver up to him a
much-venerated tooth of Buddha. The Eajput king of
Maharashtra, in Southern India, was the only sove-
reign who had successfully resisted the armies of
Kanoj. This statement of the Chinese pilgrim is cor-
roborated by several inscriptions of the Chalukya
princes of Maharashtra, who make a proud boast of
their ancestor's discomfiture of the great King Harsha
Yarddhana.* This powerful prince was the para-
mount sovereign of thirty-six different States, com-
prising nearly one-half of India in extent, and includ-
ing all its richest and most fertile provinces. The
substantial reality of his power may be gathered from
the fact that no less than eighteen, or just one -half,
of these tributary princes attended on their suzerain
lord during his great religious procession from Patali-
putra to Kanoj, in a.d. G43. The extent of his do-
minions is clearly indicated by the names of the coun-
tries against which he directed his latest campaigns,
namely, Kashmir in the north-west, Maharashtra in
the south-west, and Ganjam in the south-east.f
Within these boundaries he was the paramount ruler
of the continent of India during the first half of the
seventh century of the Christian era.

The dominion of Southern India was nearly equally
divided between the nine rulers of the following

* See copper-plate inscriptions in Journ. Bombay Asiat. Soc. ii. 5,
and iii. p. 207.

f Julien's ' HioucaThsang,' Eashmir, i. 251 ; Mah&iashlra, iii. 150;
Ganjam, i. 220, 236.

NORTHERN INDIA. 15

states : — Maharashtra and Kosala, in the north ; Ka-
linga, Andhra, Konkana, and Dhanakakata, in the
centre ; and Jorya, Dravida, and Malakuta, in the
south. These complete the round number of eighty
Idngdoms into which India was divided in the seventh
century of our era.

I. NORTHERN INDIA.

The natural boundaries of India are the Himalaya
mountains, the river Indus, and the sea. But on the
west, these limits have been so frequently overstepped
by powerful kings that most authors, from the time
of Alexander down to a very late period, have consi-
dered Eastern Ariana, or the greater part of Afghani-
stan, as forming a portion of the Indian continent.
Thus Pliny* says that " most writers do not fix the
Indus as the western boundary (of India), but add to
it the four satrapies of the Gedrosi, Arachotse, Arii,
and Paropamisadse, — thus making the river Cophes
its extreme boundary." Strabof also says that " the
Indians occupy (in part) some of the countries situated
along the Indus, which formerly belonged to the Per-
sians. Alexander deprived the Ariani of them, and
established there settlements of his own. But Seleu-
kus Nikator gave them to Sandrokottus, in consequence
of a marriage contract, and received in return five

* Plin. Hist. Nat., vi. 23. " Etenim plerique ab occidente non Indo
amne determinant, sed adjiciunt quatuor satrapias, Gedrosos, Aracho-
tas, Arios, Paropamisadas, ultimo fine Copbete iluvio."

t Geogr., XV. 2, 9. In another place, xv. 1, 11, he states that at the
time of the invasion of Alexander " the Indus was the boundary of In-
dia and of Ariana, situated towards the west, and in the possession of
the Persians, for afterwards the Indians occupied a larger portion of
Ariana, which they had received from the Macedonians."

THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OP INDIA.

hundred elephants." The prince here mentioned is
the well-known Chandra Gupta Maurya, whose grand-
son Asoka dispatched missionaries to the most distant
parts of his empire for the propagation of Buddhism.
Jlasadda, or Alexandria ad Caucasum, the capital of
the Yona, or Greek country, is recorded as one of these
distant places ; and as the Chinese pilgrim Hwen
Thsang notices several stupas in that neighbourhood
as the work of Asoka, we have the most satisfactory
proofs of the Indian occupation of the Kabul valley in
the third and fourth centuries before Christ. The
completeness of this occupation is well shown by the
use of the Indian language on the coins of the Bac-
trian Greeks and Indo-Seythians, down to a.d. 100, or
perhaps even later ; and although it is lost for the next
two or three centuries, it again makes its appearance on
the coins of the Abtelites, or "White Huns, of the sixth
century. In the following century, as we learn from
the Chinese pilgrim, the king of Kapisa was a Kslia-
triya, or pure Hindu. During the whole of the tenth
century the Kabul valley was held by a dynasty of
Bralimans, whose power was not finally extinguished
until towards the close of the reign of Malimud Ghaz-
navi. Down to this time, therefore, it would appear
that a great part of the population of eastern Afghani-
stan, including the whole of the Kabul valley, must
have been of Indian descent, while the religion was
pure Buddhism. During the rule of the Ghaznavis,
whose late conversion to Muhammadanisin had only
added bigotry to their native ferocity, the persecution
of idol-loving Buddhists was a pleasure as well as a
duty. The idolaters were soon driven out, and with
them the Indian element, Avhich had subsisted for

%.;:

*'%:

. .fi*;?:

Ii^ljit

Bixxuity ,

^ «^^:^.

TTfl . Kanrruind/ V

'^ . -^s^#^'''%#

Cifaii'-

A Cunmnghain.del^

NORTHERN INDIA. 17

SO many centuries in Eastern Ariana, finally disap-
peared.

NORTHERN INDIA.

I. Kaofu, or Afghanistan.

For several centuries, both, before and after the
Christian era, the provinces of Northern India beyond
the Indus, in which, the Indian language and religion
were predominant, included the whole of Afghanistan
from Bamian and Kandahar on the west to the Bholan
Pass on the south. This large tract was then divided
into ten* separate states or districts, of which. Eapisa
was th,e chief. The tributary states were Kabul and
Ghazni in the west, Lamghdn and Jalalabad in the
north, Swat and Peshawar in the east, Bolor in the
north-east, and Banu and Opokien in the south.
The general name for the whole would appear to have
been Kao-fu, which in the second century before
Christ is described as being divided between the
Parthians, the Indians, and the Su or Sacse of Kipin.
According to this statement, the south-west district
of Kandahar would have belonged to the Parthians,
the eastern districts of Swat, Peshawar, and Banu, to
the Indians, and the north-western districts of Kabul
and Ghazni with Lamghan and Jalalabad to the Sacse
Scythians. Kaofu has usually been identified with
Kabul on account of its similarity of name and corre-
spondence of position ; but this can only be accepted
as politically correct, by extending the boundaries of
Kabul into Parthiaf on the west, and into India on

* M. Julien'B ' Hiouen Thsang,' i. 71.

t That Kandahar then belonged to Persia is proved by the fact, that
the begging-pot of Buddha, which Hwen Thsang (ii. 106) mentions as

18 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

the east. The Kaofu of the Chinese would, therefore,
have embraced the whole of modern Afghanistan.
Etymologically, however, it seems quite possible that
the two names may be the same, as Kaofu was the
appellation of one of the five tribes of the Yuchi or
Tochari, who are said to have given their own name
to the town which they occupied, towards the end of
the second century before Christ. This statement of
the Chinese writers is confirmed by the historians of
Alexander, who notice the city of Ortospana, without
making any mention of Kabul. The latter name is
first given by Ptolemy, who describes Kahura or Orto-
spana as the capital of the Paropamisadae. I con-
clude, therefore, that Ortospana was most probably
the original metropolis of the country, which was sup-
planted by Alexandria during the Greek domination,
and restored by the earlier Indo-Scythian priuces.
But it would appear to have been again abandoned
before the seventh centurj^, when the capital of Kapi-
sene was at Opian.

1. KAPISENE, OE OPIAN.

According to the Chinese pilgrim Kiapislie, or Ka-
pisene, was 4000 A', or about 666 miles in circuit. If
this measurement be even approximately correct, the
district must have included the whole of Eaflristan,
as well as the two large valleys of Ghorband and
Panjshir, as these last are together not more than 300
miles in circuit. Kiapishe is further described as
being entirely surrounded by mountains ; to the north

having been removed from Gitudhara to Persia, still exists at Kandahar,
where it "was seen by Sir H. Rawlinson. The removal must have
taken place during the sixth century, after the conquest of Gandhara
by the king of Kii^in.

NORTHERN INDIA. 19

by snowy mountains, named Po-Io-si-na, and by black
hills on the other three sides. The name of Polosina
corresponds exactly with that of Mount Paresh or
Aparasin of the 'Zend Avesta,'* and with the Paropa-
misus of the Greeks, which included the Indian Cau-
casus, or Hindu Kush. Ilwen Thsang further states,
that to the north-west of the capital there was a great
snowy mountain, with a lake on its summit, distant
only 200 U, or about 33 miles. This is the Hindu
Kush itself, which is about 35 miles to the north-west
of Charikar and Opian ; but I have not been able to
trace any mention of the lake in the few imperfect
notices that exist of this part of Afghanistan.

The district of Capisene is first mentioned by Pliny,
who states that its ancient capital, named Capisa, was
destroyed by Cyrus. His copyist, Solinus, mentions
the same story, but calls the city Caphusa^ which the
Delphine editors have altered to Capissa. Somewhat
later, Ptolemy places the town of Kapisa amongst the
Paropamisadse, 2J degrees to the north of Kabura or
Kabul, which is nearly 2 degrees in excess of the
truth. On leaving Bamian, in a.d. 630, the Chinese
pilgrim travelled 600 li, or about 100 miles, in an
easterly direction over snowy mountains and black
hills (or the Koh-i-Baba and Paghman ranges) to the
capital of Kiapishe or Kapisene. On his return from
India, fourteen years later, he reached Kiapishe through
Ghazni and Kabul, and left it in a north-east direction
by the Panjshir valley towards Anderab. These
statements fix the position of the capital at or near
Opian, which is just 100 miles to the east of Bamian

* ' Zend A-vesta,' iii. 365, Boundeliesh. " It is said tliat Aparasin ia a
great mountain, distinct from Elburj. It is called Mount Paresh."

c 2

THE AXCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

by the route of the Hajiyak Pass and Ghorband
Talley, and on the direct route from Ghazni and Kabul
to Anderab. The same locality is, perhaps, even more
decidedly indicated by the fact, that the Chinese pil-
grim, on finally leaving the capital of Kapisene, was
accompanied by the king as far as the town of Kiu-h-
sa-pang^ a distance of one yojana^ or about 7 miles to
the north-east, from whence the road turned towards
the north. This description agrees exactly with the
direction of the route from Opian to the northern
edge of the plain of Begram, which lies about 6 or 7
miles to the E.N.E. of Charikar and Opian. Begram
itself I would identify with the Kiu-lu-sa-pmig or Kar-
sawana of the Chinese pilgrim, the Karsana of Ptolemy,
and the Cartana of Pliny. If the capital had then been
at Begram itself, the king's journey of seven miles to
the north-east would have taken him over the united
stream of the Panjshir and Ghorband rivers, and as
this stream is difficult to cross, on account of its depth
and rapidity, it is not likely that the king would have
undertaken such a journey for the mere purpose of
leave-taking. But by fixing the capital at Opian, and
by identifying Begram with the Kiii-lu-sa-pavg of the
Chinese pilgrim, all difficulties disappear. The king
accompanied his honom-ed guest to the bank of the
Panjshir river, where he took leave of him, and the
pilgrim then crossed the stream, and proceeded on his
journey to the north, as described in the account of
his life.

From all the evidence above noted it would appear
certain that the capital of Kiapishe, or Kapisene, in
the seventh century, must have been situated either
at or near Ojjidn. This place was visited byMasson,*

* • Travels,' iii. 126.

NORTHERN INBXA. 21

•who describes it as "distinguished by its huge artifi-
cial mounds, from which, at various times, copious
antique treasures have been extracted." In another
place * he notes that " it possesses many vestiges of
antiquity ; yet, as they are exclusively of a sepulchral
or religious character, the site of the city, to which
they refer, may rather be looked for at the actual
village of Malik Hupian on the plain below, and near
Charikar." Masson writes the name Hupian, follow-
ing the emperor Baber ; but as it is entered in
"Walker's large map as Opiydn^ after Lieutenant Leach,
and is spelt Opidn by Lieutenant Sturt, both of whom
made regular surveys of the Koh-daman, I adopt the
unaspirated reading, as it agrees better with the
Greek forms of Opiai and Opiane of Hekatseus and
Stephanus, and with the Latin form of Opiamcm of
Pliny. As these names are intimately connected with
that of the Paropamisan Alexandria, it will clear the
way to further investigation, if we first determine the
most probable site of this famous city.

The position of the city founded by Alexander at
the foot of the Indian Caucasus has long engaged the
attention of scholars ; but the want of a good map of
the Kabul valley has been a serious obstacle to their
success, which was rendered almost insurmountable
by their injudicious alterations of the only ancient
texts that preserved the distinctive name of the Cau-
casian Alexandria. Thus Stephanusf describes it as
being ev rrj 'OTTiavji KaTci rTjv 'IvBiKrjv, " in Opiane, near
India," for which Salmasius proposed to read 'Apiavrj.
Again, PlinyJ describes it as Alexandriam Opianes,

* ' Travels,' iii. 161. t In voce Alexandria.

X Hist. Wat., vi. o. 17. Philemon Holland calls it "the city of
Alexandria, in Opianum."

22 THE ANCIEMT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

which in the Leipsio and other editions is altered to
Alexandri oppidum. I believe, also, that the same
distinctive name may be restored to a corrupt passage
of Pliny, where he is speaking of this very part of the
country. His words, as given by the Leipsio editor,
and as quoted by Cellarius,* are " Cartana oppidum
sub Caucaso, quod postea Tetragonis dictum. Hsec
regie est ex adverse. Bactrianorum deinde cujus op-
pidum Alexandria, a conditore dictum." Both of the
translators whose works I possess, namely Philemon
Holland, a.d. 1601, and W. T. Eiley, a.d. 1855, agree
in reading ex adverso Bactrianorum. This makes sense
of the words as they stand, but it makes nonsense of
the passage, as it refers the city of Alexandria to
Bactria, a district which Pliny had fully described in
a previous chapter. He is speaking of the country at
the foot of the Caucasus or Paropamisus ; and as he
had already described the Bactrians as being " aversa
mentis Paropamisi," he now uses almost the same
terms to describe the position of the district in which
Cartana was situated ; I would, therefore, propose to
read " hsec regio est ex adverso Bactrise;" and as
cujus cannot possibly refer to the Bactrians, I would
begin the next sentence by changing the latter half of
Bactrianorum in the text to Opiiorum ; the passage
would then stand thus, " Opiorum (regio) deinde,
cujus oppidum Alexandria a conditore dictum," —
" Next the Opii, whose city, Alexandria, was named
after its founder." But whether this emendation be
accepted or not, it is quite clear from the other two
passages, above quoted, that the city foimded by
7\.lexander at the foot of the Indian Caucasus was also

* Hist. Nat., vi. 23.

NORTHERN INDIA. 23

named Opiane. This fact being established, I will
now proceed to show that the position of Alexandria
Opiane agrees as nearly as possible with the site of the
present Opian, near Charikar.

According to Pliny, the city of Alexandria, in Opia-
mim, was situated at 50 Eoman miles, or 45-96 English
miles, fromOrtospana, and at 237 Eoman miles, or 217'8
English miles, from Peucolaitis, or Pukkalaoti, which
was a few miles to the north of Peshawar. As the
position of Ortospana will be discussed in my account
of the next province, I will here only state that I
have identified it with the ancient city of Kabul and
its citadel, the Bala Hisar. Now Charikar is 27
miles* to the north of Kabul, which differs by 19
miles from the measurement recorded by Pliny. But
as immediately after the mention of this distance he
adds that " in some copies different numbers are
found, "•!• I am inclined to read " trigintamillia," or 30
miles, instead of " quinquaginta millia," which is
found in the text. This would reduce the distance to
27^ English miles, which exactly accords with the
measurement between Kabul and Opian. The dis-
tance between these places is not given by the
Chinese pilgrim Hwen Thsang ; but that between the
capital of Kiapishe and Pu-lii-sha-pu-lo, or Purushapura,
the modern Peshawar, is stated at 600 + 100 + 500
= 1200 li, or just 200 miles accoi'ding to my estimate
of 6 li to the English mile. The last distance of 500 li,
between Nagarahara and Purushawar, is certainly too
short, as the earlier pilgrim. Pa Hian, in the begin-

* Measured by Lieutenant Sturtwitli a perambulator. Masson gives
tlie same distance for Begram. See No. III. Map from Sturt's Survey.

t Hist. Nat., vi. 21. "In quibusdam exemplaribus diversi numeri
reperiuntur."

24 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

ning of the fifth century, makes it 16 yojanas, or not
less than 640 /?', at 40 It to the yojana. This would
increase the total distance to 1340 /i, or 223 miles,
which differs only by 5 miles from the statement of
the Eoman author. The actual road distance between
Charikar and Jalalabad has not been ascertained, but
as it measures in a direct line on Walker's map about
10 miles more than the distance between Kabul and
Jalalabad, which is 115 miles, it may be estimated at
125 miles. This sum added to 103 miles, the length of
road between Jalalabad and Peshawar, makes the
whole distance from Charikar to Peshawar not less
than 228 miles, which agrees very closely with the
measurements recorded by the Eoman and Chinese
authors.

Pliny further describes Alexandria as being situated
mh ipso Caucaso* at the very foot of Caucasus," which
agrees exactly with the position of Opian, at the
northern end of the plain oi Koh-ddman, or "hill-foot."
The same position is noted by Curtius, who places
Alexandria in radicibus montis,'\ at the very base of the
mountain. The place was chosen by Alexander on
account of its favourable site at the rpLohov,X or parting
of the " three roads " leading to Bactria. These roads,
which still remain unchanged, all separate at Opian,
near Begram.

1. The north-east road, by the Panjshir valley,

and over the Khawak Pass to Anderab.

2. The west road, by the Kushan valley, and

over the Hindu Zush Pass to Ghori.

3. The south-west road, up the Ghorband valley,

and over the Hajiyak Pass to Bamian.

* Hist. Nat., vi. B. 21. t Vit. Alex., vii. 3. J Strabo, xv. 2, 8.

NOETHEEN INDIA. 25

The first of tliese roads was followed by Alexander
on Ms march into Bactriana from the territory of the
Paropamisadse. It was also taken by Timur on his
invasion of India ; and it was crossed by Lieutenant
"Wood on his return from the sources of the Oxus. The
second road must have been followed by Alexander
on his return from Bactriana, as Strabo* specially
mentions that he took " over the same mountains
another and shorter road" than that by which he had
advanced. It is certain that his return could not have
been by the Bamian route, as that is the longest
route of all ; besides which, it turns the Huidu Kush,
and does not cross it, as Alexander is stated to have
done. This route was attempted by Dr. Lord and
Lieutenant Wood late in the year, but they were
driven back by the snow. The third road is the easiest
and most frequented. It was taken by Janghez
Khan after his capture of Bamian ; it was followed by
Moorcroft and Burnes on their adventurous journeys
to Balkh and Bokhara ; it was traversed by Lord and
Wood after their failure at the Kushan Pass ; and
it was surveyed by Sturt in a.d. 1840, after it had
been successfully crossed by a troop of horse artillery.

Alexandria is not found in Ptolemy's list of the
towns of the Paropamisadse ; but as his Niphanda,
which is placed close to Kapisa, may with a very little
alteration be read as OpJiianda, I think that we may
perhaps recognize the Greek capital under this slightly
altered form. The name of Opidn is certainly as old
as the fifth century B.C., as Hekatseus places a people
called Opiai to the west of the upper course of the
Indus. There is, however, no trace of this name in

* Geogr., XV. 1, 26.

26 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INBIA.

the inscriptions of Darius, but we have instead a na-
tion called Tliatagusli^ who are the Sattagudai of He-
rodotus, and perhaps also the people of Si-pi-to-fa-la-sse
of the Chinese pilgrim Hwen Thsang.* This place
was only 40 /«', or about 7 miles, distant from the
capital of Kiapishe, but unfortunately the direction is
not stated. As, however, it is noted that there was a
mountain named Jruna at a distance of 5 miles to the
south, it is almost certain that this city must have
been on the famous site of Begram, from which the
north end of the Siah-koh, or Black Mountain, called
Chehel DuIcJdardn, or the " Forty Daughters," lies al-
most due south at a distance of 5 or 6 miles. It is
possible, also, that the name of Tdtarangzdr, which
Masson gives to the south-west corner of the ruins of
Begram, may be an altered form of the ancient 'Thdta-
ffush, or Sattagudai. But whether this be so or not,
it is quite certain that the people dwelling on the
upper branches of the Kabul river must be the Th6.ta-
giisli of Darius, and the Sattagudai of Herodotus, as
all the other surrounding nations are mentioned in
both authorities.

KarKfinn, Kartana or Tetragonis.

Tiic passage of Pliny describing the position of
Alexandria is prefaced by a few words regarding the
town of Cartana, which, while they assign it a similar
position at the foot of the Caucasus, seem also to refer
it to the immediate vicinity of Alexander's city. I
quote the whole passage, with the correction which I

* Sipitofalasse is probably the Sanskrit Saptavarslia or Sattavasa,
whicli might easily be changed to Thatagush.

NORTHERN INDIA. 27

have already proposed:* — " Cartana oppidum sub
Caucaso, quod postea Tetragonis dictum. Hsec regio
est ex adverse Bactrise. Opiorum (regio) deinde cujiis
oppidum Alexandria a conditore dictum." " At the
foot of the Caucasus stands the town of Cartana, which
was afterwards called Tetragonis (or the Square). This
district is opposite to Bactria. Next (to it) are the
Opii, whose city of Alexandria was named after its
founder." Solinus makes no mention of Cartana, but
Ptolemy has a town named Karsana, or Karnasa,
which he places on the right bank of a nameless river
that comes from the vicinity of Kapisa and Niphanda
(or Opian), and joins the river of Locharna, or Loh-
garh, nearly opposite Nagara. This stream I take to be
the united Panjshir and Ghorband river, which joins
the Lohgarh river about halfway between Kabul and
Jalalabad. This identification is rendered nearly cer-
tain by the position assigned to the Lambata, or people
of Lampaka or Lamghan, who are placed to the east of
the nameless river, which cannot therefore be the Ku-
nar river, as might otherwise have been inferred from
its junction with the Lohgarh river opposite ITagara.

This being the case, the Karsana of Ptolemy may
at once be identified with the Cartana of Pliny ; and
the few facts related by both authors may be combined
to aid us in discovering its true position. According
to Pliny, it was situated at the foot of the Caucasus,
and not far from Alexandria ; whilst, according to
Ptolemy, it was on the right bank of the Panjshir
river. These data point to Begram, which is situated
on the right bank of the united Panjshir and Ghor-
band rivers, immediately at the foot of the Kohistan

* Hist. Nat., vi. 23.

THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OE INDIA.

liills, and within 6 miles of Opian, or Alexandria
Opiane. As I know of no other place that answers
all these requirements, it seems most probable that
Begram must be the true locality. Parwan and
Kushan are ancient places of some consequence in the
neighbourhood of Opian ; but they are both on the
left bank of the Ghorband river, while the first is pro-
bably the Baborana of Ptolemy, and the other his
Kapisa. Begram also answers the description which
Pliny gives of Cartana, as Tetragonis, or the " Square;"
for Masson, in his account of the ruins, specially no-
tices " some mounds of great magnitude, and accu-
rately describing a square of considerable dimensions."*
If I am right in identifying Begram with the Kiu-
lu-sa-pang of the Chinese pilgrim, the true name of
the place must have been Karsana, as written by Pto-
lemy, and not Cartana^ as noted by Pliny. The same
form of the name is also found on a rare coin of Eu-
kratides, with the legend Karisiye nagara, or " city of
Karisi" which I have identified with the Kalasi of
the Buddhist chronicles, as the birthplace of Eaja
Milindu. In another passage of the same chronicle, j"
Milindu is said to have been born at Alasanda, or
Alexandria, the capital of the Yona, or Greek country.
Kalasi must therefore have been either Alexandria
itself or some place close to it. The latter conclusion
agrees exactly with the position of Begram, which is
only a few miles to the east of Opian. Originally two
distinct places, like Delhi and Shah Jahanabad, or
London and Westminster, I suppose Opidn and Kar-

* 'Travels,' iii. 155. For the position of Begram see No. III. Map.
\ Milindu-prasna, quoted by Hardy, in ' Manual of Buddhism,'
pp. 440, 516.

NORTHERN INDIA. 29

Sana to have gradually approaclied each other as they
increased in size, until at last they virtually became
one large city. On the coins of the earlier Greek
kings of Ariana, — Euthydemus, Demetrius, and Eu-
kratides, — we find the monograms of both cities ; but
after the time of Eukratides, that of Opiana disap-
pears altogether, while that of Karsana is common to
most of the later princes. The contemporary occur-
rence of these mint monograms proves that the two
cities were existing at the same time ; while the sud-
den disuse of the name of Opian may serve to show
that, during the latter period of Greek occupation, the
city of Alexandria had been temporarily supplanted
by Karsana.

The appellation of Begram means, I believe, no-
thing more than " the city" par excellence, as it is also
applied to three other ancient sites in the immediate
vicinity of great capitals, namely, Kabul, Jalalabad,
and Peshawar. Masson derives the appellation from
the Turki be or bi^ " chief," and the Hindi grainy or
city, — that is, the capital.* But a more simple deriva-
tion would be from the Sanskrit wz, implying " cer-
tainty," " ascertainment," as in vijaya, victory, which
is only an emphatic form of. jay a with the prefix vi.
Vigrdma would therefore mean emphatically " the
city " — that is, the capital ; and Big ram would be the
Hindi form of the name, just as Bijay is the spoken
form of Vijaya.

The plain of Begram is bounded by the Panjshir
and the Koh-daman rivers on the north and south;
by the Mahighir canal on the west ; and on the east
by the lands of Julgha, in the fork of the two rivers.

* ' Travels,' iii. 165.

THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

Its length, from Bay an, on the Muhigliir canal, to
Julgha, is about 8 miles ; and its breadth, from Kilah
Bnland to Yuz Bashi, is 4 miles. Over the whole of
this space vast numbers of relics have been discovered,
consisting of small images, coins, seals, beads, rings,
arrow-heads, fragments of pottery, and other remains,
which prove that this plain was once the site of a
great city. According to the traditions of the people,
Begram was a Greek city, which was overwhelmed
by some natural catastrophe.* Masson doubts the
tradition, and infers from the vast number of Kufic
coins found there, that the city must have existed for
some centuries after the Muhammadan invasion. I
am inclined to think that Masson is right, and that the
decline of the city was caused by the gradual desertion
of the people, consequent on the transfer of the seat of
government to Ghazni, after the conquest of the
country by the Muhammadans. Coins of the last
Hindu Eajas of Kabul and of the first Muhammadan
kings of Ghazni are found in great numbers ; but the
money of the later Ghaznavi princes is less plentiful,
whilst of the succeeding Ghori dynasty only a few
specimens of some of the earlier sovereigns have yet
been discovered. From these plain facts, I infer that
the city began gradually to decay after the Muham-
madan conquest of Kabul by Sabuktugin, towards
the end of the tenth century, and that it was finally
deserted about the beginning of the thirteenth century.
As the latter period corresponds with the date of Jan-
ghez Khan's invasion of these provinces, it is very pos-
sible, as Masson has already supposed, that Begram
may have been finally destroyed by that merciless
barbarian.

* Masson, ' Travels,' iii. 159.

NOETHERN INDIA. 31

Other Cities of Kapisene.

I will close tills account of Kapisene with some re-
marks on the few other cities of the same district that
are mentioned hy ancient authors. Pliny descrihes
one city as "ad Caucasum Cadrusi, oppidum ab Alex-
andre conditum," which is slightly altered by Solinus
to " Cadrusia oppidum ab Alexandre Magno ad Cau-
casum constitutum est, ubi et Alexandria."* Bota
authors place the city close to the Caucasus, to which
Solinus adds, that it was §,lso near Alexandria. Fol-
lowing these two distinct indications, I am disposed
to identify the city of Cadrusi with the old site of
Koratds, which Masson discovered under the hills of
Kohistan, 6 miles to the north-east of Begram, and
on the north bank of the Panjshir river, t There
are the usual remains of an old city, consisting of
mounds covered with fragments of pottery, amongst
which old coins are frequently found. There are also
remains of masonry works about the hills, which the
people call Kafir-kot, or the Kafir's fort. The com-
mentators have accused Solinus of misunderstanding
Pliny, whose Cadrusi, they say, was the name of a
people, and whose "oppidum ab Alexandre conditum "
was the city of Alexandria.^ But the passage was
differently understood by Philemon Holland, who
renders it thus ; — " Upon the hill Caucasus stand eth
the town Cadrusi, built likewise by the said Alexan-
der." As a general rule, the Greeks would seem to
have designated the various peoples whom they en-
countered by the names of their principal towns.

* Plin. Hist. Nat., vi. 25. Solin. Ivii. f ' Travels,' iii. 166.

X Cellarius, iii. 22, p. 514, " quod Solinus pervertit."

31i THE ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY OF INDIA.

Thus we have Kabura and the Kabolitse, Drepsa and
the Diepsiani, Taxila and the Taxili, Kaspeira and
the Kaspeirsei, from which I would infer, that there
was most probably also a town named Cadrusia, whose
inhabitants were called Cadi'usi. This inference is
strengthened by the correspondence, both in name
and in position of the ruined mound of Koratas, with
the Cadrusi of Pliny.

The names of other peoples and towns are recorded
by Ptolemy ; but few of them can now be identified,
as we have nothing to guide us but the bare names.
The Farsii^ with their to^vns Parsia and Parsiana, I
take to be the Pashais, or people of the Panjhir or
Panjshir valley. The true name is probably Panchir,
as the Arabs always write ^' for the Indian ch. The mo-
dern spelling of Panjshir adopted by Bumes, Leech,
and others, appears to be only an attempt to give the
Afghan pronunciation of ch as ts in Panfsir. A town
named Panjhir is mentioned by the early Arab geo-
graphers, and a mountain named Pashdi was crossed by
Ibn Batuta, on his way from Kunduz to Parwan.*

Other tribes are the Aristophyli, a pure Greek name,
and the Jmbautis, of whom nothing is known. The
towns not akeady noticed are Arloarta and Barzaura
in the north, and Drastoka and Naulibis in the south.
The second of these may be Bazarak, a large town in
the Panjshii- valley, and the last may be Nilah of
Ghorband. The third was most probably a town in
one of the darch or valleys of the Koh-daman.

2. KOPHENE, OR KABUL.

The district of Eabul is first mentioned by Ptolemy,
who calls the people KuboUfa, and their capital Kabura,

* ' Travels/ p. 98.

NORTHERN INDIA. 33

which was also named Ortospana. The latter name
alone is found in Strabo and Pliny, with a record of
its distance from the capital of Arachosia, as measured
by Alexander's surveyors, Diognetes and Baiton. In
some copies of Pliny the name is written OHliospanum,
which, with a slight alteration to Orthostana, as sug-
gested by H. H. Wilson,* is most probably the Sanskrit
Urddhasthdna, that is, the " high place," or lofty city.
The same name is also given to the Kabul district by
the Chinese pilgrim Hwen Thsang. But I strongly
suspect that there has been some accidental inter-
change of names between the province and its capi-
tal. On leaving Ghazni, the pilgrim travelled to the
north for 600 li, or 83 miles, to Fo-li-sld-sa-tang-na^ of
which the capital was Hu-phi-na. I^ow by two dif-
ferent measured routes the distance between Ghazni
and Kabul was found to be 81 and 88|^ miles.f There
can be no doubt, therefore, that Kabul must be the
place that was visited by the pilgrim. In another
place the capital is said to be 700 /«', or 116 miles,
from Bamian, which agrees very well with the mea-
sured distance of 104 miles:]: between Bamian and
Kabul, along the shortest route.

The name of the capital, as given by the Chinese
pilgrim, has been rendered by M. Vivien de St.
Martin as Vardasthdna, and identified with the dis-
trict of the Wardak tribe, while the name of the
province has been identified with Hupian or Opian.
But the Wardak valley, which receives its name from
the "Wardak tribe, lies on the upper course of the

* ' Ariana Antiqua,' p. 176.
t Thornton's ' Gazetteer,' Appendix.
J Lieutenant Sturt, Engineers, by perambulator.

34 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OP INDIA.

Logarli river, at some distance to the south, of Kabul,
and only 40 miles to the north of Ghazni, while
Hupian or Opian lies 27 miles to the north of Kabul,
or more than 70 miles distant from Wardak. My own
researches lead me to conclude that both names refer
to the immediate neighbourhood of Kabul itself.

Professor Lassen has already remarked that the
name of Kipin, which is so frequently mentioned by
other Chinese authors, is not once noticed by Hwen
Thsang. Eemusat first suggested that Kipin was the
country on the Kophes or Kabul river ; and this sug-
gestion has ever since been accepted by the unani-
mous consent of all writers on ancient India, by whom
the district is now generally called Kophene. It is
this form of the name of Kipin that I propose to
identify with the Hu-phi-na of Hwen Thsang, as it
seems to me scarcely possible that this once famous
province can have remained altogether unnoticed by
him, when we know that he must have passed through
it, and that the name was still in use for more than a
century after his time.* I have already stated my
suspicion that there has been some interchange of
names between the province and its capital. This
suspicion is strengthened when it is found that all
difficulties are removed, and the most complete iden-
tification obtained, by the simple interchange of the
two names. Thus Hu-phi-na will represent Kophene,
or Kipin, the country on the Kabul river, and Fo-li-
sJd-sa-tan^'na, or Urddhasthdna, will represent Orto-
stana, which, as we know from several classical
authorities, was the actual capital of this province.

* Lassen, ' Points in the History of the Greek Eings of Kabul,'
p. 102.

NORTHERN INDIA. 35

I may remark that Huphina is a very exact Chinese
transcript of KopJien, whereas it would be a very im-
perfect transcript of Hiipidn, as one syllable would be
altogether unrepresented, and the simple p would be
replaced by an aspirate. The correct transcript of
Hupian would be Hu-pi-yan-na.

M. Vivien de St. Martin has objected* to the name
of UrddhastMna that it is a " conjectural etymology
without object." I am, however, quite satisfied that
this reading is the correct one, for the following
reasons : — 1st. The name of Ortospana is not confined
to the Paropamisadse ; but is found also in Karmania
and in Persis. It could not, therefore, have had any
reference to the Wardak tribe, but must be a generic
name descriptive of its situation, a requirement that
is most satisfactorily fulfilled by Urddhasfhdna, which
means literally the "high place," and was most pro-
bably employed to designate any hill fortress. 2nd.
The variation in the reading of the name to Porto-
spana confirms the descriptive meaning which I have
given to it, a^ porta signifies "high " in Pushtu, and
was, no doubt, generally adopted by the common
people instead of the Sanskrit urddha.

The position of Ortospana I would identify with
Kabul itself, with its Bala Hisdr^ or "high fort,"
which I take to be only a Persian translation of Orto-
spana, or Urddhasfhdna. It was the old capital of the
country before the Macedonian conquest, and so late
as the tenth century it was still believed " that a king
was not properly qualified to govern until he had
been inaugurated at Kabul."t Hekatseus also describes

* • Hiouen Thsang,' iii. 416.

I Ouseley, ' Oriental Geography,' p. 226.

D 2

36 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

a " royal town " amongst the Opiai,* but we have no
data for determining either its name or its position.
It seems most probable, however, that Kabul must he
intended, as we know of no other place that could
have held this position after the destruction of Kapisa
by C'jTus ; but in this case Kabul must have been ui-
cluded within the territories of the Opiai.

It is strange that there is no mention of Kabul in
the histories of Alexander, as he must certainly
have passed through the town on his way from Ara-
chosia to the site of Alexandria. I think, however,
that it is most probably the town of Nikaia, which
was Alexander's first march from his new city on his
return from Bactria. Nikaia is described by Nonnus
as a stone city, situated near a lake. It was also
called Astakia, after a nymph whom Bacchus had
abused. •]■ The lake is a remarkable feature, which is
peculiar in Northern India to Kabul and Kashmir.
The city is also said to have been called Indophdn, or
"Indian-killer," on account of the victory which
Bacchus had gained over the Indians on this spot.
From this name I infer, that ISTonnus had most proba-
bly heard of the popular meaning which is attributed
to the name of Hindu-lush^ or "Hindu-killer," and
that he adopted it at once as corroborative of the
Indian conquests of Dionysius.

* Steph. Byz. in v. 'flTriai. 'Ei/ St rfixor BairiXijl'oj/ /xf'xp' romov 'Qmm,
awa TOvTav ipr}jxir] fJ-^XP'- "li'Sw.

t ■ Dionysiaca,' xvi., last three lines : —

Kai nroXiv evXaiyya ^iXaxpijra), napa Xi/ii/i;,
Teij|f 6eus Ni'/caiaj/ eVrnTO/ioc, ^v ano Nu/i(^j;s
'Ao-TaKlrjs cKoXfcrcri, Kai 'Iv8o(l>6vov fi€Ta vUtjv.
The meaning of which appears to be, that " Bacchus built a stone city,
named K/kaia, near a lake, which he also called Astakia, after the
nymph, and Indoph6n,,\n remembrance of his victory."

NORTHERN INDIA. 37

The province is described as being 2000 li^ or 333
miles, in length, from east to west, and 1000 /«', or 166
miles, in breadth from north to south. It is probable
that this statement may refer to the former extent of
the province, when its king was the paramount ruler
of Western Afghanistan, including Ghazni and Kan-
dahar, as the actual dimensions of the Kabul district
are not more than one-haK of the numbers here
stated. Its extreme length, from the sources of the
Helmand river to the Jagdalak Pass, is about 150
miles, and its extreme breadth, from Istalif to the
sources of the Logarh river, is not more than 70
miles.

The name of Kophes is as old as the time of the
Vedas, in which the Kubhd river is mentioned as an
aflBuent of the Indus ; and as it is not an Arian word,
I infer that the name must have been applied to the
Kabul river before the Arian occupation, or, at least,
as early as e.g. 2500. In the classical writers we find
the Khoes, Kophes, and Khoaspes livers, to the west of
the Indus, and at the present day we have the Kunar,
the Kuram, and the Gomal rivers to the west, and the
Kunihar river to the east of the Indus, all of which
are derived from the Scythian ku, " water." It is the
guttural form of the Assyrian hu in Euphrates and
Euleeus, and of the Turki su and the Tibetan chu^ all
of which mean water or river. The district of Kophene
must, therefore, have received its name from the river
which flowed through it, like as Sindh from the Sindhu
or Indus, Margiana from the Margus, Aria from the
Arius, Arachosia from the Arachotus, and others. It
is not mentioned by Alexander's historians, although
the river Kophes is noticed by aU of them.

THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OP INDIA.

In Ptolemy's ' Geography ' tlie city of Kabura and
the KaboUtm, with the towns of Arguda, or Argandi,
and Locharna^ or Logarh, are all located in the terri-
tories of the Paropamisadse along the Kabul river.
Higher np the stream he places the town of Bagarda^
which corresponds exactly in position, and very closely
in name with the valley of Wardah. AH the letters
of the two names are the same; and as the mere
transposition of the guttural to the end of the Greek
name will make it absolutely identical with the
modern name, there is strong evidence in favour of
the reading of Bardaga instead of Bagarda. Accord-
ing to Elphinstone,* the War dak tribe of Afghans
occupy the greater part of the Logarh valley. This
is confirmed by Masson,f who twice visited the dis-
trict of "Wardak ; and by Vigne,:j: who crossed it on
his way from Ghazni to Kabul. The only objection
to this identification that occurs to me is, the possi-
bility that Bagarda may be the Greek form of Vaehe-
reta, which is the name given in the ' Zend Avesta ' to
the seventh country that was successively occupied by
the Arian race. From its position between Bactria,
Aria, and Arachosia, on one side, and India on the
other, Vaekereta has usually been identified with the
province of Kabul. This, also, is the opinion of the
Parsis themselves. Vaekereta is further said to be
the seat or home of Duzlatk, which further tends to
confirm its identification with Kabul, as the acknow-
ledged country of Zohak. If the Wardaks had ever
been a ruling tribe, I should be disposed to infer that
the name of Vaekereta might, probably, have been de-
rived from them. But in our present total ignorance

* = Kabul; i. 160. f ' Travels,' ii. 223. % ' Ghazni,' p. 140.

NOBTHEEN INDIA. 39

of their history, I think that it is sufficient to note
the very great similarity of the two names.

In the seventh century the king of Kophene was a
Turk, and the language of the country was different
from that of the people of Ghazni. Hwen Thsang
mentions that the alphabet of Kapisene was that of the
Turks, hut that the language was not Turki. As the
king, however, was an Indian, it may reasonably be
inferred that the language was Indian. For a similar
reason it may be conjectured that the language of
Kophene was some dialect of Turki, because the king
of the district was a Turk.

3. ARACHOSIA, OR GHAZNI.

The Chinese pilgrim places the country of Tsau-ku-ta
at 500 /«, or 83 miles, to the south of Hupliina^ or
Kophene, and to the north-wept of Falana, or Banu.
The valley of the Lo-mo-in-tu river, which is men-
tioned as producing assafoetida, is readily identified
with the Helmand by prefixing the syllable Ho to the
Chinese transcript. The kingdom is said to have been
7000 /?', or 1166 miles, in circuit, which cannot be far
from the truth, as it most probably included the whole
of south-western Afghanistan with the exception of
Kandahar, which at that time, from the story of the
begging-pot of Buddha already noted, would appear
to have belonged to Persia.

This district possessed two capitals, called Ho-si-na
and Ho-sa-lo. The first has been identified by M. de
St. Martin with Ghazni^ which is quite satisfactory ;
but his suggestion that the other may be connected
with Hazdra is, I think, very doubtful. Hazara is the
name of a district, and not of a town ; and its applica-

40 THE ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY OP INDIA.

tion to this part of the country is said by the people
themselyes not to be older than the time of Janghez
Khan.* I would, therefore, identify it with Guzar or
Guzaristan^ which is the chief town on the Helmand
at the present day ; and with the Ozola of Ptolemy,
which he places in the north-west of Arachosia, or in
the Yery same position as Guzaristan.

The name of Tsaukuta still remains to be explained.
The identifications just made show that it corresponds
exactly "ftdth the Arachosia of classical writers, which
is the Arokhaj and Bokhaj of the Arab geographers.
The latter form is also found in Arrian's ' Periplus of
the Erythi-a^an Sea ' as 'Pa-xpvaoi. It was, therefore, not
unusual both before and after the time of Hwen
Thsang to drop the initial syllable of the name. The
original form was the Sanskrit Saraswati, which in
Zend became Haraqditi, and in Greek 'Apaxcords, all of
which agree in the last two syllables with the Chinese
TmiiTiuta. The first Chinese syllable Tsau must, there-
lore, con-espond with the Ra of the other forms. This
change may, perhaps, be explained by a peculiarity of
the Turki language, which frequently changes the
letter r into a soft s or sli^ as the Turki words dengiz^
'•' sea,"' and o/v/.-, " ox,'' are the same as the Hungarian
ietiijer and okur.\ On the Indo-Scythian coins, also, we
find the Turki names of Kanishka, Huvishka^ and
KHsIidiia changed to Kanerke, Hoverke, and Korano in
Greek. It seems possible, therefore, that the initial
syllable Tsau of the Chinese transcript may be only
the peculiar Tui'ki pronunciation of the Indian Ra,
which would naturally have come into use with the

* ' Ayin Akbari,' ii. 163.

t Prichard, ' Physical History of Mankind,' iv. 403.

NORTHERN INDIA. 41

occupation of the country by the Turki tribe of Tochari,
about the beginniag of the Christian era.

In the seventh century the king of Ghazni, who
was a Buddhist, was descended from a long line of
ancestors. Both the alphabet and the language of
the "people are said to have been different from those
of other countries ; and as Hwen Thsang was ac-
quainted with both the Indian and Turki languages,
I infer that the speech of the people of Ghazni was
most probably Pushtu. If so, the people must have
been Afghans ; but, unfortunately, we have no other
clue to guide us in settling this very interesting point,
unless, indeed, the name of 0-po-kien, a place to the
south-east of Ghazni, may be identified with Afyhdn,
a point which will be discussed hereafter.

Of Guzaristan, on the Helmand, I am not able to
give any further information, as that part of the
country has not yet been visited by any European.
Ghazni itself is too well known to require any parti-
cular description, but I may note that it must have
been in a very flourishing condition in the seventh
century, as Hwen Thsang estimates its circuit at 30
/«', or 5 miles. At the present day the circuit of the
walled town is not more than one mile and a quarter.
Yigne calls it an irregular pentagon, with sides vary-
ing from 200 to 400 yards in length, strengthened by
numerous towers. He adds,* that "the Afghans boast
much of the strength of the walls and fortifications of
Ghazni." But Ghazni has always been famous in the
East as a place of strength and security ; and for this
very reason it received its name of Gaza^ an old
Persian term for a " treasury." It is described in some

* ' Ghazni,' p. 122.

42 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

crabbed lines of the ' Dionysiaca' of Nonnus, wlio lived
about A.D. 500, and also in tbe ' Bassarica' of Dionysius,
who lived not later than a.d. 300. Both of them refer
pointedly to its impregnability. Dionysius calls it, —

'Aa-Tv(piKov hfjOKTi, Kai el nayxoKKeov ^ei*,
" As stern in war as if 'twas made of brass,"

and Noiinns says,* " They fortified, with a net-like
enclosure of interlacing works, Gazos, an immoveable
bulwark of Ares, and never has any armed enemy
breached its compact foundations." These early notices
of this famous place suggest the possibility that the
Gazaha of Ptolemy may have been misplaced amongst
the Paropamisadse to the north of Kabul, instead of to
the south of it. But as Stephanus of Byzantium, who
quotes the ' Bassarica ' of Dionysius as his authority
for this Indian town, tto'Xis 'IvBikti, takes no notice of
the Indian Gazaka, 1 conclude that he must have
looked upon it as a different place.

4. LAMGHAN.

The district of Lan-po, or Lamghan, is noted by
Hwen Thsang as being 600 li, or just 100 miles, to the
east of Kapisene. He describes the road as a succes-
sion of hills and valleys, some of the hills being of
great height. This description agrees with all the re-
cent accounts of the route along the northern bank of
the river from Opian to Lamghan. The bearing and
distance also coincide so exactly with the position of
Lamghan that there can be no doubt of the identity of

* ' Dionysiaca,' xxvi. 30: —

KOL Ot \iVO€p-)(i'i KVKXta

TAZON impyaxravTO XtraTrX/ftToio-i hojiaiois,
"Apeos aKXives eppa, Kat ovirore drj'ios avrjp
XoKkov e^coi/ €pprj^i ivKkaXTTOKTl 6€fi€u\ois.

NORTHEKN INDIA. 43

the two districts. Ptolemy, also, places a people called
Lamhatce in the very same position. From a com-
parison of this term with the modern appellation of
Lamgh§,n, it seems probable that the original form of
the name was the Sanskrit Lampaka. I would, there-
fore, correct Ptolemy's Lambatm to Lambaffce, by the
slight change of r for T. The modern name is only
an abbreviation of Lampaka, formed by the elision of
the labial. It is also called Laghmdn by the simple
transposition of the middle consonants, which is a
common practice in the East. The credulous Muham-
madans derive the name from the patriarch Lamech,
whose tomb they affirm still exists in Lamghan. It is
noticed by Baber and by Abul Fazl.

The district is described by Hwen Thsang as being
only 1000 li, or 166 miles, in circuit, with snowy
mountains on the north, and black hills on the other
three sides. Prom this account it is clear that Lan-po
corresponds exactly with the present Lamghan, which
is only a small tract of country, lying along the
northern bank of the Kabul river, bounded on the west
and east by the Alingar and Kunar rivers, and on
the north by the snowy mountains. This small tract
is very nearly a square of 40 miles on each side, or
160 miles in circuit. It had formerly been a separate
kingdom ; but in the seventh century the royal family
was extinct, and the district was a dependency of
Kapisene.

5. NAGAEAHAEA, OE JALALABAD.

Prom Lamghan the Chinese pilgrim proceeded for
100 li, or nearly 17 miles, to the south-east, and, after
crossing a large river, reached the district of Nagara-

THE ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY OP INDIA.

lidra. Both the bearing and distance point to the
Nagara of Ptolemy, which was to the south of the
Kabul river, and in the immediate Yicinity of Jalala-
bad. Hwen Thsang writes the name Na-ki-lo-ho ; but
M. Julien* has found the full transcript of the Sanskrit
name in the annals of the Song dynasty, in which it is
written Nang-go-lo-lio-lo. The Sanskrit name occurs
in an inscription which was discovered by Major
Kittoe in the ruined mound of Ghosrdwd, in the dis-
trict of Bihar.f Nagarahara is said to be 600 li, or
100 miles, in length from east to west, and upwards
of 250 //, or 42 miles, in breadth fi-om north to south.
The natural boundaries of the district are the Jag-
dalak Pass on the west, and the Khaibar Pass on the
east, with the Kabul river to the north, and the
Safed Koh^ or snowy mountains, to the south. Within
these limits the direct measurements on the map are
about 75 by 30 miles, which in actual road distance
would be about the same as the numbers stated by
Hwen Thsang.

The position of the capital would appear to have
been at Begram, about 2 miles to the west of Jala-
labad, and 5 or 6 miles to the W.N.W. of Hidda,
which by the general consent of every inquirer has
been identified Avith the Hi-lo of the Chinese pilgrims.
The town of Hilo was only 4 or 5 //, or about three-
quarters of a mile, in circuit; but it was celebrated
for its possession of the skull-bone of Buddha, which
was deposited in a stupa, or solid round tower, and
Avas only exhibited to pilgrims on payment of a piece
of gold. Hidda is a small village, 5 miles to the

* ' Hiouen Tlisang,' ii. 96, note.

t Journ. Asiat. Soo. Bengal, 1848, pp. 490, 491.

NORTHEKN INDIA. 45

south of Jalal^b^d ; but it is well known for its large
collection of Buddhist stupas, tumuli, and caves,
which were so successfully explored by Masson. The
presence of these important Buddhist remains, in the
Tery position indicated by the Chinese pilgrims, af-
fords the most satisfactory proof of the identity of
Hidda with their Hilo. This is further confirmed by
the absolute agreement of name, as Hi-lo is the closest
approximation that could be made in Chinese syllables
to the original Him or Hida. The capital must,
therefore, have been situated on the plain of Begram,
which is described by Masson* as " literally covered
with tumuli and mounds." "These," he adds, "are
truly sepulchral monuments ; but, with the topes,
sanction the inference that a very considerable city
existed here, or that it was a place of renown for sanc-
tity. It may have been both." I think it is just
possible that Hidda may be only a transposition of
Haddi, a bone, as the stupa of the skull-bone of Buddha
is said in one passagef to have been in the town of
Hilo, while in another passage it is located in the town
of Fo-tinff-ko-chinff, which is only a Chinese translation
of " Buddha's skull-bone town." During the course
of this disquisition I shall have to notice the frequent
occurrence of short descriptive names of places which
were famous in the history of Buddha. I am, there-
fore, led to think that the place which contained the
skull-bone of Buddha would most probably have been
known by the familiar name of Asthipura amongst the
learned, and of Haddipura, or " Bone-town " amongst
the common people. Similarly the skull-necklace of
Siva is called simply the astliimdld, or ' bone-necklace.'

* ' Travels,* ii. 164. f ' Hiouen Thsang,' i. 77.

THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OP INDIA.

Nar/arahdra was long ago identified by Professor
Lassen with the 'Nagara or Dionysopolis of Ptolemy,
which was situated midway between Kabura and the
Indus. The second name suggests the probability
that it may be the same place as the Nysa of Arrian
and Curtius. This name is perhaps also preserved ia
the Dinus or Dinuz of Abu Eihan,* as he places it
about midway between Kabul and Parasbawar. Ac-
cording to the tradition of the people, the old city was
called ^JJ/n/a,\ in which I think it possible to recog-
nize the Greek Jiov, as the river Yamuna or Jumna is
rendered Diamuna by Ptolemy, and the Sanskrit yamas
OT jamas, tho south, is rendered i)/a?»asffl byPliny.;}: It
is, however, much more likely that Aj'Ana, by transpo-
sition of the vowels may be only a corrupt form of the
Pali Ujjdna, and Sanskrit Udydna, " a garden," as
M. Vivien de St. Martin states that Udydnapura was
an old name of Nagarahara.§ If this identification be
correct the position of the capital must certainly have
been at Begram, as I have already suggested. The
name of Dionysopolis was no doubt the most usual
appellation during the whole period of Greek dominion,
as one of the commonest mint-monograms on the coins
of the Greek kings of Ariana forms the letters AlON,
which will n()t suit the name of any Indian city re-
corded by ancient authors, save that of DionysopoHs.
In the beginning of the fifth century it is called simply
Na-kie or Narjara, by Fa Hian, who adds that it was
then an independent State governed by its own king.
In A.D. 630, at the time of Hwen Thsang's visit, it was
without a king, and subject to Kapisene. After this

* Eeiuaud'3 ' Fragraeiif s,' p. 114. % Hist. JSat., vi. e. 22

t Masson's ' Travels," ii. 164. § ' Hiouen Thsang,' iii. 305.

MAP

of GANDHARA op

Lo^-er KABUT. Valley

16 Miles to 1 Inch.

„ I I ^■"'■■xandcr'.s Uor*^

ii>*S?^5^'^' *

'%..

NORTHERN INBIA. 47

it most probably followed the fortunes of the sovereign
State, and became successively a part of the Brahman
kingdom of Kabul and of the Mahommedan empire of
Ghazni.

6. GANDHAEA, OR PARASHAWAR.

The district of Gandhara is not mentioned by Alex-
ander's professed historians ; but it is correctly described
by Strabo, under the name of Gandaritis, as lying along
the river Kophes, between the Choaspes and the Indus.
In the same position Ptolemy places the Gandarcs,
whose country included both banks of the Kophes im-
mediately above its junction with the Indus. This is
the Kien-to-lo, or Gandhara of all the Chinese pilgrims,
who are unanimous in placing it to the west of the
Indus. The capital, which they call Pu-lu-sha-pulo
or Parashapura is stated to be three or four days'
journey from the Indus, and near the south bank of a
large river. This is an exact description of the posi-
tion of Peshawar, which down to the time of Akbar
still bore its old name of Parashdwar, under which form
it is mentioned by Abul Fazl and Baber, and still
earlier by Abu Eihan and the Arab geographers of
the tenth century. According to Fa Hian, who calls
it simply Fo-lu-shd or Parashd, the capital was 16
yojans, or about 112 miles, distant from Nagaraliara.
Hwen Thsang, however, makes the distance only 500
li, or 83 miles, which is certainly a mistake, as the
measurement by perambulator between JalaMbid and
Peshawar is 103 miles, to which must be added 2 miles
more for the position of Begram to the west of JaM-
labad.

The actual boundaries of the district are not de-

THE ANCIENT GEOGEAPHT OF INBIA.

scribed, but its size is given as 1000 /«, or 166 miles,
from east to west, and 800 /«, or 133 miles, from north
to south. This is, perhaps, nearly correct, as the ex-
treme length, whether taken from the source of the
Bara river to Torbela, or from the Kunar river to
Torbela, is 120 miles, measured on the map direct, or
about 150 miles by road. The extreme breadth,
measured in the same way, from Bazar, on the border
of the Bunir hills, to the southern boundary of
Kohat, is 100 miles direct, or about 125 miles by
road. The boundaries of Gandhara, as deduced from
these measurements, may be described as Lamghaa
and Jalalabad on the west, the hills of Swat and
Bunir on the north, the Indus on the east, and the
hills of Kalabagh on the south. Within these limits
stood several of the most renowned places of ancient
India; some celebrated in the stirring history of
Alexander's exploits, and others famous in the mira-
culous legends of Buddha, and in the subsequent
history of Buddhism under the Indo-Scythian prince
Kanishka.

The only towns of the Gandarse named by Ptolemy
are Naulibe, Embolima, and the capital called Pro-
klais. All of these were to the north of the Kophes ;
and so also were Ora, Bazaria, and Aornos, which are
mentioned by Alexander's historians. Parashawar
alone Avas to the south of the Kophes. Of Naulibe
and Ora I am not able to offer any account, as they
have not yet been identified. It is probable, how-
ever, that Naulihe is Hildh^ an important town, which
gave its name to the Indus river; but if so, it is
Avrongly placed by Ptolemy, as Nildh is to the south
of the Kophes. The positions of the other towns I

NORTHERN INDIA. 49

will now proceed to investigate, including with them
some minor places visited by the Chinese pilgrims.

Pushkalavati^ or Peukelaotis.

The ancient capital of Gandhara was Pushkalavati,
which is said to have been founded by Pushkara, the
son of Bharata, and the nephew of Eama.* Its anti-
quity is undoubted, as it was the capital of the pro-
vince at the time of Alexander's expedition. The
Greek name of Peukelaotis, or Peucolditis, was imme-
diately derived from PukJcalaoti, which is the Pali, or
spoken form of the Sanskrit Pushkalavati. It is also
called Peukelas by Arrian, and the people are named
Peukalei by Dionysius Periegetes, which are both close
transcripts of the Pali Pukkala. The form of Prokla'is,
which is found in Arrian's ' Periplus of the Erythraean
Sea,' and also in Ptolemy's ' Geography,' is perhaps
only an attempt to give the Hindi name of Pokhar
instead of the Sanskrit Pushkara.

According to Arrian, Peukelas was a very large
and populous city, seated not far from the river
Indus. f It was the capital of a chief named Astes,J
perhaps Hasti, who was killed in the defence of one
of his strongholds, after a siege of thirty days, by
Hephsestion. Upon the death of Astes the city of
Peukelaotis was delivered up to Alexander -on his
march towards the Indus. Its position is vaguely
described by Strabo and Arrian as "near the Indus."
But the geographer Ptolemy is more exact, as he
fixes it on the eastern bank of the river of Suastene,
that is, the Panjkora or Swat river, which is the very

* Wilson's ' Vishnu Purina,' edited by Hall, b. iv. c. 4.
t Arrian, - Indica,' i. X Arrian, ' Anabasis,' It. 22.

50 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

locality indicated by Hwen Thsang. On leaving
Parashawar tlie Chinese pilgrim travelled towards the
north-east for 100 li, or nearly 17 miles; and, cross-
ing a great river, reached Pu-se-Jcia-lo-fa-ti, or Push-
kalavati. The river here mentioned is the Kophes, or
river of Kabul; and the bearing and distance from
Peshawar point to the two large towns of Parang and
Charsada, which form part of the well-known Eas/it-
naffar, or "Eight Cities," that are seated close to-
gether on the eastern bank of the lower Swat river.
These towns are Tangi, Shirpao, Umrzai, Turangzai,
Usman^ai, Eajur, Charsada, and Parang. They ex-
tend over a distance of fifteen miles ; bnt the last two
are seated close together in a bend of the river, and
might originally have been portions of one large town.
The fort of Hisar stands on a mound above the ruins
of the old town of Hashtnagar, which General Court
places on an island, nearly opposite Eajm-.* "All
the suburbs," he says, " are scattered over with vast
ruins. "t The eight cities are shown in No. lY. Map.
It seems to me not improbable that the modem
name of Hashtnagar may be only a slight alteration
of the old name of Ilastinagara^ or " city of Hasti,"
which might have been applied to the capital of
Astes, the Prince of Peukelaotis. It was a common
practice of the Greeks to call the Indian rulers by the
names of their cities, as Taxiles, Assakanus, and
others. It was also a prevailing custom amongst
Indian princes to designate any additions or altera-
tions made to their capitals by their own names. Of
this last custom we have a notable instance in the
famous city of Delhi ; which, besides its ancient ap-

* Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, 1836, p. 479. t m^-> 1836, p. 394.

NORTHERN INDIA. 51

pellations of Indraprastha and DiUi, was also known
by the names of its successive aggrandizers as Kot-
Pithora, Kila-Alai, Tughlakab&d, Firuzfi,bad, and
Shabjahanabad. It is true that the people them-
selves refer the name of Hashtnagar to the " eight
towns " which are now seated close together along
the lower course of the Swat river ; but it seems to
me very probable that in this case the wish was
father to the thought, and that the original name of
Hastinagar, or whatever it may have been, was
slightly twisted to Hashtnagar, to give it a plausible
meaning amongst a Persianized Muhammadan popu-
lation, to whom the Sanskrit Hastinagara was unia-
telligible. To the same cause I would attribute the
slight change made in the name of Nagarahdra^
which the people now call jNang-nihdr,* or the "Nine
Streams."

In later times Pushkalavati was famous for a large
stupa, or solid tower, which was erected on the spot
where Buddha was said to have made an alms-offering
of his eyes. In the period of Hwen Thsang's visit, it
was asserted that the " eyes gift " had been made one
thousand different times, in as many previous ex-
istences : but only a single gift is mentioned by the
two earlier pilgrims, Fa-Hian in the fifth century,
and Sung-Yun in the sixth century.

Varusha^ or Palodheri.
Hwen Thsang next visited a town called Po-lu-sha,
which, I think, may be identified with Falo-dheri, or

* Baber's ' Memoirs,' p. 141. — Wood's ' Journey to the Source of tke
Oxus,' p. 167. — Macgregor's'Greography of Jalalabad,' inJourn. Asiat.
Soc. Bengal, xi. 117, and xiii. 867.

52 THE ANCIENT GEOQKAPHY OP INDIA.

the village of Pali^ whicli is situated on a dheri^ or
"mound of ruins," the remains of some early town.
To the north-east of the town, at 20 li^ or 3^ miles,
rose the hill of Dantaloka^ with a cave, in which Prince
Sudana and his wife had taken refuge. The position
of Palodheri, which is the Velley of General Court,
agrees with Hwen Thsang's distance of ahout 40
miles from Pushkalavati ;* and this identification is
supported by the existence of the great cave of Kash-
viiri-Ghdr, in the hill to the east -north-east, and with-
in 3 or 4 miles of Palodheri. Mount Dantalok I take
to be the Monies Dcedali of Justin, f as in the spoken
dialects the nasal of the word danta is assimilated with
the following letter, which thus becomes doubled, as
in the well-known datlon, a " tooth-brush," or twig
used for cleaning the teeth.

UfalcJianda, or Ohind, or Embolima.

From PolusJia Hwen Thsang travelled 200 li, or 33
miles, to the south-east to U-to-kia-han-cha, which M.
Julien transcribes as UdakhaJida, and M. Yivien de St.
Martin identifies with Ohind on the Indus. The
pilgrim describes Udakhanda as having its south side
resting on the river, which tallies exactly with the
position of Ohind, on the north bank of the Indus,
about 15 miles above Attok. General Court and
Burncs call this place Hund, and so does Mr. Loewen-
thal, who styles Ohind a mistaken pronunciation. But
the name was written sj^^^ Waihand or Oaihand, by
Abu Eihan in a.d. 1030, and Ohind by Mirza Mogal
Beg in 1790. To my ear the name sounded something
like IFahand, and this would appear to have been the

* See No. IV. Map. t ' Historiaj,' xii. 7.

NOETHERN INDIA. 53

proimnciation wHch. Eashid-ud-din obtained in a.d.
1310, as lie names the place Weliand* According to
all these authors F«^7^(2?^c?was the capital of Gandhara,
and Eashid-ud-din adds that the Mogals called it
Kdrajdng. The only native writer who uses the abbre-
viated form of the name is Nizam-ud-din, who in his
' Tabakat-i-Akbari ' says that Mahmud besieged Jaipal
in the fort of Hind in a.d. 1002. But this place is
differently named by Ferishta, who calls it the fort of
BUhanda, jsjJyu In this last name we have a very
near approach to the old form of Utalchanda, which is
given by Hwen Thsang. From all these examples, I
infer that the original name of Utakhanda, or Ut-khand^
was first softened to UtJiand or Bithanda, and then
shortened to Ultandox Oliind. The other form of Wehand
I look upon as a simple misreading of TJthand^ as the
two words only differ in the position of the diacritical
points of the second letter. General James Abbott, in
his ' Gradus ad Aornon,' calls the place Oond^ and says
that it was formerly called Oora^ from which he thinks
it probable that it may be identified with the Ora,
"flpa^ of Alexander's historians.

I have entered into this long detail out of respect
for the acknowledged learning of the late lamented
Isidor Loewenthal. His opinion as to the name of
Ohind was most probably, although quite unconsci-
ously, biassed by his belief that Utakhanda was to be
found in the modem Attak. But this place is unfor-
tunately on the wrong side of the Indus, besides which
its name, as far as I am aware, is not to be found in
any author prior to the reign of Akbar. Abul Fazl

* There is a place of the same name on the Jhelam, which Moor-
croft spells Oin.

THE ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY OF INDIA.

calls the fort AtaJc-Bandras^ and states that it was built
m the reign of his Majesty. Baber never mentions
the place, although he frequently speaks of Nilab.
Eashid-ud-din, however, states that the Parashawar
river joins the Indus near Tavkur, which most probably
refers to the strong position of Khairabad. I have a
suspicion that the name of Attak, the "forbidden,"
may have been derived by Akbar from a mistaken
reading of Tanhur^ with the Arabic article prefixed, as
Et-tankur. The name of Bandras was undoubtedly de-
rived from Bandr, the old name of the district in
which the fort is situated. The name of Banar sug-
gested Banaras, and as Kdai-Badjiras was the city
which all Hindus would wish to visit, so we may guess
that this fact suggested to the playful mind of Akbar
the exactly opposite idea of Attah Bandras or the " for-
bidden " Banaras, which all good Hindus should avoid.
Or the existence of Katalc Bandras* (or Cuttack) in
Orissa, on the extreme eastern limit of his kingdom,
may have suggested an alteration of the existing names
of Attak and Banar to Attak-Bandras as an antithesis
for the extreme west.

TFehand, or TJhand as I believe it should be written,
was the capital of the Brahman kings of Kabul, whose
dynasty was extinguished by Mahmud of Ghazni in
A.D. 1026. Masudi, who visited India in a.d. 915,
states that " the king of El-kandahar (or Gandhara),
who is one of the kings of Es-Sind ruling over this
country, is called Jahaj ; this name is common to all
sovereigns of that country."! Now, C/iack is the name

* ' Ayin Akbari," ii. 194, and Stirling's ' Orissa,' in Bengal Asiat
Researches, xv. 189.
f Sir Henry Elliot's ' Muhammadan Historians of India,' i. 57. In

NOETHERN INDIA. 55

of the great plain to the east of the Indus, im-
mediately opposite to Ohind; and as the plain of
Bandr is said to have been named after Eaja Bandr, it
seems probable that the plain of Chach may have
been named after the Brahman dynasty of Ohind.
It is curious that the Brahman dynasty of Sindh
was also established by a Chach in a.d. 641 ; but it
is still more remarkable that this date corresponds
■with the period of the expulsion of the Brahman
dynasty from Chichito, or Jajhoti, by the Chandels
of Khajura. I think, therefore, that there may have
been some connection between these events, and that
the expelled Jajhotiya Brahmans of Ehajura may have
found their way to the Indus, where they succeeded in
establishing themselves at first in Sindh and afterwards
in Ohind and Kabul.

In the time of Hwen Thsang the city was 20 //, or
upwards of 3 miles, in circuit, and we may reasonably
suppose that it must have increased in size during the
sway of the Brahman dynasty. It would seem also to
have been still a place of importance under the suc-
cessors of Changiz Xhan, as the Mogals had changed
its name to Karajang. But the building of Attak, and
the permanent diversion of the high-road, must
seriously have affected its prosperity, and its gradual
decay since then has been hastened by the constant en-
croachments of the Indus, which has now carried away
at least one-half of the old town.* In the sands at the
foot of the cliff, which are mixed with the debris of the
ruined houses, the gold-washers find numerous coins
and trinkets, which offer the best evidence of the

the new edition by Professor Dowson, i. 22, the name is altered to
Hahaj. * See No. IV. Map for its position.

56 THE ANCIENT GEOGKAPHY OF INDIA.

former prosperity of the city. In a few hours' wash-
ing I obtained a bronze buckle, apparently belonging
to a bridle, a female neck ornament, several flat needles
for applying antimony to the eyes, and a considerable
number of coins of the Indo-Scythian and Brahman
princes of Kabul. The continual discovery of Indo-
Scythian coins is a sufiicient proof that the city was
already in existence at the beginning of the Christian
era, which may perhaps induce us to put some faith in
the tradition, mentioned by Abul Peda, that Wehand,
or OJiind, was one of the cities founded by Alexander
the Great.

After the surrender of Peukelaotis, Arrian* relates
that Alexander captured other small towns on the
river Kophenes, and " arrived at last at Embolima, a
city seated not far from the rock Aornos," where he
left Kraterus to collect provisions, in case the siege
should be protracted. Before he left Bazaria, Alex-
ander, with his usual foresight, had despatched
Hephsestion and Perdikkas straight to the Indus with
orders to "prepare everything for throwing a bridge
over the river." Unfortunately, not one of the his-
torians has mentioned the name of the place where the
bridge was made ; but as the great depot of provisions
and other necessaries was formed at Embolima, I con-
clude that the bridge must have been at the same
place. General Abbott has fixed Embolima at Amb-
Balima on the Indus, 8 miles to the east of Mahaban ;
and certainly if Mahaban was Aornos the identity of
the other places would be incontestable. But as the
identification of Mahaban seems to me to be altogether
untenable, I would suggest that Ohind or Ambar- Ohind

* 'Anabasis,' it. 28.

NORTHERN INDIA. 57

is tlie most probable site of Emboliina. Ambar is a
village two miles to the nortb of Ohind, and it is in
accordance with Indian custom to join the names of
two neighbouring places together, as in the case of
Attak-Bandras, for the sake of distinction, as there is
another OJiin on the Jhelam. It must be remembered,
however, that Emboliina or Ekholima may be only a
pure Greek name, descriptive of the position of the
place, at the junction of the Kabul river with the
Indus, where it is placed by Ptolemy. In this case
the claim of Ohind would be even stronger than before.
That the bridge over the Indus was at, or near, Em-
bolima, seems almost certain from the statement of
Curtius, that when Alexander had finished his cam-
paign to the west of the Indus by the capture of
Aornos, "he proceeded towards Ecbolima;^^* that is,
as I conclude, to the place where his bridge had been
prepared by Hephsestion and Perdikkas, and where
his provisions had been stored by Kraterus. I infer
that the depot of provisions must have been close to
the bridge, because one guard would have sufficed for
the security of both bridge and stores.

Sdldtura, or Lahor.

Hwen Thsang next visited So-lo-tu-lo, or S^l^tura,
the birthplace of the celebrated grammarian Panini,
which he says was 20 /«, or %\ miles, to the north-
west of Ohind. In January, 1848, during a day's
halt at the village of Lahor, which is exactly four
miles to the north-east of Ohind, I procured several
Greek and Indo-Scythian coins, from which it may be

' Vit. Alex., viii. 12, — "inde processit Ecbolima. "

58 THE ANCIENT GEOGEAPHT OF INDIA.

inferred, with some certainty, that the place is at
least as old as the time of Panini himself, or about
B.C. 350. I have, therefore, no hesitation in identify-
ing Salatura with LaJior. The loss of the first syllable
of the name is satisfactorily accounted for by the
change of the palatal sibilant to the aspirate, according
to the well-known usage of the people of western
India, by whom the Sindlm river was called Hendhu
and Indus, and the people on its banks Hindus or
Indians ; Salatura would, therefore, have become Hdld-
tura and Aldlur^ which might easily have been cor-
rupted to Lahor; or, as General Court writes the
name, to Lavor.

Aornos.
In describing the countries to the west of the
Indus I must say a few words on the much vexed
question of the position of Aornos. In 1836 General
Court wrote as follows : — " As relates to Aornos, it is
probably the castle which was opposite Attak, and the
vestiges of which we see upon the summit of the
mountain. Its foundation is attributed to Eaja
JlodV* In 1848 I suggested that the "vast hill
fortress of Bdni-gat, situated immediately above the
small village of Nogram, about 16 miles north by
west from Ohind, corresponded in all essential par-
ticulars with the description of Aornos, as given by
Arrian, Strabo, and Diodorus ; excepting in its ele-
vation, the height of Rdni-gat not being more than
1000 feet, which is, however, a very great elevation for
so large a fortress."! In 1864 General James Abbott

* Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, 1836, p. 395.
t Ibid., 1848, p. 103.

NOETHERN INDIA. 59

took up the subject in a very full and elaborate article,
in wMch the various authorities are ably and criti-
cally discussed. His conclusion is that the Mahaban
hill is the most probable site of Aomos.* This opinion
was combated early in 1863 by Mr. Loewenthal, who
again brought forward the claims of Eaja Hodi's fort,
opposite Attak, which had first been suggested by
General Court.-f Towards the end of the year
General Abbott replied to Mr. Loewenthal's objections,
and reiterated his conviction that " the Mahaban is the
Aornos of history," although he thinks that the
question is still " open to discussion. "J

In reopeniag this discussion, I believe that I am
able to clear away some df the diflBculties with which
the subject has confessedly been obstructed by the
vague and contradictory accounts of Alexander's his-
torians ; but I can scarcely venture to hope that my
identification of Aornos wUl be received as satisfac-
tory, when I am constrained to own that I am not
perfectly satisfied with it myself. But if I do not
succeed in convincing others, I feel that my failure
will be shared in common with two such able writers
as General James Abbott and the lamented missionary,
Loewenthal.

I will begin with the name Aornos, which, though
a Greek word, can hardly, as Mr. Loewenthal observes,
be an invention of the Greeks. It must, therefore,
be the transcription, either more or less altered, of
some native name. Mr. Loewenthal thinks that it
was derived from Banaras in its Sanskrit form of Va-
rdnasi, which a Greek of Alexander's time could only

* Journ. Asiat. Soo. Bengal, 1854, p. 309.

t Ibid., 1863, p. 14. % Ibid., 1863, p. 409.

60 THE ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY OF INDIA.

have pronounced by prefixing a vowel. He would
thus have got Avaranas or Aornos. But this is, per-
haps, proving too much, as the final letter in Aornos
is almost certainly the Greek termination, which need
not, therefore, have formed part of the original native
name. It is also suspicious that the literal transcrip-
tion of the native name should form a pure Greek
word. If Bandras or Vardnasi was the original form
of the name, then we ought to find another Banaras
to the north of the Caucasus, as Arrian relates that
after passing Drwpsaka, or Andarab, Alexander
" moved against Aornos and Badra, the two chief
cities of the Bactrians, which being immediately sur-
rendered to him, he placed a garrison in the castle of
Aornos."* On comparing Arrian's names with Pto-
lemy's map, it seems evident that his Badra and
Aornos are the same as Ptolemy's Zariaspa and Badra
reffia, and as the latter is placed in the country of the
Varni, or Ovapvoi, I conclude that the name Aornos,
"Aopvos, is only a natural and slight alteration of
Ovapvos or Varnos, made by the followers of Alexander
for the sake of obtaining a significant name in Greek.
Similarly I would refer the second Aornos to Baja
Vara, whose name is still attached to all the ruined
strongholds between Hashtnagar and Ohind. Thus
the old hill fort and city of TakJd-i-Bahai, 15 miles
to the north-east of Hashtnagar, is said to have been
the residence of Eaja Vara. But his name is more
particularly attached to the grand hill- fort of Edni-
gat above Nogram. Bdni-gat, or the (Queens rock, is
a huge upright block on the north edge of the fort,
on which Eaja Vara's Bani is said to have seated her-

* ' Anabasis,' iii. 29.

NORTHERN INDIA. 61

self daily. The fort itself is attributed to Eaja Vara,
and some ruins at the foot of the hill are called Eaja
Faro's stables. Some people call him Eaja Virdt, but
as they connect him with the story of the five Pandus,

I conclude that the name has been altered to suit the
story. The position of the true Virdt was in Matsya
or Mdcheri, to the south of Delhi : all others are
spurious. I think, therefore, that the hill fort of
Jornos most probably derived its name from Eaja
Vara, and that the ruined fortress of Bdni-gat has a
better claim to be identified with the Aornos of Alex-
ander than either the Malidban hill of Greneral Abbott,
or the castle of Raja liodi proposed by General Court
and Mr. Loewenthal.

My chief objections to the Mahaban hill as the re-
presentative of Aornos are the following : — 1. It is
a vast mountain of comparatively easy access, and of
which no spur presents a very steep face towards the
Indus. 2. The Mahaban hill is not less than 50 miles
in circuit, whereas Aornos was not more than 200 stadia,
or about 22 miles, according to Arrian, or 100 stadia or

II miles, according to Diodorus. 3. The Mahdvana
hill was visited by Hwen Thsang in a.d. 630, and he
describes it simply as a great mountain, which derived
its name from the Mahdvana monastery, in which
Buddha had dwelt in a former existence under the
name of Sarvvada Eaja.* That the monastery was on
the top of the mountain we know from the subsequent
statement, that he descended the mountain towards
the north-west for about 30 or 40 li to the Masura
Monastery. This place may, I believe, be identified
with the large village of Sura in the Chumla valley,

* Julien's ' Hiouen Thsang,' ii. 136.

62 THE ANCIENT GEOGEA.PHT OF INDIA.

whicli is just 10 miles to the north-west of the
highest peak of Mahdban. If any fort had then ex-
isted on the top of the mountain, it is almost certain
that the pilgrim would have mentioned its name, with
his usual statement of its size, and of any special point
of noteworthiness, such as its inaccessibility, etc.
His total silence I look upon as decisive against the
existence of any fort on the top of Mahaban, whether
occupied or in ruins.

Mr. Loewenthal's objection, based on the opinion
of a high military authority, that the Mahaban hill
" commands nothing," only shows how readily even a
very learned man will accept an utterly false argu-
ment when it tells in his own favour. General Abbott
has noticed this subject in his reply to Mr. Loewenthal;
but some months previous to the publication of his
reply, I had already given a similar refutation to this
objection, both in conversation with different friends
and in writing to Mr. Loewenthal himself. It is ob-
jected that Mahaban "commands nothiug;" I reply
that it commands the very thing that the people of an
invaded country wanted, it commands safety for those
who seek its shelter. It is said to be " so much out
of the way " that none would have sought it as a
place of refuge, and that Alexander would not have
wasted time in its reduction, as it did not impede his
passage to the Indus.* This objection supposes that
Alexander's chief object was the passage of the Indus,
whereas it is clear, both from his previous and subse-
quent career, that his invariable plan was never to
leave an enemy behind him. For this he had given
up the pursuit of Bessus, to conquer Aria, Drangiana,

* Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, 1863, p. 17.

NORTHERN INDIA. 63

and Araohosia; for this lie liad spent two years in
Sogdiana and Baotriana, until the death of Spitamenes
left no enemy remaining ; for this he now turned
aside from the passage of the Indus to subdue the
people who had refused their submission by taking
refuge in Aornos ; and for this he afterwards re-
crossed the Hydraotes to attack Sangala, an isolated
rock, which commanded nothing but the jangal
around it.

Mr. Loewenthal rests his arguments ia favour of
the castle of Eaja Hodi being the Aornos of Alex-
ander, chiefly on the great similarity of the name of
Bandras, and partly on Sir Neville Chamberlain's
opinion " that the hill above Khairabad is not only
a most conspicuous point for friend and foe, but also
one that must be taken before a passage of the Indus
at Attok would be attempted by an invading force."
The first argument has already been disposed of in
my discussion on the name of Aornos. The second
argument takes two things for granted; first, that
Alexander crossed the Indus at Attak, and, therefore,
that he must have reduced the castle of Eaja Hodi
before he attempted the passage of the river ; and
next, that the people of the country had thrown
themselves into Aornos to oppose his passage. The
latter was certainly not the case, as we are told by
Arrian that the people of Bazaria, " distrusting then-
strength, fled out of the city in the dead of night, and
betook themselves to a rock, called Aornos, for safety.*
Here we see clearly that the people of Bazaria were
desirous of avoiding instead of opposing Alexander ;
from which we may infer that Aornos did not com-

* ' Anabasis,' iv. 28.

64 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

mand that passage of the Indus which Alexander had
chosen for his bridge of boats. But as all the ac-
counts agree in placing the scene of Alexander's cam-
paign before crossing the Indus in the country to the
north of the KopJies, or Kabul river, it appears quite
certain that neither Aornos itself nor the bridge of
boats could have been in the neighbourhood of Attak.
For these reasons I conclude that the ruined castle
of Eaja Hodi cannot possibly be identified with the
Aornos of Alexander. Indeed, its name alone seems
sufficient to forbid the identification, as the people are
unanimous in calling it Eaja Hodi-da-garld, or Hodi-
garlu^ an appellation which has not even one syllable
in common with Aornos.

After a careful consideration of all the points that
have been just discussed, I am satisfied that we must
look for Aornos in the direction of the hills some-
where in the north-east comer of the Tusufzai plaia.
It is there that the people still seek for refuge on the
approach of an invader ; it is there only that we can
expect to find a hill fort that will tally even approxi-
mately with the exaggerated descriptions of Alex-
ander's historians, and it is there also that we ought
to look for Aornos, according to the almost unanimous
opinion of all those who have studied the subject.

The accounts of Alexander's historians are often
vague and sometimes conflicting, but we are generally
able to correct or explain the statements of one by
those of the others. Where they agree, we can follow
them with confidence, as it may be presumed that the
original authors from whom they copied were not at
variance. The last is fortunately the case with their
accounts of Alexander's movements shortly before his

NORTHERN INDIA. 65

approach, to Aornos. According to Arrian, imme-
diately after crossing the Gurseus river Alexander
marched straight to Massaffa, the capital of the Assa-
keni, and after its capture he dispatched Koinos
against Bazaria. Curtins calls the river Choes, and
makes Koinos proceed straight to Bazaria, whilst
Alexander advanced against MasagcB. Arrian then
states that as Bazaria still held out, the king deter-
mined to march thither, but hearing that many Indian
soldiers had thrown themselves into Ora, he changed
his plan, and moved against that city, which was
captured at the first assault. According to Curtius,
the siege of Ora was entrusted to Polysperchon, while
the king himself took many small towns, whose inha-
bitants had sought refuge in Aornos. Arrian makes
the people of Bazaria fly to Aornos for safety, but he
agrees with Curtius in stating that the inhabitants of
many of the neighbouring villages followed their ex-
ample. From these accounts it is evident that Aornos
was beyond Bazaria, and from the subsequent narra-
tives of Arrian and Curtius, it is equally clear that Em-
holima was beyond Aornos, and on the Indus, where
Ptolemy has placed it. Taking all these points into
consideration, I believe that Bazaria, Aornos and Em-
bolima may be best identified with Bazar, Bdni-gat and
Oldnd.*

Bazar is a large village situated on the bank of the
Kalpan, or Kdli-pdni river, and quite close to the town
of Rustam, which is built on a very extensive old
mound attributed to the time of the Kafirs or Hindus.

* It would appear also from Arrian, iv. 28, that Aornos was only one
day's march from Bmbolima, which agrees with the distance of Kanigat
from Ohind of 16 miles. See No. IV. Map.

GO THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

According to tradition, this was tlie site of tlie original
town of Bazar. The position is an important one, as
it stands just midway between the Swat and Indus
rivers, and has, therefore, been from time immemorial
the entrepot of trade between the rich valley of Sw^t
and the large towns on the Indus and Kabul rivers.
Indeed, its name of Bazar ^ or "Mart," is sufficient to
show that it has always been a place of consequence.
Judging, therefore, by the importance of the place
alone, I should be induced to select Bazar as the most
probable representative of Bazaria ; but this proba-
bility is turned almost to certainty by its exact corre-
spondence, both in name and in position, with the
ancient town that was besieged by Alexander. This
identification is much strengthened by the proximity
of Mount Dantalok, which is most probably the same
range of hills as the Monies Bcedali of the Greeks. In
the spoken dialects of the present day, as well as in
the ancient Pali, the nasal of the word danta is assimi-
lated with the following letter, which thus becomes
doubled, as in datton, a "tooth brush," or twig used
for cleaning the teeth. Hence the Greek Daidalos is
a very fair rendering of the Pali Dattalok. The Ba-
dalian mountains are mentioned by Justin* as adjoin-
ing the kingdom of Queen Cleofis, or Cleophes, who,
according to Curtius, was the mother (a mistake for
wife) of Assacanus, king of Massaga. I have already
identified the cave of Prince Suddna in Mount Ban-
taloJi, as described by Hwen Thsang, with the great
cave of Kashmiri-Ghdr, which is just eight miles to
the nortli-west of Bazftr. The Bantalok range would,
therefore, have been on the right-hand of the Greeks

* Hist., xii. 7. " Inde montes Dtedalos, regnaque Cleofidis regina;
petit."

NORTHERN INDIA. 67

on their marcli over the hills from Massaga in the
Sw§,t valley to Bazaria. From all these concurring
circumstances, I conclude that B^z^r is almost cer-
tainly the same place as Alexander's Bazaria, and
that Ohind was Embolima, as I have previously en-
deavoured to show.

In proposing the ruined fortress of Bdni-gat as the
most probable representative of the famous Aornos, I
must confess that the identification is incomplete. In
1848, I estimated the perpendicular height of Eanigat
as about one thousand feet above the plain, and Mr.
Loewenthal has since confirmed my estimate. But
this height is so insignificant when compared with the
11 stadia, or 6674 feet of Arrian,* that I should
hesitate to attempt the identification, did I not believe
that the height has been very much exaggerated.
Philostratusf calls it 15 stadia; and Diodorus]: makes
it even greater, or 16 stadia, equivalent to 9708 feet;
but as he gives the circuit of the base at only 100
stadia, or just one-half of that of Arrian, I think it
probable that his height may have been originally in
the same proportion which we may obtain by simply
reading 6 stadia instead of 16, or 3640 feet instead of
9708 feet. It is certain at least that one of the num-
bers of Diodorus must be erroneous, for as a circuit of
100 stadia, or 60,675 feet, would give a base diameter
of 19,200 feet, or just twice the recorded height of
9708 feet, the slope would have been exactly 45°, and
the hill would have terminated in a mere point, instead
of a large platform with arable land, as described by
Arrian. Where the difference between the two au-
thorities is so great, and the exaggeration so apparent,

* ' Anabasis," iy. 28. f Vit. ApoUonii, ii. 10. % Hist., xvii. 44.

68 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OP INDIA.

it is difficult to suggest any possible alteration that
\yould reconcile tlie discrepant measurements, and at
the same time bring tbem within the range of proba-
bility. I believe, however, that we are quite safe
not only in preferring the lesser numbers, but also in
applying the altitude to the slant height instead of to
the perpendicular height. But even with these lesser
measurements, the Indian Aornos would still be twice
the size, and more than twice the height of the famous
rock of Gibraltar, which is 7 miles in circuit at base,
and only 1600 feet in height.

In the similar case of the great fortress of Gwalior,
we find the usually accurate English traveller, WilUam
Finch, describing it as a castle situated on a steep
craggy cliff, " 6 Jcos in circuit, or, as some say, 11 feo*."
As Finch generally adopts the short imperial kos of 1|
mile, his estimate of the circuit of Gwalior will be
9 miles, or nearly twice the actual measurement of 5
miles, while the popular estimate will be nearly four
times greater than the truth. It is possible, however,
to reconcile these different numbers by supposing that
the larger refers to the imperial kos, and the smaller
to the greater kos of Akbar, which is just double the
former. But in this case the estimate of the circuit
of the fort of Gwalior would be from 14 to 15 miles,
or just three times too great. Finch does not mention
the height of Gwalior, but he notes that the "steep
ascent " to the castle of Nanrar was " rather more
than a mile " in length, which is just double the
truth. Here the traveller was led to exaggerate the
height by the mere steepness of the ascent. But in
the case of Aornos, the Greeks had an additional mo-
tive for exaggeration in the natural wish to enhance

NORTHERN INDIA. 69

their own glory. For this reason I would suggest, as
a possible explanation of the discrepancy between the
16 stadia of Diodorus and the 11 stadia of Arrian,
that the original authority of the former may have
quadrupled or trebled the true measurement, while
that of the latter only trebled or doubled it. Under
this explanation the two numbers would become either
4 and 3^ stadia, or 5^ and 5^ stadia, or from 2300 to
3400 feet, which might be accepted as a very pro-
bable measure of the slant height; similarly the
circuit might be reduced to 50 stadia, which are equi-
valent to 5f miles or 30,300 feet, or rather more than
the circuit of the road around the base of the Gwalior
hill. A slant height of 2300 feet, with a base of
1900 feet, would give a perpendicular height of 1250
feet, or an ascent of 2 feet in every 3 feet. I do not
propose this mode of reduction as a probable explana-
tion of the discrepancies in the recorded measure-
ments, but I venture to suggest it only as a possible
means of accounting for the evident exaggeration of
the numbers in both of the authorities.

All the accounts of Aornos agree in describing it as
a rocky hill of great height and steepness. Justin
calls it saxum mircB asperitaiis et altitudinis, " an ex-
ceedingly rugged and lofty rock."* Diodorus, Strabo,
Arrian, Curtius, and Philostratus, all call it petra, or
a " rock fort." Its rocky ruggedness was, therefore,
a special feature of Aornos. According to Arrian, it
was " only accessible by one difficult path, cut out by
hand, and it possessed a fine spring of pure water on
the very summit, besides wood and sufficient arable
soU for the cultivation of one thousand men." The
* Hist., xii. 7.

70 THE ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY OF INDIA.

last expression is still in common use in India, under
tlie form of ploughs of land, and means simply as
much land as one man can plough in a day. The
same thing was expressed by the Greeks and Eomans
by yokes^ each being as much as one yoke of oxen could
plough in a single day. Now the smallest plough of
land would not be less than 100 feet square, or 10,000
square feet, which would give 10,000,000 square feet
for 1000 men. This would show an area of 4000 feet
in length by 2500 feet in breadth, or, making allow-
ance for buildings, of one mile in length by half a mile
in breadth, or 2 miles in length by a quarter of a mile
in breadth, which is just the size of Gwalior. But if
such a vast fortress as Gwalior had ever existed on
the western frontier of India, it would certainly not
have escaped the notice of the early Muhammadan
conquerors, and it could scarcely have eluded the
searching inquiries of General Court and General
Abbott. I, therefore, look upon the thousand ploughs
of land as another gross exaggeration of Alexander's
followers for the sake of ministering to their master's
vanity. I accept the one difficult path of access and
the spring of pure water, as two of the necessary pos-
sessions of a strong military post, but I unhesitatingly
reject the 100 ploughs of arable land, for if such an
extensive tract as half a square mile of irrigable land
had ever existed on the top of a hill in this arid dis-
trict, I cannot believe that such an important and
valuable site ever would have been abandoned.

In searching for a position that will answer the
general description of Aornos, it is unfortunate that
our range is limited to the few points which have been
visited by Europeans. The claims of the Mah^ban

NORTHERN INDIA. 71

hill have already been discussed ; and the only other
possible positions that I know of are the following : —

1. The ruined city of Takht-i-Bahai.

2. The lofty isolated hill of Kdramdr.

3. The hill of Panjpir.

4. The ruined fortress of Hdnigat.

The first of these places stands on an isolated hill,
about halfway between B&z^r and Hashtnagar; Mr.
Loewenthal describes it as a barren hill of no great
height, which forms three sides of a square, with the
open side towards the north-west.* By the trigonome-
trical survey maps, Takht-i-Bahai is only 1859 feet
above the sea, or 650 feet above the Tusufzai plain.
Mr, Loewenthal also describes the ascent as easy; and
as the place is situated not less than 35 miles from
the nearest point of the Indus, I think it may be re-
jected at once as not answering the description of lofty
and difficult access, and as being too far from the pro-
bable position of Embolima. The position of the lofty
isolated hill of Kdramdr^ which is situated 6 miles to
the south of Bizar, and only 18 miles to the north-north-
west of Ohind, added to its height, which is 3480 feet
above the sea, or 2280 feet above the Yusufeai plain,
would give it a most prominent claim to notice if it
possessed any remains of former occupation. But the
Kdramdr hill is a mere bluflf ridge, without ruins and
without a name in the traditions of the people. The
Panjpir hill is a similar but smaller ridge, which rises
to the height of 2140 feet above the sea, or 940 feet
above the Yusufzai plain. It is a mere sharp ridge
crowned with a single building, which is now dedi-
cated to the Panjpir, or five Great Saints of the Mu-

* Journ. Asiat. Soo. Bengal, 1863, p. 2.

72 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OE INDIA.

hammadans, of wliom tlie earliest is Baha-ud-din
Zakariya of Multan, commonly called Balidwal Hakk.
But the Hindus affirm tliat the place was originally-
dedicated to the Panch-Pandu^ or Five Pandu brothers
of the ' Mahahharata.'

The last probable position that I know of is the ruined
fortress of Rdnigat. I visited this place in January,
1848, and I had intended revisiting it during my tour
in 1863, but the war on the Buner frontier most un-
fortunately prevented me from carrying out my inten-
tions. I can,, therefore, add but little to the information
which I collected in 1848; but as that has not been
made public, and as no one but Mr. Loewenthal would
appear to have visited the place since then, my account
will still possess all the advantage of novelty.

Pdniffnt is situated on a lofty hill above the vUlage
of Nogram, which is just 12 miles to the south-east of
Bazar, and 16 miles to the north of Ohind. Its posi-
tion, therefore, is strongly in favour of its identifica-
tion with Aornos. The hill itself is the last point of
one of the long spurs of the Mahaban range. Its base
is rather more than two miles in length from north to
south by about half a mile in width, but the top of the
hill is not more than 1200 feet in length by 800 feet
in breadth. In 1848, I estimated its height at 1000
feet ; but from the unanimous assertions of the people
that it is higher than Panjpir, I think that it is pro-
bably not less than 1200 feet. The sides of the hill
are covered with massive blocks of stone, which make
it exceedingly rugged and inaccessible. There is only
one road, cut in the rock, leading to the top, although
there are two, if not more, rather difficult pathways.
This, wo know, was also the case with Aornos, as

NOETHEEN INDIA. 73

Ptolemy succeeded in reaching tlie top by a "rugged
and dangerous path,* whilst Alexander himself at-
tacked the place by one regular path which was cut
out by the hand.t Hdnigai may be described as con-
sisting of a castle, 500 feet long by 400 feet broad,
surrounded on aU sides except the east, where it
springs up from the low spur of Mah&ban, by a rocky
ridge, which on the north side rises to an equal height.
On all sides the castle rock is scarped ; and on two
sides it is separated from the surrounding ridge by
deep ravines, that to the north being 100 feet deep,
and that to the west from 50 to 150 feet. At the
north-west angle of the castle two dykes have been
thrown across the ravine, which would appear to have
been intended to arrest the flow of water, and thus to
form a great reservoir in the west hollow. In the
north ravine, between the castle and the great isolated
block called 'Rdnigat^ there are three square wells ; and
to the north-east lower down, I thought that I could
trace another dyke, which was most probably only the
remains of part of the outer line of defences. The
entire circuit of this outer line is about 4500 feet, or
somewhat less than a mile.

The castle itself is thus described by Mr. Loewen-
thalj : — " The summit of the hill oflPers a flat plateau
of some size, which had been very strongly fortified by
buildings all round the brow. These buildings are
constructed of large blocks of stone (conglomerate
found on the spot) neatly hewn, and carefully fitted,
disposed with very great regularity, and laid in a
cement of extraordinary excellence. Unavoidable in-

* Arrian, 'Anabasis,' iv. 29. f Ibid., iv. 28.

% Joura. Asiat. Soo. Bengal, 1863, p. 5.

74 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INBIA.

terstices between the large blocks are filled up by
layers of thin small stone tablets, this latter practice
being an invariable feature in all the so-called Kafir
buildings which I have seen in the Trans-Indus
country." To this description I may add that all the
stone blocks are laid most carefully as headers and
stretchers, that is alternately lengthwise and breadth-
wise, which gives a very pleasing and varied appear-
ance to the massive walls. All the buildings are now
much ruined, but the external walls are traceable
nearly all round, and on the south and west sides are
still standing to a considerable height, and in very
good order. The main entrance, which is at the
south-west corner, is formed in the usual ancient man-
ner by overlapping stones. The passage is not per-
pendicular to the face of the wall, but considerably
inclined to the right for a short distance. It then
turns to the left to a small chamber, and then again
to the right till it reaches what must have been an
open courtyard. The whole of this passage was ori-
ginally roofed in by courses of stone with chamfered
ends overlapping each other so as to form the two
sides of a pointed arch, but the ends of the upper
course of stones being left straight, the apex of the
arch has the appearance of a rectangular cusp. This
peculiarity was also noticed by Mr. Loewenthal, who
says that "the arch would be pointed, but the centre
line is taken up by a narrow rectangular groove."
On the west face I observed a smaller passage of a
similar kind, but it was so blocked up with rubbish
that I was quite unable to trace its course.

This central castle or citadel, with its open court-
yard surrounded by costly buildings, I take to have

NORTHERN INDIA. 75

been the palace of the king, with the usual temples
for private worship. At the north end I traced a
wide flight of steps leading down to a second plateau,
which I presume to have been the outer court of the
palace or citadel. The upper courtyard is 270 feet
long and 100 feet broad; and the lower courtyard,
including the steps, is just half the size, or 130 feet
by 100 feet. These open areas were covered with
broken statues of all sizes, and in all positions. Many
of them were figures of Buddha the Teacher, either
seated or standing ; some were of Buddha the Ascetic,
sitting under the holy Pipal tree ; and a few repre-
sented May^, the mother of Buddha, standing under
the stl tree. But there were fragments of other
figures, which apparently were not connected with
religion, such as a life-size male figure in chain
armour, a naked body of a man with the Macedonian
chlami/s, or short cloak, thrown over the shoulders and
.fastened in front in the usual manner, and a human
breast partly covered with the Mamys and adorned
with a necklace of which the clasps are formed by two
human-headed, winged, and four-footed animals, some-
thing like centaurs. All these figures are carved in
a soft, dark-blue clay slate, which is easily worked
with a knife. It is exceedingly brittle, and was there-
fore easily broken by the idol-hating Musalmans. But
as the surface was capable of receiving a good polish,
many of the fragments are still in very fine preserva-
tion. The best piece that I have seen was a head of
Buddha, with the hair massed on the top of the head,
and worked in a peculiar manner in wavy lines, in-
stead of the usual formal curls. It was found at Jamal
Garhi, and is by far the best piece of Indian sciilp-

76 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OP INDIA.

ture that I have seen. The calm repose of the finely-
chiselled features is not unworthy of Grecian art, but
the striking beauty of the face is somewhat marred by
the round projecting Indian chin.

I have already noticed that the ES.nigat hill is
covered on all sides with massive blocks of stone,
which make the approach very rugged and difficult.
Numbers of these stones are of very large size, and
some of those on the top of the hill have been hol-
lowed out to form cells. Mr. Loewenthal notices
this as "one of the most marked features" amongst
these remains. Many of the cells are quite plain inside,
whilst others have the simple ornament of a niche or
two. The most notable of these excavated blocks is
on the ridge to the south of the castle. It is called
Kairi-kor, or the " Grain Merchant's house," by the
people ; but I observed nothing about the rock that
would give any clue to its original purpose, save the
smallness of the entrance, which was certainly better
suited for the cell of a monk than for the shop of a
dealer. Mr. Loewenthal notices that "the vegetation
on the hill is principally olive and myrtle ; " but in
1848 there was a considerable number of good-sized
trees scattered over the summit.

I do not insist upon the identification, but if we
admit that the accounts of the historians are very
much exaggerated, I think that the ruins of E^ni-
gat tally much better with the vague descriptions of
Aornos that have come down to us, than any other
position with which I am acquainted. In all essen-
tial points, save that of size, the agreement is won-
derfully close. Its position between Bazar and Ohind,
or Bazaria and Embolima, is quite unobjectionable.

NORTHERN INDIA. 77

Its attribution to Eaja Vara renders it probable
that the place may have been named after him,
which would give a very near approach to the Aor-
nos of the Greeks. Its great height, its ruggedness,
and difliculty of access, its one path cut in the rock,
its spring of water and level ground, and its deep
ravine separating the outer works from the castle,
are so many close and striking points of resemblance,
that, were it not for the great difference in si^e, I
should be very much disposed to accept the iden-
tification as complete. But though in this point it
does not come up to the boastful descriptions of the
Greeks, yet we must not forget the opinion of Strabo
that the capture of Aornos was exaggerated by Alex-
ander's flatterers. It must also be remembered that
as the campaign against Assakanus took place " during
the winter,"* and the Macedonians entered Taxila "at
the beginning of spring," the siege of Aornos must
have been carried on during the very depth of winter,
when the Mahg,ban hill, 7471 feet above the sea, and
e'very other hill of the same height, is usually covered
with snow. It is almost certain, therefore, that even
the lesser height of 11 stadia, or 6674 feet above the
Yusufzai plain, equivalent to 7874 feet above the sea,
must be grossly exaggerated. In this part of the
country the snow falls annually as low as 4000 feet
above the sea, or 2800 above the Yusufzai plain, and
as no snow is said to have fallen on Aornos, although
the Greeks mention that they saw snow during the
winter, I think that their silence on this point is ab-
solutely conclusive against the recorded height of
Aornos, and therefore also against the claims of Ma-
* Strabo, Geogr., xv. 1, 17.

78 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

haban, and of any other hill exceeding 4000 feet in
height. All the ancient authorities agree in describ-
ing Aornos as a Trerpa, or ' rock,' with rugged and pre-
cipitous sides, and with only a single path cut by
hand. The Mah^ban hill does not, therefore, fulfil
any one condition of the ancient description. It is a
huge mountain of comparatively easy access, and is
more than twice the size of the most exaggerated
estimate of Alexander's flatterers. Its name also has
no resemblance to Aornos ; whilst the traditions of
Eaja Va7-a, attached to Ranigat, would seem to con-
nect that place directly with Aornos.

ParasZ/mvara, or Peskdwar.

The great city now called Peshawar is first men-
tioned by Fa-Hian, in a.d. 400, under the name of
Fo-leu-sha.* It is next noticed by Sung-Yun in a.d.
502, at which time the king of Gandhara was at war
with the king of Kipin, or Kophene, that is Kabul
and Ghazni, and the sun-ounding districts. Sung-Yun
does not name the city, but he calls it the capital, and
his description of its great stupa of king Kia-ni-sse-Jcia,
or Kanishka, is quite sufiicient to establish its iden-
tity.f At the period of Hwen Thsang's visit, in a.d.
630, the royal family had become extinct, and the
kingdom of Gandhara was a dependency of Kapisa or
Kabul. But the capital which Hwen Thsang calls
Pu-hi-.'iha-pii-h, or ParasJimmra, was still a great city
of 40 li, or 6f miles, in extent.j It is next mentioned
by Masudi and Abu Eihan, in the tenth and eleventh

* Deal's translation of ' Fah-Hian,' p. 34.
t Beal's translation of ' Sung-Yun,' p. 202.
X Julien's ' Hiouen Thsang,' ii. 104.

NORTHERN INDIA. 79

centuries, under the name of Parashdwar, and again
by Baber, in the sixteenth century, it is always called
by the same name throughout his commentaries. Its
present name we owe to Akbar, whose fondness for
innovation led him to change the ancient Parashdwar^
of which he did not know the meaning, to Peshdwar^
or the " frontier town." Abul Fazl gives both names.*
The great object of veneration at Parash^war, in
the first centuries of the Christian era, was the beg-
ging pot of "Buddha, which has already been noticed.
Another famous site was the holy Pipal tree, at 8 or
9 /f, or \\ mile, to the south-east of the city. The
tree was about 100 feet in height, with wide spread-
ing branches, which, according to the tradition, had
formerly given shade to Sakya Buddha when he pre-
dicted the future appearance of the great king Ka-
nishka. The tree is not noticed by Fa-Hian, but it
is mentioned by Sun- Yung as the Vho-tJd, or Bodhi
tree, whose " branches spread out on all sides, and
whose foliage shuts out the sight of the sky." Beneath
it there were four seated statues of the four previous
Buddhas. Sung-Yun further states that the tree was
planted by Kanishka over the spot where he had
buried a copper vase containing the pearl tissue lattice
of the great stupa, which he was afraid might be ab-
stracted from the tope after his death. This same
tree would appear to have been seen by the Emperor
Baber in a.d. 1505, who describes it as the "stu-
pendous tree " of Begr^m, which he " immediately
rode out to see."f It must then have been not less
than 1500 years old, and as it is not mentioned in

* ' Ayin Akbari,' ii. 341.

t ' Memoirs, translated by Leyden and Erskine,' p. 157.

THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OE INDIA.

A.D. 1594 by Abul Fazl,* in Ms account of the Gor-
Katri at Peshawar, I conclude that it had previously
disappeared through simple old age and decay.

The enormous stupa of Kanishka, which stood close
to the holy tree on its south side, is described by all
the pilgrims. In a.d. 500 Fa-Hian says that it was
about 400 feet high, and " adorned with all manner of
precious things," and that fame reported it as supe-
rior to all other topes in India. One hundred years
later, Sung-Yun declares that "amongst the topes of
western countries this is the first." Lastly, in a.d.
630, Hwen Thsang describes it as upwards of 400
feet in height and 1\ li, or just one quarter of a mile,
in circumference. It contained a large quantity of
the relics of Buddha. No remains of this great stupa
now exist.

To the west of the dupa there was an old monastery,
also built by Kanishka, which had become celebrated
amongst the Buddhists through the fame of Arya-
Pdrsioika, Manorhita, and Vasu-bandhu^ three of the
great leaders and teachers of Buddhism about the be-
ginning of the Christian era. The towers and pavi-
lions of the monastery were two stories in height, but
the building was already much ruined at the time of
Ilwen Thsang's visit. It was, however, inhabited by
a small number of monks, who professed the " Lesser
Yehicle " or exoteric doctrines of Buddhism. It was
still flourishing as a place of Buddhist education in
the ninth or tenth centuryj- when Vira Deva of Ma-
gadha was sent to the " great Vihara of Kanishka
where the best of teachers were to be found, and which
was famous for the quietism of its frequenters," I be-

* ' Ayin Akbari,' ii. 165. t Jour. As. Soc. Bengal, 1849, i. 494.

NOETHERN INDIA. 81

lieve that this great monastery was still existing in
the times of Baber and Akbar under the name of Gor-
Katri^ or the Baniya's house.

The former says, " I had heard of the fame of
Gurh-Katri, which is one of the holy places of the
Jogis of the Hindus, who come from great distances
to cut off their hair and shave their beards at this
Gurh-Katri.^'' Abul Fazl's account is still more brief.
Speaking of Peshawur he says, "here is a temple,
called Gor-Katri, a place of religious resort, particu-
larly for Jogis." According to Erskine, the grand
caravansara of Peshawur was built on the site of the
Gor-Katri.

7. UDYANA, OE SWAT.

On leaving Utakhanda Hwen Thsang travelled about
600 //, or iOO miles, towards the north, to U-chanff-na^
or Udydna, which was situated on the river 8u-po-fa-
su-tu, the Subhavastu and Suvastu of Sanskrit, the
Suastus of Arrian, and the Swdi or 8udt river of the
present day. It is called U-chang by the earlier pil-
grims Fa-Hian and Sung-yun, which is a close tran-
script of Ujjdna, the Pali form of Udyana. The
country is described as highly irrigated, and very
fertile. This agrees with all the native accounts, ac-
cording to which Swat is second only to the far-famed
valley of Kashmir. Hwen Thsang makes it 5000 li, or
833 miles, in circuit, which must be very near the
truth, if, as was most probably the case, it included
all the tributaries of the Sw^t river. TJdydna would
thus have embraced the four modern districts of Panj-
kora, Bij^war, Sw§,t, and Bunir, which have a circuit
of only 500 miles, if measured on the map direct, but

82 THE ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY OF INDIA.

of not less than 800 miles by road measurement. Fa-
Hian mentions Su-Jio-to as a small district to the south
of Udy^na. This has generally been identified with
the name of Sw^t ; but from its position to the south
of TJdyana, and to the north of Parashawar, it cannot
have been the large valley of the Swat river itself,
but must have been limited to the smaller valley of
Bunir. This is confirmed by the legend told by Fa-
Hian of the hawk and pigeon ; in which Buddha, to
save the pigeon, tears his own flesh and ofi'ers it to
the hawk. The very same legend is related by Hwen
Thsang, but he places the scene at the north-west
foot of the Mahdban mountain, that is, in the actual
valley of Bunir. He adds that Buddha was then a
king, named 8hi-pi-kia, or Sivika, which may, perhaps,
be the true form of Fa-Hian's Suhoto.

The capital of TJdyana was called Mung-Me-li^ or
Mangala^ which is probably the Mangora of Wilford's
surveyor, Mogal Beg, and the Manglora of General
Court's map. It was 16 or 17 //, about 2f miles, in
circuit, and very populous. At 250 or 260 li, about
42 miles, to the north-east of the capital the pilgrim
reached the source of the Suhhavastu river, in the
fountain of the Naga king Apaldla ; and at 750 li, or
125 miles, further in the same direction, after crossing
a mountain range and ascending the Indus, he arrived
at Tha-li-lo, or Bdrel, which had been the ancient
capital of Udyana. Ddrel is a valley on the right or
western bank of the Indus, now occupied by Bdrdiis,
or Ddrdx, from whom it received its name. It is
called To-li by Fa-Hian, who makes it a separate
kingdom. The Dards are now usually divided into
three separate tribes, according to the dialects which

NORTHERN INDIA. 83

they speak. Those who use the Arniya dialect occxipy
the north-western districts of Yasan and Chitrdl ; those
who speak the Khajunah dialect occupy the north-east
districts of Hunza and Nager ; and those who speak
the Shina dialect occupy the valleys of Gilgit, ChilS,s,
Darel, Kohli, and Palas, along the banks of the Indus.
In this district there was a celebrated wooden statue
of the future Buddha Maitreya, which is mentioned
by both of the pilgrims. According to Fa-Hian it
was erected 300 years after the Nirvana of Buddha,
or about B.C. 243, that is, in the reign of Asoka, when
the Buddhist religion was actively disseminated over
India by missionaries. Hwen Thsang describes the
statue as 100 feet in height, and states that it was
erected by Madliydntiha.* The name and the date
mutually support each other, as Madhydntika, or Maj-
jhima in Pali, was the name of the Buddhist teacher,
who, after the assembly of the Third Synod in Asoka's
reign, was sent to spread the Buddhist jEaith iu Kash-
mir and the whole Himavanta country.-)- This is most
probably the period alluded to by Hwen Thsang when
Ddrel was the capital of UdyS,na.

8. BOLOR, OR BALTI.

From Darel Hwen Thsang travelled 500 A', or 83
mil«s, over a mountain range, and up the valley of
the Indus to Po-lu-lo, or Bolor. This district was
4000 li, or 666 miles, in circuit; its greatest length
being from east to west. It was surrounded by snowy
mountains, and produced a large quantity of gold.
This account of the route, compared with the bearing

* Julien's ' Hiouen Thsang,' ii. 168. But he fixes the date at only 50

years after Buddha, for which we should most probably read 250 years.

t Tumour's ' Mahawanso,' p. 71 ; see also my ' BLilsa Topes,' p. 120.

84 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

and distance, show that Po-lu-lo must be the modern
Balii, or Little Tibet, which is undoubtedly correct,
as the people of the neighbouring D^rdu districts on
the Indus know Balti onlj' by the name of Palolo*
Balti also is still famous for its gold washings. The
name, too, is an old one, as Ptolemy calls the people
BiiXrai,^ or Byltm. Lastly, both in size and position
Balti corresponds exactly with the account of the
Chinese pilgrim, as the length of the province is along
the course of the Indus from east to west for 150
miles, and the breadth about 80 miles from the moun-
tains of Deoseh to the Karakoram range, or altogether
460 miles in circuit, as measured direct on the map,
or about 600 miles by road measurement.

9. FALIXA, OR BANU.

The name of Fa-la-na is mentioned only by Hwen
Thsang, who places the coimtry to the south-east of
Ghazni, and at fifteen days' journey to the south of
Lamghan.t It was 4000 //, or 666 miles, in circuit,
and was chiefly composed of mountains and forests.
It was subject to Kapisene, and the language of the
people had a slight resemblance to that of Central
India. Prom the bearing and distance, there is no
doubt that Banii was the district visited by Hwen
Thsang, from which it may be inferred that its ori-
ginal name was Varana, or Barna. This is confirmed
by Fa-Hian, who calls the country by the shorter
Yoruacular name of Po-na, or Bona, which he reached
in thii'teen days from IS'agarahara in going towards the
south. Pona also is said to be three days' journey
to the west of the Indus, which completes the proof
of its identity with Banu, or the lower half of the

* 'HioiienThsang.'ii. 150; andmy'Ladak.'p. 31. f H. Tli., i. 265.

NORTHERN INDIA. 85

valley of the Kuram river. In the time of Fa-Hian
the kingdom of Banu was limited to this small tract,
as he makes the upper part of the Kuram valley a
separate district, called Lo-i, or Boh.* But in the
time of Hwen Thsang, when it had a circuit of more
than 600 miles, its boundaries must have included
the whole of the two large valleys of the Kuram and
Gomal rivers, extending from the Safed Koh, or
" Little Snowy Mountains " of Fa-Hian, to Sivastan
on the south, and from the frontiers of Ghazni and
Kandahar on the west to the Indus on the east.

I think it not improbable that the full name of this
district, Falana or Barana, may have some connection
with that of the great division of the Ghilji tribe
named Burdn, as the upper valleys of both the
Kuram and Gomal rivers, between Ghazni and the
Sulimani mountains, are now occupied by the nume-
rous clans of the Sulimani Khel, or eldest branch of
the Burgins. Iryub, the elder son of Buran, and the
father of Suliman, is said to have given his name to
the district of Haryuh or Irydb, which is the upper
valley of the Kuram river.

M. Vivien de St. Martin"]' identifies Falana with
Vdneh, or Wanneh, of Elphinstone. :]: But Vdtia, or
Wdna, as the Afghans call it, is only a petty little
tract with a small population, whereas Banu is one of
the largest, richest, and most populous districts to the
west of the Indus. Yana lies to the south-south-east,
and Banu to the east-south-east of Ghazni, so that
either of them will tally very well with the south-east
direction noted by Hwen Thsang ; but V^na is from

* Seal's Translation, c. 14, p. 50. t ' Hiouen Thsang,' appendice iii.
X Elphinstone 's ' Kabul,' ii. 156, 158.

86 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

20 to 25 days' journey to the south of Lamghan, while
Banu is just 15 days' journey as noted hy the pilgrim.
As Fa-Hian's notice of Banu dates as high as the
beginning of the fifth century, I think that it may he
identified with the Banagara of Ptolemy, which he
places in the extreme north of Indo-Scythia, and to
the south-south-east of Nagara^ or Jalalab&d. A
second town in the same direction, which he names
Andrapana, is probably Drdhand or Berdband, near
Dera Ismail Khan.

Hwen Thsang mentions a district on the western
frontier of Palana, named Ki-kiang-na, the position of
which has not yet been fixed. M. Vivien de St.
Martin and Sir H. Elliot have identified it with the
KaiJcdndn, or KiJcdn, of the Arab historians of Sindh ;*
but unfortunately the position of Kaikdndn itself is
still undetermined. It is, however, described as lying
to the north or north-east of Eachh Gandava, and as
Kikiangna was to the west of Falana or Banu, it appears
probable that the district intended must be somewhere
in the vicinity of PisJiin and Kwetta ; and as Hwen
Thsang describes it as situated in a valley under a
high mountain, I am inclined to identify it with the
valley of Pishin itself, which lies between the Khoja
Amran hills on the north, and the lofty Mount Takatu
on the south. This position agrees with that of Kai-
Icdn, Jjitj given by Biladuri,t who says that it
formed part of Sindh in the direction of Khorasan.
This is further confirmed by the statement that Kai-
Icdn was on the road from Multan to Kabul, as the
usual route between these places lies over the Sakhi

* ' Hiouen Thsang,' iii. 185 ; Dowson's edition of Sir H. Elliot's
' Muhammadan Historians,' i. 381.

! Eeinaud's 'Fragments Arabes, etc.,' p. 184.

NOETHERN INDIA. 87

Sarwar Pass in tlie Sulimani mountains, and across
the PisWn valley to Kandahar. A shorter, but more
difficult, route is by the valley of the Gomal river
to Ghazni. But as the valley of the Gomal belonged
to Falana, it follows that the district of KiUangna
must have been somewhere in the neighbourhood of
Pisltin; and as this valley is now inhabited by the
tribe of Khakas, it is not improbable that the name of
Kikdn, or Kaikdn, may have been derived from them.

10. OPOKIEN, OR AFGHANISTAN?

0-po-kien is mentioned only once by Hwen Thsang
in a brief paragraph, which places it between Falana
and Ghazni, to the north-west of the former, and to
the south-east of the latter. From this description it
would appear to be the same as the Lo-i of Fa-Hian,
and the Boh of the Indian historians. Perhaps the
name of Opohlen may have some connection with Vorgun
or Verghin^ which Wilford's surveyor, Mogal Beg,
places near the source of the Tunchi, or Tochi branch
of the Kuram river. In the map attached to Burnes's
Travels by Arrowsmith the name is written Borghoon.
I am, however, inclined to identify Opokien, or Avakan,
as it is rendered by M. Julien, with the name of Af-
ghan, as I find that the Chinese syllable Men represents
ghan in the word Ghanta. From the cursory notice
of the district by Hwen Thsang, I infer that it must
have formed part of the province of Falana. It was
certainly a part of the mountainous district called
Boh by Abul Fazl and Ferishta,* or south-eastern
Afghanistan, which would appear to have been one
of the original seats of the Afghan people. Major
* Briggs's ' Ferishta,' i, p. 8.

88 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

Eaverty* describes Eoli as " the mountainous district
of Afghanistan and part of Bilnchistan," or "the
country between Ghazni and Kandahar and the
Indus." The people of this province are called Ro-
hilas, or Eohila Afghans, to distinguish them from
other Afghans, such as the Ghori Afghans of Ghor
between Balkh and Merv. There is, however, a slight
chronological difficulty about this identification, as
the Afghans of Khilij, Ghor, and Kabul are stated by
Ferishta to have subdued the province of Eoh so late
as A.H. 63, or a.d. 682, that is about thirty years later
than the period of Hwen Thsang's visit. But I
think that there are good grounds for doubting the
accuracy of this statement, as Hwen Thsang describes
the language of Falana as having but little resem-
blance to that of Central India. The inhabitants of
Eoh could not, therefore, have been Indians; and if
not Indians, they must almost certainly have been
Afghans. Ferishtaf begins his account by saying
that the Muhammadan Afghans of the mountains
"invaded and laid waste the inhabited countries, such
as Kirman, Shivaran, and Peshawar;" and that seve-
ral battles took place between the Indians and Afghans
" on a plain between Kirman and Peshawar." The
Kirman here mentioned is not the great province of Ku-
man, or Karmania, on the shore of the Indian Ocean,
but the Kirman, or Kirmdsh, of Timur's historians,
which is the valley of the Kui-am river. The dif-
ficulty may be explained if we limit the part of Kir-
mfm that was invaded to the lower valley, or plains
of the Kuram river, and extend the limits of the
Afghan country beyond Ghazni and Kabul, so as to

* Puslitu Dictionary, in voce. f Briggs's Translation, i. 7.

NOETHEEN INDIA. 89

embrace the upper valley, or mountain region of tlie
Kuram river. Politically the ruler of Peshawar has
always been the ruler of Kohat and Banu, and the
ruler of Kabul has been the lord of the upper Kuram
valley. This latter district is now called Khost ; but
it is the Irydb of Timur's historians, and of Wilford's
surveyor, Mogul Beg, and the Haryub of Elphinstone.
Now the Sulimda-K/iel of the Burdn division of the
Ghiljis number about three-fourths of the whole horde.
I infer, therefore, that the original seat of the Ghiljis
must have included the upper valleys of the Kuram
and Gomal rivers on the east, with Ghazni and Kelat-
i-Ghilji on the west. Haryub would thus have formed
part of the Afghan district of Khilij, or Ghilji, from
which the southern territories of Peshawar were easily
accessible.

But whether this explanation of Ferishta's state-
ment be correct or not, I feel almost certain that Hwen
Thsang's 0-po-kien must be intended for Afghan. Its
exact equivalent would be Jvaffhan, which is the
nearest transcript of Afghan that the Chinese syllables
are capable of making. If this rendering is correct,
it is the earliest mention of the Afghans that I am
aware of under that name.

II. Kingdom of KLishmir.

In the seventh century, according to the Chinese
pilgrim, the kingdom of Kashmir comprised not only
the valley of Kashmir itself, but also the whole of the
hilly country between the Indus and the Chenab to
the foot of the Salt range in the south. The different
states visited by Hwen Thsang were TJrasa^ to the
west of Kashmir ; J'axila and Sinhajjura, to the south-

90 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

■west; and Punach and Eajaori to the soutli. The
other hill-states to the east and south-east are not
mentioned; but there is good reason for believing
that they also were tributary, and that the dominions
of Kashmir in the seventh century extended from the
Indus to the Eavi. The petty independent state of
Kullu, in the upper valley of the Bias river, was saved
by its remoteness and inaccessibility ; and the rich
state of Jdlandhar, on the lower Bias, was then sub-
ject to Harsha Vardhana, the great king of Kanoj. But
towards the end of the ninth century the Kangra valley
was conquered by Sankara Yarmma, and the sovereign
power of Kashmir was extended over the whole of the
Alpine Panjab from the Indus to the Satlej.*

Hwen Thsang describes Kashmir as surrounded on
all sides by lofty mountains, which is a correct de-
scription of the valley itself ; but when he goes on to
say that its circuit is 7000 li, or 1166 miles, he must
refer to the extended kingdom of Kashmir, and not
to the valley, which is only 300 miles in circuit.
But the extent of its political boundary, from the
Indus on the north to the Salt range on the soutli,
and from the Indus on the west to the Eavi on the
east, cannot be estimated at less than 900 miles, and
may very probably have reached the amount stated
by the pilgrim.

1. XASHMIE.

H^ven Thsang entered the valley of Kashmir from
the west in September, a.d. 631. At the entrance
there was a stone gate, where he was met by the
younger brother of the king's mother ; and after pay-

* ' Eaja Taracgini,' v. 144.

NORTHERN INDIA. 91

ing his devotions at the sacred monuments, he went
to lodge for the night in the monastery of Hu-se-kia-lo,
or Hushkara.* This place is mentioned by Abu
Eihan,! who makes Ushkara the same as Bardmula,
which occupied both sides of the river. In the ' Eaja
Tarangini 'J also Hushhapura is said to be near Vardha,
or Vardhamula, which is the Sanskrit form of Bard-
mula. Hushkara or Uskar stiU exists as a village on
the left or eastern bank of the Behat, two miles to the
south-east of Baramula. The Kashmiri Brahmans say
that this is the Hushkapura of the ' Eaja Tarangini,'
which was founded by the Turushka king Hushka,
about the beginning of the Christian era.

According to the chronology of the ' Eaja Tarangini,'
the king of Kashmir in A.n. 631 was Pratapaditya ;
but the mention of his maternal uncle§ shows that
there must be some error in the native history, as
that king's father came to the throne in right of his
wife, who had no brother. Pratapaditya's accession
must, therefore, have taken place after Hwen Thsang's
departure from Kashmir in a.d. 633, which makes an
error of three years in the received chronology. But
a much greater difference is shown in the reigns of
his sons Chandrapida and Muktapida, who applied to
the Chiaese emperor for aid against the Arabs. || The
date of the first application is a.d. 713, while, accord-
ing to the native chronology, Chandrapida reigned
from A.D. 680 to 688, which shows an error of not
less than twenty-five years. But as the Chinese
annals also record that about a.d. 720 the emperor
granted the title of king to Chandrapida, he must

* ' Hiouen Thsang,' i. 90. \ Eeinaud, ' Fragments Arabes,' p. 116.
+ B. Tii. 1310 and 1313. § ' Hiouen Thsang,' ii. 90.

II Kemusat, ' Nouveaux Melanges Asiatiques,' i. 197.

THE ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY OF INDIA.

have been living as late as the previous year a.d. 719,
which makes the error in the Kashmirian chronology
amount to exactly thirty-one years. By applying this
correction to the dates of his predecessors, the reign
of his grandfather, Durlahha, will extend from a.b.
625 to 661. He, therefore, must have been the kirig
who was reigning at the time of Hwen Thsang's
arrival in Kashmir in a.d. 631. Durlabha, who was
the son-in-law of his predecessor, is said to have been
the son of a Niiga, or Dragon ; and the dynasty which
he founded is called the Nuga or KarJcota dynasty.
By this appellation I understand that his family was
given to ophiolatry, or serpent-worship, which had
been the prevailing religion of Kashmir from time im-
memorial. Hwen Thsang designates this race as Ki-
li-to^ which Professor Lassen and M. Stanislas Julien
render by Kriiya and Kritiya. They were extremely
hostile to the Buddhists, who had frequently deprived
them of power, and abolished their rights ; on which
account, says the pilgrim, the king, who was then
reigning, had but little faith in Buddha, and cared
only for heretics and temples of the Brahmanical gods.
This statement is confirmed by the native chronicle,
which records that the queen, Ananga-Iekha, built a
Vihdra, or Buddhist monastery, named after herself,
Anangahhavana ; while the king built a temple to
Vishnu, called after himself, Burlahha-sivdmina* I
infer from this that the queen still adhered to the
Buddhist faith of her family, and that the king was,
in reality, a Brahmanist, although he may have pro-
fessed a lukewarm attachment to Buddhism.

The people of Kashmir are described as good look-

* ' Raja Tarangiui,' iy. 3 aud 5.

NORTHERN INDIA. 93

ing, easy and fickle in manner, effeminate and cowardly
in disposition, and naturally prone to artifice and
deceit. This character they still bear; and to it I
may add that they are the dirtiest and most immoral
race in India. Hwen Thsang states that the neigh-
bouring kings held the base Kashmiris in such scorn
that they refused all alliance with them, and gave
them the name of Ki-li-to or Krityas, which would
appear to be a term of contempt applied to evil-minded
and mischievous persons, as enemies, traitors, assas-
sins, etc. The term which 1 have heard used is Kh^-
Mlechchhas, or the " Barbarian Kiras," and "Wilson
gives Kira as a name of the valley of Kashmir, and
Kiruh as the name of the people.

In the seventh century the capital of the country
was on the eastern bank of the river, and about 10 li,
or less than 2 miles, to the north-west of the ancient
capital. Abu Eihan* calls the capital Adishtdn, which
is the Sanskrit JdMsthdna, or "chief town." This is
the present city of Srinagar, which was built by Raja
Pravarasena about the beginning of the sixth century,
and was, therefore, a new place at the time of Hwen
Thsang's visit. The "old capital" I have abeady
identified with an old site, 2 miles to the south-east
of the Takht-i-Suliman, called Pundrethdn, which is
the corrupt Ka'shmirian form of Purdnddhisthdna, or
"the old chief city." Pdn is the usual Kashmiri
term for " old," as in Pdn Drds, or "old Dras," to
distinguish it from the new village of Dras, which is
lower down the river, t Near the old capital there

* Eeinaud, ' Fragments Arabes, eto.,' p. 116.

t Wilson altered this spelling to Payin Dras, wliioh in Persian
signifies " Lower Dras," in spite of the fact that PiU Drds is higher
up the river.

94 THE AXCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

was a famous stupa, which, in a.d. 631 enshrined a
tooth of Buddha; hut before Hwen Thsang's return
to the Panjab in a.d. 643 the sacred tooth had been
given up by the Eaja to Harsha Varddhana, the power-
ful king of Kanoj, who made his demand at the head
of an army on the frontier of Kashmir.* As Eaja
Durlabha was a Brahmanist, the sacrifice of the Bud-
dhist tooth was a real gain to his religion.

From the earliest times Kashmir has been divided
into the two large districts of Kamrdj and Meraj\ the
former being the northern half of the valley, below
the junction of the Sindh river with the Behat, and
the latter the southern half above that junction. The
smaller divisions it is unnecessary to mention. But
I may note the curious anomaly which a change of
religious belief has produced in the use of two of the
most distinctive Hindu terms. By the Hindu who
Avorships the sun, the cardinal points are named with
reference to the east, as para, the " front," or the
" east," to which he turns in his daily morning wor-
ship ; apara, "behind," or the "west;" vama, the
"left" hand, or the "north;" and dakshim, the
"right" hand, or the "south." By the Muhamma-
dan, who turns his face to the west, towards Mecca,

these terms are exactly reversed, and dachin, which
still means the " right " hand in Kashmiri, is now
used to denote the "north," and kdwar, or the "left"
hand to denote the "south." Thus, on the Lidar
riA'cr there is the subdivision of Dachinpdra to the
north of the stream, and Kmoarpdra to the south of
it. On the Behat river also, below Barahmula, the
subdivision of Dachin lies to the north, and that of

* Compare ' Hiouen Thsaiig,' ii. 180 with i. 251.

NOETHERN INDIA. 95

Kdwar to the south of the stream. This change in
the meaning of Dachin from " south " to " north "
must have taken place before the time of Akbar, as
Abul Fazl* describes Z>acAm/iffm as " situated at the
foot of a mountain, on the side of Great Tibet," that
is to the north of the river Lidar.

The principal ancient cities of Kashmir are the old
capital of Srinagari, the new capital called Pravarasena-
pura ; Khdgendra-pura and Khunamusha, built before
the time of Asoka; Vijipdra and Pdntasok^ which are
referred to Asoka himself ; Surapura, a restoration of
the ancient Kdmhuva ; Kanishkapura, Hushkapura,
and Jushkapura, named after the three Indo-Scythian
Princes by whom they were founded ; Parihdsapura,
built by Lalitaditya ; Padmapura, named after Padma,
the minister of Eaja Vrihaspati ; and Avantipura,
named after Haja Avanti Yarmma.

Srinagari, the old capital of Kashmir prior to the
erection of Pravarasenapura, is stated to have been
founded by the great Asoka, f who reigned from e.g.
263 to 226. It stood on the site of the present Pdn-
drethdn, and is said to have extended along the bank
of the river from the foot of the TakJd-i-Sulimdn to
Pdntasok, a distance of more than three miles. The
oldest temple in Kashmir, on the top of the Takht-i-
Suliman, is identified by the unanimous consent of all
the Brahmans of the valley with the temple of Jyeshta
Budra, which was built by Jaloka, the son of Asoka,
in Srinagari.;]: This identification is based on the fact
that the hill was originally called Jyesldeswara. The
old bridge abutments at the village of Pantasok are

* ' Ayin Akbari,' ii. 130. J ' Eaja Tarangini,' i. 124.

t 'Kaja Tarangini,' i. 101.

96 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

also attributed to Asoka ; and the other ruins at the
same place are said to be the remains of the tAvo Jsok-
eswara temples which are noted in the native chronicle
of Kashmir. Srinagari was still the capital of the
valley in the reign of Pravarasena I., towards the end
of the fifth century, when the King erected a famous
symbol of the god Siva, named after himself Pravares-
loara. This city still existed in a.d. 631, when the
Chinese pilgrim arrived in Kashmir, although it was
no longer the capital of the valley. He speaks of the
capital of his time as the " new city," and states that
the " old city " was situated to the south-east of it, at
a distance of ten li^ or nearly two miles, and to the
south of a high mountain. This account describes the
relative positions of Pandrethan and the present
capital with the lofty hill of Takht-i-Suliman so
exactly, that there can be no hesitation in accepting
them as the representatives of the ancient places. The
old city was still inhabited between a.d. 913 and 921,
when Meru, the minister of Eaja Partha, erected in
Purunadhisthdna, that is in the " old capital," a temple
named after himself Meru- Varddha7ia-sivdmi. This
building I have identified with the existing temple of
Pandrethan, as Kallian Pandit relates* that, when Eaja
Abhimanyu set fire to his capital, all the noble build-
ings "from the temple of Varddliana iSwdmi, as far as
BhikshuJcipdraka''^ (or the asylum of mendicants) were
destroyed. I attribute the escape of the limestone
temple to its fortunate situation in the midst of a tank
of water. To this catastrophe I would assign the final
desertion of the old capital, as the humble dwellings of
the people could not possibly have escaped the destruc-

* See my ' Temples of Kashmir,' p. 41; and ' Eaja Tarangini.'.vi. 191.

NOETHEEN INDIA. 97

tive fire which consumed all the " noble edifices " of
the city.

Pravarasenapura, or the new capital, was built by
Eaja Pravarasena II. in the beginning of the sixth
century. Its site, as already noted, was that cif the
present capital of Srinagar. This is determined beyond
all possibility of doubt by the very clear and distinct
data furnished by the Chinese pilgrim Hwen Thsang,
and by the Hindu historian Kalhan Pandit. The
statements of the first have already been quoted in
my account of the old capital ; but I may add that
Hwen Thsang resided for two whole years in Kash-
mir, in the Jayendra Vihdra^* or Buddhist monastery,
built by Jayendra, the maternal uncle of Pravarasena.
The Hindu author describes the city as situated at the
confluence of two rivers, and with a hill in the midst
of it. This is an exact description of the present
Srinagar, in the midst of which stands the hill of Hari
Parbat, and through which flows the river Hara, or
Ara, to join the Behat at the northern end of the
city.f

The question now arises, how did the new city of
Prmarasenapura lose its own name, and assume that
of the old city of Srinagari ? I think that this diffi-
culty may perhaps be explained by the simple fact
that the two cities were actually contiguous, and, as
they existed together side by side for upwards of five
centuries, the old name, as in the case of Delhi, would
naturally have remained in common use with the
people, in preference to the new name, as the

* ' Hiouen Thsang,' i. 96.

t ' Moorcroft's Travels,' ii. 276. I speak also from personal know-
ledge, as I have twice visited Kashmir.

08 THE ANCIEXT GEOGEA.PHY OP IXDIA.

cnstomnr}' designation of the capital. The old name
of Dcllii is exactly a case in point. There, new city
after new city was built by successive kings, each
with the distinctive name of its founder ; but as they
were all in the immediate vicinity of Delhi itself, the
old familiar name still clung to the capital, and each
new appellation eventually became absorbed in the
one general name of "Delhi." In the same way I
believe that the old familiar name of Srinagar eventually
swamped the name of the new city of Pravarasenapura.

The names of Khdr/ipura and Kfiunamusha are referred
by Kalhan Pandit* to Eaja Khagendra^ who, as the
sixth predecessor of Asoka, must have reigned about
400 B.C. Wilson and Troyer have identified these
two places with the Kdkajnir and Gauinoha of Muham-
madan wiiters. The first is certain, as Kdkapur still
exists on the left bank of the Behat, at 10 miles to
the south of the Takht-i-Suliman, and 5 miles to
the south of Pampur. But the identification of Gau-
moha, wherever that may be, is undoubtedly wrong, as
Khunamusha is now represented by the large village of
Khunamoh, which is situated under the hills at 4 miles
to the north-east of Pampur.

The old town of Bij Bidra, or Vijipdra, is situated
on both banks of the Behat, at 25 miles to the south-
east of the capital. The original name was Vijnya-
pdra, so called altci' the ancient temple of Vijagesa,
which still exists, although its floor is 14 feet below
the present level of the surrounding ground. This
difference of level shows the accumulation of ruins
since the date of its foundation. The people refer its
erection to Asoka, B.C. 250, who is stated by Kalhan

* 'Eaja Tarangini,' i. 90.

NORTHERN INDIA. 99

Pandit* to have pulled down the old brick temple of
Vijayesa^ and to have rebuilt it of stone. This is ap-
parently the same temple that is mentioned in the
reign of Arya Eaja, some centuries after Christ, t

Snrapura^ the modern Supur or Sopur, is situated
on both banks of the Behat, immediately to the west
of the Great "Wular Lake. It was originally called
Kumbuva, and under this name it is mentioned in the
chronicles of Kashmir as early as the beginning of the
fifth century. J It was rebuilt by Sura, the minister
of Avanti Yarmma, between a.d. 854 and 883, after
whom it was called SArapura. From its favourable
position at the outlet of the Wular Lake, I think it
probable that it is one of the oldest places in Kashmir.

Kanishkapura was built by the Indo-Scythian prince
Kanishka,§ just before the beginning of the Christian
era. In the spoken dialects of India it is called
Kanikhpur, which in Kashmir has been still further
corrupted to Kdmpur. It is situated 10 miles to the
south of Srinagar, on the high-road leading to the Pir
Panchal Pass. It is a small village with a sarai for
travellers, and is now generally known as Kdvipur
Sarai. In the large map of Kashmir by Captain
Montgomerie the name is erroneously given as
Khanpoor.

Hushkapura, which was founded by the Indo-
Scythian prince Hushka, or Huvishka, the brother of
Kanishka, would appear to have been the same place
as the well-known Vardhamula, or Bardhmula, on the
Behat. Abu Eihan|| calls it " UsJikar, which is the

* 'Eaja Tarangini,' i. 105. t Hid., ii. 123. % Ibid., iii. 237.
§ Ibid., i. 168. || Reinaud, 'Fragments Arabes, etc.,' p. 116.

100 THE ANCIENT GEOGEAPIIY OE INDIA.

town of Banmula, built on botli banks of the river."
It is noted under tbe same name by the Chinese pil-
grim Hwen Thsang, who entered the valley from the
west by a stone gate, and halted at the monastery of
Ilii.se.kia-io, or Hushkara. The name of Bardhmula
has now eclipsed the more ancient appellation, which,
however, still exists in the village of Uskara, 2
miles to the south-east of the present town, and im-
mediately under the hills. The place has been visited,
at my request, by the Eev. G. W. Cowie, who found
there a Buddhist stupa still intact. This is probably
the same monument that is recorded to have been
erected by Eaja Lalitaditya* between a.d. 723 and
760. It is again mentioned in the native chronicle|
as the residence of the Queen Sugandha in a.d. 913.
From all these notices, it is certain that the town still
bore its original name down to the beginning of the
eleventh century, when Abu Eihan mentions both
names. But after this time the name of Vardhamula
alone is found in the native chronicles, in which it
is mentioned during the reigns of Harsha and Sussala,
early in the twelfth century. I think it probable
that the main portion of the town of Hushkapiira
was on the left, or south bank of the river, and that
Yarahamula was originally a small suburb on the
right bank. On the decline of Buddhism, when the
monastic establishment at Hushkapura was abandoned,
the old town also must have been partially deserted,
and most probably it continued to decrease until it
was supplanted by the Brahmanical suburb of Yara-
hamula.

Jushkopura was founded by the Indo- Scythian prince

* ' Eaja Tavangini,' iv. 188. \ Ibid., v. 258.

NORTHEEN INDIA. 101

Jushka, a brother of Kanishka and Huslika. The
Brahmans of Kashmir identify the place with Zuhru,
or Zukur, which is still a considerable village, 4 miles
to the north of the capital. This is evidently the
" SchecroJi^ ville assez considerable," which Troyer and
"Wilson* have identified with Hushkapura. I visited
the place in November, 1847, but the only traces of
antiquity that I could discover were a considerable
number of stone pillars and mouldings of the style of
architecture peculiar to Kashmir, all of which had
been trimmed and adapted to Muhammadan tombs
and Masjids. Parihdsapura was built by the great
Eaja Lalitaditya,f who reigned from a.d. 723 to
760. It was situated on the right, or eastern bank of
the Behat, near the present village of Sumbal. There
are still many traces of walls and broken stones on
the neighbouring mounds, which show that a city
must once have existed on this spot ; but the only
considerable remains are a bridge which spans tlio
Behat, and a canal which leads direct towards Supur,
to avoid the tedious passage by the river through the
Wular Lake. As Pari/idsripura is not mentioned
again in the native chronicle, it must have been neg-
lected very soon after its founder's death. His own
grandson, Jayapida, built a new capital named Jaya-
pura, in the midst of a lake, with a citadel, which he
named Sri-dtodravati, but which the people always
called the " Inner Fort."! The position of this j)lace
is not known, but I believe that it stood on the left
bank of the Behat, immediately opposite to Parihdsa-
pura, where a village named Jnfar-kof^ or the " Inner

* 'Eaja Tarangini,' i. 370; Asiat. Kes. xv. 23.

t ' Eaja Tarangini,' iv. 194 % Ibid., iv. 505, 510.

102 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

Fort," exists to this day. The final destruction of
this city is attributed by the people to Sangkara
Varmma, who reigned from a.d. 883 to 901. He is
said to have removed the stones to his own new city
of Sangharapura^ which still exists as PaiJian, 7 miles
to the south-west of the Sumbal bridge. The great
temple at Parikisa was destroyed by the bigoted Si-
kandar, who reigned from 1389 to 1413, a.d. Of this
temple a curious story is told by the Muhammadan
historians. Speaking of Pdrispur, Abul Fazl* says,
"here stood a lofty idolatrous temple which was
destroyed by Sikandar. In the ruins was found a
plate of copper with an inscription in the Indian lan-
guage purporting that after the expiration of 1100
years the temple would be destroyed by a person
named Sikandar." The same story is told by Ferishta,-]"
with the addition of the name of the Eaja, whom the
translator calls Balnat, which is probably a mistake
for Laldil, the usual contracted form of Lalitaditya
among the Kashmiris. As the difference of time
between this prince and Sikandar is barely 700 years,
it is strange that the tradition should preserve a date
which is so much at variance with the chronology of
their own native chronicles.

Padmapura, now called Pdinpur, was founded by
Padma, the minister of Raja Yrihaspati, who reigned
from A.D. 832 to 844. i}: It is situated on the right
bank of the Behat, 8 miles to the south-east of the
capital, and about midway on the road to Avautipura.
The place is still Avell inhabited, and its fields of
saffron are the most productive in the whole valley.

* ' Ayin Akbari," ii. 135. f Briggs's ' Ferishta,' iv. 465.

X ' Eaja Tarangini,' iv. 69-1.

NOETHEEJf INDIA. 103

Avaniipura was founded by Eaja Avanii-Varmma*
who reigned from a.d. 854 to 833. It is situated on
the right bank of the Behat, 17 miles to the south-
east of the present capital. There is now only a small
village called Wafitipur ; but the remains of two mag-
nificent temples, and the traces of walls on all sides,
show that it must have been once an extensive city.
The name of No-naff ar, or the " New Town," which is
now attached to the high tract of alluvial table-land
on the opposite side of the river, is universally al-
lowed by the people to refer to Avantipura itself, which
is said to have occupied both banks of the river ori-
ginally.

2. UEASA.

Between Taxila and Kashmir Hwen Thsang places
the district of U-la-shi, or Urasa, which, from its po-
sition, may at once be identified with the Varsa Begio of
Ptolemy, and with the modern district oiBa-sh^ in Dhan-
tawar, to the west of MuzafarabS,d. It is mentioned
in the native chronicle of Kashmirf as a mountainous
district in the vicinity of the valley, where Eaja Sani/-
kara Varmma received his death wound in a.d. 901.
It corresponds exactly with the Pakhali of Abul Fazl,
which included all the hilly country between the
Indus and Kashmir, as far south as the boundary of
Attak. At the present day the principal towns of the
district are Manser a^ in the north-east; Noshahra^ in
the middle ; and Kishangarh^ or Haripur^ in the south-
west. In Hwen Thsang's time the capital is said to
have been either 300 or 500 U, that is, 50 or 83 miles,
distant from Taxila. This difference in the distance

* 'Eaja Tarangini,' v. 44. t Ibid., t. 216.

104 THE ANCIENT GKOGEAPHY OF INDIA.

makes it impossible to identify tlie actual position of
the capital in the seventh century ; but it seems pro-
bable that it must have been at Mdngali, which is said
by the people to have been the ancient capital of the
district. This place stands midway between Noshahra
and Mansera, and about 50 miles to the north-east of
Taxila.

According to Hwen Thsang, Urasa was 2000 li, or
333 miles, in circuit, which is probably correct, as its
length from the source of the Kunihar river to the
Gandgarh mountain is not less than 100 miles, and its
breadth from the Indus to the Behat, or Jhelam, is 55
miles in its narrowest part. Its distance from Kash-
mir is stated at 1000 li, or 167 miles, which would
place the capital somewhere in the neighbourhood of
Noshahra, and within a few miles of Mangala, which
was the ancient capital according to the traditions of
the people.

3. TAXILA, OR TAKSHASILA.

The position of the celebrated city of Taxila has
hitherto remained unknown, partly owing to the erro-
neous distance recorded by Pliny, and partly to the
want of information regarding the vast ruins Avhich
still exist in the vicinity of Shah-dheri. All the copies
of Pliny agree in stating that Taxila Avas only 60
Eoman, or 55 English, miles from Peucola'itis, or
Hashtnagar, which would fix its site somewhere on
the Haro river, to the west of Hasan Abdal, or just
two days' march from the Indus. But the itineraries
of the Chinese pilgrims agree in placing it at three
days' journey to the east of the Indus,* or in the im-

* 'Fa-Iiian,' c. xi., Beal's translation, makes it seven days' journey
from Peshawar, that is, four days to (he Indus plus three days to Taxila-

runnuigKojii del"*

A. Ciintuii^i^jTi del*

NORTHERN INDIA. 105

mediate neighbourhood of Kala-ka-sarai, which was
the third halting-place of the Mogul emperors, and
which is still the third stage from the Indus, both for
troops and baggage. Now as Hwen Thsang, on his
return to China, was accompanied by laden elephants,
his three days' journey from Takhshasila to the Indus
at Utakhanda, or Ohind, must necessarily have been of
the same length as those of modern days, and, conse-
quently, the site of the city must be looked for some-
where in the neighbourhood of Kdla-Jca-sardi. This
site is found near Shah-dheri, just one mile to the
north-east of K^la-ka-sarai, in the extensive ruins of a
fortified city, around which I was able to trace no less
than 55 stupas, of which two are as large as the great
Manikyala tope, twenty-eight monasteries, and nine
temples. Now the distance from Shah-dheri to Ohind
is 36 miles, and from Ohind to Hashtnagar is 38
more, or altogether 74 miles, which is 19 in excess of
the distance recorded by Pliny between Taxila and
Peukelaotis. To reconcile these discrepant numbers
I would suggest that Pliny's 60 miles, or LX., should
be read as 80 miles, or LXXX., which are equivalent
to 73^ English miles, or within half a mile of the actual
distance between the two places.

The classical writers are unanimous in their ac-
counts of the size and wealth of Taxila. Arrian de-
scribes it as "a large and wealthy city, and the most
populous between the Indus and Hydaspes."* Strabo
also declares it to be a large city, and adds, that the

Sung-yun (Beal's translation, p. 200) places it three days to the east
of the Indus. Hiouen Thsang makes it three days' journey to the
south-east of the Indus (Julien's translation, i. 263). See Maps Nos.
IV., v., and VI. for the position of Shah-dheri or Taxila.
* ' Anabasis,' v. 8 : ttoKiv fxiyaXrjv Koi ivhaifiova.

106 THE AjS'CIENT GEOGEAPHY OF INDIA.

neighbouring country was " crowded with, inhabitants,
and very fertile."* Pliny calls it "a famous city, si-
tuated on a low but level plain, in a district called
AmandaP^ These accounts agree exactly with the
position and size of the ancient city near Shah-dheri,
the ruins of which are spread over several square miles.

About fifty years after Alexander's visit, tlie people
of Taxila rebelled against Bindmdra, king of Magadha,
Avho sent his eldest son Susima to besiege the place.
On his failure, the siege was entrusted to his younger
son, the celebrated Asoka ; but the people came out
2^ yojanas^ or 17|- miles, to meet the young prince
and ofi'er their su.bTi!ission.J At the time of Asoka's
accession the wealth of Taxila is said to have amounted
to 36 hotis^ or 360 millions of some unnamed coin,
which, even if it A\'as the sih^er tmigha^ or sixpence,
would have amounted to nine karors of rupees, or
£9,000,000. It is probable, however, that the coin
intended by the Indian writer was a gold one, in
which case the wealth of this city would have
amounted to about 90 or 100 millions of pounds. I
quote this statement as a proof of the great reputed
wealth of Taxila within fifty years after Alexander's
expedition. It was here that Asoka himself had re-
sided as Yiceroy of the Panjab during his father's
lifetime ; and here also resided his own son Kundla,
or the "fine-ejred," who is the hero of a very curious
Buddhist legend, which will be described hereafter.

Just before the end of the third century b.c. the

* Geojrr. XT. i. 17 ; xv. i. 2S.

t Hist. Nat., vi. 23. " Taxillaj, cum urbe pclcbri, jam in plana de-
misso tractu, cui univcrso nomen Amaudaj.

X Burnouf, 'latroduction a I'llistoire du Buddlusme IndicD,'p. 361.

NORTHERN INDIA. 107

descendants of the Maurya kings must have come in
contact with the Bactrian Greeks under Demetrius,
the son of Enthydemus, and in the early part of the
following century Taxila must have formed part of
the Indian dominions of Eilkratides. In 126 B.C. it
was wrested from the Greeks by the Indo-Scythian
Sus or J&ars, with whom it remained for about three-
quarters of a century, when it was conquered by the
later Indo-Scythians of the Kuslidn tribe, under the
great Kanishka. During this period Parshawar would
appear to have been the capital of the Indo-Scythian
dominions, while Taxila was governed by satraps.
Several coins and inscriptions of these local governors
have been found at Shah-dheri and Manikyala. Of
these the most interesting is the copper plate obtained
by Mr. Eoberts, containing the name of Takhasila, the
Pali form of Tahnhasila^ from which the Greeks ob-
tained their Taxila.*

During the reign of the Parthian Bardanes, a.d. 42
to 45, Taxila was visited by ApoUonius of Tyana and
his companion, the Assyrian Damis, whose narrative
of the journey Philostratus professes to have followed
in his life of Apollonius. His account is manifestly
exaggerated in many particulars regarding the acts
and sayings of the philosopher, but the descriptions of
places seem to be generally moderate and truthful. If
they were not found in the narrative of .Damis, they
must have been taken fi-om the journals of some of
Alexander's followers; and in either case they are
valuable, as they supply many little points of in-

* See translation by Professor J. Dowson in Journ. Koyal Asiat.
See, XX. 221 ; see also notes on the same inscription by the author,
Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, 1863, p. 139.

108 THE AXCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF IINDIA.

formation that are wanting in the regular histories.
According to Philostratus, Taxila was "not unlike
the ancient Ninus^ and was walled in the manner of
other Greek towns."* For Niniis, or Nineveh^ we must
read Babylon, as we have no description of the great
Assyrian city, which was destroyed nearly two cen-
turies before the time of Herodotus. Now we know
from Curtius that it was the " symmetry as well as the
antiquity " of Babylon that struck Alexander and all
who beheld it for the first time.f I conclude, there-
fore, that Taxila must have reminded the Greeks of
Babylon by its symmetry^ as Philostratus goes on to
say, that the city was " divided into narrow streets
with great regularity." He mentions also a temple
of the sun, which stood outside the walls, and a palace
in which the usurper was besieged. He speaks also
of a garden, one stadium in length, with a tank in
the midst, which was filled by " cool and refreshing
streams." All these points will be noticed in a sejia-
rate work when I come to describe the existing ruins
of this ancient city.

"We now lose sight of Taxila until a.d. 400, when it
was visited by the Chinese pilgrim Fa- Hi an ^ who
calls it Cfiu-sJta-^Jii-lo^ or the "severed head;" and
adds, that " Buddha bestowed his head in alms at
this place, and hence they gave this name to the
country.:}: The ti'anslation shows that the original
Sanskrit name must have been Cliuiyasira^ or the
"fallen head," which is a synonym of Taksha-slra, or
the "severed head," the usual name by which Taxila was

* Vita Apolloti., ii. 20.

t Vita Alex., v, 1 : " Puk'liriludo no vetiistMs."

1 Deal's Translation, e. xi.

NORTHERN INDIA. 109

known to the Buddhists of India. In a.d. 502, " the
place where Buddha made an alms-gift of his head "
was visited by Sung-yim, who describes it asbeing three
days' journey to the east of the river Sin-tu, or Indus.*
We now come to Hwen Thsang, the last and best
of the Chinese pilgrims, who first visited Ta-cha-shi-lo^
or TaJcshasila, in a.d. 630, and again in ad. 643, on
his return to China. He describes the city as about
10 li, or If mile, in circuit. The royal family was
extinct, and the province, which had previously been
subject to Kapisa, was then a dependency of Kashmir.
The land, irrigated by numbers of springs and water-
courses, was famous for its fertility. The monasteries
were numerous, but mostly in ruins ; and there were
only a few monks who studied the Mahdydnu^ or eso-
teric doctrines of Buddhism. At 12 or 13 li^ or 2
miles, to the north of the city there was a stupa of
King Asoka, built on the spot where Buddha in a
former existence had made an alms-gift of his head ;
or, as some said, of one thousand heads in as many
previous existences. This was one of the four great
stupas that were famous all over north-west India ;f
and accordingly on his return journey Hwen Thsang
specially notes that he had paid his adorations, for the
second time, to the "stupa of the alms-gift of one
thousand heads.J The present name of the district is
Chach-Hazdra, which I take to be a corruption of
Sirsha-sahasra, or the "thousand heads." In the
Taxila copper-plate of the Satrap Liako Kujuluka, the
name is written Chhahara-Chukhsa^ which appears

* Seal's Translation, p. 200.

t ' Fak-Hian,' (Seal's translation) e. xi.

J Julien's ' Hiouen Thsang,' i. 262.

110 THE ANCIENX GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

to me to be only another form of the same appella-
tion.

From these accounts of the Chinese pilgrims, we see
that Taxila was specially interesting to all Buddhists
as the legendary scene of one of Buddha's most meri-
torious acts of alms -giving, when he bestowed his
head in charity. The origin of this legend I think
may be certainly traced to the name, which as Takslia-
sila means simply the "cut rock;" but with a slight
alteration, as Taksha-sira means the " severed head."
Jut ex re nomen, aut ex vocabulo fahula* either the
name sprang from the legend, or the legend was in-
vented to account for the name." In this case we
may be almost certain that the latter was the process,
as the Greeks have preserved the spelling of the ori-
ginal name before Buddhism had covered the land
with its endless legends of Sakya's meritorious acts in
previous births. It is nowhere stated to whom Bud-
dha presented his head, but I believe that it was of-
fered to the hungry tiger whose seven cubs were saved
from starvation by a similar offering of his blood.\ I
am led to this belief by the fact that the land imme-
diately to the north of the ruined city is still called Ba-
har Khctna, or the " Tiger's House," a name which is as
old as the time of Mahmud, as Abu Eihan speaks of
Baharkdn as being halfway between the Indus and
the Jhelam,:{: a description which is equally applicable
to the Baljarkhana of the ancient Taxila. The name is
a Turki one, and is, therefore, probably as old as the

* Pomponius Mela, iii. 7.

t Sung-yun inentions that the liead was offered " for the sake of a
man ;" that is, Buddha offered his own life to save that of another man.
(Seal's translation, p. 200.)

X Eeinaud's ' Fragments Arabes, etc.,' p. 116.

NORTHERN IXDTA. Ill

time of Kanishka. From the continued cxistonfie of
this name, I infer that, in the immediate neighbour-
hood of the great stupa of the "head-gift," there was
most probably a temple enshrining a group in which
Buddha was represented offering his head to the tiger.
This temple the Turks would naturally have called
the Babar-KJiuna^ or " Tigers'-house ;" and as Taxila
itself decayed, the name of the temple would gradually
have superseded that of the city. The remembrance
of this particular act of Buddha's extreme charity is,
I believe, preserved in the name of Mdrgala, or the
"beheaded," which is applied to the range of hills
lying only two miles to the south of Shah-dheri. Mdr-
gala means literally "decollated," from gala-mdrna^
which is the idiomatic expression for " cutting the
neck," or beheading.

The ruins of the ancient city near Shah-dheri, which
I propose to identify with Taxila, ar« scattered over a
wide space extending about 3 miles from north to
south, and 2 miles from east to west. The remains of
many stupas and monasteries extend for several miles
further on all sides, but the actual ruins of the city
are confined within the limits above-mentioned. These
ruins consist of several distinct portions, which are
called by separate names even in the present day.*
The general direction of these different works is from
south-south-west to north- north-east, in which order
I will describe them. Beginning at the south, their
names are : —

1. Bir or Fher.

2. Ilatidl.

3. Sir-Kap-ka-kot.
* See Map No. IV.

112 THE ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY OF INDIA.

4. KacJia-kot.

5. Babar Khdna.

6. Sir-Suk-ka-kot.

Tlie most ancient part of these ruins, according to
the belief of the people, is the great mound on which
stands the small village of Bir or Pher. The mound
itself is 4000 feet in length from north to south, and
2600 feet in breadth, with a circuit of 10,800 feet, o-
rather more than two miles. On the west side towa^ ,1
the rock-seated village of Shah-dheri, the Bir m .';. a
has an elevation of from 15 to 25 above the fie^ ' jOsb
by ; but as the ground continues to slo- > ivards
Shah-dlieri, the general elevation is no+ 1; ■ ^nan from
25 to 35 feet. On the east side, 'iii ^diately above
the Tabrd, or Tamrd Nala^ it t' j:0 feet above the
fields, and G8 feet above thr of the stream. The

remains of the walls c ■■^ traced only in a few
places both on the ea^ , .d west sides ; but the whole
surface is covered 1 broken stones and fragments
of bricks and po j. Here the old coins are found
in greater nm. .s than in any other part of the
ruins ; and here, also, a single man collected for me,
in about two hours, a double handful of bits of lapis
lazuli, which are not to be seen elsewhere. Judging
from the size of the place, I take it to be the site of
the inhabited part of the city in the time of Havbu
Thsaijg, Avho describes it as being only 10 li, or If mile,
in circuit. This conclusion is confirmed by the posi-
tion of the great ruined stupa in the midst of the Bahar-
khdna land, which is 8000 feet north-north-east from
the near end of the Bir mound, and 10,000 feet, or
just 2 miles, from the main entrance to the middle of

NORTHERN INDIA. 113

the old city. As Hwen Tlisang describes the position
of the stupa of the " Head Gift " as being 12 or 13 li,
or rather more than 2 miles, to the north of the city,*
I think that there can be little doubt that the city of
his time was situated on the mound of Bir. I traced
the remains of three small topes on the north and east
sides of the mound, all of which had been opened pre-
viously by the villagers, who, however, stoutly denied
the fact, and attributed the explorations to General
Abbott and Major Pearse.

liatidl is a strong fortified position on the west end
of a spur of the Mdrgala range, and immediately to
the north-east of the Bir mound, from which it is
separated by the Tabrd Nala. About half a mile from
Bir the spur is divided into two nearly parallel ridges,
about 1500 feet apart, which run almost clue west to
the bank of the Tabra, where they are joined by a
high earthen rampart. The clear space thus enclosed
is not more than 2000 feet by 1000 feet, but thcAvhole
circuit of the defences, along the hill-ridges and the
artificial ramparts, is about 8100 feet, or upwards of
1^ mile. At the east end the two parallel ridges
are joined by stone walls, 15 feet 4 inches thick, with
square towers at intervals, all of which are still in
very good order. The crest of the south or main ridge
is 291 feet above the general level of the fields, but
the north ridge has an elevation of only 163 feet.
Between these two there is a small rocky ridge, 206
feet in height, crowned by a large bastion or tower,
which the people look upon as a stupa or tope. Thei-e
is a similar tower on the crest of the north ridge,
which I Avas induced to excavate by the report of a

* Julien's ' Hiouen Tlisang,' ii. 153.

114 THE AiS^CIEXT OEOGKAPHY OF IXDIA.

villager named iV?«-, who informed me tliat he had
found a copper coin at each of the four corners of the
basement, which he considered as a certain sign that
the building was a tope. I knew also that it was the
custom in Barma to erect a stupa in each of the corner
bastions of their square fortified cities. But my ex-
cavation, which was carried down to the bare rock, a
depth of 26 feet, showed only regular courses of large
rough blocks, which were extracted with much diffi-
culty. Close to the west of this tower I traced the
remains of a large enclosure, 163 feet long by 151-|^
feet broad, divided into rooms on all four sides, from
which I at first thought that the building was a mo-
nastery. But the subsequent discovery of a large
quantity of burnt clay pellets of a size well adapted
for slingers led me to the conclusion that the i^lace
was most probably only a guard-house for soldiers.
The two ridges fall rapidly t(_)wards the west for about
1200 feet, till they meet the general slope of the inter-
vening ground, and at these points are the two gateways
of the fort, the one being due north of the other. The
north ridge then rises again, and running to the west-
south-west for 2000 feet, terminates in a square-topped
mound, 130 feet high. This part of the ridge is en-
tirely covered with the remains of buildings, and near
its cast end the villager Nm- discovered some copper
coins in a ruined tope. Of the name of Ilaiial 1 could
obtain no information whatever ; but it is probably old,
as I think it may possibly be identified with llattidr-
Lcuilc^ Avhich Abul Fazl places in the Sindh-Sagar
Doab. The spelling of the name would refer it to
Tlatti, a shop, and Hatti-dla would then be the market-
place or bazaar. But the liatidl fort is so evidently

NORTHERN INDIA. 115

the stronghold or citadel of this ancient place that I
look upon this derivation as very doubtful.

The fortified city of Sir -hap is situated on a large
level mound immediately at the north foot of Ilatial,
of which it really forms a part, as its walls are joined to
those of the citadel. It is half a mile in length from
north to south, with a breadth of 2000 feet at the
south end, but of only 1400 feet at the north end.
The circuit of Sirkap is 8300 feet, or upwards of 1^
mile. The walls, which are built entirely of squared
stone, are 14 feet 9 inches thick, with square towers
of 30 feet face, separated by curtains of 140 feet. The
east and north walls are straight, but the line of west
wall is broken by a deep recess. There are two large
gaps in each of these walls, all of which are said to be
the sites of the ancient gates. One of these in the
north face is undoubted, as it lies due north of the
two gateways of the Hatidl citadel, and due south of
the three ruined mounds in the Babar-Mdna. A
second in the east face is equally undoubted, as parts
of the walls of the gateway still remain, with j)ortions
of paved roadway leading directly up to it. A third
opening in the west face, immediately opposite the
last, is almost equally certain, as all the old founda-
tions inside the city are carefully laid out at right
angles due north and south. The position of Sirkap
is naturally very strong, as it is well defended on all
sides, — by the lofty citadel of Hatial on the south, by
the Tahrd Nala on the west, and by the Gau Nala on
the east and north sides. The entire circuit of the
walls of the two places is 14,200 feet, or nearly 2f
miles.

KacJia-lcot, or the " mud fort," lies to the north of

I 2

1 1 G THE ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY OF INDIA.

Sirkap, in a strong isolated position formed by the
doubling round of the Tabra Nala below the junction
of the Gau Nala, which together surround the place
on all sides except the east. The ramparts of Kacha-
kot, as the name imports, are formed entirely of earth,
and rise to a height of from 30 to 50 feet above the
stream. On the east side there are no traces of any
defences, and inside there are no traces of any build-
ings. It is difficult therefore to say for what j)urpose
it was intended ; but as the Gau Nala runs through
it, I think it probable that Kacha-kot was meant as a
place of safety for elephants and other cattle during a
time of siege. It is 6700 feet, or upwards of Ij mile
in circuit. The people usually called it Kot, and this
name is also apj^lied to Sir-kap, but "\^'hcn they "flish
to distinguish it from the latter they call it Kaclia-hot.
Now this name is found both in Baber's ' Memoirs,' and
in the 'Ay in Akbari.' In the former the Haro river
is called the river of Kacha-kot, which therefore must
have been some large place near the banks of that
stream, but I suspect that it ought rather to be looked
for near Hasan Abdal, or even lower down.

Bahar Khcina is the name of the tract of land lying
between the Lundi Nala on the north and the Tabra
and Gau ISTalas on the south. It includes Kacha-kot,
and extends about one mile on each side of it to the
cast and Avcst, embracing the great mound of Srri-ki-
Pind on the north-west, and the Gangu group of topes
and other ruins on the east. In the very middle of this
tract, where the Lundi and Tabra Nalas approach one
another within one thousand feet, stands a lofty mound,
45 feet in height, called Jhandidla Plnd^ after a small
hamlet close by. To the west of the Plnd^ or mound.

NORTHERN INDIA. 117

there is another mass of ruins of greater breadth, but
only 29 feet in height, which is evidently the remains
of a large monastery. It is remarkable that the road
which runs through the two gateways of the Ilatidl
citadel, and through the north gateway of Sirkap,
passes in a direct line due north between these two
mounds until it meets the ruins of a large stupa, on
the bank of the Lundi river, 1200 feet beyond the
Jhandiala Find. This last I believe to be the famous
"Headgift Stupa'''' which was said to have been
erected by Asoka in the third century before Christ. I
have already alluded to its position as answering al-
most exactly to that described by Hwen Thsang ; and
I may now add as a confirmation of this opinion that
the main road of the city of Taxila was laid in a direct
line running due north upon the Jhandiala stupa, a
fact which proves incontestably the very high estima-
tion in which this particular monument must have
been held. This is further confirmed by the vicinity
of another mound, 3600 feet to the north-west, called
Seri-ki-pind, or Siri-ki-pind, which would appear to
refer directly to the " Head Gift," as the Sirshd-ddnam,
or Sir-ddn of Buddha. Taking all these points into
consideration, I think that there are very strong
grounds for identifying the great ruined tope of
Babar-khdna with the famous stupa of the " Head
Gift " of Buddha.

The large fortified enclosure called Sir-Suk is situ-
ated at the north-east corner of the Babar-khana,
beyond the Lundi Nala. In shape it is very nearly
square, the north and south sides being each 4500
feet in length, the west side 3300 feet, and the east
side 3000 feet. The whole circuit, therefore, is 15,300

118 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

feet, or nearly 3 miles. The south face, which is pro-
tected by the Lundi Nala, is similar in its construc-
tion to the defences of Sir-hap. The walls are built
of squared stones, smoothed on the outer face only,
and are 18 feet thick, with square towers at intervals
of 120 feet. The towers of this face have been very
carefully built with splayed foundations, all the stones
being nicely bevelled to form a smooth slope. The
tower at the south-east corner, which is the highest
part now standing, is 10 feet above the interior
ground, and 25 feet above the low ground on the
bank of the stream. Towards the west end, where
the stones have been removed, the south wall is not
more than 2 or 3 feet in height, about the interior
ground. Of the east and west faces, about one- half
of the walls can still be traced, but of the north face
there is but little left except some mounds at the two
corners. Inside there are three villages named Mir-
pur, Tupkia, and Find, with a large ruined mound,
called Pindora, Avhich is COO square feet at base. To the
south of Pindora, and close to the village of Tupkia,
there is a K/iaii(/dk, or shrine of a Muhammadan saint,
on a small mound. An this is built of squared stones,
I presume that the Ivhangrdi represents the positidu of
a stupa or tope which must have given its name to the
village of Tupkia, and that the great Pindora mound
is the remains of a very large monastery. I found
two massive channelled stones, or spouts, which, from
from their size, could only have been used for convey-
ing the rain-A\'ater from a courtyard to the outside of
the walls. At half a mile to the AA'cst there is an
outer line of high earthen mounds running due north
and south for upwards of 2000 feet, when it bends to

NORTHERN INDIA. ] 1 9

the east-north-east. Beyond this the line is only
traceable by a broad belt of broken stones, extending
for 3500 feet, when it tnrns to the south-east for
about 1200 feet and joins the north face of Sir-Suk.
These external lines would appear to be the remains
of a large outwork which once rested its north-west
angle on the Lundi Nala. The entire circuit of Sir-
Suk and its outwork is about 20,300 feet, or nearly
5 miles.

I have now described all the different parts of this
great city, the ruins of which, covering an area of six
square miles, are more extensive, more interesting, and
in much better preservation than those of any other
ancient place in the Panjab. The city of Sirkap, with
its citadel of Ilatidl, and its detached works of £ir
and Kac/ia-/cot, has a circuit of 4f miles ; and the large
fort of Sir-Suk^ with its outwork, is of the same size,
each of them being nearly as large as Shah Jahan's
imperial city of Delhi. But the number and size of
the stupas, monasteries, and other religious buildings
are even more wonderful than the great extent of the
city. Here both coins and antiquities are found in far
greater numbers than in any other place between the
Indus and Jhelam. This then must be the site of
Taxila, which, according to the unanimous testimony
of ancient writers, was the largest city between the
Indus and Hydaspes. Strabo and Hwen Thsang both
speak of the fertility of its lands, and the latter spe-
cially notices the numbers of its springs and water-
courses. As this description is applicable only to the
rich lands lying to the north of the Tabr^ Nala, which
are amply irrigated by numerous channels drawn from
the Haro river, the proof of my identification is com-

120 THE ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY OF INDIA.

plete. Burnes crossed this tract in 1832, wlien he
encamped at Usman Khatar, 3 miles to the north of
Shah-dheri, and about 1 mile to the south of the Haro
river. He describes the village as standing " on a
plain at the mouth of a valley close to the base of the
outlying hills."* This agrees most exactly with the
accounts of Strabo and Pliny, who describe Taxila as
situated in a level country where the hills unite with
the plains. Of Usman, Burnes goes ou to say that
"its meadows are watered by the most beautiful and
crystal rivulets that flow from the mountains." In
the first part of this statement he is quite correct ; but
in the latter part he is undoubtedly wrong, as every
rill of water that passes through Usman is drawn by
artificial means from the Haro river. Two miles to
the south, towards the ruins of the old city, the irri-
gation is carried on by cuts from the Lundi Nala, but
as the main body of water in this stream is artificially
obtained from the Haro, the whole of the ii-rigation
may be truly said to be derived from that river.

The district of Taxila is described by Hwen Thsang
as being 200 //, or 333 miles, in circuit. It was
bounded by the Indus on tbe west, by the district of
Urasa on the north, by the Jhelam or Behat river on
the east, and by the district of Sinhapura on the south.
As the capital of the last was in the Salt range of
mountains, either at or near Ketus, the boundary of
Taxila on that side was most probably defined by the
Suhan river to the south-west, and by the Bakrala
range of hills to the south-east. Accepting these
limits as nearly correct, the frontier lines of the Indus
and Jhelam A\'ill be respectively 80 miles and 50 miles

* ' TraTcls,' ii. 01.

NOETHEEN INDIA.

121

in length, and those of the northern and southern
boundaries 60 and 120 miles, or, all together, 310
miles, which accords very nearly with the measurement
given by Hwen Thsang.

Mdnikydla.

The great stupa or Buddhist monument of Mani-
kyala, was first made Imown by the journey of El-
phinstone,* and has since been explored by Generals
Ventura and Court. The name is said to have been
derived from Eaja Mdn^ or Mdnik,-\ who erected the
great stupa. This tradition is probably correct, as I
discovered a coin and relic deposit of the Satrap Jiho-
niya, or Zeionises, the son of Manigal^ in a small tope
to the east of the village. The old town, which is
usually called Mdnikpur^ or Mdniknagar^ is the scene
of the curious legend of Easalu, who expelled the
HdksJiasas, or Demons, and delivered the people from
the tyranny of Sir-knp, the " decapitator," and his
brothers.

The name of Manikyala is not mentioned by any
of the Chinese pilgrims, although every one of them
has described the situation of the place. Fa-Hian
merely states that at two days' journey to the east of
Taxila is the spot where Buddha " gave his body to
feed a starving tiger."| But S;ing-yun fixes the scene

* ' Cabul,' i. 106. Stupa is the Sanskrit term for a mound or bar-
row, either of masonry or of earth ; see Colebroke, ' Amara Eosha,' in
voce. The Pali form is Tlmpo ; see Turnour ' Mahawanso,' and also
Thupa, or Tliuva, in the early Arian inscriptions from the Punjab.
The term now used is Tliup for a tolerably perfect building, and Thwpi
for a ruined mound. It is, therefore, very much to be regretted that wo
should have adopted the word Tope, which preserves neither the spell-
ing nor the pronunciation of the native word.

t Moorcroft, 'Travels,' ii. 311.

X Seal's translation of ' Fa-Hian,' c. xi. p. 32.

122 THE ANCIJiNT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

of this exploit at eiglit da3's' journey to the soutli-east
of the capital of Gandhara,* which is a very exact
description of the bearing and distance of Manikyala,
either from Peshawar or from Hashtnagar. Lastly,
Hwen Thsang places the site of the " Body- 6ffering "
at 200 li, or nearly 34 miles, to the south-east of
Taxila,f which are the exact bearing and distance of
Manikyala from Shah-dheri ; but his statement that
he crossed the Sin-tit, or Indus, is a simple mistake
for the SuJuiii or SMh river, which flows between the
two places. J

The great stupa of the "Body-offering" I have
identified with the monument that was opened by
General Court, § which, according to the inscription
found inside, was built in the year 20, during the
reign of the great Indo-Scythian prince Kanishka,
shortly before the beginning of the Christian era.
Manikyala was, therefore, one of the most famous
places in the Panjab at a veiy early period ; but I
think that it must have been the site of a number of
large religious establishments rather than that of a
great city. General Abbott, when he examined the
ruins around the Manikyala tope in 1853, could "not
see any evidence of the existence of a city. The area
occupied by submergt-d ruins A^'ould not ha\-c com-
prised a very considerable village, while the compara-
tively large number of wrought stones denotes some
costly structure which might have occupied the entire
site. "II In 1834, General Court described "the ruins

* Seal's translation of ' Sung-yun," p. 193.

t J alien's ' Hiouen Tbsanf!;,' ii. 164.

X See Maps Nos. V. and VI..

§ Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, 1834, p. 562.

il Ibid.,\%5-i, p. 570.

NORTHERN INDIA. 12^

of the town itself as of very considerable extent, mas-
sive walls of stone and lime being met with every-
where, besides a great number of wells." After a
careful examination of the site, I have come to the
same conclusion as General Abbott, that there are no
traces of a large city ; and I am quite satisfied that all
the massive walls of cut stone, which General Coui't
truly describes as being met with everywhere, must
have belonged to costly monasteries and other large re-
ligious edifices. Doubtless, a few private houses might
be built of squared stones even in a village, but these
massive edifices, with their thickly gilded roofs, which
still repay the labour of disinterment, are, I think, too
numerous, too large, and too scattered to be the re-
mains of private buildings even of a great city. The
people point to the high ground immediately to the
west of the great tope, as the site of the Eaja Man's
palace, because pieces of plaster are found there only,
and not in other parts of the ruins. Here it is pro-
bable that the satraps of Taxila may have taken up
their residence when they came to pay their respects
at the famous shrine of the " Body-gift " of Buddha.
Here, also, there may have been a small town of
about 1500 or 2000 houses, which extended to the
northward, and occupied the whole of the rising
ground on which the village of Manikyala now stands.
I estimate the entire circuit of the space that may
have been occupied by the town as about one mile
and a half, which, at 500 square feet per man, would
give a population of 12,500 persons, or just six persons
to each house.

The people are unanimous in their statements that
the city was destroyed by fire ; and this belief, whether

124 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

based on tradition or conviction, is corroborated by
the quantities of charcoal and ashes which are found
amongst all the ruined buildings. It M'as also amply
confirmed by the excavations which I made in the
great monastery to the north of General Court's Tope.
I found the plaster of the walls blackened by fire, and
the wrought blocks of kankar limestone turned into
quicklime. The pine timbers of the roofs also were
easily recognized 1)y their charred fragments and
ashes. Unfortunately, I discovered nothing during
my researches that offered any clue to the probable
period of the destruction of these buildings, but as
this part of the country had fallen into the power of
the Kashmirian kings, even before the time of Hwcn
Thsang, I am inclined to attribute their destruction
rather to Brahmanical malignity than to Muhammadan
intolerance.

4. SINGHAPUEA, OR KETAS.

According to Hwen Thsang, the capital of the king-
dom of 8e-)iff-ho-pu-lo, or Singliapura^ was situated at
700 //, or 117 miles, to the south-east of Taxila. The
bearing points to Jhelam, near which is the town of
Sanr/oM^ which has been noted by M. Yivien de St.
Martin as the possible rcprcscntati\'e of Singhapura.
But Sangohi stands on an open plain, instead of on a
high mountain of difficult access, as described by the
pilgrim. The vicinity of ten pools of limpid water,
with surrounding temples and sculptures, points to
the holy tanks of Ketdksh^ or Kheids, which are still
visited by crowds of pilgrims from all parts of India.
I thinlc also that the name of Ketds is only a slightly
altered form of the Sanskrit Swetavdm, or the " White

NOHTHEKN INDIA. l-i-'j

Eobes," which Hwen Thsang mentions as the title of
the chief religious sect then resident near Singhapura.
In the western countries, where the compound sw is
changed to kh, the name would have been pronounced
Khetavdsa, or by a slight contraction, Khetds* The
Brahmans of course refer the name to their own reli-
gion, and say that the place was called Katdkslta^ or
the " Eaining Eyes," because the tears literally rained
from Siva's eyes when he heard of the death of his
wife Sati. But as their own spelling of the name
Ketuksh, Avhich I received from themselves, is at
variance with the meaning which they give to it, I
am inclined to adopt the etymology that I have already
suggested as S%ueta-vdsa, or the "White Eobes," This
sect would appear to have belonged to the Sioeidmhara^
or " "White-robed" division of the Jains, while another
sect at the same place, who are described by Hwen
Thsang as going naked, must be the Dic/dnibara^ or
"unclothed" (literally "sky-clad") division of the
Jains. Their books also are stated to have been chiefly
copied from the Buddhist literature, while the statue
of their god resembled that of Buddha himself. From
these curious details it seems almost certain that this
heretical sect must have been Jains, whose religion
has much in common with Buddhism, while their
statues are frequently mistaken for those of Buddha.
Kdds is situated on the north side of the Salt Eange,
at 16 miles from Find Dadan Khan, and 18 miles from
Chakowal, but not more than 85 miles from Shah-
dheri, or Taxila. Now the distance of Singhapura
from Taxila is given at 700 U^ or 117 miles, which is

* Thus tlie Sanskrit Saraswati became tlie Zend Rarahhaiti, and
the Greek Arahhotos.

12 G THE ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY OE INDIA.

certainly too great, as it would place the capital about
30 miles beyond tlie most distant point of tlie hills
in any direction between the south and east. Swr/ha-
pura is described as situated on the top of a high hill
of diiScult access ; and as the climate is said to be
very cold, it is certain that the place must have occu-
pied one of the isolated j^eaks either of the Salt Eange
on the south-south-east, or of the Baluath Eange on
the east-south-east.* But as there are no clear pools
swarming with fish in the Balnath Eange, I have little
hesitation in identifying the place described by Hwen
Thsang with the beautiful limpid pool of Ketds^ which
has been esteemed holy from time immemorial.

The capital of Siiirjliapura was situated at from 40
to 50 A", or 7 to 8 miles, to the north-west of the
sacred tanks ; but I know of no place that corresponds
with this bearing and distance. ]\lalot was the capital
of the JanjuJias at a very early period ; but its bearing
is south-east, and its distance 1 2 miles. If we might
read 4 to 5 //, instead of 40 to 50, the capital might
at once be identified with the ruined fort of Kofera,
which is situated on a steep hill to the west, about
200 feet in height, that overhangs the town and holy
pools of Ketds. This is called the ancient town. It
consists of an upper fort, 1200 feet long, by 300
broad, and of a lower fort. 800 feet long, by 450
broad, the circuit of the two being about 3600 feet,
or less than tliree-quarters of a mile. But the whole
circuit of Ketds, including the modern town on both
biuiks of the stream, both above and below the fort,
is about 2 miles. This is ratlu^r smaller than the
capital described by Hwen Thsang, which Avas 14

* Sc6 Maps Nos. V. and TI.

NORTHERN INDIA. 127

or 15 //, or 21 to 2^ miles, in circuit. But as it cor-
responds in all other material particulars, I think that
Ketds has a very good claim to be identified with the
capital of Singhapura.

According to Hwen Thsang,* the district was 3600
li, or 600 miles, in cu-cuit. On the west it was
bounded by the Indus, on the north by the southern
frontier of Taxila, 120 miles in length, and on the
south by the Jhelam and the northern frontier of Tdki^
or the plains of the Panjab. It cannot therefore have
extended much beyond the foot of the Salt Eange.
This limit would make the Indus frontier about 60
miles in length, the Jhelam frontier about 50 miles,
and the northern and southern frontiers each 120
miles, or altogether .350 miles. The only explanation
that occurs to me of the diiference between this num-
ber and that of Hwen Thsang, is the probability that
the ancient kos of the Panjab was the same as the mo-
dern one, that is, a short kos of 1-^ mile, or 1 mile and
2;J- furlongs, and that the Chinese pilgrim, ignorant
of the difference, made his calculations in the common
Indian kos of about two miles. This would reduce his
numbers by very nearly one-third, and at the same
time bring them into close accordance with the actual
measurements of our maps. Thus, Hwen Thsang's
3600 li, or 600 miles, for the circuit of Singhapura,
would become 400 miles, which is within 50 miles of
the actual measurement already given. Great accuracy
cannot be expected in these estimates of frontier dis-
tances, as the pilgrim had no means of checking the
numbers of his informants. "With the road distances
which he had himself travelled it was different, as

* Julien's ' Hiouen Thsang,' ii. 162.

128 THE ANCIENT GEOGKAPIIY OF INDIA.

he could test them by his own knowledge of the time
occupied, as well as by the number of journeys between
any two points. In the present instance of Singha-
pura it is quite certain that the frontier distance is
exaggerated, as the boundary of Tselcia^ or Taki, is
also said to have extended to the Indus, which could
not have been the case if the frontier of Singhapura
had stretched further to the south than I have placed it.

5. PUNACHA, OE PUNACH.

The district of Puan-nu-tso, or Ftinacha, is placed by
Hwen Thsang at 700 li, or 117 miles, to the south-
west of Kashmir.* It is called Funais by the Kash-
miris, who have adopted a soft pronunciation of the
c/., as in Pir Pantsal for Panchdl of the Panjabis.
Moorcroftf spells the name Primch, or Pruntz, accord-
ing to the Kashmiris. General Court also has PruncJi ;
but it is called Punje by Wilford's surveyor, Mirza
Mogal Beg, and Punch by Vigne, both of whom actu-
ally visited the place. Its distance from Kashmir, as
measured on the map via Barahmula and Uri is 75
miles, which is equal to about 100 miles of actual
road distance.!

Hwen Thsang describes Punach as 2000 //, or 333
miles, in circuit, which is just about twice its actual
size. On the west it is boimded by the Jhelam, on
the north by the Pir Panchal range, and on the east
and south-east by the small state of Rajaori. But these
limits, which include the potty state of Kotali, are not
more than 170 miles in circuit ; and even if the tract at
the source of the Punach river be included, the frontier

* Julien's ' Hiouen Thsang," ii. 187. t ' Travels,' ii. 298.

X See Maps Nos. V. and VI.

NORTHEKN INDIA. 129

will not be more than 200 miles in circuit. But as
the distances in the mountain districts were most pro-
bably estimated by the lengths of the roads, the circuit
of the frontier line may be taken as equivalent to
about 300 miles in road distance.

In the seventh century Punach was without a king,
and subject to Kashmir ; but in later times it had a
chief of its own, whose descendants. Shir Jang Khan
and Shams Khan, were put to death by Gulab Singh, of
Jammu, and this petty sovereignty once more forms
part of the kingdom of Kashmir.

6. EAJAPUEA, OR EAJAOEI.

Prom Punach, Hwen Thsang proceeded to the south-
east for 400 li, or 67 miles, to Ko-lo-she-pu-lo^ or Md-
japura* which I long ago identified with the petty
chief ship of Eajaori, to the south of Kashmir. The
circuit of the district is described as 4000 /«', or 667
miles, which is about double the true amount, unless,
as is not improbable, the whole of the hill-states as
far as the Eavi be included within its boundaries.
From the native chronicle of Kashmir we learn that
the petty chiefships of the hills to the south and
south-east of the valley were generally subject to
Kashmir ; and there is no reason to suppose that they
were independent at the time of Hwen Thsang's visit.

The district of Eajaori proper is nearly a square of
about 40 miles each side, bounded on the north by
the Pir Panchal, on the west by Punach, on the south
by Bhimbar, and on the east by Eihasi and Aknur.f
By extending its boundary on the east to the Chenab,

* Julieu's ' Hiouen Thsang,' ii. 188.
t See Maps Nos. V. and VI.

130 TIEE AXCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF IXDIA.

and on the south to the plains, it would include all
these petty places ; even then its frontier would not
be more than 240 miles, or by road about 320 miles.
But if the frontier of these hill-states subject to Kash-
mir be extended to the Eavi on the east, the circuit
would be about 420 miles measured on the map, or
not less than 560 miles by road.

Eajapuri is frequently mentioned during the me-
dieval period of Kashmirian history, but chiefly in
the eleventh and twelfth centuries, when it was an
independent state under its own rajas. In the fifteenth
century the Hindu family was dispossessed in favour
of a son of the Muhammadan king of Kashmir ; and
his descendant was so reduced by Gulab Singh that
in 184G he was glad to accept an estate in the British
district of Kangra in exchange for his petty chiefship
of Eajaori.

HILL-STATES OP THE PANJAB.

As the Chinese pilgrim has noticed so few of the
many hill-states of the Panjab, I will here add a brief
outline of the information which I have myself been
able to collect regarding them.

According to popular opinion the petty states of the
Alpine Panjab, at the present time, consist of twenty-
two Muhammadan and twenty-two Hindu chiefships,
the former lying to the west, and the latter to the
east of the Chenab river. An older classification
divides them into three groups, each named after the
most powerful state which formed the head of the
confederation. These were Kashmir, Dogra, and Tri-
gartta. The first consisted of the rich valley of Kash-
mir, and all the petty states between the Indus and
Jehlam; the second included Jammu, and the other

NORTHERN INDIA. 131

petty states between the Jehlam and the Eavi ; the
third comprised Jalandhar, and the A'arious small states
between the Eavi and the Satlej.

This division into three groups most probably ex-
isted prior to the seventh century, as we find that
the states to the east of the Eavi were quite indepen-
dent of Kashmir, while those of Urasa, Punach, and
Eajapuri are spoken of in such a way as to show that
they had kings of their ovsm previous to their sub-
jection by Kashmir. Trigartta is repeatedly mentioned
in the chronicles of Kashmir as an independent king-
dom ; and its own history shows that one-half of the
present petty states of the Jalandhar hills have sprung
from the division of the possessions of a single family.

The following list gives the names and possessions
of the various states attached to Kashmir, or the
western division of the Alpine Panjab : —

1. Kashmir.

2. Gingal, on the Behat E.

3. Muzafarabad ,,

4. Khagan, on the Kunihar E.

6. Garhi, ,,
f 6. Eash, on Pakhli E.

7. Dhantawar on Dor E.

8. Gandgarh, ,,

9. Darband, on the Indus E.
JO. Torbela, „

[11. Pharwala, near Behat E.

Gakars 12. Sultanpur, on Behat E.

[l3. Khanpur, on Haro E.

■ The Klidlca-Bamha chiefs hold the valley of the
Behat river below Barahmula, and the whole course

KhS^ka Bambas

Afghans

132 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

of the Ivunihar river to the north-west of Kashmir.
They are all Muhammadans, and are most probably
the descendants of the early inhabitants of the country,
who retired to their present position on the advance of
the Afghan invaders.

The Afghan chiefs hold the valleys of the Pakhli
and Dor rivers, to the south- vrest of Kashmir. They
are all Muhamniadans, and their settlement in this
part of the country is of recent date. Abul Fazl men-
tions that before the time of Akbar, the raja of Pakhli
was a tributary of Kashmir. He also states that
Timur left a small body of troops in this district,
whose descendants were still there in his time.*

The Gakar chiefs hold the lower valley of the
Jhelam, and the upper course of the Haro river to the
south-west of Kashmir. They are all Muhammadans ;
but their conversion is comparatively recent, as their
names were Indian down to the invasion of Timur.
Their occupation of these districts is of very early
date ; but they are Turanians^ and not Arians, as none
but a Gakar will intermarry with a Gakar, a practice
that is utterly repugnant to Hinduism, which permits
no man to marry one of his own tribe. The Gakars
also occupy several portions of the eastern Doab, as
Guliana, near Gujar Khan, and Bugial, under the
lofty hill of Balnath. But these districts do not pro-
perly belong to the hills, although they were subject
to Kashmir at the time of Hwen Thsang's visit in
the seventh century.

The following list gives the names and positions of
the various states attached to the central, or Jammu
division of the Alpine Panjab : —

* ' Ayin Akbari,' ii. 155.

NORTHERN INDIA.

133

Hindus

Muhammadans .

Hindus

1. Jammu, to east of Chenab R.

2. Btao, „

3. Eihasi, on Chenab E.

4. Aknur, ,,

5. Punach, on Punacli E.

6. Eajaori, on ToM E.

7. Kotali, on Punach E.

8. Bhimbar, at foot of hills.

9. Khariali, near Bhimbar.

10. Kashtwar, on upper Chenab E.

vll. Bhadrwar, to south of Kastwar.

12. Chaneni, to west of Bhadrwar.

13. Bandralta, to south of Chaneni.

14. Samba, to S.W. of Bandralta.

15. Jasrota, to south of Bandralta.

16. Tirikot, near Jasrota.

17. Mankot, to south of Bandralta.

18. Badwal, or Yaddiwasa.
,19. Ballawar, or Bisohli.

The towns of Jammu and Bhao, which were founded
by two brothers, are situated on opposite banks of the
Tohi, a small stream that joins the Chenab at the foot
of the hills. Jammu is mentioned several times in
Muhammadan history, from the time when Timur
forcibly converted the Eaja down to the end of the
last century. The three famous brothers of Eanjit
Singh's court — Gulab Singh, Dhyan Singh, and Suchet
Singh, belonged to a younger branch of this family,
and the son of Gulab Singh now rules over Kashmir
and the whole of the states in the western and central
divisions of the Alpine Panjab.

The petty chiefs of Rihdsi and Aknur were branches

134 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

of the Jammu family, on wliicli they were generally
dependent. Punach was sometimes independent ; but
its proximity to Kashmir placed it at the mercy of its
more powerful neighbour. Bajaori and Kotali were
held in later times by two branches of the royal family
of Kashmir, to which they were usually tributary.
But in the middle ages, under the Hindu rulers, Ko-
tali formed part of Punach, to which it naturally be-
longed as part of the same valley. Bldmhar and
KharicUi were divisions of the Chibh, or Chibhan,
branch of the Somvansi Eajas of Kangra and Jalan-
dhar. In early times the name of Bhimbar was little
used, the common appellation being Chibhan^ which
is found in Sharifuddin's history of Timur, under
the form of Jibhdl. The conversion of the family
to Muhammadanism is probably of late date, as Fe-
rishta mentions IIoiviis Eaja of Bhimbar in a.h. 891,
or A.D. I486.* But so many of these hill chiefs re-
tained their Hindu names after they became Muliam-
madans, that the Hindu name alone cannot be taken as
a decisive proof of his being unconverted. Kdshtwdr
and Bhadrwdr are situated on opposite banks of the
ujjper Chenab river, to the south-east of Kashmir, to
which they were generally subject. These nine chief-
ships of the central division, added to the thirteen of
the western division, form the twenty-two Muham-
madan states which the popular belief assigns to the
western half of the Alpine Panjab.

Of the eight remaining chiefships of this division I
am not able to give much information, as many of
them became extinct during the early period of Sikh
rule, and all of them are now absorbed by the Jammu

* 13riggs, ' Foriskta,' iv. 483.

NORTHERN INDIA. 135

family in the great kingdom of Kashmir. Jasrota, in
the outer range of hills, was once of some importance,
and its chiefs intermarried with the other Eajput
families of the Alpine Panjab; but I can find no
mention of it in any of the histories. Balldwar and
Badwdl were certainly at one time under a single
chief, as Kalasa, the son of Tukka, who is twice men-
tioned in the ' Eaja Tarangini '* as lord of Valktpura
between 1028 and 1801, is found in the genealogical
lists of both families. It is true that Vaddivdsa is
noticed in the same chroniclef as a separate district at
an earlier date, but as there is no mention of any
chief, it may be inferred that it formed part of the
small kingdom of Vallapura. As the names in the two
genealogical lists differ from Kalasa downwards, it
seems probable that the state may have been dismem-
bered after his death. It is certain that he was mixed
up with Kashmirian politics ; and as the contemporary
Eaja of the neighbouring state of Chamba was put to
death by Ananta of Kashmir, I conclude that BallS,-
war must have been subjected at the same time.

I may remark that all the chiefs of the Central
Division, whose genealogies I possess, trace their
origin to the Surajuansi, or Solar Eace, with the single
exception of the intrusive Chibhdn of Bhimbar. The
chiefs of Jammu, Jasrota, and Ballawar, with their
offshoots, amounting together to eight of these petty
states, all assert their descent from the Sun, a claim
which is admitted by their Eajput neighbours.

The following list gives the names and positions of
the various states attached to the eastern, or JMand-
har division of the Alpine Panjab.

* ' Eaja TaraDgini,' vii. 220, 589, t Hid., vi. 318, Nandigupta.

136

THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY Of INDIA.

Somvansi

Surajvansi .

Pundir, or Pandayas.

1. K^ngra, or Katoch.

2. Guler, to S.W. of Kangra.

3. Jaswal, on Suhan E.

4. Datarpur, on lower Bias E.

5. Siba, do.
Chamba, on Eavi E.
KuUu, on upper Bias E.
Mandi, on middle Bias E.
Sukhet, to south of Mandi.
Nurpur, between Eavi and

Bias E.
Kotila, to E. of Nurpur.
Eotlehar.

^ 8

Of these twelve states no less than five are mere
subdivisions of the once rich kingdom of Jalandhar,
which embraced the whole of the Doab, or plain
country, between the Bias and Satlej, and all the hill
country lying between the Eavi and the frontiers of
Mandi and Sukket, to the south of the Dhaola-dhar
mountains. This included Xurpur, Kotila, and Kotle-
har ; and as Mandi and Sukhet were at first under one
rule, there were originally only four chiefships in the
eastern division of the Alpine Panjab, namely, Jalan-
dhar, Chamba, Kullu, and Mandi.

Jdlandhara.

Since the occupation of the plains by the Muham-
madans, the ancient kingdom of Jalandhara has been
confined almost entirely to its hill territories, which
were generally known by the name of Kdngra^ after
its most celebrated fortress. The district is also called
Katoch^ the meaning of which is unknown, and Tr>-

NORTHERN INDIA. 137

gartla^* which is the usual Sansltrit name found in
the Pur^nas, and in the native chronicle of Kashmir.

In the seventh century Jdlandhara is described by
the Chinese pilgrimf as about 1000 li, or 167 miles
in length from east to west, and 800/2, or 133 miles
in breadth from north to south. If these dimensions
are even approximately correct, JMandhar must then
have included the state of Chamba on the north, with
Mandi and Sukhet on the east, and Satadru on the
south-east. As the last is the only district to the east
of the Satlej, which is included ia N. India, I infer
that it must have belonged to the kingdom of Jdlan-
dhar. With the addition of these districts the size of
the province will agree very well with the dimensions
assigned to it by the Chinese pilgrim.

At the time of Hwen Thsang's visit, Jalandhar
itself was the capital, which he describes as from 12
to 13 li, or upwards of 2 miles in circuit. Its anti-
quity is undoubted, as it is mentioned by Ptolemy as
Kulindrine^ or KtuUndrine, which should probably be
corrected to SuUndrine, as tlie K and 5 are frequently
interchanged in Greek manuscripts. According to the
Padma Purina, J the city of Jdlandhara was the capital
of the great Daitya king Jalandhara^ who became so
powerful by virtue of his austerities as to be invin-
cible. At last, however, he was overcome by Siva,
through a disgraceful fraud, and his body was de-
voured by the yoginis^ or female demons. But the
conclusion of the legend is differently given in the

* ' HemaKoaha.' Jalandhards Trigarttasyuh — " Jalandhara, that
is Trigartta." t Julien's ' Hiouen Thsang,' ii. 202.

X Uttara Khanda of the Padma Puiana. Kennedy's ' Hindu Mytho-
logy,' p. 456.

138 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

local Purana,* wliicli states that he was overwhelmed
and crushed to death by a mass of mountains which
Siva placed upon him. Flames then sprang out of his
mouth, which was under Jwdla-mukhi ; his back was
under the upper part of the Doab, which is still called
Jdlandhara-pitha, or Jdlandhar-pith, by the people ; and
his feet were under the lower part of the Doab at
Multan. Akbar partially adopted this version of the
legend when he named the different Doabs after the
enclosing rivers, by calling the land between the
Satlej and Bias the Bodb-i-Bist Jdlandhm\ or Bit Jd-
landhar^ instead of the Sab Doab, which it should
have been if he had placed the initial of the eastern
river first, as he did in the names of the Bari and
Chaj Doabs.

The royal family of Jakndhara and Kaiigra is one of
the oldest in India, and their genealogy from the time of
the founder, Sasarma Chandra, appears to me to have a
much stronger claim to our belief than any one of the
long strings of names now shown by the more power-
ful families of Rajputaua. All the different scions of
this house claim to be of Somavansi descent ; and they
assert that their ancestors held the district of Mul-
tan and fought in the Great War on the side of
Duryodhan against the five Pandu brothers. After
the war they lost their country, and retii'ed under the
leadership of Susarma Chandra to the Jalandhar Doab,
where they established themselves, and built the
stronghold of Kangra. The expedition of Alexander
terminated on the banks of the Hyphasis, or Bias ;
but he received the submission of Phe(jela!s\ or Pke-

* Jalaudliara Purana.

t Diudorus, xvii. 51, " Pliegfcus." Curtius, ix. 1, 3, " Phegelas erat
goiitis proximas rex."

NORTHERN INDIA. 139

gceus^ the king of the district, beyond the river, that
is of the Jalandhar Doab. Towards the end of the fifth
century, the kingdom of Trigartta was presented to
Pravaresa by the Eaja of Kashmir.* In the seventh
century, the Chinese pilgrim, Hwen Thsang, was cour-
teously entertained for a whole month by Eaja U-ti-io^
or UdUa,'\ whom I would identify with Adima of the
genealogical lists. One hundred and sixty years later,
in an inscription dated a.d. 804, the Eaja of Jaland-
hara is named Jaya Chandra, who is the Jaya Malla
Chandra of the lists, the seventh in descent from Adi-
ma. Lastly, Avanta, king of Kashmir, from a.d. 1028
to 1081, married two daughters of Indu Chandra, J
Eaja of J§,landhara, who is the Indra Chandra of
the genealogical lists of K^ngra. These instances are
sufficient to show that Jdlandliara existed as an inde-
pendent State for many centuries before the Muham-
madan conquest.

The smaller chiefships of Guler, Jaswal, Datarpur,
and Siba, are offshoots fi'om the parent stem of
K8,ngra. The independence of Gider^ or Haripur, was
established by Hari Chandra, about a.d. 1400, when
he yielded Kangra to his younger brother, Karmma
Chandra. The date of the foundation of the other
principalities is unknown, but I believe that they
were always ti'ibutary to the parent state until the
time of the Muhammadans, when the capture of
Kangra by Mahmud of Ghazni afforded them an op-
portunity of asserting their independence.

The French traveller Thevenot,§ in his account of
the dominions of the Emperor of Delhi, mentions

* 'Eaja Tarangini,' iii. 100. f Julien's ' Hiouen Thsang,' i. 261.
X ' Eaja Tarangini,' vii. 150. § ' Travels,' part iii. c. 37.

140 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

that " there are many Eajas who own not the autho-
rity of the Great Mogul." But the territories of these
Eajas must have been far in the interior of the hills,
as we know that the chiefs of all the outer hills were
subjected by the Mogul emperors. Thevenot specially
mentions the province of " Ayoud, or Ilaoud" as con-
taining " the most northern countries that belong to
the Great Mogul, as Caucares, Bankish, Nagarcut, Siha,
and others." The Caucares must be the Gakars who
hold the lower hills to the west of the Jhelam. Terry*
calls them Kakares^ and their principal cities Bekalee
and Furhola (or Dangali and Pharwila). The Bankish
are the Banchish of Terry, I whose " chief city, called
Blshur (Peshawar) lyeth east (read west) somewhat
southerly from Chishmere, from which it is divided by
the river Indus." Naff ar cut is Kangra or Nagarkot,
which is mentioned under the same name by Abu
Kihan,j who was present at its capture by Mahmud
of Ghazni. Siba is not as we might suppose, the
small state in the neighbourhood of Kangra, but a dis-
trict on the Ganges, of which the chief city, according
to Terry, was " Hardware (or Haridwara), where the
river Ganges, passing through or amongst large rocks,
makes presently after a pretty full current." From these
accounts it is clear that the whole of the states in the
lower hills, from Peshawar on the west to the Ganges
on the east, were subject to the emperor of Delhi.
Regarding the general name of Ayoud^ or TIaoud, which
Thevenot applies to them, I can only conjecture that
it may be some corrupt form of Himavat, or Ilimwat,

* ' A^oyage to East India,' p. 88.
t Ibid., p. 81 : London, 1655.
X ' Fragments Arabes, etc.,' 149.

NORTHERN INDIA. 141

one of the well-known names of the Hmdlaya moun-
tains, which the Greeks have preserved under the
two different forms of Emddos and Iiiidus.

Champa^ or Chamba.

Chamba is a large district, which includes the val-
leys of all the sources of the Eavi, and a portion of
the upper valley of the Chenab, between Lahul and
Kashi r^r. It is not mentioned by Hwen Thsang,
and w«« ' -p'^fore, probably included by him within
the limits '^f ^'ashmir. The ancient capital was Varm-
viapuri oi barmawar, on the Budhil river, where
many fin, ni ii'is, and a brazen bull, of life size, still
exist to I tt *■ ' e wealth and piety of its early rulers.
AccordL.^ uu i'le inscriptions these works belong to
the nix^th -rd tenth centuries. The country is fre-
quently me'^.ti i?d in the native chronicle of Kashmir,
under tte raiiie of Champa, and each notice is con-
firmed by the local genealogies. Between a.d. 1028
and 1031 tue dLtrict was invaded by Ananta of Kash-
mir,* when '.he native Eaja, named Sella, was defeated
and put to death. His son founded a new capital,
Champi mra, called after the goddess Champdvati Devi \
which, under the name of Chamba, is still the chief
place in the district. The Eajas of Kashmir after-
wards intermarried with the Chamba family ;f and
during the troubles that followed the Muhainmadan
invasions this petty state became independent, and re-
mained so until reduced by Gulab Singh, early in the
present century.

* Briggs's 'Ferishta,' i. 283. The Gakara inhabited the banks of
the Nilab (or Indus) up to the foot of the mountains of Siwalik.

t 'Eaja Tarangini," vii. 218. \ Ibid., vii. 589, 1520; riii. 1092.

h2 the ancient geography oe india.

KmUu.

The kingdom of Kiu-Iu-to is placed by Hwen Thsang
at 700 A', or 117 miles, to the north-east of Jalandhar,*
which corresponds exactly with the position of the
district of Ktillii, in the upper valley of the Eyas
river. The Vishnu Puranaf mentions a people called
Uhiia, or Kuhita, who are most probably the same as the
Kaulutas of the ' Eamayana' and the ' Brihat Sanhita.'|
As this form of the word agrees precisely with the
Chinese Kiuluto, I conclude that the modern Kullu,
must be only an abbreviation of the ancient name.
The district is stated to be 3000 li, or 500 miles, in
circuit, and entirely surrounded by mountains. The
size is very much exaggerated for the present restricted
limits of Kullu ; but as the ancient kingdom is said
by the people themsel'ves to have included Mandi and
Sulthet on the west, and a large tract of territory to
the south of the Satlej, it is probable that the frontier
measurement of 500 miles may be very near the truth
if taken in road distance.

The present capital of the valley is Sultanpur ; but
the old capital of Makarsa is still called Nagar, or the
city, by which name it is most generally known.
Hwen Thsang states that gold, silver, and copper are
all found in the district, which is only partially true,
as the amount of gold to be obtained by washing is
very small, and the silver and copper mines have long
been abandoned.

To the north-east of Kullu Hwen Thsang places
the district of Lo-hu-lo, which is clearly the Lho-yal of

* Julicn's ' Hiouon Thsang,' ii. 203.

\ Wilson's 'Vishnu Purana,' edited by Hall, ii. 3, vol. ii. p. 171.

% Kern's ' Brihat Sanhita,' xiv. 29.

NOETHEEN INDIA. 143

tlie Tibetans, and the Ldhul of the people of KuUu and
other neighbonring states. Still further to the north
he places the district of Mo-lo-so, which, from his
position, must certainly be Ladak. I would, there-
fore, alter the Chinese name to Mo-lo-po, which is an
exact transcript of Mar-po, the actual name of the
province of Ladak, as Mar-po-i/ul, or the "Eed dis-
trict," in allusion to the general appearance of its soil
and mountains. The Chinese syllables so and po are
so much alike that they are frequently interchanged,
as in the well-known name of Salatura, the birth-place
of Panini, which is given in the original Chinese of
Hwen Thsang's travels as Po-lo-lu-lo, or Falatura.

Mandi and SuJchet.
The petty chiefships of Mandi and SuHet were ovigi-
nally a single state, bounded by Kangra on the west
and Kullu on the east, and by the Dhaoladhar moun-
tains on the north and the Satlej on the south. Mandi
means the "market;" and its favourable position on
the Bias river, at the junction of the two roads fi-om
the west and south, must have ensured its early occu-
pation, which was rendered prosperous and lasting by
the existence of valuable mines of iron and black salt
in its immediate vicinity.

Nurp'kr, or Failidniya.
The town of Nurpur derives its name from the cele-
brated Nur Jahan, the wife of the emperor Jahanjir.
Its original name was Dahmari, or Bahndla ; or as
Abul Fazl writes, Dahmahri, although he mentions no
fort. The people pronounce the name as if written Dah-
meri. In the ' Tarikh-i-Alfi. ' it is called Damdl, an dis
described as "situated on the summit of a high hill,

14-i THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

on the borders of Hindustan." The fort was taken
after a long siege by Ibrahim Ghaznavi. The name
of the district is Pathdwat, and the old capital in the
plains was called Pathidn, or Pathidnkot, which is now
slightly altered to Pathdnhot. But the name is derived
from the Pathan tribe of Hindu Eajputs, and not from
the well-known Muhammadan Pathans, or Afghans.
The Eaja was imprisoned in 1815 by Eanjit Singh,
who took possession of his country.

The petty chief of Kotila, to the east of Nurpur,
who was a scion of the Pathaniya family, was seized
about the same time, and his estate incorporated with
the Sikh dominions.

Kotlehar is a petty state in tlie Jaswal Dun, to the
south-east of Jwala-Mukhi. It was generally a de-
pendency of Kangra.

Satadru.

The district of She-to-tu-lo^ or Satadru, is described
by the Chinese pilgrim* as 2000 li, or 333 miles in
circuit, with a large river forming its western boun-
dary. The capital is placed at 700 //, or 117 miles,
to the south of EuUu, and 800 li, or 133 miles, to the
north-east of Baii'at. But there is a mistake in one
of these numbers, as the distance between the capital
of KuUu and Bairat is 336 miles, measured direct on
the map, or not less than 360 miles, by road. There
is a deficiency, therefore, in one of the distances of
about 110 miles, or nearly 700 li, in a direct line
between the two places, or of about 150 miles, or
nearly 1000 li, in the detour, as shown by his bear-
ings. Now it is remarkable that there is a deficiency

* Julien'e ' Hiouen Thsang,' ii. 205.

NOETHEEN INDIA. 145

of about tlie same amount in the return journey along
a parallel line of road, from Mathura to Thanesar,
wMcli the pilgrim makes only 500 li, or 83 miles,*
instead of 1200 li, or 200 miles, the actual distance
being 199 miles. As it would seem that both routes,
for some unknown reason, had been subjected to the
same amount of curtailment, it is probable that the
deficiency in the western line will lie in the southern
portion between Satadru and Baixat, which is con-
tiguous to the parallel line between Mathura and
Thanesar. I would, therefore, increase the distance
between the two former places by 150 miles, or in
round numbers 1000 li, which would make the total
distance 283 miles, or nearly 1800 li, instead of 800
li. Taking this corrected distance from Bairat, and
the recorded distance of 117 miles south from KuUu,
the position of Satadru will correspond almost exactly
with the large city of Sarhind, which both history and
tradition affirm to be the oldest place in this part of
the country.

The present ruins of Sarhind consist almost entirely
of Muhammadan buildings of a late period ; but it
must have been a place of some consequence in the
time of the Hindus, as it was besieged and captured
by Muhammad Ghori, the first Mussulman king of
Delhi. f The name of Sarhind, or " frontier of Hind"
is popularly said to haye been given to the city at an
earlier period, when it was the boundary town be-
tween the Hindus and the later Muhammadan king-
dom of Ghazni and Labor. But the name is probably

* Julien's ' Hiouen Thsang,' i. 104, and ii. 211.
t Dowson's edition of Sir H. Elliot's ' Muhammadan Historians of
India,' ii. 295.

146 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

much older, as the astronomer Yaraha Mihira men-
tions the Sairind/uiH* immediately after the Kulutas,
or people of KuUu, and just before Brakniapura, which,
as we learn from the Chinese pilgrim, Avas the capital
of the hill country to the north of Ilaridwar. The
Sairindhas, or people of Sirindha, must, therefore, have
occupied the very tract of country in which the pre-
sent Sarhind is situated, and there can be little doubt
that the two names are the same. But the geographi-
cal list of Varaha Mihira is copied almost verbatim
from that of the still earlier astronomer Parasara, who
is believed to have flourished not later than the first
century after Christ. "f

If we apply the correction of 110 miles, or about
700 li, to the northern half of the line between KuUu
and Satadru, the position of the latter will be brought
down to Hansi, which is an ancient fortified city of
even greater strength and reputation than Sarhind.
But as Hwen Thsang specially notes that the territory
of Satadru was only 2000 /«, or 333 miles, in circuit,
and that it was bounded on the west by a great river,
Avhich can only be the Satlej or Satadru, it is quite
impossible that Hansi could be the place intended, as
it is upwards of 130 miles distant from the nearest
point of that river.

The position of the celebrated fortress of Bhatner
would suit the description of a small district bounded
on the west by the Satlej, and would also agree with
the corrected distance from Kullu : but the direction
is south-west instead of south, and the distance from
Bairat is upwards of 200 miles, instead of 800 //, or

■ Dr. Kern's edition of the ' Brihat Sanhita,' b. siv. 29, 30.
t Kern's Preface to the ' Brihat Sanhita,' p. 32.

NORTHERN INDIA. 147

133 miles, as stated by the pilgrim. The bearing of
Bair^t is, however, in favour of Bhatner, as the
pilgrim's south-west is certainly a mistake for south-
east, otherwise the distance of Bairat from Mathura
would be nearly 1600 //, or 250 miles, instead of 500
//, or 83 miles, as recorded. If we might read 1500
li instead of 500 //, the relative positions of Bhatner
and Bairat would correspond very well with the pil-
grim's account, as the road distance between the two
places, via Hansi, is about 250 miles. It is quite
possible also that there may be a mistake in the initial
Chinese character. She or 8a^ which is very much like
Po or Bha ; and if so, the Chinese syllables Po.to-tu-lo
would represent Bhatasthala, or Bhatner. The latter
name means the " fortress of the Bhatis," but the
town itself was called Band, or Bando, which was pro-
bably the contracted form of Bhatasthala, just as Mdru
is now the common contracted form of Marusthala.
But in spite of these plausible agreements both in
name and in position, I am inclined to think that
Sarhind must be the place indicated by the pilgrim as
the capital of the ancient district of Satadru, This
conclusion is strengthened by the pilgrim's statement
that the country produced gold, which, so far as I
know, can only apply to the lower hills lying to the
north of Sarhind, where gold is still found in some of
the smaller affluents of the Satlej.

Accepting Sarhind as the capital of Satadru, the
boundaries of the district may be determined approxi-
mately from its size. On the west and north it was
bounded by the Satlej for upwards of 100 miles from
the neighbourhood of Simla to Tihara, below Ludiana.
On the south the boundary extended for about 100

L 2

148 THE ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY OP INDIA.

miles from Tihara to Ambala, and on the east for
about the same distance, from Ambala to Simla. The
circuit thus described embraces a considerable portion
of the hill states to the west and south of Simla, to-
gether with the districts of Sarhind proper and Lu-
diana in the plains. As it is the only district lying to
east of the Satlej that is included within the limits of
Northern India, I infer that it must have been a de-
pendency of the neighbouring state of Jalandhar.

The kingdom which Hwen Thsang calls Tse-Jcia, or
Tdki, embraced the whole of the plains of the Panjab
from the Indus to the Bias, and from the foot of the
mountains to the junction of the five rivers below
Multan.* The Chinese syllable ise is used by Hwen
Thsang to represent the cerebral t of the Sanskrit in the
name of Danakakata^ which is found in no less than five
of the western cave inscriptions at Kanhari and Karli.-]-
In Hwen Thsang's travels this name is written To.no.
Jcia-tse.kia, in which the last two syllables are trans-
posed. It is the JDancd-a of Abu Eihan, which, as will
be shown hereafter, is most probably the same as the
old town of Dhdra7ii-kotia, on the Kistna river, adjoin-
ing the modern city of Amaravati. Tse-kla., therefore,
represents Tdki^ which would appear to have been the
name of the capital as well as of the kingdom of the
Panjab in the seventh century, just as Lahor has since
been used to describe both the kingdom and the

* See Maps Nos. Y. and VI.

t Dr. Stevenson read this name as the Pali form of the Greek
Xenolraies, but in all the inscriptions at Kanhari and KArli it is
clearly the name of a town or country.

NOKTHERN INDIA. 149

capital of Eanjit Singh. The position of the capital
will be discussed hereafter. It will be sufficient at
present to note that it was within a few miles of the
more ancient capital of She-kie-lo, which was long ago
identified by Professor Lassen with the Sdkala of
the Mah^bharata, and with the Sangala of Arrian.
Now the people of Sdkala are called Madras, Araftas,
JdrtliJcas, and Bdhikas* in the Mahdbhdrata ; and in
the Lexicon of Hemachandra the Bdhikas are said to
be the same as the Takkas.'\ Again, in the 'Eaja
Tarangini,' the district of Takkadesa is mentioned as
a part of the kingdom of Gurjjara (or Gujarfi,t, near
the Chenab), which Raja Alakhana was obliged to
cede to Kashmir between a.d. 883 and 901.| From
these statements it is clear that Sakala was the old
capital of the powerful tribe of Takkas, whose country-
was named after themselves Takka-desa.^ The name
of the new capital is not actually stated by Hwen
Thsang, but I believe it to have been Taki, or Takkd-
war, which I would identify with the Tahora of the
Pentingerian Tables by the mere softening of the
guttural k to the aspirate h. In the latter authority
Tahora is placed at 70 Roman miles, or 64^ English
miles from Spatura, opposite Alexandria Bucefalos.

I will now turn to the early Muhammadan writers
who have noticed Kashmir and Sindh, and who, there-
fore can scarcely have omitted all mention of so im-
portant a country as the Panjab, which lies immedi-

* In the Maliabharata and Vishnu Parana the name is written
B&llAlca ; but as they follow the KuUUan, it seems certain that the
true reading is Baldka, as proposed by Lassen.

t Lassen, ' Pentapot Indica,' p. 21. Bahilc&shtakkanam&no.

X 'Eaja Tarangini,' v. 150, Troyer; v. 155, Calcutta edit.

§ For the position of Sakala, or Taki, see Maps. Nos. V. and VI.

150 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

ately between tliem. In a.d. 915, Masudi thus de-
scribes the Indus, according to Sir Henry Elliot's
translation :*' " The Mihrdii of es-Sind comes from the
" well-known sources of the high land of es-Sind,
" from the country belonging to Xinnauj in the king-
" dom of Budah, and of Kashmir, el Kandahar, and
" et-Tdkin. The tributaries which rise in these coun-
" tries run to el Multan, and from thence the united
" river receives the name of Mlhrdn.'''' In this
passage Tdkin must certainly be intended for the hills
of the Paujiib. The Kabul river and the Indus both
flow through Gdndhdra^ or el Kandahar ; the Jhelam
comes from Kashmir ; and the Bias and Satlej flow
through Jalandhar and Kahlur, which in the time of
Hwen Thsang were subject to Kanoj. The only other
tributaries of the Indus are the Chenab and the Eavi,
which must therefore have flowed through the king-
dom of Tdkin. The mention of Gandhara and Kanoj
shows that Masudi does not refer to the actual sources
of the rivers, but to the points in the lower ranges of
hills, where they enter the plains. Tdl'ui^ therefore,
in the time of Masudi, represented the lower hills and
plains of the Panjab to the north of Multan, which
was then in the possession of the Brahman kings of
Kabul.

The name is read Tdkin, ^^jli=, by Sir Henry
Elliot, and Tdfan, ^^IL, by Gildemeister,| in his
extracts from Masudi. The first reading is supported
by the strong authority of Abu Eihan and Rashid-ud-

* Sir PI. M. Elliot's ' Muliammadan Historians of India,' p. 56;
and Prof. Dowson's edition, i. 21, wliere the name is read as Tdfan.
But Sprenger, in his translation of 'Masudi,' p. 193, gives Tdfi, with
Takan and Tafan as variants, and at p. 390, Taldn.

\ ' De Eebus Indicia,' p. 161.

NORTHERN INDIA. 151

din, who agree in stating that the great snowy moun-
tain of Keldrjik (or Larjk), which resembled Dema-
vend by its cupola form, could be seen from the
boundaries of Tdkishar and Loh^war.* Elliot, in one
passage, corrects Tdkishar to Kashmir ; but this altera-
tion is quite inadmissible, as the mountain is specially
noted to have been only 2 farsangs, or about 8 miles,
distant from Kashmir. One might as well say that
St. Paul's Cathedral is visible from Ludgate Hill and
Windsor. The mountain here referred to is the great
Dayamur, or Nanga Parbat, to the west of Kashmir,
which is 26,629 feet in height ; and which I have
myself seen repeatedly from Ramnagar, on the
ChenS,b, a distance of 200 miles. In a second passage
of the same author, Sir Henry calls the mountain
Kaldrchal,'\ and the two places from which it can be
seen he names Tdkas and Lohawar. This Tdkas, or
Tdkishar, I take to be the same place as the Tsekia, or
Tdki of Hwen Thsang, and the Tdkin of Masudi.

The earliest Muhammadan author who mentions
Tdki is the merchant Suliman, who visited the east
before a.d. 851, when his account was written. He
describes Tdfak, t^fAsHs, as not of very great extent,
and its king as weak, and subject to the neighbouring
princes ; but he adds that he possessed "the finest white
women in all the Indies."J As Tdfak and Tdkin are al-
most the same in unpointed Persian characters, I have

* Eeinaud, ' Fragments Arabes,' p. 118. In Sir H. M. Elliot, p. 41,
and in Dowson's edition of Elliot, i. 65, Takishar is altered to Kashmir.

t Sir H. M. Elliot, p. 30 ; and Dowson's edition, i. 46. If this is
the same as Ibn Batuta's Kar&chal, or " Black Mountain," the identi-
fication with Nanga Parbat, or the " Bare Mountain " is nearly
certain, as " bareness " means " blackness," from want of snow.

J Sir Henry Elliot, p. 49 ; and Dowson's edition, i. 4.

152 THE ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY OF INDIA.

no hesitation in identifying Tdfak with the Panjab,
where the women, and especially those of the lower
hills, are the " fairest," as well as the " finest," in India.

Ibn KhurdMba, who died in a.d. 912, mentions
the king of Tafa* as next in eminence to the Balha
E.a. Lastly, Eazwini describes Taifand^ '^-^^j which
was taken by Mahmud of Ghazni in a.d. 1023, as a
strong Indian fort, on the top of an inaccessible moun-
tain.! This account agrees with the actual hill of
Sangala^ which is almost inaccessible on three sides,
and on the fourth is protected by a sheet of water.

All these slightly different names of TdJcin, Tdfan,
Td/ak, Tdffa, Tdkas, and Tdlcishar, I take to be only
various readings of the one original form of TdJci, or
Tdkin, which, when written without the diacritical
points, may be read in several different ways. M.
Eeinaud gives another spelling as I'dban, ^^^, which,
without the points, may be read in as many different
ways as the other form of Tdfan. I conclude, therefore,
that the true form of the name of the country was Tdki^
or Tdka^ as recorded by Hwen Thsang. The name of
the capital was probably either Tcikin or Takkdwar, of
which the former agrees exactly with Kazwini's
Taifand J>JifljJ3, and the latter with the Taliora of the
Pentingerian Tables. I consider it almost certain
that the name must have been derived from the tribe
of Tdks or Takkas, who were once the undisputed
lords of the Panjab, and who still exist as a nu-
merous agricultural race iu the lower hills between
the Jhelam and the Ravi.

* Sir Henry Elliot, ' Muhammadan Historians of India,' p. 53. In
Dowson's edition, i. 13, this name is written Ti'ifni^
f Gildemeister, ' De Eebus Indicia,' p. 208.

NOETHERN INDIA. 153

The former importance of this race is perhaps best
shown by the fact that the old Nd^ari characters,
which are still in use throughout the whole country
from Bamiyan to the banks of the Jumna, are named
Tdkari, most probably because this particular form
was brought into use by the Tdks or Takkas. I have
found these characters in common use under the same
name amongst the grain dealers to the west of the
Indus, and to the east of the Satlej, as well as amongst
the Brahmans of Kashmir and Kangra. It is used
in the inscriptions, as well as upon the coins of
Kashmir and Kangra ; it is seen on the Sati monu-
ments of Mandi, and in the inscriptions of Pinjor ; and
lastly, the only copy of the ' Raja Tarangini ' of Kash-
mir was preserved in the Tdlcari characters. I have
obtained copies of this alphabet from twenty-six dif-
ferent places between Peshawar and Simla. In several
of these places the Tdkari is also called Munde and
Lunde^ but the meaning of these terms is unknown.
The chief peculiarity of this alphabet is, that the
vowels are never attached to the consonants, but are
always written separately, with, of course, the single
exception of the inherent short a. It is remarkable
also that in this alphabet the initial letters of the
cardinal numbers have almost exactly the same forms
as the nine unit figures ui present use.

In the seventh century the kingdom of Tdk'i was
divided into three provinces, namely, Tdki in the north
and west, Shorkot in the east, and Multdn in the south.
The province of Tdki comprised the plains of the
Panjab, lying between the Indus and the Bias, to
the north of the Multan district, or the whole of the
Chaj Doab, together with the upper portions of the

154 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

three Do^bs of Sindh-Sagar, Eiclina, and Bari. The
province of Shorhot comprised the middle portions of
these Doabs, and the province of Multdn their lower
portions. It is probable, also, that the possessions of
Multan may have extended some distance to the west
of the Indus as well as to the east of the Satlej, as
was the case in the time of Akbar.

The province of Taki contained several of the most
celebrated places of ancient India ; some renowned in
the wars of Alexander, some famous in Buddhist
history, and others known only in the widely-
spread traditions of the people. The following is a
list of the most important of the ancient places,
arranged according to their relative geographical posi-
tions from west to east. The names of the Doabs
were invented by Akbar by combining the names of
the including rivers. Thus, Chaj is an abbreviation
of Chenab and Jhelam ; Bic/ma of Eavi and Chenab ;
and Bdri of Bias and Eavi.

o- 11 QA^ -p. Aifl. Jobnathnagar, or Bhira.
° (2. Bukephala, or Dilawar.

Chai Doab ■ . •{ , ^ . ., ^

•' I 4. Gujarat.

Eichna Doab

5. Sakala, or Sangala.

6. Taki, or Asarur.

7. Narsingha, or Eansi.

8. Ammakatis, or Ambakapi.
r 9. Lohawar, or Labor.

Bari Doab . . .llO. Kusawar, or Kasur.

[ll. Chinapati, or Patti.

NORTHERN INDIA. 155

Johndthnagar^ or BJdra.

The modern town of Bliira, or Bheda, is situated on
the left, or eastern bank, of the Jhelam ; but on the
opposite bank of the river, near Ahmedabad, there is
a very extensive mound of ruins, called Old Bhira, or
Jobnathnar/ar, the city of Eaja Jobndth, or Chohndth.
At this point the two great routes of the salt caravans
diverge to Labor and Multan ; and here, accordingly,
was the capital of the country in ancient times ; and
here also, as I believe, was the capital of Sophites,
or Sopeithes, the contemporary of Alexander the
Great. According to Arrian, the capital of Sopeithes
was fixed by Alexander as the point where the camps
of Kraterus and Hephsestion were to be pitched on
opposite banks of the river, there to await the arrival
of the fleet of boats under his own command, and of
the main body of the army under Philii).* As Alex-
ander reached the appointed place on the third day,
we know that the capital of Sophites was on the Hy-
daspes, at three days' sail from Niksea for laden boats.
Now Bhira is just three days' boat distance from Monff,
which, as I will presently show, was almost certainly
the position of Nikasa, where Alexander defeated
Porus. Bhira also, until it was supplanted by Find
Dadan Khan, has always been the principal city in
this part of the country. At B/dra'f the Chinese pil-
grim, Fa-Hian, crossed the Jhelam in a.d. 400 ; and
against Bhira, eleven centuries later, the enterprising
Baber conducted his first Indian expedition.

The classical notices of the country over which

* ' Anabasis,' vi. 3.

f Seal's translation, cliap. xv. ; Fa-Hian calls it Pi-cha or Shi-da — •
tlie Chinese ch being the usual representatiye of the cerebral d.

156 THE ANCIENT GEOGEAPHl OF INDIA.

SopMtes ruled are very conflicting. Thus Strabo*
records : — " Some writers place Kathaa and the country
of Sopeithes, one of the monarchs, in the tract between
the rivers (Hydaspes and Akesines) ; some on the
other side of the Akesines and of the Hyarotes, on the
confines of the territory of the other Porus, — the
nephew of Porus, who was taken prisoner by Alex-
ander, and call the country subject to him Gmidarisy
This name may, I believe, be identified with the pre-
sent district of Gundalbdr, or Gundar-bdr. Bdr is a
term applied only to the central portion of each
Doab, comprising the high lands beyond the reach of
irrigation from the two including rivers. Thus San-
dal, or Sa7i.dar-bdr, is the name of the central tract
of the Do9,b between the Jhelam and the Chenab.
The upper portion of the Gundal Bdr Doab, which
now forms the district of Gujarat, belonged to the
famous Porus, the antagonist of Alexander, and the
upper part of the Sandar-Bdr Doab belonged to his
nephew, the other Porus, who is said to have sought
refuge among the Gandaridse. The commentators have
altered this name to Gangarida, or inhabitants of the
Ganges ; bvit it seems to me that the text of Diodorusf
is most probably correct, and that the name of Ganda-
ridce must refer to the people of the neighbouring
district of Gandaris, who were the subjects of Sophites.
The rule of the Indian prince was not, however,
confined to the Doab between the Hydaspes and Ake-
sines; for Strabo]: relates that "in the territory of

* Geogr., XV. 1, 30. t Hist., xix. 47.

X Geogr., XV. 1-30. This notice was most probably derived from
Kleilarchoa, one of the companions of Alexander, as Strabo quotes him
in another place (v. 2-6) as having mentioned the salt mines of India,
Ka\ Tovs iv "ivbois okas.

NORTHERN INDIA. 157

Sopeithes tliere is a mountain composed of fossil salt
sufficient for the whole of India." As this notice can
only refer to the well-known mines of rock salt in the
Salt Range, the whole of the upper portion of the
Sindh Sagar Doab must have been included in the
territories of Sopeithes. His sway, therefore, would
have extended from the Indus on the west to the
Akesines on the east, thus comprising the whole of the
present districts of Pind Da dan and Shahpur. This
assignment of the valuable salt mines to Sopeithes, or
Sophites, may also be deduced from a passage in Pliny
by the simple transposition of two letters in the name
of a country, which has hitherto puzzled all the com-
mentators. Pliny says, " when Alexander the Great
was on his Indian expedition, he was presented by
the king of Albania with a dog of unusual size," which
successfully attacked both a lion and an elephant in
his presence.* The same story is repeated by his
copyist, Solinus,t without any change in the name of
the country. Now, we know from the united testi-
mony of Strabo, Diodorus, and Curtius, that the
Indian king who presented Alexander with these
fighting dogs was SopJdtes, and he, therefore, must
have been the king of Albania. Por this name I pro-
pose to read Labania, by the simple transposition of the
first two letters. AABAN would, therefore, become
AABAN, which at once suggests the Sanskrit word
lavana, or ' salt,' as the original of this hitherto puzzling
name. The mountain itself is named Orumenws by
Pliny, j who notes that the kings of the country de-

* Hist. JSTat., viii. 61.

t Ibid., xxxi. 39. " Sunt et montes nativi salis, ut in Indis Oro-
menus. + Ibid.

158 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

rived a greater revenue from the rock salt than from
either gold or pearls. This name is probably intended
for the Sanskrit Raumaka, which, according to the
Pandits, is the name of the salt brought from the hill
country of Buma. H. H. Wilson, however, identifies
Ruma with Sdmbliar ;* and as rauma means " salt," it
is probable that the term may have been ajpplied to
the Sdmhhar lake in Eajputana, as well as to the Salt
Eange of hills in the Panjab.f

The historians of Alexander have preserved several
curious particulars regarding Sophites and the country
and people over which he ruled. Of the king him-
self, Curtius:|: records that he was pre-eminent amongst
the barbarians for beauty ; and Diodorus§ adds, that
he was six feet in height. I possess a coin of fine
Greek workmanship, bearing a helmeted head on one
side, and on the reverse a cock standing, with the
legend Xfi^TTOT, which, there seems good reason to
believe, must have belonged to this Indian prince.
The face is remarkable for its very striking and pecu-
liar features. The subjects of Sophitep also were dis-
tinguished by personal beauty, which, according to
Diodorus, they endeavoured to presor-\'e, by destroy-
ing all their children who were not well formed.
Strabo relates the same thing of the JCaiZ/ai, but, as
he adds, that they elected the handsomest person for
their king, || his account must be referred to the sub-
jects of Sophites, as the Kathai of Sangala had no
king. There is, however, so much confusion between
all the authorities in their accounts of the Kathai and

* See his Sanskrit Dictionary in voce. Suma, Eauma, Ratimaka.
f See Maps Nos. V. and VI. X Vita Alex., ix. 1.

§ Hist., xvii. 49. || Geogr., xv. 1, .30.

NOKTHEEN INDIA. 159

of the subjects of SopMtes, that it seems highly pro-
bable that they were one and the same people. They
were certainly neighbours ; and as both of them would
appear to have had the same peculiar customs, and to
have been equally remarkable for personal beauty, I
conclude that they must have been only diflferent
tribes of the same race of people,

3. BUKEPHALA, OE DILAWAR.

The scene of Alexander's battle with Porus has
long engaged the attention, and exercised the inge-
nuity, of the learned. The judicious Elphinstone*
placed it opposite to Jalfi,lpur ; but Burnesf concluded
that it must have been near Jhelam, because that
place is on the great road from Tartary, which ap-
pears to have been followed by Alexander. In 1836
the subject was discussed by General Court,J whose
early military training, and unequalled opportunities
for observation during a long residence in the Panjab,
gave him the best possible means of forming a sound
opinion. General Court fixed the site of Alexander's
camp at Jhelam, his passage of the river at Khilipa-
tam, 3 kos, or 6 miles, above Jhelam, the scene of his
battle with Porus at Pattikoti on the Jaba Nadi, 8
miles to the east of Jhelam, and the position of Niksea
at Vessa, or B/iesa, which is 3 miles to the south-east
of Pat/ii or Patti-koti. The late Lord Hardinge took
great iuterest in the subject, and twice conversed with
me about it in 1846 and 1847. His opinion agreed
with mine that the camp of Alexander was most pro-

* Elplainstone's ' Kabul,' i. 109.

t ' Travels in Panjab, Bokhara, etc.,' ii. 49.

% 'Journal of the Asiatic Society,' Bengal, 1836, pp. 472, 473.

IGO THE ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY OF INDIA.

bably near Jalalpur. In tlie following year, General
Abbott* published an elaborate disquisition on the
battle-field of Alexander and Porus, in which he
placed the camp of the former at Jhelam, and of the
latter on the opposite bank near Norangabad. The
passage of the river he fixed at Bhuna, about 10 miles
above Jhelam, and the field of battle near Pakral,
about 3 miles to the north of Sukchenpur. In this
state the question remained until the end of 1863,
when my tour through the Panjab gave me an oppor-
tunity of examining at leisure the banks of the Hy-
daspes from Jalalpur to Jhelam.

Before discussing Alexander's movements, I think
it best to describe the different places on the line of
the river, between Jhelam and Jalalpur, with the ap-
proaches to them from the westward. When we have
thus ascertained the site that will best agree with the
recorded descriptions of Bukephala, we shall then be
in a better position for deciding the rival claims of
Jhelam and Jelalpur as the site of Alexander's camp.
The distances that I shall make use of in this discus-
sion are all taken from actual measiu-ements.*

The town of Jhelam is situated on the west bank
of the river, 30 miles to the north-east of Jalalpur,
and exactly 100 miles to the north-north-west of Labor.
The remains of the old town consist of a large ruined
mound, to the west of the present city, about 1300
feet square and 30 feet high, which is surrounded by
fields covered with broken bricks and pottery. The
square mound I take to be the ruins of the citadel,
which is said to have been called Puia. Numbers of

* ' Journal of tlie Asiatic Society,' Bengal, 1848, part ii. p. 619.
t See No. VII. Map of Alexander's Passage of the Hydaspes,'

NORTHERN INDIA. 161

old coins arc still discovered in the mound after rain ;
but those which I was able to collect were limited to
the mintages of the later Indo-Scythians, the Kabul-
Brahmans, and the princes of Kashmir. As similar
and even earlier coins are described by Court and
Abbott to have been found in great numbers in pre-
vious years, it is certain that the city must have been
in existence as early as the first century before Christ.
But the advantages of its situation, on one of the two
principal lines of road across the I^orth Panjtib, are so
great that it must, I think, have been occupied at a
very early date. This opinion is confirmed by the
numbers of large bricks that have been dug out of the
old mound.

The ruined city near Dar^pur, which has been de-
scribed by Burnes* and Court, f is situated on the west
bank of the river, 20 miles below Jhelam, and 10
miles above Jalalpur. In their time, the old mound
was unoccupied, but about 1832 a.d. the people of
Dilawar abandoned their village on a hill to the west,
and settled on the site of the ruined city. Before that
time, the place was usually called Find, or " the
mound," although its true name is said to have been
TJdamnagar, or Udinagar. The same name is also
given by Burnes, but Court, who twice alludes to
these ruins, mentions no name, unless he includes
them under that of Gagirahlii, the ruins of which he
describes as extending along the banks "of the Hy-
daspes from near Jalalpur to Darapur." According
to this account, the ruins would not be less than 6 or
7 miles in length. I think it probable that there has

* ' Travels in Panjab, Bokhara, etc.,' ii. 51.
t Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, 1836, 472, 473.

1G2 THE ANCIENT GEOGEAPnY OF INDIA.

been some confusion between two different places,
A\^hich have here been joined together as one con-
tinuous extent of ruins. Girjhdk^ -which I take to be
the original of Court's Gagirakhi, is an old ruined fort
on the top of the hill to the north of JalMpur, to
which the people assign a fabulous extent ; but it is
at least 8 miles from Ddrdpur, and is, besides, sepa-
I'ated from it by the deep Ivandar ravine, and hj the
precipitous range of hills at whose west foot Dilawar
is situated. Burnes also describes the old city as ex-
tending "for three or four miles." But this is cer-
tainly an exaggeration, as I was unable to trace the
ruins for more than one mile in length by half a mile
in breadth. The ruins consist of two large mounds
just half a mile apart, with two smaller mounds about
midway between them. The south moimd on which
Dilawar is situated, is about 500 feet square at top,
and 1100 or 1200 feet at base, with a height of 50 or
GO feet. The north mound, on which old Darapur
stands, is 600 feet square, and from 20 to 30 feet in
height. Between these mounds the fields are covered
with broken bricks and pottery, and the whole place
is said to be the ruins of a single city. The walls of
the Dilawar houses are built of the large old bricks
dug out of this mound, which are of two sizes, one of
11^ by 8 J by 3 inches, and the other of only half
this thickness. Old coins are found in great numbers
in the Dilawar mound, from which the Jalalpur bazar is
said to be supplied, just as Find Dadan is supplied from
the ruins of Jobnathnagar. The coins which I obtained
belonged to the first Indo- Scythians, the Kabul-Brah-
mans, the kings of Kashmir, and the KarhVii Hazdra
chiefs, Hasan and his son Muhammad. The site.

NORTHERN INDIA. 103

therefore, must have been occupied certainly as early
as the second century before the Christian era. Its
foundation is attributed to Eaja Bharati, whose age is
not known. I conclude, however, that the dominating
position of Dilawar, which commands the passage of
the Jhelam at the point where the lower road from
the west leaves the hills, just below the mouth of the
Bunh^r river, must have led to its occupation at a
very early period.

The town of Jalalpur is situated on the west bank
of the Jhelam at the point where the Kandar ravine
joins the old bed of the river. The stream is now
2 miles distant, but the intervening ground, though
partially covered with small trees, is still very sandy.
The town is said to have been named in honour of
Akbar, in whose time it was most probably a very
flourishing place. But since the desertion of the
river, and more especially since the foundation of
Pind Dadan, the place has been gradually decaying,
until it now contains only 738 houses, with about
4000 inhabitants. From the appearance of the site,
I estimated that the town might formerly have been
about three or four times its present size. The houses
are built on the last slope at the extreme east end of
the salt range, which rises gradually to a height of
150 feet above the road. Its old Hindu name is said
to have been Girjhdk, and as this name is found in
Abul Fazl's ' Ayin Akbari '* as Kerchdk (read Girjak) of
Sindh Sagar, we have a proof that it was in use until
the time of Akbar, when it was changed to Jalalpur.
But the people still apply the name of Girjhdk to the
remains of walls on the top of the Mangal-De hill,

* Gladwyn's Translation, ii. 263.

M 2

1G4 THE ANCIENT OEOGEArilY OF INDIA.

which rises 1100 feet above Jalalpur. According to
tradition, Girjhuk extended to the west-north-west as
far as the old temple of Baghanwala, a distance of 11
miles. But this is only the usual exaggeration of
ignorance that is told of all ancient sites. There is no
doubt that the city did once extend to the westward
for some considerable distance, as the ground on that
side is thickly strewn with broken pottery for about
half a mile. Its antiquity is undoubted, as the coins
which it yields reach back to the times of Alexander's
successors. But I believe that it is much older, as
its favourable position at the south-east end of the
lower road would certainly have led to its occupation
at a very early period. I think, therefore, that it
may be identified with the Girivraja of the Eamayana.
Tradition has preserved the name of only one king,
named Kumkamdratli, who is said to have been the
sister's son of Mot/a, the founder of Mong. Mogal
Beg* writes the name Ghir-Jelulk, and it is so Avritten
by some of the people of the place, as if it was derived
from Giri-Zohdk, or " Zohak's Hill." But the usual
spelling, which accords with the pronunciation, is Jhak.
From Jhelam to Jalapur the course of the river is from
north-east to south-west, between two nearly parallel
ranges of mountains, which are generally known as
the Tila and Pabhi Hills. The Tila range, which is
about thirty miles in length, occupies the west bank
from the great east bend of the river below Mangala,
to the bed of the Bunhar river, 1 2 miles to the north
of Jalalpur. Tila meaDS simply a "peak or hill," and
the full name is Goruhlindih-ka-TUa. The more ancient

* Manuscript Map of the Panjab and Kabul Valley, by Wilford,
from the surveys of Mirza Mogal Beg, in my possession.

NORTHERN INDIA. 165

name was Bdlncith-ka-TlIa. Both of these are derived
from the temple on the summit, which was formerly-
dedicated to the sun, as Bdlndth, but is now devoted
to the worship of Gorakhndlh, a form of Siva. The
latter name, however, is very recent, as Mogal Beg,
who surveyed the country between a.d. 1784 and
1794, calls the hill '■'■ Jogion-di-Tibi, or tower of the
Jogis, whose chief is called Bilndfy Abul Fazl* also
mentions the " Cell of Balnat," and the attendant
Joffis, or devotees, from whom the hill is still some-
times called Jogi-iila. But the name of Balnath is
most probably even older than the time of Alexander,
as Plutarchf relates that, when Porus was assembling
his troops to oppose Alexander, the royal elephant
rushed up a hill sacred to the Sun, and in human
accents exclaimed, " 0 great king, who art descended
from Gegasios, forbear all opposition to Alexander,
for Geffasios himself was also of the race of Jove."

The " Hill of the Sun " is only a literal translation
of Bdlndth-ka-Tila, but Plutarch goes on to say that it
was afterwards called the " Hill of the Elephant,"
which I take to be another proof of its identity with
Bi,lni,th, for as this name is commonly pronounced
Bilndi by the people, and is so \\Titten by Mogal Beg,
the Macedonians, who had just come through Persia,
would almost certainly have mistaken it for Fil-nafJi,
or Pil-natli, the "Elephant." But wherever Alexan-
der's camp may have been, whether at Jhclam or
Jalalpur, this remarkable hill, which is the most com-
manding object within fifty miles of the Hydaspes,

* 'Ayin Akbari,' ii. 110.

f ' De FluTiis,' in voce " Hydaspes." Gegasios must be Yayati or
Jaj&ti in a Greek form.

166 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OP INDIA.

must certainly have attracted the attention of tlie
Macedonians. Its highest peak is 3242 feet above the
sea, or about 2500 feet above the level of the river.

The Pabhi range of hills, on the east bank of the
river, stretches from the neighbourhood of Bhimbar to
Easul, a length of 30 miles. This range is a very low one,
as the highest point is not more than 1400 feet above
the sea, and is less than 500 feet above the river;
but the broken and difficult ground on both flanks of
the hill presents a barrier quite as impassable as a
much loftier range. Until the British occupation of
the Panjab, the Pabhi hills were crossed by only one
carriage-road through the Khori Pass, 5 miles to the
north-east of Rasul, and by one foot-path through the
Kharian Pass, 10 miles to the south-east of Jhelam.
But though the main road has since been carried
through the latter pass, it is still liable to interrup-
tion after heavy rain.

In approaching the Hydaspes from the westward,
Alexander had the choice of two diiferent lines, which
are distinguished by Baber as the upjoer and lower
roads. From the Indus to Hasan Abdal, or Shah-
dheri, the two lines were the same. From the latter
place, the upper road proceeded by the j\Iargala Pass
through Rawal Pindi and Manikyala to Dhamak and
Bakrala, from which place it descended by the bed
of the Kalian river, through a gap in the Tila range,
to Rolitas, and from thence over an open plain to
Jhelam. From BafaMa there was also a foot-path to
Jhelam, which orossod the Tila range about G miles
to the north-east of Rohtas, but this pass was ahvays
a dangerous one for horses and camels, and was diffi-
cult even for foot passengers. The length of this

NORTHERN INDIA. 107

upper road from Shah-dheri, via Rohtas, to Jhelam,
was 94 miles ; but this lias since been shortened to
87 miles by the new road, which avoids the two long
detours by Rohtas and Dhamak.

From Taxila, or Shah-dheri, the lower road proceeds
via the Margala Pass to Jangi, from whence it strikes
off via Chaontra to Dudhial. From this point the
road branches into two lines, that to the south pro-
ceeding by Chakowal and the salt mines to Pind
Dadan and Ahmadabad, and that to the east proceed-
ing via Asanot and the Bunhar river to Dilawar,
opposite Rasul, or via Asanot and Vang to Jalalpur.
From Shah-dheri to Dudhial the distance is 55 miles,
from thence to Asanot 33 miles, and thence -to Dila-
war, or Jalalpur, each 21 miles, the whole distance
by this route being 118 miles. But this distance
would bo shortened to 114 miles by the traveller pro-
ceeding direct from the foot of the Salt Range to Jalal-
pur. There is also a third line, which branches off from
the upper road at Mandra, 6 miles to the south of the
Maniky^la tope, and proceeds via Chakowal and Pind
Dadan to Jalalpur. By this route the whole distance
from Shah-dheri to JalS,lpur is 116f miles, or only 112|
by leaving the line at the foot of the Salt Range and
proceeding direct to Jalalpur. The respective dis-
tances by these three different routes are 109, 114,
and 112 J miles, the mean distance being 112;^ miles.

Now, the distance from Taxila to the Hydaspes is
given by Pliny,* from the measurement by Alex-
ander's surveyors, Diognetes and Beiton, at 120
Roman miles, which are equal to 11^^ English miles,
at the value of 0-9193 each, as fixed in Smith's ' Dic-

* Hist. JSTat.i vi. 21, "Ad Hydaepen fluvium clarum, csx. mill."

168 THE AXCIE^!T GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

tionary of Antiquities.' As all the copies of Pliny
give the same number, we must accept it as the
actual measurement of the route that was followed
by Alexander from Taxila to his camp on the Hy-
daspes. In comparing this distance with those already
given from Shah-dheri to Jhelam and Jalalpur, we
must unhesitatingly reject Jhelam, which is no less
than 16 miles short of the recorded distance, while
Jalalpur differs from it by less than 2 miles. But
there is another objection which is equally fatal to
the claims of Jhelam. According to Strabo,* "the
direction of Alexander's march, as far as the Hy-
daspes, was, for the most part, towards the south ;
after that, to the Hypanis, it was more towards the
east.'''' Now, if a line drawn on the map from Ohind
on the Indus, through Taxila to Jhelam, be con-
tinued onwards, it will pass through Gujarat and
Sodhra to Jalandhar and Sarhind. As this is the
most northerly road to the Ganges that Alexander
could possibly have taken, his route by Jhelam would
have been in one continuous straight line^ which is in
direct opposition to the explicit statement of Strabo.
But if we ado2')t Jalalpur this difficulty will be obvi-
ated, as the change in the direction would have been
as much as 25° more easterly. ■]" There is also a third
objection to Jhelam, which, though not entitled to the
same weight as either of the preceding, is still valu-
able as an additional testimony on the same side.
According to Arrian, the fleet, on descending the Hy-
daspes from Niksea, reached the capital of Sopeithes
on the third day. No^v, I have already shown that
the residence of Sopeithes must have been at Johndth-

* Googr., XV. 1, ;j2. t See Map No. V.

NORTHERN INDIA. 169

nagar^ or Ahmedabad, wliicli is just three days' dis-
tance for a laden boat from Jalalpur, but is six days
from Jhelam. As the evidence in each of these three
separate tests is as directly in favour of Jalalpur as it
is strongly opposed to Jhelam, I think that we are
fully justified in accepting the latter as the most pro-
bable site of Alexander's camp.

"We have now to examine how the river and the
country .about Jalalpur will agree with the recorded
accounts of Alexander's operations in his passage of
the Hydaspes and subsequent battle with Porus. Ac-
cording to Arrian* " there was a high wooded pro-
montory on the bank of the river, 150 stadia, or just
17 J miles above the camp, and immediately opposite
to it there was a thickly-wooded island." Curtiusf
also mentions the wooded island as "well fitted for
masking his operations." "There was also," he adds,
"not far from the spot where he was encamped, a
very deep ravine [fossa prcealia), which not only
screened the infantry but the cavalry too." We learn
from ArrianJ that this ravine was not near the river
because " Alexander marched at some distance from
the bank, lest the enemy should discern that he was
hastening towards the promontory and island." Now,
there is a ravine to the north of JalaljDur which ex-
actly suits the descriptions of both historians. This
ravine is the bed of the Eandar Nala, which has a
course of 6 miles from its source down to Jalalpur,
^^'here it is lost in a waste of sand. Up this ravine

* ' Anabasis,' v. II. 'An-cp^ei 8e tj re oKpa kqI t] vrjcrns roC fiiyaXov
(TToaTOTrebov €S 7TevTr\K0VTa Koi cKarov <rraStous".
t Vita Alez., viii. 13, " tegendis insidiis apta."
t ' Anabasis,' V. 13, oTrexaiv ttjs oxdrjs.

170 THE ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY OP INDIA.

there has always been a passable but ditBcult road
towards Jhelam. From the head of the Kandar, which
is 1080 feet above the sea, and 345 above the river,
this road proceeds for 3 miles in a northerly direction
down another ravine called the Kasi, which then turns
suddenly to the east for 6^ miles, and then again 1^
mile to the south, where it joins the Jhelam im-
mediately below Diirnvar, the whole distance from
Jalalpur being exactly 17 miles. I marched along
this ravine road myself, for the purpose of testing the
possibility of Alexander's march ; and I satisfied my-
self that there was no difficulty in it except the
fatigue of making many little ascents and descents in
the first half, and of Avading through much heavy sand
in the latter half. The ravine lies " at some distance
from the bank " as described by Arrian, as the bend
in the Kasi is 7 miles from the Jhelam. It is also
" a very deep ravine," as described by Curtius, as the
hills on each hand rise from 100 to 250 and 300 feet
in height. Therefore, in the three leading particu-
lars which are recorded of it, this ravine agrees most
precisely with the accounts of the ancient historians,*
Amongst the minor particulars, there is one which
seems to me to be applicable only to that part of the
river immediately above Jalalpur. Arrianf records
that Alexander placed running sentries along the bank
of the river, at such distances that they could see each
other, and communicate his orders. Now, I believe
that this operation could not be carried out in the
face of an observant enemy along any part of the river

* See Map No. VII.

t ' Anabasis,' v. ii. Ilapa rrucrav 8e rrji' ox6r]v (pvXaKai re aira Kade-
(TTrjKvlai rjo-av, SiaXeiVouo-ai Sa-ov ^vfififTpov is to ^vvopav re aSXifkovs Kai
KaTa)(ov(w evTvcTas 6w66ei/ ri napayyeWoiTO.

NORTHERN INDIA. 171

bank, excepting only that one part which lies between
Jalalpur and Dilawar. In all other parts, the west
bank is open and exposed, but in this part alone the
wooded and rocky hills slope down to the river, and
offer sufficient cover for the concealment o'f single
sentries. As the distance along the river bank is
less than 10 miles, and was probably not more than
7 miles from the east end of the camp, it is easy to
understand why Alexander placed them along this
line instead of leaving them on the much longer route,
which he was to march himself. Another minor par-
ticular is the presence of a rock in the channel by
the river, on which, according to Curtius, one of the
boats was dashed by the stream. Now, rocks are still
to be found in the river only at Kotera, Meriala, Ma-
likpur, and Shah Kubir, all of which places are be-
tween Dilawar and Jalalpur. The village of Kotera
is situated at the end of a long wooded spur, which
juts out upon the river just one mile below Dilawar.
This wooded jutting spur, with its adjacent rock, I
would identify with the uKpa^ or promontory of Arrian,
and the petra of Curtius.* Beyond the rock there
was a large wooded island which screened the foot of
the promontory from the observation of the opposite
bank. There are many islands in this part of the
Jhelam, but when a single year is sufficient to destroy
any one of these rapidly formed sandbanks, we can-
not, after the lapse of more than 2000 years, reason-
ably expect to find the island of Alexander. But in
1849, opposite Kotera, there was such an island,

* Arrian, 'Anabasis,' v. ii., nKpa rju dvexova-a ttjs 'ox6r]i toC 'Yhaairov.
Curtius, Vita Alex., viii. 11, " Tina ergo navi, quam petrae fluctus illi-
serat, hserente Cceterse evadunt."

172 THE ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY OF INDIA.

2^ miles in length and half a mile in breadth, which
still exists as a large sandbank. As the passage was
made in the height of the rainy season, the island, or
large sandbank, would naturally have been covered
with tamarisk bushes, which would have been suf-
ficiently high to screen the movements of infantry
and dismounted cavalry.

The position of the two camps I believe to have
been as follows :* — Alexander, with about 50,000 men,
including 5000 Indian auxiliaries under Mophis of
Taxila, had his head-quarters at Jalalpur, and his
camp probably extended for about 6 miles along the
bank of the river, from Shah Kabir, 2 miles to the
north-east of Jalalpur, down to Syadpur, 4 miles to
the west-south-west. The head- quarters of Porus
must have been about Muhabatpur, 4 miles to the
west-south-west of Mong, and 3 miles to the south-
east of Jalalpur. His army of nearly 50,000 men,
including elephant-riders, archers, and charioteers,
must have occupied about the same extent as the Ma-
cedonian army, and would, therefore, have extended
about 2 miles above, and 4 miles below Muhabatpur.
In these positions, the left flank of Alexander's camp
would have been only 6 miles from the wooded pro-
montory of Kotera, where he intended to steal his
I)assage across the river, and the right flank of the
Indian camp would have been 2 miles from jNIong, and
6 miles from the point opposite Kotera.

As my present object is to identify the scene of
Alexander's battle with Porus, and not to describe the
fluctuations of the conflict, it will be sufficient to quote
the concise account of the operation which is given by
Plutarch from Alexander's own letters: — "lie took
* Sec Map No. VII.

NOKTHEEN INDIA. 173

advantage of a dark and stormy night, with part of
his infantry and a select body of cavalry, to gain a
little island in the river, at some distance from the
Indians ; when he was there, he and his troops were
attacked Avith a most violent wind and rain, accom-
panied with dreadful thunder and lightning." But in
spite of the storm and rain, they pushed on, and
wading through the water breast-high reached the op-
posite bank of the river in safety. " When they were
landed," says Plutarch,* who is still quoting Alex-
ander's letters, " he advanced with the horse 20 stadia
before the foot, concluding, that if the enemy attacked
him with their cavalry he should be greatly their
superior, and that if they made a movement with their
infantry his own would come up in time enough to
receive them." Erom Arrian"]* we learn that, as soon
as the army had begun fording the channel, between
the island and the main land, they were seen by the
Indian scouts, who at once dashed off to inform Poms.
When the ford was passed with some difficulty, Alex-
ander halted to form his little army of 6000 infantry
and about 10,000 cavalry. He then " marched swiftly
forward with 5000 horse, leaving the infantry to follow
him leisurely and in order." While this was going on,
Porus had detached his son with two or three thousand
horse and one hundred and twenty chariots to oppose
Alexander. The two forces met at 20 stadia, or 2J
miles, from the place of crossing, or about two miles to

* ' Life of Alexander.' Sir W. Napier has paid a just tribute to the
skill of both generals. Speaking of Alexander's passage of the Granicus,
he says that it cannot " be compared for soldierly skill with hia after
passage of the Hydaspes, and defeat of Porus. Before that great man
he could not play the same daring game." (' London and Westminster
Eeview,' 1838, p. 377.) t ' Anabasis,' v. 18.

174 THE ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY OF INDIA.

the nortli-east of Mong. Here the chariots proved use-
less on the wet and slippery clay, and were nearly all
captured. The conflict, however, must have been a
sharp one, as Alexander's favourite charger, Buke-
phalus, was mortally wounded by the young prince,
Avho was himself slain, together with 400 of his men.
When Porus heard of the death of his son, he marched
at once against Alexander with the greater part of his
army ; but when he came to a plain, where the ground
was not difficult and slippery, but firm and sandy, and
fitted for the evolutions of his chariots, he halted and
arrayed his troops ready for battle. His 200 elephants
were drawn up in front of the infantry about one
pleihron, or 100 feet apart, and the chariots and ca-
valry were placed on the flanks. By this arrange-
ment, the front of the army facing north-east must
have occupied an extent of about 4 miles, from the
bank of the river to near Lakhnawali, the centre of
the line being, as nearly as possible, on the site of the
present town of Mong. Around this place the soil is
" firm and sound ; " but towards the north-east, where
Alexander encountered the young Indian prince, the
surface is covered with a hard red clay, which be-
comes both heavy and slippery after rain.*

When Alexander saw the Indian army drawn up
in battle array, he halted to wait for his infantry,
and to reconnoitre the enemy's position. As he was
much superior to Porus in cavalry, he resolved not
to attack the centre, where the formidable line of

* I speak from actual observation of the field of Chilianvrala for some
days after the battle, ■v.hen the country had been deluged with rain.
Both battles flsre fought on the same ground, between the town of
Mong and the southern end of the Pabhi hills.

NOETnERN INDIA. 17-5

elephants were supported by masses of iufantry, but
to fall upon both flanks and throw the Indians into
disorder. The right wing, led by Alexander himself,
drove back the enemy's horse upon the line of
elephants, which then advanced and kept the Mace-
donians in check for some time. " Wherever Porus
saw cavalry advancing, he opposed elephants, but
these slow and unwieldy animals could not keep
pace with the rapid evolutions of the horse."* At
length the elephants, wounded and frightened, rushed
madly about, trampling down friends as well as foes.
Then the small body of Indian horse being surrounded,
was overpowered by the Macedonians, and nearly all
slain ; and the large mass of Indian infantry, which
still held out, being vigorously attacked on all sides
by the victorious horse, broke their ranks and fled.
Then, says Arrianj-j" " Kraterus, and the captains who
were with him on the other side of the river, no
sooner perceived the victory to incline to the Mace-
donians, than they passed over, and made a dreadful
slaughter of the Indians in pursuit."

From the last statement which I have quoted, it
is clear that the battle-field was within sight of Alex-
ander's camp. Wow, this is especially true of the
plain about Mong, which is within easy ken of the
east of Alexander's camp at Shah-Kabir, the nearest
point being only 2 miles distant. With this last
strong evidence in favour of Jalalpur as the site of
Alexander's camp, I close my discussion of this in-
teresting question. But as some readers, like Mr.
Grote,J the historian of Greece, may still think that

* Curtius, Vita Alex., viii. 14, 27. t ' Anabasis,' y. 18.

J ' History of Greece,' xii. 308, note.

17G THE ANCIENT GEOGEArHY OF INDIA.

General Abbott has shown " highly plausible reasons "
in support of his opinion that Alexander's camp was
at Jhelam, I may here point out that the village of
Pabral, Avhich he has selected as the battle-field, is
not less than 14 miles from Jhelam, and therefore
quite beyond the ken of Alexander's camp. I may
quote also Abbott's own admission that the bed of the
Sukhetr river, a le^ol plain of sand one mile in width,
" is a torrent after heavy rain, and is so full of quick-
sands as to be unsuited to military operations." Now,
this very Sulchetr river actually lies between Pabral
and the site of the Indian camp opposite Jhelam, and
as we know that a heavy storm of rain had fallen
during the preceding night, the Sukhetr would have
been an impassable torrent at the time of the battle.
And so also would have been the Jada river, which
joins the Jhelam just below the Sukhetr. With these two
intervening rivers, which, whether wet or dry, would
have been obstacles equally great to tlie march of the
Indian army, and more specially to the passage of the
war-chariots, I am quite satisfied that the battle-field
could not have been to the north of the Sukhetr river.
The position of Bukephala still remains to be dis-
cussed. According to Strabo,* the city of Bukephala
was built on the west bank of the river, where Alex-
ander had crossed it ; but Plutarch']' says that it was
near the Hydaspes, in the place where Bukephalus
was buried. Arrian,:^ however, states that it was
built on the site of his camp, and was named Buke-
p)hala in memory of his horse. Diodorus, Curtius,
and Justin leave the exact position undecided ; but
they all agree that it was on the opposite bank of the

* Geogr., XV. 1, 29. f ' Life of Alexander.' f ' Anabasis,' t. 19.

XOETHERN INDIA. 177

river to Nilisea, which was certainly huilt on the field
of battle. With these conflicting statements alone
to guide ns, it is difBcult to arrive at any positive
conclusion. According as we follow Strabo or Arrian,
we must place BukejjhaJa at Dilawar, or at Jahilpur.
Both places are equidistant from the battle-field of
Mong, which I take without much hesitation to be
the site of Niksea. If the two cities were built on
the same plan, which is not improbable, then DilaAvar
would have the preferable claim to represent Buke-
phala, as its ruined mound is of the same size and
height as that of Mong. I have already noticed in
another place the possibility that Bugiad, or Bugial,
the name of the district in which Dilawar is situated,
may be only an abbreviation of Bukephalia by the easy
elision of the jo//. But this is only a guess, and I have
nothing else to offer on the subject, save the fact that
the ancient name of Jalalpur was certainly GirjcU-,
while that of Diljiwar is quite uncertain, as Udinagar
is applied to at least three different places. The
claims of Dilawar and Jalalpur are perhaps equally
balanced, excepting in the one important point of posi-
tion, in which the latter has a most decided advantage ;
and as this superiority would not have escaped the keen
observation of the founder of Alexandria, I think that
Jalalpur must be the site of the famous city of Buke-
phala.

Nikaa^ or Mo)ig.

The position of Mong has already been described,
but I may repeat that it is 6 miles to the east of
JalS,lpur, and the same distance to the south of Dila-
war. The name is usually pronounced Mong^ or Mung^

178 THE ANCIEJJT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

but it is written without the nasal, and is said to have
been founded by Eaja Moga^ or Muga. He is also
called Eaja SanlcJidr, which I take to mean king of
the Sakas, or iSaca. His brother Eama founded Eam-
pur, or Efi,ninagar, the modern Easul, which is 6 miles
to the north-east of Mong, and exactly opposite Dila-
war. His sister's son, named Kamkamarath, was Eaja
of Girjak or Jalalpur. The old ruined mound on
which Mong is situated, is 600 feet long by 400 feet
broad and 50 feet high, and is visible for many miles
on all sides. It contains 975 houses built of large old
bricks and 5000 inhabitants, who are chiefly Jats.
The old wells are very numerous, their exact number,
according to my informant, being 175.

I have already stated that I take Mong to be the
site of Niksea, the city which Alexander built on the
scene of his battle with Porus. The evidence on this
point is, I think, as complete as could be wished ; but
I have still to explain how the name of Niksea could
have been changed to Mong. The tradition that the
town was founded by Eaja Moga is strongly corrobo-
rated by the fact that Maharaja Moga is mentioned
in Mr. Eoberts's Taxila inscription. Now, Moga is
the same name as Moa^ and the coins of Moa^ or
Mauas are still found in Mong. But the commonest
Greek monogram on these coins forms the letters
NIK, which I take to be the abbreviation of Nik(sa,
the place of mintage. If this inference be correct, as
I believe it is, then Nikcea must have been the prin-
cipal mint-city of the great king Moga, and therefore
a place of considerable importance. As the town of
Mong is traditionally attributed to Raja Moga as the
founder, we may reasonably conclude that he must

vm.

V'-^OA'

ZUOUJ /I'V^i,

■J ■■'■'*M

HILL OF

between the Rivers

CHENAB AND RAVI.

^.Ridge.JGOfeet
Q. .HoTZun. .iZfket
W Bneii Walls
D . IsolaJed low hiU
E . Ruined. Buildcn^s

Scale oi' -b'ee.

looo

?it ?Y■t^//^ ooiuA:

NORTHERN INDIA. 179

have rebuilt or increased the place under the new
name of Moga-grama^ which, in the spoken dialects,
would be shortened to Mogaon and Movg. Coins of
all the Indo-Scythian princes are found at Mong in,
considerable numbers, and I see no reason to doubt
that the place is as old as the time of Alexander. The
copper coins of the Nameless Indo-Scythian king
especially are found in such numbers at Mong that
they are now commonly known in the neighbourhood
as Monga-sdhis.

Gujarat.

The city of Gujarat is situated 9 miles to the west
of the Chen^b river, on the high-road from Jhelam
to Labor. The city is said to have been first called
liairdt, and the district Hairdt-des.* Its original
foundation is ascribed to a Surajbansi Rajput named
Bachan Fdl, of whom nothing more is known ; and
its restoration is attributed to Ali Khdn, a Gujar,
whose name is strangely like that of Alakhdna, the
Eaja of Gurjjara, who was defeated by Sangkara
Yarmma between a.d. 883 and 901. FoUowtag up
these traditions, GujarS,t is said to have been destroyed
in A.D. 1303, and to have been rebuilt by the Gujars
in A.H. 996, or a.d. 1588, during the reign of Akbar.

Sdkala, or Sangala.

The Sangala of Alexander has long ago been recog-
nized in the Sdkala of the Brahmans and the Sdgal of
the Buddhists; but its position would still perhaps
have remained undetermined, had it not fortunately
been visited by the Chinese pilgrim Hwen Thsang in

* I take Sairat to be only an aspirated form of Ardtta.

N 2

180 THE ANCIENT GEOGEAniY OF INDIA.

A.D. 630. Both Arrian and Curtius place Sangala to
the east of the Ilydraotes, or Eavi ; but the itinerary
of Hwen Thsang shows that it was to the west of the
Eavi, and as nearly as possible in the position of the
present Sangla-wala-Tiba, or " Sangala Hill." I first
became acquainted with this place in 1839, when I
obtained a copy of Mogal Beg's manuscript map, com-
piled by Wilford, who has three times described its
position in the ' Asiatic Eesearches.'* But I was not
able to obtain any account of the place until 1354,
when I heard from Colonel G. Hamilton, who had
visited it, and from Captain Blagrave, who had sur-
veyed it, that Sangala was a real hill with traces of
buildings, and with a sheet of water on one side of it.
During my tour through the Panjab, I was able to
A'isit the hill myself, and I am now satisfied that it
must be the Sangala of Alexander, although the posi-
tion does not agree with that which his historians
have assigned to it.

In the time of Hwen Thsang She-kie-lo, or Sdkala,
was in ruins, and the claief town of the district was
Tse-kia, or CheJcia, which may also be read as Dhaka
or Taka. The pilgrim places this new town at 15 li,
or 2\ miles, to the north-east of Sdkala; but as all
the country within that range is open and flat, it is
certain that no (own could ever have existed in the
position indicated. In the same direction, however,
but at 19 miles, or 115 //, I found the ruins of a large
town, called Asariir^ which accord almost exactly with
the pilgrim's description of the new town of Tse-kia.
It is necessary to fix the position of this place, because
Hwen Thsang's measurements, both coming and going,

* Vols. Y. 282 ; vi. 520 ; ix. 53.

NORTHERN INDIA. 181

are referred to it and not to S&kala. From Ivashmir
the pilgrim proceeded by Punach to Eajapnra, a small
town in the lower hills, which is now called Eajaori.
Prom thence he travelled to the south-east over a
mountain, and across a river called Chen-ta-lo-po-kia,
which is the Chandrahlidga^ or modern Chen^b, to She-
ye-pu-lo, or Jayapura (probably Hafizabad), where he
slept for the night, and on the next day he reached
Tse-Jcia, the whole distance being 700 li, or 116 miles.
As a south-east direction would have taken the pil-
grim to the east of the Eavi, we must look for some
known point in his subsequent route as the best means
of checking this erroneous bearing. This fixed point
we find in She-lan-to-Io, the well-known Jdlandhara,
which the pilgrim places at 500, plus 50, plus 140 or
150 li, or altogether between 690 and 700 li to the
east of Tse-kia. This place was, therefore, as nearly
as possible, equidistant from Eajaori and Jalandhar.
Now, Asarur is exactly 112 miles distant from each
of these places in a direct line di-awn on the map, and
as it is undoubtedly a very old place of considerable
size, I am satisfied that it must be the town of Tse-kia
described by Hwen Thsang.

In AD. 630 the pilgrim found the walls of Sdkala
completely ruined, but their foundations still remained,
showing a circuit of about 20 //, or 3-^ miles. In the
midst of the ruins there was still a small portion of
the old city inhabited, which was only 6 or 7 li, or
just one mile, in circuit. Inside the city there was a
monastery of one hundred monks who studied the
Hinayana, or exoteric doctrines of Buddhism, and be-
side it there was a stupa, 200 feet in height, where
the four previous Buddhas had left their footprints.

182 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

At 5 or 6 li^ or less than 1 mile, to tlie north-west,
there was a second stupa, also about 200 feet high,
which was built by King Asoka on the spot where
the four previous Buddhas had explained the law.

Sdnglawdla Tiba is a small rooky hill forming two
sides of a triangle, with the open side toAvards the
south-east. The north side of the hill rises to a height
of 215 feet, but the north-east side is only 160 feet.
The interior area of the triangle slopes gradually down
to the south-east till it ends abruptly in a steep bank
32 feet above the ground. This bank was once crowned
with a brick wall, which I was able to trace only at
the east end, where it joined the rock. The whole
area is covered with brick ruins, amongst which I
found two square foundations. The bricks are of a
very large size, 15 by 9 by 3 inches. During the
last fifteen years these bricks have been removed in
great numbers. Nearly 4000 were carried to the
large village of Marh, (1 miles to the north, and about
the same number must have been taken to the top of
the hill to form a tower for the siu'vey operations. The
base of the hill is from 1700 to 1800 feet on each
side, or just 1 mile in circuit. On the cast and south
sides the approach to the hill is covered by a large
swamp, half a mile in Icngtl), and nearly a quarter of
a mile in breadtli, Avliich dries up annually in the
summer, but durhig the seasonal rains has a general
depth of about 3 feet. In the time of Alexander this
must have been a fine sheet of Avater, which has been
gradually lessened in depth by the annual washings
of silt from the hill abnve. On the north-( astern side
of the hill there arc the remains of two large buildings,
fr(jm wliich I obtained old bricks of the enormous size

NOETHEEN INDIA. 183

of 17^ by 11 by 3 inches. Close by there is an old
well which was lately cleared out by some of the wan-
dering tribes. On the north-western side, 1000 feet
distant, there is a low ridge of rock called Mtinda-ka-
pura, from 26 to 30 feet in height, and about 500 feet
in length, which has formerly been covered with brick
buildings. At If mile to the south, there is another
ridge of three small hills, called Jrna and little Sdvgala.
All these hills are formed of the same dark grey rock
as that of Chanyot and of the Karana hills to the west
of the Chenab, which contains much iron, but is not
worked on account of the want of fuel. The produc-
tion of iron is noticed by Hwen Thsang.

In comparing this account with the description of
the Chinese pilgrim, I only find two places that can
be identified. The first is the site of the modern town,
which was about a mile in circuit, and was situated
in the midst of the ruins. This I take to be the hill
itself, which accords exactly with the description, and
which would certainly have been occupied in pre-
ference to any part of the open plain below, on ac-
count of its security. The second is the stupa of
Asoka, which was situated at rather less than 1 mile
to the north-west of the monastery inside the town.
This I would identify with the low ridge of rock on
the north-west called ihindapapura, of which the
highest point at the north-western end is 4000 feet,
or more than three-quarters of a mile distant from the
central point of the triangular area of the town. The
plain on the north and west sides of the hill is strewn
with broken pottery and fragments of brick for a con-
siderable distance, shoAving that the town must once
have extended in both of those directions. But the

184 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

wliole circuit of these remains did not appear to be
more than 1| or 1-^ miles, or about one-half of Hwen
Thsang's measurement.

The Brahmanical accounts of Sakala have been
collected from the Mahabharata by Professor Lassen
in his ' Pentapotamia Indica.'* According to that
poem, Sakala, the capital of the Madras, who are also
called Jartikas and Bfihikas, was situated on the Apagd
rivulet to the west of the Irdvati, or E^vi river. It
was approached from the east side by pleasant paths
through the Pilu forest,

" Sami-^!7a kariranam vaneshu aukliavartmasu."

which Professor Lassen translates " per amcenas s^l-
varum tramites ambiilantes." But the Pilu, or Salva-
dora Persica^ is the commonest wood in this part of
the Panjab, and is specially abundant in the Pechna
Doab. In these "pleasant paths" of the Pilu forest,
the traveller was unfortunately liable to be despoiled
of his clothes by robbers. This description by the
author of the Mahabharata was fully verified by Hwen
Thsang in a.d. 630, and again by myself in 1863. On
leaving Sakala, the Chinese pilgrim travelled eastward
into a forest of Po-lo-she trees, where his party en-
countered fifty brigands, who robbed them of their
clothes.t In November, 1863, I approached Sakala
from the east through a continuous wood of Pilu trees,
and pitched my tent at the foot of the hill. During
the night the tent was three times approached by
parties of robbers who were detected by the vigilance
of my watch dog. M. Julien has properly rendered
Hwen Thsang Po-lo-she hj Paldsa, the Butea frondosa,

'" Pcntapot. Irid., pp. 73, 74. f ' Hioiicn Thsang,' i. 97.

NORTHERN INDIA. 185

or Dhdk tree ; but as the forest consisted of Filu trees,
both before and after the time of Hwen Thsang, I
would suggest the propriety of correcting Pi-lo-she to
Pilo ; I conjecture that the Chinese editor of the pil-
grim's life, who M-as most probably ignorant of the Pilu,
substituted the well-known Paldsa, which is frequently
mentioned by Hwen Thsang, under the belief that he
was making an important and necessary correction.

The country is still well known as Madr-des, or the
district of the Madras, which is said by some to ex-
tend from the Bias to the Jhelam, but by others only
to the Chenab. Eegarding the Apagd rivulet, I be-
lieve that it may be recognized in the Ayak Nadi, a
small stream which has its rise in the Jammu hills to
the north-east of Syalkot. After passing Syalkot the
Ayak runs westerly near Sodhra, where in the rainy
season it throws off its superfluous water in the Chenab.
It then turns to the south-south-west past Banka and
Nandanwa to Bhutala, and continues this same course
till within a few miles of Asarur. There it divides
into two branches, which, after passing to the east
and west of Asarur, rejoin at 2-| miles to the south of
Sdngalaiodlu Tiba. Its course is marked in the re-
venue survey maps for 15 miles to the south-west of
Sangala, where it is called the Nananwa canal. An
intelligent man of Asarur informed me that he had
seen the bed of the Nananwa 20 kos to the south-
west, and that he had always heard that it fell into
the Eavi a long way off. This, then, must be Arrian's
"small rivulet" near which Alexander pitched his
camp, at 100 stadia, or 11^ miles, to the east of the
Akesines, below its junction with the Hydaspes.* At

* ' Anabasis,' vi. 6.

186 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

that time, therefore, the water of the Ayak must have
flowed for a long distance below Sangala, and most
probably fell into the Eavi, as stated by my informant.
Near Asarur and Sangala, the Ayak is now quite dry
at all seasons ; but there must have been water in it
at Dhakawala only 24 miles above Asarur, even so
late as the reign of Shah Jahan, when his son Dara
Shekoh drew a canal from that place to his hunting
seat at Shekohpura, which is also called the Ayak, or
Jhilri canal.

The Buddhist notices of Sakala refer chiefly to its
history in connection with Buddhism. There is the
legend of the seven kings who went towards Sagal to
carry ofi^ Prabhavati, the wife of king Kusa.* But the
king, mounting an elephant, met them outside the
city, and cried out with so loud a voice, " I am Kusa,"
that the exclamation was heard over the whole world,
and the seven kings fled away in terror. This legend
may have some reference to the seven brothers and
sisters of Amba-Kapa, which is only 40 miles to the
cast of Sangala. Before the beginning of the Chris-
tian era Sdgal was the capital of Raja Milinda, whose
name is still famous in all Buddhist countries as the
skilful opponent of the holy Nagasena.j" The ter-
ritory was then called Yona, or Yarana, which might
refer either to the Gr(>ek conquerors, or to their Indo-
Scythian successors ; but as Nagasena is said to have
lived either 400 or 500 years after Buddha, the date
of Milinda is uncertain. Milinda himself states that
he A^as born at Alasadda, which was 200 yojans, or
about 1400 miles, distant from Sagal. He was there-
fore undoubtedl}' a foreigner ; and, in spite of the

* Hardy, ' Manual of Buddhism,' 2G3, note. t Ihid., 513.

NORTHERN INDIA. 187

exaggerated distance, I would identify Ms birthplace
with. Alexandria Opiane, at the foot of the Indian
Caucasus, about 4.0 miles to the north of Kabul. At
a somewhat later period, Sdlcala was subject to Ma-
hirkul, or Mihirkul^ who lost his kingdom by an
unsuccessful campaign against Baladitya, king of Ma-
gadha. But being afterwards set at liberty by the
conqueror, he obtained possession of Kashmir by
treachery. I know of no other mention of Sakala
until A.D. 633, when it was visited by Hwen Thsang,
who describes the neighbouring town of Tse-lcia as
the capital of a large kingdom, which extended from
the Indus to the Byas, and from the foot of the hills
to the confluence of the five rivers.

The classical notices of Sangala are confined to the
two historical accounts of Arrian and Curtius, and a
passing mention by Diodorus. Curtius simply calls it
" a great city defended not only by a wall, but by a
swamp {palus)P* But the swamp was a deep one,
as some of the inhabitants afterwards escaped by
swimming across it (^paludem iransnavere). Arrian
calls it a lake, xi^vi]^ but adds that it was not deep,
that it was near the city wall, and that one of the
gates opened upon it. He describes the city itself as
strong both by art and nature, being defended by
brick walls and covered by the lake. Outside the city
there was a low hill, ryri\o(f>os, which the Kathseans had
surrounded with a triple line of carts for the protec-
tion of their camp.f This little hill I would identify

* Vita A.lex., ix. 1: "Ad magnam deinde urbem pervenit, non
muro solum, sed etiani palude munitam."

t ' Anabasis,' v. 22 : KukXo) 6e tov yrj'K6<j)ov ajid^as irepia-Tria'avTes,
ivTos avrcov €(TrpaT07rcd€V0if, a>s rpiivKovv ^apaKO. npo^cl^Xrurdat tuiv
ap.a^Q

bcov.

188 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

with the low ridge to the north-west, called Munda-
papiira, which would certainly appear to have heen
outside the city walls, as the broken bricks and pot-
tery do not extend so far.* I conclude that the camp
on the hill was formed chiefly by the fugitives from
other places, for whom there was no room in the
already crowded city. The hill must have been close
to the city walls, because the Katheeans, after the
second line of carts had been broken by the Greeks,
fled into the city and shut the gates. It is clear,
therefore, that the triple row of carts could only have
surrounded the hill on three sides, and that the fourth
side was open to the city. The hill was thus connected
with the city as a temporary out-work, from T^-hich the
defenders, if overpowered, could make their escape
beliind the walls. As the number of carts captured
by Alexander was only 300, the hill must have been
a very small one ; for if we allow 100 carts to each
line, the innermost line, where they were closely
packed, at 10 feet per cart, could not have been more
than 1000 feet in length round the three sides at the
base. Placing the middle row 50 feet beyond the
inner one, its length would have been 1200 feet, and
that of the outer row, at the same distance, Avould
have been 1400 feet, or little more than a qi^arter of
a mile. Now this accords so well with the size of the
Mundapapura hill, that I feci considerable confidence
in the accuracy of my identification. As these carts
were afterwards used by Ptolemy to form a single line
of barrier outside the lake, we obtain a limit to its
size, as 300 carts would not have extended more than
0000 feet, or about 17 feet per cart, if placed cud to

* See Map No. VIII.

NORTHERN IXDIA, 189

end ; but as there may have been numerous trees on
the bank of the lake, the length of the barrier may-
be extended to about 6000 feet. Now it is remark-
able that this is the exact length of this outer line ac-
cording to my survey, which shows the utmost extent
of the lake in the rainy season. I could find no trace
of the rampart and ditch with which Alexander sur-
rounded the town, but I was not disappointed, as the
rains of two thousand years must have obliterated them
long ago.

The Kathseans made an unsuccessful attempt to
escape across the lake during'the night, but they were
checked by the barrier of carts, and driven back into
the city. The walls were then breached by under-
mining, and the place was taken by assault, in which
the Kathseans, according to Ai-rian, lost 17,000 slain,
and 70,000 prisoners. Curtius, however, gives the
loss of the Kathseans at 8000 killed. I am satisfied
that Arrian's numbers are erroneous, either through
error or exaggeration, as the city was a small one,
and could not, at the ordinary rate of 400 or 500
square feet to each person, have contained more than
12,000 people. If we double or triple this for the
influx of fugitives, the whole number would be about
30,000 persons. I should like, therefore, to read
Arrian's numbers as 7000 slain and 17,000 prisoners.
This would bring his number of slain into accord with
Curtius, and his total number into accord with proba-
bility.

Both Curtius and Arrian agree in stating that Alex-
ander had crossed the Hydraotes before he advanced
against Sangala, which should therefore be to the east
of that river. But the detailed measurements of

190 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

Hwen Thsang are too precise, tlie statement of the Ma-
liabharata is too clear, and tlie coincidence of name is
too exact to be set aside lightly. Now, the accounts
of both Arrian and Curtius show that Alexander was
in full march for the Ganges when he heard " that
certain free Indians and Kathseans were resolved to
give him battle if he attempted to lead his army
thither." Alexander no sooner heard this than he
immediately directedhis march against the Kathseans,
that is, he changed the previous direction of his march,
and proceeded towards Sangala. This was the uniform
plan on which he acted during his campaign in Asia,
to leave no enemy behind him. When he was in full
march for Persia, he turned aside to besiege Tyre ;
when he was in hot pursuit of Bessus, the murderer
of Darius, he turned to the south to subdue Dran-
giana and Arachosia ; and when he was longing to
enter India, he deviated from his direct march to
besiege Aornos. With the Kathseans the provocation
was the same. Like the Tyrians, the Drangians, and
the Bazarians of Aornos, they wished to avoid rather
than to oppose Alexander ; but if attacked they were
resolved to resist. Alexander was then on the eastern
bank of the Hydraotcs, or Ravi, and on the day after
his departure from the river he came to the city of
Fiiiiprama, where he halted to refresh his soldiers, and
on the third day reached Sangala. As he was obliged
to halt after his first two marches, they must have
been forced ones, of not less than 25 miles each, and
his last may have been a common march of 12 or 15
miles. Sangala, therefore, must have been about 60
or 05 miles from the camp on the bank of the Hydra-
otcs. Now this is the exact distance of the Sangala

NOBTIIEEN INDIA. 191

hill from Lalior whicli was most probably the position
of Alexander's camp when he heard of the recusancy
of the Katheei. I believe, therefore, that Alexander
at once gave up his march to the Ganges, and re-
crossed the Eavi to punish the people of Sangala for
daring to withhold their submission.

Taki, or Asarur.

I have already mentioned Asarur as the probable
position of Hwen Thsang's Tse-kia, which was the
capital of the Panjab in a.d. 633. It is situated about
2 miles to the south of the high-road between Labor
and Pindi Bhatiyan, being 45 miles from the former,
and 24 from the latter place.* It is 19 miles distant
from Sangala by the road, but not more than 16 miles
in a direct line across the country. Nothing whatever
is known of its ancient history, but the people say
that it was originally called TJdamnagar^ or TJda-
Nac/ari, and that it was deserted for many centuries,
until Akbar's time, when TJgar Shah, a Dogar, built
the Masjid, which still exists, on the top of the
mound. The antiquity claimed for the place is con-
firmed by the large size of the bricks, 18 by 10 by 3
inches, which are found all over the ruins, and by the
great number of Indo-Scythian coins that are dis-
covered annually after heavy rain. It therefore
reaches back to the first century before the Christian
era, and from its position I believe it to be the Pim-
prama of Alexander.

The ruins of Asarur consist of an extensive mound
15,600 feet, or nearly 3 miles in circuit. The highest
point is in the north-west quarter, where the mound

* See Map No. VI.

192 THE ANCIENT aEOGEAPHY OF INDIA.

rises to 59 feet above the fields. This part, which I
take to be the ancient palace, is 600 feet long and 400
feet bmad, and quite regular in shape. It contains an
old well 21 feet in diameter, which has not been used
for many years, and is now dry. The palace is com-
pletely surrounded by a line of large mounds about
25 feet in height, and 8100 feet, or 1| mile in circuit,
which was evident!}' the stronghold or citadel of the
place. The mounds are rounded and prominent, like
the ruins of large towers or bastions. On the east and
south sides of the citadel the mass of ruins sinks to 1 0
and 15 feet in height, but it is twice the size of the
citadel, and is, no doubt, the remains of the old city.
I could find no trace of any ancient buildings, as all
the surface bricks have been long ago carried off to
the neighbouring shrine of Ugar Shah at Khdnt/dk
Masrur ; but amongst the old bricks forming the sur-
rounding wall of the Masjid I found three moulded in
different patterns, which could only have belonged to
buildings of some importance. I found also a wedge-
shaped brick 15 inches long and 3 inches thick, with
a breadth of 10 inches at the narrow end, and nearly
10^ inches at the broad end. This could only have
been made for a stupa, or a well, but most probably
for the latter, as the existing well is 21 feet in dia-
meter. Asarur is now a small village of only 45
houses.

Hweii Thsang places Tse-lna at 14 or 15 /«, or 1\
miles, to the north-east of Sdkala ; but as there are no
traces of any former town in this position, I think it
very probable that the true numbers should be 114 or
115 //, or 19 miles, which is just the distance between
Sangala and Asarur by the road, although in a direct

NOETHERN INDIA. 193

line it is not more than IG miles. The circuit of Tue-
kia was about 20 li^ or upwards of three miles, which
agrees sufficiently well with my measurement of the
ruins of Asarur at 15,600 feet, or just three miles. At
the time of Hwen Thsang's visit there were ten mo-
nasteries, but very few Buddhists, and the mass of the
people worshipped the Brahmauical gods. To the
north-east of the town at 10 //, or nearly 2 miles,
there was a stupa of Asoka, 200 feet in height, which
marked the spot where Buddha had halted, and which
was said to contain a large quantity of his relics. This
stupa may, I think, be identified with the little mound
of Sdldr, near Thata Syadon, just two miles to the
north of Asarur.

Han-si, or Nara-Sinha.

On leaving Tse-lda, Hwen Thsang travelled east-
ward to JSa-lo-Sevg-ho, or Ndra-Sinha, beyond which
place he entered the forest of Po-lo-she, or Filii trees
{Sahadora Persica), where he encountered the bri-
gands, as already related. This town of Nara-Sinha
is, I believe, represented by the large ruined mound
of Ran-Si, which is situated 9 miles to the south of
Shekohpura, and 25 miles to the east- south-east of
Asarur, and about the same distance to the west of
Labor.* Si, or Sih, is the usual Indian contraction
for SinJi, and Ban is a well-known interchange of pro-
nunciation with Nar, as in Banod for Narod, a large
town in the Gwalior territory, about 35 miles to the
south of Narwar, and in Nakldor for Lakhnor, the
capital of KateJiar, or Bohilkhand. In Bansi, there-
fore, we have not only an exact correspondence of

* See Map No. VI.

194 HIE ANCIENT GEOGEAPIIY OF INDIA.

position, but also the most precise agreement of name,
with the long-sought-for Nara-Sinha of the Chinese
pilgrim. This identificatiou is the more valuable, as it
furnishes the most conclusive evidence that could be
desired of the accuracy of Hwcn Thsang's emplacement
of Sangala to the westward of the Eavi, instead of to
the eastward, as indicated by the classical authorities.
The remains of Ban-si consist of a large ruined
mound, 600 feet in length from north to south, and
500 feet from east to west, with a general height of
from 20 to 25 feet. It is thickly covered with broken
bricks of large size, and coins are occasionally found
by the saltpetre manufacturers. All the old ruined
mounds in the Punjab, as Shorkot, Multan, Harapa,
etc., abound in saltpetre, which has been derived from
man's occupation, and which, therefore, affords a cer-
tain proof that the mound of Eansi is not a natural
elevation, but an artificial accumulation of rubbish,
the result of many centuries. Eansi also possesses a
tomb of a Nao-tjaja, or giant of " nine yards," which
I believe to be only the remains of a recumbent statue
of Buddha, after his attainment of Nirvana, or death.
Similar gigantic statues of bricks and mud are still
made in Barma, which, when in ruins, present exactly
the same appearance as these Nao-^aja tombs. As
Buddha was believed to have died with his face to the
east, all the Nirodna statues would, of course, be
placed in a direction from north to south ; and as Mu-
hammadan tombs in India are placed in the same
direction, I believe that the early Musalmans took
advantage of these Buddhist statues to form ready-
made tombs for their leaders who fell in battle. I shall
have more to saj- on this subject hereafter, and I only

NORTHERN INDIA. 196

mention it here as another proof of the antiquity of
Ransi.

Amhakajjiy or Amahatis.

Amba and Kdpi are the names of two ruined mounds,
the remains of ancient cities, which are said to have
been called after a brother and sister, whose story has
already been referred to in my account of Manikyala.
According to the legend, the family consisted of three
brothers, named Sh'-kap, Sir-suk, and Amba, and of
four sisters, named Kdpi, Kaljii, Muiide, and Mdndehi,
each of whom is said to have founded a city to the
south of Shekohpura, and in the immediate vicinity of
Han-si. The ruins of these cities are pointed out at
the following places :

1st. Sir-leap is a mound of ruins near the village of
Balarh, 6 miles to the south of Shekohpura. It is re-
markable that the name of Balarh is also connected with
Sirkap in the legends of the Sindh Sagar Doab, which
assign the Balarh Tope as the seat of this Eaja.

2nd. Sir-suk is a ruined mound, near the village of
Murad, 3^ miles to the south of Shekohpura, and 2\
miles to the north of this Sir-kap mound.

3rd. Amha is a large ruined mound and village, up-
wards of 9 miles to the south of Shekohpara, and one
mile to the east of Ban-si.

4th. KdjA, or Kanpi, as it is also written and pro-
nounced, is a small mound 1\ miles to the east of
Amba, on the old high-road to Labor.

5th. Kalpi is another small ruined mound near the
village of Bhuipur, about midway between the mounds
of Sir-kap and Amba.

6th. Munde is a ruined mound and village on the

196 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

west bank of the Bd^h-bachha river, 8 miles to the
south of Eansi and Amba.

7th. Mdndeld is a mined mound and village to the
south-east of Amba and Kapi, from which it is equi-
distant 3^ miles.

All of these mounds are on the western bank of the
Hdgli-hacliha river, and at a mean distance of about 25
miles to the westward of Labor. The whole of the
villages just mentioned will be found in the district
map of Labor, but the mounds themselves are shown
only in the large map of the Sarakpur Parganah. I
have already remarked that the name of the Bdgh-
haclilia river is most probably connected with the
legend of the "Seven hungry Tiger Cubs" {Bdffh-
lachhas), whose names are preserved in those of the
seven mounds above noted. The same story is told
here that is so common in the Sindh Sagar Doab.
Easalu, the Eaja of Syalkot, plays at Chopar with Sir-
kajj for a human head, and having won it accepts his
daughter Koldld instead of the stake. The people
have the most undoubtiug faith in the truth of this
legend, and they quoted, with evident satisfaction, the
following couplet in support of their belief: —

" Amha-Kapa }iai larai,
Kaljpi hahin chhurdwan ai."

When strife arose 'tween Arab and Zap
Tlieir sister Kalpi made it up.

As they could give no explanation of the nature of
this quarrel, the couplet adds but little to our informa-
tion regarding the seven brothers and sisters. I may
observe, however, that the junction of the two names
of Amia and Xapi is most probably as old as the time
of Ptolemy, who places a to-\vn named Amakuiis^ or

NOETHEEN INDIA. 197

Amakapis^ to the west of Eavi, and iii the immediate
neighbourhood of Labokla, or Lahor.*

The mound of Amba is 900 feet square, and from
25 to 30 feet in height ; but as the whole of the sur-
rounding fields, for a breadth of about 600 feet, are
covered with broken pottery, the full extent of the
ancient town may be taken at not less than 8000 feet,
or upwards of 3 miles in circuit. The mound itself is
covered with broken bricks of large size, amongst
which I discovered several pieces of carved brick. I
found also one piece of grey sandstone, and a piece of
speckled iron ore, similar to that of Sangala, and of
the Earana hills. According to the statements of the
people, the place was founded by Eaja Amba 1800 or
1900 years ago, or just about the beginning of the
Christian era. This date would make the three brothers
contemporary with Hushka, Jushka, and Kanishka,
the three great kings of the YucJd, or Kushdn race of
Indo-Scythians, with whom I am, on other grounds,
inclined to identify them. At present, however, I am
not prepared to enter upon the long discussion which
would be necessary to establish their identity.

LoJidwar, or Ldhor.

The great city of Lahor, which has been the capital
of the Panjab for nearly nine hundred years, is said to
have been founded by Lava, or Zo, the son of Kama,
after whom it was named Lohdivar. Under this form
it is mentioned by Abu Eihan ; but the present form

* The identification of Ptolemy's Labohla with Lahor was first made
in Kiepert's Map of India, according to Ptolemy, which accompanied
Lassen's ' Indische Alterthumskunde.' It has since been confirmed by
the researches of Mr. T. H. Thornton, the author of the ' History and
Antiquities of Labor.'

198 THE AKCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

of tie name, Ldhor, wliicli was soon adopted by the
Muhammadans, has now become universal. Its history
has been described by Mr. Thornton in a very full and
able account, replete with interesting information.
He has identified Labor with the LaboUa of Ptolemy,
which I believe to be correct, taking the first two
syllables Labo to represent the name of Lava. But I
would alter the termination of Ma to Ika^ or laha^ thus
making the whole name Laholuka for Lavdlaka, or the
" abode of Lava.''''

Hwen Thsang makes no mention of Labor, although
it is almost certain that he must have passed through
it on his way from Taki to Jalandhar. He notes*
that he halted for a whole month at a large city on
the eastern frontier of Taki ; but as this kingdom ex-
tended to the Eyas river on the east, the great city on
its eastern frontier should be looked for on the line of
the Bias, and not on the Bavi. It was most probably
Kasur. The first distinct mention of Labor occurs iii
the campaigns of Malimud of Ghazni, when the Brah-
man kings of the Kabul valley, being driven from
Peshawar and Ohind, established their new capital
first at Bh'ira on the Jhclam, and afterwards at Labor.
Thus both Jaij Fdl, and his son Anand Pdl, the suc-
cessive antagonists of Mahmud, are called Eajas of
Labor by Ferishta. This Hindu dynasty was sub-
verted in A.D. 1031, when Labor became the residence
of a Muhammadan governor under the king of Ghazni.f

* Julien's ' Hiouen Thsang,' i. 99.

t This date is derived from Ferishta; but there are coins of Mahmud
with Arabic and Sanskrit inscriptions, struck at Mahmudpur in a.h.
1019. Mr. Thomas has identified this city with Labor. It is found
in Abu Eihan, and other Muhammadan historians, under the corrupt
form of Maiidhukur, the capital of Labor.

NOETIIERN INDIA. 199

Upwards of a century later, in a.d. 1152, when Bah-
ram was driven from Ghazni by the Afghans of Ghor,
his son Kushru established himself at Labor. But
this new kingdom lasted for only two generations, un-
til A.D. 1186, when the sovereignty of the Ghaznavis
was finally extinguished by the capture and imprison-
ment of Khusru Malik, the last of his race.

Kusdivar, or KasCir.

According to the traditions of the people Kastlr was
founded by Kusa, the son of Eama, after whom it was
named Kusdwar, which, like the contemporary city of
Lohawar, has been slightly altered in pronunciation
by the transposition of the vowels. The town stands
on the high bank of the old bed of the Bias river, 32
miles to the south- south-east of Labor,* and is popu-
larly said to have once possessed bdra kilah, or " twelve
forts," of which seven only are now standing. Its
antiquity is undoubted. There are, however, no build-
ings or remains of any consequence ; but the extent of
the ruins is very great ;f and the situation on the
high-road between Labor and the old point of junc-
tion of the Bias and Satlej, opposite Fii-uzpur, is so
favourable that it must have been occupied at a very
early date. The position also is a strong one, as it is
covered by the Bias river on the south, and by ravines
on the other sides. It is quite impossible to define
the limits of the ancient city, as the suburbs of the
present town are entirely covered with the ruins of

* See Map No. VI.

t I speak from personal survey and examination ; but I can also
refer to Lieutenant Barr's ' Kabul and the Panjab,' p. 409, — " Easnr,
a large and ancient town, that in former days must have covered an
extensive area, as its ruins are interminable."

200

THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OP INDIA.

tombs and masjids, and other massive buildings ; but
it could not, I tbink, have occupied less than one
square mile, wbich Avould give a circuit of about four
miles for tbe walled town. Several of tbe tombs are
fully a mile distant from tbe present town ; and at
least one-balf of tbe intervening space, wbicb is
tbickly covered witb ruins, would appear to bave be-
longed to tbe ancient city. It seems probable, tbere-
fore, tbat tbis must be tbe "great town" on tbe
eastern frontier of Tdki^ tbat is, on tbe Bias river, at
wbicb Hwen Tbsang baited for a montb on bis Avay
from tbe capital of Tdki to CJdnapati. Unfortunately,
be bas omitted tbe usual details, and Ave bave only
the one bare fact, tbat it was situated somewbere on
tbe rigbt bank of tbe Bias opposite Labor, to guide us
in determining its position.

Chinapati^ or Pati.
Havcu Tbsang places tbe town of Cbinapati at 500
li, or 83 miles, to tbe cast of Tdki, a position which
corresponds almost exactly witb Fatti, a large and
very old town, situated 27 miles to tbe north-east of
Kasur, and 10 miles to the Avest of the Bias river.*
Unfortunately there is a discrepancy in the recorded
distance of tbe next place A'isitcd by the pilgrim,
otherAvise the site of Chinapati might have been fixed
absolutely with reference to its bearing and distance
from the well-known city of Jalandhar. In the Lifef
of Hwen Tbsang, Chinapati is said to be 50 li, or 8
miles, to the north-west of the Tdmasa-vana monastery,
which Avas 150 li, or 26 miles, to the south-west of
Jalandhar. But in the Travels J of Hwen Tbsang the

* Sec Map No. VI. t Julien's ' Hiouen Thsang,' i. 102.

X Ihid., ii. 198.

NORTHERN INDIA. 201

distance of the monastery is stated at 500 A", or 83
miles, from Chinapati. This last distance is quite im-
possible, as it would place Chinapati about 30 miles
to the north of Tdki, instead of 83 miles to the east of
it, as specified by the pilgrim in his journal. On the
other hand, the shorter distance of eight miles would
place it in the midst of the sandy bed of the Bias
river, where no town has ever existed. I would,
therefore, propose to read 150 li, or 25 miles, which
would fix Chinapati at the town of Patti, in the very
position that has already been determined by the
bearing and distance from Tdki.

Patti is a large brick town of considerable anti-
quity. According to Burnes,* it was built in the
reign of Akbar; but he is undoubtedly wrong, as
the town was already the head of a Parganah in the
time of Hum^yun, who assigned it to his servant
Jaohar.-j" It is called Patti-Haibatpur by Abul Fazl,:{:
and it is still known as Haibatpur-Patti. According
to the people, the town received its Muhammadan
name from Haibat Kh4n, whose date is not known,
but I think it probable that he may be identified with
Haibat Ehan Shirw^ni, who was a leading noble in
the time of Sikandar Ludi, and who commanded the
army of the Afghan king against Humayun on his
return from Persia. The antiquity of Patti is proved
by the numbers of burnt bricks and old wells which
are found about the town. The old dry wells were
noted more than three hundred years ago by Jaohar,||
the attendant of the Emperor Humayun ; and the pro-

* ' Travels in Panjab and Bokhara,' ii. 9.

t 'Memoirs of Humayun,' 112. % ' Ayin Akbari,' ii. 260.

II ' Memoirs of Humayun,' p. 113.

202 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

fusion of bricks struck Burnes,* who remarks that
" the houses are constructed of bricks, and the streets
are even laid with them. Some workmen digging a
well in this neighbourhood lately hit upon a former
well on which was a Hindu inscription. It set forth
that it had been built by one Jr/urtuta, of whom tra-
dition gives no account." I visited the place in 1838,
only a few years after Burnes, but I failed to recover
the inscription.

Another proof of antiquity is the presence of one of
the long graves or tombs, Avhicli the people call No-
ffcija^ or " Nine-yards," that is the Giant. The Patti
No-ffaja is said by Barrf to have lived in the time of
Akbar ; but these tombs, which are common in the
north-west of India, are more usually referred to the
Ghdzis, who fell in fight against the infidels in the
early ages of Muhammadanism. I would therefore
assign the^raye to the time of Mahmud of Ghazni,
and the brick tomb which has been erected over it to
the time of Akbar.

According to Ilwen Thsang, the district of China-
joata was about 2000 li, or 333 miles, in circuit. "With
these dimensions, it must have comprised the whole of
the upper Bari Doab, between the Bias and the Ravi,
from the foot of the hills to the old junction of the
Bias and Satlcj, near Firuzpur. The name of Chi-na-
po-ti, or Chinapati, is referred to the time of the great
Indo-Scythian king Kanishka, who fixed this place as
the residence of his Chinese hostages. The pilgrim
adds, that previous to their residence, India had pos-
sessed neither pears nor peaches, both of which were
introduced by the Chinese hostages. The pears were

* ' Panjab and Bokhara,' ii. 9. f ' Cabul and the Panjab,' p. 62.

NORTHEEN INDIA. 203

called Chi-na-ni, or Cldndni^ that is, " brouglit from
China," and the peaches Chi-na-Io-she-fo-ta-lo, or China-
rclja-putra^ that is, the " China King's sons." This is
not quite correct, as both pears and peaches are found
growing wild in the neighbouring hills. But there
are now two kinds of cultivated peaches, the one round
and juicy, the other flat and sweet. The first, which
is called dm in Hindi, and Shaftdlu in Persian, is
certainly indigenous ; but the other, which is called
Chini-shaffdht, is most probably that which Hwen
Thsang refers to as having been introduced from
China.

3. SHORKOT.

Hwen Thsang calls the central district of the Panjab
Po-fa-to, or Po-la-fa-to, for which M. Stanislas Julien
proposes to read Parvata. But to this it may be ob-
jected that parvata^ which means a " hill," could not
be, and in fact never is, applied as a name to any
place in the plains. The capital was situated at
700 li, or 117 miles, to the north-east of Multan, a
position which agrees almost exactly with the site of
Jhan//, on the Chenab. But as this place lies at some
distance above the junction of the Jhelam and Chenab,
it is most probable that it belonged to the northern
division of TdM. In this case the distance recorded
by Hwen Thsang would be too great, which might be
due to his overlooking the shortness of the kos in this
part of the country, as I have already explained in
my account of Singhapura. This kos is only 1 mile
and 2^ furlongs, or just ^ of the common kos. At this
valuation Hwen Thsang's distance would be only 76
miles, which is within a few miles of the position of

204

THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

Shorkot, or SJdr, as it is called in the 'Ayin Akbari.'
Now the initial syllable po of the Chinese name is fre-
quently interchanged with the syllable so, of which we
have a notable instance in Po-h-iu-Io for So-Io-tii-lo, or
Saldtura, the well-known birthplace of the famous gram-
marian Panini. It is quite possible, therefore, that
the same interchange may have occurred in the name
of Po-lo-fa-to, for So-lo-fa-to, or Soravati, which would
be a synonym for Shorkot. This is a mere suggestion
to account for the Chinese name of the capital, which
does not affect the identification of the province, as it
is quite certain, from its position to the north-east of
Multan, that it must correspond with the parffanaJi,
or district of Shorkot. The people I take to be the
SudraktB, or Oxudrakce of the classical writers, a
point which will be fully examined in my account of
Ajudhan.

The province is described by Hwen Thsang as being
5000 //, or 833 miles, in circuit, which must be greatly
exaggerated. On the cast the boundary was limited
by the Satlej, which for 100 miles formed the frontier
line of the kingdom of Gurjjara ; on the north it was
bounded by the province of Tdki for a distance of 200
miles from the Indus to the old junction of the Byas
and Satlej, near Firuzpur ; on the south it was
bounded by Multan for a distance of 150 miles from
the Indus, near Dera Din-pandk, to the Satlej, below
Fukpaian ; on the west it Avas bounded by the Indus
itself for about 50 miles. The total length of frontier
is therefore not more than 520 miles, which is con-
siderably less than the circuit recorded by Hwen
Thsang. The discrepancy may perhaps be explained,
as before, by the use of the short kos, which would

NORTHERN INDIA. 205

reduce the circuit of 833 miles to 531, -wliich agrees
very closely witli the actual measurements.

Within these limits there are several important
towns, and many ruined mounds, the remains of
ancient cities, which once played an important part
in the history of the Panjab. These are : —

-p. , J) ''I, fl- Shorkot.

(2. Kot Kamalia.
f3. Harapa.

BariDoab , . 4. Akhar.

15. Satgarha.

Doab [6. Depalpur.

Jalandhar Pithl7. Ajudhan.

S/iorkot.
Shor/cot is a huge mound of ruins, which gives its
name to the parganah, or division of Shot, or the
lower half of the Eichna Doab.* It was visited by
BurneSjf who describes the place as "a mound of earth,
surrounded by a brick wall, and so high as to be seen
for a circuit of six or eight miles." He adds that it
is much larger than Sehwan, which, following the
measurement of De la Hoste, is 1200 feet long, by
750 feet broad.]: According to my information, Sbor-
kot is much smaller than Harapa, and about the size
of Akbar, that is, 2000 feet by 1000 feet, but loftier
than either of them. The mound is surrounded by a
wall of large-sized bricks, which is an undoubted sign
of antiquity. Burnes was informed by the people that
their town had been destroyed by some king from the
westward, about 1300 years ago. The locality leads

* See Map No. VI. t ' Bokhara and Panjab,' i. 113.

X ' Journ. Asiat. See., Bengal, 1840, p. 913.

206

THE ANCIENT GEOGEAPIIY OP INDIA.

him to fix on it as the place where Alexander was
wounded, and to assign its doAvnfall to Alexander
himself. I received the same tradition about its de-
struction, which I would attribute to the White Huns,
who must have entered the Panjab from the westward
during the sixth century, or about the very time
specified in the tradition.

The foundation of the city is attributed to a fabu-
lous Eaja Slwr, of whom nothing is known but the
name. I think it probable that Shorkot may be the
Alexandria Soriano, Xwpmvrj, of Stephanus Byzan-
tinus, who gives no clue to its position save the bare
fact that it was in India. The names agree so exactly
that I feci tempted to suggest that Shorkot may have
been enlarged and strengthened by Philip, whom
Alexander left behind as governor of the Oxudrakce
and Main. This suggestion seems the more probable
when we remember that Shorkot was in the direct
line of Alexander's route, from the junction of the
Hydaspes and Akesines to the capital of the Malli.
I would, therefore, identify it with the city of the
Malli, which, according to Diodorus and Curtius, sur-
rendered after a short blockade.* Curtiusf places it
at 250 stadia, or 28f miles, from the junction of the
rivers, a position which corresj^onds exactly with that
of Shorkot. The account of Arrian differs from that
of the other two historians in several very important
particulars. He states that the first city taken by
Alexander after leaving the confluence of the rivers
was inland 400 stadia, or 46 miles,;}: distant from the
Akesines, and that it was captured by assault. I

* ' Diodorus,' xvii. 52 ; Curtius, " corona cepit."

t Vita Alex., ix. 4, 10. % ' Anabasis,' \\. 7.

NORTHERN INDIA. 207

infer that this city was Kot Kamdlia, and I would ex-
plain the discrepancy in the two narratives by a re-
ference to the details of this campaign which are given
by Arrian. Alexander divided his army into three
great bodies, of which the advanced division, com-
manded by Hephsestion, marched five days ahead ;
the centre was commanded by himself, and the rear
division, which was commanded by Ptolemy, followed
three days behind. As the campaign was directed
against the Malli, I conclude that the army marched
by the direct route, via Shorkot towards Multan, which
was certainly the capital of the Malli. . Shorkot would
thus have fallen to Hephsestion, who commanded the
advanced division of the army. Alexander's own
route will be described presently, when I come to
speak of Kot Kamalia.

The antiquity of Shorkot may be ascertained ap-
proximately by the coins which are found in its ruins.
These consist chiefly of Indo-Scythian copper pieces
of all ages, with a few Hindu specimens, and a large
number of Muhammadan coins. A single copper piece
of Apollodotus was obtained by Bumes. From these
data I would infer that the town was certainly oc-
cupied as early as the time of the Greek kings of
Ariana and the Panjab, and that it was in a flourish-
ing state during the sway of the Indo-Scytliians, or
from B.C. 126 down to a.d. 250, or perhaps later. But
as the Hindu coins which I obtained from Shorkot
were entirely confined to the Brahman kings of the
Kabul valley and the Panjab, I conclude that the
place was either deserted, or, at least, in a very de-
cayed state, during the middle ages ; and that it was
either re-occupied or restored in the tenth century by
one of these Brahman kings.

208 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

Kot Kamdlia.

Kot Kamalia is a small but ancient town situated
on an isolated mound on the right or northern bank
of the Eavi, which marks the extreme limit of the
river's fluctuations on that side.* It is 44 miles to
the south-east of the junction of the Hydaspes and Ake-
sines, and 35 miles to the cast-south-east of Shorkot.
It possesses an ancient mound of burnt-brick ruins,
and is said to have been overthrown by a king from
the West at the same time as Shorkot and Ilarapa.
Its present name, according to some people, was de-
rived from a Muhammadan governor, named Kamal-
ud-din. But this is not certain ; and I think it is
quite possible that it may owe its origin to the Malli
tribe, which still exists in this part of the country ;
but whether the name be old or not, it is quite certain
that the site is very ancient ; and I am, therefore, led
to believe that it may be identified with the first city
captured by Alexander in his campaign against the
Malli.

Arrian's account of the capture is so clear and con-
cise that I will quote it in his own words.f On leav-
ing the junction of the riA^ors Alexander " marched
through a desert country against the Malii, and the
first day pitched his tents on the banks of a small
rivulet, about one hundred stadia distant from the
river Akesines. Having there allowed his troops a
little time for refreshment and rest, he ordered every
one to fill all his vessels with water, which done, he
continued his march the remaining part of that day
and all night, and early the next morning arrived at

* See Maps Nos. V. aud VI. f ' Anabasis,' vi. 7.

NORTHEEN IISTDIA. 209

a city, whither many of the Malii had fled for refuge,
and this was about 400 stadia distant from the Ake-
sincs." The small rivulet here mentioned I believe
to be the lower course of the Ayek river, which rises
in the outer range of hills, and flows past Syalkot
towards Sangala, beloAv which the bed is still traceable
for some distance. It appears again 18 miles to the
east of Jhavff, and is finally lost about 12 miles to the
east of Shorkot.* Now somewhere between these two
points Alexander must have crossed the Jj/ck, as the
desert country, which he afterwards traversed, lies
ixmediately beyond it. If he had marched to the
south he would have arrived at Shorkot, but he would
not have encountered any desert, as his route would
have been over the Khcldar, or low-lying lands in the
valley of the Chenab. A march of 46 miles in a
southerly direction would have carried him also right
up to the bank of the Hydraotes, or Eavi, a point
which Alexander only reached, according to Arrian's
narrative, after another night's march. f As this march
lasted from the first watch of the night until daylight,
it cannot have been less than 18 or 20 miles, which
agrees exactly with the distance of the Eavi opposite
Tulamba from Kot Kamalia. The direction of Alex-
ander's march must, therefore, have been to the south-
east ; first to the Jyek river, where he halted to re-
fresh his soldiers, and to fill their water vessels, and
thence across the hard clayey and waterless tract called
Sandar-Mr, that is, the 5ar, a desert of the Sandar, or
Chandra river. Thus the position of the rivulet, the
description of the desolate country, and the distance of
the city from the confluence of the rivers, all agree in

* See Maps Nos. V. and VI. t 'Anabasis,' vi. 7.

210

THE ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY OP INDIA.

fixing the site of the fortress assaulted by Alexander
Ayith Kot Kamdlia.

Arrian describes the place as a A^-alled city with a
castle seated on an eminence of difficult access, which
the Indians held for a long time. At last it Avas
carried by storm, and the whole of the garrison, to
the number of 2000, were put to the sword.

Ilarapa.

Whilst Alexander was engaged in the assault of
the city just described, Arrian relates that he had dis-
patched Perdikkas with the cavalry against "an-
other city of the Malii, into which a great body of
Indians had fled for safety."* His instructions Avere to
blockade the city until Alexander arrived ; but the in-
habitants deserted the place on his approach, and took
refuge in the neighbouring marshes. This city I be-
lieve to be Ilarapa. The mention of marshes shows
that it must have been near the Eavi, and as Per-
dikkas was sent in advance of Alexander, it must also
have been beyond Kot Kamalia, that is, to the east or
south-east of it. Now this is exactly the position of
Ilarapa, which is situated 16 miles to the east-south-
east of Kot Karaalia, and on the opposite high bank
of the Eavi.f There are also several marshes in the
low ground in its immediate vicinity.

Ilarapa has been described by two well-known tra-
vellers, Burnes and Masson, and to their descriptions
I am not able to add much, although I have been
encamped at the place on three different occasions.
BurnesI estimated the extent of the ruins as " about

* 'Anabasis,' ri. 6. f See Maps Nos. \ ■ and VI.

X 'Bokhara,' i. 117.

NOETHERN IJfDIA. 211

three miles in circumference, which is one-half too
much, as the actual ruined mound forms an irregular
square of only half a mile on each side, or two miles in
circuit. But this comprises only the remains of the
walled town, to which we may fairly add the suburbs,
or fields now covered with broken bricks and other
remains, which would bring the size of the old town
quite up to Burnes's estimate. Masson* notices a tra-
dition that Harapa once extended on the west as far
as Chichawatni, a distance of 12 miles, which serves,
at least, to show the belief of the people as to the
former size and importance of their town.

The great mass of ruins is on the western side,
where the mound rises to 60 feet in height in the
centre. At this point there are several massive walls
built of large bricks, which are, no doubt, the remains
of some extensive building. The other portions of
the mound vary from 30 to 50 feet in height, the
mass being formed almost entirely of broken bricks.
Tradition assigns its foundation to Eaja Harapa, of
unknown date, and its destruction to the same western
king, of the sixth century, who overthrew Shorkot,
and whom I believe to have been the leader of the
White Huns. The crimes of its ruler, who claimed
the husband's privilege on every marriage, are said to
have drawn down the vengeance of Heaven, and Ha-
rapa remained uninhabited for several centuries. As
the coins that are found in its ruins are similar to
those discovered at Shorkot, I think that the two
places must have experienced the same fortunes ; I
would, therefore, assign its doAvnfall to the Arabs,
who overran the whole of the lower Panjab imme-

* ' Travels,' i. 453, and Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, vi. 57.

212

THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

diately after the capture aud occupation of Multan in
A.D. 713.

J/,-ljar.

The village of Akbar is situated on the high-road
leading from Lahor to Multan, at G miles to the south-
west of Gugera, and 80 miles from Lahor. The ruins
of the old toAvn, which stand close to the village, con-
sist of a large mound 1000 feet square, with a small
castle 200 feet square, and 7-5 feet high at its northern
end ; and a second low mound 800 feet long, and 400
feet broad at the southern end. It must be a place of
great antiquity, as I found many bricks of very large
size, 20 by 10 by 3^ inches, such as have not been
manufactured for many centuries past. The place was
deserted until about a.d. 1823, when Gulab Singh
Povindia established the present village of Akbar.
The old name is now utterly lost, which is much to
be regretted, as the number of moulded bricks found
amongst the ruins show that the place must have con-
tained buildings of some architectural consequence.

Safffarha.

Saigarha is situated 13 miles to the east of Gugera,
on one of the projecting points of the high bank which
marks the limit of the windings of the Eavi on the
east. The name means the " seven castles," but these
no longer exist. There is an old brick fort on a
mound, and several isolated mounds, covered with
broken bricks and other remains, which mark the site
of an ancient city. Old coins are found in considerable
numbers, from the time of the Indo-Scythians down-
wards. It has, therefore, most probably been con-

NORTHERN IXDIA. 213

tinuously occupied from the beginning of the Christian
era down to the present time.

Depdlpur.

During the rule of the Pathan emperors of Delhi,
Depalpur was the capital of the northern Panjab. It
was a favourite residence of Firuz Shah, who erected
a large masjid outside the city, and drew a canal from
the Satlej for the irrigation of its lands. At the time
of Timur's invasion it was second only to Multan in
size and importance, and was popularly said to pos-
sess 84 towers, 84 masjids, and 84 wells. At present
it is very nearly deserted, there being only one in-
habited street running between the two gates. In
shape it is a square of nearly 1600 feet, Avith a pro-
jection 500 feet square at the south-east quarter. To
the south-west there is a high ruined mound, which
is said to bo the remains of a citadel. It was con-
nected with the town by a bridge of three arches,
which is still standing ; and from its high and com-
manding position I conclude that it must have been
the citadel. To the south and cast there are also
long mounds of ruins, which are, no doubt, the re-
mains of the suburbs. The actual ruins of Depalpur,
including the citadel and suburbs, occupy a space
three-quarters of a mile in length by half a mile in
breadth or 2-|- miles in circuit. But in its flourishing
days it must have been much larger, as the fields to
the east are strewn with bricks right up to the banks
of the canal, near which Firuz Shah's masjid was
situated. This extension of the city beyond the walls
may also be inferred from the fact that the people of
Depalpur, on Timur's invasion, sought refuge in

214

THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

Bhatner, which they would not have done if their
own city had been defensible.

The foundation of the place is assigned to EajaDeva
Pala, Avhose date is unknown. Its antiquity, how-
ever, is undoubted, as the interior surface on which
the houses are now built is on a level with the terre-
plein of the ramparts. The old coins, also, which are
found there in great numbers, show that Depalpur was
in existence as early as the time of the Indo-Scythians.
I am inclined, therefore, to identify it with the Dai-
dala of Ptolemy, which was on the Satlej to the south
of Laholda and AmaJcatis, or Labor and Ambakapi.

Ajudlian^ or Pdhpatan.

The ancient town of Ajudhan is situated on the high
bank of the old Satlej, 28 miles to the south- Avest of
Depalpur, and 10 miles from the present course of the
river. Its foundation is assigned to a Hindu saint, or
raja, of the same name, of whom nothing else is re-
corded. This part of the Doab is still known as Surdt-
des, a name Avhich recalls the SurakouscB of Diodorus,
and the Sudrakce and Oxudraka of other Greek writers.
Now, the Sudralios are always coupled with the Malli
by classical authors, just as Ajudhan and Multan are
joined together by the Muhammadan historians. I
think, therefore, that we may look upon Ajudhan and
its neighbour Depalpur as two of the chief cities of
the Sadrcd-as, or Sura/an-, who, in the time of Alex-
ander, were one of the free nations of India. Dionysius
and Nonnus use the form of Iliidarkcs, Pliny has 8j/-
dracce, which agrees with Strabo's Sudraka ; and
Diodorus has Surakoiisce. Arrian and Curtius alone
give Oxudiaka. Strabo adds that they were said

NORTHEEN INDIA. 215

to be descendants of Bacchus;* and as Chares of
Mytilene states that the name of the Indian god
SopodBetos meant oIvottoios, or the "Wine-bibber,"
I infer that the people who boasted a descent
from Bacchus may have called themselves Surd/cas,
or Bacchidae. The d in Sudrakm I look upon as a re-
dimdant addition of the Greeks, which is also found
in the Adraisice of Arrian and the Andrestm of Dio-
dorus. The Sanskrit name of this people was Ardsh-
traka, or "the Kingless," which is well preserved in
Justin's Arestce. Surakai, or the descendants of Sura,
must therefore be the true Greek form. This is con-
firmed by the longer form of the name given by Dio-
dorus as SvpaKovaai, which is most probably derived
from the Sanskrit surd, "wine," and kusa, "mad,
or inebriated." It would thus mean simply the
" drunkards," a nickname which was no doubt given
by their Arian neighbours, who were very liberal in
their abuse of the Turanian population of the Panjab.
Thus the Kathasi of Sangala are stigmatized in the
Mahabharata as "thieving Bdldkas,^'' as well as "wine-
bibbers " and " beef eaters, "f They are also called by
a variety of names, as Madra, Bdhika, Aratla, and
Jdrttikka, and not even once by their own proper
name, which, as we know from Alexander's historians,
was Kathcei, which is still preserved in the KatJd of
the present day. I confess, therefore, that I look upon
many of the ethnic appellations which the Greeks have
handed down to us as nere nicknames, or abusive
epithets applied by the Brahmanical Aiians to their
Turanian neighbours. For instance, the name of

* Geogr., xiv. 1, 8, and 33.

t StenA-BahilcA dli&nagaudasavain-pttwa gomansam.

216

THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

Kamhisfholi, which. Arrian* gives to a people on the
Hydraotes, or Eavi, is most probably derived from
the Sanskrit Kapisasthala, that is, "Wine-land, or the
Tavern," which would be a natural epithet for the
country of the SurdkusaSj or " wine-bibbers." Simi-
larly I would explain Oxudraka as Asuralca^ or the
" Demons."

The doubt now arises whether Surdlca^ or " the
drinkers," can have been the true name of this people.
Arrianf places the Oxudraka; at the junction of the
Hydaspcs and Akesines, where Curtius locates the
Sobii, Diodorus the Ibce, and Strabo the Siba. The
only explanation of this discrepancy that I can suggest
is, the probable confusion between the name of SoUi,
or Chobiya^ of rerishta,:j: and that of Sorii, or SuraJca.
The former was the name of the subjects of Sopeithes,
or Sophytes, whose rule extended over the Salt Eange
of mountains above the junction of the Hydaspes and
Akesines. The latter name I would refer to ShorJcot,
which I have already identified with Alexandria
Sdriane. It is still the capital of the district of Shor,
which lies just below the junction of the Hydaspes
and Akesines. The Sobii, therefore, were the imme-
diate neighbours of the Sorii, the former people occu-
pying the country above the confluence of the rivers,
and the latter the country just below it.

This location of the Sorii, or Siirdkas, explains the
statement of ^\j.Tian§ that the Kathai were allies of
the OxudrakcB and Malii They were neighbouring
nations, who were generally at war with each other, but
were always ready to join against a common enemy.

* ' Indiea,' iv. t ' Indica,' iv.

X Briggs's ' Ferishta,' Introduction, i. ]xxii. § 'Anabasis,' v. 22.

NOETHEEK INDIA. 217

PIIbj places the limit of Alexander's career in the
territory of the Sudrakas, " in Sudracis expeditio Alex-
andri termino,"* and the altars on the opposite hank of
the Hyphasis, or Bias river. From this point to the
river Sj/drus, that is the Hesidrus, or Satlej, he makes
the distance 168 Eoman, or 154 British miles ; and
from the S^drus to the Jomanes, or Jumna, exactly the
same. But as the whole distance from the Bi^s to the
Jumna varies from 150 to 160 miles, from the foot of
the hills down to Kasur on the former riA'^er, and down
to Xarn^l on the latter river, I presume that only
one distance, namely, that from the Bias to the Jumna,
was stated in Pliny's original authority. The famous
spot on the eastern hank- of the Hyphasis, where
" Alexander halted and wept,"j" must have been
somewhere in the low ground between the Satlej and
the Bias, at a short distance above the old junction
opposite Kasur and Bazidpur. Por 20 miles above
this point the courses of the two rivers ran almost
parallel, and within a few miles of each other, from
the earliest times down to a.d. 1796, when the Satlej
suddenly changed its course, and joined the Bias
above Hari-Zci-patan. "Within this range of 20 miles
the space between the two rivers was so small that it
might easily have been overlooked in stating the dis-
tance from Alexander's camp to the Jumna. I believe,
however, that it was actually noted by Alexander's
contemporaries, for Pliny, after stating the distance to
the Jumna, says, " some copies add five miles more.'':}:

* Hist. Nat., xii. 12.

t Gibbon, 'Decline and Fall of the Eoman Empire:' "On the
eastern bank of the Hyphasis, on the verge of the desert, the Mace-
donian hero halted and wept."

J Hist. Nat., vi. 21. : " Exemplaria aliqua adjiciuut quinque millia
passuum."

218 THE ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY OF INDIA.

Xow these five Roman miles are the exact distance of
the old bed of the Satlej from the eastern bank of
the Bias, a measurement which some of the ancient
writers may have omitted to note as a matter of little
importance. On a general review of all the data, I
think that the site of Alexander's altars must be
looked for along the line of the present course of the
Satlej, at a few miles below Hari-M-pafan, and not far
from the well-known field of Sobraon, which is barely
five miles distant from several bends of the old bed of
the Satlej. To this point, therefore, the territory of
the SudraJece, or Surdkas, must have extended in the
time of Alexander.

For many centuries Aju.dhan was the principal ferry
on the Satlej. Here met the two great western roads
from Dera Ghazi Khan and Dera Ismail Khan ; the
first via Mankera, Shorkot, and Harapa ; the second
via INIultan. At this point the great conquerors Mah-
mud and Timur, and the great traveller Ibn Batuta,
crossed the Satlej. The fort is said to have been cap-
tured by Sabuktugin in a.h. 367, or a.d. 977-78, during
his plundering expedition in the Panjub ; and again by
Ibrahim Ghaznavi, in a.h. 472, or a.d. 1079-80. On the
invasion of Timur, the mass of the population fled to
Bhatner, and the few people that remained were spared
by that ruthless barbarian out of respect for the famous
saint Parid-ud-din Shakar-ganj, whose shrine is in
Ajudhan. From this saint the place derives its modern
name of Pdk-patfan, or the " Ferry of the Pure One,"
that is, of Farid, whose latter days were spent at
Ajudhan. By continued fasting his body is said to
have become so pure that whatever he put into his
mouth to allay the cravings of hunger, even earth

NORTHEEN INDIA. 219

and stones, was immediately turned into sugar, whence
his name of 81iahar-ganj^ or " Sugar-store." This mi-
raeulous power is recorded in a well-known Persian
couplet : —

" Sang dar dast o guhar gardad,
Zahar dar kdm o shahar gardad : ''

which may be freely rendered : —

" Stones in his hand are changed to money (jewels),
And poison in his mouth to honey (sugar)."

From another memorial couplet we learn that he died
in A.H. 664, or a.d. 1265-66, when he was 95 lunar
years of age. But as the old name of Ajudhan is the
only one noted by Ibn Batuta in a.d. 1334, and by
Timur's historian in a.d. 1397, it seems probable that
the present name of Pdk-paltan is of comparatively
recent date. It is, perhaps, not older than the reign
of Akbar, when the saint's descendant, Nur-ud-din,
revived the former reputation of the family by the
success of his prayers for an heir to the throne.

4. MULTAN PROVINCE.

The southern province of the Panjab is Multan.~
According to Hwen Thsang it was 4000 li, or 667
miles, in circuit, which is so much greater than the
tract actually included between the rivers, that it is
almost certain the frontier must have extended beyond
them. In the time of Akbar no less than seventeen
districts, or separate jjarganahs^ were attached to the
province of Multan, of which all those that I can
identify, namely, Vch^ Birdwal, MoJ, and Marot, are
to the east of the Satlej. These names are sufficient
to show that the eastern frontier of Multan formerly
extended beyond the old bed of the Ghagar river, to

220 THE ANCIENT GEOGEAPIIY OF INDIA.

the verge of the Bikaner desert. This tract, which
now forms the territory of Bahawalpur, is most effectu-
ally separated from the richer provinces on the east
by the natural barrier of the Great Desert. Under a
strong governaient it has always formed a portion of
Multan ; and it was only on the decay of the Muham-
madan empire of Delhi that it was made into a separate
petty state by Bahawal Khan. I infer, therefore, that
in the seventh century the province of Multan must
have included the northern half of the present territory
of Bahawalpur, in addition to the tract lying between
the rivers. The northern frontier has already been
defined as extending from Dera Din-pandh, on the
Indus, to Pdk-pattan on the Satlej, a distance of 150
miles. On the west the frontier line of the Indus,
down to Khanpur, is 160 miles. On the east, the
line from Pak-pattan to the old bed of the Ghagar
river, is 80 miles ; and on the south, from Khanpiu'
to the Ghagar, the distance is 220 miles. Altogether,
this frontier line is 610 miles. If Hwen Thsaiig's
estimate was based on the short Jcos of the Panjab,
the circuit will be only 5^ of 067 miles, or 437 miles,
in which case the province could not have extended
beyond Mithanliot on the south.

In describing the geography of Multan it is neces-
sary to bear in mind the great changes that have
taken place in the courses of all the large rivers that
flow through the province. In the time of Timur and
Akbar the junction of the Chcnab and Indus took
place opposite Uchh, GO miles above the present con-
fluence at Mithankot. It was unchanged Avhen Eennell
wrote his 'Geography of India,' in a.d. 1788, and still
latei-, in 1796, A\licn visited by Wilford's surveyor,

NORTHERN INDIA. 221

Mirza Mogal Beg. But early in the present century-
tile Indus gradually changed its course, and leaving
the old channel at 20 miles above Uch/i, continued its
course to the south-south-west, until it rejoined the
old channel at Mithankot.

The present junction of the Eavi and Chenab takes
place near Ditcdna Sanandj more than 30 miles above
Multan ; but in the time of Alexander the confluence
of the Hydraotes and Akesines was at a short distance
below the capital of the Malli, which I have identified
with Multan. The old channel still exists, and is
duly entered in the large maps of the Multan division.
It leaves the present bed at Sarai Siddhu, and follows
a winding course for 30 miles to the south-south-west,
when it suddenly turns to the west for 18 miles,
as far as Multan, and, after completely encircling the
fortress, continues its westerly course for 5 miles below
Multan. It then suddenly turns to the south-south-
west for 10 miles, and is finally lost in the low-lying
lands of the bed of the Chenab. Even to this day the
ES,vi clings to its ancient channel, and at all high
floods the waters of the river still find their way to
Multan by the old bed, as I myself have witnessed on
two difi'erent occasions. The date of the change is
unknown; but it was certainly subsequent to the
capture of Multan by Muhammed bin Kasim in a.d.
713; and from the very numerous existing remains
of canals drawn from the old channel, I infer that the
main river must have continued to flow down it within
a comparatively recent period, perhaps even as late as
the time of Timur. The change, however, must have
taken place before the reign of Akbar, as Abul Fazl*

* ' Ayin Akbari,' ii. 3.

222 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

describes the distance from the confluence of the
Chenab and Jhelam to that of the Chenab and Eavi
as 27 kos, and the distance of the latter from the con-
fluence of the Chenab and Indus as 60 kos, both of
which measurements agree with the later state of
these rivers.

The present confluence of the Bias and Satlej dates
only from about a.d. 1790, when the Satlej finally
deserted its old course by Dharmkot, and joined the
Bias at Hariki-pattan. For many centuries previously
the point of junction had remained constant just above
the ferry of Bhao-ki-pattan, between Kasur and Firuz-
pur. This junction is mentioned by Jauhar in a.d.
1555,* and by Abul Fazl in 1596.t But though
the confluence of the two rivers near Firuzpur had
been long established, yet even at the latter date the
waters of the Bias still continued to flow down their
old channel, as described by Abul Fazl : — " For the
distance of 12 kos near Firuzpur the rivers Biah and
Satlej unite, and these again, as they pass on, divide
into four streams, the Hilr^ Hare, Band, and Niirni, all
of Avhich rejoin near the city of Multan." These
former beds of the Bias and Satlej still exist, and
form a most complicated network of dry channels,
covering the whole of the Doab between the Satlej
and the high bank of the old Bias. jSTone of the names
given in Gladwyn's translation of the ' Ayin Akbari'
arc noAV to be found ; but I am inclined to attribute
this solely to the imperfection of the Persian alphabet,
wliieli is a constant source of error in the reading of
proper names. The Har I would identify with the
Far a, the JTari with the Rajjlii, and the Nurni with

* ' Memoirs of Humayun,' p. 113. t ' Ayin Akbari,' ii. 108.

NORTHERN INDIA. 223

the StU-JVai, all dry beds of the Bias river to the
south of Harapa. The Dand is probably the D/iamak,
or Dank, an old channel of the Satlej, which in
its lower course takes the name of Bhatiyari, and
passing by Mailsi, Kahror, and Lodhran, joins the
present channel just above its confluence with the
Chenab. In most of our maps the Old Bias is con-
ducted into the lower course of the Bhatiyari, whereas
its still existing and well-defined channel joins the
Chenab 20 miles below Shujahabad, and its most
southerly point is 10 miles distant from the nearest
bend of the Bhatiyari.

The changes just described are only the most pro-
minent fluctuations of the Panjab rivers, which are
constantly shifting their channels. The change in the
Bias is the most striking, as that river has altogether
lost its independent course, and is now a mere tribu-
tary of the Satlej. But the fluctuations of the other
rivers have been very remarkable. Thus, the valley
of the Chenab below Kalowal is nearly 30 miles broad,
and that of the Eavi, near Gugera, is 20 miles, the
extreme limits of both rivers being marked by well-
defined high banks, on which are situated many of
the most ancient cities of the Panjab. In the Multan
division these old sites are very numerous, but they
are now mostly deserted and nameless, and were pro-
bably abandoned by their inhabitants as the rivers
receded from them. This was certainly the case with
the old town of Tulamba, which is said to have been
deserted so late as 150 years ago, in consequence of
a change in the course of the Kavi, by which the
water supply of the town was entirely cut off. The
same cause, but at a much earlier date, led to the

224

THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INBIA.

desertion of Atari, a ruined town 20 miles to tte west-
south-west of Tulamba, which was supplied by a canal
from the old bed of the Ravi. The only places which I
think it necessary to notice in the present account are
the following : —

[1. Tulamba.
Bari Doab . . . .2. Atari.

[3. Multan.
Jalandhar Pith . .4. Kahror.
At junction ... 6. Uchh.

Four of these places are celebrated in the history of
India, and the second, named Atari, I have added on
account of its size and position, which would certainly
have attracted the notice of Alexander and other con-
querors of the Panjab.

Tulamba.

The town of Tulamba is situated on the left bank
of the Eavi, at 52 miles to the north-east of IMultan.
It is surrounded with a brick wall, and the houses are
built chiefly of burnt bricks, brought from the old
fort of Tulamba, which is situated one mile to the
south of the present town. According to Masson,*
this "must have been in the ancient time a remark-
ably strong fortress," which it undoubtedly was, as
Timur left it untouched, because its siege would have
delayed his progress.f It is curious that it escaped
the notice of Burues, as its lofty walls, which can be
•sc'cn from a great distance, generally attract the atten-
tion of travellers. I have visited the place twice. It
consisted of an open city, jDrotected on the south by

* ' Travels,' i. 456. f Briggs's ' Ferislita,' i. 487.

NORTHERN INDIA. 22^)

;i lofty fortress 1000 feet square. The outer rampart
is of earth, 200 feet thick, and 20 feet high on the
outer face, or fa/tssedi-aic, with a second rampart of
the same height on the top of it. Both of these were
originally faced with large bricks, 12 by 8 by 2^-
inches. Inside the rampart there is a clear space, or
ditch, 100 feet in breadth, surrounding an inner fort
400 feet square, with walls 40 feet in height, and in
the middle of this there is a square tower or castle,
70 feet in height, which commands the whole place.
The numerous fragments of bricks lying about, and
the still existing marks of the courses of bricks in
many places on the outer faces of the ramparts, con-
firm the statements of the people that the walls were
formerly faced with brick. I have already mentioned
tliat this old fort is said to have been abandoned by
the inhabitants about 300 years ago, in consequence
of the change in the course of the Eavi, which entirely
cut off their supply of water. The removal is attri-
buted to Shujawal Khan, who was the son-in-law and
minister of Mahmud Langa of Multan, and the brother-
in-law of his successor, from about a.d. 1510 to ad.
1525.

The antiquity of Tulamba is Touched for by tradi-
tion, and by the large size of the bricks, which are
similar to the oldest in the walls and ruins of Multan.
The old fo7v?? was plundered and burnt by Timur, and
its inhabitants massacred ; but the fortress escaped his
fury, partly owing to its own strength and partly to the
invader's impatience to continue his march towards
Delhi. There is a tradition that Tulamba was taken
by Mahmud of Ghazni, which is vury probably true,
as it would have been only a few miles out of his

226 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

direct route to Multan. For the same reason I am
led to believe that it must have been one of the cities
captured by Alexander. Masson* has already sug-
gested that it represents "the capital of the Malli,"
or perhaps "the fort held by Brahmans, whose de-
fence was so obstinate and so fatal to themselves, and
which was evidently contiguous to the capital of the
Malli." But as I do not agree with either of these
suggestions, I will now examine and compare the dif-
ferent accounts of this part of Alexander's route.

In my account of Kot Kamalia I adduced some strong
reasons for identifying that place with the first city
captured by Alexander on his march from the junction
of the Hydaspes and Akesines against the Malli.
Arrian then relates that " Alexander, having allowed
his soldiers some time for refreshment and rest, about
the first watch of the night set forward, and marching
hard all that night came to the river Hydraotes about
daylight, and understanding that some parties of the
Malii were just passing the river, he immediately
attacked them and slew many, and having passed the
river himself with his forces in pursuit of those who
had gained the further side, he killed vast numbers of
them and took many prisoners. However, some of
them escaped, and bct(iok themselves to a certain town
well fortified both by art and nature." A whole
night's march of eight or nine hours could not have
been less than twenty-five miles, which is the exact
distance of the Eavi opposite Tulamba from Kot
ICaniAlia. Here then I infer that Alexander must
have crossed the Ravi ; and I would identify Tulamba
itself with the " town well fortified both by art and

* ' TrayeLs,' j. '&]. \ ' Anabasis,' vi. 3.

NORTHERN INDIA. 227

nature," the art being the brick walls, and the nature,
the enormous mounds of earthen ramparts. The ac-
count of Curtius* agrees with that of Arrian, " on
the bank of a river another nation mustering forty
thousand infantry opposed him. Crossing the river he
put them to flight, and stormed the fort in which they
took refuge." Diodorus relates the same story of a
people named Agalassse, who opposed Alexander with
forty thousand infantry and three thousand cavalry.
All these accounts evidently refer to the same place,
which was a strong fort near the left bank of the ECivi.
This description would apply also to Harapa ; but I
have already shown that Harapa was most probably
the city against which Perdikkas was detached ; be-
sides which it is not more than 16 miles distant from
Kot Kamfilia. Tulamba, on the contrary, fulfils all the
conditions ; and is also on the high-road to Multan,
the capital of the Malli, against which Alexander was
then proceeding.

The name of Agalassce or Agalessensce is puzzling.
According to Arrian the people of the town were the
Malii, but it may be remarked that neither the
Oxudrakse nor the Malli are mentioned by Diodorus
and Curtius until later. Justin couples a people called
Gesteani with the Arestse or Ivathtei, who should
therefore be the same as the Malli or Oxudrakfe, but
they are not mentioned by any other author. A(jala
or Agalassa might be the name of the town itself, but
unfortunately it has no similarity with Tulamba, or
with any other place in the neighbourhood.

* Vita Alex., ix. 4, 10. The text lias in ripa Jiuminum, whioli is an
obvious mistake ioT fluminis, as is proved by the use of amne imme-
diately folloning.

Q 2

228

THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

Atari.

The third city capttired by Alexander in his campaign
against the Malli is described in similar terms by all the
historians. According to Arrian* " Alexander then
led his army against a certain city of the Brachmani,
where he heard another body of the Malii had fled."
The garrison " abandoned the city and fled to the
castle," which being stormed they set fire to their
houses, and perished in the flames. "About 5000 of
them fell during the siege, and so great was their
valour that few came alive into the enemy's hands."
Both Curtius+ and Diodorus^ mention the fire, and
the stout defence made by the garrison, which the
latter author numbers at 20,000 men, of whom 3000
only escaped by taking refuge in the citadel, where
they capitulated. Curtius also states that the citadel
was uninjured, and that Alexander left a garrison
in it.§

All these accounts agree very well with the position
and size of the old ruined town and fort of Atari,
which is situated 20 miles to the west-south-west of
Tulamba, and on the high-road to Multan. The re-
mains consist of a strong citadel 750 feet square and
?)5 feet high, with a ditch all round it, and a tower in
the centre 50 feet high. On two sides are the remains of
the ti>wn forming a moimd20 feethigli, and 1200 feet
square, the whole being a mass of ruin 1800 feet m
length, and 1200 feet in breadth. Of its history there
is not even a tradition, but the large size of the bricks

* ' Anabasis,' vi. 7. f Vita AJex., ix. 4, 10.

X Hisl., wii. 52.

§ A'ita Alex , ix. 4. " Arx erat oppidi intacta, ia qua prsesidmm

dereliquit.'

NORTHERN INDIA. 229

is sufficient to show that it must be a place of consi-
derable antiquity. The name of the old city is quite
unknown. Atari is simply that of the adjacent village,
which is of recent origin, having been established by
a member of the Atilriwfila family of Sikhs. But
judging from its size and strength, and its very
favourable position between Tulamba and Multan, I
think that the ruined mound of Atari has a very
good claim to be identified with the strong city of
the Brahmans which made so stout a defence against
Alexander.

Curtius adds some particulars about this city, which
are not even alluded to by either Ai-rian or Diodorus ;
but they are still deserving of consideration, as they
may perhaps be founded on the statements of one of the
companions. He states that Alexander " went com-
pletely round the citadel in a boat," which is probable
enough, as its ditch was no doubt capable of being filled
at pleasure' with water from the Eavi, as was actually
the case with the ditch of Multan. Now the old citadel
of Atari is still surrounded by a ditch which could
easily have been filled from some one of the old canals
that pass close by the place. The number of these canal
beds is most remarkable ; I counted no less than twelve
of them in close parallel lines immediately to the west
of Atari, all of them drawn from the old bed of the
Eavi to the south of Sarai Siddhu. I am therefore
quite prepared to admit the probability that the city
of the Brahmans was surrounded by a wet ditch on
which Alexander embarked to inspect the fortifications.
But when Curtius adds that the three greatest rivers
in India, except the Ganges, namely the Indus, the
Hydaspes, and the Akesines, joined their waters to

'2'i()

THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

form a ditch round the castle,* I can only suppose
either that the passage has been accidentally transferred
from the account of some later siege of a city situated
below the confluence of the Five Eivcrs, or that the
author has mixed up into one account two and per-
fectly distinct statements concerning the ditches of the
fort and the confluence of the rivers. Diodorus also
describes tlie junction of the rivers, but as he makes
no allusion to their waters forming a ditch about the
fort, it is quite possible that this account of three
rivers may be due to the inflated imagination of
Curtius.

The famuus uictrupolis of Multan was originally
situated on two islands in the Ravi, but the river has
long ago deserted its old channel, and its nearest point
is now more than 30 miles distant. But during high
floods the waters of the Ravi still flow down their old
Ijed, and I have twice seen the ditches of Multan filled
by the natural overflow of the river.-]- Multan consists
of a A\'alied city and a strong fortress, situated on op-
posite banks of an old bed of the Ravi, which once
flowed between them as well as around them. The
original site consisted of two low mounds not more

* Vila Alex., ix. 4. " Ipso navigio circumveclua estarcom; quippe
tria flumina, totfi India prjeier Gangen maxima, munimento arcis appli-
cant undas. A septentrionc Indus alluit ; a meridie Aeesines Hydaspi
confunditur."

|- Burnes, 'Travels in the Punjab, Boliliara,' etc. i. 07, erroneously
attrilnites the inundation of the country around Alultan to the " Chenab
nnd its canals." If he had travelled by land instead of by the river, he
would have seen that the inundation is due to the flood waters of the
I^avi resuming tlnir ancient course from Sarai Siddhu direct upon
Mul(;ui. I travelled over this line in the end of August, 1856, and
saw the old bed of the Eavi in full flood.

NORTHERN INDIA. 231

than 8 or 10 feet high above the general level of the
country. The present height varies from 45 to 50
feet, the difference of 35 to 40 feet being simply the
accumulation of rubbish during the lapse of many cen-
tiu:ies. This fact I ascertained personally by sinking
several wells down to the level of the natural soil,
that is, of soil unmixed with bricks, ashes, and other
evidences of man's occupation.

The citadel may be described as an irregular semi-
circle, with a diameter, or straight side of 2500 feet
facing the north-west, and a curved front of 4100 feet
towards the city, making a circuit of 6600 feet, or
just one mile and a quarter. It had 46 towers or
bastions, including the two flanking towers at each of
the four gates. The walled city, which envelopes the
citadel for more than two-thirds of the curve, is 4200
feet in length, and 2400 feet in breadth, with the long
straight side facing the south-west. Altogether the
walled circuit of Multan, including both city and
citadel, is 15,000 feet, or very nearly 3 miles, and the
whole circuit of the place, including its suburbs, is 4-|-
miles. This last measurement agrees very nearly with
the estimate of Hwen Thsang, who makes the circuit
of Multan 30 li, or just 5 miles.* It agrees even more
exactly with the estimate of Elphinstone, who, with
his usual accuracy, describes Multan as "above four-
miles and a half in circumference, "f The fortress had
no ditch when seen by Elphinstone and Burnes, as it
was originally surrounded by the waters of the E^vi.
But shortly after Burnes's visit, a ditch was added by
Sawan Mall, the energetic governor of Raujit Singh.
The walls are said to have been built by Murad Baksh,

* Julien's ' Hiouen Thsang,' iii. 173. f ' Kabul," i. 27.

232 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

the yoimgest son of Shah Jahan ; but when I dis-
mantled the defences of Multan in 1854, I found that
the walls were generally double, the outer wall being
about 4 feet thick, and the inner wall 3^ feet to 4 feet.*
I conclude, therefore, that only the outer wall, or facing,
was the work of Murad Baksh. The whole was built
nf burnt bricks and mud, excepting the outer courses,
which were laid in lime-mortar to a depth of 9 inches.
Multan is known by several diiferent names, but
all of them refer either to Vishnu or to the Sun, the
latter being the great object of worship in the famous
temple that once crowned the citadel. Abu Eihrm
mentions the names of Kasyiipd-puru^ llansapura^
Bhdf/a/jiira, and Saiiibajjura^ to which I may add,

Prahlcidapwra and Adyasiluhm. According to the tra-
ditions of the people, Kasyapa-pura was founded by
Kasyapa, who was the lUtlicr of the twelve Adltyas,
or Sun-gods, by Jditi, and of the Dailyas, or Titans,
by Did. He was succeeded by his eldest son,
the Daih/a^ named Hiranya-Kasipu, who is famous
throughout India for his denial of the omnipresence of
Vishnu, wliich led to the manifestation of the Nara-
■sijiha^ or "Man-lion" aval dr. He was followed by
his still more famous son FraJddda., the ardent wor-
shipper of Vishnu, after whom the city was named
PraJdddapiirn. His great-grandson, Bduia, commonly
called Bd72a the Jxiir, was the unsuccessful antagonist
of Krishna, who took possession of the kingdom of

* It may be interesting to note that on dismantling the wall near
the Sikhi Darwaza, or " S]iilied Gate," I found the onty two shot
that were fired from the great one Imndred-pouiider gun, which the
Bhingl 3Iixr,/ of Sikhs brouglit against Multan in the beginning of
this cerjtury. The two shot had completely penetrated through the
brick wall of 7 feet, and were within three feet of each other.

NOirrKEKN INDIA. 233

Multan. Here Sdmba, the son of Krishna, established
himself in the grove of Mitra-vana, and by assiduous
devotion to MUra^ or the " Sun," was cured of his
leprosy. He then erected a golden statue of Mitra,

in a temj)le named Adi/astlulna^ or the " First Shi'ine,"
and the worshi}) of the Sun thus began by Sdmba^ has
continued at Multan down to the present day.

The story of Sdinhu^ the son of Krishna, is told in
the BhdviAshya Furdnu* but as it places the Mitra-vana^
or "Sun-grove," on the bank of the Chandi-abhaga,
or Chenab river, its composition must be assigned to
a comparatively late period, when all remembrance of
the old course of the Eavi flowing past Multan had
died away. We know, however, from other sources,
that the Sun-worship at Multan must be very ancient.
In the seventh century Hwen Thsang found a mag-
nificent temple with a golden statue of the god most
richly adorned, to which the kings of all parts of
India sent offerings. Hence the place became com-
monly known amongst the early Arab conquerors as
" The Golden Temple ;" and Masudi even affirms that
el Midtdn means " meadows of gold.""]' Hwen Thsang
calls it Meu-lo-san-pu-lo, which, according to M. Vivien
de St. Martin, is a transcription of Mulasthdnipura.
The people themselves refer the name to Mula-sthdna ^
which agrees with the form of Mula-fdna, quoted by
Abu Eihan from a Kashmirian writer. Mtila means

* Wilford, ' Asiatic Eesearohes,' xi. 69 ; and H. H. "Wilson, in
Eeinaud, ' Memoire sur I'lnde,' p. 392.

\ Masudi, ' Gildemeister,' p. 134: " domnm auream : " so also Sir
H. M. Elliot, ' Muhammadan Historians," p. 56 ; but at p. 57 he trans-
lates "golden temple." Prof. Dowsod, i. 33, has "boundary of the
house of gold," translating Masudi ; and at i. 81, " the house of gold,"
translating Idrisi.

234 THE ANCIENT GEOGKAPHT OF INDIA.

"root, or origin," and st/idna, or than, in the spoken
dialects, means " place, or shrine." Hence, Mula-
sthdna is the "Temple of 3Iula,'" which I take to be an
appellation of the Sun. In the AmaraJcosha one of the
names of the Sun is Vradhna, which is also given as a
synonym of 3[nl(i ; hence vradkna must be connected
with the Latin radix and rddim, and also with the
Greek pdj3Sos. But as radix signifies not only origin,
or root, in general, but also a particular root, the
radish, so also does mtila signify origin, or root, and
mulaka^ or miUi^ a radish. The connection between a
sunbeam and a radish obviously lies in their similarity
of shape, and hence the terms radius and mula are both
applied to the spoke of a wheel. Mitla-sthdna is said
by Wilson to mean "heaven, ether, space, atmosphere,
God," any one of which names would be applicable to
the Sun as the lord of the ethereal space. Por these
reasons I infer that mtUa is only an epithet of the Sun,
as the God of rays, and that Mula-sthdna-pura means
simply the "city of the Temple of the Sun. Bhdga
and Hansa are well-known names of the Sun; and
therefore Bhdtjapura and llaiimpura are only syno-
nyms of the name of Multan. The earliest name is
said t(i have been Kasyapapura, or as it is usually
pronounced, Kasappur, which I take to be the Kaspa-
puros of IIekata3us, and the Kaspaturos of Herodotus,
as well as the Kaspeira of Ptolemy. The last town is
placed at a beud on the lower course of the Rhuadis,
or Eavi, just above its junction with the Sandohdg, or
Chaiidrahlidga. The position of Kaspeira therefore
agrees most exactly with that of Kasyapapura or
Multan, which is situated on the old bank of the Eavi,
just at the point where the channel changes its course

NOETHERN INDIA. 235

from south-east to east. This identification is most
important, as it establishes the fact that Multan or
Kaspeira, in the territory of the Kaspeirei, whose
dominion extended from Kashmir to Mathura, must
have been the principal city in the Panjab towards
the middle of the second century of the Christian
era. But iu the seventh century it had already ac-
quired the name of Mulu^itluincqjura^ or Multan, which
was the only name known to the Arab authors down
to the time of Abu Kihan, whose acquirement of Sans-
krit gave him access to the native literature, from
which he drew some of the other names already

quoted. The name of Adyasthdna, or " First Shrine,"
is applied in the Bhdvishya Purdna to the original
temple of the Sun, which is said to have been built by
Samba, the son of Krishna; but adya is perhaps only
a corruption of Aditya^ or the Sun, which is usually
shortened to adit, and even ait, as in aditwdr and

aitwdr for Aditi/atodra, or Sunday. Eihiduri calls the
idol a representation of the prophet Job, or Ayub,
which is an easy misreading of i^J for Ci^d\j adit.
PraJdaddpura, or PaJdddpur, refers to the temple of
the Narsingh Avatdr, which is still called PaJdddpuri.
When Burnes was at Multan, this temple was the
principal shrine in the place, but the roof was thrown
down by the explosion of the powder magazine during
the siege in January, 1849, and it has not since been
repaired. It stands at the north-eastern angle of the
citadel, close to the tomb of Bahawal Hak. The great
temple of the Sun stood in the very middle of the
citadel, but it was destroyed during the reign of
Aurangzib, and the Jamai Masjid was erected on its
site. This masjid was the powder magazine of the
Sikhs, which was blown up in 1849.

236

THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

By the identification of Kasyapapura with, the
Kaspcira of Ptolemy I have shoAvn that Multan was
situated on the bank of the Eavi in the first half of
the second century of the Clu-istiiiu era. Hsyen
Thsang unfortunately makes no mention of the river ;
but a few years alter his visit the Brahman Eajah of
Sindh, named Chach, invaded and cajjtured Multan,
and the details of his camjxiign show that the Eavi
still continued tu flow under its walls in the middle
of the seventh centm-y. They show also that the
Bias then flowed in an indei^endcnt channel to the
east and south of Multan. According to the native
chi-oniclis of Sindh, Chach advanced to Pdbiija, or
Bnhii/a* on the south bank of the Bias, from whence
he advanced to Sukah or Sikkah on the bank of the
Eavi, at a short distance to the eastward of Multan.
This place was suun deserted by its defenders, who
retired to\\'ards Multan, and joined Eaja Bajhra in
opposing Chach on the banks of the Eavi. After a
stout fight the ^Iidtanis were defeated by Chach, and
retir(,'d into their fortress, which after a long siege
surrendered im terms. f

This brief notice of the campaign of Chach will
now enable us tu understand mure clearly the campaign
of Alexander against the capital of the Malli. My
last nolici' left him at the strong Brahman city, which
I have identified with Jlilri, 34 miles to the north-
east of Multan, and on the high-road from Tulamba.
Here I will resume the narrative of Arrian.J " Having

* Sir Henr3' Elliot reads Tfxhiya. (Prof. Dowson's edition, i. 141.)
Lieut. Postans reads Bahii/a. (Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, 1841, p. 195.)

t Lieut. Postans in Journ. Asiat. Soc. Benfjal, 1838, p. 94. Sir H.
W. Elliot, ' History of India,' edited by Prof. Dowson, i. 143.

+ ' Anabasis,' vi. S.

NORTHERN INDIA. 237

tarried there one day to refresh his army, he then di-
rected his march against others of the same nation,
who, he was informed, had abandoned their cities and
retired into the deserts ; and taking another day's rest,
on the next he commanded Python, and Demetrius
the captain of a troop of horse, with the forces they
then had, and a party of light armed foot, to return
immediately to the river, etc. In the meanwhile he
led his forces to the capital city of the Malii, whither,
he was informed, many of the inhabitants of other
cities had fled for their better security." Here we
see that Alexander made just two marches from the
Brahman city to the capital, which agrees very well
with the distance of 34 miles between Atari and
Multan. In searching for the chief city of the Malli
or Malii, we must remember that Multan has always
been the capital of the Lower Panjab, that it is four
times the size of any other place, and is undeniably
the strongest fort in this part of the country. All
these properties belonged also to the chief city of the
Malli. It was the capital of the country ; it had the
greatest number of defenders, 50,000 according to
Arrian, and was therefore the largest place ; and lastly,
it must have been the strongest place, as Arrian relates
that the inhabitants of other cities had fled tu it "fur
better security." For these reasons I am quite satisfied
that the capital city of the Malli was the modern
Multan; but the identification will be still further
confirmed as we proceed with Arrian 's narrative.

On Alexander's approach the Indians came out of
their city, and " crossing the river Hydraotes, drew up
their forces upon the bank thereof, which was steep
and difficult of ascent, as though they would have

238

THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

obstructed his passage . . . when he arrived there, and
saw the enemy's army posted on the opposite bank, he
made no delay, but instantly entered the river with
the troops of horse he had brought with him." The
Indians at first retired ; " but when they perceived
that their pursuers were only a party of horse, they
faced about and resolved to give him battle, being
about 50,000 in number." From this account I infer
that Alexander must have advanced upon Multan from
the east, his march, like that of Chach, being deter-
mined by the natural features of the country. Now
the course of the old bed of the Eavi for 18 miles
above Multan is almost due west, and consequently
Alexander's march must have brought him to the fort
of Sul-ah or 8ikka/i, which was on the bank of the
Eavi at a short distance to the east of Multan. Prom
this point the same narrative will describe the pro-
gress of both conquerors. The town on the east bank
of the Eavi was deserted by its garrison, who retired
across the river, where they halted and fought, and
being beaten took refuge in the citadel. The fort of
Sukali must have been somewhat near the present
MAri S/fr/7, Avhich is on the bank of the old bed of the
Eavi, 2^ miles to the east of Miiltan.

At the assault of the capital Alexander was dan-
o'croTisly wounded, and his enraged troops spared
neither th(> aged, nor the Avomen, nor the children,
:ind every soul was put to the sword. Diodorus and
('urtius assign this city to the Oxudraka3 ; but Arrian
distinctly refutes this opinion,* "for the city," he
says " l)elnnged to the Malii, and from that people he
leeei^'cd the wound. Tlie Malii indeed designed to

* ■ Anabasis,' vi. 11.

NORTHERN INDIA. ' 239

have joined their forces with the Oxuclrakas, and so to
have given him battle ; but Alexander's hasty and un-
expected march through the dry and barren waste
prevented their union, so that they could not give any
assistance to each other." Strabo also says that Alex-
ander received his wound at the capture of a city of
the Malli.*

When Alexander opened his campaign against the
Malli, he dispatched Hephgestion with the main body
of the army five days in advance, with orders to await
his arrival at the confluence of the Akesines and
Hydraotes.f Accordingly after the capture of the
Mallian capital, " as soon as his health would admit,
he ordered himself to be conveyed to the banks of the
river Hydraotes, and from thence down the stream to
the camp, which was near the confluence of the
Hydraotes and Akesines, where Hepheestion had the
command of the army and Nearchus of the navy."
Ilere he received the ambassadors from the Oxudrakae
and Malii tendering their allegiance. He then sailed
down the Akesines to its confluence with the Indus,
where he " tarried with his fleet till Perdikkas arrived
with the army under his command, having subdued
the Ahasfani, one of the free nations of India, on his
way."

At the capture of Multan by Chach, in the middle
of the seventh century, the waters of the Eavi were
still flowing under the walls of the fortress, but in
A.D. 713, when the citadel was besieged by Muhammad
bin Kasim, it is stated by Biladuri j that " the city
was supplied with water by a stream flowing from the

* Geogr., XV. 1, 33. t ' Anabasis,' vi. 5.

% Eeinaud, ' Fragments Arabes,' p. 199.

240 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

river (name left blank by M. Eeinaud) ; Muhammad cut
off the water, and the inhabitants, pressed by thirst,
surrendered at discretion. All the men capable of
bearing arms were put to death, and the women and
children, with 6000 priests of the temple, were made
slaves." The canal is said to have been shown to
Muhammad by a traitor. I am willing to accept this
account as a proof that the main stream of the Eavi
had already deserted its old channel ; but it is quite
impossible that Multan could have been forced to
surrender from want of water. I have already ex-
plained that one branch of the Eavi formerl}- flowed
between the city and fortress of Multan, and that the
old bod still exists as a deep hollow, in which water
can be reached at most times by merely scratching
the surface, and at all times by a few minutes' easy
digging. Even in the time of Edrisi* the environs of
the town are said to have been watered by a small
river, and I conclude that some branch of the Eavi
must still have flowed down to Multan. But though
the narrative of Biladuri is undoubtedly erroneous as
to the immediate cause of surrender, I am yet inclined
to believe that all the oilier circumstances may be
quite true. Thus, when the main stream of the Etivi
deserted ^lultan, the city, which is still unwalled on
llie side towards the citadel, must have been protected
by continuing its defences right across the old bed of
the river to connect them with tliose of the fortress.
In thes(> n(^w walls, eponings must have been left for the
passage of the waters of the canal or branch of the
Eavi, whichev(n- it may have been, similar to those
Avhieli existed in modern times. Edrisi specially notes

* (ieOLTi'., .T.nibcvrs ti'auslation, i. 1(')S.

NORTHERN INDIA. 241

that Multan was commanded by a citadel, which had
four gates, and was surrounded by a ditch. I infer,
therefore, that Muhammad Kasim may have captured
Multan in the same way that Cyrus captured Babylon,
by the diversion of the waters which flowed through
the city into another channel. In this way he could
have entered the city by the dry bed of the river,
after which it is quite possible that the garrison of the
citadel may have been forced to surrender from want
of water. At the present day there are several wells
in the fortress, but only one of them is said to be
ancient ; and one well would be quite insufficient for
the supply even of a small garrison of 5000 men.

Kahror.

The ancient town of Kahror is situated on the
southern bank of the old Bias river, 50 miles to the
south-east of Multan, and 20 miles to the north-east
of Bahawalpur. It is mentioned as one of the towns
which submitted to Chach* after the capture of Multan
in the middle of the seventh century. But the interest
attached to Kahror rests on its fame as the scene of the
great battle between Vikram^ditya and the Sakas, in
A.D. 79. Abu Kihan describes its position as situated
between Multan and the castle of Loni. The latter
place is most probably intended for Zud//an, an ancient
town situated near the old bed of the Satlej river, 44
miles to the east-north-east of Kahror, and 70 miles
to the east-south-east of Multan. Its position is
therefore very nearly halfway between Multfi,n and
Ludhan, as described by Abu Kihan.

* Lieut. Postans, .Journ. Asiat. Soc, Bengal, 1838, p. 95, where the
translator reads Karud, ^,X, instead of ,(, Karor.

242

THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OP INDIA.

Uclth.

The old town of TJchh is situated on the eastern
bank of the Pniijnad, 70 miles to the soutli-south-west
of Multan, and 45 miles to the north-east of the
present confluence with the Indus at Mithunkot.
The change in the course of the Indus has taken place
since the time of "Wilford's surveyor, Mirza Mogal
Beg, who surveyed the Panjab and Kabul between
the years 1786 and 1796, and this part in 1787-88.
The former channel still exists under the name of Nala
Purdn, or the " Old Stream." Uchcha means " high,
lofty," both in Sanskrit and in Hindi ; and UchcJuma-
gar is therefore a common name for any place situ-
ated on a height. Thus we have TJchchagaon or Bit-
lanilshaJir, as the Muhammadans call it, on the high
bank of the Kali Nadi, 40 miles to the south-east of
Delhi. "We have another TJchh on a mound to the
west of the confluence of the Chenab and Jhelam ; and
a third Uchh^ which is also situated on a mound, is
the subject of the present description. According to
Burnes,* TJchh is formed of three distinct towns, a
few hundred yards apart from each other, and each
encompassed by a briclv wall, now in ruins. Massonf
mentions only two separat(^ towns ; but the people
themselves say that there were once seven different
toAvns named Uchchnnagar. In Mogal Beg's map
TJchh is entered with the remark, " consisting of seven
distinct villages." According to Masson, TJchh is
chiefly "distinguished by the ruins of the former
towns, which are very extensive, and attest the pris-
liiK" ]irosperity of the locality." According to Burnes,

* ' Bokhara,' i. 79. t ' Travels,' i. 22,

NORTHERN INDIA. 243

the town of Uchli stands on a mound, which he judged,
from a section exposed by an inundation of the Chenfib,
to be formed of the ruins of houses. This opinion is
doubtless correct, as the place has been repeatedly
destroyed and rebuilt. After the last great siege, in
A.H. 931, or A.D. 1524-25, by Husen Shah Arghun,
the walls of Uchh were levelled to the ground, and
the gates and other materials were carried off to
Bakar in boats.* Its favourable position at the old
confluence of the Panjab rivers must have made it a
place of importance from the earliest times. Accord-
ingly, we learn from Anian that Alexander " ordered
a city to be built at the confluence of the two rivers,
imagining that by the advantage of such a situation it
would become rich and populous.''^ It is probably
this city which is mentioned by Rashid ud dinj as the
capital of one of the four principalities of Sindh under
Ayand, the son of Kafand^ who reigned after Alexan-
der. He calls the place Askaland-usaJi, which would
be an easy corruption of Alexandria Uchcha, or Ussa,
as the Greeks must have written it. I think, also,
that Uchh must be the Iskandar, or Alexandria^ of the
Chach-namah, which was captured by Chach on his
expedition against Multan.J After the Muhammadan
conquest the place is mentioned only by its native
name of Uchh. It was captui-ed bj'^ Mahmud of
Ghazni, and Muhammad Ghori, and it was the chief
city of Upper Sindh under NS-ser ud din Kubachah.
At a later period it formed part of the independent
kingdom of Multan, which was established shortly

* Postans, Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, 1841, p. 275.

t ' Anabasis,' vi. 15.

% Postans, Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, 1838, p. 94.

R 2

244

THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

after the troubles that followed the invasion of Timur.*
In A.D. 1524 it was taken by storm by Shah Husen
or Hasan Arghun of Sindh, when its walls Aveio
dismantled, as I have abeady noticed. But after
the capture of Multan, Husen ordered the fort of
Uchh to be rebuilt, in which he left a large garrison
to secure the possession of his recent conquests. In
the reign of Akbar, Uchh was permanently annexed
to the Mogal empire, and is included by Abul Fazl
amongst the separate districts of the Subah of
Multtln.

The country at the confluence of the Panjab rivers
is assigned by Curtius to the Saiahraca or Sabraca^ and
by Diodorus to the Sambastce. They are not mentioned
by Arrian, at least under this name ; but I think that
the Ossadii, who tendered their allegiance to Alex-
ander at the confluence of the rivers, were the same
people. It is probable also that the Abastani, who
were subdued by Perdikkas, belonged to the same
class. Perdikkas had been dispatched by Alexander
to the east of the Eavi, where he captured a town
which I have identified with Harapa. I infer that his
campaign must have been an extended one, as Alex-
ander, whose o-\vn movements had been delayed by his
Avound, Avas still obliged to halt for him at the con-
fluence of the rivers. It seems highly probable there-
fore that he may have carried the CTr(^ek arms to
Ajii(Uian on the banks of the Satlcj, from which his
march would have been along the course of that river
by Ludhan, Mailsi, Kahror, and Lodhran, to Alex-
ander's camp at TJchh. In this route he must bare
eiiconntcrod the Johhja Rajputs, who haA-e occupied

» Brifjgs's ' Ferishta,' iv, 380.

NORTHERN INDIA. 245

both banks of the Satlcj from Ajudhan to Uchh from
time immemorial. T think therefore that the Abastani,
whom Perdikkas subdued have a strong claim to be
identified with the Johiya Eajputs. The country about
Multan is still called Joliiya-bdr or Yaudheya-wdra.

The Johiyas are divided into three tribes, named
Laiujavlra or Lakvira, Ma'dhovira or Mddhera, and
Adainvlra or Adviera. The Sambracm would appear to
have been divided into three clans, as being a free
people without kings they chose three generals to lead
them against the Greeks. Now Johiya is an abbrevia-
tion of Jodhiya, which is the Sanskrit Yaudheya, and
there are coins of this clan of as early a date as the
first centui-y of the Christian era, which show that the
Yaudheyas were even then divided into three tribes.
These coins are of three classes, of which the first
bears the simple inscription Jaya-Yaudheya-ganasya,
that is (money) " of the victorious Yaudheya tribe.
The second class has dwi at the end of the legend, and
the third has tri, which I take to be contractions for
dwitiyasya and tritiyasya, or second and third, as the
money of the second and third tribes of the Yaudheya.-^.
As the coins are found to the west of the Satlej, in
Depalpur, Satgarha, Ajudhan, Kahror, and Multan,
and to the eastward in Bhatner, Abhor, Sirsa, Hansi,
Panipat, andSonpat, it is almost certain that they belong
to the Johiyas, who now occupy the line of the Satlej,
and who were still to be found in Sirsa as late as the
time of Akbar. The Yaudheyas are mentioned in the
Allahabad inscription of Samudra Gupta, and at a
still earlier date by Panini in the Junagarh inscription
of Eudra Dama.* Now the great grammarian was

* Dr. Bhau D^ji in ' Bombay Journal,' vii. 120.

246

THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHy 01' INDIA.

certainly anterior to Chandra Gupta Maurya, and his
mention of the Yaudheyas proves that they must have
been a recognised clan before the time of Alexander.
The inscription of Rudra Dama, in which he boasts of
having "rooted out the Yaudheyas^ shows that this
powerful clan must have extended their arms very far
to the south, otherwise they would not have come into
collision with the princes of Surashtra. From these
facts I am led to infer that the possessions of the
Johiyas in the time of Alexander most probably ex-
tended from Bhatner and Pakpatan to Sabzalkot, about
halfway between Uchh and Bhakar.

I will now examine the different names of the
people who made their submission to Alexander during
his halt at the confluence of the Panjab rivers. Ac-
cording to Curtius they were called Sambracce or 8a-
hracm ;* according to Orosius Sabagrm ; and according
to Diodorus, who placed them to the east of the river,
Sambast(B.'\ They were a powerful nation, second to
none in India for courage and numbers. Their forces
consisted of 60,000 foot, 6000 horse, and 500 chariots.
The military reputation of the clan suggests the pro-
bability that the Greek name may be descriptive of
their warlike character, just as Yaudheya means " war-
rior or soldier." I think, therefore, that the true
Greek name may have been Sambagra, for the Sanskrit
Samvciyn, that is, the "united warriors," or ^vi^iiaxoh
which, as they were formed of three allied tribes,
would have been an appropriate appellation. In con-
firmation of this suggestion, I may note the fact that

* Vita Alex., ix. 8. "Inde Sabracas adiit, Talidam Indiae gentem,
qua' populi, non regum, imperio regebatur."
t Hist., xvii. 10.

NORTHERN INDIA. 247

the country of which Bikaner is now the capital was ori-
ginally called Bdffar-des, or the land of the Bdffri, or
" Warriors," whose leader was Bagri Eao.* Bhati also
means " warrior or soldier." We thus find three tribes
at the present day, all calling themselves " warriors,"
who form a large propi irtion of the population in the
countries to the east of the Satlej ; namely, Johiyas or
Yaudheyas along the river, Bdyris in Bikaner, and
Bliatm in Jesalmer. All three are of acknowledged
Lunar descent ; and if my suggested interpretation
of Sambdgri be correct, it is possible that the name
might have been applied to these three clans, and not
to the three tribes of the Yaudheyas. I think, how-
ever, that the Yaudheyas have a superior claim, both
on accoimt of their position along the banks of the
Satlej, and of their undoubted antiquity. To them I
would attribute the foundation of the town of Ajudhan,
or Jyodhanam, the " battle-field," which is evidently
connected with their own name of Yaudheya, or Jjud-
hiya^ the " warriors." The latter form of the name
is most probably preserved in the Ossadii of Arrian, a
free people, who tendered their allegiance to Alexander
at the confluence of the Panjab rivers. The Ossadii
of Arrian would therefore con-espond with the Sam-
bastse of Diodorus and the Sambracse of Curtius, who
made their submission to Alexander at the same place.
Now Ossadioi or Assodioi is as close a rendering of
Jjudhiya as could be made in Greek characters. We
have thus a double correspondence both of name and

* This information I obtained at the famous fortress of Bhatner in
the Bikaner territory. The name is certainly aa old as the time of
Jahanglr, as Chaplain Terry describes ' Bikaneer ' as the c-Mef city of
' Bakar.' See 'A Voyage to East India,' p. 86.

248

THE ANCIENI GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

position in favour of my identification of the Sabagrte
or Sambraese with the Johiyas of the present day.

WESTERN INDIA.

Western India, according to Hwen Thsang, was
divided into three great states, named Sindh^ Gurjjara^
and Balabhi. The first comprised the whole valley
of the Indus from the Punjab to the sea, including the
Delta and the island of Kachh ; the second comprised
Western Eajputana and the Indian Desert, and the
third comprised the peninsula of Gujarat, with a small
portion of the adjacent coast.

I. SiNDH.

In the seventh century Sindh was divided into four
principalities, which, for the sake of greater distinct-
ness, I will describe by their geographical positions,
as Upper Sindh, Middle Sindh, Lower Sindh, and
Kachh.* The whole formed one kingdom under the
Eaja of Upper Sindh, who, at the time of Hwen
Thsang's visit in a.d. 641, was a Siu-to-lo or Sudra.
So also in the time of Chach, only a few years later,
the minister Budhiman informs the king that the
country had been formerly divided into four districts,
each under its own ruler, who acltnowledged the supre-
macy of Chach's predecessors.f At a still earlier date
Sindh is said to have been divided into four princi-
palities by Ayand^ the son of Kafand^X """h*^ reigned
some time after Alexander the Great. These four
principalities are named Zor, Askalandusa, Sdniid, and

* See Map No. IX.

t Postans in Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, 1838, p. 93.

X Eashid ud din, in Eeinaud's 'Fragments Arabes,' p. 47.

A Cuiming^ain dftl'-

WESTERN INDIA. 249

Lohdna, all of which will be discussed presently, as
they would appear to correspond with the divisions
noted by Hwen Thsang.

Upper Sindh.

The single principality of Upper Sindh, which is
now generally known as 8lro, that is the "Head or
Upper" division, is described as being 7000 li, or
1167 miles, in circuit, which is too great, unless, as is
very probable, it comprised the whole of Kachh Gran-
dava on the west. This was, no doubt, always the
case under a strong government, which that of Chach's
predecessor is known to have been. Under this view
Upper Sindh would have comprised the present dis-
tricts of Kachh-Gandava, Kahan, Shikarpur, and
Larkana to the west of the Indus, and to the east
those of Sabzalkot and Khairpur. The lengths of the
frontier lines would, therefore, have been as follows : —
on the north 340 miles ; on the west 250 miles ; on
the east 280 miles, and on the south 260 miles; or
altogether 1030 miles, which is a very near approxi-
mation to the estimate of Hwen Thsang.

In the seventh century the capital of the province
Avas named Pi-chen-po-pu-lo, which M. Julien tran-
scribes as . VicJiava-pura. M. Vivien de St. Martin,
however, suggests that it may be the Sanskrit Vichdla-
pura, or city of " Middle Sindh," which is called
Vicholo by the people. But the Sindhi and Panjabi
Vick and the Hindi Bich, or " middle," are not derived
from the Sanskrit, which has a radical word of its own,
Madhya, to express the same thing. If Hwen Thsang
had used the vernacular terms, his name might have
been rendered exactly by the Hindi JBichwd-pur, or

250

THE ANCIENT GEOGBAPHY OF INDIA.

"Middle City," but as he invariably uses the
Sanskrit forms, I think that we must rather look to
some pure Sanskrit word for the original of his Pi-
chen-po-pu-lo. Now we know from tradition, as well as
from the native historians, that Alor was the capital of
Sindh both before and after the period of Ewen
Thsang's visit; this new name, therefore, must be
only some variant appellation of the old city, and not
that of a second capital. During the Hindu jteriod it
was the custom to give several names to all the larger
cities, — as we have already seen in the case of Multan.
Some of these were only poetical epithets ; as Kumma-
pura, or " Flower City " applied to Pataliputra, and
Fadmavati, or, "Lotus Town" applied to Narwar ;
others were descriptive epithets as Varaudsi, or Ba-
naras, applied to the city of Kasi, to show that it was
situated between the Varaiiu and Aai rivulets ; and
Kdiii/akii6jn, the " hump-backed maiden," applied to
Kauoj, as the scene of a well-known legend. The
difference of name does not, therefore, imply a new
capital, as it may be only a new appellation of the old
city, or perhaps even the restoration of an old name
which had been temporarily supplanted. It is true
that no seci )nd name of Alor is mentioned by the his-
torians of Sindh ; but as Alor was actually the capital
in the time of Hwon Thsang, it would seem to be
quite certain that his name of Pi-clien-po-pu-lo is only
another name for that city.

It is of importance that this identification should be
clearly established, as the pilgrim places the capital to
the west uf the Indus, whereas the present ruins of
Alor (ir Aror arc to the east of the river. But this
very difference confirms the accuracy of the identifi-

AVESTERN INDIA. 261

cation, for the Indus formerly flowed to the east of
Alor, down the old channel, now called Ndra^ and the
change in its course did not take place until the reign
of Eaja Daliir,* or about fifty years after Hwen
Thsang's visit. The native histories attribute the de-
sertion of Alor by the Indus to the wickedness of
Raja Dahir ; but the gradual westing of all the Panjab
rivers which flow from north to south, is only the
natural result of the earth's continued revolution from
west to east, which gives their waters a permanent bias
towards the western banks, f The original course of
the Indus was to the east of the Alor range of hills ;
but as the waters gradually worked their way to the
westward, they at last turned the northern end of the
range at Rori, and cut a passage for themselves through
the gap in the limestone rocks between Eori and Bha-
kar. As the change is assigned to the beginning of
Dahir' s reign, it must have taken place shortly after
his accession in a.d. '680 ; — and as Muhammad Kasim,
just thirty years later, was obliged to cross the Indus
to reach Alor, it is certain that the river was perma-
nently fixed in its present channel before a.d. 711.

The old bed of the Indus still exists under the name
of Nara, and its course has been surveyed from the
ruins of Alor to the Ran of Kachh. From Alor to
Jakrao, a distance of 100 miles, its direction is nearly
due south. It there divides into several channels,
each bearing a separate name. The most easterly

* Postans, Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, 1838, p. 103.

t All streams that flow from the poles towards the equator work
gradually to the westward, while those that flow from the equator
towards the poles work gradually to the eastward. These opposite
effects are caused by the same difierence of the earth's polar and
equatorial velocities which gives rise to the trade winds.

2o2 THE ANCIENT GEOGKAPHY OF INDIA.

channel, which retains the name of Ndra^ runs to
the south-east by Kipra and Umrkot, near which it
turns to the south-west by Wanga Bazar and Eomaka
Bazar, and is there lost in the great Ean of Kachh.
The most westerly channel, which is named Purdna,
or the " Old Eiver," flows to the south-south-west,
past the ruins of Brahmanabad and Nasirpur to Hai-
darabad, below which it divides into two branches.
Of these, one turns to the south-west and falls into the
present river 15 miles below Haidarabad and 12 miles
above Jarak. The other, called the Guni, turns to the
south-east and joins the Xara above Eomaka Bazar.
There are at least two other channels between the
Purana and the jS^ara, which branch off just below
Jakrud, but their courses arc only partially known.
The upper half of the old Nara, from Alor to Jakrao,
is a dry sandy bed, which is occasionally filled by the
flood waters of the Indus. From its head down to
JAmiji it is bounded on the west by a continuation of
the Alor hills, and is generally from 200 feet to 300
feet wide and 20 feet deep. From Jamiji to Jakrao,
Avherc tlic ehannel widens to fiOO feet Avith the depth
uf 12 fet'l, the Xara is bounded on both sides by broad
ranges of low sand-hills. Below Jakrao the sand-hills
on the wcst(;rn bank suddenly terminate, and the
Nara, spreading over the alluvial plains, is divided
into two main branches, which grow wider and shal-
lower as they advance, until the western channels are
lost in the hard plain, and the eastern channels in a
sucoossiou of marshes. But they reappear once more
below the parallel of Hala and Kipra, and continue
their com-ses as already described above.'*
* See Map No. IX.

WESTERN INDIA. 2,55

In Upper Sindh tlic only places of ancient note are
yl/or, Rori-B/ia/,ytr, and Ma/iorla, near Lurlnhia.
Several other places are mentioned in the campaigns
of Alexander, Chach, Muhammad bin Kasim, and
Husen Shah Arghun ; but as the distances are rarely
given, it is difficult to identify the positions where
names are so constantly changed. In the campaign
of Alexander we have the names of the Massance^ the
Sogdi^ the Musikani, and the Prasti, all of which must
certainly be looked for in Upper Sindh, and which I
will now attempt to identify.

MassancB and Sodrce, or Sogdi.

On leaving the confluence of the PanjS,b rivers,
Alexander sailed down the Indus to the realm of the
Sogdi, SojBoi, where, according to Arrian,* " he built
another city." Diodorusf describes the same people,
but under a different name : — "Continuing his descent
(if the river, he received the submission of the SodrcB
and the Mussana, nations on opposite banks of the
stream, and founded another Alexandria, in which he
placed 10,000 inhabitants." The same people are
described by Curtius,J although he does not mention
their names : — " On the fourth day he came to other
nations, where he built a town called Alexandria."
From these accounts it is evident that the Sogdi of
Arrian and the Sodra of Diodorus are the same people,
although the former haA'^e been identified with the
Sodha Eajputs by Tod and M'Murdo, the latter with
the servile Sudras by Mr. Vaux. The Sod/ias, who
are a branch of the Pramaras, now occupy the south-

* ' Anabasis,' vi. 15. f Hist. Univers. xvii. 56.

X Vita Alex., ix. 8.

254 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

eastern district of Sindh, about Umarkot, but according
to M'Murdo,* who is generally a most trustworthy
guide, there is good reason to believe that they once
held large possessions on the banks of the Indus, to
the northward of Alor. In adopting this extension of
the territory formerly held by the Sodha Eajputs, I
am partly influenced by the statement of Abul Fazl,
that the country from Bhakar to Umarkot was peopled
by the Sodas and Jharejas in the time of Akbar,f and
partly by the belief that the Massana of Diodorus are
the Musarnei of Ptolemy, whose name still exists in
the district of Muzarka, to the west of the Indus
below Mithankot. Ptolemy also gives a town called
Musarna^ which he places on a small affluent of the
Indus, tit the north of the Askana rivulet. The
MmantK affluent may therefore be the rivulet of
Kahan, which flows past Pulaji and Shahpur, towards
Khangarha or Jaeobabad, and Musarna may be the
town of Shahpur, which was a place of some conse-
quence before the rise of Shikarpur. " The neigh-
bouring country, now nearly desolate, has traces of
cultivation to a considerable extent. "J The So(/di^ or
Sodrcs, I would identify with the people of Seorai,
which was captured by Husen Shah Arghun on his
way from Bhakar to Multan.§ In his time, a.d.
1525, it is described as "the strongest fort in that
country." It was, however, deserted by the garrison,
and the conqueror ordered its walls to be razed to the
ground. Its actual position is unknown, but it was

* Journ. Koyal Asiat. Soc, i. 33. i ' Ayin Akbari,' ii. 117.

X Thornlon, ' Gazetteer,' in voce.

§ Erskine's Hist, of India, i. 388. Postans, Journ. Asiat. Soc.
Bensal, 1811, 275.

WESTERN INDIA. Zoh

probably close to Fazilpur, halfway between Sabzal-
kot and Chota Ahmedpur, where Masson* heard that
there was formerly a considerable town, and that "the
wells belonging to it, 360 in number, were still to be
seen in the jangals." Now in this very position, that
is about 8 miles to the north-east of Sabzalkot, the old
maps insert a village named Sirwahi, which may pos-
sibly represent the Seorai of Sindhian history. It is
96 miles in a direct line below Uchh, and 85 milee
above Alor, or very nearly midway between them.
By water the distance from Uchh would be at least
one-third greater, or not less than 120 miles, which
would agree with the statement of Curtius that Alex-
ander reached the place on the fourth day. It is ad-
mitted that these identifications are not altogether
satisfactory ; but they are perhaps as precise as can
now be made, when we consider the numerous fluctua-
tions of the Indus, and the repeated changes of the
names of places on its banks. One fact, preserved by
Arrian, is strongly in favour of the identification of
the old site near Fazilpur with the town of the Sot/di^
namely, that from this point Alexander dispatched
Kraterusf with the main body of the army, and all
the elephants, through the confines of the Arachoti
and Drangi. Now the most frequented Ghat for the
crossing of the Indus towards the west, via the Gan-
dava and Bolan Pass, lies between Fazilpur on the
left bank, and Kasmor on the right bank. And as
the ghi.ts, or points of passage of the rivers, always
determine the roads, I infer that Ivraterus must have
begun his long march towards Arachosia and Dran-
giana from this place, which is the most northern

* ' Travels,' i. 382. f 'Anabasis,' vi. 15.

256 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

liosition on the Indus for the departure of a large
army to the westward. It seems probahlo, however,
that Kraterus Avas detained for some time by the
revolt of Musikanus, as his departure is again men-
tioned by Arrian,* after Alexander's capture of the
Brahman city near Sindomana.

Between Multan and Alor the native historians, as
well as the early Arab geographers, place a strong
fort named Bhdtia, which, from its position, has a
good claim to be identified with the city which Alex-
ander built amongst the Sogdi, as it is not likely that
there were many advantageous sites in this level tract
of coimtry. Unfortunately, the name is variously
written by the different authorities. Thus, Postans
gives Pdya, Bcihiya, and Pdhiya ; Sir Henry Elliot
gives Pdbir/a, Bdtia, and Bhdiiya^ while Price gives
Baltdfia.-\ It seems probable that it is the same place
as TaJlidti,X where Jam Janar crossed the Indus ; and
perhaps also the same as Mdtila^ or Malidtila,^ which
was one of the six great forts of Sindh in the seventh
century.

Bhdiia is described by Ferishta as a very strong
place, defended by a lofty wall and a deep broad
ditch. II It was taken by assault in a.h. 393, or a.d.
1003, by Mahmud of Ghazni, after an obstinate de-
fence, in which the Raja, named Bajja)\ or Bije JRai,
Avas killed. Amongst the plunder Mahmud obtained
no less than 280 elephants, a most substantial proof
of tlie wealth and power of the Hindu prince.

* ' Anabasis,' vi. 17. t Doivaon's edition of Sir H. Elliot, i. 138.
+ Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, 1845, p. 171. § Ihid., 184,5, p. 79.

II Brifjss's ' Ferisbta,' i. 39 ; and Tabatat.i.Akbari, in Sir Henry
Elliot, p. ISO.

WE.STEEN INDIA. 257

]\lusikani — Alor.

From the territory of the Sot/di or Sodrce, Alexander
continued his voyage down the Indus to the capital
of a king named Musikanus, according to Strabo, Dio-
dorus, and Arrian,* or of a people named Musicani,
according to Curtius.^]" From Arrian we learn that
this kingdom had been described to Alexander as
" the richest and most populous throughout all
India ; " and from Strabo we get the account of
Onesikritus that " the country produced everything
in abundance ; " which shows that the Greeks them-
selves must have been struck with its fertility. Now
these statements can apply only to the rich and
powerful kingdom of Upper Sindh, of which Alor is
known to have been the capital for many ages.
Where distances are not given, and names disagree,
it is difficult to determine the position of any place
from a general description, unless there are some pe-
culiarities of site or construction, or other properties
which may serve to fix its identity. In the present
instance we have nothing to guide us but the general
description that the kingdom of Musikanus was " the
richest and most populous throughout all India." But
as the native histories and traditions of Sindh agree
in stating that Alor was the ancient metropolis of the
country, it seems almost certain that it must be the
capital of Musikanus, otherwise this famous city would
be altogether unnoticed by Alexander's historians,
which is highly improbable, if not quite impos-

* Strabo, Geogr., xv. i. 22-34 and 54. Diodorus, xvii. 10. Arrian,
' Anabasis,' vi. 15.
t Vita Alex., ix. 8.

258 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OE INDIA.

sible. That the territory of Alor was rich and fertile
we know from the early Arab geographers, who are
unanimous in its praise.

ITie ruins of Alor are situated to the south of a gap
in the low range of limestone-hills, which stretches
from Bhakar towards the south for about 20 miles,
until it is lost in the broad belt of sand-hills which
bound the Nara, or old bed of the Indus, on the west.
Through this gap a branch of the Indus once flowed,
which protected the city on the north-west. To the
north-east it was covered by a second branch of the
river, which flowed nearly at right angles to the other,
at a distance of 3 miles. At the accession of Eaja Dahir,
in A.D. 680, the latter was probably the main stream
of the Indus, which had been gradually working to
the westward from its original bed in the old N&ra.*
According to the native histories, the final change
was hastened by the excavation of a channel thi-ough
the northern end of the range of hills between Bhakar
and Eori.

The true name of Alor is not quite certain. The
common pronunciation at present is Jror, but it seems
probable that the original name was Bora, and that
the initial vowel was derived from the Arabic prefix
Jl, as it is written A Iror in Biladuri, Edrisi, and other
Arab authors. This derivation is countenanced by
the name of the neighbouring town of Rori, as it is a
common practice in India thus to duplicate names.
So Bora and Bori Avould mean Great and Little Bora.
This word has no meaning in Sanskrit, but in Hindi
it signifies "noise, clamour, roar" and also "fame."
It is just possible, therefore, that the full name of the

* See Map No. IX.

"WESTERN INDIA. 259

city may have been Rora-jiura^ or Bora-nagara^ the
" Famous City." This signification suggested itself
to me on seeing the name of Abhijanu applied to a
neighbouring village at the foot of the hill, 2 miles to
the south-west of the ruins of Alor. Ahhijan is a
Sanskrit term for " fame," and is not improbably
connected with Hwen Thsang's Pi-chen-po-pu-lo,
which, by adding an initial syllable o, might be read as
AhMjanwapura. I think it probable that Alor may be
the Binagara of Ptolemy, as it is placed on the Indus
to the eastward of OsJcana^ which appears to be the
Oxyhanus of Arrian and Curtius. Ptolemy's name of
Binagara is perhaps only a variant reading of the
Chinese form, as pulo^ or pura, is the same as nagara,
and Pichenpo may be the full form of the initial syl-
lable Bi.

The city of Musikanus was evidently a position of
some consequence, as Arrian relates that Alexander
" ordered Kraterus to build a castle in the city, and
himself tarried there to see it finished. This done,
he left a strong garrison therein, because this fort
semed extremely commodious for bridling the neigh-
bouring nations and keeping them in subjection." It
was no doubt for this very reason that Alor was ori-
ginally founded, and that it continued to be occupied
until deserted by the river, when it was supplanted
by the strong fort of Bhakar.

PrcBsti — Poriikanus, or Oxylcanus.

From the capital of Musikanus Alexander allowed
his fleet of boats to continue their course down the
Indus, while he himself, according to Arrian,*

* ' Anabasis,' vi. 16.

s 2

260

THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

marcliecl against a neighbouring prince named Oxy-
kanus, and took two of his chief cities at the first
assault. Curtius makes Oxycmius the king of a people
named Prasti* and states that Alexander captured
his chief city after a siege of three days. Diodorus
and Strabo call the king Portikanus. Now, these
various readings at once suggest the probability that
the name was that of the city, which, either as
TJchcha-gam ^ or Porta-gdm^ means simply the "Lofty
town," in allusion to its height. The description of
Curtius of the " tremendous crash" made by the fall
of two towers of its citadel shows that the place must
have been more than usually lofty. I would there-
fore identify it with the great mound of MaUoria on
the bank of the Ghar river, 10 miles from Larkana.
Masson describes it as "the remains of an ancient
fortress, on a huge mound, named ]\Iaih:jta.'''''\ Ma-
horta, which is the spelling adopted by the surveyors,
is probably Mahorddha, for maJid-\- urddha-\-grdina, or
"the great lofty city," which, as pure Sanskrit, is not
likely to be a modern name. This identification ap-
pears to me to be very probable, not only on account
of the exact correspondence of name, but also on ac-
count of the relative positions of Alor and iMahorta
with reference to the old course of the Indus. At
present Mahorta is within a few miles of the river ;
but in the time of Alexander, when the Indus flowed
down the bed of the JSTara, the nearest point of the
stream was at Alor, from which Mahorta was distant
45 miles to the south of west. Hence Alexander was
obliged to leave his fleet, and to tnarcJi against Oxy-

kauus

* Vita Alex., ix. 8, 26. t 'Travels,' i. 461.

WESTERN INDIA. 261

The site of Mahorta must always have been a posi-
tion of great importance, both commercially and po-
litically, as it commanded the high-road from Sindh,
via, Kachh-Gand^va, to Kandahar. Since its desertion,
the same advantages have made Lark^na, which is
situated on the same small stream, 10 miles to the
west of Mahorta, one of the most flourishing places in
Sindh. The rivulet called the Ghar rises near Kelat,
and traverses the whole length of the Mda^ or Ganddva
Pass, below which it is now lost in the desert. But
the channel is still traceable, and the stream reappears
on the frontier of Sindh, and flows past Larkana and
Mahorta into the Indus. Under a strong and judicious
ruler, who could enforce an economical distribution of
the available waters, the banks of the GhSr rivulet
must formerly have been one of the most fertile dis-
tricts of Sindh.

The name of PrcesH given by Curtius* might, ac-
cording to Wilson, be applied to a people occupying
the thals^ or " oases," of the desert. He refers to
Prasiha, or Prasthala, as derived from siliala, the
Sanskrit form of the vernacular ihal^ which is the
term generally used to designate any oasis in Western
India. But as the name is simply Vrasti^ I think
that it may rather be referred to prastha, which
means any clear piece of level ground, and might
therefore be applied to the plain country about Lar-
kana, in contradistinction to the neighbouring hilly
districts of Sehwan and Gandava. It seems possible,
however, that it may be connected with the Pisica of
Ptolemy, which he places on the lower course of the
small stream that flows past Oslcana into the Indus.

* Vita Alex., ix. 8.

202 THE ANCIENT GEOGEAPHT OF INDIA.

Now Oskana is almost certainly the Oxyhanus of
Arrian and Curtius, for not only are the two names
absolutely identical, but the inland position of Oskana,
on a small stream to the west of the Indus, agrees
exactly with that of Mahorta, which I have identified
with Oxyhanus. I think also that Ptolemy's Badana,
which lies immediately to the north of the rivulet,
must be the present Gandava, as the letters B and G
are constantly interchanged. In the books of the
early Arab writers it is always called Kanddbil.

2. MIDDLE SINDH.

The principality of Middle Sindh, which is generally
known as Vichnlo^ or the " Midland," is described by
Hwen Tlisang as only 2500 li, or 417 miles, in circuit.
With these small dimensions the province must have
been limited to the modern district of Sehwan, with
the northern parts of Haidarabad and Umarkot.
Within these limits the north and south frontiers
arc each about 160 miles in length, and the east and
Avest frontiers about 45 miles each, or altogether not
more than 410 miles in circuit. The chief city, named
Of an. da, was situated at 700 //, or 117 miles, from the
capital of Upper Sindh, and 50 miles from Pifasila,
the capital of Lower Sindh. As the former was Jlor,
and the latter was almost certainly the Fattala of the
Greeks, or Haidnrabad, the recorded distances fix the
position of O-fan-cJia in the immediate vicinity of the
ruins of an ancient city called Bambhra-ka-Tid, or the
" Ruined Tower," or simply BanbJiar, which, accord-
ing to tradition, was the site of the once famous city
of Brahmanwas, or Brahmanabad. Hwen Thsang's
kingdom of Ofancha, or Ava7ida, therefore, corresponds

WESTERN INDIA. 263

as nearly as possible with the province of middle
Sindh, which is now called Vichalo.

At the present day the principal places in this
division of Sindh are Sehwau, Hala, Haidar^bad, and
Umarkot. In the middle ages, under Hindu rule, the
great cities were Sadusdn, Brdhmana, or Bahmanwd,
and Nirunhoi. But as I shall presently attempt to
show that Nirunkot was most probably the modern
Haidarabad and the ancient Paitala, it will more pro-
perly be included in the province of Lower Sindh, or
Ldr. Close to Bahmanwd the early Muhammadans
founded Mansura^ which, as the residence of their
governors, was the actual capital of the province, and
soon became the largest city in all Sindh. In the
time of Alexander, the only places mentioned are
Sindomdna, and a city of Brahmans, named Harma-
telia by Diodorus. I will now describe these places
in detail, beginning with the most northerly.

Sindomdna, or Sehwdn.

From the city of Oxykanus, Alexander " led his
forces against Sambus, whom he had before declared
governor of the Indian mountaineers." The E.aja aban-
doned his capital, named Sindomana, which, according
to Arrian,* was delivered up to Alexander by the
friends and domestics of Sambus, who came forth to
meet him with presents of money and elephants.
Curtiusf calls the raja Sabus, but does not name his
capital. He simply states that Alexander, having
received the " submission of several towns, captured
the strongest by mining." The narrative of Diodorus:|:

* 'Anabasis,' vi. 16. t Vita Alex., is. 8.

X Hist. TJnivers., xvii. 50.

2G4

THE ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY OF INDIA.

also omits the name of the capital, but states that
Sambus retired to a great distance with thirty ele-
phants. Strabo* merely mentions Eaja Sabus, and
Sindomana his capital, without adding any particu-
lars. Curtiusf alone notes that Alexander returned to
his fleet after the capture of the raja's strongest city,
which must therefore have been at some distance from
the Indus.

I agree with all previous writers on the ancient
geography of this part of India in identifying Sindo-
mana with Sehwdn ; partly from its similarity of name,
and partly from its vicinity to the Lakki mountains.
Of its antiquity there can be no doubt, as the great
mound, which was once the citadel, is formed chiefly
of ruined buildings, the accumulation of ages, on a
scarped rock, at the end of the Lakki range of hills.
De La Ilosteij: describes it as an oval, 1200 feet long,
750 feet broad, and 80 feet high ; but when I saw it in
1855, it appeared to me to be almost square in shape,
and I judged it to be somewhat larger and and rather
more lofty above the river bed than Burnes's esti-
mate.§ It Mas then on the main stream of the Indus;
but the river is constantly changing its channel, and
in all the old maps it is placed on a western branch of
the Indus. In ancient times, however, when the river
flowed down the eastern channel of the Ndra^ Sehwan
was not less than 65 miles distant from its nearest

* Geogr., xr. 1, 32.

t Vita Alex., ix. 8 : " Eursus aranem, iu quo classem expectare se
jusscrat, repetit."

+ Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, 1840, p. 913.

§ ANV'stmacolt, in Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal for 1840, p. 1209, says
about 100 feet above the Arrul river, or Aral, which, in his time was a
branch of the Indus.

WESTERN INDIA. 265

point at Jakrao, where it leaves tlie sand-hills. At
present its water supply is entirely derived from the
Indus, which not only flows under the eastern front
of the town, but also along its northern front, by a
channel called the Aral river, from the great Manchur
lake, which is supplied by the other Nara, or great
western branch of the Indus. But as the site could
not have been occupied unless well supplied with
water, it is certain that the Manchur lake must have
existed long previous to the change in the course of
the Indus. Judging by its great depth in the middle,*
it must be a natural depression ; and as it is still fed
by two small streams, which take their rise in the
Hala Lakki mountains, to the south, it seems probable
that the lake may have extended even up to the walls
of Sehwan, before the floods of the western Nara cut a
channel into the Indus, and thus permanently lowered
the level of its waters. The lake abounds in fish,
from which it would appear to derive its name, as
Manchur is but a slight alteration of the Sanskrit
Mafsya, and the Hindi machh, or machhi, " fish." I
think, therefore, that Manchar may be only a familiar
contraction of machhi-wdla Tdl, or Fish Lake.

The favourable position of Sehwan, on a lofty
isolated rock, near a large lake, with food and water
in abundance, would certainly have attracted the
notice of the first inhabitants of Sindh. We find, ac-
cordingly, that its early occupation is admitted by all
inquirers. Thus, M'Murdoj- says, " Sehwan is un-
doubtedly a place of vast antiquity ; perhaps more so
than either Alor or Bahmana." The present name is

* Westmacott, Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, 1810, p. 1207.
f Jouru. lioyal Asiat. Soc, i. 30.

266

THE ANCIENT GEOGEAPIIY OF INDIA.

said to be a contraction of Sewu/d/i, which was so
called after its inhabitants, the Seiois, or Sabis. But
m all the early Arab geographers the name is some-
what differently written, as Sadusfdn, or Sadusdn, or
S/tdrifsr/n, of which the first two syllables agree with
the Greek Sindomana. I therefore reject the reading
of Sewistdn as a modern innovation of the Hindus, to
connect the place with the name of their god Siva.
The Suido of the Greek, and the Sadu of the early
Muhammadans, point to the Sanskrit name of the
country, Sindhu, or to that of its inhabitants, Sain-
dJiava, or SaindJm, as it is usually pronounced. Their
stronghold, or capital, would therefore have been
called Saindhava-sthdna ^ or Saindliu-sthdn., which, by
the elision of the nasal, becomes the Sadmtdn of the
Arab geographers. In a similar manner Wilson de-
rives the Greek Sindomana from " a very allowable
Sanskrit compound, Sindu-mdn^''^ the "possessor of
Sindh." I am inclined, however to refer the Greek
name to Scdndliava-vanam , or Saiiidhiiwdn^ as the
" abode of the Saindhavas."

It seems strange that a notable place like Sehwan
should not be mentioned by Ptolemy under any re-
cognizable name. If we take Haidarabad as the most
probable head of the Delta in ancient times, then
Ptolemy's Sydros, which is on the eastern bank of the
Indus, may perhaps be identified with the old site of
Mattali, 12 miles above Haidarabad, and his Pasipeda
with Sehwan. The identification of Ptolemy's Oskana
with the Oxijlianufi, or Fortikanus, of Alexander, and
Avith the great mound of IVLahorta of the present day,
is, I think, almost certain. If so, either Piska or
Pasij^cda must be Sehwan.

WESTERN INDIA, 2C7

Hwen Thsang takes no notice of SehM-^n, but it is
mentioned in the native histories of Sindh as one of
the towns captured by Muhammad bin Kasim in a.d.
711. It was again captured by Mahmud of Ghazni
in the beginning of the eleventh century ; and under
the Muhammadan rule it would appear to have become
one of the most flourishing places in Sindh. It is now
very much decayed, but its position is so favourable
that it is not likely ever to be deserted.

Brdhmana, or Brdhnandbdd.

From Sindomana Alexander " marched back to the
river, where he had ordered his fleet to wait for him.
Thence, descending the stream, he came on the fourth
day to a town through which was a road to the king-
dom of Sabus."* When Alexander quitted his fleet
at Alor (the capital of Musikanus) to march against
Oxykanus, he had no intention of going to Sindo-
mana, as Eaja Sambus, having tendered his submis-
sion, had been appointed satrap of the hilly districts
on the Indus.f He must therefore have ordered his
fleet to wait for him at some point on the river not
far from the capital of Oxykanus. This point I would
fix somewhere about Marija Dand, on the old Ndra,
below Kator and Tajal, as Mahorta, which I have
identified with the chief city of Oxykanus, is about
equidistant from Alor and Kator. Thence, descending
the stream, he came on the fourth day to a town,
through which there was a road to the kingdom of

* Curtius, Vita Alex., ix. 8. " Alexander. . . . rursus amnem, in
quo classem exspectare se jusserat, repetit. Quarto deinde die, secundo
amne, pervenit ad oppidum, quS. iter in regnum erat Sabi."

t Arriau, ' Anabasis,' vi. 16: to>v ipluiv 'Ivbiov craTpdwriv.

2 08 THE ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY OF INDIA.

Sambus. Fi-om Marija Dancl, the point where I sup-
pose that Alexander rejoined his fleet, the distance to
the ruined city of Brahmana, or Brahmanahad, is 60
miles in a direct line by land, or 90 miles by water.
As this distance could have been accomplished with
ease in four days, I conclude that Brahmana was the
actual city of Brahmans which is described by Alexan-
der's historians. The king of this city had previously
submitted, but the citizens withheld their allegiance,
and shut their gates. By a stratagem they were in-
duced to come out, and a conflict ensued, in which
Ptolemy was seriously wounded in the shoulder by a
poisoned sword.* The mention of Ptolemy's wound
enables us to identify this city with that of Ilarmatelia^
which Diodorus describes as the " last town of the
Brahmans on the river."t Now, Harmatelia' is only a
softer pronunciation of Brdhma-thala, or Brahnana-
sfhala, just as Hermes, the phallic god of the Greeks,
is the same as Brahma, the original phallic god of the
Indians. But Brahmana was the old Hindu name of
the city which the Muhammadans called Brahmana-
bad ; hence I conclude that the town of Brahmans
captured by Alexander corresponds both in name and
position with the great city of Brahmanabad.

The narrative of Arrian after the capitulation of
Sindomana is unfortunately very brief. His words
are, "he attacked and won a city which had revolted
from him, and put to death as many of the Brahmans
as fell into his hands, having charged them with being
the authors of the rebellion."! This agrees with the

* Curtius, Vita Alex., ix. 8. t Hist. Unirers., xjii. 56.

X ' Anabasis,' vi. 16. 'O hi koI aWrjv noKiv iv rovra dwoiTTaa-av elXe,
Trnv Bpaxi^dvoiv . . oaoi alrwi rfjs anoa-TdiTcas iyivovTO, aTrtKTiiVfV.

Kill

WESTERN IXUIA. 2G9

statement of Diodorus, who mentions that j\.lexanclor
"was satisfied with punishing those who advised the
resistance, and pardoned all the others." From a
comparison of the three narratives, I infer that Har-
matelia, or Brdhmana, was in the dominions of Musi-
kanus ; for Curtius states that the king of this city
had previously submitted to Alexander, while Arrian
says that he had revolted, and Diodorus adds* that
Alexander punished the advisers of the rebellion.
Now, all these facts apply to Musikanus, who had at
first submitted, and then revolted, and was at last
crucified, " and with him as many of the Brahmans as
had instigated him to revolt." This identification is
of some importance, as it shows that the dominions of
Musikanus must have embraced the whole of the
valley of the Indus down to the head of the Delta,
with the exception of the two outlying districts of
Oxykanus and Sambus, under the western mountains.
This extension of his dominions explains the report
which Alexander had previously received from the
people, that the kingdom of Musikanus " was the
richest and most populous throughout all India." It
also explains how Sambus was at enmity with Musi-
kanus, as the southern territories of the latter were
bounded on the west by those of the former. The
king of this city, where Ptolemy was wounded by a
poisoned arrow, is called Ambiger by Justin, -j" which was
probably the true name of Musikanus, the chief of the
Musikani, in whose territory Brahmana was situated.
It is much to be regretted that none of the names
preserved by Ptolemy can be certainly identified with
this city of the Brahmans. Parabali corresponds with

* Hist. TJnirers., xvii. 56. f Justin, Hist., xii. 10.

270

THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

it in position, and partly also in name, as the first two
syllables, Parab, are not very different from Baram,
and the termination, ali, may represent ihala of BraJi-
viathala, or Harmatelia. After Ptolemy's time we
know nothing of Brahmana until the Muhammadan
conquest, a period of nearly six centuries. From the
native histories, however, we learn that Brahmana
was the chief city of one of the four governments*
into which Sindh was divided during the rule of the
Rais dynasty, or from a.d. 507 to 642, and that it
continued to be so until the accession of Dahir in a.d.
680, who made it the capital of the kingdom, after the
destruction of Alor by the Indus. In a.d. 641 Sindh
■was visited by Hwen Thsang, whose account has
already been noticed. He found the kingdom divided
into the four districts, which for greater distinctness
I have named Upper Sindh, Middle Sindh, Lower
Sindh, and Kachh. The first has already been de-
scribed in my account of Alor. The second, 0-fan-
cha, I have just identified with Brdliynandbdd. M.
Stanislas Julien transcribes the Chinese syllables as
Ai-anda^ for which it is difficult to find an exact equi-
valent. But I have a strong suspicion that it is only
a variation of the name of Brdhmana, which was pro-
nounced in many different ways, as Bahmana, Bah-
mana, Babhana, Babhana, Bambhana.f Speaking of
Mansura, which we know was quite close to Brah-
manabad, Ibn Haukal adds that the Sindhians call it
Bdmhvdii^X which Ediisi alters to Mkindii.^ But in

* Postans, Journ. Asiat. Soo. Bengal, 1838, pp. 93-96.
t See Dhauli inscription of Asoka for Babhano, Babhana, andBam-
bliana : ediots iii. iv. viii. ix., in Journ. Eoyal Asiat. Soc, vol. xu.
+ Sir Henry Elliot, ' Muhammadan Historians of India,' p. 63.
§ Jaubert's ' Edrisi,' i. 162.

WESTERN INDIA. 271

his list of places in Sindh, Edrisi adds after Mansura
the name of Wdriddn^ or Kdnddn,* which I take to
be only a various reading of Bamanwa, or, as the
Sindhians would have pronounced it, Vdmanwd, and
Vdnwd. The Chinese syllable fan^ which is the well-
known transcript of Brahma, is a notable example of
this very contraction, and tends to confirm the opinion
that Avanda is but a slight variation of Bdhmanwd, or
Brdhinandbdd.

Shortly after the Muhammadan conquest Brdhmana
was supplanted by Mansm-a, which, according to
Biladuri, was founded by Amru, the son of Muham-
mad bin Kasim, the conqueror of Sindh, f and named
after the second Abasside Khalif Al Mansur, who_
reigned from a.d. 753 to 774. But according to
Masudi,:]: it was founded by Jamhur, the governor of
Sindh, under the last Omnicad Khalif, a.d. 744 to
749, who named it after his own father Mansur. The
new city was built so close to Brahmanabad that Ibn
Haukal, Abu Eihan, and Edrisi, all describe it as the
same place. Ibn Haukal' s words are, " Mansura,
which in the Sind language is called Bamiwan."§
Abu Eih4n states that it was originally called Ba-
manhwd, and afterwards Hamandbdd, for which we
may read Balimanabad^ by simply adding an initial B,
which must have been accidentally dropped. It was

* Jaubert's 'Edrisi,' i. 160.

t Keinaud, ' Fragments Arabes ; ' and Jaubert's ' Edrisi,' i. 162.

X Sir Henry Elliot's 'Muhammadan Historians of India,' p. 57.

§ Sir Henry Elliot's ' Muhammadan Historians of India,' Dowson's
edition, p. 34; and Jaubert's 'Edrisi,' i. 162. " Le nom de la ville
(Mansura) est en Indien Mirimdn." In Gildemeister's 'Ibn Haukal,'
this name is Tdmirman, which is an obvious mistake for Bdmiwdn, or
Bamanwas.

272 THE ANCIENT GEOGUAPIIY OF INDIA.

situated on the eastern brancli of the Mihran, or
Indus, and was 1 mile in length, and the same in
breadth, or just 4 miles in circuit. Its position is
approximately fixed in the neighbourhood of Hala, by
the number of days' journey in the routes to different
places. It was 12 days from Multan, 8 from Kan-
dabil, via Sehwan, and 6 days from Debal, via Man-
habari, which was itself 4 days from Mansura. It
was therefore at two-thirds of the distance from Mul-
tan to the mouth of the Indus, or very nearly in the
same parallel as Hala.

Now in this very position the ruins of a large city
have been discovered by Mr. Bellasis, to whose zeal
and energy we are indebted for our knowledge of this
interesting place. The ruins are situated near an old
bed of the Indus, at 47 miles to the north-east of
Haidarabad, 28 miles to the east or east-north-east of
Hala, and 20 miles to the west of the eastern Nara.*
The place is known as Bambltra-ka-tJml, or " the
Ruined Tower," from a broken brick tower which is
the only building now standing. The present appear-
ance of the site, as described by its discoverer, is "one
vast mass of ruins, varying in size according to the size
of the original houses." Its circumference, measured
by a perambulator, is within a few yards of 4 miles.
But besides the groat mound of Bamhhra-ka-tkll^ there
is, at a distance of about \\ mile, "the distinct and
ruined city of Dolora, the residence of its last king,
and 5 miles in another direction is the ruined city of
Depur, the residence of his Prime Minister, and be-
tu-een these cities are the ruins of suburbs extending

t Journ. Asiat. Soc, Bombay, v. 413; and Thomas's Prinsep, ii.
119. Eastwick's ' Handbook for Bombay,' p. 490.

AVESTERN INDIA. 273

for miles far and wide into the open country." The
great mound of Bambhraka-tldl is " entirely sur-
rounded with a rampart, mounted with numerous
turrets and bastions." In the time of Akbar there
were "considerable vestiges of this fortification,"
which Abul Fazl* says "had 140 bastions, one tandb
distant from each other." The tandb was a measuring
rope, which the emperor Akbar ordered to be changed
for bambus joined by iron links. Its length was 60
Ildhi gaz^ which, at 30 inches each, give 150 feet for
the tandb; and this multiplied by 140, makes the
circuit of the city 21,000 feet, or very nearly 4
miles. Now it will be remembered that Ibn Haukal
describes Mansura as being 1 mile square, or 4 miles
in circuit, and that Mr. Bellasis's measure of the cir-
cumference of the ruined mound of Bambhraka tlntl
was within a few yards of 4 miles. From this abso-
lute correspondence of size, coupled with the close
agreement of position, which has already been pointed
out, I conclude that the great mound of Bambhra ha
tJml represents the ruined city of Mansura^ the capital
of the Arab governors of Sindh. The Hindu city of
Brahmana, or Brahmanabad, must therefore be looked
for in the neighbouring mound of ruins now called
Dilura, which is only 1\ mile distant from the larger
mound.

Mr. Bellasis, the discoverer of these ruins, has
identified the great mound with Brahmanabad itself ;

* ' Ayin Akbari,' ii. 115. Gladwyn's translation has 1400 bastions,
wliich. would give to the city a circuit of 40 miles ; the MSS. have 149.
The Ilahi gaz contained 41^ Sikandari tanghas, and as the average
breadth of 62 Sikandaris in my collection is ■7334 inches, the length
of the Ilahi gaz will be 300311 inches. Mr. Thomas, ii. 133, found
exactly 30 inches.

- ( 4 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OP INDIA.

but to this it has been justly objected by ]\Ir. Thomas*
that amongst the multitudes of mediasval coins found
during the excavations, " the number of Hindu pieces
was very limited, and that even these seem to be
casual contributions from other provinces, of no very
marked uniformity or striking age." The local coins
consist exclusively of specimens of the Arab governors
of Sindh, with the name of ^lansura in the margin ;
and so far as I am aware, there is not a single piece
that can be attributed to any of the Hindu rajas of
Sindh. It is therefore to be regretted that Mr. Bel-
lasis did not make more extensive excavations in the
smaller movmd of Dilura, which would probably have
yielded some satisfactory evidence of its superior
antiquity.

According to the native histories and traditions of
the people, Brahmanabad was destroyed by an earth -
C[uake, in consequence of the wickedness of its ruler,
named Dilu Rai. The date of this prince is doubtful.
M'lTurdo has assigned a.h. 140, or a.d. 757,t ais the
year in which C/tota, the brother of Dilu, returned
from his pilgrimage to Mekka ; but as Mausura was
still a flourishing city in the beginning of the tenth
century, when visited by Masudi and Ibn Haukal, it
is clear that the earthquake cannot have happened
earlier than a.d. 950. Dilu and C'liota are said to
have been the snus of Amir, the Rai or ruler of Brah-
manribad. But it is diificult to believe that there
were any Hindu cliici's in Brahmana during the rule
of the Arab.-; in Mansura. The fact is that the same

* Prin^^op's • Essays,' vol. ii. p. 121, where all tke local coins are
most carcfutlj^ described and attributed,
t Journ. Koyal Asiat. Soo.. i. 28.

WESTERN INDIA. ^ 275

stereotyped legend is told of all the old cities in the
Panjab, as well as of those in Sindh. Shorkot, Harapa,
and At^i, are all said to have been destroyed on account
of the sins of their rulers, as well as Alor, Brahmana,
and Bambhura. But the same story is also- told of
Tulamba, which we know to be false, as I have been
able to trace its downfall to its desertion by the Eavi,
at a very recent date. The excavations of Mr. Bel-
lasis have shown conclusively that Brahmana was
overwhelmed by an earthquake. The human bones
" were chiefly found in doorways, as if the people
were attempting to escape ; others in the corners of
the rooms ; some upright, some recumbent, with their
faces down, and some crouched in a sitting posture."*
The city was certainly not destroyed by fire, as Mr.
Richardson notes that he found no remains of charcoal
or burnt wood, and that the old walls bore no traces
of fire. On the contrary, he also found the human
remains crushed in the corners of the rooms, as if the
terror-stricken inhabitants, finding their houses fall-
ing about them, hud crouched in the corners and been
buried by the falling material.! Mr. Eichardson also
picked up a brick which had " entered cornerways into
a skull, and which, when taken out, had a portion of
the bone adhering to it." His conclusion is the same
as that of Mr. Bellasis, " that the city was destroyed
by some terrible convulsion of nature."

The local coins found in the ruins of Bambhra ka-
tul belong to the Arab governors of Mansura, from
the time of Jamhur, son of Mansur, the reputed founder
of the city, down to Umar, the contemporary of Ma-

* Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bombay, v. 417.
t Ihid., V. 423.

T 2

276

THE ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY OF INDIA.

sudi* It was therefore in existence during the whole
of that time, or from a.d. 750 to 940, or even later.
This agrees exactly with what I have already noted,
that the city was still flourishing when visited by
Masudi and Ibn Haukal in the first half of the tenth
century ; and I would therefore assign its destruction
to the latter half of that century, and not earlier than
a.d. 970. It is true that Mansura is mentioned by
Abu Eihan in the beginning of the next century, and
at a still later period by Edrisi, Kazvini, and Eashid-
ud-din ; but the last thi-ee were mere compilers, and
their statements accordingly belong to an earlier age.
Abu Rihan, however, is entirely original, and as his
knowledge of the Indian language gave him special
facilities for obtaining accurate information, his evi-
dence is sufficient to prove that Mansura was still
existing in his time. In speaking of the itinerary of
Sindh, he says,f " From Aror to Bahmanwa, also
named el Mansura, is reckoned 20 parasangs; from
thence to Loharani, at the mouth of the river, 30
parasangs." Mansura therefore still existed when
Abu Eihan wrote his work, about a.d. 1031 ; but as
it is mentioned by only one author in the campaigns
of Mahmud of Ghazni, it is almost certain that it no
longer existed as a great fortress, the capital of the
country, otherwise its wealth would have attracted the
cupidity of that rapacious conqueror. I conclude,
therefore, that Mansura was already very much de-
cayed before the accession of Mahmud, and that the
earthquake -which levelled its walls and overthrew
its houses, must have happened some time before

* Thomas in Trhisep's ' Essays,' ii. 113.
t Et'inaiid, ' Fragments Arabes,' etc. p. 113.

WESTERN INDIA. 277

the beginning of the eleventh century. It is pro-
bable that most of the inhabitants who escaped the
great catastrophe would have returned to the ruined
city to look after their buried property, and that many
of them again reared their houses on the old sites.
But the walls of the city were fallen, and there was
no security ; the river was gradually failing, and
there was a scarcity of water ; and the place was alto-
gether so much decayed, that even in a.h. 416, or
A.D. 1025, when the conqueror of Somnath returned
through Sindh, the plunder of Mansura was not suffi-
cient to tempt him out of his direct march ; so he
passed on by Sehwan to Ghazni, leaving the old
capital unvisited, and even unnoticed, unless we
accept the solitary statement of Ibn Athir, that Mah-
mud on this occasion appointed a Muhammadan go-
vernor to Mansura.

The district of Pitasila, or Lower Sindh, is described
by Hwen Thsang as being 3000 //, or 500 miles, in
circuit, which agrees almost exactly with the dimen-
sions of the Delta of the Indus from Haidarabad to
the sea, including a small tract of country on both
sides, extending towards the desert of Umarkot on the
east, and to the mountains of Cape Monz on the west.
Within these limits the dimensions of Lower Sindh
are as follows. From the western mountains to the
neighbourhood of Umarkot, 160 miles; from the same
point to Cape Monz, 85 miles ; from Cape Monz to
the Kori mouth of the Indus, 135 miles; and from
the Kori mouth to Umarkot, 140 miles ; or altogether
520 miles. The soil, which is described as sandy and

278 THE ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY OF INDIA.

salt, produced plenty of corn and vegetables, but very-
few fruits and flowers, which is true of the Delta to
the present day.

In the time of Alexander, the only place of note in
the Delta was Patala ; but he is said to have founded
several towns himself* during his long stay in Lower
Sindh, waiting for the Etesian winds to start his fleet.
Unfortunately the historians have omitted to give the
names of these places. Justin alone notes that on his
return up the Indus he built the city of Bai-ce,'\ to
which I shall hereafter refer. Ptolemy has preserved
the names of several places, as Barbara^ Sousikana,
Bonis, and Kolaka, of which the first is most probably
the same as the Barbarike emporium of the 'Periplus,'
and perhaps also the same as the Barce of Justin. In
the time of the author of the 'Periplus,' the capital
of Lower Sindh was ]\linnagara, which the foreign
merchants reached by ascending the river from Bar-
barike. In the middle of the seventh century, Hwen
Thsang mentions only Pitasila, or Patala. But in the
beginning of the eighth century, the historians of Mu-
hammad bin Kasim's expedition add the names of
Bebal and Nirankot to our scanty list, which is still
further increased by the Arab geographers of the
tenth century, who place Manhdtara, or Manlidbari,
or Manjubari,X to the west of the Indus, and two days'
journey from Debal, at the point where the road from
Debal crosses the river. The position of these places
I will now investigate in their order from north to

* Ciirtius, Vita Alex., ix. 10: " Interim et urbes plcrasque condidit."
t Hist., xii. 10.

% Sir Henry Elliot, ' Muhammadan Historians of India,' Dowson's
edition, i. 35, quoting Ibn Haukal.

WESTERN INDIA. , 279

south, beginning with Patala, at the head of the
Delta.

Patala^ or Nirankot.

The position of Nirankot is fixed at Haidar^bad
by the concurrent testimony of M'Murdo, Masson,
Burton, and Eastwiek.* Sir Henry Elliot alone places
it at Jarak, as he thinks that that locality agrees better
with the descriptions of the native historians. But
as Haidarabad is the modem name of the city, which
the people still know as Nirankot, there would seem to
be no doubt of its identity with the Nirim, or Nirunkot,
of the Arab historians and geographers. Its position
is described by Abulfeda as 25 parasangs from Debal,
and 15 parasangs from Mansura, which accords with
the less definite statements of Istakhri and Ibn Haukal,
who simply say that it was between Debal and Man-
sura, but nearer to the latter. It was situated on the
western bank of the river, and is described as a well-
fortified but small town, with few trees. Now, Hai-
darabad is 47 miles from the ruined city of Bri,h-
manabad, or Mansura, and 85 miles from Lari-bandar,
which I will presently show to have been the most
probable position of the ancient Debal ; while Jarak
is 74 miles from Br^hmanabad, and only 60 miles
from Lari-bandar. The position of Haidarabad, there-
fore, corresponds much better with the recorded dis-
tances than that of Jarak. At present the main
channel of the Indus runs to the west of Haidarabad,
but we know that the Phuleli, or eastern branch,

* M'Murdo in Journ. Koyal Asiat. Soe., i. 30; Masson, 'Travels,'
i. 463 ; Burton, ' Sindh,' pp. 131, 376 ; and Eastwiek, ' Handbook for
Bombay,' p. 483. See Map No. IX.

280 THE AICCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

was formerly the principal stream. According to
M'Murdo,* tlic change of the main stream to the
westward of Haidarabad took place prior to a.h.
1000, or A.D. 1592, and was coincident with the
decay of Nasirpnr, which was only founded in a.h.
751, or A.D. 1350. As Nasirpur is mentioned by
Abul Fazlf as the head of one of the subdivisions
of the province of Thatha, the main channel of the
Indus must have flowed to the eastward of Nirun-
kot or Haidarabad at as late a date as the beginning
of the reign of Akbar.

Nirunkot was situated on a hill, and there was a
lake in its neighbourhood of sufficient size to receive
the fleet of Muhammad Kasim. Sir Heiiry Elliot
identifies the former with the hill of Jarak, to the
west of the Indus, and the latter Avith the Kinjur
lake, near Helai, to the south of Jarak. But the
Kinjur lake has no communication with the Indus,
and therefore could not have been used for the recep-
tion of the fleet, which at once disposes of the only
special advantage that Jarak was supposed to possess
over Haidarabad as the representative of Ntrunkot.
Sir Henry J admits "that the establishment of its
locality depends chiefly upon the sites which are as-
signed to other disputed cities, more especially to
Debal and Mansura." The former he identifies with
Karachi, and the latter with Haidarabad; and con-
sistently with these emplacements he is obliged to
fix Nirunkot at Jarak. But since he wrote his ' Ap-
pendix to tlie Arabs in Sindh,' the ancient city of

» Journ. Eoyal Asinl. Soc, i. 236. t ' Ayin Akbari,' ii. 272.

+ Sir H. Elliot's ' Muliammadan Historians of India,' Dowsou's edi-
tion, i. 400.

WESTEEN INDIA. 281

Bamhhra-ka-Thul lias been found by Mr. Bcllasis in
tbe very position that was long ago pointed out by
M'lMurdo as the site of Brahmanabad. Its identifica-
tion as the site of the famous cities of Mansura and
Brahmanabad leaves Haidarabad, or the ancient Ni-
rankot, available as the true representative of the
Nirunkot of Biladuri and the Chach-nama. Its dis-
tance of 47 miles from Bambhra-ka-tul, and of 85
miles from Lari-bandar, agree almost exactly with the
15 and 25 parasangs of Abulfeda. It is also situated
on a hill, so that it corresponds in position, as well as
in name, with Nirunkot. The hill, called Ganja, is
1^ mile long, and 700 yards broad, with a height of
80 feet.* The present fort was built by Mir Ghulam
Shah in a.h. 1182, or a.d. 1768.+ About one-third
of the hill, at the southern end, is occupied by the
fort, the middle portion by the main street and strag-
gling houses of the city, and the northern end by
tombs.

In A.D. 641, when the Chinese pilgrim Hwen
Thsang visited Sindh, he travelled from Koteswara,
the capital of Kachh, a distance of 700 lij or 117
miles, due north to Pi-io-shi-lo,\ from whence he pro-
ceeded 300 /«', or 50 miles, to the north-east, to O.fan.
cha, which I have already identified with Brahmana-
bad. M. Julien renders the Chinese syllables by
Pitasild, but I should prefer Pdtasila, or the "flat
rock," which is an accurate description of the long
flat-topped hill on which Haidarabfi,d is situated.
This name recalls that of Fdtalptir, which, according

* Wood, 'Journey to the Source of the Oxus,' p. 30.
t M'Murdo, Journ. Eoyal Asiat. Soc, i. 234.
X ' Hiouen Thsang,' iii. 180.

282 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

to Burton,* was an old appellation of Ilaidarabad, or
Nirankot ; and as this city is exactly 120 miles to the
north of Kofesar^ in Kachh, and 47 miles to the south-
west of Brahmanab^d, I have no hesitation in identify-
ing it with the Pitasila of the Chinese pilgrim. The
size of the hill also, which is 1^ mile in length, by
700 yards in breadth, or upwards of 3 miles in circum-
ference, corresponds very closely with the dimensions
of Pitasila, which, according to Hwen Thsang, was 20
li, or 3-| miles, in circuit.

The names of Fdtalpur and Pdtasila further suggest
the probability that Ilaidarabad may be the Pattala of
Alexander's historians, which they are unanimous in
placing near the head of the Delta. Now, the present
head of the Delta is at the old town of Mattari, 12
miles above Haidarabad, where the Fhuleli separates
from the main channel of the Indus. But in ancient
times, when the main stream, which is now called
Purdna, or the "Old Eiver," flowed past Alor and
Brahmanabad to Nirunkot, the first point of separa-
tion of its waters was either at Haidarabad itself, past
which a branch is said to have flowed by Miani to
Trikal, or 15 miles to the south-east of it where the
PliuJeli now throws off the Guni branch to the south,
and then proceeds westerly to join the present stream
of the Indus at Trikal. The true head of the old
Delta was therefore either at Haidarabad itself, or 15
miles to the south-east of it, where the Guni, or
eastern branch of the Indus, separated from the Phu-
Icli, or western branch.

NoAV, the position of Patala can be determined by
several independent data: —

* ' Sindh,' chap, i- note 7.

WESTERN INDIA. 283

1st. According to Ptolemy, the head of the Delta
was exactly midway between Os/cana and the eastern
mouth of the Indus, called Lonihare ostium. This fixes
Patala at Haidartlbad, which is equidistant from the
capital of Oxykanus., that is, from Mahorta near Lar-
kana, and the Kori., or eastern mouth of the Indus,
which is also the mouth of the Loni river^i or Lonibare
ostium.

2nd. The base of the Delta was reckoned by Aris-
tobulus at 1000 stadia, or 115 miles; by Nearchus at
1800 stadia, and by Onesikritus at 2000 stadia* But
as the actual coast line, from the Ghara mouth on the
west, to the Kori mouth on the east, is not more than
125 miles, we may adopt the estimate of Aristobulus
in preference to the larger numbers of the other au-
thorities. And as Onesikritus states that all three
sides of the Delta were of the same length, the dis-
tance of Patala from the sea may be taken at from
1000 stadia, or 115 miles, up to 125 miles. Now,
the distance of Haidarabad from the Ghara, or western
mouth of the Indus, is 110 miles, and from the Kori, or
eastern mouth, 135 miles, both of which agree suffi-
ciently near to the base measurement to warrant the
descriptions of Onesikritus that the Delta formed an
equilateral triangle. Consequently, the city of Patala,
which was either at or near the head of the Delta,
may be almost certainly identified with the present
Haidarabad.

3rd. From a comparison of the narratives of Arrian
and Curtius, it appears that the Eaja of Patala, having
made his submission to Alexander at Brdhmana, or
the city of Brahmans, the conqueror sailed leisurely

* Strabo, Geogr., xy. i. 33.

284 THE ANCIENT GEOOEAPHY OF INBIA.

down tile river for three days, when he heard that the
Indian prince had suddenly abandoned his country
and fled to the desert.* Alexander at once pushed
on to Patala. Now, the distance from Brahmanabad
to Haidarabad is only 47 miles by the direct land
route ; but as the old bed of the Indus makes a wide
sweep round by Nasirpur, the route along the river
bank, which was doubtless followed by the army, is
not less than 55 miles, while the distance by water
must be fully 80 miles. His progress during the first
three days, estimated at the usual rate of 10 or 12
miles by land, and 18 or 20 miles by water, would
have brought him within 19 miles of Haidarabad by
land, and 26 miles by water, which distance he would
have easily accomplished on the fourth day by a forced
march. From Patala he proceeded down the western
branch of the river for a distance of 400 stadia^ or 46
miles, when his naval commanders first perceived the
sea breeze. This point I believe to have been Jarak,
which is 30 miles below Haidarabad by land, and 45
miles, or nearly 400 stadia, by water. There Alex-
ander procured guides, and, pressing on with still
greater eagerness, on the third day he became aware
of his vicinity to the sea by meeting the tide.f As
the tides in the Indus are not felt more than 60 miles
from the sea, I conclude that Alexander must then
have reached as far as Bambhra, on the Ghara, or
western branch of the river, which is only 35 miles
from the sea by land, and about 50 miles by water.
Its distance fi'om Jarak by land is 50 miles, and by

* Arrian, ' Anabasis,' vi. 17 ; Curtius, Vita Alex., ix. 8, 28, says that
lie fled to the mountaius.

t Curtius, Vita Alex., ix. 9, 29.

WESTERN INDIA. 285

water 75 miles, wMch the fleet might have easily ac-
complished by the third day. From these details it
is clear that Patala must have been at a considerable
distance from the sea, that is, not less than the length
of the tidal reach, plus three days' sail on the river,
plus 400 stadia. These distances by land are respec-
tively 33 miles, 50 miles, and 30 miles, or altogether
113 miles, which corresponds almost exactly with the
measurement of Aristobulus of 1000 stadia, or 115
miles.

As these three independent investigations all point
to the same place as the most probable representative
of Patala, and as that place is called Patasila by Hwen
Thsang in the seventh century, and is still known as
Pdtalpur, I think that we have very strong grounds
for identifying Haidarabad with the ancient Patala.

In his account of the Indus, Arrian* says, "this
river also forms a delta by its two mouths, no way
inferior to that of Egypt, which, in the Indian lan-
guage, is called Pattala.''^ As this statement is given
on the authority of Nearchus, who had ample oppor-
tunities during his long detention in Sindh of inter-
course with the people, we may accept it as the general
belief of the Sindhians at that time. I would there-
fore suggest that the name may have been derived
from Pdiala, the "trumpet-flower" {^Bignonia suave-
Glens'), in allusion to the " trumpet " shape of the
province included between the eastern and western
branches of the mouth of the Indus, as the two
branches, as they approach the sea, curve outwards
like the mouth of a trumpet.

I cannot close the discussion on the site of this

* ' Indica,' p. 2.

286

THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

ancient city without noticing another name of which
the conflicting accounts appear to me to have a con-
fused reference to Nirunkot. This name is the Piruz
of Istakhri, the Kannazhur of Ibn Haukal, and the
Firahuz of Edrisi. According to Istakhri, Piruz was
4 days' journey from Debal, and 2 days from Mehd-
bari, which was itself on the western bank of the
Indus, at 2 days' journey from Debal. Ibn Haukal
and Edrisi agree that the road to Kannazbur, or Fira-
buz, lay through Manhdbari, or Manjdbari, which was
on the western bank of the Indus, at 2 days from
Debal ; but they make the whole distance beyond
Debal 14 days instead of \. Now, Ibn Haukal and
Edi-isi place their city in Mekran, a position which
they were almost forced to adopt by their long dis-
tance of 14 days, although the first two days' journey
lie exactly in the opposite direction from Mekran. But
if we take the shorter distance of 4 days from Debal,
which is found in Istakhri, the earliest of the three
geographers, the position of their unknown city will
then accord exactly with that of Niraidvf. Bebal
I will hereafter identify with an old city near Lari-
bandar and Maii/tdburi Avith Thutha, which is just mid-
way between Lari-bandar and Haidarabad. Now, Ibn
Haukal specially notes that 3Ianjdbari was situated
"to the west of the Mihran, and there any one who
proceeds from Debal to Mansui'a will have to pass the
river, the latter place being opposite to Manjabari."*
This extract shows that Manjabari was on the western
branch of the Indus, and therefore on the high-road
to Nirankot as •\\ell as to Pirn.?, or Kannezbur, or
Firabuz. I would therefore suggest that the first of
* Prof. Dowson's edition of Sir H. Elliot's Hist, of India, i. 37.

WESTERN INDIA. 287

these names, wliicli is thus mentioned in conjunction
with Manhabari might possibly be intended for Nirun,
and the other two for JSirunkot, as the alterations
in the original Arabic characters required for these
two readings are -very slight. But there was cer-
tainly a place of somewhat similar name in Mekran,
as Biladuri records that Kizbun in Mekran submitted
to Muhammad Kasim on his march against Debal.
Comparing this name with Ibn Haukal's Kannazbur,*
and Edrisi's Firabuz^ I think it probable that they
may be intended for Panjffur, as suggested by M.
Reinaud. The 14 days' journey would agree very
well with the position of this place.

JaraJc.

The little town of Jarak is situated on an eminence
overhanging the western bank of the Indus, about
midway between Haidarabad and Thatha. Jarak is
the present boundary between Vichalo, or Middle
Sindh, and Ldr^ or Lower Sindh, which latter I have
been obliged to extend to Haidarabad, so as to include
the Pafala of the Greeks and the Pitasila of the
Chinese pilgrim, within the limits of the ancient
Delta. This is perhaps the same place as Khor, or
Alkhor, a small but populous town, which Edrisi
places between Manhabari and Firabuz, that is, be-
tween Thatha and Nirunkot. Three miles below
Jarak there is another low hill covered with ruins,

* Prof. Dowson's edition of Sir Henry Elliot's H ist. of India, i. 40.
Ibn Haukal : Kannazhur. At page 29 lie gives Istakhri's name as
Kannazhun, which Mordtmann reads Firiun. The most probable ex-
planation of these differences is some confusion in the Arabic characters
between the name of Nirun and that of the capital of Mekran.

288 THE ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY OF INDIA.

which the people call Kdjiv kof, and attribute to Eaja
Manjhira* The principal ruin is a square basement
ornamented with fiat pilasters at regular distances.
This is supposed to be the remains of a temple.
Amongst the ruins were found some fragments of
Buddhist statues ; and, at a short distance from the hill,
an inscription in early Indian characters, of which I
can read only the words put rasa and Bhagavaiasa^ and
a few letters in different parts ; but these are sufficient
to show that the inscription is Buddhist, as well as
the other remains.

Minnagar^ Manhabari^ or Thafha.

The city of Thatha is situated in a low swampy
valley, 3 miles from the western bank of the Indus,
and 4 miles above the separation of the Bdgar^ or
western branch, from the Satct^ or main stream of
the river. Littlewood remarks that " the mounds of
rubbish upon which the houses are piled slightly
raise its site above the level of the valley."! The
place was visited by Captain Hamilton in a.d. 1699,
who describes it J as situated on a spacious plain about
2 miles from the Indus. It is highly probable, there-
fore, that the town originally stood on the bank of the
river, which has been gradually receding from it. Its
name also would seem to point to the same conclu-
sion, as tlialtha means a " shore or bank," so that
'Nngar-Thaiha^ which is the common name of the place,
would mean the " city on the river bank." Its date
is not certainly known ; but M'Murdo, who is gene-

* ' Bombay Journal,' v. 356.

t Mourney to the Source of the Oxus,' p. 17.

X 'New Account of the East Indies,' i. 123.

WESTERN INDIA. 289

rally very acccurate, states that it was founded in the
year a.h. 900, or a.d. 1495, by Nizam-ud-din Nanda,
the Jam, or ruler of Sindh. Before his time, the chief
city of Lower Sindh was Sumina^ar, the capital of the
Satnmd tribe, which stood on a rising ground, 3 miles to
the north-west of the site of Thatha. M'Murdo refers
its foundation to the time of Ala-ud-din of Delhi, who
reigned from a.h. 695-715, or a.d. 1295 to 1315. Of
a still earlier date is the great fort of Kalydn-kot, or
Tughlakabad, which stands on the limestone hill, 4
miles to the south-west of Thalha. Its second name
was derived from Ghazi Beg Tughlak, who was the
governor of Multt,n and Sindh, during the latter part
of Ala-ud-din' s reign, in thebeginning of the fourteenth
century.

The site of Thatha itself is admitted to be modern,
but those of Saminagar and Kalyan-kot are said to be
of great antiquity. This belief of the people is no
doubt true, as the position at the head of the inferior
Delta commanded the whole traffic of the river, while
the hill-fort gave security. Lieut. Wood i*emarks*
that the site of Thatha is so advantageous for com-
mercial purposes that it is probable that a mart has
existed in its neighbourhood from the earliest times.
" But," he judiciously adds, " as the apex of the Delta
is not a fixed point, the site of this city must have
varied as the river changed." This change of site
would naturally have entailed a change of names ;
and I am therefore led to believe that Thatha was the
actual position of the Manhdbari of the Arab geogra-
phers, and of the Minnagara of the author of the
' Periplus.'t

* 'Oxus,' p. 20. + See Map No. IX.

290 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OE INDIA.

Manhcihari is described by all tbe authorities as
situated on the western bank of the Indus, at 2 daj^s'
journey from Debal. Now, this is the very position of
Thatha, which is on the western bank of the Indus,
at 40 miles, or 2 days' journey, from Lari-bandar,
which, as I will presently show, was almost certainly
within a few miles of the famous city of Debal. The
name of Manlidbari is variously written as Mehdbari,
and Ilanjdbari, for which I would suggest that we
might perhaps read Manddbari, or Manddivari, the
" city of the Mand''"' tribe, just as Sdininagar was the
"city of the Sammfi," tribe. This derivation of the
name is supported by the fact that the M^m^/ tribe
have occupied Lower Sindh in great numbers from
the beginning of the Christian era. Edrisi* describes
the Mand as a numerous and brave tribe, who occu-
pied the desert on the borders of Sindh and India, and
extended their wanderings as far as Alor on the north,
Mekran on the west, and Maniehel (or Umarkot) on
the east. Ibn Haukalf records that "the Mands
dwell on the banks of the Mihran, from the boundary
of Multan to the sea, and in the desert between
Mekran and Famhal (or Umarkot). They have many
cattle-sheds and pasturages, and form a large popula-
tion." Rashid-ud-din$ locates them in Sindh at a
still earlier period. According to his account, Med
and Zaf, two descendants of Ham, the son of Noah,
were the progenitors of the people of Sindh prior to

* Geogr., i. 163.

t In Elliot, ' Muliammadan Historians of India,' i. 67 ; and m
Gildemeister, ' De Eebus Indicis,' p. 172, where he gives Kamuhal as
the eastern limit of their ivanderings.

X Reinaud, ' Fragments Arabes,' etc., p. 25.

WESTERN INDIA. 291

the Mahabharata. The name is variously written as
Mer, Med, Mand, in all of which forms it is found
even at the present day. To these I would add Mind,
which is the form of the name given by Masudi.* I
have already identified this people with the Medi and
Mandrueni of the classical writers ; and as their name
is found in northern India from the beginning of the
Christian era downwards, and not before that time, I
conclude that the Mandrueni and latii of the Oxus,
who are coupled together by Pliny, must be the Sacoe
Indo-Scythians, who occupied the Panjab and Sindh,
and who under the name of Mands and Zais of the
early Muhammadan authors, were in full possession of
the valley of the Indus towards the end of the seventh
century.

To show that the various spellings of the name are
but natural modes of pronunciation, I can refer to the
two large maps of the S/td/ipur and Jhelam, districts,
which have been published within the last few years
by the Surveyor-General of India. In the latter the
name of a village on the Jhelam, 6 miles above Jalal-
pur, is spelt Meridla, and in the former Mandidli.
Abul Fazl calls the same place Merali, while Ferishta
names it Meridla. Lastly, Wilford's surveyor, Mogal
Beg, writes Mandydla, which is also the form that I
received from two different persons, while in General
Court's map it is spelt Mdmriala.

To this people I refer the name of Minnagar, or
" city of the Min," which was the capital of Lower
Sindh in the second century of the Christian era.
That Min was a Scythian name we know from its

* Sir H. M. Elliot, ' Muhammadan Historians of India,' Dowson's
edition, i. 57.

292

THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OP INDIA.

occurrence in the list of Isidor of Kharax as one of
the cities of Sakastene, or Sejistan. The appearance
of the name in Sindh would alone be sufficient to
suggest the presence of Scythians ; but its connection
with them is placed beyond all doubt by the mention
that the rulers of Minna^ara were rival Partlnans,
who were mutually expelling each other.* These
Parthians were Daha3 Scythians from the Oxus, who
gave the name of Indo-Scythia to the valley of the
Indus, and whose mutual rivalry points to their
identity with the rival Mods and Jats of the Mu-
hammadan authors.

The actual position of Minnagar is unknown, and
we have but few data to guide us in attempting to
fix its site. As it is not found in Ptolemy, who wrote
in the first half of the second century, I infer either
that the new name had not then been imposed on the
capital, or Avhat is more probable, that Ptolemy has
inserted only the old name. If I am right in iden-
tifying iIi?V?-wr/'yffra, or the "city of the J/iw," with
Mand-dbari^ or the "place of the Mand^'' there can be
little doubt that the great Indo-Scythian capital was
at Thatha. Edrisif describes Manhabar as situated
on a low plain, and surrounded with gardens and
running water. Captain Hamilton^ gives the same
description of Thatha, which, he says, "stands in a
spacious plain, and they have canals cut from the
river, that bring water to the city, and some for the
use of their gardens." According to the author§ of

* Peripl. Mar. Eryth. ; in Hudson's Geogr. Vet., i. 22.

f Geogr., i. 164i.

J ' New Account of the East Indies,' i. 123.

§ Hudson, Geogr. Vet., i. 22.

WESTEEN INDIA. 293

tlie ' Peripkis,' the merchant vessels anchored at the
emporium of Barbarike, where the goods were un-
loaded, and conveyed to the capital by the river.
Just so in modern times the ships anchored at L^ri-
bandar, while the merchants carried their goods to
Thatha either by land or by water. The position of
Minnagar is too vaguely described as " inland,"* to
be of any use in its determination. If it was, as I
suppose, at Thatha^ then it may perhaps be identified
with Ptolemy's Sousikana, which I would interpret as
Susi-ffdma, or the "town of the Su, tribe," an etymo-
logy which is supported by the fact that the Mands,
or Meds, were a branch of the great horde of Sus, or
Abars, who gave one name to Susiana^ at the mouth
of the Euphrates, and the other to Jbiria, at the
mouth of the Indus. I should mention, however, that
according to M'Murdo,t " Minagar was one of the
cities dependent on Multan in the twelfth century,
and was the possession of a chief by caste an Agri,
and descended from Alexander. It was situated on
the Lohdna Bargd, not far from Bahmana, in the par-
ganah now called ShelidddpurT It is a suspicious cir-
cumstance that this passage has not been verified
either by Postans or by Elliot. The latter, who con-
stantly refers to his own MS. of the ' Tohfat-ul-Kiram,'
quotes;f this notice of Minagar at second-hand from
M'Murdo. I may add that the Agari is a well-known
caste, of low degree, who are employed in the manu-

* The words are, Kara, varov fiecroyews, which can only mean " inland
and beyond" Barbarike.

t Journ. Eoyal Asiat. Soc, i. 31 ; and again at p. 233, quoting the
Tolifat-ul Gir&m.

X ' Muhammadan Historians of India,' Dowson's edition, i. 66.

294 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OP INDIA.

facture of. salt. I am therefore not inclined to admit
that this petty place could have any connection with
the great capital of Indo-Scythia. On the contrary,
I am disposed to look upon this name of Min-nagara
as meaning simply the city of Min.

Barbarike-Emporiam, or Bliamhura.

The ruined town of Bambhora, or Bhambura, is
situated at the head of the Ghdra creek, which is
"supposed by the natives to he the site of the most
ancient seaport in Sindh."* "Nothing now remains
but the foundations of houses, bastions, and walls,"
but about the tenth century 13hambhura was .the capital
of a chief named Bhambo Eaja. According to the
traditions of the people, the most westerly branch of
the Indus once flowed past Bhambura. It is said to
have separated from the main river just above Thatha,
and M'Murdof quotes the ' Tabakat-i-Akbari ' for the
fact that in the reign of Akbar it ran to the westward
of Thatha. To the same effect Sir Henry Elliot;}: quotes
Mr. N. Crow, who was for many years the British
Eesident at Thatha. Writing in a.d. 1800, Crow
says, "By a strange turn that the river has taken
within these five-and-twenty years just above Tatta,
that city is flung out of the angle of the inferior
Delta, in which it formerly stood, on the mata land
towards the hills of Biluchistan." From these state-
ments it would appear that the Ghara river was the
most westerly branch of the Indus down to the latter
half of the last century. But long before that time,

* Eastwick, ' Handbook of Bombay,' p. 481.

t Journ. Eoyal Asiat. Soc, i. 25. See Map No. IX.

X Muhamm. Hist, of Jbdia, Dowson's edition, i. 399.

WESTERN INDIA. 295

according to M'Murdo, it had ceased to be a navigable
stream, as both. Bhambur and Debal were deserted
about A.D. 1250, on account of the failure of the
river.* My own inquiries give the same date, as
Debal was still occupied when Jalaladdin of KhwS,-
razm invaded Sindh in a.d. 1221, f and was in ruins
in A.D. 1333, when Ibn Batuta visited Ldhari Bandar,
which had succeeded Debal as the great port of the
Indus.

M'Murdo quotes native authors to show that this
western branch of the Indus was called the Sdgdra
river, which, he thinks, may .be identified with the
Sagapa Ostium of Ptolemy, which was also the most
westerly branch of the Indus in his time. It is there-
fore quite possible, as supposed by M'Murdo, that
this was the very branch of the Indus that was navi-
gated by Alexander. From the latest maps, however,
it appears that about midway between Thatha and
Ghara this channel threw off a large branch on its left,
which flowed parallel to the other for about 20 miles,
when it turned to the south and joined the main
channel just below Lari-bandar. Now this channel
passes about 2 or 3 miles to the south of Bhambura,
so that the town was also accessible from the Piti^ the
Pfiundi, the Kgdi; and the Pintiani mouths of the
river. I am therefore inclined to identify Bhambura
not only with the town of Barke^ which Alexander
built on his return up the river, as stated by Justin,
but also with the Barbari of Ptolemy, and the Bar-
bar ike Emporium of the author of the ' Periplus.' The
last authority describes the middle branch of the

* Jonrn. Eoyal Asiat. Soc, i. 25 and 232.

f Easliid-ud-din in Elliot, Dowson's edition, i. 26.

296 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OP INDIA.

Indus as the only navigable channel in his time up to
BarbariJce* all the other six channels being narrow and
full of shoals. This statement shows that the Ghara
river had already begun to fail before a.d. 200. The
middle mouth of the river, which was then the only
navigable entrance, is called Khariphon Ostium by
Ptolemy. This name I would identify with the Kydr
river of the present day, which leads right up to the
point where the southern branch of the Ghara joins
the main river near Lari-bandar.

From this discussion I conclude that the northern
channel of the Ghara was the western branch of the
Indus, which was navigated by Alexander and Near-
chus ; and that before a.d. 200, its waters found
another channel more to the south, in the southern
Ghara, which joins the main stream of the Indus
just below Lari-bandar. By this channel, in the
time of the author of the ' Periplus,' the merchant
vessels navigated the Indus up to Barbarike^ where
the goods were unloaded, and conveyed in boats to
Minnaffar, the capital of the country. But after some
time this channel also failed, and in the beginning of
the eighth century, when the Arabs invaded Sindh,
Bebal had become the chief port of the Indus, and
altogether supplanted Bhambura, or the ancient Bar-
barike. But though the Ghara river was no longer a
navigable channel, its waters still continued to flow
past the old town down to the thirteenth century,
about which time it would appear to have been finally
deserted.

* Hudson, Geogr. Vet., i. 22.

WESTERN INDIA. 297

Debal Sindldy or Debal.

The position of the celebrated port of Debal, the
emporium of the Indus during the middle ages, is
still unsettled. By Abul Fazl and the later Muham-
madan writers, Debal has been confounded with
Thatha; but as Debal was no longer in existence
when they wrote, I conclude that they were misled
by the name of Debal Thatha^ which is frequently ap-
plied to Thatha itself. Similarly, Brdhmana, or Brdh-
mandbdd, was called Debal Kdngi-a, and the famous
seaport of Debal was named Debal Sindhi. But
Diwal, or Debal, means simply a temple, and there-
fore Debal Sindhi means the temple at, or near, the
town of Sindhi. Major Burton says that the shawls
of Thatha are still called Shdl-i-Debali, but this only
proves that Debal was the place where the merchants
procured the Thatha shawls. Just so the name of
Multdni-matti, that is Multan clay, or Armenian bole,
is derived from the place where the merchants obtain
the article, as the clay is actually found in the hills to
the west of the Indus, beyond Dera Ghazi Khan. So
also Indian-ink is named from India, where the mer-
chants first obtained it, although, as is now well
known, it is all manufactured in China. Sir Henry
Elliot, who is the last inquirer into the geography of
Sindh, places Debal at Karachi ; but admits that Lari-
bandar "is the next most probable site after Kara-
chi."* But I incline to the opinion of Mr. Crow,
who was for many years the British resident in Sindh,
that Debal occupied a site between Karachi and Thatha.
His opinion is entitled to special weight, as he is ad-

* ' Sindh,' pp. 222 and 224.

298 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OP INDIA.

mitted by M'Murclo and Elliot to have " combined
much, discrimination with ample opportunities of local
inquiry." Sir Henry quotes the Chacli-ndma for the
fact that "the Serandip vessels were in their distress
driven to the shore of Debal," to show that the port
must have been close to the sea. There they were
attacked by pirates of the Tangdmara tribe, who oc-
cupied the seacoast from Karachi to Lari - bandar.
This statement shows that if Debal cannot be iden-
tified either with Karachi or with Lari-bandar, it must
be looked for somewhere between them.

In favour of Karachi Sir Henry quotes Biladuri,
who records that in the year a.h. 15, or a.d. 636,
Hakim dispatched his brother Mughira on an expedi-
tion to the Bay of Debal. But as the city of Lyons is
not on the shore of the Gulf of Lyons, so it does not
necessarily follow that Debal was on the shore of the
Bay of Debal. In fact it is described by Ibn Khor-
dadbeh as being 2 farsangs from the mouth of the
Mihran, which is still further extended to 2 days'
journey by Masudi.* But as Debal was situated on
the Indus, it cannot be identified with Karachi, which
is on the seacoast beyond the mouth of the river. All
our authorities agree in stating that it was on the
west side of the Mihran, f that is of the main stream
of the river, or Baghar, which flows past Lari-bandar,
and discharges itself into the sea by several different
mouths named the Piti, the Phundi, the Kyar, and
the Pintiani. But M'Murdo also quotes the native

* Elliot, Muhamm. Hist, of India, Dowson's edition, i. 53-57.

t These will be found in Elliot's Muhamm. Hist., by Dowson, i. 61 ;
' Istakhri," i. 65 ; ' Ashkal-ul-Bilad,' i. 65, note Ibn Haulial. See also
Gildcmeister, ' De Kcbus Indicis,' p. 205, for Kazvini.

WESTERN INDIA. 299

authorities to show that it was on the Sdydra branch
of the Indus, which flowed past Bhambura. Accord-
ing to these accounts, Debal must have been situated
on the western bank of the Bagh^r river, below the
junction of the southern branch of the Gh^ra, or
Sagara, branch. Its position may therefore be fixed
approximately at the point of junction, which is 5
miles to the north of Lelri-bandar, 17 miles to the
south-west of Bhambura, and about 30 miles from the
Piti and Pintiani mouths of the river. This position
also fulfils the other condition quoted by Sir Henry
Elliot, that Debal was between Karachi and Lari
bandar, in the territory of the Tangamara tribe of
pirates. It further agrees with the position assigned
to it by Mr. Crow, who places it between Karachi and
Thatha, which is an exact description of the locality
following the course of the river, which is the only
course that can be taken, as Debal was situated
amongst the intersecting streams of the Delta.

Unfortunately, this part of the Delta has not yet
been minutely explored ; and to this cause I would
attribute our ignorance of the remains of an ancient
city, which were noticed by Ibn Batuta in a.d. 1333
in the very position which I have assigned to Debal.*
As his statement is of great importance, I will quote
the passage at full length: — "I then proceeded by
the Sind to the city of Ldhari, which is situated upon
the, shores of the Indian Sea, where the Sind joins it.
It has a large harbour, into which ships from Persia,
Yemen, and other places put. At a few miles from
this city are the ruins of another, in which stones in
the shape of men and beasts almost innumerable are

* ' Travels,' by Dr. Lee, p. 102.

300

THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

to be found. The people of tliis place think that it is
the opinion of their historians that there was a city
formerly in this place, the greater part of the inhabit-
ants of which were so base that God transformed
them, their beasts, their herbs, even to the very seeds,
into stones ; and indeed stones in the shape of seeds
are here almost innumerable." Tliis large ruined city,
with its stones in the shape of men and beasts, I take
to be the remains of the once great emporium of Debal.
According to M'Murdo, the people of Debal moved to
Lari-bandar,* and according to Captain Hamilton,
Lari-bandar possessed "a large stone fort," for the
protection of merchants against the Biluchis and
Makranis. It is, I think, a very fair and legitimate
deduction that the people who deserted Debal removed
the materials of their old city for the construction of
the new one, and therefore that the stones of the fort
of Lari-bandar were brought from the deserted city of
Debal, the remains of which excited the curiosity of
Ibn Batuta in a.d. 1333.

This statement of Ibn Batuta I would connect with
the curious account of an Indian city in the ' Arabian
ISTights,' which is found in the story of Zobeide. Ac-
cording to the common edition, this lady sailed from
the port of Bassora, and after twenty days anchored
in the harbour of a large city in India, where on
landing she found that the king and queen and all the
people had been tvirned into stone. One person only
had escaped the general transformation, and he was
the king's son, who had been brought up as a Mu-
hammadan by his nurse, who was a Musalm^ni slave.
Xow this legend appears to be the same as that of
* Journ. Royal Asiat. Soc, i. 29 and 233.

AVESTEEN INDIA. 301

Eaja Dilu and his brother Chota of the native histories
of Sindh,* according to which Chota had become a
Muhammadan, and when the city of Brahmana was
destroyed by an earthquake, on account of the wicked-
ness of the king, Chota alone escaped. As a similar
story is told of the ruin of all the chief cities in the
Panjab as well as in Sindh, the scene of the story in
the ' Arabian Nights ' may be fairly placed in Sindh ;
and as Debal was the only large city on the coast,
and was besides the chief mart to which the Muham-
madan merchants traded, it seems to me almost certain
that it must be the Indian city in which Zobeide
found all the people turned into stone.

According to M'Murdo, the destruction of Brah-
mana took place in a.h. 140, or a.d. 757, and as the
story of Zobeide is laid in the time of the Khalif
Harun-ul-Rashid, who reigned from a.d. 786 to 809,
there are no difficulties of chronology to interfere with
the identification of the two legends.

The position of Debal may also be fixed on the
Bagh^r river, or main channel of the Indus, by its
name of Dihal Sindhi, or Dibal on the Indus. That it
was near Lari-bandar we learn incidentally from Captain
Hamilton,! who says that the river of Sindhi " is only
a small branch of the Indus, which appellation is now
lost in this country which it so plentifully waters, and
is called Divellee, or Seven mouths." This statement
shows that the branch of the Indus leading up to
Li,ri-bandar was called Bihali, or the river of Dibal,
so late as a.d. 1699, when visited by Hamilton. That

* M'Murdo, Journ. Royal Asiat. Soc. i. 28 ; and Postans, Journ.
Asiat. Soc. Bengal, rii. 193.

t ' New Account of East Indies,' i. 130.

302 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

this was the Piti branch of the Indus I infer from its
other name of &ndhi, which I take to be the same as
the Sinthon Ostium of Ptolemy, or the second mouth of
the river, reckoning from the west. As the Piti is
one of the mouths of the Baghar river, this position
agrees with that which I have ah'eady assigned to
Dibal, on the concurring testimony of all the previous
authorities.

Since Hamilton wrote, Lari-bandar itself has been
deserted, and the present port of the western half of
the Delta is Dharaja, which is only a few miles to the
east of Lari-bandar.

IV. KACHH.

The fourth province of Sindh, in the seventh cen-
tury, was Kachh, and it was still attached to Sindh in
the time of Akbar. It is described by Hwen Thsang
as situated at 1600 //, or 267 miles, to the south-west
of the capital of Sindh,* which at that time was Alor^
near Bhakar, on the Indus. This agrees with the
details given elsewhere, + which make the route as
follows : from Alor to Brahmana, 700 U to the south,
then to Pitasila 300 // to the south-west, and then to
Kaehh 700 // to the south ; the whole distance being
16-30 U. But the general direction is south, instead
of south-west, which agrees with the actual position
of Kachh. The province is named ^0-tien-po-chi-lo,
which ]\I. Julien renders as Ad/u/avakila^ or Ati/anvakela,
but for whit'h no Sanskrit equivalent is offered either
by himself or by ^L Vivien de St. Martin. I think,
however, that it may be intended for Judimbatim, or

* U. Julien's ' Hiouon Thsang,' i. 207, 208. See Map No. IX.
t Ibid., iii. 17o.

WESTERN INDIA. 303

Audumbara^ which Professor Lasseu gives as the name
of the people of Kachh. They are the Odomboera of
Pliny,* but there is no trace of this name at the
present day.

The province is described as being 5000 li, or 833
miles, in circuit, which is much too great, unless the
whole of the Nagar Parkar district to the north of the
Ean was included, which is most probable, as this
tract has always been considered as a part of Kachh,
and i« still attached to it. Taking its northern boun-
dary as stretching from Umarkot to the neighbourhood
of Mount Abu, the whole length of frontier will be
upwards of 700 miles. The capital, named Kie-tsi-shi-
fa-lo, was 30 li, or 5 miles, in circuit. This name is
rendered as Khajiswara by M. Julien, and as KachcMes-
wara by Professor Lassen. But as the Chinese syllable
tse represents the cerebral t, I think that tsi must
have the same value ; and I would therefore read the
whole as Kotiswara, which is the name of a cele-
brated place of pilgrimage on the western shore of
Kachh. That this is the place actually intended is
rendered certain by the pilgrim's description of its
position, which is said to be on the western frontier of
the country close to the river Indus, and to the great
ocean.f This is a most exact description of the posi-
tion of the holy Kotesar, which is situated on the
western frontier of Kachh, on the bank of the Kori
branch of the Indus, and close to the great Indian
Ocean. This identification is further supported by the

* Hist. Nat., vi. 23.

t M. Julien's ' Hiouen Thsang,' iii. 175 : "EUe est situ6e, a I'ecart,
sur les frontieres de I'ouest : elle est voisine du fleuve Sin-tu (Sindh),
et a proximite d'une grande mer."

304 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

statement that in the middle of the city there was a
famous temple of Siva. The name of the place is
derived from Koti-{-iswara, or the " ten million Is-
waras," and refers to the small I'mgam stones that are
found there in great numbers. Iswara is the well-
known name of Siva, and the lingam is his symbol.

M. Vivien de St. Martin has identified this capital
with Karachi ; but the distance from Alor is not more
than 1300 li, or 217 miles, while only the initial
syllable of the name corresponds with the Chinese
transcript. The country is described by Hwen
Thsang as low and wet, and the soil impregnated
with salt. This iis an exact description of the low-
lands of Kachli^ which means a "morass" {KacIicMa) ,
and of the salt desert, or Rati (in Sanskrit Irina), which
forms about one-half of the province. But it is quite
inaccurate if applied to the dry sandy soil of Karachi.
There is also a large swamp extending for many miles,
immediately to the south of Kotesar.

Districts to the West of the Indus.

To the west of the Lower Indus all the classical
writers agree in placing two barbarous races called
Aratjii, or Jrabifa, and Oritce, or HoritcE, both of
whom appear to be of Indian origin. The country
of the Arabii is said by Arrian to be the "last part
of India " towards the west, and Strabo also calls it a
" part of India,"* but both exclude the Oritee. Cur-
tius, however, includes the Horitse in India, f while
Diodorus states that generally they resemble the

* Arrian, ' Iiidica,' 22 ; Strabo, Geogr., xv. 2, 1.
t Curtius, Vita Alex., ix. 10, 33.

WESTERN INDIA. 305

Indians ; and Arrian admits that the Oritse, who
" inhabited the inland parts, were clothed in the same
manner as the Indians, and used the same weapons,
but their language and customs were different." In
the seventh century, however, both their language
and customs were considered to be like those of the
Indians by a much more competent observer, the
Chinese pilgrim, Hwen Thsang. According to him,
the customs of the inhabitants of Lanff-kie-lo, which
was 2000 li, or 333 miles, to the west of Kotesar, in
Kachh, were like those of the people of Kachh, and
their written characters closely resembled those of
India, while their language was only slightly differ-
ent.* For these reasons I think that the Oritse, as
well as the Arabitse, may fairly be included within
the geographical limits of India, although they have
always been beyond its political boundary during the
historical period. As early as the sixth century B.C.
they were tributary to Darius Hystaspes, and they
were still subject to Persia nearly twelve centuries
later, when visited by Hwen Thsang. But their Indian
origin is beyond all doubt, as will be shown when I
come to speak of the Oritse.

Jraiii, or Arahitce.
The Jrabii of Arrian are the Arahitce of Curtius, the
Arbiti of Ptolemy, the Ambrila of Diodorus, and the
Arbies of Strabo. They are said to have derived their
name from the river Arabia, or Arbis, or Arabius, which
flowed along their confines, and divided their territory
from that of the Oritae.f From a comparison of the

* M. Julien's ' Hiouen Thsang,' iii. 177.

t Arrian, ' Indica, 21 ; Strabo, Geogr., xv. 2. 1 ; Pliny, Hist. Nat.,
vii. 2.

306 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

details of Alexander's marclies witli the diary of
Nearclms, it is certain that this boundary river was
the Purali, which flows through the present district
of Las into the bay of Sonmiani. According to
Curtius,* Alexander reached the eastern boundary of
the Arabitse in nine days from Patala, and their
western boundary in five days more. Now, from
Haidarabad to Karachi, the distance is 114 miles, and
from Karachi to Sonmiani 50 miles,"]" the former being
usually performed by troops in nine marches, and the
latter either in four or five. Karachi, therefore, must
have been on the eastern frontier of the Arabitse, a
deduction which is admitted by the common consent
of all inquirers, who have agreed in identifying the
Kolaka of Ptolemy and the sandy island of KroJcola,
where Nearchus tarried with his fleet for one day,
with a small island in the Bay of Karachi. Krokola
is further described as lying off the mainland of the
Arabii. It was 150 stadia, or 17^ miles, from the
western mouth of the Indus, which agrees exactly
with the relative positions of Karachi and the mouth
of the Ghara river, if, as we may fairly assume, the
present coast-line has advanced 5 or 6 miles during
the twenty-one centuries that have elapsed since the
time of Alexander. The identification is confirmed
by the fact that "the district in which Karachi is
situated is called Karkalla to this day."j

On leaving Krokola, Nearchus had Mount Eiros
(iVEanora) on his right-hand, and a low flat island on
his left, which is a very accurate description of the

• Vita Alex., ix. 10, 33.

t Eastwick, 'Handbook of Bombay,' pp. 474 and 477.

X Ibid., p. 476 ; Burncs, ' Bokhara,' i. 10, writes the name Crocola.

WESTERN INDIA. 307

entrance to Karachi harbour, and after stopping at
several small places, reached Morontohara, which was
called the " Women's Haven " by the people of the
country.* From this place he made two courses of
70 stadia and 120 stadia, or altogether not more than
22 miles, to the mouth of the river Arabius, which
was the boundary between the country of the Arabii
and the Oritse. The name of Morontohara I would
identify with Mudri, which is now applied to the
headland of Bds Mudri, or Cape Monz, the last point
of the Pabb range of mountains. Bdra, or bari, means
a roadstead or haven, and moronta is evidently con-
nected with the Persian mard, a man, of which .the
feminine is still preserved in Kashmiri, as mahrin, a
woman. The haven itself may be looked for between
Cape Monz and Sonmitini, but its exact position can-
not be determined. From the distances given by
Arrian in his account of the voyage of Nearchus, I
am inclined to fix it at the mouth of the Bahar rivulet,
a small stream which falls into the sea about midway
between Cape Monz and Sonmiani. If I am right in
considering Miiari as an abbreviation of Morontohara,
the cape must have received its name from the neigh-
bouring haven. At the mouth of the Arabius Near-
chus found a large and safe harbour, corresponding
with the present Bay of Sonmiani, at the mouth of the
Pur^li, which is described by Pottingerf as "a very
noble sheet of water, capable of affording anchorage
to the largest fleet."

OritcB, or Horltce.
On crossing the river Arabius, Alexander marched

* Arrian, ' Indica,' p. 22. f ' Biluchistan,' p. 9.

X 2

308

THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

for a whole night through a desert, and in the morning
entered a well-inhabited country. Then coming to a
small river, he pitched his tents, and waited for the
main body of the army under Hephsestion. On its
arrival, says Arrian, Alexander " penetrated further
into the country, and coming to a small village which
served the Oritse instead of a capital city, and was
named RamhaMa^ he was pleased with its situation,
and imagining that it would rise to be a rich and
populous city, if a colony were drawn thither, he com-
mitted the care thereof to Hephajstion."* On the
approach of Alexander, the Oritse made their sub-
mission to the conqueror, who appointed ApoUo-
phanes their governor, and deputed Leonatus with a
large force to await the arrival of Nearchus with the
fleet, and to look after the peopling of the new city.
Shortly after Alexander's departure, the Oritse rose
against the Greeks, and ApoUophanes, the new go-
vernor, was slain, but they were signally defeated by
Leonatus, and all their leaders killed.* Nearchus
places the scene of this defeat at Kokala, on the coast,
about halfway between the rivers Arabius and To-
merus. Pliny calls the latter river the Tonberos^\
and states that the country in its neighbourhood was
well cultivated.

From these details I would identify the Oritse, or
HoritcB, or Neotcrita^ as they are called by Diodorus,
with the people on the Aghor river, whom the Greeks
would have named Agorit(e, or Jorifce, by the sup-
pression of the guttural, of which a trace still remains
in the initial aspirate of Eoritts. In the bed of this

* Arrian, Anab., vi. 21, 22 ; and ' Indica,' 23 ; Curtius, ix. 10, 34.
t Hist. Nat., vi. 25.

WESTERN INDIA. 309

river there are several jets of liquid mud, which, from
time immemorial, have been known as Rdm-Chandar-
ki-kup^ or " Ram Chaudar's wells." There are also
two natural caves, one dedicated to Kali, and the
other to Hinffuldj, or Hinguld Devi, that is, the ' ' Eed
Goddess," who is only another form of Rdli. But the
principal objects of pilgrimage in the Aghor valley
are connected with the history of E&ma. The pil-
grims assemble at the Rdmbdgh, because Eama and
Sita are said to have started from this point, and
proceed to the Gorakh Tank, where Eama halted;
and thence to Tonga-bhera, and on to the point where
Eama was obliged to turn back in his attempt to
reach Hingulaj with an army. Udmhdgli I would
identify with the Bambakia of Arrian, and Tonga-
hhera with the river Tonberos of Pliny, and the To-
meriLs of Arrian. At Eambakia, therefore, we must
look for the site of the city founded by Alexander,
which Leonatus was left behind to complete. It
seems probable that this is the city which is described
by Stephanus of Byzantium as the " sixteenth Alex-
andria, near the bay of MelaneP* Nearchus places
the western boundary of the Oritse at a place called
Malana, which I take to be the bay of Malan, to the
east of Eds Mdldn, or Cape Mdldn of the present day,
about twenty miles to the west of the Aghor river.
Both Curtius and Diodorusf mention the foundation
of this city, but they do not give its name. Diodorus,
however, adds that it was built on a very favourable

* In voce Alexandria, Kara tov Mekava koXttov.

t Curtius, Vita Alex., ix. 10: — "In hac quoque regione urbem con-
didit." Diodorus, Hist. xvii.

310 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

site near the sea, but above the reach of the highest
tides.

The occurrence of the name of Bdmhdgh at so great
a distance to the west of the Indus, and at so early a
period as the time of Alexander, is very interesting
and important, as it shows not only the wide exten-
sion of Hindu influence in ancient times, but also the
great antiquity of the story of Eama. It is highly
improbable that such a name, with its attendant pil-
grimages, could have been imposed on the place after
the decay of Hindu influence.* During the flourish-
ing period of Buddhism many of the provinces to the
west of the Indus adopted the Indian religion, which
must have had a powerful influence on the manners and
language of the people. But the expedition of Alex-
ander preceded the extension of Buddhism, and I can
therefore only attribute the old name of RamhaJcia to
a period anterior to Darius Hystaspes.

These districts are described by Hwen Thsang
under the general name of Lang-kie-lo^ which M.
Julien renders by Langala. M. de St. Martin, how-
ever, refers it to the tribe of Langa^ but it is ex-
tremely doubtful whether this is an ancient name,
The other name of Langalas, quoted from the Vishnu
Purana, is only a variant reading of Jdtiffalas, which
is almost certainly the correct form, as it is immedi-
ately followed by Kurx-Jdin/alas. Hwen Thsang fixes
the capital of Lang-Me-lo at 2000 li, or 333 miles, to
the west of Kotesar in Kachh. But as this bearing
would place it in the middle of the Indian Ocean, the

* Hingulaj (Khingalatchi) is mentioned by the Tibetan Taranath,
see ' Vassilief,' French translation, p. 45, as a Eakshasa in the west of
India, beyond Barukaoha, or Barooh.

WESTERN INDIA. 311

true direction must be north-west. Now this latter
bearing and distance correspond with the position of
the great ruined city of Ldkoridn, which Masson*
found between Khozdar and Kilat. In older maps
the name is written simply Lakura, which appears to
me to be very fairly represented by the Chinese Lang-
kie-lo^ or Ldnkara.\ Masson describes the ruined
fortifications as " remarkable for their magnitude, as
well as for the solidity and the skill evident in their
construction." From the size and importance of these
ruins, I conclude that they are the remains of a large
city, which has at some former period been the capital
of the country. The Chinese pilgrim describes the
province as being many thousands of li in breadth as
well as in length. It is clear, therefore, that it cor-
responded, as nearly as possible, with the modern
district of Biluchistan, of which the present capital,
Kilat, is only 60 miles to the north of Ldkwa. In the
seventh century, the capital was called Su-neu-li-sld-
fa-lo, and was 30 li, or 5 miles, in circuit. The Chinese
syllables are rendered by M. Julien as Sunuriswara^ of
which he offers no translation. But as Hwen Thsang
describes a magnificent temple of Siva in the middle of
the city, I infer that the Chinese transcript may be
intended for Sambhuriswara, which is a well-known
title of Siva as the "lord of divine beings," or the
" god of gods." By assuming that this name belongs
properly to the temple, the other name of Lang-kie-lo^
or Ldkara, may be applied to the capital as well as to
the province.

* ' Kilat,' p. 63 ; and ' Biluchistan,' ii. 46.

t The same Chinese character, lang, is found in the transcript of
Baghalan, where the vowel of the final syllable is long.

312 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

II. GUEJJARA.

HwenThsang places the second kingdom of Western
India, named Kiu-che-lo or Gurjjara, at about 1800 li,
or 300 miles, to the north of Balabhi, and 2800 li, or
467 miles, to the north-west of Ujain. The capital was
named Pi-Io-mi-lo or Bdlmer, which is exactly 300
miles to the north of the ruins of Balabhi. From
Ujain in a straight line it is not more than 350 miles ;
but the actual road distance is between 400 and 500
miles, as the traveller has to turn the Aravali moun-
tains, either by Ajmer on the north, or by Analwara
on the south. The kingdom was 5000 li^ or 833 miles,
in circuit. It must, therefore, have comprised the
greater part of the present chiefships of Bikaner,
Jesalmer, and Jodhpur. Its boundaries can only be
described approximately, as extending about 1 30 miles
on the north from Balar or Sirdarkot to Junjhnu ; 250
miles on the east from Junjhnu to near Mount Abu ;
170 miles on the south from Abu to near Umarkot ;
and 310 miles on the west fi-om Umarkot to Balar.
These figures give a total circuit of 860 miles, which
is as close an approximation to the measurement of
Ilwen Thsang as can be reasonably expected.

All the early Arab geographers speak of a kingdom
named Jurz or Juzr^ which from its position Avould ap-
pear to be the same as the Kiu-che-lo of Hwen Thsang.
The name of the country is somewhat doubtful, as the
unpointed Arabic characters may be read as Haraz or
lJa~ar, and Kliaraz or Khaz(n\ as well as Jurz or Juzr.
But fortunately there is no uncertainty about its posi-
tion, which is determined to be Eajputana by several
concurring circumstances. Thus the merchant Suliman,

WESTERN INDIA. 313

in A.D. 851,* states that Haraz was bounded on one side
by Tdfek or Tdkin^ which, as I have already shown, was
the old name of the Panjab. It possessed silver mines,
and could muster a larger force of cavalry than any
other kingdom of India. All these details point un-
mistakably to Eajputana, which lies to the south-east
of the Panjab, possesses the only silver mines known in
India, and has always been famous for its large bodies
of cavalry.

According to Ibn Khordadbeh,-}- who died about a.d.
912, the Tdtariya dirhems were current in the country
of Hazar ; and according to Ibn Haukal, who wrote
aboi;t A.D. 977, J these dirhems were also current in
the kingdom of Gandhara, which at that time included
the Panjab. Suliman says the same thing of the king-
dom of the Balhara, or the present Gujarat ; and we
learn incidentally that the same dirhems were also
current in Sindh, as in a.h. 107, or a.d. 725, the
public treasury contained no less than eighteen mil-
lions of Tatariya du'hems.§ The value of these coins
is variously stated at from \\ dirhem to \\^ or from
54 to 72 grains in weight. From these data I con-
clude that the Titariya dirhems are the rude silver
pieces generally known as Indo-Sassanian, because
they combine Indian letters with Sassanian types.
They would appear to have been first introduced by
the Scythic or Tatar princes, who ruled in Kabul and
north-western India, as they are now found through-
out the Kabul valley and Panjab, as well as in Sindh,

* Dowson's Sir Henry Elliot, i. 4.

t Dowsoa's edition of Sir Henry Elliot's Muhamm. Hist., i. 13.

: lUA., i. 35.

§ Sir Henry Elliot, ' Arabs in Sindh,' p. 36. Dowson's edit. i. 3.

314 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OP INDIA.

Eajputana, and Gujarat. Colonel Stacy's specimens
were chiefly obtained from tlie last two countries,
while my own specimens have been procured in all of
them. In weight they vary from 50 to 68 grains ;
and in age they range from the fifth or sixth century
down to the period of Mahmud of Ghazni. They
are frequently found in company with the silver
pieces of the Brahman kings of Kabul, which agrees
with the statement of Masudi that the Tatariya
dirhems were current along with other pieces which
were stamped at Gandhara.* The latter I take to be
the silver coins of the Brahman kings of Kabul,
whose dynasty began to reign about a.d. 850, or
shortly before the time of Masudi, who flourished
from A.D. 915 to 956. I have also found some of the
Indo-Sassanian or Tatar dirhems in central India to the
east of the Aravali range, as well as in the Upper
Gangetic Doab ; but in these provinces they are ex-
tremely scarce, as the common coin of Northern India
in the mediaeval period was the Vardha, with the
figure of the Boar incarnation of Yishnu, varying
from 55 to 65 grains in weight. From this examina-
tion of the coins I conclude that the kingdom named
llazar or Juzr by the early Arab geographers, is re-
presented as nearly as possible by Western Eajpu-
tana.

Edrisi,t quoting Ibn Khordadbeh, states that Juzr
or Huzr was the hereditary title of the king, as well
as the name of the country. This statement confirms
my identification of Juzr with Guzr or Gujar^ which is
a very numerous tribe, whose name is attached to

* Dowson's edition of Sir Hcury Elliot's Muliamm. Hist., i. 24.
t Geogr., i. 175, Jaubert's translation.

WESTERN INDIA. 315

many important places in north-west India and the
Panjab, and more especially to the great peninsula of
Gujarat. It is not known when this name was first
applied to the peninsula. In early times it was called
Saurashtra, which is the Surastrene of Ptolemy ; and
it continued to bear this name as late as a.d. 812,
as we learn from a copper-plate inscription found at
Baroda.* In this record of the Saurashtra kings,
Gurjjara is twice mentioned as an independent king-
dom. About A.D. 770 the king of Grurjjara was con-
quered by Indra Raja of Saurashtra, but was after-
wards reinstated; and about a.d. 800 Indra's son
Karka assisted the ruler of Malwa against the king of
Gurjjara. These statements show most clearly that
Gurjjara still existed as a powerful kingdom, quite
distinct from Saurashtra, nearly two centuries after
Hwen Thsang's visit in a.d. 640. They show also that
Gurjjara must have been adjacent to Malwa, as well as
to Saurashtra, a position which clearly identifies it
with Eajputana, as I have already determined from
Hwen Thsang's narrative.

In the seventh century the king is said to have
been a Tsa-ti-li or Kshatriya ; but two centuries earlier
a dynasty of Gurjjara or Gujar Eajas was certainly
reigning to the north of Mah^rfi,shtra, as we have con-
temporaneous inscriptionsf of a Ch^lukya prince of
Paithan, and of a Gurjjara prince of an unnamed terri-
tory, which record grants of land to the same persons.
These inscriptions have been translated by Professor
Dowson, who refers the dates to the era of Vikrama-
ditya, but in the total absence of any authentic ex-

* Journ. Asiat. Soo. Bengal, viii. 300.

t Journ. Eoyal Asiat. Soc, new series, i. 270, 277.

316 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

ample of the use of this era before tlie sixth century
A.D., I must demur to its adoption in these early re-
cords. The Saka era, on the contrary, is found in the
early inscriptions of the Chalukya Eaja Pulakesi, and
in the writings of the astronomers Arya Bhatta and
Yaraha Mihira. The inscription of Pulakesi is dated in
the Saka year 411, or a.d. 489, from which I conclude
that the record of the earlier Chalukya Prince Yijaya,
which is dated in the year 394, must refer to the same
era. The contemporary records of the Gurjjara
prince, which are dated in S. 380 and 385 must
therefore belong to the middle of the fifth century a.d.
All these copper-plate inscriptions were found toge-
ther at Khaidra, near Ahmedabad. The first inscrip-
tion of the Gurjjara Eaja records the grant of lands to
certain Brahmans "who having left the town of
Jdvibusara, dwell in the village of Sirishapadraka, in-
cluded in the district of Aki'ureswara." Five years
latfr the same Brahman grantees are described as those
" who are to dwell in the town of Jambusara ;" and
accordingly in the Chalukya inscription, which is
dated nine years subsequent to the latter, they are de-
scribed as actually dwelling in the town of Jambusara.
This town is no doubt Jambosir, between Khambay and
Baroch, and as it belonged to the Chalukya princes,
who ruled over Maharashtra, the kingdom of Gurjjara
must have been situated to the north of Khambay, that
is, in Eajputana, where I have already placed it on the
authority of Ilwen Thsang, and other independent
evidence'.

III. Valabhadea, or Balabhi.
The ruins of the famous city of Balabhi were dis-

WESTERN INDIA. 317

covered by Tod near Bhaonagar, on the eastern side
of the peninsula of Gujarat. In an inscription of the
fifth century the country is called " the beautiful king-
dom of ValahJiadra,''''* but in the local histories and
traditions of the people, it is generally known as
Balabhi. This also was the name in the time of
Hwen Thsang, who calls the kingdom Fa-la-pi, or
Balabhi. In ancient times, however, the peninsula
of Gujarat was only known as Surashtra, and under
this name it is mentioned in the Mahabh^rata and in
the Puranas. It is called SurasJdrene by Ptolemy and
the author of the ' Periplus ;' and its people are most pro-
bably intended by Pliny under the corrupt name of
Suaratarata, or Varetata, for which I would propose
to read Suratce. The change in the name of the
country is alluded to in an inscription, dated in the
SaJca year 734, or a.d. 812, of Raja Karka, whose re-
mote ancestor Govinda is said to have been the orna-
ment of the Saurdshtra kingdom, " which lost its ap-
pellation of Sau-rajya from the ruin that had fallen
npon it."t Karka's father is called Eaja of Ldteswara,
which at once identifies his kingdom with Balabhi, as
Hwen Thsang notes that Balabhi was also called
Pe-Lo-lo, or northern Lara, which is the common pro-
nunciation of the Sanskrit Lata. As Karka was only
the fifth in descent from Govinda, the name of Saurdjya
or Saurashtra could not have been restored by these
representatives of the old family before the middle of the
seventh century. From a comparison of all the data I
conclude that the old name of Saurashtra was lost in a.d.
319, when the successors of the Sdh kings were sup-

* Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, 1838, p. 976.

t Ibid., 1839, p. 300. Inscription from Earoda.

318 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

planted by the Vallabhm, and the capital changed from
Junagmh to Valabhi. The establishment of the Balabhi
era, which dates from a.d. 319, is said by Abu
Eihan to mark the period of the extinction of the
Gupta race, whose coins are found in considerable
numbers in Gujarat. This date may therefore be ac-
cepted with some certainty as that of the establish-
ment of the Balabhi dynasty, and most probably also
as that of the foundation of their city of Balabhi.

According to the native histories and local tradi-
tions Balabhi was attacked and destroyed in the
Samvat year 580, which is equivalent to a.d. 523, if
in the Vikrama era, or a.d. 658, if in the Saka era.
Colonel Tod has adopted the former; but as Hwen
Thsang visited Balabhi in a.d. 640, the date must
clearly be referred to the later era of Saka. If the
statement is correct, we may refer the capture of
Balabhi to Eaja Govinda of the Baroda copper-plate
inscription, who is recorded to have re-established the
old family, as well as the old name of the former king-
dom of Saurashtra. As he was the great-grandfather of
the grandfather of Karka Eaja, who was reigning in
a.d. 812, his own accession must have taken place in
the third quarter of the seventh century, that is, be-
tween A.D. 650 and 675, which agrees with the actual
date of A.D. 658, assigned by the native historians
for the destruction of Balabhi, and the extinction
of the Balabhi sovereignty in the peninsula of Gu-
jarat.

About a century after their expulsion from Balabhi
the representative of the Balabhis, named Bappa or
Vappal-a, founded a new kingdom at Chitor, and his
son Guhila^ or Guhdditya, gave to his tribe the new

WESTERN INDIA. 319

name of Guhildwat^ or Gahilot, by wliich tlicy are still
known. About the same time* a chief of the C/iaiira
tribe, named Ban Baja, or the " Jangal Lord," founded
a city on the bank of the Saraswati, about seventy
miles to the south-west of Mount Abu, called Analwdra
Pattan, which soon became the most famous place in
Western India. Somewhat earlier, or about a.d. 720,
Krishna, the Pahlava prince of the peninsula, built
the fort of Eldpura, the beauty of which, according
to the inscription, astonished the immortals. In it he
established an image of Siva adorned with the crescent.
Following this clue I incline to identify Mdpura with
the famous city of Somndth^ which, as the capital of the
peninsula, was usually called Pattan Somnath. Accord-
ing to Postansf the old " city of Pattan" is built upon
a projection of the " mainland, forming the southern
point of the small port and bay of VerdwalT This
name I take to be the same as Eldpura or Eldivar,
which, by a transposition that is very common in India,
would became Erdwal. Thus Nar-sinh has become
Man-si^ and Banod is used indifferently with Narod,
but we have a still more striking instance in the
change from the ancient Vdrul to the modern Elur or
Elora. Now Patau Somnath was famous for a temple
of Siva, which enshriaed a figure of the god bear-
ing a crescent on his head as Somndfh, or the " lord
of the moon." This appellation was therefore the
proper name of the temple, and not of the city, which
I conclude must have been Eldpura or Erawal, the
modern Verdwal.

* ' Ayin Akbari," ii. 73. Abul Fazl gives Samvat 802, or a.d. 745,
if referred to the era of Vukramaditya.
f Journ. Aaiat. Soc. Bengal, 1838, p. 866.

320 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OE INDIA.

The oarlicst notice that we possess of Somnath is
contained in the brief account of the successful cam-
paign of Mahmud of Ghazni. According to Ferishta*
the fortified city of Somnath was situated " on a nar-
row peninsula, washed on three sides hy the sea." It
was the residence of the Eaja, and Naharwdla (a trans-
position of Analw^ra) was then only " a frontier city
of Gujarat." This agrees with the native histories,
which place the close of the Chaura dynasty of Jnal-
wdra in S. 998, or a.d. 941, when the sovereignty
passed into the hands of the Chalukya prince Mida
Raja, who became the paramount ruler of Somnath.
and Analwai'a.

After the time of Mahmud, Somnath would appear
to have been abandoned by its rulers in favour of
Analwdrn, which is mentioned as the capital of Gujarat
in the time of Muhammad Ghori and his successor
Aibeg.f It was still the capital of the kingdom in
A.H. 697, or A.D. 1297, when the country was invaded
by the army of Ala-ud-din Muhammad Khilji, which
occupied Nahrwdia, or Aiialwdra, and annexed the
province to the empire of Delhi.

During all these transactions Ferishta invariably
designates the peninsula, as well as the country to
the north of it, by the modern name of Gujarat. The
name is not mentioned by Abu Rihan, although he
notices both Analwara and Somnath. It occurs first
in the Mojmal-ut-tawarikh of Rashid-ud-din, who
wrote in a.d. 1310, just thirteen years after the con-
quest of the country by the Muhammadan king of
Delhi. Now I have already shown that the name of
Gur'ijara was confined to Western Rajputana in the

t Ihid., i. 179, 194.

WESTEEN INDIA. '521

time of n^ven Tlisang, and that it was still a di.stiuct
country from SaurasJilm in a.d. 812, when ICarka
Eaja of Ldlenoara recorded his grant of land. Be-
tween this date and a.d. 1310, there is a gap of five
centuries, during which period we have no mention
of Gurjjara in any contemporary records. I liave
a strong suspicion, hoAvcvcr, that the movement of
the Gujars towards the peninsula must have been
connected with the permanent conquest of Delhi,
Kanoj and Ajmer by the Muhammadans, which ejected
the Chohuns and Eathors from K'orthcrn Eajputana
and the Upper Ganges, and thrust them towards the
south. "\Yc know that the Rathors occupied Pali to
the cast of Balmer in the Samvat year 1283, or a.d.t
1220. This settlement of the Rathors must have
driven the great body of the Gujars from their ancient
seats and forced them to the south towards Analwara
Pattan and Eder. This was actually the case of the
Gohils, who, being expelled from Marwar by the
Rathors, settled in the eastern side of the peninsula,
which was named after them Gohilwara. In the time
of Akbar the Gujars had certainly not penetrated into
the peninsula, as Abul Fazl does not name them in
his notice of the different tribes which then occupied
the Sirkar of S/m/'f. But even at the present day
there is no large community of Gujars in the penin-
sula, so that we must look for some other cause for
the imposition of their name on a large province which
they have never completely occupied.

In my account of the province of Gurjjara I have
already noticed an old inscription of the kings of the
Guijjara tribe. From this record Ave learn that in s.
380, or A.D. 458 the Gujars had pushed their conquests

•J^/J THE ANCIENT GEOGBAPIIY OF INDIA.

as far soutli as tlie banks of tlic Xarbadii. In that
year, and subseqnontly in A.n. 4G3, their king Sri
Datta luisali* made several grants of land to certain
Brahmaus in the district of Jkr/hrswara, neav Janibn-
sara, Trhich I talce to bo JUc^nr, on the south bank of
the Nai-bada, dppositc ]jharoch. Ent before s. 391, or
A.D. 47l^, the Gujars must have been driven back to
the north, as far at least as Khambay, as the Chalnkya
prince Vijaya made several grants of land to the same
Ijrahmans in the town of Jambusara, which lies between
Bhiu-och and Khtimbay. It is certain, therefore, that
the Gnjars had occupied the coimtry to the north of
the peninsula as early as the fifth century of the
Clu'istian era. But two centuries later they had
already lost their power, as Hwen Tlisang found a
K-shatrij/a prince on the throne of Gtirjjara. They
must still, however, have Cijntinued to form the bulk
oJ' the population of the ciamtrics to tlie west and
soutli of Mount Abu ; and as Alaf Ivhan, the first
Muhammadan conqueror, under Ala-nd-din Khilji,
fixed his head-quarters at Nti'incu'ra, or Analwura^ in
tlie very heart of tlie Gujar country, I think it pro-
bable that tJic name of Gujarat Avas then first applied
to tliis new province of the Delhi empire ; and as the
peninsula of Saurashtra formed a part of the province,
it was also included under the same general appellation.
I therefore look upon the extension of the name of
Gujarat to the peninsula as a political eonvenieuco
rather than an ethnograpliieol aj^plication. Hamilton^
iiutes that the greater part of MalA\'a and Khandes was
fnrmerly called rhijarat; and this is boriic out by

■•' Professor Dowson in Jourii. T!o3'al Aslat. Soc, new series, i. SnO.
t Gazetleer, in voce '■ GujerAl,' i. GO.

WESTERN INDIA. o23

Marco Polo, who distinguishes between the peninsula,
which he calls Sumenat (Somnath) and the kingdom of
Gozinrif, which he places on the coast to the north of
Tana ; that is, about Bharoch and Surat. Even at the
present day the name of Gujarat is not known to the
natives of the peninsula itself, who continue to call their
country Saraih and Kaihiuwar ;* the latter name having
been a recent adoption of the Mahrattas.

The capital of Balabhi is described by Hwen Thsang
as 30 /z, or 5 miles, in circuit. Its ruins were first
discovered by Tod, although he did not actually visit
them.t But they have since been visited by Dr.
Nicholson,! according to whom they are situated at
18 miles to the Avest-north-west of Bhaonagar, near
the village of IFale. The ruins are still known by
the name of Vamilapura^ which is only a slight trans-
position of Valami, or Valahlnpiira. The remains are
scattered over a wide extent, but there is nothing
remarkable about them, except the unusually large
size of the bricks. In the time of Akbar, however,
these remains would appear to haA^e been much more
considerable, as Abul Fazl§ was informed that "at
the foot of the mountains of Sirouj is a large city,
now out of repair, although the situation is A'erj^ de-
sirable. Mabidchin and the port of Ghoga are de-
pendent upon it." The A'icinity of Gliogn is a suffi-
cient indication to enable us to identify this ruined
city with the present remains of Balabhi, which are
only about 20 miles distant from Ghoga.

* Elphiiistone, 'ludia,' i. 550.
t ' Travels in AVcsteru India,' p. 268.
J Jouni. Eoyal Asiat. Soc, xiii. 146.
§ ' Ayiu Akbai-i,' ii. 69.

324 THE AXCIENT GEOGUArilT OF INDIA.

In tlio sevciitli century Ilwcn Thsang describes the
kingdom of Bakblii as GOOO //, or 1000 miles, in
circuit, wliicli is very near tlie truth, if Ave include
the districts of Bliaroch and Snrat, on the neighbour-
ing coast, as well as the Avholo of the peninsula of
Surashtra. But in this part of the pilgrim's travels
the narrative is frequently imperfect and erroneous,
and we must therefore trust to our own sagacity, both
to supply his omissions and to correct his mistakes.
Thus, in liis description of Blidroch, Ilwcn Tlisaug
omits to tell us -whether it was a separate and inde-
pendent chiefship, or only a tributary of one of its
powerful neighbours, Balabhi, Malwa, or Maharashtra.
But as it has generally been attached to the peninsula,
I infer that it most probably belonged to the great
Idngdom of Balabhi in the seventh century. In the
second century, according to Ptolemy, Bari/ffa:a
formed part of the kingdom of Laril-c, which, in Hwcn
Thsang's time, y,'as onlj' another name for Balabhi.
In the tenth ccntiuy, accordiug to Ibn Ilaukal,* it
belonged to the kingdom of the Balhara, whose capital
was Analwara ; but as this city was not founded for
more than a hmidrod years after Ilvicn Thsang's visit,
I conclude that in the seventh century Bhriroch must
have formed part of the famous kingdom of Balablii.
"With this addition to its territories, the froniii.r
circuit of Balabhi -\vould have been as iio:irly as pos-
sible 1000 miles.

1. StTRASIITEA.

According to TTwen Tlisang, the province of Su-Ja-
cha, or Siirdi/ia, was a dependant of Balabhi. Its

'■ Elliul, ■ ]\ruliammixtl.nn rU'lnriaiis of Iiidin,' i. 03.

■WESTERN INDIA. oil-)

capital was situated ut 500 //, or 8^j uiilus, to tlio west
of Balablii, at the foot of Moimt Ycu-chcn-la^ or JJjjanla.
This is the Pali form of the Sanskrit Ujjai/aiila, whioh
is only another name for the Girinar hill that rises
ahovc the old city of Junac/arli. The name of JJjjaijania
is mentioned in both of the Girinar inscriptions of
Eudra Dama and Skanda Gupta, although this im-
portant fact escaped the notice of the translators.*
The mention of this famous hill fixes the position of
the capital of Snrashtra at Junacjcirh^ or Yacana-ffadh,
which is 87 miles to the west of Balabhi, or very
nearly the same as stated by Ilwen Thsang. The
pilgrim notices that the mountain was co-vered with
thick forests, and that its scarped sides contained
numerous chambers and galleries. This description
agrees with the account of Postans,f who, in 1838,
found the hill covered with " a thick jungul of the
custard- apple tree," and a number of excavations at
the base, consisting of " small flat roofed rooms, sup-
ported by square pillars without ornament."

The name of Surafh is still known in this part of
the peninsula ; but it is confined to a comparatively
small tract, which forms one of the ten divisions of
Gujarat.J In the time of Akbar, however, it was ap-
plied to the southern or larger half of the peninsula,
which, according to Abul Fazl, extended from the
port of Ghoga to the port of Aramroy, and from
Sirdhar to the port of Diu.§ The name of the district

* Journ. Asiat. Soo. Bombay, vii. 119, " the Urjayata hill ;'' p. 123,
'■ Urjaijat ;^^ and p. 12-1., " tlio Jayanta niouutain," sliould all be ren-
dered Ujayanta.

t Journ. Eoyal Asiat. Soo. Bengal, 1838, pp. 874, 87C.

J Eastwick, ' Handbook of Bombay,' p. 424.

§ ' Ayin Akbari,' ii. 66.

326 THE ANCIENT geoghapuy of india.

IS also preserved by Terry,* whose information was
obtained at the Court of Jahangir. According to his
account, the chief city of Sorct Avas called Janagar^ that
is, Javanagarh^ or Jonac/arh. The province was small,
but very rich, and had the ocean to the souih. At that
time also it would appear not to have been included
in Gujarat, as Terry describes it as lijlng vpon Gujairtt.
In the seventh century Ilwen Thsang states that
SaratJi, or Sura-Mra, was 4000 /?, or GG7 r.iiles, in
circuit, and touched the river Mo-ld on the west.
This river has always been identified with the Mahi
of Mahva, Avhich falls into the Gulf of Khambay.-j-
Accepting this identification as correct, the province
of Saraih in the time of Hwcn Thsang must have
comprised the whole of the peninsula, including the
city of Ealabhi itself. This is confirmed by the mea-
surement of the frontier given by the pilgrim, which
agrees exactly with that of the entire peninsula to the
south-west of a line drawn from the Lesser Eau of
Ivachh to Khambay. In spite of the fame of Balabhi,
the old name of Snrath -^mis still applied to the whole
peninsula so late as a.d. GIO.

2. BnAEOCII, OR BAUYGAZA.

In the seventh century the district of Po-lu-lie-che'
po, or liurul-achoa^ was from 2400 to 2500 /z, or from
400 to 417 miles, in circuit; and its chief city was on
the bank of the Nai-mo-tho, or Narmmadd river, and
close to the sea. With these data it is easy to identify

* ' A'oyau;? to East India,' p. SO.

t As tlio Miihl rivor lies to the north-cast of Qujari'it, wo must citlicr
read cast, or suppose that the pilgrim referred to the western bank of
the stream.

the capital witli tlio well-laiowu soapurt town of
lUtdrocJi, under its Sanskrit name of Tjhriyn-Kachhn^
as written by tlic Bralimans, or Bhurulachha^ as found
in the old inscriptions. The latter was no doubt tlie
more usual form, as it is almost literally preserved in
the Bapvya^a of Ptolomy, and the ' Teriplus/ From
Ilwen Thsang's measurement of its circuit, the limits
of the district may be determined approximately as
extending from the 3Id/ti* i-ixqv on the north, to
Daman on the south, and from tlic Gulf of Ivhambay
on the west to the Saliijddrl mountains on the east.

According to the text of Hwen Thsang, Bhriroch
and Balabhi were in Southern India, and Surashtra
in "Western India ; but as he places Malwa in Southern
India, and Ujain in Central India, I look upon these
assignments as so many additional proofs of the con-
fusion which I have already noticed in the narrative
of his travels in Western India. I would therefore
assign both Balabhi and Bhriroch to Western India,
as they formed part of the great province of Surashtra.
The correctness of this assignment is confirmed by the
author of the 'Periplus,' who notes that below Bary-
gasa the coast turns to the south, whence that region
is named Dakhinafjades, as the natives call the south
DakJtanos.'\

.CEXTKAL JXDIA.

According to the Chinese pilgrim, the great division
of Central India extended from the Satlej to the head
of the Gangetic Delta, and from the Himalaya moun-
tains to the Narbada and Mahanadi rivers. It coni-

* The Mais river of Ploleuiy.

t Peripl. Mar. Erytlir., in Hudson's Geogr, Vet., i. 20i

THE ANCIENT GEOGUAtllV OF IN1)IA.

prised all the richest and most populous districts of
India, -with the single exception of the Gangetic
Delta, or Bengal proper.* Of the seventy separate
states of India that existed in the seventh century, no
less than thirty-seven, or rather more than one-half,
belonged to Central India. The Avhole of these dis-
tricts were visited hj IIwcu Thsang, Avhose footsteps
I will now attend in describing the different princi-
palities from west to cast in the following order : —

Sthuneswara.

20. Kusinagara.

Balrat.

21. Varanasi.

tj.

Sruglma.

22. Todhapatipura.

■J.

Madawar.

23. A^aisCda.

Brahmapura.

21. Vriji.

Govisana.

25. NepCda.

Ahichhatra.

26. Magadha.

Pilosaua.

27. Iliranya Parvata.

Sankisa.

28. Champa, i

10.

Mathura.

29. Kankjol.

11.

Kanoj.

30. Paundra Yardhana.

12.

Ayuto.

31. Jajhoti.

13.

Ilayamuliha.

32. Maheswarapura.

14.

Prayaga.

33. Ujain.

15.

Kosambi.

31. Malwa.

IG.

Ivu^apura.

35. Kheda, or Khaira.

17.

VaisAldia.

30. Anandapura.

18.

Sravasti.

37. Vadari, or Edcr.

19.

Kapila.

1. STHANESWADA.

In the seventh cciitmj Sa- la- /li-s/ii-fa-lo, or Sthdncti-
wara, was the capital of a separate kingdom, which is
* See Map No. I.

Cl;XXUAL iNUlA. o-!U

described as behii!,' 7000 //, or 1107 miles, in circuit.
No Idug is mentioned, bnt tlie state was tributary to
Uarslia Varddhana of Kanoj, who was the paramount
sovereign of Central India. From the large dimen-
sions given by Hwen Thsang, I infer tliat the district
must have extended from the Satlej to the Ganges.*
Its northern boundary may be approximately described
as a straight line draM'-n from Ilari-ld-patan, on the
Satlej, to Muzafarnagar, near the Ganges; and its
southern boundary as an irregular line drawn from
near Pak-patan, on the Satlej, via Bhatner and ISTaruol,
to Anupshahar on the Ganges. These limits give a
boundary of about 900 miles, Avliich is nearly one-
fourth less than is stated by the pilgrim. Bnt it is
certain that many of these boundary measurements
mnst be exaggerated, as the distances conld only
have been estimated, and the uatnral tendency of
most persons is rather to overstate the actual size of
their native districts. Another source of error lies in
the deficient information of II wen Thsang's OAvn nar-
rative, which describes each of the 37 districts as a
distinct and separate state, whereas it is almost certain
that several of the minor states shoiild be included
within the boundaries of the larger ones. Thus I
believe that the petty districts of Govisana and Ahich-
Iiaira must have formed part of the state of Maddwar ;
that Vaisdkha and Knsapura^ ai^d the other small dis-
tricts of the Gangetic Doab, Ji/iilo, IlayaiiiuJcha, Ko-
sdmhi, and Prajjdr/a, were included in Kauoj ; that Ktc-
dna(jara belonged to Kcipila; and that Vadari andlUieda
were integral parts of Ifahoa. In some instances also,
I believe that thousands have been inserted in the

- See Map No, X.

330 THE ANCIENT GEOGKAfllY OF INDIA.

text iustcad of hmulrcds. I refer specially to tlie
petty districts in the lovrer Gangetic Doal>. Thus,
Prrii/ii'i/a, or Allaliabad, is said to be 5000 //, or 833
miles, in circnit, and Kosdiitbi^ Avliicli is only 30 miles
from Allahabad, is said to be GOOO //, or 1000 miles,
in circnit ! In both of these instances I ^vuuld read
the smaller nnmbers of 500 //, or 83 miles, and GOO //,
or 100 miles, which Avonld then agree with the actnal
dimensions of these petty divisions. It is quite cer-
tain that they could not ha^-e been larger, as they
"were completely surrounded by other -syell-hnown dis-
tricts. By making due allowance for one or other of
these sources of error, I think it will be found that
Ilwen Thsang's measurements are in general not very
far from the truth.

The town of Slhuncmava, or Thanesar, euiisists of
an old ruined fort, about 1200 feet square at tep,
A\ith the modern town on a mound to the east, and
a suburb called Biihari^ or "without," on another
mound to the west. Altogether, the three old mounds
occupy a space nearly one mile in length from east to
Avest, and about 2000 feet in average breadth. These
dimensions give a circuit of 14,000 feet, or less than
2 J miles, which is somewhat under the 20 //, or 3-5-
miles, of Ilwen Thsang. But before the inroads of the
]\Iuhammadans, it is certain, from the number of brick
ruins still existing, as Avell as from the statements of
the people theraseh-es, that the whole of the inter-
vening space between the present town and the lake,
which is now called Barrd, must have formed part of
the old city. Taking in this space, the original city
woidd ha^-e been, as nearly as possible, an exact
square of one mile on each side, which woidd give a

Cii.NTliAL INDIA.

.J.ji

circuit of 4 miles, or a little more tlian the measure-
ment of the Cliincso pilgrim. Accordiug to tradition,
tlic fort was built by Raja Dilijuc, a descendant of
Kuru, five generations anterior tu the Pandus. It is
said to liave bad 52 towers or bastions, of wbicb some
remains still exist. On the west side the earthen
ramparts rise to a height of GO feet abo\(! the road ;
but the mass of the interior is not more than 40 I'eet
high. The whole mound is thickly covered with large
broken bricks, but with the exception of three old
wells, there are no remains of any antiquity.

The name of TlUhicmr^ or SlJidiiestvara^ is said to be
derived cither from the StJidna or abode of Imara^ or
Mahadeva, or from the junction of his names of Sllidnu
and Iswara^ or from Slhdnu and sai\ a " lake." The
town is one of the oldest and most celebrated places
in India, but the earliest certain notice of it under
this name is by the Chinese pilgrim Ilwen Thsang,
in A.D. 034, although it is most probably mentioned
by Ptolemy as Batan-Kaisara, for which wc should,
perhaps, read Satan-aisara, for the Sanskrit Sthdiies-
wara. But the place was more famous for its connec-
tion Avith the history of the Pandus, than for its pos-
session of a temple of Mahadeva, whose worship, in
India at least, must be of much later date than the
heroes of the Mahabharata. All the country immedi-
ately around Thauesar, between the Saras wall and
BrisJtadwali rivers, is known by the name of Kuru-
Kshdra, that is, the "field or land oi Iv.crif," who is
said to have become an ascetic on the bank of the
great holy lake to the south of the town. This lake
is called by various names, as Bra/md-Sar, Bdma-hrad
Vdyic, or Vdyam-Sar^ and Pavana-Sar. The first

00 J THE ANCIENT GEOGEAtllY OF INDIA.

name is attributed to Bralima, because lie performed
a Baci'ifice on its banks. The second name is de-
rived from Furasu-Tluma, "\v]io is said to liave spilt
the blood of the Kshalrii/as in this place. The last
t-\yo titles arc derived from the names of the god of
Wind, on account of the pleasant breezes -which blew
over the waters of the lake during Knru's period
of asceticism. This lake is the centre of attraction
for most pilgrims ; but all around it for many miles is
holy ground, and the number of holy places connecte'd
Avith the Kauravas and Pdndavas^ and Avith other
heroes of antiquity, is very great indeed. Accord-
ing tu popular belief, the exact number is 36fJ, but
the list given in the Karu-/cHliclra Muluitinija is limited
to 180 places, of Avhich one-half, or 91, are to the
north along the line of the venerated Sarasv/ati river.
There are, however, in this list so many omissions of
places of acknoAvledged importance, such as the Nd-
galiradu at Piindri^ the Vj/usaslhala at Basthali, the
Pantsarcdirath at Balu, and the Vdlinu-iirath at Sagga,
near Nardiia, that I feel inclined to believe that the
popular number of 3G0 may not be exaggerated.

The CItaln-aj or district oi Kam-K'ihclra^ is also called
Bhariiia-Kuhefra^ or the " holy land," which is evi-
dently the original of TEavcu Thsang's " champ da
honhmvP In his time the circle of pilgrimage Avas
limited to 200 //,* AAdiieh, at his valuation of 40 li to
the Indian yojana of 1 kos, is equi\'alent to 20 kos.
In the time of Akbar, hoAvever, the circle had already
been increased to 10 kos,t and at the time of my visit
it had been extended to 48 kos, although the 40
kos circuit Avas also -well known, and is, indeed, noted

•■■ Julien'a ' Hioucn Tlisang,' ii. 213. f ' Ayiu Akbaii,' ii. 517.

CENTRAL INDIA. 333

by ]Mv. Bowring. Tlic circuit statinl by flu' Cliinop

pilgrim could not have been more tlian 3o or JO niilc:^,

at 7 or 8 miles to tbc yojana, but tbo circle mentioned

by Abul Fazl could not be less than 53 miles, at

the usual valuation of tbe Padsliahi kos at 1 i miles,

and might, at Sir II. Elliot's valuation of Akbar's kos

at more than 2^ miles, be extended to upwards of 100

miles. It is possible, indeed, to make these diiferent

statements agree very closely by changing the pilgrim's

number to 400 U, or 10 yojanas, Avhich are equivalent

to 40 kos, or 80 miles, and by estimating Abul Fazl's

40 kos at the usual Indian rate of about 2 miles each.

I am myself quite satisfied of the necessity for making

this correction in the pilgrim's number, as the narrow

extent of his circle Avould not only shiit out thi^

equally famous shrines at Pritlnuluka, or Pclioa on the

Saraswati, and at the KausiJd-Sanf^am, or junction of

the Kausild and Z)r/A7zf«Z?yrt/z rivers, but would actually

exclude the Drishadwati itself, which iu the I'duniiia

Piirdna is specially mentioned as being within the

limits of the holy land, —

Dirgh-Kshetre Kurnkshctro clirglia Siiti-anta yii-e
Nndyastire Drisliadvalyiih puiiyayali Suchii-odliasah.

" They were making the great sacrifice of Scdranl.i
in the wide region of Kuntlahctra on the banks of the
BrMadwad, esteemed holy on account of its virtues."
This river is also specially mentioned in the Vanu
Parvn of the Mahablu'ircda as being tbe southern
boundary of the holy land.*

Dalishiricna Sarasvatya Dnsliadvatyuttavona-cha
Yo vasaiiti Kurulcslietro te vasanti IrifisUtapc.

" South from Saramal'i, and north from Bnslindioali,

* Chap. 83, Y. 4.

34 THE ANCIEXT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

they who dwell iu KuruhJtetra live in paradise." From
those texts it is certain that the holy land of Kuvu-
hhetra mnst have extended to the Brklimhoati in the
time of Hwen Thsan^-, and therefore that his limita-
tion nf its cirenit to 200 //, or 20 kos, must be erro-
neous.

In another passage of the Mali (Widra let, the boun-
daries of the holy land arc even more explicitly de-
tailed,— *

Tad llatnukiiratnulcyor yadantaram Eanii'ihradanun-cha Bliacliak-

nnkasya-cha
E(at Kurultshetra, Samanta — paneliatam, Pitamaliusyottara

Vcdiruchyate.

" The tract between Eutnula, Aratnul-a^ Udmalirada
and BhachaJcnitl-a^ is called KitruJisJielra, Samantajpcm-
cliaka^ and the northern Vedi of Fita-viaJia (or
Eralima)." As this last name of Brahnd-vedi is equi-
valent to Brahmdfartta, we have another testimony in
the Code of ]\Ianu for extending the holy land to the
banks of the Drishadwati.f

Sai-asvati Drisliadratyordeva nudyor yadantaram
Tandeva niraiitam-dcsan Bralimiirarttau praclialcsUate.

"That region, made by the Gods, which is between
tl).o Saraswa/i and BrishadicaU rivers, is called Brah-
mdvartlaP

The great lake of Kitrid-shctra is an oblong sheet of
water r,r)iG feet in length from east to wesf, and 1900
frrt in breiidth. It is mentioned by Abu Rihan,J who
]■(■(■( (I'ds, on the antliority of A'araha j\Iihira, that
during eclipses of the moon the waters of all other

* ' "^^aua Parva,' chap. 83, last verse.

t Iloxigliton's 'Instilutes of i\rcm!,' ii. 17.

X Tleiuavid, ' JFomoire sur I'lude/p. '287.

CE^TEAL INDIA. ■>■->■>

tanks visit the tank at Tliruosar, so tliat tlic Latlicr in
this tank at the moment of eclipse ohtaiiis the acltli-
tioual merit of Lathing in oil tlie other tanlvs at Uil-
same time.

Tliis notice by Yaralia Mihira carries ns hack at
once to A.D. oOO, "wlien the holy tank at Thauesar was
in full repute. Eut the Pauraiiic legends attribute to
it an antiquity long anterior even to the Pandus them-
selves. On its banks Kuru, the common ancestor of
the Kauravus and Pundmais, sat in ascetic abstraction ;
here Parasu-Eama slew the Kshatiiyas, and here
Piu-uravas having lost the nymph UfLYisi, at length
met his celestial bride at Kumkshctra ' • sporting ■with
four other nymphs of heaven in a lake beautiful with
lotuses." But the story of the lior.se-headed Dacl/iy-
aiicli, or Badhicha, is perhaps even older than the
•legend of Pururavas, as it is alluded to in the Piig
Yeda.* " With his bones Indra flew ninety times nine
Vrilras.'''' The scholiast explains this by sayiiic,' that
the thunderbolt of ludi-a Avas formed of the liorsc's
head Avith vrhich the As^-ins had supplied tlic headless
Dadh^^aneh, that he might* teach his science to them.
According to the legend, Dadhyancli during liis life-
time had been the terror of the Asuras, who, after his
death, multiplied and overspread the whole earth.
Then "Indra inquiring what had become of him, and
whether nothing of him had been left behind, was
told that the horse's licad was still in exist-nce, but
no one knew Avhere. Search was made fer it, and it
was found in the lake Banjanclrat on the sldrts of
Kurukshetra." I infer that this is only another name
for tlie great tank of Kurukshetra, and consequently

* Wilson's (ransktion, i. 216.

33G * THE ANCIEXT GEOGRAPHY OF IXDIA.

tliat the sacred jJool is at least as old as the Eig Yeda
itself. I think it also probable that the Chnhri-liraiJi,
or spot Avhere Vislmu is said to have taken np his
Chalra^ or discus, to kill Bliishina, may have been the
original spot where Indra slew the Vritras, and that
the bones, which wore afterwards assigned to the
Pandus, may have been those of the Vritras of the
older legend. In support of this suggestion, I may
mention that the Cluilcratiraih is close to Aslhiyiir^ or
the "place of bones." In a.d. G34 these bones were
shown to the Chinese pilgrim, Hwen Thsang, who
records that they were of very large size.* All ni}-
inqniries for them were fruitless, but the site of As-
tliipiir, or " Bone-town,'' is still pointed out in the
plain lo the west of the cily, near Aujas-c/Jidt.

PeJioa^ or Vriihidal-a.

The old town of Pchou is situated on the south
bank of the Sarasuti, 11 miles to the west of Thanesnr.
The place derives its name from the famous Vv'dhn
CJiah-a-vartli, who is said to have been the first person
that obtained the title of Raja. At his bii-th, accord-
ing to the Yislnm rur;1na,f "all living creatures re-
joiced," because lu^ was born to put an end to the
anarchy which then prevailed over the whole earth.
The story of the cure of Eaja Yena's leprosy, by
bathing in tlie Saraswati is told in the same Puraua.
On his death, his son Prithu performed the usual
Srdddha, or funeral ceremonies, and for twelve days
after tlie cremation ho sat on the bank ef the Saraswati
offering water to all comers. The place was therefore

* .Tulien's ' liioucn Thsang,' ii. 21<1.

t "Bool; 1-13, Hall's cdilion of T\'ilson'stransl;ilion, i. 1S3.

TKXTKAL IXDIA. 337

uainccl Pi-i^/iuda/M ov Vrithn's pool, IVoin dahi OYu'laka
Avatcr ; and the city which lie afterwards huilt on the
spot M-as called by the same name. The shrine of
PrilJiudaka has a place in the KuniksJiefra Mahdlmya^
and is still visited.

Am In.
Five miles to the son th- son th- east of Thanesar there
is a lai'ge and lofty mound called Jw///, which is said by
the Brahmans to be a contraction of Ahldmamjii Kliera,
or the mound of Abbimanyu, the son of Ai-jnn. The
place is also named Chakra-hhi/u, or the " Arrayed
army," because the Pandus hero assembled their
troops before their last battle with the Kauravas.
Here Abbimanyii was killed by Jayadi'atha, who was
himself killed the next day by Arjun. Here Aditi is
said to have seated herself in ascetic abstraction to
obtain a son, and here accordingly she gave birth to
Snryya^ or the Sun. The mound is about 2000 feet in
length from north to south, and 800 feet in breadth,
with a height of from 20 to 30 feet. On the \^)^
there is a small village called Amin, inhabited bj-
Gaur Brahmans, with a temple to Adlt'i, and a Suri/ya
Kund on the oast, and a temple to Sunjija on the
Avest. The Suryya Kund is said to represent the
spot where the Sun was born, and accordingly all
women who wish for male children pay their devo-
tions at the temple of Aditi on Sundaj^, and after-
wards bathe in the Ruruj Kund.

2. BAIRAT.

According to Hweu Thsang the capital of the king-
dom oi Foli-yc-io-h^ which M. Eeinaud has identified
Avith Pdrydtra or Bairdt, was situated at GOO //, or

oo» THE AXCIENT GEOGEAPIIY OF INDIA.

83| miles, to tlio Avest of Matliura, and about 800 //,
] '-]>]§ miles, to the ,soutli-"\vcst of tlic kingdom of She-
lo-tu-h* that is, of Salai/ni, or the Satlej. The hear-
ing and distance from Mathura point nnequivoeally to
Bairdlj the ancient capital of j\}atHija as the eit}' of
Ilwen Thsang's narrative, althongh it is upwards of
100 miles further to the south of IvuUu than is re-
corded hj^ the pilgrim. But I have alreadj' given an
explanation of this discrcpancj^ in my account of the
intermediate position of Satadrn in Xorthern India.

Abu Eihrm, the contemporary of Mahmud, places
Narcina^ the capital of Karzilt, at 2S parasangs to the
■west of ]\Iathura,-|" which, taking the parasang at .8^
miles, woidd make the distance 98 miles, or 14 miles
in excess of the mcasiu'cment of Ilwcn Thsang. But
as the narratives of the different ^Midiamxadan his-
tiirians leave no doubt of the identity of Kara net the
capital of Karzuf, with Nardijann the capital of Bainlf, i
this difference in the recorded distance from Mathura,
is of little moment. According to Abu Bihan, Nardiut^
or r>a~.ii'iia, was called Nannjan^ ,1 1 ; b>y the ilusal-
mans, a name which still exists in Nnrd^anjmr, a town
sitnated at 10 miles to the north-east of Bairut itself.
Brom ICanoj to Naiana, Abu Bihiln gives two distinct
routes; the first direct via ilathura being OG para-
sangs, or 1!H1 miles, and the other to the south of t^ic
Jumna being 8S p:irasangs, or 308 miles. :[: The inter-
mediate stages of tlie^ later route are, 1st, Jv/, 18 para-

* Jiilion's ' Ilioucu Tlisang-,' pp. 20G-207. Sec Jlap Ko. X.

t Kc'inaml, ' Fragmcuts .'Vr.abes ct Perpaiis,' p. lo7. Tlie translator
S'lvcs IJiiz'hiK, but lliia lias been corrected by Sir H. M. Elliot to
Naran.-i.

J IJciiiancl, 'Fragments,' p. 100 ; Dowson's edit, of Sir II. Elliot,i. 5S.

CEXTRAL INDIA.

330

sangs, or Go miles; 2ik1, SaJdna, 1 7 parasangs, or 00,^
miles; 3rd, Janclara, 18 parasangs, or 03 miles; 4(h,
Bajaitri, either l-l or 17 parasangs, -A or -M miles, and
Otli, Ba-jiiia, or Nardiia, 20 parasaiig^^, or 70 miles. As
tlie direction of the first stage is speeiallj' recorded to
have been to 'the south-west of Kanoj, it may be at once
identified -with the Awd GhiU on the Jumna, G miles
to the south of Etawa, and about 60 miles to the
south-M-est of Kanoj. The name of the second stage
is written \\y^ Sahina, for which by the simple
shifting of the diacritical points, I propose to read
Uly^ Siihmiia, which is the name of a very largo
and famous ruined town situated 2-3 miles t3 the
north of Gwalior. Its distance from the Assai Ghat
is about 50 miles. The third stage named Jandara
by M. Eeinaud, and Chandra by Sir Henry Elliot, I
take to be HindoiK reading ,.,.ja=- f'lr \,sJ^- I^"^ dis-
tauce from Sulianijja by the Khetri CMu'it on theChambal
river is about 70 miles. The fourth stage, named
Eajori, still exists under the same name, 12 miles to
the south-west of Mdchcri^ and about -jO miles to the
north-west of Hindon. From thence to Xarainpur
and Bairat, the road lies altogether through the hills
of Alwar or INLVlicri, which makes it difficult to as-
certain the exact distance. By measurements on the
lithographed map of eight miles to the inch, I make
the distance to be about GO miles, which is sufficiently
near the 20 parasangs, or 70 miles, of Abu Itihan's
account.

According to the other itineraries of Abu Rihan,
Nnrdna was 25 parasangs {■) the north of Chitor in
Mewar, 50 parasangs to the east of ]\rultan, and 00

z 2

340 THE AXCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF I^^DIA.

parasangs to tlic iiortli-cast of Anluilwara.* The
bearings of these places from ]jair;U arc all sufReientl}'
exact, but tbe nieasurenn'iits are more tliau one-half
too short. Por the first distance of 25 parasangs to
Chitor, I wouhl propose to read G5 parasangs, or 227
miles, the actual distance by the measured routes of
the quartermaster-general being 217| miles. As the
distance of Chitor is omitted in the extract from Abu
Eihan Avhich is given by Eashid-ud-din, it is probable
that there may have been some omission or confusion
in the original of the Tarikh-i-Hind from which he
copied. The erroneous measurement of GO parasangs
to Multan is pcrhaj)S excusable, on the ground that
the direct route through the desert being quite im-
passable for an army, the distance must have been
estimated. The error in the distance of Anhal-v^'ara
I would explain hj referring the measurement of GO
parasangs to Chitor, which lies about midway between
35airat and Anhalwilra. From a comparison of all
these different itineraries, I have no hesitation what-
ever in idcntifjnng Tidzuiia or Nardna, tlic capital of
Karzdt or Giiznif, with Ndrdi/anapiira, the capital of
Bairill or J'nirut. In Ferishta the latter name is
written cillier Kihn'il c.1a3 ^i^ in Bow, or Knirdl Cj\,xi
as in Briggs, both of which names are an easy misread-
ing of ^1^1 !, V^nirdt or Tlrdf, as it would have been
written by the Midiammadans.

J'irdf, the capital of Malni/a, is celebrated in Hindu
Jjcgends as the abode of the Fiv<' Pandus during tlieir
exile of 12 years from Dilli or Indraprastba. The
euuntrj' was also fanmus for the A'alour of its people,
as Manu directs that the van of an army should bo

* Efinaud, ' rragmeiils,' pp. 108-112.

CENTRAL INDIA. •" ' 1^

romposcd of " men bora in Kurukslic( ra Dcar Indni-
prasthca, in Mahija or Vintla, in Pancliala or Kanya
Knbjn, and in Surascna of tlic district of Matliura."*
The residence of Bhira Tandu is still sliown on the
top of a long lo\y rocky hill abont one mile to the
north of the town. The hill is formed of enormous
blocks of coarse gritty quartz, which are much weather-
Avorn and rounded on all the exposed sides. Some of
these blocks have a single straight face sloping inwards,
tlie result of a natural split, of which advantage has
been taken to form small dwellings by the addition of
rough stone walls plastered with mud. Sucli is the
BUm-guplia or Bhim's cave, which is formed by rough
Avails added to the overhanging face of a liuge rock
about 60 feet in diameter and 15 feet in height.
Similar rooms, but of smaller size, are said to have
been the dwellings of Bhim's brothers. The place is
still occupied by a few Brahmaus, Avho profess to de-
rive only a scanty subsistence from the offerings of
pilgrims, a statement Avliich is rather belied by their
flourishing appearance. Just below Bhim's cave, a
Avall has been built across a small hollow to retain the
rain water, and the fragments of rock have been re-
moved from a fissru-e to form a tank, about lo feet
long by 5 feet broad and 10 feet deep ; but at the
time of my visit, on the lOtli of November, it was
quite dry.

The present town of Bairat is situated in the midst
of a circular valley surrounded by low bare red hills,
which have long been famous for their copper mines.
It is 105 miles to the south-Avest of Delhi, and 41
miles to the north of Jaypur. The main entrance to
* Haughton's translation, vii. 193.

342 THE ANCIKNI GEOGBAMIY Or IXDIA.

the valley is on the north-west along the bank of a
small stream Ayhich drains (he basin, and forms one of
the principal feeders of tlic Ban Gauffu. The valley is
about -^ miles in diameter, and from 7^ to 8 miles in
cii'cuit. The soil is generally good, and the trees, and
more especially the tamarinds, arc very fine and
abundant. Bairdt is situated on a mound of ruins,
aboiit one mile in length by half a mile in breadth, or
upwards of 'Ih miles in circuit, of wliicli the present
town docs not occupy more than one-fourth. The sur-
rounding fields arc covered Avith broken pottery and
fragments of slag from the ancient copper-works,
and the genend aspect of the valley is of a coppery red
colour. The old city, called Balrdbiagar^ is said to
have been quite deserted for several centuries until it
was repeopled about 300 years ago, most probably
during the long and prosperous reign of Akbar. The
town wasj certainly in existence in Akbar's time, as it
is mentioned by Abul Fazl in the ' Ay in Akbari,' as
l^ossessing very profitable copper mines. A mmiber of
large mounds about half a mile to the east, and imme-
diately under the hill, arc said to have formed part of
the old city ; but, both from their position and appear-
ance, I am inclined to think that they must be the re-
mains of some large religions establishment. At pre-
sent the surface remains consist of rough stone foim-
dations only, as the whole of the squared stones have
been used in building the houses of the modern
town.

The number of houses in Bairat is popularly rec-
koned at 1400, of which 600 arc said to belong to
Gaur Brahmans, 400 to Agarwal Baniyas, 200 to Minas,
and the remaining 200 to various other races. AUow^

CEXTIJAL INDIA. 31 .'3

iiig the usual average of -3 persons to each house, the
population of Bairat -will amount to ToOl) pcr.sons.

The earliest historical notice of Bau-at is that of the
Chinese pilgrim Ilwen Tlisang in a.d. 034.* Ac-
cording to him, the capital Mas 14 or 15 //, or just 2i
miles, in circuit, -nliich corresponds almost exactly
Avith the size of the ancient mound on which the pre-
sent town is built. Tlie people were brave and bold,
and their king, who was of the race of Fei-sJic, cither
a Vaisi/a or a Bais Eajput, was famous for his courage
and skill in war. The place still possessed eight Bud-
dhist monasteries, but they were much ruined, and the
number of monks was small. The Brahmans of dif-
ferent sects, about 1000 in number, possessed 12
temples, but their followers were numerous, as the
bulk of the population is described as heretical. Judg-
ing from the size of the town as noted by Hwen
Thsaug, the population could not have been less
than four times the present number, or about 30,000, of
whom the followers of Buddha may have amounted
to one-fourth. I have deduced this number from
the fact that the Buddhist monasteries would aijpear
to have held about 100 monks each, and as those
of Baii-at are said to have been much ruined, the
number of monks in Hwen Thsang's time could not
have exceeded 50 per monastery, or 400 altogether.
As each Buddhist monk begged his bread, the num-
ber of Buddhist families could not have been less than
1200, allowing three families for the support of each
monk, or altogether about GOOO lay Buddhists in ad-
dition to the 400 monks.

The next historical notice of Baii-at occurs during.

o
* Jiilien'8 ' Hiouen Tlisang,' ii. 200,

844

THE ANCIENl' GEOGEAl'HY OE INDIA.

the rcigu of Malimud of Ghaziii, Avho invaded the
country in a.ii. 400, or a.d. 1009, when the Eaja sub-
mitted. But his submission was of little avail, as his
couutry was again invaded in the spring a.ii. 404, or
A.D. 1014, Avhcn the Hindus were defeated after a
bloody conflict. According to Abu Eihan the town
A^as destroyed, and the people retired far into tlie
interior.* 13y Eerishta this invasion is assigned to the
year A.II. 413, or a.d. 1022, Avhcn the king hearing
that the inhabitants of two hilly tracts named Kairdt
and Ndrdin {or Bairdl and Ndrdj/an) still continued the
Avorship of idols (or lions in some manuscripts) resolved
to compel them to embrace the Muhammadan faith, f
The place Avas taken and plundered by Amir-Ali, avIio
found an ancient stone inscription at Nrirayan, Avliich
Avas said to record that the temple of Narayanhad been
built 40,000 years previously. As this inscription is
also mentioned by the contemporary historian Otbi, we
may accept the fact of the discovery of a stone record
in characters so ancient that the Brahmans of that day
Avore unable to read them. I think it highly probable
that this is the famous inscription of Asoka that Avas
afterwards discoA'crcd by Major Burt on the top of a
hill at Bairat, and which noAV graces the musciun of
the Asiatic Society in Calcutta.

In the seventh century the kingdom of BairatwasOOOO
//', or 500 miles, in circuit. It Avas famous for its sheep
and oxen, but produced fcAV fruits or floAvers. This is
still the case Avith Jaypur to the south of Bairat, Avhich
furnishes most of the sheep required for the great Mu-
hammadan cities of Delhi and Agra, and their English

* Dowson's edition of Sir II. Elliot's Mubamm. Hist., i. 59.
t Driggs's ' PcrisLta/ i. 64i.

CliNTEAL LNKIA.

O-l")

garrisons. Bairat, therefore, may haw iiicliulctl flic
greater part of the present state of Jaj-pur. Its pre-
cise boundaries cannot be determined ; but they may
be fixed approximately as extending on the north from
Jhunjnu to Kot Kasira, 70 miles ; on the west from
Jhunjnu to Ajmer, 120 miles; on the south frona
Ajmer to the junction of the Banas and Chaml)al, IGO
miles ; and on the east from the junction to Kot ErL^iin,
150 miles ; or altogether 490 miles,

3. SnUGIIXA.

On leaving Thanesar, Hwcn Thsang at first pro-
ceeded to the south for about 100 li, or 16-§ miles, to
the Kiu-hoen-cJia, or Golcanllia monastery, -which has not
yet been identified, but it is probably Gundiia, between
Vyasthali and Nisang, 17 miles to the south-south-west
of Thanesar. I am obliged to notice this monastery as
it is the starting-point from which llwen Thsang
measures his next journey of 400 //, or G6f miles, to
Sn-hi-Jcin-na or Sru^lma, which makes the distance be-
tween Thanesar and Srughna just GO miles.* Now
Suc/h, the place Avhich I propose to identify with the
capital of Sniffhna, is only .38 or 40 miles from
Thanesar ; but as it agrees exactly in name, and cor-
responds generally in other particulars, I am quite
• satisfied that Hwen Thsang's recorded distance must
be erroneous, although I am unable to suggest any
probable rectification of his figures. The true distance
is about 300 A', or 50 miles, from the Gokaiitha monas-
tery.

The Sanskrit name of the country is Srughnaj Avhich
in the spoken dialects becomes Suffhan and Su(/h, as it
* Julien'a ' Hiouen THsang,' ii. 215. See Map No. X.

34G XTIE AXCIEKT OEOGRAMlY OF INDIA.

is called at the present clay. The village of Biigh
oceupics one of the most remavkal)le posilioiis that I
met M-itli during the ayIioIo course of my researclics.
It is sitxiatcd on a projecting triangular spur of liigli
land, and is suvrounded on tln-ec sides by the Led of
the old Jumna, which is now the western Jumna canal.
On the north and west faces it is further protected by
two deep ravines, so that the position is a ready-made
stronghold, which is covca'ed on all sides, except the
west, by natural defences. In shape it is almost trian-
gular, with a large projecting fort or citadel at each of
the angles. The site of the north fort is now occupied
by the castle and village of Dyalgarh. The village of
JMandalpur stands on the site of the south-east fort,
and that of the south-west is unoccupied. Each of
these forts is 15U0 feet long, and 1000 feet broad, and
(\icli face of the triangle which connects them together
is upwards of half a mile in length, that to the east
being 4*100, and those to the north-west and south-west
3000 feet each. The whole circuit of the position is
therefore 22,000 feet, or upwards of 4 miles, which is
considerably more than the oh miles of Uwen Thsaug's
measurement. Ijut as the north fort is separated froni
the main 2)osition by a deep sandy ravine called the
Hohara Nala^ it is possible that it may have been un-
occupied at the time of the pilgrim's visit. This would
reduce the circuit of the position to 19,000 feet, or
lip wards of '1^- miles, and bring it into accord vrith the
2)ilgrim's measurement. The small tillage of >Sugh
occupied the west side of the position, and the small
town of IJuriya lies immediately to the north of
4)yri]garh. The occupied houses, at the time of my
visit, were as follows: — J\Iandalpur 100, Sugh 125,

CK.NTEAL JMJIA. oil

.1 O ■"

Dyillgarli 150, iviul Biiriyti 3500, or altogether oSTO
houses, containing a popiiktion of about 2n,(l(ill soul.<.
Of /%// itself the people have no special traditions,
hut of J/d/idar, or Mundaljjur, they say that it fornierl}^
covered an extent of 1:2 kos, and included Jagadri and
Chancti on the west, Avitli Bimya and Dyalgarh to the
north. ^Vs Jagudri lies o miles to the -west, it is not
possible that the city could have extended si far ; hut
Ave may reasouahly admit that the gardens and sum-
mer-houses of the wealthier inliabitants may once po:^-
sihly have extended to that distance. At Chaueti,
which lies 2 miles to the north-west, old eiiius arc
foimd in considerable numbers ; but it is now entirely
separated from Euriya and Dyfdgarh by a long space
of open country. The same coins are found in Sugh,
Mandalpur, and Bm-iya. They arc of all ages, from
the small Dilidls of the Cholian and Tomar Eajas of
Delhi to the square punch-marked piiccs of silver and
copper, Avhich arc certainly as old as the rise of
Buddhism in 500 B.C., and which were probably the
common currency of Xorthem India as early as 1000
D.c. With this undoubted evidence in favour of the
antiquity of the place, I have no hesitation in identi-
fying Sugh with the ancient Srughua. The impoi-tunce
of the position is shown by the fact that it stands on
the high-road leading from the Gangetic Doab, via
J\lirat^ Sahdrcaipiu-j and Ainbdla, to the Upper Punjab,
and commands the passage of the Jumna. By this
route Mahmud of Ghazni returned from liis expedi-
tion to Kanoj ; by this route Timur returned from his
plundering campaign at Ilaridwur ; and by this route
Baber advanced to the conquest of Dellii.

According to Hweu Thsang, the kingdom of Sruyhna

34:8 Tllli ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

was GOUO //, or 1000, miles in circuit. On tlic cast it
extended to the Ganges, and on tlic nortli to a range
of lofty mountains, Avliilc the Jumna flowed tlirougli
the midst of it. From these data it would appear
that iSni(jhiia must have comprised the hill states of
kSirmor and Garhwal, lying between the Giri river and
tlic Ganges, with portions of the districts of Ambrda
and Saharanpur in the plains. But the circuit of this
tract docs not exceed 500 miles, which is only one
half of Ilwcn Thsang's estimate. Ilis excess I would
attribute chiefly to the difference between direct mea-
surements on the map, and the actual road distances
in a mountainous country. This would increase the
boundary line by about one-half, and make the whole
circuit 750 miles, which is still far short of the pil-
grim's estimate. But there is an undoubted error in
his distance between the J umna and the Ganges, which
he makes 800 //, or loo miles, instead of 300 //, or 50
miles, which is the actual distance between the two
rivers from the foot of the hills down to the parallel
of Delhi. As it is probable that this mistake was
doubled by applying the same exaggerated distance to
the northern frontier also, its correction is of import-
ance, as the double excess amounts to 1G7 miles. De-
ducting this excess, the circuit of Sruffhna will be only
833 miles according to Hwen Thsang's estimate, or
within 83 miles of the probable measurement.

4. MApAWAI;.

From Srughna the Chinese pilgrim proceeded to
Mo-ll-pu-lo^ or Afaclijjura, which M. Vivien do St.
Martin has identified Avith MandAwar^ a large town in

CENTRAL INDIA. 341'

"Western Eoliilkhand, near Bijnor. I had previously
made the same identification myself, and I have sinre
been aide to coniirin it by a personal examination of
the site.* The name of the tdwn is written fl-g-r^r
Macldwar, the Mundore of the maps. Aec^irding to
Johari Lai, Chaodri and Kanmgo of the place, iladawar
was a deserted site in SamAat 1171, or a.d. 1114,
when his ancestor Dwarka Das, an Agarwala Baniya,
accompanied by Katar :\Iall, came from iloiiiri in the
Mii-at district, and occupied the old mound. The piv-
sent town of :Madawar contains 7000 inhabitants, and
is rather more than three-quarters of a mile in length
by half a mile in breadth. But the old mound,
which represents the former town, is not more than
half a mile square. It has an average height of 10
feet above the rest of the town, and it abounds with
large bricks, wbich are a sure sign of antiquity. In
the middle of the mound there is a ruined fort 300
feet square, with an elevation of G or 7 feet above the
rest of the city. To the north-east, distant about one
mile from the fort there Ls a large village on another
mound called Madhja ; and between the two there i.
a large tank called JZmida 7h7, suiTounded bv nur,,.-
rous small mounds which are said to be tho remaiiLs of
buildings. Originally tho.o two placs would appear
to have formed one large Uavu, about Ji mile in
length, by a mile in breadth or just 3^ mil^s in riiY-uit
which agrees very well with Hwon Thsang's measure-
ment of 20 H, or 3i miles.

It seems probable that the people of Maddwar, as
pouited out by M. Vivien de St. Martin, may be th<.
JlJa/Z/c^ of Megasthenes, who dwelt on the banks of the
* See Map No. X.

3-jO the A^'CIEXT OEOGRAniY OF INDIA.

Eriiicses. If so, that river must be the Mulini. It is
true that this is hut a small stream ; hut it was iu a
sacred grove on the bank of tlie IMalini that FMl-nnlfda
was brought up, and along its course lay her route
lo the court of Dushmanta at Ilastinapur. AVhile tlie
lotus floats on its waters, and Avlale tlie Chakwa calls
to its mate on the hank, so long will the little Malini
live in the verse of Kalidas.

According to Hwen Thsaug, the kingdom of Madi-
pura was GOOO //, or 1000 miles, in circuit; hut this
estimate, as I have already pointed out, must certainly
include the two neighbouring states of Govisana and
ylhiclihalrci, as they are also in Eohilkhand, and at so
short a distance that j\ladijmr alone must have been a
ver}' small district, confined to the tract between the
Gauges and Eumganga, of not more than 250 miles in
circuit. But even with the extended limits now pro-
posed, which would include the whole of the country
lying to the east of the Ganges from Haridwar to
Kanoj as far as the bank of the Ghagra near Ivhairi-
garh, the circuit would not be increased to more than
050 or 700 miles. This is still too small ; but as some
larac allowaiic(^ must be made on the northern moun-
tain boundary for the difference between direct mea-
surement on the map and the actual road distance, I
thiidv that the true circuit may be not less than 850
miles. The king of Madawar was a Shi-io-Jo or Sudra,
who worshipped the Devas, and cared nothing for
Buddhism. As Go^•isana and Ahichhatra Avere Avith-
out kings, I presume that they were tributary to
]\radaAvar, and that the circuit of the territory recorded
by IIw(>u Thsaug Avas the political boundary of the
Avhole State, and not that of the district proper.

CENTRAL INDIA. -J-'J-

Mai/dpura, or Ilarkhcdr.
IlAVcn Thsaiig describes tlic town of M')-iiii-h>, or
MdijHra, as situated on tlie norlli-west frontier of INfa-
(^ruvar, and on the eastern bank of tbt' Danges.* At
a sliort distance from the town there M'as a great
temple called "the gate of the Ganges," that is,
Gari(jd-dwui-a, with a tank inside, which was supplied
by a canal with water from the holy river. The
yicinity of Gan/jd-dwdra, -n'hich "VA'as the old name of
Ilaridicdra, shows that Mcujura must be the present
ruined site of Mdydpura^ at the head of Ganges canal.
But both of these places arc now on the western bank
of the Ganges, instead of on the ea'-tern bank, as stated
by Hwen Thsang. His note that tiny were on the
north-Avest frontier of MadaAA'ar seems also to point tu
the same position ; for if they had been on the AA'estern
bank of the Ganges, they would more properly be
described as on the north-eastern frontier of Sruglma.
I examined the locality Avith some care, and I Avas
satisfied that at some former period the Ganges may
have flowed to the westward of ^Mayapura and Kankhal
doAvn to JAvalapur. Tliere is, liowever, no present
trace of any old channel betwoon tlie GangadAVara
temple and the hills; but as this gi-ound is noAV
covered Avith the houses of Haridwar, it is quiti' pos-
sible that a channel may once have exist('d, Avhieh
has since been gradually filled up, and built upon.
There is therefore no physical difficulty Avhich could
have prevented the river from taking this Avesterly
course, and avc must either accept Hwen Thsan^'s
statement or adopt the alternative, that he has made a

* Julicn's ' Ilioucn Tlisang,' li. 230. Sco Man No. X.

'J'J-: THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INBIA.

niistfike iu placing Mayura and Gangadwara to tlic
cast of the Ganges.

There is a dispute bet^vccn the foUo^^'crs of Si\a and
Vishnu as to which of these deities gave birth to, the
Ganges. In the ' Vishnu Parana' it is stated that the
Ganges has its rise "in the nail of the great toe of
Vishnu's left foot;"* and the Vaishnayas point tri-
umphantly to the Ilari-Jii-charav, or Ilari-Jd-pair'i
(Vishnu's foot-prints), as indisputable evidence of the
truth of their belief. On the other hand, the Saivas
argue that the proper name of the place is Hara-dwdra,
or " Siva's Gate," and not Hari-dwdra. It is admitted
also, in the ' Vishnu Purana,' that the Alahananda (or
cast branch of the Ganges) " was borne by Mahadeva
upon his head."f But iu spite of these authorities, I
am inclined to believe that the present name of
Ilaridwar or Ilaradwrir is a modern one, and that the
old town near the Gangadwara temple was Mdijdjjura.
Hwen Thsang, indeed, calls it 3Io-yu-Io, or Mnjjura,
but the old ruined town between naridwilr and Kan-
khal is still called Mdydpur, and the people point to
the old temple of Mdijd-Bcvi as the true origin of its
name. It is quite possible, however, that the town
may also ha^'o been called Maijnra-pnra, as the neigh-
bouring woods still swarm with thousands of peacocks
[Mai/nra), anIhisc shrill calls I heard both morning and
evening.

Hwen Thsang describes the town as about 20 //, or
?^\ miles, in circuit, and very populous. This account
corresponds very closely with the extent of the old
cit}' of ]\Iayapura, as pointed out to me by the people.

* Book ii. 8. Hnll's edilion of AYilson's translatiou, ii. -73.
t Ihid.

CENTEAL INDIA. 353

These traces extend from the bed of a torrent -which
enters the Ganges near the modern temple of Sarv-
vanath to the okl fort of Eaja Ben, on the bank of the
canal, ii distance of 7500 feet. . The breadth is irregu-
lar, but it could not have been more than 3000 feet at
the south end, and, at the north end, where the Siwalik
hills approach the river, it must have been contracted
to 1000 feet. These dimensions give a circuit of
19,000 feet, or rather more than o^ miles. Within
these limits there are the ruins of an old fort, 750
feet square, attributed to Eaja Ben, and several lofty-
mounds covered with broken bricks, of which the
largest and most conspicuous is immediately above the
canal bridge. There are also three old temples dedi-
cated to JVanh/ana-sila, to Mdt/a-Devi, and to Hhai-
rava. The celebrated ghat called the Pairi, or "Feet
Ghat," is altogether outside these limits, being up-
Avards of 2000 feet to the north-east of the Sarvvanath
temple. The antiquity of the place is undoubted, not
only from the extensive foundations of large bricks
which are everywhere visible, and the numerous frag-
ments of ancient sculpture accumulated about the
temples, but from the great variety of the old coins,
similar to those of Sugh, which are found here every
year.

The name of Ilaridiodra, or " Yislmu's Gate," would
appear to be comparatively modern, as both Abu Eihan
and Eashid-ud-din mention only Gangd-dicura. Kali-
das also, in his ' Meghaduta,' says nothing of Hari-
dwara, although he mentions Kankhal ; but as his con-
temporary Amarasinha gives Vishnupadi as one of the
synonyms of the Ganges, it is certain that the legend
of its rise from Vishnu's foot is as old as the fifth

2 A

354 THE ANC'IEXT GEOGEAniY OF INDIA.

century. I infer, hoAYCver, that no temple of the
Vishnuisacla had been crcctccl dcwn to the time of
Abu Eihun. The first allusion to it of which I am
aware is by Sharif-ud-din,* the historian of Timur,
who says that the Ganges issues from the hills by
the pass of Cou-pdc, which I take to be the same as
Koh-pairi, or the " Ilill of the Feet'' (of Yishnu), as
the great bathing ghat at the Gangadwara temple is
called Pcnri Ghat, and the hill above it Patri PaJtdr.
In the time of Akbar, the name of Haridwar was well
known, as Abul Fazl speaks of "]\Iaya, vulgo Hari-
dwar, on the Ganges," as being considered holy for 18
kos in length.-|- In the next reign the place Avas
visited by Tom Coryat, who informed Chaplain Terry
that at " Unruhvura, the capital of Sibu, the Ganges
flowed amongst large rocks with a pretty full current."
In 1790 the town was visited by Ilardwicke, who
calls it a small place situated at the base of the hills.
In 1808, Eaper describes it as very inconsiderable,
having only one street, about 15 feet in breadth, and
a furlong and a half (or three-eighths of a mile) in
length. It is now much larger, being fully three-
quarters of a mile in length, but there is still only
one street.

Ilweu Thsaug notes that the river Avas also called
Fo-s// //'/,■]■ Avhich M. Stanislas Julien translates as I'cau
qui 2>orle honhcur, and identifies Avitli Mahdbhadru.,
Avhieli is one of the many Avcll-known names of the
Ganges. IL^ mentions also that bathing in its Avaters
AA'as sufFieiciit to A^'ash away sin, and that if corpses
Avere throAvn into the river the dead Avould escape the

' History of Timur,' translated by Potis dc la Croix, iii. 131.
' Ayin Akbari,' ii. 516. % Julicn's ' IJioiicii Tlisang,' ii. 217.

CENTEAL INDIA. oG5

puuisliment of being born again in an inferior slate,
wliicli was clue to tlicir crimes. I should prefer read-
ing Siibhadra, Avliicli has the same meaning as Ma-
habhadnl, as Ktesias mentions tliat the great Indian
river was named virap^os, which he transhates by i^epwv
■jruvTu TO, dyaOa.* Pliny quoting Ktesias calls the river
IL/podarus, which he renders by " omnia in se ferre
bona."-}" A nearly similar word, Oibares, is rendered by
Nicolas of Damascus as dyaOdyyeXos. I infer, there-
fore, that the original name obtained by Ktesias was
most probably Suhhadru.

5. BKAnilAPURA.

On leaving Madfiwar, Hweu Thsang tra^-elled north-
ward for 300 li^ or 50 miles, to Po-lo-Id-mo-pii-Io, which
M. Julien correctly renders as Tirahmapura. Another
reading gives Po-lo-Jii-mo-lo,% in which the syllable pit,
is omitted, perhaps by mistake. The northern bearing
is certainly erroneous, as it would have carried the
pilgrim across the Ganges and back again into Srughna.
AVemust therefore read north-east, in which direction
lie the districts of Garhwal and Kumaon that once
formed the famous kingdom of the Katjjiiri dynasty.
That this is the country intended by the pilgrim is
proved by the fact that it produced copper, whicli must
refer to the well-knoAvn copper mines of Dhaupur and
Pokhri in Garhwal, which have been worked from a
very early date. Now the ancient capital of the
Katyuri Eajas was at Lahlicuipur or Vairdf-pattan on
the Earaganga river, about 80 miles in a direct line
from Madawar. If we might take the measurement

* Ctc'sia3 Indica, Excoi'p. ab Pliotio, 19, e.lit. Lion.

t Hist. Nat. xxxvii. U.

t Jiilion's 'Hiouen Tlisang,' i. 4.31-, and ii. 231.

:^ A 2

356 THE ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY Or INDIA.

from Kot-dwara, at the foot of tlie liills on the north-
east frontier of Madawav, the distance wonkl agree
with the 00 miles recorded by Ilwen Thsang. It
occurs to mc, hoAveYer, as a much more probable ex-
planation of the discrepancy in the recorded bearing
and distance that they must properly refer to Govisana,
the next place visited by Ilwen Thsang, from which
Bairdt lies exactly 50 miles due north.

According to the history of the countrj^, Vairui-pattan
or LaManjmr was the ancient capital, as the Sombansi
djaiasty of ICinnaon and the Surajbansi dynasty of
Garhwal date only from the Saii/vai ycavs 742 and 745,
Avhich, even if referred to the era of Vikramaditya,
are posterior to the time of Ilwen Thsang. I thinh,
therefore, that Brahmapura must be only another name
for Fa/rdt-pa/Jan, as every other capital in these pro-
vinces is of much later date. Srinagar on the Alakan-
anda river was founded so late as s. 1415, or a.d. 1358,
by Ajaya Pala of Garhwal, and is besides nearly as
far from Maduwar as Vakul-patlan ; "while Clictnclpur,
the earlier capital of Garhwal, is still more distant, and
dates only from s. 12 IG or a.d. 1159. The climate is
said to be slightly cold, and this also agrees with the
position ofBaii-uf, which is only 3339 feet above the sea.
Hwcn Thsang describes the kingdom of Brahma-
pura as 4000 //, or G67 miles, in circuit.* It must,
therefore, have included the whole of the hill-country
between the Alakananda and Ivarnali rivers, Avhich is
now known as British Garhwill and Kumaon, as the
latter district, before the conquests of the Gorkhas,
extended to the Ivarnali river. The boundary of
this tract measured on the map is between 500 and

* Julien's ' Hioucn Thsang,' ii. 231. See Map No. X.

CJENtEAL IXDIA. oo7

600 miles, or very nearly equal to tlie estimate of the
Chinese pilgrim.

6. GOVISANA, OR KASHIPTJE.

To the sonth-cast of Madawar, at a distance of 400
//, or 07 miles, Hwen Thsaug places the kingdom of
Kln-pi-slmang-na^ which M. Julien renders by Govisana.
The capital was 15 /«, or 2^ miles, in circuit. Its
position Avas lofty, and of difficult access, and it was
surrounded by groves, tanks, and fishponds.* Ac-
cording to the recorded bearing and distance from
Madawar, we must look for Govisana somewhere to the
north of Murtidabad. In this direction the only place
of any antiquity is the old fort near the village of
Ujain, which is just one mile to the east of Kashipur.
According to the route which I marched, the distance
is 44 kos, or *6G miles. I estimate the value of the
kosby the measured distance of 59 miles between the
post-offices of Bareli and Muradabad, which is always
called 40 kos by the natives. The true bearing of
Kashipur is east-south-east instead of south-east, but
the difference is not great, and as the position of Ka-
shipur is just as clearly indicated by the subsequent
route to AhicJthatra, I feel quite satisfied that the old
fort near the village of Ujain represents the ancient
city of Govisana which was visited by Hwen Thsang.

Bishop Hebert describes Kashipur as a "famous

place of Hindu pilgrimage which was built by a

divinity named KdsJd 5000 years ago." But the good

bishop Avas grossly deceived by his informant, as it is

well known that the town is a modern one, it having

been built about a.d. 1718 by Kchld-ndtli, a follower

* Julicn's ' Hiouen Thsang,' ii. 233. See Map No. X.
t ' Travels in India,' ii. 2d6.

■>oS THE AXCIENT GEOOEArilY OP IXDlA.

of Enja Devi-CIianclra of Champawat in Kumaon. The
old fort is now called UJain ; but as that is tlie name
of the nearest village, it seems probable that the true
name has been lost. The place itself had been deserted
for SL'Voral hundred years before the occupation of
Kashipur; but as the holy tank of I)ivn-sa//ar had never
ceased to be visited by pilgriniy, I presume that the
name of the tank must have gradually superseded that
of the fort. Even at the present day the name of
J)ron-Sdgar is just as well known as that of Kashipur.
The old fort of Ujain is very peculiar in its form,
which may be best compared to the body cf a guitar.
It is 3000 feet, in length from east to west, and 1500
feet in breadth, the whole circuit being upwards of
9000 feet, or rather less than 2 miles. Ilwen Thsang
describes the circuit of Govisana as about 12,000 feet,
(ir nearly 2^ miles, but in this measurement he must
have included the long mound of ruins on the southside,
A\'hich is evident!}' the remains of an ancient suburb.
By including this mound as an undoubted part of the
old city, the circuit of the ruins is upwards of 11,000
feet, or very nearly the same as that given by Ilwcn
Thsang. Numerous groves, tanks, and fish-ponds still
surround the place. Indeed the trees arc particularly
luxuriant, owing to the high level of the water, which
is within 5 or G feet of the surface. Tor the same
reason the tanks are numerous and always full of water.
The largest of these is the Bivn-sdr/ar, which, as well
as the fort, is said to have been constructed by the five
Pandu brothers for the use of their teacher Droua,
The tank is only GOO feet square, but it is esteemed
very holy, and is much frequented by pilgrims on their
way to the source of the Ganges. Its high bank-s are

covered -with Sail monuments of recent date. The
"«-alls of the fort are built of large massive bricks, 15
by 10 by 1\ inclicSj wbicb are always a sure sign of
antiquify. The general height of the walls is 30 feet
above the fields ; but the whole is now in complete ruin,
and covered with dense jangal. Shallow ditches still
exist on all sides except the east. The interior is very
uneven, but the mass has a mean height of about 20
feet above the country. There are two low openings
in the ramparts, one to the north-west and the other
to the south-west, which now serve as entrances to the
jangal, and which the people say were the old gates of
the fort.

The district of Govisana was 2000 li, or 333 miles,
in circuit. No king is mentioned, and the country, as
I have already noticed, was most probablj' subject to
the Eaja of Madawar. It was confined on the north
by Brahmapura, on the west by Madawar, and on the
south and east by Ahichhatra. It must, therefore,
have corresponded very nearly with the modern dis-
tricts of Kashipur, Eampur, and Pilibhit, extending
from the Eamganga on the Avest to the Silrda or Ghagra
on the east, and towards Bareli on the south. With
these boundaries the circuit of the district would have
been about 290 miles measured direct, or upwards of
300 miles by road distance.

7. AHICUHATEA.

From Govisana Hwen Thsang proceeded to the
south-east 400 //, or 00 miles, to AJd-cId-ta-lo, or
Ahichhatra.* This once famous place still preserves
its ancient name as Ahichhatr, although it has been

* Julien's ' Hiouen Tlisangj' ii. 231. See 3Iap l\o. X.

360 THE ANCIENt GEOGEAPHY OF INDIA.

deserted for many centuries. Its history readies baclc
to B.C. 1430, at wliicli time it was the capital of north-
ern Pduchdla. The name is written Ahi-kshetra, as
AYell as Jhi-chhafra, but the local legend of Adi Eaja
and the Naga, who formed a canopy over his head
when asleep, shows that the latter is the correct form.
This grand old fort is said to have been built by Eaja
Adi, an Ahir, whose future elevation to sovereignty
was foretold by Brona, when he found him sleeping
under the guardianship of a serpent with expanded
hood. The place is mentioned by Ptolemy as AUac&pa^
Avhich proves that the legend attached to the name of
. Idi is at least as old as the beginning of the Christian
era. The fort is also called Adikot, but the more com-
mon name is Ahichhatr.

According to the ' Mahabhrirata,' the great kingdom
of Pduchdla extended from the Ilimfdaya mountains
to the Chambal river. The capital of north Pdnchdla,
or Eohilkhand, was AIn-chhaira, and that of south
Pduchdla, or the Central Gangetic Doab, was Kdmpilya,
now Kampil, on the old Ganges between Budaon and
Farokhabad. Just before the great war, or about 1430
u.c, the king of Punchdla, named Drupada, was con-
quered by Drona, the preceptor of the five Pandus.
Drona retained north Punchdla for himself, but re-
stored the southern half of the kingdom to Brupada.
According to this account, the name of Ahi-chhatra, and
consequently also the legend of Adi Eaja and the
serpent, are many centuries anterior to the rise of
Pmddhism.

It would appear, however, that the Puddhists must
have adopted and altered the legend to do honour to
their groat teacher, for Ilwen Thsang records that out-

CENTRAL INDIA. 30l

side the town there was a Ndffa-Jirada, or " serpent
tank," near Avhich Euddha had preached the law for
seven days in favour of the serpent king, and that the
spot was marked by a stupa of King Asoka* Now,
as the only existing stupa at this place is called Chaltr,
I infer that the Buddhist legend represented the Ndt/a
king after his conversion as forming a canopy over
Buddha with his expanded hood. I think, also, that
the stupa erected on tlie spot Avhere the com^ersion
took place would naturally have been called ^l/d-
cJihatra, or the " serpent canopy." A similar story is
told at Buddha Gaya of the Naga 'Km^MiichaUnda, who,
with his expanded hood, sheltered Buddha from the
shower of rain produced by the malignant demon Mara.
The account of J/n-c/i/tafra given by Hwcn Thsang
is unfortunately very meagre, otherwise we might
most probably have identified many of the existing
ruins with the Buddhist works of an early age. The
capital was 17 or 18 li, or just three miles in circuit,
and was defended by natural obstacles. It possessed
12 monasteries, containing about 1000 monks, and 9
Brahmanical temples, with about 300 worshippers of
Isii-ara Beva (Siva), who smeared their bodies with
ashes. The stupa near the serpent tank, outside the
town, has already been mentioned. Close beside it,
there were four small stupas built on the spots where
the foiu- previous Buddhas had either sat or walked.
Both the size and the peculiar position of the ruined
fortress of Ahi-chhatra agree so exactly with Hwen
Thsang's description of the ancient JJd-cIihatra, that
there can be no doubt whatever of their identity. The
circuit of the walls, as they stand at present, is 19,400
* Julien's ' Hiouen Thsang,' ii, 235.

3G2

THE A^^CIENT GEOGDArilT OF tXDlA.

feet, or upwards of 3^ miles. The shape may be de-
scribed as an irregular right-angled triangle, the west
side being 5G00 feet in length, the north side G400
feet, and the long side to the south-east 7400 feet.
The fort is situated between the Jidiii Gaiiga and
Gdncjhan rivcr;^, which are botli difficult to cross ; the
former on account of its broad sands, the latter on ac-
count of its extensive ravines. Both on the north and
east the place is I'cndered almost inaccessible by tlie
Vina Nala, a difficult ravine, with steep broken banks
and numerous deep pools of Avater, quite impassable by
Avheeled vehicles. For this reason the cart road to
Lareli, distant only 18 miles due cast, is not less than
-3 miles. Indeed the only accessible side of the posi-
tion is the north-west, from the direction of LaJcJinor,
the ancient capital of the Katehria Kajputs. It there-
fore fully merits the description of Hwen Thsaug as
being defended by " natural obstacles." Ahi-cliludra
is only seven miles to the north of Aonla^ but the
latter half of the road is rendered difficult by the
ravines of the Guiif/Jirai river. It was iu this very
position, in the jangals to the north of Joiila, that the
Katehria Rajputs withstood the ]\[uhammadans under
Firuz Tughlak.*

Alu-clthalra was first visited by Captain Hodgson,
the surveyor, who describes the place as " the ruins of
an ancient fortress several miles in circumference,
which appears to have had 34 bastions, and is known
in the neighbourhood by the name of the "Pandus
Fort." According to my survey, there are only 32
towers, but it is cpite possible that one or two may
have escaped my notice, as I found many parts so

* Briggs's 'rcrislitii,'i.457.

CEXTtlAL IXDTA. .jG

overgrown with tliorny jfingal as to be inaccossiblo.
The towers arc generally from 28 to oO feet in height,
excepting on the west side, where they rise to 35 feet.
A single tower near the south-west corner is 47 feet
in height above the road outside. The average height
of the interior mass is from 10 to 20 feet. Many of
the present towers, however, are not ancient, as an at-
tempt was made by Ali Muhammad Khan, about 200
years ago, to restore the fort with a view of making it
his stronghold in case he should be pushed to extremi-
ties by the King of Delhi. The new walls arc said to
have been Ij gaz thick, which agrees with my mea-
surements of the parapets on the south-eastern side,
which vary from 2 feet 9 inches to 3 feet 3 inches in
thickness at top. According to popular tradition, Ali
Muhammad expended about a Icaror of rupees, or one
million pounds sterling, in this attempt, which he was
tinally obliged to abandon on account of its costliness.
I estimate that he may perhaps have spent about one
lakh of rupees, or £10,000, in repairing the ramparts
and in rebuilding the parapets. There is an arched
gateway on the south-east side, Avhich must have been
built by the Musalmans, but as no new bricks were
made by them, the cost of their work would have been
limited to the labour alone. The ramparts are 18 feet
thick at the base in some places, and between 14 and
15 feet in others.

The district of yy/u'c7///«/ra was about 3000 //, or 500
miles, in circuit. With these large dimensions I believe
that it must have comprised the eastern half of Eohil-
khand, lying betAvcen the northern hills and the Ganges,
from Pilibhit on the west to Khairabad near the Ghagra
on the east. This tract has a boundary of 450 miles
measured direct, or about 500 miles by road distance.

304

THE ANCIENT GEOGRAtliY OF INDlA.

S. riLOSHANA.

From Ahi-chlicdra the Chinese pilgrim proceeded in
a south direction a distance of from 200 to 270 li,
from 23 to 2-j miles, to the Ganges, ^yhich he crossed,
and then turning to the south-west he arrived in the
kingdom of Pi-lo-vhaii-na* His route to the south
-would ha\'c taken him through Aonla and Budaou to
the Badh Gunga (or old Ganges), somewhere near
Sahilwar, a few miles below Sown, both of which
places stood on the main stream of the Ganges so late
as 400 years ago. As his subsequent route is said to
have been to the south-west, I believe that he must
have crossed the Ganges close to Sahawar, which is 42
miles from Ahi-chhatra in a direct line. From all my
early inquiries I Avas led to believe that Soron was the
only ancient place in this vicinity ; and as Hwcn
Thsang does not give any distance for his south-west
march, I concluded that Soron must have been the
place to Avhich he gives the name of Pi-lo-shan-na. I
accordingly visited Soron, which is undoubtedly a
place of very great antiquity, but which cannot, I
think, be the place visited by the Chinese pilgrim.
I will, however, first describe Soron before I proceed
to discuss the superior claims of the great ruined
mound of Atravji-KJn'ra to be identified with the Pi
lo-shan-na of the Chinese pilgrim.

Soron is a large town on the right, or western, bank
of the Ganges, on the high-road between Bareli and
j\[athura. The place was originally called JJkaki
KAiuIra ; but after the demon lUrani/ahJia had been
killed by the Vardha Ataiar, or Boar incarnation of
Vishnu, the name was changed to Sid:ara Kshetra, or

* .Julicn's ' Iliouen Tlisang,' ii. 235. See Map No. X.

CENTRAL INDIA. 365

" the place of the good deed." The ancient town is
represented by a ruined monnd called the KilaJi,
or " fort," which is one quarter of a mile in length
from north to south, and somewhat less in breadth.
It stands on the high bank of the old bed of the
Ganges, which is said by some to have flowed imme-
diately under it so late as 200 years ago. The modern
town stands at the foot of the old mound on the west
and south sides, and probably contains about 5000 in-
habitants. There arc no dwellings on the old mound,
which is occupied only by the temple of Sita-Bdmji
and the tomb of Shekh Jamul ; but it is covered with
broken bricks of large size, and the foundations of
walls can be traced in all dii'cctions. The mound is
said to be the ruins of a fort built by Eaja Soiuadatia
of Soron many hundred years ago. But the original
settlement of the place is very much older, being at-
tributed to the fabulous lioja Vena Chahravaritl^ who
plays such a conspicuous part in all the legends of
North Bihar, Oudh, and Eohilkhand.

The great mound of ruins called Alranji-Khera is
situated on the right or west bank of the Kail Nadi^
four miles to the south of Karsdna, and eight miles
to the north of Ej/ta^ on the Grand Trunk Eoad. It
is also 15 miles to the south of Soron, and 43 miles
to the north-west of SanJcisa in a direct line, the road
distance being not less thau 48 or 50 miles. In the
' Ayin Akbari ' Atranji is recorded as one of the par-
ganahs of Ivanoj, under the name of SiJcandarpur
JirejL* SUcaiidarpur^ which is now called Sikandrdbdd,
is a village on the left bank of the Kdli Nadi opposite
Atranji. From this it would appear that Atranji was

* Gladwyn gives " Seeunderpoor Aterclihy," ii. 214..

3GG THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF IXDIA.

still occupiecl in the reign of Akbar. The parganah
was afterwards called Karsdna, bat it is now knoM'u
b}' the name of Sahdwar Karsdna, or of Sahdwar onlj-.
The name given by the Chinese pilgrim is Pl-Io-
sJian-na, for which M. Jiilien proposes to read Viyasan'i.
So far back as 1848 I pointed ont that, as hoih. pil and
kar arc Sanskrit names for an idephant, it was pro-
bable tliat Pilosana might bo the same as Karsdna,
the large village which I have already mentioned as
being four miles to the north of Alraiiji Khcra. The
chief objection to this identification is the fact that
Kury.dna is apparently not a very old place, although
it is sometimes called Dcora Karsdna, a name whicli
implies the possession of a temple of note at some for-
mer period. It is, hoAvevcr, possible that the name of
Karsdna may once have been joined to Alranji in the
same way that we find SiJiandarpur Atreji in the ' Ayin
Akbari.' As the identification oi Karsdna with Pilosana
is purely conjectural, it is useless to hazard any more
speculations on this subject. The bearing and distance
from Sanlisa, as recorded by Ilwcn Thsang, point to
the neighbourhood of Sirpiira, near M'hicli there is a
small village called Pill-ani or Piloknni, whicli is the
Pihilihoni of our maps. It is, however, a very petty
place ; and although it boasts of a small khcra, or
mound of ruins, it cannot, I lliiuk, have ever been
more than ono-fourth of the circuit of two miles which
Hweu Thsang attributes to Pi-lo-shan-na. But there
are two strong points in its favour — namely, 1st, its
position, wliich agrees both in bearing and distance
with the Chinese pilgrim's accuunt ; and 2nd, its name,
which is almost identical with the old name, sh being
very cdinmonly pronounced as kli, so that Ilwen

CENTKAL INDIA. 307

Tlisang's Pihsliana would usually be pronounced Pi-
lohliana.

In proposing Alranji-Khera as the site of the ancient
Piloshana, I am influenced solely by the fact that this
is the only large place besides Soron of any antiquity
in this part of the country. It is true that the distance
from Sari/dsa is somewhat greater than that recorded
by the Chinese pilgrim, — namely, 45 miles, instead of
33 miles ; but the bearing is exact ; and as it is quite
possible that there may be some mistake in Hwen
Thsang's recorded distance, I think that Alranji-Khera
has a better claim than any other place to be identified
with the ancient Pi/osltana.

The only objection to the identification of Atranjl
Avith Piloshana is the difference between the distance
of 200 /■/, or 33 miles, as stated by Ilwen Thsang, and
the actual distance of 43 miles direct, or about 48 or
50 miles by road. I have already suggested the pos-
sibility of there being some mistake in the recorded
distance of Hwen Thsang, but perhaps an equally
probable explanation may be found in the difference
of the length of the yojana. Hwen Thsang states that
he allowed 40 Chinese // to the yojana ; but if the old
yojana of Eohilkhand differed from that of the central
Doab as much as the kos of these districts now differ,
his distances would have varied by half a mile in every
kos, or by two miles in every yojana^ as the Eohilkhand
kos is only 1 \ mile, Avhilo that of the Doub is tAVO
miles; the latter being one-third greater. Now if we
apply this difference to Hwen Thsang's measurement
of 200 //, or 33 miles, we increase the distance at once
to 44 miles, which agrees with the direct measured
distance on the map. I confeiis, however, that I am

308 THE ANCIENT GEOQRAPIIY OF INDIA.

rather inclined to believe in the possibility of there
being a mistake in Hwen Thsang's recorded distance,
as I find exactly the same measurement of 200 li given
as the distance betAveeu Sankisa and Kanoj. Now, the
two distances are precisely the same, — that is, SanJdsa
is exactly midway between Alranji and Kanoj ; and as
the latter distance is just 50 miles by my measure-
ment along the high-road, the former must also be
the same. I would therefore suggest the probability
that both of these distances should be 300 li, or 50
miles, instead of 200 /?, as recorded in the text. In
flivour of this proposed correction I may cite the tesli-
mony of the earlier Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hian, who
makes the distance from Saukisa to Kanoj 1 yojanas, or
49 miles.* At Hweu Thsang's own valuation of 40 11
to the yojana, this measurement would give 280 //;
and as Fa-IIian does not record half yojanas, we may
increase the distance by half a yojana, or 20 li, which
will bring the total up to 300 li, or 50 miles.

But whatever may be the true explanation of the
difference between the actual distances and those re-
corded by Ilwcn Tlisang, there still remains the im-
portant fact that Saukisa was exactly midway between
Kanoj and Piloshanna, just as it now is midway be-
tweeen Kanoj and Atrauji. If we couple this abso-
lute identity of position with the fact that Alranji
is the only old place in the part of the country indi-
cated by Ilweu Tlisang, avc can scarcely arrive at any
other conclusion than that the great ruined mound of
Atrauji is the site of the ancient Piloshana. This
conclusion is strengthened by the fiut that tlie mound
of Atrauji eorrcspunds almost exaelly iu size with

* Bcal's ' Fa-Hi:in,' cbap. xviii.

CENTRAL INDIA. 3G9

Hwon Thsang's measurement of 12 li, or 2 miles, for
Filoshana. The mound is 3250 feet in breadth at
base, or a little more than 2 miles in circuit. Its
highest point is 44f feet above the level of the coun-
try ; but there are no remains save the foundations of
walls and masses of broken brick.

Filoshana is said to have been 2000 li, or 333
miles, in circuit ; but this is certainly too great. "With
reference to the surrounding districts, its limits may
be defined approximately as extending from Buland-
shaliar to Firuzabad on the Jumna and Kadirganj on
the Ganges, which would give a circuit of not more
than 250 miles.

9. SANKISA.

The position of Sankisa, which stood midway be-
tween Piloshana and Kanoj, has already been dis-
cussed. The name of the place is written Seng-kia-she
by the Chinese pilgrims, a spelling which is well pre-
served in the Sankisa of the present day, and which
represents with considerable faithfulness the Sanghasyu
of Sanskrit. Hwen Thsang calls it also by the name
of Kia-pi-tJiaj or Kapitha, of which I was unable to
discover any trace. Sankisa was one of the most
famous places of Buddhist pilgrimage, as it was the
scene of Buddha's descent from the Trayastrinm heaven
by a ladder of gold or gems, accompanied by the gods
Indra and Brahma.* According to this curious legend,
Mdyd^ the mother of Buddha, died seven days after
his birth, and ascended at once to the Trayastrinsa
heaven, the abode of the 33 gods, of whom Indra was
the chief. But as she had no opportunity in this
abode of the gods of hearing the law of Buddha, her

* Julien's ' Hiouen Thsang,' ii. 238.

2 B

370 THE ANCIENT GEOGEAPIIY OE INDIA.

pious son ascended to the Traijcistrinsa heaven, and
preached for three montlis in her behalf. He then de-
scended to the earth with the gods Brahma and Indra
by three staircases, one of Avhich was formed either
of crystal or precious stones, another of gold, and the
third of silver. According to Fa-Hian, Buddha de-
scended by a staircase formed of the " seven precious
things," that is the precious metals and precious gems,
whilst Brahma accompanied him on his right side by
a silver ladder, and Indra on his left by a golden ladder.
But Hweu Thsang assigns the golden staircase to
Buddha himself, the silver staircase on the right to
Brahma, and the crystal staircase on the left to
Indra. The descent was accompanied by a multi-
tude of Devas, who scattered flowers on all sides as
they sang the praises of Buddha. Such are the main
points of this curious legend, which is believed as
firmly in Barma at the present day, as it was by
Asoka 2100 years ago, or by the Chinese pilgrims of
the fifth, sixth, and seventh centuries of our era.

The little village which still preserves the name of
Sankisa is perched upon a lofty mound of ruins 41
feet in height above the fields. This mound, which is
called the Kilah, or fort, is 1600 feet in length from
cast to west, and 1000 feet in breadth. On the north
and west faces the sides are steep, but on the other
faces the slope is much more easy. Due south from
the centre of tlie fort, at a distance of 1600 feet, there
is a mound of solid brickwork which is crowned by a
modern temple dedicated to Bisari Devi. The " fort "
and the different mounds of all sizes around the temple
form a mass of ruin 3000 feet in length by 2000 feet
in breadth, or nearly 2 miles in circuit. But this was

CENTRAL INDIA. O / i

only the central portion of the ancient city of Sankisa,
comprising the citadel and the religious buildings that
were clustered round the three holy staircases. The
city itself, which would appear to have sui'rounded this
central mound on all sides, was enclosed with an
earthen rampart 18,900 feet, or upwards of o\ miles
in circuit. The greater part of this rampart still re-
mains, the shape being a tolerably regular dodecagon.
On three sides, to the east, north-east, and south-east,
there are breaks or openings in the line of rampart
which are traditionally said to be the positions of the
three gates of the city. In proof of the tradition, the
people refer to the village of Paor-Kheria, or " Gate-
village^'' which is just outside the south-east gap in the
ramparts. But the name is pronounced Paor, ^tt,
and not Paur, -tftT, and may therefore refer to the
staircases or steps {Paori), and not to the gate. The
Kali, or Kojlindri Nadi flows past the south-west corner
of the ramparts from the Bdjghdt^ which is half a mile
distant to the Kakra Ghdt, which is rather more than
one mile to the south of the line of ramparts.*

To the north-west, three-quarters of a mile distant,
stands the large mound of Ayahat^ which is 40 feet in
height, and rather more than half a mile in diameter
at base. The name of the old town is said to have been
Agaliat, but the place is now called Agaliat Sarai
(Aghat of the maps) from a modern Sarai, which was
built in A.H. 1080, or a.d. 1670, on the north-east
corner of the mound, by the ancestor of the present
Pathan Zamindar. The people say that before this,
the place had been deserted for several centuries ; but
as I obtained a tolerably complete series of the copper

* See Map No. X.

2 B 2

•Jl-i THE ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY OF INDIA.

coins of the Muliammadan kings of Delhi and Jonpur,
Ilircsume tliat it could not have been dc-serted for any
very long time. The mound is covered with broken
bricks of large size, which alone is a sure test of an-
tiquity : and as it is of the same height as that of
Sanhsa, the people arc most probably right in their
assertion that the two places are of the same age. In
both mounds are found the same old coins without any
iiiscri]3tious, the more ancient being square pieces of
silver covered with various punch-marks, and tlie
others, square pieces of copper that have been cast in
a mould, — all of which are, in my opinion, anterior to
the invasion of Alexander the Great.

In identifying Sankisa with the Sangasya of the
Edmuijrnui and the Seng-kia-sli.e of the Chinese, we are
supported, not only by its absolute identity of name,
but likewise by its relative position with regard to three
such well-known places as Mafhura^ Kanoj^ and Jhi-
chhatra. In size, also, it agrees very closely with the
measurement given by Hwen Thsang ; his circuit of
20 li, or Similes, being only a little less than my mea-
surement of 18,900 feet, or 3^ miles. There can be
no doubt, therefore, that the place is actually the
same. In his description of Sankisa, Hwen Thsang
mentions a curious fact, that the Brahmans who dwelt
near the great monastery were " many tens of thou-
sands " in number. As an illustration of this state-
ment I may mention that the people have a tradition
that Sankisa was deserted from 1800 to 1900 years
ago; and that 1300 years ago, or aboiit a.d. 5G0, the
site was given by the Kayath proprietor to a body of
Brahmans. They add also that the population of the
village of Paor-kheria is known to have been wholly
Brahman until a very recent period.

CENTRAL INDIA. 373

Sa/iHsa is said to have been 2000 //, or 333 miles,
m circuit ; but with reference to the surrounding dis-
tricts, this estimate must be too high. Its actual limits,
as determined by the Ganges and Jumna on the north
and south, and by the districts of Atranji and Kanoj
on the west and east, could not have been more than
220 miles in circuit.

10. MATHURA.

In the seventh century the famous city of Mathura
was the capital of a large kingdom, which is said to
have been 5000 li, or 833 miles, in circuit.* If this
estimate is correct, the province must have included
not only the whole of the country lying between the
districts of Bairat and Atranji, but a still larger tract
beyond Agra, as far as Narwar and Seopuri on the
south, and the Sindh river on the east. Within these
limits the circuit of the province is 650 miles mea-
sured direct, or upwards of 750 miles by road distance.
It includes the present district of Mathura, with the
small states of Bharatpur, Khiraoli, and Dholpur, and
the northern half of the Gwalior territory. To the
east it would have been bounded by the kingdom of
Jijhaoti, and on the south by Malwa, both of which are
described by Hwen Thsang as separate kingdoms.

In the seventh century the city was 20 //, or ?>\
miles, in circuit, which agrees with its size at the pre-
sent day. But the position is not exactly the same,
as the houses have been gradually moving to the north
and west as the Jumna encroached on the east. The
old city is said to have extended from the Nabi Masjid
and Fort of Eaja-kansa on the north to the mounds

* Julieii's ' Hiouen Thsang,' ii. 207. See Map No. X.

374 THE ANCIEXT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

called Tdu Kans and Tila Sat Rikh on tlie south ; but
the southern half of this space is now deserted, and
an equal space has been gradually built upon outside
the old city to the north and west of the Nabi Masjid.
The city is surrounded by numbers of high mounds ;
several of which are no doubt old brick kilns ; but
many of them are the remains of extensive buildings,
which, having been dug over for ages in search of
bricks, are now mere heaps of brick-dust and broken
brick. I refer more especially to the great mound
near the jail, 3 miles to the south of the city, which
fx'om its appearance was always supposed to be the re-
mains of a brick and tile kiln. But this unpromising-
looking mound has since yielded numbers of statues
and insci'ibcd pillars, which prove that it is the remains
of at least two large Buddhist monasteries of as early
a date as the begimdng of the Christian era.

The holy city of Mathura is one of the most ancient
places in India. It is famous in the history of Krishna,
as the stronghold of his enemy Raja Kansa ; and it is
noticed by Arrian,* on the authority of Megasthenes,
as the capital of the Suraseni. Now Surasena was the
grandfather of Krishna, and from him Krishna and his
descexidants, who held Mathura after the death of
Kansa, were called Surasenas. According to Arrian
the Suraseni possessed t\^"o great cities, Mdhoras and
Klisoboras, and the navigable river Jobares flowed
through their territories. Plinyj- names the river
Jomanes, that is the Jumna, and says that it passed
between the towns of Meihora and Clisobora. Ptolemy
mentions only Mathura, under the form of Modura,
MoSovpa, to which he adds^rwi/ 6ea>v, that is " the city
of the gods," or holy city.

* ' Indica,' viii. t Nat. Hist., vi. 19.

CENTEAL INDIA. 375

Vrinddvmia.

The city of Klisoboras has not yet been identified,
but I feel satisfied that it must be Vrinddvana, 6 miles
to the north of Mathura.* Vrinddvana means the
" grove of basil-trees," which is famed over all India
as the scene of Krishna's sports with the milkmaids.
But the earlier name of the place was Kiilikdvartta, or
" Kalika's whirlpool," because the serpent Kdlika was
fabled to have taken up his abode just above the town,
in a Kadamb tree, overhanging the Jumna. Here he
was attacked by Krishna, and the rapid convolutions
of his tail in his dying struggles are said to have
caused the eddy, which is now known by his name.
Now, the Latin name of Clisobora is also written Ca-
risohora and Ci/risoborka in difii'erent MSS., from which
I infer that the original spelling was Kalisoborka, or,
by a slight change of two letters, Knlilwborfa or Kd-
lilcdbarta. In the Prem Sagar this whii'lpool of the
Jumna is attributed to the poison that was vomited
forth by the serpent Kali against Krishna, Avhen he
was swimming in the river. Allusion is made to the
natural increase of the serpent's poison by ofi'erings of
milk, wbich would seem to refer to a previous state of
serpent-worship. Milk ofi'erings are still made occa-
sionally, but only to test the divine nature of the ser-
pent, who is supposed to possess the most miraculous
powers of drinking. In the last century, Eaja Chet
Singh, of Benares, is said to have poured all the milk of
the two cities of Mathura and Vrindavan down the hol-
low Kadamb tree, and as the waters of the Jumna were
not even tinged, the serpent Kalika's miraculous powers
of milk- drinking were established more firmly than ever.

* See Map No. X.

376 THE ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY OF INDIA.

11. KANOJ.

From Sanghisa Hwen Thsang proceeded to Kanoj, a
distance of 200 U, or 33 miles, in a north-west direc-
tion. As the positions of both places are well known,
we must correct the bearing to south-east, and the
distance to 300 li, or 50 miles. The latter correction
is supported by Fa-Hian, who makes the distance 7
yojanas, or 49 miles.* In the seventh century the
kingdom is said to have been 4000 //, or 667 miles, in
circuit. This estimate, as I have already observed,
must certainly have included some of the petty dis-
tricts to the north of the Ganges, as well as those in
the Lower Gangctic Doab, otherwise the actual boun-
dary of Kanoj proper would scarcely exceed 200 miles.
Taking Hwen Thsang's estimate of 667 miles as ap-
proximately correct, the probable limits of the pro-
vince of Kanoj must have included all the country
between Khairabad and Tanda, on the Ghagra, and
Etawa and Allahabad, on the Jumna, which would
give a circuit of about 600 miles.

Of the great city of Kanoj, which for many hundred
years Avas the Hindu capital of northern India, the
existing remains are few and unimportant. In a.d.
1016, when Mahmud of Ghazui approached Kanoj,
the historian relates that "he there saw a city which
raised its head to the skies, and which in strength and
structure might justly boast to have no equal."| Just
one century earlier, or in a.d. 915, Kanoj is mentioned
by JMasudi as the capital of one of the kings of India ;
and about a.d. 900 Abu Zaid, on the authority of
Ibn Wahab, calls " Kaduje a great city in the king-

* Beul's ' Fa-Hian,' xviii. f Briggs's 'Fcrislita,' i. 57.

CENTRAL INDIA. 377

dom of GozarP At a still earlier date, in a.d. 634,
■\ve have the account of the Chinese pilgrim Hwen
Thsang, who describes Kanoj as being 20 A', or 3^
miles, in length, and 4 or 5 /^, or f of a mile in
breadth.* The city was surrounded by strong walls
and deep ditches, and was washed by the Ganges
along its eastern face. The last fact is corroborated
by Fa-Hian, who states that the city touched the
river lieng, or Ganges, when he visited it in a.d. 400.
Kanoj is also mentioned by Ptolemy, about a.d. 140,
as Kavojlt,a. But the earliest notice of the place is
undoubtedly the old familiar legend of the Puranas,
which refers the Sanskrit name of Kdni/a-kubja, or the
"hump-backed maiden," to the curse of the sage Vai/u
on the hundred daughters of Kusandba.

At the time of Hwen Thsang's visit, Kanoj was the
capital of Paja HarsJia Vardhana, the most powerful
sovereign in Northern India. The Chinese pilgrim
calls him a Fei-she, or Vaisya, but it seems probable
that he must have mistaken the Vaisa, or Bais Rajput
for the Vaisi/a, or Bais^ which is the name of the
mercantile class of the Hindus ; otherwise Harsha
Vardhana's connection by marriage with the Pajput
families of Malwa and Balabhi would have been quite
impossible. Baiswara, the country of the Bais Paj-
puts, extends from the neighbourhood of Lucknow to
Khara-Manikpur, and thus comprises nearly the whole
of Southern Oudh. The Bais Pajputs claim descent
from the famous Sdlivdhan, whose capital is said to
have been Daundia-Khera, on the north bank of the
Ganges. Their close proximity to Kanoj is in favour
of the sovereignty which they claim for their ancestors

* Julien's ' Hiouen Thsang,' ii. 243. See Map No. X.

Olb THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

over the whole of the Gangetic .Doab, from Delhi to
Allahabad. But their genealogical lists are too im-
perfect, and most probably also too incorrect, to enable
us to identify any of their recorded ancestors with the
princes of Harsha Yardhana's family.

In determining the period of Harsha's reign be-
tween the years GOT and 650 a.d., I have been guided
by the following evidence : — 1 st, the date of his death
is fixed by the positive statement of Hwen Thsang in
the year 650 a.d ;* 2ud, in speaking of Harsha's
career, the pilgrim records that from the time of his
accession, Harsha was engaged in continual war for 5-|-
years, and that afterwards for about 30 years he
reigned in peace. This statement is repeated by
Hwen Thsang when on his return to China, on the
authority of the king himself, who informed him that
he had then reigned for iipioards of 30 years, and that
the quinquennial assembly then collected was the
s'wih which he had convoked. From these different
statements, it is certain that at the date of Hwen
Thsang's return to China, in a.d. 040, Harsha had
reigned upwards of 30 years, and somewhat less than
35 years; his accession must, therefore, be placed
between A.D. 605 and 610; 3rd, now, in the middle
of this very period, in a.d. 607, as we learn from
Abu Rihan, was established the Sri Harsha era, which
was still prevalent in Mathura and Kauoj in the begin-
ning of the eleventh century. f Considering the exact

* In Appendix A, at the end of tlie Chronological Table of Hwen
Thsang's route, I have brouglit forward strong reasons for beheving
that the true date of the death of Harsha Vardhana was a.d. 648,
which is the year given by Ma-twan-lin, on the authority of the
Chinese ambassador, who visited India immediately after the king's
death. t Keinaud, ' Fragments,' p. 139.

CENTRAL INDIA. 379

agreement of the names and dates, it is impossible to
avoid coming to the conclusion that the Ear ska who
established an era in Kanoj in a.d. 607 was the great
King Harslia Vardhana, who reigned at Kanoj during
the first half of the seventh century.

In comparing Hwen Thsang's description of ancient
Kanoj with the existing remains of the city, I am
obliged to confess with regret that I have not been
able to identify even one solitary site with any cer-
tainty ; so completely has almost every trace of Hindu
occupation been obliterated by the Musalmans. Ac-
cording to the traditions of the people, the ancient
city extended from the shi-ine of Hclji Ilarmdyan on
the north, near the Raj Ghat, to the neighbourhood of
Miranha Sarai on the south, a distance of exactly
3 miles. Towards the west it is said to have reached
to Kapatya and Makarandnagar^ two villages on the
high-road, about 3 miles from Udji Harmdi/an. On the
east the boundary was the old bed of the Ganges, or
CJioia Gangd^ as the people call it, although it is re-
corded in our maps as the Kdli Nadi. Their account
is that the Kdli, or Kdlindri Nadi, formerly joined the
Ganges near Sangirdmpur or Sangrdmpur ; but that
several hundred years ago the great river took a more
northerly course from that point, while the waters of the
Kdli 'Nadi continued to flow down the deserted channel.
As an open channel still exists between Sangrdiiipur and
the Kdli Nadi, I am satisfied that the poj^iilar account is
correct, and that the stream which flows under Kanoj,
from Sangrdmpur to Mhendi Ghdt, although now chiefly
filled with the waters of the Kdli Nadi, was originally
the main channel of the Ganges. The accounts of Fa-
Hian and Hwen Thsang, who place Kanoj on the

380 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

Ganges, are therefore confirmed, not only by the tra-
ditions of the people, but also by the fact that the
old channel still exists under the name of the Chota
Gangd^ or Little Ganges.

The modern town of Kanoj occupies only the north
end of the site of the old city, including the whole of
what is now called the Kilah, or citadel. The boun-
daries are well defined by the shrine of Hdji-Hurmd-
yan on the north, the tomb of Tdj-Bdj on the south-
west, and the Masjid and tomb of Maklidum-Jahdniya
on the south-east. The houses are much scattered,
especially inside the citadel, so that though the city
still covers nearly one square mile, yet the population
barely exceeds 16,000 in number. The citadel, which
occupies all the highest ground, is triangular in shape,
its northern point being the shrine Hdji-llarmdyan,
its south-west point the temple of Jjni/ Pul^ and its
south-cast point the large bastion called Kshem Kali
Biirj. Each of the faces is about 4000 feet in length,
that to the north-west being protected by the bed of
the nameless dry ISTala, that to the north-east by the
Choi a Gangd^ while that to the south must have been
Cdvc'red by a ditch, which is now one of the main
roads of the city, running along the foot of the mound
from the bridge below Ajay Pal's temple to the Ksliem
Kali bastion. On the north-east face the moimd rises
to 60 and 70 feet in height above the low ground on
the bank of the ri^'er, and towards the Nala on the
north-west it still maintains a height of from 40 to

feet. On the southern side, however, it is not more
than 30 feet immediately below the temple of Ajay
I'a'l, but it increases to 40 feet below the tomb of
Bald Fir. The situation is a commanding one, and

CENTRAL INDIA. 381

before the use of cannon the height alone must have
made Eanoj a strong and important positi(m. The
people point out the sites of two gates, the first to the
north, near the shrine of Haji Harmdyan^ and the
second to the south-east, close to the Kshem Kali Burj.
But as both of these gates lead to the river, it is cer-
tain that there must have been a third gate on the
land side towards the south-west, and the most pro-
bable position seems to be immediately under the
walls of the Ravff Mahal, and close to the temple of
Ajaj/ Pal.

According to tradition, the ancient city contained 84
wards oy Mahalas, of which 25 are still existing within
the limits of the present town. If we take the area
of these 25 wards at three-quarters of a square mile,
the 84 wards of the ancient city would have covered
just 2-| square miles. Now, this is the very size that
is assigned to the old city by Hwen Thsang, who
makes its length 20 li, or 2>\ miles, and its breadth 4
or 5 li, or just three-quarters of a mile, which multi-
plied together give just 2\ square miles. Almost the
same limits may be determined from the sites of the
existing ruins, which are also the chiet fnd-spots of the
old coins with which Kanoj abounds. According to
the dealers, the old coins are found at Bala Fir and
Rany Mahal, inside the fort ; at MalcMum-J ahdniya, to
the south-east of the fort ; or Malmrandnagar on the
high-road ; and intermediately at the small villages of
Singh Bhawdni and Kutlupur. The only other produc-
tive site is said to be Edjffir, an ancient mound covered
with brick ruins on the bank of the Chota Ganga, three
miles to the south-east of Kanoj. Taking all these
evidences into consideration, it appears to me almost

382 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

certain that the ancient city of Hwen Thsang's time
must have extended from Ildji-Harmdyan and the
Kshem-Kali Burj, on the bank of the Ganges (now the
Chota Ganffd), in a south-west direction, to Makarand-
nagar, on the Grand Trunk Eoad, a length of just
three miles, with a general breadth of about one mile
or somewhat less. Within these limits are found all
the ruins that still exist to point out the position of
the once famous city of Kanoj.

]2. ATUTO.

From Kanoj the two Chinese pilgrims followed dif-
ferent routes, Fa-Hian having proceeded direct to
Sha-chi (the modern Ajudhya, near Fyzabad on the
Ghaghra), Avhile liwen Thsang followed the course of
the Ganges to Prayag or Allahabad. The first stage
of both pilgrims would, however, appear to be the
same. Fa-Hian states that he crossed the Ganges and
proceeded o jjojann^^ or 21 miles, to the south to the
forest of Holi, where there wore several stupas erected
on spots where Buddha had "passed, or walked, or
sat.'* Hwen Thsang records that he marched 100 /?',
nearly 17 miles, to the town of Nava-dcva-kula, which
was on the eastern bank of the Ganges, and that at 5
li, or nearly 1 mile, to the south-east of the town there
was a stupa of Asoka, which wa? still 100 feet in
height, besides some other monuments dedicated to
the four previous Buddhas-f I think it probable that
the two places are the same, and that the site was
somewhere near Nobatganj, just above the junction

* Beal's 'Fah-Hian,' xviii. 71.

t Julien's ' Hioucn Thsang,' ii. 265.

CENTRAL INDIA. 383

of the Isan river, and opposite 'Nanamow Ghat. But
as there are no existing remains anywhere in that
neighbourhood, the place has been most likely swept
away by the river. This is rendered almost certaia
by an examination of the Ganges below the junction
of the Isan. Formerly the river continued its course
almost due south from Nanamow for many miles, but
some centuries ago it changed its course ; first to the
south-east for 4 or 5 miles, and then to the south-west
for about the same distance, where it rejoined its old
bed, leaving an island, some 6 miles in length by 4 in
breadth, between the two channels. As Hwen Thsang's
account places Nava-deva-hida on the very site of this
island, I conclude that the town as well as the Bud-
dhist monuments must all have been swept away by the
change in the river's course.

A probable source of error in all short distances
was their registry in yojanas instead of in kos, which
would have increased the distances just fourfold. If
such an eiror should have been committed in the case
of Nava-deva-kula^ the actual distance would have been
only 25 li, or a little more than 4 miles, instead of 17
miles. Now in this very position, 4 miles to the south-
east of Kanoj, there is a well-known place on the
Chota Ganggi, called Beokali^ which is the same name
as that given by the pilgrim, if we omit the first two
syllables Nava, or ' new.'

On leaving Nava-deva-kula, Hwen Thsang proceeded
600 /«', or 100 miles, to the south-east, and recross-
ing the Ganges reached the capital city of A-i/u-to,
which was 20 /«', or upwards of 3 miles, in circuit.
Both M. Julien and M. de St. Martin have identified
this place with Ajjod/iya, the once celebrated capital of

384 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OP INDIA.

Eama. I accept the probable reading of the name as
Ajmda, but I differ with them altogether in looking
for the capital along the line of the Ghdgha river,
which is dne east from Kanoj, whereas Hwen Thsang
states that his route was to the south-east. It is of
course quite possible that the pilgrim may occasionally
use the generic name of Ganges as the appellation of
any large river, such for instance as the GhdfjJira, but
in the present case, where the recorded bearing of
south-east agrees Avith the course of the Ganges, I
think it is almost certain that the Ganges itself was
the river intended by the pilgrim. But by adopting
the line of the Ganges we encounter a difficulty of a
different kind in the great excess of the distance be-
tween two such well-known places as Kanoj and
Prayag. According to Hwen Thsang's route, he first
made 100 li to Nava-deva-kula, then 600 li to Ai/uto^
then 300 // by water to Ilcnjamul-ha, and lastly 700 li
to Praij<1(j(i. All these distances added together make
a total of 1700 /{, or 2S3 miles, which is just 100
miles, or 600 //, in excess of the true distance. Eut
as a part of the journey, viz. 300 //, or 50 miles, was
performed by water, the actual excess may perhaps
not be more than 85 or 90 miles ; although it is
doubtful whetlier the distance of 300 li may not have
been the road measurement and not the river distance.
It is sufficient for our purpose to know that Hwen
Thsang's recorded measurement is somewhere about
100 miles in excess of the truth. The only explana-
tion of this error that suggests itself to me is, that
there may have been an accidental alteration of one
set of figures, such as 60 li for 600 /?, or 700 li for
70 li. Supposing that the former was the case, the

CENTRAL INDIA. ;j8-J

distance would be shortened by 540 //, or 90 miles,
and if the latter, by 630 /«, or 105 miles. This mode
of correction brings the pilgrim's account into fair ac-
cordance with the actual distance of 180 miles between
Kanoj and Pray^g.

By adopting the first supposition, Hwen Thsang's
distance from Nava-deva-kula to the capital of A'^uto
will be only 60 li, or 10 miles, to the south-east, which
would bring him to the site of an ancient city named
Kdkiijnir, just 1 mile to the north of Seorajpoor, and
20 miles to the north-west of Cawnpore, The subse-
quent route would have been from Kdkupur to Daun-
diakhera by boat, a distance of exactly 50 miles, or
300 li, and from thence to Praydg, a distance of more
than 100 miles, which agrees with the 700 //, or 116
miles, of the pilgrim. By the second supposition the
subsequent route would have been from K/iara to
Papamoiv by water, about 50 miles, and thence to
Prayag, about 8 miles of land, which agrees with the
70 li of the proposed correction. In favour of this
last supposition is the fact that the bearing from Kliara
to Papamow of east by south is more in accordance
with Hwen Thsang's recorded east direction than the
south-east bearing of Daundiakhera from Kakupur. I
confess, however, that I am more inclined to adopt the
former correction, which places the chief city of Ji/uto
at Kakupur, and the town of Hayamuka at Daundia-
khera, as we know that the last was the capital of the
Bais B.ajputs for a considerable period. I am partly
inclined to this opinion by a suspicion that the name
of Kakujjur may be connected with that of Bdr/ud, or
Vapid, of the Tibetan books.* According to this

* Bengal ' Asiatic Ecsearohes,' xx. 88.

2 f

386 THE ANCIEXT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

authority a Sdkya, named ShdmpaJca, on being banished
from Ivapila retired to Bd(/tid, carrying with him some
of Buddlia's hair and nail-parings, over which he
built a cltaitya. He was made king of Bdgud, and the
monument was named after himself (? SJidmpaka stupa).
No clue is given as to the position of Bd,gud^ but as I
know of no otlier name that resembles it, I am inclined
to think that it is probably the same place as the Ayuio or
Ayiida of Hwcn Tlisang. The two names have a strik-
ing resemblance ; and as each of the places possessed
a stupa containing some hair and nails of Buddha, I
think that there are strong grounds for the identifica-
tion.

Kdldipiir is well known to the people of Kanoj, who
affirm that it was once a large city with a Eaja of its
own. It is exactly 10 miles, or 5 kos, to the north-
west of Bithur, and the land between the two places
is called Pmij-kosi bhitar utpdidranya, or the "five kos
circuit of Utpalaranya." The ruined mound of Kakii-
pur is said to be the remains of a fort named Chhatrpur,
which was foimdcd by Eaja Chhatr Pal Chandel 900
years ago. Kakupur also possesses two famous temples
dedicated to Kshiremara Mahddeva, and Asioatthdma
son of Drona, near which a large annual fair is held.
These details arc sufiicient to show that the place must
have been of some consequence in former days ; while
the name of Aswatthama carries it back to the time
of the Mahiibhrirata.

Hweu Thsang makes Ayuto 5000 //, or 833 miles,
in circuit,* which is so utterly beyond all possibility
that I reject it without hesitation. Perhaps we should
read 500 //, or 83 miles, which would restrict the

* Julicn's ' Hioueu Thsang,' ii. 267. See Map No. X.

CENTRAL INDIA. 387

territory to the small tract lying between Kakupur and
Cawnpore, and thus leave room for the next district
of Hayamukha.

13. HATAMXIKHA.

From Ayuto the pilgrim proceeded down the
Ganges by boat for a distance of 300 li, or 50 miles,
to O.ye.mu.kJdj which was situated on the northern
bank of the river. M. Julien* reads this name as
Hai/amukha, or "Horse-face;" but it may perhaps also
be read as Jyoviukha, or " Iron-face," which was the
name of one of the ancient Bdnavas, or Titans. Neither
of these names, however, gives any clue to the site of
the old city ; but if I am right in my identification of
Ayuto with Kakupur, it is almost certain that Haya-
mulclia must be Daundia-khera on the northern bank of
the Ganges. Hwen Thsang makes the circuit of the
town 20 /«', or upwards of 3 miles ; but Daiindia-
khera presents no appearance of ever having been so
large. There still exists an old ruined fort or citadel,
385 feet square, with the walls of two buildings
which are called the palaces of the Eaja and the
Eani. But as Daundia-khera is universally allowed to
have been the capital of the Bais Rajputs, who gave
their name to the district of Baiswara in Oudh, it is
almost certain that the place must once have been of
much greater extent. Dondia or JDaundia means
simply a " drum-beater," and was probably applied to
some mendicant, who took up his abode on the Khera^
or " mound," and as this name is not likely to have
been imposed on the place until it was in ruins, the
difference of name offers no impediment to the identi-
fication of Daundia-khera with ITayamukha.
* Julien's ' Hiouen Thsang,' ii. 274.

2 c 2

388 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

Hwen Thsang makes Ilai/amukha 2500 li, or 417
miles, in circuit, wliich is perhajos too great ; but as
Baimdia-Mera was the capital of the Bais Eajputs, I
conclude that the district must have comprised the
whole of the present Baistaira, which lies between the
Sai river and the Ganges, from Cawnpore to Manikpur
■ and Salon. But as these limits would give a circuit
of only 200 miles, it seems almost certain that the
district must have extended to the south of the
Ganges in the time of Hwen Thsang. Its probable
limits were, therefore, the Ghagra river on the north,
and the Jumna on the south, a determination which
derives some support from Tod,* who describes Bais-
Avara as an extensive district in the Dodb between the
Ganges and Jumna.

i-i. prayIga.

From Hayamukha the pilgrim proceeded 700 //, or
116 miles, to the south-east to Praydga^ the well-
known place of pilgrimage at the junction of the
Ganges and Jumna, where Akbar, many centuries
later, built his fort of Ildhabus, or Alldhdbdd, as it was
afterwards called by Shah Jehan. The distance and
bearing given by Hwen Thsang agree almost exactly
with those of Prayaga from Daundiakhera. The dis-
tance is 104 miles by the nearest road to the south of
the Ganges ; but as the pilgrim followed the northern
road, the distance must have been increased to 115 or
120 miles. According to him* the city was situated
at the confluence of the two rivers, and to the west of
a large sandy plain. In the midst of the city there
was a Brahmanical tpmple, to which the presentation

* .Jiilien'a ' Hiouen Thsang," ii. 276.

XL.

V,GunniiTgV\am. SeT

CENTRAL INDIA. 0(S9

of a single piece of money procured as much merit as
that of one thousand pieces elsewhere. Before the
principal room of the temple there was a large tree
with wide-spreading branches, which was said to be
the abode of a man-eating demon. The tree was sur-
rounded with human bones, the remains of pilgrims
who had sacrificed their lives before the temple, a
practice which had been observed from time imme-
morial.

I think there can be little doubt that the famous
tree here described by the pilgrim is the well-known
Alishay Bat^ or " undecaying Banian tree," which is
still an object of worship at Allahabad. This tree is
now situated underground, at one side of a pillared
cou]-t, which would appear to have been open
formerly, and which is, I believe, the remains of
the temple described by Hwen Tlisang. The temple
is situated inside the fort of Allahabad, to the east of
the EUenborough Barracks, and due north from the
Stone Pillar of Asoka and Samudra Gupta. Here,
then, must have been the site of the city in the
seventh century, and this agrees with the sunken
position of the tree, for originally both tree and
temple must have been on the natural ground level ;
but from the constant accumulation of rubbish, they
have been gradually earthed up, until the whole of
the lower portion of the temple has disappeared un-
derground. The upper portion has long ago been
removed, and the only access to the Akshay Bat now
available is by a flight of steps which leads down to a
square pillared courtyard. This court has apparently
once been open to the sky ; but it is now completely
closed overhead, to secure darkness and mystery for
the holy fig-tree.

390

THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

The Ahshay-hnt is next mentioned by Eashid-ud-
din in the Jamiu-t-tawdrikh, where he states that the
"tree of Frag'''' is situated at the confluence of Jumna
and Ganges. As most of his information was derived
from Abu Eihan, the date of this notice may with
great probability be referred to the time of Mahmud
of Ghazni. In the seventh century a great sandy
plain, 2 miles in circuit, lay between the city and the
confluence of the rivers, and as the tree was in the
midst of the city, it must have been at least one mile
from the confluence. But nine centuries later, in the
beginning of Akbar's reign, Abdul Kadir speaks of
the " tree from which people cast themselves into the
river."* From this statement I infer that during the
long period that intervened between the time of Hwen
Thsang and that of Akbar, the two rivers had gra-
dually carried away the whole of the great sandy
plain, and had so far encroached upon the city, as to
place the holy tree on the very brink of the water.
Long before this time the old city had no doubt been
deserted, for we know that the fort of Ildhdbds was
founded on its site in the twenty-first year of Akbar's
reign, that is, in a.h. 982, or a.d. 1572. Indeed the
way in which Abu Rihan speaks of the "tree" instead
of the city of Prag, leads me to believe that the city
itself had already been deserted before his time. As
far as I am aware, it is not once mentioned in any
Muhammadan history until it was refounded by
Akbar. f

According to the common tradition of the people,

* Elliot's ' Muhammadan Historians of India,' p. 243.
t Itoinaud, ' Fragments Arabes,' etc., p. 103. Sir H. Elliot's ' Mu-
hammadan Historians of India,' edited by Dowson, i. 55.

CENTRAL INDIA. 391

the name of Pray^g was derived from a Brahman who
lived during the reign of Akbar. The story is, that
when the emperor was building the fort, the walls on
the river face repeatedly fell down, in spite of all the
precautions taken by the architect. On consulting
some wise men, Akbar was informed that the founda-
tions could only be secured by being laid in human
blood. A proclamation was then made, when a Brah-
man named Prayaga voluntarily offered his life, on
the condition that the fort should bear his name.
This idle story, which is diligently related to the
pilgrims who now visit the Akshay Bat^ may at least
serve one useful purpose in warning us not to place
too much faith in these local traditions. The name of
Prayaga is recorded by Hwen Thsang in the seventh
century, and is in all probability as old as the reign
of Asoka, who set up the stone pillar about B.C. 236,
while the fort was not built until the end of the six-
teenth century. Hwen Thsang makes the district of
Prayaga about 5000 /?, or 833 miles, in circuit; but
as it was closely surrounded on all sides by other dis-
tricts, I am satisfied that we should read 500 li^ or
83 miles, and limit the district to the small tract in
the fork of the Doab, immediately above the junction
of the Ganges and Jumna.

15. KOSAMBI.

The city of Kosdmbi was one of the most celebrated
places in ancient India, and its name was famous
amongst Brahmans as well as Buddhists. The city is
said to have been founded by Kusamba^ the tenth in
descent from Pururavas ; but its fame begins only
with the reign of Chakra, the eighth in descent from

392 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

Arjiiu Paadu, Avho made Kosambi his capital after
Hastinapura had been swept away by the Ganges.

Kosambi is mentioned in the 'Ramayana,' the earli-
est of the Hindu poems, which is generally allowed to
have been composed before the Christian era. The
story of TJddyana^ king of Kosambi, is referred to by
the poet Kalidasain his ' Megha-duta,' or ' Cloud Mes-
senger,' where he says that Avanti (or Ujain) is great
with the number of those versed in the tale of Uda-
yana."* ISTow, Kalidasa flourished shortly after a.d.
500. In the 'Yrihat Katha,' of Somadeva, the story of
Udayana is given at full length, but the author has
made a mistake in the genealogy between the two
Saidnikas. Lastly, the kingdom of Kosdn/bi^ or Ko-
sdmha Ilandnla^ is mentioned in an inscription taken
from the gateway of the fort of Khara which is dated
in Savivat 1092, or a.d. 1035, at which period it
would appear to have been independent of Kanoj.f
Kosambi, the capital of Vatsa Eaja. is the scene of the
pleasing drama of ' Eatnavali,' or the 'Necklace,' which
was composed in the reign of King Harsha Deva, who
is most probably the same as Harsha Yardhana of
Kanoj, as the opening prelude describes amongst the
assembled audience "princes from A'arious realms re-
cumbent at his feet.":J: This wo Icnow from Hwen
Thsang to have boon true of the Kanoj prince, but
whicli even a Brahman could scarcely have asserted of
Harsha Deva of Kashmir. The date of this notice
will therefore lie between 607 and 650 a.d.

* Wilson, 'Megha-duta,' note 01; and 'Hindu Tlieatre,' ii. 257,
iiolc.

t ' Asiatic Kesoarchcs,' ix. 433. Journ. Asiat. Soo. Bengal, v. 731.
1 Wilson's ' JJindu Theatre.' ' Eatnavali ; ' iirclude, ii. 'IGL

CENTRAL INDIA. 393

But the name of Udayana, king of ICosambi, was
perhaps even more famous amongst the Buddhists.
In the 'Mahawanso,'* which was composed in the
fifth century, the venerable Yasa is said to have fled
from Yaisali to Kosambi just before the assembly of
the second Buddhist Synod. In the 'Lalita Yistfi-ra,'!
which was translated into Chinese between 70 and 76
A.D., and which could not, therefore, have been com-
posed later than the beginning of the Christian era,
Udayana Yatsa, son of Sat^nika, king of Kosambi, is
said to have been born on the same day as Buddha.
In other Ceylonese books Kosambi is named as one of
the nineteen capital cities of ancient India. Udayana
Yatsa is also known to the Tibetans:]: as the king of
Kosambi. In the ' Ratn&vali ' he is called Vafsa Raja^
or king of the Yatsas, and his capital Vatsa-palia/ta,
which is therefore only another name for Kosambi.
In this famous city also Buddha is said to have spent
the sixth and ninth years of his Buddhahood.§ Lastly,
Hwen Thsang relates that the famous statue of Buddha,
in red sandal-wood, which was made by King Udayana
during the lifetime of the Teacher, still existed under
a stone dome in the ancient palace of the kings.||

The site of this great city, the capital of the later
Pandu princes, and the shrine of the most sacred of
all the statues of Buddha, has long been sought in
vain. The Brahmans generally asserted that it stood
either on the Ganges or close to it, and the discovery

* Tumour's ' Mahawanso,' p. 16.

t Foucaux, translation of the Tibetan version of the ' Lalita- Vistara.'

X Csoma de Koros, in ' Asiatic Eesearches,' xx. 299.

§ Hardy, ' Manual of Buddhism,' p. 35fi.

II Julien's ' Hiouen Thsang,' ii. 283.

394 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

of the name of Kosdmhi mandala, or " Kingdom of
Kosambi," in an inscription over the gateway of the
fort of Khara^ seem to confirm the general belief,
although the south-west bearing from Prayaga, or
Allahabad, as recorded by Hwen Thsang, points un-
mistakably to the line of the Jumna. In January,
1861, Mr. Bayley informed me that he believed the
ancient Kosambi would be found in the old village of
Kosam, on the Jumna, about 30 miles above Allaha-
bad. In the following month I met Babu Siva Prasad,
of the educational department, who takes a deep and
intelligent interest in all archseological subjects, and
from him I learned that Kosam is still known as Ko-
sdmbi-iiaffar, that it is even now a great resort of the
Jains, and that only one century ago it was a large
and flourishing town. This information was quite
sufficient to satisfy me that Kosam was the actual site
of the once famous Kosambi. Still, however, there
was no direct evidence to show that the city was
situated on the Jumna ; but this missing link in the
chain of evidence I shortly afterwards found in the
curious legend of Bakkula, which is related at length
by Hardy.* The infant Bakkula was born at Ivosambi,
and while his mother was bathing in the Jumna, he
accidentally fell into the river, and being swallowed
by a fish, was carried to Benares. There the fish was
caught and sold to the wife of a nobleman, who on
opening it found the young child still alive inside, and
at once adopted it as her own. The true mother hearing
of this wonderful escape of the infant, proceeded to Be-
nares, and demanded the return of the child, which
was of course refused. The matter was then referred

* ' Manual of Buddhism,' p. 501.

CENTRAL INDIA. 395

to the king, who decided that both of the claimants
were mothers of the child, — the one by maternity^ the
other by purchase. The child was accordingly named
Bahula^ that is, of "two kulas., or races." He reached
the age of 90 years without once having been ill,
when he was converted by the preaching of Buddha,
who declared him to be " the chief of that class of his
disciples who were free from disease." After this he
is said to have lived 90 years more, when he became
an arhat^ or Buddhist saint.

As this legend of Bakula is sufBcient to prove that
the famous city of Kausambi was situated on the
Jumna, it now only remains to show that the distance
of Kosam from Allahabad corresponds with that be-
tween Prayag and Kosambi, as recorded by Hwen
Thsang. Unfortunately this distance is differently
stated in the life and in the travels of the Chinese
pilgrim. In the former, the distance is given as 50 li^
and in the latter as 500 /«", whilst in the return journey
to China, the pilgrim states that between Prayag and
Kosfl,mbi he travelled for seven days through a vast
forest and over bare plains.* Now, as the village of
Kosam is only 31 miles from the fort of Allahabad,
the last statement would seem to preclude all possi-
bility of its identification with the ancient Kosambi.
But strange to say, it affords the most satisfactory
proof of their identity ; for the subsequent route of
the pilgrim to Sankissa is said to have occupied one
month, and as the whole distance from Prayag to San-
kissa is only 200 miles, the average length of the
pilgrim's daily march was not more than 5^ miles. This
slow progress is most satisfactorily accounted for, by

* Julien's ' Hiouen Thsang,' i. 121 ; ii. 283 ; and i. 260.

396 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

the fact that the march from Prayag to Sankissa was a
religious procession, headed by the great king Harsha
Vardhana of Kanoj, with a train of no less than 18
tributary kings, besides many thousands of Buddhist
monks, and all the crowd of an Indian camp. Accord-
ing to this reckoning, the distance from Prayag to
Kosambi would be 38 miles, which corresponds very
closely with the actual road distance as I found it. By
one route on going to Kosam, I made the distance 37
miles, and by the return route 3y miles. The only
probable explanation of Hwen Thsang's varying dis-
tances of 50 li and 500 li that occurs to me is, that as
he converted the Indian yojanas into Chinese li at the
rate of 40 Ji ^^^'x yojana^ or of 10 li per kos, he must
have written 150 //, the equivalent of 15 kos, which is
the actual distance across the fields for foot passengers
from Kosam to the f irt of Allahabad, according to the
reckoning of the people of Kosam itself. But whether
this explanation be correct or not, it is quite certain
that the present Kosam stands on the actual site of
the ancient Ko><aiiil)i ; fir not only do the peo2:)le them-
selves put forward this claim, but it is also distinctly
stated in an inscription of the time of Akbar, which
is recorded on the great stone pillar, still standing in
the midst of the ruins, that this is Kausdtnhi-piira.

The present ruins of Kosambi consist of an immense
fortress formed of earthen ramparts and l)as("i()us, with
a circuit of !^3,100 feet, or exactly 4 miles and 3 fur-
longs. The ramparts have a. general height of from
30 to 35 feet above the fields ; but the bastions are
considerably higher, those on the north face rising to
up'wards of 50 feet, while thdse at the soutli-'west and
south-cast angles arc more than GO feet. Originally

CENTRAL INDIA. ./.I7

there were ditches all around the fortress, but at pre-
sent there are only a few shallow hollows at the foot
of the rampart. The length of the north front is
4500 feet, of the south front 6000, of the east front
7500 feet, and of the west front 5100, or altogether
23,100 feet. The difference in length between the
north and south fronts is due to the original extension
of the fortress on the river face ; but the difference
between the east and west fronts is, I believe, chiefly,
if not wholly, due to the loss of the south-west angle
of the ramparts by the gradual encroachment of the
Jumna. There are no traces now left of the western
half of the ramparts on the southern face, and the
hotises of the village of Garhawd are standing on the
very edge of the cliff overhanging the river. The
reach of the river also, from the Pakka Burj at the
south-west angle of the fortress up to the hill of
Prabhdsa, a clear straight run of 4 miles, bears 12 de-
grees to the north of east, whereas in the time of Hwen
Thsang there were two stupas and a cave at a distance
of 1|- miles to the south-west of Kosdnibi. From all
these concurring circumstances, I conclude that the
west front of the fortress was originally as nearly as
possible of the same length as the east front. This
would add 2400 feet, or nearly half a mile, to the length
of the west front, and would increase the whole cir-
cuit of the ramparts to 4 miles and 7 furlongs, which
is within one furlong of the measurement of 5 miles,
or 30 li, recorded by Hwen Thsang. In the three main
points therefore of name, size, and position, the pre-
sent Kosam corresponds most exactly with the ancient
Xosambi as it is described by the Chinese pilgrim in
the seventh century.

398 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

According to the text of Hwen Thsang, the district
of Kosauibi was 6000 //, or 1000 miles, in circuit,
"which is quite impossible, as it was closely surrounded
on all sides by other districts. I would, therefore, read
hundreds for thousands, and fix its circuit at 600 li, or
100 miles.

16. KUSAPUEA.

From Kosambi the Chinese pilgrim travelled to the
north-east, through a vast forest as far as the Ganges,
after crossing which his route lay to the north for a
distance of 700 //, or 117 miles, to the town of Kla-
she-pu-lo, which M. Julien correctly renders by Kasa-
pura.* In searching for the site of this place, the sub-
sequent route of the pilgrim to Visukhd^ a distance of
170 to 180 li^ or from 28 to 30 miles, to the north is
of equal importance with the bearing and distance
from Kosambi. For as the Yisakha of Hwen Thsang,
as I will presently show, is the same place as the Sha-
chi of Fa-Hian, and the Sdketa or Ayodhya of the
Hindus, we thus obtain two such well-fixed points as
Kosambi and Ayodhya to guide us in our search. A
single glance at the map will be sufiicient to show that
the old town of Sultdn-pur on the Gomati (or Gumti)
river is as nearly as possible in the position indicated.
Now the Hindu name of this town was Kmabliavana-
pura, or simply Kui^dpara, which is almost the same
name as that of Hwen Thsang. Eemembering Mr.
Bayley's note of information derived from Eaja Man
Sinh that there was "a tope near Sultanpur," I

* M. -Julien's ' Hioiien Thsana;/ ii. 287-290. In the record of the
pilgrim's 'Life,' Knxapnra is altogether omitted, and the distance from
Kosambi to Vi.-aliba is said to be 500 li to the east. Julien, i. 122.
See Map No. XI. for its position.

CENTRAL INDIA. 399

pitched my tent on one side of the now utterly de-
solate city, and searched the whole place through most
carefully, but all in vain : I could neither find the
trace of any tope, nor could I even hear of ancient re-
mains of any kind. On the following day, however,
after I had left Sultanpur, I heard that the village of
Mahmudpur, about 5 miles to the north-west, was
situated on an ancient mound of somewhat larger
size than that of Sultanpur, and on my arrival at
Faizabad, I learned from Lieutenant Swetenham, of
the Eoyal Engineers, that there is an old tope to the
north-west of Sultanpur, not far from this village. I
conclude, therefore, that Sultanpur, the ancient Kusa-
pura, is the same place as the Kasapura of Hwen
Thsang, and this identification will be made even more
certain on examination of the recorded distances.

On leaving Kosambi, the pilgrim proceeded first in
a north-east direction to the Ganges, after crossing
which he turned to the north to Kasapura, the whole
distance being 117 miles. Now, the two great ghats
on the Ganges to the north-east of Kosam are at Mau-
Saraya and Pdpa-viau, the former being 40 miles, and
the latter 43 miles distant. But as these two ghats
are close together, and almost immediately to the
north of Allahabad, the total distance to Kasapura will
be the same whichever place of crossing be taken.
From Papamau to Sultanpur the direction is due
north, and the distance 66 miles ; the whole line from
Kosam to Sultanpur being 109 miles, which is within 8
miles of the round number of 700 li^ or 116|- miles, as
given by Hwen Thsang ; while both of the bearings
are in exact accordance with his statements. From
Kasapura to VisdkJia the direction followed by the pil-

400 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

grim was to tlie north, and the distance Avas from 170
to 180 //, or from 28 to 38 miles. Now the present
city of Ajudhya^ the ancient Ayodhya or Saketa, is
almost due north from Sidtdnpur, the distance being
30 miles to the nearest point, or just six miles in ex-
cess of the distance given by Hwen Thsang. As
the former of these distances is in default, while the
latter is in excess, I would suggest, as a possible
alternative, that our measurements should be taken
from the village of Mdhmtiilpur, which would make the
route from Kosam to the Buddhist establishment near
Kasapura up to 114 miles, or within three miles of the
number stated by Hwen Thsang, and lessen the subse-
quent route to Ayodhya from 36 to 31 miles, which is
■within one mile of the number given by the Chinese
pilgrim. As all the bearings are in perfect accord-
ance, and as the names of the two places agree almost
exactly, I think that there can be little hesitation in
accepting the identification of Snlldiipur or KiiMipurn
with the Kasapura of Hwen Thsang.

KiLsapiira^ or Kii-sfi-filiaiyi/ia-piira, is said to have
been named after Eama's son, Kusa. Shortly after
the Muhammadan invasion it belonged to a Bhar
Eaja Nand Kunwar, who was expelled by Sultan
Alauddin Gliori (read KhUji). The defences of the
town wert' strengthened by the conqueror, who built a
mosque and changed the name of the place to Sultan-
pur. The site of Kn.^ajjura was, no doubt, selected by
its founder as a good military position on account of
its being surrounded on three sides by the river
Goiiiati or Gumti. The i)lace is at present utterly dc-
s(_)late ; tlie whole population having been removed to
the new civil station on the opposite or south bank of

CENTRAL INDIA. 401

the river. The ruined fort of Sultanpur now forms a
large mound, 750 feet square, with brick towers at the
four corners. On all sides it is surrounded by the
huts of the ruined town, the whole together covering
a space of about half a mile square, or about two
miles in circuit. This estimate of the size of Sultan-
pur agrees very closely with that of Kusapura given
by Hwen Thsang, who describes the place as being 10
/?, or If miles, in circuit.

Eighteen miles to the south-east of Sultanpur, or
Kusapura, there is a celebrated place of Hindu pilgri-
mage called Dhopdpapura. It is situated on the right
or west bank of the Gomati river, and immediately
under the walls of Garhft, or 8Mr-ke garhi. The site of
Dhopdp is evidently one of considerable antiquity, as
the fields for half a mile all round are covered with
broken bricks and pottery.

17. VISAKHA, SAKETA, OR AJTJDHYA.

Much diflEculty has been felt regarding the posi-
tion of Fa-Hian's " great kingdom of Shachi^'^ and of
Hwen Thsang's VisdJcha, with its enormous number of
heretics or Brahmanists ; but I hope to show in the
most satisfactory manner that these two places are
identical, and that they are also the same as the Sdketa
and Ajudhya of the Brahmans. The difficulty has
arisen chiefly from an erroneous bearing recorded by
Fa-Hiau, who places She-wei^ or Srdvasti, to the south
of Shachi, while Hwen Thsang locates it to the north-
east, and partly from his erroneous distance of 7-|-3 +
10=20 yojanas^ instead of 30, from the well-known
city of Sankisa. The bearing is shovm to be erroneous

2 D

402

THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

from the route of a Hindu pilgrim from the banks of
the Godavari to Seioet or Srdvasti, as recorded in the
Ceylonese Buddhist works. This pilgrim, after pass-
ing through Mahissati and Vjani^ or Mahesmati and
Ujain, reaches Kosambi, and from thence passes
through Sdketa to Sewet, that is along the very route
followed by Hwen Thsang.* "We have, therefore,
two authorities in favour of Setoet being to the north
of Saket. With regard to the distance, I refer again
to the Buddhist books of Ceylon, in which it is re-
corded that from Sakaspura (or Sangkasyapura, now
Sankisa) to Scwet was a journey of 30 yojanas.^ Now,
Fa-Hian makes the distance from Sankisa to Kanoj 7
yojanas, thence to the forest of Holi^ on the Ganges, 3
yojanas, and thence to Shachi 10 yojanas, or altogether
only 20 yojanas, or 10 less than the Ceylonese books.
That Fa-Hian's statement is erroneous is quite clear
from the fact that his distance would place Shachi in
the neighbourhood of Lucknow; whereas the other
distance would place it close to Ajudhya, or Faizabad,
or in the very position indicated by Hwen Thsang's
itinerary. Here, again, we have two authorities in
favour of the longer distance. I have no hesitation,
therefore, in declaring that Fa-Hian's recorded bear-
ing of S/te-icei from Slia-cU is wrong, and that "north"
should be read instead of " south."

I have noAV to show that Fa-Hian's Sha-chi is the
same as Hwen Thsang's Visdkha^ and that both are
identical with Scikefa or Ajudhya. With respect to
Sha-chi, Fa-Hian relates that " on leaving the town
by the souiheni gate you find to the east of the road
the place where Buddha bit a branch of the nettle-

* Hardy, ' Manual of Buddhism,' p. 334. f md; p. 301.

CENTRAL INDIA. 403

tree and planted it in the ground, where it grew to
the height of seven feet, and never increased or dimi-
nished in size."* Now, this is precisely the same
legend that is related of Visdkha by Hwen Thsang,
who says that "to the soufJt of the capital, and to the
left of the road (that is, to the east as stated by Fa-
Hian), there was, amongst other holy objects, an extra-
ordinary tree 6 or 7 feet high, which always remained
the same, neither growing nor decreasing, j* This is
the celebrated tooth-brnsh tree of Buddha, to which
I shall have occasion to refer presently. Here I need
only notice the very precise agreement in the two
descriptions of this famous tree, as to its origin, its
height, and its position. The perfect correspondence
of these details appears to me to leave no doubt of the
identity of Fa-Hian's Sha-chi with the Visakha of
Hwen Thsang.

With respect to the identification of Visakha with
the Saketa of the Hindus, I rest my proofs chiefly on
the following points : 1st, that Visakha, the most cele-
brated of all females in Buddhist history, was a resi-
dent of Saketa before her marriage with Purnna Vard-
dhana, son of Mrigara, the rich merchant of Srdvasti ;
— and 2nd, that Buddha is recorded by Hwen Thsang
to have spent 6 years at VisdkJia, while, by the Pali
annals of Turnour, he is stated to have lived 16 years
at 8dlceta.%

The story of the noble maiden Visakha is related at
great length in the Ceylonese books.' According to

* Eemusat, 'Fo-kwe-ki,' c. xix. ; and Seal's 'Fah-Hian,' c.xix. 27.

t Julien's ' Hiouen Thsang,' ii, 292.

X I take the 6 years of the pilgrim to be a mistake for 16 years,
as the whole period of Buddha's teaching is carefully accounted for in
the Ceylonese annals.

2 D 2

404

THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

Hardy,* she erected a Piirvvdrdma at Srdvasti^ which
is also mentioned by Hwen Thsang. Now, there was
also a Purvvdrdma at Saketa, and it can hardly be
doubted that this monastery was likewise built by
her. She was the daughter of Bhunanja^ a rich mer-
chant, who had emigrated from Puijagrlha to Saketa.
Now, amongst the oldest inscribed coins which have
been discovered only at Ajudhj'a, we find some bear-
ing the names of Dhana Deva and Visdkha-Daita. I
mention this because it seems to me to show the pro-
bability that the family of Dhanauja and VisdJchd was
of great eminence in Saketa or Ayodhya ; and I infer
from the recurrence of their ^ames, as well as from
the great celebrity of the lady, that the city may pos-
sibly have been called VisdJchd after her 'name.

The other proof which I derive from the years of
Buddha's residence is direct and convincing. Accord-
ing to the Ceylonese annals, Buddha was 35 years of
age Avhen he attained Buddhahood; he then led a
houseless life for 20 years, preaching in various places
in Northern India, all of which are detailed ; and of
the remaining 25 years of his life he spent 9 in the
Jetavana monastery at Sravasti, and 16 in the Vubhd-
rdiiio monastery at Saketapura.f Now, in the Bur-
mese anualsj these numbers are given as 19 years
and 6 3-ears, and in the last figure we have the exact
number rectuded by Hwen Thsang. § Nothing can
be more complete than this proof. There were only

* ' IVIanunl of Buddhism,' p. 220. .Julien's 'Hiouen Thsang,' i. 305.
The rubbiliMUio is also mentioned in the ' Ceylonese Annals ;' see
Taruour, Journ. Asiat. Soo. Bengal, vii. 790.

\ Tumour, Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, vii. 790.

X 13ii;andet, ' Legend of Burmese Buddha,' p. 142.

§ Julien's 'Hiouen Thsang,' ii. 292.

CENTRAL INDIA. 405

two places at which Buddha resided for any length of
time, namely, Srdvasti, at which he lived either 9 or
19 years, and Sdketa, at which he lived either 6 or
16 years; and as according to Hwcn Thsang he lived
for 6 years at Yis^kha, which is described as being
at some distance to the south of Sravasti, it follows of
necessity that Yisakha and Saketa were one and the
same place.

The identity of Saketa and Ayodhya has, I believe,
always been admitted ; but I am not aArare that any
proof has yet been offered to establish the fact. Csoma
de Koros,* in speaking of the place, merely says "/&-
ketana or Ayodhya," and H. H. Wilson, in his Sans-
krit Dictionary, calls Saketa " the city Ayodhya."
But the question would appear to be set at rest by
several passages of the 'Eamayana' and 'Eaghuvansa,'t
in which Sdketanagara is generally called the capital
of Eaja DasaratJia and his sons. But the following
verse of the 'Eamayana,' which was pointed out to me
by a Brahman of Lucknow, will be sufficient to esta-
blish the identity. Aswajita, father of Kaikeyi, offers
to give his daughter to Dasaratha, Eaja of Sdketa-
nagara : —

Saketam nagaram Etija namna Dasaratho bali.
Tasmai deya maya kaoya Kaikeyi natna to jana.

The ancient city of Ayodhya or Saketa is described in
the ' Eamayana' as situated on the bank of the Sarayu or
Sarju river. It is said to have been 12 yojatias, or nearly
100 miles in circumference, for which we should pro-
bably read 12 kos, or 24 miles, — an extent which the
old city, with all its gardens, might once possibly have

* ' Asiatic Besearches,' xx. 442.

t ' Eagliuvausa,' sarg. xiii. slok. 79, aud sarg. xiv. slok. 13.

406 THE ANCIENT GEOGEAPHT OF INDIA.

covered. The distance from the Guptdr Ghat on the west,
to the E^m Ghat on the east, is just 6 miles in a direct
line, and if we suppose that the city with its suburbs
and gardens formerly occupied the whole intervening
space to a depth of two miles, its circuit would have
agreed exactly with the smaller measurement of 12
kos. At the present day the people point to Earn
Ghat and Guptar Ghat as the eastern and western
boundaries of the old city, and the southern boundary
they extend to B/iaraf-Kund, near JB/iadarsd, a dis-
tance of 6 kos. But as these limits include all the
places of pilgrimage, it would seem that the people
consider them to have been formerly inside the city,
which was certainly not the case. In the ' Ayin Ak-
bari,' the old city is said to have measured 148 kos in
length by 36 kos in breadth,* or, in other words, it
covered the whole of the province of Oudh to the
south of the Ghaghra river. The origin of the larger
number is obvious. The 12 yojanas of the 'Eamayana,'
which are equal to 48 kos, being considered too small
for the great city of Eama, the Brahmans simply
added 100 kos to make the size tally with their own
extravagant notions. The present city of Ajudhya,
which is confined to the north-east corner of the old
site, is just two miles in length by about three quar-
ters of a mile in breadth ; but not one half of this
extent is occupied by buildings, and the whole place
wears a look of decay. There are no high mounds of
ruins, covered with broken statues and sculptiu'ed
pillars, such as mark the sites of other ancient cities,
but only a low irregular mass of rubbish heaps, from
which all the bricks have been excavated for the

* Gladwyn's translation, ii. 32.

CENTEAL INDIA. 407

houses of the neighbouring city of Faizabad. This
Muhammadan city, which is two miles and a half in
length by one mile in breadth, is built chiefly of ma-
terials extracted from the ruins of Ajudhya. The two
cities together occupy an area of nearly six square
miles, or just about one-half of the probable size of
the ancient capital of Kama. In Faizabad the only
building of any consequence is the stuccoed brick tomb
of the old Bhao Begam, whose story was dragged be-
fore the public during the famous trial of Warren
Hastings. Faizabad was the capital of the first Na-
wabs of Oudh, but it was deserted by Asaf-ud-daolah
in A.D. 1775.

In the seventh century the city of Visdkha was only
16 li, or 2|- miles, in circuit, or not more than one-half
of its present size, although it probably contained a
greater population, as not above one-third or perhaps
less of the modern town is inhabited. Hwen Thsang
assigns to the district a circuit of 4000 li, or 667
miles, which must be very much exaggerated. But,
as I have already observed, the estimated dimensions
of some of the districts in this part of the pilgrim's
route are so great that it is quite impossible that all
of them can be correct. I would therefore, in the
present instance, read 400 li, or 67 miles, and restrict
the territory of Visdkha to the small tract lying around
Ajudhya, between the Ghagra and Gomati rivers.

18. SEAVASTI.

The ancient territory of Ayodliya, or Oudh, was
divided by the Sarju or Ghagra river into two great
provinces ; that to the north being called TJltara Kosala,
and that to the south Banaodha. Each was again

408 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

subdivided into two districts. In Banaodha these are
called Pachham-rdt and Purab-rdt, or the western and
eastern districts ; and in Uttara Kosala they are Gauda
(vulgarly Gondu) to the south of the Eapti, and Kosala
to the north of the Eapti, or Rdwati, as it is univer-
sally called in Oudh. Some of these names are found
in the Puranas. Thus, in the Yayu Purana, Lava the
son of Eama is said to have reigned in Uttara Eosala;
but in the Matsya Linga and Kurma Puranas, Srdvasti
is stated to be in Gauda. These apparent discrepancies
are satisfactorily explaiued when we learn that Gauda
is only a subdivision of Uttara Kosala, and that the
ruins of Sravasti have actually been discovered in the
district of Gauda, which is the Gonda of the maps.
The extent of Gauda is proved by the old name of
Balrampur on the Eapti, which was formerly Ra7n-
garli-Gauda. I presume, therefore, that both the
Gauda Brahnans and the Gauda Tac/as must originally
have belonged to this district, and not to the medi-
asval city of Gauda in Bengal. Brahmans of this name
are still numerous iu Ajudhya and Jahangirabad on
the right bank of the Ghagra river, in Gonda, Pa-
khapur, and Jaisni of the Gonda or Gauda district on
the left bank, and in many parts of the neighbouring
province of Gorakhpur. Ajiidltya, therefore, was the
capital of Banaodha, or Oudh to the south of the Gha-
gra, while Srdvasti was the capital of Uttara Kosala,
or Oudh to the north of the Ghagra.

The position of the famous city of Srdvasti, one of
the most celebrated places in the annals of Buddhism,
has long puzzled our best scholars. This was owing
partly to the contradictory statements of the" Chinese
pilgrims themselves, and partly to the want of a good

CENTRAL INDIA. 409

map of the province of Oudli. In my account of Vi-
sdkJia or Ajudhya, I have compared the bearings and
distances recorded by Fa-Hian and Hwen Thsang
with those preserved in the Buddhist annals of Cey-
lon, and I have shown conclusively that Fa-Hian' s
distance from Sankisa and his bearing from Shachi
or Sdket are both erroneous. We know from Hwen
Thsang and the Buddhist books of Ceylon that Srd-
vasti was to the north of Sdket or Ajudhya^ or in other
words that it was in the district of Gauda or TJttara
Kosala, which is confirmed by the statements of no
less than four of the Brahmanical Pur^nas. And as
Fa-Hian also says that Shewei or Sewet was in Kosala,
there can be no doubt whatever that Sravasti must
be looked for within a few days' journey to the north-
ward of Sdket or Ayodliya. According to Fa-Hian
the distance was 8 yojanas, or 56 miles, which is in-
creased by Hwen Thsang to 500 U, or 83 miles.* But
as the latter pilgrim reduced the Indian yojana to
Chinese measure at the rate of 40 li per yojana^ ve
may correct his distance by the nearest round number
of 350 li^ or 58 miles, to bring it into accordance with
the other. Now, as this is the exact distance from
Ajudhya of the great ruined city on the south bank
of the Eapti, called Sdhet-Mdhet, in which I discovered
a colossal statue of Buddha with an inscription con-
taining the name of Sravasti itself, I have no hesita-
tion in correcting Hwen Thsang' s distance from 500
li to 350 li, as proposed above.

The ruined city of Sahet-Mahet is situated between
Akaona and Balrampur, at 5 miles from the former
and 12 miles from the latter, and at ijiearly equal dis-

* Beal'a ' Fali-Hian,' p. xx. 73 ; Julien's ' Hiouen Tlisang,' ii. 292.

410

THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

tances from Bahraich and Gonda.* In shape it is an
almost semicircular crescent, with its diameter of one
mile and a third in length curved inwards and facing
the north-east, along the old bank of the Eapti river.
The -western front, which runs due north and south,
for three-quarters of a mile, is the only straight por-
tion of the enclosure. The ramparts vary consider-
ably in height ; those to the west being from 35 to
40 feet in height, whUe those on the south and east
are not more than 25 or 30 feet. The highest point
is the great north-west bastion, which is 50 feet above
the fields. The north-east face, or shorter curve of
the crescent, was defended by the Eapti, which still
flows down its old bed during the annual floods. The
land ramparts on the longer curve of the crescent
must once have been defended by a ditch, the remains
of which yet exist as a swamp, nearly half a mile in
length, at the south-west corner. Everywhere the
ramparts are covered with fragments of brick, of the
large size peculiar to very ancient cities ; and though
I was unable to trace any remains of walls except in
one place, yet the very presence of the bricks is quite
sufficient to show that the earthen ramparts must once
have been crowned by briclv parapets and battlements.
The portion of the parapet wall, which I discovered
still standing in the middle of the river face, was 10
feet thick. The whole cii'cuit of the old earthen ram-
parts, according to my survey, is 17,300 feet, or up-
wards of 3^ miles. Now this is the exact size of 20
/i, or 3|- miles, which Ilwen Thsang gives to the palace
alone ; but, as the city was then deserted and in ruins,
he must have mistaken the city itself for the palace.

* See Map No. XI. for its position.

CENTRAL INDIA, 411

It is certain at least that the suburbs outside the walls
must have been very limited indeed, as the place is
almost entirely surrounded with the remains of large
religious buildings, which would have left but little
room for any private dwellings. I am therefore quite
satisfied that the city has been mistaken for the
palace ; and this mistake is sufiicient to show how
utterly ruined this once famous city must have been
at so distant a period as the seventh century, when
the place was visited by Hwen Thsang. As Fa-Hian
describes the population as already very inconsider-
able in A.D. 400, while the Ceylonese annals speak of
K/iiradhdra^ king of SawaWiipura between a.d. 275
and 302, the great decline of Sr^vasti must have taken
place during the fourth century, and we may perhaps
not be far wrong in connecting it with the fall of the
Gupta dynasty in a.d. 319.

Srdvasti is said to have been built by Eaja Sravasta*
the son of Yuvandswa of the Solar race, and the tenth
in descent from Surya himself. Its foundation there-
fore reaches to the fabulous ages of Indian history,
long anterior to Eama. During this early period it
most probably formed part of the kingdom of Ayo-
dhya, as the Yayu Purana assigns it to Lava, the son
of Eama. When Sravasti next appears in historj^, in
the time of Buddha, it was the capital of King Pra-
senajit, the son of Maha Kosala. The king became a
convert to the new faith, and during the rest of his
life he was the firm friend and protector of Buddha.
But his son Virudhaka hated the race of the Sakyas,
and his invasion of their country and subsequent mas-
sacre of 500 Sakya maidens, who had been selected for

* "Wilson, ' Vishnu Purana,' book iv. p. 2 ; Hall's edit., vol. iv. p. 263.

412 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

his harem, brought forth the famous prediction of Bud-
dha, that within seven days the king would be con-
sumed by fire. As the story has been preserved by
Buddhists, the prediction was of course fulfilled, and
upwards of eleven centuries afterwards, the tank in
which the king had sought to avoid the flames was
pointed out to the credulous Hwen Thsang.*

We hear nothing more of Sravasti until one cen-
tury after Kanishka, or five centuries after Buddha,
when, according to Hwen Thsang, Yikramaditya, king
of Sravasti, became a persecutor of Buddhists, and the
famous Manorhita, author of the Yibhasha Sastra, being
worsted in argument by the Brahmans, put himself
to death. During the reign of his successor, whose
name is not given, the Brahmans were overcome by
FasitbainJIiu, the eminent disciple of Manorldta. The
probable date of these two kings may be set down as
ranging from a.d. 79 to 120. Por the next two cen-
turies Sravasti would seem to have been under the
rule of its own kings, as we find KJuradhura and his
nephew mentioned as Eajas between a.d. 275 and
319. t But there can be little doubt that during the
whole of this time Sravasti was only a dependency of
the powerful Gupta dynasty of Magadha, as the neigh-
bouring city of Sakcta is specially said to have be-
longed to them. "Princes of the Gupta race," says
the Vayu Purana, "will possess all those countries;
the banks of the Ganges to Prayaga, and Saketa, and
Magadha." % From this time Sravasti gradually de-

* Julien's ' Hiouen Tlisang,' ii. 306.
t Tumour, ia Jourii. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, vi. 865.
X Quoted in Wilson's ' >'is]mu Purana,' p. 479, note ; and Hall's
edition, iv. 218.

CENTRAL INDIA. 413

elined. In a.d. 400 it contained only 200 families;
in A.D. 632 it was completely deserted ; and at the
present day the whole area of the city, excepting only
a few clearances near the gateways, is a mass of almost
impenetrable jangal.

There is a difference in the name of the city, which
Fa-Hian gives as She-wei., while Hwen Thsang writes
it, as correctly as is possible in Chinese syllables, 8he-
lo-fa-si-ti or Srdvasti. But this diiference is more ap-
parent than real, as there can be little doubt that
Shewei is only a slight alteration of the abbreviated
Pali form of Sewet, for SdwatlM, which is found in
■most of the Ceylonese books. Similarly the modern
name of SMef is evidently only a variation of the Pali
Sdwet. The other name of Mdhet I am unable to ex-
plain ; but it is perhaps only the usual rhyming addi-
tion of which the Hindus are so fond^ as in ulta-pulfa,
or " topsy-turvy," which many people say is the true
meaning of Sdhet-mdhet, in allusion to the utter ruin
of the whole place. But some say that the name was
originally Set-met, and as this form seems to be a cor-
ruption of Seioet, it is probable that Sahd-Mahet is
only a lengthened pronunciation of Set-met. One man
alone, a Muhammadan in charge of the tomb of Pir
Barana close to the ruined city, affirmed that the true
name was Sdvitri, which is so close to the correct Pali
form of Sdioatthi as to leave but little doubt that it
preserves the original name of the place.

Hwen Thsang assigns to the kingdom of Srdvasti a
circuit of 4000 li, or 667 miles, which is about double
the actual size of the territory lying between the
Ghagra river and the foot of the mountains ; but as he
assigns the same dimensions to the territory of Nep^l,

414 THE ANCIENT GEOGEAPHT OF INDIA.

it is probable that in his time the two western districts
of Malbhum and Khachi, in the hills to the north, may
at that time have belonged to Sravasti. The territory
of Sravasti would thus have comprised all the country
lying between the Himalaya mountains and the
Ghagra river, from the Karnali river on the west to
the mountain of Dhaolagiri and Faizabad on the east.
The circuit of this tract is about 600 miles, or very
nearly the same as the estimated measurement of

Hwen Thsang.

]9. KAPILA.

From Sravasti both of the Chinese pilgrims pro-
ceeded direct to Kapila^ which was famous throughout
India as the birth-place of Buddha. Hwen Thsang
makes the distance 500 li^ or 83 miles, to the south-
east ;* but according to the earlier pilgrim Fa-Hian
the distance was 13 yojanas, or 91 miles, in the same
direction.f The difference oil yojana, or 7 miles, seems
to be due to some confusion as to the relative positions
of Kapila, and the birth-place of Krakuchanda, which
were just one yojana apart. Fa-Hian reached the latter
place first before visiting Kapila ; but Hwen Thsang
went first to Kapila, and afterwards to the birth-place
of Krakuchanda. As the site of this place may with
great probability be identified with Kakila, 8 miles to
the west of Nagar^ which I propose to identify with
Kajnia-naffara, I am inclined to adopt the narrative of
Fa-Hian. Now the distance between Sdhet and Nagar
is rather more than 81^ miles, as I found the road from
Sahet to Asokpur 42^ miles, and from Asokpur to

* Julien's ' Iliouen Thsang,' ii. 309.
t Seal's ' Fali-Hian,' xxi-xxii.

CENTRAL INDIA. 415

Nagar the distance is 39 miles measured direct on the
large map of the Indian Atlas. The actual distance by
the winding roads of this part of the country cannot
therefore be less than 85 miles, and is probably about
90 miles, as stated by Fa-Hian.

Hwen Thsang estimates the circuit of the district
at 4000 li, or 667 miles, which agrees very well
with the size of the tract lying between the Gh^gra
and the Gandak from Faizabad to the confluence of
those rivers. The direct measurement is 550 miles,
which would be upwards of 600 miles in road dis-
tance.*

No trace of the name of Kapila has yet been disco-
vered ; but I believe that the position of the city can be
fixed within very narrow limits by many concurring
data. According to the Buddhist chronicles of Tibet,
Xapilavastu or Kapilanagara was founded by some de-
scendants of the solar hero Gotama,f on the bank of a
lake near the river Eohini in Kosala. Now the town
of Nagar, or Nagar-khds, that is " the city," is situated
on the eastern bank of the Chando Tal, near a large
stream named Kohana, a tributary of the Eapti, and in
the northern division of Oudh beyond the Gh^gra
river, and therefore in Kosala. Its distance and bear-
ing from Sravasti have already been noted as agreeing
most precisely with those stated by the Chinese
pilgrims. To the west a small stream named Sidh
falls into the lake. This name, which means the "per-
'fect or the holy one," is always applied to the sages
of antiquity, and in the present instance I think that
it may refer to the sage Kapila, whose hermitage was

* See Map No. XI.

t Csoma de Eoros in Joirrn. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, ii. 391.

416 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OE INDIA.

also on the bank of the lake opposite the city. The
Gautamas had at first established themselves near the
sage's dwelling ; but, as the lowing of their kine had
disturbed his meditations, they founded their new city
of Kapilanagara at some distance, that is on the oppo-
site or eastern end of the lake.

The position of the Eohini river is more precisely
indicated by the Chinese pilgrims and Ceylonese
chronicles. According to Fa-Hian* the royal garden,
named Lun-ming^ or Lumbini, in which Buddha was
bom, was situated at 50 /«', or 8-g- miles, to the east of
Kapila. Hwen Thsangf calls the garden La-fa-ni, and
places it on the bank of a small stream flowing to the
south-east which the people called the " River of Oil."
According to the Ceylonese Chronicles, | the Rohini
flowed between the cities of Kapila and Koli, the
latter being the birth-place of May^ Devi, the mother
of Buddha. It was also called Vydghra-jjura, or
" Tiger-town. "§ When Maya was near her confine-
ment she went to pay a visit to her parents at Koli.
" Between the two cities there was a garden of Sal
trees called Lumbini. to which the inhabitants of both
cities were accustomed to resort for recreation." There
she rested and gave birth to the infant Buddha. In
another place it is said that during a season of drought
the inhabitants of Kapila and Koli quarrelled about
the distribution of the waters of the Eohini for the
irrigation of their rice-fields. || From all these details
I infer that the BoJtini was most probably the Kohdna
river of the present day, which flows in a south-easterly

* Seal's ' Fah-Hian; xxii. 87. t 'Hiouea Thsang,' ii. 32-2.

t Hardy's ■ .Manual of Buddhism,' p. 307.

§ Ihicl., p. 136. II lUd., p. 307.

CENTRAL INDIA. 417

course about 6 miles to the eastward of Nagar. It is
the Kooana and Quana of the maps, and the Koyane of
Buchanan,* who describes it as " a fine little river,
which, with its numerous branches, fertilizes all the
south-eastern parts of the district." It therefore cor-
responds in all essential particulars with the Eohini of
the Buddhist chronicles.

The position of Koli is doubtful ; but it may per-
haps be referred to the village of Am Kohil, which is
exactly 11 miles to the east of Naym\ and rather less
than 3 miles from the nearest point of the Kohana
river. The road from Nagar to Kolnl crosses the
Kohana opposite the small town of Mokson^ which may
probably be the site of the once famous Lumbini
garden, as it was also called parddi-moJcsha,-\ or
"supreme beatitude." In later times this appella-
tion would have been shortened to Moksha or Mokshan^
to which I would refer the possible origin of Hwen
Thsang's name of the " Eiver of Oil," as mrakshan is
the Sanskrit term for oil. Abul Fazl calls the place of
Buddha's birth Mokia,X which is perhaps only a mis-
reading of Moksa.

Another strong point in favour of the identification
of Nagar with the ancient Kapila is the fact that the
present chief of Nagar is a Gautama Rajput, and the
districts of Nagar and Amorha are the head-quarters
of the clan, as well as of the Gautamiya Rajputs, who
are an inferior branch of the Gautamas. Now the
Sdhyas of Kapilavastu were also Gautama Eajputs, and
Sakya Muni himself is still known amongst the people

* ' Eastern India,' ii. 301.

t ' Fo-hwe-Jci,' c. xxii., note 17, by Klaproth.

X ' Ayin Akbari,' ii. 503.

2 E

418 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

of Banna as Gautama Buddha, or simply Gaulama. In
the Vansalata* the Gautamas are said to be descendants
of ^Irkabandhu, which is one of the names of Buddha
given in the Amara Kosha of the famous Amara Sinha,
who was himself a Buddhist.

I have not visited Nagar myself, but I am iaformed
that it possesses a khera, or mound of brick ruins, and
that there are numerous remains of brick buildings in
the neighbourhood. As Fa-Hian describes Kapila
in the beginning of the fifth century as " literally a
vast solitude, in which there was neither king nor
people," but only a few monks and some ten or twenty
houses, it is scarcely possible that there would be any
conspicuous traces of the city which has lain desolate
for upwards of twelve centuries. In the middle of the
seventh century Hwen Thsang found the place so
utterly ruined that it was impossible to ascertain its
original size, I am therefore quite satisfied that the
absence of any cxteiisive ruins at the present day
cannot overthrow the very strong claims which Na^ar
certainly possesses to be identified with the ancient
city of Kapila. But this identification is still further
strengthened by the names of several places in the
vicinity, which would appear to represent some of the
more holy spots that were famous in the early history
of Buddhism. I allude more especially to the birth-
places of the two previous Buddhas, Krahichanda and
Kanaka-muni, and the Sara-kupa, or "arrow-fountain,"
which sprang into existence at the stroke of Buddha's

arrow.

Fa-Hian names Na-pi-kla as the birthplace of Era-

* Buchanan, ' Eastern India,' ii. 458.

CENTRAL INDIA. 419

kuchanda ; but in the Buddhist chronicles * the city
is called Kshemacatt aud Khemavati.'\ In the books of
Ceylon, however, J Krakuchanda is said to have been the
Puro/nt, or family priest, of Eaja Kshema, of Mekhala.
According to Fa-Hian, the city was about 1 yojana^
or 7 miles, to the west-north-west of Kapila ; but ac-
cording to Hwen Thsang it was 50 /?', or 8-g- miles, to
the south of Kapila. Tn the absence of other data,
it is difficult to say which of these statements may be
correct ; but as I find a town named Kakiia, exactly 8
miles to the west of Nagar, I am strongly inclined to
adopt the account of Fa-Hian, as Kakti is the Pali
form of Krakti. According to Hwen Thsang's bearing,
the city should be looked for in the neighbourhood of
Kalwi,ri Khas, which is 7 miles to the south of Kagar.

A similar discrepancy is found in the position of
the birthplace of Kanaka-muni, which, according to Fa-
Hian, was to the south of Krakuchanda's birthplace,
but to the north-east of it according to Hwen Thsang.
They agree exactly as to the distance, which the latter
makes 30 li, or just 5 miles, while the former calls
it somewhat less than 1 yojana, that is about 6 or 6
miles. In the Ceylonese chronicles the town is named
Sobhavati-nuffara, § which may possibly be repre-
sented by the village of Subhay-Pursa, at 6^ miles to
the south-east of Kakiia, and the same distance to the
south-west of Nagar.

The same unaccountable difference of bearing is
found also in the position of the 8ara-Kupa, or the

* ■ Sapta Buddha Stotra,' quoted by Eemusat in ' Fo-kwe-ki,' c. xxi.
note 3.
t Tumour's ' Mahawanso," Introduction, p. 33.
{ Hardy's ' Manual of Buddhism,' 96.
§ 'Mahawanso,' Introduction, p. 34.

2 E 2

220 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

" Arrow Eountaiu," which Fa-Hian places at 30 li, or 5
miles, to the south-west of Kapila, while Hwen Thsang
places it at the same distance to the south-east. In this
instance also I believe that Fa-Hian is right, as Hwen
Thsang makes the distance from the Sara-Kupa to the
Luvibini garden from 80 to 90 li, or 13 to 15 miles,
Avhich, as I have already shown, was on the bank of
the Eohini or Kohana river, to the east of Kapila.
Now, if the Arrow Fountain was to the south-east of the
capital, its distance from the Lumhini garden could not
have been more than 6 or 7 miles, whereas if it was
to the south-west, as stated by Fa-Hian, the distance
would be about 12 or 13 miles. The probable position
of the Sara-Kiipa^ or Arrow Fountain, may therefore
be fixed near the village of Sanoanpur, which is ex-
actly b\ miles to the south-west of Nagar.

In proposing all these identifications, I have assumed
that Nagar is the site of the ancient Kapila^ but as I
have not examined this part of the country myself,
and as the information which I have been able to
obtain is necessarily vague, I feel that the final settle-
ment of this important inquiry can only be satisfac-
torily determined by an actual examination of Nagar
itself and the surrounding localities. In the meantime
I offer the results of the present disquisition as useful
approximations until the true sites shall be determined
by actual observation.

Rainagrdma.

From Kapila both pilgrims proceeded to Lan-mo^
which has been identified with the Bdmagrdma of the
Buddhist chronicles of India. Fa-Hian makes the
distance 5 gojanas, or 35 miles, to the east,* and Hwen

* Beal's ' Fah-Hian,' c. xxii. p. 89.

CENTRAL INDIA. 421

Thsang gives 200 li, or 33-|- miles, in the same direc-
tion.* But in spite of their agreement I believe that
the distance is in excess of the truth. Their subse-
quent march to the bank of the Jno?na river is said to
be 3 yojanas or 21 miles by Fa-Hian, and 100 li or
16§ miles by Hwen Thsang, thus making the total
distance from Eapila to the Anoma river 8 yojanas,
or 56 miles, according to the former, and 300 li, or
50 miles, according to the latter. But in the Indian
Buddhist scriptures, this distance is said to be only 6
yojanas, or 42 miles, which I believe to be correct,
as the Auyni river of the present day, which is most
probably the Anoma river of the Buddhist books, is just
40 miles distant from IS^agar in an easterly direction.
The identification of the Anoma will be discussed
presently.

According to the pilgrims' statements, the position
of Bdmagrdma must be looked for at about two-thirds
of the distance between Nagar and the Anoma river,
that is at 4 yojanas, or 28 miles. In this position I find
the village of Deokali,f with a mound of ruins, which
was used as a station for the trigonometrical survey.
In the ' Mahawanso ' it is stated that the stupa of Eama-
gamo, which stood on the bank of the Ganges, was de-
stroyed by the action of the current.J Mr. Laidlay
has already pointed out that this river could not be
the Ganges; but might be either the Ghdgra, or
some other large river in the north. But I am inclined
to believe that the Ganges is a simple fabrication of
the Ceylonese chronicler. All the Buddhist scriptures
agree in stating that the relics of Buddha were divided

* Julien's ' Hiouen Thsang,' ii. 325. t See Map No. XI.

X ' Mahawanso,' c. xxxi. p. 185.

422

THE ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY OF INDIA.

into eight portions, of which one fell to the lot of the
Xosalas of Bmnagrdvia^ over which they erected a
stupa. Some years later seven portions of the relics
were collected together by Ajatasatru, king of Maga-
dha, and enshrined in a single stupa at Eajagriha ;
but the eighth portion still remained at Eamagrama.
According to the Ceylonese clii-onicler, the stupa of
Eamagrama was washed away by the Ganges, and the
relic casket, having been carried down the river to the
ocean, was discovered by the Ndffas, or water gods,
and presented to their king, 'who built a stupa for its
reception. During the reign of Dutthagamini of Cey-
lon, B.C. 161 to 137, the casket was miraculously
obtained from the Kaga king by the holy monk So-
nuttaro, and enshrined in the Mahathupo, or " great
stupa," in the land of Lanka.*

iSI^ow this story is completely at variance with the
statements of the Chinese pilgrims, both of whom
visited Eamagrama many centuries after Duttha-
gamini, when they found the relic stupa intact, but no
rivur. Fa-IIian,f in the beginning of the fifth century,
saw a tank beside the stupa, in which a dragon {Ndffo)
lived, who continually watched the tower. In the
middle of the seventh century, Hwen ThsangJ saw the
same stupa and the same tank of clear water inhabited
by dragons {Ndgas), who daily transformed themselves
into men, and paid their devotions to the stupa. § Both
pilgrims mention the attempt of Asoka to remove these
relics to his own capital, which was abandoned on the
expostulation of the Naga king. " If by thy oblations,"
said the Naga, " thou canst excel this, thou mayest

* ' Mahavvanso,' c. xxxi. f Deal's ' Fah-HiaD,' c. xxiii. p. 90.

J Julien's ' Hiouen Tlisang,' ii. 326. § Ibid.

CENTRAL INDIA.

423

destroy the tower, and I shall not prevent thee." Now
according to the Ceylonese chronicler, this is the very
same argument that was used by the N%a king
to dissuade the priest Sonuttaro from removing the
relics to Ceylon.* I infer, therefore, that the original
"tank" of Eamagrama was adroitly changed into a
river by the Ceylonese author, so that the relics which
were in charge of the Nagas of the tank, might be
conveyed to the ocean-palace of the Naga king, from
whence they could as readily be transferred to Ceylon
as to any other place. The river was thus a necessity
in the Ceylonese legend, to convey the relics away
from Eamagrama to the ocean. But the authority of
a legend can have no weight against the united testi-
mony of the two independent pilgrims, who many cen-
turies later found the stupa still standing, but saw no
river. I therefore dismiss the Ganges as a fabrication
of the Ceylonese chroniclers, and accept in its stead
the Naga tank of the Chinese pilgrims. Having
thus got rid of the river, I can see no objection to
the identification of Deokali with the Eamagrama of
Buddhist history. The town was quite deserted at
the time of Fa-Hian's visit, in the fifth century, who
found only a small religious establishment ; this was
still kept up in the middle of the seventh century,
but it must have been very near its dissolution, as there
was only a single srdmanera^ or monk, to conduct
ihe affairs of the monastery.

Eiver Jnoma.
The river Anoma was famous in the history of Bud-
dhism as the scene of Prince Siddharta's assumption

* ' Mahawanso,' c. xxxi. p. 188.

424 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

of the dress of an ascetic, where he cut off his hair,
and dismissed his attendant and his horse. According
to the Burmese* and Ceylonesef chronicles, the dis-
tance from Kapila was 30 yojanas, or about 210 miles, —
a mistake which must have originated in an erroneous
opinion that the river was exactly halfway between
Kapila and Eajagriha, as the total distance is said to
be 60 yojanas. In the Tibetan translation of the Lalita
J'isfara, J the distance is stated at 6 yojanas^ or 42
miles. This is somewhat less than the estimates of
Fa-Hian and Hwcn Thsang, but as the former is made
up of two distances, given in whole yojanas^ and the
latter of two distances, given in round hundreds of li^
they can only be accepted as approximations. Thus
Fa-Hian's 5 yojanas, plus 3 yojanas, may have been
only 4-^ and 2^. yojanas, and Hwen Thsang's 200 U,
plus 100 li, may have been actually only 180 li, plus
80 li. The former may thus be reduced to 7 yojanas,
or 49 miles, and the latter to 260 li, or 43 miles. I
therefore accept the 6 yojanas, or 42 miles, of the
Lalita Vislcira as the nearest approach to the real dis-
tance that could be stated in whole yojanas.

When Prince Siddharta left Kapila to enter upon
the life of an ascetic, he took the road by Vaisali to
Eajagriha. The general direction of his route was
therefore nearly east-south-east past Deokali to the
bank of the Aumi river below Sangrilmpur, and above
the point where it enters the Aumiyar Lake.§ As the

* Bigandet, ' Legend of the Burmese Buddha,' p. 41.

t Tumour, Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, vii. 809. Hardy, ' Manual of
Buddhism,' p. 160, says 480 miles, from which it is evident that he has
adopted Turnour's erroneous valuation of the yojana at 16 miles.

X Foucaux, French translation, p. 214.

§ ' Eastern India,' ii. 314. Buchanan calls it the Naiear Lake, but

CENTRAL INDIA. 425

course of the Aumi is from nortli-west to south-east,
the distance from Nagar varies from 40 to 45 miles.
The route could not have crossed the river above San-
gr^mpur, as the distance would be under 40 miles,
nor below the Aumiyar Lake, which discharges itself
by a very short channel into the Eapti. If the data
are correct, the point of crossing must have been just
above the head of the Aumiyar Lake.

Now Aumi^ or in Sanskrit Avami, means " inferior,"
and as the name of a river it would be descriptive of
its small size as compared with other rivers in its
neighbourhood. A glance at the map is sufficient to
show that the Aumi is an old bed of the Eapti, which
left the present channel near Dumariyaganj. A main
branch of the Aumi, named the Budh Nali, or " old
river," which rises in the neighbourhood of Bansi, is
still supplied from the Eapti during the rainy season
by a channel called Daldal Nala^ or " Quicksand
Stream." This fact alone affords a most decisive
proof that the lower course of the Aumi, below the
junction of the Budh Nala near Balehar, is an old bed
of the Eapti. The name of Aumi or Avami Nadi, the
"inferior" or "lesser river," was therefore an appro-
priate appellation of the old chamiel to distinguish it
from the larger or main stream of the Rapti.

According to the Lalita Vistdra the point where
Buddha crossed the river was at the town of Money a,
in the district of Anuvaineya* The name of the town
is unknown, but that of the district would appear to
be the same as Anaola, which is the name of the divi-

iu the Atlas of India and other Government Maps it is named the
Amij/ar Tal, and the river is called the Ami Nadi.
* Foucaux, translation from Tibetan, p. 214.

426

THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

sion on the western bank of tlie lower course of the
Aumi river, which includes both Sangrampur and the
Auniiyar lake. Aimvalneya means the country along
the Vaineya river, or on the lower course of the Vai-
neya. The name is probably derived from Venu, a
"bambu," and if so it would mean "Bambu river,"
and would thus be equivalent to Bdnsi^ which might
be appropriately applied to it, either on account of the
hamhus on its banks, or because it flows past the town
of Bclnsi.

The Buddhist legends of Barma and Ceylon are
unanimous in stating that Prince Siddharta, on reach-
ing the bank of the stream where he dismissed his
attendants and horse, inquired its name, and on being
informed that it was called Anoma^ made a remark in
allusion to the name of the river, which is differently
rendered by the translators. According to the Bur-
mese legend* the name of the river was Anauma^ on
hearing which the prince remarked, " I will not show
myself umoorllnj of the high dignity I aspire to."
Then " spurring his horse, the fierce animal leaped at
once to the opposite bank." Mr. Hardy states the
occurrence even more briefly :t "On arriving at the
river he inquired its name from the noble, and when
he Avas told that it was Anowa^ ' illustrious or honour-
able,' he received it as another omen in his favour."
Tumour gives the story at length from the Ceylonese
AUakalha of the Buddhawanso. % Prince Siddharta
inquired of Chhando, '"What is the name of this
river ?' — ' Lord, its name is AnonuV Eeplying, ' Nor

* ' Legend of the Burmese Buddlia," by Bisliop Bigaudet, p. 41.
t ' Manual of Buddhism,' p. 160.

CENTRAL INDIA. 427

will there be any Anoma (inferiority) in my ordina-
tion,' lie pressed his heel to the horse and gave him
the signal to leap." Turnour notes that "this remark
involves a pun;" but that a pun "is by no means a
matter of levity in Buddhistical literature." By some
oversight, Turnour has rendered anoma by " inferi-
ority," whereas its meaning is exactly the reverse,
and is correctly given by Hardy and Bishop Bigandet.
According to the text of the Burmese and Ceylonese
chronicles, it would appear that the name of the river
was Jnoma, the "not inferior," that is the "supe-
rior," and the prince's remark must have been that
so also would his ordination be anoma, or "superior.''
But as the name of the river at the present day is
Aumi, or " inferior," and as Tumour's translation of
the word as "inferiority" would seem to show that
in his copy at least the name was Oma or Auma, I
cannot help suspecting that this is the true reading ;
and that when the prince was informed that the name
of the river was Auma, or "inferior," he remarked
"My ordination shall be anauma, or "superior." If
the original name of the stream had been Anoitia, it is
difficult to understand how it could have been changed
to Aumi, which has the very opposite meaning. But
if it was properly Aumi, that is the "inferior" or lesser
branch of the Rapti, and it was arbitrarily changed
by the Buddhists to Anauma, a return to the use of
the original name would have been only a natural
consequence of the downfall of Buddhism.

But the identification of the Buddhistical Anoma
with the modern Aumi is still further confirmed by
the existence of three significant names on the eastern
bank of the river, within a short distance of the point

428 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

which I have assigned for the prince's passage of the
stream. On reaching the opposite bank, the prince
alighted from his horse and directed his attendant
Chandaka to return to Kapila.* At this spot there
stood a stupa called Chandaka-nivarttana, or "Chan-
daka's return," which in the spoken dialects would
probably have been shortened to Chanda-bartta. This
place may, I think, be identified with the village of
Chandaoli on the eastern bank of the Aumi river,
near the head of the Aumiyar Lake, and 10 miles to
the south of Gorakhpur. With his sword the prince
then cut off his long locks of hair, chvda, which being
thrown aloft were caught by the gods, who built a
stupa on the spot called Chuda-pati-ffraha^ or the "heap
of hair -locks." In the spoken dialects this name
would have been shortened to Chuda-galia^ which, I
think, may be identified with the village of Churei/a,
3 miles to the north of Chandaoli. The prince next
changed his royal garments, called kdsdya, because
made of the fine fabrics of Kdsi^ or Banaras, for the
plain dress of an ascetic ; and on the spot where this
took place the people erected a stupa, named Kdmya-
grahan, or " doffed garments." This place I would
identify A\'ith the village of Kaseijar, 3| miles to the
south-east of Chandaoli. In favour of these identifi-
cations I may mention that Hwen Thsang places the
stupa of the "doffed garments" to the east of that of
" Chandaka's return ;" but his position of the stupa
of the " cut hair" at a short distance from that of the
" doffed garments" is directly opposed to the site that
I have suggested at Chureya, which is 6 miles to the
north of Kaseyar. It seems probable, therefore, that

■■ 'Lalita Vist,:ira.' Fouc.iux, translation from Tibetan, p. 214.

CENTRAL INDIA.

429

one of my suggested identifications must be wrong ;
but as the otber two would appear to agree with the
relative positions assigned by Hwen Thsang, I think
that they are probably correct.

Pippalavana.

From the Anoma river both of the Chinese pilgrims
proceeded to visit the stupa that was erected at Pip-
palawano over the charcoal ashes of the funeral pile of
Buddha. The Moriyas of this city, having applied too
late for a share of the relics of the body, were obliged
to be content with the ashes. Fa-Hian places the
stupa at 4 yojanas, or 28 miles, to the east of the
Anoma; but Hwen Thsang makes the distance 180
to 190 li, or from 30 to 32 miles, and the bearing
south-east. Fa-Hian does not mention the name of
the town, but in the Burmese* and Ceylonese chro-
niclesf it is called Pippali-wano, or the "Pippal-forest;"
and in the Tibetan Dulva% it is called the town of the
Nyagrodha^ or Banian-trees. Hwen Thsang also speaks
of the " forest of Nyagrodha-irees, " as the site of the
" charcoal stupa," and as he actually visited the
place, we must accept his testimony in preference to
that of the distant chroniclers of Ceylon. No place
of this name is now known ; but in the south-east
direction indicated by Hwen Thsang, there is a large
forest which completely surrounds the* ruins of an
ancient city called SahanJcat. This place is described
at length by Buchanan, § who found several statues of
Buddha am<ongst the ruins. It was therefore certainly

* Bigandet, ' Legend of the Burmese Buddha,' p. 212.

t Tumour, Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, vii. 1013.

X ' Asiatic Eesearches,' Bengal, xx.

§ ' Eastern India,' ii. 370. See Map No. XI. for its position.

430 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

in existence during the flourisliing period of Bud-
dhism. It is 20 miles distant from the Chandaoli
Ghat, on the Aumi, measured in a direct line on the
map ; but by the road it is not less than 25 miles,
owing to the numerous streams that intersect the
route. The position therefore corresponds as nearly
as possible with that assigned to the C'harcoal Tower
by Hwen Thsang, but I have no confirmatory evidence
to offer, unless the name of the village of Srinagar
Koliia may be connected with Koilj or charcoal, which
is not very probable. I may add, however, that the
bearing of Kasia from Sahankat corresponds with the
north-east direction of Kusinagara from the Charcoal
Stupa which is recorded by Hwen Thsang.

20. KXJSINAGAEA.

Fa-Hian places Kusinagara at 12 yojanas^ or 84
miles, to the eastward of the Charcoal Stupa, a dis-
tance which is quite impossible when compared with
its other recorded distances from Yaisali and Banaras.*
Unfortunately, Hwen Thsang, contrary to his usual
custom, has omitted to note the distance, and simply
states that he travelled in a north-east direction for a
long time through a vast forest, full of wild bulls and
wild elephants, and infested with brigands. A portion
of this forest still exists to the north and east of Sa-
liankat^ and wild elephants still abound in the Tarai
forests to the north of Gorakhpur. Wilson first pro-
posed Kasia as the site of Kusinagara, and the sug-
gestion has since been generally adopted. * The village
is situated exactly 35 miles to the east of Gorakh-
pur, at the crossing of two great thoroughfares.! It

* Seal's ' Fah-Hian,' xxiy. 93. t See Map No. XI. for its position.

CENTRAL INBIA.

431

is 28 miles to tlie north-east of Suhanhd in a direct
line measured on the map, or about 35 miles by road.
The distance is therefore only 5 yojanas, instead of 12,
as noted by Pa-Hian. It cannot be placed further
to the north-east without increasing its distance from
Banaras, and lessening its distance from Yaisali. Now
the former is limited by Hwen Thsang to 700 li, or
117 miles, and the latter is fixed by Fa-Hian himself
at 25 yojanas, or 175 miles ; and as both estimates
agree very closely with the actual position of Kasia, I
am satisfied that Fa-Hian's 12 yojanas must be a mis-
take. Anrudhwa, near Kasia, is exactly 111 miles to
the north-north-east of Banaras, measured in a direct
line on the map, and cannot, therefore, be less than
120 miles by road. The distance between Kasia and
Vaisali, by the route which I marched, is just 140
miles ; but this was along the new straight lines
which have been laid out by the British authorities.
By the old winding native tracks the distance would
have been much greater, or certainly not less than
160 miles.

At the time of Hwen Thsang's visit the walls of
Kusinagara were in ruins, and the place was almost
deserted ; but the brick foundations of the old capital
occupied a circuit of about 12 //, or 2 miles. The
existing ruins between Anrudhwa and Kasia are scat-
tered over a much larger space ; but some of these
were certainly outside the city, and it is now quite
impossible to ascertain its exact limits. It most pro-
bably occupied the site of the mound of ruins to the
north-east of the village of Anrudhwa. The spot
where Buddha obtained Nirvana would then corre-
spond with the site of the stupa and ruins now called

432 THE ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY OF INDIA.

Mdlha-Iatui-ka-kot^ or the "fort of the Dead Prince,"
and the spot -where his body was burned would corre-
spond with the site of the great stupa now called De-
vistlmi. The former lies to the north-west of Anrudhwa,
and to the west of the old channel of the Chota Gandak,
or Hiramjavati river, which is still occasionally filled
after heavy rain. The latter lies to the north-east of
Anrudhwa, and to the east of the old channel of the
Ilirana, or Chota Gandak.

The only name now associated with the ruins near
Kasia is that of Mdthd Kudr^ or the " Dead Prince."
Mr. Listen gives the name as Mdta, but a Brahman of
the neighbouring village of Bishanpur, who wrote the
name for me, spelt it as I have given it, Mdthd. As
this spelling points to the derivation of the word from
MaUut^i or Matha, " to kill," I have translated Mdthd
Knar as the " Dead Prince," which I refer to Buddha
himself after his death, or, in the language of the
Buddhists, after his obtainment of Nirvdna. Hwen
Thsang, when speaking of Sdkyci's assumption of the
mendicant's dress, calls him Kumdra 'Rd,ja, or the
" Eoyal Prince ; " but although this title was never,
I believe, applied to him by the learned after his as-
sumption of Buddhahood, it does not seem at all im-
probable that it may have remained in common use
amongst the people. We know from Hwen Thsang
that on the spot Avhorc Buddha died there was a brick
vihdr, or temple monastery, in which Avas enshrined a
recumbent statue of Buddha on his death-bed, with
his head towards the north. Now this statue would
naturally have been the principal object of veneration
at Ivusinagara, and although amongst the learned it
might have been called the " statue of the Nirvdna^''

CENTRAL INDIA.

433

yet I can readily believe that its more popular name
amongst all classes would have been the " statue of
the Dead Prince." I am therefore of opinion that the
name of Mdthd Ktidr, which still clings to the ruins
of Kasia, has a direct reference to the death of Buddha,
which, according to his followers, took place at Ku-
sinagara, on the full moon of the Vaisakh, 543 B.C.
The continuance of this name down to the present
day is a strong argument in favour of the identifica-
tion of Kasia as the " death-place " of Buddha.

K/t ukUundo — KaJiaon .

On leaving Kusinagara, Hwen Thsang directed his
steps towards Banaras, and after having travelled
about 200 /«, or 33 miles, to the south-west, he
reached a large town where lived a Brahman who
was devoted to Buddhism.* If we adhere rigidly to
the south-west bearing, we must identify this large
town with Sahankat, near Eudrapur. But this place
has already been identified with Pippalavana, and is
not upon the high-road to Banaras. As Hwen Thsang
specially mentions the Brahman's hospitality to travel-
lers going and coming, it is certain that the large
town must have been on the high-road between Ku-
sinagara and Banaras. Now the high-road could never
have passed through Eudrapur, as it would have en-
tailed the passage of the Eapti in addition to that of
the Gh^gra, while Eudrapur itseK is not on the direct
line to Banaras. It is quite clear that the high-road
must have crossed the Ghagra somewhere below the
junction of the Eapti. According to the people, the
old passage of- the GhS,gra was at Mahili, 4 miles to

* Julien's ' Hiouen Thsang,' ii. 349.

2 F

434 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

the south of Kahaon, and 7 miles below the confluence
of the two rivers. From Kasia to the Mahili Ghat
the route would have passed through the ancient
towns of Khuhkundo and KaJiaon^ both of which still
possess many remains of antiquity. But the former
is only 28 miles from Kasia, while the latter is 35
miles. Both are undoubtedly Brahmanical ; but while
the ruins at Khukhundo are nearly all of middle age,
those at Kahaon are at least as old as the time of
Skanda Gupta, who lived several centuries before the
time of Hwen Thsang. I am inclined, therefore, to
prefer the claim of Kahaon as the representative of
Hwen Thsang' s ancient city, partly on account of its
undoubted antiquity, and partly because its distance
from Kasia agrees better with the pilgrim's estimate
than that of the larger town of Khukhundo.*

Pdwd, or Padraona.
In the Ceylonese chronicles the town of Pdwd is
mentioned as the last halting-place of Buddha before
reaching Kusinagara, where he died. After his death
it is again mentioned in the account of Kasyapa's
journey to Kusinagara to attend at the cremation of
Buddha's corpse. /"««'« was also famous as one of
the eight cities which obtained a share of the relics of
Buddha. In the Ceylonese chronicles it is noted as
being only 12 miles from Kusinagara, f towards the
Gandak river. Now 12 miles to the north-north-east
of Kasia there is a considerable village named Pada-
raona, or Padara-vana, with a large mound covered
with broken bricks, in which several statues of

* See Map No. XI. for the positions of both places,
t Tumour, Journ. Asiat. See. Bengal, viii. 1005 ; note from Bud-
dhaghoao.

CENTRAL INDIA. 435

Buddha have been found. The name of Padara-vana,
or Padarban, might easily be shortened to Parian,
Paban] and Pdwd. In the Tibetan ' Kah(/i/ur '* this
town is called Diffpachan, but as the meaning of the
name is not given, it is impossible to say whether it
is an original Indian name or a Tibetan translation.
Between Paw^ and Kusinagara there was a stream
called Kuhutlhd, or KahuUd,\ at which Buddha
stopped to bathe and drink. This must be the pre-
sent Bddhi, or Barhi, or Bandid Nala, which, after a
course of 36 miles, joins the Chota Gandak, or Hirana
river on its left bank, 8 miles below Kasia.

21. VAEANASI, OR BANARAS.

In the seventh century the kingdom of PoJo.ni.-^se,
or Fardnasi, was 4000 li, or 667 miles, in circuit, and
the capital, which was on the western bank of the
Ganges, was from 18 to 19 li, or 3 miles, in length,
and from 5 to 6 li, or 1 mile, in breadth. Its probable
boundaries, with reference to the surrounding king-
doms, were the Gomati river on the north, a line
drawn from the Gomati to Allahabad and up the Tons
to Bilhari on the west, a line drawn from Bilhari to
Sonhat on the south, and the Eehand Karmmnasa and
Ganges rivers on the east. "With these limits the
circuit is 595 miles taken direct on the map, or about
650 miles in actual road measurement.

The city of BanS,ras is situated on the left bank of
the Ganges, between the Barnd Nadi on the north-
east, and the Asi Ndla on the south-west. The Barnd,

* Csoraa de Koroa, Bengal ' Asiatic Besearches,' xx.
t The first name is found in the Ceylonese chronicles, the second in
the Burmese version.

2 F 2

436 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

or Faranu, is a considerable rivulet, whicli rises to tlie
north of Allahabad, and has a course of about 100
miles. The Asi is a mere brook, of no length, and,
owing to its insignificant size, it does not appear in
any of our most detailed maps. It is not entered in
the Indian Atlas Sheet, No. 88, which is on the scale
of 4 miles to the inch, nor even in the larger litho-
graphed map of the district of Banaras, on the double
scale of 2 miles to the inch. This omission has led
the learned French academician M. Vivien de Saint-
Martin to doubt the existence of the Jsi as a tributary
of the Ganges, and he conjectures that it may be only
a branch of the Barnd, and that the joint stream called
the Vardnasi* may have communicated its name to
the city. The Asi Ndla will, however, be found as
I have described it, in James Prinsep's map of the
city of Benares, published by Hullmandel, as well as
in the small map which I have prepared to illustrate
this account of the remains at Banaras. The position
of the Jsi is also accurately described by H. H.
Wilson in his Sanskrit Dictionary, under the word
Vardnasi. I may add that the road from Banaras to
Udmnagar crosses the Asi just outside the city, and
only a short distance from its confluence with the
river. The points of junction of both streams with
the Ganges are considered particularly holy, and ac-
cordingly temples have been erected both at Barnd
8a7igam below the city, and at Asi 8angam above the

* In M. Julien's ' Life and Pilgrimage of Hioueu Thsang,' i. 132,
and ii. 351, it is stated that " this river is also called Po-lo-ni-se, or
Vardnasi." But this is a mistake of the translator, as pointed out by
Dr. Fitzedward Hall. The true name of the river is Po-lo-nie, or
Tciraiid.

CENTRAL INDIA.

437

city. From the joint names of these two streams,
T7hich bound the city to the north and south, the
Brahmans derive Fardmsi, or Fdranasi, which is said
to be the Sanskrit form of the name of Banaras. But
the more usual derivation amongst the common people
is from ESja Bandr, who is said to have rebuilt the
city about 800 years ago.

Both of these streams are mentioned by Abul Fazl,*
who says " Bardnasi, commonly called Bandras, is a
large city situated between two rivers, the Barnd and
the JsV Bishop Heberf also mentions that he was
informed by the Eaja of Banaras that the name " had
anciently been Baranas, from two rivers, Bara and
Nasa, which here fall into the Ganges." The worthy
Bishop supposes that they must join the Ganges
underground, as no such rivers are set down on the
map ; but two pages afterwards he records that his
boats arrived " off the mouth of the small river which
leads to Secrole," that is to the cantonment of Banaras.
It may perhaps be objected that this was only a report
from his servants, and that he had not actually seen
the river ; but as the Bishop lived with Mr. Brooke
to the north of the Barna, he must have crossed that
river by the large stone bridge at least twice every
day during his stay at the holy city of the Hindus.

Banaras is celebrated amongst the Buddhists as the
scene where the great teacher first expounded his doc-
trine, or as they metaphorically express it, where he
first began " to turn the wheel of the law." This
is one of the four great events in the life of Buddha,
and the stupa which was built upon the spot was
esteemed as one of the four great monuments of

* ' Ayin Akbari,' ii. 28. t ' Journal,' i. 397-399.

438 THE ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY OP INDIA.

Buddhism. This stupa, now called D/iamek, is situ-
ated about 3^ miles to the north of the city, amidst
an extensive mass of ruins, which are surrounded on
three sides by large artificial lakes. The name of
BJiamek is most probably only an abbreviation of the
Sanskrit Dharmmopadesaka, the "Teacher of Dharm-
ma." This is the common term still in use to desig-
nate any religious teacher ; but bearing in mind that
on this spot Buddha first began to " turn the wheel
of the law " {dharmma-chalcra), the name is peculiarly
appropriate for the stupa. The term is also used in
the simpler form of Dharvnnadesaka, which in familiar
conversation would naturally be shortened to Dham-
madek and Dhavtek.

The earliest name of this city was luhi, which is
still in common use, either alone or joined with the
later name, as Kasi-Bauaras. It is, perhaps, the
Kassiduj or Kassidia, of Ptolemy. The name is re-
ferred to Kdsi-rdja^ who was one of the early progeni-
tors of the Lunar race. He was succeeded by twenty
descendants, all Eajas of Kasi, amongst whom was the
celebrated Divoddsa.

22. GARJAPATIPTJRA.

From Banaras, Hwen Thsang travelled eastward for
about 300 //, or 50 miles, to the kingdom of Cken-chu,
which is a Chinese translation of the original name,
meaning " lord-of-battles." M. Julien proposes Yod-
hujiati or Yodhardja-pura ; but as the translation alone
is given, we have a choice of several terms, as Vi(/ra-
Jictpati, Yudhandfha, Ranaswdmi, etc. The capital
situated on the Ganges was 10 /e, or 1|- miles, in
circuit. The place thus described is certainly GJidzi-

CENTRAL INDIA. 439

pur^ which is on the Ganges just 50 miles to the east
of Banaras. The present name was given by the
Muhammadans, and is said to be only a slight altera-
tion of the original Hindu name of Garjpur. This is
most probably the name referred to by Hwen Thsang,
as Garjan^ which means primarily any roaring noise,
signifies also "battle," and Garjana-pati is a title of
the " god of war." Ghazipur is now a large city
about 2 miles in length, and 5 or 6 miles in circum-
ference. Hwen Thsang estimates the circuit of the
district at 2000 li, or 333 miles, which is almost
exactly the size of the tract lying between the Ghdgra
on the north and the Gomati on the south, from Tanda
on the west to the confluence of the Ganges and
Ghagra.

At 200 li, or 33 miles, to the east of the capital,
Hwen Thsang visited the Aviddhakarna monastery,
which was adorned with very fine sculptures. Follow-
ing the bearing and distance, this place should be
looked for in the neighbourhood of Baliya on the bank
of the Ganges. Aviddhakarna means the "pierced
ears," and I think it possible that the name may still
be preserved in Bikapur, a village 1 mile to the east
of Baliya-, as Aviddkakarna-pura might easily be
shortened to Bidkarnpur and Bikanpur. It seems pro-
bable also that this is the same place that is men-
tioned by Fa-Hian under the name of the " Vast soli-
tude,"* which he places between Patna and Banaras,
at 10 yojanas, or 70 miles, from the former, and 12
yojanas, or 84 miles, from the latter. The Indian name
is not given, but as the literal translation of the " vast

* 'Fo-Jcwe-hi,' chap, xxxiv. The Eev. Mr. Beal in his translation calls
this Vihar simply 1he " Desert."

440 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OE INDIA.

solitude " would be Vrihadaranya or Bidaran, this name
might easily be altered, either by ignorance or design,
to Biddhkarn. The two distances from Patna and
Banaras agree exactly with the position of Baliya^
which is 72 miles from the former, and 86 miles from
the latter.

From the monastery Hwen Thsang travelled to the
south-east for 100 //, or 16 miles, to the Ganges, which
he crossed, and then turning to the south for some un-
recorded distance he reached the town of Mo.ho.so.lo,
or MaJidsdra. This place Avas inhabited by Brahmans
who had no respect for the faith of Buddha. It has
been identified by M. Vivien de Saint-Martin with
the village of Masdr^ 6 miles to the west of Ara
(Arrah of the maps), near which Buchanan discovered
some ruined buildings, and a considerable number of
Brahmanical figures.* The pilgrim then suddenly
mentions his arrival at the temple of Na-lo-yen, or
Ndrdyana^ to the north of the Ganges, without stating
cither its distance or bearing from the last place. But
with reference to his subsequent route to Vaisali, I
feel satisfied that he must have crossed the Ganges
above Mevelyavj^ which is nearly due north from Masdr
exactly 16 miles, or 100 li. This point, near the
confluence of the Ganges and Ghagra, is deemed es-
pecially holy, and numerous temples have been erected
on the bank of the united streams just above Eevel-
ganj. Here then I would place the site of Hwen
Thsang's temple of Narayana or Vishnu, which he de-
scribes as being two storeys in height, and adorned
with the most marvellous sculptures in stone.

At 30 li, or 5 miles, to the east of the temple there

* ' Eastern India,' i. 143.

CENTRAL INDIA. 441

was a famous stupa built by Asoka on the spot where
Buddha had overcome and converted certain evil
Demons, who were said to live upon human flesh.*
The Demons embraced Buddhism, or as it was ex-
pressed by the ancient Buddhists, sought the refuge or
asylum of the Three Precious ones, that is, of the Bud-
dhist Triad, Buddha^ Dharnia, and Sangha. Now Sarana
is the Sanskrit term for asylum or refuge, and as this
is also the true name of the district of Sdran, in
which the conversion of the Demons was said to have
taken place, I conclude that the monument erected on
the spot must have been called the Sarana Stupa, or
Asylum Tope. The stupa must therefore have been
one of considerable celebrity, as there can be little
doubt that its name was eventually imposed on the
district in which it stood. Now 5 miles to the east
of Eevelganj will bring us to Chapra, the present
capital of the Sdran district. Unfortunately I cannot
find any information whatever about Chapra ; but it is
certain that it must have been a place of considerable
consequence, otherwise it would not have been selected
as the British head-quarters of the district.

From the Asylum stupa the pilgrim proceeded 100 li,
or 16|- miles, to the south-east to another stupa, which
was reputed to have been built by the Brahman Drona
over the vessel with which he measured the relies of
Buddha. According to the Ceylonese scriptures this
stupa was built by the Brahman Dono (or Drona),
over the Kumbhdn or measuring-vessel, and was there-
fore called the Kumbhdn stupa. + Hardy calls the

* Julien's ' Hiouen Thsang,' ii. 381. See Map No. 21.
t Tumour, Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, vii. 1013.

442 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OP INDIA.

Brahman Droha, and the vessel a " golden measure."*
In the Burmese books the vessel is the same, hut the
Brahman is named Dauna.^ In the Tibetan account
the name of Drona is referred to the " measure " of
the relics, which is certainly wrong, as the Brahman
did not obtain any of the relics, but only the vessel
with which he had measured them. This vessel was
most probably equal to a drona in capacity, as each
of the eight shares of the relics is said to have mea-
sured one drona. The stupa may, therefore, have
been called the Drona stupa, because it held the drona
measuring-vessel with which the Brahman had divided
the relics amongst the eight rival claimants. But this
was not the only name of the monument, as the
Ceylonese chronicler calls it the Kumbha stupa. Now"
a kumhha is a water-vessel of large size, which may be
seen sculptured on many Indian pillars as a round
wide-mouthed vase full of flowers. I can find no name
like Kumbha or Drona in the position indicated by
Ilwen Thsang at 17 miles to the south of east from
Chapra. But at that spot there is a village named
Deffhwdra, which, as deffh is the common Hindi name
of a large metal vessel of exactly the same shape as
the l-umbha, may possibly be only an altered form of
the original name. But dec/ is also the Persian term
for a similar vessel, and I would therefore only refer
to De^wdra as a convenient name to remember, because
it has the same signification, and occupies the same
position us the famous Kumbha stupa of Buddhist his-
tory.

* 'Manual of Buddhism,' p. 351.

t Bii^andet's ' Legend of Burmese Buddha,' p. 212.

CENTRAL INDIA. 443

23. VAISALI.

From the stupa of the measuring-vessel, Hweu
Thsang proceeded to the north-east for 140 or 150 li,
or 23 to 25 miles, to Vaisdli. He mentions having
crossed the Ganges on the road ; but as he was already
to the north of that river, his notice must certainly
refer to the GandaJc, which flows within 12 miles of
Degwara. We must therefore look for Vaisdli to the
east of the Gandak. Here, accordingly, we find the
village of Besdrh, with an old ruined fort which is
still called Baja-Bisal-ka-^arh, orthe fort of Eaja Visala,
who was the reputed founder of the ancient Yaisali.
Hwen Thsang states that the Eoyal Palace was between
4 and 5 li, or from 3500 to 4400 feet in circuit, which
agrees with the size of the old fort, according to my
measurement of 1580 feet by 750 feet, or 4600 feet
in circuit, along the lines of the ruined walls. The place
is mentioned by Abul Fazl, as Besdr* and it is still a
considerable village, surrounded with brick ruins. It
is exactly 23 miles from Degwara^ but the direction is
north-north-east, instead of north-east. This position
also agrees with Hwen Thsang's subsequent distance
and bearing to the bank of the Ganges opposite Pdtali-
putra, or Patna, which was due south 120 li,-\ or 20
miles, the actual position of Hdjipur on the north
bank of the Ganges being 20 miles almost due south.
The ruined fort of Besdrh thus presents such a per-
fect coincidence of name, position, and dimensions
with the ancient city of Vaisdli, that there can be no
reasonable doubt of their identity.

* 'Ayin Akbari,' ii. 198. See Map No. XI. for its position.

f Julien's ' Hiouen Thsang,' ii. 399. 90 li to Swetapura, plus 30 li
to the Ganges, or together 120 li from Vaiaali. In the pilgrim's life,
the distance to Swetapura is said to be 100 li; vol. i. p. 137.

444 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

According to Hwen Tlisang's estimate, the king-
dom of Faisdli was 6000 li, or 833 miles, in circuit,*
which is certainly too great, unless it included the
neighbouring kingdom of Vriji^ which he described as
4000 A", or 667 miles, in circuit. Now the capital of
Vriji is said to be only 500 //, or 83 miles, to the north-
east of Vaisali ; and as both of the districts are placed
between the mountains and the Ganges, it is quite
certain that there must be some mistake in the esti-
mated dimensions of one of these. The utmost limit
that can be assigned to the joint districts, with refer-
ence to the surrounding States, is not more than 750
or 800 miles in circuit, from the foot of the mountains
to the Ganges on the south, and from the Gandak on
the west to the Mahanadi on the east. I conclude,
therefore, either that there is some mistake or exag-
geration in the estimated size of one or both of the
districts, or that the two districts are the same king-
dom under different names. That the latter was actually
the case, I will now endeavour to show.

In one of the Buddhist legends, quoted by Burnouf, f
Buddha proceeds with Ananda to the Chdpdla stupa,
and seating himself under a tree, thus addresses his
disciple : " How beautiful, O Ananda, is the city of
Vakdli, the land of the Vrijis,''^ etc. In the time of
Buddha, and for many centuries afterwards, the people
of Yaisali were called Lichhavlv ; and in the Trikanda-
sesha^ the names of LichJiavi, Vaideha, and Tirabhukti,
are given as synonymous. Vaideha is well known to
the readers of the Eamayava as a common name of
MilJdla, the country of Eaja Janaka, whose daughter

* Julien's ' Hiouen Thsang,' ii. 384.

t Introduction a I'Hist. du Buddk. Ind. p. 74.

CENTRAL INDIA. ' 445

Sita is also named Faidehi. Tirabhukti is the present
Tirahuti, or Tirlmt. Now, the modern town of Janak-
pur., in the' Mit/iari district, is acknowledged by the
universal consent of the natives of the country, to be
the same place as the ancient Janakpur, the capital of
MitJdla. It also corresponds exactly with the position
assigned by Hwen Thsang to Chen-shu-na, the capital
of Vriji. M. Yivien de Saint-Martin reads the Chinese
name as Che-thu-na, but M. Stanislas Julien renders
it by C/iha-su-na, and points out that the second cha-
racter is found in Sukra, and I may add also in Sudra.
The correct rendering of the name is doubtful ; but if
the bearing and distance recorded by the Chinese
pilgrims are correct, it is almost certain that the capi-
tal of V7-iji in the seventh century must have been
at Janakpur.

Hwen Thsang gives the name of the country in its
Sanskrit form, as Fo-li-shi, or Friji ; but it is also
stated that the people of the north called the country
San-fa-shi, or Samvaji, * which is the Pali form of
Samvriji, or the "United Frijis." From this name, I
infer that the Vrijis were a large tribe which was
divided into several branches, namely, the Lichhavis
of Yaisali, the Vaidehis of Mithila, the TirahhuMis
of Tirhut, etc. Either of these divisions separately
might therefore be called Frijis, or any two together
might be called Frijis, as well as Samvrijis, or the
"United Frijis.''^ "We have a parallel case in the
warlike tribe of the Bd^ris, or Samhdgris of the Satlej,
which consisted of three separate divisions. I con-
clude therefore that Faisdli was a single district in the
territories of the United Frijis, or Wajjis^ and there-

* ' Hiouen Thsang,' ii. 402 ; note by M. Stanislas Julien.

446 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OP INDIA.

fore that the estimated size of Vaisali proper, as re-
corded by Hwen Thsang, is a simple mistake. Perhaps
we should read 1500 li, or 250 miles, instead of 5000
li, or 833 miles. In this case the district of Yaisali
would be limited to the south-west corner of the
country of the Yrijis, to the westward of the little
Gandak river.

To the north-west of Yaisali, at somewhat less than
200 li, or 33 miles, Hwen Thsang places the ruins of
an ancient town, which had been deserted for many
ages. There Buddha was said to have reigned in a
previous existence, as a Chakravartti Raja, or supreme
ruler, named Mahadeva, and a stupa still existed to
commemorate the fact. The name of the place is not
given, but the bearing and distance point to Kesariya,
an old ruined town, just 30 miles to the north-north-
west of Yaisali. The place possesses a mound of ruins
with a lofty stupa on the top, which the people attri-
bute to Raja Vena Chakravartti. In the Purdnas also,
Eaja Yena is called a Chakravartti, or supreme mo-
narch ; and I have found his name as widely spread
through northern India as that of Eama, or the
five Pandus. This monument stands at the point of
crossing of the two great thoroughfares of the district,
namely, that from Patna northward to Bettiah, and
that from Chapra across the Gandak to Nepal. It is
a curious illustration of this fact that Buddha him-
self, according to the Ceylonese chronicles, informed
Ananda,* that "for a Chakravartti Raja they build
the thiipo at a spot where four principal roads meet."
I have little doubt therefore that this is the identical
place indicated by the Chinese pilgrim.

* Tumour, Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, vii. 1006.

CENTRAL INDIA. 447

24. TEIJI.

From Vaisali, Hwen Thsang proceeded to the north-
east for 500 li, or 83 miles, to Fo-li-sM, or Friji, which
has already been identified as the territory of the
powerful tribe of Wajji, or Vriji. In the time of
Buddha, the Vrijis were divided into several clans, as
the Lichhavis, the Vaidehis, the TirabhuMis, and others,
whose names are unknown. The exact number of
their clans would appear to have been eight, as crimi-
nals were arraigned before the atthakulaka, * or " eight
clans," which would appear to have been a jury com-
posed of one member from each of the separate divisions
of the tribe. Hwen Thsang mentions that the people
of the north called them San-fa-sJd, or Samvajji^ that
is the "United Yajjis," — and the same name is re-
ferred to in the long and interesting account of the
people of Wajji, which is given by Turnour from the
Pali chronicles of Ceylon, f The great monarch
Jjafasatru, of Magadha, wishing to subdue the " great
and powerful " people of "Wajji, sent his minister to
consult Buddha as to the best means of accomplishing
his object. The Eaja is informed that so long as the
people of Wajji remained "united," they would be
invincible. The Eaja, by a stratagem of his minister,
,,in the course of three years, so completely disunited
their rulers, one from another, that no two would walk
the same road together," and they were accordingly
subdued without making any resistance. According
to Turnour, " the union of the Wajjian states con-
sisted of a confederation of chiefs."J The name of

* Turnour, Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, vii. 993, and note,
t Ihid. vii. 992. % Ibid. vii. 992, note.

448 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

Sam-vrlji^ or tlie "United Vrijis,'''' was therefore a de-
scriptive title of the whole nation of eight clans, who,
as Buddha remarked, were accustomed to hold frequent
meetings, to act in concert, and to uphold the ancient
Wajjian, institutions. No king is mentioned, but the
people are stated to have respected and obeyed the
orders of their elders.

According to Hwen Thsang the country of the
Vrijis was long from east to west, and narrow from
north to south.* This description corresponds ex-
actly with the tract of country lying between the
Gandak and Mahanadi rivers, which is 300 miles in
length by 100 miles in breadth. "Within these limits
there are several ancient cities, some of which may pos-
sibly have been the capitals of the eight different clans
(flT the Vrijis. Of these Vaisdll^ Kesarii/a, and Janakpur
have already been noticed; the others are Navand-
garh^ Slmrun, Darhanga^ Puraniga, and Moti/idri. The
last three are still inhabited and are well known ; but
Simrihi has been deserted for upwards of 550 years,
while Navandgarh has probably been abandoned for
at least fifteen centuries. Simrun has been described
by Mr. Hodgson,t but its ruins still require to be
carefully surveyed before we can form an opinion as
to its probable antiquity. I visited Navandgarh my-
self in 1862, and found it one of the oldest and most
interesting places in northern India.

Navandgarh or Naonadgarh is a ruined fort from
2-30 to 300 feet square at top and 80 feet in height.
It is situated close to the large village of Lauriga, 15
miles to the north-north-west of I3ettiah and 10 miles

* Julien's ' Hiouen Thsang,' ii. 403. See Map No. XI.
t See Map No. XI.

CENTRAL INDIA. 449

from the nearest point of the Gandak river.* The
ancient remains consist of a handsome stone pillar,
surmounted by a lion and inscribed with Asoka's
edicts, and of three rows of earthen barrows or co-
nical mounds of earth, of which two rows lie from
north to south, and the third from east to west. Now
the stupas usually met with are built either of stone
or of brick ; but the earliest stupas were mere mounds
of earth, of which these are the most remarkable spe-
cimens that I have seen. I believe that they are the
sepulchral monuments of the early kings of the coun-
try prior to the rise of Buddhism, and that their date
may be assumed as ranging from 600 to 1500 B.C.
Every one of these barrows is called simply bliisu^ or
"mound," but the whole are said to have been the
kots or fortified dwellings of the ministers and nobles
of Eaja Uttdnpat^ while the fort of ITavandgarh was
the king's own residence. The word stupa meant
originally only a "mound of earth," and this is the
meaning given to it by Colebrooke, in his translation
of the ' Amara Kosha.' I believe that these earthen
stupas or chaityas of Navandgarh must form part of
those alluded to by Buddha himself in his sixth ques-
tion addressed to Ananda about the people of Vriji:t
" Anando ! hast thou heard that the Wajjians, what-
ever the number may be of the Wajjian clietiydni be-
longing to the Wajjian (rulers), whether situated
within or without (the city), they maintain, respect,
reverence, and make offerings to them ; and that they
keep up without diminution the ancient offerings, the an-
cient observances, and the ancient sacrifices righteously

* See Map No. XI. '

t Tumour, Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, vii. 991.

2 G

450 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

made?" Now these chetiydni could not have been
Buddhist stupas, as Buddha himself put the question
during his lifetime. Accordingly, the author of the
Ceylonese ' Atthakatha ' explains that they are yaJc-
hatthdnmii^ or edifices belonging to Yakha, or demon
worship. The Yakhas, in Sanskrit Yaksha and Jaksha,
were the attendants of Kuvera, the God of Eiches, and
the guardians of his treasures, and their chief resi-
dence was called Alakajmra. Now somewhere in the
neighbourhood of the Gandak there was a city named
Alakappo^ inhabited by a people named Balaya or
Bi/hika, who obtained a share of Buddha's relics. It
is probable, therefore, that this city of Alakappo may
have been connected with the early Yaksha worship,
and that the pre-Buddhistical stupas of Navandgarh
*may bo some of the ancient chaifi/as of the Vrijis that
were referred to by Buddha. If so, the Balayas or
Bidukds of Alakappo must have been one of the eight
clans of the J'rijis, a conclusion Avhich is rendered still
more probable by the vicinity of Alakappo to the
Gandak river.

25. NEPALA.

From Vriji the Chinese pilgrim visited Nipo.lo^ or
Nepala, which he places to the north-west at 1400 or
1500 U, or 233 to 250 miles.* From Janakpur there
are two routes to Nepal, one by the Kamald river,
and the other by the Blutgmati or Bhdgavati river ;
but the distance is not more than 150 miles by either
of them. The circuit of the country is said to be
4000 //, or 667 miles, which is much too small, unless
the estimate refers to the district of Nepal Proper on

* Julien's ' Hiouen Thsang,' ii. 407.

CENTRAL INDIA. 451

the 8ajAa Kausiki^ or seven streams of the Kosi river.
But in this case the hill country on the Gandak river
must have been a separate territory, which is very
improbable. I would therefore assign to Nepal the
basins of both rivers, and alter Hwen Thsang's esti-
mate to 6000 A', or 1000 miles, which is about the
actual size of the two valleys.

The Eaja of Nepal was a Kshatriya of the race of
Lichhavi named Ansu-Varmnia, who is probably the
Anghu Varynma of the native histories, as he belonged
to the Ncwarit or Ncwar dynasty of conquerors. As
a Lichhavi, Ansu Varmma must also have been a fo-
reigner, that is one of the Vrijis of Vaisali. The
dates likewise correspond, as Angliu Varmma is the
fifteenth ruler prior to Eaghava Deva, who esta-
blished the Newar era in a.d. 880. Allowing seven-
teen years to each reign, the accession of Anghu
Varmma will be fixed in a.d. 625, and Ilwen Thsang's
visit in a.d. 637 will fall towards the end of his
reign.

It is curious that the kings of Tibet and Lad^k
also trace their descent from the Lichhavis. But if
their claims are well founded they must have been
off'shoots from the Nepal branch of the family. Now
the Lichhavi conquest of Nepal is assigned to Ne-
warit, who preceded Anghu Varmma by 37 reigns,
which at 17 years each, will give a period of 629
years, equivalent to B.C. 4 for his accession. The
Tibetan history begins with the accession of Ni/ah-
Jchri-Tsanpo^ whose date is roughly fixed at 500 years
prior to Lha-Thothori in A.D. 407, or about 93 b.c.
But as Lha-Thothori' s fifth successor was born in a.d.
627, there must be an error of about one century and

2 G 2

452 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

a half in the date of 407. Applying this correction
to the date of the first king, thfe Lichhavi conquest
cannot be fixed earlier than a.d. 50, or about two
generations after the conquest of Nep^l.

26. magadha.

From Nepal, Hwen Thsang returned to Vaisali, and
then proceeding to the south, crossed the Ganges and
entered the capital of Magadha. He notes that the city
was originally called Kusumapura, that it had been de-
serted for a long time, and was then in ruins. It was
70 /«', or 11| miles, in circuit, exclusive of the new
town of Pdtallputra-pura. This name the Greeks
slightly altered to Palibothra on the authority of Me-
gasthenes, whose account is preserved by Arrian.*
" The capital city of India is Palibothra, in the con-
fines of the Prasii, near the confluence of the two
great rivers Erannoboas and Ganges. Erannoboas is
reckoned the third rivc>r throughout all India, and is
inferior to none but the Indus and the Ganges, into
the last of which it discharges its waters. Megas-
thenes assures us that the length of this city is 80
stadia, the breadth 15; that it is surrounded with a
ditch, which takes up 6 acres of ground and is 30
cubits deep ; that the walls are adorned with 570 towers
and 64 gates." According to this account the capital
of Magadha in the time of Seleukos Nikator was 220
stadia, or 25|- miles, in circuit. This is about the size
of the modern city of Patna, which when surveyed by
Buchanan was 9 miles in length by 2^ miles in
breadth, t or 22-| miles, in circumference. In the

* ' Indica,' x. Strabo, xv. 1. 36, gives exactly the same account,
t Gazetteer in v. Patna ; he gives the area as 20 square miles.

CENTRAL INDIA. 453

seventh century, therefore, we may readily admit that
the old city, of Kusumapura may have been about
half this size, or 11 miles in circuit, as stated by Ilwen
Thsang.

Diodorus* attributes the foundation of the city to
Herakles, by whom he may perhaps mean Bala-Eama,
the brother of Krishna, but this early origin is not
countenanced by the native authorities. According to
the Vayu Pur^naf the city of Kusumapura or Pdfali-
putra was founded by Eaja Uday^swa, the grandson of
Ajatasatru, who was the well-known contemporary of
Buddha ; but the ' Mahawanso ' makes TJdaya the son of
Ajatasatru. According to the Buddhist accounts,^
when Buddha crossed the Ganges, on his last journey
from E^jagriha to Vais^li, the two ministers of Ajata-
satru, king of Magadha, were engaged in building a
fort at the village of Patali as a check upon the
JFajjians, or people of Vriji. Buddha then predicted
that it would become a great city. From these con-
curring authorities I conclude that the building of
the city of Pdtaliputra was actually begun in the
reign of Ajatasatru, but was not finished until the
reign of his son, or grandson, IJdaya, about B.C. 450.

The position of the city at the junction of the
Ganges and Erannoboas was formerly supposed to re-
fer to the confluence of the Gandak or Hiranyavati^
which joins the Ganges immediately opposite Patna.
But it has been conclusively shown by Mr. Eaven-
shaw§ that the Bon river formerly joined the Ganges

* Hist. Univers., ii. 24.
t Wilson's ' Vishnu Purana,' p. 467, note 45.
J Turnour, Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, vii. 998.
§ Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, xiv. 137.

454 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

just above the city of Patna. As the Soiia, or " golden "
river, is also called the Hiranya-bdha , ox the golden,
on account of its broad yellow sands, its identifica-
tion vith the Erannoboas is complete both as to name
and position.

Strabo and Pliny agree with Arrian in calling the
people of Palibothra by the name of Prosit, which
modern writers have unanimously referred to the
Sanskrit prdc/ij/a, or " eastern." But it seems to me
that Prasii is only the Greek form of Paldsiya or
Pardsiya, a "man of Paldsa or Pardsa,^'' which is an
actual and well-known name of Magadlta, of which
Palibothra was the capital. It obtained this name
from the Paldsa, or Butea frondosa, which still grows
as luxuriantly in the province as in the time of Hwen
Thsang.* The common form of the name is Paras, or
when quickly pronounced Prds, which I take to be the
true original of the Greek Prasii. This derivation is
supported by the spelling of the name given by Cur-
tius,-f" who calls the people Pharrasii, which is an
almost exact transcript of the Indian name Pardsiya.
The Praxiakos of ^lian is only the derivative form
Paldsaka.

According to Hwen Thsang's estimate the province of
Magadha was about 5000 //, or 833 miles, in circuit. J It
was bounded by the Gauges on the north, by the district
of Banaras on the west, by Hiranya Parvata, or Mongir,
on the east, and by Kirana Suvarna, or Singbhum on
the south. It must, therefore, have extended to the

* Julien's ' Hiouen Thsang,' i. 151 : ' 9a et li de beaux Me-ni, ou
kanaka (Butca frondosa), laissaient pendre leurs ileurs d'un rouge
(iblouissant.' I ' Vita Alexandri,' ix. 2.

X Julien's ' Hiouen Thsang,' ii. 409.

CENTEAL INDIA. 455

Karmnasa river on the ^xest, and to tlie sources of the
Damtida river on the south. The circuit of these limits
is 700 miles measured direct on the map, or about 800
miles by road-distance.

As Magadha was the scene of Buddha's early career
as a religious reformer, it possesses a greater number
of holy places connected with Buddhism than any
other province of India. The chief places are. Buddha-
Gaya, Kukhutapada^ Mdjagriha^ Kusdgdrapura^ Ndlanda,
Indrasilaguha, and the Kapotika monastery, all of
which will be described separately, whilst the smaller
places will be noticed in the account of Hwen Thsang's
route to the more important localities.

Bauddha Gaya.

On leaving Pdtaliputra the Chinese pilgrim started
from the south-west corner of the city, and proceeded
for 100 /«, or 16f miles, to the south-west to the mo-
nastery of Ti-lo-shi-kia or Ti-lo-tse-kia, from whence he
continued his route in the same direction for 90 li, or
15 miles, to a lofty mountain from the summit of
which Buddha had contemplated the kingdom of
Magadha.* He then turned to the north-west for 30
li^ or 5 miles, to visit a very large monastery on
the slope of a hill, where Gunamati had worsted a
heretic in argument. Then resuming his south-west
route for 20 li, or 3-|^ miles, he visited an isolated hill,
and the monastery of Silabhadra^ and continuing in
the same direction for 40 or 50 li, 7 or 8 miles, he
crossed the river Ni-lien-shen, or Nairanjan^ and en-
tered the town of Kia-ye, or Gaya.^\

Before attempting to identify any of the places

* Julien's ' Hiouen Thsang.'ii. 439, 40, 41. f Ibid., ii. 455

456 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

noted in this route, I must remark that there are
several errors both in the bearings and distances
that require to be corrected. As the direction of Gaya
is very nearly due south from Patna, the several south-
west bearings should certainly be altered to south. The
several distances also when added together amount to
only 230 //, or 38 miles, while the actual distance be-
tween the cities of Patna and Gaya is 60 miles by the
high-road, and must have been about 70 miles by the
route followed by Hwen Thsang. The sum of his dis-
tances is, therefore, about 200 li, or 33 miles, short of
the distance actually travelled. This amount I would
divide into two even sums of 100 //, and add one to
each of the first two distances recorded by the pil-
grim.

By adopting this double correction of bearing and
distance the position of the monastery of Ti-lo-tse-
kia, or TiladaJca, will be fixed at 200 li, or 33 miles, to
the south of the south-west corner of the city of Patna,
or as nearly as possible on the site of the town of
Tilldi-a, on the eastern bank of the Phalgu river. That
this was nearly the true position of Tiladaka is proved
by a later mention of the same place by the pilgrim.
When leaving the Nalanda monastery on his return to
China, he went direct to jKladaka, which he places at
3 yojanax^ or 21 miles, to the west of Nalanda.* Now
the position of Nalanda, as I will hereafter show, was
at the village of Baragaon, 6 miles to the north of
Eajgir ; and from Baragaon to Tillara the distance is
17 miles in a direct line to the north of west, or about
20 miles by road.

The next place visited by Hwen Thsang, was the

* Julicn's ' Hioueu Thsang,' i. 211. See Map No. XII.

CENTRAL INDIA. 457

lofty mountaiu from which Buddha had contemplated
the country of Magadha. Following my proposed
corrections, this mountain should be looked for at 190
li^ or 32 miles, to the south of Tiladaka or Till^ra,
and at 70 li to the north-east of Gaya. These bear-
ings and distances fix the position of Buddha's Moun-
tain in the lofty range of hills lying between Giryek
and Gaya, somewhere about 3 miles to the north-west
of Yazirganj, and about the same distance to the west
of Amethi. This mention of hills is very fortunate, as
it proves the necessity of applying the correction in
distance to the first part of the route as the nearest
hill is upwards of 50 miles from Patna.

From Buddha's Mountain the pilgrim proceeded 30
/'/, or 5 miles, to the north-west to the large monastery
of Gunamati, which was situated on a slope in a pass
of the mountains. The bearing and distance point to
the low range of hills on the eastern bank of the
Pewar Nadi, near Nidawat. From the Gunamati
monastery Hwen Thsang travelled 20 li, or 3^ miles,
to the south-west to the Silabhadra monastery, which
was situated on an isolated hill. This position may,
I think, be identified with Bithdwa, an isolated hill,
which is also on the eastern bank of the Pewar Nadi,
3 miles to the south-west of Nidawat. The name of
Bithd, which means an artificial mound, may perhaps
refer to the ruined monastery of Silabhadra.

From this place the pilgrim proceeded for about 40
or 50 li, about 7 or 8 miles, to the south-west, and
crossing the Nairanjan river, entered the town of
Gaya. The river is now called Phalgu, opposite Gaya,
and the name of Lildjan, or Nildjan, is restricted to
the western branch, which joins the Mohdni 5 miles

458 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

above Gaya. The town was tliiiily peopled, but it
contained about 1000 families of Brahmans. The city
is still called Brahm-Gaya, to distinguish it from
Bauddh- Gaya.

At 5 or 6 /?', or 1 mile, to the south-west of the
town stood the mountain of Gaya., which was known
amongst the people of India as the divine mountain.
This hill is now called B7-alim-jii'in, or Bralmd-yord,
and a small temple now occupies the site of Asoka's
stupa. To the south-east of the hill there were stupas
of the three Kasyapas, and to the east of them, across
a great river (the Phalgu), there was a mountain
named Po.loJci.pu.ti, or Prdgbodld^ which Buddha as-
cended for the purpose of dwelling in silent solitude
upon its summit. He had previously spent six years
in silent abstraction, but having afterwards renounced
his austerities, he accepted some rice and milk, and
going towards the north-east, he saw this mountain,
and ascended it for the purpose of resuming his aus-
terities ; but he was disturbed by the tremblings
caused by the fright of the god of the mountain, and
descended on the south-west side, from whence he
reached the famous Pippal-ixce at Bauddha Gaya, at
15 li, or 2-| miles, to the south-west. The last dis-
tance and bearing show that the Prdybodhi mountain
is the 31ora Pahar of the present day, as its south-
west end is exactly 2^ miles to the north-east of
Bauddha Gaya. INlidway in the descent there was a
cave, in which Buddha rested, and sat with his legs
crossed. Fa-Hian* mentions this cave, which he places
at half a yojana, or 3^ miles, to the north-east of the
Bodhi-tree. It was therefore about one mile from the

* Seal's ' Fah-Hian,' c. xxxi. 121.

CENTRAL INDIA. 459

southern end of the mountain. I was informed that a
cave still exists on the western face.

Hwen Thsang has omitted to mention the distance
of this eastern mountain from that of Gay^, or Brahm-
juin, which is about 4 miles, or 24 li. The account
of the earlier pilgrim, Fa-Hian, is of no assistance in
this place, as he makes the distance from Kia-ye^ or
Gaya, to the neighbourhood of the Bodhi-tree only
20 li^ or 3^ miles, the actual distance being upwards
of 5 miles, or more than 30 li.

Bauddha-Gaya was famous for its possession of the
holy Pippal-ix&e under which Sakya Sinha sat for five
years in mental abstraction, until he obtained Buddha-
hood. The CQ\e\)Xdi.i%^ Bodhi-drum, or " Tree of "Wis-
dom," still exists, but it is very much decayed. Imme-
diately to the east of the tree there is a massive brick
temple, nearly 50 feet square at base, and 160 feet in
height. This is beyond all doubt the Vihdr that was
seen by Hwen Thsang in the seventh century, as he
places it to the east of the Bodhi-tree, and describes it
as 20 paces square at base, and from 160 to 170 feet
in height.

Kukkutapada.

From the Bodhi-drum Hwen Thsang crossed the
river Nairanjan, and visited a stupa named Gandha-
Iiasti, or the " Scented Elephant," near which there
was a tank and a stone pillar.* The ruins of the
stupa and the lower portion of the shaft of the pillar
still exist at Bakror, on the eastern bank of the LilSjan
river, about 1 mile to the south-east of Bauddha-Gaya.

Travelling eastward, the pilgrim crossed the river

* Julien's ' Hiouen Tksang,' iii. 1. See Map No. XII.

460 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

]\Io-ho^ or Mohana Nadi, and entered a large forest,
where lie saw another stone pillar. Then proceeding
to the north-east for 100 li, or nearly 17 miles, he
reached the mountain of Kiu-kiu-cha-po-fho, or Kukku-
t/qjada, or " Cock's-foot," which was remarkable for
three bold peaks. According to Fa-Hian's account,
the Hill of the Cock's-foot was 3 li, or half a mile, to
the south of the holy tree of Bauddha-Gaya. For 3 li
we should no doubt read 3 yojanas^ or 21 miles, which
agrees very closely with Hwen Thsang's distance of
17 miles, plus about two miles for the crossings of the
two rivers, or altogether 19 miles.

I have already identified this place with the present
Kurkilidr, which, though omitted in the maps, is per-
haps the largest place between the cities of Gaya and
Bihar. It is situated 3 miles to the north-east of
Yazirganj, 16 miles to the north-north-east of Gaya,
and 20 miles to the north-east of Bauddha-Gaya.*
The true name of Knrkihdr is said to be Kuralc-vlhar^
Avhich I believe to be only a contracted form of Kuk-
katapada-Vilidra^ or "Cock's-foot Temple," as the Sans-
krit Kuld-idn is the same word as the Hindi Kukkar,
or Kurak, a " cock." The present Knrkihdr therefore
corresponds both in name and in position with the
famous " Cock's-foot Hill " of the Buddhists. There
is, however, no three-peaked hill in its neighbourhood ;
but about half a mile to the north of the village three
rugged hills rise boldly out of the plain, which, as
they stand so close together that their bases meet,
may fairly be identified with the three-peaked hill of
Tlwcn Thsang. This identification is confirmed by
tlie presence of several ruined mounds, in which nu-

* Julien's ' Hiouen Tlisang,' iii. 6. See Map No. XII.

CENTRAL INDIA. 461

merous Buddhist statues und-votive stupas liave been
found.

Kusdffdrapura.

From the " Cock's-foot Hill " the pilgrim proceeded
to the north-east for 100 li, or 17 miles, to a mountain
called Fo-tho-fa-na, or Buddhavana.* The bearing and
distance point to the lofty hill now called Buddhain,
which, on account of its commanding position, was
made one of the stations of the great trigonometrical
survey. Its distance in a direct line is not more than
10 miles, but as the whole route is hilly and winding,
the actual length cannot be less than 15 or 16 miles.
At 30 li, or 5 miles, to the east, he visited the famous
Yasldivana, or " Bambu-forest."f This name is still
well known as JaJchti-ban, which is only the Hindi
form of the Sanskrit word. The place lies to the east
of the Buddhain hill, on the route to the old ruined city
of Kusdffdrapura, and is still frequented by the people
for the purpose of cutting Bambus. About 10 li, or
nearly 2 miles, to the south-west of the Bambu-forest,
the pilgrim visited two hot springs, to the south of a
high mountain, in which Buddha was said to have
bathed. These springs still exist about two miles to
the south of JaJchtiban, at a place called Tapoban,
which name is a common contraction of Tapta-pdni,
or the " Hot "Water." To the south-east of the Bam-
bu-forest, at 6 or 7 li, upwards of 1 mile, there was a
high mountain, with a stone embankment, built by
King Bimbisara. This mountain corresponds with
the lofty hill of Handia, 1463 feet in height, which
was one of the stations of the great trigonometrical

* Julien's ' Hiouen Tksang,' iii. 10. f Ihid., iii. 11.

462 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

survey. At 3 or 4 //, or upwards of half a mile, to
the north, there was an isolated hill, on which still
existed the ruins of a house in which the holy sage
Vydsa had formerly dwelt. At 4 or 5 /^, or f of a
mile, to the north-east, there was a small hill with a
chamber hewn out of the rock, and beside it a stone
on which the gods Indra and Brahma had pounded the
sandal-wood called Gosiras for the rubbing of Buddha's
body. These two places have not been identified, but
a careful search would certainly discover the sandal-
wood stone, as there was close to it a very large cave,
which the people called the " Palace of the Asuras."
About 60 li, or 10 miles, to the east of this place, the
pilgrim reached Kiu-she-kie-lo-pu-lo, or Kusdydra^ura,
that is the " town of the Kusa Grass."*

Kusdgdrapura was the original capital of Magadha,
which was called Udjagriha^ or the " Koyal Eesi-
dence.'' It was also named Girivraja, or the "hill-
surrounded," which agrees with Hwen Thsang's de-
scription of it as a town " surrounded by moun-
tains." Girivraja-f is the name given in both the
Eamayana and the Mahabharata to the old capital
of Jarasandha, king of Magadha, who was one of
the principal actors in the Great War, about 1426
B.C. The Chinese pilgrim Fa-HianJ describes the
city as situated in a valley between five hills, at
4 //, or two-thirds of a mile, to the south of the new
town of Eajagriha. The same position and about the
same distance are given by Hwen Thsang, who also
mentions some hot springs, which still exist. Fa-

* Julien's ' Hiouen Thsang,' iii. 15.
-|- Lassen, Ind. Alterthum, i. 604.
J Beal's ' Eah-Hian,' c. xxviii. 112.

CENTEAL INDIA. 463

Hian furtlier states that the " five hills form a girdle
like the walls of a town," which is an exact descrip-
tion of Old ESjagriha, or Piirdna Rajgir, as it is now
called by the people. A similar description is given
by Tumour from the Pali annals of Ceylon, where
the five hills are named Gijjhakuio^ Isigili, WebMro,
JFepuUo, and Pandawo* In the Mahabharata the
five hills are named Vaihdra, Vardha, Vrishabha, EisJti-
giri, and ChaUyaka ;f but at present they are called
Baihhdr-giri^ Vipula-yiri, Ratna-c/iri, JJdaya-giri^ and
Sona-giri.

In the inscriptions of the Jain temples on Mount
Baibhdr, the name is sometimes written Baibhara, and
sometimes Vyavahdra. It is beyond all doubt the
Webhdro Mountain of the Pali annals, on whose side
was situated the far-famed Sattapanni Cave, in front
of which was held the first Buddhist synod, in 543 b.c.
This cave, I believe, still exists under the name of
Son Bhandar, or " Treasury of gold," in the southern
face of the mountain ; but following Hwen Thsang's
description, it should rather be looked for in the
northern face. In the Tibetan Dulva it is called the
" Cave of the NyagrodhaP or Banian-tree.^

Eatnagiri is due east, one mile distant from the Son
Bhandar Cave. This situation corresjponds exactly
with Fa-Hian's position of the " Pippal-tree Cave,''
in which Buddha after his meals was accustomed to
meditate. It was situated at 5 or 6 li (about one
mile) to the east of the cave of the first Synod. The
hill of Eatna-giri is therefore identical with the Fan-

+ Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal 1838, p. 996.

t Lassen, Ind. Alterthum, ii. 79. The five hills are all shown in
Map No. XII.

% Csoma de Koros in Bengal ' Asiatic Researches,' xx. 91.

464 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OE INDIA.

dao Mountain of the Pali annals, in which Buddha
dwelt, and which in the Lalita-Yistara is always
styled the "King of Mountains." A paved zigzag
road now leads from the eastern side of old Eajagriha
to a small Jain temple on the top of Eatna-giri, which
is frequently visited by Jains. I would identify it
with the Eishigiri of the Mahabharata.

Mount Vipula is clearly identical with the WepuUo
of the Pali annals ; and as its summit is now crowned
with the ruins of a lofty stupa or chaitya, which is
noticed by Hwen Thsang, I would identify it with
the Chaityaka of the Mahabharata. Eegarding the
other two mountains, I have nothing at present to
offer, but I may mention that they are also crowned
with small Jain temples.

The old city between the hills is described by Fa-
Hian to be 5 or 6 li from east to west, and 7 or 8 li
from north to south, that is, from 24 to 28 /? or i\
miles, in circuit. Hwen Thsang makes it 30 li, or 5
miles, in circuit, with its greatest length from east to
west. My survey of the ancient ramparts gives a
circuit of 24,500 ffct, or 4fth miles, which is between
the two statements of the Chinese pilgrims. The
greatest length is from north-west to south-east, so that
there is no real discrepancy between the two state-
ments as to the direction of the greatest length of the
old city. Each of them must have taken his measure-
ment from the Nekpai embankment on the east (which
has been described by Major Kittoe) to some point
on the north-west. If token to the Panch-Paudu angle
of the ramparts, the direction would be west-north-
west, and the length upwards of 8000 feet ; but if
taken to the temple of Torha Devi, the direction would

CENTRAL INDIA. 466

be nortli-north-west, and the distance upwards of 9000
feet.

I have abeady quoted Fa-Hian's statement that the
" five hills form a girdle like the walls of a town."
This agrees with Hwen Thsang's description, who
says that " high mountains surround it on four sides,
and form its exterior walls, which have a circuit of
150 K or 25 miles." For this number I propose to
read 50 li or 8;g- miles, a correction which is absolutely
necessary to make the statement tally with the mea-
surements of my survey. The following are the direct
distances between the hills : —

1. From Baibhar to Vipula . . . 12,000 feet.

2. ,, Yipula to Eatna . . . 4,500 ,,

3. ,, Eatna to Udaya .... 8,600 ,,

4. „ Udaya to Sona .... 7,000 ,,

5. ,, Sona to Baibhar .... 9,000 ,,

Total . . 41,000 feet.
This is somewhat less than 8 miles, but if the as-
cents and descents are taken into account, the actual
length will correspond very closely with the state-
ment of Hwen Thsang when corrected to 50 li. The
old walls forming this exterior line of rampart are
still to be seen in many places. " I traced them from
Yipulagiri over Eatna-giri to the Nekpai embank-
ment, and thence onwards over Udaya-giri, and across
the southern outlet of the valley to Sona-giri. Across
this outlet, the walls, which are still in good order,
are 13 feet thick. To obtain a circuit of 25 miles,
as given in Hwen Thsang's text, it would be neces-
sary to carry these ramparts as far as Giryek on the
east. As similar ramparts exist on the Giryek Hill,

2 H

466 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

it is perhaps possible tliat Hwen Thsang intended to
include it in the circuit of his outer walls. But this
immense circuit would not at all agree with his state-
ment that "high mountains surround the city on four
sides," for the distant hill of Giryek cannot in any
way be said to form one of the sides of old R^ja-
griha.

The hot springs of Eajagriha are found on both
banks of the Sarsuti rivulet ; one-half of them at the
eastern foot of Mount Baibhar, and the other half at
the western foot of Mount Vipula. The former are
named as follows: — 1. Ganga-Jumna; 2. Anant Eikhi;
3. Sapt Eikhi ; 4. Brahm-kund ; 5. Kasyapa Eikhi ;
6. Byas-kund ; and 7. Markand-kund. The hottest
of these are the springs of the Sapt Eikhi. The hot
springs of Mount Vipula are named as follows: — 1.
Sita-kund; 2. Suraj-kund; 3. Ganes-kund; 4. Chan-
drama-kund ; 5. Ram-kund ; and 6. Sringgi-Eikhi-
kund. The last spring has been appropriated by
the Musalmans, by whom it is called MaJchdum-
kiliid^ after a celebrated saint named Chillali Shah^
whose tomb is close to the spring. It is said that
Chilla was originally called Chilwa, and that he was
an Ahir. He must therefore have been a converted
Hindu.

To the north-east of the old town, at a distance of
15 Hj or 2^ miles, Hwen Thsang places the celebrated
hill of Gridhra-kuta^ or the "Vulture's Peak." Accord-
ing to Fa-Hian* it was 15 //, or 2\ miles, to the south-
east of the new town. Both of our authorities, there-
fore, agree in fixing the Vulture's Peak on the lofty
hill now called Saila-ffiri, or the " Eocky-Mountain ;"

* Seal's 'Fah-Hian,' c. xxix.

CENTRAL INDIA. 467

but I could not hear of the existence of any caA'e in
this hill. Fa-Hian calls it "Hill of the Vulture's
Cave," and notes that there were also several hun-
dreds of caves of the Arlians in which they sat to
meditate. I presume that these were small rooms
built against the cliff, and that the walls having fallen
down, the names have been forgotten. The joint
authority of the two pilgrims is too strong to be
doubted; and future research will perhaps discover
some remains of these once holy cave-dwellings.

Rdjac/riha.

The new town of Rdjagriha is placed by Fa-Hian
at 4 li^ or two-thirds of a mile, to the north of the old
town, which agrees exactly with the position of the
ruined fortress now called Bdjc/ir.

The new town of E^jagriha is said to have been
built by King Srenika^ otherwise called Bimbisdra^ the
father of Ajdtasatru, the contemporary of Buddha. Its
foundation cannot therefore be placed later than 560
B.C. according to Buddhist chronology. In Hwen
Thsang's time (a.d. 629-642), the outer walls had
already become ruinous, but the inner walls were still
standing and occupied a circuit of 20 li (3-g- miles).
This statement corresponds tolerably well with the
measurements of my survey, which make the circuit
of the ramparts somewhat less than 3 miles. Buchanan
calls new Eg,jagriha an irregular pentagon of 12,000
yards in diameter. This is clearly a misprint for
1200 yards, which would give a circuit of 11,300
feet, or 2|- miles ; but this was probably the interior
measurement, which, according to my survey, is 13,000
feet. The plan of new E^jagriha I make out to be

2 h2

468 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

an irregular pentagon of one long side and four nearly
equal sides, the wliole circuit being 14,260 feet out-
side tlie ditches, or rather less than 3 miles.

On the south side towards the hills a portion of the
interior, 2000 feet long and 1500 feet broad, has been
cut off to form a citadel. The stone walls retaining
the earthen ramparts of this work are still in good
order in many places. It is possible that this work
may be of later date, as suggested by Buchanan, but
I am of opinion that it was simply the citadel of the
new town, and that its walls have suffered less from
the effects of time, owing partly to their having been
more carefully and more massively built than the less
important ramparts of the town, and partly to their
having been occasionally repaired as a military posi-
tion by the authorities, while the repairs of the town
walls were neglected as being either unnecessary or
too costly.

Ndlanda.

Due north from Eajgir and 7 miles distant lies the
village of Baragaon, which is quite surrounded by
ancient tanks and ruined mounds, and which pos-
sesses finer and more numerous specimens of sculpture
than any other place that I visited. The ruins of
Baragaon are so immense, that Dr. Buchanan was con-
vinced it must have been the usual residence of the
Iving ; and he was informed by a Jain priest at Bihar,
that it was the residence of Eaja Srenika and his an-
cestors. By the Brahmans these ruins are said to be
the remains of KiiiKli/jjnr, a city famed as the birthplace
of Rukmini, one of the wives of Krishna. But as
Eukmini was the daughter of Raja Bhishma, of Yidar-

CENTRAL INDIA. 469

bha, or Berar, it seems probable that the Brahmans
have mistaken Berar for BihS,r, which is only 7 miles
distant from Baragaon. I therefore doubt the truth of
this Brahmanical tradition, more especially as I can
show beyond all doubt that the remains at Baragaon
are the ruins of Nalanda, the most famous seat of
Buddhist learning in all India.

Fa-Hian places the hamlet of Walo at 1 yojana^ or 7
miles, from the Hill of the Isolated Eock, that is from
Giryek, and also the same distance from new Euja-
griha.* This account agrees exactly with the position
of Baragaon, with respect to Giryek and Eajgir. In
the Pali annals of Ceylon also, N^landa is stated to be
1 yojuna distant fron Rajagriha. Again, Hwen Thsang
describes Nalanda as being 7 yojanas, or 49 miles, dis-
tant from the holy Pipal-tree at Buddha Gaya,f which
is correct if measured by the road, the direct distance
measured on the map being 40 miles. He also de-
scribes it as being about 30 //, or 5 miles, to the north
of new Eajagriha. This distance and direction also cor-
respond with the position of Baragaon, if the distance
be measured from the most northerly point of the old
ramparts. Lastly, in two inscriptions, which I disco-
vered on the spot, the place itself is called Nalanda.

Fa-Hian makes Nalanda the birthplace of Sariputra,
who was the right-hand disciple of Buddha ; but this
statement is not quite correct, as we learn from the more
detailed account of Hwen Thsang that Sariputra was
born at Kalapindka^ about halfway between Ndlanda
and Indra-Sila-Guha, or about 4 miles to the south-
east of the former place. Nalanda has also been called

* Beal'a 'Fah-Hian,' c. xxviii. p. 111.
t Julien's ' Hiouen Thsang,' i. 143.

470 THE ANCIENT GEOGEAl'HY OF INDIA.

the birthplace of Maha Mogalana, who was the left-
hand disciple of Buddha ; but this is not quite correct,
as the great Mogalana, according to Hwen Thsang, was
born at KuUJca, 8 or 9 li (less than 1\ mile) to the
south-west of Nalanda. This place I was able to
identify with a ruined mound near Jagdispur, at 13-
mile to the south-west of the ruins of Baragaon.

The remains at Baragaon consist of numerous masses
of brick ruins, amongst which the most conspicuous
is a row of lofty conical mounds running north and
south. These high mounds are the remains of gigantic
temples attached to the famous monastery of Nalanda.
The great monastery itself can be readily traced by the
square patches of cultivation, amongst a long mass of
brick ruins, 1600 feet by 400 feet. These open spaces
show the positions of the courtj^ards of the six smaller
monasteries which are described by Hwen Thsang as
being situated within one enclosm-e forming altogether
eight courts. Five of the six monasteries were built
by five consecutive princes of the same family, and
the sixth by their successor, who is called king of
Central India.

To the south of the monastery there was a tank in
which the dragon or Ndr/a, Nalanda, was said to dwell,
and the place was accordingly named after him, Na-
landa. There still exists to the south of the ruined
monastery a small tank called Kargidya PoJchar, that
answers exactly to the position of the Nulanda tank,
and which is therefore, in all probability, the identical
pool of the Ndga.

I cannot close this account of the ancient Ndlanda
without mentioning the noble tanks which surrounded
the ruins on all sides. To the north-east are the Gidi

CENTRAL INDIA.

471

Pokhar and the Pansokar Pokhar, each nearly one
mile in length; while to the south there is the Indra
Pokhar^ which is nearly half a mile in length. The
remaining tanks are much smaller in size, and do not
require any special notice.

Indra-Sila- Guha.

From the neighbourhood of Gaya two parallel ranges
of hills stretch towards the north-east for about 36
miles to the bank of the Panchana river, just opposite
the village of Giryek. The eastern end of the southern
range is much depressed, but the northern range main-
tains its height, and ends abruptly in two lofty peaks
overhanging the Panchana river. The lower peak
on the east is crowned with a solid tower of brick-
work, well known as, Jarasandha-ka-baithak, or " Jara-
sandha's throne,'' while the higher peak on the west,
to which the name of Giryek peculiarly belongs, bears
an oblong terrace covered with the ruins of several
buildings. The principal ruin would appear to have
been a vi/tdr, or temple, on the highest point of the
terrace, which was approached by a steep flight of
steps leading through pillared rooms.

The two peaks are connected by a steep pavement,
which was formerly continued down to the foot of the
hill opposite the village of Giryek. At all the com-
manding points and bends of this road are still to be
seen the stone foundations of small brick stupas from
5 and 6 feet to upwards of 1 2 feet in diameter. At
the foot of the upper slope, and within 50 feet of Ja-
rasandha's Tower, a tank 100 feet square has been
formed, partly by excavation, and partly by building
up. There is a second tank, at a short distance to

472 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

the north, formed by the excavation of the rock for
building materials. Both of these tanks are now dry.

At 2 miles to the south-west of the village of Giryek,
and 1 mile from Jarasandha's Tower, there is a na-
tural cavern in the southern face of the mountain, about
250 feet above the bed of the Banganga rivulet. This
cave, called Gidha-dwar, is generally believed to com-
municate with Jarasandha's Tower; but an examination
with torches proved it to be a natural fissure running
upwards in the direction of the tower, but only 98 feet
in length. The mouth of the cavern is 10 feet broad
and 17 feet high; but its height diminishes rapidly
towards the end. The cave is filled with bats, and the
air is oppressively warm and disagreeable, which alone
is sufiicient to prove that there is no exit to the cavern,
otherwise there would be a draught of air right
through it. Yultures swarm about the precipitous
clifi's of pale grey horn stone, and I picked up their
feathers in the mouth of the cave.

The remains at Giryek, which I have just described,
appear to me to correspond exactly with the accounts
given by Fa-Hian of the " Hill of the Isolated Rock,"
Avhere Indra questioned Buddha on forty-two points ;
and with that given by Hwen Thsang of Indra-sila-
(juha^ which refers to the same story.

The position of Giryek corresponds so exactly, both
in bearing and distance, with that of the hill of Indra-
sUa-guha^ that I feel quite satisfied of their identity.
No etymology has yet been proposed for the name of
Giryek ; but it seems to me not unlikely that it is
nothing more than Giri + eka^ " one hill," that is, the
hill of the isolated rock of Fa-Hian.

Both of the pilgrims mention the cave in the

CENTRAL INDIA. 473

soutlierii face of the mountain, which corresponds
exactly with the natural cavern Giclha-dwar, which I
have already described. Gidlia-dwar, in Sanskrit Gri-
dhradwdra, means the "Vulture's pass, or opening. By
Hwen Thsang the cave is called Indra-sila-^uha, or
" the cave of Indra's stone," being thus named after a
stone on which were delineated the 42 points on which
Indra had questioned Buddha. Fa-Hian adds that
Indra himself drew the marks upon the stone with his
finger.

According to Fa-Hian the hill of the " Isolated
Eock " was ^yojanasy or 56 miles, to the south-west of
Pdtali-putra, the capital of Magadha, and 1 yojana, or
7 miles, to the east of Nalanda. Hwen Thsang visited
several places on his route from Nalanda ; but the re-
sult of his different bearings and distances places
Indra-sila-gulia at 46 li^ or 7-| miles, to the east-south-
east of Nalanda. The actual distance between Bara-
gaou and Giryek is about 9 miles, and the direction is
somewhat to the west of south-west. If we read his
south-east and east bearings as south-south-east and
east-south-east the general direction wUl be south-east,
and the distance will be increased to 8 miles, which is
sufficiently near the truth to warrant the proposed
correction.

^ihdr.

To the north-east of the isolated mountain of Giryek
the Chinese pilgrim travelled from 150 to 160 /«', or
from 25 to 27 miles, to the Kapoiika, or " Pigeon
Monastery." Half a mile to the south there was a
high solitary hill, on which stood a large Fihdra of
AvaloMteswara, surrounded by a multitude of sculptured
buildings. This place I would identify with Bihdr,

474 THE AJJCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

11 miles to the north-north-east of Giryek, by reading
60 //, or 10 miles, instead of the 160 li of the text.*
In our maps the name is spelt BeJiar, but by the
people it is written and pronounced Bihdr^ which is
sufficient to show that it must once have been the site
of some famous Buddhist Vihar. For this reason I am
strongly inclined to identify the great Vihdra of Ava-
loJciteswara^ which stood on the top of a hill, with the
present Bihar, and its great isolated mountain coTercd
with ruins. The hill stands to the north-west of the
city of Bihar, ^ndth a precipitously steep cliff on its
northern face, and an easy slope of successive ledges
of rock on the southern face. The summit is now
crowned by some Muhammadan buildings; but I dis-
covered amongst the ruins some fragments of Bud-
dhist statues and votive stupas.

To the south-east of the Pigeon Monastery the
pilgrim travelled for 40 /■/, or nearly 7 miles, to another
monastery, which stood on an isolated hiU. The bear-
ing and distance point to the great ruined mound of
Titardwa, which is exactly 7 miles to the south-east of
Bihar. Titardwa means " Partridge Mound," that is,
the francolin or grey partridge. At Titarawa there
is a fine large tank, ll^OO feet in length, with a consi-
derable mound of brick ruins to the north, which from
its square form has all the appearance of being the re-
mains of a monastery.

From this place II wen Thsang resumed his north-
easterly route, and at 70 //, or nearly 12 miles, he
reached a large village on the south bank of the

* M. Vivien de Saint-Martia has already noted his suspicion that
the 150 to 160 li of the text should be 50 or 60 li. ' Hiouen Thsang,"
iii. 385, note. • See Map No. XII.

CENTRAL INDIA. 475

Ganges. But as the nearest point of the river is 25
miles distant, we must read 170 li, or 29 miles, by-
adding the round number of 100 li, wbicli was de-
ducted from the previous journey between Giryek
and the Pigeon Monastery.

I have considered these two corrections necessary,
because Hwen Thsang specially notices the great
height of the hill near the Kapoiika monastery ; and
as I am not aware of the existence of any hills to the
north or north-east of Bihar and Titardwa, I am
obliged to shorten the one distance and lengthen the
other to make Hwen Thsang' s account of his route
tally with the actual features of the country. There
is a hill at Shekhpura, about 25 miles to the east-north-
east of Giryek, 665 feet in height, which might per-
haps be the true position of the Pigeon Monastery ;
but the adoption of this position would involve an
alteration in the subsequent direction of the route, as
well as in the distance, as Shekhpura is 20 miles from
the Ganges. For these reasons I think that the iden-
tification with Bihar is preferable. In either case the
village on the Ganges must be looked for near Dary^-
pur, which is 34 miles due west fi-om Mongir in a di-
rect line.

The pilgrim then proceeded to the east for 100 //,
or nearly 17 miles, to the monastery and village of Lo-
in-ni-lo, which M. Yivien de Saint-Martin has identified
with EoJiinila* or RoUnala, on the Ganges. The actual
bearing is nearly south-east ; but as the pilgrim fol-
lowed the course of the river, there must be a mistake
in his text.

* Julien's ' Hiouen Thsang,' iii. 385.

476

THE ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY OF INDIA.

27. HIRANYA PARTATA.

At 200 li, or 33 miles, to the east of Eohinala, Hwen
Thsang reached the capital of the kingdom of I-lan-
na-po-fa-ta, or Hirnnya-I'arvata^ that is, the "Golden
Mountain." Close to the city stood Mount Hiranya,
" from which issued smoke and vapours that darkened
the sun and moon."* The position of this hill is de-
termined, from its proximity to the Ganges, and from
its bearings and distances from Eohinala and Champa,
to be Mongir. No smoke now issues from the hill,
but the numerous hot springs in the neighbouring hills
show that volcanic action still exists within a few
miles of Monyir. These hot springs are mentioned by
Hwen Thsang.

The advantageous position of this isolated hill on
the bank of the Ganges, which commanded the land
route between the hills and the river, as well as the
water route by the Ganges, must have led to its occu-
pation at a very early date. Accordingly it is men-
tioned in the Mahabharata as Aloddyiri, which was the
capital of a kingdom in eastern India, near Banya and
Tchirnlipla, or Bengal and Tamluk. At the time of
Ilwen Thsang's visit the king had been lately ejected
by the Eaja of a neighbouring state. The kingdom
was bounded by the Ganges on the north, and by great
forest-clad mountains on the south ; and as its cir-
cuit is (jstimatcd at 3000 li, or 500 miles, it must have
extended to the south as far as the famous mountain
of Pdrasndth, which has an elevation of 4478 feet.
I would therefore fix its limits as extending from
Lakhi Sarai to Sultanganj on the Ganges in the north,

* Julien's ' Hiouen Thsang,' iii. 65-66.

CENTRAL INDIA. 477

and from the western end of the Parasnath hill to the
junction of the Barakar and Damuda rivers in the
south. The circuit of this tract is 350 miles, mea-
sured direct on the map, or upwards of 420 miles by-
road distance following the windings of the two
rivers.*

28. CHAMPA.

From Mongir, Hwen Thsang travelled eastward for
300 U, or 60 miles, to Chen-po, or Chamjjd, which is an
old name of the district of Bhdgalpur. The capital
was situated on the Ganges, at from 140 to 150 /«, or
23 to 25 miles, to the west of a rocky hill that was
completely surrounded by the river. On its summit
there was a Brahmanical temple. From this descrip-
tion it is easy to recognize the picturesque rocky-
island opposite Patharghdta with its temple-cro-^vned
summit. As Patharghata is exactly 24 miles to the
east of Bhdgalpur, I conclude that the capital of
Champ& must have stood either on the same site, or in
its immediate vicinity. Close by, on the west side,
there still exists a large village named Champanagar,
and a smaller one named Champapur, which most pro-
bably represent the actual site of the ancient capital
of Champa.t

The pilgrim estimates the circuit of Champa at
4000 li^ or 667 miles ; and as it was bounded by the
Granges on the north, and by Hiranya-Parvata^ or
Mongir, on the west, it must have extended to the
Bhagirathi branch of the Ganges on the east and to
the Daumda river on the south. Taking the two
northern points at Jdngira and Teliagali on the

* See Map No. I. f lUA.

478 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

Ganges, and the two southern points at Pcicldt on the
Damuda and Kalna on the Bhagirathi, the length of
the boundary line will be 420 miles measured direct,
or about 500 miles by road distance. This is so much
less than the size estimated by Hwen Thsang that I
think there must either be some mistake in the text
or some confusion between the geographical limits of
the original district of Champa, and its actual political
boundary at the time of the pilgrim's- visit. We know
from his journal that the king of Mongir, on the west
of Champa, had been dethroned by a neighbouring
raja, and that the district of Kankjol on the east of
Champa was then a dependency of the neighbouring
kingdom. As Champa lies between these two dis-
tricts, I infer that the raja of Champa was most pro-
bably the king who conquered them, and therefore
that the large estimates of Hwen Thsang must include
these two states to the east and west of the original
Champa. Under this view, the political boundaries
may be stated as extending from Lakhiterai to Eaj-
mahal on the Ganges, and from the Parasnath Hill
along the Daumda river to Kalna on the Bhagirathi.
With these boundaries the circuit of Champa will be
about 550 miles measured direct, or 650 miles by
road distance.

29. KANEJOL.

Prom Champa the pilgrim travelled to the eastward
for 400 //, or 67 miles, to a small district named Kie-
cfiu-u-l-hi-Io, or Kle-ching-lde-lo* The distance and
Loaring bring us to the district of lidjmahal, which
was originally called Kdnkjol, after a town of that

* Julicn's ' Hiouen Thsang,' iii. 73. See Map No. I.

CENTEAL INDIA. 479

name which still exists 18 miles to the south of Eaj-
mahal. Following the river route via Kahalgaon
(Colgong) and Rajmahal, the distance from Bhagalpur
is just 90 miles ; but by the direct route through the
hills, vi^ Mangaon and Bharhat, the distance is under
70 miles. As this position agrees with that of the
place indicated by Hwen Thsang, I suspect that there
may have been a transposition of two syllables in the
Chinese name, and that we should read Kie-Jde-chu-lo,
which is a literal transcript of Kdnkjol. In Glad-
wyn's translation of the ' Ayin Akbari'* the name is
read as Gungjook^ but as all the names are given alpha-
betically in the original, it is certain that the first
letter is a ^; I conclude, therefore, that the true
name is Kdnkjol, as the final I might easily be misread
as a k. In his Gazetteer, Hamiltonf calls the place
Caukjole, which is probably a misprint for Cankjole.
He notes that the district of Eajmahal was formerly
"named Akbarnagar from its capital, and in the reve-
nue records Caukjole, as being the chief military
division."

Hwen Thsang estimates the size of the district at
2000 /i, or 333 miles, in circuit ; but as it was a de-
pendency of one of the neighbouring kingdoms* it was
probably included, as I have already noted, in the
area of the dominant state. When independent, the
petty state of Kdnkjol most probably comprised the
whole of the hill country to the south and west of
Eajmahal, with the plains lying between the hills and
the Bhagirathi river as far south as Murshidabad.
The circuit of this tract would be about 300 miles, as
stated by Hwen Thsang.

* 'Ayin Akbari,' ii. 178. t 'Gazetteer of India,' in v. EajamahaL

480 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

30. PAXINDRA YAEDDHANA.

From Kankjol th.e pilgrim crossed the Ganges, and
travelling east^Yard for 600 li, or 100 miles, lie reached
the kingdom of Pun-na-fa-tan-na* This name M.
Stanislas Julien renders as Paundra- Varddhana, and M.
Yivien de Saint-Martin identifies it with Bardwan.
But Bardwan is to the south of the last station, and
on the same side of the Ganges, besides which its Sans-
krit name is Varddhamdna. The difference in the di-
rection of the route might be a mistake, as we have
found in several previous instances ; but the other
differences are, I think, absolutely fatal to the identi-
fication of Bardwan with the place noted by Hwen
Thsang. I would propose Pubna, which is just 100
miles from Kankjol^ and on the opposite bank of the
Gauges, but its direction is nearly south-east instead
of east. The Chinese syllables may represent either
Funya J^arddhana, or Paundra Varddhana ; but the
latter must be the true name, as it is mentioned in
the native history of Kashmirf as the capital of Jay-
anta, Eaja of Gau., who reigned from a.d. 782 to 813.
In the spoken dialects the name would be shortened
from Po7i-bardhan to Pohadlian^ from which it is an
easy step to Pubna, or Pobna^ as some of the people
now pronounce it. Hwen Thsang estimates the cir-
cuit of the kingdom at 4000 //, or 667 miles, which
agrees exactly with the dimensions of the tract of
country bounded by the Mahanadi on the west, the

* Julien's ' Hiouen Thsang,' iii. 74. See Map JSTo. I.

t ' BajaTarangini,' iy. 421. See also the Quart. Orient, ilag. ii. 188,
for an account of Pundra-desa, taken by H. H Wilson from the Brah-
mauda section of the Bhavishya Purana. The greater part of the
province was to the north of the Ganges, including Gauda, Pubna, etc.

CENTRAL INDIA. 481

Tista and Brahmaputra on the east, and the Ganges
on the south.

31. JAJHOTI.

Hwen Thsang places the kingdom of CJii-chi-to at
1000 li, or 167 miles, to the north-east of TJjain. As
the first and second syllables of this name are repre-
sented by different Chinese characters,* it is certain
that the pilgrim must have intended them to be the
eqiiivalents of two distinct Indian characters. This
requirement is fully met by identifying CJd-chi-fo
with the kingdom of Jajhoti^ or Jajhaoti, mentioned
by Abu Eiht,n, who calls the capital KajurdhaJi ,'\ and
places it at 30 parasangs, or about 90 miles, to the
south-east of Kanoj. The true direction, however, is
almost due south, and the distance about twice 30
parasangs, or 180 miles. This capital was actually
visited by Ibn Batuta in a.d. 1335, who calls it Ka-
JAra,l and describes it as possessing a lake about 1
mile in length, which was surrounded by idol temples.
These are still standing at Khajurdho, and they form
perhaps the most magnificent group of Hindu temples
that is now to be found in northern India.

From these accounts of Abu Eihan and Ibn Ba-
tuta, it is evident that the province of Jajhoti corre-
sponded with the modern district of Bundelkhand.
The Chinese pilgrim estimates the circuit of Chichito
at 4000 /?, or 667 miles, which would form a square
of about 167 miles to each side. Now, Bundelkhand
in its widest extent is said to have comprised all

* Julien's ' Hiouen Thsang,' Index, iii. 530, 408. See Map No. I.
t Eeinaud, 'Fragments Arabes,' etc., p. 106.

% Dr. Lee's translation, p. 162; where the name is read as KajwarA,
hut the original Persian characters read KaiurA.

2 I

482

THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OP INDIA.

the countiy to the south of the Jumna and Ganges,
from the Betwa river on the west to the temple
of Vindhya-vddni-Devi on the east, including the
districts of Chdnderi, Sagar^ and Bilhari near the
sources of the Narbada on the south. But these are
also the limits of the ancient country of the Jajhotiya
Brahmans, which, according to Buchanan's informa-
tion,* extended from the Jumna on the north to the
Narbada on the south, and from Urcha on the Betwa
river in the west, to the Bundela ISTala on the east.
The last is said to be a small stream which falls into
the Ganges near Banaras, and within two stages of
Mirzapur. During the last twenty -five years I have
traversed this tract of country repeatedly in all direc-
tions, and I have found the Jajhotiya Brahmans dis-
tributed over the whole province, but not a single
family to the north of the Jumna or to the west of the
Betwa. I have found them at Barwa Sagar near
Urcha on the Betwa, at Mohda near Hamirpoor on
the Jumna, at Eajnagar and Khajui'aho near the Kane
river, and at Udaipoor, Pathari and Eran, between
Chanderi and Bhilsa. In Chanderi itself there are
also Jajhotiya Baniyas, which alone is almost suffi-
cient to show that the name is not a common family
designation, but a descriptive term of more general
acceptance. The Brahmans derive the name of Jajho-
tiya from Yajur-hota, an observance of the Yajur-ved;
but as the name is applied to the Baniyas, or grain-
dealers, as well as to the Brahmans, I think it almost
certain that it must be a mere geographical designa-
tion derived from the name of their country, Jajhoti.
This opinion is confirmed by other well-known names

* ' Eastern India,' it. 452.

CENTRAL INDIA. 483

of the Bralimanical tribes, as Kanojiya from Kanoj ;
Gaur from Gaur ; 8arwanya or Sarjupdria from Sarju-
par, the opposite bank of the Sarju river ; Bravira
from Dravira in the Dakhan, MaitJiila from Mithila,
etc. These examples are sufficient to show the preva-
lence of geographical names amongst the divisions of
the Bralimanical tribes, and as each division is found
most numerously in the province from which it de-
rives its name, I conclude with some certainty that
the country in which the Jajhotiya Brahmans prepon-
derate must be the actual proviuce of Jajhoti.

Khajwuho is a small village of 162 houses, contain-
ing rather less than 1000 inhabitants. Amongst these
there are single houses of seven different divisions of
the Jajhotiya Brahmans, and eleven houses of Chandel
Eajputs, the chief of whom claim descent from Eaja
Parami,! Deo, the antagonist of the famous Prithi Eaj.
The village is surrounded on all sides by temples and
ruins ; but these are more thickly grouped in three
separate spots on the west, north, and south-east. The
western group, which consists entirely of Brahmanical
temples, is situated on the banks of the Sib-sS,gar, a
narrow sheet of water, about three-quarters of a mile
in length from north to south in the rainy season, but
not more than 600 feet square during the dry season.
It is three-quarters of a mile from the village, and the
same distance from the northern group of ruins, and a
full mile from the south-eastern group of Jain temples.
Altogether, the ruins cover about one square mile ;
but as there are no remains of any kind between the
western group and the Khajur S^gar, the boundary of
the ancient city could not have extended beyond the
west bank of the lake. On the other three sides of

2 I 2

484 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OP INDIA.

the lake, the ruins are all continuous, extending over
an oblong space 4500 feet in length from north to
south, and 2500 feet in breadth from east to west,
with a circuit of 14,000 feet, or nearly 3f miles.
This corresponds almost exactly with the size of the
capital as recorded by Hwen Thsang in a.d. 641, but
at some later period the city of Khajuraho was ex-
tended to the east and south as far as the Kurar ISTala,
when it had a circuit of not less than 3|- miles. As
Mahoba must have been abotit the same size as Kha-
juraho, it is doubtful which of the two was the capital
at the time of Hwen Thsang' s visit. But as the very
name of Mahoba, or Mahotsava-nagara, the " City of
the great Jubilee," is specially connected with the
rise of the Chandel dynasty, I think it most probable
that Khajuraho must have been the capital of the
earlier dynasty of Jajhotiya Brahmans ; and there-
fore it must have been the capital of JajJioti at
the time of Hwen Thsang's visit. But as it is up-
wards of 300 miles from Ujain, or just double the dis-
tance mentioned by the pilgrim, his 1000 li must be
increased to 2000 li, or 333 miles, to make it accord
with the actual measui'ement. It is a curious fact
that Abu Eihan's distance from Kanoj is also in defect
in the same proportion ; and this agreement suggests
that the probable cause of both errors must be the
same, namely, the excessive length of the kos of Bun-
delkhand, which is a little over 4 miles, or exactly
double the ordinary kos of northern India.

HAven Thsang estimates the circuit of the kingdom
of Jajhoti at 4000 //, or 667 miles. To meet these large
dimensions it must have comprised the whole tract
of country lying between the Sindh and the Tons,

CENTRAL INDIA. 485

from the Ganges on the north to Nya Sarai and Bilhari
on the south. This tract includes the famous fort of
Kalinjar, which became the permanent capital of the
Ch^ndel Eajas after the occupation of Mahoba by the
Muhammadans, and the strong fortress of Chanderi,
which became the Muhammadan capital of eastern Mal-
wa, after the desertion of the old city of Buri Chanderi.

Mahoha.

The ancient city of Mahoba is situated at the foot
of a low granite hill, 54 miles to the south of Hamir-
pur, at the junction of the Betwa and Jumna, 34
miles to the north of Khajuraho. Its name is a con-
traction of MaJiotsava-nagara, or the " City of the
great festival," which was celebrated there by Chan-
dra Yarmma, the founder of the Chandel dynasty. It
is said to have been 6 yojanas long and 2 broad, which
is only the usual exaggeration of silly story-tellers
for a large city. At its greatest extent, according to
my observation, it could never have exceeded 1^ mile
in length, from the small castle of Rai-kot on the west,
to the Kalyan Sagar on the east. It is about 1 mile
in breadth, which would give a circuit of 5 miles, but
an area of only 1 square mile, as the south-west quarter
is occupied by the Madan S^gar. Its population,
therefore, at the most flourishing period, must have
been under 100,000 persons, even allowiag as high an
average as one person to every 300 square feet. In
1843, when I resided at Mahoba for about six weeks,
there were only 756 inhabited houses, with a popula-
tion less than 4000 persons ; since then the place has
somewhat increased, and is now said to possess 900
houses, and about 5000 inhabitants.

486

THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

Mahoba is divided into three distinct portions :— 1st,
MaJwba, or the city proper, to the north of the hill ;
2nd, Bihtari-kila, or the inner fort, on the top of the
hill ; and 3rd, Bariba, or the city to the south of the
hill. To the west of the city lies the great lake of
Kirat Sdffar, about 1^ mile in circumference, which
was constructed by Kirtti Varmma, who reigned from
A.D. 1065 to 1085. To the south is the Madan Sugar,
about 3 miles in circuit, wliich was constructed by
Madanu Farmma, who reigned from a.d. 1130 to 1165.
To the east is the small lake of Kali/dn Sdgar, and
beyond it lies the large deep lake of Vijay Sdgar,
which was constructed by Vijaga Pdla, who ruled
from A.D. 1045 to 10G5. The last is the largest of
the Mahoba lakes, being not less than 4 miles in
circuit; but the most picturesque of all sheets of
Avator in the beautiful lake district of Bundelkhand
is the Madan Sagar. On the west it is bounded by
the singularly rugged granite hill of Gokar, on the
north by ranges of ghats and temples at the foot of
the old fort, and on the south-east by three rocky pro-
montories that jut boldly out into the middle of the
lake. Near the north side there is a rocky island,
now covered with ruined buildings ; and towards the
north-west corner there are two old granite temples of
the Chandel princes, one altogether ruined, but the
other still standing lofty and erect in the midst of the
waters after the lapse of 700 years.

The traditional story of the foundation of Mahoba
Avas originally given by the bard Chand, and has been
copied by the local annalists.* According to the

* The portion of Chand's poem whioli treats of the war with the
Chandel Kaja Parmal (or Paramarddi Deva), and of the origin of the
Chandcla, is named ISIahoha- Kh and .

CENTEAL INDIA.

487

legend, the Chandels are sprung from Hemdvati,
daughter of Hem-raj, the Brahman Purohit of Indra-
jit, Gahirwar Eaja of Bantlras. Hemdvati was very
beautiful, and one day when she went to bathe in the
Eati TMab, she was seen and embraced by Chandra-
md, the god of the moon, as he was preparing to re-
turn to the skies. Hemavati cursed him. "Why
do you curse me?" said Chan drama, "your son will
be Lord of the Earth, and from him will spring a
thousand branches." Hemavati inquired, " How shall
my dishonour be effaced, when I am without a hus-
band ? " " Fear not," replied ChandramS,, " your son
will be born on the bank of the Karnavati river : then
take him to Khajurdya, and offer him as a gift, and
perform a sacrifice. In Mahoba he will reign, and
will become a great king. He will possess the philo-
sopher's stone, and will turn iron into gold. On the
hill of Kdlinjar he will build a fort ; when your son is
16 years of age, you must perform a Blidnda Jag to
wipe away your disgrace, and then leave Banaras to
live at Kalinjar."

According to this prophecy, Hemavati's child, like
another Chandrama, was born on Monday the 11th
of the waxing moon of Vaisdkh on the bank of the
Karnavati, the modern Kaydn, or Kane river of the
maps.* Then Chandrama, attended by all the gods,
performed a " great festival" {MaJtotsava), when Yri-
haspati wrote his horoscope, and the child was named
Chandra Yarmma. At 16 years of age he killed a
tiger, when Chandrama appeared to him and pre-

* In some of the manuscripts the name of the river is written
Kiy&n, and Kiranavati. The former is no doubt the original of
Arrian's Kainas, which has perhaps been altered from Kianas.

THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

sentcd him with the philosopher's stone, and taught
him polity {rdjnit). Then he built the fort of Kalinjar,
after which he went to Kharjurpur, where he per-
formed a sacrifice {Jag or Yajnya) to do away with his
mo tiler's shame, and built 85 temples. Then Chan-
dravati Eani and all the other queens sat at the feet of
Hemavati, and her disgrace was wiped away. Lastly
he went to Mahotsava, or Mahoba, the place of Chan-
drama's " great festival," which he made his capital.

The date of this event is variously stated by the
different authorities ; but according to the genealogies
furnished by the inscriptions, the most probable period
for the establishment of the Chandel dynasty, and the
foundation of Mahoba, is about a.b. 800.

32. MAHESWARAPURA.

From Jajhoti the Chinese pilgrim proceeded to
the north for 900 /f, or 150 miles, to Mo-Jn-sld-fa-lo-
pu-lo, or Maheswarapura, the king of which was like-
Avisc a Brahman. As a northern direction would con-
duct us to the neighbourhood of Kanoj, I conclude
that there is probably a mistake in the bearing. I
would, therefore, propose to read 900 li, or 150 miles,
to the south, in which position stands the old town of
Mnndala^ which was also called Maheshnatipura*
This was the original capital of the country on the
Upper Karbada, which was afterwards supplanted by
Tripuri^ or Tewar, 6 miles from Jabalpur. The name
is old, as the ' Mahawanso ' mentions that the Thero
Mahadeva was sent to Mahesa-Mandala, in the time
of Asoka, 240 B.c.f The products of the country are

* Sleeman, Journ. Asiat. Soe. Bengal, 1837, p. 622.
t Tumour's ' Mahavraiiso,' p. 71.

CENTRAL INDIA. 489

said to have resembled those of Ujain, which is a
sufficient proof that Maheswara could not have been
anywhere to the north of Jajhoti, as the light-coloured
soils about Gwalior and in the Gangetic Doab are
quite different from the black soil around Ujain. For
these reasons, I am inclined to identify Maheshmati-
pura on the upper Narbada, with the Maheswarapura
of Hwon Thsang. The kingdom was 3000 li, or 500
miles, in circuit. "With these dimensions, its bounda-
ries may be fixed approximately as extending from
Dumoh and Leoni on the west, to the sources of the
Narbada on the east.

33. UJAIN.

Hwen Thsang describes the capital of U-she-i/en-na,
or Ujjayini^ as 30 li, or 5 miles, in circuit, which is
only a little less than its size at the present day. The
kingdom was 6000 li, or 1000 miles, in circuit. To
the west it was bounded by the kingdom of Malwa,
with its capital of Dhdra-nagar, or Dhdr, within 50 miles
of Ujain. The territory of Ujain could not therefore
have extended westward beyond the Chambal river,
but to the north it must have been bounded by the
kingdoms of Mathura and Jajhoti; to the east by
Maheswarapura, and to the south by the Satpura moun-
tains running between the Narbada and the Tapti.
Within these limits, that is from Eanthambhawar and
Burh^npui- on the west, to Dumoh and Seoni on the
east, the circuit of the territory assigned to Ujain is
about 900 miles.*

The kingdom of Ujain was under the rule of a
Brahman Eaja, like the two neighbouring states of

* Julien's ' Hiouea Thsang,' iii. 167. See Map No. I.

490

THE ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY OF INDIA.

Jajhoti and Mahesivarapura ; but the king of Jajho'-i
was a Buddhist, while the other two kings were Brah-
manists. To the west, the king of Malwa was a staunch
Buddhist. But the Mo-la-po, or Mahva, of Hwen
Thsang is limited to the western half of the ancient
province, the eastern half forming the Brahmanical
kingdom of Ujain. As the political divisions of the
province thus correspond with its religious divisions,
it may fairly be inferred that the rupture was caused
by religious dissensions. And further, as the western
or Buddhist half of the province still retained the
ancient name of Malwa, I conclude that the Brah-
manists were the seceders, and that the kingdom of
Ujam was a recent Brahmanical offshoot from the
old Buddhist kingdom of Malwa. Similarly, I believe
that Mahesivarapura must have been a Brahmanical
offshoot from the great Buddhist kingdom of Kosala,
or Berar, which will be described hereafter. In Ujaia,
there were several dozens of monasteries, but at the
time of Hwen Thsang's visit, there were only three
or four not in ruins, which gave shelter to about 300
monks. The temples of the gods were very numerous,
and the king himself was well versed in the heretical
books of the Brahmans.

34. MALWA.

The capital of Mo-la-po, or Malwa, is described by
Hwen Thsang as situated to the south-east of the
river Mo-ho, or Main, and at about 2000 li, or 333
miles, to north-west of Bharoch.* In this case both
bearing and distance are erroneous, as Malwa lies to
tlie north-east of Bharoch, fi-om which the source of

* Julien's ' Hiouen Thsang,' iii. 155.

CENTRAL INDIA. 491

tlie river Mahi is only 150 miles distant. I would there-
fore read 1000 li, or 167 miles, to tlie north-east, which
corresponds almost exactly with the position of Bhdra-
nagara^ or Bhdr^ one of the old capitals of Malwa.
The present town of Dh^r is about three-quarters of
a mile in length, by half a mile in breadth, or 2|-
miles in circumference ; but as the citadel is outside
the town, the whole circuit of the place cannot be less
than 3| miles. The limits of the province are esti-
mated at 6000 li^ or 1000 miles. To the westward
there were two dependencies of Malwa, named Khedd,
with a circuit of 3000 li, or 500 miles, and Anandapura,
with a circuit of 2000 li, or 333 miles, besides an in-
dependent state, named Vadari, with a circuit of 6000
li, or 1000 miles. All these have to be squeezed into
the tract of country lying between Kachh and Ujain,
on the west and east, Gurjara and Bairat on the north,
and Balabhi and Maharashtra on the south, of which
the extreme boundaries are not more than 1350 miles
in circuit. It seems probable, therefore, that the de-
pendencies must have been included by the pilgrim
within the limits of the ruling state. I would accord-
ingly assign to Malwa and its dependencies the
southern half of the tract just mentioned, and to
Fadari, the northern half. The limits of Malwa would
thus be defined, by Yadari on the north, Balabhi on
the west, Ujain on the east, and Maharashtra on the
south. The circuit of this tract, extending from the
mouth of the Ban^s river, in the Ean of Kachh, to
the Chambal, near Mandisor, and from the Sahyadri
mountains, between DaTnan and Maligam, to the Tapti
river, below Burhanpur, is about 850 miles measured
on the map, or nearly 1000 miles by road distance.

492 THE ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY OF INDIA.

According to Abu Eihan,* the distance of the city
of Dhar from the ISTarbada was 7 parasangs, and
thence to the boundary of Mahrat-das, 18 parasangs.
This proves that the territory of Dhar must have ex-
tended as far as the Tapti, on the south.

Hwen Thsang mentions that there were two king-
doms in India that were specially esteemed for the
study of the Buddhist, religion, namely, Magadha in the
north-east, and Malwa in the soiith-west. In accord-
ance with this fact he notes, that there were many
hundreds of monasteries in Malwa, and no less than
twenty thousand monks of the school of the Samma-
tiyas. He mentions, also, that 60 years previous to his
visit, Malwa had been governedfor 50 years by a power-
ful king, named Silddifija^ who was a staunch Buddhist.

35. KHEDA.

The district of Kie-cha, or Kheda^ is placed by Hwen
Thsang at 300 //, or 50 miles to the north-west of
]\rahya.-|- As both M. Stanislas Julien and M. Vivien
de Saint-Martin render Kie-cha by KItacha, which they
identify in the peninsula of Kachh, I am bound to state
the ground on which I venture to propose a different
reading. On looking over the other names in which
the peculiar symbol cha is used, I find that it occurs
in the well-known names of Pdtali-putra and KuJd-uta^
where it represents the cerebral t, and again in O.cha-Ii^
which ]\I. Julien renders by Jtali, and M. de Saint-
Martin identifies with the desert region of the Thai,
or Thar. Consistently, therefore, the name of Kie-cha
sliould be rendered Khc-ta. Now Kheda is the true

* Eeinaud, ' Fragments Arabes et Persans,' p. 109.
t Julien's ' Hiouen Thsang,' iii. 161.

CENTRAL INDIA.

493

Sanskrit form of Kaira, a large town of Gujarat,
situated between Ahmadabad and Khambay ; and I
would therefore identify the pilgrim's Kie-cha with
Kheda. It is true that Hwen Thsang's recorded dis-
tance is only 300 li, but there are so many mistakes
in the bearings and distances of this part of the pil-
grim's journey, that I have no hesitation in proposing
a correction of the text, by reading 1800 li, or 217
miles, which is very nearly the exact distance between
Kaira and Dhar. "When we remember that the pro-
vince of Malwa was bounded on the east, within 25
miles, by the independent territory of Ujain, it is
difficult to perceive how there could have been any
other state within 50 miles of Dhfi,r, otherwise the
territory of Malwa would have been compressed to a
breadth of about 50 miles, between Ujain and Kheda.
But this difficulty is entirely removed by adopting
my proposed correction, by which the district of Kheda
becomes the extreme western division of the kingdom
of Malwa. Hwen Thsang estimates its circuit at
3000 li, or 500 miles, a size which agrees very well
with the probable limits of the district of Kaira,
which may be stated as extending from the bank of
the Sabarmati on the west, to the great bend of the
Mahi river on the north-east, and to Baroda in the
south. In shape it is a rough square.

36. ANANDAPURA.

Hwen Thsang places O.nan.to.puJo, or Anandapura,
at 700 li, or 117 miles, to the north-west of Vallahhi*
This town has been identified by M. Yiven de Saint-
Martin with Barnagar, on the authority of the Kalpa

* Julien's ' Hiouen Thsang,' iil. 164.

494 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

Sutra of the Jains ; but tile bearing is to tbe east of
north, and the distance is 150 miles, or 900 li. Bar-
nagar has already been mentioned as the Sanskrit
Vadapura, or Barpur. The district was 2000 li, or 333
miles, in extent, and was a dependency of Malwa.
This estimate of its size will be fully met by limiting
its territory to the triangular tract lying between the
mouth of the Banas river on the west, and the Sabar-
mati river on the east.

On leaving Malwa, Hwen Thsang travelled first to
the south-west to the " confluence of two seas," and
then turning to the north-west reached 0-cha-li^ or
Vadari,* the whole distance being between 2400 and
2500 li, or between 400 and 417 miles. By the term
" confluence of two seas," I understand the meeting
of the waters of the southern and western seas in the
Gulf of Khambay. The town of Sural, or the ancient
SurpdraJca near the mouth of the Tapti, may be consi-
dered as the entrance of the gulf ; and as it lies to the
south-west of Dhdr, it was probably this point that was
first visited by Hwen Thsang. The distance is just
200 miles. Prom Surat to Eder the distance is the
same, but the direction is to the east of north ; I would,
therefore, read north-east instead of north-west, and
the position of Eder will then correspond sufficiently
well with that of Hwen Thsang's 0-cha-li or Vadari. I
am ignorant of the Sanskrit name of Eder, but it seems
highly probable that the city of Vadari mentioned in
the Basantgarh inseriptionf is the same place. In the

* Julien's ' Hiouen Thsang,' iii. 160.
t Jotirn. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, x. 668.

CENTRAL INDIA.

495

middle of the eleventh century Vadari was the capital
of a chiefship in the neighbourhood of Fadapura or
Barnagar^ which lies 30 miles to the westward of Eder, j
and on the opposite side of the Sabarmati river. The '
royal family claimed descent from Eaja Bhava-Gupta,
"who was a great warrior and the illuminator of 1
his line." This Bhava or Bhaba I believe to be the j
same as the Bav or Bappa of the Bisodiya annalists of \
Udaypur, whose immediate predecessors for several i
generations were the Eajas of Eder. As Bappa lived >
in the beginning of the eighth century, the date of his
predecessors, the Rajas of Eder, agrees exactly with
the period of Hwen Thsang's visit. For these reasons I
I think that there are fair grounds for the identiflca- I
tion of Eder with the Vadari of the inscription, as well
as with the Otali^ or Vadari, of the Chinese pilgrim.

The size of the province is estimated at 6000 A', or
1000 miles, in circuit. This large extent shows that
Atali or Yadari must have comprised the whole of the
unassigned tract of country lying between Vairat on
the north, Gurjjara on the west, Ujain on the east, and
Malwa on the south. Its boundaries, therefore, must 1
have been Ajmer and Eanthambhor to the north, the j
Loni and Chambal rivers on the east and west, and \
the Malwa frontier on the south, from the mouth of the
Banas river in the Ean of Eachh to the Chambal near
Mandisor. The circuit of these limits is about 900 miles
measured on the map, or 1000 miles by road distance. ;

In Pliny's account of the different nations to the
eastward of the Lower Indus I find the following pas-
sage, which would seem to apply to Eder and the sur-
rounding districts.* "Next the Narecs, who are bounded

* Nat. HLst., vi. c. 23.

496

THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

by Caplfulia, the loftiest mountain of India, on the
other side of which the people dig up much gold and
silver. Beyond them are the Oraturce (or Or aim),
whose king has only ten elephants, but a large force
of infantry, (and) the Faretata (or Suaratatata), whose
king has no elephants, but a strong force of horse and
foot. (Then) the OdombcercB''' etc. The last nation
has already been identified with the people of Kachh,
and the high mountain of Capitalia can only be the
holy JrbtHla, or Mount Abu, which rises to more than
5000 feet above the sea. The Narese must therefore ,
be the people of Sariii, or the " country of reeds," as I
nar and sar are synonymous terms for a " reed." The i
country of Sariii is still famous for its reed arrows.

The Oratura I would identify with the people of
Vculapura^ or Barpur, which is the same name as
Briniatjar. By reading ir instead of t in the Greek
original of Oratura, the name will become Orapura,
which is the same as Barpii^-, or Vadapura. The last
name in Pliny's list is Varetata^ which I would change
to VrifaretcE, by the transposition of two letters. This
spelling is countenanced by the termination of the
various reading of Suaratarata, which is found in some
editions. It is quite possible however, that the Suara-
tarata may be intended for the Smashtras. The famous
Varalia Mihira mentions the SurdsJdras and Bddaras
together, amongst the people of the south-west of
India.* These Bddaras must therefore be the people
of Badari, or Vadari.

I understand the name of Tddari to denote a district
abounding in the Badari, or Ber-trea (Jujube), which
is very common in southern Eajputana. For the same

* Dr. Kern's ' BriLat Sanliita,' xiv. 19-

CENTRAL INDIA.

497

reason I should look to this neighbourhood for the
ancient Sauvira, which I take to be the true form of
the famous Sophir, or Ophir, as Sauvira is only an-
other name of the Vadari, or 5er-tree, as well as of its
juicy fruit. Now, Sofir is the Coptic name of India at
the present day ; but the name must have belonged
originally to that part of the Indian coast which was
frequented by the merchants of the West. There can
be little doubt, I think, that this was in the Gulf of
Khambay, which from time immemorial has been the
chief seat of Indian trade with the West. During the
whole period of Greek history this trade was almost •
monopolized by the famous city of Barygaza, or
Bharoch, at the mouth of the Narbada river. About
the fourth century some portion of it was diverted to
the new capital of Balabhi, in the peninsula of Gujarat ;
in the middle ages it was shared with Khambay at
the head of the gulf, and in modern times with Surat,
at the mouth of the Tapti.

If the name of Sauvira was derived, as I suppose,
from the prevalence of the Ber-tree, it is probable
that it was only another appellation for the province
of Badari, or Eder, at the head of the Gulf of Kham-
bay. This, indeed, is the very position in which we
should expect to find it, according to the ancient
inscription of Eudra Dama, which mentions Sindhu-
Sauvira immediately after Surdshtra and BhdruJcachha,
and just before Kulura^ Apdranta^ and Nishada* Ac-
cording to this arrangement, Sauvira must have been
to the north of Surashtra and Bharoch, and to the
south of Nishada, or just where I have placed it, in
the neighbourhood of Mount Abu. Much the same

* Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bombay, vii. 120.

- 2 K

498 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

locality is assigned to Sauvira in the Yishnu Purana :
' ' in the extreme west are the Saurashtras, Suras,
Abhiras, Arbudas ; the Karushas and Malavas dwelling
along the Parip^tra mountains ; the Sauviras^ the
Saindhavas, the Hunas, the Salwas, the people of
Sakala, the Madras, etc."* In this enumeration we
find mention of nearly every known district lying
around Yadari, or Eder, on the east, west, north, and
south. But there is no notice of Vadari itself, nor of
Kheda, nor of EZhambay, nor of Analwara, from which
I infer that Sauvira most probably included the whole
of these places. Vadari, or Sauvira, was therefore
equivalent to southern Rfi,jputana.

In the Septuagint translation of the Bible, the
Hebrew Ophir is always rendered by Sophir. This
spelling was perhaps adopted in deference to the
Egyptian or Coptic name of Soflr. The earliest men-
tion of the name is in the Book of Job, where the ' ' gold
of Ophir" is referred to as of the finest quality. f
At a later date the ships of Hnram, king of Tyre.
" went with the servants of Solomon to Ophir, and
took thence 450 talents of gold, and brought them to
King Solomon."! The gold of Ophir is next referred
to by Isaiah, who says, " I will make a man more pre-
cious than gold, even a man than the golden wedge of
Ophir."§ The word here translated ' wedge ' means a
' tongue, or ingot ;' and I infer that the wedge of gold
of 50 shekels weight that was concealed by Achan,||
was most probably one of the ingots of Ophir.

* Wilson's translation, edited by Hall, book ii. 3 ; vol. ii. p. 133.
t C. xxii. 24, and xxviii. 16.

X 2 Chron. viii. 18. In 1 Kings ix. 28, the amount is 420 talents.
§ 0. xii. 12. II Joshua vii. 21.

EASTERN INDIA. 499

It now remains to stow that the district of Vadari,
or Eder, which I have suggested as the most probable
representative of Ophir, has been, and still is one of
the gold producing countries of the world. The evi-
dence on this point, though meagre, is quite clear.
The only ancient testimony which I can produce is
that of Pliny, who describes the people dwelling
on the other side of mount Capitalia (or Abu), as
possessing " extensive mines of gold and silver."*
At the present day the Aravali range is the only
part of India in which silver is found in any quantity,
while the beds of its torrents still produce gold, of
which many fine specimens may be seen in the India
museum.

But if the Gulf of Khambay was the great empo-
rium of Indian trade with the West, it is not necessary
that the gold for which it was famous should have
been produced in the district itself. At the present
day, Bombay, which is on the same western coast,
exports the produce of two inland districts, the opium
of Mfi,lwa and the cotton of Berar. Wherever the
emporium of commerce may have been, to that point
the gold of India would have flowed naturally, in
exchange for the commodities of the West.

EASTERN INDIA.

In the seventh century the division of Eastern India
comprised Assam and Bengal proper, together with
the Delta of the Ganges, Sambhalpur, Orissa, and
Ganjam. Hwen Thsang divides the province into six
kingdoms, which he calls Kdmarupa, Samatata, Tam-

* Hist. Nat. vi. 23 " Hujus incolse, alio latere, late auri et argenti
metaila fodiunt."

2 K 2

500

THE ANCIENT GEOGEAPHT OF INDIA.

ral'qjfi^ Kir ana Suvarna, Odra, and Ganjam* and under
these names I will now proceed to describe them.

1. KAMARUPA.

From Pamidra Varddhana, or Puhna, in Middle
India, the Chinese pilgrim proceeded for 900 li^ or
150 miles, to the east, and crossing a great river,
entered Kia-mo-ku-po, or Kdniampa, which is the
Sanskrit name of Assam. f The territory is estimated
at 10,000 li, 1667 miles, in circuit. This large extent
shows that it must have comprised the whole valley
of the Brahmaputra river, or modern Assam, together
with Kusa-Vihara, and Butan. The valley of the
Brahmaputra was anciently divided into three tracts,
which may be described as the Eastern, Middle, and
Western districts, namely, Sadiya^ Assam proper, and
Kamruj). As the last was the most powerful state,
and also the nearest to the rest of India, its name
came into general use to denote the whole valley.
Kusa-Vihdra was the western division of Kdmrup pro-
per ; and as it was the richest part of the country, it
became for some time the residence of the rajas, whose
capital, called Kamatipura^ gave its name to the whole
province. J But the old capital of Kdmrup is said to
have been Gohaii, on the south bank of the Brahma-
putra. Now, Kamatipura, the capital oi Kusa-Vihdra^
is exactly 150 miles, or 900 li, from Pubna,§ but the
direction is due north ; while Gohati is about twice
that distance, or say 1900 //, or 317 miles, from
Pubna, in a north-east direction. As the position of
the former agrees exactly with the distance recorded

* See Map No. I. t Julien's ' Hiouen Thsang,' iii. 76.

X ' Ayin Akbari,' ii. 3. " Kamrup, which is also called Kamtali."
§ See Map No. I.

EASTERN INDIA.

501

by the pilgrim, it is almost certain that it must have
been the capital of Kdmrup in the seventh century.
This would seem to be confirmed by the fact that the
language of the people differed but slightly from that
of Central India. It was therefore not Assamese, and
consequently I infer that the capital visited by Hwen
Thsang was not GoJiati, in the valley of the Brahma-
putra, but Kamatipura, in the Indian district of Kusa-
Vih^ra. The great river crossed by the pilgrim would
therefore be the Tlsta, and not the Brahmaputra.

On the east Kamrup touched the frontiers of the
south-western barbarians of the Chinese province of
SJiu; but the route was difficult, and occupied two
months. On the south-east the forests were full of
wild elephants, which is still the case at the present
day. The king was a Brahman, named Bhaskara
Yarmma, who claimed descent from the god NarS,-
yana, or Vishnu, and his family had occupied the
throne for one thousand generations. He was a
staunch Buddhist, and accompanied Harsha Vard-
dhana in his religious procession from Pataliputra to
Kanoj, in a.d. 643.

2. SAMATATA.

The capital of the kingdom of Samatata, or San-mo-
ta-cha, is placed at from 1200 to 1300 /«', or from 200
to 217 miles, to the south of Kamrup, and 900 /?', or
150 miles, to the east of T§,mralipti, or Tamluk.* The
first position corresponds almost exactly with Jasar,
or Jessore, which is most probably the place intended.
The bearing and distance from Tamluk would take us
to the iminhabited part of the Sundari-vana, or Sun-

* Julien's 'Hiouen Tksang,' iii. 81. See Map No. I.

o02 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

darbans, between the Huranghata river and Bakar-
ganj. But ■ in a country so mucb intersected by
watercourses as Lower Bengal, the road distance is
about one-fonrtb greater than the direct distance,
measured on the map. Thus, Jessore, which is 103
miles from DJiaJcka., and 77 miles from Calcutta by
road, is only 82 and 62 miles distant from them by
direct measurement. Accordingly, Hwen Thsang's
distance of 150 miles by route will not be more than
120 miles by direct measurement on the map, which
is only 20 miles in excess of the actual direct distance
between Jessore and Tamluk. But as Tamluk is not
approachable by land from the east, the pilgrim must
have travelled at least one-half of the route by water,
and his distance of 150 miles may be accepted as a
fair estimate of the mixed route by land and water,
which could not be actually measured. The name of
Jasar, or " The Bridge," which has now supplanted
the ancient name of Murali, shows the nature of the
country, which is so completely intersected by deep
watercourses, that before the construction of the pre-
sent roads and bridges, the chief communication was
by boats. ]\[urali, or Jasar, is most probably the
Ga7i(^e ragia of Ptolemy.

The country of Samatata is mentioned in the in-
scription of Samudra Gupta on the Allahabad pillar,*
in which it is coupled with Kamrup and Nepal. It
is mentioned also in the geographical list of Varaha
Mihira, who lived in the beginning of the sixth cen-
tury, f According to Professor Lassen, the name sig-
nifies "bas pays littoral," which accords exactly with

* Journ. Asiat. Soo. Bengal, vi. 793 ; line 19 of inscription,
t Dr. Kern's ' Brihat-Sanhita,' xiv. 6.

EASTERN INDIA.

503

Hwen Thsang's description of it as a low, moist country
on the seashore. The inhabitants were short and
black, as is the case at the present day with the
people of Lower Bengal. From all these concurrent
facts, it is certain that Samatata must be the Delta of
the Ganges ; and as the country is described as 3000
A", or 500 miles, in circuit, it must have included the
whole of the present Delta, or triangular tract be-
tween the Bhagirathi river and the main stream of
the Ganges.

Hwen Thsang mentions several countries lying to
the east of Samatata, but as he gives only the general
bearings and not the distances, it is not easy to iden-
tify the names. The first place is Shi4i-cha-ta-lo,
which was situated in a valley near the great sea, to
the north-east of Samatata* This name is probably
intended for Sri-Kshatra, or Sri-Kshetra, which M.
Vivien de Saint-Martin has identified with Sri-hafa, or
Sil/tat, to the north-east of the Gangetic Delta. This
town is situated in the valley of the Megna river, and
although it is at a considerable distance from the sea,
it seems most probable that it is the place intended by
the pilgrim. The second country is Kia-mo-lang-lda,
which was situated beyond the first, to the east, and
near a great bay. This place may, I think, be iden-
tified with the district of Komilla, in Tipera, to the
east of the Megna river, and at the head of the Bay of
Bengal. The third country is To.lo.po.ti, which was
to the east of the last. M. Julien renders the name
by Dwdravati, but he makes no attempt to identify it.
I would, however, suggest that it may be Talairiffvati,
that is, the country of the Takings, or Pegu. Vati is

* Julien's 'Hiouen Thsang,' iii. 82.

504

THE ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY OP INDIA.

the common termination of the names of the Burmese
districts, as Hansavati, Dwayavati, Dinyavati, etc.
The next name is I-skanff-na-pu-lo, which was to the
east of the last ; then still further to the east was Mo-
ho-chen-po, and beyond that to the south-west was the
kingdom of Yen-mo-na-cheu. The first of these names
I take to be the country of the Shan tribes, or Laos ;
the second is probably Cochin China or Anam; and
the third, which M. Stanislas Julien renders by Ya-
mana-dwipa, is almost certainly Yava-dwipa, or Java.

3. TAMEALIPTI.

The kingdom of Tan-mo-li-ti, or Tdmralipti, is de-
scribed as 1400 or 1500 li, about 250 miles, in cir-
cuit.* It was situated on the seashore, and the sur-
face of the country was low and wet. The capital
was in a bay, and was accessible both by land and
water. Tdmralipti is the Sanskrit name of Tamluk,
which is situated on a broad reach or bay of the Eup-
narayan river, 12 miles above its junction with the
Hughli. The district probably comprised the small
but fertile tract of country lying to the westward of
the Hughli river, from Bardw^n and Kalna on the
north to the banks of the Rosai river on the south.
From Tdmaliili, the Pali form of the name, came the
classical Tamalifes.

4. KIRANA-SUVARNA.

Hwcn Thsang places the capital of Kie-Io-na-su-fa-
la-na, or Kirana Suvarna, at 700 /?, or 117 miles, to the
north-west of Tamralipti, and the same distance to
the north-east of Odra or Orissa.f As the capital of

* Julien 's 'Hiouen Thsang,' iii. 83.

t Ibid., iii. 84 and 88. See Map No. I.

EASTERN INDIA. 505

Orissa in the seventh century was Jajipur on the
Vaitarani river, the chief city of Kir ana Suvarna must
be looked for along the course of the Suvarna-riksha
river, somewhere about the districts of SingUbhum and
Barahlium. But this wild part of India is so little
known that I am unable to suggest any particular
place as the probable representative of the ancient
capital of the country. Bara Bazar is the chief town
in Barabhum, and as its position corresponds very
closely with that indicated by Hwen Thsang, it may
be accepted as the approximate site of the capital in
the seventh centTiry. The territory was from 4-iOO
to 4500 A", or from 733 to 750 miles, in circuit. It
must, therefore, have comprised all the petty hill-
states lying between Medinipur and Sirguja on the
east and west, and between the sources of the Da-
muda and Vaitarani on the north and south.

This large tract of country is now occupied by a
number of wild tribes who are best known by the
collective name of Kolhdn or Kols. But as the people
themselves speak various dialects of two distinct lan-
guages, it would appear that they must belong to two
different races, of whom the Munda and the TJraon
may be taken as the typical representatives. Accord-
ing to Colonel Dalton,* "the Miindas first occupied
the country and had been long settled there when the
TJraons made their appearance;" and "though these
races are now found in many parts of the country oc-
cupying the same villages, cultivating the same fields,
celebrating together the same festivals and enjoying the
same amusements, they are of totally distinct origin,
and cannot intermarry without loss of caste." This

* Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, 1866, p. 154.

506

THE ANCIENT GEOGEAPHy OF INDIA.

difference of race is confirmed by the decisive test of
language, wliich. shows that the Uraons are connected
with the Tamilian races of the south, while the Miindas
belong to the hill men of the north, who are spread
over the Himalayan and Vindhyan mountains from
the Indus to the IBay of Bengal.

The various tribes connected with the M-dndas are
enumerated by Colonel Dalton* as the Kuars of Elich-
pur, the Korewas of Sirguja and Jaspur, the Kherias
of Chutia Nagpur, the Hor of Singhbhum, the Bhumij
of Manbhum and Dhalbhum, and the Sdntah of Man-
bhtim, Singhbhum, Katak, Hazaribagh, and the Bha-
galpur hills. To these he adds the Jmngas or Pattuns
(leaf-clad) of Keunjar, etc. in the Katak tributary
districts, who are isolated from " all other branches
of the Munda family, and have not themselves the
least notion of their connection with them ; but their
language shows that they are of the same race, and
that their nearest kinsmen are the Kherias.'''' The
western branches of this race are the Bhils of Malwa
and Kanhdes, and the Kolis of Gujarat. To the south
of these tribes there is another division of the same
race, who are called Suras or Suars. They occupy
the northern end of the eastern Ghats.

According to Colonel Dalton, -f the Ho or Hor tribe
of Singhbhum is "the nucleus of the Munda nation."
lie calls it "the most compact, the purest, the most
powerful and most interesting division of the whole
race, and in appearance decidedly the best-looking.

* Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, 1866, 158. I write Sdntal in prefer-
ence to Sonthal, as I believe that the short o is only the peculiar Bea-
gfili pronunciation of the long &.

t Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, 1866, 168.

EASTERN INDIA.

507

In their erect carriage and fine manly bearing the
Hos look like a people that have maintained and are
proud of their independence. Many have features
of sufficiently good cast to entitle them to rank as
Arians; high noses, large but well-formed mouths,
beautiful teeth, and the facial angle as good as in the
Hindu races. . . . When the face of the Munda varies
from the Arian or Caucasian type, it appears rather to
merge into the Mongolian than the Negro. . . . They
are of average stature, and in colour vary from brown
to tawny yellow."

In the different dialects of the Munda language /<o,
Iwr^ horo, or hoko is the term for "man." The as-
sumption of this name by the people of Singhbhum is
a strong conflrmation of Colonel Dalton's description
of the tribe as the most powerful division of the Munda
nation. But they also call themselves Larakas, or the
"warriors," which points to the same conclusion that
they are the leading division of the Munda race.

Colonel Dalton gives no explanation of the name of
M^nda ; but as I find that the head men of the vil-
lages are called Munda or Moto amongst the Hors of
Singhbhum and other divisions of the Munda race, I
conclude that the Mundas or Motos must once have
been the ruling division of the nation. The name of
Munda is found in the Vishnu Purana* as the appel-
lation of a dynasty of eleven princes who succeeded
the Tushdras or Tokhari. In the Yayu Purana, how-
ever, the name is omitted, and we have only Ma-
runda, which is most probably the variant form of
another name, Murunda^ as found in two inscriptions

* Wilson's translation, edited by Hall, book iv. 24, and vol. iv.
p. 203.

508

THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

of the second and third centuries.* Ptolemy has
l\[arundai as the name of a people to the north of the
Gauges ; hut to the south of the river he places the
j\IuniMi, who may be the Mundas of Chutia ISTagpur,
as their language and country are called Mmdala.
This is only a suggestion ; but from the position of
the Mandali they wovX(\. seem to be the same people as
tlie Monedes of Pliny, who with the 8uari occupied the
inland country to the south of the Palibothri.f As
this is the exact position of the country of the Mdndas
and Suars, I think it quite certain that they must be
the same race as the Monedes and Suari of Pliny.

In another passage Pliny mentions the Mandei and
Malli as occupying the country between the CalingcB
and the Ganges, j Amongst the Malli there was a
mountain named Mallus, which would seem to be the
same as the famous Mount Maleus of the Monedes and
Suari. I think it highly probable that both names
may be intended for the celebrated Mount Mandar, to
the south of Bhdffalpur, which is fabled to have been
u.sed by the gods and demons at the churning of the
ocean. The Mandei I would identify with the inha-
bitants of the Mahunadi river, which is the Manada
of Ptolemy. The Malli or Malei would therefore be
the same people as Ptolemy's Mandalce, who occupied
the right bank of the Ganges to the south of Pali-
bothra. Or they may be the people of the Bdjmahal
hills who are called Maler, which would appear to be

* Samudra Gupta, about a.d. 125 ; and a copper-plate dated in 214
or A.D. 293.

t I-Iist. Nat. vi. c. 22. " Ab iis (Palibothris) in in teriore situ Mo-
nedes et Suari, quorum mons Maleus," etc.

X Hist. Nat. vi. c. 21. " Gcntes : Calingas proximi mari, et supra
Mandei Malli, quorum mons Mallus, finisque ejus tractus est Ganges."

EASTERN INMA.

509

derived from the Kanarese Male and the Tamil Malei,
a "hill." It would therefore be equivalent to the
Hindu Pahdri or Parbatii/a, a "hill man."

The Suari of Pliny are the Sabarce of Ptolemy, and
both may be identified with the aboriginal Savaras,
or Sitars, a wild race of wood-cutters, who live in the
jangals without any fixed habitations. The country
of the Savaras is said to begin where that of the
Klionds ends, and to extend as far south as the Pen-
nar river. But these Savaras or Suars of the eastern
Ghats are only a siugle branch of a widely-extended
tribe, which is found in large numbers to the south-
west of Gwalior and Narwar, and also in southern
Eajputana. The Savaris or Saharias of the Gwalior
territory occupy the jangals on the Kota frontier to
the westward of Narwar and Guna. They are found
along the course of the Chambal river and its branches,
where they meet the Eajputana Surrias of Tod. The
name is preserved in the Sorse Nomades of Ptolemy,
who are placed to the south of the Kondali and Phi/l-
litce^ or the Gonds and Bhils. They must therefore
be the Suars or Savaras of central India, who occupy
the wild hilly country about the sources of the Wain
Ganga, and who are also found along the valley of
the Kistna river. As Kir an a means a "man of mixed
race," or barbarian, it seems probable that the name
of Kirana Suvarna may be the original appellation of
the barbarian Suvaras, or Suars.

In the beginning of the seventh century the king
of this country was S/te-skanff./cia, or Sa-wn^ka,
who is famed as a great persecutor of Buddhism.*

* ' Hiouen Thsang's Life,' i. 112 and 235. Also ' Travels ' ii 349
422, and 468.

510 THE AKCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

I found a gold coin inscribed with the name of this
prince at full length in the ' Payne Knight Collection'
of the British Museum, and there are a few specimens
in other collections.

5. ODEA, OR ORISSA.

The kingdom of U-cha^ or Oda, corresponds exactly
with the modern province of Odra, or Orissa. By a
reference to the ' Biography of Hiouen Thsang,'* it
would appear that the capital of Odra was 700 li to
the south-west of T^mralipti, and as this bearing and
distance agree with the position of Jdjipura^ I think
that the pilgrim must have returned to Tamluk from
Kirana Savarna before proceeding to Odra. In the
travels of the pilgrim! the bearing and distance are
taken from Kirana Suvarna; but this is perhaps a
mistake, as they are usually referred to the capital,
which, whether we place it at Jajipur or at Katak, is
due south of Kirana Suvarna.

The province was 7000 li, or 1167 miles, iu circuit,
and was bounded by the great sea on the south-east,
where there was a famous seaport town named Che-li-
ta-lo-chinff, or Charitrapura, that is, the " town of em-
barkation " or " departure." This was probably the
present town of Pari, or "the city," near which stands
the famous temple of Jagannath. Outside the town
there were five contiguous stupas with towers and
pavilions of great height. I presume that it is one of
these which is now dedicated to Jagannath. The
three shapeless figures of this god and his brother
and sister, Baladeva and Subhadra, are simple copies
of the symbolical figures of the Buddhist triad, Buddha,

* Julien, i. 181. See Map Ifo. I. t Julien, iii. 88.

EASTEEN INDIA.

511

Dharma, and Sangha, of which the second is always
represented as a female. The Buddhist origin of the
Jagannath figures is proved beyond all doubt by their
adoption as the representative of the Brahmanical
Avatar of Buddha in the annual almanacs of Mathura
and Banaras.

The political limits of Orissa, under its most pow-
erful kings, are said to have extended to the Hughli
and Damuda rivers on the north, and to the GodS,vari
on the south. But the ancient province of Odra-desa,
or Or-desa, was limited to the valley of the Mahanadi
and to the lower course of the Suvarna-riksha river.
It comprised the whole of the present districts of
Katak (Cuttack) and Sambhalpur, and a portion of
Medinipur. It was bounded on the west by Gond-
wS,na, on the north by the wild hUl-states of Jashpur
and Singhbhum, on the east by the sea, and on the
south by Ganjam. These also must have been the
limits in the time of Hwen Thsang, as the measured
circuit agrees with his estimate.

Pliny mentions the Oretes as a people of India in
whose country stood Mount Maleus ;* but in another
passage he locates this mountain amongst the Monedes
and 8uari; and in a third passage he places Mount
Mallus amongst the Malli. As the last people were
to the north of the Calivga, and as the Monedes and
Suari were to the south of the Palibothri, we must
look for the Oretes somewhere about the Mahanadi
river and its tributaries. The Monedes and Suari
must therefore be the M-kudas and Suars, as already

* Hist. Nat. ii. 75. " In India; gente Oretum, mons est Maleus no-
mine." See also vi. 22, "Monedes et Suari, quorum mons Mallus ■-
and VI. 21, " Malli, quorum mons Mallus."

512 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

noticed, and the Oretes must be the people of Orissa.
Male is one of the Dravidian terms for a mountain ;
and as the Ilraons, or people of west Orissa, still speak
a Dravidian dialect, it is probable that Mallus was
not the actual name of the mountain. May not this
have been the famous Sri-Parvat of TelingS,na, which
gave its name to the Sri-Farvatiya Andhras ?

The ancient metropolis of the country was Katak
on the Mahanadi river, but in the early part of the
sixth century Eaja Jajati Kesari established a new
capital at Jajdtipura on the Yaitarani river, which
still exists under the abbreviated name of Jdjipura.
The same king also began some of the great temples
at IB huvaneswara ; but the city of that name was
founded by Lalitendra Kesari. The language and
pronunciation of the people is said to have differed
from those of central India, which is still true at the
present day.

To the south-west there were two hills, on one of
which, called Pushpaffiri, or the "hill of flowers,"
there was a monastery of the same name and a stupa
of stone, and on the other to the north-west only a
stupa. These hills I take to be the famous Udayagiri
and Khandayiri, in which many Buddhist caves and
inscriptions have been discovered. These hills are
situated 20 miles to the south of Katak^ and 5 miles
to the west of the grand group of temples at Bhuva-
neswara. The stupas were said to have been built
by demons ; from which I infer that the origin of the
great caves, and other Buddhist works on these hills
was quite unknown at the period of Hwen Thsang's
visit.

EASTERN INDIA. 513

6. GANJAM.

From the capital of Odra the pilgrim proceeded to
the south-west for 1200 /«', or 200 miles, to Kong-yu-
to* This name has not been identified; but M.
Vivien de Saint-Martin has, I think, indicated its
true position in the neighbourhood of the Chilka lake.
The capital was situated near a bay, or "junction of
two seas," which can only be intended for the great
Chilka lake and the ocean, as there is no other great
sheet of water along this surf-beaten coast. Ganjam
itself must therefore be the old capital. But as Gan-
jam is only 130 miles from Jdjipur in a direct line
measured on the map, or about 150 miles by road, I
conclude that the pilgrim must have visited the hills
of XJdayagiri and KJiandagiri and the town of C/iari-
irapura, or Furi, on his way to Ganjam. By this
route the distance would be increased to 165 miles by
direct measurement, or about 190 miles by road,
which agrees with the estimate of the Chinese pil-
grim.

The Chinese syllables Kong-yu-to are rendered by
M. Julien as Konyodha ; but there is no place of this
name that I am aware of. I observe that M. Pau-
thierf writes the name Kiuan-yu-mo, which would
seem to be intended for a transcript of Ganjam, of
which the derivation is unknown. Hamilton '^IlO-
T^oses ganjmn, "the depot," but this term is never
used alone, so far as I am aware, but always in combi-

* Julien's ' Hiouen Thsang,' iii. 91. See Map No. I.

t 'Journal Asiatique,' 1839, p. 404. U-cha, or Oda, in eastern India,
is said to be also named Kiuan-i^u-mo, at which time, therefore, a.d.
650 to 684, it must have become dependent on Odra or Orissa.

2 L

514 THE ANCIENT GEOGKAPHY OF INDIA.

nation, either with the founder's name or with the
name of the principal article sold in the place, as
Edm-ganj^ or " Eama's market," Thithdr-ffanj, the
"brazier's market," etc. The district was only 1000
li, or 167 miles, in circuit, which shows that the terri-
tory was confined to the small valley of the Easikulya
river. But though the domain was small, the state
would appear to have been of some consequence, as
Hweng Thsang describes the soldiers as brave and
bold, and their king as so powerful that the neigh-
bouring states were subject to him, and no one could
resist him. From this account I am led to infer that
the king of Ganjam, at the time of Hwen Thsang's
visit, must have been Lalitendra Kesari of the Orissa
annals, who is said to have reigned for nearly sixty
years, from a.d. 617 to 676. The pilgrim visited
Ganjam in a.d. 639, when this prince was at the very
height of his power. But only four years later, when
the pilgrim revisited Magadha, he found the great
King Harsha Yarddhana of Kanoj* had just returned
from a successful expedition against the king of Gan-
jam. The cause of the war is not stated, but as Har-
sha Varddhana was a staunch Buddhist, while Lali-
tendra was a devoted Brahmanist, the difference of
religion would easily have furnished a sufficient pre-
text for war. It seems probable that Ganjam was
then annexed to the dominions of the Kanoj king,
and formed part of the province of Orissa.

Hwen Thsang notes that the written characters of
Ganjam resembled those of central India, but that
both the language and the pronunciation were differ-
ent. This statement proves that the same alphabetical

* Julien's ' Hiouen Thsang,' i. 236,

SOUTHEEN INDIA. 515

characters were still in use over the greater part of
India at as late a date as the middle of the seventh
century. It also serves to show that the intercom-
munications of the Buddhist fraternities throughout
India were not yet broken, although they must already
have been much restricted by the steady progress of
Brahmanism.

SOUTHERN INDIA.

According to Hwen Thsang's account, Southern
India comprised the whole of the peninsula to the
south of the Tapti and Mahanadi rivers, from Nasik
on the west, to Ganjam on the east. It was divided
into nine separate kingdoms, exclusive of Ceylon,
which was not considered as belonging to India. The
whole of these kingdoms were visited by the pilgrim
in A.D. 639 and 640. He entered Kalinga from the
north-east, and turning to the north-west he visited
the inland kingdoms of Kosala and Andhra. Then re-
suming his southern route, he passed through Dltana-
kakaia, Jorya, and Brdvida, to Malakuta. At Kanchi,
the capital of Dravida, he heard of the assassination
of the Eaja of Ceylon, and was obliged to give up his
intention of visiting that island on account of its un-
settled state. Then turning to the north, he reached
Konkana and }Jahdrdshtra, the last of the nine king-
doms of Southern India.*

1. KALINGA.

In the seventh century, the capital of the kingdom
of Kie-ling-kia, or Kalinga, was situated at from 1400
to 1500 li, or from 233 to 250 miles, to the south-

* See Map No. I.

2 L 2

516 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

west of Ganjam.* Both bearing and distance point
either to Bajamaheiuiri on the Godavari river, or to
Ivoringa on the scacoast, the first being 251 miles to
the south-west of Ganjam, and the other 246 miles in
the same direction. But as the former is known to
have been the capital of the country for a long period,
I presume that it must be the place that was visited
by the Chinese pilgrim. The original capital of Kalinga
is said to have been Srikakola, or Chikakol, 20 miles
to the south-west of Kalinga-patam. The kingdom
was 5000 li, or 833 miles, in circuit. Its boundaries
arc not stated ; but as it was united to the west by
Andhra, and to the south by Dhanakakata, its frontier
line cannot have extended beyond the Godavari
river, on the south-west, and the Gaoliya branch of
the Indravati river on the north-west. Within these
limits, the circuit of Ivalinga would be about 800 miles.
The principal feature in this large tract of country
is the Mahendra range of mountains, which has pre-
served its name unchanged from the time of the com-
position of the Mahabharata to the present day. This
range is mentioned also in the Vishnu Purana, as the
source of the Eishikulya river, and as this is the well-
known name of the river of Ganjam, the Mahendra
mountains can at once be identified with the Mahendra
Male range, which divides Ganjam from the valley of
the Mahanadi.

Bajamahendri was the capital of the junior, or eastern
branch of the Chdluhya princes of Vengi^ whose au-
thority extended to the frontiers of Orissa. The king-
dom of Vvngi was established about a.d. 510, by the
capture of the old capital of T'eiifjipura, the remains of

* Julieii's ' Iliouoii Thsang,' iii. 92. See Maps Nos. I. and XIII.

SOUTHERN INDIA. 517

whicli still exist at Ve^i, 5 miles to the north of ElMr,
and 50 miles to the west-south-west of Eajamahendri.
About A.D. 750, Kalinga was conquered by the Eaja
of Yengi, who shortly afterwards moved the seat of
government to Eajamahendri.

The CalingcB are mentioned by Pliny,* as occupying
the eastern coast of India below the Mandei and Malli,
and the famous Mount Maleus. This mountain may
perhaps be identified with the high range at the head
of the Eishikulya river, in Ganjam, which is still called
Mahendra Male, or the " Mahendra mountain." To
the south, the territory of the CalingcB extended as
far as the promontory of Calingon and the town of Dan-
daguda, or Dandagula,t which is said to be 625
Eoman miles, or 574 British miles, from the mouth of
the Ganges. Both the distance and the name point
to the great port-town of Coringa, as the promontory
of Coringon, which is situated on a projeetiag point of
land, at the mouth of the Godavari river. The town of
Dandaguda, or Dandagula, I take to be the Ddntapura
of the Buddhist chronicles, which, as the capital of
Kalinga, may with much probability be identified with
Eaja Mahendri, which is only 30 miles to the north-
east of Coringa. From the great similarity of the
Greek T and il, I think it not improbable that the
Greek name may have been Bandapula, which is
almost the same as Ddntapura. But in this case, the
Ldnta, or "tooth relic," of Buddha must have been
enshrined in Kalinga as early as the time of Pliny,

* Hist. Nat. vi. 21. "Gentea: Calingse proximo mari, supra Mandei,
Malli, quorum mons Mallus, finisque ejus tractus est Ganges."

t IhiA. vi. 23. Philemon Holland's translation has Danda-
gula.

518 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

whicli is confirmed by the statement of the BuddMst
clironicles, that the "left canine tooth" of Buddha
was brought to Kalinga immediately after his death,
where it was enshrined by the reigning sovereign,
Brahmadatta.* Dantapura, also, is said to have been
situated on the northern bank of a great river, which
can only be the Godavari, as the Kistna was not in
Kalinga. This fact alone would be sufiicient to fix
the position of Bdntapura at the old capital of Bajama-
Ite7idri, which is situated on the north-eastern bank
of the Godavari. The name of Mahendri is perhaps
preserved in the Pitundra Metropolis of Ptolemy, which
he places close to the MaisoloSj or Godavari, that is, to
the river of Masuli-patam.

A still earlier name for the capital of Kalinga was
Sinhapura,t which was so called after its founder,
Sinka-bahu^X the father of Vijaya, the first recorded
sovereign of Ceylon. Its position is not indicated, but
there still exists a large town of this name on the
Lalffla river, 115 miles to the west of Ganjam, which
is very probably the same place.

In the inscriptions of the Kalachuri, or Haihaya
dynasty of Chedi, the Eajas assume the titles of "Lords
of Kdlanjjarapura and of Tri-Kalinga. Kalanjar is
the well-known hill-fort in Bundelkhand; and Tri-
Kalinga^ or the " Three Kalingas," must be the three
kingdoms of Dhanaka, or Amaravati, on the Kistna,
Andhra or Warangol, and* Kalinga, or Eaja Mahendri.

* Tumour, Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, 1837, p. 860, quoting the
Dantha-dJiatu-wanso, or " History of the Tooth-relic.''

t Turnour, ' Mahawanso,' p. 46.

X Hid. Appendix v. pp. 88, 89,, where the Princess TilaJca Sun-
ilari, of Kidinga, is said to have come from Sinhnjnira.

SOUTHERN INDIA. 619

The name of Tri-Kalinga is probably old, as Pliny
mentions the Macco-CalingcB and the Gangarides-
Calingce as separate peoples from the Calinc/m^ while
the Mahabharata names the Kaliagas three separate
times, and each time in conjunction with different
peoples.* As Tri-Kalinga thus corresponds with the
great province of Telingdna, it seems probable that the
name of Telingdna may be only a slightly contracted
form of Tri-Kalingdna, or the " Three Kalingas." I
am aware that the name is usually derived from Tri-
Lingga, or the " Three Phalli'''' of Mahadeva. But the.
mention of Macco-Calingce and Gangarides-Calinga
by Pliny, would seem to show that the " Three Ka-
lingas ' ' were known as early as the time of Megasthenes,
from whom Pliny has chiefly copied his Indian Geo-
graphy. The name must therefore be older than
the Phallic worship of Mahadeva in southern India.
Kalinga is three times mentioned in the Khandagiri
inscription of Aira Eaja,-]' which cannot be later than
the second century B.C., and at a still earlier date,
during the lifetime of Sakya-Muni, it was noted for
its manufacture of fine muslins, and at his death, the
king of Kalinga is said to have obtained one of the
teeth of Buddha, over which he built a magnificent
stupa.J

2. KOSALA.

Prom Kalinga the Chinese pilgrim proceeded about
1800 or 1900 li, or from 300 to 317 miles,§ to the

* H. H. Wilson, in ' Vishnu Purana,' pp. 185, 187 note, and 188.
t James Prinsep in Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, vi. 1082.
% Csoma de K.6r6s, in ' Asiatic Eesearches,' xx. 85 and 317.
§ Julian's ' Hiouen Thsang,' vol. i. p. 185, gives 1800 li, and vol. iii.
p. 94, 1900 U. See Map No. I.

520 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

north-west to tlie kingdom of Kiao-sa-lo, or Kosala.
The bearing and distance take us to the ancient pro-
vince of Vidarbha^ or Berdr^ of which the present
capital is ISd.gpur. This agrees exactly with the posi-
tion of Kosala as described in the Ratndoali, and in
the Vdi/u Purdna.* In the former, the king of Kosala
is surrounded ia the Tindhyan mountains, and in the
latter it is stated that Kma^ the son of Eama, ruled
over Kosala, at his capital of Kusasihali, or Kumvati,
built upon the Tindhyan precipices. All these con-
curring data enable us to identify the ancient Kosala
with the modern province of Berar, or Gondwana.
The position of the capital is more difficult to fix, as
Hwen Thsang does not mention its name ; but as it
was 40 /«', or nearly 7 miles, in circuit, it is most pro-
bably represented by one of the larger cities of the
present day. These are Chanda, Nagpur, Amaravati,
and Elichpur.

Chanda is a walled town, 6 miles in circuit, with a
citadel. It is situated just below the junction of the
Pain Ganga and Warda rivers, at a distance of
290 miles to the north-west of Eajamahendri, on the
Godavari, and of 280 miles from Bhdranikota, on the
Kistna. Its position, therefore, corresponds almost
exactly with the bearing and distance of Hwen
Thsang.

Nagpur is a large straggling town, about 7 miles in
circuit ; but as it is 85 miles to the north of Chanda,
its distance from Eajamahendri is about 70 miles in
excess of the number stated by the Chinese pilgrim.

Amaravati is about the same distance from Eajama-

* H. H. Wilson, 'Vishnu Purana,' Hall's edition, ii. 172,
note.

SOUTHERN INDIA. 521

hendri, and Elichpur is 30 miles still further' to the
north. C/idnda is therefore the only place of conse-
quence that has a strong claim to be identified with
the capital of Kosala in the seventh century. The
recorded distance of 1800 or 1900 li from Eajamahen-
dri is further supported by the subsequent distance of
1900 li^ or 900 plus 1000 li, to Dhanaka-kata, which
was almost certainly the same place as Bhdrani-kota,
or Amaravati, on the Kistna river. Now, the road
distance of Chanda from Dharanikota is 280 miles, or
1680 li, by the direct route; but as Hwen Thsang first
proceeded for 900 U to the south-west, and then for
1000 li to the south, the direct distance between the
two places would not have been more than 1700 li.

At 300 li, or 50 miles, to the south-west of the
kingdom, there was a high mountain named Po.lo.mo.
lo.ki-li, which is said to mean the " black peak." M.
Julien identifies this name with " Baramula-giri of the
present day;"* but I cannot find this place in any
map or book to which I have access. The mountain
is described as very lofty, and without either spurs or
valleys, so that it resembled a mere mass of stone. In
this mountain King So-to-po-ho, or Sdtavdhan, hewed a
pavilion of five storeys, which was accessible by a hol-
low road many dozens of li, that is many miles, in
length. The place was not visited by Hwen Thsang,
as the narrator of his journey uses the expression " on
arrive," instead of " U arriva." But as the rock is
said to have been excavated as a dwelling for the holy
Buddhist sage Ndgdrjuna, the pilgrim would almost
certainly have visited it, if it had been only 50 miles

* ' Hiouen Thsang,' iii. 101, note 4 : " aujourd'hui Baramulaghiri ; "
and note 5, " en Chinois, He-fong, le pic noir.''

522 THE ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY OF INDIA.

distant from the capital ; and if the south-west bearing
is correct, he must have passed quite close to the place
on his subsequent journey to Andhra, wihch is said to
be either in the same direction, or towards the south.
I conclude, therefore, that the curious, " au sud-ouest
du royauvie^^''* which the pilgrim uses to indicate the
position of this excavated rock, may possibly refer to
the boundary of the kingdom^ and consequently that
the place must be looked for at 300 //, or 50 miles,
beyond its south-west frontier. This position would
agree very well with that of the great rock fortress
of Deogir, near Elura, and the name of Polomolokiliy
or Varamula-ffiri, might be accepted as the original of
Varula, or Elura. Parts of the description, such as
the long galleries hewn out of the rock, and the cas-
cade of water falling from the top of the rock, agree
better with the great Buddhist establishment at Elura
than Avith Deogir. But as the place was not actually
visited by Hwen Thsang, his description must have
been made up from the varying accounts of different
travellers, in which the contiguous sites of Elura and
Devagiri were probably treated as one place.

The same rock-hewn habitations are also described
by ra-Hian-j- in the beginning of the fifth century.
He calls the excavation the monastery of Pho-h-yv, or
the "Pigeon," and places it in the kingdom of Ta-
thsin, that is in Dakshuia, or the south of India, the
present Baklian. His information was obtained at
Banaras ; and as wonders do not lose by distance, his
account is even more wonderful than that of Hwen
Thsang. The monastery, hewn out of the solid rock,
is said to be five storeys in height, each storey in the

* Julieu's ' Hiouen Thsang,' iii. 101. t Seal's ' Fah-Hian,' c. xxxv.

SOUTHERN INDIA. 523

shape of a different animal, the fifth, or uppermost,
storey being in the form of a Pigeon^ from which the
monastery received its name. The Chinese syllables
Pho-lo-yu must therefore be intended for the Sanskrit
Pdrdvata, a "pigeon." A spring of water rising in
the uppermost storey, descended through all the rooms
of the monastery, and then passed out by the gate. In
this account we have the five storeys, the spring of
water falling from the top, and the name of the place,
all agreeing very closely with the description of Hwen
Thsang. The chief point of difi'erence is in the mean-
ing assigned to the name, as Hwen Thsang states that
Polomolo-kili signifies the "black peak," while accord-
ing to Pa-Hian, Pholoyu means a " pigeon." But
there is still another account, of an intermediate date,
which gives a third meaning to the name. In a.d.
503, the king of Southern India sent an ambassador
to China, from whom it was ascertained that in his
country there was a fortified city named Pa-lai^ or
"situated on a height." At 300 li, or 50 miles, to
the eastward, there was another fortified town, named
in the Chinese translation Fu-cheu-cliinff, or " ville
soumise a ce qui est d^test^,"* which was the birth-
place of a famous saint, whose name was Chu-san-hit,
or " Coral-beads " (grains de corail). Now, Pald-
indld is the name of a " coral necklace," or " string of
coral-beads ;* and as it represents every syllable of
Hwen Thsang's Polomolo, I presume that it must be
the same name. I am unable to explain Hwen
Thsang's translation of the name as the "black

* Pauthier, "BxamenMethodique desfaitsqui concementTien-tcliu,
ou rinde ;" ' Journal Asiatique,' 1839, p. 292.

t Pauthier, ' Journal Asiatique,' Oct. 1839, p. 292.

524 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

peak " in any of the northern dialects ; and I can
only suggest that he may perhaps refer to one of the
southern or Dravidian dialects. In Kanarese, male
is a "hill;" and as para, or "quicksilver," and paras,
or the " touchstone," are both of black hue, it is
probable that they are connected with TreXo'y. Para,
therefore, might signify "black," and joaro-wa/e would
then be the black hill. One of the most venomous
snakes in southern India, which is of a very dark
blue or almost black colour, is called Pdra-Gudu. It
seems probable, therefore, that Hwen Thsang's transla-
tion may be derived from one of the southern dialects.
This confusion in the Chinese translations is no doubt
due to the very defective power of the Chinese sylla-
bles for the transcription of Sanskrit words. Thus,
Po.Io.fa.to might be read as Pdrdvata, a "pigeon,"
according to Fa-Hian; or as paravata, " subject," ac-
cording to the Si-yu-lii ; while it is probable that the
true reading should be parvata, a " mountain," as the
monastery is specially stated to have been excavated
in a rocky hill.

The capital itself was named Pa-lai,* which is said
to mean " qui s'appuie sur une Eminence." Now the
citadel of Chdnda is called " Bdla kila,''^ or the " High
Fort," which, though a Persian appellation given by
the Muhammadans, was very probably suggested by
the original appellation of Palai.-\

In all our Chinese authorities the rock-hewn mo-
nastery is connected with a holy sage ; but the name
in each account is different. According to Fa-Hian,

* Pauthier in ' Journal Asiatique,' 1839, p. 293.
t We have an example of such translation in Buland-shalir, whioli
the Hindus stiU call Uncha-gaon.

SOUTHERN INDIA. 525

it "was the monastery of the earlier Buddha named
Kasyapa. In the 8i-yu-li^ however, it is said to be
the birthplace of the Muni Parmndld, while Hwen
Thsang states that the monastery was excavated by
King Sdfavdhan, for the use of the famous Nagarjuna.
From the wonderful descriptions of Fa-Hian and Hwen
Thsang I have been led to think that their accounts
may possibly refer to the grand excavations of Deva-
giri and Elura. But if the distance given by Hwen
Thsang as well as by the Bi-yu-ki is correct, the rock-
hewn monastery must be looked for about 50 miles to
the west or south-west of Chanda. Now in this very
position, that is about 45 miles to the west of Chanda,
there is a place in the map called Pdndu-kuri, or the
"Pandus' houses," which indicates an undoubted an-
cient site, and may possibly refer to some rock excava-
tions, as the rock-hewn caves at Dhamnar and Kholvi
are also assigned to the Pandus, being severally named
" Bhim's cave, Arjun's cave," etc. In the total absence
of all information, I can only draw attention to the
very curious and suggestive name of this place. There
is also a series of Buddhist caves at Patur, 50 miles to
the south-west of Elichpur and Amaravati, and 80
miles to the east of Ajanta. As these have never been
described, it is possible that the site may hereafter be
found to correspond with the descriptions of the rock-
hewn monastery by Fa-Hiau and Hwen Thsang.

The mention of King Sdtavdhana, or Sddavdhana, in
connection with Niigarjuna is specially interesting, as
it shows that the Buddhist caves of Pardmdld must be
as old as the first century of the Christian era. Sd-
davdhana was a family name, and as such is mentioned
in one of the cave inscriptions at Nasik.* But Sdta-

* Bombay Journal, vii,, ITasick inscriptions No. 6, by Mr. West.

526 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

vcthana is also a well-known name of the famous Sali-
vahan,* who founded the Sake era in a.d. 79, so that
we have a double proof that the Buddhist caves of
Pardmdld must have been excavated as early as the
first century. The probable identity of Sdtavdhan and
Sdtakarni will be discussed in another place. We
know from the western cave inscriptions that Kosala
certainly formed part of the vast southern kingdom
of Gotaviiputra Sdtakarni ; and if he flourished in
the first century as would appear to be the case,f his
identity with Sdfavdhdn, or Saliv^han, would be un-
doubted. It is sufficient here to note the great pro-
bability of this interesting point in the history of
Southern India.

The kingdom of Kosala is estimated by Hwen
Thsang at 6000 li, or 1000 miles, in circuit. Its
frontiers are not named ; but we know from the pil-
grim's itinerary that it must have been bounded by
Ujain on the north, by Maharashtra on the west, by
Orissa on the east, and by Andhra and Kalinga on the
south. The limits of the kingdom may be roughly
described as extending from near Btirhanpur on the
Tapti, and Nander on the Godavari, to Eatanpur in
Chatisgarh, and to Nowagadha near the source of the
Mahanadi. Within these limits the circuit of the

* Sata, or Sdli, was tlie name of a Yaksha, or demigod, who, being
changed to a lion, was ridden by the infant prince, who thus acquired
the title of SAtai'ahan, or Sdlivahan.

t The greater number of the inscriptions in the caves of Kanhari,
Nasii, and Karle belong to one period ; and as several of them record
the gifts of Ootamijmi ra- Sdtakarni, Pudumayi, and Yddnya-Sri, the
whole must be referred to the period of the Andhra sovereignty. But
one of them is dated in the year 80 of the Sakdditya-kdl, or Sake era,
that is in a.d. 108 ; and, therefore, the Andhras must have been reign-
ing at that time.

SOUTHERN INDIA. 527

large tract assigned to Kosala is rather more than
1000 miles.

3. ANDHRA.

From Kosala, Hwen Thsang proceeded to the south
for 900 K, or 150 miles, to An-lo-lo^ or Andhra* the
modern Telingdna. The capital was named Pivg-ki-lo,
which M. Julien transcribes as Fwgkhila, but it has
not yet been identified. We know that Warangol^ or
Varnakol, was the capital of Teliugana for several cen-
turies afterwards, but its position does not agree with
the pilgrim's narrative, as it lies too far from Chanda
on the Pain Ganga river, and too near to Dh^ranikotta
on the Kistna. The Chinese syllables also do not re-
present the name of Warangol, although they might
perhaps be taken for Vanhol. They may be read as
Bldmgal, which is the name of an old town in Telin-
gana mentioned by Abul Fazl. But Bhimgal is only
120 miles to the south-west of Chanda, instead of 150
miles to the south or south-west, and is upwards of
200 miles to the north of Dharanikotta instead of 167
miles. I should therefore be inclined to accept the
Chinese syllables as a blundering transcription of
Warangol itself, if the positions agreed more nearly.
But the actual distance between Varanc/ol and Chanda
is 160 miles, and between Varangol and Dharanikotta
only 120 miles. It is, therefore, too near the latter
place, and too far from the former place, according to
Hwen Thsang's account. If we might adopt Amara-
vati in Berar as the capital of Kosala, then Bhimgal
would represent the capital of Andhra beyond all
doubt, as it stands rather short of midway between

* Julien 's ' Hiouen Thsang,' iii. 105. See Map No. I.

528

THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

Chanda and Dharanikotta ; but both the distances are
too great to suit Hwen Thsang's numbers of 900 Ji and
1000 li, or 150 miles and 167 miles. The position of
Elgandel, which is midway between Bhimgal and
Yarangol, agrees better with the pilgrim's narrative,
as it is about 130 miles from Chanda, and 170 miles
from Dharanikotta. I am, therefore, willing to adopt
Elcfandel as the probable representative of the capital
of Andhra in the seventh century of the Christian
era.

The province of Andhra is described as 3000 /?, or
500 miles, in circuit. ISTo frontier is mentioned in any
direction ; but it may be presumed that the Godavari
river, which is the modern boundary to the north and
east, was likewise the ancient one, as it is also the
limit of the Telugu language towards the north. To
the west, where it met the great kingdom of Maha-
rashtra, it cannot have extended beyond the Manjhira
branch of the Godavari. The territory may, there-
fore, be described as stretching from the junction of
the Manjhira and Godavari to Bhadrachelam on the
south-east, a length of 250 miles-, and to Haidarabad
on the south, a length of 100 miles, the distance be-
tween Haidarabad and Bhadrachelam being, 175 miles.
These limits give a total circuit of 525 miles, or nearly
the same as that stated by Hwen Thsang.

The Andhras are mentioned by Pliny* under the
name of Jndar^s, as a powerful nation, who possessed
thirty fortified cities, and a large army of one hun-
dred thousand infantry, two thousand cavalry, and one
thousand elephants. They are also noted in the Pen-
tiugcrian Tables as AiidrcB-Indi. Wilson quotes these

* Hist. Nat, vi. 22.

SOUTHERN INDIA. 529

Tables as placing the Andhras " on the banks of the
Ganges,"* but the extremely elongated form of the
Pentingerian Map has squeezed many of the peoples
and nations far out of their true places. A much safer
conclusion may be inferred from a comparison of the
neighbouring names. Thus the Andrm-Indi are placed
near Damirice, which I would identify with Ptolemy's
Lhnyrilce by simply changing the initial A to A^ as the
original authorities used for the construction of the
Tables must have been Greek. But the people of
Limyrike occupied the south-west coast of the penin-
sula, consequently their neighbours the Andrse-Indi
must be the well-known Andhras of Telingana, and
not the mythical Andhras of the Ganges, who arc
mentioned only in the Purdnas. Pliny's knowledge of
the Andarse must have been derived either from the
Alexandrian merchants of his own times, or from the
writings of Megasthenes and Dionysius, the ambassa-
dors of Seleukus Nikator and Ptolemy Philadelphus to
the court of Palibothra. But whether the Andarfe
were contemporary with Pliny or not, it is certain that
they did not rule over Magadha at the period to which
he alludes, as immediately afterwards he mentions
the Prasii of Palibothra as the most powerful nation
in India, who possessed 600,000 infantry, 30,000
horse, and 9000 elephants, or more than six times the
strength of the Andarae-Indi.

The Chinese pilgrim notices that though the lan-
guage of the people of Andhra was very different
from that of Central India, yet the forms of the
written characters were for the most part the same.
•This statement is specially interesting, as it shows that

* ' Vishnu Purana,' Hall's edition, iv. 203, note.

2 M

530 THE ANCIENT GEOGKAPHY OF INDIA.

the old Nagari alphabet introduced from Northern
India was still in use, and that the peculiar twisted
forms of the Tolugu characters, which are found in
inscriptions of the tenth century, had not yet been
adopted in the south.

4. DONAKAKOTTA.

On leaving Andhra, Hwen Thsang proceeded to the
south through forests and over desert plains for 1000
li, or 167 miles, to To.na.kieJse.kia, which M. Julian
renders by DhanaJcacIieka. But I have already pointed
out in my account of Tue-kia, or Taki, in the Panjab,
that the Chinese syllable tse is used to represent the
Indian cerebral /, which would make the name Dhana-
kal/ika. I have also referred to the inscriptions in the
caves of Kanhari and Karle with the name of Dliana-
kakala^ which I have suggested as the true reading of
the Chinese word, by the transposition of the last two
sj'Uables.* The name of Bhanakakata is found in no
less than four of the cave inscriptions, in all of which
it has been read by Dr. Stevenson as the name of a
man, whom he calls Xenokrates, a Greek. But accord-
ing to my reading of these inscriptions, the name is
undoubtedly that of the city or country to which the
recorders of the inscriptions belonged. As these inscrip-
tions are short, I will, in justice to Dr. Stevenson,
here quote them.

The inscription on which Dr. Stevenson founds his

* See Maps Nos. I. and XIII. My correction was printed in my
Arcliajological Eoport to the Government of India in 1864, but it was
made several years previously. Dr. Bhau Daji lias also identified the
Chinese name with the Dhanakakata of the inscriptions, but he has not
noticed the true reading of the Chinese syllable tse. (Bombay Journ.,
vol. vii. p. 68.)

SOUTHERN INDIA. 531

opinion of tlie Greek origin of the recorder is thus
read by himself:* —

Dhanukakadlia Yavanasa Sihadhayanam tbabha danam.

" A gift of lion-supporting pillar by the Greek
Xenocrates."

My rendering is somewhat different, —

''Lion-bearing pillar-gift of Yavana oi DJianuka-
JcataP

Dr. Stevenson translates Yavana as " Greek ;" but
the following inscriptionf shows most distinctly that
D/ianukakata is the name of a place, and consequently
Yavana must be the name of a man.

Dhenukakata Usabliadata-putasa
Mita Deva nakasa tLabha danam.

This is translated by Dr. Stevenson as : —

"The gift of a pillar by the chief Mitra Deva, son
of Dhenukakata (surnamed) Kishabadatta."

To explain this translation he supposes Dhenuka-
kata to be a Greek, with a Greek name, and to have
also a Hindu name which he " probably assumed when
he embraced Buddhism, or on adoption into some
Hindu family, when names also are changed." But
by taking BhanukaJca as the name of a place, this in-
scription may be rendered without any forced assump-
tion of a second name. My rendering is, —

" Pillar-gift of the chief Mitra-Beva, son of Risha-
hadatta of DhanukakatuP

The third Karle inscription is unfortunately slightly
imperfect in the donor's name, and the concluding

* Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bombay, v. 156. Karle inscription No. 14.
t Ihid., V. 156. Karle inscription No. 11.

2 M 2

632

THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

word is unintelligible, but the opening of the inscrip-
tion as read by Dr. Stevenson is :* —

Dhanukakata (su) bhavikasa, etc.

which he translates, " The gift of a pleasant abode
by Dhanukakata," etc. Here the word which has
been restored and ti'anslated as " a pleasant abode " is
the recorder's name, which I feel strongly inclined
to read as Bhoviveka, as Hwen Thsang mentions a
famous saint of Bonalcaiatia named Fo-pi-fei-Ha, that
is literally Bhoviveka in Pali, or in Sanskrit Bhctva-
viveka.

The fourth inscription, which is found at Kanhari,
consists of nine lines, and is one of the most important
of the western cave records, as it is dated in the well-
known era of Salivahana. Dr. Stevensonf reads the
opening as follows : —

Upasakasa Dhenukakatinasa kalapa (naka) manakasa, etc.

and refers the record to " BhenukaJcata the architect."
But a more perfect copy of this inscription, published
by Mr. West,;}: gives the true reading of the first
line as : —

Upasakasa Dhanukakateyasa Kulapiyasa.

of which the literal translation is, " (Gift) of Kulapiya^
an TJpasika of BlianukakataP

The date of the inscription, which is at the end of
the last line, is erroneously transcribed by Dr. Steven-
son thus : —

data va sala saka datya lena.

and by adding the previous word cJiivarika he trans-
lates it as follows : —

* Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bombay, v. 155. Earle inscription No. 10.
t Ibid., V. 20. Kanhari inscription No. 8.
X Ibid., vi. Inscription No 39.

SOUTHEEN INDIA. 533

"Here is a hall established for Buddhist-priests;
here the Buddha-tooth cave."

In his transcript of this record I notice that Dr.
Stevenson altogether omits the letter k which occurs
between dutya and Una in both copies of the inscrip-
tion, in that made by Lieut. Brett, which was pub-
lished by Dr. Stevenson himself,* as well as in that
made by Mr. West. "With this correction I read the
concluding words of the inscription as follows : —

data vase 30 Sakaditya kala,

of which the literal translation is : —

" Given in the year 30 of the era of Sakdditya^^''
that is in a.d. 78 + 30 = 108. 8almditya is one of
the common titles of Sdlivdhana ; and the Sake era,
which was established by him, is usually called in an-
cient inscriptions Salca-hhupa kdla, or Saka-nripa kdla,
both terms being mere synonyms of Sakaditya kdla.
Dhanukakata must, therefore, have possessed a Bud-
dhist establishment as early as the beginning of the
second century of the Christian era ; and if my sug-
gested reading of the name of Bhdvaviveka in the
K^rle inscription be admitted, Buddhism must have
been equally flourishing during the first century, as
Bhdvaviveka would appear to have been a disciple of
NagElrjuna.t

In fixing the position of Dhanukakata, at Dhdrani-
kotta, or Amaravti, on the Kistna, I have been guided
not only by the bearing and distance from Andhra and
Kosala, but by several other concurring reasons, which
I will now detail.

* Journ. Asiat. Soo. Bombay, v. No. 10 of Lieut. Brett's plates of
Kslnhari inscriptions, wliich accompany Dr. Stevenson's Memoir, No.
8, p. 20.

t Burnouf, ' Introduction a I'Histoire du Buddhisme Indian,' p. 560.

534

THE ANCIENT aEOGEAPHY OF INDIA.

Amongst the Buddhist traditions of Ceylon and
Siam, we have an account of a country lying between
the mouth of the Ganges and the Island of Ceylon,
which was inhabited by Ndgas. These Ndgas possessed
either one or two Drona measures of the relics of
Buddha, which were enshrined in a beautiful and
costly stupa, near the " Diamond Sands." Originally,
this portion of relics had belonged to Eamagrama, near
Kapilavastu; but when the Eamagrama stupa was
washed away by the river, the relic casket containing
one of the original eight divisions of Buddha's remains
was carried down the Ganges to the sea, where it was
picked up by the Ndgas, and conveyed to their own
country, called Majcrika. Now this country was to
the south of Bantapura, because Prince Banfa Kumdra
and the Princess Hemamdla^ when flying from Banta-
pura to Ceylon with the tooth of Buddha, were
wrecked on the coast near the "Diamond Sands." The
name itself also helps to fix the position of the Diamond
Sands, at or near Dhdra7iikotta, on the Kistna, as the
diamond mines of this part of the country are re-
stricted to the small district of Partidl, lying imme-
diately to the north of Dbaranikotta. The flight from
Dantapura took place in a.d. 310, at which time,
according to the Siamese version, the two Drona
measures of relics were still preserved in the Naga
country.* But three years later, or in a.d. 313, the
Eaja of Ceylon sent a holy priest to bring away these
relics fi-om Majcrika, which was miraculously eft'ected,
in spite of the opposition of the Nagas. The Naga
king then solicited a few relics from the Eaja of

* Colonel Low, in Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, 1848 ; part ii. p. 87.
Sec Map No. XIII.

SOUTHERN INDIA. 535

Ceylon, "-which were bestowed upon him acoord-
ingly."

There are several minor variations in the Ceylonese
account, but the chief difference is in the date. Ac-
cording to the ' Mahawanso,'* the relics at Eamagrama
consisted of only one Drona measure, which, after
being enshrined by the N%as at Majerika, were
carried off to Ceylon m the fifth year of the reign of
Dattliagdmini^ B.C. 157, by whom they were enshrined
in the Mahd-thiipo, or great stupa, at Euanwelli.

The author of the ' Mahawanso ' gives a glowing
account of the magnificence of this great stupa of
Ceylon ; but he admits that the Chaitya at Majerika,
" was so exquisitely constructed, and so superbly
ornamented in various ways , . . that all the accu-
mulated treasures in Lanka would fall short of the
value of the last step of its stair." j* According to
our present knowledge of the antiquities of Southern
India, this description can apply only to the mag-
nificent stupa of Dharanikotta, on the Kistna, which
was literally encased in a profusion of sculptured bas-
reliefs.

It is difficult to reconcile the discrepancy between
the dates of the Siamese and Ceylonese chronicles ;
but I think it is highly improbable that these Naga
relics could have been carried to Ceylon at so early a
date as 157 B.C., at which time it is more than doubt-
ful whether Buddhism had penetrated to any part of
Southern India. I would suggest, as a possible ex-
planation of the discrepancy, that the relics may have
been carried off to Ceylon in a.d. 313, as stated in the
Siamese chronicles, and there enshrined in the great

* Tumour's 'Mahawanso,' p. 185. f Ibid., p. 188.

536 THE ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY OF INDIA.

stupa of Euanwelli ; and that in after times their
acquisition was erroneously assigned to Dutlhagdmini,
the original founder of the stupa. The famous tooth
itself, "vyhich Avas taken from Kalinga to Ceylon, in
A.D. 310, was enshrined in the DharmmachaJcra^ an
edifice erected by Leiodnan-piyatisso, the contem-
porary of Asoka, about 240 B.C., and was afterwards
transferred to the Abhayagiri Vihara, which was
erected in B.C. 89.*

But whether this explanation be accepted or not,
we know from the general consent of all the Buddhist
chroniclers and pilgrims, as well as of the 'Mahawanso'
itself, that the Eamagrama relics were still enshrined
in their original receptacle, at Eamagrama, in the
middle of the third century, B.C., when Asoka was
building stupas over all the relics of Buddha that were
divided after his death. If, therefore, the relics were
removed to Ceylon in B.C. 157, as stated in the ' Ma-
hawanso,' we must crowd into a period of little more
than 80 j'cars the destruction of the original stupa
at Eamagrama, the enshrinement of the relics at
Majerika in the most magnificent stupa in all India,
and their subsequent removal to Ceylon. But accord-
ing to the very competent authority of Mr. Fergusson,!
the erection of the Dharanikotta stupa, "judging from
its elaboration, may have taken fifty years to com-
plete." We have, therefore, only about thirty years
left for the stay of the relics at Eamagrama, after
the time of Asoka, and for their subsequent stay
amongst the Nagas of Majerika. For this reason, I
prefer the account of the Siamese chronicles ; and I

* Tumour's 'Mahawanso,' p. 211.

t Journ. Eoyal Asiat. Soc, new series, iii. 155.

SOUTHERN INDIA. 537

Avould accordingly fix the date of the removal of the
Drona measure of relics, from Dharanikotta to Ceylon,
in the year 313 a.d.

It must be noted, however, that the people of
Northern India were happily unaware that the Drona
of relics enshrined at Eamagrama had been carried
off" by the Nagas to Majerika, as both Fa-Hian and
Hwen Thsang, who actually visited the place in the
fifth and seventh centuries, mention that the stupa
was still standing. It is curious, however, to learn
from the journals of both pilgrims, that even in their
days the Eamagrama relics were believed to be watched
over by the Nugas of a tank close by the stupa.* Ac-
cording to the original Buddhist legend, these Nagas
had prevented Asoka from removing the relics fi-om
Eamagrama. In the lapse of time, when Eamagrama
had become deserted, as it was found by both pilgrims,
this legend might easily have assumed the slightly
altered form that the Nagas had carried off the relics
to prevent their removal by Asoka. This form of the
legend would have been eagerly seized upon by the
Ndgas of Southern India, and the transfer of the relics
to their own country of Majerika^ would at once have
commanded the easy belief of a credulous people.

In mentioning the relics that were removed from
Eamagrama, the Ceylonese chronicles call them one
Drona measure, and the Siamese two Dronas. I pre-
sume, therefore, that they were generally known as
the Drona-dhdtu, or " Drona of relics.'' In Pali this
name would be Dona, which may probably be the true
original of Hwen Thsang's To.na.kie. The full name

* Beal's ' Fali-Hian,' c. xxiii. ; and M. Julien's ' Hiouen Thsang,' ii.
326.

538 XHE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OP INDIA.

would have been BonaJcadhdtu, or simply Domka,
whicli with kot a added would make Donaka-koUa, cor-
responding with the Chinese syllables To.na-kie-kia-
tse, as well as with the Dhanakakala of the inscrip-
tions. Now I have already shown from the dated
inscription of Kdnhari that the name of Bhanakukata
is as old as A.D. 108, but as it is spelt in all the in-
scriptions with dh and not with d, I infer that the
legend about the Brona of relies is later than that
date. We know that it was a common practice
amongst the Buddhists to alter the spelling of the
local names so as to obtain meanings which might be
adapted to legends of their Teacher. Thus Taksha-
sila^ the "hewn stone," became Taksha-sira, or the
" cut-off head," and Adi-chhatra, or " King Adi's
canopy," became Ahi-chhatra, or the "serpent canopy,"
over the head of Buddha. With reference, therefore,
to the Xaga guardianship of the Brona of relics at
Eamagrama, I think it highly probable that the old
name of Bhanaka Avas changed to Bonaka by the
Buddhists, for the special purpose of adapting it to
their legend regarding the disposal of the Eamagrama
Brona of relics.

The present name of the place is Bhdrani-kofta,
which I take to be derived from the later legend re-
garding Bhuvaviveka^ which is preserved by Hwen
Thsang. This holy priest, wishing to behold the
future Buddha, Maitreya, fasted for three years, while
he continually repeated the mystical verses called
dJidraiiis. At the end of that time Avalokiteswara
appeared to him and instructed him to return to his
native country of Blianakakata, and in front of a
cavern to the south of the town to recite with perfect

SOUTHERN INDIA. 539

faith the dhdranis^ or mystical verses, addressed to
Vajra-pdni^ when his wish would be accomjilished.
At the end of three years more Vajra-pdni appeared
to him, and taught him a secret formula which had
power to open the cavern in the palace of the Jsuras,
where the future Buddha was dwelling. After three
years spent in the recitation of these secret dhdranis,
the rock opened, and Bhdvaviveka bidding farewell to
the multitude, who were afraid to follow him, entered
the cavern, which immediately closed upon him and
he was no more seen. As this miraculous legend of
the dhdranis was the popular belief of Dltanakakata
in the seventh century, the place would naturally have
been known amongst the people as Blidrani-kotta^ or
the " Cavern of the Dhdrani Miracle."

From the mention of Dhanakakata in the cave in-
scriptions of the first and second centuries of the
Christian era, we might expect to find some trace of
the name in the Geography of Ptolemy. But instead
of this we find a people named Aruarni, or Avarni,
occupying the country below the Maisdlus, or Groda-
vari river, with a capital called Malan^a, the resi-
dence of King Bassaronaga. As Malanga is placed
between the two rivers Afaisdlus and Tgna, its posi-
tion corresponds with that of Ellilr, close to which are
the remains of the old capital named Vengi, which are
still known as Pedda and CJdnna Vegi, or Great and
Little VegL* That Malanga was in this neighbour-
hood is proved by the existence of the name at the
present day in Bandar-malanga^ or the " port of Ma-
langa^^'' a small town on the coast; 54 miles to the east-
north-east of Masulipatam. I conclude, therefore,

* See Map No. XIII.

540 THE ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY OE INDIA.

that l)hanakaka{a was only the seat of a great reli-
gious establishment, while Venffi was the political
capital of the country.

With regard to the king's name, I think that the
Greek Bassaro-naga may be identified with the Pali
Majeri-ka-Ndffa of the 'Mahawanso.'* Eemembering
the frequent interchange of the labials in and b, and
that lia is an optional afiix, the Greek Bassaro may be
accepted as a tolerably close rendering of the Pali
ilajen ; and thus Ptolemy's Malavga would become
the capital of the Nagas of Majerika.

On a general review of all the evidence in favour
of the identification of Dhdranikotta with the Dhana-
kakata of Hwen Thsang and with the Majerika Stdpa
of the Nagas, the most striking point is the exceeding
beauty of the relic stupa, which is common to all of
them. I have already quoted the account of the ' Ma-
hawanso' as to the gorgeous magnificence of the Ndga
Stupa of Majerika, the last step of which was beyond
the power of all the riches of Ceylon to equal. Simi-
larly the Chinese pilgrim was struck with the unusual
beauty of the religious edifices of DJianakakafa, which
he describes as possessing all the magnificence of the
palaces of Bactria.t We have also the evidence^ of
our own eyes as to the exceeding beauty and lavish
ornament of its sculptures, many of which now grace
the India Office Museum, in London. And lastly, we
have the tradition of the people that MdrariikoUa was
once the capital of this part of India. :|:

* Tumours ' Mahawanso,' p. 185, Manjeriha-niga-lhawanau, "the
land of the Nagas of Majeri."

t M. Julien's ' Hiouen Thsang,' i. 188.

+ Hamilton's 'Gazetteer of India,' in voce " Amravatty."

SOUTHERN INDIA. 541

The age of the stupa can only be determined ap-
proximately, as the twenty inscriptions on the sculp-
tures in London give no dates, and make no certain
mention of any kings or persons whose age is known.
But from the style of the alphabetical characters, I
am satisfied that the inscriptions belong to the same
period as those of the famous caves of Kanhari, Nasik,
and Karle, which record the gifts of Gotamiputra — Sa-
takarni, Pudumayi, and Yadyna Sri, of the Andhra
dynasty. They agree also with those of the Satakarni
inscription on the gateway of the Bhilsa tope,* as
well as with those of Eudra Dama's inscription on the
rock of Girnar. I have already noted that one of the
Kanhari inscriptions is dated in the year 30 of the
Sakaditya Kal,' or era of Sake, equivalent to a.b. 108;
and I may now add that Eudra Dama's inscription is
dated in the year 72, which, if referred to the Vikra-
maditya era, will be a.d. 15, or if to the Sake era,
A.D. 150, both dates being within the period of the
first two centuries of the Christian era, to which I
refer the Amaravati inscriptions. Colonel Mackenzie
also obtained some leaden coins of Gotamiputraf and
of other princes of the Satakarni dynasty of Andhras,
when excavating the ruins at Dharanikotta — a disco-
very which alone is sufficient to establish the exist-

* ' Bhilsa Topes,' p. 264. Mr. Fergusson refers to this inscription
as being in the same characters as the Lat inscriptions of Asoka ; but
he is undoubtedly mistaken, as the gateway inscriptions of tlie Bhilsa
tope are in a very different character, as may be seen by a reference
to my work.

t Sir Walter Elliot, in ' Madras Literary Journal,' 1858, vol. iii.
new series: " I am responsible for the readings.'' See Plate XI. No.
105, Bajnya Gotamiputa Satahanisa ; also Nos. 92 and 101. No. 96
has Satakanisa, and No. 100 Pudumdvisa.

542

THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

ence of some important buildings at this veiy spot
during their reigns. I have already suggested that
Gotamjjutra Sdiakarni was probably the same person
as the great Sdlivdhan, or Sddavdhan, who established
the Sake era ; and I am inclined to assign the founda-
tion of the Amaravati stupa to him, in about a.d. 90,
and its completion to Yddri/a Sri Sdtakarni, one of his
successors, who ascended the throne in a.d. 142. This
date corresponds very well with the only facts that
we possess regarding the age of the stupa, namely,
that it cannot be earlier than the Christian era or
later than a.d. 313, when its relics were carried away
to Ceylon.

At a much later date, in the beginning of the
eleventh century, Danaka is mentioned by Abu Eihuu,
who describes it as " the plains of the Konkan.'''' Now,
the Konkan is the valley of the Estna river, and this
description of the country of Danaka adds another
proof to the correctness of my identification of Hwen
Thsang's Dhanakakata with the ruined city of Bhdra-
nikotfa on the Kistna. According to Abu Eihan,*
Danaka was the native country of the Karkadun^ or
rhinoceros. Now the same statement is made by
the merchant Sulimanf of a country in the south of

India, named Buhmi, ^_^j which was famous also
for extremely fine muslins, that could be passed through
a ring. The same country is noticed by MasudiJ as
Rahna^ and by Idrisi as Bumi. Masudi, also, notes
that it extended along the seacoast. Now Marco
Polo mentions the town of Miifafli, in the province of

* Eeinaud, ' Fragments Arabes,' etc., p. 109.

t Sir Henry Elliot's ' Muhammadan Historians of India,' by Pro-
fessor Dowson, i. 5. J Ihii., i. 23.

SOUTHERN INDIA. 543

Masulipatam and to the north of Maahar, as famous
for diamonds and for the thinnest and most delicate
cotton cloths resembling spiders' webs. Mutafili has
generally been identified with Masulipatam itself ; but
a considerable town named Mutapili still exists near
the seacoast at 66 miles to the south of Dhdranikotta.,
and 70 miles to the south-west of Masulipatam. In
either case, however, Marco's notice determines the
fact that the country about the mouths of the Godavari
was famous for diamonds and for delicately fine muslins.
It must, therefore, have included the diamond district
of Parti/dl, immediately to the north of Dhdran'ko ta,
as well as the muslin district of Masulipatam ; and,
accordingly, it may be identified with the Ralimi or
Dumi of the Arab geographers. By a very slight

change in the characters ^^a^ Bahni might become
t^iij Dhanak, which would agree with the Danaka
of Abu Rihan.

According to the chronicles of Orissa,* the present
town of Amaravati was founded, or established as
a subordinate seat of government, by Surya Deva,
Eaja of Orissa in the twelfth century. The name is
connected with the worship of Siva as Amarandtha^ or
Amareswara ; and one of the twelve great Lindas of
this god, which is assigned to Ujain, almost certainly,
belonged to the holy city on the Kistna, as we know
that Ujain possessed its own famous temple of Maha-
kMa, and that all the other ten shrines of Siva belong
to difi'erent places.

I cannot close this account without noting that M.
Yivien de Saint-Martin has stated his suspicion that

♦ Stirling in Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, 1837, p. 760.

544

THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

the name of Dandaka is connected with DhanaJcaJcata*
The Dandahdi-anya^ or forest of Dandaka, is celebrated
in Indian story. Vardha MiIdra,-\ the great astro-
nomer, mentions Dandaka along with other places in
the South of India as follows : Kerala^ Karndta, Edn-
cJtipura, Konhana^ Chinna-pattana (or Madras), etc. In
this list Dandaka is distinct from Konkana, or the
Upper Kistna ; and may, therefore, perhaps be identi-
fied with the lower valley of the Kistna of which
Bhanakakata was the capital. But as the latter name
is found in the early inscriptions of the western caves,
it is probable that the mere verbal resemblance of
Dandaka may be quite accidental.

Hwen Thsang describes the province of Dhanakakafa
as 6000 li, or 1000 miles, in circuit. These large di-
mensions are corroborated by its other name of Ta-an-
ta-lo, that is Malta Jndhra, or the great Andhra, which
is noted by the Chinese editor,:]: as the other districts
of Telingdna, namely Kalinga and Andhra proper are
smaller than Bhanakakata. No frontier is mentioned
in any direction ; but it is most probable that the
boundaries of the province corresponded as nearly as
possible with the limits of the Telugu language, Avhich
extended to Kulbarga and Pennakonda on the west,
and to Tripati and the Pulikat lake on the south. On-
the north it was bounded by Andhra and Kalinga, and
on the east by the sea. The circuit of these boun-
daries is, as nearly as possible, 1000 miles; and I am,
therefore, inclined to believe that the large tract of

* M. Julien's ' Hiouen Thsang,' iii. 396. ' Memoire Analytique sur
la Carte de I'Asie Centrale et de I'lnde.'

t Kern's ' Brihat-Sanhita,' c. xiv. ; v. 12, 13, 14.
X M. Julien's ' Hiouen Thsang,' iii. 110, note 2.

SOUTHEEN INDIA. 545

country thus described is the famous Dhanakakata
of Hwen Thsang.

5. CHOLIYA, OE JOEIYA.

From Dhanakakata, Hwen Thsang travelled to the
south-west for 1000 //, or 167 miles, to Chu-li-ye, or
Jho-li-ye, which he describes as a small district only
2400 li, or 400 miles, in circuit.* To enable us to
fix the position of this unknown territory it is neces-
sary to note the pilgrim's subsequent route to the
south for 1500 or 1600 /?, or about 260 mileSj to Kctn-
chipura or Conjeveram, the well-known capital of Dra-
vida. Now, the distance of K^nchipura from the
Ejstna is from 240 to 260 miles, so that Chuliya must
be looked for somewhere along the south bank of that
river, at 167 miles to the south-west of DhdranikoUa.
This position corresponds almost exactly with Karnitl,
which is 230 miles in a direct line to the north-north-
west of K^nchipura, and 160 miles to the west- south-
west of Dharanikotta. M. Julien has identified ChoUya
with Chola, which gives its name to Chola-mandala, or
Coromandel. But Cliola was to the south of Dravida,
whereas the Choliya of Hwen Thsang lies to the north
of it. If we accept the pilgrim's bearings and distances
as approximately correct, the position of Choliya must
certainly be looked for in the neighbourhood of Karnul.

Professor Lassen has suggested that the names of
Choliya and Dravida may have been transposed by the
Chinese editor of the pilgrim's travels. The same sug-
gestion occurred to me when I first examined the
travels some years ago ; and if it was quite certain
that the Chinese syllables Chu-li-ye represented Chola^

* Julien's ' Hiouen Thsang," iii. 116. See Map No. I.

2 N

546 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

there would be a very strong temptation to adopt the
suggestion. But I agree with M. Yivien de Saint-
Martin* that it is difficult to admit the possibility of
such a transposition, although an adherence to the
text of Hwen Thsang involves the total omission of
any mention of the famous kingdom of Chola. M. de
Saint- Martin points to the present use of the name of
Coromandel, which is applied to the whole of the
Madras coast, as far north as the mouths of the Goda-
vari, as a possible explanation of the extension of the
name of CIloIu to the country immediately to the south
of the Kistna. But I believe that this extension of
the name is solely due to European sailors, who
adopted it for the sake of convenience. This name be-
sides applies only to the sea-coast, whereas Chuliya is
described by Hwen Thsang as a small district lying to
the south-west of DJiaraniJcotta, so that if we accept
the pilgrim's account as it stands, it is scarcely pos-
sible that Choliya could have extended so far to the
east as the sea-coast.

It is admitted that the identification of Choliya is
difficult ; but I am of opinion that we must either
accept the pilgrim's account as it now stands, or adopt
the transposition suggested by Professor Lassen. In
the former case, we must look for Choliya in the neigh-
bourhood of Karnul ; in the latter ease, it may be at
once identified with the famous province of Chola, and
its well-known capital Tanjor.

In the Chino-Japanese map of India, constructed to
illustrate the pilgrim's travels, the district of Choliya
is named Chu-ey-no, and is placed to the north of
Dravida, and to the south-west of Dhanaka, as in the

* M. Julien's ' Hiouen Thsang,' iii. 398.

SOUTHERN INDIA. 547

text of Hwen Thsang. These Chinese syllables may
perhaps represent Kandanur, which, according to Bu-
chanan, is the correct form of the name of Karnul.

Immediately under the walls of Karnul, lies the old
town of Zora, or Jora, the Jorampur of the maps, which
answers exactly to the Choliya or Joriya of the pilgrim.
The initial Chinese syllable seems to be very rarely
used, but a similar letter is found in Kajugira, Jutinga^
and Jyolishka, and I am satisfied that M. Julien's
reading of the character &,s,ju, or jo, is correct. I am
also inclined to identify Jora with Ptolemy's Sora
regia Arcati. In some editions the words are trans-
posed, as Arcati regia Sora. But though the cart may
be put before the horse, it is still the cart, and there-
fore, I take Sora to be the capital of King Arkatos,
whether it be placed before or after his name. Arkatou
has been usually identified with Arcot, near Madras ;
but the name of this city is believed to be quite
modern, and the position of Sora must be far to the
north of Arcot. The Soree Nomades of Ptolemy may
therefore be a branch of the Sauras, who are still
located on the banks of the Kistna river. One hundred
miles to the west-north-west of Karnul, there is also
a large town, named Sorapur, the Kaja of which " still
holds his patrimonial appanage, surrounded by his
faithful tribe {Bedars), claiming a descent of more
than thirty centuries."*

As Chuliya is described as being only 2400 /?, or
400 miles, in circuit, its small size offers no help
towards its identification. If it is placed in the Karnul
district, it will cut off the north-western corner of the
province of Dhanakakata, but will not lessen its circuit,

* General Briggs in Journ. Eojal Asiat. Soc, xiii. 294.

2 N 2

548

THE ANCIENT GEOaEAPHY OF INDIA.

althougli it will diminish its area. If, however, Chuliya
is to he identified with Chola^ I would assign to it
the modern district of Tanjor^ extending from Sankeri-
Druff, near Salem on the north-west, to the mouth of
the Kdveri or Kolrun river, on the north-east, and
from Dindigal, on the south-west, to Point Calimere
on the south-east. This tract is about 120 miles in
length, by 80 miles, or just 400 miles, in circuit.

6. DRAVipA.

In the seventh century the province of Ta-lo-pi-cha,
or Drdvida, was 6000 /«, or 1000 miles, in circuit, and
its capital, named Kien-cM-pu-lo, or KdncJdpura, was
80 //, or 5 miles, in circuit.* Kunchipura is the true
Sanskrit name of Conjeveram, on the Palar river, a
large straggling town of great antiquity. As Drdvida
was bounded by Konkana and Dhanakakata on the
north, and by Malakuta on the south, while no district
is mentioned to the west, it seems certain that it must
have extended right across the peninsula, from sea
to sea. Its northern boundary may therefore be ap-
proximately defined as running from Kundapur, on the
western coast, via Kadur and Tripati, to the Pulikat
Lake, and its southern boundary from Calicut to the
mouth of the Kaveri. As the circuit of these limits
is very nearly 1000 miles, the boundaries suggested
may be accepted as very nearly correct.

During the pilgrim's stay at Xanchipura, about 300
Buddhist monks arrived from Ceylon, which they had
quitted on account of political disturbances, consequent
on the death of the king. By my reckoning, Hwen
Thsang must have arrived in Kanchipura, about the

* Julien's ' Hiouen Thsang,' iii. 118. See Map No. I.

SOUTHERN INDIA. 549

30th of July, A.D. 639, and, according to Tumour's list
of the kings of Ceylon, Eaja Buna Mugal^n was put to
death in a.d. 639. From the information fui*nished
by these monks, the pilgrim drew up his account of
Senff.Ma.lo, or Ceylon, which he was prevented from
visiting by the disturbed state of the country.

7. MALAKUTA, OR MADURA.

From Kanchipura, Hwen Thsang proceeded to the
south for 3000 li, or 500 miles, to Mo-lo-kiu-cha^*
which M. Julien renders by Malakuta. In the
southern part of the territory, towards the sea-coast,
stood the mountain named Mo-la-ye^ or Malaya, which
produced sandal-wood. The country thus described
is therefore the southern end of the peninsula, part of
which is still called Malaydlam and Malayawdra, or
Malabar ; I would accordingly read the Chinese syl-
lables as an abbreviated form of Malayakuta. The
circuit of the kingdom was 5000 li, or 833 miles,
being bounded by the sea to the south, and by the
province of Dravida to the north. As this estimate
agrees almost exactly with the measurement of the
end of the peninsula, to the south of the Kaveri river,
the province of Malayakuta must have included the
modern districts of Tanjor and Madura, on the east,
with Coimbator, Cochin, and Travancore, on the west.

The position of the capital is difficult to fix, as a
distance of 500 miles, to the south of Conjeveram,
would take us out to sea beyond Cape Kumdri,
(Comorin). If we might read 1300 li, or 217 miles,
instead of 3000 li, both bearing and distance would
agree exactly with the position of the ancient city of

* Julien's ' Hiouen thsang,' iii. 121. See Map No. I.

550

THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

Madura, which was the capital of the southern end of
the peninsula in the time of Ptolemy. It is possible
that Kaulam (Quilon) may have been the capital at
the time of Hwen Thsang's visit; but neither the
distance nor the bearing agrees with the pilgrim's
statement, as the place is not more than 400 miles to
the south-west of Conjeverara. To the north-east of
the capital there was a town named C/iaritra-pura, or
"Departure-town," which was the port of embarka-
tion for Ceylon. If Madura was the capital, the "port-
city" was probably Negapatam ; but, if Kaulam was
the capital, the "port-city" must have been Eamnad
{lidmandthapura). From this port, Ceylon was distant
3000 li, or 500 miles, to the south-east.

Accordiug to the writer of the ' Life of Hwen
Thsang,*Malayakuta was not visited by the pilgrim,
but described by hearsay, and the distance of 3000 li
is said to be from the frontiers of Dravida. But this
would only increase the difficulty by placing the capi-
tal of Malayakuta still further to the south. In a
note to this passage,f M. Julieu quotes the Bi-yu-hi
as fixing the distance at 300 //, instead of 3000 li, as
given in his translation of the Memoirs of Hwen
Thsang. If this number is not a misprint, these dif-
ferent readings may show that there is some uncer-
tainty as to the distance, as well as to the point of
departure. I am inclined, therefore, to think that the
original distances given in the memoirs and life of the
pilgrim may perhaps have been 300 //, or 50 miles,
from the frontiers of Dravida iu the latter, and 1 300 li^

* Julieu, i. 193 : " II cntendit dire qu'a trois mille li des frontieres
de ce pays [Dravida] il y avait un royaume appele Mo.lo.hi-u.cha."
t ' Hiouen Thsang,' i. 193 ; and iii. 121.

SOUTHERN INDIA. 551

or 217 miles, from the capital of Dr^vidain the former.
In either case, the capital of Malayakuta would be
fixed at Madura^ which has always been one of the
principal cities of Southern India.

According to Abu Eihan, and his copyist, Eashid-ud-
din, Mdlya and Kutal (or Kunak) were two distinct
provinces, the latter being to the south of the former,
and the last, or most southerly district of India. It
seems probable therefore, that Malyakuta is a compound
name, formed by joining the names of two contiguous
districts. Thus, Malya would answer to the district
of Pdndya^ with its capital of Madura, and Kuta^ or
Kutal^ to Travancore, with its capital of Kochin^ the
Kottiara of Ptolemy.

BEwen Thsang's omission of any mention of Chola
may be explained by the fact that at the time of his
visit the Chola-desa formed part of the great kiagdom
of the Cheras. Chola is, however, duly noticed by
Ptolemy, whose Orthura regia Sornati must be Uriur
the capital of Sorandtha, or the king of the Sorinya,
that is the Soras, Choras or Cholas. Uriur is a few
miles to the south-south-east of Trichinopoli. The
Soringse are most probably the Syrieni of Pliny with
their three hundred cities, as they occupied the coast
between the Panda and the DerangcB or Dravidians.

According to M. Julien* Malyakuta was also called
Chi-mo-lo, which I read as Jhi-vm-ra, because the
initial syllable is the same as the second syllable of
Chi-cJd-to, or Jajhoti. Jhimura is perhaps only a variant
form of the Limurike of Strabo, Ptolemy, and Arrian,
and of the Damirice of the Peutingerian Tables. It
would also appear to be the same name as Pliny's

* ' Hiouen Tlisang," iii. 121.

552

THE ANCIENT GEOGEAPHT OF INDIA.

Charmw, a people who occupied the western coast im-
mediately above the Pandse.

Tn the Chino-Japanese map of India the alternative
name of Malyahuta is Hai-an-men^ which suggests a
connection with Ptolemy's Aioi.

8. KONKANA.

From Malay akuta the pilgrim retm-ned to Drdvida
(Conjeveram), and then proceeded to the north-west
for 2000 //, or 333 miles, to Kong-hien-na-pu-lo, or
Konkanapura.* Both the bearing and distance point
to Annagundi on the northern bank of the Tunga-
hhadra river, which was the ancient capital of the
country before the Muhammadan invasion. M. Yivien
de Saint-Martin has suggested the old town of Bana-
wdsi^ which is mentioned by Ptolemy as Banauasei.
But the distance is rather too great, and the subse-
quent bearing to the capital of Mahdidsldra would be
almost due north instead of north-west as stated by
the pilgrim. Annagundi is a remarkable old site, and
was the capital of a Yudava dynasty of princes before
the foundation of the modern city of Vijayanagar on
the southern bank of the river. f

According to Hamilton, the name of Konkana
amongst the natives includes " much country lying to
the oast of the western ghS,ts." This extension agrees
with Abu Eihan's description of Danaka as the
"plains of the Konkan" which can only apply to the
table-land above the gh^ts. Such also may have
been its application in the time of Hwen Thsang, as
ho describes the kingdom as being 5000 /?, or 833

* Julien's ' Hiouen Thsang,' iii. 146. See Map No. I.

t Wilks' ' Mysore,' i. 14; note, quoting from the Mackenzie MSS.

SOUTHERN INDIA. 553

miles, in circuit, wHcli, if limited to the narrow strip
of land between the gh^ts and the sea, would in-
clude the whole line of coast from Bombay to Man-
galur. But in the seventh century the northern half
of this tract belonged to the powerful CMlakya king-
dom of Mahartishtra ; and consequently, if the pil-
grim's estimate of its size is correct, the kingdom of
Konkana must have extended inland far beyond the
line of the western ghats. Its actual limits are not
mentioned, but as it was bounded by Dravida on the
south, by Dhanakakata on the east, by Maharashtra
on the north, and by the sea on the west, it may be
described as extending along the coast from Vingorla
to Kundaptir, near Bednur, and inland from the neigh-
bourhood of Kulbarga to the ancient fortress of AJad-
giri, which would give a circuit of about 800 miles.
This was the ancient kingdom of the Kddambas^ which
for a time rivalled that of the Chdlukyas of Maharash-
tra. Hamilton states that the name of the country is
pronounced Kokan by the natives, which suggests its
identification with the people called CocondoB by Pliny,
who occupied a middle position in the route from the
south of India towards the mouth of the Indus.

9. MAHARASHTEA.

From Konkana the pilgrim proceeded to the north-
west for 2400 to 2500 li, or upwards of 400 miles, to
Mo-ho-la-cha, or Mahdrdsktra. The capital was 30 li,
or 5 miles, in circuit, and on the west side touched a
large river.* From this description alone I should be
inclined to adopt Paithan, or Pratishthdna, on the Go-
davari as the capital of Maharashtra in the seventh
* Julien's ' Hiouen Thsang,' iii. 149. See Map No. I.

554 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

century. It is mentioned by Ptolemy as Baithana,
and by the autbor of the ' Periplus ' as Plithdna, which
should no doubt be corrected to Paithana. But the
subsequent distance of 1000 li, or 167 miles, westward
or north-westward* to Bharoch is much too small, as
the actual distance between Paithan and Bharoch is
not less than 250 miles. M. Vivien de Saint- Martin
thinks that Devagiri accords better with the position
indicated ; but Devagiri is not situated on any river,
and its distance from Bharoch is about 200 miles. I
think it more probable that Kalyani is the place in-
tended, as we know that it was the ancient capital of
the Chdliihya dynasty. Its position also agrees better
with both of Hwen Thsang's distances, as it is about
400 miles to the north-west of Annagundi, and 180
or 190 miles to the south of Bharoch. To the west of
the city also fllows the Kailas river, which at this point
is a large stream. Kalydn or Kalyani is mentioned by
Kosmas Indikopleustes in the sixth century as the
seat of a Christian bishopric, under the name of
Kalliana, and by the author of the ' Periplus ' in the
second century as KaUiena, which had been a famous
emporium in the time of Sarayanos the elder.| The
name of Kaliyana also occurs several times in the
Kanhari cave inscriptions, which date from the first
and second centuries of the Christian era.

The circuit of the province is said to be 6000 /«, or
1000 miles, which agrees with the dimensions of the

* M. Julien's ' Hiouen Thsang,' iii. 401. In the life of the pilgrim,
i. 203. the direction is said to be north-east, but as this would place the
capital of Maharashtra in the midst of the Indian Ocean, the correction
to north-west is absolutely necessary.

t Hudson, Geogr. Vet. i- 30 : KaXkUva ttoXi's, ^ eVl t5>v S.apay&vov roS
npeafivrepov xpovaiu Ifmipiov cvOecrixov yivop-fvov.

SOUTHERN INDIA. 555

tract remaining unassigned between Malwa on the
north, Kosala and Andhra on the east, Konkana on
the south, and the sea on the west. The limiting
points of this tract are Daman and Yingorla on the
sea-coast, and Idalabad and HaidarS,bad inland, which
give a circuit of rather more than 1000 miles.

On the eastern frontier of the kingdom there was
a great mountain with ridges rising one over another,
and scarped crests. In former days the Arhafc Ach^ra
had built a monastery, with rooms excavated in the
rock, and a front of two storeys in height facing a
" sombre" valley. The Vihdr attached to it was 100
feet in height; and in the midst of the monastery
there was a stone statue of Buddha about 70 feet
high, which was surmounted by seven stone caps sus-
pended in the air without any apparent support. The
walls of the Vihdr were divided all roxmd into panels
in which were sculptured with minute detail all the
great events of Buddha's life. Outside the north and
south gates of the monastery there were stone ele-
phants, both on the right-hand and on the left, which
according to the belief of the people occasionally
roared so loudly as to make the earth quake. The
description of the hill is too vague to be of much use
in identifying its position ; but if the easterly bearing
is correct, the hill of Ajayanti' is most probably the
place intended, as its bluff ridges appear to answer
better to the pilgrim's account than the smoother
slopes of Elura. But with the exception of the stone
elephants, the account is too vague to enable us to
identify the place with any certainty. There are two
stone elephants outside the Kailas excavation at Elura,
but that is a Brahmanical temple, and not a Buddhist

056 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

viMr. There is also an elephant close to the Indra-
sabha at Elura, but the animal is inside the courtyard,
instead of outside the gate as described by the pilgrim.
Scenes from Buddha's life formed the common subjects
of Buddhist sculpture, and would therefore offer no
special assistance towards the identification of the
monastery. But though the pilgrim's account is vague,
it is so minute as to the positions of the elephants and
the arrangement of the sculptures that I am inclined to
think he must have seen the place himself. In this
case I would read " western " frontier of the kingdom,
and identify his cave monastery with the well-known
excavations of Ki^nhari in the island of Salsette. In-
deed, if I am correct in the identification of Kalyani
as the capital of Maharashtra in the seventh century,
it is almost certain that the pilgrim must have visited
the Buddhist establishments at Kunhari^ which are not
more than 25 miles distant from Kaly^ni. The
numerous inscriptions at Kanhari show that some of
its excavations must date as early as the first cen-
tury before Christ, and the bulk of them during the
first and second centuries after Christ. One of the
inscriptions is dated in the year 30 of the SaMdityahdl,
or A.D. i08. No remains of stone elephants have yet
been found at Kanhari, but as the structural fac^ades
in front of the excavated vMrs have all fallen down,
some elephant torsos may yet be discovered amongst
the ruins along the foot of the scarped rock. Mr.
E. West has already disinterred the remains of a
stone stupa with all its sculptured friezes from amongst
these ruins, and further research will no doubt bring
to light many other interesting remains.

557

CEYLON.

The famous island of Ceylon is not reckoned amongst
the kingdoms of India, and it was not visited by the
pilgrim on account of political disturbances. But as
he gives a description of it from the account of the
monks whom he met at Kdnchipura^ and as it is closely
connected with India both religiously and politically,
my work would not be complete without some notice
of this interesting island.

In the seventh century of our era Ceylon was known
by the name of Senff-kia-Io, or Sinhala., which was said
to be derived from the lion-descended SinJiala, whose
son Yijaya is fabled to have conquered the island on
the very day of Buddha's death, in b.c. 543. Its
original name was Pao-chu, or "Isle of Gems," in
Sanskrit Ratna-dwipa. Its existence was first made
known to the European world by the expedition of
Alexander, under the name of Taprobane. The popu-
lar PS,li form is Tdmba-panni, or "red-handed," in
allusion to the " red palms " of the hands of Yijaya's
sick companions, who, on landing from their vessel,
touched the red ground with their hands. The true
form, however, would appear to be Tdmba-panni* or
"red-leaved," from the Sanskrit Tdmra-parni. Lassen
also gives Tambra-pani, or the " great pond," or "pond
covered with the red lotus," as a probable derivation.
In later times it was known to the western world as
Simundu, or Falai-Simundu, which Lassen thinks may
have been derived from Pali-Simanta, or " head of
the holy law." As Pliny applies the latter name
to the city containing the royal palace, it has been

* Tumour's ' Mahawanso,' p. 50.

558 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

supposed to be only another appellation for the capital
Anarajajjura, or Anuragrammon^ of Ptolemy. No ex-
planation is offered of Andrasimundu, which Ptolemy
gives as the name of a promontory on the western
coast of Ceylon, opposite Anarajapnra. From its
position it may be only another name for Palai-
simundu.

Ptolemy calls the island Salike, which, as Lassen
suggests, would appear to be only a sailor's corrupt
form of Sinhalaka^ or Sihalaka, shortened to Silaka.
Ammianus calls it Serendivus, which is the same as
the Sieladiba of Kosmas, both being derived from
Sihala-dtpa, which is the Pali form of Sinhala-dwipa,
or " Sinhala's island." Abu Eihan gives the form of
Singal-dib, or Sirindib, which is the Serendib of Euro-
pean sailors. From the same source came the Arabic
Zilan, and our own Ceylon. Amongst the Hindus
the most familiar name is Langka-dwipa^ which is also
mentioned in the ' Mahawanso ' under the Pali form of
Lanka-dipa*

According to Hwen Thsang, the circuit of the island
was 7000 //, or 1167 miles,t which is nearly double
the truth,— its actual size, according to Sir Emerson
Tennent, being 271i miles in length from north to
south, and 137^ miles from east to west, or about 650
miles in circuit. Its dimensions are so uniformly
exaggerated by the classical authors that I cannot
help suspecting some misconception as to the value of
a local measui-e. Elosmas, on the authority of Sopater,
who had actually visited the island, gives its size as
300 ffaudia, yavBla, in length, and the same m breadth
This name Sir Emerson Tennent identifies with that

* Tumour's ' Mahawanso," pp. 2, 3, 49.

t Julien's ' Hiouen Thsang,' iii. 125. See Map No. I.

CEYLON. 559

of a local measure, named gaou* which he estimates
at about 3 miles, thus making the island 900 miles
long, and as many broad. But the gaudia may just
as likely be the well-known gao-Jcos of India. This
was the distance at which the lowing of a cow could
be heard, that is 1000 dhaniis^ or bows, equal to 6000
feet, or 1-136 of a mile. The SOO gaudia would thus
be equal to 340 miles, which is only 70 miles in excess
of the real length of the island. Pliny makes the
length 10,000 stadia, or 1149 English miles. Ptolemy
assigns nearly 15 degrees of latitude, or about 1000
miles, which is slightly reduced by Marcianus to
9500 stadia, or 1091^ English miles. Now the earlier
Chinese pilgrim, Fa-Hian, who visited Ceylon in a.d.
412, or about one century before Sopater, states the
size of the island at 50 yojanas in length by 30 in
breadth, f or about 350 miles by 210 miles. If, as
we may fairly suppose, both travellers derived their
dimensions from the statements of the people of the
coimtry, the 300 gaudia of Sopater may be taken as
the equivalent of 50 yojanas^ which gives 6 gaudia to
the gojana, and makes the native measure rather more
than one English mile, or exactly equal to \hegao-kos
of India.

* 'Ceylon,' i. 567. He identifies the yavhia with, the gaou now in use,
which is " the distance that a man can walk in an hour." But how
about the word Aour, which has a strong European smack about it?
Was not the original gaou the distance that a man could walk in 1 ghari,
or 24 minutes, the well-known Indian division of time ? If so, the
length of the gaou, at 3 miles to the hour, would be 1'2 miles, which
agrees very closely with the actual length of the gao-kos, as noted
above. The gaou is valued by Wilson at 4 kos ; vide his Glossary in
voce.

t Seal's ' Pah-Hian,' c. xxxvii. p. 148. But he makes the length
from east to west, instead of from north to south.

560 THE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.

In his interesting and valuable work on Ceylon,
Sir Emerson Tennent has suggested that the port of
Galle may be the Tar slash* of the Bible, " which lay
in the track between the Arabian Gulf and Opldr^''
and that Oj)hir itself is Malacca, or the Aurea Cher-
sonesus, because '' Ophir, in the language of the Ma-
lays, is the generic name for any gold mine." But
this view seems to me to be quite untenable, as the
names of all the articles brought back by Solomon's
fleet are pure Sanskrit. Sir Emerson states that they
are " identical with the Tamil names by which some
of them are called in Ceylon to the present day."
These names are sen-hahim, or "teeth of elephants,"
kopMm^ or "apes," and tukiim^ or "parrots." But
these are the pure Sanskrit words ibha, Jcapi, and
suka, with the mere addition of the Hebrew plural
termination. It is true that these Sanskrit names
have been naturalized in the south of India, but they
have not displaced the original Tamil appellations,
which still remain the terms in common use, namely,
ydne for elephant, luranga for monkey, and mayil for
peacock, or kiUp-pillai for parrot. Now, if the fleet
of Solomon obtained these Sanskrit names in Ceylon,
then we must admit that the Aryan race had pushed
their conquests to the extreme south of India some
centuries before the time of Solomon, that is about
1200 or 1500 B.C. But at this very time, as we learn
from their own records, the Aryas had not yet crossed
the Narbada, nor even penetrated to the mouth of the
Ganges. It does not therefore seem possible that any
of their names could have been obtained either in
Ceylon or in the south of India so early as the time

* ' Ceylon," ii. 101.

CEYLON. 561

of Solomon. Even according to their own annals,*
the Ceylonese were barbarians until the landing of
Yijaya, in B.C. 543 ; and there is no satisfactory evi-
dence of any Aryan connection or intercourse before
the time of Mahendra, the son of Asoka, in B.C. 242.

The writer of the article Opldr in Smith's 'Dictionary
of the Bible ' argues in favour of Arabia, by assuming
that " ivory, apes, and peacocks " were not imported
from Ophir, but from Tarshish, and that gold and
algum trees only were imported from Ophir. By this
assumption he gets rid of the Indian names for the
elephant, monkey, and parrot ; but there still remains
the name of algum wood, which Professor Lassen de-
rives from the Sanskrit valgu, or sandal-wood. He
admits that Arabia does not now produce gold, but
thinks that it may once have done so, or if not, that it
at least possessed gold by importation, as the Queen of
Sheba presented much gold to Solomon.

This subject has already been discussed in my ac-
count of Vadari, or Eder, in "Western India ; but I may
here again state my opinion that the Ophir of the
Bible, which is rendered I!w4>ei.p and Hovcjiip by Jose-
phus and the Septuagint,-}" is most probably the Sauvira
of Hindu geography, or south-western ES,jputana,
which amongst the people of the west would have
been pronounced Hobir, just as Sindliu became Indus,
and as sapta became haft and ewTa. According to
PHny the country to the north of the Gulf of £hambay
formerly produced both gold and silver, which it does
even at the present day. Specimens of gold from the

* ' Fo-kwe-ki,' c. xxxviii. ' Mahawanso,' p. 48. ' Hiouen Thsang,'
iii. 132.

t Josephus, Antiq., i. 6, 4. 1 Kings x. 11 ; and 2 Chron. viii. 18. Sqfir
is the Coptic name of India.

2 0

5G2 THE ANCIENT GEOGKAPHT OF INDIA.

Aravali mo-untains may be seen in the India Museum,
and the same range is the only part of India in which
silver is found in any quantity. Western India also
was colonized by the Aryan race at least two thousand
years before Christ, and the Aryan language had be-
come the common speech of the country long before
the time of Solomon. I would therefore identify the
Ophir or Sophir of Scripture with the Indian Sauvira
of the Hindus, where the captains of Solomon's fleet
could have obtained the fine pure gold for which Ophir
was famed, and where they would have obtaiaed ivory,
apes, and peacocks (or parrots) called by the very
names which they have preserved to us in the Bible.

563

APPENDIX A.

Approximate Chronology op Hwen Thsang's

A.D.

629, Aug. 1

Dec. 1

Dec.

630

, Jan.

Feb.

Mar.

Apr.

May

Aug

)}

Nov

Dec.

631

, Jan.

Mar

Apr.

May 25

Travels.

Left Liang-eheu, in 8tli montli of
3rd year of Ching-kivang, on
horseback

Akini, about 1200 miles, in-
cluding 2 months' detention
on the way

Baluha, about 500 miles.

Issikul, about 250 miles.

Tolas, about 600 miles.

Samaekand, about 500 miles.

KhvJm (Hu-o), halt for 1 month

Balkh.

Bamian. Snowstorm on road to
Kapisa

Kapisa. Halt till end of summer

Lamghdn. Halt 8 days .

Nagarahara. Halt 2 months (?)
to visit holy places.

Gdndhara. Visits holy spots.

Utakhanda.

JJdydna. Visits holy places.

Source of Subhavastu river; frost
and ice.

Returns to Utakhanda.

Takila. Halt 1 month (?) to
visit holy places.

Sinhapura.

References.

Julien's
' Hiouen
Thsang.'

Vol. i. 14.

Vol. i. 15, 39.

Vol. i. 62.

Vol. i. 71.
Vol. i. 75.
Vol. i. 75.

0 2

564

APPENDIX.

A.D.

631, June 15

Returns to Taxila.

' Hiouen
Thsang.'

July 10

Aug. 10

633, Oct. 1

Urasa.

Kashmir. Halt 2 entire years .

Leaves Kashmir.

Vol. i.

96.

„ 10

Punach.

„ 20

Nov. 10

Rajaori.
Tselca or Taka.

„ 15
„ 25

Sakala or Sangala.
Large town (? Kusawar or Ka-
sur). Halt 1 month . . .

Vol. i.

101.

634, Jan. 1

Ghinapati. Halt 14 months .

Vol. i.

101.

635, Mar. 15

Jdlandhara. Halt 4 months

Vol. i.

102.

Aug. 1

Ktduta.

Sep. 10
„ 25

Sntadru.

Pdriijdtra, or Bairdt.

Oct. 5

Mathura.

„ 25

Thcinefiar or Sthaneswnra.

Nov. 1

Seughna. Halt 4^ months, for

636, Mar. 15

whole winter and half spring .
Mabawae. Halt 4J months, for

Vol. i.

106

half spring and whole summer.

Vol. i

109

Aug. 1

„ 5

Brahmapu ra .
Returns to Maddwar.

„ 10

Gorisaiia.

„ 15

Ahlchhafra.

„ 20

Pilosana.

„ 25

Saiikisa.

Sep. 1

Kangj. Halt 3 months . . .

Vol. i

113

Dec. 1

,> 4

Ayuto.
Hnyamuliha.

„ 7
„ 10

Praijdijd.
Kausdmbi.

„ 13
„ 16

Kiisapura.

Vaisdklia, or Sdketu, or Ajndliya.

„ 20

Seavasti.

„ 25

KajiUaratitu.

APPENDIX.

A.D.

' Hiouen
Thsang.'

636, Dec. 28

Ramagr^ma.

637, Jan. 1

Kusinagara.

„ 3

Large Brahmanical town {tKhu-
hhundo) .

„ 12

Banaeas, or Vaeanasi.

„ 20

Garjapatipura.

„ 25

Vaisali.

„ 30

Viiji.

Feb. 5

Nepdla.

„ 15

Returns to Vaisdli.

„ 20

Magauha. Capital, Pdtaliputra.

Mar. 1

Rajagriha, Nalanda. Long stay.
Visits all the holy places ; re-

Vol. i. 152

turns to Ndlanda for 15 months.

Vol. i. 164

Study of language — say alto-

gether 22 months.

639, Jan. 1

Hirayiya-parvata.

„ 5

Champa.

„ 10

Kdnkjol.

„ 15

Paimdra Farddhana.

Feb. 20

Kdmarupa.

Mar. 20

Samatata.

Apr. 10

Tdmralipti.

„ 20

Kirana Suvama.

May 5

Odra, or Orissa.

„ 15

Ganjam.

„ 30

Ealing a.

June 20

Kosala.

July 20

Andhra.

„ 30

DhanakaJeata. Halt " many

months," say 6

Vol. i. 189

640, Feb. 1

Jorya

„ 20

Drdvida. Ga-pital Kdnchipura, or

Conjeveram

Vol. i. 190

Apr. 1

Malyahuta.

May 10

Returns to Drdvida.

666

APPENDIX.

A.D.

640, June 20

July

Aug

Sep.

Oct.

Nov.

641, Jan.

Feb.

Mar. 20

Apr.

May

June 20 |

July

Aug

Sep.

Oct.

642, Apr.

Aug.

Nov.

Dec.

043, Mar.

T\r„,.

0*-,

Konhanapura .

Maharashtra.

Bhdroch.

Maliva.

Vadari, or Eder.

Kheda, or Khalrn.

Vallabhi.

Anandapura

Swashtra.

Gurjara.

IJjAIN.

Jajhoti

Maheswamp ura.
Returns to Surashtra.
TJdumbara, or Kachh.
Ldngala, or Bilnehistan.
Pitasila, or Patala.
Avanda, or Brahmanabad.
SiNDH. Capital ^Zo»-. Halt 20 days.

MULTAN.

Polofato (? Solofato), or Shorkot.
Halt 2 montts.

Returns to Magadha. Halts 2
months, to resolve doubts .

Revisits Kdmnriipa. Halts one
month ; messengers sent to dif-
ferent kingdoms

Starts for Kunijaludija, or Kanoj,
" in beginning of winter," in
company with King Siladitya.

Arrives in last month of the year.

Religious assembly at Kanoj ; dis-
cussions for ] 8 days . . . .

Praijdija. Grand religious assem-
bly held in 2nd month of spring

Lasts for 75 days

Kiiuxdinhi. 7 deijs' march

' Hiouen

Thsang.'

Vol.

i. 211.

Vol.

i. 236.

Vol.

i. 242.

Do.

Vol.

i. 246.

Vol.

ii. 257

Vol.

i. 252.

Vol.

i. 260.

APPENDIX.

567

A.D.

' Hiouen
Thsang.'

643, July 1

Pilosana. March 1 monthj halt

2 months

Vol. i. 261

Sep. 20

Jalandhara. Halt 1 month . .

Do.

Nov. 15

Sinhwpura.

Dec. 15

Taxtla. Halt 7 days ....

Vol. i. 264

„ 25

Fords the Indus on an elephant ;

therefore in midwinter to
Utakhanda. Halt 1 month and

20 days

Do.

644, Mar. 15

Eeaches Lamghdn with the king

in 1 month

Vol. i. 265

June 15

Falana, or Banu. 1 5 days' march

Do.

„ 20

Opolden, or Afghan.

„ 25

Tsaokiuto, or Ghazni.

July 1

Urddhasthdna, or Ortospana, or
Kabul.

„ 5

Kapisa. Halt. Eeligious assem-

bly 7 days

Vol. i. 266

„ 20

Andardh. Cross snow)i moun-
tains, and frozen streams.

Aug. 1

Tukhdra. Halt 1 month.

Sep. 1

Munkan.

„ 3

Himatala.

„ 8

Badakshdn.

„ 10

Kiepohian

„ 12

Kuilangnu.

» 25

Pamer.

„ 26

Kopanto. Halt 20 days.

Oct. 10

Great rock.

„ 12

Usli.

„ 15

Kdshgdr.

„ 22

Ydrkand.

Not. 2

Kotan. Halt 7 days.

» 13

Khima. Sandy desert.

„ 16

Nijang. Great desert.

„ 21

Tukhdra.

568

APPENDIX.

'Hiouen
Thsang.'
644, Nov. 29 Chemotana.
Dec. 13 Nafoijo.
Jan. 1 Frontier of China, after some

detours.
Apr. 1 Enters the capital of Western
China, in spring of 645 (first
moon of spring, nineteenth
year of Ching-kwang) . . . Vol. i. 292.

The above chronology gives the approximate dates as
nearly as I can determine them, partly from the facts stated,
and partly from my own lengthened experience of travelling
in India. The estimated dates are well supported by facts
noted in the histories of Ceylon, Sindh, and Kashmir ; but
I may here repeat, that on Hwen Thsang's arrival at Kdnchi,
in February, 640, he heard of the assassination of the King
of Ceylon. This must have been Raja Buna Mugalan, who
was put to death in a.d. 639.

Another proof of the general accuracy of my estimate of
the pilgrim's rate of travelling is afforded by his statement
made to the Great Abbot of the Nalanda Monastery that
his travels had occupied three years.* This period must
refer to the actual time spent in travelling, as his recorded
halts at various places for the purpose of study, before he
reached Nalanda, amount to four years and seven months.
These halts, as stated in his life, are as follows : —

Years.

At Kapisa, one whole summer 0

,, Kashmir, two entire years 2

a large town (Kasur ?) 0

Chinapati 1

Jalandhar 0

Srughna, whole winter and half spring 0

Madamar, half spring and whole summer 0

Montts.
3
0
1
2
4
4i
4i

Tears 4
* Julien's ' Hiouen Thsang,' i. 147.

APPENDIX. 569

Adding to these recorded halts the three years said to have
been spent in travellings the whole period elapsed, between
the pilgrim's departure from Liang-cheu in August, 629, and
the date of his conversation with the Great Abbot, is seven
years and seven months, which fixes his arrival at Nalanda
in February, 637 A.D., the date according to my estimate
being 1st March, 637.

The chronology here detailed follows the route indicated
in the Life of Hwen Thsang, which differs from that given
in the Memoirs after the departure of the pilgrim from
Maheswarapura in April, a.d. 641. According to the
Memoirs, the route was as follows : —

A.D.

641, Apr. 5, Maheswarapura.
June 1, SiNDH.

July 10, MULTAN.

„ 20, Polofato or ShorJcot. Halt 2 months.
Oct. 20, Udumha/ra.
Nov. 30, Ldngala.
Dec. 13, Pitasila, or Patala.

„ 20, Avanda, or Bahmana.

642, Feb. 10, Falana, or Banu.
Mar. 1, Tsaolduto, or Ohazni.

By this route the pilgrim would have reached Tsaokiuto
just two years and two months earlier than by the other
route, and as the date of his return to China is fixed with
certainty, this long period of upwards of two years is wholly
unaccounted for in the record of the pilgrim's travels. It
seems almost certain, therefore, that it must have been spent
in revisiting Magadha, as stated in the ' Life.'

In the ' Life' it is recorded that at the end of his second
visit to Magadha, after two years' study, the pilgrim had a
dream, in which the Bodhisatwa Mdnju Sri appeared to him,
and foretold the death of King Siladitya in ten years.* The
king's death is then noted to have taken place at the end of

* Julien's ' Hiouen Thsang,' i. 215.

570

APPENDIX.

the period Yong-hoei, or in a.d. 650. According to this
date, the pilgrim's two years' residence in Magadha must
have been from a.d. 638 to 640. But I find it quite impos-
sible to reconcile this date with the detailed statements of
his travels. If, however, we might refer the dream to the
end of his first visit to Magadha, in November a.d. 638,
which would seem to have also extended to about two years,
then the date of Siladitya's death would be fixed to a.d. 648,
which is the very year assigned for it in the Chinese account
of India by Ma-twan-Iin* In the 22nd of the years
Ching-kwan (a.d. 648), the Emperor of China sent an
ambassador to Magadha, but before his arrival Siladitya
was dead. The information obtained by this ambassador is,
I think, more trustworthy than the account of Hoe'i-li, the
biographer of Hwen Thsang, as the former had no object to
serve in making an erroneous statement, while the latter was
obliged to support the prophetic announcement of Hwen
Thsang's dream. I am, therefore, inclined to adopt a.d.
648 as the true date of Siladitya's death, and to refer the
period of the pilgrim's dream to the close of his first visit
to Magadha in a.d. 638.

According to this view, the greater part of his two years'
study at Nalanda must be referred to his first visit in a.d.
637-638, to which I have assigned a period of twenty-two
months, which, added to his subsequent two months' study
for the resolution of doubtsf at his second visit, makes up
the total period of two years' study at Nalanda. The longer
period of five years' study of all the works of both Buddhists
and Brahmans, which is mentioned in another place,J I
understand to refer to the whole duration of his three prin-
cipal halts, namely, at Kashmir for two years, at Chinapati
for fourteen months, and at Nalanda for two years, which,
taken in round numbers, amount to just five years.

* Journ. Asiat. Soo. Bengal, 1837, p. 69 ; anonymous English trans-
lation. See also Journ. Asiatique, 1839, 398 ; Frencli translation by
M. Pauthicr.

t .Julicn's ' Hiouen Thsung," i. 211.

t IJAd. i. 171.

571
APPENDIX B.

Measures op Distance.

Yojana^ Li, Krosa.

Thi measures of distance noted by the Chinese pilgrims
are the Indian yojana and the Chinese li. The first is
generally used by the elder traveller^ Pa-Hian, and the
other by the later travellers. Sung - Tun and Hwen
Thsang. The Jcrosa or kos, which is the common Indian
measure of length at the present day, is not used by
any of them. Hwen Thsang mentions that the yojana, ac-
cording to tradition, was equivalent to 40 Chinese li, but
that the measure then in use was equal to only 30 li.* From
a comparison of the different pilgrims' recorded distances
between well-known places, it appears that Hwen Thsang
adopted the traditional measure of the yojana as equal to 40
li. I give four distances as an example : —

Pa-Hian. Hw. Thsang.

I. Sravasti to Kapila . . ■. 13 yojanas or 500 li.
II. Kapila to Kusinagara . . 12 „ 485 „

III. Nalanda to Giryek ... 1 „ 58 „

IV. Yaisali to the Ganges . . 4 „ 135 „

Total 30 i/o;amas =1178 li.
Orl „ = 391 „

Hwen Thsang describes the yojana as equal to 8 hrosas,
or kos, of 500 dhanus, or " bow lengths " of 4 cubits each.
The yojana would therefore be only 24,000 feet, or a little
more than 4^ miles. But in all the Hindu books the yojana
is reckoned at 4 hrosas, either of 1000 or of 2000 dhanus or
bow lengths. The former value agrees with the length of
the yojana as stated by Hwen Thsang, and the latter is the
double measure of about 9 miles, which gives the common
* Julien's ' Hiouen Thsang,' ii. 60.

572 APPENDIX.

ko8 of 2^ miles that is in use in many parts of India at the
present day.

The smaller kos of upwards of 6000 feet is certainly an
old Indian measiu'e, as Strabo mentions^ on the authority of
Megasthenes, that along the royal road to Palibothra there
were pillars set up at every 10 stadia^* or 6067^- feet apart^
to mark the distance. Taking this valuation of the kos^ the
yojana would be little more than 24,000 feet, or 4^ miles,
whUe the actual Chinese U of 30 to the yojana would be only
800 feet, and the traditional K of 40 to the yojana not m.ore
than 600 feet. There would consequently be 6^ of the
former, and 8^ of the latter to the British mile. But from
a comparison of the recorded distances of the Chinese
pilgrims with the actual measured road distances between
well-ascertained places, it would appear that there must be
some mistake in the value of 30 li, assigned to the Indian
yojana by Hwen Thsang.

The following distances recorded by Pa-Hian show that
the value of the yojana in British road distance was about
6 1 miles, but as the old native cart-tracks generally followed
a zigzag route from village to village, the actual length of
the yojana may be taken at 1\ or 8 miles.

Fa-Hian. British, roads.

I. Bheda to Mathura
II. Mathura to Sankisa

III. Sankisa to Kanoj .

IV. Banaras to Patna .
V. Patna to Champa .

VI. Champa to Tamluk
VII. Nalanda to Giryek

196 yojanas, or 779i miles.

These distances make the yojana of Fa-Hian equal to
6' 71 miles of British road measurement.

* Strabo, Geogr. xv. i. 50. This statement is confirmed by the
' Lalita Vistara,' in which the k7-osa of Magadha is valued at 4000 cubits.
(Fouoaux, p. 142.)

. . 80 yojanas,

536

miles.

. . 18

115i

. ■ 7

152

. . 18

1364

. . 50

316

. . 1

. . . 400 ;

i, or

66 miles.

. . .700

114 ,,

. . .600

85 „

. . .700

120 „

. . .300

48 „

. . .580

))

103 „

APPENDIX. 573

A similar comparison of Hwen Thsang's measurements
establishes tie value of his li at one-sixth of a mile in road
distance ; but it is probable that it was not less than one-
fifth of a mile in actual lengthy as the old zigzag cart-tracks
were considerably longer than the straight British roads.

Hw. Thsang. British roads.
I. Madawar to Govisana
II. Kosambi to Kusapura

III. Sravasti to KapUa

IV. Kusinagara to Banaras
V. Banaras to Grhazipur .

VI. G-hazipur to Vaisali

3360 Zi, or567 miles.

The average of these distances gives 5'925;, or nearly 6 li
to the milej which is the value that I have used throughout
this work for reducing the numbers of Hwen Thsang to
road distance in British miles.

These independent values of the yojana and // mutually
corroborate each other ; for as Hwen Thsang states that the
yojana was traditionally said to be equal to 40 U, the value
of the yojana, according to his recorded distances, was 40
divided by 5-925, or 6'75 miles, which is practically the same
result as 6' 71 miles, the value already deduced from Fa-
Hian^s distances between well-known places.

M. Vivien de Saint-Martin, quoting Le Pere Gaubil,*
shows that the Chinese li, shortly after the time of Hwen
Thsang, was equal to 329 metres, or 1079'12 English feet.
As this agrees very nearly with the value of one-fifth of an
English mile, or 1056 feet, which I have deduced for the li
from the recorded distances of Hwen Thsang, I think that
it must have been the actual li which the pilgrim used in

* ' Histoire de I'Astronomie Chinoise,' i. 77, quoted in Julien's ' Hiouen
Thsang,' iii. 258. The value of the U is determined from the mean
measurement of three diflferent degrees by the Chinese astronomer
Y-hang, between 713 and 756 a.d., or just one century after the date
of Hwen Thsang's travels.

574 APPENDIX.

estimating the lengtli of his marches in India. Accepting it
as the true value of the Chinese li of the seventh century,
the length of the yojana would have been 43,164'8 feet, or
nearly 8-^-^ miles, which agrees very closely with the popular
valuation at from 8 to 9 miles.

The actual value of the Chinese li in the seventh century
was, therefore, 1079'12 feet, or rather more than one-fifth
of an English mile ; but for the reasons which I have as-
signed, and the proofs which I have adduced, its value in
British road distance was not more than one-sixth of an
English mile.

The variations in the length of the Indian kos must have
puzzled the Chinese pilgrims. It is on this account perhaps
that Fa-Hian uses the greater measure of the yojana, while
Hwen Thsang records all distances in his native U. At the
present day the length of the kos varies in almost every
district ; but practically there are only three absolutely
distinct values of the kos now in use in Northern India.

1. The short kos, generally known as the Pddshdhi or
Panjdbi kos, which is in common use in North-west India
and the Panjab, is about 1^ mile in length.

2. The kos of the Gangetic provinces, which is in use
throughout the districts on both banks of the Ganges, was
about 2 J miles in length, but for the sake of convenience it
is now generally considered as equal to 2 British miles.

3. The Bundela kos, which is in use throughout Bundel-
khand, and other Hindu provinces to the south of the Jumna,
is about 4 miles in length. The same long kos is also in use
in Mysore, in Southern India.

I take the first of these kos to have been originally just
one -half of the second, so that the two measures were parts
of the same system. Thus Wilson states the value of the
hrosa, or kos, as either 4000 or 8000 cubits. The smaller
kos must have been in use in Magadha in the time of Me-
gasthenes,* as he records that pillars were set up at every
ten stadia along the royal road to mark the distances. Now

* Strabo, Geogr., xv. i. 50.

APPENDIX. 575

10 stadia are equal to 6066'72 feetj or just 4000 hastas, or
cubits, which, according to the 'Lalita Vistara,' was the ac-
tual value of the h'osa of Magadha. The longer measure of
8000 hastas, or cubits, is given by Bh^skara in the ' Lilavati,'
and by other native authorities.

To determine the exact value of these measures we must
have recourse to the unit from which they were raised. This
is the angula, or ' finger,' which in India is somewhat under
three-quarters of an inch. By my measurement of 42 copper
, coins of Sikandar Ludi, which we know to have been ad-
justed to fingers' breadths, the angula is •72976 of an inch.
Mr. Thomas makes it shghtly less, or '72289. The mean
of our measurements is •72632 of an inch, which may
be adopted as the real value of the Indian finger, or angula,
as I found the actual measure of many native fingers to be
invariably under three-quarters of an iuch. According to
this value the hasta, or cubit, of 24 angulas would be equal
to 17'43168 inches, and the dhanu, or " bow," of 96 angulas
would be 5'81 feet. But as 100 dhanus make one nalwa,
and 100 nalwas make one hrosa or kos, it seems probable
that the dhanu must have contained 100 angulas to preserve
the centenary scale.* According to this view the hasta, or
cubit, would have contained 25 fingers instead of 24, and
its value would have been 18'158 inches, which is stiU below
the value of many of the existing hastas, or cubits of the
Indian Bazars. Adopting this value of the hasta, the higher

measures would be : —

Feet.
4 hastas, or 100 angulas = 6-052 = 1 dhamu.
400 „ 100 dhanus = 605-2 = 1 nalwa.

4000 „ 100 nalwas = 6052 =: 1 krosa.

As this value of the hrosa or kos is within 15 feet of that
derived from the statement of Megasthenes, I think that it

* The same confusion of the numbers 96 and 100 exists in the mone-
tary scale, in which we have 2 haraganis, or ' twelvers,' equal to 1
pancU, or ' twenty-fiver.'

576

APPENDIX.

may be accepted as a very near approximation to tlie actual
value of the ancient kro-'^a of Magadha.

The larger kos of the Gangetic provinces, which measured
8000 hastas, would be just double the above, or 12104 feet,
or rather more than 2^ miles.

In later times several of the Muhammadan kings esta-
blished other values of the kos, founded on various multiples
of different gaz, which they had called after their own names.
Our information on this subject is chiefly derived from Abul
Pazl, the minister of Akbar.* According to him. Shir.
Khan fixed the Jcroh, or kos, at 60 jaribs, each containing
60 Sikandari gaz, of 41 J Sikandaris, which was still in use
about Delhi when Abul Fazl wrote. This kos would be equal
to 9042 •66 feet, or rather less than If mile. Another kos
was established by Akbar, composed of 5000 Ilahi gaz, the
value of which is said to be equal to 41 Sikandaris. But
this is certainly a mistake, as the existing IMhi gaz mea-
sures vary from 32 to 33 inches, and are therefore equal to
44 or 45 Sikandaris. Sir Henry Elliot has attempted to as-
certain the value of this kos from the measurements of dis-
tances between the existing kos 7nindrs on the royal road
" from Agra to Labor of Great Mogul." But as the people
generally attribute the erection of the present kos minors to
Shah Jahan, who had established another gaz of his own, no
dependence can be placed on his value of the Akbari kos.
Sir Henry has also given undue prominence to this kos, as
if it had superseded all others. That this was not the case
is quite certain, as Akbar's own minister, Abul Pazl, uses
the short kos throughout his descriptions of the provinces
of his master's empire. Even Akabar's son, Jahangir, has
discarded the Akbari kos in his autobiography, where he
mentions that he ordered a Sarai to be built at every 8 kos
between Labor and Agra.f

* ' Ayin Akbari," i. 171.

t ' Memoirs of Jahangir, p. 90. The distances between the Sarais
vary from 9 to 13 miles.

577
APPENDIX C.

COEEECTION OF PtOLEMY's EaSTEEN LONGITUDES.

Ptolemy's longitudes are so manifestly in excess of the
truth that various methods of rectification have been sug-
gested by diiferent geographers. That of M. Gossellin was
to take five-sevenths of Ptolemy's measures, but his system
was based upon the assumption that Ptolemy had made an
erroneous estimate of the value of the degree both of the
equinoctial and Rhodian diaphragms, as detailed by Era-
tosthenes. But for the geography of Asia, Ptolemy seems
to have depended altogether upon the authority of Marinus,
the Tyrian geographer, and of Titianus or Maes, a Macedo-
nian merchant. M. Grossellin's method was probably founded
upon the average of Ptolemy's errors, deduced from the lon-
gitudinal excess of many well-known places. It is in fact
an empirical correction of Ptolemy's errors, of the cause of
which his theory ofiers nothing more than a mere guess.
The true sources of Ptolemy's errors of longitude have been
pointed out so clearly by Sir Henry Rawlinson that I cannot
do better than repeat his explanation of them.*

1st. Upon a line drawn from Hierapolis on the Euphrates
to the stone tower he converted road distance into measure-
ment upon the map at a uniform reduction of 1 in 11 ^ in-
stead of 1 in 8, or perhaps, which would be more accurate
upon so long a line, of 1 in 7.

2nd. He computed an equatorial degree at 500 instead of
600 Olympic stadia, and thus upon the line of the Itinerary,
which he assumed to be about the parallel of Rhodes, he
allowed only 400 stadia to a degree, while the true measure-
ment was 480.

3rd. In converting the schoeni of the Itinerary into
Olympic stadia, he assumed their uniform identity with the

* ' On the Site of the Atropatenian Ecbatana,' p. 122.

2 P

578 APPENDIX.

Persian parasang of 3J Roman miles, whereas Sir Henry
believes the schcenm; to have been the natural measure of one
hour employed by all caravans, both in ancient and modern
times, to regulate their daily march, and to have averaged
as nearly as possible a distance of 3 British miles.

The different corrections to be applied to Ptolemy's
eastern longitudes on account of these three errors have
been calculated by Sir Henry Rawlinson to amount to three-
tenths, which is within one-seventieth part of the empirical
correction used by M. Gossellin.

To show the accuracy of the correction here proposed, I
need only refer to the difference of longitude between Taxila
and Palibothra, which has been given at p. 9 of this work.

579

INDEX.

Afghan states, 131.

Afghanistan, or Opokien, 87.

Agahat, or Aghat Sarai, an old city
near Saukisa, 371.

Ahi-chhatra, or Ahi-kshetra, the
capital of N. Panchala, 359 ;
identified with Adikot, or Ahi-
chhatra, near Eamnagar in Ko-
hilkhand, 360 ; fort restored
about two hundred years ago,
by Ali Muliammad Klian, 363.

Ajudhan, or Pak-pattan, an ancient
city in the Panjab, 214, 218.

Ajudhya, the ancient capital of
Oudh, 401.

Akbar, ruins of an ancient city in
the Panjab, 212.

AkrHreswara, now Aklesar, on the
Narbada, opposite Bharoch, 322.

Akshay-Bat, or Tree of Prayag,
389.

Alakappo, capital of a tribe of tlie
Vrijis, 450.

Albania in Panjab, identified with
Labania or the Sanskrit Lavana
(salt), 157 ; famous for its fight-
ing dogs, 157.

Alexander — accounts of India, col-
lected by, 1 ; siege of Aornos,
62, 63; passage of the Hy-
daspes, 160, 169.

Alexandria Opiane, 21 ; same as
Opian, 23 ; ad Caucasum, 24.

Alor, capital of Upper Sindh, 257 ;
chief city of the Musikani, 257.

Araaravati, modern temple and
town close to the ruins of Dhara-
nikotta, 543.

Ambakapi, the Amakatis of Pto-
lemy, in the Eastern Panjab, 195.

Amin, or Abhimanyu-Khera, near
Thanesar, 337.

Amyntas, author of ' Stathmi,' 2.

Anandapura, near Vallabhi, 493.

Analwara, or Naharwala, 820,322.

Anarta, district in S.W. India, 6.

Andhra in S. India, 527 ; now Te-
lingana, 527 ; its people called
AndarsB by Pliny, 528.

Anoma, or Aumi river, to the east
of Kapila, 423.

Andrapana, or Draband, 86.

Aornos in Bactria, fort of the
Varni, 60.

Aornos, near the Indus, identified
with Ranigat, 58; with Maha^
ban, 59; Raja Modi's fort, 59;
same as Avaranas, 60 ; fort of
R-aja-vara, 60, 65, 67 ; descrip-
tion of, 69.

Apaga rivulet, now (he Ayek R. ;
flows past Sangala-wala Tiba or
Sangala, 185, 209.

Arabii, or Arabitae, a barbarous
people to W. of Indus, 304,
805.

Arachosia, of the Chinese, 39, 60 ;
its two capitals, 39.

Arattas, or Arashtras, the same as
the Arest», Adraistas, or An-
drestse, 215.

Arguda of Ptolemy, identified with
Argandi, 38.

Asarur, or Asnir, in the Panjab,
identified with the Tse-kia of
Hwen Thsang, 192.

2 P 2

580

INDEX.

Asi rivulet at Baiiaras, 436.

Asthipura, near Thanesar, 336.

Atari, a ruined fort in the Panjab,
228; identified with the Brahman
city taken by Alexander, 238.

Atraiiji-khera, on the Kali Nadi,
identified witli the ancient Pilo-
shana, 364.

Attak Banaras, on the Indus, 53.

Avanta, district in S. India, 6.

Avantipura, in Kashmir, 95, 103.

Ayek rivulet, identified with the
Apaga, 185, 209.

Ayomukha, or Hayamukha on the
Ganges, 387.

Ayuto, on the Ganges below Kanoj,
382 ; identified with Kakapur,
385 ; perhaps the same as Bagud
of the Tibetan books, 386.

Babar-Khana, or Tiger's House,
part of Taxila, 112, 116.

Bagarda of Ptolemy identified with
Wardak, 38 ; perhaps the same
as the Zend Vaekereta, 38.

Bagris, the people of Bagar-des or
Bikaner, 247 ; probalily con-
nected with the Yaudheyas or
Johiyas, 247.

Bagud, or Vugud, of the Tibetan
books, identified with Ayuto,
386.

Bahikas, or Arattas, in the Panjab,
215.

Baibhar, or Vaibhara, mountain
one of the Five Hills of Kaja-
griha, 463.

Bairat, or Vairat, capital of Matsya,
337 ; 105 miles to S.W. of Delhi,
and 41 miles to N. of Jaypur,
341 ; residence of the Five Pan-
dus during their 12 years' exile,
340 ; visited by Hwen Thsang,
343 ; taken by'Mahmud, 344.

Balablii, or Valabhadra, a famous
city and kingdom in VV. India in
the seventh century, 316 ; iden-
tified with Surashtra and the
modern peninsula of Gujarat,

317; now Varailapura, in ruins,
323,
Balavas, or Bulukas, a tribe of the

Vrijis, 450.
Balnath ka Tila, a lofty mountain
to W. of Jhelara, 165 ; called
' HiU of the Sun,' by Plutarch,
165.
Banaras, or Varanasi, vulgo Be-
nares, 435.
Banu, the Falana and Pona of the
Chinese, 84, 85 ; perhaps Bana-
gara of Ptolemy, 86.
Bappa, or Vappaka, a descendant
of the Balabhi family, founded a
new kingdom at Chitor, 318.
Barahmula, or Varahamula, 99.
Barbarike, or Bhambm-a, in Lower
Sindh, 294 ; Barke of Justin,
and Barbari of Ptolemy, 295.
Baryaza, or Bharoch, 324, 326.
Bazaria, identified with Bazar, 65.
BegTam, near Opian, 20 ; ancient
remains, 21 ; identified with
Karsana, 27 ; meaning of name,
29 ; description of plain of, 29 ;
near Peshawar, 79.
Bhatiya, or Bahiya, or Pabiya, or
Paya, a strong fortress between
Multan and Alor, 256.
Bhatner, fortress, 146.
Bhira, or Jobnalhnagar, 155 ; ca-
pital of Sophites, 155.
Bias, or Byas river, changes in its

course, 222.
Bihar, or "Vihar, an ancient city of

Magadha, 473.
Bij Biara, or Vijipara, 98.
Bir, or Pher mound, part of Taxila,

111.
Bodhi tree at Peshawar, 79.
Bolor, or Balti, the Palolo of the
Chinese, 83 ; country of the
Byltae of Ptolemy, 84.
Brahmana, or Brahmanabad, the
city of Brahmans, called Harma-
telia by Diodorus, 267, 268;
identified with the ruins of
Bambhra-ka-thul, 272.

INDEX.

581

Brahmapura, in the hills to the N.E.

of Haridwar, 355 ; identified

with Vairatpattan, 355.
Bukhepala, 159 ; may be identified

with Dilawar, according^ to the

description of Strabo, 176, 177 ;

or with Jalalpur, according to

Plutarch, 176 ; most probably

Jalalpur, 177.

Cadrusi of Pliny, same as Cadrusia

of Solinus, 31; identified with

Koratas, 31.
Ceylon, 557.
Champa, or Chamba, on the Eavi,

141.
Champa, now Patharghata, on the

Ganges, 477.
Chandels of Khajura, 55.
Charitrapura in Orissa, now Puri,

510.
Chenab River, changes in its course,

323.
Chi-chi-to, or Jaghoti, 55.
Chinapati, or Patti, in the Eastern

Panjab, 200 ; called Haibatpur,

201.
Choliya, or Jorya, 545 ; now Zora,

or Jora, close to Karnul, 547 ; the

Sora of Ptolemy, 547.
Clisoboras, or Carisobora of Pliny,

an ancient city on the Jomanes,

or Jumna, identified with Kalika-

vartta, or Vrindavana, 375.

D8edaliMontes,orDantaloka, 52,66.
Dantaloka Mount, or Monies Dse-

dali, 52, 66.
Dantapura, on the Godavari, capital

of Kalinga, 517.
Darapur and Dilawar, to west of

Jhelam, 161.
Darel, to west of Indus, identified

with the Chinese Thalilo and

Toli, 82 ; country of the Dards,

82 ; possessed a colossal statue

of Buddha, 83.
Debal, an ancient city in the Delta

of the Indus, 297 ; situated

near Lahari-bandar, 299 ; the
enchanted city of the 'Arabian
Nights,' 300.

Depalpur, an ancient city in the
Panjab, 213.

Dhamek Stupa, near Banaras, 438.

Dhopapapura, a famous place of
pilgrimage in Oudh, 401.

Diodorus. Size of India, 4.

Dionysopolis, the Dinus of Abu
Kihan, 46 ; monogram of Dion
on Greek coins, 46.

Donakakotta, orDharanikotta, 530 ;
mentioned as Dhanaka-kata in
cave inscriptions, 531 ; and by
Hwen Thsang, 530; Danaka of
Abu Eihan, 543.

Dravida, capital Kancliipura, 548.

Drona, a measure, used for the divi-
sion of Buddha's relics, 441.

Drishadwati river, the southern
boundary of Kurukshetra, or
Brahmavartta, 333.

Dron-Sagar, atUjain in RohilkhanrI,
the ancient Govisano, 359.

Elapura, or Elawar, identified with
Erawal or Verawal, or the an-
cient Pattan, or Pattan Somnath,
319.

Embolima, or Ekbolima, 56, 57;
identified with Ohind, 65, 67.

Erannoboas, or Hiranyabaha river,
tbe present Son, 453.

Eratosthenes. Size and sbape of
India, 2.

Fa-la-na, or Banu, 39, 84 ; the

Po-na of Fa-Hian, 84.
Pive Divisions of India, according

to the Puranas, 7 ; according to

the Chinese, 10.
Po-li-shi-sa-tang-na, or Ortospana,

34.
Po-lu-sha, or Parashawar, 47, 78.

Gabhastimat. One of nine divi-
sions of India, 7.
Gandhara, or Parashawar, 47, 78 ;

582

INDEX.

the Gandaritis of Strabo, Gan-
darEE of Ptolemy, and Kien-to-lo
of Chine3e,47; its boundaries, 48.

Gandbarva. One of nine divisions
of India, 7.

Gaiigadwai'a, or Haridwar, 358.

Ganges, called Mahfibhadra, 354 ;
the Hyparchos of Ktesias, and
Hypobarus of Pliny, 355 ; for-
merly ran past Kanoj, 379.

Ganjam, in east India, 513.

Gaijapatipm-a or Ghazipur, 438.

Gaya, Bauddha, in Magadha, 455 ;
Brahm, the present city of Gaya,
458.

Ghazni, the Chinese Hosina, capi-
tal of south Araohosia, 39 ; mo-
dern fortress, 41; identified with
the Gazos of Dionysius and Non-
nus, 43.

Gu'ivraja, or Kusasarapura, the an-
cient capital of Magadlia, 462.

Girjhak, or Jalalpiir, 162, 177;
perhaps the Girivraja of the Ea-
mayana, 164.

Giryek, mountain near Bihar, 471 ;
Indra's Cave in it, 471 ; Jara-
sandha's Tower on top, 471.

Gorakhnath ka Tila, or Billnath-ka-
Tila, or simply Tila, aUofty moun-
tain to west of Jhelam, 164.

Gor-katri, or Katri-kor, at Pesha-
war, 80, 81 ; at Kanigat, 76.

Govisana, an ancient division of
Kohilkhand, identified with fort
of Ujain, near Kashipur, 356.

Gridhrakuta, or Vulture's Peak, a
famous mountain near Pajagriha,
466 ; now Sailagiri, 466.

Gujarat, in the Punjab, anciently
Hairat, 179.

Gurjjara, a province of western
India, capital Balmer in seventh
century, 313; identified with
Western Eajputana, 813.

Guzar, or Guzaristan, the Chinese
Ho-sa-lo. capital of Northern
Arachosia, 39 ; the Ozola of Pto-
lemy, 40.

Harahaura. District in north-
western India, 6.

Harapa, an ancient city in the Panj-
ab, 210; description of its ruins,
211.

Haridwara, or Haradwara, 351.

Harsha Varddhana, king of Kanoj
in the seventh century, 378 ;
established the Sri Harsha era in
A.D. 607, 378 ; died in 648 or
650, 378 ; n. Appendix A.

Hashtnagar, 50.

Hatial fort, part of Taxila, 111,113.

Hayamukha, or Ayomukha, on the
Ganges, perhaps the same as
Daundia-kliera, 387.

Hiranya Parvata, now Mongir, 476.

Hodi, Eaja, fort opposite Attak, 58.

Ho-sa-lo, or Guzar, the capital of
north Arachosia, 89 ; the Ozola
of Ptolemy, 40.

Ho-si-na, or Ghazni, the capital of
south Arachosia, 39.

Plu-phi-na, capital, 33; same as Ko-
phene or Kipin, 34.

Hushkapura, founded by Plushka,
91, 95, 99; the Hu-se-kia-lo of
the Chinese, and modern village
of Uskar, 91.

liwen Thsang, a famous Chinese
pilgrim, who travelled over the
greater part of India between
the years 629 and 644. Chro-
nological list of places visited by
him. Appendix A.

India. — Northern India, 12, 15,
17; Western, 12, 248 ; Central,
12, 327; Eastern, 12, 499;
Southern, 12, 515; eighty king-
doms in seventh century, 13; po-
litical divisions in seventh cen-
tury, 13 ; western boundary
sometimes extended beyond the
Indus, 15 ; size and shape, ac-
cording to Patrokles, 2; Eratos-
thenes,2; Pliny,3; shapeand divi-
sions, according to Mahabharata,
5 ; nine divisions of astronomers,

INDEX.

583

5 ; five divisions of Puiauas, 7 ;
of Chinese, 10; Ciiinese names
of India, 9 ; shape and dimen-
sions of India, according to Chi-
nese, 11 ; one of nine divisions
of India, 7.

Indra-sila-guha, a famous cave in
the Giryek mountain, 471.

Indus river, changes in its course,
351 ; ancient course past Alor,
2S8; delta of the Indus, 283.

Jajhoti, the ancient name of Bun-
delkhand, 481 ; capital, Khaju-
raho, 481.

Jajhotiya Brahman s, 483.

Jalandhara, 135, 136, 137 ; same
as Trigarta, 137,

Jarak, on the Lower Indus, 287.

Jayendra Vihara, in Kashmir, 97.

Jushkapura, now Zukru, 101.

Kabul, same as Kaofu, 17, 18 ;

Ptolemy's Kabolitaa, 33 ; size of

province, 37.
Kabul, city, Ptolemy's Kabura, 33.
KachaKot,partof Taxila, 112,115.
Kachh, a large province in western

India, 303 ; attached to Sindh

in the seventh century, 302 ;

capital, Kotiswara, 303.
Kahaon, an ancient city near the

llapti river, 433.
Kahror, an old town near Multan,

241 ; scene of battle beween Vi-

kramaditya and the Sakas, 341.
Kaikanan, or Ki-Kiang-na, 86.
Kakupur, an ancient city below Ka-

noj, identified with Ayuto, 386.
Kali, or Kalindri Nadi, flows past

Kanoj in the old bed of the

Ganges, 379.
Kalikavartta, or Vrindavana, the

modern Brindaban, 375.
Kalinga in south India, 515 ;

counti-y of Pliny's Calingse, 517 ;

its capital Eajamahendri, 516.
Kalyankot, or Tughlakabad, great

fort at Thatha, 389.

Kamarupa, or Assam, 500.

Kamatipura, capital of Kusa-
Vihara, or west Kamrup, 500.

Kambistholi, a people of the Panjab,
216.

Kanchipura, capital of Dravida, 548.

Kanishkapura, in Kashmir, founded
by Kanishka, the presentKampur,
95, 99.

Kankjol, near Eajmahal, 478.

Kanoj, a famous city in the Gan-
getic Doab, 376.

Kaofu, 17, 18; same as Kopliene,
or Kipin, 34.

Kapila, the birthplace of Buddha,
414 ; identified with Nagar,
415.

Kapisa, or Capissa, or Caphusa,
Kiapishe of Chinese, 19 ; per-
haps the modern Kushan, 37

Kapisene, or Capisene, Kiapishe of
Chinese, 18.

Karamar hill, 71.

Karisi, city of, name on coins of
Eukratides, 28.

Karsana, or Cartana, Kiulusapang
of Chinese, 20, 26 ; called Te"^-
tragonis, or the square, 27,
38 ; monogram of name found
on the coins of many Greek
kings, 29.

Kaserumat, one of nine divisions
of India, 7.

Kashmir, kingdom, its extent in the
seventh century a.b., 89; valley
of, 90; people of, 93 ; old capi-
tal of, 93.

Kasi, the ancient name of Banaras,
438.

Kasi-Bansiras, 54.

Katak Banaras, 54.

Kauninda, district in north-east

India, 6.
Ketas, or Ketaksha, 134.
Khrigipura,or Khagendrapura, vulg.

Kakapur, 98
Khajuraho, ancient capital of Jaj-
hoti, 481.
Khaka-Bamba, near Kashmir, 131.

584

INDEX.

Kheda, or Kaiva, 492.
Khukhundo, an ancient city near

the Eapti river, 433.
Khunamnsha, or Khunamoli, 98.
Kien-to-lo, or Gandhara, 47.
Kirana-Suvarna, or Singhbhum,

504.
Koli, an ancient city on the Eohini,

near Kapila, 416 ; probably the

same as Mokson, 417.
Konkana, 553.
Kophene, or Kabul, 32 ; same as

Huphina, 34.
Kos, a measure of length. Appen-
dix B.
Kosala, or Mahakosala, in sonth

India, 519 ; identified with Vi-

darbha, or Berar, 520.
Kosambi, or Kosam, a famous city

on the Jumna, 391.
Kot Kamalia, in the Panjab, 208 ;

identified with the first city of

the Malii, captured by Alexander,

208.
Krokola, or Karachi, the Kolaka

of Ptolemy, 306.
Kshemavati, or Khemavati, the

birthplace of the Buddha Kra-

kuchanda, 419 ; identified with

Kakua, 419.
Kukkutapada, or " Cock's-foot

Hill," 459 ; now Kurkihar, near

Gaya, 460.
Kullu, or Kuluta, on the Bias

liver, 142.
Kumarika, one of the nine divisions

of India, 7.
Kurnkshetra, a famous place of

pilgi-image around Thanesar,

332.
Kusagarapura, the old capital of

Magadha, 461 ; also called Giri-

vrftja, 462 ; now Purana Rajgir,

463.
Kusapura, or Kusabhavanapura,

now Sultanpur, on the Gumti

river, 398.
Kusfiwav; or Kasur, in the eastern

Panjfib, 199.

Kusinagara, the scene of Buddha's
death, 430 ; identified with
Kiisia, 430.

Labor, or Lavov, near Ohind, 57 ;

identified with S.ilatura, 58.
Labor, the modern capital of the

Panjab, anciently Lohawar, 197.
Langala, or Lakorian, near Kilat,

311.
Lan-po, or Lamghan, 42 ; Sanskrit

Larapaka, Ptolenny's Lambatse,

and modern Lamghan, 43.
Lateswara, a province in west India,

321.
Lauriya, an old town, with a stone-
pillar, to the north of Bettiah,

448.
Li, a Chinese measure of length,

about one-sixth of a British mile.

Appendix B.
Lichhavis, a tribe of the Vrijis, 445 ;

kings of Nepal, Tibet, and

Ladak of this race, 451.
Locharna of Ptolemy, identified with

Logar, 38.
Lohawar, or Labor, the Labokla of

Ptolemy, 197 ; named Mahmud-

pur by Mahmud of Ghazni,

198.
Lo-mo-in-tu river, or the Helmand,

39.
Lumbini, a garden near Kapila, the

scene of Buddha's birth, 410.

Madawar, or IMandor, in Roliil-

k'hand, 349.
Madhyantika, or Majjhima, made

colossal statue of Buddha, 83.
Madra-desa, a district in the eastern

Panjfib, 6, 185, 215 ; Sakala its

capital, 185.
Magadha, district in east India, 6,

453.
Mahaban mountain identified with

Aornos by General Abbott, 59 ;

description of, 61 ; monastery,

61.
Mahubhurala, shape of India ac-

INDEX.

585

coi-iling to, 5 ; five divisions of

India, 5.
Maharashtra, 553.
Mahasai-a, or Masar, 440.
Maheswarapura, now Mandala, or

Maheshmatipura, 488.
Mahoba, or Mahotsavanagara, 484,

485 ; capital of the Chandel

Rajas, 487.
Majerika, country of the Nagas,

famous for its beautiful stupa,

534; identified with the Bassa-

ronaga of Ptolemy, 539 ; capital

Malanga, 539.
Malakuta, or Madura, 549.
Malanga, capital of Bassaronaga, or

Majerika, 539.
Maleus, or Mallus mountain, 508 ;

identified with Mount Mandar.
Malwa, on the Mahi river, 490.
Manhabari, identified with Min-

nagar and Thatha, 289, 390.
Manikyala, 121.
Mansura, the Muhammadan capital

of Sindh, close to Brahmanabad,

371.
Markandeya Parana, divisions of

India, 5, 6.
MassanEe, or Sodrse, or Sogdi,

253.
Mathura, a famous city on the

Jumna, the Modura of Ptolemy,

and Methoras of Pliny, 373.
Matsya Purana, divisions of India,

5, 6..
Mayapura, or Mayura, near Hari-

dwar, 351.
Megasthenes, measurements of India

by, 2, 3, 4.
Melane, Alexandria, founded by

Alexander, now Eas Malan, 309.
Minnagar, identified with Thatha,

289,291. ,
Mong, orMung, on the Jhelam river,

identified with Niksea, the scene

of Alexander's victory over Porus,

177 ; founded by Eaja Moga,

178.
Morontobara, or the Women's

Haven, now called Miiari, or
Cape Monz, 307.

Multan, 215 ; fort and city, 230 ;
various names, 232 ; capital of
the Malli where Alexander was
wounded, 238; taken by Chach
in seventh century, 239.

Miindas, one of the aboriginal
tribes of east India, 505 ; per-
haps the same as the Murundas,
507.

Musikani, a people of Upper Sindh,
257 ; their capital Alor, 257.

Nagarahara , or Jalalabad, 4 3 ; Nang-
go-lo-ho-lo of the Chinese, 44 ;
capital at Hidda, the Hi-lo of
the Chinese, 44 ; the Nagara, or
Dionysopolis of Ptolemy, 46.

Nairanjan, or Lilajan, river, 455,
457.

Nalanda, a famous monastery in
Magadha, near Gaya, 468 ; now
called Baragaon, 469.

Naulibe, or Nilab, 48.

Nava-deva-kula, near Kanoj, per-
haps Deokali, 382.

Nava-khanda, or Nine Divisions of
India, 5.

Navandgarh, or Naonadgarh, an
ancient fort near Bettiah, 448 ;
earthen stupas at, 449.

Nepala, 451.

Nikaia, identified with Kabul, 36 ;
description by Nonnus, 36 ; on
the Hydaspes, identified with
Mong, 174, 177.

Niphaiida of Ptolemy, probably the
same as Ophiana, 25.

Nirankot, or Haidarabad, the an-
cient Patala, 279.

Niirpiir, or Pathaniya, 143.

Odra, or Orissa, 510 ; its capital

Jajipura, 512,
Oliind, Oaihand, orUtakhanda, 52 ;

identified with Embolima, 65,67.
Ophir, or Sophir, or Sauvira, 497,

561.

586

INDEX.

Opiai of HekEeteus, 25 ; their royal
town not identified, probably
Kabul, 36.

Opiati; 18, 20, 21, called Hupian by
Baber, 21.

O.po.kien, or Afghan, 41, 87.

OritsB, or Horitse, a barbarous people
lowest of Indus, 304, -307.

Ortospana, 18; the Sanskrit Urd-
dhasthana, 33; identified with the
Bala Hisar of Kabul, 35.

Oxykanus, or Portikanus, king of
the Prseati, in upper Sindh, 359,
260; name probably derived
from Ptolemy's Oskana, 262.

Ozola of Ptolemy, the Ho.sa.lo of
the Chinese, 40.

Pabhi hills to east of Jhelam, 166.

Padmapura, in Kashmir, the mo-
dern Pampur, 95, 102.

P&k-pattan, or Ajudhan, an ancient
city in the Panjab, 214.

Pa.lo'.lo, or Bolor, 83, 84.

Palibothra, or Pataliputra, 2, 452.

Palodheri, or Po.lu.sha, 61.

Panchala, district in Central India,
6.

Panjab, hill-states, 130 ; called
Tfiki, or Takin, or Tafan, or
Tafak, or Takishar, 150.

Panjpir hill, 71,

Pantasok, in Kashmir, founded by
Asoka, 95.

Parihasapura, in Kashmir, 101.

Paropanisus, 19.

Patala, or Pitasila, the capital of
Lower Sindh, 279; identified with
Nirankot, or Haidarfibad, 279;
also called Patalpur, 281.

Pathan, in Kashmir, 101.

Patrokles, size and shape of India,
1, 2.

Patti, or Chinapati, in the eastern
Panjab, 201 ; residence of Chinese
hostages in time of Kanishka,
202.

Paimdra Varddhana, or Pubna,
180.

Pawa, or Padraona, an ancient city
on the Gandak river, 434.

Pehoa, or Prithudaka, near Thane-
sar, 336.

Peshawar, or Parshawar, 78.

Peiikelaotis, or Pushkalavati, 49 ;
Peukelas Peukalei Peukolaitis,
Proklais, 49.

Piloshana, an ancient district in
the G-angetic Doab, identified
with Atranji Khera, 364.

Pippalavana, or the Pippala Forest,
the site of the Chai-coal Tower,
429.

Po.lu.sha, or Palodheri, or Pelley
of Court, 51.

Po-na, or Banu, 84 ; the Fa.la.na
of Hwen Thsang, 83.

Porus, camp at Mong, to east of
Jhelam, 172.

Prsesti, a people governed by Porti-
kanus, or Oxykanus, 259 ; their
capital Mahorta, 260; probably
the Oskana of Ptolemy, 262.

Pragbodhi mountain, in Magadha,
now the Mora Pahar, 458.

Prasii, the people of Magadha, or
Palasa, or Parasa, 454; Pharrasii
of Curtius, 454.

Pravarasenapura, the new capital of
Kashmir, 95, 96, 97.

Prayaga, or Allahabad, 388.

Prithudaka, orPehoa,nearTiianesar,
336.

Prithu Eaja, gave name to Prithu-
daka, 336.

Pu.lu.sha.pu.lo, or Parshawar, 47
capital of Gandhara, 78. .

Punacha, near Kashmir, 128, 129.

Puranadhisthana, the old capital
of Kaslimir, the present Pandre-
than, 93 ; possessed a tooth of
Buddha, 94.
Pu.se.kia.lo.fa.ti, or Pushkalavati,
60.

Pushkalavati, or Peukelaotis, Puk-
kalaoti, Pukkala, 49 ; stupa of
the ' eyes-gift,' 51.

INDEX.

587

Enjagriha, now Eajgir, the old ca-
pital of Magadha, 467.

Eajapuri, or Rajaori, 129, 130.

liamagrama, a famous city between
Kapila and Kusinagara, 420 ;
identified with Deokali, 421 ;
relics removed by NSgas to the
stupa, near the Diamond Sands,
534, 536.

E imbakia, now Rambagh, on the
Aghor river, near Hingulaj, 309.

Rani-gat, or ' Queen's Rook,' iden-
tified with Aornos, 60, 67 ; de-
scription of, 72, 73 ; attributed
to Raja Vara, 60-77, 78.

Ran-si, or Nara-Sinha, in the eastern
Panjab, 193 ; description of
ruins, 194.

Eatnagiri, one of the Five Hills of
Eajagriha, 463.

Eavi river, its ancient course past
Multan, 221.

Sailagiri, the famous Gridhrakuta,
or 'Vulture's Peak,' near Eaja-
griha.

Sairindhas, the people of Siriudlia,
or Sarhind, 146.

Sakala, or Sangala in the Panjab,
now Sanglawala Tiba, 180 ; She-
kie-lo of Hwen Thsang, 180 ;
description of hill and ruins, 182 ;
Brahmanical accounts of Sakala,
184 ; Buddhist accounts of Sagal,
capital of Raja Milinda, 186;
subject to Raja Mihirkul, 187 ;
classical notices of Sangala, 187.

Saketa, or Ajudhya, the ancient
capital of Ondh, 401, 405.

Salatura, or So-lo-tu-lo, birthplace
of Panini, identified with Labor,
near Ohind, 57.

Salt Range of Mountains, 157 ;
Mons Oromenus of Pliny, and
the Sanskrit Eaumaka, 157.

Samatata, or the Gangetic Delta,
501.

Sambracffi, or SabracK, or Sara-
bastse, a people at the junction

of the Panjab rivers, 244 ; pro-
bably the same as the Yandheyas,
or Johiya Eajputs, 245.

Sankisa, or Kapitlia, an old city in
the Gangetic Doab, 369.

Sara-kupa, or the Arrow Fountain,
419; identified with Sarwanpur,
420.

Sarana stupa, or ' Asylum Tope,'
at Ohapra in Saran, 441.

Saraswati, or Sarsuti, river, 331,
333.

Sarhind, old city, 145.

Satadru, province, 144.

Satgarha, an ancient city in the
Panjab, 212.

Sattagudai of Herodotus, the same
as ThatagHsh of Darius, 26.

Sattapanni, or Srotaparni, cave at
Eajagriha, 463.

Saumya, one of the Nine Divisions
of India, 6.

Sauvira, district in W. India, 6.

Sauvira, or Sophir, 497.

Savaras, or Suars, 509 ; the Suari
of Pliny, and Sabarse of Ptolemy,
509.

Sehwan, the ancient Sindomana,
264.

Shorkot, province of the Panjab,
203 ; city, capital of the pro-
vince, 205 ; perhaps Alexandria
Soriane, 206.

Sindh, or the valley of the Lower
Indus, 248 ; Siro, or Upper, ca-
pital Alor, 249 ; Vichalo, or
Middle, capital Brahmanabad,
262 ; Ldr, or Lower, capital
Patala, 277.

Sindhu, district in W. India, 6.

Sindomana, or Sehwan, 263 ; ca-
pital of Sambus, 263.

Singhapura, identified with Ketas,
124.

Si-pi-to-fa-la-sse of Chinese, 26.

Sir-kap-ka-kot, part of Taxila, 111,
117.

Sir-suk-ka-kot, part of Taxila, 111,
115.

588

INDEX.

Sobhavati-nagara, the birthplace of
the Buddha Kanakamuui, 419;
identified with Subhay-pursa,
419.

SodrsB, or Sogdi, or Massanae, 253 ;
the same as the Sodha Eajputs,
254.

Sonagiri, one of the Five Hills of
Rajagriha,_4C3.

Son-bhandar, cave at Eajagriha,
463.

Sophir, or Sauvira, 497, 561.

Sophytes, or Sophites, or Sopeithes,
king of the western Panjab, in-
cluding the Salt Eange of Moun-
tains, 157, 158.

Soron, or Sukara-kshetra, an old
town on the Ganges, 364.

Sravasti, in Pali Sawatthi, or Sewet,
a famous city in ancient Oudh,
407 ; identified with the ruins
now called Sahet-Mahet, 409.

Srinagari, old capital of Kashmir,
95, 96.

Srughna, now Sugh, on the old
Jumna, near Jagadri, 345.

Sthaneswara, or Thanesar, 328.

Sudrakas, or Surakousse, 215.

Sunuriswara, the capital ofLangala,
311 ; probably only the name of
a temple, 311.

Surapura, in Kashmir, the modern
Sopiu-, 95, 99.

Surashtra, a province in W. India,
now Surath, or Gujarat, 317 ;
the same as Balabhi, 324.

Swat, or Subhavastu, 81; identi-
fied with Udyana, 81; Uchangna
of the Chinese, Udyana of San-
skrit, 81.

Tilfan, Tilkin, Takisliar, the same
as Taki, or Takkadesa, 151.

Takht-i-Eahai, ruined city, 71.

Taki, city, of Asarur, 191 ; the
Pimprama or Alexander, 191;
description of ruins, 193; the
Tse-kia, or Ta-kia, of Hwen
Thsaiiu;, 193.

Taki, province of Panjab, the Tse-
kia of Hwen Thsang, 148, 154.

Takkadesa of Eaja Tarangini, 149 ;
divisions and boundaries, 153.

Takka-desa, or country of the Tak-
kas, in the Panjab, 149.

Tamralipti, or Tamluk, 504.

Tamraparna, one of the Nine Divi-
sions of India, 6.

Taxila, or Takshasija, 104 ; of
classical authors, 105 ; of Chi-
nese, 108 ; extent of ruins, 111 ;
extent of district, 120.

Tha-li-lo, or To-li, the same as
Darel to W. of Indus, 81;
country of the Dards, 81.

Thanesar, or Sthaneswara, 328.

Thatha, in Lower Sindh, 288 ; iden-
tified with Minnagar and Man-
habari, 289.

Tiladaka, or Tillara, monastery,
455, 456.

Tirabhuktis, a tribe of the Vrijis,
the people of Tirhut, 445.

Tsau-ku-ta, or Arachosia, 40.

Tulamba, a famous fort near Mul-
tan, 224 ; one of the cities
taken by Alexander, 226.

Uchh, an ancient town situated at
the old junction of the Panjab
rivers, 242 ; founded by Alex-
ander, 243.

Udayana, Raja of Kosambi, or
Vatsa-pattaiia, 392.

XJdayagiri, one of the five hills of
Eajagriha, 463.

Udyana, or Swat ; in Pali, Ujjana,
81 ; Uchangna of the Chinese,
81 ; capital named Mangala, 82.

Uhand, or Weliand, 54.

Ujain, or Ujjayini, 489.

Urasa, near Kashmir, Varsa Eegio
of Ptolemy, Ulashi of Chinese,
103.

Ushkara, or Uskar, the ancient
Hushkapura, 100.

Vadari, or Eder, 494, 561.

INDEX.

589

Vaibliuragiri, or WebliAro, or Bai-

liliar, one of the five hills of Ra-

jagriha, 463.
"Vaidehis, a tribe of the Vrijis, 445.
Vaisali, or Besarh, an ancient city

to the N. of Patna, 443.
Vara, Raja, of Aornos, 60-77 ; seat

of his queen on Ranigat, 60 ;

his stables, 61.
Varaha Mihira, Nine Divisions of

India, 5, 6.
Varana, or Barna Nadi, at Banaras,

435.
Varanasi, or Banaras, 435.
Varsa, or Urasa, 103.
Vatsa-pattana, or Kosambi, 393.
Vena Raja, cured of leprosy at

Prithudaka, 336 ; founded the

fort of Soron, 365.

Vipulagiri, or WopuUo, one of the

five hills of Rajagriha, 463.
Visakha, or Ajudhya, the ancient

capital of Oudh, 401, 403.
Vishnu Purana, Divisions of India,

5, 6.
Vriji, a district, the modern Tirhut,

445, 447 ; the people called

Vrijis, or Wajjis, 445.

Wajjis, or Vrijis, a famous people,

inhabitants of Tirhut, 445.
Wehand, or Ohind, 54, 56.

Yaudheyas, a Rajput tribe in west-
ern Rajputana, 245 ; the mo-
dern Johiyas, 345.

Yojana. Appendix B.

TAYLOR AND CO., PEINTEES,
LITTLE QUEEN 8TEEET, LINCOLN'S INN MELDS.

Internet Archive Audio

Featured

Top

Images

Featured

Top

Software

Featured

Top

Books

Featured

Top

Video

Featured

Top

Mobile Apps

Browser Extensions

Archive-It Subscription

Save Page Now

Full text of "The ancient geography of India"

See other formats