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SWEDEN 


SWEDEN 


HISTORICAL  AND  STATISTICAL  HANDBOOK 


BY  ORDER  OF  THE  SWEDISH  GOVERNMENT 
EDITED  BY 

J.   GUINCHARD 


SECOND    EDITION 

E.VGMRH   IHBUR 

SECOND    PART 

INDUSTRIES 


STOCKHOLM 

nol'EllXMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE.     P.   A.   NORSTKDT  Si   SttNBR 

1914 

[133179] 


K.35-vt73^ 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 

(The  sub-headings  —  without  numbers  —  are  not  all  included;  of.  the  alphabetical  index 
at  the  end  of  the  second  part.  —  When  an  author's  name  is  given  within  brackets,  [  ], 
this  indicates  that  the  article  by  the  autbor  in  question,  appearing  in  the  first  edition  of 
this  work,  has  been  revised  and  amplified  for  the  present  edition.  —  Next  to  the  revising 
author,  the  responsibility  for  the  revision  of  the  older  article  falls,  in  most  cases,  on  the 
editorial  staff  —  generally  on  the  Editor-in-Chief  —  without  this  being  in  every  case 
specifically  indicated.  The  same  is  true,  to  a  certain  extent,  with  regard  to  the  choice  of 
the  illustrations.  For  further  particulars  with  regard  to  the  authors,  the  assistant  editors 
of  the  several  sections,  etc.,  see  under  the  list  of  authors.  Part  I.) 


SECOND  PART. 
INDUSTRIES. 

Page. 

I.    Natural  Resources  of  Sweden.    By  Gunnar  Andersson ...  i 

II.     Industries  of  Sweden.     General  Survey.     By  P.  FaUbech   .    .  13 

III.     Rural  Husbandry.     Introd.  by  H.  JuhUn  Dannfelt 27 

In   the   editorial   work    on   this  Section  assistance  has  been  given  by 
W.  Flach  and  H.  Juhlin  Dannfelt. 

1.  Agriculture.     By  H.  Juhlin  Dannfelt 35 

Horticulture  and  Floriculture.     By  G.  Lind 74 

2.  Live-stock 79 

In  General,  and  the  Eearing  of  Cattle  and  Pigs  in  Particular. 

By  H.   Funhquist 79 

Horses.     By  J.  B.  Hedelin . 94 

Reindeer.     By  E.  Bergstrom 101 

Babbits.     By  H.  Funhquist 104 

Poultry-Breeding.     By  H.  Funhquist 105 

Bee-keeping.     By  N.  Rosen 105 

3.  Dairies  and  Dairy-Industry.     By  L.  G.   Thome 106 

4.  Public   and  Private   Institutions  for  the  Advancement 

of  Agriculture.     Introd.  by  W.  Flach 122 

Agricultural  Education.     By  L.  Holmstrom 125 

Veterinary  Service.     By  G.  Kjerrulf 132 

Agricultural  Credit  Establishments.     By  V.  Ramstedt  ....  135 
II — 133179.  Sweden.  II. 


VIII  TABLE   OP   CONTENTS. 

Page. 

Mortgage  on  Real  Estate.     By  0.  Sederholm    .......  139 

Loans   and  Grants  for  Cultivation.     By  G.  Sederholm     .    .    ..  140 

Provincial  Agricultural  Societies.     By  Y.  Heyman 142 

Chemical  Analysis  Offices.     By  M.   Weibull 146 

Agricultural  Experimental  Institutions.     By  M.   Weibull  ...  147 

Seed  Control  Offices.     By  A.   Vilhe 148 

Sowing  Seed  Question.     By  Hj.  Nilsson 149 

Swedish  Moor  Culture  Association.     By  Hj.  von  Feilitzen  .    .  152 

Farmers'  Societies.     By  Nils  Hansson 156 

Agricultural  Meetings.     By  M.  Weibull 156 

Agricultural  Bookkeeping.     By  L.   Nanneson 157 

5.     Agricultural  Legislation.     By  C.  Th.  af  Ekenstam     ...  157 

IV.    Forestry 166 

1.  Forests.     By   Th.  Ortenblad 166 

Instruction  in  Forestry.     By  A.  Wahlgren 187 

2.  Forest  Industries.     By  E.  Arosenius 189 

Floating.     By  Th.  Ortenblad 206 

V.    Shooting  and  Fishing 220 

1.  Shooting  and  Shooting  Legislation.     By  A.   Wahlgren.    .  220 

2.  Fishing.     By  [P.  Trybom]  0.  Nordqvist 225 

VI.    Mining  and  Metallurgical  Industry.    General  Survey.    By 

C.  Sahlin 236 

In   the   editorial   work   on   this    Section  assistance  has  been  given  by 
C.  Sahlin. 

1.  Mining.     By  Valfrid  Petersson  .    .    . 242 

2.  Iron   and  Steel  Industry.     By  J.  A.  Leffler 263 

3.  Production  of  other  Metals.     By  J.  G.  Petren 306 

4.  Measures    for    the    Promotion    of   Mining.      By  Valfrid 

Petersson 311 

VII.     Manufacturing  Industries.    Intmd.  hj  [G..Sundbarg]  K.  Amarh  313 
In   the    editorial   work    on    this  Section  assistance  has  been  given  by 
A.  G.  Ekstrand,  Alf.  Larson,  and  K.  Amark. 

Waterfalls  of  Sweden.     By  F.   V.  Hansen 323 

1.     Articles  of  Food  and  Consumption.   Introd.  by  ^Zf.  iarso«  335 

Flour  Mills.     By  G.  Molin 336 

Margarine  Industry.     By  Alf.  Larson 338 

Manufacture  of  Beet-Sugar.     By  ^i.  G.  Ekstrand 339 

Sugar  Refineries.     By  A.  G.  Ekstrand 344 

Sweets,  Chocolate,  and  Coffee  Substitutes.    By  A.  G.  Ekstrand  346 

Spirit  Production.     By  A.  G.  Ekstrand  .■ 345 

Yeast.     By  Alf.  Larson 350 

Vinegar  Factories.     By  Alf.  Larson 350 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS.  IX 

Page. 

Wine  and  Syrup  Factories.     By  Alf.  Larson 351 

Breweries.     By  P.  Klason 351 

Mineral  Waters  and  Cooling  Drinks.     By  P.  Klason   ....  355 

Tobacco.     By  A.  O.  Ekstrand 355 

Other  Manufactures.     By  Alf.  Larson 358 

2.  Textile  and  Clothing  Industry.     By  G.  Seller gr en     ...  358 

3.  Hides,  Skins,  and  Hair.     By  J.  Landin 380 

4.  Oils,    Tar,    India-Rubber,   and  allied  Commodities.     By 

Alf.   Larson 383 

5.  Timber-Ware  Industry 390 

Wood-Pulp  Industry.     By  J.   Y ester gren 391 

Match  Industry.     By  Alf.  Larson 398 

Joinery-  and  Furniture  Factories.     By  Alf.  Larson 401 

Other  Manufactures.     By  Alf.  Larson 402 

6.  Paper  Industry.     By  J.   Vestergren 403 

7.  Manufactures    from    Various  Vegetable  Materials.     By 

Alf.  Larson 407 

8.  Manufactures  of  Stone,  Clay,  Coal,  Charcoal,  and  Peat  408 

Stone  Industry.     By  E.  Svedmarh 408 

Cement    and    Mortar.     By   0.  H.  Nordenskiold,  E.  Svedmarh, 

and  Alf.  Larson 412 

Earthenware.     By  E.  Svedmarh 414 

Pottery.     By  H.  Almstrom 416 

Tile  Stoves  and  Crockery.     By  H.  Almstrom 419 

Lime.     By  Alf.  Larson 420 

Glass  Manufacture.     By  S.  E.  A.  Kjellgren 421 

Peat  Manufacture.     By  Alf.  Larson 425 

Charcoal.     By  Alf.  Larson 427 

Gas  and  Acetylene.     By  Alf.  Larson 428 

9.  Chemical  Industries.     By  Alf.  Larson 431 

10.  Metal  and  Machine  Industry.     By  Alf.  Larson.    ....  438 

11.  Other  Industries 464 

Electro-technical  Industry.     By  A.  Enstrbm 464 

Electric  Power  Industry.     By  A.  Enstrom 465 

Electro-chemical  Industry.     By   V.  Palmcer 472 

Graphic  Industries.     By  Alf.  Larson 480 

12.  Handicrafts    and  Domestic   Industries.     [By  A.  Raphael]  483 

Handicrafts.     By  C.  J.  F.  Ljunggren 483 

Domestic  Industries.     By  S.  Oden 491 

13.  Industrial  Art.     By  E.  0.  Folcher 497 

14.  The  Most  Prominent  Swedish  Inventors  in  the  Domain 

of  Industry.     By  Nils  Eahm 504 


X  TABLE   OF   CONTENTS. 

Page. 

Vin.     Commerce.     [By  A.  Berencreutz] 507 

Historical.     By  H.  Bosnian 607 

Total    of.  Imports    and    Exports    with  Foreign  Countries.    By 

E.  0.  Wetterlund 614 

Imports  and  Exports  of  Various  Wares.  By  K.  G.  Wetterlund  516 
Commercial    Exchange    with   different   Countries.     By   K.    G. 

Wetterlund 526 

Customs.     By  K.  G.   Wetterlund 528 

Customs-Tariff  Legislation  and  Custom -House  Establishments. 

By  E.  O.  Wetterlund 530 

Commercial  Policy.     By  S.  Brisman 634 

Inland  Trade.     By  n.  Bosman 638 

Commercial  Education.     By  A.  AKlstrbm 540 

Commercial  Legislation.     By  E.  Modig 546 

IX.    Shipping  and  Navigation.    By  E.  Bosman 647 

Canals  and  Waterways.     By  F.  V.  Hansen 562 

Harbours  and  Dry  Docks.     By  V.  Fellenius 574 

Pilots    and  Lighthouses.     Life-Saving  Institutions.     By  E.  A. 

Smith 577 

Salvage  and  Diving.     By  E.  A.  Smith 581 

Navigation  Schools.     By  J.  S.  Bjorling 583 

Maritime  Legislation.     By  E.  Modig 686 

Shipping  Dues.     By  E.  Modig 588 

Sailors.     By  0.  Jarte 690 

X.    Internal  Communications 694 

1.  Railways.     By  [G.  Welin]  T.  Hamnell 594 

2.  Urban  Conununications.     By  Ingemar  Peter sson 623 

3.  Country  Roads.     By  C.  E.  Gyllenberg 626 

4.  Post  Service.     By  B.  Lundgren 632 

6.     Telegraph  Service.     By  E.  Hailing 643 

6.     Telephones.     Introd.  by  E.  Hailing 649 

State  Telephones.     By  E.  Hailing 652 

Private  Telephone  Companies.     By  K.  F.   Winer  ante    ....  666 

XI.    Banking,  Credit,  and  Insurance 661 

1.  Coinage.     By   K.  A.  Wallroih 661 

Hall-marking  of  Gold,   Silver,  and  Pewter  Wares.     By  K.  A. 

Wallroih 664 

2.  Banking.     By  I.  Hultman 666 

3.  Mortgage  Institutions.     By  I.  Hultman    ........  678 

4.  Savings-Banks    and    Similar    Institutions.      By    [/.  Flod- 

strom]  Alfhild  Lamm, 678 

6.     Insurance.     By  8.  Palme 685 


TABLE    OF   CONTENTS.  XI 

Page. 

xii.    Synopsis   of  Trade   and  Industrial  Legislation.    By  J. 

Tjerneld 696 

Patents.      By    Xils  Enhiii 704 

Trade-Marks.     By  Nils  Rahm 707 

Designs  and  Models.     By  Nils  Rahni 709 

XIII.    Sweden  in  Foreign  Literature.    Appendix  hy  S.  Grmfeldt .  7i] 


STOCKHOLM 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING   OPPICE.      P.    A.    NOESTBDT   &   SONEE 

1914—1915 


11I—J33179.   Sweden.  II. 


1. 
THE  NATURAL  RESOURCES  OF  SWEDEN. 


The  more  investigation  penetrates  into  questions  respecting  the  con- 
ditions and  possibilities  of  culture,  so  much  the  more  does  the  connec- 
tion between  nature  and  culture  manifest  itself.  Human  knowledge 
and  activity  cannot,  beyond  a  certain  degree,  overcome  the  difficulties  pla- 
ced in  their  way  by  nature.  As  culture  advances,  the  distances  between 
points  on  the  earth's  surface  are  of  less  importance,  and  as  nations  increa- 
singly coalesce  into  one  humanity,  the  irresistable  divisions  of  labour 
among  the  various  regions  of  the  world  emerge  all  the  more  clearly.  Every 
region  has  its  own  special  task  in  the  economy  of  mankind,  dictated 
by  the  natural  resources  which  are  to  be  found  in  it.  In  the  presence  of 
such  a  conception,  and  not  least  during  the  production  of  such  a  work  as 
the  present  one,  we  are  met  by  the  question  "What  are,  in  an  objective 
sense,  the  possibilities  of  Sweden,  compared  with  those  of  other  countries?" 
This  enquiry  shall  receive  a  brief  reply  here,  so  far  as  is  possible  at  the 
moment. 

The  natural  resources  at  the  disposal  of  a  nation  consist  partly  of  mineral 
wealth,  partly  of  the  production  of  mechanical  power,  as  well  as  of  vegetable 
and  animal  products,  which  are  conditioned  by  physical  features,  soil,  and 
climate;  and  partly,  perhaps  not  least,  of  the  innate  power  of  the  people 
itself,  which  ultimately  has  its  roots  in  the  character  of  the  race  and  the 
reaction  which  nature  and  climate  exercise  upon  it  during  the  lapse  of 
centuries. 

Sources  of  mechanical  power. 

We  commence  with  the  sources  of  mechanical  potuer,  inasmuch  as 
these  have  proved  themselves,  in  the  development  of  modern  culture,  to 
be  of  such  pre-eminent  importance  for  the  utilizing  of  all  other  resources. 
Setting  aside  for  the  moment  the  muscular  strength  of  men  and  draught 

1—133179.  Sweden.  11. 


2  I.      THE    NATURAL    RESOURCES    OF    SWEDEN. 

animals,  the  supply  of  power,  as  is  well  known,  is  derived  in  our  own  times 
first  and  foremost  from  ooal  of  diverse  kinds,  mineral  oils,  different  vege- 
table substances,  above  all  wood,  and  from  waterfalls. 

Mineral  fuels.  Nothing  during  a  thousand  years  has  altered  the  con- 
ditions of  human  life  to  such  a  degree  as  the  use  of  mineral  fuels,  which 
began  to  be  used,  in  an  increasing  degree  as  the  latter  half  of  the  18th 
century.  Thanks  to  this,  it  has  now  become  possible  in  a  short  time  to  trans- 
form into  productive  energy  untold  supplies  of  power,  which  have  been 
stored  up  during  endless  ages  of  the  world's  past  history.  And  it  is  the 
inhabitants  of  the  great  coal  countries  which  have  in  our  own  days 
taken  the  lead  both  in  intellectual  and  material  progress.  Sweden  has  been 
compelled  to  utilize  considerable  portions  of  her  products  in  the  purchase, 
from  lands,  more  happily  situated  in  this  respect,  of  coal  for  her  rapidly 
growing  industries.  For  instance,-  in  the  beginning  of  the  decade  1890,  90 
kilogrammes  per  inhabitant  were  imported,  812  kg.  in  1910,  and  765  kg. 
in  1912.    Cannot  this  be  changed? 

On  this  point  we  have,  in  the  first  place,  two  natural  resources  to  con- 
sider: the  occurrence  of  coal  in  Skane,  and  the  peat-mosses  distributed  over 
the  whole  country;  but  also  possibly,  in  the  tracts  of  Vastergotland  among 
others,  mineral-oils,  and  the  wood-spirit  which  can  be  obtained  from  the 
deciduous  products  of  our  forests. 

Coal.  The  district  in  North-West  Skane  which  is  coal-bearing  has  a 
probable  extension  of  about  800  square  kilometers,  with  a  coal  supply 
of  certainly  106,  conceivaibly  about  300  millions  of  tons,  that  is  to  say, 
enough  for  a  few  decades  to  supply  Sweden's  present  needs.  The  com- 
paratively low  proportion  of  best  quality  coal  in  the  strata  makes  it,  never- 
theless, impossible  to  produce  it  economically,  without  at  the  same  time 
extracting  lower  qualities  of  coal,  and  the  valuable  fire-proof  clays  which 
occur  with  it.  The  problem,  therefore,  that  has  presented  itself  and  still 
continues  to  do  so,  is  how  to  discover  a  satisfactorily  extensive  use  for 
these  products.  By,  e.  g.  creating  an  increased  export  for  the  products  of 
the  clay  industries,  or  by  the  utilization  of  inferior  qualities  of  coal  in  the 
production  of  iron,  or  by  generating  electric  power  it  is  possible  to  increase 
the  production  beyond  the  somewhat  more  than  300  000  tons  which  has 
been  the  result  of  the  last  few  years.  If  one  can  succeed  in  maintaining  the 
home  production  of  coal  at  about  ^/is  to  V20  of  the  total  consumption,  which 
has  been  the  case  of  late  years,  one  ought  to  be  fairly  satisfied.  This, 
however,  is  so  small  a  fraction  of  our  needs,  that  the  question  arises 
whether  no  possibility  can  be  found  of  bettering  this  state  of  affairs. 
Peat.  It  is  anything  but  easy  to  estimate  the  value  of  the  peat- 
mosses for  the  next  few  decades;  and  for  a  longer  period  it  is  of  no 
purpose  to  make  any  csalculation.  We  are  aware  that  extensive  peat- 
moss areas  exist  over  the  greater  part  of  the  country,  but  the  main 
question,  touching  the  economic  worth  of  this  source  of  power,  involves  to 
quite  as  large  a  degree  two  other  factors.     One  is  the  extraordinary  tena- 


SOUKCES   OF   MECHANICAL   POWER.  6 

city  with  which  peat  substances  hold  water,  the  result  of  which  is  that 
a  great  amount  of  energy  is  required  to  dry  the  peat;  this  of  course  entails 
considerable  outlay  in  a  country  where  the  summers  are  usually  short 
and  very  rainy.  The  other  condition  which  so  largely  prevents  the  utility 
of  peat  as  fuel  is  the  proportionately  small  and  thin  layers  in  which  it 
occurs,  even  in  the  greatest  and,  to  a  large  extent,  the  majority  of  the 
moss  beds.  When  one  reflects  that,  even  in  good  and  prepared  peat-fael, 
the  amount  of  energy  averages  barely  half  that  of  coal,  while  the  ash  refuse 
is  considerably  higher  as  a  rule,  it  may  readily  be  inferred  that  the 
"peat  question"  does  not  come  into  the  category  of  easily  solved  problems. 
On  the  whole,  it  is  beyond  dispute  that  the  question  is  unsolved  a;s  yet,  and 
one  cannot  reckon  with  any  certainty  in  the  near  future  on  peat  as  a 
source  of  power,  in  any  other  sense  than  that  those  industries  which  are 
favourably  located  near  peat-mosses  suitable  for  fuel  may  be  expected  to 
extract  from  it,  more  or  less  advantageously,  a  considerable  proportion  of 
their  necessary  power.  Apparently  it  will  be  a  long  time  before  any 
appreciable  portion  of  the  country's  requirements  in  this  respect  will  be 
met  by  such  means.  On  the  other  hand,  the  importance  of  peat-moss  beds 
as  cultivable  soil  are  probably  comparatively  greater,  but  this  is  not  our 
present  subject. 

SJiale-oils.  Another  mineral  fuel  may  possibly  come  into  use  in  the 
future,  viz.,  the  oils  which  are  incontestably  to  be  found  in  the  Silurian 
shales  of  Vastergotland  and  other  provinces.  At  present  the  question  of 
working  these  to  such  a  purpose  is  in  the  initial  stages,  but  it  has  been 
taken  in  hand,  and  the  remarkable  success  achieved  in  utilizing  such 
fuel  in  Scotland  and  France  appears  to  open  up  the  probability  of  success 
in  Sweden  too.  In  that  case  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  demand  for 
motor  oils  etc.,  can  be  met.  The  Silurian  shales  which  are  combustile 
(1  500 — 2  600  calories)  contain  as  much  as  6 — 8  %  of  oils  and  a  con- 
siderable quantity  of  sulphur  (6 — 9  %).  The  latter  could  also  be  worked 
up  into  valuable  artificial  fertilizers. 

Water-power.  The  greatest  and  most  important  store  of  energy  in  Swe- 
den manifestly  consists  of  its  waterfalls.  Through  the  abundance  of 
water-courses,  through  the  multitude  of  terraced  falls,  through  the  nume- 
rous lakes  whose  waters  are  capable  of  regulation,  and  through  abundant 
discharges,  the  country  should  be  one  of  the  best  endowed  in  the  world  in 
point  of  water-power.  The  remote  situation  of  a  large  proportion  of  its  great 
falls,  the  long  winter  in  the  districts  where  certain  of  these  are  located,  and 
the  small  height  of  many  falls  are  circumstances  which  in  certain 
cases  reduce  their  value.  It  is  to  be  observed  that  about  3-5  million  horse- 
power can  possibly  be  utilized  in  the  next  few  decades.  Of  this  estimated 
total  about  850  000  horse-power  will  probably  have  been  harnessed  by 
1915.  At  the  present  moment,  waterfalls  produce  more  than  half  of  all 
the  mechanical  power  in  the  country,  a  fact  which  clearly  illustrates  their 
enormus  importance  for  the  entire  economic  life  of  Sweden. 


4  I.      THE   NATURAL   RESOURCES   OF   SWEDEN. 

If  an  istimate  is  made  of  the  position  of  Sweden  as  a  producer  of 
energy,  it  will  be  found  that  the  country  possesses  very  considerable 
sources  of  power,  even  if  a  considerable  direct  export  to  other  countries 
cannot  be  considered  possible.  If  development  advances  on  the  same  lines 
as  hitherto,  part  of  the  power  required  must  be  constantly  purchased  from 
abroad;  and  therefore  a  quota  must  be  defrayed  out  of  that  revenue  which 
other  natural  advantages  are  able  to  provide.  The  country,  nevertheless, 
is,  as  we  have  shown  above,  more  favoured  in  this  respect  than  a  large 
number  of  other  countries. 


Mineral  wealth. 

Ores.  The  mountainous  regions  of  Sweden  contain  in  no  few  places 
larger  or  smaller  deposits  of  ore.  Of  these,  nevertheless,  from  the  point 
of  view  of  present  industrialism,  only  the  iron  ores  are  of  any  considerable 
importance;  but,  in  compensation,  these  belong  to  the  greatest  and  most 
productive  in  the  world.  They  are  concentrated  in  two  comparatively 
small  districts:  the  one,  known  from  ancient  days,  is  in  Bergslagen,  in 
Central  Sweden,  stretching  from  Varmland  in  the  south-west  to  Uppland 
in  the  east,  embracing  about  15  000  square  kilometers,  and  containing 
nearly  a  tenth  part  of  the  country's  supply  of  iron  ore;  and  the  new 
mining  district,  that  in  northernmost  Lappland,  containing  the  remaining 
nine-tenths.  Outside  of  these  tracts  few  ores  are  found,  and  they  are 
generally  of  less  'value. 

An  attempt  has  lately  been  made  to  arrive  at  an  estimate  of  the  supply 
of  the  world's  iron  ore.  The  result  of  this  has  been  to  establish  the  fact 
that  the  definitely  known  resources  amount  to  possibly  22  400  million  tons, 
containing  in  round  figures  about  10  000  million  tons' of  iron.  And  yet, 
to  this  must  be  added  probably  several  times  this  quantity  of  other 
deposits  less  well  known.  Meanwhile,  at  the  present  rate  of  consump- 
tion, the  supply  just  named  (and  it  is  obviously  this  we  have  most  nearly 
to  reckon  with)  will  be  exhausted  in  about  170  years.  It  is  on  the  basis 
which  these  figures  supply  that  the  resources  of  Swedish  iron  ore  must 
be  considered.  Yet  one  other  fact  must  be  kept  well  in  mind.  The  present 
extraction  of  iron  at  an  economic  advantage  in  any  notable  degree,  can 
very  seldom  deal  with  ores  containing  a  percentage  of  iron  lower  than 
30  %.  A  yield  of  from  30 — 60  %  is  commonly  reckoned  as  low, 
while  a  yield  of  over  60  %  is  considered  as  high.  Of  the  present  available 
supply  of  ore  in  Europe  (about  12  000  millions  of  tons  yielding  possibly 
4  730  millions  of  tons  of  iron)  not  more  than  about  a  tenth  part,  or  1  200 
millions  of  tons,  consists  of  high-grade  ore.  Of  this  Sweden  possesses 
1  100  million  tons  (92  %),  and  Russia  the  rest.  The  amount  of  high-grade 
ore  in  Sweden  is  much  greater  than  the  figures  quoted  above  indicate,  if 
the    deeper-lying    ore-deposits    are    taken  into  account.     Thus,  Kiruna- 


MINERAL   WEALTH.  0 

vara  has  740  mill,  tons  down  to  300  meters,  but  magnetic  investigation 
gives  1 370  mill,  tons  down  to  1 500  meters.  Since,  then,  a  large 
quantity  of  the  iron  extracted  abroad  is  extracted  from  a  mixture  of  high- 
and  low-grade  ores,  it  is  readily  seen  how  great  a  value  the  extensive 
iron  ore  deposits  of  the  country  possess.  Whether,  therefore,  the  ores  are 
refined  at  home  or  not,  one  of  the  most  important  and  easiest  realizable 
resources  of  nature,  for  a  country  rather  cramped  for  lack  of  capital  as 
Sweden  is  at  present,  lies  in  its  iron  ores. 

The  remaining  ores,  on  the  contrary,  are  to  a  large  extent  of  less  value 
although  some  of  them  do  not  lack  significance  from  a  private  economic 
point  of  view.  The  mine  at  Falun  represented  one  of  the  richest  copper 
deposits  in  the  world,  from  which  riches,  considerable  for  Swedish  condi- 
tions, streamed  for  centuries;  these  have  been  computed  by  various  in- 
vestigators at  a  value  of  600 — 1  000  millions  of  kroner;  it  is  now  worked 
out,  like  numerous  minor  deposits.  The  same  thing  has  taken  place  with 
the  wealth  of  the  mines  which  produced  silver  together  with  lead.  The 
case  is  somewhat  better  with  the  sine-ore  deposits,  of  which  the  largest, 
Ammeberg,  yields  ore  to  the  value  of  about  2  million  kroner  per  annum. 
What  value  the  radium  (from  the  Silurian  shales  previouslj^  mentioned) 
may  prove  itself  to  possess  is  as  yet  impossible  to  decide.  No  discoveries 
of  precious  metals  worth  mining  have  been  made  in  Sweden. 

The  ancient  ore-country  of  the  North  thus  proves  itself  to  be  an  iron- 
country  with  some  few  very  large  fields  of  immense  value,  by  no  means 
an  Eldorado,  but  a  country  where  courage,  foresight,  and  capital  can 
extract  considerable  wealth  from  the  bowels  of  the  mountains. 

Stone  and  clay.  The  ancient  mountains  of  Sweden  contain  great  quan- 
titles  of  hard  and  beautiful  stone,  which,  thanks  to  the  fact  that  builders 
of  modern  times  have  attained  to  greater  power  over  their  materials,  can 
be  widely  used  in  building  operations  where  strength  and  durability  go 
before  cheapness.  Stone  for  the  erection  of  monuments  of  various  kinds, 
as  well  as  for  the  paving  of  streets,  etc.,  is  today  transported  round  the 
globe,  if  only  the  claims  as  to  solidarity  and  taste  can  be  satisfied.  Yet 
there  are  few-  countries  that  can  rival  Sweden's  granites  in  satisfying 
different  tastes,  and  none  surely  are  more  favourably  situated  with 
respect  to  the  facilities  of  export  direct  from  harbour.  The  supply 
is  sufficient  not  alone  for  the  country  itself,  but  also  for  the  rest  of 
the  world  for  an  infinite  future.  Sweden,  therefore,  has  an  undeniable 
natural  advantage  over  the  majority  of  her  rivals  in  the  markets,  a  fact 
which  has  been  proved  by  developments. 

In  1844  were  founded  the  first  granite  quarries  at  Malmon  near  Lyse- 
kil.  Hardly  seventy  years  have  elapsed  since  .then:  now  in  numerous 
spots  in  Bohuslan  and  Blekinge,  and  on  the  coast  of  the  Ian  of  Kalmar,  and 
in  the  interior  of  Gotaland,  granite  and  similar  kinds  of  stone  are  being 
quarried.  In  1912,  the  exports  from  these  places  amounted  in  value  to 
13-5  millions  of  kroner. 


6  I.       THE    NATURAL    RESOURCES   OF    SWEDEN. 

We  must  add  to  these  figures  the  value  of  the  rather  considerable  con- 
sumption of  the  country  itself,  which,  nevertheless,  is  supplied  to  an 
appreciable  extent  by  brick  first  and  foremost,  but  also  by  softer  and 
cheaper  sorts  of  stone,  such  as  limestone  and  sandstone.  With  reference 
to  these  building  materials,  Sweden  is,  compared  to  other  countries,  not 
especially  favoured,  if  some  exceptions  are  made  for  sorts  such  as  the 
beautiful  green  marble  from  Kolmarden,  and  facing  tiles.  These  cheaper 
stones  are  of  great  value  for  the  country  itself.  The  limestone  quarries 
in  Skane,  Vastergotland,  Gottland,  etc.,  even  now  annually  produce  ma- 
terials for  the  building-industries,  agriculture  etc.,  up  to  about  3  millions 
of  kronor  in  value,  besides  which  the  brick  industry  may  be  said  to  have 
an  output  of  16  millions  of  kronor.  Good  materials  for  the  home  manufac- 
ture of  cement  —  consisting  of  both  clay  and  chalk  —  are  also  to  be 
found  in  many  parts.  Since  1873,  when  the  first  manufactory  was  started 
at  Lomma  in  Skane,  the  cement  industry,  too,  has  fought  its  way 
brilliantly  forward  among  the  industries  of  the  countrs*-,  and  has,  in  spite 
of  the  fact  that  it  has  no  greater  natural  advantages  here  than  in 
neighbouring  countries,  obtained  a  hold  as  an  export  industry;  in  1912, 
the  export  of  cement  was  3-4  millions  of  kronor.  And  hand  in  hand 
with  it,  in  this  particular,  those  industries  advance  which  utilize  the 
fire  proof  clays  aforementioned  from  the  coal  formations  of  Skane,  and 
from  kaolin  strata  in  North- West  Skane,  which  are  certainly  distinctly 
valuable. 

Rocks  and  certain  sedimentary  deposits  yield  not  only  building 
materials;  they  also  contribute  in  every  decade  an  increasingly  large  quota 
to  the  trade  of  the  world  in  nutritive  salts  for  vegetation  and  animal  life, 
and  raw  materials  for  a  flourishing  chemical  industry.  For  centuries 
Sweden  has  been  paying  out  to  the  countries  that  produce  common  salt, 
and  from  the  commencement  of  the  eighties  to  Germany  for  potash  salts. 
The  country  has  even  gone  to  Chili  and  other  lands  for  nitrogen  salts. 
Does  Sweden,  then,  lack  all  these  articles  which  are  necessary  for  modern 
agriculture? 

Lime,  that  great  magician  in  its  power  to  increase  the  fertility  of  the 
soil,  is  found  within  certain  districts  to  an  inexhaustible  extent,  but  as  it 
unfortunately  occurs  in  very  slight  quantities  in  most  parts  of  Sweden,  it 
is  now,  and  is  destined  to  remain,  one  of  the  most  exacting  tasks  of  Swe- 
dish agriculturists  to  effect  its  transport  from  the  tracts  which  bear 
lime  to  those  that  lack  it.  The  value  of  the  lime  distributed  over  the  country 
for  agricultural  purposes  is  already  reckoned  in  millions,  and  it  is  a  happy 
thing  that  such  abundant  resources  of  it  are  to  be  found.  If  nature  her- 
self had  distributed  lime  all  over  the  country,  as  she  has  done  in  certain 
other  lands,  the  course  of  the  history  of  Sweden  might  have  been  different 
and  yet  more  magnificient  than  it  has  been. 

Our  rocks  and  soils  possess  an  inexhaustible  supply  of  another  important 
means  of  nutrition  for  vegetation,  in  potassium;  but  this  is  in  a  chemical 


CONDITIONS   AND   POSSIBILITIES   OF  PRODUCTION  IN  THE  VEGETABLE  KINGDOM.      7 

form  not  very  accessible  for  plants.  New  discoveries  and  new  methods 
in  recent  times  seem,  however,  to  render  possible  its  utilization.  If 
this  result  were  attained,  a  great  source  of  wealth  would  be  open  up  for 
Sweden;  yet  no  one  can  foresee  the  result  with  certainty. 

Nitrogen  can  certainly  not  be  extracted  from  the  earth,  but  with  the 
aid  of  the  electric  energy  generated  by  water-power  it  is  now  taken  from 
the  atmosphere  and  combined  with  the  country's  abundant  supply  of 
lime. 

Here  and  there  in  the  rocks  of  Sweden  other  valuable  deposits  of 
different  kinds  are  also  to  be  found.  We  have  been  able  to  indicate  above 
only  the  largest  and  most  important. 

Generally  speaking,  it  can  nevertheless  be  said  that  Sweden  is 
by  no  means  poorly  endowed.  The  absence  of  gold  has  certainly  been 
detrimental  to  economic  development.  The  mobile  capital  which  even 
moderate  resources  of  this  kind  directly  bestow  upon  a  country,  and  which 
supports  and  stimulates  enterprise  in  various  spheres  has  not  been  easily 
obtainable  in  Sweden,  but  has  had  to  be  won  by  laborious  effort.  Mean- 
while, (especially  in  the  matter  of  the  really  superior  natural  resources  — 
iron-ores  and  granites)  the  problem  may  be  said  to  have  emerged  from  the 
preliminary  difficulties,  and  abundant  possibilities  of  development  very 
certainly  loom  in  a  not  very  remote  future. 

Conditions  and  possibilities  of  production  in  the  Vegetable  Kingdom. 

Among  the  natural  conditions  which  in  any  country  govern  the  cultiva- 
tion of  useful  commodities  from  the  vegetable  kingdom,  the  original  com- 
position of  the  soil,  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  climate,  on  the  other,  must 
"be  considered  before  anything  else. 

Over  a  large  portion  of  Sweden  the  soil  consists  of  difficultly  cultivated 
moraine  soil,  unsuitable  peat-mosses,  or  rocky  soil  useless  for  cultivation. 
Only  within  certain  boundaries,  pre-eminently  the  stretches  of  coast-land, 
Tvellsituated  from  the  point  of  view  of  communications,  has  man  been,  so 
t.0  speak,  invited  to  settle  down  as  a  farmer.  By  far  the  greater  part  of  the 
■country  has  had  to  be  left  under  timber. 

But  certain  parts,  the  plains  of  Skane  (intended  by  nature  to  be  the 
finest  agricultural  soil  bestowed  upon  this  continent),  as  well  as  other 
districts  of  the  country  where  rocks  with  strata  rich  in  lime  have  origina- 
ted a  soil  remarkably  well  adapted  to  cultivation.  Tn  these  places,  too, 
the  old,  wealthy  tracts  are  to  be  found.  Unfortunately,  however,  the  area 
of  these  districts  is  but  8 — 9  %  of  the  entire  country.  The  soil  in  the 
remaining  parts  of  the  country  is  poor  on  the  whole,  when  we  consider 
ihe  amount  of  nutrition  cultivated  plants  require,  if  thejr  are  to  be  brought 
to  produce  rich  crops.  The  fact  is  also  proved  by  the  small  proportion  of 
"the  country,  which  has  been  laid  under  the  plough,  viz.,  about  10  %  of 
"the  35-2  millions  of  hectares,  which  are  situated  below  the  forest  limit. 


»  I.      THE   NATURAL   RBSOUECBS   OF   SWEDEN. 

This  circumstance  is  also  affected  by  the  fact  that  all  cultivable  land 
has  not  been  brought  under  operation.  Obviously  no  doubt  can  be  enter- 
tained that  the  acreage  will  gradually  become  more  widely  extended. 
During  the  44  years,  1865 — 1909,  it  has  been  increased  by  about  1-3 
millions  of  hectares,  or  nearly  36  %,  but  no  great  extension  of  cultivation 
must  be  expected  in  the  future,  partly  on  account  of  the  lack  of  really 
suitable  soil,  partly  because  the  land  is  often  better  adapted  to  forestry^ 
which,  when  a  rational  system  of  forestry  has  made  its  influence  felt, 
is  more  profitable,  under  the  constantly  increasing  price  of  timber,  than 
farming  poor  ground  that  is  expensive  to  cultivate. 

The  other  important  factor  of  production  is  climate.  It  is  incontestable 
that  Sweden,  considering  its  northerly  position,  is  wonderfully  favoured 
in  point  of  climate;  its  temperature  in  January  is  12  to  13  degrees  higher 
than  the  mean  temperature  of  other  countries  in  corresponding  latitudes. 
It  is  this  happy  circumstance  that  endows  the  country  (in  spite  of  its  geo- 
graphical situation  compared  with  South  Greenland,  the  lands  round  Hud- 
son Bay,  etc)  with  the  possibility  of  winning  a  place  among  those  nations 
that  are  in  the  van  of  human  culture. 

But  the  life-giving  warmth  of  the  South  is  lacking.  Most  of  the  cul- 
tivated species  in  Sweden  have  to  be  grown  in  the  neighbourhood  of  lati- 
tudes further  north  than  which  they  cannot  exist.  The  feeble  sunshine- 
of  the  North  allows  of  only  a  comparatively  short  vegetative  period; 
night-frosts  are  frequent.  On  the  whole  it  may  be  said  that  the  farther 
north  the  greater  the  cost  of  production  of  the  crop  from  cultivated  plants. 
It  is  therefore  no  marvel  that  agriculture  is  difficult,  in  rivalry  with 
countries  that  possess  a  more  beneficent  sunshine,  nor  that  specific  pre- 
cautions have  had  to  be  adopted  at  times  e.  g.,  duties  on  cereals,  in  order 
to  distribute  over  a  longer  period  the  effect  of  the  disadvantages  that 
competition  in  the  markets  of  the  world  has  brought  with  it. 

The  vegetable  foods  cultivated  in  the  country  produce  on  the  whole, 
carbon  hydrates  (pre-eminently  starch,  as  in  cereals  and  potatoes,  or,  in 
the  most  favourable  instances,  sugar,  in  the  form  of  beet),  while  the  more 
valuable  fatty  substances  are  produced  in  a  roundabout  way  through 
cattle.  It  is'  chiefly  in  warmer  climates  that  vegetables  can  be  profitably 
cultivated  to  generate  fatty  matter  directly.  Slowly  but  surely  vegetable 
fat  is  pushing  its  way  into  household  economy.  This  may  eventually 
threaten  the  output  of  butter;  but  pasturage,  one  of  Sweden's  most  valuable 
resources,  has  by  no  means  on  that  account  sunk  in  value,  but  advances 
more  and  more  in  usefulness  than  heretofore  though  it  will  be  utilized  in 
other  ways.  The  production  of  meat,  so  far  as  can  be  judged,  will  in 
future  times  be  of  more  importance  for  the  country  than  it  is  now.  Here 
is  most  surely  a  most  favourable  line  of  development  for  Sweden,  for  with 
reference  to  the  extension  and  quality  of  the  pasturage,  the  country  stands 
undeniably  in  the  forefront.  There  is  a  need,  nevertheless,  that  more 
productive  and  improved  kinds  should  be  cultivated  from  the  prevailing 


CONDITIONS   AND   POSSIBILITIES  OF  PRODUCTION  IN  THE  VEGETABLE  KINGDOM.      9 

species  of  natural  grasses.  With  the  great  increase  in  density  of  popu- 
lation of  the  great  grainproducing  countries,  and  their  much  greater 
immediate  consumption,  the  stern  rivalry  between  countries,  in  point  of 
cereal  production,  seems  likely  to  get  equalised,  and  most  certainly  with 
definite  advantages  to  Swedish  agriculture. 

In  the  cultivation  of  fruit-trees,  whose  products  have  attained  a  much 
wider  use  in  the  household,  with  increasing  prosperity,  and  to  a  mani- 
festly higher  degree  than  in  the  case  of  agricultural  products,  it  is  true 
that  Sweden  enjoys  no  specially  favoured  position.  These  come  to  an 
overwhelming  extent  from  warmer  climes,  but  not  a  few  of  them  can 
be  reared  in  Sweden  with  financial  success,  though  with  difficulty.  It 
is  undeniable  that,  as  yet,  those  possibilities  have  not  been  quite  exhausted^ 
which  exist  in  some  parts  of  South  Sweden  especially,  and  that  is  the 
only  part  of  the  country  which  can  come  under  consideration  here. 

The  soil  and  climate  of  Sweden,  therefore,  as  regards  farming,  are  to^ 
be  reckoned  in  the  category  of  countries  by  no  means  especially  favoured, 
but  are  to  be  classed  with  those  that  possess  such  passable  advantages  as 
will  enable  an  industrious  population  to  face  with  calmness  the  changes 
of  the  future. 

However,  the  prospects  of  forestry  look  brighter  and  more  hopeful 
than  in  other  countries,  if  it  is  possible  to  direct  it  prudently.  Half  of  the 
soil  of  Sweden  is  covered  with  forests;  though  barren  as  farmland,  the 
soil  is  well-adapted,  on  the  whole,  as  timber-land.  The  climate  is  excellent 
for  sylviculture  in  the  South  and  Middle  of  Sweden,  satisfactory  in  the 
southern  and  central  regions  of  Norrland,  but  evidently  less  satisfactory 
in  its  northern  regions.  For  centuries  enormous  capital  has  been  derived 
from  virgin  forests,  both  for  home  use  and  for  sale;  during  the  40  years 
1871 — 1910,  statistics  of  exports  abroad  show  a  sale  of  timber  and  other 
products  of  forestry  amounting  to  5  340  millions  of  kronor,  an  immense 
amount  for  a  country  of  which  the  total  national  wealth  in  1908  was 
computed  at  14  000  millions.  During  this  period  the  great  virgin  forests 
of  Norrland  were  opened  up,  and  very  large  portions  were  brought  into  the 
market  from  the  treasures  stored  by  nature  during  the  last  300  years 
or  so.  But  no  error  will  have  been  made,  and  no  risk  taken,  if  only  a  few 
of  the  millions  that  have  been  derived  from  the  forests  are  sunk  there 
again.  For  it  is  beyond  argument  that  the  forest-land  in  Sweden,  with 
the  conditions  secured  by  nature,  can,  with  reasonably  care,  produce  far 
more  than  virgin  forests  have  done.  Meanwhile  a  brighter  prospect  is 
already  dawning,  and  the  coming  generations  will  experience  in 
fullest  measure  the  truth  of  the  adage:  —  "the  future  of  Sweden  lies 
in  her  forests".  If  properly  nursed,  they  can  at  some  future  time 
bestow  on  the  country  and  her  industries  a  powerful  financial  position  in 
the  world,  far  more  certainly  than  any  other  of  her  natural  resources. 

Even  centuries  ago  an  incalculably  great  change  for  the  better  began 
to  make  itself  felt  in  the  position  of  Sweden,  when  the  countries  of  Central 


10  I.      THE   NATURAL   RESOURCES    OF   SWEDEN. 

and  Western  Europe  began  to  be  so  thickly  populated  and  so  de-forested, 
tbat  the  neighbouring  peoples,  first  those  of  the  Hanse  towns,  then  the 
Dutch,  and  later  the  English  had  to  turn  to  Scandinavia  for  timber.  Thanks 
to  favourable  conditions  of  nature,  the  position  has,  since  then,  become  that 
Sweden  is  indisputably  one  of  the  greatest  timber  exporting  countries  in  the 
world.  New  regions  have  been  opened  up,  fresh  virgin  forests  elsewhere 
■exploited,  but  Sweden  consistently  maintains  its  premier  position  amongst 
those  countries  that  deal  in  timber,  thanks  to  the  excellent  quality  of  its 
Tjroducts  and  its  excellent  highways  of  transport  along  its  rivers  and  other 
water-ways.  Iron,  steel,  and  cement  have  had  a  triumphant  progress 
through  the  world,  but  still  the  demand  for  the  products  of  the  forest  is  as 
urgent  as  ever  from  the  great  countries,  with  their  ever-increasing  popu- 
lations. The  immense  forest  tracts  of  the  West  will  soon  have  nothing  to 
offer  the  markets  outside  America,  the  countries  to  the  East  will  soon  have 
•exhausted  those  of  their  virgin  forests  that  are  easily  accessible,  and  the 
great  supplies  of  timber  from  the  virgin  forests  of  Siberia  can  scarcely 
be  put  on  the  market  at  prices  unfavourable  for  the  Swedish  industry, 
■on  account  of  the  immense  distances  and  the  consequent  great  cost  of 
transport.  The  development  of  technical  science  has  carried  us  from  round 
timber  to  sawn,  and  on  to  woodpulp;  we  can  scarcely  make  a  mistake  in 
prophesying  that  organic  chemistry,  will,  before  long,  advance  to  methods 
to  of  using  now  worthless  products  of  the  timber  industry  which  will  very 
■considerably  enhance  the  value  of  the  forests  of  Sweden.  When,  in  a  not 
1.00  distant  future,  the  virgin  forests  have  everywhere  been  transformed 
into  timber,  then  will  come  the  halcyon  days  of  Sweden's  forests,  provided 
that,  by  then,  they  have  been  set  in  order;  provided  that  the  State,  the 
•communities,  and  private  persons  have  sunk  all  that  is  possible  of  the 
necessary  capital  required  to  secure  permanent  improvements. 

Nature  has  presented  Sweden  with  no  source  of  wealth  to  be  com- 
Toared  with  what  lies  slumbering  in  the  depths  of  the  forests! 

The  animal  world  and  its  economic  production. 

We  might  say  that  the  age  of  the  chase  is  gone  by,  and  that  of  fishery 
has  commenced,  when  we  consider  the  products  bestowed  upon  Sweden  for 
her  national  economy  by  the  animal  world  and  the  seas  that  surround  her 
shores. 

Even  though  the  value  of  game  may  be  reckoned  by  millions  of  kroner, 
yet  the  plough  and  the  axe  have  so  far  disturbed  the  seclusion  of  the 
larger  beasts  and  checked  their  propagation,  that  their  flesh,  and  above 
all  their  skins,  which  at  one  time  were  among  the  most  importants  items 
•of  export,  can  scarcely  be  of  any  real  importance  again. 

Possibly  the  great  areas  of  peat-land  and  forest  may  once  more  provide  a 
quiet  retreat  for  the  breeding  of  furred  animals,  with  the  beasts  in  a  kind 
of  half- wild  condition.     The  indications  in  America  afford  good  hopes  for 


THE   VIGOUR   OF   THE    SWEDISH   RACE.  11 

tlie  time  to  come.  If  these  hopes  are  fulfilled,  few  European  countries 
will  possess  such  excellent  natural  conditions  as  Sweden  does  for  creating 
such  an  industry. 

Another  future  industry,  for  which  South  Sweden  especially  has  very 
great  advantages,  is  the  production  of  fresh  water  fish  on  a  large  scale. 
Owing  to  an  increasing  demand  from  a  growing  number  of  consumers, 
created  by  a  raised  standard  of  living,  fish  will  find  an  increasingly  large 
market.  The  forward  march  of  fish  cultivation,  rationally  ordered,  is 
long  and  difficult,  but  promising. 

The  development  of  the  Swedish  west-coast  fisheries  have  proved  that 
purposeful  energy  can  deal  with  those  riches  of  nature,  whose  existence 
has  long  been  doubted.  In  1860  they  yielded  only  a  little  over  half  a 
million  kronor,  but  now  they  produce  about  8-5  mill.  kr.  Natural  resources 
existed  then  as  now;  the  difference  is  that  methods  have  been  found  and 
used  to  find  them  in  the  proper  places,  out  in  the  open  sea,  and  to  take 
possession  of  them  there.  The  whole  coasts  of  Bohuslan  and  North  Halland, 
thanks  to  the  growing  utilization  of  this  source  of  wealth,  have  been 
exalted  to  a  prosperity  scarcely  dreamed  of  before. 

Brief  reference  has  previously  been  made  to  the  breeding  of  domestic 
■animals.  On  the  credit  side  are  to  be  placed  relatively  good  pasturage; 
on  the  debit  side,  a  long  winter  with  indoor  feeding.  "When  the  old  native 
strains,  tough  and  hardly,  but  for  centuries  scantily  fed,  have  been  im- 
proved, and  the  good  qualities  of  suitable  new  breeds  have  been  thoroughly 
■crossed  into  them,  a  very  respectable  place  in  cattle-breeding  will  be 
taken  by,  at  any  rate,  South  Sweden. 


The  Tigoui"  of  the  Swedish  Race. 

"Whoever  will  estimate  the  material  influence  of  Nature  on  Man,  in 
the  case  of  Sweden,  must  not  overlook  the  effect  of  the  former  on  the 
Swedish  race. 

It  has  with  some  truth  been  remarked  that  Sweden  is  not  a  very  rich 
country,  and,  in  coming  from  the  favoured  climes  of  Western  Europe, 
one  is  struck  by  the  contrast  between,  on  the  one  hand,  their  wide  cultiva- 
ted stretches  and  the  great  industrial  districts  created  by  the  coal  and 
iron  there,  and,  on  the  other,  the  hilly  and  thinly  populated  forest-land 
of  the  North. 

Yet  culture  has  not  anywhere  waxed  higher  than  in  Sweden,  and  few 
people  in  the  world  live  better  than  the  Swedish.  How  is  that  possible? 
Only  one  answer  can  be  given.  The  people  established  here  for  some 
thousands  of  years,  has  to  live  under  conditions  which  have  favoured  its 
development  into  a  race  attaining  a  high  standard  both  materially  and 
intellectually.  This  testimony  is  completely  proved  to  be  true  out  in 
America,  where  the  Scandinavian  race  tends  to  fight  its  way  into  the 


12  I.       'IHE   NATURAL    KESOUECBS    OF   SWEDEN. 

forefront  in  every  domain,  in  the  intense  'rivalry  among  representatives 
of  all  the  civilized  races  of  the  earth. 

The  Swedes  are  quite  disposed  to  criticise  their  own  nation  severely,  and 
to  show  how,  in  material  achievements,  it  has  not  attained  to  such  a  height 
as,  e.  g.,  the  Germans,  the  French,  or  the  English.  The  comparison  is  mis- 
leading; place  a  corresponding  number  of  any  of  these  in  a  land  with  the 
natural  resources  of  Sweden,  and  the  result  will  in  all  probability  be  no 
better  than  that  which  has  been  obtained  in  Sweden.  Never  in  the  days 
known  to  history  has  this  land  attracted  the  migratoring  peoples.  The 
only  race  so  far  as  is  known,  that  ever  betook  itself  to  Sweden  in  any 
number,  from  a  still  poorer  land,  was  the  Finns,  in  beginning  of  the 
17th  cei^tury. 

It  may,  therefore,  be  briefly  asserted  that  the  Swedish  people  have  ably 
administered  that  land  in  which  they  first  settled,  and  that  they  have 
adopted  themselves  unusually  well  to  the  conditions  of  nature. 

Taking  one  step  further,  and  enquiring  how  natural  conditions  mirror 
themselves  in  the  people's  vigour  one  easily  quits  the  sure  ground  of 
science  and  swings  out  into  the  broad,  but  insecure,  realnis  of  fancy.  The 
deepest  psychology  of  mankind  is  so  involved,  that  the  reaction  of  nature 
on  it  has  hitherto  escaped  real  scientific  analysis.  The  only  thing 
gained  is  conjecture  rather  than  knowledge. 

The  immense  forests  where  villages  have  nestled,  as  in  a  hole  hewn 
out  of  them,  and  remote  from  each  other,  have  indelibly  stamped  the  Swe- 
dish character.  Many  of  its  weaknesses,  where  the  question  is  one  of 
economic  rivalry,  are  perhaps  a  reflection  of  the  solitary  contemplative 
life  of  the  forest-dweller;  but  so  are  also,  possibly,  some  of  its  best  qualities, 
the  strong,  calm  acuteness  of  the  leading  sons  of  Sweden.  The  climate, 
with  its  cool  summers  and  not  too  cold  winters,  has  conceivably  been  among 
the  most  important  of  those  natural  factors  which,  during  centuries,  have 
built  up  the  race,  physically  and  intellectually  sound,  which  now  occupies 
Sweden;  and  this  —  perhaps  with  greater  justice  than  the  Swedes  them- 
selves are  ready  to  acknowledge  —  is  not  infrequently  pointed  to  by 
foreigners  as  the  country's  greatest  natural  wealth. 


II. 
INDUSTRIES  OF  SWEDEN. 


A  GENERAL  SURVEY. 

Sweden  is  one  of  the  larger  European  countries,  extending  mainly 
from  North  to  South.  The  consequence  of  this  conformation  of  the  land 
is  that  greater  divergences  are  contained  within  it  than  within  most  other 
countries.  Between  the  fertile  plains  of  Skane  and  the  mountains  of 
Lappland  the  contrast  is  enormous,  the  extremes,  however,  being  linked 
together  by  multifarious  transitions  in  climate  and  soil  in  the  intervening 
provinces.  With  her  manifold  and  varied  possibilities  Sweden,  so  to 
speak,  forms  a  world  apart.  In  configuration  Sweden  is  one  continuous 
body  of  land,  two-thirds  bounded  by  seas,  which,  however,  are  mainly 
inland  seas.  In  the  interior  there  are  many  large  pieces  of  water  with 
outlets  that  form  either  navigable  rivers,  or  streams  with  falls  and  rapids. 
Out  Oi  the  44  786  448  hectares  which  constitute  the  total  area  of  the 
country,  no  less  than  3  685  255  are  water,  leaving  41  101  193  hectares 
as  the  actual  land  area.^  The  following  Table  1  will  show  what  portion  of 
this  area  is  cultivable,  what  uncultivable,  and  the  proportion  between  the 
different  kinds  of  cultivation. 

After  this  preliminary  survey  of  the  country  as  the  arena  of  the  various 
activities  of  its  inhabitants  in  pursuit  of  a  livelihood,  we  shall  proceed  to 
adduce  a  few  data  as  to  the  inhabitants  themselves,  grouped  according  to 
the  chief  occupations  from  which  they  derive  their  subsistence.  Table  2 
classifies  the  Swedish  people  into  leading  groups,  ranged  according  to 
occupations,  at  different  periods  during  the  last  few  decades. 

These  two  tables,  of  Land  and  of  People,  afford  a  kind  of  bird's  eye 
view  of  the  industries  and  occupations  of  the  people,  as  they  now  are, 
as  they  have  been  in  the  past,  and  as  they  are  tending  to  become.     They 


•  Cf.  Part  I,  Table  1  with  more  recent  figures. 


14 
Table  1. 


11.       THE   INDUSTRIES    OF    SWEDEN. 

Distribution  of  Swedish  Soil. 


Total  area 
of  land 

Hectares 

Thereof,    in    hectares 

Area  in  percentage 

Parts  of  the  countryl 

Arable  land 

and  natural 

meadow 

Forest 

land 

Other  land 

Field 

and 

meadow 

Forest 
land 

other 
land 

Sk&ne 

1095124 
3048551 
4540147 
3358672 
4569983 
8995363 
15493453 

650861 
662  065 
1398044 
936  714 
449  979 
408 152 
491 562 

292  735 
1 479  410 
2 109  662 
1970303 
3  435 125 
6  438856 
5  674  086 

151 528 

907  076 

1 032  441 

451 555 

684  879 

2  158  355 

9  327  805 

59-4 
21-7 
30-8 
27-9 
9-8 
M-5 

3-2 

26-7 
48-6 
46-5 
58-7 
75-2 
71-5 
36-6 

13-9 

29-8 
22-7 
13-4 
15-0 
24-0 
60-2 

SmSilRiid  .    . 

Rest  of  Gotaland 
East  Svealand    . 
"West  Svealand  . 
South  Norrland  . 
North  Norrland  . 

The  whole  country  1910 

41101193 

4997  377 

21390177 

14  713639 

122 

52-0 

358 

present  in  bold  outlines  a  picture  of  the  present  industrial  life  of  the 
Swedish  people. 

It  will  be  noted  that  Agriculture  is  the  staple  industry  of  Sweden,  the 
"mother  industry"/  as  has  been  its  honorable  appellation  from  olden  times. 
It  is  true  that  only  12  %  of  the  soil  is  given  up  to  tillage  and  meadows, 
whereas  the  average  figure  in  Western  Europe  is  44  %.  But  the  vast 
extent  of  Sweden  in  proportion  to  its  population  must  be  borne  in  mind. 
Sweden  has  1  hectare  of  cultivated  soil  or  meadow  to  every  inhabitant, 
whereas  Western  Europe  has  on  an  average  not  quite  ^/a  hectare.  These 
figures  show  painly  that  agriculture  plays  a  more  important  part  in 
the  industrial  life  of  Sweden  than  in  most  other  countries  of  Wes- 
tern Europe.  But  we  also  learn  from  Table  2  that  agriculture  is  rapidly 
decreasing  in  importance  in  Sweden  too.  Not  merely  relatively,  but 
also  absolutely,  it  employs  and  supports  a  considerably  smaller  number 
of  people  than  it  did  forty  years  ago,  in  spite  of  the  pretty  large  in- 
crease of  population  during  that  time.  The  relative  decrease  shows  that 
industry  and  trade  have  now  developed  into  leading  occupations  along- 
side of  agriculture,  which  formerly  dominated  the  field.  The  absolute 
decrease  in  the  numbers  of  the  agriculture  population  points  to  changes 
which  have  taken  place  within  agriculture  itself.  Machinery  has  pushed 
its  way  into  the  service  of  agriculture  in  Sweden,  superseding  human 
labour,  which  tends  to  become  more  and  more  expensive,  and  conducing  to 
impart  to  agriculture  itself  a  more  and  more  industrial  character.  The 
results  of  this  transformation  also  appear  in  the  magnificent  development 
of  dairyfarming,  and,  in  Skane,  in  the  cultivation  of  the  sugar-beet,  for 
a  sugar  industry  on  a  scale  of  great  magnitude.  Agriculture  has  thus, 
both  in  its  methods  and  in  its  products,  been  carried  along  in  the  triumphal 
march  of  industrialism  which  is  now  passing  through  the  world.  And  it 
evidently  tends  to  proceed  further  along  the  same  lines,  in  spite  of  the 
movement  in   favour   of   small   holdings,   which   partially   trends    in   the 

•    Smaiand    here    also    includes    Oland.     West    Svealand.  =  the   Lans  of  Vartnland  and 
Kopparberg.    North  Norrland  =  The  Lana  of  Vasterbotten  and  Norrbotten. 
^  Swedish:  tModernciring.i 


A    GENERAL   SURVEY.  15- 

Table  2.    Population  of  Siveden  in  Main  Groups  according  to  Occupation. 


Professions 

Population 

Percentage  of  entire 

population 

1870 

1900 

1910  1 

1870 

1900 

1910 

Agriculture  and  fishing    . 

Industry^ 

Trade  and  transport     .    . 
Public  service,  etc'  .    .    . 

Total 

2  995  844 
613  414 
210  940 
348  327 

2  756  704 

1  484  230 

544  324 

351 183 

2  663000 

1831000 

670  000 

358000 

71-87 

14-71 

5-06 

8-36 

53-67 

28-90 

10-60 

683 

48-23 

33-16 

12-13 

6-48 

4168  525 

5136441 

5522000 

100-00 

100-00 

lOO-OO 

opposite  direction,  though  -without  prejudice  to  the  "intensity"  of  the 
farming. 

The  greater  part  of  the  soil  of  S-weden  is  occupied  by  forests.  It  is 
thus  quiet  natural  that  forestry  should  constitute  one  of  the  principal 
occupations  of  the  country.  It  does  not  require  the  employment  of  so  many 
hands  as  does  agriculture,  and  consequently  supports  only  a  comparatively 
small  number  of  the  population.  But  it  is-  one  of  the  greatest  sources  of 
wealth  in  the  country.  Timber  in  fact  constitutes  -well-nigh  one  half  of 
the  total  exports  of  S-weden;  and  S-weden  is  one  of  the  greatest  seller 
of  timber  in  the  -world's  markets.  Thanks  to  methods  of  forestry 
that  are  improving  in  efficiency  year  by  year  (since  1903  backed 
by  an  incipient  legislation  on  the  subject),  the  enormous  capital  con- 
tained in  the  forests  is  being  better  administered,  and  this  source  of 
■wealth  is  secured  and  preserved  for  all  time.  Moreover  -with  the  increasing 
development  of  paper  and  pulp  mills,  furniture  factories,  and  other  in- 
dustries in  -which  the  raw  product  is  manipulated  into  finished  articles 
of  commerce,  the  wealth  of  the  forests  is  being  utilized  more  and  more 
for  the  benefit  of  Sweden  herself. 

It  will  be  noted  in  Table  1  that  nearly  15  millions  of  hectares  are  en- 
tered as  other  land,  that  is,  land  not  under  cultivation.  However,  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  this  vast  area  comprises  mosses,  which  are  now 
being  increasingly  applied  to  useful  purposes,  in  the  shape  of  fuel  and 
moss-litter.  A  fair  amount  of  this  land  will  doubtless  one  day  be  found 
fitted  to  serve  for  cultivation  or  growth  of  timber.  The  major  portion 
of  it,  however,  is  rock  and  mountain,  and  thus  "uncultivable"  land;  but 
not  worthless.  For  in  these  desert  regions  Nature  has  buried  one  of' 
Sweden's  greatest  treasures:  the  boundless  iron  ore  fields.  They  form 
a  belt  extending  across  the  central  part  of  the  country,  and  contain  the 
purest  ores  in  the  world.  The  main  mass  of  ore,  however,  is  to  be  found 
in  Lappland;  which  until  quite  recently  was  inaccessible,  but  which  the 
railway  has  now  opened  up  to  the  world's  markets.  Many  other  mineral 
treasures  lie  buried  in  the  Swedish  mountains.  Thus,  as  might  have  been 
expected.  Mining  has  been  from  time  immemorial  the  leading  industry  of 
the  country.     Sweden  was  in  fact  long  the  biggest  producer  of  iron  in 

'  Approximate  estimate.  ■ —  *  Includes  forestry  and  mining.  —  ^  Includes  the  literary,, 
artistic,  and  medical  professions,  the  administration  of  charity  etc. 


16  II.      THE   INDUSTRIES   OF   SWEDEN. 

Europe,  until  the  use  of  coal  for  the  manufacture  of  pig-iron  revolutionized 
that  industry.  The  lack  of  fossil  fuel  has  in  fact  since  that  time  proved 
the  chief  obstacle  to  the  development  of  such  an  industry  on  a  scale 
corresponding  to  the  natural  resources.  This  lack  is  also  the  reason  why 
at  present  mining  in  Lappland  merely  concerns  itself  with  the  raw  pro- 
duct. The  mining  of  ore,  which  is  moreover  carried  on  from  the  ore 
fields  of  Central  Sweden,  has  thus  become  one  of  the  biggest  export  indu- 
stries of  the  country.  The  recent  development  of  iron  works,  foundries, 
machine  shops,  and  so  forth,  shows,  however,  that  the  way  is  being  gradu- 
ally prepared  for  a  manufacturing  industry  of  great  magnitude. 

The  lack  of  coal  (there  is  only  a  scanty  supply  in  the  north-west  of 
Skane),  in  conjunction  with  difficulties  arising  from  the  enormous  dis- 
tances  that   have  to   be   traversed,   explains   why  Mechanical  Industry 
in  Sweden  has  so  long  remained  in  a  state  of  insignificance.     However, 
in  the  course  of  the  last  twenty  years  or  so  a  distinct  change  in  this  re- 
gard has  taken  place.     Numbers  of  new  lines  of  manufacture  have  been 
struck  out,   and  established  lines   have  increased   many  times   over  the 
.  scope  of  their  activities;  the  result  is  that  the  value  of  the  output  has 
risen  enormouslj-,  being  computed  for  the  year  1912  at  about  1  778  million 
kroner  (exclusive  of  forestry,  mining,  and  dairy- farming),  while  the  po- 
pulation which  derives  its  livelihood  from  mechanical  industry  has  been 
well-nigh  trebled  since  1870.     Industry  on  a  big  scale  has  thus  made 
its  ingress  into  Sweden,  and  is  perhaps  destined  to  give  her  a  position 
sooner  or  later  among  the  principal  centres  of  the  world's  industry:  for, 
if  Sweden  lacks  coal,  she  possesses  an  abundance  of  ivaterfalls.    The  Swe- 
dish waterfalls,  as  a  rule,  are  not  so  easy  to  equip  as  the  Norwegian;  but 
the   utilization   of  electric  power   is   gradually   gaining  territory,   and   is 
bound  sooner  or  later  to  embrace  in  its  sweep  not  merely  mechanical  indus- 
try, but  also  mining  and  the  railway.  The  time  is  surely  not  far  off  when  the 
"white  coals"  will  in  these  domains  to  a  great  extent  supersede  the  black. 
—  Here  as  in  other  spheres  handicraft  is  being  jostled  aside  in  the  onward 
march  of  mechanical  industry,  in  order,  having  accommodated  itself  to  the 
new  conditions,  once  more  to  win  for  itself  a  secure  position  alongside  of 
the  latter.    Thus,  the  old  domestic  sloyd  has  sprung   up  into  life  once  more 
and,  in  many  districts,  now,  as  before,  assumes  an  important  place  in  the 
economy  of  the  country  people. 

Commerce  and  Transport  come  next  on  the  list  of  important  occupa- 
tions. Owing  to  the  great  extent  of  coast-line,  the  numerous  harbours, 
and  the  well-developed  system  of  water-ways  (big  lakes  and  long  canals) 
navigation  in  the  interior  of  the  country  is  very  brisk;  and  in  consequence 
of  the  great  differences  between  the  products  of  the  various  provinces,  a 
busy  interchange  of  commodities  takes  place  within  the  country  itself. 
By  a  railway  system  which  in  proportion  to  the  population  is  the  biggest 
in  Europe,  the  great  distances  have  been  bridged  over,  and  the  country 
has  been  opened  up  to  the  markets  of  the  world.     Trade  with  foreign 


Sweden's  economical  development  between  the  years  1862  and  1913.     17 

countries  has  also  made  great  advances  in  the  course  of  the  last  few 
years;  however,  it  doubtless  still  admits  of  considerable  d'evelopment. 
This  may  be  said  with  still  more  truth  of  Shipping,  which  a  newly- 
awakened  interest  has  aroused  out  of  the  torpor  into  which  it  had  sunk, 
in  consequence  of  various  unfavourable  conditions,  during  the  last  quarter 
of  the  nineteenth  century.  Several  new  direct  lines  to  foreign  parts  of 
the  world  and  the  steadilj-  increasing  tonnage  of  steamers  testifj^  forcibly 
to  the  reality  of  this  awakening. 

Fishing  is  in  Sweden  an  occupation  of  minor  importance,  although, 
owing  to  the  return  of  the  herring  to  the  Swedish  coast,  improved  methods 
of  sea- fishing,  and  a  more  scientific  pisciculture,  it  has  in  recent  years 
yielded  a  continually  richer  harvest. 

Shooting',  which  was  formerly  a  very  important  means  of  subsistance, 
can  no  longer  be  reckoned  as  a  special  branch  of  industry.  It  must  be 
regarded  now,  to  a  great  extent,  merely  as  a  means  of  recreation  and  a 
sport. 

Banking  finally,  which  supplies  to  modern  industrial  life  its  motive 
power,  capital,  has  attained  a  high  pitch  of  development  in  the  form 
of  savings-banks,  land  mortgage-banks,  and  commercial  banks  proper. 
Both  by  administering  the  floating  capital  of  the  country,  and  by  advan- 
cing money  for  productive  work,  it  contributes  largely  to  the  promotion 
of  industry.  A  richly  developed  insurance  system  guards  against  the 
various   risks   which   menace   property. 

It  will  be  apparent  even  from  this  brief  survey  that  the  sources  of  live- 
lihood in  Sweden  are  extremelj'  rich  and  varied.  It  will  also  be  manifest 
that  Sweden  has  for  a  generation  been  undergoing  a  process  of  transfor- 
mation, the  tendency  of  which  is  to  convert  the  manufacture  of  the  raw 
article  into  the  manufacture  of  the  finished  article,  and  to  apply  indu- 
strial methods  to  all  spheres  of  occupation.  Swreden  is  thus  undergoing 
the  same  process  of  development  as  the  great  civilized  countries  have  al- 
ready undergone.  In  Sweden  too  this  development  is  attended  by  a 
steadily  increasing  prosperity  and  a  rapidly  augmenting  national  reve- 
nue. We  shall  endeavour  briefly  to  sketch  also  this  aspect  of  Sweden's 
national  economy  with  its  most  recent  developments. 

However,  before  we  pass  over  these  calculations,  we  shall  adduce  a 
few  data  as  to  the  course  af  development  in  this  domain  during  the  last 
half-century. 

Sweden's  Economical  Development  between  the  Tears  1862  and  1913. 

The  prevailing  feature  of  Sweden's  national  economy  during  the  last 
half-century  is  a  vigorous  development.  This  development  has  gone  on 
in  spite  of  the  fluctuations  between  bad  and  good  times  which  have 
occurred  during  that  period,  and  which  now  recur  with  great  regularity. 

In  former  days  bad  harvests  and  wars  were  the  chief  causes.  Now- 
adays it  is  the  rythm  of  economical  life  itself  that  causes  the  bad  times 

Z^  133 170.  Sweden.   II. 


18 


II.       THE    INDUSTRIES    OF    SWEDEN. 


to  alternate  with  the  good.  At  the  same  time  these  fluctuations  have 
become  universal.  Even  the  most  out-of-the-way  regions  are  affected 
by  things  happening  at  the  other  end  of  the  world.  Along  with  these 
big  waves  in  the  ocean  of  the  world's  market  there  are  also  minor  eddies, 
of  a  more  local  character,  which  condue  to  reinforce  or  neutralize  them. 
Thus  the  period  from  1866  to  1870  was  as  a  whole  a  particularly  un- 
favourable one  for  Sweden.  But  the  cause  was  mainly  local,  viz.  the 
bad  harvests  of  the  years  1866,  1867  and  1868  —  as  a  matter  of  fact 
the  last  time  in  the  history  of  Sweden  that  these  domestic  causes  affected 
the  ebb  and  flow  of  national  economy.  Since  that  time  domestic  con- 
junctures have  almost  without  exception  coincided  with  those  of  the 
world's   economy   as   a   whole. 

The  former  half  of  the  seventies  of  the  last  century  is  universally 
known  as  a  period  of  unparalleled  economic  progress,  and  not  least  in 
Sweden,  where  the  reaction  that  inevitably  ensued  did  not  set  in  till 
about  1878.  The  period  from  1879  to  1887,  on  the  other  hand,  was  al- 
most everywhere,  with  short  intervals,  a  period  of  stagnation,  and,  in  ge- 
neral, things  were  not  much  better  during  the  years  1888  to  1893.  Swe- 
dish agriculture  in  particular,  like  European  agriculture  at  large,  passed 
through  a  severe  crisis  during  the  whole  period  from  1879  to  1893.  After 
1893  agricultural  conditions  improved;  but  already  previous  to  that  year 
Swedish  industry  had  entered  on  a  phase  of  magnificent  development, 
which  after  the  year  1894  coincided  with  the  general  economical  expan- 
sion that  marked  the  period  down  to  the  crisis  of  1907.  The  relative 
stagnation  which  then  set  in  both  in  Sweden  and  elsewhere  was  prolonged, 
owing  to  domestic  conditions,  particularly  disturbances  in  the  labour  mar- 
ket (the  general  strike  of  1909),  beyond  the  actual  period  of  crisis,  and 
it  is  only  after  the  general  economic  rise  which  marked  the  year  1913 
}hat   Swedish  enterprise   seems  to  be  recovering  its   confidence.     In  this 


Table  3.  Assessed  Value  of  Meal  Property  in  Sweden.    In  millions  of  kroner. 


Tear 

Total  value  of  real 
property- 

Owned  by 

Real  property  in 
private  hands 

Real  property  be- 
longing to  the 
State 

Landed 

other 

Total 

Private 
persona 

The 
State  5 

Commu- 
nes 1 

Landed 

Other 

Landed 

other 

1862  . 
1870. 
1876  . 
1879  2 
1884. 
1887. 
1900. 
1910. 

1911  . 

1912  . 
1913. 

1844 
1691 
1931 
2  209 
2  822 
2  239 

2  494 

3  236 
3  237 
3  237 
3  740 

470 

597 
850 
1052 
1363 
1633 
2  536 

4  898 
5101 

5  248 

6  837 

2314 

2  288 

2  781 
32G1 
3685 

3  772 
5030 
8134 
8338 
8485 
9  577 

2  247 
2165 

2  614 

3  011 
3  378 

3  439 

4  502 
7136 
7  299 

7  426 

8  266 

31 
46 
62 
124 
151 
158 
263 
438 
459 
466 
565 

36 

77 
106 
126 
156 
175 
275 
660 
580 
594 
746 

1827 
1666 
1898 
2142 
2  241 
2159 

2  355 

3  025 
3  026 
3  025 
3  480 

420 

499 
716 
869 
1137 
1280 
2147 
4111 
4  273 
4  401 
4  786 

17 

25 

33 

67 

81 

80 

139 

211 

211 

212 

260 

14 

21 

29 

57 

70 

78 

114 

227 

248 

253 

306 

'  Communes  and  communities.    All  tlie  real  property  included  here  is  reckoned  as  "other 
property"  (than  landed,  i.  e.  agricultural).  —  '  See  the  text  on  p.  20.  —  '  Low  assessment 


Sweden's  economical  development  between  the  years  1862  and  1913.     19 
Assessed  Value  of  Taxable  (i.  e.  private)  Real  Property. 


9000 


seoo 

MOO 


MiUKr 


^600 


icoo 

iWO 
3200 
3O00 
ISOO 
MOO 
liOO 

tsoo 

9000 
1800 


lOOO 

saoo 
ieoo 

iiOO 


leoo 
fiOO 
f!00 
HOO 
SOO 
€00 


koo 
Tear  1S62 


73  80  83  90  95  1900  05 

-  Landed  Property,  Other  Real  Property. 


600 


H  iOO 


10    1912   Tear 


way,  the  temporary  interruptions  in  the  economic  development  of  the 
country,  caused  by  unfavourable  junctures  and  other  circumstances,  have 
invariably  been  followed  by  a  still  brisker  march  forwards.  It  is  to  be 
hoped  that  this  will  also  prove  to  be  the  case  after  the  recent  period 
of  depression. 

The  outer  signs  of  this  development  are  visible  in  all  spheres,  imma- 
terial as  well  as  material.  We  shall  confine  ourselves  here  to  a  general 
survey  of  certain  of  these  signs,  principally  the  growth  of  fixed  capital 
and  of  income,  as  far  as  one  can  judge  from  assessments  of  taxes. 

Statistics  of  Taxation  ia  their  present  condition  date  back  to  the  year  1862. 
Triennial  (since  1898  quinquennial)  official  assessments  have  been  made  (by  commu- 
nal deputies)  of  the  value  of  all  r&dl  property  —  as  strict  distinction  being  always 
made  between  landed  property  used  for  agricultural  purposes  and  other  kinds 
of  real  property.  Thus  under  the  head  of  landed  property  is  included  the 
main  body  of  the  soil,  i.  e.  all  except  the  ground  used  for  building  sites  in 
cities  and  country-towns  as  well  as  for  the  erection  of  factories  and  means  of 
communication;  further,  all  buildings  erected  on  that  soil,  belonging  to  the 
landed  property,  as  well  as  forests  and  deposits  of  ore,  only  excepting  mines, 
and  waterfalls  applied  to  industrial  purposes,  and  large  fisheries.  Other  property 
includes    building  sites  in  cities,  country-towns,  and  places  of  equivalent  impor- 


20  II.       THE   INDUSTRIES    OF    SWEDEN. 

Table  4.     Total  Income  from  Real  Property,  Capital,  and  Work} 


A. 
i  %  ot  the 

B. 
Income  from 

Per  inhabitant 

Mean  popu- 

value of  real 

capital  and 

Total 

Annually 

lation 

property 
Kronor 

work 
Kronor 

Kronor 

A. 

B. 

Total 

1866—70  .    . 

4166  000 

115  977  000 

160  427  000 

276404000 

28 

38 

66 

1871-75  .    . 

4  274  000 

131320  000 

225  098  000 

346418  000 

28 

53 

81 

1876-80.    . 

4  500  000 

150  565  000 

286  286  000 

436  851000 

38 

64 

97 

1881-85  .    . 

4  606  000 

177  271 000 

326  976  000 

504247  000 

88 

71 

109 

1886-90  .    . 

4  742  000 

192  502  000 

368  269  000 

560  771000 

40 

78 

118 

1891—95  .    . 

4  832  000 

209  917  000 

437  472  000 

647  389000 

43 

91 

134 

1896-00  .    . 

5  032  000 

236  689  000 

602  125  000 

838814000 

47 

120 

167 

1901-05  .    . 

5  330  000 

286  841000 

889  766  000 

1126607  000 

55 

160 

215 

1906-10  .    . 

5  439  000 

370078  000 

1185  807  000 

1555885000 

69 

218 

287 

1910.    .    .    . 

5  532  000 

406  684  000 

1258  993  000 

1660677  000 

73 

227 

300 

1911  .... 

5  542  000 

416  920  000 

1 445  851 000 

1862  771000 

75 

261 

336 

1913  .... 

5  604  000 

434  279  000 

1519  007  000 

1943286000 

76 

271 

347 

1913  .... 

5  621  000 

478881000 

1  655  351  000 

2134232000 

85 

295 

380 

tance,  buildings  on  the  said  sites,  and  further,  premises  and  buildings  on  agri- 
cultural property  which  are  not  intended  for  agricultural  purposes,  large  fisher- 
ies, and  fee-farm  rents.  Thus  all  the  real  property  of  the  realm,  except  chan- 
nels of  communication  (canals  and  railways)  with  the  buildings  appertaining  to 
them,  is  entered  in  the  assessment  rolls  at  its  estimated  value.  On  the  other 
hand,  no  calculation  is  made  as  to  t]je  yield  of  real  property  in  monetary  value. 
But  this  is  done  in  the  case  of  capital  and  worTc,  the  income  for  every  tax- 
payer being  assessed  by  the  same  authorities  as  those  just  mentioned;  this  assess- 
ment takes   place  annually. 

In  consequence  of  the  different  methods  of  procedure  referred  to  above,  it  is 
not  possible  to  determine  the  total  annual  income  of  the  Swedish  nation,  but 
one  must  content  oneself  with  two  incommensurable  sets  of  figures;  on  the  one 
hand,  the  value  of  real  property,  on  the  other  the  income  derived  from  work 
and  public  service.  It  is  true  that  since  1911  (Law  of  the  28th  Oct.  1910) 
owners  of  real  property,  both  landed  and  other,  are  taxed  for  income  derived 
from  such  property.  However,  the  incomes  thus  declared  do  not  yet  by  any 
means  correspond  to  the  real  incomes ;  we  must  therefore  content  ourselves  with 
the  data  of  past  years  on  the  one  hand  as  to  the  value  of  real  property,  and 
on  the  other  as  to  income  from  capital  and  work. 

The  results  in  both  cases  are  given  in  summarised  form  in  Tables  3  and 
5.  In  Table  4  an  attempt  has  also  been  made  to  amalgamate  the  assessed 
income  and  5  %  ol  the  assessed  value  of  real  property  —  of  course  without  any 
claim  in  the  latter  case  to  give  the  real  net  profit,  but  merely  an  approximate 
idea  of  the  total  sum.  However,  for  various  reasons,  it  is  probable  that  the 
latter  by  no  means  corresponds  to  the  real  annual  income  of  the  Swedish 
people. 

The  value  of  all  real  property  in  Sweden  has  thus  from  1862  to  1913 
increased  from  2  314  to  9  577  million  kronor,  that  is,  has  been  more  than 
quadrupled.  Agriculture,  however,  shows  a  comparatively  small  advance, 
from  1  844  to  3  740  millions,  an  advance  which  may  even,  to  some 
extent,  be  due  to  a  more  accurate  valuation  (from  1879  onwards).     Other 

•  The  income  from  real  property  is  here  aseamed  to  be  5  %  of  the  assessed  value.  See 
the  text  on  p.  21. 


SWEDEN  S   ECONOMICAL   DEVELOPMENT   BBTWBEN   THE   YEARS  1862  AND  1913.      21 

real  property  (bouses,  buildings,  factories  etc.),  on  the  other  hand, 
exhibits  an  increase  of  value  from  470  to  5  837  million  kronor,  that  is, 
thirteen  times  as  much. 

The  income  from  capital  and  work  proves  to  have  risen  since  the  period 
1866 — 70  from  160  million  kronor  to  1  655  million  kronor,  that  is  more 
than  ten  times  as  much.  The  income  derived  from  "business  or  trade"  in 
particular  has  swelled  from  93  million  kronor  to  576  million  kronor,  that 
is,  six  times  the  former  amount. 

These  figures  point  to  an  enormous  increase  during  the  past  generation. 
And,  even  if  part  of  it  is  to  be  ascribed  to  inaccurate  assessment  during 
earlier  years  of  the  period,  and  part  to  the  fall  of  money  value  during 
the  later  years  of  the  period,  it  nevertheless  remains  an  incontestable  fact 
that  during  this  time  there  has  been  a  very  considerable  advance  in  the 
value  of  real  property  and  income  derived  from  work. 

Not  less  remarkable  than  the  development  which  has  thus  been  sketched 
is  that  which  is  observable  with  regard  to  capital  in  the  strict  sense,  that 
is  the  sums  deposited  hy  the  general  public  in  savings-banks  and  other 
banks.  The  absence  of  complete  statistics  renders  it  impossible  to  follow 
this  matter  in  detail  from  early  years.  We  know,  however,  that  in  1862 
these  Slims  amounted  in  round  figures  to  54  million  kronor.  After  that 
year  the  data  are,  for  various  reasons  incomplete,  until  in  1874  they  include 
all  banks  with  the  exception  of  the  so-called  people's  banks,  accounts  of 
which  are  not  accessible  until  the  years  from  1892  onwards.  However, 
the  sums  deposited  in  the  people's  banks  represent  comparatively  small 


Table  5.     Specification 

of  Income  from  Capital 

and  Work. 

In  kronor. 

From  public 

From  private 

From  business  or 

Annually 

From  capital 

service 

service 

trade 

Total 

1866-70  .    . 

16  831000 

32  617  000 

18 162  000 

92  817  000 

160427  000 

1871-75  .    . 

18  227  000 

36  953  000 

24  079  000 

145  839  000 

225098000 

1876-80.    . 

22  343  000 

50  564  000 

38  418  000 

174  961000 

2862SG000 

1881-85  .    . 

26  050  000 

56  871000 

45  538  000 

198517  000 

326976000 

1886—90  .    . 

27138  000 

62  863  000 

57  893  000 

220  375  000 

368269000 

1891-95  .    . 

28  545  000 

70  577  000 

83  741 000 

254  609  000 

437  472000 

1896-00  .    . 
1901-05  .    . 

32  915  000 
49  641  000 

81 892  000 

136  604  000 

350  714  000 
441 014  000 

602125000 
839  766000 

349  111  000 

1906-10  .    . 

72  572  000 

577  602  000 

535  633  000 

1185807  000 

19101 

77  821  000 

678  885  000 

497  287  000 

1253  993000 

1911  .... 

84  443  000 

862  314  000 

499  094  000 

1445  851000 

1912  .... 

89  036  000 

925  305  000 

504  666  000 

1519007  000 

1913  .... 

90  041000 

98938 

8000 

575  922  000 

1655351000 

'  It  should  be  noted  that  the  figures  of  income  from  capital,  business  or  trade,  for 
the  year  1910,  {figures  which,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind,  give  the  income  of  the  previous 
year,  1909)  not  only  fail  to  show  the  usual  rise  as  against  preceding  years,  but  actually  a 
pretty  considerable  falling-off,  viz.  altogether  24  million  kronor.  This  was  due  to  the 
general  strike  of  1909.  This  was  naturally  also  the  case  with  the  income  derived  from 
private  service;  but  a  rearrangement  of  the  "General  Summary"  (Generalsammandraget) 
of  taxes  prevents  us  from  obtaining  a  clear  view  of  the  matter. 


22 


II.       THE   INDUSTRIES    OF    SWEDEN. 

Assessed  Income  derived  from  Business  or  Trade. 


Mill.  Kr 


A 

J 

/ 

.  ^ 

^ 

/ 

^ 

402 

1910      1312 


Tear 


amounts  (1893:  13-4  million  kronor),  and  thus  this  lack  of  completeness 
only  very  slightly  affects  the  result. 

This  enormous  increase  in  the  deposits  of  the  general  public  in  banks  of 
different  kinds  is,  of  course,  not  only  to  be  ascribed  to  the  growth  of  float- 
ing capital  during  this  period.  It  was  due,  especially  during  the  first  two 
or  three  decades,  not  a  little  to  the  fact  that  this  capital  has  been  in  an 

TAe  Deposits  of  the  General  Public  in  Savings-Banks  and  other  Banks. 


Year 


In  thousands  of  kronor '^Year 


In  thousands  of  kronor 


1862 54  000 

1874  ..  ^ 314  976 

1875 325  496 

1^76' 35H581 

1877 362  264 

1878  . 346  681 

1879  . 355 144 

1880 392  725 

1881 415  410 

1882. ....  446096 

1883 480722 

1884 515  780 

1885 538  358 

1886 561  019 

1887   574  895 

1888 591  213 

1889 613  553 

1890 639  911 

1891 672  129 

1892 690 157 

1893 734  926 


1894 777  573 

1895 ..  821 242 

1896 870995 

1897 960  826 

1898 1  066  268 

1899 1 183  279 

1900 1  286  919 

1901 1 381 571 

1902 1 448  060 

1903 1  524  594 

1904 1  603  405 

1905 1 715  570 

1906 1  884  299 

1907 2  055  540 

1908  • 2  162  994 

1909   2  229  472 

1910 3  330  782 

1911 2  431  652 

1912 2  566  284 

1913 2  705  952 


SWEDEN  S   BCONOMICAL   DEVELOPMENT   BETWEEN  THE  YEARS  1862  AND  1913.      23 

increasingly  great  degree  entrusted  to  the  banks  for  administration. 
Formerly  it  passed  from  hand  to  hand  in  the  form  of  private  loans  and 
advances.  Now  the  banks  have  become  the  chief  negotiators  of  capital  as 
well  as  the  bankers  of  the  public.  It  is  to  this  great  revolution  in  the 
economy  of  the  Swedish  people  that  the  figures  above  given  primarily  point. 
But  they  also  teach  us,  particularly  as  to  recent  years,  that  the  growth  of 
capital  has  been  very  considerable,  though  —  as  we  shall  see  below  —  not 
sufficient  to  cope  with  the  demand  for  floating  capital  which  has  been  in- 
creasing in  a  still  greater  measure  during  these  years. 

The  development  which  has  been  sketched  in  its  main  outlines  is  to  be 
seen  in  all  departments  of  economy,  and  not  only  in  economs',  but  in  many 
other  aspects  of  the  life  of  the  people.  There  is,  in  particular,  one  cir- 
cumstance relating  to  population  which  clearly  reflects  this  development, 
and  which  must  therefore  be  briefly  touched  on  here.  We  refer  to  morta- 
lity in  the  first  year  of  life.  This  is  perhaps,  broadly  speaking,  the  safest 
gauge  of  the  advance  and  prosperity   of  a  nation. 

Other  data  relating  to  population,  marriages,  births,  immigrations,  and 
emigrations,  depend  on  many  subjective  factors,  such  as  men's  wishes  and 
decisions  besides  matters  of  economy;  but  with  regard  to  mortality,  econo- 
mical factors  are  of  predominating  importance.  This  is  not  gainsaid  by  the 
fact  that  mortality  is  igreatly  affected  by  the  development  of  science, 
public  hygiene,  and  public  education.  For  in  the  last  resort  these  latter 
also  must  be  regarded  as  functions  of  the  general  economic  situation.  They 
are  promoted  by  private  and  national  prosperity,  kept  down  by  general 
poverty. 

The  data  just  referred  to  will  be  found  in  the  subjoined  table,  which,  as 
well  as  infant  mortality,  gives  the  general  mortalitj''  affected  by  the  latter. 

These  figures  afford  a  splendid  testimony  to  the  advance  made  by  the 
Swedish  nation,  with  regard  to  the  most  important  factor  of  the  people's 
economy,  namely  the  people  itself.  General  mortality  has  in  the  course 
of  the  last  fifty  years  decreased  by  about  6  %o,  and  infant  mortality  by 
about  60  %„,  the  average  length  of  life  accordingly  increasing  by  about 
11-19  years.  This  in  itself  forcibly  attests  the  improvement  in  the  condition 
of  the  masses.  The  most  remarkable  point,  however,  is  that  mortality  in 
the  first  year  of  life  has  during  this  period  become  independent  of  the 
vicissitudes  of  the  times.  In  the  sixties  of  the  last  centurj''  one  can  still 
trace  the  connection  hetween  the  circumstances  of  the  time  and  infant 
mortality.  During  the  bad  harvest  years  1866,  1867,  and  1868,  infant 
mortality  rose  considerably,  as  in  former  times  it  invariably  did  in  bad 
years.  But  after  this  time  it  is  no  longer  possible  to  observe  any  such 
connection.  The  death-rate  is  higher  during  the  good  years  1872  to  1876 
than  during  the  ensuing  bad  years  from  1879  to  1893.  Similarly  it  rises 
during  the  extremely  good  years  from  1899  to  1901,  whereas  it  has  never 
been  lower  than  during  the  recent  period  of  crisis  (1907  to  1910).  Now- 
adays it  is  no  longer  economical   conditions,  but  quite   different  factors, 


24 


Table  6. 


II.      THE    INDUSTRIES    OF    SWEDEN. 


Mortality  in  Sweden. 


Death-rate  in 

Death-rate  in 

Death-rate  per 

the  first  year' 

Death-rate    per 

the  first  year 

Year 

1000  ol  the 

of  life  per  1000 

Year 

1000  of  the 

of  life  per  1000 

mean  popu- 

births of  living 

mean  popu- 

births ot  living 

lation 

children  during 
tbe  year 

lation 

children  during 
the  year 

1861 

18-47 

137-3 

1886 

16-61 

111-2 

1862 

21-40 

139-3 

1887 

16-13 

103-1 

1863 

19-33 

132-6 

1888 

15-99 

tOO-3 

1864 

20'25 

136-7 

1889 

15-99 

107-2 

1865 

19-36 

135-1 

1890 

17-12 

103-1 

1866 

19-98 

126-9 

1867 

19-64 

140-1 

1891 

16-81 

107-9 

1868 

20-98 

168-3 

1892 

17-88 

109-2 

1869 

22-27 

145-8 

1893 

16-83 

101-2 

1870 

19-80 

131-9 

1894 

16-38 

100-9 

1895 

16-19 

94-7 

1871 

17-21 

113-7 

1896 

15-64 

103-3 

1872 

1628 

128-3 

1897 

15-36 

98-6 

1873 

17-20 

128-8 

1898 

15-08 

908 

1874 

20-32 

146-7 

1899 

17-65 

111-7 

1875 

20-27 

149-0 

1900 

16-84 

98-6 

1876 

19-59 

140-2 

1877 

18-66 

125-6 

1901 

16-05 

102-9 

1878 

18-06 

134-2 

1902 

1537 

86-4 

1879 

16-94 

111-2 

1903 

15-09 

92-8 

1880 

18-10 

120-7 

1904 

15-29 

84-4 

1905 

1562 

88-3 

1881 

17-68 

112-7 

1906 

14-37 

81-0 

1882 

1735 

124-6 

1907 

14-69 

76-8 

1883 

17-31 

115-7 

1908 

14-91 

85-4 

1884 

17-53 

113-2 

1909 

13-67 

72-2 

1     1885 

17-76 

114-3 

1910 

14-04 

75-1 

such  as  temperature,  temporary  outbreaks  of  epidemic  diseases  among  tlie 
people,  that  determine  the  rate  of  infant  mortality.  This  proves  that  the 
masses  have  reached  a  point  ahove  the  "bare  minimum  required  for 
existence",  -when  every  temporary  deterioration  of  the  economical  situation 
makes  itself  felt  in  an  increase  of  infant  mortality.  The  Danes  and  the 
Norwegians  appear  to  be  the  only  na,tions  that  can  exhibit  a  case  like 
this.  The  great  civilized  countries  surpass  Sweden  in  national  riches,  but 
not  in  national  prosperity.  Nowhere  has  infant  mortality,  accordingly, 
descended  as  low  as  among  the  Scandinavian  peoples.  The  economic 
development  of  the  past  generation  has  in  Sweden  been  attended  by  an 
improvement  in  the  condition  not  only  of  the  rich,  but  also  of  the  common 
people:  this  is  the  gladdening  result  which  these  figures  point  to. 

The  scattered  indications  given  above  of  the  progress  made  by  the  Swe- 
dish people  during  the  past  generation  are  fully  endorsed  by  the  assessments 
of  the  wealth  of  the  nation  that  have  been  made  from  time  to  time,  and  to 
which  we  shall  now  pass  over. 


The  National  Wealth. 

The  aggregate  possessions  of  a  country  or  people,  in  other  words,  the 
national  wealth,  is  the  sum  of-  the  material  property  and  foreign  claims 


THE    NATIONAL    WEALTH.  25 

in  the  possession  of  the  nation  and  of  the  individuals  who  compose  it,  and 
constituting  the  means  of  subsistence  of  both. 

A  calculation  of  a  nation's  revenue  and  wealth  is  one  of  the  most  difficult 
tasks  that  statistics  can  have  to  deal  with.  And  indeed  it  is  impossible  at  the 
present  moment  to  supply  a  perfectly  exact  investigation  of  this  nature.  But 
even  an  approximate  estimate  is  of  the  greatest  interest.  It  furnishes,  so  to 
speak,  a  balance-sheet  and  inventory  of  a  nation's  assets  and  property  in  general, 
or,  to  employ  another  metaphor,  a  snap-shot  of  them.  And  even  if  the  indi- 
vidual features  are  not  quite  distinct,  yet  nothing  can  present  such  a  concise 
general  view  of  the  economic  status  of  a  nation  as  an  estimate  of  its  total 
assets,  in  movable  and  real  property,  in  natural  products  and  the  yield  of  work. 

The  best  method  of  computing  the  wealth  of  a  nation  is  to  specify  as 
accurately  as  possible  the  different  items  of  which  it  is  composed,  and  then  to 
endeavour  to  ascertain  the  value  of  each  separate  item,  basing  the  estimate  on 
the  prices  which  prevail  in  purchase  and  sale,  or,  where  that  is  not  feasible,  to 
take  the  net  yield,  the  cost  of  production,  or  insurance  values. 

This  is  the  so-called  "objective  method",  a  more  detailed  account  of  which 
will  be  found  in  the  following  works:  P.  Fahlbeck,  Sveriges  nationalformogenhet, 
Stockholm  1890,  and  Sveriges  nationalformbgenhet  omkring  dr  1908  och  dess 
utveckling  sedan  mitten  av  1880-talet,  Finansstatistiska  utredningar  utg.  av 
Kungl.  Finansdepartementet,  V.  Stockholm  1912,  the  latter  by  I.  Flodstrom. 

Assessments  of  the  national  wealth  of  Sweden  on  this  basis  have  been  made 
at  three  different  dates,  viz.  in  1885,  1898,  and  1908.  In  order  to  obtain  com- 
plete commensurability  between  these  three  calculations,  it  has  been  necessary 
in  some  cases,  in  making  the  later  assessments  to  rectify  the  earlier.  Thus 
the  value  of  landed  property  and  of  the  crown  lands  included  under  that  head, 
which  in  1885  had  been  put  at  2  744  million  kroner  was  in  1898  raised  to 
3  093  million  kroner;  similary  stores,  machines,  and  personal  movable  property 
were  raised  from  1130  to  1380  million  kroner.  Again  in  the  total  estimate  for 
the  year  1908  the  figures  for  the  live  and  dead  stock  of  agriculture  in  the 
assessment  of  the  year  1898,  which  in  this  case  was  merely  a  rough  calculation, 
were  raised  from  441  and  139  million  kroner  to  500  and  180  million  kroner 
respectively,  and  in  conformity  therewith  stores,  machines,  and  personal  movable 
property  were  lowered  from  2  324  to  2  272  million  kroner.  On  the  other  hand, 
in  the  assessment  ot  the  year  1908  certain  adjustments  have  been  made  as 
regards  fisheries  and  fishing-waters,  as  well  as  means  of  communication,  specie, 
and  foreign  claims,  in  order  to  obtain  complete  uniformity  with  previous  assess- 
ments. With  respect  to  these  rectifications,  and  to  the  method  of  calculation 
as  a  whole  for  each  separate  item,  the  reader  may-  be  referred  to  the  above- 
named  works,  and  to  pp.  454  foil,  of  the  first  edition  of  this  work. 

Putting  together  these  three  estimates,  and  noting  that  objects  of  art, 
war  material,  the  vessels  of  the  royal  navy,  and  fortifications  are  en- 
tirely excluded,  we  obtain  the  values  in  Table  7. 

The  advance  in  national  wealth  to  which  these  figures  point  is  a  very 
considerable  one,  both  in  proportion  to  the  population,  the  quota  per  head, 
and  in  each  separate  item.  A  remarkable  point  is  the  great  difference  in 
percentage  of  annual  increase  during  the  two  periods  1885 — 1898  and 
1898 — 1908.  In  the  main  the  great  increase  during  the  later  period  is 
doubtless  quite  genuine,  particularly  with  regard  to  "other  real  property" 
(house-building  in  the  cities),  stores  and  machines  etc.,  as  well  as  mines. 
During  this  decade  Swedish  industry,  and  mechanical  industry  in  parti- 


26  II.      THE    INDUSTRIES   OF    SWEDEN. 

Table  7.    Estimated  Value  of  the  National  Wealth.   In  thousands  of  kroner. 


1886 

1898 

1908 

Average  increase  per  annum 

from  1885  to 
1898 

from  1898  to 
1908, 

mill.  kr. 

% 

mill.  kr. 

% 

3  093  000 

1 459  000 

441 000 

139  000 

3100  000 

3  349  000 

500  000 

180  000 

3  679  000 

4  667  000 
660  000 
322  000 

0-5 

68-5 

4-5 

3-2 

0-02 
3.73 
0-97 
2-01 

57-9 

231'8 

16-0 
14-2 

1-73 
7-09 
2-82 
5-99 

1 380  000 

2  272  000 

3  711000 

68-6 

3-9] 

143s 

503 

43  000 
37  000 

442  000 
79  000 

44  000 
50  000 

92  000 
45  000 
761000 
104  000 
69  000 
98  000 

518  000 
86  000 
897  000 
163  000 
111  000 
331 000 

3-8 
0-6 
24-5 
1-9 
19 
3-8 

603 
1-52 
4-27 
2-14 
3-62 

5-31 

42-6 
41 

13-6 
5-9 
4-2 

23-3 

18-86 
6-69 
1-66 
4-60 
4-87 

12-94 

7  207  000 

9  570000 

15145  000 

181-8 

2-20 

5575 

4-70 

664000 

570  000 

1332  000 

-7-2 

-1-18 

76-2 

8-86 

6  543000 

9000000 

13813000 

1890 

2.48 

481-3 

4-38 

1403 

■      1787 

2  557 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Landed  Property 

Other  Real  Property 

Live  Stock 

Agricultural  Dead  Stock  .... 

Stores,  Machinery,  Personal  Mo- 
vable Property 

Mines  and  other  large  Metalli- 
ferous Deposits 

Fisheries  and  Fishing  Waters 

Means  of  Communication     .    .    . 

The  Merchant  Navy 

Bullion  and  Specie 

Claims  on  Foreign  Countries  .    . 

Total 

Deductions  for  Foreign  Liahilities 

Balance 

Per  Head  of  Mean  Population 

cular,  carried  for-ward  at  an  increasingly  rapid  pace  the  development 
which  set  in  during  the  nineties  of  the  last  century.  During  this  time 
a  great  number  of  "new  values"  have  been  created,  or,  as  in  the  mines  of 
Lappland  and  the  water-falls,  so  to  speak,  been  discovered  and  converted 
to  use.  But  one  factor  accrues  that  makes  the  increase  of  value  appear 
greater  than  it  actually  was:  the  decreasing  value  of  money  made  itself 
felt  precisely  during  this  decade.  How  much  of  the  increase  during  this 
time  is  to  be  put  to  that  account,  it  is  by  no  means  easy  to  say.  A  de- 
tailed investigation  of  this  question  is  given  in  Flodstrom's  above-mentioned 
work,  pp.  283  foil.,  to  which  the  reader  is  referred.  But,  even  if  the  figures 
for  1908  must  me  reduced  by  from  8  to  10  %  in  order  to  bring  them 
into  line  -with  those  immediately  preceding,  nevertheless  the  increase  as  a 
whole  has  been  very  considerable.  The  Swedish  national  wealth  has  grown 
enormously  in  the  course  of  the  last  quarter  of  a  century,  and  is  increasing 
yearly  by  considerable  amounts.  These  are  the  gratifying  facts  which 
these  assessments  reveal.  That  the  national  income,  i.  e.  the  yield  of  work 
with  the  aid  of  capital,  has  risen  still  more,  is  proved  by  the  increase  of 
assessed  income  (see  above),  as  well  as  by  the  greatly  improved  con- 
ditions of  existence  in  all  classes  of  society  during  this  period. 

However,  there  is  a  dark  spot  in  the  otherwise  bright  picture:  the 
greatly  augmented  debt  to  foreign  countries.  This  however,  hangs  to- 
gether with  the  rapid  development  of  industrial  life  as  a  whole,  and  of 
communications  in  particular;  one  seems  thus  justified  in  hoping  that 
Sweden's  debt  to  foreign  countries  will  gradually  diminish. 


III. 
RURAL  HUSBANDRY. 


From  early  times  agriculture  has  customarily  been  described  as  the 
chief  industry  of  Sweden,  but  nowadays  it  does  not,  for  several  considera- 
tions, possess  the  same  right  to  this  title  that  it  once  did.  For  one  thing, 
the  number  of  the  persons  engaged  in  agriculture  has  not  increased  in  the 
same  proportion  as  the  total  population  of  the  country;  the  total  of  those 
engaged  in  this  pursuit,  who  during  the  twenties  and  thirties  of  last 
century,  amounted  to  82  %  of  the  entire  population,  formed  at  the  last 
census  in  1910  only  48  Jo.  Since  the  year  1880,  there  has  even  been  an 
absolute  decrease  in  the  agricultural  population,  from  3  078  000  in  the 
year  mentioned  to  about  2  663  000  in  1910.  This  decrease,  which  has 
occurred  simultaneously  with  an  increase  in  the  crops  produced,  means, 
of  course,  that  greater  economy  has  begun  to  be  practised  with  regard 
to  expensive  human  labour,  but,  while  such  economy  still  can,  and  in  many 
respects  ought  to  be  still  further  extended,  the  diminution  in  the  supply 
of  labourers,  has,  in  many  places,  made  it  distinctly  difficult  to  carry 
on  the  work  with  undiminished  intensitJ^ 

But  even  if  the  area  of  the  cultivated  land,  as  well  as  the  returns 
obtained  from  it,  have  been  steadily  on  the  increase,  this  increase  has  not 
kept  pace  with  the  growing  need  of  the  population  for  the  necessaries  of  life,' 
but,  as  will  be  shown  below,  Sweden,  after  having  had,  at  least  in  some 
earlier  periods,  a  considerable  surplus  of  grain,  has  now  become  obliged  to 
import  very  large  quantities  of  cereals,  etc.,  and  as  the  export-surplus  of 
cattle  and  animal-products  that  has  simultaneously  arisen  does  not  cover 
the  import-excess  of  grain,  the  product  of  Swedish  agriculture,  taken  as 
a  whole  and  calculated  according  to  values,  no  longer  satisfies  the  de- 
mands of  the  population  of  the  country  for  the  necessaries  of  life. 

It  must  be  considered  in  this  connection  that  agriculture,  which, 
in  the  middle  of  the   19th  century,  was  the  only  Swedish  industry  of 

Note.  With  reference  to  the  altered  organization  of  the  respective  Statistics,  older 
figures  are  in  certain  cases  retained  in  this  Section. 


28  III.      KURAL    HUSBANDRY. 

any  importance,  is  now  considerably  exceeded  m  product-value  by  ma- 
nufacturing industries  taken  as  a  whole.  The  harvests  of  the  country  du- 
ring the  last  few  years  have  been  estimated  at  an  annual  value  of  about 
800  million  kronor;  (figures  for  the  manufacturing  industry,  as  not  being 
fully  comparable,  are  not  given  here).  Among  the  individual  branches 
of  industry,  however,  agriculture  still  occupies  the  chief  place,  both  as 
regards  the  number  of  persons  engaged  in  the  occupation  and  also  as  re- 
gards the  value  of  the  products  and  the  fundamental  importance  of  the 
industry  for  the  economic  and  social  life  of  the  people.  Of  all  the  countries 
of  Western  Europe,  it  is  only  Denmark  and  Finland  of  which  this  holds 
good  in  a  higher  degree  than  for  Sweden. 

If,  therefore,  agriculture  in  Sweden  no  longer  occupies  the  same 
dominating  position  among  the  industries  of  the  country  as  it  did  in 
earlier  times,  and  if  it  cannot  supply  the  population  with  the  necessaries . 
of  life  to  the  same  extent  that  it  once  did,  still  its  development  in  point  of 
extent  and  returns  have  been  important,  although  very  unequal,  both 
during  different  periods  and  in  various  parts  of  the  country. 

While  the  total  of  the  acreage  under  cultivation  increased  in  about  the  same 
proportion  as  the  population,  the  technical  and  economic  arrangements  of  agri- 
culture and  live  stock  husbandry  remained  at  about  the  same  stand-point,  even 
during  the  early  part  of  the  19th  century,  that  it  had  occupied  during  the  reign 
of  Gustavus  Vasa,  almost  three  centuries  earlier.  It  is  true  that,  during  the  epoch 
known  as  the  Period  of  Liberty  (the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century),  when 
care  was  paid,  above  everything,  to  the  increase  in  and  improvement  of  the  national 
industries,  much  attention  was  also  devoted  to  agriculture;  learned  investigators 
busied  themselves  very  much  with  questions  in  connection  with  the  subject  (C. 
V.  LinnsBus,  the  renowned  botanist,  and  J.  G.  Wallerius,  the  first  agricultural 
chemist,  are  specially  worthy  of  mention  in  this  respect),  and  a  large  number 
of  publications  on  the  subject  of  agriculture  made  their  appearance,  but  the 
studies  and  teachings  of  the  scientists  were  made  but  little  use  of  in  practice, 
and  statesmen  estimated  ■  the  value  of  agriculture  chiefly  in  respect  to  its  power 
to  produce  raw  material  for  manufacturing  industries,  and  to  render  the  importation 
of  various  kinds  of  goods  unnecessary.  The  progress  made  by  agriculture,  there- 
fore, was  inconsiderable,  and  what  was  made  was  hindered  by  the  way  in  which 
the  land  was  at  that  time  distributed. 

In  Sweden,  as  in  almost  all  other  European  countries,  the  village  communities 
originally  held  the  soil  in  common,  but  the  transition  of  the  tenure  of  land 
from  common  to  private  property  had  already  before  historic  times  proceeded 
so  far  that  all  enclosed  land,  viz.  the  cultivated  land  and  the  meadows,  were 
divided  among  all  the  part-owners  in  the  village  community,  the  wastes,  that  is 
the  forest  and  other  land  beyond  the  limit-marks,  still  being  retained  as  the 
common  land  of  the  village. 

This  partition,  though,  had  taken  such  a  direction  that  each  field  was  par- 
celled among  all  the  part-owners,  each  land-owner  thus  obtaining  an  estate  formed 
of  many  scattered  unfenced  parcels,  mingled  with  the  plots  belonging  to  all  his 
fellow-villagers.  This  splitting  up  of  the  land  was  a  great  hindrance  to  cultiva- 
tion, making  it  necessary  for  all  the  neighbours  to  perform  their  agricultural 
operations  at  the  same  time  and  in  the  simplest  manner  possible,  every 
attempt  at  introducing  improvements  being  thereby  paralyzed.  The  first 
attempt    that    was    made  to   do    away    with    this    unsatisfactory   state  of  things 


III.      RURAL   HUSBANDRY. 


29 


30 


III.      RURAL   HUSBANDRY. 


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W  2 


III.      RURAL   HUSBANDRY. 


31 


was  the  issue  in  1749,  at  the  instance  of  Jakob  Faggot,  director  of  surveying, 
of  a  Regulation,  in  accordance  with  which  the  surveyors  had  to  endeavour  to 
induce  the  landowners  so  to  carry  out  the  division  of  the  estates  that  the 
parcels  of  land  falling  to  each  owner  might  become  as  large  as  possible.  By 
the  Regulations  for  the  General  Re-partition  of  Land  (storskifte),  which  were 
issued  on  April  5,  1157,  another  step  was  taken  in  the  same  direction, 
as  the  Regulation  in  question  gave  every  landowner  in  the  village  full  and 
unrestricted  liberty  to  demand  such  a  general  re-partition.  But  the  work  of 
the  general  re-partition  of  the  land  went  on  but  slowly,  and  fulfilled  its 
purpose  but  imperfectly,  as  it  was  impossible  to  reduce  the  parcels  of  land  be- 
longing to  one  owner,  against  his  will,  to  a  lower  number  than  four  lots  of 
cultivated  land  and  as  many  of  meadow.  The  insight  of  the  advantages  to  be 
gained  by  the  aggregation  of  the  plots  of  land  became  stronger  and  more  general, 
however,  and  it  was  partly  as  a  result  of  the  brilliant  economic  success  that  had 
crowned  the  efforts  made  by  the  Scanian  landowner.  Baron  Eutger  Maclean,  so  to 
divide  his  estate  of  Svaneholm  that  each  tenant  obtained  the  whole  of  his  land 
in  one  piece,  that  there  were  issued,  in  1803  for  Skane,  in  1804  for  Skaraborg 
Lan,  and  in  1807  for  the  whole  of  the  country.  Regulations  for  the  Separate 
Re-partition  of  Land  (enskifte),  according  to  which  each  landowner  in  a  village  was 
given  the  right  to  demand  to  have  all  his  share  of  reclaimed  land  in  one  piece. 


Manor  house,  Gammelbo  in  Veatmanland. 


But  such  a  radical  reform  met  with  great  difficulties  and  with  much 
opposition,  however,  and  so  a  fresh  Regulation  for  a  re-partition  of  the  land 
was  issued  on  May  4,  1827,  according  to  which  by  legal  re-partition  of 
land  (laga  skifte),  the  parcels  that  were  to  fall  to  the  share  of  the  various 
claimants  should  form  as  connected  plots  as  their  character  and  situation 
permitted,  without  injury  to  any  of  those  sharing  the  land.  It  was  in  accordance 
with  this  Regulation  that  there  was  carried  out,  during  the  two  following 
decades  —  although  very  often  it  met  vwth  great  opposition  —  the  re-partition 
of  the  land  over  the  greater  part  of  the  country  south  of  Norrland  and  Dalarne, 
this  step  paving  the  way  for  various  important  improvements  in  agriculture  (cf. 
also   Official  Cartography). 

During  the  first  half  of  the  19th  century,  the  efforts  made  to  increase  the 
crops  were  chiefly  directed  to  bringing  new  tracts  of  land  under   the  plough  for 


32 


III.      RURAL    HUSBANDRY. 


Iir.      RURAL    HUSBANDRY.  33 

the  purpose  of  raising  grain,  and  the  decade  immediately  following  the  Union 
with  Norway  in  1814  seems  to  have  been  a  most  successful  period  of  cultivation 
of  new  land,  but  then  came  a  period  of  economic  depression,  which  paralyzed  all 
progress.  With  the  forties  came  a  fresh  era  of  advance,  evinced  not  only  by  a 
renewal  of  the  efforts  made  to  drain  and  cultivate  new  tracts,  to  the  support 
of  which  efforts  the  State  from  that  time  forward  began  to  make  considerable 
grants,  but  also  by  the  employment  of  new  methods,  such  as  subsoil  draining 
and  the  employment  of  artificial  manures,  for  the  purpose  of  increasing  the 
return  made  by  the  land,  and  by  the  creation  of  State-institutions  and  establish- 
ments for  the  promotion  of  agriculture,  among  which  may  be  mentioned 
agricultural  schools  and  high  schools,  agricultural  meetings,  central  breeding-herds, 
the  Geological  Survey  of  Sweden,  and  the  Central  Bureau  of  Statistics  to  which 
the  agricultural  statistics  were  transferred. 


Peasant  farm-house,  Eks  in  Halsingland. 


This  period  of  progress  was  interrupted  by  the  economic  crisis  which  began 
towards  the  close  of  the  fifties  and  the  effects  of  which  were  felt  during  a 
great  part  of  the  following  decade,  but  then  came  a  new  period  marked  by  a  vigo- 
rous development  of  agriculture,  although  on  this  occasion  the  efforts  made  took 
a  somewhat  different  direction.  At  an  earlier  date  farmers  and  agriculturists  had 
already  begun  to  pay  attention  to  cattle-farming,  and  especially  to  improved 
methods  of  cattle-breeding.  After  a  brief  attempt  to  bring  about  a  permanent 
export  of  store-cattle,  the  cattle-farming  of  the  country  was  more  and  more 
directed  towards  milk-production  and  the  manufacture  of  butter,  of  which  a 
steadUy  increasing  quantity  was  now  exported  to  England  every  year.  The 
direction  thus  taken  by  Swedish  agriculture  became  still  more  marked  when, 
during    the    eighties,   a    great    increase    in    the    import    of    grain    from    distant 

3— 133179.  Sweden.  II. 


34  HI.      RURAL    HUSBANDRY. 

countries    and    the    consequent    fall    in    the    price    of  this  product  had  resulted 
in  a  comparative  diminution  in  the  cultivation  of  grain  crops. 

It  is  true  that  the  prices  of  grain,  partly  in  consequence  of  the  duties  in- 
troduced in  1888,  have  risen,  so  that  the  cultivation  of  grain  has  once  more  be- 
come profitable,  but  the  production  of  milk  for  butter-making  purposes  has, 
however,  still  retained  its  position  as  the  farmer's  principal  permanent  source  of 
income,  and  attention  is  paid  in  the  first  place  to  the  development  of  cattle 
into  rich  milk-producing  stock.  Very  successful  efforts  have,  however,  been 
simultaneously  made  to  increase  the  returns  given  by  the  arable  land,  and 
also  to  the  production  and  export  of  cattle  intended  for  consumption,  of  pork, 
and  of  meat.  The  increasing  export  of  store-cattle  met  with  a  severe  blow 
during  the  nineties  by  the  import  prohibition  then  issued  by  England,  in 
order  to  prevent  the  spread  of  infectious  cattle-diseases,  regulations  which  have 
also  been  promulgated  every  now  and  then  by  Norway,  Denmark,  and  Germany. 
During  the  last  few  years,  however,  since  slaughter-houses  began  to  be  erected, 
the  export  of  pork  and  meat  has  attained  very  considerable  dimensions,  and  the 
export  to  Germany  of  living  cattle,  too,  has  also  become  a  considerable  source 
of  income  for  Swedish  farmers. 


Peasant  farm-houses,  near  the  river  Tome  dlv  in  Upper  Norrland. 

While,  in  Sweden  as  in  most  other  countries  of  Europe,  agricultural  produce 
has  become  more  and  more  unable  to  satisfy  the  increased  demands  of  the 
population  for  the  necessaries  of  life,  the  returns  made  by  the  land  have  con- 
siderably increased,  especially  during  the  last  few  decades.  As  far  as  the  general 
position  of  agriculture  is  concerned,  Sweden  occupies  a  very  prominent  place, 
and  the  best  developed  Swedish  agriculture  does  not  suffer  by  a  comparison 
with  the  best  in  any  other  country. 

Various  factors  have  contributed  to  this  progress.     Important  auxiliaries,  such 


DEPENDENCE  OF  AGRICULTDUE  ON  THE  NATURAL  FEATURES  OF  THE  COUNTRY.  35 

as  artificial  manures,  concentrated  foods,  improved  implements  and  machines,  of 
many  new  descriptions  and  at  cheaper  prices,  have  come  more  and  more 
generally  employed.  Scientific  investigation  has  rendered  ever-increasing  services 
to  agriculture.  The  State,  too,  has  given  its  assistance,  by  the  establishment 
and  support  of  institutions  the  aim  of  which  is  to  direct  the  development,  to 
spread  information,   and  to  remove  obstacles  to  the  progress  of  agriculture. 

During  the  last  few  years,  too,  there  has  been  increased  co-operation  of  the 
farmers  themselves,  the  result  of  which  has  been  that  the  supplies,  not  only 
of  material  auxiliary  resources,  but  also  of  competent  direction  of  production 
and  of  the  sale  of  the  produce,  have  been  considerably  facilitated,  while,  above 
all,  interest  in  the  progress,  and  in  the  knowledge  of  the  various  departments, 
of  the  industry,  has  extended  to  the  great  bulk  of  the  farmers. 

In  consequence  of  the  great  extent  of  Sweden  and  of  the  great  differences 
iu  respect  to  natural  conditions  and  to  means  of  communication,  there  still 
exist  great  dissimilarities  between  the  various  parts  of  the  country,  both  as  regards 
technics  and  the  organization  of  agriculture,  and  the  stand-point  these  have 
reached.  Skane  and  the  neighbouring  tracts  of  the  Lan  of  Halland  are,  nowadays, 
scarcely  inferior  to  Denmark,  whether  as  regards  agriculture,  live  stock,  or  the 
dairy-industry.  It  is  true  that,  in  other  parts  of  those  divisions  of  Sweden  that 
go  by  the  name  of  Gotaland  and  Svealand  (the  southerly  and  more  central  pro- 
vinces), agriculture  has  not  yet  reached  such  a  high  stand-point,  and  that  agri- 
culture in  Norrland  has  been  still  less  able  to  avail  itself  of  modern  resources 
and  methods,  but  vigorous  efforts  to  secure  such  improvements  in  the  agricul- 
tural industry  may  be  noted  just  now  in  every  part  of  Sweden. 


1.    AGRICULTURE. 

Dependence    of  agriculture  on  the  natural  features  of  the  country. 

The  character  of  agriculture  in  general,  but  especially  the  nature  of, 
and  the  results  gained  from,  the  cultivation  of  the  soil,  depend  in  an 
essential  degree  on  the  natural  features  of  the  country  that  prevail  in 
each  district,  these  being  chiefly,  the  character  of  the  soil,  the  amount 
and  distribution  of  the  precipitation,  and  the  warmth  of  the  atmosphere 
and  its  variations. 

As  regards  the  soil,  the  most  prominent  differences  are  those  existing 
between  the  clayey  plains  of  the  lowlands  and  the  sand-  and  gravel  soils 
of  the  higher-lying  land,  and  the  marshy  and  boggy  land  distributed  in 
both.  In  consequence  of  the  comparatively  greater  wealth  of  mineral  plant- 
food  possessed  by  the  clay-lands,  and  their  ability  to  retain  soluble  the 
nutritive  substances,  these  soils  belong  to  the  richest  the  country  possesses,  but 
the  stiffness  of  this  kind  of  soil,  and  its  greater  impenetrability  to  water, 
necessitates  vigorous  labouring  and  thorough  draining.  The  great  fertility  of 
these  districts,  in  combination  with  their  greater  need  of  working-capital  for  the 
tilling  of  the  soil,  has  the  result  that  the  larger  farms  are  principally  to  be 
found  in  those  parts  of  Sweden  where  this  clay  soil  predominates,  i.  e.,  the  cen- 
tral and  southern  plains  of  the  country.  Sand  and  gravel  soils,  on  the  other 
hand,  are  poorer  in  easily  accessible  plant-food  and  are,  therefore,  often  less . 
fertile,    although    they    are   often  very  fruitful,  especially  those  sand-  and  gravel 


Ob 


III.       RURAL    HUSBANDRY. 


Old  Scanian  peasant  farm-houses,  Jcirstoiy,  Andrarum. 


soils  which  extend  over  a  great  part  of  the  north  of  Sweden  and  are  rich  in 
fine  sand  and  silt.  In  consequence  of  their  loose  consistency,  which  gives  easy 
access  to  the  air,  soils  of  this  kind  require  less  labouring  and  draining  and  are, 
therefore,  more  suitable  than  the  stiffer  ones  for  the  small  farmer  who,  as  a 
rule,  is  less  well  provided  with  powerful  implements  for  his  work.  Such  soils 
as  those  now  in  question  predominate  both  in  the  highlands  of  Smaland  and 
Vastergotland,   and  over  the  greater  part  of  Northern  Sweden. 

A  third  class  of  soil  is  that  formed  by  the  humus  and  peat  of  the  swamps, 
fens,  and  bog-land.  It  is  distinguished  by  the  ease  with  which  it  is  tilled, 
its  great  capability  of  retaining  the  moisture  so  necessary  for  growth,  and  by 
its  wealth  of  nitrogen^  the  most  valuable  of  all  the  elements  necessary  to  the 
nutrition  of  the  plants.  These  soils,  which,  to  the  same  degree  that  their  orga- 
nic constituents  decay  into  humus,  are  specially  favourable  for  the  growth  of 
fodder  plants,  do  not,  like  gravel  and  sand  soils,  or  the  clayey  lands,  predomi- 
nate in  certain  parts  of  the  country,  but  occur  here  and  there  both  in  the  clay- 
and  in  the  sand-  and  gravel  districts.  Where  they  are  found  to  an  extent  which 
is  large  in  proportion  to  the  other  arable  land,  such  as  in  the  Smaland-Vaster- 
gotland  highlands  and  in  Norrland,  they  contribute,  to  a  certain  degree  at  least, 
to  give  a  character  to  the  agriculture  there  carried  on,  being  almost  exclusively 
devoted  to  the  production  of  cattle-fodder  (oats,  green  fodder,  and  hay),  while  the 
cultivation  of  autumn  grain  (wheat  and  rye;  i.  e.,  breadcereals),  which  cannot  be 
suitably  pursued  in  such  soils,  becomes  quite  of  secondary  importance. 

The  proportion  of  lime  contained  by  the  soil  has  also  great  influence  on  the 
fertility  of  the  land,  so  that  those  districts  where  the  soil  has  a  higher  percentage 
of  lime  exceed  in  fertility  neighbouring  tracts  where  there  is  less  lime.  This  is 
the  case  with  the  marl-districts  (marl  means  soil  rich  in  lime)  of  Skane,  Oland, 
Gottland,  Ostergotland,  Vastergotland,  Niirke,  Uppland,  Dalame,  and  Jamtland, 
where  the  ground  consists  of  easily  crumbling  limestone  and  clayey  shales. 


DEPENDENCE  OF  AGRICULTURE  OS  THE  NATURAL  FEATURES  OF  THE  COUNTRY. 


37 


The  varying  percentage  of  the  elements  of  plant-food  contained  by  primitive 
rocks  also  influences  the  fertility  of  the  land,  so  that,  for  example,  if  we 
take  the  district,  as  a  whole,  that  extends  from  Varmland  to  North  Skane, 
where  the  rock  consists  of  an  iron-gneiss  poor  in  plant-food,  we  find  that  it 
possesses  a  poorer  soil  than  the  granite  districts  of  the  eastern  part  of  the 
country.  This  difference  is  seen  more  especially  in  the  cases  where  the  soil  is 
■of  moraine  gravel,  consisting  of  chemically  unaltered  crushed  rock;  it  is  less  mar- 
ked, on  the  other  hand,  in  the  deposits  of  clay  that  have  been  washed  out  of  the 
moraine.  A  result  of  this  difference  is  that  the  cultivation  of  oats,  a  cereal 
which,  as  far  as  the  fertility  of  the  soil  is  concerned,  is  more  easily  satisfied 
than  others,  is  found  more  extensively  grown  in  the  western  parts  of  Svealand 
and  Gotaland  than  in  the  east.  The  very  poorest  tracts  are  those  in  Dalsland, 
"Western  Dalarne,  and  the  high,  mountainous  districts  of  Norrland,  where  the 
soil  derives  its  origin  from  sandstone,   quartzites,   and  mica-schists. 

As  the  development  of  plants  depends  largely  on  the  presence  of  a  suffi- 
cient amount  of  moisture  in  the  earth  during  the  period  of  growth,  the  amount 
of  rainfall  during  the  early  summer  and  at  midsummer,  when  the  growing 
crops  take  up  the  principal  amount  of  their  nutritive  substances,  is  determi- 
native of  the  j'ield  of  the  harvest;  wet  weather  at  the  periods  mentioned 
being,  on  the  whole,  most  advantageous,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  dry  wea- 
ther during  the  latter  part  of  the  summer  and  during  the  autumn  favour  the 
getting  in  of  the  harvest,  on  the  successful  progress  of  which  the  character  and 
value  of  the  crops,  and  the  labour-demand  for  the  harvest-time  largely  depend. 
Unfortunately,  the  climate  of  Sweden,  as  far  as  regards  the  amount  of  preci- 
pitation, runs  in  quite  a  contrary  direction  in  this  respect;  May  and  June 
are,  as  a  rule,  distinguished  V)y  a  continuous  drought,  which  hinders  the 
growth    of    the    plants    and    arrests    the    development    of    the    crops,    while,    on 


Modern  Scnnian  peasant  farm-house. 


38 


III.      RURAL    HUSBANDRY. 


C^n   oi^t,  LIL  An:.i.  :;i.jc(-Ji.^lni 


DEPENDENCE  OF  AGRICULTURE  ON  THE  NATURAL  FEATURES  OF  THE  COUNTRY.    39 

the  other  hand,  the  amount  of  moisture  that  falls  during  July  and,  more 
especially,  during  August,  is,  on  an  average,  very  great,  rain  often  greatly 
delaying  the  getting  in  of  the  crops,  increasing  the  harvest  work,  and  injuring 
both  the  straw  and  the  grain.  The  distribution  of  the  rainfall  is,  however,  dif- 
ferent in  different  parts  of  the  country.  The  highland  districts  of  southern  and 
central  Sweden  are,  on  the  whole,  richest  in  rain,  even  during  the  early  sum- 
mer; then  comes  the  west  coast,  while  the  Baltic  coast  and  the  tracts  adjacent 
to  the  great  lakes  have  drier  weather,  especially  during  the  early  summer,  a  pe- 
riod of  such  importance  for  the  year's  growth.  The  inconvenience  of  rain  during 
the  harvest  time  is  considerablj'  diminished  in  the  coast  districts  by  the  winds 
that  prevail  there,  and,  in  consequence,  the  weather,  both  during  the  early  sum- 
mer and  the  latter  part  of  this  season,  is  more  favourable  on  the  west  coast  of 
the  country  than  elsewhere  in  Sweden. 

These  circumstances  explain,  to  a  certain  degree,  the  varying  character  of 
agriculture  in  Sweden  in  general  and  in  its  different  districts.  For  example, 
the  small  rainfall  during  the  early  part  of  the  summer  is  one  of  the  reasons 
of  the  small  returns  given  by  the  fodder-lands,  and  the  disinclination  shown  to 
turn  fields  into  meadows  and  permanent  grass-lands,  which  demand  a  compara- 
tively great  amount  of  moisture.  It  is  undoubtedly  a  result  of  the  drier  cli- 
mate prevailing  in  the  early  summer  along  the  eastern  coasts  of  Central  and 
Southern  Sweden,  and  in  the  districts  round  Lake  Malaren,  that  wintercrops,  which, 
comparatively,  suffer  less  from  the  droughts  of  the  early  summer,  are  cultivated 
in  the  tracts  mentioned  to  a  greater  degree  than  in  the  interior  of  the  coujitry 
and  along  the  west  coast,  where  the  heavier  rainfall  in  the  summer  favours  the 
cultivation  of  spring  cereals. 

Finally,  as  regards  the  warmth  of  the  air  and  of  the  earth,  it  is  clear  that 
this  is  a  factor  of  great  importance  in  the  choice  of  the  crops  to  be  cultivated 
and  in  the  returns  that  may  be  expected  in  a  country  with  siich  a  short  period 
of  growth  as  that  prevailing  in  Sweden.  On  the  whole,  the  average  temperature 
is  lower  and  the  summer  shorter  the  farther  north  and  the  higher  above  the 
sea  a  place  is  situated,  but  the  relative  position  of  a  region  to  the  sea  occa- 
sions certain  deviations  from  this  general  rule.  For  example,  in  consequence 
of  the  fact  that  land  is  warmed  more  quickly  than  water,  the  interior  of 
the  country  is  warmer  than  the  coast  districts  during  the  sirring  and  the  early 
summer,  and  vegetable  growth  in  the  Baltic  tracts,  therefore,  during  this  period 
of  the  year,  has  to  combat  against  both  drought  and  cold.  During  the  middle 
of  the  summer,  the  temperature  becomes  equalized  over  the  whole  country,  and 
from  the  latter  part  of  August,  thermal  conditions  become  just  the  opposite  to 
what  they  were  during  spring,  the  slower  cooling-down  of  the  water,  %s  compared 
with  that  of  the  land,  giving  the  coast  districts  a  milder  autumn  climate  than  that 
enjoyed  by  the  interior  of  the  country.  This  condition  of  things  is  especially 
the  case  in  Gottland,  and  it  also  contributes  to  make  the  cultivation  of  winter 
cereals  important  in  the  districts  lying  near  the  Baltic,  as  the  power  of  resist- 
ance against  the  cold  of  winter  possessed  by  these  kinds  of  grain  is  favoured 
by  long,  mild    autumns. 

But,  in  certain  parts  of  the  country  .  especially,  the  normal  thermal  condi- 
tions just  mentioned  are  disturbed  by  sudden  changes  in  the  form  of  night- 
frosts,  which  can  be  injurious  to  vegetation.  During  the  early  part  of  the  sum- 
mer, a  "frost-tract"  extends  from  Skane,  across  the  Smaland-Vastergbtland  high- 
lands, all  the  way  to  Northern  Uppland,  and  within  this  district  night-frosts 
during  May  and  June  injure  the  growing  spring  cereals,  the  sprouting  root-crops 
and,  especially,  the  winter  rye  during  its  susceptible  blooming  period.  In 
Northern  Sweden,  on  the  other  hand,  the  rapidly  arriving  spring  is  not,  as 
a  rule,  disturbed  by  any  night-frosts.     In  the  latter  part  of  the  summer  and  in 


40 


III.      RURAL    HDSBANDKY. 


Gen.  Slab.  LiuAnaLSwcWiolm 


NUMBER   AND    DIMENSIONS    OP    FARMS.  41 

the  autumn,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  Norrland,  as  far  south  as  to  Northern  Upp- 
land,  and  the  higher  districts  in  the  otlier  parts  of  the  country  —  the  marshy 
tracts  especially  —  that  are  exposed  to  early  frosts  which  can  arrest  the 
development  of  the  oats,  meslin,  and  potatoes,  prevent  the  ripening  of  the  grain, 
and  diminish  the  results  of  the  harvest. 

The  drawbacks  caused  by  these  unfavourable  thermal  conditions  of  the  wea- 
ther can,  however,  be  diminished  by  the  choice  of  suitable  crops  for  cultivation. 
The  injurious  effects  of  spring  frosts,  therefore,  will  be  less  where  rye  is 
replaced  by  wheat,  which  flowers  later,  and  the  cultivation  of  which  has 
increased  considerably  in  the  clay-soil  districts  of  Central  Sweden,  while  the 
danger  of  autumn  frosts  compels  the  farmers  of  the  highland  districts  and  of 
Northern  Sweden,  where  it  is  uncertain  if  the  oats  will  ripen,  to  cultivate  bar- 
ley, which  ripens  earlier,  and  also,  to  cultivate  green  fodders  and  grass  instead 
of  ripe  grain.  In  these  tracts,  therefore,  the  cultivation  of  grain  becomes  of 
lesser  importance,  cattle-farming  becoming  the  chief,  or,  as  in  the  most  nor- 
therly parts  of  Sweden,  the  only  object  of   attention. 

Communications  and  marhets  have  a  great  influence  on  the  character  of  agri- 
culture in  various  parts  of  the  country.  As  a  general  rule,  it  may  be  said  that 
good  communications  and  easy  access  to  markets  produce  greater  intensity  in 
the  agricultural  industry.  This  is  shown  especially  in  Skane,  with  its  dense  net 
of  railways,  many  harbours,  and  numerous  towns  and  other  centres  of  population, 
and  where,  too,  the  favourable  conditions  of  climate  "contribute  to  induce  great 
activity  in  the  cultivation  of  the  soil  and  in  cattle-farming.  But  in  the  more 
northerly  parts  of  the  country,  too,  where  climatic  conditions  are  less  favourable, 
corresponding  conditions  show  their  influence,  and  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
every  large  town  or  centre  of  population  there  arises,  as  a  rule,  a  district  where 
a  great  part  of  the  land  is  devoted  to  gardening  and  to  an  advanced  cattle- 
farming  especially  directed  to  the  production  and  sale  of  milk. 


Nunilber  and  dimensions  of  Farms. 

The  farming  land  of  Sweden,  according  to  the  official  statistics  for  1911, 
was  distributed  among  359  871  estates,  the  average  cultivated  extent  of  each  of 
which  was  nearly  10  hectares,  although  the  size  of  the  various  farms  varied 
very  considerably.  Of  the  size-groups  into  which  the  landed  estates  were  divi- 
ded in  the  official  statistics 

those  possessing  up  to   2  hectares  cultivated  ground  embraced  about  25    % 

from      2—20  "  "  "  "  "64    % 

"     20 — 100  "  ■■  "  "  "       10    % 

above  100  "  "  "  "  "         1    % 

of  the  total    number  of  farms. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  small  farms  form  by  far  the  greater  number  of  the 
whole,  and  this  would  appear  still  more  clearly  if  the  farms  were  divided  into 
groups  the  difference  between  which  was  only  1  hectare,  as  farms  with  not 
more  than  1  hectare  of  cultivated  ground  form  the  greater  number,  or  about 
50  000,  the  numbers  in  the  succeeding  groups  declining  with  considerable 
regularity  with  the  increasing  area  of  cultivated  land.  But  taking  10  hectares 
as  the  limit  of  the  area  that  can  be  managed  by  the  owner  without  the 
assistance  of  hired  labour,  about  70  %  of  the  total  number  of  farms  would 
consist  of  such  small  holdings. 

From  a  calculation  showing  how  the  cultivated  land  of  the  country  is  distributed 
among  the  different  size-groups  it  has  been  deduced  that  small  farms  of  not 
more  than  10  hectares  of  arable  land,  and  large  ones  of  more  than  50  hectares, 


42  III.       RURAL    HUSBANDRY. 

each  occupy  about  ^ji  of  the  total  of  the  cultivated  area  of  Sweden,  the  rest,  or  about 
^/2,  being  distributed  among   farms  with  from   10  to   50  hectares  of  arable  land. 

The  way  in  which  the  land  is  distributed  varies  greatly,  however,  in  different 
parts  of  the  country.  It  has  already  been  pointed  out  that  on  the  open  plains 
of  Sweden,  with  fertile  clay-soils,  large  estates  are  comparatively  numerous, 
while  the  greatest  number  of  the  small  farms  is  to  be  found  in  the  highland 
districts  or  the  hilly  tracts,  where  the  soil  is  of  a  lighter  character  and  is 
broken  by  hills,  forests,  bogs,  and  other  irreclaimable  land.  For  example,  the 
land  in  the  Malaren  districts  and  in  the  plaius  of  Ostergijtland  and  Vastergotland 
is  occupied  for  the  most  part  by  large  estates  and  large  and  medium-sized  peasant- 
farms,  while  small  farms  of  less  than  20  hectares  are  incomparably  most  nume- 
rous in  Smaland,  Dalarne,  and  Norrland.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  large  towns 
and  industriai  centres,  where  there  are  plenty  of  other  occupations  besides  far- 
ming, there  have  grown  up,  especially  during  the  last  few  years,  numerous 
independent  farms  of  such  limited  areas  that  they  could  not  of  themselves  pos- 
sibly support  their  owners,  being  often  little  larger  than  building-plots. 

While,  in  previous  y^ars,  the  number  of  large  estates  increased  by  small 
farms  being  bought  up,  there  has  arisen  during  the  last  few  decades  a  contrary 
tendency  to  split  up  the  large  estates  for  the  purpose  of  forming  small  farms 
and  especially  small  holdings  (Sw.  smabmk).  This  development  has  been  made 
possible  by  the  increasing  removal  of  the  obstacles  that  legislation  previously 
placed  in  the  way  of  the  cutting  up  of  the  large  landed  estates  into  farms 
whose  area  was  below  the  limits  of  support  for  a  family  (besutenhet)  and  of 
capability  of  paying  taxes,  and  also  by  the  creation  of  a  new  and  convenient 
legal  form  of  cutting  up  estates,  called  "estate-dismemberment"  (Sw.  agostyck- 
ning).  But,  in  addition  to  this,  the  formation  of  small  holdings  has  been  pro- 
moted directly  by  the  dismemberment  and  sale  of  Crown  domains,  the  letting 
out  of  small  holdings  on  lease  from  the  Crown  forests  (Forest  holdings;  Sw. 
skogstorp)  and  by  the  granting  of  public  means  to  form  loan-funds  for  the 
purpose  of  assisting  the  "own  home"  movement.  In  Norrland,  on  the  other 
hand,  there  was  still  continued,  in  connection  with  the  development  of  the 
lumber  trade,  the  throwing  of  the  farms  into  large  estates,  the  saw-  mill  com- 
panies buying  farms  with  forest-land,  in  order  to  dispose  of  the  timber,  the  culti- 
vated ground  being  usually  leased  to  the  former  owner,  or,  in  many  cases,  af- 
forested. It  was  especially  in  order  to  prevent  the  disappearance  of  the  indepen- 
dent peasant  that  the  said  enactment  —  "the  estate  dismemberment  procedure" 
(Sw.  agostyckningsforfarandet),  —  was  passed,  according  to  which  forest  land 
can  be  sold  from  the  farm  separately  from  the  farming  land;  but  as  this  led 
to  the  creation  of  farms  which  possessed  no  timber  for  home  use,  a  state  of 
things  which,  in  Norrland,  is  considered  as  being  ruinous  to  agriculture,  the 
estate  dismemberment  procedure  in  Norrland  has  been  suspended  and  a  prohibi- 
tion has  been  issued  against  the  sawmill-owners  purchasing  landed  estates  (see 
the  section  concerning  Agricultural  Legislation:   the  Norrland  Enactments). 

One  favourable  circumstance  is  that,  as  a  rule,  the  Swedish  farms  are  in  the 
hands  of  the  owners  themselves.  Of  the  total  number  of  farms  in  1911,  only  a 
little  more  than  14  '/,  were  leased;  a  very  small  number  of  the  farms  of  the 
smaller  classes  especially  (10  and  13  %,  respectively)  are  held  on  leases,  but  of 
the  larger  estates,  with  a  cultivated  area  exceeding  20  and  100  hectares  of  cul- 
tivated ground,  greater  proportions  (31  and  35  %)  are  let  out  on  lease.  It  is 
especially  such  land  that  is  let  on  lease  as,  in  consequence  of  its  distant  situa- 
tion, is  inconvenient  for  the  owner  himself  to  farm,  or  as  is  owned  by  persona 
who  devote  themselves  to  other  occupations  than  agriculture.  Farms  held  on 
lease  are  more  numerous,  therefore,  in  connection  with  the  larger  estates,  espe- 
cially such  as   belong  to  ironworks  or  sawmills. 


THE    EXTENT    OP   CULTIVATED    GROUND.  43 

Table  9.    The  Distribution  of  the  Area  of  Cultivated  Land  by  Ldns,  in  1911. 


Whereof  In 

eq.  kilometers 

In  % 

3f  area 

Entire 

L  a  n 

limd  area  2 

Sq.  km 

cul- 
tivated 
land 

natural 
mea- 
dow 

1      other 
^ods           land 

cul- 
tivated 
land 

mea- 
dow 

woods 

other 
land 

Stockholm '   .    .    .    . 

7  474 

1679 

294 

4104 

1397 

22-5 

3-9 

54-9 

18-7 

Uppsala 

5121 

1573 

287 

2  727 

534 

30-7 

56 

533 

10'4 

Sodermanland  .    .    . 

6  2S7 

nn 

138 

3  992 

334 

28'4 

2-2 

64-0 

5-4 

Ostergotland  .... 

9968 

2  492 

597 

6  079 

800 

250 

6-0 

610 

8-0 

Jonkoping  

10  017 

1399 

986 

5  759 

2  473 

13-2 

9-3 

54-2 

23'3 

Kronoberg 

8906 

925 

910 

2  654 

4  417 

10'4 

10-2 

29-8 

49-fi 

Kalmar 

109GI 

1795 

592 

6  482 

2  092 

16-4 

5-4 

59-1 

19-1 

Gottland 

3118 

712 

165 

1419 

822 

22-8 

6-3 

45-5 

26-4 

Blekinge 

2  896 

652 

147 

1164 

933 

22-5 

5-1 

40-2 

32-2 

Kristianstad  .... 

i      6  222 

2  502 

389 

2  535 

796 

40-2 

6s 

407 

12-8 

Malmohus 

4  729 

3  502 

158 

449 

620 

74-1 

3S 

9-5 

13-1 

Halland 

4  771 

1382 

277 

848 

2  264 

290 

5-8 

17-8 

47-4 

Goteborg  och  Bohua 

4897 

1006 

115 

1294 

2  482 

206 

2-3 

.  26-4 

50-7 

Alvsborg     

11678 

2  203 

525 

7196 

1754 

18-9 

4-5 

61-6 

15-0 

Skaraborg 

8075 

3  452 

283 

3  076 

1264 

42-7 

3-5 

38-1 

15-7 

Yarmland 

17  549 

2  048 

451 

13  632 

1418 

11-6 

2-6 

77-7 

8-1 

Orebro    

8318 

1566 

292 

5  355 

1105 

18'8 

3-5 

64-4 

13-3 

Vastmanland     .    .    . 

6436 

1544 

215 

3  505 

1172 

24-0 

3-3 

54-5 

18  2 

Kopparberg   .    .    .    . 

28150 

1043 

958 

20  719 

5  430 

3-7 

3-4 

73-6 

19-3 

Gavleborg 

18  314 

1023 

779 

14  944 

1568 

5'6 

4-2 

81-6 

8-6 

Vasternorrland .    .    . 

24128 

854 

483 

19  921 

2  870 

3-5 

20 

82-6 

11-9 

Jamtland 

47  512 

578 

385 

29187 

17  362 

1-2 

0-8 

61-4 

36-6 

Vasterbotten .... 

55  769 

920 

1800 

27  500 

25  549 

1-7 

3-2 

49'3 

45-8 

Norrbotten 

The  whole  Kingdom 

99166 

383 

1830 

29  241 

67  712 

0-4 

1-8 

29-4 

68-4 

411012 

37  006 

13056 

213  782 

147  168 

9-0 

32 

52-0 

358 

'  Stockholm  city  and  Ian.  —  ^  Cf.  Table  1,  Part  I  with  more  recent  figures. 

The  figures  showing  the  number  of  farms  does  not  include  crofters'  allotments 
and  other  non-independent  holdings,  the  number  of  which  amounted  in  1911  to 
138  677.  The  crofter-system  has  on  good  soils  been  considered  as  a  form 
of  agricultural  employment  for  farm-labourers  which  is  extremely  favourable  both 
for  the  landowner  and  for  the  crofter,  but  it  has  been  falling  out  of  use  ever 
since  the  middle  of  the  19th  century.  At  first  the  crofters'  holdings  were 
thrown  into  the  mother-estate  again,  in  consequence  of  the  growing  opinion  that 
the  land  would  give  greater  returns  if  it  was  cultivated  together  with  the  rest 
of  the  estate.  During  the  last  few  decades,  it  has  become  necessary  to  do  this 
more  and  more,  in  consequence  of  the  difficulty  experienced  in  finding  labourers 
willing  to  pay  for  their  holdings  in  days'  work,  and  no  difference  has  been  caused 
in  this  respect  by  the  decided  improvement  in  the  position  of  the  crofter  brought 
about  by  the  new  Tenants  Act  of  June  14,  1907.  Crofters'  holdings,  there- 
fore, are  being  more  and  more  turned  into  farms  held  on  ordinary  leases,  with 
the  rent  payable  in  money,  in  such  cases  where  the  land  is  not  again  thrown 
into  the  mother-estate. 


The  extent  of  cultivated  ground 

in  Sweden  at  the  present  day  is  shown  by  Table  9.  More  precisely  stated, 
it  amounted  in  1911  to  o  700  644  hectares,  of  which  45  719  hectares  were 
garden  land  and  3  654  925  hectares  farmed  land.  In  addition  to  this,  there 
were  1  305  698   hectares  of  natural  meadow-land,    so   that,  with  the  inclusion  of 


44  II[.      KURAL    HUSBANDRY. 

this,  the  total  area  of  land  employed  in  agriculture  in  Sweden  amounts  to  some- 
what more  than   5   million  hectares. 

The  extent  of  cultivated  land  alone  (that  is,  apart  from  the  natural  meadow- 
land)  amounts  to  9'0  ^  of  the  total  area  of  the  country,  but  the  variations  even 
between  the  different  lans  are  enormous,  as  shown  by  Table  9,  no  less  than 
74"i  %  of  the  area  of  Malmohus  Lan  being  under  cultivation,  while  of  the  vast 
Norrbotten  Lan,  only  0'4  %  is  farmed.  Still  greater  differences  appear  in  smaller 
districts,  as  is  shown  by  the  map  on  p.  45.  In  the  most  northerly  hundred 
(Sw.  harad)  of  Sweden,  the  cultivated  land  scarcely  exceeds  one  tenthousandth 
part  of  the  total  area;  in  the  most  southerly  hundreds,  on  the  other  hand,  it 
amounts  to   90  %  and  more. 

The  figures  showing  the  amount  of  arable  land  in  Sweden  in  earlier  times  are 
very  unreliable,  but  it  is  not  improbable  that,  during  the  19th  century,  this 
area  has  been  quadrupled.  Neither  are  reliable  figures  to  be  had  for  the  amount 
of  fresh  land  taken  into  cultivation  during  the  last  few  decades,  but  although, 
according  to  the  statistics  available,  the  annual  increase  in  the  area  of  cultivated 
land  has,  it  is  true,  fallen  by  some  30  000  or  40  000  hectares  —  these  being 
the  figures  for  the  middle  of  the  nineties  —  to  about  10  000  hectares  during 
the  last  few  years,  even  these  last  figures  bear  witness  to  the  fact  that  the 
desire  to  cultivate  new  land  still  exists,  in  spite  of  the  increased  price  of 
labour.  Part  of  the  reclaimed  land  has  been  taken  from  the  area  of  natural 
meadow,  but  much  has  been  gained  from  forest-land  or  from  land  previously 
lying  waste,  especially  by  the  draining  of  low-lying  districts,  the  cultivation  of 
moorland,  and  by  the  tapping  of  lakes.  During  the  last  few  years,  the  State 
has  made  fairly  large  grants  for  cultivation  purposes;  an  account  of  this  is  given 
in  a  special  section  farther  on.  A  special  account  is  also  given  below  of  the 
work  carried  on  by  the  Swedish  Moor  Culture  Association. 

The  distribution  of  cultivated  land  with  respect  to  the  chief  crops  produced,  to 
the  amount  of  fallow-land,  and  to  the  changes  in  these  respects  during  about 
half  a  century,  is  shown  by  the  following  figures  for  1865   and  1911: 

1865  1911  1865  1911 

hectares  hectares  %  % 

Cereals • 1177  000  1676  000            505  45  9 

Podder  plants;  hay,  green  fodder,  seeds    .             635  000  1358000             27-2  37-i 

Root-crops.    .    .    .' 135  000  257  000              58  70 

Other  crops 21000  3  000               09  O'l 

Fallow-land 365  000            361  000 156  9-9 

Total         2  333000  3  655  000  100  o  100  0 

These  figures,  which  are  probably  too  low  for  1865,  have  regard  to  farmed 
land.  In  order  to  obtain  the  total  area  of  land  under  cultivation  there  should  be 
added  to  the  two  totals  of  hectares  of  land  the  area  of  the  garden-land,  which 
in    1865    amounted    to    about    21  000  hectares   and  in  1911  to  45  719   hectares. 

The  cultivation  of  farmed  lands. 

Contemporaneously  with  tlie  increase  in  the  area  of  the  cultivated  land,  its 
returns  have  also  been  steadily  advancing  (Table  12).  This  is  the  result  of 
the  soil-improvements,  the  increased  and  more  appropriate  use  of  manures, 
and  the  more  thorough  tillage  of  the  arable  land  adapted  to  the  varying 
conditions. 

Among  the  improvements  of  the  land,  draining  is  the  most  important.  It 
makes    it    possible    for   plant-roots  to  penetrate  deeper  into  the  earth,  by  which 


THE    CULTIVATION    OF    FARxVIEU    LANDS. 


45 


12  Est  dc  Crc 


Gen.  Sfab.  Li  LAnsr  Stockholm 


46  ni.       EUEAL    HUSBANDRY. 

they  find  access  to  an  increased  amount  of  nutritive  materials  and  obtain  pro- 
tection from  drought,  which,  in  Sweden,  is  one  of  the  chief  causes  of  poor 
harvests.  Draining  has  also  the  further  result  that  the  soil  dries  more  quickly 
in  the  spring  and  after  heavy  rains,  this  making  it  possible  to  begin  tilling  and 
sowing  earlier  than  can  be  done  on  land  that  is  not  so  well  drained.  Draining, 
however,  is  still  much  neglected,  and  over  the  greater  part  of  the  country  there 
exist  merely,  or  for  the  most  part,  shallow,  open  ditches.  It  is  impossible  for 
such  ditches  to  attain  a  depth  sufficient  for  a  satisfactory  draining  of  the  land 
without  great  inconveniences,  the  chief  being  that  they  occupy  too  large  a  propor- 
tion of  the  fields,  while  they  are  extremely  expensive  to  keep  in  order.  Under- 
draining,  therefore,  is  the  only  means  of  drying  up  the  land  in  a  fully  satis- 
factory way.  This  method  was  first  introduced  into  Sweden  in  the  forties  and 
during  the  sixties  and  the  following  decade,  it  was  employed  very  extensively, 
but  the  decline  in  available  labour  and  the  consequent  rise  in  wages  have  placed 
difficulties  in  the  way  of  carrying  out  this  improvement.  Under-draining  is  most 
general  in  the  southernmost  lans  of  the  country  and  then  in  Ostergotland ;  in 
the  other  parts  of  Southern  and  Central  Sweden  it  is  chiefly  employed  on 
manor-farms,  while  in  Norrland  it  is  met  with  only  exceptionally.  When  under- 
draining  is  carried  out  by  the  peasantry,  it  is  all  too  often  of  little  efficacy  and 
durability,  the  drains  being  made  too  shallow  and  being  filled  with  stones  or 
laths,   this  resulting  in  a  small  draining-power,  which  soon  ceases  altogether. 

An  effective  method  of  increasing  the  fertility  of  the  land  is,  in  many  cases, 
the  mixing  of  the  natural  soil  with  earth  possessing  opposite  qualities,  hard- 
worked  earth  thus  being  made  porous,  while  loose  soils  are  given  increased 
consistency  and  higher  conducting  capacity  for  heat  and  moisture.  Among  such 
methods  of  improving  the  soil  there  is  employed  pretty  generally,  especially  in 
the  north  of  the  country,  the  addition  of  humous  soil  or  peat  for  land  that  is 
hard  or  poor  in  humus,  while  moor-  and  bog-land  is  improved  by  the  addition 
of  sand,  gravel,  or  clay  (Sw.  sandkorniiig;  lerslagning),  which  makes  the  soils 
in  question  firmer  and  warmer,  and  renders  them  less  susceptible  to  frost,  at 
the    same    time    increasing    their  originally  poor  supply  of  mineral  constituents. 

On  the  whole,  however,  the  improvement  of  land  by  soil  mixture  has 
declined,  in  consequence  of  the  great  cost  it  entails.  This  holds  good  of  the 
"marling-process"  especially  (i.  e.,  the  addition  of  marl,  or  soil  rich  in  lime). 
This  method  of  improving  the  land  was  employed  very  generally  in  Skane  from 
1840  to  1870,  and  to  a  still  later  date  in  Southern  Halland,  and  is  considered 
to  have  contributed  greatly  to  the  increased  fertility  of  the  soil  in  these 
parts  of  Sweden;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  it  has  been  but  little  employed  in 
other  parts  of  the  country  and  is  now  rarely  made  use  of.  The  chief  reason 
for  this,  most  probably,  is  that  "marling"  necessitates  considerably  more  labour 
than  the  addition  to  the  soO.  of  lime  in  more  concentrated  forms  of  ctialk, 
such  as  slaked  lime,  ground  lime  (or  limestone  flour,  agricultural-  or  manuring- 
lime,  as  it  is  called).  These  latter  forms  of  limestone  are  employed  especially 
in  the  cultivation  of  moor  lands,  the  acid  character  of  which  must  be  neutra- 
lized, if  the  soil  is  to  be  made  fully  productive. 

But  the  increased  fertility  of  the  land  is,  probably,  chiefly  the  result  of  a 
more  thorough  manuring  of  the  soil,  carried  on  after  more  correct  principles. 
More  than  half  a  century  has  now  elapsed  since  artificial  manures  began  to  be 
used  in  increasing  quantities  and  of  varying  kinds;  first,  bone-dust  was  used 
then,  from  the  forties,  guano,  followed  in  the  order  given  by  super-phosphate, 
nitrate  of  soda,  sulphate  of  ammonia,  potash,  Thomas-phosphate,  and  finally,  by 
nitro-carbide.  At  first,  the  confidence  placed  in  the  new  and  convenient  manures 
seems  to  have  brought  about  a  certain  neglect  of  the  natural  animal-manures; 
but,  during  the  last  few  decades,  not  only  has  the  great  progress  made  in  cattle- 


THE    CULTIVATION    OF    FARMED    LANDS.  47 

farming  given  considerably  increased  quantities  of  this,  the  most  important, 
means  of  maintain  the  fertility  of  the  land,  but  great  care,  too,  has  begun 
to  be  paid  to  its  storage  and  scientific  employment.  Chemical  and  bacteriologi- 
cal investigations,  together  with  very  extensive  series  of  experiments,  have  been 
made  for  the  purpose  of  throwing  light  on  this  question,  and  have  succeeded  in 
arousing  a  more  general  interest  among  farmers  for  rational  methods  of  manuring, 
and  a  knowledge  of  the  way  in  which  the  work  should  be  carried  out. 

As  regards  tillage,  too,  a  decided  improvement  is  to  be  noted.  The  arable 
land  is  ploughed  more  deeply,  this  giving  the  plant-roots  access  to  a  larger  food- 
supply  area,  and  to  a  more  equable  store  of  moisture.  There  is  also  to  be  no- 
ticed a  more  general  endeavour  to  prevent  the  soil  from  losing  its  humidity,  this 
being  done  by  the  employment  of  suitable  methods  of  treatment  for  dimini- 
shing the  surface  evaporation,  while,  at  the  same  time,  the  ascent  of  water  towards 
the  surface  from  the  subsoil  is  facilitated.  Success  in  this  direction  has  been 
rendered  possible  by  improved  implements  specially  suited  for  the  purpose,  the  rise 
of  a  very  flourishing  home  manufacture  of  agricultural  implements  (see  p.  To) 
having  largely  contributed  to  this  end. 

While  agricultirral  technics  have  thus  been  improved,  the  arrangements  adopted 
for  the  cultivation  of  the  various  crops  have  been  developed  to  a  higher  degree 
of  intensity.  The  old  course  of  grain  crops,  in  accordance  with  which  the 
fields  were  divided  into  2 — 4  parts,  one  of  which  lay  fallow  while  the  others  were 
employed  for  the  production  of  crops,  was  necessitated  by  the  way  in  which 
the  land  was  formerly  divided  among  the  farmers,  each  field  in  a  village  com- 
munity being  divided  among  all  the  landowners  in  the  village  (see  pp.  28  foil.), 
but  by  degrees,  as  the  "Separate-re-partition"  and  the  "Legal  re-partition"  systems 
were  carried  into  effect,  the  farmers  began  to  employ  a  more  productive  system 
of  agriculture.  As  long  as  the  cultivation  of  grain  was  the  chief  source  of  income 
for  the  farmer,  the  great  bulk  of  the  farmers  of  the  country  were  slow  to  adopt 
a  more  intensive  course  of  crops,  and  even  as  late  as  the  sixties,  when  annual 
statistics  began  to  be  drawn  up,  two-course  or  three-course  rotations  were  pre- 
dominant, the  former  in  the  provinces  around  Lake  Malaren,  the  latter  in  Gota- 
land.  But  when  greater  importance  began  to  be  attached  to  cattle-farming, 
necessitating  the  cultivation  of  fodder  on  the  farmer's  land,  the  transition  to  a 
more  intensive  system  became  more  general.  The  rotation  ordinarily  adopted 
was  that  called  "grain-ley  rotation"  (Sw.  sades-vallbruk),  often  called  "couple- 
rotation"  (koppelbruk),  extending  over  7  years,  in  which  the  fallow-land,  which 
has  been  manured  with  farmyard-manure,  is  sown  with  autumn-seed,  in  which 
grass  is  afterwards  sown,  which,  after  3  years,  is  broken  up  to  make  way 
for  oats  during  2  years.  For  several  reasons,  but  especially  in  consequence  of 
the  too  long  intervals  between  the  manurings,  and  the  small  opportunity  that  is 
given  for  a  thorough  labouring  of  the  land,  such  a  course  yields  too  small  crops 
to  satisfy  the  demands  of  the  farmers  of  to-day,  and,  consequently,  in  places 
where  agriculture  is  carried  to  a  high  degree  of  perfection,  has  been  changed  to 
a  more  complete  variation  of  crops.  The  chief  features  of  such  regular  rotation 
of  crops  are :  the  cultivation  each  year  of  a  different  kind  of  crop  —  ripe  grain, 
green-fodder,  root-crops  —  manuring,  if  possible,  before  each  crop  and  in  ac- 
cordance with  its  special  requirements,  and  a  frequently  recurring  thorough 
labouring  of  the  soil,  together  with  measures  for  the  arrest  of  the  growth  of 
weeds.  This  development  is  specially  shown  by  an  increasing  cultivation  of  root 
crops,  not  only  in  consequence  of  the  latter  being  able  to  yield  greater  harvest- 
value  than  any  other  kind  of  plants  cultivated  in  Sweden,  but  also  because  these 
crops,  in  consequence  of  their  demand  for  vigorous  manuring,  thorough  till- 
age, and  the  freeing  of  the  land  from  weeds,  necessitate  a  higher  standard 
of    agriculture,    thus  occasioning  better  returns  from  other  classes  of  crops,  too. 


48 


III.      RURAL    HUSBANDRY. 

Example  of  Swedish 
"couple-rotation"  Ordinary  rotation 

1.  Fallow  .    .    .    .  • Green  fodder. 

2.  Winter  grain Winter  grain. 

(i.     I^ey Root  crop. 

4.  »  Barley. 

5.  >  Ley. 

a.     Oats Oats. 

7.        . 


The  cultivation  of  cereals. 

The  progress  made  by  agriculture  in  Sweden  has,  during  the  whole 
of  the  19th  century,  been  shown  by  the  increase  of  the  area  devoted  to 
the  cereals,  simultaneousls^  with  the  increased  cultivation  of  potatoes,  and 
during  the  latter  part  of  the  century  especially,  of  fodder  plants,  too.  At 
the  beginning  of  the  19th  century,  it  is  calculated  that  the  area  devoted 
to  cereals  amounted  to  about  500  000  hectares,  but  these  figures  rest  on 
very  unreliable  statistics.  In  the  middle  of  the  sixties,  when  agricul- 
tural statistics  began  to  be  published  annually,  this  area  had  increased  to 
1  200  000  hectares,  a  figure  which,  at  the  close  of  the  century,  had  in- 
creased to  a  little  more  than  1  700  000  hectares.  During  the  latter  part  of 
the  19th  century,  this  increase  in  the  area  devoted  to  the  cultivation  of 
cereals  had  fallen  off  still  more  proportionately  than  the  amount  of  the 
area  of  cultivated  land  in  general  had  increased,  so  that,  from  the  first 
decade  of  the  present  century,  the  cereal-producing  land  had  declined  to 
about  1  676  000  hectares  in  1911,  while  the  cultivation  of  fodder-plants, 
on  the  other  hand,  had  increased  (Table  10). 

On  the  other  hand,  the  cereal  crops,  as  a  whole,  have  continued  to  increase 
until  the  present  time.  From  6 "2  million  quintals,  the  estimated  amount  of  the 
total  cereal  crop  at  the  beginning  of  the  19th  century,  it  has  risen  to  25  mil- 
lion quintals  during  the  first  years  of  the  present  century,  i.  e.,  it  has  risen  in 
a  somewhat  greater  proportion  than  the  total  area  of  the  cultivated  land,  and 
especially  as  an  ever-increasing  amount  of  the  latter  has  been  employed  for  the 
cultivation  of  potatoes,  root-crops,  and  other  fodder-plants,  the  crops  of  cereals 
per    area-unit    has    risen    very    considerably,    or  from  an  average  of  11  quintals 

Table  10.      Area  devoted  to  the  Cultivation  of  Cereals.    Hectares. 


Annually 

Total 

Wheat 

Rye 

Barley 

Oata 

Meslin 

Legumi- 
nous crops 

1801-20 

552150 

15150 

180  000 

161000 

113  500 

57  500 

25  000 

1821—40 

724  300 

21800 

236  000 

187  500 

152  000 

82  000 

45000 

1841-60 

911000 

33  250 

292  500 

210  000 

226  500 

93  750 

55  000 

1861-80 

1289926 

58  243 

355  051 

225  196 

516  053 

80  383 

55  000 

1881—90 

15G5  992 

72  899 

380  665 

225  517 

734  956 

95  465 

56  490 

1891—00 

1687  765 

72  580 

405  268 

219  736 

819  381 

119  932 

50  868 

1901—05 

1710187 

81226 

410  791 

213  552 

824  693 

136  895 

43  030 

1906-10 

1689984 

91578 

405  542 

192  637 

804 194 

155  081 

40  952 

1911 

1 676  314 

101 477 

400 140 

180  537 

789  862 

163  435 

40  863 

Note.     Figures  after  1911,  as  being  preliminary,  are  not  given  here. 


THE    CULTIVATION    OF   CEREALS. 

Total  Cereal  Crops,  yearly  averages. 
1841—60. 


49 


1901—10. 


1801—20. 


6  620  000  quintals 


12  043  000  quintals 


107 


33  389  000  quintals 


per  hectare  at  the  beginning  of  the  19th  century,'to  15  quintals  during  1906 — 10. 
This  increase  has,  too,  been  a  very  regular  one,  declining  only  during  the  de- 
cade 1861 — 70  and  the  quinquennial  period  1901 — 05,  this  decline  in  each 
case  being  due  to  the  small  yields  —  bordering  on  almost  total  failure  of  the 
crops  —  that  occurred  in  two  years  in  each  period. 

If  the  cereal  crop  per  hectare  be  taken  as  a  measure  of  the  standard  of 
agriculture,  it  will  be  shown  that,  when  compared  with  other  countries  (Table 
13),  Sweden,  with  an  average  crop  during  the  years  1901 — 10  of  13'6  quintals 
of    wheat,    rye,    barley,    and    oats,    is,    in    this   respect,    considerably   above   the 

Froportional  Crops  of  the  Four  Principal  Cereals.     By  weight. 
About  1560.  Years  1801—20.  Years  1901—10. 


■■■■■I 

■■■■I 

■■■■■I 

■■■■■■■■■■ 

■■■■■I 

■■■■■■■ 

II     ■ 

■■■■ 

III 

II 

1 

■ 

1 

I  I  I  M  I  l_  M  I  J  I  11  I  l,M  1  1^  1^  lfi^i  J -LI 


"Wheat.  Rye. 

i  — 133179.   Sweden.   II. 


Barley. 


Oats. 


50  III.       RCRAL    HUSBANDRY. 

Table  11.  Crops  of  the  various  Cereals.     Quintals. 


Annually 

Total 

Wheat 

Rye 

Barley 

pats 

Meslin 

Legiimi- 
naus  crops 

1801-10  .    . 

I    6  207  000 

162  000 

1  950  000 

2  000  000 

1  200  000 

640  000 

'  255  000 

1811— yo .  . 

1    6  918  000 

198  000 

2  240  000 

2  200  000 

1300  000 

700  000 

'280  000 

1821-30  .    . 

1    8132  000 

300  000 

2  800  000 

2  300  000 

1 400  000 

842  000 

'490000 

1831-40  .    . 

1    8644000 

350  000 

3  150  000 

2  250  000 

1  550  000 

869  000 

'  475  000 

1841-50  .    . 

110  290  000 

430  000 

3  470  000 

2  700  000 

1910  000 

1100  000 

'650  000 

18f)l-60  .    . 

'13645000 

620  000 

4  550  000 

3  080  000 

3  480  000 

1185  000 

'630000 

1861-70  .    , 

115400  000 

700  000 

4  550  000 

3  000  000 

6  600  000 

1010  000 

'540  000 

1871—80  .    . 

18  926024 

914  UOO 

4  952  000 

3  417. '140 

7  736  320 

1139  310 

766  854 

1881-90  .    . 

21 382 170 

1018  000 

5  267  000 

•A  361  550 

9  604  670 

1  401 150 

729  800 

1891-00  .    . 

23429000 

1  233  000 

n  806  000 

3  145  000 

10  748  000 

1843  000 

654  000 

:  1901-05  .    . 

21386  866 

1 361  774 

5  550  367 

2  829  588 

9  263  649 

1  959  024 

421  464 

'  1906-10  .    . 

25392  030 

1  918  903 

5  938  652 

2  996  291 

11 232  282 

2  769  511 

536  391 

i  1911  .    .    .    . 

24  778031 

2  178  439 

5  929  490 

2  894  012 

10  395  400 

2  843  941 

536  749 

i9ia  .  ,  .  . 

27  519900 

2  122  060 

5  861 480 

3  082 150 

12  739  260 

3  200  440 

514  510 

1913  .... 

i    30  712330 

2  539  180 

5  655  830 

3  682  110 

14  488  290 

3  810  900 

536  020 

'  There  are  no  figures  for  vetches. 

average  for  Europe  (lO'i  quintals  per  hectare);  this  is  especially  true  for  com- 
parison with  the  Latin  and  Slav  nations,  while  in  the  case  of  the  other  Ger- 
manic countries  the  comparison  goes  against  Sweden. 

The  differences  that  exist  in  respect  to  the  cultivation  of  cereals  within  the 
various  parts  of  Sweden,  a  country  of  such  great  extent  and  variations  in  the 
character  of  the  land,  are  very  great,  however,  whether  we  regard  the  propor- 
tions they  bear  of  the  total  cereal-crops  of  the  country  or  the  returns  per  area- 
unit  (Table  10).  The  first  place  in  both  respects  is  taken  by  Malmohus  Lan, 
which,  with  a  little  more  than  one-tenth  of  the  cerealproducing  land  of  the 
country,  yields  a  larger  and  more  even  harvest  than  any  other  lan  in  Sweden. 
It  alone  produces  more  than  one-third  of  the  wheat,  and  about  one-quarter  of 
the  barley  and  the  meslin  which  is  harvested  in  the  country.  As  regards 
the  return  per  hectare,  it  approaches  the  most  productive  countries  of 
Europe.       Among     the     other     more    important    cereal-producing    parts     of    the 


Table  12. 


Crops  of  Cereals  in  quintals  per  hectare. 


Annually 


Kye 


Barley 


Meslin 


Legu  mi- 
nous  crops 


1801-10  .... 

1811—20  .... 

1821-30  .... 

1831-40  .... 

1841-50  .... 

1851—60  .... 

1861—70  .... 

1871—80  .... 

1881—90  .... 

1891-00  .... 

1901—05  .... 

1906-10  .... 

1911 

1913  (preliminary) 


11 
12 
15' 
14 
15 
16 
13 
14 
13 
17 
16 
21 


21-5 
20-9 


11-3 
11-9 
12-4 
12-7 
130 
14-3 
13-0 
13-8 
13-8 
143 
13-5 
14-6 

14-8 
15-4 


13-: 

13( 
12i 
11-1 
13'! 
14-1 
I3i 
14- 
14! 
14-i 
131 
]5f 

16( 
21-1 


•1 

110 

■0 

U'O 

•5 

9-7 

■8 

9-7 

■5 

10-7 

•0 

12-8 

■8 

12-6 

•7 

13-2 

■9 

13-1 

■3 

131 

■3 

11-2 

6 

14  0 

•0 

132 

■6 

17-8 

11-9 
11-5 
10-5 
10-3 
12  2 
12-2 
12-5 
14-3 
14-7 
15-4 
143 
17-9 

17-4 
21-4 


14-2 
13-5 
14-0 
13-8 
16-2 
140 
130 
14-9 
12-9 
12-9 
9'8 
131 

131 
138 


THE    CULTIVATION    OF   CEREALS. 

Table  13.  Harvests  in  Different  Countries,  1901 — 10} 


51 


Belgium 

Holland 

Great  Britain  &  Ireland 

Denmark 

German  Empire   .    .    .    . 

Norway 

Sweden 

France    

Hungary 

Austria 

Rumania 

Italy 

Bulgaria 

Spain 

Servia 

Russia  in  Europe     .    .    . 

Europe 

Canada   

U.  S.  A 


All  kinds  of  grain2 


thous- 
ands of 
hectares 


harvest, 
thousands 

of 
qmntals 


quin' 
tals  per 
hectare 


706 

445 
3191 

971 
13  866 

]58i 

151li 

12  932 

9743! 

6  431 

4  916 
6  785 
2120 
6  846 
1157 

79  008 
148  669 

5  76a 
73  465 


16  446 
8  814 

61040 

17  863 
245  329 

2  457 
20  548 

164  507 

121 157 
78  745 
52118 
69  410 
20  712 
65131 
10  395 

568  187 

1  502  212 

76  985 

990  732 


23  3 

19k 

19-1 

18-4 

17-7 

15-6 

13-6 

12-7 

.124 

12-2 

10-6 

10-2 

9-8 

9-5 

9-0 

7-2 

10' 1 

13-4 

»13-5 


Harvest  in  quintals  per  hectare 


wheat 
and 
spelt 


23  6 

22-4 

21-4 

27-8 

19-6 

15-9 

188 

13-6 

11-9 

12-8 

11-8 

91 

10- 1 

90 

8-7 

6-7 

9-6 

13-1 

9-6 


barley 


21-7 
16-7 
17-6 
17-3 
16-3 

160 

14-1 
10- fi 
111 
12-4 


9-5 
8-2 
6-5 
7-2 
9-2 

9-9 


27-3 
26-0 
191 
20-7 
19-0 
17-7 
14-4 
12-9 
12-2 
13-5 
9-6 

10-3 
10-9 
8-1 
7-9 
I61 
161 
13-8 


241 
220 
18-4 
16-9 
18-3 
14-7 
12-6 
12-0 
10-7 
10-9 
8-5 

7-9 

7-7 

5-5 

7-3 

10-7 

13-2 

10-6 


quin- 
tals per 
hectare 


Pot- 
atoes 


160- 1 

132-2 

135-0 

124-5 

135-1 

144-3 

96-C 

84-6 

77-1 

104-0 

81-4 

39-0 

32-3 
68-8 


62-3 


'  According  to  "Annuaire  international  de  statistique  agricole  de  I'institut  international 
d'agriculture".  Rome  1912.  —  ^  "Wheat,  rye,  barley,  oats,  maize.  —  ^  The  high  general  figu- 
res for  the  harvest  of  the  TJ.  S.  A.  are  due  to  the  maize,  which  yielded  16-4  quintals  per 
hectare. 


country  may  be  also  mentioned  Kristianstad  Lan  and  the  plains  surrounding 
the  great  lakes  of  Central  Sweden,  together  with  Gottland  and  Oland,  although, 
as  regards  the  crops  per  area-unit,  the  regions  mentioned  do  little  more 
than  just  exceed  the  average  for  the  country.  In  this  respect,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  Lans  of  Gavleborg  and  Kopparberg  occupy  a  prominent  place  in 
spite  of  their  comparatively  northerly  position,  the  explanation  of  this  fact  pro- 
bably being  in  an  essential  degree  due  to  their  abundant  supplies  of  manure  and  the 
very  careful  attention  paid  to  its  conservation,  shown  especially  by  its  mixture 
with  peat-  and  humous-earth,  which  has  been  universally  used  in  these  districts 
from  very  early  times.  But,  in  other  respects  too,  agriculture  in  both  these 
lans  has,  from  early  times,  occupied  a  comparatively  high  position.  If  we  except 
these  two  lans,  the  highlands  and  forest-lands  of  the  country  are  below  the 
average  of  the  cultivated  plains  of  Sweden,  both  as  regards  the  area  producing 
cereals  and  as  regards  the  relative  amount  of  the  cereal-harvests. 

The  share  of  the  various  Mnds  of  cereals  in  the  harvests  of  the  country  has, 
during  the  course  of  time,  undergone  considerable  change,  as  may  be  seen  bj^ 
Table  11   and  the  diagram  p.  49,  below^. 

In  earlier  times,  barley  was  the  grain  that  was  most  cultivated  in  Sweden,  but 
it  has  gradually  become  of  lesser  importance,  so  that,  at  the  present  day,  only  a 
comparatively  small  area  of  cultivated  ground  is  devoted  to  this  cereal,  with  the 
exception  only  of  Upper  Norrland  where  its  earlier  ripening  gives  it  an 
advantage    over    other    kinds  of  grain.    In  extensive  tracts  of  the  four  northem- 


'  Calculated  according  to  weight.  In  1560  according  to  H.  Forsell's  calculations,  which  do 
not  embrace  the  provinces  which,  at  that  date,  belonged  to  Denmark  or  Norway,  otherwise 
the  place  occupied  by  the  wheat  would  be  a  somewhat  more  prominent  one. 


52 


III.      RURAL   HUSBANDRY. 


n\^ 


/  X^-v 


/V'    \ 


1.  Svalov  Extra  Squarehead  lylieat. 

2.  Swedish  common  wheat. 

3.  Clab  wheat. 

4.  Svalov  Star-rye. 

5.  Tartarian  oats. 


Cereals. 

6.  Svalov  Victory  oats. 

7.  Mesdag  oats. 

8.  Svalov  improved  black  clock  oats. 

9.  Common  Swedish  black  oats. 


THE   CULTIVATION   OF   CEREALS. 


53 


Cereals  and  Root-crops. 

10.  Svalov  Princess-  and  Chevalier-barley.  14.  Swedish  greentop  swede. 

11.  Imperial  and  Plunaage  barley.  16.  Eckendorf  beet  root. 

12.  Fonr-rowed  barley.  16.  Svalov  halflong  Barres  beet  root. 

13.  Danish  Bangholm  swede.  17.  Bortfeld  turnip. 


54  III.      RURAL    HUSBANDRY. 

most  lans,  barley  is  the  only  kind  of  cereal  that  can  be  cultivated  with  any 
great  degree  of  probability  of  a  harvest  of  ripe  grain.  As  a  grain  for  bread- 
stuffs,  barley  has  been  replaced  chiefly  by  rye  which,  at  the  beginning  of  the 
19th  century,  was  comparable  as  regards  the  total  amount  of  the  crop  with 
barley,  but  which,  at  the  close  of  the  century,  yielded  about  twice  the  amount  of 
the  last-named  cereal;  the  cultivation  of  rye,  however,  has  not  increased  in  the 
same  proportion  as  the  cultivation  of  cereals  as  a  whole;  while,  on  the  other 
hand,  wheat,  especially  during  the  last  few  decades,  has  had  an  ever-increasing 
proportion  of  the  cultivated  land  devoted  to  its  growth,  although  it  still  occupies 
the  last  place  amongst  the  four  kinds  of  cereals,  both  as  regards  area  and  the 
share  it  bears  in  the  entire  cereal  crop  of  the  country. 

The  increase  of  the  cereal  crops  depends,  above  all,  on  the  vigorous  advance 
of  oat-growing.  After  having  in  earlier  times  been  cultivated  practically  ex- 
clusively on  temporarily  ploughed  meadow-land,  this  kind  of  grain  has  come 
to  occupy  an  ever-increasing  share  of  the  cultivated  land  of  the  country  and, 
at  the  present  time,  is  grown  on  little  less  than  half  the  total  grain-producing 
area  of  the  kingdom  and  yields  almost  as  large  a  harvest  as  the  other  three 
above-mentioned  cereals  together,  apart  from  the  circumstance  that,  as  a  rule,  it 
forms  by  far  the  greater  proportion  of  the  meslin,  which,  during  the  last  few 
decades,  has  been  cultivated  to  an  ever-increasing  extent. 

Of  lesser  importance  as  regards  the  area  under  cultivation  and  the  value  of 
the  harvest  are  the  various  kinds  of  leguminous  plants  (peas,  beans,  and  vetches), 
and  buck-wheat,  which  last-named  grain  has  been  cultivated  on  a  gradually 
diminishing  scale  in  the  same  proportion  that  agriculture  in  Sweden  has  impro- 
ved, so  that  it  is  only  grown  now  in  the  poorest  sandy  soils  of  Skane,  and  that 
only  on  a  small  scale. 

The  crops  yielded  by  the  different  kinds  of  grain  at  various  epochs  is  shown 
by  Tables  11  and  12,  and,  in  accordance  with  the  present  division  of  the  country 
into  lans,  by  Table  16.  Taken  as  a  whole,  Sweden  can  be  said  to  be  divided 
into  three  regfions  as  regards  the  cultivation  of  grain.  In  Norrland,  barley  is 
the  principal  cereal  and  that  to  a  higher  degree  the  farther  north  we  go.  Cen- 
tral and  Southern  Sweden,  on  the  other  hand,  can  be  divided  into  an  eastern 
half,  where  rye-culture  is  prominent,  and  a  western  half,  where  the  cultivation 
of  oats  is  a  still  more  distinguishing  feature,  the  explanation  of  this  phenomenon 
being  the  differences  in  the  soil  and  climate  of  the  country  (cf.  pp.  35  foil.). 
An  idea  of  these  conditions  is  given  by  the  accompanying  maps. 

The  increase  in  the  production  of  cereals  in  Sweden  has  not  only  been  import- 
ant in  itself,  but  it  has  even  risen  in  a  greater  proportion  than  the  increase  in 
the  population;  during  the  century  that  has  just  come  to  an  end,  it  is  calculated, 
as  was  shown  above,  that  the  cereal-harvest  has  been  quadrupled,  while  the  num- 
ber of  the  population  has  not  more  than  doubled.  But  in  spite  of  the  fact  that, 
calculated  per  head  of  the  population,  the  crops  may  thus  be  estimated  to  have 
increased  from  272  kg  at  the  beginning  of  the  19th  century  to  475  kg  at  the 
present  day  —  of  which  amounts  the  grain  used  for  bread-stuffs  represent  93 
and  143  kg  respectively  —  the  home-consumption  has  shown  a  still  greater  increase, 
so  that  the  demand  for  grain,  at  the  present  day,  must  to  a  considerable  extent 
be  supplied  by  means  of  importation.  This  development  has  passed  through  the 
following  phases.  In  early  times  Sweden,  as  a  rule,  existed  on  its  own  har- 
vests. During  the  18th  century,  some  hundreds  of  thousands  of  quintals  of 
barley  and  rye  were  usually  imported  every  year,  but,  during  the  latter  part  of 
the  century  and  at  the  beginning  of  the  19th  century,  a  still  larger  amount  of  grain 
was  probably  employed  for  the  manufacture  of  spirits.  From  the  decade  1820 — 30 
the  crops  of  bread-grains  (rye,  wheat,  and  barley)  produced  in  the  country  were 
sufficient  most  years  to  supply  the  home  demand  for  grain,  and  there  soon  came 


THE   CULTIVATION   OF   CEREALS. 


55 


26  2C 


12  Esi  de  (^reenw 


Gen.5tab.Lit.Ansi,3cockholm 


56  III.      RURAL   HUSBANDRY. 

Table  14.  Survey  of  Cereal  Cultivation  in  Sweden} 


AnnuftUy 

Area  under 
cultivation 

hectares 

Crops,  etc.,  ol  all  kinds  of  grain 
quintals 

Crop 

per 

hectare 

quint,  a 

crop 

demand 

surplus  or 
deficit  2 

for  seed 

for  consump- 
tion 

1801—20  .    . 
1821—40  .    . 
1841—60  .    . 
1861—80  .    . 
1881-90  .    . 
1891-00.    . 
1901—10  .    . 

552  150 
724  300 
911 000 
1289  926 
1  565  992 
1  687  765 
1700  085 

6  620  000 
9  025  000 
12  043  000 
17  225000 
21 392  000 
23  429  000 
23  389  000 

6  960  000 
9  040  000 
11589  000 
16  207  000 
21 823  000 
25  399  000 
27  161  000 

340000 

15  000 

454000 

1018000 

431  000 
1970  000 
3  769  000 

1187  000 
1560  000 

1  963  000 

2  770  000 

3  229  000 
3  416  000 
3  339  000 

5  773  000 
7  480000 
9  626  000 
13  437  000 
18  594  000 
21983  000 
23  822  000 

120 
12-5 
13-2 
13-4 
13-7 
139 
13-8 

^  It  need  scarcely  be  said  that  the  figures  for  earlier  periods  are  very  uncertain,  The 
crops  for  the  years  1821 — 40  are  here  increased  by  approximately  about  6  %,  the  original 
figures  being  evidently  too  low.  —  ^  The  leaded  figures  show  the  excess  (of  exports),  the 
others  the  deficit  (i.  e.,  the  excess  of  imports),  in  making  which  calculations  there  have  been 
added  together  the  amounts  of  unground  grain  (including  maize)  and  of  flour  and  shelled 
grain,  but  not  of  bran,  starch,  yeast,  and  bread,  the  annual  imports  of  which  during 
1901 — 10  amounted  to  about  1  million  quintals,  chiefly  bran.  The  import  of  maize  for 
the  years  1891 — 1900  amounted  to  about  150  000  quint,  and  for  the  years  1901 — 10,  to  about 
90  000  quint.  —  *  The  figures  for  early  years  are  exceedingly  unreliable.  The  comparatively 
small  increase  is  due  to  the  extended  cultivation  of  oats,  this  grain  yielding  leas  per  hectare 
than  the  other  cereals. 

into  existence  an  increasing?export,  first  of  oats  and,  beginning  with  the  forties, 
of  barley,  rye,  and  wheat,  too.  About  1860  this  condition  of  things  altogether 
changed,  so  that  every  year  there  was  an  increasing  surplus  of  imports  over 
exports  of  rye  and  wheat,  but  this  was  long  counterbalanced  by  the  export  of 
oats,  which,  during  the  seventies,  was  one  of  the  most  important  exports  of 
Sweden.  The  export  of  oats,  however,  also  began  to  decline  during  the  latter 
part  of  the  eighties,  in  consequence  of  the  increasing  demand  for  fodder,  which 
was  a  consequence  of  the  vigorous  development  of  cattle-farming,  and  since 
the  year  1902,  the  import  of  this  kind  of  grain,  too,  has  exceeded  the  export. 
During  the  last  few  years,  the  value  of  the  imports  of  cereals  has  exceeded 
that  of  the  exports  by  from  40  to  60  million  kroner  per  annum  (cf.  Table  8). 
The  winter  grain  cultivated  in  Sweden  consists  of  wheat  and  rye,  but  these 
cereals,    however,    although  on  a  small  scale,  are  also  cultivated  as  spring  seed, 

Table  15.     Cereal  Cultivation  and  Consumption  per  Inhabitant} 


All  cereals,  kg  per  head 

Wheat  and  rye,  kg  per  head 

other  cereals,  kg  per  head 

Crop 

De- 
mand 

Seed 

Cons, 

Crop 

De- 
mand 

Seed 

Cons. 

Crop 

De- 
mand 

Seed 

Cons. 

1801—20  . 
1821-40  . 
1841-60  . 
1861—80  . 
1881—90  . 
1891-00  . 
1901—10  . 

272 
313 
347 

407 
458 
475 
441 

286 

314 
334 

383 
468 
515 
513 

49 
55 
57 
66 
69 
69 
63 

237 
259 
277 
317 
399 
446 
449 

93 
114 
131 
131 
135 
143 
144 

104 
115 
180 
155 

186 
195 
199 

16 
18 
19 
19 
19 
19 
18 

88 
97 
111 
136 
167 
176 
181 

179 
199 
216 
276 
323 
332 
297 

182 
199 

204 
228 
282 
320 
313 

33 
37 
38 
47 
50 
50 
45 

149 
162 
166 
181 
232 
270 
268 

'  The  difference  between  the  crops  and  the  demand  consists  of  the  excess  of  imports  or 
of  exports.  Respecting  the  consumption  of  wheat  and  rye  separately,  see  Table  35.  p.  I,  171. 
—  The  mean  population  during  the  above  seven  periods  amounted  to  2  436  000,  2  883  000, 
3  474  000,  4  233  000,  4  673  000,  4  932  000,  and  5  310  000. 


THE   CULTIVATION   OF   CUREALS. 


57 


Gen.Sfab.lit.Anst  Stockhoir 


58  III.      KURAL   HUSBANDRY. 

Table  16.  Cereal  Cultivation  by  Ldns.    Average  1901—1910. 


L  a  n 

Area 

H 

I    r    T    e    s 

t 

Winter- 

spring 

legu- 

wheat 

rye 

barley 

oats 

meslin 

legu- 

total 

grain 

cereals 

min. 

rnin. 

bar 

bar 

bar 

quintals 

quintals 

quintals 

quintals 

quintals 

quintals 

quintals 

Absolute 

uuinbers. 

Stockh.i 

25  204 

44107 

5134 

101  706 

369  786 

70  059 

358  964 

151  474 

79  572 

1031561 

Uppsala 

20  908 

45  070 

3  813 

104 118 

333  521 

173  755 

238  981 

207  689 

44  768 

982  782 

Soderm. 

25  220 

49  813 

3  258 

112  795 

249  719 

42  552 

486  802 

121 109 

43  644 

1056621 

Oaterg. 

38  266 

82  508 

5  258 

136  875 

486  473 

180 112 

494  903 

557  422 

66  811 

1922596 

J6nkop. 

18  213 

52  026 

486 

9  491 

304  841 

38  698 

737  845 

16  085 

5  791 

1  112  751 

Krouob. 

13110 

43  025 

615 

2  914 

206  942 

92  088 

497  610 

1433 

665 

801 641 

Kaliuar 

,36  406 

54019 

1546 

61648 

437  815 

165  505 

479  043 

13  053 

18  789 

1165353 

Gottl. 

'14  892 

20  888 

379 

48  268 

163 .352 

302  022 

33  491 

37  750 

4  888 

479  766 

Blekinge 

15  979 

21060 

1317 

39  653 

302  207 

38  584 

174  81b 

26  499 

8  933 

465694 

Krist. 

39  676 

76147 

2  450 

120  042 

483  388 

170  715 

458  031 

873  939 

24  238 

1629343 

Malmohus 

50  535 

124  610 

2  315 

591 144 

509  536 

847  361 

812  482 

785  426 

36133 

3582082 

Halland 

20  512 

48  042 

987 

67  265 

323  330 

44  820 

674  790 

83  252 

19  418 

1212  875 

Goto.  Boh. 

10  284 

39  746 

2  752 

13  359 

136  101 

43  843 

362  430 

11488 

42138 

609259 

Alvsb. 

24  465 

83  534 

1013 

31579 

809  493 

7  915 

1010  977 

6  474 

10  706 

1367143 

Skarab. 

44  204 

111  250 

4  484 

81781 

517  576 

32  353 

1 289  053 

41671 

50  609 

1963043 

Yarml. 

25190 

68  466 

460 

8  382 

385  698 

7  897 

701  814 

3  331 

4  294 

1110  311 

Orebro 

19  967 

45  937 

1589 

48  718 

329  286 

18  851 

548  691 

14  080 

14  021 

873597 

Vastm. 

19  727 

44  700 

3163 

73  707 

216  401 

37  550 

491 205 

67  299 

27  965 

914127 

Kopparb. 

10  073 

29  301 

469 

6  464 

164  582 

32  689 

374  652 

6  816 

2  488 

587  691 

Gavleb. 

2  910 

27  491 

464 

1445 

55  330 

175  898 

348  907 

13  778 

4  734 

499990 

Vastern. 

1808 

22  281 

240 

— 

17115 

182  059 

51995 

4179 

625 

255973 

jamtl. 

785 

10  377 

710 



7154 

87188 

4  892 

1903 

8  587 

104674 

Vasterb. 

546 

20  887 

11 

— 

3  810 

145829 

3  780 

5  354 

— 

157273 

Norrb. 

Whole 

Kingrlom 

470 

14  000 

— 

— 

5  884 

141 999 

10  668 

— 

— 

158  551 

479  350 

1 178  735 

41901 

1 641 152 

5897  684 

2969  792 

10  485  824 

2  540443 

509802 

24044697 

In  ?«  of  figu- 

res for  whole 

% 

'/' 

% 

'/' 

° 

% 

f' 

»/ 

•i 

country. 

Stockh.' 

5-26 

0-74 

12-23 

6-20 

4-57 

2-36 

3-42 

5-96 

15-61 

in 

Uppsala 

4-36 

3-82 

9-10 

635 

3-79 

5-86 

2-18 

8-17 

8  78 

4  09 

Soderm. 

5-26 

4-23 

778 

6-87 

4-23 

1-43 

4-64 

4-77 

856 

4-39 

dsterg. 

7-98 

700 

12-55 

8-34 

8-25 

6-06 

4-72 

31-94 

18-11 

8-00 

Jonkop. 

3-80 

4-41 

1-16 

0-58 

5-17 

1-30 

7-04 

0-63 

1-14 

463 

Kronob. 

2-73 

3-65 

1-47 

0-18 

3-51 

8-10 

4-75 

0  06 

0-13 

3-33 

Kalmar 

7-59 

4-58 

3-69 

8-76 

7-25 

5-57 

4-57 

0-51 

3-69 

4-85 

Gottl. 

311 

1'72 

0-90 

2-94 

3-77 

6-80 

0-32 

1-09 

0-96 

2-00 

Blekinge 

3-33 

1-79 

3-14 

1-81 

3-43 

0-96 

1-67 

1-04 

0-77 

1-94 

Krist. 

8-28 

6-46 

5-85 

7-31 

8-18 

5-75 

4-37 

14-72 

4-75 

6-78 

Mnlmohus 

10-54 

10-57 

5-52 

36-02 

8-64 

28-53 

7-75 

30-92 

7-09 

14-90 

Halland 

4-28 

4-08 

2-36 

4-10 

5-48 

1-51 

6-44 

3-28 

8-81 

5-04 

Got.  0.  Boh. 

2-15 

3-37 

6-57 

0-81 

2-31 

1-48 

3-4  6 

0-45 

8-26 

2-53 

Alvsb. 

5-10 

7-09 

3-41 

1-31 

.5-25 

0-27 

9-64 

0-26 

2-10 

5-69 

Skarab. 

9-22 

9-44 

10-70 

4-98 

8-77 

1-09 

11-82 

1-64 

9-93 

8-16 

Variiil. 

5-26 

5-81 

1-10 

0  50 

6-54 

0-27 

6-69 

0-09 

0-84 

4-62 

Orebro 

4-17 

3-90 

3  79 

2-97 

3-89 

0-64 

523 

0-56 

2-75 

3'63 

Vastm. 

4-12 

3-79 

5-16 

4-49 

3fi7 

1-27 

4-68 

2-65 

5-48 

3-80 

Kopparb. 

2-10 

2-49 

1-12 

0-39 

2-79 

1-10 

3-57 

0-27 

0-49 

2-44 

Gavleb. 

0-61 

2-33 

1-11 

009 

0-94 

5-92 

2-37 

0-54 

0-93 

2-08 

Vastern. 

0-38 

1-89 

0-57 

— 

0  29 

6-13 

0-49 

0-16 

0-12 

1-06 

Jamtl. 

016 

0-88 

1-69 



0-12 

3-94 

005 

008 

0-70 

0-44 

Vasterb. 

0-11 

1-77 

003 

— 

0-06 

4-89 

0-03 

0-21 



0-65 

Norrb. 

Whole 
Kingdom 

0  10 

1-19 

— 

— 

0-10 

4-78 

0-10 

— 

066 

lOOoo 

100-00 

100-00 

100  00 

100-00 

100-00 

100-00 

100-00 

lOOoo 

lOO-OO 

Stockholm  citv  and  Ian. 


THE    CULTIVATION    OF   CEREALS. 


:■>':) 


12  Est  de  Grecnw 


Gen.Sfab.Lit.Anst.Scockholm 


tsO  III.      RURAL   HUSBANDRY. 

Table  17.  Imports  and  Exports  of  Wheat.    Quintals. 


Annually 

Imports 

Export  S 

Excess  of 
imp.  (,—j, 
exp.  (+) 

grain 

flour 

total  I 

grain 

flour 

total  1 

1816—20 

1821    40  

1841—60 

1861-80 

1881—90 

1891-00 

1901-10 

1911 

1912 

1913 

14  989 

1456 

17  370 

32  985 

459  427 

1  253  356 

1 969  990 

1 723  597 
1710540 
1998153 

51 

104 

5  384 

178  416 

283  904 

159  168 

75  776 

70  356 
66  045 
86  834 

15  057 

1595 

24549 

270873 

837  966 

1465  580 

2  071025 

1817  405 
1798600 
2113932 

537 

5  423 

35  558 

78  684 

9  593 

271 

701 

1611 
2  094 

570 

1889 

817 

17  019 

44194 

8  435 

831 

5  016 
4  394 
2  066 

1297 

7  942 

36647 

101  :i7(J 

68518 

11518 

1809 

8299 
7  953 
2  754 

—  13760 
+         6  347 
+       12  098 

—  169  497 

—  769  448 

—  1454  062 
-2  069  216 

—  1  809  106 
-1790  647 
-2111178 

'  The  flour  is  here  increased  by  '/a  of  its  weight,  in  order  to  reduce  it  to  unground  grain 

spring  wheat  chiefly  in  Halland  and  in  the  southern  parts  of  the  Lans  of  Alvs- 
borg  and  Kalmar,  spring  rye  mostly  in  Smaland  and  Bleldnge  and  in  the  Lans 
of  Kristianstad  and  Alvsborg.  Of  the  entire  cultivated  area  in  1911,  487  730 
hectares,  or  13"3  %,  were  devoted  to  winter  seed;  1  188  487  hectares,  or  33  %, 
to  spring  seed. 

Of  wheat,  which  is  cultivated  practically  only  on  the  clayey  plains  and  chiefly 
in  Skane,  Gottland,  Oster-  and  Vastergotland,  and  m.  the  provinces  round  Lake 
Malaren,  there  were  formerly  cultivated  chiefly  old  native  sorts  suited  to  the 
climate,  but  which  gave  somewhat  poor  returns.  During  the  last  two  decades, 
several  selected  kinds  of  this  grain,  derived  chiefly  from  the  Swedish  Seed 
Association's  cultivation  establishment  at  Svalov  and  some  of  these  improved 
kinds  of  grain,  such  as  the  grenadier-  and  extra  squarehead  wheat  have,  in 
Skane,  for  the  most  part  supplanted  the  ordinary  native  wheat.  Farther 
to  the  north,  where  the  climate  is  a  more  severe  one,  there  have  also  been 
tried  new  sorts  of  wheat,  selected  at  Svalov,  such  as  "selected  squarehead" 
(Sw.  renodlad  squarehead),  Bore-  and  Poodle-wheat,  which  surpass  the  ordinary 
sorts  as  far  as  regards  productiveness,  but  these  improved  sorts  being  less  hardy 
than  the  old  native  sorts,  they  have  not  ousted  the  latter,  which  still  predominate; 
among  these  are,  for  example,  in  the  Lake  Malaren  districts,  a  white-eared  velvet 
wheat,  mixed  with  a  red-eared  smooth  wheat,  while  here  and  there,  on  stiff 
soils,  in  Skaraborg  Lan  especially,  the  very  stiff-strawed  club-wheat  is  much 
cultivated. 

Rye  is  cultivated  very  generally  in  Southern  and  Central  Sweden,  on  all 
soils,  but  especially  on  loam-,  sand-  and  gravelly  land.  On  the  whole,  rye 
occupies  a  greater  area  in  the  eastern  lans  than  in  the  western,  this  being 
partly  the  result  of  rye  being  less  susceptible  than  spring-seed  to  the  drought 
which  prevails  in  these  parts  of  the  country  during  the  early  summer.  In 
Upper  Norrland,  winter  rye  is  little  cultivated,  but  gains  in  extent  in  the 
same  proportion  that  rotation  of  crops  with  fallow  is  introduced  there.  In 
the  southern  part  of  the  country,  winter  rye  has  in  general  been  cultivated, 
with  short  clubby  grains,  derived  in  part  from  the  probsteij  rye  that  has  been 
introduced;  the  rye  cultivated  in  the  northern  part  of  the  country  has  gener- 
ally smaller  and  longer  grains.  In  the  southern  and  central  parts  of  the 
country,  the  native  sorts  have,  in  no  inconsiderable  degree,  been  supplanted  by 
the  German  Petkus-rye,  which  has  been  introduced  of  late  years  and  gives  better 
returns,  but  which,  on  the  other  hand,  is  not  hardy  enough  for  Northern  Sweden. 
In  the  latter  part  of  the  country  there  is  employed,  although  on  a  smaller  scale 


THE    CULTIVATION    OF    CEREALS. 


61 


2ii  26  28 


CD     -10  % 

C^  10-20  . 


12  Ejt  de  Grcc] 


OsllvGj-L-eiiw 


Gen.Stab.LitAnerStockholn' 


f)2 


in.      RURAL    HDSBANDRY. 


than  before,  sowing-seed  from  Finland,  the  rye  from  which  country  —  which  is 
similar  in  climate  to  the  north  of  Sweden  —  is  celebrated  for  its  great  hardiness,  the 
result,  in  part,  of  its  being  kiln-dried  as  a  rule.  In  consequence  of  the  small- 
ness  of  the  grains  of  the  sort  used  and  its  inclination  to  stool  richly,  it  is 
customary  in  the  north  of  Sweden  to  sow  only  small  quantities  of  seed,  which, 
in  the  case  of  kiln-dried  Finnish  rye,  may  be  less  than  1'2  hectoliters  (80  kg) 
per  hectare,  while  the  amount  of  sowing-seed  sowed  in  Southern  Sweden  is 
usually  about  3  hectoliters  (200  kg)  per  hectare.  In  consequence  of  rye  ab- 
sorbing a  great  part  of  its  nutriment  during  the  autumn  and  ripening  early,  it 
is,  in  these  respects,  less  dependent  on  climate  and  on  the  length  of  the  summer, 
and  in  Northern  Sweden,  therefore,  it  usually  gives  just  as  rich  crops  as  in  the 
south  of  the  country,  the  Lans  of  Kopparberg  and  Gavleborg  especially  being 
distinguished  for  their  rich  rye-crops.  Besides  winter-rye,  there  are  also  crdtivated, 
although  on  a  smaller  scale,  midsummer-  and  spring-rye.  Midsummer-rye,  which, 
from  its  method  of  growing,  is  also  called  tufted  rye  (Sw.  tuvrag),  is  sown 
at  midsiunmer  or  later  on  in  that  season,  so  that  it  has  time  to  take  good  root 
before  the  winter  sets  in;  it  is  cultivated  in  Southern  and  Central  Sweden  and 
principally  on  light  soils,  where  the  young  growth  of  the  ordinary  winter-rye 
would  easily  be  withered  by  the  frost.  Midsummer-rye  is  sowed  with  spring-seed 
(principally  oats),  too,  which  in  the  autumn  yields  a  green-fodder  crop,  after  which 
a  ripe  rye  crop  is  obtained  in  the  following  year.  In  the  upper  part  of  Norrland  it 
is  sown  in  the  spring,  together  with  barley,  when  sowing  grass-land,  this  enabling 
a  barley  crop  to  be  cut  the  first  year,  and  then,  the  following  year,  such  a  light 
crop  of  rye  that  the  growth  of  the  grass  is  not  hindered  by  such  a  harvest. 
Spring-rye,  which,  as  far  as  the  fertility  of  the  land  and  its  manuring  are  con- 
cerned, is  one  of  the  least  exacting  of  cereals,  but  also  one  of  the  least  pro- 
ductive, is  nowadays  cultivated  only  to  a  very  small  extent,  chiefly  on  poor 
sandy  soils,  either  alone  or  together  with  oats. 

Barley,  which  was  formerly  the  cereal  produced  most  largely  in  Sweden,  has 
gradually  declined  in  importance,  not  only  relatively  to  other  kinds  of  grain, 
but  during  the  last  few  decades,  absolutely,  as  regards  the  area  devoted  to  its 
cultivation  and  to  the  amount  of  the  crop  (Tables  10  and  11),  so  that,  nowadays, 
in  consequence  of  the .  reasons  already  given,  it  is  only  in  Upper  Norrland  that 
any  great  area  is  devoted  to  its  cultivation.  It  has,  too,  fallen  more  and  more 
into    disuse,    with    the    resiilt  that  to-day  only  an  inconsiderable  amount  is  em- 

Table   18.  Imports  and  Exports  of  Rye.     Quintals. 


Imports 

Exports 

Excess  of      1 

Annually 

grain 

flour 

total  1 

grain 

flour 

total  1 

imp,  (-), 
exp.   (  +  ) 

1816—20 

1821-40 

1841-60 

1861-80 

1881-90 

1891-00 

1901-10 

1911 

1912 

1913 

160  131 

40  210 

84  335 

711  049 

1  439  989 

1 005  974 

871  676 

461 866 

1  068  292 

911  835 

642 

2  333 

36  827 

263  769 

221  279 

102 110 

54  529 

49  650 

74  602 

125  913 

160087 
43307 

133  438 
1 062  741 
1735  028 
1 142 121 

944381 

528056 
1 167  628 
1079  719 

1113 

11134 

130 .571 

32  411 

8  644 

923 

390 

405 
438 

24 

999 

390 

5  661 

16  738 

16  741 

36  040 

10  744 

2  934 

968 

1145 

i2  4e(i 

131091 
39  959 
30961 
23  244 
4S443 

14  730 
4350 
1290 

-  159  842 

-  30  841  : 

-  2  347 
-1022  782 

-  1704067 
-1118  877 

-  895  938 

-  .513  326 

-  1163  278 

-  1  078  429 

'    The   flour   is    here   increased   by  Vs   of  its  weight,  in  order  to  reduce  it  to  nnground 
grain. 


THE   CULTIVATION    OP    CEREALS. 


6H 


Table  19. 


Imports  and  Exports  of  Barley.     Quintals. 


Excess  of 

Excess  of 

Annually 

Imports 

Exports 

imp.  (— ), 
exp.  (  +  1 

Annually 

Imports 

Exports 

imp.  (— ), 
exp.   (  +  ) 

1816-20  .    . 

60  826 

2  079 

-    58  747 

1881-90.    . 

80  330 

235467 

+  155  137 

1821-30  .    . 

19  085 

14  730 

-     4  355 

1891-00  .    . 

62  359 

20  236 

—   42123 

I  1831-40  .    . 

39  304 

18  212 

-    21092 

1901-10  .    . 

24  871 

871 

-   24  0C0i 

1841  - 50.    . 

8  618 

67121 

+    58  503 

1851-60  .    . 

33  968 

191 025 

+  157  057 

1911  .... 

12  795 

53  795 

4     41000 

1861-70  .    . 

50  048 

243  702 

+  193  654 

1912  .... 

61 

32  774 

+    32  713 

1871—80  .    . 

'     77  372 

349  560 

+  272  188 

1913  .... 

122 

12  753 

+    12  631 

ployed  for  bread,  so  that  the  barley-crops,  though  diminished,  have  long  been 
more  than  sufficient  for  the  home  consumption.  From  the  beginning  of  the 
last  decade  of  the  19th  century,  however,  the  home  production  has  not  been 
equal  to  the  demand  in  all  years,  so  that  the  import  of  this  kind  of  grain,  too, 
ofted  exceeds  the  export.  In  the  last  years,  however,  a  considerable  excess  of 
exports  is  again  to  be  noted. 

The  barley  harvest  is,  nowadays,  employed  only  to  a  small  degree  for  human 
food,  and  then  in  the  form  of  meal  and  shelled  grain;  its  chief  use  is  for 
fodder  and,  in  the  case  of  the  better  sorts,  for  double-rowed  barley,  for  the  ma- 
nufacture of  brewing-malt. 

In  the  north  of  Sweden,  and  also  in  the  southern  highland  districts,  the 
early  ripening  here  or  six-rowed  (very  often  but  incorrectly  called  four-rowed) 
barley  is  grown  exclusively  and  even  on  the  clayey  soils  of  the  plains  this 
variety  is  in  fairly  general  use  for  grain-  and  straw-fodder.  The  two-rowed 
barley,  which  is  more  exacting  as  regards  the  fertility  of  the  ground,  and  is 
especially  fond  of  a  soil  rich  in  lime,  is  cultivated  over  larger  areas,  chiefly  in 
the  marl-districts  of  the  country,  South-Western  Skane,  Gottland,  Oland,  Oster- 
gotland,  Narke,  and  Uppland,  and  in  the  first  three  of  the  tracts  mentioned, 
yields  very  fine  malting  barley.  Of  the  six-rowed  barley  chiefly  old  native 
varieties  are  grown,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  the  varieties  of  two-rowed  barley 
(Sw.  gumrik,  flattring,  grovkorn),  which  have  been  grown  from  very  early 
days,  have,  in  a  great  measure,  been  ousted  by  higher-class,  selected  sorts, 
chiefly  obtained  from  the  Sowing  Seed  establishment  at  Svalov.  Among  these  are 
new  strains  of  the  English  Chevallier  barley,  the  Princess-  (selected  out  of 
Prentice),  the  Hannchen-  and  Primus  barley. 

Oats,  which,  in  earlier  times,  were  grown  on  only  a  very  small  part  of  the  area 
devoted  to  agriculture,  and  then  chiefly  on  meadow-land  temporarily  under  cul- 
tivation, have  since  come  to  occupy  an  increasingly  prominent  place  among  the 
cereals  of  Sweden.  While,  at  the  beginning  of  the  19th  century,  oats  were 
grown    on    only  little  more  than  one-fifth  of  the  cereal-bearing  soil,  and  gave  a 


Table  20. 


Imports  and  Exports  of  Oats.     Quintals. 


Excess  of 

Excess  of 

Annually 

Imports 

Exports 

imp.  (— ), 
exp.  (  +  ) 

Annually 

Imports 

Exports 

imp.  (— ), 
exp.   (  +  ) 

1816—20  .     . 

5  214 

4  308 

-             906 

1881-90  .    . 

29  307 

1 977  100 

+  1947  793 

1821—30  .    . 

3  9.14 

15  806 

+        11852 

1891-00  .    . 

117  735 

878  991 

+    761256 

1831-40  .    . 

7  992 

39  994 

+      32  002 

1901—10  .    . 

690  528 

90  218 

-   600  310 

1841—50  .    . 

109 

146  697 

+    146  588 

1851—60  .    . 

2  099 

426  261 

+    424162 

1911  .... 

1  020  519 

280  918 

—    739  601 

1861—70  .    . 

2  851 

1  381 059 

+ 1  378  208 

1912  .... 

972  888 

52  368 

—   920  520 

1871—80  .    . 

7  970 

2  405  272 

+  2  397  302 

1913  .... 

643  362 

683  723 

+      40  361 

64  m.      RURAL   HUSBANDRY. 

crop  which,  in  proportion  to  the  total  harvest  of  the  country,  was  of  still  smaller 
proportions,  they  are  now  cultivated  on  a  larger  area  than  that  occupied  by  the 
rest  of  the  Swedish  cereals  together,  and  give  a  good  half  of  the  total  grain- 
crops    of    the    kingdom,    especially  if  we  reckon  its  share  in  the  meslin-harvest. 

The  oat-harvests  exceeded  the  needs  of  the  population  at  an  earlier  period 
than  any  other  kind  of  grain,  and  ever  since  the  beginning  of  the  decade 
1820 — 30,  there  has  been  a  surplus  for  export,  which  gradually  —  and  especi- 
ally from  the  sixties  —  became  very  great  indeed,  but  the  growth  of  the 
cattle-farming  industry  led  to  ever-increasing  demands  on  the  oat-harvests,  and 
since  the  middle  of  the  eighties  the  export  of  oats  has  been  steadily  diminishing, 
while  the  imports  have  risen  to  such  an  extent  that,  from  the  year  1903,  they 
have  exceeded  the  exports. 

As  regards  the  extent  to  which  oats  are  cultivated  in  different  parts  of  the 
country,  this  grain  forms,  to  a  certain  degree,  a  contrast  to  barley,  as  oats  form 
the  chief  crops  principally  in  the  south-western  part  of  the  country,  from  Varm- 
land  to  Halland,  while  they  are  less  predominant  in  the  eastern  and  northern 
lans.  This  is  the  result,  in  part,  of  the  liking  barley  has  for  soils  rich  in 
lime,  soils  which,  on  the  other  hand,  are  less  suitable  for  oats;  we  have  seen 
that  this  preference  of  barley  for  such  land  is  mostly  observable  in  the  marly 
districts  of  Gottland,  Oland,  South- Western  and  North-Eastern  Skane,  and  Oster- 
gotland.  The  predominance  possessed  by  oats  in  other  provinces  depends  especi- 
ally on  the  lesser  demands  it  makes  on  the  character  of  the  soil  —  the  region 
mentioned  above,  lying  in  South-Westem  Sweden,  has,  on  the  whole,  a  poorer 
soil  than  that  of  the  marl-lands  of  the  eastern  lans  (cf.  pp.  35  foil.)  The  smal- 
ler demands  made  by  oats  on  the  percentage  of  nutritive  constituents  of  the 
soil  have  led  to  this  cereal  being  less  often  cultivated  on  newly  manured  ground ; 
it  is  generally  the  last  course  in  the  rotation  of  crops,  after  the  soil,  having 
produced  a  succession  of  other  harvests,  has  lost  most  of  the  fertility  given  to 
it  by  the  manure,  together  with  other  favourable  conditions  obtained  from 
fallowing,  or  by  the  cultivation  of  root-crops,  in  combination  with  a  thorough 
labouring  of  the  ground.  Oats,  too,  grow  better  than  other  grains  on  humous 
or  peat  soils  that  are  poor  in  mineral  constituents,  and  they  form  the  chief  crop 
on  cultivated  peat-  and  moorlands;  in  consequence  of  this  fact,  the  cultivation 
of  oats  has  greatly  increased  during  the  last  forty  years,  simultaneously  with 
the  increase  of  the  moor-area  laid  under  the  plough. 

As  a  result  of  what  has  just  been  said,  we  find  that  oats  are  sown  the 
thickest  of  all  cereals  and  give,  proportionately,  the  smallest  yield  of  grain. 
The  great  amount  of  oats  used  for  sowing,  is,  however,  if  compared  with  that 
of  barley,  so  far  illusory  that  one  hectoliter  of  oats  weighs  less  than  50  kg, 
while  the  same  amount  of  two-rowed  barley  weighs  about  70  kg,  and  six-rowed 
barley  from  60  to  65  kg;  4  hectoliters  of  sowing  oats  per  hectare,  therefore, 
are  not  more  than  equal  to  3'2  hectoliters  of  ordinary  barley.  The  fact  that 
the  amount  of  grain  used  for  seed  in  the  ndrth  of  Sweden  is,  throughout, 
greater  than  that  used  in  the  southern  parts  of  the  country  is  very  probably  due 
to  the  fact  that  the  seed  is  not  so  well  covered  with  soil,  as,  in  that  part 
of  the  country,  the  seed  is  sown  by  hand  and  not  drilled ;  but  the  chief  reason 
must  certainly  be  that,  in  the  northern  parts  of  Sweden,  the  sowing  seed  has 
not  attained  to  full  maturity,  and  so  does  not  possess  perfect  power  of  germina- 
tion. The  inferiority  of  oats  in  respect  to  the  weight  and  value  of  the  grain 
is  made  up  for,  to  some  extent,  by  the  greater  value  of  the  straw,  which,  as 
fodder,  is  superior  to  other  kinds  of  straw,  and,  after  hay,  forms  the  most 
important  roughing  for  all  kinds  of  cattle. 

Many  different  varieties  of  oats  are  cultivated,  with  white,  yellow,  grey, 
light-    or    dark-brown    coloured    grain.     At    an   earlier  date,  dark-brown  varieties 


THE    COLTIVATION    OF    CEREALS. 


65 


predominated  in  the  eastern  liins  of  Sweden,  -while  white  sorts  were  most  common 
in  .the  western  parts  of  the  country,  with,  exceptionally,  grey-grained  varie- 
ties in  tracts  where  agriculture  had  been  much  neglected  (the  more  distant 
parts  of  Smaland  and  Halland).  Since  the  appearance  of  improved  varieties, 
chiefly  white-grained,  those  sorts  have  been  more  generally  cultivated  in  the  former 
black-oat  districts.  Of  the  two  chief  varieties,  as  distinguished  by  the  form  of 
the  panicle,  or  the  all-side  and  one-sided,  or  tartarian  oats,  it  is  chiefly  the 
former  that  is  cultivated,  as  it  gives  a  better  grain  crop,  while  the  latter,  in 
consequence  of  its  profuse  development  of  straw  and  leaves,  is  grown  mostly 
for  green  fodder.  The  old  country  varieties  have,  of  late  years,  been  replaced 
by  improved  sorts,  obtained  chiefly  from  the  establishment  at  Svalov,  such  as 
the  white  or  yellow-white  probstejer-,  ligovo-.  Victory-  (Sw.  seger-),  and  gold-rain 
oats,   and    the  dark-brown   Great  Mogul  varieties. 

In  comparison  with  the  straw-grain  crops  spoken  of  above,  the  leguminous 
cereals  —  peas,  beans  and  vetches  —  occupy  a  more  secondary  position  in  Swedish 
agriculture,  as  they  also  do  in  that  of  other  countries,  and  their  cultivation 
is  still  decreasing  (Table  10)  in  spite  of  the  old  experience  that  the  cultivation 
of  leguminous  plants  increases  rather  than  diminishes  the  fertility  of  the  soil, 
which  experience  has  in  our  own  days  been  confirmed  and  explained,  and  ought  to 
have  led  to  an  increase  in  the  cultivation  of  these  plants.  The  reason  of  this 
is  probably  that  these  plants  give  a  comparatively  smaller  yield  than  cereals.  As 
regards  their  habitat,  it  may  be  said  that  they  are  distinctively  lime-lo-ving  plants 
and  are  therefore  chiefly  cultivated  within  the  marl  districts,  such  as  Ostergot- 
land,  Bohuslan,  TJppland,  the  country  round  Lake  Siljan  and  Lake  Storsjon  in 
Jamtland,  but  on  a  comparatively  smaller  scale,  in  Skane,  Gottland,  and  Oland, 
in  spite  of  the  soil  of  these  provinces  being  rich  in  lime.  The  probable  cause 
of  this  circumstance,  as  far  as  regards  Gottland  and  Oland,  is  that  the  soil  there 
is  too  light  for  these  plants.  Pulse  is  little  cultivated  on  land  poor  in  lime, 
such  as  in  Varmland  and  in  the  highlands  of  Smaland  and  Vastergotland. 

Peas  and  vetches  are  cultivated  both  alone  and  also  (and  especially)  together 
with  oats  and  barley,  as  meslin,  over  the  greater  part  of  the  country;  beans  thrive 
best  in  coast-districts  and  are  chiefly  cultivated  in  Bohuslan  and  the  north  of 
Halland. 

BucTc  wheat,  which  was  formerly  cultivated  pretty  generally  on  sand-  and 
moor-soils  in  the  southern  parts  of  the  country,  has  gradually  lost  its  importance 
and    nowadays    is  chiefly  grown  on  the  poorest  sand-soils  in  Skane. 

The  prices  of  cereals  in  Sweden  during  the  last  six  or  seven  decades  are 
shown   from   the  general  market  prices  given  in  Table  21.     In  general   they  are 


Table  21.       Market  Prices  of  Cereals.    Kronor  per  quintal.' 


Annually 

Wheat 

Rye 

Barley 

Oats 

Annually 

Wheat 

Rye 

Barley 

Oats 

1836—40  . 
1841-45  . 
1846—50  . 
1851—55  . 
1856—60  . 
1861-65  . 
1866-70  . 
1871—75  . 
1876-80  . 

13-71 

14-27 
13-92 
17-75 
18-26 
15-76 
18-09 
18-73 
17-11 

11-07 
12-00 
11-25 
14-10 
13-01 
12-80 
14-65 
14-29 
13-43 

9-86 
8-99 
1004 
12-26 
12-90 
11-29 
13-24 
13-77 

13-12 

7-64 

6-36 

7-39 

9-55 

10-42 

8-95 

10-59 

11-54 

10-99 

1881—86  .    .    . 
1886—90  .    .    . 
1891—00.    .    . 
1901-10  .    .    . 

1911 

1912 

1913 

15-33 
12-82 
13-15 
13-67 

15-25 
15-42 
14-52 

12-37 
10-05 
11-50 
12-59 

1335 

14-20 
13-71 

11-60 
10-06 
11-18 
12-30 

13-24 
13-81 
13-11 

9-76 

8-15 

9-15 

10  57 

11-10 
11-56 
10-95  1 

'    The    prices    given    per    hectoliter    are   reduced  to  -weight,  calculating  that  a  hectoliter 
■weighs:  of  wheat,  77-6  kg;  of  rye,  71- 7  kg;  of  barley,  65  kg  and  of  oats,  47  kg. 

5 — 133179.   Sweden.  II. 


66 


in.      RURAL   HUSBANDRY. 


probably  somewhat  too  low,  but  in  any  case  they  show  approximately  the  course 
the  changes  in  price  have  taken.  Since  1888  these  prices  have  become,  to  a 
certain  degree,  dependent  on  the  import  duties,  as  they  were  during  the  period 
before  1858.  During  the  years  1858 — 87,  cereals,  on  the  other  hand,  could  be 
imported  free  of  duty  into  Sweden. 

Finally,  the  straw-harvest  is  also  a  somewhat  important  feature  of  the 
cultivation  of  cereals.  On  an  average  the  straw-crop  obtained  from  winter 
grain  (wheat  and  rye)  is  estimated  at  about  30  quintals  per  hectare  or  a  little 
more,  and  that  obtained  from  the  spring  cereals  at  about  20  quintals  per  hec- 
tare or  a  little  more.  The  total  amount,  then,  at  the  present  time,  is  about 
15  million  quintals  of  winter  grain  straw  and  about  24  million  quintals  of  spring 
grain  straw,  or  altogether  39  million  quintals.  Other  calculations  give  somewhat 
higher  figures. 

Root-crops. 

Of  root-crops  proper  (illustrations,  see  p.  53)  there  are  cultivated  in- 
Sweden,  besides  potatoes,  the  white  beet-root,  turnips,  and  carrots.  The 
development  of  this  cultivation  is  shown,  as  far  as  the  area  of  the  land 
employed  for  the  purpose  is  concerned,  by  the  figures  in  Table  22,  which, 
however,  for  other  root-crops  than  potatoes,  do  not  date  farther  back  than 
to  1865,  the  year  when  the  annual  agricultural  statistics  first  began  to  be 
issued. 

The  cultivation  of  the  potato  was  introduced  into  Sweden  in  1723  by  Jonas 
Alstromer,  but,  as  in  most  other  countries,  the  new  departure  at  first  met  with 
great  distrust  on  the  part  of  the  people.  Even  at  the  beginning  of  the  19th 
century,  the  cultivation  of  the  potato  had  not  attained  greater  proportions  than,  as 
it    is    estimated,   about  5  000  hectares.     Growing  experience  of  the  value  of  the 


Table  22.          Returns  f 

or  Potatoes  and 

Other  Boot-cropi 

Annually 

P  0  t  a  t 

0  e  s 

Other 

r  0  0  t  -  0 

r  0  p  s 

crop;  quintals 

1 

crop,  quintals  2 

area 
hectares 

area 
hectares 

total 

per 
hectare 

per  inhab 

total 

per 
hectare 

1801—10  .... 

7100 

693  000 

97-6 

0-25 



1811-20  .... 

15  400 

1  554  000 

100-9 

0-55 

— .' 

— 

— 

1821-30  .... 

39  400 

4  242  000 

107-6 

1-37 

— 





1831-40  .... 

56  500 

5  418  000 

95-8 

1-57 

— 





1841-50  .... 

76  500 

7  070  000 

92-4 

1-86 







1851—60.    .    .    . 

97100 

8  869  000 

91-3 

2-12 

— 





1861—70  .... 

129  000 

9  800  000 

75-9 

2-02 

9  301 

-^ 

— 

1871-.80  .... 

150  252 

12  569  000 

83-6 

2-41 

11485 

963  000 

84 

1881-90  .... 

155  096 

12  850  000 

82-8 

2-75 

17  650 

2  504  700 

142 

1891-00  .... 

157  547 

12  221 106 

77-5 

2-48 

34  510 

8 136  000 

235 

1901-10.    .    .    . 

153  246 

14  797  000 

96-5 

2-79 

70  670 

18  205  800 

257 

1911 

152  783 

14  403  830 

94-5 

2-57 

103  965 

29  318  605 

282 

1912 

16  222  920 

2-89 

31604  878 

1913 

152  429 

20  511810 

134 

3-63 

105171 

39  723  620 

377 

1  Calculated  -weight,  70  kg  per  hectoliter,  -which,  however,  is  probably  a  somewhat  high 
figure  for  S-weden;  since  1913  the  figure  67  kg  per  hectoliter  has  been  used.  —  ^  Calculated 
weight,  55  kg  per  hi  for  fodder  root-crops. 


ROOT-CROPS.  67 

Table  23.     Cultivation  of  Potatoes  and  Boot-crops.    Average  for  1901 — 10. 


L  a  n 

A  r 

e  a 

Crops 

Hectares 

In  %  of  whole 
Kingdom's 

Quintals 

In  %  of  whole  Kingdom's 

pota- 

root- 

pota- 

root- 

root- 

sugar- 

pota- 

root- 

sugar- 

toes 

crops 

toes 

crops 

potatoes 

crops 

beet 

toes 

crops 

beet 

Stockh. 

5  872 

578 

3-83 

0-82 

648  887 

169  626 

4-39 

1-71 

_ 

Dppsala 

3  955 

555 

2-68 

0-79 

359  311 

165  143 

— 

2-43 

1-66 

— 

Soderm. 

4  261 

1161 

2-78 

1-64 

340  372 

350  289 

— 

2-30 

3-53 

— 

Osterg. 

6  361 

2  607 

4-15 

3-69 

589  667 

529  252 

113  4971     3-99 

5-32 

1-37 

Jonkop. 

7  224 

2  050 

4-71 

2-90 

685  657 

548  306 

_ 

4-63 

5-52 

— 

Kronob. 

7  986 

1084 

5-21 

1-53 

861 337 

217  005 

— 

5-82 

2-18 

— 

Kalmar 

7  420 

2  416 

4-84 

3-42 

632  378 

398  225 

81539 

4-27 

4-01 

0-99 

Gottl. 

2  834 

3135 

1-85 

4-44 

253  050 

153  973 

479  063 

1-71 

1-55 

5-79 

Blekinge 

8  668 

1373 

5-66 

1-94 

870016 

300  631 

80  787 

5-88 

3-02 

0-98 

Krist. 

22  677 

11980 

14-80 

16  95 

2  313  103 

1820  685 

1  096  821 

15-63 

18-32 

13-27 

Malmohns 

12  231 

30  274 

7-98 

42-84 

1 367  530 

2 174 190 

6  279  738 

9-24 

21-88 

75-95 

Halland 

5  549 

3  201 

3-62 

4-53 

567  226 

920  308 

91155 

3-83 

9-26 

1-10 

Goto.  Boh. 

4  074 

411 

2-66 

0-58 

428353 

85156 

— 

2-90 

0-86 

— 

Alvsb. 

9  064 

1129 

5-92 

1-60 

812  007 

255  255 

— 

5-49 

2-57 

— 

Skarab. 

9  654 

4  596 

6-30 

6-60 

684  343 

876  725 

45  726 

4-62 

8-82 

0-56 

Varml. 

8  477 

548 

5-53 

0-78 

896  580 

74  725 

— 

6-06 

0-75 

— 

Orebro 

5  799 

1305 

3-79 

1-85 

442  407 

288  176 

2-99 

2-90 

— 

Vastm. 

3  220 

562 

2-10 

0-80 

284  909 

144  328 

— 

1-93 

1-45 

— 

Kopparb. 

3  495 

735 

2-28 

1-04 

475 193 

273  495 

— 

321 

2-75 

— 

Gavleb. 

3  661 

159 

2-39 

0-22 

410  597 

65  283 

— 

2-78 

0-66 

— 

Vastern. 

4  706 

238 

307 

0-34 

353  564 

36113 

2-39 

0-36 

— 

Jamtl. 

1646 

225 

1-07 

0-32 

141  095 

43  970 

0-95 

0-44 

— 

Vasterb. 

2  941 

252 

1-92 

0-36 

227  720 

19  943 

— 

1-54 

0-20 

— 

Norrb. 

Whole 

Kingdom 

1471 

89 

0-96 

0-12 

151531 

28  205 

1-02 

0-28 

— 

153  246 

70663 

lOOOO 

100-00 

14  796833 

9939  007 

8268326 

100-00 

100-00 

100-00 

potato  as  an  article  of  food,  and  perhaps  an  equally  great  experience  of  its 
usability  as  raw  material  in  the  manufacture  of  spirits,  brought  about,  from  this 
time,  a  rapid  increase  in  its  cultivation,  so  that,  at  the  middle  of  the  century 
mentioned,  the  area  devoted  to  the  cultivation  of  the  potato  had  risen  to  about 
80  000  hectares.  At  the  close  of  the  century,  this  area  had  been  almost  doubled. 
The  increase  in  the  harvest,  which  is  shown  by  the  diagram  on  p.  68,  has  been 
in  about  the  same  ratio  as  the  increase  in  area. 

The  increase  in  the  crop-produce  per  area-unit  which  is  shown  to  have  taken 
place  during  the  beginning  of  the  19th  century  was  succeeded  by  a  decline, 
which  can  probably  be  explained  by  the  fact  that  the  cultivation  of  the  potato 
was  removed  from  the  small  plots  of  kitchen-gardens  ground  out  to  the  fields, 
where  less  attention  was  paid  to  the  land  and  the  care  of  the  plants.  It  is 
only  during  later  times  that  the  returns  per  hectare  have  shown  a  decided  increase, 
which  has  been  mostly  the  result  of  the  introduction  of  new  and  more  productive 
varieties,  chiefly  of  foreign  origin;  probably,  too,  it  has  been  in  part  the  result 
of  improved  manuring,  especially  in  the  most  southerly  parts  of  the  country, 
where  artificial  manures  have  come  into  fairly  general  use  also  for  this  vege- 
table. The  potato-crop  per  area-unit  in  Sweden  is,  however,  still  fairly  low  as 
compared  with  the  state  of  things  in  the  rest  of  Western  Europe  (see  Table  13). 
That  this  is  not  the  result  of  the  northerly  position  of  Sweden,  or  other  unfa- 
vourable natural  circumstances  is,  however,  quite  probable,  as  the  potato-har- 
vests in  neighbouring  countries  are  greater  than  in  Sweden  —  in  Norway  being 


68 


III.       RURAL    HUSBANDRY. 

Potato -crop;  yearly  averages. 
1841—60. 


1901—10. 


125  000  quintals. 


i  000  000  quintals. 


14  797  000  quintals. 


more  than  50  %  greater  —  and  as  in  Sweden  itself  the  harvest  does  not  decrease 
with  the  higher  latitude  in  which  the  potato  is  grown,  nor  with  the  decreasing 
fertility  of  the  soil.  For  a  long  time  certain  districts  in  Northern  Sweden,  Jamt- 
land  and  the  Lans  of  Gavleborg  and  Kopparberg,  had  the  best  potato-harvests,  and, 
if  of  late  years  the  Skane  Lans  have  reached  equally  high  or  even  higher  figures 
(see  Table  23),  this  depends  chiefly,  as  before  mentioned,  on  the  introduction  of 
new  varieties  and  the  improved  manuring.  The  high  harvest-figures  in  the  parts 
of  Northern  Sweden  just  mentioned  are  probably  partly  due  to  the  fact  that  the 
soil  in  these  regions,  with  their  small  parcels  of  land,  receives  more  careful  atten- 
tion, resembling  actual  kitchen-gardening,  together  with  the  extended  use  of  stable- 
manure.  Another  reason  is  that  the  devastating  diseases  which  often  reduce  the 
yield  of  the  potato-crop  in  the  southern  part  of  the  country  seldom  occur  in  the 
north  of  Sweden. 

During  the  period  1901 — 10,  there  were  harvested  in  Sweden  a  yearly  average 
of  14  797  000  quintals  of  potatoes  (if  a  hectoliter  is  taken  as  weighing  70  kg). 
Taken  per  head  of  the  population,  this  corresponds  to  279  kg,  a  figure  which 
is  little  below  the  average  for  Western  Europe,  which  was  310  kg.  If  from 
this  we  subtract  the  seed-tubers,  which  are  given  at  about  18  hi,  or  1  260  kg 
per  hectare,  the  annual  amount  of  the  harvest  that,  in  Sweden,  remained  available 
for  consumption,  was,  during  the  period  above  mentioned,  about  243  kg  pr 
head  of  the  population.  About  1  million  quintals  are  used  annually  by  the 
distilleries. 

The  consumption  of  potatoes,  chiefly  as  human  food  but  also  for  the  manu- 
facture of  spirits,  and,  in  a  lesser  degree,  as  food  for  cattle,  pigs  especially,  has, 
from  about  35  liters,  or  a  weight  of  about  25  kg  per  inhabitant,  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  19th  century,  risen  to  about  10  times  this  amount  at  the  close  of 
this  period.  For  a  long  time  the  consumption  was  in  proportion  to  the  harvest, 
so  that  there  were  no  noteworthy  imports  or  exports,  but,  since  the  latter  part 
of  the  nineties,  a  change  has  taken  place  in  this  respect,  and  there  has  been  an 
excess  of  imports,  to  an  annual  average  of  about  200  000  quintals. 

Apart  from  this,  however,  potatoes,  in  consequence  of  their  great  bulk,  are, 
far  less  than  grain,  the  object  of  transport  and  trade  between  different  countries 
and  districts,  and,  as  a  rule,  the  demand  for  potatoes  in  Sweden  is  supp- 
lied by  local  cultivation.  The  cultivation  of  potatoes,  therefore,  is  very  evenly 
distributed  throughout  the  country  and,  as  a  rule,  embraces  about  30  hect- 
ares   of    land    per    1  000    inhabitants.     Its   share  of  the  cultivated  land,    which. 


ROOT-CROPS.  69 

on  an  average  for  the  whole  country,  amounts  to  something  more  than  4  %, 
is  subject  to  somewhat  great  variations,  and  is  higher  in  the  less  cultivated 
parts  of  the  countrj'  and  in  those  districts  where  small  farming  predominates, 
but  is  less  on  the  extensive  farms  on  the  plains,  whose  clayey  soils,  too, 
are  less  suitable  for  the  cultivation  of  potatoes  than  the  light  earth  of  the  forest 
districts.  A  large  proportion  of  the  cultivated  ground  too,  is,  devoted  to  the 
cultivation  of  the  potato  in  those  districts  where  the  manufacture  of  spirits  is 
carried  on  on  a  large  scale,  such  as  in  the  Lans  of  Ej-istianstad,  Blekinge,  Jon- 
koping,  Kronoberg,  and  Skaraborg. 

The  varieties  of  potatoes  cultivated  differ  greatly  both  in  appearance  and 
in  taste.  In  Northern  Sweden  there  have,  as  a  rule,  been  retained  the  old- 
fashioned,  ordinary  round  sorts  with  yellow  flesh  and  rich  crops,  whose 
slight  power  of  resistance  against  disease  is  of  little  importance  in  the  districts 
mentioned,  where  potato-disease  very  seldom  occurs;  the  character  of  this  potato, 
however,  does  not  make  it  suitable  for  cultivation  in  more  southerly  tracts.  In 
the  southern  and  central  parts  of  the  country,  on  the  other  hand,  the  old  sorts 
of  potatoes  have  been  supplanted  by  newer  and  more  productive  varieties,  which,  in 
most  cases,  possess  greater  powers  of  resistance  to  disease;  these  varieties  have 
been  introduced  from  North  America,  England,  and,  of  late,  especially  from  Ger- 
many. Among  the  varieties  now  more  commonly  cultivated  may  be  especially 
noticed  two  sorts,  which  have  been  much  grown  in  Sweden  since  the  seventies ; 
the  American  "Early  Rose"  potato,  which,  however,  is  not  capable  of  offering 
much  resistance  to  disease,  and  the  white  English  Magnum  Bonum.  In  addition, 
there  are  also  fairly  generally  cultivated  the  early,  white  table-potato  Early 
Puritan,  the  medium-late  Up-to-Date,  which  resembles  the  Magnum  Bonum, 
and  a  number  of  productive,  but  coarse,  German  varieties,  very  rich  in  starch, 
such  as  the  white  Prof.  Maercker,  Geheimrath  Thiel,  Richter's  Imperator,  and 
Silesia. 

The  cultivation  of  the  sugar-beet,  which,  in  Sweden,  was  begun  as  early  as 
during  the  second  decade  of  the  19th  century,  but  which  cannot  be  said  to 
have  gained  a  firm  footing  in  the  country  before  the  fifties,  has  gradually  made 
great  progress  and,  during  the  last  few  decades,  has  developed  enormouslj'. 
After  the  unsuccessful  attempts  which  were  made  about  1870  to  extend  the 
cultivation  of  the  sugar-beet  to  Central  Sweden,  and  all  beet-sugar  factories  north 
of  Skane  soon  had  to  be  closed  again,  the  Swedish  sugar-beet  cultivation  was 
long  restricted  to  that  province,  where  the  natural  conditions  necessary  are 
better  satisfied  than  anywhere  else  in  the  country.  Since  the  beginning  of  the 
nineties,  the  cultivation  of  the  sugar-beet  has  once  more  been  extended  and  at 
the  present  day  is  carried  on  in  Halland,  Blekinge,  Southern  Kalmar  Lan,  Oland, 
Ostergotland,  and  Vastergotland.  Since  the  middle  of  the  nineties,  the  area  devoted 
to  the  cultivation  of  the  sugar-beet  has  risen  from  about  18  000  hectares  to 
nearly  30  000  hectares  in  1911,  and  during  the  same  period,  the  crop  has  about 
doubled;  during  the  years  1901 — 10,  it  amounted  to  8  268  808  tons,  or  27"8 
tons  per  hectare,  figures  little  inferior  to  those  for  the  countries  which  stand 
highest  in  this  respect  —  the  Netherlands  and  Belgium.  The  percentage  of 
sugar  has  been  steadily  on  the  increase,  so  that  the  amount  of  raw  sugar  ob- 
•  tained  has  risen  from  6"6  %  per  weight-unit  in  1870  to  15"77  %  in  1912.  The 
kind  which  is  cultivated  is  of  the  German  Klein-Wanzerbener  variety,  the 
seed  being  mostly  obtained  from  Germany. 

In  addition  to  the  considerable  direct  income  that  the  cultivation  of  the  sugar- 
beet  gives  the  farmer,  it  also  confers  the  advantages  of  a  more  thorough  tilling, 
weeding  and  manuring  of  the  soil  than  other  plants  demand  and  repay  by  their 
crops,   so  that  the  cultivation  of  the  beet  prepares  the  way  for  increased  and  more 


70  in.      RURAL   HUSBANDRY. 

even  harvests  of  other  plants,  too.  These  advantages  would  be  conferred  by  the 
cultivation  of  other  root-crops,  too,  if  the  same  attention  were  paid  them,  which  is, 
as  a  rule,  not  the  case,  although  their  cultivation  is  calculated  to  increase  the  pro- 
ductiveness of  the  soil  and  of  cattle-rearing,  too,  as  they  provide  supplies  of  juicy 
fodder.  The  area  devoted  to  the  cultivation  of  root-crops,  in  proportion  to  the 
entire  cultivated  area,  can  therefore  with  good  reason,  be  regarded  as  a  measure 
of  the  standard  to  which  agriculture  and  cattle-rearing  have  attained. 

It  is  only  of  late  that  the  cultivation  of  root-crops  has  become  very  general, 
but,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  area  employed  for  such  cultivation  has  during 
the  last  quarter  of  the  century  very  rapidly  increased  from  25  000  hectares  in 
1890  to  104  000  hectares  in  1911,  the  root-crops  in  the  year  last-mentioned  did 
not  occupy  fully  3  ^  of  the  cultivated  land  of  the  country.  Those  crops  are  mostly 
cultivated  in  Malmohus  Lan,  where  the  area  devoted  to  them  is  more  than  10  ?^  of 
the  whole  area  of  cultivated  land,  this  lan  supplying  over  one-third  of  the  total  root- 
crops  of  the  country  (the  sugar-beet  included)  and  nearly  one  quarter  of  the  total 
harvest  of  fodder  root-crops.  The  other  lans,  too,  where  the  sugar-beet  is  cultivated, 
as  well  as  the  Lans  of  Kopparberg,  Jonkoping,  and  Jamtland,  carry  on  the  culti- 
vation of  fodder  root-crops  more  extensively  than  do  other  parts  of  the  country. 
On  the  whole,  this  important  branch  of  agriculture  is  still  much  neglected  over  the 
greater  part  of  the  country,  this  being  partly  the  result  of  a  want  of  knowledge 
of  its  great  economic  importance,  though  it  is  also  the  result  of  the  difficulty 
there  exists  in  procuring  the  labour  necessary  for  the  proper  culture  of  such 
crops. 

Among  fodder  root-crops,  the  beet  is  much  grown  in  the  clayey  soils  of 
Southern  Sweden,  but  of  the  other  species,  the  turnip  is  the  one  most  cultivated, 
being  in  fact  the  only  one  grown  in  Northern  Sweden;  the  variety  chiefly 
cultivated  is  the  long,  white-fleshed  Bortf elder  turnip.  The  Swedish  turnip  and 
the  carrot  are  cultivated  less;  the  former  chiefly  on  stiff  clay  soils,  the  latter 
on  sandy  and  humous-soils. 


Fodder-crops. 

Of  the  total  area  of  cultivated  land  in  1911,  or  3  6.54  925  hectares, 
1  357  763  hectares  were  devoted  to  the  growth  of  fodder,  this  being  a 
proportion  of  37-1  %.  It  has  already  been  shown  (p.  44)  how  this 
relative  proportion  has  been  increased  of  late  years.  Of  the  area  just 
stated,  164  341  hectares  are  employed  for  pasture  or  green-fodder  crops, 
and  1  193  422  hectares  for  hay  crops. 

The  fodder-crops,  which  are  most  generally  cultivated  as  leys  in  Sweden, 
are  mixtures  of  timothy  and  red-  and  alsike  or  hybrid  clover.  Timothy  was 
grown  in  Dalarne  as  early  as  in  the  18th  century.  Linneus  found  alsike  clover 
in  1750,  growing  wild  on  the  ditch-sides  in  Alsike  parish  in  Uppland.  He  drew 
the  attention  of  the  farmers  to  this  fodder-plant  as  a  hardy  one  which  was 
not  exacting  with  regard  to  climate;  now  it  is  cultivated  in  most  other 
countries. 

It  was  not  before  the  system  of  rotation  of  crops  was  introduced  that  seeds 
were  grown  on  a  large  scale.  As  a  rule  the  leys  were  retained  for  3 — 4  years; 
in  Eorrland,  as  a  rule,  this  time  has  been  much  longer,  but  as,  in  the  absence 
of  manuring,  their  yield  diminished  greatly  after  the  second  year,  it  has  now 
become  a  fairly  general  custom  to  plough  up  such  fields  after  the  second  or 
even  after  the    first  year.     In    the    south    of  Sweden   there  are  grown,  together 


FODDER-CROPS.  71 

with,  or  instead  of,  timothy  and  clover,  various  other  grasses  and  leguminous 
plants,  such  as  Italian  and  English  rye-grass,  common  brome-grass,  meadow-fescue, 
tall  oat  grass,  trefoil,  and  kidney-vetch.  In  addition  to  the  leys  that  are  kept 
for  only  one  or  two  years,  it  has  lately  become  the  custom  to  form  perennial 
pasture  lands,  where  the  greater  part  of  the  plants  consist  of  more  hardy  growths, 
such  as  meadow-fescue,  cock's-foot,  tall  oat  grass,  meadow  foxtail,  bird's-foot 
trefoil,  and,  above  all,  lucerne,  which  is  cultivated  alone  and  will  give  rich  har- 
vests for  many  years  in  succession. 

The  harvest  from  artificial  leys  amounts,  according  to  the  Swedish  official 
statistics,  to  25 — 35  quintals  per  hectare,  making  a  total  at  the  present  day  of 
30 — 40  million  quintals  in  ordinary  years.  In  addition  to  this,  there  is  the 
hay-harvest  from  natural  meadows,  which  is  calculated  at  about  10 — 12  quin- 
tals    per  hectare,  or  a  total  of  about  15   million   quintals. 

The  total  hay-harvest,  apart  from  the  pasturage,  thus  usually  amounts  to  more 
than  50  million  quintals,  of  a  value  of  about  250  million  kroner,  or  about  ^/a 
of  the  value  of  the  total  harvests  of  the  country. 

Of  seed  (clover,  timothy,  etc.),  the  harvest  was  given  in  1911  as  no  less  than 
63  420  quintals,  but  usually  falls  as  low  as  about  55  000  quintals;  the  figures 
adduced  in  this  respect,  however,  are  very  incomplete.  The  import  of  grass- 
seed  in  1910  amounted  to  15  830  quintals  and  usually  varies  between  30  000 
and  40  000  quintals  (after  subtracting  the  amount  exported),  from  which  it  is 
seen  that  the  home  production  is  insufficient  and  usually  supplies  only  about 
60  %  of  the  seed  needed. 


Sweden  possesses  very  extensive  areas  of  natural  pastures,  but  there 
are  no  accurate  figures  to  be  had,  either  of  its  area  or  yield. 

Formerly,  and  as  long  as  the  two-yearly  and  a  three-yearly  rotation  of  crops 
were  generally  employed,  the  larger  live  stock  were  allowed  during  the  summer 
to  find  their  food  on  the  fallow-lands,  and,  after  the  hay-harvest  on  the  natural 
meadows  in  enclosed  pasture  packs  as  well  as  in  the  forests.  The  pasture-lands  are 
still  of  great  importance  in  many  parts  of  the  country.  In  Norrland  and  in  Dalarne, 
forest-  and  mountain-pasturage  is  still  relied  upon,  the  cattle  being  taken  there  from 
the  farms  in  the  early  part  of  the  summer;  temporary,  roughly  constructed  dwellings 
are  found  at  such  places,  and  are  called  fabodar  (cattle-cottages) ;  here  the  women 
and  girls  who  tend  the  grazing  cattle  live,  and  here  they  make  the  butter  and 
cheese.  In.  Central  and  Southern  Sweden,  pasturage  is  nowadays  employed  only 
on  a  small  scale  for  milk-cows;  on  farms  where  the  cultivation  is  developed  to 
a  higher  standard  the  cattle  graze  only  on  the  leys,  while  the  pasturage  in  the 
enclosed  groves  are  chiefly  reserved  for  foals  and  young  cattle.  Small  farmers, 
cottagers,  and  day-labourers  on  farms,  in  many  places  let  their  cattle  graze  in 
forest  pastures,  but  the  right  to  do  so  is  nowadays  being  restricted  in  places 
where  modern  methods  of  forest-culture  have  been  introduced.  In  many  lans  it 
is  forbidden  to  allow  goats  to  graze  in  the  woods,  a  fact  that  has  contributed 
to  reducing  the  numbers  of  these  animals.  Where  the  woods  are  the  object  of 
greater  care,  sheep,  too,  are  not  willingly  allowed  to  pasture  there.  The  best 
enclosed  pastures  in  the  south  of  Sweden  are  probably  to  be  found  in  Smaland, 
and  especially  in  the  island  of  Gottland,  where  the  ground  is  covered  with  various 
kinds  of  grass  and  a  multitude  of  herbs,  many  of  the  latter  being  leguminous. 
Foliage-trees  of  various  kinds,  mostly  oak  and  birch,  stand  there,  either  singly  or 
in  more  or  less  dense  groups  in  the  small  parks.  —  Of  late  years,  as  we  have 
mentioned  above,  the  farmers  have  commenced  to  form  permanent  grass-lands 
which  are  employed  both  for  hay-making  purposes  and  for  pasture. 


72 


III.      RURAL   HUSBANDRY. 


12  Est  de  Creenw. 


Easl  of  Greenu 


Dates  for  com- 
mencing the 
hay-harvest  in 
different  parts 
of  the  country. 


Ostl.v,  Greenw, 

Cen.Si.-ib.LiuA.isLStockholm 


AGRICULTURAL    IMPLEMENTS.  73 


Other  cultivated  plants 

are  of  small  importance  for  Swedish  agriculture.  Some  data  are 
given  respecting  tlie  cultivation  of  flax  and  tobacco  in  the  corresponding 
sections  of  the  chapter  on  Swedish  Industries.  Rape,  which  was  formerly 
cultivated  to  a  fairly  great  extent  in  Skane,  Southern  Halland,  and  in 
the  island  of  Grottland  is  seldom  cultivated  nowadays. 

The  entire  area  of  cultivated  land  which  is  employed  for  the  production 
of  other  plants  than  grain,  root-crops,  or  fodder-plants,  amounted  in  1911 
to  no  more  than  1  634  hectares,  1  531  hectares  of  which  were  devoted  to 
flax. 

Agricultural  Implements. 

In  Sweden,  as  in  most  other  countries,  agricultural  implements  long  remained 
at  a  very  primitive  standpoint  and  consisted  for  the  most  part  of  some  few  home- 
made tools.  The  strenuous  efforts  to  improve  the  state  of  agriculture  which 
arose  at  the  close  of  the  wars  at  the  beginning  of  the  19th  century  found 
expression,  too,  in  the  introduction,  principally  by  the  efforts  made  by  the  newly- 
established  Academy  of  Agriculture,  of  new,  improved  models  of  agricultural  im- 
plements, chiefly  of  English  origin.  During  this  time,  for  example,  was  in- 
troduced the  Scotch  plough,  on  Small's  model,  provided  with  a  share  and  mould- 
board,  which  more  and  more  supplanted  the  native  ironshod  wooden  ploughs,  of 
which  various  types  were  in  use  in  various  districts.  There  were  also  introduced 
the  ridging-plough,  the  extirpator,  sowing  machines  of  various  kinds,  winnowing- 
machines  etc. 

The  new  implement-models,  however,  were  at  first  only  adopted  on  the 
manor-farms,  the  peasantry  holding  stubbornly  to  their  older  forms.  The  new 
models,  however,  soon  came  into  great  demand  after  the  establishment,  commen- 
cing with  the  forties,  of  a  fairly  large  number  of  Swedish  factories  for  the 
manufacture  of  agricultural  implements;  amongst  these  may  be  mentioned  Koc- 
kum's  at  Malmo,  Keiller's  in  Gothenburg,  Overrum  in  Kalmar  Lan,  Navekvarn, 
Hallefors,  Aker-  and  Nykvarn  in  Sodermanland,  Breven's  Factory  in  Narke, 
Forsvik  in  Varmland,  and  Furudal  and  Dalfors  in  Dalarne.  In  addition  to  this,  the 
newly-established  agricultural  institutes  (schools  and  highschools)  actively  contributed 
to  the  spread  of  the  new  implement-models,  the  implements  being  manufactured  at 
the  said  schools  and  the  pupils  being  made  accustomed  to  their  use.  During  the 
course  of  time,  several  additional  foreign,  and  not  a  few  new  Swedish,  models 
were  adopted;  the  latter  were  usually  modified  constructions  of  foreign  types. 
Such  were  the  swing-plough,  founded  on  Small's  and  the  native  Varmland- 
plough,  the  Aker-  and  Furudal-ploughs,  on  American  models,  the  Scotch  rhomboidal- 
and  the  English  zig-zag  harrow,  broadcast  corn-distributors  and  drills,  horse-hoes, 
horse-rakes  on  wheels,  etc. 

During  the  sixties  and  seventies  there  took  place  a  considerable  import  of 
English  and  American  implements,  but,  at  the  same  time,  there  was  brought 
about  a  concentration  of  the  home  manufacture,  the  greater  number  of  the 
smaller  factories  ceasing  to  exist,  while  several  of  the  older  factories,  such  as 
Overrum's,  Munktell's,  and  Keiller's,  and  some  newly-established  works,  such  as 
Thernuenius,  at  Hallsberg,  and  the  Vasteras  Mechanical  Workshops,  were  en- 
larged, and  commenced  the  manufacture  of  various  newly-introduced  types.    Nu- 


74  III.      KURAL    HUSBANDRY. 

merous  exhibitions,  too,  contributed  largely  to  making  the  new  implement- 
models  known  and  spread  in  all  parts  of  the  country  and  among  the  great 
bulk  of  the  farmers.  During  this  period,  too,  hay-making  and  harvesting  machi- 
nes, tiger-horse-rakes  and  peg-drum-threshing-machines  were  introduced  and  were 
soon  manufactured  within  Sweden,  too. 

This  development  has  continued  ever  since.  New  implement-models  have 
been  introduced  from  abroad,  such  as  the  multiple  ploughs,  the  ring-  and  Cam- 
bridge rollers  corn-screens,  etc.  in  the  eighties;  the  American  ploughs  with 
skimcoulter,  share  and  mould-board  of  hard-tempered  steel;  springtooth-  and  disc- 
harrows, binder  harvesters  in  the  nineties,  and  extirpators  on  wheels  and 
petrol-motors,  in  the  first  decade  of  the  present  century.  Several  native  con- 
structions, too,  have  been  brought  into  the  market,  such  as  C.  M.  Wiberg's  (of 
Ransta)  "•slad"-harrow  and  artificial  manure-spreader  and  the  balance-horse  rake. 
Above  all,  the  Swedish^  constructors  have  gained  a  notably  prominent  place  in 
the  sphere  of  dairy-machine  technics  and  milking-machines,  for  a  more  detailed 
account  of  which  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  section  on  the  dairy-industry. 

By  means  of  new  constructions  and,  above  all,  by  alterations  in  older  forms, 
the  implement-market  has  been  enriched  with  a  number  of  various  types  suited 
to  various  conditions  and  available  capital.  Simultaneously,  the  technical  per- 
fection of  the  manufacture  has  also  made  progress,  this  having  been  essentially 
aided  by  the  various  factories  devoting  themselves  to  certain  specialities,  and 
that  with  such  success  that,  nowadays,  they  not  only  render  foreign-made  goods 
unnecessary  but  can  also  compete  with  them  in  the  foreign  markets.  Among 
the  most  prominent  Swedish  productions  of  agricultural  implements  may  be  men- 
tioned: ploughs  from  Overrum,  Norrahammar,  Kockum's  in  Malmo,  and  Arvika; 
spring-tooth-harrows  from  Overrum,  Norrahammar  and  Kockum's:  "slad"-harrows 
from  Wiberg's  in  Ransta;  drills  from  Vasteras  Farming  Implements  Co.  and 
the  Gavle  Field-Implements  Co.,  and  the  Overrum's  and  Ystad  Factories;  mowers 
from  Overrum's,  the  Vasteras  Farming  Implements  Co.  and  the  Arvika  Factory; 
horse-rakes  from  Vasteras  Farming  Implements  Co.,  Katrineholm's  and  Overrum's 
Factories;  threshing-machines  from  Munktell's  in  Eskilstuna  and  Thermsenius'  at 
Hallsberg;  steam-locomobiles  from  Munktell's  and  petrol-motors  from  Svensson's 
Factory  at  Augustendal,  Bolinder's  in  Stockholm,  etc. 

The  introduction  of  public  tests  of  implements  has,  in  some  degree,  contri- 
buted to  the  improvement  in  the  manufacture  of  implements,  and  to  the  enforced 
withdrawal  from  the  market  of  goods  of  second-class  workmanship. 

As  early  as  the  seventies  there  commenced,  in  connection  with  the  general 
agricultural  meetings,  practical  testings  of  farming  implements  the  object  of 
which  was  to  facilitate  the  judging.  By  means  of  a  magnificent  gift  of  the  A.B. 
Separator  in  1896,  it  became  possible  to  establish  regular  implement-testing 
centres  at  Ultuna  and  Alnarp,  at  which  agricultural  high  schools  the  work  has 
since  continued,  being  nowadays  entirely  supported  by  State  grants. 


Horticulture  and  Floriculture. 

The  area  of  the  gardens  and  orcharcls  of  Sweden  is  reckoned  for  1911  at 
45  719  hectares,  corresponding  to  about  1-25.  %  of  the  cultivated  soil. 

Until  the  eighties  of  the  last  century  horticulture  had  been  carried  on 
mainly  in  the  manor-houses,  and  with  the  object  of  supplying  the  proprietor 
with  garden  products.  What  was  not  consumed  for  the  household  was  sold 
in  the  towns.  At  this  time,  however,  people  began  to  realize  pretty  generally 
the  importance  of  horticulture  as  a  brancli  of  industry.     The  cultivation 


HORTICULTURE   AND   FLORICULTURE. 


75 


of  some  particular  plant  or  other  was  made  a  speciality,  and  this  cultivation 
was  carried  on  as  intensively  as  possible.  Market-gardens  were  laid  out 
all  over  the  country  and  in  the  course  of  the  last  twenty  years,  a  large 
body  of  independent  market  gardeners  has  arisen  in  Sweden. 


Kronoberg  Park,  Stockholm. 


Pomology  is_  without  doubt  the  most  important  branch  of  Swedish  gardening 
and  is  pursued  with  great  intensity  in  certain  parts  of  the  country.  According 
to  the  adaptability,  as  regards  soil  and  climate,  of  the  various  districts  for 
successful  fruit-growing,  tlie  country  has  been  divided  into  five  zones.  The 
first  of  these  zones  comprises  Malmohus  Ian,  and  the  coast  districts  of  Halland, 
Kristianstad,  Blekinge,  and  south  Kalmar  lans  up  to  Monsteras,  as  well  as  the 
islands  of  Gottland  und  Oland.  The  second  zone  includes  the  forest  districts 
of  Halland,  Kristianstad,  Blekinge,  and  south  Kalmar  lans,  almost  the  whole  of 
north  Kalmar  Ian,  Ostergotland,  Bohuslan,  parts  of  Vastergotland,  and  the 
Malar  valley.  The  third  zone  comprises  part  of  Smaland,  namely  a  narrow 
belt  touching  on  the  second  zone,  Dalsland,  parts  of  Vastergotland,  the  whole 
of  Sodermanland,  and  the  south  parts  of  Narke  and  Vastmanland.  The  fourth 
zone  includes  almost  the  whole  of  Jonkoping  Ian,  Varmland,  and  the  north 
parts  of  Narke,  Vastmanland  and  Uppland.  Finally,  the  fifth  zone  embraces 
south  Dalarne  and  the  coast  region  of  Norrland. 

In  the  first  zone  are  cultivated  mainly  finer  kinds  of  pears,  such  as  Louise 
Bonne  of  Jersey,  Doyenne  du  Comice,  Doyenne  Boussoch,  Moltke,  and  William 


76 


III.      RURAL    HUSBANDRY. 


pears,  as  well  as  two  kinds  of  apples,  Cox's  Orange  and  Cox's  Pomona.  In 
Gottland  is  also  cultivated  the  Stenkyrke  apple,  in  Halland  and  in  south  Kalmar 
Ian,  Gravenstein.  In  the  second  zone  are  produced,  on  the  whole,  the  finest  apples, 
parti  cularlj'  Gravenstein,  the  Akero  apple,  and  Yellow  Richard.  In  the  third 
zone  the  Akero,  Savstaholm,  and  the  Oranie  apples  predominate.  In  both  the 
second  and  the  third  zone  are  also  cultivated  with  success  certain  finer  kinds 
of  JDears,  such  as  the  Fondante  d'automne,  Yat  Yutte,  and  Moltke  pears;  in 
the  second  zone  also  Louise  Bonne  of  Jersey,  and  William.  These  three  are  the 
fruitgrowing  zones:  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  fruit-growing  is  of  minor  importance. 


Photo.  E.   SIDEKELADH  J:Il. 

Scene  in  Norsborg  Park,  Sbdermanland. 


Within  the  three  first  zones  a  number  of  Fruit-growers'  Associations  strive  to 
promote  the  cultivation  of  fruit.  Each  of  these  associations  keep  a  'Hrdd- 
skotare",  that  is,  a  man  whose  business  it  is  to  do  skilled  gardening  work  in 
the  orchards  of  the  members;  for  this  work  he  is  paid  according  to  a  fixed 
rate.  In  certain  lans,  such  as  for  instance  in  Sodermanland,  there  are  over  60 
of  these  associations.  In  that  Ian  these  associations  are  in  turn  amalgamated 
into  one  big  Union,  embracing  the  whole  of  the  Ian ;  it  has  instituted  several 
"fruit  depots",  that  is,  magazines  to  which  the  fruit-growers  can  send  their  fruit. 
The  fruit  is  then  sorted  and  packed,  and  sold  through  the  agency  of  the 
superintendent  of  the  depot.  The  Union  also  undertakes  the  purchase  of  materials 
required  for  the  orchards. 

In  recent  years  fruit-drying  establishments  of  the  same  kind  as  those  in  the 
United  States  have  been  erected  in  several  places,  and  it  is  now  only  a  question 
of  time  when  Sweden  will  produce  enough  dried  fruit  to  supply  home  needs. 

Cherries    and    plums    are    cultivated    to    a  considerable  extent,  particularly  in 


HORTICULTURE  AND  FLORICULTURE. 


77 


the  first  three  zones.  Gooseberries,  currants,  raspberries,  and  strawberries  arc 
grown  almost  all  over  Sweden.  During  tlie  last  few  years,  however,  an 
epidemic  fungus  disease  "the  American  gooseberry-mildew"  has  greatly  hindered 
the  cultivation  of  the  chief  kinds  of  berries.  Peaches,  apricots,  walnuts,  and 
mulberries  can  be  successfully  cultivated  in  the  open  only  in  certain  parts  of 
the  first  zone.  Grapes  and  peaches,  on  the  other  hand,  are  pretty  generally 
cultivated  under  glass. 

Large  orchards  are  pretty  common.  The  largest  are  at  Helmershus,  Hiilsing- 
borg  and  Bastad  in  Skane,  Adelsnas  and  Norrviken  in  Ostergotland  and  at 
Gripsholm  in  Sodermanland.  The  number  of  fruit-trees  in  each  of  these  plant- 
ations varies  between   3  000  and   6  000. 


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Groups  of  Cactuses  in  Sumlegarden  Park,  Stockholm. 


Horticulture  has,  in  consequence  of  the  keen  interest  taken  in  fruit-growing 
and  gardening  in  general,  been  carried  up  to  a  high  standard  during  recent 
years.  Notwithstanding  that  new  nurseries  have  been  laid  out  and  the  old  ones 
considerably  enlarged,  the  supply  of  garden  products  is  at  present  rather  scanty, 
so  that  import  has  become  necessary,  especially  of  certain  articles,  such  as 
roses. 

Floriculture  under  glass  has  been  greatly  developed,  as  is  attested  by  the  fact 
that,  though  the  consumption  of  flowers  has  been  increased  many  times  over 
during  the  last  twenty  years,  the  Swedish  floriculturalists  as  a  whole  are  now 
able  to  cope  with  the  domestic  demand.  At  present  hardly  any  other  flowers 
are  imported  than  carnations  and  roses  during  the  months  from  December  to 
February.  The  value  of  the  whole  import  of  flowers  did  not  amount  in  1913  to 
more  than  171  616  kronor. 


78  III.       RURAL    HUSBANDRY. 

In  the  Yicinity  of  the  larger  towns,  particularly  Stockholm,  Gothenburg, 
Malmo,  Norrkoping,  Lund,  Sundsvall,  very  large  blocks  of  greenhouses  have  been 
erected  during  the  last  few  years.  In  certain  places,  such  as,  for  instance,  at  Rid- 
dersvik  near  Stockholm,  a  large  number  of  market-gardeners  have  settled;  they 
carry  on  mainly  floriculture  under  glass.  Many  of  these  floriculturalists  have 
worked    for    several    years    in   German,  Belgian,  or  English  market-gardens. 

There  are  only  a  small  number  of  public  greenhouse  establishments.  The 
big  and  well-kept  greenhouse  establishment  of  the  Tradgardsforening  at  Gothen- 
burg is  considered  to  be  one  of  the  very  best  of  its  kind  that  any  country  can 
boast  of. 

Vegetable-growing  is  carried  on  all  over  the  country  both  for  household 
requirements  and  for  sale.  The  largest  kitchen  gardens  are  found  in  the 
vicinity  of  Landskrona,  Linkoping,  Norrkoping  and  Enkoping. 

The  public  plantations  of  Sweden,  can  stand  comparison  with  those  of  any 
other  country.  In  all  the  larger  Swedish  towns  there  are  public  parks  with 
flower  plantations,  usually  extremely  well  kept,  and  often  very  expensive.  In 
this  respect  the  lead  is  taken  by  Stockholm,  whose  plantations  have  attracted 
deserved  notice  from  strangers  and  foreigners.  In  1913  the  plantations  of 
Stockholm  cost  251  775  kroner.  There  are  also  celebrated  public  plantations  in 
Gothenburg,  Malmo,  Gavle  and  Norrkoping.  The  last-named  town  possesses 
the  longest  avenue  of  limes  that  any  European  town  can  boast  of. 

Neat  and  well-kept  plantations  have  also  been  laid  out  at  the  railway  stations. 

Educational  establishments  for  gardeners  are  found  at  Alnarp  in  Skane, 
Adelsnas  in  Ostergotland,  Experimentalfaltet  at  Stockholm,  and  Harnosand  in 
Norrland.  The  School  at  Alnarp  is  managed  by  the  State,  while  that  at 
Experimentalfaltet  belongs  to  the  >  Academy  of  Agriculture.  The  two  other 
establishments  are  private  schools,  but  are  subsidized  by  the  State.  All  these 
schools  have  a  two  years'  course.  In  order  to  obtain  admission  to  any  of  these 
establishments,  it  is  necessary  to  have  had  three  years'  practice  in  gardening. 
Instruction  in  gardening  is  also  imparted  at  the  Bergianska  tradgarden  at  Stock- 
holm, though  not  to  the  same  extent  as  in  the  other  gardening  schools.  There 
are  gardening  schools  intended  exclusively  for  women  at  Espenas  in  Narke  and 
at  Torshall  in  Dalame.  Female  pupils  are,  however,  also  admitted  at  Alnarp, 
Adelsnas  and  Harnosand. 

Four  Government  bursaries  of  1  200  kroner  each  are  awarded  annually  to 
persons  who  have  passed  through  a  State-aided  gardening  school  and  who 
desire  to  acquire  abroad  further  training  in  gardening. 

Gardeners'  Unions  are  pretty  numerous.  The  most  important  are  Sveriges  pomo- 
logiska  forening,  Sveriges  handelstradgardsmastareforbund,  Svenska  tradskole- 
foreningen  and  Sveriges  allmanna  tradgardsforbund,  all  of  them  embracing  the 
whole  ■  country.  There  are,  besides,  local  associations  in  all  parts  of  Sweden. 
The  most  important .  of  these  are  Stockholms  gartnersallskap  at  Stockholm, 
Hortikulturens  vanner  and  Vastra  Sveriges  tradgardsmannasallskap  at  Gothen- 
burg,  and  Skanska  tradgardsforeningen  at  Malmo. 


LIVE-STOCK.  79 


2.    LIVE-STOCK. 

In  general,  and  the  rearing  of  cattle  and  pigs  in  particular. 

Since  time  immemorial,  cattle-rearing  has  been  the  principal  industrj^  of 
Sweden.  Even  during  the  later  Stone  Age,  the  civilization  that  had  been  re- 
presented by  hunters  and  fishers  in  the  south  and  centre  of  Sweden  had 
been  obliged  to  make  way  for  the  megalithic  agricultural  civilization  that 
was  introduced  by  an  Arian  pastoral  race  —  the  primitive  Germans  — 
when  these  began  to  drive  farther  and  farther  to  the  north  and  east  the 
earliest  dwellers  in  Scandinavia,  i.  e.  the  race  from  which  the  Laplanders 
and  the  Finlanders  of  to-day  are  descended.  This  hunting  and  fishing  race, 
which  dwelt  by  the  shores  of  lakes  and  waterways,  had  only  one  do- 
mestic animal,  the  dog;  while  the  forefathers  of  the  present  Swedes  — 
the  invading  primitive  Germans  —  brought  with  them  from  the  south 
domestic  animals  of  various  kinds,  such  as  the  horse,  horned  cattle,  sheep, 
goats,  and  swine. 

These  animals  throve  in  these  northern  climes  and  increased  tremend- 
ously, so  that,  from  the  Yevy  beginning,  their  rearing  became  the  very 
centre  of  the  husbandry  of  Sweden,  a  position  which  it  has  retained  to 
the  present  day.  It  is  true  that  efforts  have  now  and  then  been  made  to 
raise  the  cultivation  of  grain  to  this  supremacs^,  but  all  the  attempts  made 
to  displace  the  rearing  of  live  stock  from  its  premier  position  in  Sweden 
have  hitherto  proved  ineffectual. 

In  spite  of  its  prominent  position  in  the  agricultural  economy  of  the 
countrj',  the  live-stock  industry  in  Sweden  has  had  its  periods  of  weak- 
ness, periods  when  it  was  neglected,  when  it  was  regarded  as  a  necessary 
evil  and  injurious  to  the  economic  welfare  of  the  country,  but  it  has  always 
recovered,  and  with  renewed  strength  once  more  regained  the  proud  po- 
sition it  formerljr  held. 

Such  a  period  of  weakness  occurred  during  the  earlier  Middle  Ages,  but,  thanks 
to  the  interest  which  the  monks,  the  Cistercians  especially,  devoted  to  the 
development  of  cattle-rearing,  the  results  they  obtained  have  never  been  surpas- 
sed ■  until  our  own  times. 

On  the  next  occasion  when  the  industry  was  in  peril,  it  was  taken  in  hand 
by  King  Gustavus  Vasa,  the  great  "State  Economist",  who,  by  means  of  import- 
ing more  vigorous  foreign  breeds,  and  by  means  of  a  well-arranged  system  of 
feeding,  succeeded  in  once  more  raising  the  standard  of  the  Swedish  cattle. 
This  improvement,  which,  in  a  great  measure,  was  due  to  the  king's  own  ini- 
tiative and  superintendence,  lasted  only  until  some  few  years  after  his  death, 
Sweden  then  being  swept  by  exterior  forces  into  the  vortex  of  lengthy  wars,  when 
the  resources  of  the  country  had,  for  the  most  part,  to  be  devoted  to  furthering 
Swedish  interests  abroad. 

At  the  period  of  the  death  of  Charles  XII  (1718),  the  cattle-rearing  industry 
of    Sweden  was  on  the  brink  of  ruin,  but  it  was  rescued  during  the  "Period  of 


80 


III.      RURAL    HUSBANDRY. 


Liberty",  as  it  was  called  (v.  the  section  on  the  History  of  Sweden),  by  the 
energetic  initiative  of  Jonas  Alstromer.  This  prominent  economist,  like  Gustavus 
Vasa,  introduced  foreign  improved  breeds  of  cattle  into  the  kingdom,  and  he 
indicated  the  method  by  which  the  greater  part  of  our  existing  stock  of 
cattle  is  nowadays  improved,  for  he  recommended  cross-breeding,  and  pointed 
out  that  the  improvement  of  the  breeds  of  cattle  should  be  brought  about  "by 
crossing  good  sires  with  poor  females". 

The  efforts  made  during  the  "Period  of  Liberty"  for  the  development  of  cattle- 
rearing  were,  it  is  true,  crowned  with  success  at  first,  but  in  the  middle  of  the 
18th  century  the  cattle  plague  reached  Sweden,  and  destroyed  the  farmers' 
hopes  of  better  times.  After  the  Alstromer  period,  cattle-rearing  steadily  declined, 
in  spite  of  the  fact  that  interest  in  efforts  for  the  improvement  of  the  industry 
seems  to  have  awakened  to  fresh  life  during  the  reign  of  Gustavus  III,  when 
private  initiative  came  to  the  fore,  and,  among  other  things,  brought  about  the 
import  of  breeding-cattle  from  Holland,  Denmark,  and  other  countries. 

The  Agricultural  Societies  and  the  Academy  of  Agriculture  (see  pp.  142  and 
122)  at  first  met  with  great  difficulties  and  could  do  very  little  to  assist 
the  cattle-rearing  industry.  During  the  years  of  warfare  at  the  beginning  of 
the  19th  century,  the  economic  position  of  the  entire  country  was  a  very  bad 
one,  the  country  being  brought  to  the  brink  of  ruin  and  bankruptcy,  so  that, 
when  peace  was  re-established,  Sweden's  economic  position  was  in  much  the 
same  position  as  it  was  at  the  death  of  Charles  XTT.  Heavier  animals  of  im- 
proved breeds  were  not  considered  suitable  in  consideration  of  the  then  existing 
condition  of  the  country,  but  the  import  of  such  animals  continued,  although 
on  a  small  scale. 

During  the  decehnium  1830 — 40,  breeding  cattle  began  to  be  imported  in  greater 
numbers,  and  thus  commenced  a  new  era  in  the  history  of  Swedish  cattle-rearing. 
The  first  steps  were  taken  by  a  private  individual,  Alexis  Noring,  who,  after  several 
years'  study  of  agriculture  in  England,  succeeded  in  interesting  many  prominent 
Swedish  land-owners  in  the  procuring  of  better  breeding-stock  from   abroad,  prin- 


Swedish  Lowland  Cattle  {^Prince  Johnt,  Arlbv). 


LIVE-STOCK. 


81 


Red-and-White  Swedish  Cattle  ("Hero",  Edo,  Askersund). 


cipally  from  England.  The  results  of  these  steps  were  so  encouraging  that,  after  the 
death  of  Noring,  the  State  considered  that  it  would  be  to  its  advantage  to  pro- 
ceed in  the  same  way.  The  State  assembled  central  herds  of  cattle  and  flocks  of 
sheep  of  several  different  breeds,  all  of  foreign  blood,  from  which  the  breeders 
should  have  the  opportunity  of  procuring  themselves  improved  breeding  material. 
These  herds  and  flocks  were  under  the  superintendence  of  the  Breeding-stock  Board, 
which  was  dissolved  in  1871 ;  after  this  date  the  superintendence  of  these  establish- 
ments, together  with  the  administration  of  the  grants  towards  their  maintenance 
was  to  be  in  the  hands  of  the  administrative  committee  of  the  Academy 
of  Agriculture.  Almost  contemporaneously  with  this,  the  breeding  herds  of  the 
State  were  dissolved  and  sold,  with  the  exception  of  that  of  short-horned  cattle 
at  Alnarp,  which  continued  to  exist  untU  1901.  The  money  obtained  by  the 
sale  of  the  herds  in  question  was  made  into  a  fund  called  the  "breeding-stock 
fund".  Later  on,  this  was  turned  into  a  general  fund  obtained  by  the  sale  of 
the  greater  part  of  the  breeding  flocks,  the  whole  being  called  "the  fund 
for  the  improvement  of  Swedish  horned  cattle  and  sheep",  which,  since  the  year 
1890,  has  been  administered  by  the  Exchequer  and  the  Board  of  Agriculture. 
The  money  is  employed  for  the  promotion  of  cattle  and  sheep-breeding. 

Ooats,  too,  were  introduced  into  Sweden  from  abroad,  but  these  animals  have 
never  occupied  a  place  in  agricultural  economy  comparable  with  that  held  by 
horned  cattle  or  sheep.  In  earlier  times,  however,  there  was  a  considerably 
larger  stock  of  goats  than  exists  in  our  own  days.  As  the  forests  rose  in  value, 
the  number  of  goats  decreased,  as  these  animals,  which  are  very  difficult 
to  keep  within  the  limits  of  fenced  fields,  are  the  domestic  animals  that  cause 
most  injury  to  the  young  forest  trees.  Of  late  years,  however,  goat-rearing,  in 
connection  with  the  "Own  Home"  movement,  has  become  the  object  of  great 
interest  and  systematic  development. 

&— 133179.  Sweden  jr. 


82 


in.      RURAL    HUSBANDRY. 


The  import  of  breeding  pigs  took  place  mostly  from  England,  the  country  which 
has  been  the  principal  foreign  customer  for  fatted  pigs  and  bacon  from  Sweden. 
In  the  middle  of  the  decade  1860 — 70,  the  State  took  measures  which  enabled 
Swedish  breeders  to  export  their  animals  to  English  markets,  and  advantage 
was  taken  of  this,  especially  by  feeders  in  the  southernmost  provinces  of  the 
country,  where  the  great  supplies  of  waste  products  from  the  dairies  had  led  to 
an  overproduction  of  pigs.  But  in  1892  the  English  market  was  once  more 
closed  to  the  import  of  live  animals,  a  measure  that  led  to  the  establishment 
in  Sweden  of  pig  slaughter-houses,  the  object  of  which  was  the  export  of  pork 
killed  in  the  country.  Pig-breeding,  however,  made  no  great  progress  in  the 
country,  before  the  beginning  of  the  present  century,  at  which  date  the  great 
importance  of  the  trade  for  the  economy  of  the  individual  agriculturalist,  and 
of  the  country  as  a  whole,  attracted  the  attention  of  the  authorities.  « 


Ayrshire  Cattle  {"Mogul-Ada  IT',  G-imo  bruk). 


The  place  occupied  by  the  breeding  and  feeding  of  pigs  in  the  agricultural 
economy  of  Sweden  has  always  varied  in  the  different  parts  of  the  country. 
In  the  south  of  Sweden  this  branch  of  industry  has  long  been  one  of  importance. 
In  former  times,  the  pig  had  to  turn  the  acorn  harvest  to  account;  in  later  days, 
it  was  the  task  of  these  animals  to  support  the  dairy-industry  by  turning  dairy 
waste  into  pork.  In  those  parts  of  the  country  where  dairying  has  not  been 
carried  on  on  a  large  scale  —  chiefly  in  Norrland  —  pigs  have  been  kept 
principally  in  order  to  utilize  the  waste  products  of  the  kitchen,  and  in  such 
districts,  consequently,  the  numbers  have  not  been  large  enough  to  satisfy  the 
home  demand. 


The  chief  among  the  general  steps  taken  in  our  own  days  to  promote 
live-stock  breeding  is  the  awarding  of  prizes  for  that  purpose,  a  method 


LIVE-STOCK.  •  83 

resorted  to  at  present  to  improve  the  breeds  of  horses,  horned  cattle,  sheep, 
and  pigs.  An  account  of  the  monetarjr  aw^ards  given  for  horse-breeding 
is  given  on  p.  94.  As  the  giving  af  prizes  for  the  breeding  of  horned 
cattle  has  attracted  much  and  vsrell-deserved  attention,  it  may  not  be  out 
of  place  to  give  here  a  somewhat  detailed  account  of  the  maimer  in  which 
it  is  carried  out. 

In  1882,  the  Skaraborg  Agricultural  Society  adopted  a  system  elaborated 
by  Captain  Sigge  Flach  for  prize-competitions  for  cattle,  which  proved  itself 
superior  to  all  others  by  the  way  in  which  it  attracted  the  generality  of  the 
small  farmers  to  take  part  in  the  work  of  improving  the  breeds.  Exceedingly 
simple  in  its  plan,  it  is  based  on  practical,  well-considered  principles,  which 
is  best  shown  by  the  fact  that,  even  before  the  State  had  voted  the  slightest 
sum  towards  covering  the  expenses,  Flach' s  system  had  been  adopted  with 
success  by  the  districts  of  17  different  Agricultural  Societies.  In  1892, 
when  the  State  for  the  first  time  made  a  grant,  this  figure  at  once  rose  to 
25,  and  shortly  afterwards,  to  26,  i.  e.,  prize-competitions  for  cattle,  accord- 
ing to  the  Skaraborg  System  (as  it  is  now  generally  called),  have  been  held 
annually  in  all  the  districts  of  the  Agricultural  Societies.  In  1907,  the  number 
fell  to  25,  the  Gavleborg  Lan  Agricultural  Society  then  determining  to  cease 
awarding  prizes  for  cattle  according  to  the  system  in  question.  Since  the 
beginning  of  the  year  1910,  the  amount  of  the  State  grant  for  the  support 
of  the  prize-competitions  for  cattle  has  amounted  to  120  000  kroner,  30  000  kroner 
of  which  was  to  be  devoted  to  providing  extra  prizes  for  bulls  belongiag  to 
the  Bxdl  Society.  The  sums  mentioned  amounted,  however,  to  but  a  relatively 
small  proportion  of  the  entire  expenses,  which,  in  1913,  reached  362  309  kroner. 

The  aim  of  these  prize-competitions  for  cattle  is  the  creation  of  good 
breeds  which  are  suited  to  the  various  parts  of  Sweden. 

At  present  the  system  is  employed  for  only  five  breeds  of  cattle,  viz.: 

1.  The  Alpine  race  (or  North  Swedish  cattle)  in  Norrland  and  Da- 
lame,  which  is  estimated  to  yield  about  2  500  kilograms  of  milk,-  with 
a  3-80   %   of  fat.     Live  weight,   about  350  kilograms. 

2.  The  Bed  Polled  cattle  (Sw.  KodkuUor),  in  Dalarne,  Bohuslan,  etc. 
The  milk-production  and  live  weight  about  the  same  as  those  of  the 
first-named  breed. 

3.  The  Ayrshire  race,  in  the  south  and  middle  of  Sweden.  Milk-pro- 
duction about  3  500  kilograms,  with  a  3-60  %  of  fat.  Live  weight  about 
450  kilograms. 

4.  The  Red-and-White  Swedish  cattle  of  Central  Sweden.  Milk  pro- 
duction (at  Stjarnsund)  about  4  000  kilograms,  with  about  3-80  %  of 
fat.    Live  weight,  about  500  kilograms. 

5.  The  Black-and-White  Swedish  Lowland  cattle  of  Southern  Swe- 
den. Yearly  production  of  milk  about  4  500  kilograms,  with  about  3-30  % 
of  fat.     Live  weight,    about   575   kilograms. 

Hitherto,  all  these  races  have  been  bred  principally  for  milk-production,  but 
the  milk-type  is  not  so  strongly  marked  but  that  the  animals,  in  a  greater 
or  lesser  degree,  can  be  transformed  into  a  meat-type,  or  a  combined 
milk-  and  meat-type.  The  breeds  that  give  quickest  growth  and  which  are 
easiest  to  fatten  are  the  red-and-white  Swedish,  and  the  black-and-white  Swedish 


84 


III.      EURAL   HUSBANDRY. 


Swedish  Alpine  Cattle. 


Lowland  cattle.  The  figures  given  above  showing  the  milk-production  and  the 
fat-percentage  are  no  averages,  but  merely  indicate  what  may  normally  be  expected 
of  the  cows  belonging  to  the  respective  breeds.  On  an  average,  the  cows  of 
the  Swedish  stock,  taken  as  a  whole,  will  scarcely  yield  on  an  average  2  000 
kilogrammes  of  milk  per  year,  with  3"50  %  of  fat,  nor  is  the  average  live  weight 
more  than  about  400  kilograms. 

Each  of  the  Agricultural  Societies'  districts  forms  a  prize-competition  district. 
The  Agricultural  Society,  or  its  executive,  determines  each  year  in  which  places 
in  the  district  the  competition-meetings  shall  be  held  during  the  course  of  the 
year,  and  the  tract  of  country  which  is  entitled  to  take  part  in  the  competitions 
at  each  of  these  places.  Each  part  of  the  prize-competition  district  is  given 
the  opportunity  of  taking  part  in  the  competition  at  least  once  every  three 
years.  Should  the  prize-competition  not  take  place  annually  in  the  whole  of 
the  district,  the  Agricultural  Society,  if  it  sees  fit,  may  arrange  special  prize- 
competitions  for  bulls  within  such  parts  of  the  district  where,  otherwise,  there 
would  be  no  prize-competition  that  year. 

The  prizes  are  awarded  by  a  jury,  consisting  of  a  chairman  and  two  other 
members.  The  chairman  of  each  prize-competition  district  is  appointed  by  the 
Board  of  Agriculture  on  the  recommendation  of  the  respective  Agricultural  So- 
cieties. The  ordinary  member  of  the  jury  who  is  to  act  at  all  the  meetings 
in  the  district,  is  appointed  by  the  executive  of  the  Agricultural  Society.  The 
other  member  is  nominated  by  the  sub-division  (Sw.  gille,  kretsavdelning,  hus- 
hallningsnamnd,  kontrakt)  of  the  Society  within  the  district,  and  acts  only  at 
the  meetings  held    within  the  sub-district  for  which  he  has  been  elected. 

As  the  number  of  prize-meeting  places  in  each  district  is  comparatively  large, 
the  various  areas  affected  by  the  competitions  become  so  very  small  that  it  is 
an  easy  matter  for  everyone  to  profit  by  the  result  of  the  prize-show  and  the 
judging. 


LIVE-STOCK. 


85 


Swedish  Red-Polled  Cattle  (Bohuslan.) 


The  right  of  competing  for  every  kind  of  prize  is  restricted  to  owners  of 
cattle  the  total  area  of  whose  cultivated  land  does  not  exceed  40  hectares,  and 
who  .  carry  on  farming  as  their  principal  or  chief  auxiliary  source  of  livelihood. 
The  Board  of  Agriculture,  however,  can  restrict  the  above  right,  so  that  it  may 
benefit  only  those  cattle-owners  the  total  area  of  whose  cultivated  land  does  not 
exceed  a  certain  area,  smaller  than  the  one  just  mentioned  but  not  less  than 
20  hectares.  Other  owners  of  "cattle  are  entitled  to  exhibit  to  the  prize-jury 
both    bulls    and    cows,    though  they  can  only  be  awarded  prizes  for  the  former 

not    obtain    money    prizes.     Cows    are  nowadays 
but   usually  receive  only  "free-tickets",  of  which 
double-perforated    free-ticket,   the  other  a  plain 
of    ticket    consists     of    two    parts,  one   a    cover- 
covering-certificate.       The     covering-ticket,    when 
by     a     prize-bull,     is     given     to     the     owner 


animals    and,    even    then,    do 
seldom    awarded    money-prizes, 
two  kinds  are    awarded:    one    a 
free-ticket.     The    former    class 
ing-ticket,     and     the     other    a 
the      cow      has      been     covered 


of  the  latter  animal,  and  the  second  half  of  the  ticket  is  kept  by  the  owner 
of  the  cow.  Both  the  covering-ticket  and  the  covering-certificate  are  redeemed 
by  the  Agricultural  Society  for  a  sum  and  at  a  time  fixed  by  the  Society.  The 
plain  free-tickets  consist  of  nothing  but  a  covering-ticket,  which  is  redeemed  in 
the  same  way.  The  owners  of  the  prize-bulls  are  awarded  medals,  cups,  or 
monetary  prizes  of  varying  values  or  amount,  according  to  the  class  of  the  ani- 
mal, but  there  are  also  three  kinds  of  extra  prizes,  viz.,  breeding-prizes  for  older 
bulls,  prizes  of  honour  for  younger  bulls,  and  extra  prizes  for  bulls  which  are 
the  property  of  bull-societies.  Thanks  to  these  prizes  and  to  the  covering-certi- 
ficates, the  bull-societies  are  able  to  manage  without  asking  their  members  for 
any  considerable  contributions.  The  so-called  "herd-prize"  (Sw.  flockpris),  which 
is  awarded  at  the  prize-meetings  for  not  less  than  3  cows  adjudged  worthy  of 
a  prize,  also  contributes  to  this  satisfactory  result.  At  these  exhibitions,  too, 
every  animal  that  gains  a  prize  is  branded  with  a  mark,  showing  that  it  has 
been  distinguished  in  this  way;  this  branding  can,  in  a  way,  also  be  considered 


86  III.      KURAL   HUSBANDRY. 

as  a  kind  of  prize,  as  in  the  event  of  the  sale  of  such  an  animal,  weight  is 
often  attached  to  its  possession  of  such  a  mark. 

After  the  close  of  the  competition,  one  of  the  members  of  the  prize-jury 
usually  gives  a  short  account  of  the  meeting,  at  the  same  time  offering  advice 
and  information  respecting  the  breeding,  rearing  and  care  of  cattle,  etc.  Such 
lectures,  illustrated  as  they  ane  by  the  living  animals  present  at  the  show,  have 
proved  to  be  very  effective.  From  this  short  account  of  the  Swedish  system  of 
prize-competitions  for  cattle,  it  will  be  seen  that  an  endeavour  is  being  made  by 
this  means  to  benefit  the  small  farmers  and  to  awaken  their  interest  in  improved 
methods  of  cattle-breeding.  A  speaking  witness  to  the  lively  interest  that  is  tafen 
in  these  prize-meetings  is  shown  by  the  fact  of  the  great  increase  each  year  in 
the  number  of  animals  exhibited.  In  1912,  there  were  exhibited  60  060  animals, 
52  846  of  which  were  "passed".  '  Of  this  latter  number,  14  406,  or  24  %,  were 
pure-bred  animals;  3  246  were  Ayrshires,  2  426  were  of  the  Lowland  race,  and 
6  795  belonged  to  the  Alpine  race. 

This  system  of  prize-competitions  has  undoubtedly  contributed  to  the  fact 
that  especially  the  small  farmers  have  gained  an  insight  into  the  great  importance 
for  agriculture  of  the  care  of  cattle.  Everywhere  in  the  kingdom  the  work  that 
is  carried  on  for  the  improvement  of  the  various  breeds  is  taken  up  with 
growing  interest,  and  earnest  endeavours  are  being  made,  by  means  of  suitable 
feeding  and  rearing  to  obtain  better  milk-  and  meat-producing  cattle.  The  farmers 
are  everywhere  of  the  opinion  that  the  revenue  of  the  farm  is  to  be  gained 
principally  out  of  the  farmyard,  where  a  steadily  increasing  proportion  of  the 
crops  is  transformed  into  milk  and  meat,  etc.  By  means  of  a  rational  system 
of  cattle-breeding  a  considerable  improvement  has  been  made  in  the  various 
breeds  of  cattle,  and  in  other  respects,  too,  the  management  of  the  farmyard 
seems  to  be  the  branch  of  agricultural  economy  that  has  made  the  greatest 
progress. 

Prise-com.petitions  for  sheep  have  takea  place  since  1868  on  the  Island 
of  Gottland,  but  nowhere  else  in  Sweden.  The  rules  for  these  competitions 
were  issued  on  January  12,  1910,  and  have  heen  in  force  since  the  begin- 
ning of  1911.  According  to  these  regulations,  prizes  for  breeding-animals 
are  for  rams  only,  and  meetings  are  to  be  held  in  five  districts,  viz.,  at 
some  place  in  each  of  the  parishes  of  Faro,  Larbro,  Roma,  Eksta,  and  Oja. 
In  spite  of  these  prize-competitions,  sheep-rearing  has  declined  on  the 
island,  as  it  has  on  the  mainland. 

The  breeding  material  employed  for  the  Gottland  sheep  is  the  Cheviot 
ram,  some  of  the  sires  being  imported  direct  from  Scotland,  while  others 
have  been  reared  on  the  island.  The  breed  in  question  has  proved  very 
suitable  on  the  Swedish  mainland,  too,  especially  in  Norrland  and  the 
central  parts  of  the  country.  Some  English  races,  too,  such  as  the  Oxford- 
shiredown,  the  Shropshire,  and  the  Southdown,  are  employed  in  the  southern 
and  central  parts  of  the  country  for  the  improvement  of  the  stock.  The 
merino  breed,  which  during  the  18th  century  was  comparatively  numerous 
in  Sweden,  is  now  represented  by  only  a  few  hundred  animals  in  Soder- 
manland  and  C)sterg6tland.  ^ 

Goats  have  not  yet  received  the  encouragement  of  State-aided  prize- 
competitions,  but,  in  Skane  prize-meetings  for  goats  are  supported  by 
a  goat-breeding  association  which  has  been  formed  in  that  part  of  the 


LIVE-STOCK.  87 

countr5^  Of  the  goat  races,  the  Jamtland  and  the  Saanen  goats  are  best 
suited  to  Swedish  conditions.  The  last-named  breed,  which  seems  to  be 
popular,  especially  in  Skane,  has  been  imported  on  a  fairly  large  scale. 
Prize-competitions  for  pigs  are  also  held  nowadays,  the  first  attempt 
in  this  direction  for  the  promotion  of  pig-breeding  having  been  made  five 
years  ago  by  one  or  two  Agricultural  Societies,  which  have  since  had 
many  imitators,  especially  since  1911,  when  the  State  undertook  the  di- 
rection of  these  prize-competitions.  Only  two  races  can  receive  prizes, 
viz.,  the  large  white  English  race  and  the  country  race  (Sw.  lantrasen) 
—  Swedish  or  Danish. 

In  addition  to  this  system  of  prize-competitions,  various  kinds  of 
breeding  socitiees  have  largely  contributed  to  the  promotion  of  cattle- 
rearing.  As  regards  the  breeding  of  cattle,  for  example,  most  excellent 
work  has  been  carried  out  in  this  direction  by  the  "Swedish  Ayrshire 
Society",  founded  in  1901,  and  the  "Society  for  the  breeding  of  Red-and- 
White  Swedish  cattle",  which  was  established  in  1892.  Quite  lately,  a 
society  has  been  formed  for  the  breeding  of  red  polled  cattle,  and  another 
for  the  improvement  of  the  Lowland  cattle.  A  number  of  smaller 
societies,  too,  have  been  of  great  service  to  cattle-breeding,  not 
the  least  useful  being  the  so-called  "Bull  Societies",  which  have  been 
strongly  supported  both  by  the  State  and  the  Agricultural  Societies. 
The  Agricultural  Societies  in  the  Lans  of  Uppsala,  Gottland,  Yasternorr- 
land,  Jamtland,  and  Vasterbotten  have  established  stations  for  so-called 
"breeding-bulls",  for  which  grants  are  made. 

There  are  also  a  large  number  of  breeding  societies  for  sheep,  goats, 
and  pigs.  In  1907  was  established  the  "Swedish  Pig-breeding  So- 
ciety", which  embraces  the  whole  of  the  country,  and  which  has  undoubt- 
edly contributed  to  increasing  the  interest  in  pig-breeding. 

The  keeping  of  herd-books  and  the  auctions  of  breeding  animals  have 
undoubtedly  been  of  great  service  in  the  task  of  improving  the  breeds  of 
cattle,  etc.  State  herd-books  are  kept  for  Ayrshires,  for  the  Alpine  breed, 
and  for  pigs,  while  Agricultural  Societies  or  other  associations  keep  herd- 
books  of  the  black-and-white  Swedish  Lowland  cattle,  the  red-and-white 
Swedish  cattle,  the  Ayrshires,  the  Alpine  breed,  goats,  and  pigs.  The 
auctions  of  breeding  animals  held  every  year  have  essentially  facilitated 
the  procuring  of  prominent  sires.  Such  auctions  have  been  held  at  Malmo 
since  1900,  on  the  initiative  of  the  Prize-Juries  of  the  Lans  of  Malmohus 
and  Kristianstad;  at  Jonkoping,  Linkoping,  and  Skovde,  since  1903,  on  the 
initiative  of  the  Swedish  Ayrshire  Society;  at  Flen,  since  1903,  by  the 
Society  for  the  breeding  of  red-and-white  Swedish  cattle,  and  at  Oster- 
sund,  since  1908,  by  the  Prize-Jury  of  Jamtland  Lan. 

Among  other  measures  that  have  been  taken  for  the  promotion  of  the 
breeding  of  cattle  may  be  mentioned  the  competitions  arranged  by  the 
State  for  the  establishment  of  breeding-centres  for  horned  cattle;  the 
grants    given    by    the    State    to  pig-breeding  societies  and  pig-breeding 


o8  III.      RURAL   HUSBANDRY. 

centres;  the  Control  Associations;  the  Veterinary  System;  and  the  Edu- 
cational System  for  Agriculturalists. 

At  the  competitions  for  the  breeding  centres,  which  are  managed  by 
special  juries,  distinction  is  awarded  as  breeding  centres  to  such  herds 
as  consist  of  prominent  animals  which  are  capable  of  transmitting  their 
good  qualities  to  their  offspring,  and  which  also  possess  other  charac- 
teristics proving  that  they  can  contribute  in  an  essential  degree  to  the 
improvement  of  the  breeds  of  cattle.  The  two  competitions  that  have  hith- 
erto been  held,  each  of  which  lasted  two  years,  included  herds  of 
Ayrshires,  black-and-white  Lowland  cattle,  and  Alpine  cattle,  while,  in 
that  which  is  now  going  on,  there  are  no  representatives  of  the  Lowland 
breed.  The  distinction  of  being  nominated  as  a  breeding  centre  holds  good 
for  a  period  of  three  years,  during  which  time  the  various  centres  remain 
under  the  control  of  the  respective  breeding-centre  juries. 

In  order  to  promote  the  establishment  of  pig-breeding  societies,  the 
State  contributes  a  grant  towards  covering  the  expenses,  the  grant  in 
question  being  so  calculated  that  it  ought  to  be  an  effective  help 
towards  the  procuring  of  boars  by  the  societies.  The  additional  support 
of  which  the  society  and  its  members  may  be  in  need  for  the  payment  of 
their  annual  expenses  is  not  given  in  the  shape  of  a  yearly  contribution, 
but  only  in  the  form  of  prizes  to  be  awarded  at  the  prize-competitions; 
the  object  of  these  is  to  show  that  the  breeding  work  done  by  the  society 
is  based  on  correct  principles  and  that  it  is  carried  on  satisfactorily.  As 
it  is  also  a  matter  of  importance  for  these  societies  to  have,  from  the 
very  beginning,  breeding  animals  whose  offspring  will  give  pork  that  can 
fetch  the  highest  price  in  the  markets  of  the  world  —  boars  of  the 
large,  white  English  breed  and  sows  of  the  "country"  breed  (Sw.  lantras) 
- —  the  State  also  contributes  to  support  the  various  kinds  of  breeding 
centres  from  which  it  will  be  possible  to  obtain  the  breeding  animals  that 
are  required. 

The  Control  Associations  have  been  of  inestimable  assistance  in  the 
measures  taken  for  the  promotion  of  breeding,  as  their  chief  task  has 
been  to  investigate  the  individual  productive  powers  of  the  animals, 
though  the  societies  in  question  have  also  had  other  important  missions  to 
fulfil.  Among  other  things,  it  has  been  their  task  to  spread  a  knowledge 
of,  and  to  carry  out,  a  rational  system  of  feeding,  and,  if  possible,  to  draw 
up  estimates  of  the  economy  of  the  cow-house  and  the  pig-sty,  etc. 

An  account  of  the  veterinary  system  of  Siveden  is  given  in  another 
place,  so  that  it  is  not  necessary  here  to  do  more  than  emphasize  its  great 
importance  in  the  task  of  combating  infectious  cattle-diseases,  especially 
tuberculosis. 

The  Swedish  system  of  instruction  in  agricultural  subjects  has  exer- 
cised a  very  great  influence  on  the  development  of  live-stock  rearing.  Cap- 
able men  have  been  sent  out  from  the  Swedish  schools  of  agriculture,  who 
have  afterwards,  as  experimentalists,  experts,  teachers,  or  practical  farm- 


Table  24. 


LIVE-STOCK. 

Number  of  Live-Stock,  in  1911. 


89 


Horses 
above  3 

years 

Horses 

under  3 

years 

Oxen 

Bulls 

Cows 

Young 
cattle   un- 
der 2  years 

Sheep 

Goats 

Pigs 

Reindeer 

493  822 

95163 

144  277 

52  467 

1837  035 

6.56  830 

945  709 

66136 

951 164 

276  084 

ers,  spread  information  concerning  breeding  and  the  economy  of  the  farm- 
yard. The  experimental  department  is  centralized  at  the  Experimental- 
faltet,  in  the  immediate  neighhourhood  of  Stockholm,  and  possesses  a 
special  division  for  live-stock  husbandry,  which,  up  to  the  present,  has  been 
occupied  with  a  number  of  important  questions  concerning  the  feeding 
of  cattle,  horses,  and  pigs.  The  State  has  appointed  three  experts  in 
the  live-stock  industry,  viz.,  one  for  horned  cattle,  one  for  sheep  and  goats, 
and  one  for  pigs.  In  each  of  the  lans  of  Sweden  there  is,  too,  at  least  one 
expert  appointed  by  the  Agricultural  Society  of  the  district,  who,  among 
other  things,  endeavours  to  improve  the  breeding  of  cattle.  In  addition  to 
the  teaching  given  in  the  Agricultural  Schools  and  the  Farmers'  Schools, 
instruction  in  live-stock  husbandry  is  given  in  schools  for  farm-yard  hands, 
at  courses  for  control  assistants,  at  courses  for  small  farmers,  etc. 

The  total  number  of  live-stock,  and  of  the  various  kinds  of  these  domestic 
animals  existing  in  Sweden  in  1911,  is  shown  by  Table  24,  which,  together 
with  the  other  figures  given  below,  has  been  obtained  from  the  summary  published 
by  the  Central  Bureau  of  Statistics. 

The  total  number  of  animals  at  the  close  of  1911  was  5  241 103.  This 
amounted  to  942  per  1  000  inhabitants,  as  compared  with  972  in  1910,  959 
in  1905,  1  025  in  1900,  1  061  in  1895,  1  038  in  1890,  1  048  in  1885,  1  024 
in  1880,  and  1  072  in  1870.  On  the  whole,  therefore,  the  proportion  has  be- 
come less  satisfactory.  The  decline  proceeded  from  the  middle  of  the  decade 
1891 — 1900,  but  the  position  has  improved  during  the  last  few  years.  As  regards 
the  numbers  of  the  various  classes  of  animals  in  proportion  to  the  population, 
and  the  development  which,  in  this  respect,  has  characterized  the  last  four  decades, 
iavestigations  show  that  the  relative  numbers  of  horses,  bulls,  and  young  cattle  has 
remained  fairly  stationary  during  thewhole  of  the  period.  A  very  large  decrease  may 
be  noticed,  on  the  contrary,  in  the  case  of  oxen,  sheep,  and  goats.  Nowadays,  oxen  are 
found  most  numerously  in  Ostergotland  and  Smaland,  and  goats  in  Norrland  —  Jamt- 
land  especially.  Among  the  classes  of  animals  that  have  increased  more  rapidly  than 
the  population  during  the  last  forty  years  are  cows  and  pigs,  the  last-named 
especially,  the  relative  figures  for  which  have  more  than  doubled  during  the 
period  in  question,  but  even  in  regard  to  these  two  classes  of  animals,  the 
figures  bear  witness  to  the  fact  that,  during  the  last  fifteen  years,  the  develop- 
ment mentioned  has  ceased,  and,  in  the  case  of  the  cows,  has  been  replaced  by 
a  relative  decline.  In  these  calculations,  consideration  might  be  paid  to  numbers 
alone,  but  all  authorities  on  the  subject  agree  that  the  quality  of  the  animals, 
of  the  homed  cattle  especially,  has  improved.  Contemporaneously  with  the  improve- 
ment in  the  breeding  of  the  live-stock  that  has  taken  place,  greater  attention 
has  been  paid  to  the  care  of  the  animals,  and,  more  especially,  to  the  feeding 
of  the  stock,  thanks  to  the  increased  cultivation  of  fodder-plants  and  the  larger 
import  of  oil-cake  and  other  foods. 

In  order  to  obtain  a  better  survey  of  the  whole,  it  has  been  customary  in 
statistics    to    reduce    the   live-stock  of  the  country  to  "cattle-unHs".     This  reduc- 


90 


III.      RURAL   HUSBANDRY. 


\2  Ks\  lie  ("reel 


Gen.Stab.LirAnst.StockhoIrr 


643 

83 

674 

668 

83 

679 

685 

82 

673 

665 

78 

632 

661 

76 

626 

633 

71 

594 

653 

70 

613 

629 

65 

578 

630 

65 

608 

LIVE-STOCK.  91 

tion  is  made  so  that  1  head  of  horned  cattle  is  estimated  as  =  ^/s  horse  = 
10  sheep  =  12  goats  =  4  pigs  =  5  reindeer.  In  addition,  2  foals  or  calves 
are  calculated  as  being  equal  to  one  full-grown  animal  of  the  same  kind.  If 
we  employ  this  method  of  calculation,  we  obtain  the  following  figures  for  1911, 
for  the  year  immediately  preceding  it,  and  also  for  the  last  years  in  the  quin- 
quennial periods  back  to  1860  —  65: 

Per  1000  hectares  of: 

Voo,  n„++i„  „  u„  Per  1 000  cultivated 

icar  Lattle-units  ■vi.-j.i      j.i.ii.i  ij       j 

inhabitants    the  total  area      land  and 

meadow 

1911 3  566140  641  87  708 

1910 3  617  472  655  88  720 

1905 3  406  961 

1900 3  429  217 

1895 3  367  999 

1890 3183  816 

1885 3  093  955 

1880 2  891100 

1875 2  863  006 

1870 2  622176 

1865 2  591037 

As  may  be  seen  above,  the  increase  in  the  number  of  cattle-units  has  con- 
tinued throughout  all  the  five-yearly  periods,  with  the  exception  of  the  last  but 
one,  the  period  1901 — 05.  The  relation  of  these  figures  to  the  area  has  been 
thereby  so  improved  that,  in  1910,  it  was  more  satisfactory  than  at  the  close 
of  any  of  the  previous  periods,  both  as  regards  the  total  area  of  the  country 
and  also  in  respect  to  that  of  the  cultivated  land  and  pasture.  It  was  natural 
that  there  should  have  been  a  considerable  decline  in  1911,  as  there  was  an 
unfavourable  fodder  harvest  that  year. 

That  the  number  of  the  live-stock  must  be  reduced  during  bad  fodder  years 
can  be  best  understood,  if  we  remember  how  much  such  a  year  costs  the  coim.- 
try  in  "support  fodder"  i.  e.,  the  food  that  is  required  merely  to  support  life, 
and,  consequently,  apart  from  the  cost  of  the  "production  fodder",  or  that  extra 
supply  of  food  stuffs,  from  which  milk,  meat,  and  draught-power  is  produced. 
The  cost  of  this  support  fodder  probably  amounts  to  about  one  million  kroner 
daily,  or,  if  we  disregard  the  value  of  the  grazing  fields,  to  about  300  million 
kronor  per  annum.  With  these  figures  before  our  eyes,  we  cannot  be  surprised 
that  the  State  has  found  it  true  economy  to  devote  money  to  measures  to  lead 
the  cattle-rearing  industry  into  the  right  track. 

Of  all  the  lans  of  the  country,  that  of  Malmohus  possesses  the  largest  and, 
from  a  qualitative  point  of  view,  the  foremost  stock  of  cattle,  and  is,  conse- 
quently, as  regards  live-stock  husbandry,  the  most  important  of  Swedish  lans, 
although  far  from  being  so  with  regard  to  the  production  of  grain  and  root- 
crops.  Next  to  Malmohus  Lan,  both  in  respect  of  live-stock  and  of  the  grain- 
and  root-crops,  come  the  lans  of  Skaraborg,  Kristianstad,  and  Ostergotland. 

As  regards  the  relation  of  the  number  of  live-stock  to  the  total  area  of 
cultivated  land  and  meadows,  the  lans  of  Kalmar,  Malmohus,  Groteborg  och 
Bohus,  Jamtland,  and  Vasternorrland,  boast  very  favourable  figures.  The  lowest 
places  in  this  respect  are  held  by  the  Lans  of  Varmland,  Kopparberg,  and, 
particularly,  Norrbotten  apd  Vasterbotten. 

Table  25  is  given  to  illustrate  the  position  of  live-stock  in  Sweden,  as  regards 
the   imports  and  exports  of  farm-yard  products   and  the  like. 

The  later  years  were  distinguished  by  a  marked  improvement  with  regard  to 
the  export  of  farm-yard  products.  This  improvement  was  most  pronounced  in 
1911,  above  all  in  respect  to  the  trade  in  live-stock,  meat,  and  pork. 


92 


in.      RURAL   HUSBANDRY. 


Gen.  S  rab.  Li  r.Anst.Stockhol  m- 


LIVE-STOCK. 


93 


1^ 

Ik 

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ip 

ll 

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r^>fA,I . 

■.^..;: ,  T 

^^m^ 

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^^ 

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-:     i 

r^^ 

-jm- 

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i 

!il9 

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■j  - 

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Farmyard  of  an  Estate  in  Central  Sweden. 

As  the  import  of  pork  into  Sweden  has  considerably  diminished,  and  as  pork 
from  abroad  is  consumed  chiefly  in  the  central  and  northern  parts  of  the  country, 
it  would  seem  as  if  pig-breeding  and  the  production  of  pork  had  gained  ground 
more     and    more    in   these  parts  of  the  kingdom.     Skane,  however,  is  the  chief 


Table  25. 

Imports  and  Exports  of  Farm-yard 

Products  and  the  lihe. 

Horses    . 

Head 

Imports 

Exports 

1908 

1912 

1913 

1908 

1912 

1913 

1953 

2  224 

2  431 

3  991 

6  803 

6  837 

Cattle.    . 

4  817 

2  806 

2  891 

9  767 

34  349 

42  254 

Sheep  .    . 

91 

141 

134 

1753 

2  087 

2  395 

Pigs    .    . 

.     Kilograms 

6  528 

5358 

5  428 

10126 

199  404 

463  31.3 

Meat  .    . 

2  435  469 

1 851  356 

2  013  633 

622  843 

8  699  995 

4  917  852 

Pork   .    . 

4  614  045 

1522  805 

2  613  728 

2  783  772 

11  463  741 

7  908  593 

Cheese 

365  476 

580  211 

550  557 

2  096 

5  430 

2  742 

Butter     . 

125  023 

123  885 

195  986 

157  629 

21  236  722 

19  654  318 

Margarine 

2  735 

147  829 

367  622 

461763 

23141 

16  473 

Suet     .    . 

2  215  569 

869  066 

802  877 

49  805 

14  895 

10569 

Tallow    . 

6  206  353 

3  071  261 

3  791 500 

805  724 

605  350 

535  350 

Hides :  raw 

7  715  993 

11  973  919 

12  998  856 

6  766139 

11434  765 

10  689  998 

>       dres 

ied 

690  356 

991  943 

1 134 122 

193  731 

123  206 

122  589 

Bone  and bo 

ne- 

meal    . 

8  943  354 

6  430278 

6  131  384 

30  464 

1063435 

1493  422 

"Wool  .    . 

5  579  567 

6  623  749 

5  945  388 

32  315 

61820 

75  856 

Honey 

69  070 

18  687 

18  663 

624 

143 

286 

Wax    .    . 

19  981 

31327 

42  333 

5  304 

1158 

2  284 

Eggs    .    . 

.   Total  number 

55  876176 

54  915  386 

50  030  500 

38  837  492 

44  759  409 

55 137  148 

94:  III.      EUEAL   HUSRANDRY. 

seat  of  the  pig-breeding  industry,  and  large  quantities  of  pork  are  sent  from  that 
province  to  Stockholm  and  Norrland. 

It  is  evident  that  the  relation  of  Swedish  trade  with  other  countries,  as  regards 
the  imports  and  exports  of  farm-yard  products,  etc.,  is  very  favourable  to  Sweden, 
but  the  question  arises  whether  this  position  has  not  been  attained  at  the  expense  of 
the  individual  farmer,  for  attempts  have  been  made  to  show  that  the  rearing  of 
live-stock  in  Sweden  is  hot  a  profitable  occupation,  as  regards  cattle  and  sheep,  at 
least.  It  is  difficult  to  decide  whether  this  statement  is  in  strict  agreement  with 
the  facts  of  the  case,  but  it  is  clear  to  the  experienced  and  capable  farmer  that 
live-stock  husbandry  can  be  made  a  profitable  employment,  and  on  a  large  number 
of  estates  it  is  carried  on  at  a  profit.  Among  the  factors  that  diminish  the  returns 
of  this  branch  of  industry  are  poor  grazing,  the  cultivation  of  fodder  stuffs  on 
exhausted  land,  the  keeping  of  live-stock  of  poor  quality,  neglect  of  the  stable  ma- 
nure problem,  the  low  prices  obtained  for  milk  and  meat,  the  high  value  of  land, 
lack  of  business  capital,  high  freight  charges,  high  prices  for  concentrated  foods, 
infectious  or  contagious  diseases,  the  want  of  interest  in  the  work  shown  by 
those  in  charge  of  the  cattle,  and  last,  but  not  least,  bad  management.  The 
individual  farmer  can  improve  the  pastures,  can  make  the  land  more  suit- 
able for  the  cultivation  of  fodder  stuffs,  can:  turn  the  manure  to  good  account, 
can  improve  the  quality  of  the  cattle,  can  interest  the  farm-yard  hands  in 
their  work,  can  increase  his  own  knowledge  of  cattle-rearing  etc.,  but  he  cannot 
lower  the  price  of  land,  nor  do  much  to  affect  the  prices  of  milk,  meat,  and 
concentrated  foods,  etc. 

Horses. 

At  the  end  of  the  1 6th  century,  Sweden  possessed  about  200  horses  to 
every  thousand  of  the  population,  a  number  which  in  1805  had  falleil  to 
about  160,  and  in  1870  to  as  low  as  103.  But  since  that  time  the  de- 
cline has  ceased,  so  that  in  1900  there  were  still  103  horses  to  every 
thousand  of  the  population;  indeed,  a  slight  increase  has  been  observable 
in  recent  years:  in  1905,  there  were  105,  and  in  1910,  106  horses  to  every 
thousand  inhabitants. 

The  total  number  of  horses  in  Sweden  at  the  end  of  the  year  1911 
amounted  to  588  485.  Relatively,  the  greatest  number  of  horses  are 
found  in  Skane  and  Uppland. 

The  number  of  horses  in  Sweden,  as  compared  with  other  European  and 
some  extra-European  countries,  is  shown  by  the  following  table  (about  1910): 

Number  of  horses     Number  of 
per  thousand  in-      horses  per 
habitants  sq.  km 

Sweden 106  1-3 

Belgium 43-9  92 

Denmark 206  11-3 

Germany 78  .     7'4 

England 53-2  6-6 

France 75-6  5-4 

Holland 57-6  82 

Italy 23  2-5 

Norway 754  0-6 

Austria 63  5'2 

Hungary 128-5  7-0 

Russia  (European  Russia  incl.  Finland)    .  211' 6  3  9 


HORCES. 


95 


Number  of  horses  Number  of 

per  thousand  in-  horses  per 

habitants  sq.  km 

Spain 21-5  O'S 

United  States     ..." 205'3  1-5 

Argentina 1034-2  1-6 

Japan 35-8  3-7 

Australia 397-5  0-24 

We  shall  now  proceed  to  give  a  brief  sketch  of  the  history  of  horse-breeding  in 
Sweden. 


Horse  of  North  Swedish  Breed. 


In  the  earliest  times  there  existed  in  Sweden  a  horse  of  small  size.  This 
type,  the  origin  of  which  is  unknown,  has  disappeared  in  consequence  of  crossing 
■with  several  breeds  introduced  into  the  country  during  the  course  of  time.  Such 
a  cross-breeding  is  supposed  to  have  taken  place  with  imported  horses  as  early 
as  during  the  Viking  Period,  when  intercourse  with  foreign  countries  was  rather 
brisk,  this  crossing  becoming  still  more  general  when,  with  the  development  of 
chivalry  during  the  Middle  Ages,  the  need  of  a  more  powerful  and  stronger  horse 
made  itself  felt.  The  returning  knights  brought  home  with  them  horses  both 
from  the  East  and  from  Western  Europe,  and  these  horses  affected  the  type  in 
the  districts  where  they  were  used  for  breeding.  On  manorial  estates  and  abbey 
lands,  horse-breeding  was  pursued  with  keen  interest.  A  statute  of  the  year 
1345  gives  us  a  notion  of  the  value  of  a  really  good  horse  at  that  time. 
According  to  that  statute,  a  horse,  in  order  to  be  considered  suitable  for 
knight-service,  must  be  worth  40  marks  (corresponding  to  about  2  800  kroner 
in  present  money  value). 


96 


III.      RURAL   HUSBANDRY. 


As  far  as  we  know,  it  was  during  the  period  of  King  Gustavus  I  that  steps 
were  first  taken  on  the  part  of  the  Government  for  the  improvement  of  horse- 
breeding.  He  instituted  studs  of  mares  and  even  riding-schools  in  the  recently- 
founded  royal  demesnes,  where  he  placed  Frisian  horses  he  had  purchased. 
During  the  following  centuries  Sweden  was  engaged  in  many  wars,  and  in  the 
course  of  them  a  great  number  of  horses  of  different  kinds  were  brought  home. 
Horses  were  also  received  as  gifts,  and  purchased  by  kings  and  representatives 
of  the  nobility.  However,  the  common  Swedish  horse  apparently  still  remained 
insignificant  in  size;  in  the  seventeenth  century  a  iruU-sized  remount  was  only 
138   cm  high. 


Gottland  Pony  {"Buss"). 


From  time  to  time  prescriptions  were  issued  for  the  regulation  and  improvement 
of  horse-breeding.  Thus  in  1680,  it  was  prescribed  that  a  stallion  should  be  kept 
in  each  parish,  and  in  1692,  that  there  should  be  one  stallion  to  each  squadron 
of  cavalry;  in  1694,  the  export  of  horses  from  Skane  was  totally  prohibited. 
But  in  spite  of  these  and  similar  measures,  the  Swedish  horse  at  the  commen- 
cement of  the  19th  century  did  not  come  up  to  the  requirements  of  the  time. 
Larger  and  more  thorough-bred  saddle-horses  and  carriage-horses  were  needed. 
For  this  purpose  a  considerable  number  of  English  thorough-breds  and  Oriental 
horses  were  imported  during  the  first  half  of  the  19th  century.  Some  of  these 
proved  very  valuable  for  breeding,  others  worthless.  During  the  latter  part  of 
the  century  a  number  of  thorough-breds  still  continued  to  be  imported,  but  there 
was  an  increasing  tendency  to  employ  foreign  half-breds  (Prussian,  Hanoverian, 
Oldenburgian,  Anglo-Norman). 

The  remarkable  development  of  Swedish  agriculture  which  commenced  in  the 
middle  eighties  necessitated  an  improvement  in  the  ordinary  farm-horse;  parti- 
cularly the  horses  of  the  flat  districts  in  the  centre  and  south  of  Sweden  proved 
too  small  and  delicate  for  the  new  agricultural  implements  and  deep-soil  work. 
In  order  to  give  the  Swedish  farm-horse  greater  bulk  and  strength,  heavy 
draught-horses  were  imported  from  abroad  and  crossed  with  the  Swedish  farm- 
horse;  the  chief  breeds  employed  for  this  purpose  are  the  Clydesdale,  the  Per- 
cheron,  and  the  Pinzgauer,  as  well  as  Norwegian  and  Belgian  horses;  the  two 
latter  races  have  been,  and  still  are,  of  particular  importance  in  Swedish  horse- 
breeding. 

Endeavours  were  first  directed  to  producing  a  horse  suitable  for  all-round 
purposes,  but  after  a  time  specialization  became  necessary.  The  last  fifty  years 
of  the  19th  century  must  be  regarded  as  a  period  of  experiment,  of  casting 
about  for  suitable  types. 


HORSES. 


97 


Sweden  requires  light  and  heavy  farm-horses,  carriage-horses,  and  saddle-horses 
for  the   army. 

For  these  purposes  suitable  types  of  horses  are  bred,  and  ponies,  too,  though 
only  to  a  small  extent.  The  different  species  of  breeding  may  be  classified  as 
follows:  breeding  of  thorough-breds  and  half-breds,  or  warmblooded  horses,  bree- 
ding of  farm-horses  and  draught-horses,  or  cold-blooded  horses,  and  breeding 
of  ponies. 

Breeding  of  thorough-breds  and  half-breds.  Only  a  small  number  of  thorough- 
bred horses  are  bred,  and  these  almost  exclusively  from  English  stallions.  Horses 
of  finer  race  are  used  chiefly  in  the  army,  and  stallions  are  maintained  for  this 
purpose  by  the  Government.  There  are  two  principal  Government  depots:  Fly- 
inge  in  Skane,  and  Stromsholm  in  Vastmanland.  In  1912,  there  were  153 
staUions  (inclusive  of  three-year-olds)  at  Flyinge,  and  80  at  Stromsholm.  Only 
twenty  of  them  are  English  thorough-breds,  the  great  majority  are  Hanoverian, 
and  the  remainder  Prussian  horses.  With  only  a  few  exceptions,  the  thorough- 
breds are  imported  as  mature  stud-horses.  A  small  number  of  the  half-bred 
stallions  are  born  and  reared  in  Sweden,  the  rest  are  imported  as  colts  and 
reared  at  Flyinge.  From  the  Government  depots  the  stallions  are  sent  out  to 
about  a  hundred  different  stations  during  the  covering  period;  only  a  few  of 
them  remain  at  the  depot.  In  1912,  about  25  mares  were  covered  by  each 
stallion. 


Skane  Half-bred. 


Sweden  also  breeds  half-breds  of  heavier  types,  suitable  for  heavy  carriage- 
horses,  and  also  for  farm-horses.  They  are  as  a  rule  of  a  heavier  Hanoverian 
or  Oldenburgian  strains.  Stallions  of  such  heavier  types  are  to  be  found  both 
at  the  Government  depots  and  in  private  studs. 

Among  the  measures  of  the  Government  for  the  encouragement  of  horse- 
breeding  may  be  noted  the  award  of  "breeding  prizes"  at  races,  and  of  premiums 
(see  below). 

A  number  of  Societies  devote  themselves  exclusively  to  fostering  the  breeding 

7—133179.  Sweden.  II. 


98 


in.      RURAL   HUSBANDRY. 


Yastergotland  Horse  of  the  Ardennes  type. 


of  light  horses,  others,  such  as  the  Swedish  Jockey  Club  and  the  Skanska  Falt- 
rittklubben,  have  that  object  as  an  essential  part  of  their  programme. 

The  breeding  of  light  horses  stands  highest  by  far  in  Skane.  The  great  ma- 
jority of  army  horses  are  still  purchased  from  Skane,  though  latterly  the  ten- 
dency has  been  to  take  them  more  and  more  from  the  central  parts  of  Sweden. 
Out  of  1  051  remounts  purchased  in  1906,  64'8  %  came  from  Skane,  and  the 
remaining  35"2  %'  from  the  rest  of  the  country;  in  1911,  the  corresponding 
figures  were  57'5  and  42"6  %.  A  small  number  of  army-horses  have  been  expor- 
ted in  recent  years  from  Skane  to  Denmark. 

The  Swedish  half-bred,  the  army  saddle-horse  particularly,  is  an  excellent  horse. 
Unfortunately,  the  interest  in  the  breeding  of  half-breds  is  manifestly  on  the 
decline.  The  reason  is  that  the  breeding  of  half-breds  is  at  present  considered 
less  remunerative  than  that  of  draught-horses.  It  should  also  be  noted  that 
bookmaking  is  prohibited  in  Sweden,  and  this  naturally  discourages  horse-racing. 
Proposals  have  been  mooted  to  promote  the  breeding  of  light  horses  by  abolishing 
this  prohibition,  and  also  by  erecting  a  Government  stud. 

Natire  horses  of  the  farm-horse  type.  There  are  parts  of  Sweden  where  the 
horses  are  sufficiently  tmaffected  by  foreign  breeds  to  be  considered  pure  na- 
tives. There  is,  for  instance,  the  Dalbo  horse  in  Dalsland  and  the  north  of 
Bohuslan,  a  small  horse,  but  powerful  for 'its  size,  and  capable  of  much  endurance 
and  adapted  for  the  more  barren  parts  of  the  country. 

There  is  also  the  "North  Swedish"  horse,  descended  from  the  Jamtland  and 
Halsinge  horses.  It  is  a  powerful  and  very  willing  horse,  of  a  light  cart-horse 
type,  draws  the  heaviest  loads  over  roads,  and  trots  briskly  along  the  highways. 
It  is  quite  indispensable  for  forest  and  highway  work  in  the  northern  and  cen- 
tral parts  of  Sweden,  and  moreover  does  capitally  as  a  farm-horse  in  upland 
districts  all  over  the  country.  It  could  doubtless  also  be  used  with  advantage 
for  the  army,  in  the  artillery  and  baggage  department.  For  some  twenty  years, 
systematic  efforts  have  been  made  with  great  success  to  preserve  this  invaluable 


HORSES. 


99 


horse,  which  was  becoming  extinct  through  injudicious  crossings  with  foreign 
stallions.  (See  "Stambok  over  nordsvenska  hastar"  by  Wilhelm  Hallander.) 
Closely  allied  to  this  native  race  is  the  Norwegian  Gudbrandsdal  horse,  which 
is  also  used  for  inter-breeding  with  the  North  Swedish  horse.  The  latter,  as 
the  name  implies,  is  employed  mostly  in  the  north  of  Sweden,  but  this  light, 
agile  horse  is  finding  its  way  more  and  more  to  the  Midlands  and  the  South, 
for  farm  and  highway  work. 

The  Rearing  Depot  for  North  Swedish  Stallions  at  Vangen  in  Jiimtland, 
erected  on  Crown  property,  and  maintained  by  the  Norrland  Agricultural  Socie- 
ties, will  doubtless  do  much  to  promote  the  breeding  of  the  North  Swedish  horse. 

The  breeding:  of  heavy  draught-horses.  Of  the  heavj-  breeds  that  have  been 
imported,  Percheron  and  Pinzgauer  breeds  have  not  appreciably  influenced  the 
breeding  of  the  Swedish  cart-horse.  The  Clydesdale  horse  was  introduced  into 
Vastergotland  as  early  as  1840  and  gave  rise  to  the  "Levene"  strain.  It  has 
also  influenced  the  breed  in  other  parts,  particularly  in  the  beet-growing  districts 
of  Skane.  This  big,  strong,  agile  draught-horse  should  be  well  adapted  for  these 
regions;  nevertheless  it  is  not  particularly  in  favour  at  present,  doubtless  because 
it  is  more  expensive  to  keep  than  its  rival,  the  Belgian  horse. 

At  the  begiiming  of  the  seventies,  Belgian  horses  of  the  Ardennes  type  began 
to  be  imported.  The  result  was  favourable;  the  Belgian,  when  crossed  with 
country  horses,  produced  a  capital  cart-horse,  powerful  and  not  too  exacting. 
Consequently,  the  Ardennes  horse  has  gradually  been  rising  into  favour,  and, 
where  heavy  draught-horse  breeding  is  pursued,  it  is  the  predominating  type. 
Excellent  Ardennes  horses  are  reared  in  Vastergotland,  Ostergotland,  and  Halland. 
Vastergotland  takes  the  lead:  it  not  merely  produces  horses  for  its  own  require- 
ments, but  also  sells  a  fair  number  to  other  parts  of  Sweden  and  to  foreign 
countries,  principally  Germany. 

The  Ardennes  horse  is,  as  the  name  implies,  an  upland  horse,  of  compact, 
powerful  form,  and  lively  movement. 

Not    all    the    horses    which  have  passed    under  that  name  have  been  genuine 


Colts  in  a  Paddock  at  Vangen. 


100  III.       RURAL    HUSBANDRY. 

Ardennes.  That  designation  has  been  frequently  applied  to  those  imported  from 
the  lowlands  of  Belgium,  big  animals,  but  flabby  and  sluggish,  and  thus  less 
valuable  for  breeding.  In  certain  parts,  this  horse  seems  to  be  actually  prefer- 
red to  the  genuine  Ardennes,  on  account  of  its  bulk  and  size. 

In  1901,  there  was  formed  an  Association  the  object  of  which  is,  by  dint  of 
keeping  systematic  records  of  pedigree,  to  preserve  and  utilize  suitable  breeding- 
horses  of  pure,  or  substantially  pure,  Ardennes  race,  and  of  good  uniform  type, 
and,  by  other  measures  as  well,  to  encourage  the  breeding  of  the  Ardennes 
horse  in  Sweden  (Stamboksforeningen  fijr  svenska  ardennerhastar). 

Out  of  the  hundred  or  so  Stallion  and  Horse  Breeding  Societies  in  Sweden, 
70  %  as  their  object  breeding  with  horses  of  the  Ardennes  type. 

Pony  breedingf.  On  the  island  of  Gottland  there  formerly  existed  a  large  num- 
ber of  small  horses,  called  "russ",  but  since  the  separate  re-partition  of  the  land 
(Sw.  enskifte;  cf.  p.  31),  they  have  been  gradually  disappearing.  The  breed 
still  exists,  but  in  small  numbers,  which  are  being  rapidly  reduced  year  by 
year;  thus  this  extremely  hardy,  enduring,  and  unpretentious  pony  seems  destined 
to  extinction.  The  demand  for  ponies  in  Sweden  is  supplied  by  the  importa- 
tion of  Iceland  horses,  a  less  attractive  breed  than  the  dainty  Swedish  pony- 
horse. 

Studs.  Flyinge  and  Stromsholm,  as  well  as  Ottenby  on  Oland,  were  formerly 
Government  studs.  But  at  present  there  exists  no  Government  stud.  Stroms- 
holm (in  1872),  Flyinge  (in  1887)  were  converted  into  stallion  depots,  and  the 
Ottenby  stud  was  in  1886  turned  into  a  remount  depot,  now  abandoned.  A 
number  of  persons  interested  in  horse-breeding  have  latterly  urged  the  re-esta- 
blishment of  a  Government  stud  for  light  horses  at  Ottenby. 

There  are  private  studs  at  Vittskovle  in  Skane  and  at  Loddby  in  Ostergot- 
land,  for  thorough-breds  and  half-breds;  at  Blomberg  in  Vastergotland  and  Bjarka- 
Saby  in  Ostergotland,  for  Ardennes  horses.  Mr  Hjalmar  Tornqvist's  stud  at 
Husby  Gard  in  Uppland  merits  special  mention,  for  his  energetic  and  well- 
directed  efforts  to  revive  the  old  Halsinge  horse. 

Freminins.  The  award  of  premiums  for  horses  is  provided  for  by  a  royal  or- 
dinance of  the  year  1913.  For  this  purpose  the  country  is  divided  into  6 
districts,  and  each  district  into  sub-districts.  Each  Provincial  Agricultural 
Society  constitutes  a  sub-district.  Only  the  following  kinds  of  horses  are  en- 
titled to  premiums: 

1)  Thorough-breds  and  half-breds. 

2)  Draught-horses  of  the  following  kinds: 

a)  North  Swedish  and  the  Gudbrandsdal  race  or  breed.  / 

b)  Ardennes,  and  horses  of  that  breed. 

c)  Clydesdale,  and  horses  of  that  breed. 

Thorough-breds  and  half-breds  are  entitled  to  premiums  all  over  Sweden;  as  to 
the  other  races,  the  Agricultural  Society  proposes,  and  the  Studs  Board  decides 
which  of  them  shall  be  entitled  to  premiums  within  a  sub-district.  Horses  of 
the  Gottland  race  are  entitled  to  a  premium,  being  reckoned  as  half-bred. 

The  grants  made  in  1914  for  premiums  amounted  to  155  158  kroner  from 
the  Government,  151  700  kroner  from  the  Agricultural  Societies,  and  16  950 
kroner  from  the  landstings  (County  Councils). 

The  Agricultural  Societies  endeavour  to  encourage  horse-breeding  in  other  ways 
as  well.  Thus  some  of  them  grant  subsidies  to  Stallion  and  Breeding  Societies 
for  the  purchase  of  suitable  breeding  animals;  and  the  horse-shows  arranged  by 
them  makes  it  possible  to  obtain  a  general  view  of  the  condition  of  horse-breeding 
in  different  parts  of  the  country. 

Annual  horse-shows  are  held  in  Stockholm,  Malmo,  and  Norrkoping,  in  the 
spring. 


REINDEER.  101 

■_  The  superintendence  of  horse-breeding  devolves  on  the  Studs  Board,  consist- 
ing of  a  president,  two  members,  and  a  secretary;  its  head-quarters  are  at 
Stockholm. 

Except  for  the  need  of  a  number  of  breeders,  Sweden  produces  sufficient 
horses  for  her  own  requirements,  and  has  even  some  to  spare  for  export  (see 
Table  25).  Nevertheless,  the  present  condition  of  horse-breeding  is  by  no 
means  satisfactory.  The  continued  import  of  breeders  is  alarming.  Having  once 
ascertained  what  types  are  particularly  needed,  one  should  work  with  those  types 
and  concentrate  all  one's  efforts  on  them. 

Among  the  measures  that  have  been  taken  by  the  State  during  the  last  few 
years  for  the  maintenance  of  horse-breeding,  may  be  mentioned: 

small  grants  for  the  introduction  of  properly  kept  stud-booJcs,  and  for  the 
protection  of  native  breeds  of  horses; 

grants  to  a  loan-fund  from  which  every  year  a  sum  of  100  000  kronor  is  to 
be  made  available  for  loans  to  horse-breeders  for  their  purchases  of  thorough- 
bred brood-mares  (cf.  the  Government  Proclamation  in  the  matter,  dated  July 
4,    1913), 

a  law  concerning  the  compulsory  inspection  of  stallions,  the  aim  of  which  is 
to  prevent  the  employment  of  unsuitable  and  inferior  sizes.  This  law,  however, 
is  of  a  facultative  nature  and  cannot  be  applied  in  districts  where  the  existing 
conditions  make  such  a  step  necessary,  before  the  proper  Agricultural  Society 
and  County  Council  have  applied  to  the  Government  to  allow  this  step  to  be 
taken. 

Reindeer. 

A  very  special  kind  of  animal  husbandry  is  the  reindeer-breeding  pursued  in 
the  northernmost  parts  of  Sweden.  Originally  begun  and  carried  on  exclusively 
by  the  Lapps,  the  Scandinavian  reindeer-breeding,  pursued  in  the  northernmost 
parts  of  the  country,  is  the  westernmost  and  most  highly  developed  offshoot  of 
a  branch  of  industry  that  forms  the  staple  means  of  subsistence  of  a  great 
number  of  different  nomad  peoples  throughout  the  entire  north  qf  Asia  and 
Europe.  The  considerable  profit  that  this  industry  —  originally  an  occupation 
confined  to  the  Lapps  —  often  yields  under  favourable  circumstances  has  induced 
a  number  of  Swedes  and,  more  especially,  Finns,  too,  to  adopt  it  as  a  very 
remunerative  means  of  supplementing  their   livelihood. 

There  are,  broadly  speaking,  two  main  kinds  of  the  reindeer  industry  in  Swe- 
den, viz.  that  of  breeding  the  mountain  reindeer  and  that  of  breeding  the  forest 
reindeer,  which  constitute  two  separate  biological  groups.  Whereas  the  mountain 
reindeer  takes  to  the  mountains  in  summer,  living  in  the  forests  only  in  winter, 
the  forest  reindeer  is  able  to  remain  in  the  forest  regions  the  whole  year  round. 

The  mountain  reindeer  are  taken  in  the  spring  up  to  the  mountains,  where 
the  animals  find  on  the  mountain  prairies  and  snow-fields  the  pasture  they 
require,  and  a  sorely  needed  immunity  from  mosquitoes  and  gad-flies.  Someti- 
mes, the  requisite  supply  of  grass  and  snow  not  being  forthcoming  on  the 
Swedish  side,  the  reindeer  have  to  cross  over  to  Norway,  occasionally  penetra- 
ting right  down  to  the  coast.  When  autumn  approaches,  the  animals  move  down 
again  from  the  mountains  to  graze  in  the  pine  forests  and  especially  on  the 
extensive  pine-barrens,  where  they  find  beneath  the  snow  their  winter  food-supply, 
which  consists  almost  entirely  of  a  kind  of  lichen,  called  "reindeer  moss".  In 
certain  cases  (Vasterbotten,  and  North  Jamtland)  the  reindeer  go  right  down 
to  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia;  in  others  (South  Jamtland,  Harjedalen,  and  Dalarne) 
they  merely  move  a  few  miles  east  of  their  summer  grounds.  The  reindeer 
breeding    industry  in  the  mountains  is  carried  on  from  Karesuando,  in  the  extreme 


102 


III.      RURAL  HUSEANFRY. 


-^       I 


Reindeer 

indicntiug  also  there^ions 

in  Norway  most  favoured 

by  Swedish,  reindeer). 

Ke}j   to  the    Signs  used: 

jTTr^T^^;™  Mountain    Rein- 
L-u^iii^    deer. 

!  Korest  Reindeer. 

Mountain  and 
ForestReindeer. 

(For  the  right  reading  of 
the  map,  cf.  the  text.) 


12  Es7  de  Gree 


03tl.v  Greenw. 


Gen.Grab.Lir.An5t.Stockholm 


REINDEER. 


103 


north  of  Norrbotten,  right  down  to  the  northern  parts  of  Idre,  in  Dalarne.^ 
It  is  actively  pursued  only  by  the  Lapps,  though  a  large  number  of  mountain 
reindeer  are  owned  by  peasants. 

Migrations  also  occur  among  the  forest  reindeer,  but  always  within  the  pine 
forest,  and  in  most  cases  to  a  very  small  extent.  The  forest  reindeer  finds  his 
summer  pasturage  principally  in  large  bogs,  abounding  in  horsetails  and  marsh- 
trefoil,  but  in  winter  he  feeds,  like  the  mountain  reindeer,  on  the  pine-barrens. 
The  migrations  of  the  forest  reindeer  are  thus  confined  to  journeys  to  and  fro 
between  some  suitable  marshy  region  and  a  near-lying  district  with  a  good  supply 
of  reindeer  moss.  The  breeding  of  the  forest  reindeer  is  carried  on  actively  not 
only  by  the  Lapps,  but  also  by  Swedes  and  Finns;  as  regards  proprietorship,  it  is 
a  remarkable  fact  that  the  greater  part  of  the  forest  reindeer  are  owned  by  pea- 
sants. It  is  pursued,  broadly  speaking,  in  two  districts,  the  chief  of  which  con- 
sists mainly  of  the  Finnish-speaking  districts  below  the  frontier  of  the  Lapp 
territory,  while  the  other  lies  between  the  lower  reaches  of  the  rivers,  Lulealv 
and  Vindelalven,  within  the  Lappland  frontier.  The  most  northerly  region  for  the 
breeding  of  the  forest  reindeer  is  the  south  part  of  the  parish  of  Karesuando; 
the  most  southerly.  Mala  in  Vasterbotten. 


Photo.  F.  Stbnonius. 
Herd  of  Reindeer  pasturing  in  summer  among  the  mountains  at  Kvilckjohk. 


The  stock  of  reindeer  belonging  to  Swedish  subjects  amounted  in  the  years 
1909—11  to  272  800  ^  animals.  Of  these,  231  300  were  mountain  reindeer, 
and  41  500  forest  reindeer.  Of  the  mountain  reindeer,  207  700  belonged  to 
Lapps  true,  and  18  600  to  peasants.  Of  the  forest  reindeer,  only  18  800 
were    owned    by    Lapps,    whereas    21  900  belonged  to  peasants.  ^     The  value  of 


'  In  winter,  the  reindeer  sometimes  move  down  to  Central  Halsingland,  although,  as  a 
rule,  they  go  only  as  far  as  Medelpad  (cf.  map). 

^  All  the  figures  adduced  here  are  given  to  the  nearest  hundred  and  must  be  looked  upon 
as  quite  approximate,  minimum  values.  —  '  The  peasants  are  mainly  Swedes  and  Finns,  but 


104  in.      RURAL   HUSBANDRY. 

the  whole  stock  of  Swedish  reindeer  may  be  put  at  about  4V2  million  kronor, 
at  a  rough  valuation  of  17  kronor  per  reindeer.  The  profit  on  them,  however, 
may  be  estimated  in  normal  years  at  the  rate  of  about  25  %,  and  thus  amounts 
to  the  respectable  sum  of  more  than  1  million  kronor  per  annum.  About  half 
of  this  profit  seems  to  be  consumed  direct  in  the  shape  of  food,  clothing,  and 
other  necessaries  for  the  Lapps;  the  bulk  of  the  other  half,  on  the  other  hand, 
is  employed  in  trade,  chiefly  in  the  form  of  entire  reindeers,  skins,  and  meat, 
to  a  certain '  extent  also  in  sinews  (for  stitching  boots  and  shoes)  and  horn  (for 
making  glue).  Trade  is  also  done  in  manufactured  goods,  -such  as  Lapp  furriery 
and,  above  all,  Lapp  shoes.  There  is  also  a  fairly  considerable  export  of  reindeer 
products,  either  direct  through  Sweden  to  Germany,  or  via  Norway  to  France, 
England,  and  even  America.  This  export  consists  mainly  of  hides  and  entire 
animals.  There  are  no  reliable  statistics  available,  which  deal  with  this  export. 
The  distribution  of  the  reindeer  among  the  different  lans  is  shown  by  the 
following  table. 

Mountain        Forest 
Reindeer       Reindeer 

Number  of  Reindeer  in  Norrbotten   Lan,  1911 129  500  40  100 

»  Vasterbotten    >    1909—10.    .    .    .  74  500          1400 

»          J          »          »  Jamtland         >            >         ....  25  700             — 

»          >         »          >  Kopparberg     »            >         ....  1 600             — 

The  opinion  often  expressed,  that  reindeer-breeding  in  Sweden  is  a  decaying 
industry,  which  is  bound  to  disappear  with  a  more  settled  mode  of  existence, 
must  unhesitatingly  be  set  down  as  erroneous.^  On  the  contrary,  it  would  at 
present  be  more  to  the  point  to  speak  of  an  over-production  of  reindeer,  seeing 
that  their  numbers  overtax  the  capacity  of  the  available  pasture-groimds.  As 
to  the  peasants,  it  is  true  that  a  good  many  disputes  occur  between  them  and  the 
Lapps,  but  as  the  subject  of  these  disputes  is  generally  some  damage  done 
to  the  "grass  marshes"  (sldttermyrar),  and  as  the  utilization  of  their  scanty  and 
almost  worthless  grass  belongs  to  a  most  primitive  method  of  agriculture,  which 
will  certainly  disappear  sooner  or  later,  these  quarrels  will  probably  cease 
entirely.  Under  these  circumstances,  it  is  quite  unwarrantable  to  look  upon 
reindeer-breeding  as  doomed  to  extinction.  Precisely  in  virtue  of  its  nomad 
character,  it  has  a  definite  mission  to  fulfil :  for  it  is  only  by  a  nomad  mode  of 
existence  that  the  supply  of  grass  and  reindeer  moss  in  the  mountains  and  pine- 
barrens  can  be,  economically  speaking,  utilized  to  the  full.  There  is  therefore 
every  reason  for  encouraging  Swedish  reindeer-breeding,  and  for  regarding  it  as 
a  branch  of  Swedish  industry  destined  to  survive,  and  as  one  bidding  fair  for 
the  future. 

Babbits. 

Towards  the  close  of  the  Middle  Ages  this  ancient  branch  of  industry  under- 
went a  great  development  in  Europe,  thanks  to  the  efforts  of  the  monks.  In 
Sweden,  however,  the  interest  in  rabbit-breeding  has  always  been  very  slight, 
notwithstanding  that  private  persons  and  societies  have  laboured  to  improve  it. 
There  is  no  doubt  whatever  that  rabbit-breeding  can  also  be  rendered  profitable  in 
Sweden;  but  rabbit-breeding,  like  that  of  all  other  domestic  animals,  requires 
time  and  thought,    and    thus    rabbit-keeping    is    not    as  well  suited  for  Swedish 

a  few  Lapps  have  also  been  included  among  them.  In  conseqaence  of  certain  regulations, 
practically  all  the  reindeer  owned  by  peasants  are  from  the  Lan  of  Norrbotten.  The  re- 
maining 5  800  reindeer  were  "unknown"  or  "unmarked". 

'  It  is  not  possible  to  support  this  statement  by  statistics,  early  data  as  to  the  numbers  of  reindeer 
being  unreliable. 


POULTRY-BREEDING.  105 

peasants  as  is  commonly  believed.  The  great  majority  of  Swedish  rabbit-breeders 
keep  unimproved  breeds  of  coimty  rabbits.  There  also  occur  in  Sweden  a 
number  of  foreign  breeds,  such  as  the  large  French  rabbit,  the  little  silver 
rabbit,  and  the  white  Danish  country  rabbit.  The  latter  is  considered  to  be 
suitable  for  crossing  with  the  Swedish  country  rabbit,  to  improve  the  breed. 

Poultry -Breeding. 

Cocks  and  hens,  ducks,  and  geese  were  found  in  Sweden  as  long  ago  as  the 
lion  Age.  On  the  other  hand,  the  turkey  was  not  introduced  before  the  end 
of  the  16th  century.  The  hen-roost  and  the  goose-pen  were  ordinary  parts  of 
the  equipment  of  an  ancient  northern  cottage,  and  in  many  parts  of  the  country 
they  were  retained  far  into  the  last  century;  nowadays,  poultry  has,  almost 
everywhere,  been  relegated  to  the  barn-yard,  or  to  special  poultry-houses. 

The  total  number  of  poultry  in  Sweden  is  estimated  to  be  at  least  4  250  000. 
Poultry-breeding,  as  a  whole,  is  not  in  a  thriving  condition  in  Sweden, 
except  in  the  southernmost  provinces,  from  which  a  large  export  of  eggs  and 
poultry  takes  place.  Skane  and  Oland  do  a  thriving  trade  in  geese:  in  the 
autumn  they  send  a  considerable  number  to  other  parts  of  Sweden  and  to 
Denmark. 

A  number  of  different  breeds  of  poultry  have  been  introduced  into  Sweden; 
the  Leghorn,  Plymouth  Rock,  Wyandotte,  and  Orpington  fowls,  the  Rouen, 
"Svenska  Bla",  Aylesbury,  and  Peking  ducks,  the  Skane,  Toulouse,  Emden,  and 
Pomeranian  geese,  and  the  Bronze  turkey  have  the  best  reputation  and  are  the 
breeds  most  widely  spread. 

Interest  in  poultry-breeding  seems  to  be  increasing.  In  1898  was  formed 
"Sveriges  Allmanna  Fjaderfaavelsforening"  (Society  of  Swedish  Poultry  Breeders), 
which  was  joined  by  a  large  number  of  members  from  different  parts  of  the 
country:  in  1912  the  number  of  members  was  6  701,  belonging  to  23  provincial 
associations.  The  Society  receives  a  subsidy  from  the  State,  to  which  must  be 
reckoned  the  contributions  made  by  the  Agricultural  Societies  to  the  provincial 
associations.  The  Society  works  in  a  variety  of  ways  for  the  promotion  of 
poultry-breeding  in  Sweden.  It  employs  salaried  experts,  arranges  exhibitions, 
inspects  and  subsidizes  breeding-establishments,  attends  to  the  control  of  egg- 
laying,  distributes  breeding-eggs  and  breeding-fowls,  etc.  Furthermore,  on  the 
initiative  of  the  Society,  many  small  producers,  who  carry  on  poultry-breeding 
with  great  advantage,  have  been  induced  to  form  "Egg-Selling  Associations", 
whereby  better  conditions  of  trade  have  been  secured.  The  export  of  eggs  from 
Sweden  is  mainly  due  to  the   existence  of  these  associations. 

In  1910  there  were  in  Malmohus  Lan  no  less  than  60  of  these  associations, 
which  collected  eggs  from  160  places. 

Eggs  are  exported  from  the  southern  provinces  to  England,  direct  or  via 
Denmark.  Table  25  shows  that  the  import  of  eggs  has  remained  almost  at  a 
standstill  during  recent  years;  the  export,  however,  has  increased  to  such  an 
extent  that  in  1913  it  exceeded  the  import. 

Bee-Keeping. 

The  bee  has  been  domesticated  in  Sweden  since  time  immemorial. 

In  most  places  in  Sweden  the  conditions  are  extremely  favourable  for  making 
bee-keeping  pay.  Bee  Associations,  by  disseminating  knowledge  as  to  the  manage- 
ment of  bees,  and  the  Agricultural  Societies,  by  granting  subsidies,  have 
endeavoured    to    obtain  for  bee-keeping  its  proper  place  among  the  most  impor- 


106  IIL      RURAL   HUSBANDRY. 

tant  of  minor  industries,  and  during  the  last  few  years  it  has  really  made  consi- 
derable progress.  However,  there  are  still  many  places  where  it  has  to  fight 
its  way,  and  large  profits  are  lost  owing  to  bad  methods:  a  large  part  of  the 
nectar  secreted  from  the  flowers,  instead  of  being  collected  and  made  productive, 
is  allowed  to  go  to  waste.  When  we  remember  that  a  community  of  bees  as 
a  rule  yields  a  yearly  income  which  on  an  average  equals  its  initial  cost, 
and  that  bee-keeping  requires  comparatively  little  time,  it  becomes  clear  that 
bees  are,  relatively '  speaking,  the  most  profitable  of  our  domestic  animals.  For 
people  of  small  means  who  wish  to  eke  out  their  incomes  and  procure  a  certain 
amount  of  comfort  and  well-being  bee-keeping  is  a  factor  to  be  reckoned  with. 
Bees  bring  in  many  thousands  of  kroner  in  the  form  of  honey  and  wax;  but 
the  indirect  advantage  that  accrues  from  them  in  the  fertilisation  of  plants  may 
be  said  to  be  far  greater.  Thus  these  small  workers  ought  to  be  welcomed 
more  heartily  than  is  at  present  the  case  in  Sweden,  where  there  is  pasture 
enough  for  a  far  larger  number  of  bee  communities.  In  1911  the  bee-swarms 
numbered  at  least  120  000,  while  the  annual  production  of  honey  may  be  com- 
puted at  about  600  000  kg;   and  of  wax,   at  10  800  kg. 

For  the  import  and  export  of  honey  and  wax,   see  Table  25. 


3.     DAIRIES  AND  DAIRY-INDUSTRY. 

We  give  telow  a  short  history  of  the  development  of  the  dairy-industry 
in  Sweden,  together  with  an  account  of  the  present  condition  of  tlie  indu- 
stry, and,  in  this  connection,  a  summary  of  the  measures  taken  during 
the  last  few  years  for  the  promotion  of  this  important  branch.  In  con- 
nection with  this  subject,  too,  a  few  words  will  be  devoted  to  dairy- 
machines  and  implements,  in  regard  to  the  invention  and  manufacture  of 
which,  Sweden  can,  without  contradiction,  be  considered  as  a  pioneer 
country. 

The  development  of  the  Dairy-Industry. 

The  dairy-industry  has  ancient  traditions  in  the  agricultural  industry  of  Swe- 
den, for  it  can  be  traced  back  nearly  700  years;  almost  to  the  close  of 
the  16th  century,  cattle  breeding  and  the  manufacture  of  butter  and  cheese 
were  important  and  lucrative  national  industries.  Then  succeeded,  however, 
long  periods  of  stagnation  and  decline,  the  small  quantity  of  milk  produced,  over 
and  above  that  required  for  daily  needs,  being  worked  up  at  home  under 
the  superintendence  of  the  farmer's  wife  or  some  woman  servant.  It  was 
not  before  the  middle  of  last  century  that  a  change  for  the  better  set  in 
in  this  respect,  but  at  first  it  was  only  on  a  few  large  estates  that  systematic 
dairying  was  commenced,  in  "Manor-farm  dairies"  as  they  were  called.  In  1840 
B.  Tornerhjelm  established  a  dairy  on  his  estate,  Gedesholmen,  in  Skdne, 
on  the  so-called  Holstein,  or  "open-pan  system",  and  engaged  dairy-hands 
from  Holstein  to  manage  it.  The  method,  however,  never  gained  any  great 
support,  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  that  invented  by  P.  V.  Gussander  and 
called  after  him.  In  certain  respects,  however,  the  last-mentioned  method  has 
contributed    in    no    little    degree  to  the  development  of  Swedish  dairying,  more 


THE    DBVELOPJIENT   OF   THE   DAIRY-INDUSTRY. 


107 


especially  by  its  adoption  for  dairy  purposes  of  vessels  and  implements  made  of 
tinned  sheet-iron.  Both  the  above  methods  of  creaming  v^ere  hampered  by 
their  demand  for  space  and  many  vessels,  and  great  difficulty  was  experienced, 
too,  in  keeping  the  milk  sweet   during  the  process  of  creaming. 


J.  Q.  Sivartz. 


During  the  sixties,  however,  more  energetic  efforts  began  to  be  made  to 
spread  among  the  farmers  a  knowledge  of  rational  methods  of  dairying.  The 
Academy  of  Agriculture  and  the  Agricultural  Societies  were  at  the  head  of  the 
movement,  and  a  rapid  development  was  soon  noticeable.  One  thing  that  con- 
tributed to  this  in  a  very  great  degree  was  the  introduction  of  the  ice-method, 
invented  by  J.  O.  Swartz  about  the  middle  of  the  decade  in  question,  and  accord- 
ing to  which  the  creaming  took  place  in  high,  cylindrical  or  oval  vessels,  im- 
mersed in  ice-water.  This  method  rendered  it  possible  to  carry  on  the  dairy- 
industry  on  a  large  scale,  and  became  very  extensively  employed,  as  things 
were  at  that  period.  Dairying  now  began  to  be  pursued  on  a  more  extensive 
scale;  a  number  of  manor-farm  dairies  extended  their  operations  and  bought 
milk  from  the  country  round  about,  and,  in  addition  to  these,  there  arose  so- 
called  "Dairy  Companies"  (Sw.  uppkopsmejerier),  which  were  not  carried  on 
in  connection  with  farming,  but  merely  handled  milk  that  was  purchased. 
Most  of  the  companies  in  question  had  as  their  chief  aim  the  manufacture  of 
butter  for  export.  The  export  of  butter  increased  rapidly,  and  by  1870  had 
risen  to  2  324  000  kilograms,  the  figures  showing  a  surplus  of  309  400  kilo- 
grams over  the  imports. 

For  the  purpose  of  extending  their  field  of  operations,  many  dairies  began  to 
purchase  cream  and  also  to  establish  branch-departments,  where  the  milk  was 
received  and  the  creaming  carried  out,  after  which  the  cream  was  sent  to  the 
principal    dairy    to    be  made  into    butter;  there  was  thus  created  a  system  with 


108 


III.       EUKAL   HUSBANDRY. 


a  central  churning-dairy  and  a  ring  of  creaming-stations,  each  of  the  latter  with 
a  number  of  milk-suppliers.  During  the  decade  1870  —  80  this  system  was  much 
employed,  in  central  Sweden  especially.  Among  those  that  were  most  active  in 
the  establishment  and  promotion  of  these  dairies,  H.  A.  Lidholm  of  Nadhammar 
is  specially  deserving  of  mention.  As  a  rule,  the  butter  produced  by  these 
churning-dairies  was  hardly  of  first-rate  quality,  but  at  that  period  people  had 
not  the  same  pretentions  in  that  respect  that  they  now  have.  The  dairies  in 
question  have  been  of  great  importance  for  dairying,  as  they  gathered  round 
them  large  numbers  of  milk-suppliers,  whom  they  induced  to  make  efforts  to 
increase  the  production  of  milk. 


Gf.  de  Laval. 


With  the  eighties,  dairy-farming  began  a  new  phase  of  existence,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  introduction  of  machine-creaming  when  0.  de  Laval  placed 
his  separator  on  the  market.  This  invention  enabled  the  dairies  to  treat  con- 
siderably larger  quantities  of  milk,  and  they  soon  began  to  purchase  supplies 
from  much  wider  areas  than  before.  The  delivery  of  cream  came  to  an  end, 
the  unskimmed  milk  being  sent,  instead,  direct  to  the  dairies.  The  churning- 
dairies  had  played  their  part,  for  the  present  at  least,  and  were  either  closed 
or  converted  into  separator-dairies  receiving  direct  supplies  of  inilk.  The  num- 
ber of    dairies    increased    rapidly,    and    Dairy   Companies  (Sw.  uppkopsmejerier, 


THE   DEVELOPMENT   OP   THE   DAIRY-INDUSTRY. 


109 


bolagsmejerier)  were  established  in  every  part  of  the  country.  The  produc- 
tion of  butter  increased  very  considerably  year  by  year,  and  Sweden  took  a 
place  in  the  list  of  the  principal  butter-exporting  countries.  But  the  com- 
petition between  the  dairies  became  too  great;  in  their  endeavour  to  obtain 
as  much  milk  as  possible,  they  neglected  to  maintain  their  demand  for  high 
quality,  and  winked  at  rather  serious  deficiencies  in  this  respect  —  the  purity 
and  freshness  of  the  milk  often  being  seriously  at  fault  —  and  this,  of  course, 
acted  injuriously  on  the  quality  of  the  butter.  Another  essential  error  was  that 
quite  a  large  number  of  inexperienced  persons  —  who,  in  addition,  were  in 
want  of  the  necessary  capital  —  began  to  establish  dairies.     The  Dairy  Compa- 


Mill.  kg 

25 


Imports  and  Exports  of  Butter. 


A 

/\ 

1 

^ 

,.   1 

\ 

\ 

\ 

1 

\ 

/ 

1/ 

' 

r 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

1 

1 

J 

/ 

a/; 

1    A 

i 

^   /-/ 

1  /■  "~\ 

-■  y 

\. 

\ 

."^^-^ 

"^"^N 

■■■'     —1 

J 

-"*  — 

Year  1832  I8'i0 


Exports. 


Imports. 


110  III.      KUEAL    HUSBANDRY. 

Table  26.         Imports  and  Exports  of  Butter  and  Cheese. 


Annually 

Butter, 

kg 

Cheese,    kg 

Exports 

Imports 

Exp.  —  Imp. 

Imports 

Exports 

Exp.  —  Imp. 

1801-1810  .   . 

3  570 

38420 

-       84  850 

13  720- 

328  770 

-   315  050 

1811-1820  .    . 

16  070 

284  680 

-      268  610 

7  290 

261 370 

-   254  080 

1821-1830  .    . 

14  290 

844  910 

—      830  620 

500 

284  700 

-   284  200 

1831-1840  .    . 

7  520 

726  460 

—      718  940 

790 

157  370 

—  156  580 

1841-1850  .    . 

11130 

230  500 

-      219  370 

840 

80  460 

—     79  620 

1851-1860.    . 

19110 

432  580 

—      413  470 

7  800 

372  290 

-  364  490 

1861-1870  .    . 

661 060 

1  209  760 

-      648  700 

59  910 

419  770 

-  369860 

1871-1880  .    . 

3  674  910 

1960390 

+    1714520 

147101) 

615  360 

—  468  260 

1881—1890  .   . 

11057  880 

2  621  350 

+    8  536  530 

168  330 

395  080 

-   236750 

1891—1900  .   . 

21142  649 

730  258 

+  20  412  291 

102  300 

258  320 

—   156  020 

1901-1910  .    . 

18  919  889 

434  869 

•1-18  486  020 

12  950 

411 135 

-   398185 

1911 

22  175  688 

155  597 

+  22  020  091 

2  956 

337  215 

—  334  259 

1912 

21  236  722 

123  885 

+  21 112  837 

5430 

580  211 

-  574  781 

1913 

19  654  318 

195  986 

+  19  458  332 

2  742 

550  548 

-  547  800 

Note.    RegardiAg  value  of  imports  and  exports,  cf.  Table  8,  p.  30. 

nies  also  found  it  a  very  difficult  matter  to  dispose  of  the  skim-milk  in  a  satis- 
factory way. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  nineties,  these  evils  were  to  an  essential  degree 
cured  by  the  employment  of  a  new  system  for  dairying  called  the  Go-opera- 
tive system  (Sw.  andelsprincipen),  a  feature  which  may  claim  to  be  the  most 
prominent  one  in  the  history  of  the  development  of  dairy-farming  in  Sweden, 
during  the  last  decade  of  the  centuiy.  Dairies  of  this  type  had  been  in  exis- 
tence in  Denmark  ever  since  the  middle  of  the  eighties,  and  had  gained  great 
support.  It  is  true,  that  the  first  Swedish  Co-operative  dairy  had  been  established 
at  Vilan,  in  Skane,  in  1880,  but  it  was  not  before  the  beginning  of  the 
nineties  that  the  class  of  dairies  in  question  gained  a  firm  footing  in  the 
country.  In  1890,  of  the  then  existing  1  562  dairies,  only  73  were  co-operative 
establishments,  but  five  years  later,  out  of  1  793  dairies,  302  were  on  the  co- 
operative principle,  a  total  which  has  since  gradually  increased.  The  strength 
of  the  co-operative  system  lies,  above  all,  in  the  fact,  that  the  milk-suppliers 
have  common  interests  and  enjoy  a  sense  of  joint  proprietorship;  they  them- 
selves receive  the  profits  that  may  be  obtained  from  the  milk  produced  on 
their  farms.  The  consequence  is  that  they  see  it  is  to  their  interest  to 
deliver  milk  of  good  quality.  It  is  easier,  too,  for  the  dairies  in  question  to 
obtain  the  necessary  capital,  so  that  it  becomes  easier  for  them  to  keep  pace 
with  the  demands  of  the  times  in  the  arrangement  and  equipment  of  their 
dairies.  In  another  respect,  too,  these  dairies  are  in  a  better  position  than 
their  rivals,  the  Dairy  Companies,  viz.,  as  regards  the  employment  of  the  skim- 
milk,  this  being  taken  back  by  the  milk-producers  and  utilized  in  the  most 
suitable  way  on  the  farms. 

In  the  above  remarks  only  butter-making  has  been  mentioned.  The  second 
principal  branch  of  dairying,  the  innnufactiire  of  cheese,  has  not,  in  Sweden 
reached  a  position  at  all  comparable  with  that  held  by  butter-making.  It  is 
true  that,  at  an  earlier  date,  cheese-manufacture  was  carried  on  on  a  relatively 
large  scale,  but  in  the  same  degree  that  the  main  interest  of  the  dairies  gradually 
aimed  at  increasing  the  export  of  butter,  nearly  all  the  milk  supplied  to  the 
establishments  mentioned  was  employed  for  making  butter,  only  a  small  per- 
centage being  devoted  to  the  manufacture  of  cheese,  the  home-supply  of  which  has 
not,    as    a    rule,    been    quite    sufficient  to  satisfy  the  Swedish  markets,  so  that 


THE   PRESENT   POSITION   OF  THE   DAIRY- INDUSTRY   IN   SWEDEN. 

Prices  of  best  export  JButter.     Per  quintal. 


Ill 


Kr. 

300 


/^ 

-^^ 

^-^ 

"\^^ 

^ — 

428 

Year   1872       1875  1S«0  1885  1890  1835  1900  1S05  1910     1312 

there  has  nearly  always  existed  an  excess  of  imports  of  cheese.  Every  now 
and  then  efforts  have  been  made  to  create  an  export  to  England,  now  of 
one  kind  of  cheese,  and  now  of  another,  but  the  attempts  were  soon  relin- 
quished. The  competition  with  cheap  and  excellent  products  from  the  U.  S.  A., 
Canada,  Holland,  and  other  countries,  which  fill  the  English  market,  was  too 
severe,  and,  in  addition,  the  export  prices  have  always  been  lower  than  the  figures 
quoted  in  the  home-market,  so  that  it  was  impossible  to  obtain  higher  prices 
for  the  milk  by  converting  it  into  cheese  than  by  making  butter  of  it. 

In  Table  26  a  survey  of  Sweden's  exports  and  imports  of  butter  and  cheese 
from  1801 — 1913  is  given  as  an  illustration  of  the  development  of  the  dairying 
industry  of  the  country  during  the  period  in  question. 

The  effect  of  the  ice-method  during  the  seventies  and  of  the  introduction 
of  the  separator  system  after  1880  is  very  clearly  shown  by  the  great  excess 
of  the  exports  of  butter  over  the  imports  which  begins  then.  As  regards  cheese, 
the  average  figures  show  a  steady  surplus  of  imports,  but  as  a  matter  of  fact, 
some  few  years  (1871,  1887,  1888  and  1891)  give  export-figures  which  are  in 
excess,  although  but  slightly,  of  those  for  the  imports. 


The  present  position  of  the  Dairy-Industry  in  Sweden. 

Tlie  production  of  milk.  The  raw  material  employed  in  Swedish  dairying 
is  almost  exclusively  cow's-milk.  It  is  true  that,  in  certain  parts  of  the  north  of 
Sweden,  some  little  goat's  milk  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  goat's-milk  cheese 
and  whey-cheese,  but  the  amount  is  comparatively  little  and  plays  a  very  unim- 
portant role  in  the  milk-economy  of  the  country.  According  to  the  statistical 
reports  for  1911,  the  number  of  cows  possessed  by  Sweden  in  the  year  named 
was  1  837  035;  all  of  these,  however,  cannot  be  reckoned  as  milk-producing,  as 
under  this  heading  are  included  all  heifers  not  less  than  2  years  old.  It  is 
impossible  to  give  any  reliable  figures  for  the  average  annual  production  of 
milk  per  cow.  The  averages  given  in  the  reports  issued  by  the  Swedish  Cow- 
Testing  Associations  vary  with  the  character  of  the  animals  and  especially  with 
the  breeds  to  which  they  belong,  and  also  with  the  quality  of  the  feeding  of 
the  cows.  They  amount  in  the  southernmost  lans  of  Sweden  to  more  than 
3  000  kilograms  of  milk  per  year,  in  Central  Sweden  to  about  2  700  kilo- 
grams, and  in  the  north  of  the  country,  to  about  2  000  kilograms.  Ac- 
cording to  the  reports  for  1910 — 11,  the  average  milking  for  the  Malmohus 
Lan  Dairy  Control  Associations  was  3  501  kilograms;  for  those  of  Kristian- 
stad  Lan  3  176  kilograms;  for  those  of  Skaraborg  Lan  2  679  kilograms;  of 
Ostergotland  Lan  2  631  kilograms;  of  Stockholm  Lan  2  732  kilograms  and 
for    those    of    Jamtland    Lan  2  093  kilograms.     These  figures,  however,  cannot 


112 


III.      RUKAL    HUSBANDRY. 


be  considered  as  being  any  expression  of  the  average  milking  for  all  the  cows 
in  these  various  parts  of  the  country,  as  of  course,  the  Control  Associations 
embrace  the  better  class  animals,  the  feeding  of  which,  too,  has  been  carried 
out  in  accordance  with  the  most  rational  methods.  In  round  numbers,  the  milk 
production  of  Sweden  is  estimated  at  somewhat  more  than  3  milliards  of  kilo- 
grams. 

The  uses  to  which  the  milk  is  put.  The  milk  is  used  for  human  food, 
for  rearing  and  fattening  calves,  for  rearing  pigs,  and  for  manufacturing  butter 
and  cheese;  a  small  quantity  is  exported,  chiefly  in  the  form  of  cream,  which 
is  sent  to  Germany.  Of  the  by-products  obtained  in  the  manufacture  of  butter 
and  cheese  • —  skimmed  milk  and  whey  ■ —  a  small  quantity  is  used  for  the 
making  of  serine  (dried  milk  or  milk-meal),  caseine,  and  lactine;  the  greater  part 
goes  to  calves  and  pigs;  a  part  of  the  skimmed  milk  is  made  use  of  as  food  for 
human  beings.  Only  approximate  estimations  can  be  given  of  the  amounts  of 
milk  employed  for  each  of  the  above  purposes.  The  amount  of  milk  taken  for 
direct  consumption  and  culinary  purposes  is  estimated,  from  some  general  ob- 
servations, as  amounting  to  O's  kilogram  daily,  per  head  of  the  population, 
which,  for  the  whole  country,  gives  a  consumption  of  a  little  more  than  1 
milliard  kilograms  per  annum.  Only  a  small  amount  of  milk  —  about  100 
million  kilograms  per  year  —  is  used  for  calves  and  pigs.  The  amount  of 
milk  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  butter  and  cheese  would,  thus,  amount 
to  2  milliards  kilograms  yearly. 


Plan  of  Co-operative  Dairy. 


The  Dairies.  In  1910  there  were  in  Sweden  1  416  dairies,  550  of  which 
were  co-operative  dairies,  475  company  dairies,  278  manor-farm-,  and  113 
manor-farm  milk-purchase  dairies.  The  co-operative  system  has  gained  its  great^ 
est  number  of  adherents  in  the  south  and  north  of  the  country,  while  in 
Central  Sweden  the  dairy  companies  and  manor-farm  dairies  are  predominant. 
In  the  southernmost  lans  —  the  two  Skane  lans,  and  those  of  Halland, 
Blekinge,  and  Southern  Kalmar,  there  were,  at  the  date  given,  no  less  than  205 
co-operative  dairies,  the  dairy  companies'  establishments  numbering  only  47,  and 
the  manor-farm-,  and  the  manor-farm  milk-purchase  dairies  together  coming  to 
no    more    than    35.     In    the  Norrland  lans  —  those   of  Norrbotten,  Vasterbot- 


THE    PRESENT   POSITION    OF    THB[  DAIRY-INDUSTRY    IN    SWEDEN.  113 

ten,  Vasternorrland,  and  Jamtland  —     there  were  104  co-operative  dairies,   and 
only    14    dairy    companies'-    and    12   manor-farm-  and  manor-farm  millc-purchase 
dairies.     If,     on    the    other    hand,    we    glance  at  Central  Sweden,  we  find  in  a 
single  Ian  —  that   of   Skaraborg  —   21)9   dairy  companies'-,  and   59    manor-farm- 
and     manor-farm    milk-purchase    dairies,    as    against  only  29   co-operative  dairies, 
and    the    three    lans    that    come   next   to   Skaraborg  in  point  of  milk-production 
—  those  of  Ostergotland,   Sodermanland,  and  Stockholm  —  have   78   dairy  com- 
panies'- and  96   manor-farm-  and  manor-farm  milk-purchase  dairies,  and  only  43 
co-operative    dairies.     The    size    of  the  dairies  varies  considerably.     In  the  fore- 
most   rank    come    the   dairies   in  Malmohus  Lan,  with   a  daily  average  of  8  000 
kilograms     of    milk,     the    figures     varying     between     3  400     kilograms    for    the 
-smallest     co-operative    dairies,    to    22  000  kilograms    for    the  largest.     The  least 
^amount    of    milk    handled    by    the  dairies  is  found  in  Vasterbotten  Lan,  where 
the    daily    average    is    only    400    kilograms.     The    value    of  the  dairy-buildings, 
■etc.,    shows   the    same    variations;    in   ]\[almohus    Lan    the  average  value  of  the 
co-operative    dairies  is   ol  565   kr.,  and  in  Vasterbotten  only  3  920  kr.    The  total 
quantity    of    milk  weighed    on  receipt  at  the  dairies  in  1910  was  1  149  219  973 
kilograms,    of    which    136  969  685     kilograms    were    sold    as    unskimmed    milk. 
Somewhat    more    than    1    milliard    kilograms   of    milk    were,    therefore,  used  in 
the    dairies    for  the  manufacture  of  butter  and  cheese.     Butter  alone  was  made 
at    845    dairies;  fat-cheese  alone  was  made  at  327   dairies,  and  both  butter  and 
cheese  were  made  at  208   establishments. 

The  manufacture  of  butter.  Butter  still  occupies  the  first  place  among 
dairyproducts,  and  its  manufacture  constantly  increases,  amounting  in  1900 
to  26  114  018  kilograms,  in  1905  to  27  999  409  kilograms,  and  in  1910  to 
32  938  444  kilograms.  Butter-making  is  carried  on  most  extensively  in  Skane 
.and  Halland,  the  production  of  butter  at  the  dairies  in  these  two  lans  amoun- 
ting in  1910  to  about  one-half  of  the  quantity  made  at  all  the  dairies  of 
"the  country.  Among  other  lans  where  the  manufacture  of  butter  is  carried  on 
very  extensively  may  be  mentioned  those  of  Ostergotland,  Skaraborg,  Soderman- 
land, and  Vastmanland. 

The  butter  is  produced  from  cream  obtained  by  skimming  the  milk,  this 
process,  nowadays,  taking  place  almost  exclusively  by  means  of  the  separating- 
system;  in  one  or  two  places,  where  skimmed  milk  can  be  sold  at  a  high  price 
for  direct  consumption,  the  ice-method  is  still  employed.  The  majority  of  the 
separators  in  use  are  Alpha-separators,  Avhich  can  be  had  in  three  different 
sizes,  skimming  1  000,  2  000,  and  3  000  kilograms  of  milk  per  hour  respec- 
tively, skimming  as  close  as  to  0'07  %  of  fat  in  the  skimmed  milk.  As  a  rule 
the  milk  is  pasteurized,  either  the  pure  milk  (helmjolken)  before  skimming, 
or  else  the  cream  and  the  skimmed  milk  separately.  Pasteurizing  is  not, 
as  in  Denmark,  obligatory  by  law,  but  efforts  are  at  present  being  made  to 
have  such  a  law  passed  in  Sweden,  too.  In  connection  with  the  process  of 
pasteurizing,  there  is  employed  in  many  places,  and  especially  and  very  gene- 
rally in  Malmohus  Lan,  the  regenerative  system,  whereby  a  part  of  the  warmth 
■of  the  pasteurized  milk  is  utilized  for  the  purpose  of  preparatorily  heating  the 
■cold  milk.  Nearly  all  the  butter  produced  here  is  the  so-called  sour- cream 
butter  (Sw.  syrat  smor),  which  is  obtained  by  submitting  all  the  cream  in- 
tended for  the  making  of  butter  to  a  souring-process,  produced  by  the  bacteria 
of  lactic  acid.  For  this  purpose  there  is  very  generally  employed  a  pure  culture 
of  lactic  acid  bacteria,  the  activity  of  which  is  preserved  by  the  culture  being 
placed  every  day  in  a  fresh  preparation  of  thoroughly  pasteurized  skimmed  milk; 
in  some  places  again,  butter-milk  is  used  as  the  souring  preparation  or  starter. 
'The  souring  of  the  cream  takes  place,  as  a  rule,  at  a  low  temperature  (11 — 
15°    C.)    and    the    cream    which    is    thus  set  on  the  one  day  for  souring  ought 

S— 133179.  Sweden.  II. 


114  m.      RURAL   HUSBANDRY. 

to  be  soured  by  the  next  day,  at  a  suitable  time  for  the  churning.  For  the 
churning  and  the  working  up  of  the  butter  there  are  employed  the  older,  so- 
called  Holstein  churns  and  mechanial  butter-workers,  and  also  a  newer  type 
of  machine  —  a  combined  churn  and  butter-worker,  this  latter,  apparently, 
seeming  to  be  rapidly  ousting  the  oldfashioned  apparatus,  especially  at  the 
larger  dairies,  where  it  greatly  facilitates  the  working  of  the  butter.  For  the 
salting  of  the  butter,  the  very  finest-grained  salt  is  used  nowadays,  in  the 
place  of  the  relatively  coarse-grained  salt  always  recommended  before.  All  the 
butter  intended  for  export  is  packed  in  barrels,  each  containing  preferably  an 
English  hundredweight  (centner). 

Several  inventors  have  endeavoured  to  construct  machines  to  skim  and  churn 
at  the  same  time.  The  only  one  of  these  machines  that  has  come  into  any 
use  is  the  radiator,  invented  by  E.  G.  N.  Salenius.  Its  employment,  however, 
has  not  become  very  general,  and,  during  the  last  few  years,  no  new  radiator- 
dairies  have  been  established.  The  radiator-dairies  produce  sweet-cream  butter, 
the  greater  part  of  which  is  sold  within  Sweden. 

The  gross  price  which  milk  —  as  a  result  of  its  employment  for  butter 
manufacture  —  can  fetch,  depends,  of  course,  on  the  percentage  of  fat  in 
the  milk,  and  also  on  the  price  that  can  be  had  for  the  butter,  skimmed  milk, 
and  butter-milk,  and  can  easily  be  calculated  if  these  factors  are  known.  But 
from  the  gross  price  there  have  to  be  deducted  the  costs  of  manufacture,  which 
vary  greatly  with  the  different  dairies,  this  depending  upon  local  conditions  and 
also  upon  the  size  of  the  dairies.  The  expenses  in  question  are  lowest  at  the 
largest  dairies.  According  to  the  co-operative  dairy-farming  working  statistics  for 
1910,  the  expenses,  apart  from  those  for  carriage,  in  the  Lans  of  Malmohus 
and  Kristianstad  amounted  respectively  to  no  more  than  4"97  and  5  "06  kr.  per 
1  000  kilograms  milk,  while  in  Norrbotten  Lan,  where  the  daily  quantity  of 
milk  per  dairy  amounted  to  only  902  kilograms,  the  expenses  in  question 
rose  to  14'29  kr.  It  is  clear  that  such  an  increase  in  working  expenses 
must  have  a  most  injurious  effect  on  the  economy  of  the  dairy-farming,  and 
in  thinly-populated  parts  of  the  country,  where  it  is  impossible  to  collect  any 
large  quantity  of  milk  without  the  costs  for  carriage  becoming  altogether  too 
heavy,  it  has,  consequently,  been  difficult  to  start  a  paying  butter-making  busi- 
ness. One  method  of  solving  the  problem  has  been  attempted,  however,  during 
the  last  few  years.  At  the  close  of  the  nineties  there  was  established  at 
Nybro,  in  Smaland,  a  dairy  company  .based  on  the  delivery  to  the  dairy  of 
cream;  i.  e.,  a  so-called  "cream-dairy".  At  Glimakra,  in  the  northern  part  of 
Kristanstad  Lan,  a  co-operative  dairy  was  established  in  1904,  on  the  same 
system,  which  proved  a  financial  success  and  has  had  many  imitators  in  the 
forest  districts.  These  dairies  were  supplied  with  cream  skimmed  from  the  milk 
at  the  farms  of  the  various  producers  by  means  of  hand-separators.  This  system 
greatly  facilitates  transport,  and  other  working  expenses  of  the  dairies  also 
become  less.  The  type  of  dairy  in  question  has  one  disadvantage,  however, 
for  the  cream  skimmed  at  the  farms  is  not  always  so  well  handled  as  could  be 
wished,  the  result  being  that  these  dairies  find  it  difficult  to  produce  butter 
of  uniformly  good  quality.  It  is  possible  that  this  disadvantage  could  be 
avoided  by  establishing  small  skimming-stations  around  a  central  chuming- 
dairy,  but  such  a  system  is  imaginable  only  on  the  supposition  that  the  skim- 
ming-stations can  be  erected  at  sufficiently  low  cost.  The  plan  appears  to 
have  been  made  possible  by  the  Baltic-turbine  dairying  machine,  which  was  put 
on  the  market  by  the  Baltic  Co.,  Ltd.  in  1911,  and  which  is  a  combination 
of  boiler,  a  turbine-driven  separator,  regenerative-pasteurizing  apparatus,  and 
the  necessary  pumps,  all  driven  by  the  separator-turbine.  The  whole  machine 
occupies    a    floor-space    of    l'ixl"4    square  meters,  and  treats  from  750  to  800 


THE    PRESENT   POSITION    OF   THE    DAIRY -INDUSTRY   IN    SWEDEN. 


115 


kilograms  of  milk  per  hour.  The  dairying  machine  can  also  act  as  an  in- 
dependent butter-dairy,  as  it  is  possible  to  connect  it  with  a  small  churning- 
apparatus. 

A  not  unimportant  quantity  of  butter  is  made  at  the  farms,  both  for  home- 
consumption  and  also  for  sale;  it  is  known  as  farm-butter  (Sw.  bondsmor).  In 
tracts  which  are  thinly  populated  and  where  "cream-dairies"  have  not  as  yet 
been  established,  hand-separators  and  hand-churns  are  still  pretty  extensively 
used.  This  is  the  case  in  a  great  part  of  Norrland,  in  Kopparberg  Lan,  and 
in  Goteborg  och  Bohus  Lan.  In  the  latter  lan,  dairy-farming  on  a  large  scale 
has  almost  died  out^  partly  as  a  result  of  this  home-manufacture,  and  also  in 
consequence  of  large  amounts  of  milk  being  sent  for  direct  consumption  to 
Gothenburg,  fishing-hamlets,  stone-quarries,  and  sea-side  places.  In  1890,  there 
were  32  dairies  there,  with  a  yearly  milk-supply  of  9  600  000  kilograms;  in 
1910,  the  number  of  dairies  was  only  5,  and  the  amount  of  the  milk  treated 
but  2  200  000  kilograms. 

The  manufacture  of  cheese  has  slowly  but  surely  increased  during  the  last 
two  decades;  the  increase,  however,  is  for  the  fatter  kinds  of  cheeses  only;  the 
production  of  skim-milk  cheese,  on  the  other  hand,  has  diminished,  as  may  be 
seen  by  the  following  figures. 

Production    (iu    kg)    of 


Year 

fat  cheese 

half-fat  cheese 

quarter-fat 
cheese 

skim-milk 
cheese 

1890  .    . 

,       1  745  110 

587  570 

— 

4  261  900 

1895  .    . 

.       2 123  287 

742  487 

— 

4  048  701 

1900.    . 

.       3  266  734 

1463  370 

182  809 

2  523  543 

1905  .    . 

4  440707 

2  006  258 

203  486 

1978  747 

1910  .    . 

.       5  667  620 

2  360  953 

494  007 

1  613  479 

About  one-half  of  the  fat  cheese  is  made  in  Skaraborg  Lan;  next  come  the 
Lans  of  Ostergotland  and  Jamtland.  In  the  last-named  lan,  cheese  is  the 
principal  product  at  most  of  the  dairies,  and  the  same  can  be  said  of  Vaster- 
botten  Lan.  During  the  last  few  years,  Malmohus  Lan,  which  produces  a  great 
amount  of  butter,  has  commenced  to  make  the  fat  cheeses,  and  now  ranks 
fourth  as  regards  its  production.  Half-fat-  and  quarter-fat  cheeses  are  produced 
mostly  in  Central  Sweden;  Sodermanland,  Skaraborg,  Orebro,  Ostergotland,  and 
Stockholm  Lans,  in  the  order  given,  being  the  parts  where  these  kinds  of 
cheese  are  most  produced.  The  manufacture  of  skim-milk  cheese  is  carried  on 
principally  in  Sodermanland  and  Skaraborg  Lans,  and  also  in  the  Lans  of  Orebro, 
Vastmanland,  and  Kopparberg.  The  fat  cheeses  produced  are  mostly  Swedish 
manor-farm  cheese,  Norrland  fat  cheese,  and  Vastgota  cheese;  Cheddar-  and 
Gouda  cheese  are  made  at  a  small  number  of  dairies. 

The  method  of  manufacture  is  that  ordinarily  employed  for  making  hard 
rennet-cheese  (Sw.  lopeostar),  with  variations  in  details,  according  to  the  kind 
of  cheese  it  is  desired  to  obtain,  the  quality  of  the  milk,  and,  very  often,  in 
agreement  with  methods  long  employed  at  some  certain  place.  As  the  ripening 
of  the  cheese  is  a  process  brought  about  by  bacteria,  the  successful  carrying  out 
of  the  cheese-manufacture  depends  a  ^reat  deal,  of  course,  on  the  bacterial  flora 
of  the  milk.  Experience  has  shown  that  a  relatively  large  percentage  of  lactic 
bacteria  are  necessary  for  a  proper  course  of  ripening,  and  it  has  long  been  a 
custom,  in  the  manufacture  of  certain  kinds  of  cheese,  to  enrich  the  milk,  after 
the  rennet  is  put  in,  with  lactic  acid  bacteria,  by  the  addition  of  sour  whey. 
Nowadays,  here  and  there  in  Sweden,  there  is  added  a  pure  culture  of  lactic 
acid  bacteria,  even  in  the  manufacture  of  such  kinds  of  cheese  for  which, 
formerly,    this    process    was   never    used.     The   result  is  that  a  much  more  uni- 


116  HI.      RURAL    HUSBANDRY. 

form  quality  is  obtained,  and  that  there  is  less  of  the  risk  always  attached  to 
the  manufacture  of  cheese.  In  many  dairies  the  method  has  now  been  adopted 
of  giving  the  cheese,  before  its  removal  to  the  curing-room,  a  coating  of 
melted  parafine,  which  diminishes  the  loss  during  curing  and  storing  and 
also  makes  the  work  of  keeping  the  cheese  clean  and  free  from  mould  easier. 
This  diminution  of  loss  being  one  of  great  economical  importance,  the  method 
in  question  will  probably  come  more  extensively  into  use. 

The  utilization  of  the  by-products.  The  by-products  obtained  in  the  manu- 
facture of  butter  and  cheese  —  skimmed  milk,  buttermilk,  and  whey  —  are 
utilized  in  many  different  ways.  Shimmed  milh  is  employed  as  food  for 
human  beings,  for  the  rearing  of  calves,  for  manufacturing  cheese,  and  in  mar- 
garine and  margarine-cheese  factories,  and  also  for  making  milk-preparations;  the 
greater  part  is  employed,  however,  for  the  rearing  and  fattening  of  pigs.  The 
most  important  milk-preparations  made  from  skimmed  milk  are  serine  and 
easeine.  Serine  is  obtained  bj'  drying  the  milk  at  a  low  temperature  in  vacuum 
in  the  exsiccator  invented  by  M.  Ekenberg.  The  product  obtained  in  this  way 
is  ground  to  coarse  grains,  then  dried,  and  finally  ground  into  fine  meal.  Serine 
factories  exist  at  Halsingborg  and  Ystad.  Caseine  is  obtained  liy  souring 
the  skimmed  milk,  after  which  the  curdled  caseine  is  separated  from  the  whey, 
washed  in  water,  and  pressed.  The  ready-pressed  caseine  is  bought  from  the 
dairies  by  caseine-factories,  which  dry  it  and  grind  it  to  fine  meal.  In  1910, 
there  were  8  such  caseine-factories  in  Sweden,  viz.,  at  Svalov,  Eslov,  Flen, 
Vasteras,  Hallsberg,  Mjolby,  Skara,  and  Lidkoping.  Butter-inilk  is  mostly  employ- 
ed for  fattening  pigs.  Whey  is  also  mostly  used  for  the  same  purpose,  but  a 
not  unimportant  part  is  employed,  in  Jamtland  especially,  in  the  manufacture 
of  whey-cheese  (Sw.  mesost).  Whey-cheese  is  obtained  by  boiling  the  whey 
down  to  an  almost  solid,  somewhat  doughy  mass,  which  is  moulded  and,  after 
a  few  days'  drying,  is  ready  for  use.  Pure  milk-sugar  can  also  be  produced 
from  whey;  an  impure  product,  raw  milk-sugar,  is  obtained  by  boiling  down  the 
whey  to  crystallization,  and  afterwards  refining  it.  There  are  two  small 
milk-sugar  factories  at  Horby,  in  Skane,  and  at  Bjorketorp,  in  Vastergotland. 
Attempts  have  been  made  at  many  places  to  prepare  a  relatively  cheap  product, 
rich  in  nitrogen,  intended  to  be  employed  in  baking,  cooking,  etc.,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  adding  easily  digestible  albumen  to  the  food.  Such  a  product,  "proton", 
consisting  of  soda-caseine,  was  made  for  a  time  at  Hamra,  near  Stockholm,  but 
the  manufacture  has  been   abandoned  on  account  of  the  slight  demand. 

The  meagurement,  payment  for,  and  judging  of  the  milk.  In  most  dairies  the 
milk  is  weighed  and  is  expressed  in  weight  (kilograms),  but  capacity-measm'e 
(the  liter)  is  the  one  most  employed  in  retailing  milk  to  home  consumers.  At 
a  number  of  dairies  the  milk  is  still  paid  for  only  by  measure,  but  nowadays 
regard  is  also  paid  to  the  percentage  of  fatty  matter  contained  by  the  milk. 
During  the  last  few  years,  too,  growing  importance  has  been  paid  to  the  quahty 
of  the  milk,  and  special  milk-testers  have  been  appointed  at  several  places 
for  the  purpose  of  having  the  milk  judged  impartially.  Several  dairies  have 
united  to  form  Milk  Testing  Associations,  with  testers  common  to  the  various 
dairies.  The  first  Milk  Testing  Association  was  formed  in  Sodermanland  in 
1907,  since  which  date  similar  associations  have  been  established  in  various 
parts  of  the  country.  The  aim  of  these  associations  is  stated,  in  the  regulations 
for  that  in  Sodermanland,  as  being  to  carry  out  regular  and  exact  examinations 
of  the  milk  supplied  to  the  dairies,  in  order  that  the  quality  of  the  milk  may 
be  thereby  improved,  and  also  to  determine  regularly  the  percentage  of  fatty  matter 
contained  by  the  milk,  so  that  not  only  the  dairies,  but  also  the  suppliers  may 
be  able  to  obtain  fully  reliable  and  impartial  information  with  regard  to  these 
matters.     The  testing  of  the  quality  of  the  milk  is  made  by  means  of  smelling 


THE   PRESENT   POSITION   OP   THE   DAIRY-INDUSTRY   IN   SWEDEN. 


117 


and  tasting,  by  determining  the  amount  of  foreign  matter  contained,  and  also  by 
the  so-called  reduction-test,  which  gives  an  approximate  estimate  of  the  quantity  of 
micro-organisms  contained  by  the  sample  of  milk.  The  results  of  this  examination 
can  occasion  remarks,  warnings,  reductions  in  price,  or  a  refusal  to  accept  the  milk 
supplied,  all  in  accordance  with  special  reg-ulations.  The  tests  for  the  fat-per- 
centage, which  form  the  basis  of  the  calculation  of  the  price  of  the  milk,  is 
usually  carried  out  by  means  of  Lindstrbm's  butyrometer,  which  has  proved 
very  suitable  for  testing  large  quantities  of  milk. 


"» wmurjn  jMitMWit' »»'-       53 


Trade  mark  for  choicest  Siccdish  butter,  placed  on  the  harreh  and  paper 

(The  rune  mark). 

Trade  in  dairy  produce.  Milk  and  cream.  In  all  the  larger  centres  of 
population  in  Sweden,  the  communal  authorities  have  had  regulations  issued 
regarding  the  sale  of  milk,  with  the  demands  of  milk-hygiene  more  or  less 
strictly  applied,  and  often  with  a  minimum  limit  for  the  percentage  of  fat. 
Some  amount  of  milk  and  cream  is  exported  to  Denmark  and  Germany;  the 
export  of  cream  to  Germany,  especially,  ought  to  be  profitable  as  long  as 
there  is  no  duty  on  it;  butter,  however,  has  to  pay  duty.  Butter.  The 
home  butter-market  is  protected  by  a  duty  of  20  ore  per  kilogram.  The 
principal  aim  of  this  duty  is  to  prevent  in  some  measure  the  import  of  cheap 
Siberian  butter,  and  in  this  way  it  serves  to  protect  the  home  production  of 
"farm-butter"  and  of  margarine.  At  present  the  greater  part  of  the  butter  made 
in  the  dairies  is  exported.  The  amount  of  this  export,  and  the  share  taken  by 
various  countries  since  the  beginning  of  the  present  century  can  be  seen  by 
Table  27. 

The  export  is  principally  via  Gothenburg,  Malmo,  and  Halmstad.  The  butter 
exported  via  Malmo  is  sent  for  the   most  part  by  the  Skane   Butter  Export  As- 


Table  27. 

Exports 

of  Butter,  ly  Destination 

Year 

Total   exports,   by  quintal  s,  to 

Percenta 

ge 

other 

other 

England 

Denmark 

Germany 

countries 

Total 

England 

Denmark 

Germany 

countries 

Total 

1900  . 

105  737 

85  747 

117 

■il 

191 628 

55-18 

44-75 

0-06 

001 

100 

1902  . 

98  876 

101  014 

146 

513 

200549 

49-30 

50-37 

0-07 

0-26 

100 

1904  . 

101898 

93  003 

207 

593 

195  701 

52-07 

47-52 

0-11 

0-30 

100 

1906  . 

107  340 

53  899 

371 

380 

161J)90 

66-26 

33-27 

0-23 

0-24 

100 

1908  . 

135  694 

44  966 

488 

429 

181 577 

74-73 

24-76 

0-27 

0-24 

100 

1910  . 

163  057 

50  925 

2  901 

616 

217  499 

74-97 

23-41 

1-33 

0-29 

100 

1912  . 

159  288 

44  047 

8  333 

700 

212367 

7501 

20-74 

3-92 

0-33 

100 

Note.     An    altered    arrangement   of   the    respective    statistics    also  influences  the  figures 
after  1904. 


118 


III.      KUKAL    HUSBANDRY. 


Table  28. 


Imports  and  Exports  of  Cheese. 


1 
I 

I  m  p  0  1 

ts,  k  g 

Year 

1 

Exports,  kg 

Swiss  cheese 

Dessert  cheese 

Other  kinds 

Total 

1901  .... 

i 

363909 

1818 

1905  .... 

32049(J 

4839 

1906  .... 

1 

939976 

18461 

1907  .... 

.  .  .  :   345842 

;    47  319 

156  370 

549531 

9064 

1908  .... 

...  1   265  670 

1    32  884 

63  454 

362008 

3501 

1909  .... 

,  .  .  i   270137 

38  780 

43  937 

352854 

58  766 

1910  .... 

.  .  .  '   240  536 

35  642 

47128 

323306 

23  507 

1911  .... 

.  .  .    255  463 

39  678 

42  074 

as?  215 

2  956 

1912  .... 

i     1 

61  920 

■518  291 

580211 

6430 

'  Swiss  cheese  Included  in  »Other  Itindsj  since  1912  in  the  Official  Statistics. 

sociation,  which  was  formed  in  1905  and  has  its  business-districts  in  Malmohus 
and  Kristianstad  Lan.  In  order  to  make  Swedish  butter  known,  and  to  prevent  its 
being  mistaken  for  the  butter  exported  by  other  countries,  a  registered  mark  for 
Swedish  export-butter  —  the  so-called  rune-marlt:  (Sw.  runmarket)  —  has  been 
employed  since  1904.  This  mark,  however,  is  not  only  a  national  one,  but  it 
also  shows  the  quality,  as  it  may  only  be  employed  for  butter  from  dairies  the 
butter-tests  for  which  have  shown  that  the  cream  or  the  milk  employed  there 
for  butter-manufacture  has  been  pasteurized  to  at  least  80°  C,  that  the  water 
contained  by  the  butter  does  not  exceed  16  %,  and  that  the  quality  of  the 
butter  is  irreproachable.  The  rune-mark  becomes  of  greater  importance  every 
year  for  the  placing  of  Swedish  butter  on  the  English  market.  It  is  of  growing 
importance,  too,  for  the  sale  of  butter  in  the  home-market,  so  that  many  dairies 
which  do  not  sell  butter  for  export  consider  it  necessary  to  endeavour  to  obtain 
the  right  to  employ  it.  Since  September,  1911,  the  highest  amount  of  water 
contained  by  the  butter  has  been  legally  fixed  by  a  Royal  ordinance  at  16  °'o,  and 
regulations  have  been  issued  respecting  the  control  of  this  matter;  the  Board  of 
Agriculture  has  the  task  of  seeing  that  the  testing  is  carried  out  in  a  proper 
way.  The  butter  prices  are  still  ruled  mainly  by  the  quotations  of  the  Copen- 
hagen market.  Since  1897,  there  has  existed  a  so-called  Swedish  quotation,  too, 
which,  however,  is  fixed  a  week  later  than  the  Danish  and  gives  the  average  prices 
obtained  for  first-class  butter;  it  is  thus,  in  reality,  a  market  report.  Cheese 
is  imported  and  exported,  as  already  mentioned,  only  on  a  small  scale.  The 
imported  cheese  consists  for  the  most  part  of  Swiss  cheese,  which  is  brought 
into  the  country  from  Switzerland  and  Germany;  some  amount  of  dessert-cheese 
is  imported  mainly  from  France,  while  other  cheese  is  imported  from  various 
quarters,  large  quantities  having  been  imported  during  the  last  few  years  from 
the  Netherlands. 


Measures  for  the  Promotion  of  the  Dairy-Industry. 

The  State  and  the  various  Agricultural  Societies  have  endeavoured  in  many 
ways  to  promote  and  support   the  dairy  industry. 

Teachers  and  dairy-experts.  In  the  service  of  the  State  there  is  first  a 
State  Dairy-Expert,  whose  duty  it  is  to  assist  the  Board  of  Agriculture  in  the 
performance  of  its  labours  and  to  assist  the  public  with  information  and  advice, 
and,  secondly,  an  agent  in  England  and  another  in  Germany,  who  have  to  work 
for    the  extension  of  the  market  for  Swedish  agricultural  products  in  these  two 


MEASURES    FOR   THE    PROMOTION   OP    THE    DAIRY-INDUSTRY.  119 

countries.  Several  Agricultural  Societies  have  appointed  exjierts  or  dairy-instrud- 
resses  (Sw.  lansmejerskor),  who  have  not  only  to  supplj-  the  public  in  their 
respective  lans  with  advice  and  information  respecting  the  fitting-up  and  arrange- 
ment of  dairies,  but  also  to  gi^■e  practical  instruction  in  the  manufacture  of 
butter  and  cheese. 

Dairy-schools.  At  the  Alnarp  Agricultural  High  School  there  is  a  daiiy- 
division  embracing  a  higher  course  for  the  training  of  experts  and  teachers 
in  dairy-management,  and  also  a  lower  course  for  the  training  of  dairy-managers. 
The  conditions  for  entrance  to  the  higher  course  are  that  the  candidate 
shall  have  passed  the  final  examination  at  one  of  the  agricultural  high  schools 
of  Sweden,  or  have  a  knowledge  of  the  work  corresponding  to  that  which 
can  be  gained  there,  and  to  have  seriously  taken  part  in  all  the  branches  of 
practical  dairy-work.  For  entrance  to  the  lower  course  the  candidate  must 
possess  a  good  certificate  from  the  elementary  school,  and  to  have  had  at  least 
one  year's  practical  experience  of  dairy-work  in  all  its  branches.  Both  courses 
last  one  year.  At  Atvidaberg  there  is  a  State  Dairy-School,  for  the  purpose  of 
giving  men  and  women  who  have  already  had  experience  in  dairying  and  have 
acquired  some  theoretical  knowledge  of  their  business  an  opportunity  for  the 
fm'ther  study  of  the  theory  and  practice  of  dairying.  Two  courses  are  held 
every  year,  each  lasting  six  months.  The  State  Dairy-Stations  give  practi- 
cal and  theoretical  instruction  to  women-pupils,  the  course  lasting  two  years. 
These  stations,  which  are  established  in  connection  with  private,  well-managed 
dairies,  possessing  the  most  modern  requirements  in  every  part  of  the  country, 
train  annually  some  70  dairy  maids.  The  Malmohus  Lan  Agricultural  Society 
has  at  Alnarp  a  Dairy-School  for  ]Yomen,  which  receives  every  year  6  free 
pupils,  in  addition  to  as  many  paying  pupils  as  the  accommodation  permits. 
The  course  embraces  theoretical  and  practical  instruction  in  dairying,  and  lasts 
6   months. 

Dairy- exhibitions.  An  important  factor  in  the  development  of  dairying  has 
been  the  exhibitions  of  dairy-produce.  From  1853 — 91,  these  exhibitions 
were  held  in  connection  with  the  General  Swedish  Agricultural  Meetings,  but 
nowadays  the  exhibitions  of  dairy-produce  are  held  separately.  As  dairying 
grew  more  general,  the  need  for  more  frequent  and  larger  exhibitions  was  felt, 
and  since  the  close  of  the  sixties  such  exhibitions  have  been  pretty  regularly  held 
at  Malmo,  until  the  close  of  1890,  for  the  Skane  Lans,  and  in  Gothenburg,  till 
the  close  of  1893,  for  Western  and  Central  Sweden.  Later  on,  these  exhibitions 
resolved  themselves  into  so-called  butter-testing  meetings,  the  ordinary  trade  ar- 
ticle at  the  export  towns  being  taken  and  submitted  to  various  tests  as  to  quality. 
General  Cheese  Exhibitions  in  conjunction  with  dairymen  meetings  were  organiz- 
ed in  Stockholm  by  the  Board  of  Agriculture  in  1894,  1895,  1899,  and  1904; 
since  the  year  last-mentioned  they  have  been  replaced  by  cheese-stock  testings. 
In  addition  to  the  above-mentioned  exhibitions,  which  were  on  a  somewhat 
larger  scale,  smaller  shows  have  been  held  in  many  pMces;  they  are  a  regular 
feature  of  many  of  the  Agricultural  Societies,  and  undoubtedly  greatly  contribute, 
within  certain  restricted  areas,  to  promoting  dairy-farming. 

Swedish  butter-testings.  Butter-testings  began  at  Malmo  in  1891;  since 
1893,  they  have  been  held  at  Gothenburg,  too.  Since  1894,  they  have  had  the 
title  of  Swedish  Butter-Testings;  they  are  carried  out  by  means  of  grants  from 
the  Agricultural  Societies  and  the  State.  The  aim  of  the  butter-testings  is  to 
ensure  the  production  in  Sweden  of  export-butter  of  uniform  quality,  suit- 
able for  the  foreign  markets.  For  this  purpose,  the  following  measures  are 
taken:  1)  an  examination  of  the  quality  of  the  export-butter  in  various  respects, 
by  means  of  suitably  arranged  tests,  is  carried  out  with  the  co-operation  of  the 
butter-exporters  of  the  country  and  the  dairy-experts;  2)  immediately  after  each 


120  III.      RURAL    HUSBANDRY. 

test,  each  of  the  dairies  taking  part  in  the  testings  is  informed  of  the  quality 
of  its  butter  and  of  the  faults  that  it  may  possibly  possess;  3)  a  registered! 
butter-mark  is  provided  for  the  dairies  taking  part  in  the  testings  which 
have  carried  out  the  conditions  prescribed,  so  that  the  foreign  markets  may  be- 
in  a  position  to  recognize  Swedish  export  butter  of  the  very  finest  quality  by 
its  special  mark.  The  direction  of  the  butter-testings,  which  are  carried  out 
under  the  superintendence  of  the  Board  of  Agriculture,  is  in  the  hands  of  a 
committee  consisting  of  representatives  of  the  Agricultural  Societies  which  mak^ 
grants  for  the  testings,  of  an  administrative  committee,  and,  finally,  of  a  butter- 
mark  committee.  The  chief  manager  of  the  testings  and  of  the  butter-marking- 
control  is  a  specially  appointed  butter-expert. 

The  dairy-section  of  the  apparatus-testings  at  Alnarp  assists  the  dairies  in 
the  choice  of  suitable  apparatus  and  machinery  by  means  of  its  reports  on  the 
results  of  the  experiments  carried  out.  Dairy-  and  Dairy-farmers'  Associations- 
are  also  important  factors  in  the  promotion  of  dairy-farming,  and  there  exist 
several  different  varieties.  Their  object  is  to  bring  about  discussions  on  questions, 
relating  to  dairying,  and  to  procure  for  their  members  the  advantages  accruing 
from  community  of  purchase  and  sale,  etc.  Such  associations  arose  as  early  as. 
in  the  seventies,  but  it  is  only  during  the  last  decade  or  two  that  they  met 
with  any  great  support.  —  The  dairy-experts  and  the  teachers  of  dairying  have 
also  combined  for  the  protection  of  their  own  interests,  and  to  assist  in  the- 
development  of  the  dairying  industry.  The  union  is  called  The  Swedish  Dairj/ 
Control  Association  and  was  founded  in  1888. 


Machines  and  Implements  for  Dairy-work. 

Nearly  all  the  great  number  of  machines  and  implements  employed  in  dairying 
are  manufactured  in  Sweden  at  different  factories  and  works,  which,  in  many 
cases,  turn  out  no  other  class  of  goods.  The  manufacture  in  question  has  become- 
a  very  important  branch  of  the  industries  of  Sweden^  employing^  as  it  does,  thous- 
ands of  workmen  and  bringing  into  the  country  many  million  kronor  every  year. 
Foremost  among  these  manufacturing  concerns  stands  the  Aktiebolaget  Separator,. 
one  of  the  largest  industrial  firms  in  the  country,  which,  in  its  splendid  work- 
shops in  Stockholm,  turns  out  principally  the  well-known  Alpha-separators,  and 
also  milk-pumps,  butyrometers,  emulsors,  etc.  At  present  the  works  employ 
1  000  men  and  60  engineers  and  clerks.  Upwards  of  130  000  separators  are 
sold  every  year,  to  all  parts  of  the  world  where  dairying  is  carried  on;  of  this 
number,  the  Stockholm  works  supply  about  half.  The  total  output  is  now  con- 
siderably in  excess  of  1  300  000  machines.  The  Company  possesses  branch- 
works  in  America,  Austria,  Denmark,  France,  Germany,  Hungary,  Italy,  and 
Russia.  Another  important  firm  in  this  business  is  the  Ahtiebolget  Baltic  established 
in  1904.  The  works  are  situated  at  Sbdertalje  and  employ  about  250  men 
and  25  engineers  and  clerks;  the  machines  produced  are  hand-  and  power  sepa- 
rators, and  during  the  last  few  years  the  so-called  Baltic  turbine-dairying-machines, 
which  have  very  rapidly  gained  a  market  in  all  countries  engaged  in  dairy- 
farming.  The  firm  exports  on  a  large  scale,  sales  being  carried  out  chiefly 
through  its  own  branch-offices  and  works  in  Riga,  Berlin,  Sydney,  and  New 
York.  Separators  of  different  kinds  are  made  at  many  other  works,  too,  such 
as  Ahtieholaget  EsTcilstuna  Separator;  Aktiebolaget  Odvle  Separator;  Aktiebolaget 
Pumpseparator,  Stockholm;  Aktiebolaget  Rotator,  Sodertalje;  Aktiebolaget  Salenius 
verkstader,  Stockholm;  Aktiebolaget  Sveaseparator,  Stockholm;  Separatoraktiebola- 
get  Fama,  Stockholm;  Svenska  Centrifugaktiebolaget,  Sodertalje. 

Vessels  and  implements  of  tinned  steel-plate,  for  use  in  dairies,  are  made  by 


MACHINES   AND   IMPLEMENTS   FOR  DAIRY-WORK. 


121 


the  Kockum  jdrnverTcsaMiebolag  (Sw.  jarnverk  =  iron  works),  Wedholms  mejeri- 
Icarlsfahrik  (dairy-vessel  factory),  KarJshrona  galvanifxringsaldieholag ,  the  Olov- 
strom,  and  Eshilstuna  stdlpressningsahtiebolag  (steel-pressing  Co.),  etc.,  whey-oheeso 
boilers  and  brass  and  copper  dairy-vessels,  by  the  Slcultuna  Brule  (works).  Several 
mechanical  workshops  manufacture  on  a  larger  or  smaller  scale  different  kinds 
of  machines  and  implements,  as  well  as  boilers  and  steam-engines  for  use  in 
dairies.  Among  these  may  be  mentioned  G.  Holmbergs  mekanisica  verhstads- 
aktiebolag  (mechanical  works)  in  Lund,  a  firm  which,  for  a  long  time  past,  has 
made  a  speciality  of  the  manufacture  of  all  kinds  of  dairy-machines  and  imple- 
ments, and  which  has  also  erected  and  fitted  up  a  considerable  number  of  dairies 
in  other  countries  in  the  north  of  Europe.  There  are  also  special  businesses  for 
the  sale  of  dairy-implements,  etc.,  such  as  Sten  Ericsson,  Stockholm;  A.  Holling- 
worth  &  Go,  Orebro;  Biulelius  c(-  BoMund,  Lund;  and  the  Ostergotlands  mashin- 
affdr,  Linkoping,  which  supply  all  the  dairy  machines  and  implements  in  the- 
market,  which,  in  part,  are  manufactured  in  their  own  workshops.  These 
establishments  and  the  workshops  just  mentioned  are  prepared  to  furnish  designs 
and  estimates  for  dairies  and   undertake  their  complete  equipment. 


Factories  of  the  Aktiebolaget  Separator,  Stockholm. 


Dairy-prepai'ations,  such  as  dyes  for  butter  and  cheese,  different  kinds  of 
rennet,  cultures,  etc.,  are  also  made  in  Sweden,  and  among  other  firms  by  S, 
Barnekows  tehnish-kemiska  labor atorium,  at  Malmo.  These  preparations,  as  well 
as  the  butter-salt  employed  in  the  dairies,  are  imported  in  considerable  quan- 
tities. 


l'2-2  III.      RURAL   HUSBANDRY. 


4.    PUBLIC  AND  PRIVATE  INSTITUTIONS  FOR  THE 
ADVANCEMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

In  the  State  administration  of  Sweden,  matters  referring  to  farming  and 
■cattle-rearing  have,  up  to  1900,  belonged  to  the  Department  for  Home 
Affairs.  That  year,  however,  a  special  Department  of  Agriculture  was 
instituted,  to  which  were  assigned  the  matters  above-mentioned,  as  well 
as  those  of  forestry  and  certain  other  allied  questions.  This  new  department 
is  divided  into  two  bureaus,  one  of  which  deals  with  agricultural  matters, 
the  other  with  forestry.  It  publishes  a  serious  of  "Communications"  (Sw. 
meddelanden)  containing  accounts  of  journeys  for  the  purpose  of  special 
:stud3^  supported  by  Government  grants,  reports  of  the  measures  taken  for 
the  promotion  of  agricultural  economy,  fishery  investigations,  etc. 

Before  a  measure,  is  laid  before  the  Government  it  is,  as  a  rule,  remitted 
io  that  Government  Office  to  which  is  proximately  confided  the  final  pre- 
paratory discussions  and  other  such  work  attached  to  the  matter  in 
question.  Measures  connected  with  agriculture,  the  fisheries,  etc.,  are  re- 
mitted therefore  to  the  Board  of  Agriculture,  which  further  investigates  the 
matter  in  question  and,  on  the  basis  obtained  by  this  inquiry,  draws  up 
the  final  proposals  which  are  laid  before  the  Government. 

The  Board  of  Agriculture  was  established  in  1890,  and  has  the  task  of 
attentively  following  the  condition  of  agriculture  and  its  by-industries, 
-and  also  of  the  fishing  industry,  and,  as  circumstances  require,  itself  takes, 
or  proposes  to  the  Government,  the  steps  necessary  for  the  promotion 
of  the  industries  mentioned.  This  Board  consists  of  a  head,  with  the  title 
•of  Director-in-Chief,  and  four  members  (Bureau  Chiefs).  In  addition  to 
these,  a  veterinary  surgeon  is  attached  to  the  Board,  to  direct  the  investiga- 
■tions  respecting  tuberculosis  among  the  cattle-stock  of  the  country  and  the 
measures  taken  by  the  State  for  combating  the  disease.  The  Board  of 
Agriculture  makes  a  yearly  report  to  the  Government  of  the  work  carried 
■out  by  the  Boar.d  itself  and  its  subordinate  institutions.  This  report  is 
printed  and  published,  and  the  Board  also  issues  a  series  of  "Communica- 
tions" dealing  with  matters  of  importance  for  agriculture.  The  regula- 
i;ions  now  in  force  for  the  Board  of  Agriculture  were  issued  on  October  2, 
1908. 

Before  the  institution  of  the  Board  of  Agriculture,  the  administrative 
-committee  of  the  Academy  of  Agriculture  had  the  task  of  deliberating  on 
the  matters  which  are  now  under  the  control  of  the  Board  of  Agriculture, 
-SO  that  the  Academy  occupied  simultaneously  a  scientific  and  an  admi- 
jiistrative    position,    which,    consequently,    was    a   peculiar  one  in  many 


PUBLIC  AND  PRIVATE  INSTITUTIONS  FOR  THE  ADVANCEMENT  OF  AGRICULTURK.     123 

respects.  An  account  of  the  organization  and  present  activities  of  the 
Academy  has  alreads'  heen  given  (Part.  I). 

There  is  a  large  number  of  officials  under  the  Board  of  Agriculture, 
who  have  the  principal  part  of  their  work  in  various  districts  of  the 
country.  First  among  these  are  the  State  consultative  experts  (Sw. 
Statskonsulenterna),  each  of  whom  has  to  give  the  public  informa- 
tion and  advice  in  that  branch  of  agricultural  economy  for  which  he 
is  appointed,  and  also  to  assist  the  Board  of  Agriculture  in  the  execu- 
tion of  its  duties.  There  are  at  present  9  of  these  officials;  one  for  each 
of  the  following  branches:  cattle-breeding,  dairj'ing,  pig-breeding, 
sheep-breeding,  small-farming,  seed-culture,  and  the  combating  of  tuber- 
culosis a,mong  cattle,  and  two  for  home-sloyd.  When  no  State  consultative 
expert  for  agriculture  is  appointed,  the  State,  in  order  actively  to  en- 
courage the  appointment  of  such  experts  by  the  various  Agricultural 
Societies,  has  made  a  grant  of  62  500  kronor,  as  a  contribution  towards  the 
payment  of  26  agricultural  experts,  on  the  condition  that  the  travelling 
and  subsistence  allowances  of  the  experts  in  question  are  paid  by  the  Agri- 
cultural Societies,  the  County  Council,  or  some  other  authority'. 

Work  intimatelj^  connected  with  that  performed  bj-  the  State  consul- 
tative experts  is  carried  out  by  the  State  peat-offlcials  —  consisting 
of  two  peat  engineers  and  three  peat-assistants  • —  the  State  fisheries 
officials  —  five  fishery  superintendents,  each  with  his  special  district;  a 
fishery  assistant,  a  fisherj^  engineer  and  a  fishery  bursary-holder,  and  23 
State  agricultural  engineers  —  each  with  his  special  district  —  who  are 
assisted  by  4  extra  agricultural  engineers  and  5  agricultural  bursary- 
holders.  The  chief  duties  of  the  agricultural  engineers  are  confined, 
however,  to  helping  farmers  in  drawing  up  plans  for  drainage,  the  cultiva- 
tion of  new  areas,  etc. 

Among  the  associations  formed  for  the  promotion  of  agriculture  and 
its  by-industries,  the  Agricultural  Societies  occupy  the  most  prominent 
place.  There  will  be  found  on  p.  142  a  detailed  account  of  their  organi- 
zation, labours,  etc. 

The  Board  of  Agriculture  stands  in  verjr  close  connection  with  these 
societies,  and  has  very  frequent  recourse  to  them  for  the  investigation  of 
questions  concerning  the  various  branches  of  agricultural  economy.  Since 
—  as  is  usually  the  case  —  the  Board  of  Agriculture  asks  for  the  opinion 
of  all  the  Societies  with  regard  to  any  certain  question,  it  obtains  in 
this  manner  a  very  good  view  of  the  idea  of  the  importance,  etc.  of  the 
question,  held  in  different  parts  of  the  country. 

In  order  to  bring  about  co-operation  and  collaboration  between  the 
various  Agricultural  Societies,  and  to  give  them  an  opportunity  of  dis- 
cussing questions  of  common  interest,  representatives  of  each  of  the 
Societies  meet  every  year  in  Stockholm.  From  this  institution  —  The 
Meeting  of  the  Deputies  of  the  Agricultural  Societies  ■ —  both  the  Govern- 
ment and  the  Board  of  Agriculture  are  acci^stomed  to  call  for  expressions 


124  in.      RURAL    HUSBANDRY. 

of  opinion  concerning  proposed  measures  for  the  promotion  of  agriculture 
and  its  by-industries,  and  regarding  the  representations,  etc.  which  have 
been  received  as  to  such  measures. 

The  immediate  direction  of  the  horse-breeding  of  the  country,  the 
State  studs,  and  the  award  of  horse-premiums,  is  exercised  by  the  Studs 
Board,  which  consists  of  a  Director,  two  members,  a  deputy  member,  and 
a  secretary.  For  the  better  performance  of  its  tasks,  the  Studs  Board 
has  the  right,  whenever  it  considers  it  necessary,  to  summon  to  its  meet- 
ings the  chairmen  of  the  horse-premium  juries,  and  the  director  of  the 
Cavalry  Remount  Board.  The  Instructions  for  the  Studs  Board  are  dated 
December  31,  1909. 

The  budget  estimates  for  1915  for  the  Department  of  Agriculture  amount  to 
14  184  700  kroner,  8  017  504  kroner  of  this  ameimt  belonging  to  the  ordinary- 
estimates  and  6  167  196  kroner  to  the  extraordinary.  A  special  petition  must 
be  made  each  year  to  the  Riksdag  for  the  grant  of  the  sums  shewn  in  the 
extraordinary  budget.  Of  the  amount  above,  92  110  kroner  are  allocated 
te  the  Department  itself;  out  of  the  remaining  items,  5  909  020  kroner  may 
be  considered  as  directly  intended  for  the  benefit  of  agriculture.  These  items 
are:  The  Board  of  Agriculture,  8o  400  kroner;  for  the  promotion  of  agriculture 
and  farming  industries  in  general,  412  450  kroner;  agricultural  educational  estab- 
lishments, 814  950  kroner;  agricultural  engineers  and  assistants,  101  900  kroner; 
veterinary  service  450  020  kroner;  the  improvement  of  horse-breeding, 
425  200  krenor;  the  promotion  of  small  farming,  291  500  kroner;  draining 
and  ditching,  2  350  000  kroner;  reductions  in  freight-charges  for  lime  for 
agricultural  purposes,  380  000  kroner;  and  others  of  greater  or  lesser  amounts. 
There  are  also  included  in  the  budget  grants  for  the  promotion  of  the  fisheries, 
974  700  kroner;  forestry,  913  429  kroner;  the  land-surveying  staff,  787  200  kro- 
ner the  Ordnance  Survey  of  Sweden,  357  200  kroner;  geological  and  hydro- 
graphical  investigations,  325  105  kroner;  repair  of  reads  and  posting-service, 
1  704  508  krenor;  peer-relief,  376  564  kroner;  and  divers  items,  2  744  864  kronor. 

The  Department  of  Agriculture  has,  toe,  the  charge  of  the  following  funds, 
from  which  grants  of  loans  are  made,  viz. ;  the  cultivation  lean-fund,  1  000  000 
kronor,  from  which  leans  are  granted  for  draining  enterprizes,  the  lowering 
of  lake-levels,  etc.  (v.  p.  140),  the  Norrland  landreclaiming  fund  of 
300  000  kroner,  from  which  loans  are  made  to  County  Councils  or  Agri- 
cultural Societies  which  declare  themselves  willing  to  grant  loans  to  small 
farmers  for  the  cultivation  of  land  suitable  for  tillage;  the  draining  lean- 
fund  of  200  000  kronor,  for  promoting  the  draining  of  small  farms;  the  "Own 
Homes"  (Sw.  egnahem)  loan-fund  of  7  500  000  kroner,  for  granting  leans  for 
the  formation  of  "own  homes" ;  the  land-purchase  fund  (Sw.  jerdformedlingsfond), 
of  2  000  000  kroner,  intended  for  granting  purchase-loans  to  Agricultural  Socie- 
ties, Companies  and  Associations,  the  aim  of  which  is  the  promotion  of  the  "own 
heme"  movement,  in  order  to  buy  tracts  of  land  for  the  purpose  of  cutting  them 
up  into  "own  heme"  plots;  the  loan-fund  for  the  purchase  of  thorough-bred  and 
half-bred  brood-mares,  of  100  000  kroner,  from  which  Agricultural  Societies,  within 
whose  districts  there  exist  favourable  conditions  for  carrying  en  the  breeding  of 
thorough-bred  horses,  can  obtain  loans  intended  to  be  advanced  to  horse-breeders 
in  the  districts  in  question;  the  fund  for  the  promotion  of  the  peat-industry,  of 
1  000  000  krenor,  for  the  erection  of  peat-litter-  and  peat-fuel  factories,  etc.,  and  the 
fund  for  the  promotion  of  the  fishing  industry,  of  750  000  kronor,  from  which 
fishermen    can    obtain    loans  for  the  purchase  of  fishing-boats,   etc. 


AflRICULTURAL   EDUCATION.  125 

From  the  Crown  Lands  funds  there  has  been  advanced  for  the  year  191."], 
the  sum  of  216  200  kroner,  for  covering  the  expenses  of  the  Crown  Lands 
Board  —  wages,  disbursements,  travelling  expenses,  etc.,  7  603  400  kronor,  and 
180  500  kronor  to  cover  the  expenses  of  the  iStnte  Forest  and  Farm  domains 
respectively,  and  1  000  000  kronor,  for  the  purchase  of  timbered  land  or  land 
suitable  for  the  growth  of  timber. 


Agricultural  Education. 

The  institutions  affording  instruction  in  Agriculture  are  under  the 
control  of  the  Board  of  Agriculture  and  are  essentially  of  four  types. 
Agricultural  schools  (Sw.  lantbruksskolor),  Farmers'  schools  (Lantman- 
naskolor),  Schools  of  Agricultural  Economy  (lanthushallsskolor) ,  and 
Agricultural  High  Schools  (lantbruksinstitut). 

The  first  steps  for  the  promotion  of  agriculture  by  means  of  systematic  in- 
struction were  taken  during  the  18th  century  by  private  individuals  imbued 
with  zeal  for  the  economic  development  of  the  country.  Among  these  may  be 
mentioned,  first  and  foremost,  the  Swedish  patriot,  Jonas  Alstromsr,  who,  in 
1748,  extended  the  sheep-breeding  school  he  had  established  as  early  as  1739 
on  the  Hojentorp  estate  in  Vastergotland,  so  as  to  form  a  kind  of  high  school 
of  agriculture  and  forestry,  intended  for  young  men  who  had  enjoyed  a  univer- 
sity education.  This  educational  establishment  existed  with  some  State  support 
for  about  a  decade,  and  was  probably  one  of  the  earliest  agricultural  schools  in 
the  world. 

A  new  impulse  was  given  in  1834,  when  Edvard  Nonnen  opened  a  college  at 
Degeberg,  near  Lake  Vanern,  on  the  model  of  the  school  at  Moglin,  where  Non- 
nen himself  had  studied  under  Albr.  Thaer.  The  institute  in  question  continued 
to  exist  very  successfully  until  1853,  as  a  mixed-system  college  with  a  higher 
and  a  lower  division,  enjoying  State  support,  and  trained,  altogether,  more 
than  100  male  pupils,  many  of  whom  afterwards  became  pioneers  in  the 
Swedish  agricultural  world.  It  was  from  the  Agricultural  Society  of  Orebro 
Lan  that  the  plan  issued  for  the  earliest  actual  lower-grade  agricultural  school, 
giving  theoretical  and  practical  instruction  —  chiefly  the  latter.  The  school, 
which  was  on  the  DjTinge  estate,  continued  its  labours  during  the  years 
1813 — 18,  but  was  then  obliged  to  close,  on  accoimt  of  financial  difficulties. 
However,  after  the  good  results  of  the  separate  repartition  of  land,  together 
with  the  rise  in  the  price  of  grain,  had  begun  to  awaken  hopes  of  the  possi- 
bility of  development  in  the  domain  of  agriculture,  under  the  presumption 
that  the  farmers  possessed  greater  knowledge  and  practical  ability,  numerous  pro- 
posals were  made  for  the  establishment  of  agricultural  schools,  intended  princi- 
pally for  the  training  of  farm-managers.  Finally,  the  Eiksdag  was  found  will- 
ing to  support  the  establishment  of  such  schools,  and  the  first  State-supported 
school  was  opened  in  1840,  on  the  Orup  estate,  in  Skane,  soon  succeeded  by 
many  others  in  various  parts  of  the  countrj'.  The  zealous  promoter  of  this 
school  and  its  director  for  some  years  was  Johnn  Eabben,  (titular  professor),  the 
first  Swede  educated  at  a  University  who  devoted  himself  to  teaching  agricul- 
tural economy.  In  the  middle  of  the  18th  century,  it  was  imagined  that  the 
higher  instruction  in  agriculture  could  be  promoted  by  establishing  chairs  at  the 
University,  in  "res  rustica  et  agricultura";  but  these  were  soon  done  away  with 
as  they  did  not  lead  to  any  positive  result. 

A  good  many  years  passed,  however,  before  Sweden  obtained  a  higher  agricul- 
tural   educational    institute    established  by   the  State  itself,  viz.,  that  of   Ultima, 


126 


III.       RURAL    HUSBANDRY. 


near  Uppsala,  founded  in  1848,  and  that  at  Alnarp,  near  Lund,  opened  in  1862. 
The  respective  founders  and  the  principals  for  many  years  of  the  two  institutes 
were  Johan  Arrhenius,  at  Ultuna  (1848 — 61),  and  Hjalmar  Nathorst,  at  Alnarp 
(1862 — 86).  Both  of  these  men  greatly  promoted  the  development  of  Swedish 
agriculture. 

During  the  seventies  there  arose  as  an  extension  of  the  People's  High 
Schools  (p.  I,  378),  so-called  Farmers'  Schools  giving  exclusively  theoretical  instruc- 
tion. These  were  recognized  officially  in  1887,  and  in  the  same  year  there 
was  opened  at  Vilan,  in  Malmohus  Lan,  the  first  farmers'  school  supported  by 
the  State.  Its  director  was  L.  Holmstrbm  (1887 — 1908).  During  the  last  few- 
years,  new  regulations  have  been  issued  for  the  various  schools,  in  addition  to 
which  entirely  new  measures  have  been  taken  to  provide  the  great  numbers  of 
small  farmers  of  Sweden  with  suitable  instruction  in  agriculture.  Special  schools 
have  also  been  established  for  young  wofuen,  under  the  title  of  schools  of  agri- 
cultural economy. 


Photo.  lOHN,  Malmo.. 


The  Farmers'  School  at  Vilan. 


The  aim.  of  the  Agricultural  Schools  is  to  impart  instruction  in  the  prin- 
ciples of  practical  agriculture,  and  to  afford  practice  and  skill  in  the- 
arrangement,  direction,   and  performance  of  farm-work. 

The  instruction  is  given: 

a)  in  a  two^ ears'  course,  specially  intended  for  the  training  of  farm-managers;; 

b)  in  a  one-year's  course,  intended  to  provide  young  farmers  with  general, 
practical  and  theoretical  instruction  in  agriculture.  The  courses  begin  each  year 
on  November  1.  An  agricultural  school  must  be  situated  on  a  large  estate, 
with    the    owner    of    which    an    agreement    has   been   made.     In  the    two-years' 


ASRICULTURAL    EDUCATION.  127 

course,  at  least  200  hours  shall  be  employed  in  giving  preparatory  instruction 
in  spelling  and  writing,  arithmetic,  and  natural  science;  during  the  second  win- 
ter half-year,  at  least  880  hours  shall  be  employed  in  theoretical  instruction  in 
agricultural  subjects  proper. 

The  pupils  in  the  one-year's  course  shall  also  take  part  in  the  above  instruc- 
tion. The  pupils  have  to  take  part  in  all  kinds  of  farm-work  and  shall  also, act 
as  farm-managers;  the.  training  of  farm-managers  can,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  be 
regarded  as  the  chief  mission  of  the  agricultural  school.  Every  such  school  shall 
accommodate    20  pupils  in  the  two-years'   course  and  8  in  the  one-year's  course. 

There  are  special  regulations  for  the  agricultural  schools  in  Norrland  and  Da- 
lame,  the  theoretical-practical  course  continuing  there  only  one  year  while,  in 
•  addition,  there  is  a  theoretical  winter  course.  Both  courses  begin  on  Novem-- 
ber  1.  The  first  common  regulations  for  the  agricultural  schools  were  issued 
on  January  14,  1851.  The  new  regulations  have  been  in  force  from  Novem- 
ber 1,  1912.  Up  to  the  present,  agricultural  schools  have  existed  in  most 
of  the  lans  of  Sweden,  but,  in  future,  their  total  will  be  restricted  to  9,  in  ad- 
dition to  the  2  at  the  agricultural  high  schools  and  the  4  in  Norrland.  The 
first-named  schools  receive  an  annual  State  grant  of  7  500  kroner;  those  in 
Norrland,  6  000  kronor.  In  1914  there  were  14  agricultural  schools  with  a 
total  of  381  pupils. 

Farmers'  Schools  are  intended  to  give  a  knowledge  of  the  principles  of 
agricnlture,  chiefly  with  a  view  to  the  conditions  obtaining  on  middle- 
sized  and  smaller  farms.  The  new  regulations  for  these  schools  date 
from  1  November,  1912. 

The  farmers'  schools,  as  was  mentioned  above,  were  originally  a  higher  divi- 
sion of  the  People's  High  School  and,  hitherto,  have  all  been  of  the  same  type. 
According  to  the  new  regulations,  however,  these  schools  can  be  established  ac- 
cording to  one  of  two  forms,  which  differ  in  the  instruction  given: 

Farmers'  schools,  A,  corresponding  to  the  original  farmers'  schools,  and  the 
Farmers'  schools,  B,  which,  in  accordance  with  their  purpose,  can  be  characterized 
as  schools  for  the  small  farmer.  In  both  these  types  of  schools,  but  in  varying- 
degrees  of  course,  there  shall  be  given  theoretical  instruction  in  1)  rudimentaru 
subjects,  such  as  the  Swedish  language,  arithmetic,  geometry,  natural  science, 
biology,  geology,  etc.;  2)  principal  subjects,  the  science  of  agriculture,  the  study 
of  domestic  animals,  dairy-farming,  the  care  of  cattle  in  sickness,  farriery,  agri- 
cultural economy  and  book-keeping,  and  3)  in  a  number  of  subordinate  subjects 
such  as  gardening,  forestry,  surveying,  levelling,  linear-drawing,  the  principles, 
of  communal  self-government,  etc.  The  term  shall  last  at  least  20  weeks, 
and  the  pupils  must  be  able  to  visit  a  well-managed  estate  for  demonstration 
purposes.  The  pupils  must  themselves  pay  for  their  board,  together  with  a  cer- 
tain fee  for  tuition.  Under  certain  conditions  the  annual  State  grant  can  amount 
to  6  000  kronor;  the  fixed  grant  is  2  000  kronor.  The  sum  that  can  be  re- 
ceived in  excess  of  this  last-mentioned  grant  depends  on  the  number  of  pupils, 
and  also  on  an  equal  amount  being  received  from  the  place  itself,  inclusive 
of  pupils'  fees.  The  Agricultural  Society  of  the  provincial  Ian  shall  also  state 
that  the  school  is  required  in  the  district. 

The  farmers'  schools  are  chiefly  attended  by  young  men  who  intend  to  be- 
come owners  of  farms,  and  who  have  received  practical  training  in  their  parents' 
homes,  or  as  working-pupils  on  private  farms.  Many  young  men,  however,  obtain 
sufficient  theoretical  training  at  the  farmers'  schools  to  be  able  to  take  posi- 
tions as  managers  or  bailiffs,  or  to  farm  large  estates  privately.  Young  wo- 
men,   too,    can  obtain  admission  to  these  farmers'   schools,   and  also  to  the  agri- 


128 


III.      RURAL    HUSBANDRY. 


AGKICULTURAL  EDUCATION.  129 

cultural  high  schools.  In  1914  there  were  940  young  men  enjoying  instruction 
at  the  37  farmers'  schools  of  Sweden.  At  several  farmers'  schools,  courses  are 
arranged  for  the  training  of  assistants  in  cow-testing.  These  courses  last  6 
weeks  and  receive  a  State  grant.  'In  1914  there  were  320  assistants  thus  train- 
ed. During  the  last  decade,  the  small  farmer  has  been  provided  with  instruction 
and  encouragement  in  many  ways.  The  beginning  of  this  movement  was  made 
by  the  People's  High  Schools  taking  the  initiative  to  the  arrangement  of  short 
courses  of  instruction  for  small  farmers,  (Sw.  smabrukare).  Similar  independent 
courses,  receiving  State  grants,  are  nowadays  arranged  by  the  Agricultural  Socie- 
ties; they  usually  last  from  a  few  days  to  one  or  two  weeks,  and  consist  of 
lectures, ,  demonstrations,  and  discussions  between  teachers  and  pupils  in  common. 
The  pupils,  who  are  often  elderly  men,  enjoy  free  tuition;  many  of  them, 
too,  being  granted  free  board  and  lodging  as  well.  Short  courses  are  arranged 
for  the  vidves  of  small  farmers,  too,  with  a  course  of  instruction  suited  to  the 
needs  of  the  pupils. 

The  extent  and  importance  of  these  courses  may  be  seen  from  the  fact  that, 
in  1914,  there  were  held  24  courses  with  12  days'  instruction,  152  courses  with 
6  days'  instruction,  and  124  courses  with  a  shorter  period  of  instruction;  or, 
altogether,  300  courses.  The  State  and  the  Agricultural  Societies  contributed 
together  70  759  kroner  73   ore  towards  the  expenses  of  these  courses. 

In  this  connection  may  be  mentioned  the  State-supported  travelling  studentships 
(Sw.  studieresor),  the  journeys  being  made  under  the  guidance  of  some  trained 
farmer  or  an  agricultural  expert,  and  with  the  support  of  the  Agricultural  Societies, 
or  some  other  authority,  to  other  parts  of  the  country  —  or  even  to  Denmark 
—  where  anything  instructive  can  be  found  worth  seeing  or  hearing.  Each 
journey  usually  lasts  one  or  two  weeks  and  there  are  about  20  participants.  In 
1914  there  were  55  such  journeys  made,  several  of  them  being  for  women,  with 
a  total  of  810  pupils.  The  grants  received  from  the  State  and  the  Agricultural 
Societies  amounted  to   60  999   kroner  55   ore. 

Of  great  importance  is  the  worh  performed  by  the  agricultural  experts,  ap- 
pointed during  the  last  few  years.  In  every  Ian  there  are  one  or  several 
thoroughly  trained  experts,  whose  task  it  is  to  give  advice  and  information  to 
agriculturalists.  Ambulatory  teachers  and  farming  instructors  are  also  employed 
for  the  purpose  of  giving  small  farmers  guidance  in  the  measures  necessary  for 
the  promotion  of  agriculture. 

The  Schools  of  Agricultural  Economy  have  as  their  mission  the  im- 
parting to  young  women  of  practical  and  theoretical  instruction  in 
(lousehold  economy  and  the  farmwork  executed  by  women  in  that  part  of 
the  country  where  the  several  schools  are  situated. 

The  schools  of  agricultural  economy,  which  really  did  not  begin  their  work  before 
November,  1912,  will  probably  be  established  in  connection  with  People's  high 
schools  and  farmers'  schools.  Each  course  must  last  at  least  12  weeks,  and  the 
course  of  instruction  is  to  embrace  1)  practical  instruction  (with  exercises  and 
demonstrations)  in  cookery,  baking,  and  the  utilization  of  the  meat,  etc.  of 
slaughtered  animals;  preserving,  washing,  and  house-cleaning,  dairying,  gardening, 
care  of  the  smaller  farm-animals,  and  of  cows  in  connection  with  milking.  All 
this  instruction  shall  be  accompanied  by  practical  exercises,  when  this  is  possible 
without  inconvenience.  2)  Theoretical  instruction  respecting  articles  of  food  and 
the  like;  simple  book-keeping  and  calculation  of  household  expenses  proportion- 
ate to  incomes  of  various  amounts;  hygiene  and  the  care  of  the  sick  and 
of  infants;  the  elements  of  gardening  and  the  management  of  domestic  animals. 
The  school  of  agricultural  economy  must  have  access  to   a  farm  of  suitable  size, 

9—133179.  Sweden.  II. 


130  Iir.      RURAL   HUSBANDRY. 

and  can  receive  a  State  grant  for  each  course  of  instruction  amounting  to  1  800 
kronor,  the  lowest  grant  made  being  1  000  kronor.  lii  other  respects,  the  con- 
ditions are  the  same  as  for  the  farmers'  school. 

Schools  of  agricultural  economy  of  a  higher  class  are  the  schools  established 
by  the  Fredrika-Bremer  Society  at  Rimforsa  in  Ostergotland,  and  the  Upp- 
sala School  for  Household  Economy  on  its  estate  called  Brogard,  both  of  which 
are  intended  for  a  two-years'  course  of  training,  both  practical  and  theoretical, 
for  women  teachers  of  household  and  agricultural  economy.  Both  schools  enjoy 
State  grants. 

Among  the  entirely  private  schools  in  Sweden  imparting  instruction  in  agri- 
culture may  be  mentioned  the  Northern  School  of  Agriculture,  at  Hagaberg 
near  Jonkoping,  and  the  Skane  School  of  Agriculture,  at  Dala  in  Malmohus 
Lan.  P.  J.  Bosio,  the  Director  of  the  first-named  school  has  made  himself 
known  for  his  enthusiastic  and  effective  work  as  a  lecturer  in  the  country 
districts  of  Sweden. 

The  educational  establishments  described  above,  viz.,  the  agriciiltural  schoolsj 
the  farmers'  schools  and  the  schools  of  agricultural  economy,  like  the  People's 
High  Schools,  have  originally  arisen  from  private  initiative,  and  even  at  the 
present  time  are  not  the  property  of  the  State,  but  are  owned  by  private  indi- 
viduals or  Associations  guaranteeing  the  payment  of  the  expenses,  or  by  the 
County  Councils  and  the  Agricultural  Societies.  They  have,  in  consequence, 
been  able  to  develop  fairly  independently,  and  in  accordance  with  the  greatly 
varying  conditions  existing  in  different  parts  of  the  country.  There  exists  a 
regulation  common  to  the  two  last-named  classes  of  schools,  viz.,  that  the  State 
grant  can  only  be  obtained  on  certain  conditions.  The  principal  are,  that  the 
school  shall  be  under  the  direction  of  a  Board;  the  principal  and  the  chief 
teachers  shall  possess  certain  qualifications  (they  must  have  passed  the  exa- 
mination for  "agronom"  or  trained  agriculturalist;  see  beloW);  the  course  of 
instruction  must  be  of  a  certain  minimum  length;  there  must  be  a  certain 
number  of  pupils;  the  local  authorities  must  certify  that  the  school  is  neces- 
sary ;  the  school  must  possess  an  income  equal  to  the  amount  of  the  State  grant, 
over  and  above  the  so-called  fixed  grant  (Sw.  grundanslaget);  a  certain  number 
of  pupils  shall  enjoy  free  instruction;  the  minimum  age  of  the  pupils  must  be 
18  years  (women  may  be  as  young  as  16,  however);  the  pupils  applying  for 
admission  to  the  farmers'  schools  shall  have  taken  part  in  agricultural  work  for 
the  space  of  one  year,  and,  finally,  a  report  of  the  work  of  the  school  shall  be 
sent  every  year  to  the  Board  of  Agriculture,  which  is  to  fix  the  course  of  in- 
struction. 

State  grants  in  aid  of  pupils  possessing  small  or  no  means  amount,  at  present 
a)  at  agricultural  schools  to  60  and  100  kronor  respectively;  b)  at  farmers' 
schools,  schools  of  agricultural  economy  and  the  theoretical  winter-course  at  the 
Norrland  agricultural  schools,  to  15  and  25  kronor  respectively  per  month,  and 
c)  to  1  krona  per  day  for  small  farmers  taking  part  in  the  two-weeks'  courses. 
The  total  sum  devoted  to  the  above  grants  is  70  000  kronor. 

Inspection  of  all  the  lower  grade  agricultural  schools  is  carried  out  in  accor- 
dance with  the  Royal  Regulations  of  June  29,  1912. 

The  agricultural  schools  are  governed  by  the  Regulations  dated  October  19, 
1911  and  Febr.  28,  1914. 

The  Farmers'  schools  and  the  Schools  of  agricultural  economy  are  governed  by 
the  Regulations  of  June  10,  1912,  and,  as  regards  the  grant  to  these  in- 
stitutions, by  the  Royal"  Proclamation  dated  June  29,  1912. 

Respecting  experts  and  ambulatory  farm-bailiffs,  see  the  Royal  Proclamation 
dated  Oct.  19,  1911. 


AGRICULTURAL   EDUCATION.  131 

The  Agricultural  High  Schools  have  as  their  object  the  imparting  of 
instruction  in  agriculture,  based  on  scientific  investigation. 

The  High  Schools  embrace  the  following  courses: 

1)  A  two-years'  course  intended  to  give  instruction  in  the  theoretical  prin- 
ciples necessary  for  a  rational  method  of  agriculture,  and  2)  a  one-year's  ex- 
perts' course,  consisting  of  a  continuation  course  based  on  the  former  one  for 
agriculturalists  (Sw.  agronomer),  and  intended  for  the  training  of  experts  and 
teachers  of  farming.  The  course  for  experts  is  divided  into  two  linesr  a)  one 
principallj-  for  the  training  of  experts  in  the  land-farming  branch;  b)  principally 
for  the  training  of  experts  in  the  cattle-farming   branch. 

At  Alnarp  there  is  a  third  line  for  dairy-farming.  The  subjects  of  instruction 
are  those  commonly  taught  at  every  higher  agricultural  school.  The  study  of 
pedagogics  is  one  of  the  subjects  in  the  course  for  experts. 

As  far  as  possible,  the  instruction  must  be  given  in  connection  with  the  agri- 
cultural economy  of  the  large  landed  properties  of  the  State  at  Ultuna  and 
Alnarp,  where  the  two  High  Schools  are  situated. 

In  order  that  the  pupils  may  derive  as  much  benefit  as  possible  from  their 
training,  the  High  Schools  are  provided  with  the  following  establishments: 

a)  An  agricultural  experimental  field. 

b)  A  botanical  garden. 

c)  An  economy  garden  (Sw.   ekonomitradgard)  and  nursery. 

d)  A  laboratory  for  practical  experiments  in  physics,  chemistry,  botany,  and 
bacteriology. 

e)  An  anatomy  room,  and  stalls  for  sick  animals. 

f)  Museums,  with  materials  for  instruction. 

g)  A  library. 

Alnarp  also  possesses  a  farriery  school    and  a  dairy-farming  school. 

The  school-year  begins  on  November  1 ;  the  vacations  last  altogether  1 2 
weeks. 

The   teaching  staff  consists  of  eight  lectors,  and  adjuncts  or  assistant  masters. 

One  of  the  lecturers  (Sw.  lektor)  is  appointed  Principal  (rektor)  for  a  period 
of  five  years,  and  has  the  task  of  superintending  and  directing  the  school.  The 
farm  belonging  to  the  High  School  is  managed  by  a  Steward  under  a  Board  of 
Directors,  which  superintends  both  the  school  and  the  estate.  The  steward  is  the 
head  master  of  the  agricultural  school  attached  to  the  estate. 

At  each  high  school  there  shall  be  places  for  not  less  than  44  pupils,  4  of 
whom  shall  be  free  scholars,  and  for  2  pupils  that  intend  to  become  agricultural 
engineers.  In  addition,  there  shall  be  places  for  6  pupils  in  the  course  for  ex- 
perts. 

Paying  pupils  are  charged  100  kroner  yearly  for  instruction-fees  and  75  kro- 
ner for  rooms;  board  is  paid  for  in  accordance  with  a  scale  fixed  by  the  direc- 
tors.    Free  scholars  pay  nothing  for  any  of  these  things. 

The  requirements  for  admission  to  the  course  for  agriculturalists  are: 

a)  The  applicant  for  admission  must  be  not  less  than  18  years  of  age;  b)  he 
must  have  had  at  least  two  years'  practice  in  farming;  c)  he  must  possess  a 
certain  (modern  school)  degree  of  knowledge  corresponding,  at  least,  to  a  "pass" 
in  the  "realskolexamen",  or  to  that  possessed  by  a  pupil  in  the  "secondring" 
(upper  sixth  class)  at  a  State  secondary  school,  in  Swedish,  German,  mathe- 
matics and  natural  science.  Applicants  can  also  send  in  certificates  showing 
that  they  have  reached  a  corresponding  standard  of  knowledge,  the  said  certifi- 
cates   to    be   submitted  to  the  Board  of  teachers  for  investigation  and  approval. 

Many  of  the  pupils  prove  to  have  passed  the  matriculation  examination.  A 
good    preparation    has   been   found  to  be  previous  attendance  at  a  People's  high 


13'2  III.      EURAL    HaSBANDRY. 

school  and  a  farmers'  school  (A)  and,  in  addition,  a  winter-course  at  the  so-called 
"upper  division"  of  a  couple  of  People's  high  schools  which  impart  instruction 
in  Swedish,  German,  mathematics,  physics,  and  biology. 

Applicants  for  admission  to  the  experts'  course  must  have  passed  the  course 
for  agriculturalists  and  have  obtained  at  least  distinction  in  certain  of  the  principal 
subjects,  besides  possessing  a  good  knowledge  of  German. 

The  Agricultural  High  Schools  are  real  State  institutions,  situated  on  farms 
belonging  to  the  State. 

The  members  of  the  Board  of  each  High  School  are  appointed  by  the  Gov- 
ernment, and  the  lectors,  too,  are  nominated  by  the  same  authority;  the  assi- 
stant masters,  on  the  other  hand,  are  appointed  by  the  Board. 

During  1914,  the  total  number  of  pupils  at  both  High  Schools  together 
was  120. 

The  Agricultural  High  Schools  are  governed  by  the  Regulations  of  Aug.  12, 
1912. 

Farriery  Schools:  In  addition  to  the  institutions  for  teaching  agriculture 
should  also  be  mentioned  the  farriery  schools. 

At  present  there  are  three  such  schools:  at  Stockholm,  Skara,  and  Alnarp. 
That  at  Alnarp  was  established  in  1863  on  the  initiative  of  0.  Pehrsson-Bendz, 
a  pioneer  in  the  field  of  rational  farriery.  Up  to  1 9 1 3^  it  was  supported  by  the 
Agricultural  Society  of  Skane  Lan,  but  since  the  beginning  of  the  year  men- 
tioned it  has  been  in  enjoyment  of  a  State  grant,  the  same  as  the  other  two 
schools  have.  The  military  farriery  courses  formerly  held  at  this  school  are  now 
given  at  the  various  regimental  stations. 

At  the  farriery  schools  of  the  Veterinary  High  School,  Stockholm,  which,  as  far 
as  buildings  and  appliances  are  concerned,  is  the  principal  one  in  Sweden  and  is 
fully  equal  to  the  best  farriery  schools  abroad,  there  are  held  every  year  two 
courses,  each  lasting  3  ^/a  months,  for  the  training  of  civil  farriers  ("capable  of 
performing  farrier's  work  unaided").  From  10  to  12  pupils  can  be  received  in 
each  course,  the  requirement  for  admission  to  which  is  a  knowledge  of  smi- 
thing (the  pupil  must  have  worked,  at  least  one  year  in  a  smithy).  In  future, 
4-months'  courses  will  be  held  for  the  training  of  military  farriery  instruc- 
tors. The  pupils  taking  part  in  these  courses  are  farrier-corporals,  or  non-com- 
missioned officers  who  have  previously  gone  through  a  military  farriery-oourse  and 
have  afterwards  served  with  a  cavalry  regiment. 

At  the  Skara,  Veterinary  establishment  two  courses  are  held  yearly;  one  a  four- 
months'  course  for  civil  farriers,  and  the  other  a  course  of  equal  length  for 
training  military  farriery  instructors. 

At  Alnarp  there  are  three  courses  of  three  months  each  every  year,  intended 
for  the  training  of  civil  farriers. 

For  the  exercise  of  the  farrier's  profession,  it  is  not  necessary  in  Sweden  to 
have  enjoyed  a  course  of  instruction  in  farriery  and  to  have  passed  an  examina- 
tion, but  anyone  may  carry  on  the  business  of  a  master-farrier. 


For  instruction  in  dairy-farming:,  see  p.   118. 

Veterinary  Service. 

Administration.  The  veterinary  service  of  Sweden  is  under  the  superinten- 
dance  of  the  Royal  Medical  Board  which,  in  collaboration  with  the  Governors 
of  the  various  lans,  is  entrusted  with  its  direction,  in  accordance  with  the  regu- 


VETERINARY   SERVICE.  133 

lations  issued  for  the  Board  dated  Dec.  31,  1900,  and  also  with  certain  ordi- 
nances relating  specially  to  the  veterinary  service.  Since  1901  a  veterinary 
surgeon  has  been  an  ordinary  member  of  the  above-mentioned  Royal  Medical 
Board  and  since  1905  this  official  has  been  assisted  by  an  amanuensis,  also  a 
veterinary  surgeon.  Since  the  beginning  of  1914  he  has  also  been  assisted  by 
a  Bureau  veterinary  surgeon. 

In  accordance  with  a  Royal  Rescript  of  June  17,  1908,  the  Royal  Medical 
Board  of  Health  possesses  a  special  establishment  called  "The  State  Veterinary 
Bacteriological  Institute"  (Statens  veterinarbakteriologiska  anstalt),  which,  at  pre- 
sent, is  at  the  Veterinary  High  School,  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  out  scientific 
investigations  and  other  work  falling  within  the  province  of  veterinary  science, 
especially  bacteriology  and  pathological  anatomy. 

The  combating  of  cattle-tuberculosis,  as  far  as  this  is  carried  out  by  means 
of  tests  with  tuberculine  and  the  measures  in  the  farm-yards  which  are  invol- 
ved by  these  tests,  is  in  the  hands  of  the  Board  of  Agriculture.  Since  the 
year  1908,  this  Board  has  among  its  members  a  certified  veterinary  surgeon, 
in  the  capacity  of  provisional  member,  whose  task  it  is  to  report  on  tuberculine 
measures.  He  is  assisted  by  another  veterinary  surgeon  as  expert  in  matters 
to  do  with  tuberculosis. 

Certain  preparatory  measures  in  connection  contagious  cattle-diseases  lie  in  the 
province  of  the  Chairman  of  the  Local  Board  of  Health  and  of  the  Communal 
Boards  in  the  various  parts  of  the  country. 

The  training:  of  veterinary  surgrcons  is  carried  out  at  the  Veterinary  High 
School  in  Stockholm  (Regulations  of  Oct.  30,  lOli.)  The  High  School  is  super- 
intended by  a  Board  of  Directors,  consisting  of  five  persons  appointed  by  the 
Government.  During  1913  the  instruction  at  the  High  School  was  given  by  15 
teachers,  viz.,  5  professors,  2  lectors,  1  adjunct,  4  experimenters,  1  extra  teacher, 
and  2  assistants.  During  1913  the  number  of  pupils  amounted  to  117  in  all. 
During  the  year  in  question  16  pupils  passed  the  complete  examination  for  ve- 
terinary surgeons.  The  course  is  calculated  to  cover  4  years,  but,  as  a  rule,  5 
years  are  required  to  pass  the  examination. 

The  veterinary  establislinient  at  Skarn,  the  oldest  veterinary  school  in  Sweden, 
was  founded  in  1772  and  subsisted  until  1889  when  it  ceased  to  be  a  veterinary 
training  institution  and  was  reorganized  as  a  farriery  school,  with  a  veterinary 
surgeon  at  its  head. 

Course  for  candidates  for  the  post  of  liin  (provincial)  veterinary  surgeons 
(Lansveterinaraspirantkurs).  In  accordance  with  the  regulations  of  the  Royal 
Rescripts  of  Nov.  22,  1901,  and  Oct.  23,  1908,  and  with  the  circular  issued 
on  Jan.  15,  1909,  by  the  Royal  Medical  Board  based  on  these  rescripts,  there  is 
arranged  every  third  year  at  the  Veterinary  High  School  a  special  course  for 
the  purpose  of  training  certificated  veterinary  surgeons  in  the  subjects  which 
are  of  special  importance  for  future  provincial  veterinary  surgeons. 

In  accordance  with  the  instructions  for  veterinary  surgeons  now  in  force,  and 
dated  Dec.  31,  1912,  only  such  pupils  as  have  gone  through  this  course  and 
passed  the  examination  which  concludes  it  shall  be  competent  to  apply  for  a  post 
as  provincial  veterinary  surgeon. 

Every  now  and  then,  "repetition-courses"  for  veterinary  surgeons  of  long  standing 
are  given  at  the  expense  of  the  State.  These  courses,  too,  are  held  at  the  Ve- 
terinary High  School. 

Travelling  studentships.  In  1904,  the  Riksdag  granted  a  sum  of  2  200 
kronor,  to  be  awarded  yearly  as  bursaries  to  certified  veterinary  surgeons  who 
wish  to  pursue  their  studies  abroad. 

The  organization  of  the  veterinary  service.  In  the  24  lans  of  Sweden  there 
are    32  provincial  veterinary  surgeons,  one  in  each  of  16  lans  and  two  in  each 


134  III.      RURAL   HUSBANDRY. 

of  the  other  8.  The  provincial  veterinary  surgeons  have  the  superintendence  of 
the  veterinary  service,  each  in  his  own  district.  The  duties  of  the  provincial 
veterinary  surgeons  are  given  in  the  above-mentioned  instructions  for  veterinary 
surgeons.  The  provincial  veterinary  surgeons  are  paid  by  the  State.  The  sal- 
ary amounts  to  1  &00  kroner  per  annum,  and  the  service-pay  to  1  000  kro- 
ner per  annum.  After  5  years'  service,  the  salary  can  be  increased  by  500 
kroner,  and  after  10  years'  by  an  additional  500  kroner.  The  pension  of  a 
provincial  veterinary  surgeon  amounts  to  2  500  kroner  per  annum  and  begins 
on  his  reaching  65  years  of  age  and  completing  25  years  of  service. 

In  Swreden  there  are  also  182  district  veterinary  surgeon  districts,  to  which 
the  State,  in  accordance  with  the  decision  of  the  Riksdag  of  1912,  contributes 
600  kroner  per  annum  towards  the  remuneration  of  each  district  veterinary 
surgeon,  in  addition  to  200  kroner  increase  after  the  completion  of  5  years' 
service.  This  is  given  on  condition  that  the  respective  County  Councils  engage 
to  pay  the  district  veterinary  surgeons  not  less  than  1  200  kroner  a  year,  with 
an  extra  200  kroner  per  annum  to  those  that  have  completed  the  necessary  term 
of  service. 

In  a  great  number  of  towns  there  are  also  appointed  one  or  more  town  vete- 
rinary surgeons,  whose  principal  task  is  to  inspect  meat  offered  for  sale  and 
to  see  that  the  statute  of  public  health  are  observed  in  such  matters  as  concern 
the  keeping  of  cattle  in  towns,  etc.  Among  the  town  veterinary  surgeons  may 
also  be  reckoned  the  veterinary  directors  and  the  other  veterinary  officials  at 
the  public  slaughter-houses  and  at  the  public  cattle-mdrTcets. 

For  the  purpose  of  inspecting  the  health  of  the  cattle  imported  into  Sweden, 
the  lleyal  Medical  Beard  has  appointed  quarantine  veterinary  surgeons,  stationed 
at  a  number  of  ports  where  there  exist  quarantine  sheds  for  cattle.  The  export 
inspection  veterinary  surgeons  appointed  by  the  same  authority  have  the  task  of 
seeing  that  no  cattle  which  are  diseased  or  otherwise  unfit  for  export  from 
Sweden  are  allowed  to  leave  the  country. 

In  addition  to  these  officials,  there  are  6  CM'iZ  veterinary  stipendiaries,  appoin- 
ted by  the  Royal'  Medical  Board,  whose  task  it  is  to  assist  that  body  in  comba- 
ting any  cattle-disease  that  may  happen  to  break  out.  The  total  number  of 
veterinary  surgeons  in  Sweden  at  the  close  of  1914  amounted  to  428. 

The  principal  tasks  of  the  State  Veterinary  Service  are: 

1)  To  combat  infectious  cattle-diseases  —  with  the  exception  of  tuberculosis  — 
in  Sweden.  The  legal  measures  that  can  be  taken  in  this  respect  are  regulated 
principally  by  the  Royal  Ordinance  of  December  9,  1898  —  with  the  alterations 
made  therein  by  the  Royal  Proclamations  dated  March  1,  1903,  and  November 
3,  1906  — ;  the  Royal  Proclamation  of  November  3,  1906,  respecting  swine- 
fever,  swine-plague,  and  swine-ersysipelas,  and  that  of  September  28,  1906, 
respecting    the  measures  to  be  taken  against  chicken-plague  and  chicken-cholera. 

2)  To  combat  cattle-tuberculosis.  The  present  existing  struggle  against  cattle- 
tuberculosis  in  Sweden  dates  from  the  beginning  of  the  "nineties",  or  the  time 
when  Koch's  tuberculine  was  proved  to  be  a  reliable  means  of  discovering  this 
disease  at  its  very  onset.  Since  that  time,  an  energetic  and  clear-sighted  struggle 
for  the  eradication  of  this  plague  of  the  farm-yard  has  been  carried  on  in  Swe- 
den. This  work  has  principally  been  based  on  the  detection  of  the  existence  of 
the  disease,  this  being  done  by  means  of  the  so-called  tuberculine  tests,  but 
steps  have  also  been  taken  to  protect  the  growing  generations  of  cattle  from  in- 
fection. This  struggle  has  been  supported  by  State  grants,  which,  for  the  year 
1913,  were  estimated  to  amount  to  90  000  kroner;  and,  as  stated  above,  it  has 
been  directed  by  the  Board  of  Agriculture. 

The  Royal  Medical  Board,  in  accordance  with  the  Royal  Ordinance  of  May  1, 
1903,    has    been    entrusted   with  the  task  of  superintending  the  struggle  against 


AGRICULTURAL   CREDIT   ESTABLISHMENTS.  135 

that  form  of  cattle-tuberculosis  which  is  shown  by  morbid  changes  in  the  udders 
of  milch  cows,  i.  e.,  the  so-called  mammitis-tuberculosis.  In  1911  there  were 
killed  224  animals  affected  with  mammitis-tuberculosis,  the  owners  receiving  a 
total  sum  of  26  578'io  kronor,  in  compensation,  or  an  average  of  118'63  kroner, 
per  head. 

3)     The   superintendence   of  the  import  and  export  of  cattle  and  certain  wares. 

The  geographically  isolated  position  of  Sweden  has  had  the  result  that  the 
country,  on  the  whole,  has  been  spared  serious  outbreaks  of  cattle-diseases.  As, 
in  the  very  great  majority  of  cases,  the  infection  cannot  be  communicated  other- 
wise than  by  means  of  animals  —  the  general  case  —  or  by  certain  wares, 
there  exist  exceedingly  strict  rules  regulating  the  import  of  cattle  and  the  wares 
in  question.  For  example,  on  the  outbreak  of  any  serious  cattle-epidemic  abroad, 
all  import  of  cattle  from  the  countries  affected  is  forbidden.  The  principal  regula- 
tions in  force  in  this  connection  are  the  Royal  Ordinances  of  February  4,  1898; 
of  December  9,  1898;  of  September  28,  1906;  of  July  13,  1909;  of  June  22, 
1911;  of  January   19,   1912  —  two  rescripts  —  and*  of  March  19,   1912. 

It  is  of  the  greatest  importance,  too,  for  the  maintenance  of  the  reputation 
of  Sweden  as  a  cattle-  and  meat-exporting  country,  to  see  that  no  animals  or 
meat  is  sent  abroad  that  can  give  rise  to  justifiable  complaints  in  the  im- 
porting countries.  In  consequence,  as  has  been  mentioned  above,  strict  regula- 
tions have  been  issued  respecting  the  control  of  the  export  of  cattle  and  meat; 
they  are  found  principally  in  the  Royal  Ordinances  dated  November  29, 
1906;  January  29,    1909;  July   13,   1909,  and  December  6,    1912. 

4)  To  inspect  the  aHicles  of  food  offered  for  sale  in  Sweden.  This  is  regulated 
by  the  statute  of  public  health  for  the  whole  countrj',  dated  September  25, 
1874,  the  law  of  December  22,  1897  —  revised  by  the  Riksdag  in  1913  — 
the  Royal  Proclamation  dated  December  31,  1897,  and  the  Proclamation  of  the 
Royal  Medical  Board  dated  November  2,   1911. 

The  above  is  merely  a  brief  account  of  the  present  condition  of  the  Swedish 
veterinary  service.  Those  interested  in  the  matter  are  referred  to  Kjerrulf  and 
Regner:  "Collection  of  Statutes,  etc.,  respecting  the  civil  veterinary  system  in 
Sweden"  (Forfattningar  m.  m.  ang.  det  civila  veterinarvasendet  i  Sverige,  Stock- 
holm, 1912),  or  Kjerrulf  and  Ringdahl  "The  civil  veterinary  service  in  Sweden" 
<Det  civila  veterinarvasendet  i  Sverige),   Stockholm   1910. 

Agricultural  Credit  Establishments. 

The  Palmstruch  Bank,  the  oldest  in  Sweden,  obtained  in  1656  the  royal 
privilege  to  advance  money  on  "palaces,  estates,  land,  fields  and  meadows, 
etc."  The  Bank  of  Sweden  (Sveriges  Riksbank),  founded  in  1668  —  its 
predecessor,  the  Palmstruch  bank,  having  ceased  to  exist,  —  undertook 
loans  on  security  of  landed  property. 

At  the  beginning,  loans  were  advanced  for  short  periods  but  they  gradually 
developed  into  standing  ones.  Hence,  the  funds  of  the  Bank  came  to  be  locked 
up  to  far  too  large  an  extent.  In  order- to  facilitate  the  banking  business  without 
considerable  prejudice  to  agriculture,  the  "Secret  Committee"  of  the  Riksdag,  in 
1752,  decreed  that  a  yearly  instalment  of  capital  should  be  paid  in  the  case 
of  loans  of  ten  years'  standing.  A  system  of  amortization  was  hereby  esta- 
blished, which  in  1779  became  law,  with  the  decree  of  a  general  reduction  of 
2  %  per  annum,  until  the  whole  debt  was  paid  off.  This  remained  in  force 
till  1859,  when  the  amortization  payment  was  increased  to  3  %  per  annum. 
At  first,   the  interest  was  8  %,  but  fell  in  1687  to  6  %.     In  1741,  the  interest 


136  III.      RURAL    HUSBANDRY. 

on  loans  secured  on  estates  in  fee-simple  and  country  freeholds  was  reduced 
from  6  to  5  j^.  In  1756,  there  was  a  further  decrease  to  4  %,  irrespective  of 
the  nature  of  the  taxation  to  which  the  estate  was  subject.  This  decreased  rate 
has  become  fixed.  The  limit  of  the  loans  was  one-half  or  two-thirds,  and,  in 
some  cases,  three-quarters  of  the  value  of  the  estate.  From  1770  to  1815,  no 
loans  were  granted  on  agricultural  property,  the  Bank  having  no  funds  available 
for  the  purpose. 

The  difficulties  which  arose  for  the  Bank  of  Sweden  from  having  its 
funds  locked  up  in  agricultural  loans  of  long  standing  gave  rise  to 
the  establishment  of  the  Mortgage  Societies  (Hypoteksforeningar).  The 
Mortgage  Society  of  Skane  was  founded  in  1836.  Then  came  that  of 
Ostergotland  in  1845,  of  Smaland  in  1846,  of  the  Malarprovinserna  in 
1847,  of  Orebro  Lan  in  1849,  of  Varmland  in  1850,  of  Alvsborg  and 
other  Lans  in  1851,  and  of  Gottland  in  1853.  Those  of  Gavle — Dala  and 
of  Norrland  followed  later  on. 

The  Mortgage  Societies  were,  to  begin  with,  private  institutions  inde- 
pendent of  each  other,  which,  by  the  sale  of  their  bonds,  chiefly  aimed 
at  obtaining  amortization  loans  for  their  members  on  the  security  of  first 
mortgages  on  real  property.  Mutual  rivalry '  on  the  bond  market,  how- 
ever, proving  mischievous  in  its  consequences,  the  General  Mortgage 
Bank  of  Sweden  was  founded,  agreeable  to  the  ordinance  of  April  26, 
1861.  Its  chief  mission  was  to  negotiate  all  the  loans  required  to  pro- 
cure the  Mortgage  Societies  means  for  their  loans.  Moreover,  a  loan  of 
about  6  million  kroner  was  made  over  by  tihe  Bank  of  Sweden  to  the 
Mortgage  Bank,  on  security  of  mortgage  in  landed  property.  The  Mort- 
gage Bank  obtained  the  monopoly  of  issuing  bonds  payable  to  the  holder 
against  security  of  mortgage  on  real  rural  property,  and  the  State  handed 
over  to  it  a  capital-stock  of  8  million  kronor  in  Government  bonds.  By 
the  enactment  of  May  16,  1890,  this  capital-stock  contributed  by  the  State 
was  increased  to  30  million  kronor. 

The  Mortgage  Bank'  is  administered  by  a  Board  of  five  members,  of  whom 
the  president  is  appointed  by  the  Government^  the  vice-president  by  the  Com- 
missioners of  the  National  Debt  Board,  and  the  remaining  three  by  deputies 
from  -the  Mortgage  Societies.  Of  the  five  auditors,  one  is  elected  by  the  Na 
tional  Debt  Board  and  the  other  four  by  the  Societies.  In  the  regulations  of 
the  Bank,  which  are  sanctioned  by  the  Government,  no  alterations  can  be  made 
without  the  consent  of  the  Riksdag. 

The  Mortgage  Societies,  too,  are  administered  according  to  statutes  sanctioned 
by  the  Government.  They  are  allowed  to  grant  loans  against  security  in  land 
only,  the  value  of  which  is  estimated  according  to  the  appraised  value,  based 
on  the  assement  value  or  on  a  special  estimate  made  on  strict  principles  and 
without  allowance  being  made  for  the  value  of  houses  or  forest.  A  loan  must 
on  no  condition  be  granted  exceeding  half  of  the  assement  value  or  the  value 
estimated  in  this  way. 

The  present  conditions  for  new  loans  are:  a)  4l  %  interest  and  ^/a  %  amortiza- 
tion; b)  4:  %  interest  and  3  '^■o  amortization;  and  c)  4  %  interest  without  amor- 
tization. In  each  case  the  borrower  has  the  right  to  give  notice  of  repayment 
after  •  ten   years.     With  a)  and  b)  loans  can  be  granted  up  to  half  the  value  of 


AQMCCLTURAL   CREDIT   ESTABLISHMENTS. 


137 


Table  29.       The  General  Mortgage  Bank  bond  loans  on  the 

31  December  1913. 


Bond 

loans 

Amortization 

Riglit  to  in- 

crease amorti- 

Bonds in  circula- 

Present 

zation-rate,  or 

rate  of 

Date 

Original 
rate  of 

Currency  unit  in 
which  issued   and 

Began 
in 

Ends,  in 
ordinary 

repay    balance 
of   loan,  from 

tion  31/12  1913, 
kronor 

interest, 
% 

interest,  % 

original  amount 

course 

year 

1877 

5 

Kr.    50  000  000 

1888 

1927 

8  644  400-00 

5 

1880 

4',2 

Kr.    75  000  000 

1882 

1956 

{ 

1907 
1907 

38  480800-00 
14  646  600-00 

4 

3V4 

1883 

4Vii 

Kr.     50  000  000 

1885 

1959 

{ 

1907 

23  784  800-00 
15  446  000-00 

4 

3»'.. 

1878 

4 

Kr.  120  000  000 

1884 

1959 

{ 

— 

1 101  625  066-67 

4 

(M.   135  000000) 

1879 

4 

Kr.     36  000  000 
(Frs  50  000  000) 

1880 

1939 

— 

20  874  600-00 

4 

1908 

4 

Kr.     10  800  000 
(Frs   15  000  000 

1909 

1968 

1918 

10  557  000-00 

4 

1909 

4 

Kr.    10  800  000 
(Frs   15  000000) 

1911 

1970 

1919 

8  461440  00 

4 

1910 

4 

Kr.     15  000  000 

1912 

1976 

1920 

6  995  000-00 

4 

1886 

3','s 

Kr.    64000  000 
(M.     72  000  000) 

1888 

1962 

1901 

32  968  266-67 

SVa 

1889 

3\:) 

Kr.     75  000  000 

1890 

1959 

1898 

17  653  800-00 

3V2 

Total  300 137  773-34 

Hem.     The  foreign  values  are  given  in  kronor  at  par. 

the  estimate;  -with  c)  only  to  one  third.  According  to  the  position  of  the  bond 
market,  loans  are  granted  against  capital-discount  (Disagio).  Nowadays  this  ca- 
pital-discount is  deducted  on  advancing  the  loan. 

The  members  of  each  society  (i.  e.  the  borrowers)  are  conjointly  responsible 
for  the  bonds  of  the  society,  each  one  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  his  re- 
maining debt  to  the  society.  The  societies  are  conjointly  responsible  for  the 
bonds  of  the  Mortgage  Bank,  each  in  proportion  to  its  remaining  debt  to  the 
Bank. 

The  Bank's  annual  report  gives  a  survey  from  which  the  following  extract 
is  made  of  the  hond  loans  raised  by.  the  Mortgage  Bank,  which,  at  the  close  of 
1913,  were  not  fully  amortized; 

The  amounts  of  the  loans  advanced  to  the  Societies  from  year  to  year  are 
shown  by  the  following  extract  from  a  table  drawn  up  by  the  auditors  respecting 
the  loans  obtained  by  the  Mortgage  Societies  from  the  Swedish  General  Mort- 
gage Bank,  from  1861  to  1913. 


Year 


Kronor 


1861  .   .   . 

16  053  755-54 

1862  .   .    . 

22  294  28700 

1863.   .    . 

8  611197-52 

1864.    .    . 

1  231  286  57 

1865  .    .    . 

8163  580-62 

1866-    .    . 

2  008  606-73 

1867.   .    . 

8161713-71 

1868  .    .    . 

9  219  954-53 

1869  .    .    . 

16  937  158-37 

1870  .   .   . 

13  374  200-60 

1871  .   .   . 

12  591081-89 

1872  ■  .   . 

15  634167-20 

1873.   .   . 

8  496  388-16 

Year 

1874. 

1875. 

1876. 

1877  . 

1878. 

1879  . 

1880. 

1881. 

1882  . 

1883  . 
1884. 
1885. 
1886. 


Kronor 


12  519 
11794 
11312 

6  606 

17  880 
28  542 
21817 

18  804 

13  015 
10  256 
10  297 
10  480 

8  099 


174-76 
536-86 
389-40 
451-80 
686-36 
331-16 
0.S8-01 
155-96 
479-08 
427-30 
188-07 
523-36 
598-61 


Year 
1887  . 
1888, 
1889, 
1890. 

1891  . 

1892  . 
1893. 
1894. 
1895. 
1896. 
1897. 
1898. 
1899. 


Kroner 

6  304  331-41 
2  562  694-13 
1640865-69 
8  868  673-87 

24  822  265-60 

13  325 198-68 

11  884  702-67 

8  543  687-62 

7  265  088-92 
6  610  295  34 

10  048945-76 
11 369  601-67 
20  006  534-89 


138 


III.      KDEAL   UUSBANDRY. 


Year 

Kroner 

Year 

Kroner 

Year 

1900  .    .    . 

10  904  708-77 

1905  .   . 

.      19  403  430-11 

1910. 

1901  .    .    . 

8  589  070-02 

1906  .   . 

.      17  611155-54 

1911  . 

1902  .    .    . 

13  678  806-18 

1907  .   . 

.      11752  405-51 

1912. 

1903  .    .    . 

15  968  497-33 

1908  .   . 

.      26  611278-78 

1913. 

1904  .    .    . 

21  273  817-09 

1909  .   . 

.      18  181 039-47 

Kroner 
19  474  050-70 
14  128  444-62 
19  032  110-32 
14  499  534-90 


Total    683563  594-56 


Deduct:  leans  repaid 309  959  684-35 

Original  loan-total  on  the  31  December,  1913  amonnted  to 373  603  91020 

Amount  amortized : 

On  the  31  December,  1913 76  127  072-97 

The  net  amount  of  the  loan  on  the  31  December,  1913 297  47(5  837-23 

A  comparison  between  the  value  of  the  estates  securing  admission  to  the 
Mortgage  Bank,  the  amount  to  which  the  land-owners  had  the  right  to  borrow, 
the  original  loan-capital,  and  the  value  and  number  of  the  outstanding  loans  on 
the  31   December,  1913,  is  shown  by  the  auditors'  report,  as  given  in  Table  30. 

The  amount  of  the  existing  loans,  therefore,  amounts  to  not  quite  34  %  of 
the  estimated  value  of  the  estates. 

Superintended  and  supported  by  the  State,  the  Swedish  General  Mort- 
gage Bank  has  won  great  public  confidence,  and  its  credit  is  exceedingly 
good.  Its  bonds,  too,  have  long  been  quoted  at  prices  which  are  approxi- 
mately the  same  as  those  of  the  Swedish  Government  Stock.  From  Table 
29  it  is  seen  that  the  Mortgage  Bank  reserves  the  right,  from  the  year 
1889,  to  give  notice  of  redemption  of  its  bond  loans  10  years  after  the 
loan  has  been  granted,  while  earlier  loans  were  locked  up  for  from  24  to 
81  years,  and  one  loan,  indeed,  cannot  be  called  in  at  all. 

This  change  in  the  loan-policy  has  been  made  in  order  to  confer  on 
the  participating  Societies  the  same  right  in  this  matter  as  that  possessed 
by  the  Bank,  whereby,  again,  the   Societies  would   be   enabled  to  give 


Table  30.     Value  of  Estates  and  the  Amounts  of  the  Loans  granted 
hy  the  Swedish  General  Mortgage  Banlc;  31  Dec.,  1913. 


Mortgage  Society 

Value  of 
estates  where- 
by admission 
was  gained 

kroner 

Amount  up 
to  which    loans 
on  these  estates 
can  be  granted 

kronor 

Actually  granted  loans 

Total 
number  of 
outstand- 
ing loans 

Originab 
amount 

kronor 

Remaining  after 
deduction  of 
annual  instal- 
ments 

kronor 

Ostgiita 

Sm8.1and  a.  oth.  prov. 

Varmland 

Malarprovinserna  .    . 

•SkSnaka 

Alvsborg  a.  oth.  lans 

Gottland 

Gavle— Dala  .... 

Norrland 

Orebro  Ian 

Total 

144  174  628-53 
168  759  503  00 
37  491 800-80 
84  213  557-00 
212  921 185-00 
109  964  220-00 

21  412  490-00 

22  238  431-00 
39  669  463-01 
35  340  390-94 

57  915  800-00 
83  240200-00 

16  265  745-00 
34  970  200-00 
87402950-00 
54  982  110-00 
10  454  810-00 

9  284  800-00 
11003  300-00 

17  585 150-00 

55  893  600-00 
81174  900-00 
15187  790-00 
34  355  300-00 
86  547-750-00 
54  905  910-00 

8  540  460-00 

9  233  500-00 
11  003  200-00 
16  3251300-00 

44  316103-51 

60  560  719-74 

10  931770-64 

28  3ia998-68 

76  805  838-04 

41304  798-45 

5  656  444-12 

7  183  808-25 

9  002  245-15 

12  967  910-55 

7  923 
20733 

2  429 
-    2'92I2' 

8  632 
14330 

2  650 
2192 
5  379 

3  642 

876185C69-28 

383ia5065  00 

373 167  710  00 

297  040637  03 

70832 

MORTGAGE   ON   REAL   ESTATE.  139 

the  estate-owners  the  right  to  give  notice  after  10  years  of  repayment 
of  loans  on  landed  property  advanced  by  the  Societies. 

In  this  connection,  the  net  amount  of  the  capital-discount  (Disagio)  was 
carried  over  in  1897  from  the  Bank  to  its  Societies,  while,  at  the  same 
time,  an  amortization  system  was  drawn  up,  whereby  all  the  discounts 
were  amortized  by  the  close  of  1912. 

By  taking  this  step,  the  loan  business  of  the  Mortgage  Bank  has  adopted 
entirely  the  simpler  and  freer  forms  that,  at  an  earlier  date,  marked  the 
loan  business  of  the  Bank  of  Sweden. 

The  reform  makes  it  possible  to  choose  the  most  suitable  time  for  con- 
verting loans,  whereby  land-owners  are  given  the  prospect  of  obtaining 
those  loans  at  the  low  rates  that  the  best  mortgage  society  of  the  country 
should  be  able  to  ensure. 

The  Department  of  Agriculture  is  at  present  preparing  a  bill  for  the 
creation  of  loan-negotiation  institutions  for  small  farmers  and  small 
farms. 

Those  desirous  of  learning  Something  more  of  the  development  of  the 
Mortgage  Bank  are  referred  to  the  work  "The  Swedish  General  Mortgage 
Bank"  (Sveriges  allmanna  hypoteksbank  1861 — 1911)  which  was  issued 
in  Swedish  in  1911,  to  celebrate  the  50th  year  of  the  Bank's  existence; 
information  can  also  be  obtained  from  the  Bank  Directors'  and  Auditors' 
Reports,  etc.,  which  have  been  the  source  from  which  the  principal  part  of 
this  account  of  the  work  of  the  Banks  been  obtained. 


Mortgage  on  Real  Estate. 

The  official  statistics  of  Sweden  give  annual  reports  of  the  amount  of  the 
total  of  mortgages  granted  and  redeemed  (or  otherwise  voided),  and  also  give  a 
calculation  of  the  amount  of  indebtedness^  still  remaining,  but,  as  no  distinction 
is  made  between  landed  property  and  other  real  estate,  we  do  not  learn  the 
amount  of  the  debt  resting  on  the  land.  Some  idea  may  be  gained  in  this  respect, 
however,  as  the  statistics  in  question  make  a  distinction  between  country  and  town. 
At  the  close  of  the  years  1880,  1890,  1900,  and  1910—12,  it  was  calculated 
that  the  entire  amount  of  the  mortgage-debts  on  real  estate  was  as  follows  — 
the  assessed  value  being  given  at  the  same  time: 

,.  Assessed  value  Mortages        y     ., 

^"''^  kr.  kr.  ^°  ^ 

Country  districts       1880 2  302  306  035  795  691 445  34-6 

1890 2  463  186  845  977  629  214  39  7 

1900 2  862  072  050  1 193  540  696  41-7 

1910 4 114  696  050  2  002  260  391  487 

1911 4  157  452  960  2  104  793  719  50-6 

1912 4  212  749  795  2191727  003  52-0 

Towns  1880 732  478  366  329  893  782        450 

1890 1 150  514  171  641  662  615        558 

1900 1 639  620  830  962  240  628        587 

'  It  should  be  noticed,  however,  that  some  of  the  mortgages  are  most  probably  in  the 
possession  of  the  owners  themselves,  and  thus  do  not  represent  indebtedness  in  the  ordinary 
sense  of  the  word. 


140  III.      KURAL   HUSBANDRY. 

v..^  Assessed  value  Mortages  -r     ^ 

Kr.  Kr.  '^ 

Towns  1910 3  021 732  260        1 925 176 101        63-7 

1911 3 141  544  396        2  009  829 102        63-9 

1912 3  213  512  223        2  095  917  823        65-2 

The  whole  Kingdom    1880 3  034  784  401  1125  585  227  371 

1890 3  613  701  016  1  619  291  829  448 

1900 4  501  692  880  2  155  781  324  47-9 

1910  .....  7  136  428  310  8  927  436  492  550 

1911 7  298  997  356  4 114  622  821  56-3 

1912 7  426  262  018  4  287  644  826  57-7 

During  the  last  thirty  years,  therefore,  both  the  assessed  value  of  real  estate 
as  well  as  that  of  the  mortgages  resting  on  it,  have  steadily  and  continuously 
increased.  This  increase  is  specially  noticeable  during  the  last  decade.  In  spite 
of  the  great'  increase  in  the  assessed  value,  the  propprtion  borne  towards  this 
value  by  the  amount  of  the  mortgage  debts  has,  too,  risen  very  considerably. 

Among  the  various  lans  of  Sweden,  in'  1912,  the  mortgage-percentage  was 
highest  in  the  City  of  Stockholm  ('71"4),  Jamtland  Lan  (72'3)  and  Malmohus 
Lan  (64'i),  while  it  was  lowest  in  the  Lans  of  Vasterbotten  (39'6)  and  Vaster- 
norrland  (42'3). 

Cf.   also  Mortgage  Institutions. 


Loans  and  Grants  for  Cultivation. 

State  grants,  in  the  form  of  loans,  are  made  from  the  so-called  Cultivation 
Loan  Fund  for  the  reclaiming  of  boggy  lands.  The  amount  of  the  loan  can 
amount  to  the  calculated  expense  of  —  the  subsoil  draining  excepted  —  ditching, 
the  land  in  question,  but  must  not  exceed  70  ^  of  the  estimated  improved  value 
of  the  land  which  is  gained  by  means  of  the  work  in  question.  On  making  the 
grant,  the  condition  is  attached  that  all  suitable  land  affected  by  the  under- 
taking must  be  placed  under  cultivation.  Since  1883,  when  the  loan-fund  was 
established,  the  loan-conditions  have  several  times  been  altered  to  the  advantage 
of  the  borrowers.  According  to  the  conditions  now  in  force  (dating  from 
October  9,  1914),  no  interest  is  paid  on  the  loan  during  the  first  three  years. 
The  interest  is  reckoned  at  the  rate  of  3"6  ^  per  annum,  and  is 
added  to  the  capital  sum  of  the  loan,  after  which,  from  the  beginning  of  the 
seventh  year,  an  annuity  is  to  be  paid  of  6  ^  on  the  total  capital  thus  obtained, 
of  which  6  %,  3"6  %  is  reckoned  as  interest  and  the  remainder  as  amortization. 
The  annual  payment  has  to  be  made  when  the  Crown  taxes  are  paid.  The 
Cultivation  Loan  Fund  is  administered  by  the  Exchequer,  while  the  Government 
has  the  right  to  grant  loans  from  the  fund.  The  total  amount  of  these  loans, 
however,  must  not  exceed  1  million  kroner.  During  the  last  few  years,  grants 
have  been  made  to  an  amount  of  800  000 — 900  000  kronor  annually.  During 
the  period  1884 — 1912,  a  total  amount  of  18  486  700  kronor  was  granted  in 
cultivation-loans  for  the  draining  of  143  459  hectares  of  boggy  land,  representing 
1041  different  enterprises,  of  which,  during  the  period  1902 — 12,  there  was 
advanced  a  total  sum  of  8  864770  kronor,  for  62  883  hectares,  representing 
627  enterprises. 

In  addition  to  this,  the  Riksdag,  for  a  number  of  years  in  succession,  has 
made  grants,  free  from  the  condition  of  repayment,  to  the  amount  of  300  000 
— 700  000  kronor  annually,  to  aid  such  bog-draining  and  carrying-off  of  water, 
the  aim  of  which  is  to  diminish  the  liability  to  frost  of  the  land  in  the 
neighbouring    cultivated    tracts.     During   the  years  1884 — 1906,  a  total  sum  of 


LOANS   AND   GRANTS   FOR   CULTIVATION.  141 

5  053  973  kroner  was  granted  to  1  226  such  undertakings,  of  which  about  80  ^^ 
was  for  the  benefit  of  the  three  most  northerly  lans. 

From  and  including  1907,  this  grant  was  divided  into  two;  the  Norrland 
draining  grant  and  the  General  grant  for  the  diminution  of  frost.  From  the 
former  grant,  help  is  given  to  reclaiming  enterprises  in  Norrland  and  Dalarnti, 
whether  their  aim  be  to  gain  land  for  arable  or  grazing  purposes,  or  merely  to 
to  diminish  the  liability  to  frost.  During  the  last  few  years,  the  grants  have 
amounted  to  700  000  kronor  annually,  but  for  1912  they  were  increased  to 
800  000  kroner  and  for  1913  and  1914  to  1 100  000  kronor  annually.  For  1915 
a  grant  of  1  900  000  kronor  has  been  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  authorities 
who  have  this  matter  in  hand,  to  be  employed  for  the  same  purposes.  During 
the  period  1907 — 12,  the  total  of  the  first  grant  amounted  to  4  110  830  kroner, 
for  the  draining  of  84  611   hectares,  representing  832  undertakings. 

From  the  general  grant  for  the  diminution  of  frost,  grants  have  been  made 
for  such  enterprises  in  the  other  parts  of  the  country  the  object  of  which  is 
to  diminish  the  danger  of  frost  for  the  neighbouring  cultivated  tracts.  During 
the  years  1907 — 12,  there  have  been  granted  764  130  kronor  for  the  draining 
of  12  887  hectares,  representing  162  enterprises.  These  grants  came  to  an  end 
with  the  year  1912. 

For  the  year  1912,  the  Riksdag  made  a  further  grant,  the  General  draining 
grant  of  300  000  kronor,  an  amount  which,  for  the  year  1913,  was  increased 
to  450  000  kronor.  This,  grant  is  to  be  used  for  the  benefit  of  other  parts  of 
the  kingdom  than  Norrland  and  Dalame,  in  accordance  with  the  regulations 
and  conditions  laid  down  for  the  Norrland  draining  grants.  Not  more  than 
150  000  kronor  of  the  amount,  however,  may  be  employed  for  the  draining  of 
such  land,  when  the  operation  in  question  is  only  for  the  purpose  of  diminishing 
the  tendency  to  frost.  State  contributions  are  made  from  the  above-mentioned 
grants,  the  amount  of  each  of  which  may  amount  to  not  more  than  one-half  of 
the  estimated  cost  of  draining.  In  order  to  obtain  a  subvention  from  the  general 
draining  grant  for  1913  the  condition  is  also  attached  that,  when  the  grant  is 
to  be  employed  for  the  draining  of  land  suitable  for  arable-  and  meadow-land, 
the  said  grant  may  not  be  more  than  one-third  of  the  estimated  total  cost. 
From  this  grant,  during  1912,  there  has  been  advanced  a  total  sum  of  143  980 
kronor  for  the  draining  of  1  537   hectares,  representing  23  undertakings. 

From  the  year  1907  inclusive,  there  has,  in  addition,  been  made  available 
the  Uorrland  land-reclaiming  fund  for  the  promotion  of  the  reclamation  of 
waste  lands  in  Norrland  and  Dalame.  From  this  fund  grants  are  made,  as 
far  as  circumstances  permit,  to  County  Councils  and  Agricultural  Societies 
there  that  have  expressed  their  willingness  to  grant  loans  to  small  farmers  who 
intend  to  bring  suitable  waste  land  under  cultivation.  The  loan  is  free  from 
interest  the  first  year,  after  which  interest  at  the  rate  oi  S  %  per  annum  is 
added  to  the  capital  advanced.  Such  loans  made  by  the  County  Councils  or 
Agricultural  Societies  may  not  exceed  600  kronor  in  each  case,  and  on  no 
account  may  they  exceed  one-half  of  the  estimated  expense  of  reclaiming  the 
land.  During  the  years  1911 — 15  the  sum  advanced  from  the  fund  amounted 
to  1  021  705  kronor,  distributed  over  2  894  loans.  The  area  of  the  land 
reclaimed  was  13  607  hectares,  and  the  estimated  total  expense  of  the  work 
2  955  941  kronor. 

In  addition,  the  Riksdag  has  made  a  grant  of  100  000  kronor,  to  begin  with 
the  year  1915  inclusive  and  to  be  known  as  the  General  land-reclaiming  fund, 
which  is  to  be  employed  for  parts  of  the  country  other  than  Norrland  and  Da- 
lame. The  conditions  on  which  the  loans  are  granted  are  the  same  as  those 
for  the  fund  just  mentioned,  though  interest  on  the  unpaid  capital-amount  is 
reckoned  at  4  ^. 


142  III.      RURAL   HUSBANDRY. 

From  the  year  1914  inclusive,  the  Riksdag  has  granted  200  000  kroner  an- 
nually to  the  Subsoil-draining  loan  fund,  for  the  purpose  of  advances  to  be  made 
through  the  Agricultural  Societies  to  the  owners  or  cultivators  of  farms  not 
exceeding  50  hectares  in  area.  Loans  are  granted  to  an  amount  not  exceeding 
10  %  of  the  estimated  expense  of  the  work,  bear  interest  at  4  ^  per  annum 
and  are  amortized  in  10  years  by  the  payment  of  '/7  of  the  loan-sum  during 
the  last  seven  years  of  the  amortizing  period. 


Provincial  Agricultural  Societies. 

The  first  Provincial  Agricultural  Society  in  the  present  kingdom  of  Sweden  was 
founded  in  the  island  of  Gottland  in  the  year  1800,  but,  previous  to  that  date,  the 
Finnish  Society  had  been  formed  in  1797.  Between  1803 — 12,  Agricultural 
Societies  were  established  in  seven  other  lans,  and  after  the  foundation  of  the 
Academy  of  Agriculture  in  the  year  last-mentioned,  and  after  the  Societies  had 
received  a  more  official  character  by  their  statutes  being  confirmed  by  the  Go- 
vernment, no  long  time  elapsed  before  Agricultural  Societies  were  in  operation 
in  almost  every  Ian  of  Sweden.  As  Kalmar  and  Alvsborg  Lans  have  two  each, 
the  total  number  of  such  Societies  is,  at  present,  26. 

In  accordance  with  the  renewed  general  principles  for  the  organization  of  the 
Agricultural  Societies  of  the  kingdom  which  were  accepted  by  the  Government 
in  1910,  the  object  of  the  said  Societies  is  the  promotion  of  agriculture  and  its 
dependent  industries,  and  also  of  the  fisheries.  The  Societies  have  the  right  of 
electing  their  members  themselves,  to  any  number  they  may  choose,  as  well  as 
their  chairmen  and  vice-chairmen.  A  special  section  of  each  Society,  consisting 
of  the  chairman  and  vice-chairman,  together  with  not  less  than  five  members, 
and  called  the  managing  committee,  shall  be  entrusted  with  the  management  of 
the  finances  of  the  association;  shall  prepare  all  the  current  business  before  it  is 
placed  before  the  Society  for  decision;  shall  supply  the  authorities  with  the  in- 
formation they  may  ask  for;  and  shall  carry  into  effect  the  decisions  of  the 
Society.  A  yearly  report  shall  be  sent  in  to  the  Board  of  Agriculture  respecting 
the  condition  of  agriculture  and  its  dependent  industries,  and  respecting  the 
condition  of  the  fisheries,  together  with  the  changes  which  have  taken  place  in 
these  industries  during  the  preceding  year.  With  the  exception  of  some  few 
additional  regulations,  framed  by  the  Government,  the  Societies  are  entitled  to 
control  and  to  draw  up  the  statutes  of  their  organization  themselves  —  the 
statutes,  however,  must  be  submitted  to  the  inspection  and  for  the  approval  of 
the  Government. 

During  the  last  few  years,  a  number  of  the  Agricultural  Societies  have  intro- 
duced a  system  of  delegateship,  the  delegates  being  entitled  to  act  in  the  name 
of  the  Societies.  As  the  number  of  members  in  most  of  the  Societies  has  in- 
creased very  largely,  the  introduction  of  such  a  system  as  the  one  mentioned  is 
a  necessity  that  can  hardly  be  avoided,  if  the  risks  attendant  on  the  decisions 
reached  by  irresponsible,  accidental  majorities  are  to  be  avoided. 

The  Agricultural  Societies,  which  have  greatly  promoted  the  interests  of  agri- 
culture and  its  dependent  industries,  had,  at  first,  no  other  source  of  income 
than  the  fees  received  from  the  members.  Very  soon,  however,  the  State  began 
to  assist  certain  branches  of  agricultural  industry  by  means  of  grants  and  loans, 
with  or  without  the  obligation  of  repayment.  The  changes  in  the  legislation 
respecting  spirits,  effected  in  1855,  provided  the  Societies  with  a  liberal  income, 
as,  until  the  year  1885,  they  were  granted  one-fifth,  and,  after  that  date,  one- 
tenth,  of  the  resources  obtained  in  their  respective  districts  from  the  sale  of 
spirits.    In  consequence  of  a  regulation  dated  1905,  these  resources  were  divided 


PROVINCIAL   AGRICULTURAL   SOCIETIES. 


US 


in  such  a  way  that  one-eight  of  all  payments  received  within  the  whole  of  Sweden 
were  shared  between  the  Societies  in  proportion  to  the  population  of  their  respec- 
tive districts.  The  Riksdag  of  1913  fixed  the  amount  of  compensation  to  be  paid 
to  the  Agricultural  Societies  instead  of  the  receiptSj  which  are  now  paid  to  the 
Public  Treasury,  at  2  100  000  kr.  annually.  The  Riksdag  of  1914  resolved  that 
this  amount  should  be  divided  between  the  Agricultural  Societies  during  the  years- 
1915 — 19,  in  such  a  way  that  a  fixed  sum  of  10  000  kr.  should  be  given  to 
each  Society  and  that,  of  the  remainder  of  the  grant,  one  half  is  to  be  awarded 
in  proportion  to  the  number  of  the  population  engaged  in  agriculture  and  fishing- 
within  the  districts  of  the  respective  Societies.  The  other  half  of  the  said 
remainder  is  to  be  divided  in  proportion  to  the  other  part  of  the  population 
in  such  districts,  this  with  the  reservation,  however,  that  if,  in  consequence  of 
the  above  division  being  carried  out  in  accordance  with  these  principles,  any 
Agricultural  Society  should  receive  less  than  35  000  kr.,  the  difference  shall 
first  be  given  to  the  Society  in  question,  and  the  remainder,  of  the  grant, shall  be- 
divided,  as  mentioned  above,  among  the  other  Societies.  —  From  the  year  1920 
inclusive  this  plan  will  be  so  altered,  that  the  amount  which  is  to  be  divided 
according  to  population  is  to  be  allotted  as  follows:  three-fifths  shall  be  given 
in  proportion  to  the  number  of  persons  engaged  in  agriculture  and  fisheries,, 
and  two-fifths  in  proportion  to  the  rest  of  the  population. 

In  consequence  of  the  large  State  grant  received  by  the  Agricultural  Societies, 
in  the  form  of  spirit-sale  revenue,  they  were  able  to  extend  their  field  of  activity 
very    extensively    and    powerfully    to  support  agriculture.     For  a  long  succession 


Table  31.     Mevenue  and  Expenditure  of  the  Agricultural  Societies. 


Revenue. 

Membership-fees     .    .    . 
Interests,  rents  .... 
Share  of  spirit-sale  rev. 

State  grants j  

County    Council    grants 
Other  sources  of  income 

Total 

Expenditure. 

Farming  in  general  .    . 

Horse-breeding    .... 

Cattle-breeding  and  dairy 
industry 

Other  Live  stock-breeding 

Veterinary  service.    .    . 

Gardening 

Forestry;     gamekeeping 

Fisheries 

Bomestic  sloyd  .... 

Meetings  and  exhibitions 

Administration   .... 

Expenses  involved  by 
loans  for  the  "own 
home"  movement   .    . 

Other  expenses   .... 

Total 

AnnuaUy 
1882—1885 

Annually 
1886— 18ilO 

Annually 
1891— 18S6 

Annually 
1890—1900 

Annually 
1901—1306 

Annually 
1906—1910 

Year 
1912 

13  654 
132  466 
804  386 
86  065 
53  012 
98  281 

15139 
130  247 
750  170 
106  819 

67  750 
110  312 

18  274 

143  466 

900  352 

192  164 

83  510 

94  311 

21741 

181 849 

1148013 

312  970 

129  738 

89  962 

27  527 

240  0U6 

1512167 

474  206 

228  499 

36  824 

36  808 

306  264 

1  786  389 

676  581 

283  531 

90  532 

45  377 
333  749 
2  382  306 
946  724 
299  436 
169  102 

1187  864 

266  687 
110  079 

103  381 

4  526 

47  055 

59  287 

76162 

43  544 

127  337 

109  519 

142  802 

79  027 

1180437 

255  666 

70  771 

1.39  119 
2  798 
52  640 
48  366 
73  767 
30006 

107  259 
68  036 

139  170 

83  950 

1432077 

309  430 
111  412 

264 168 
7  655 
60  394 
48  587 
83  281 
33  582 

106  269 
62  393 

151 410 

100087 

1884273 

425  129 
174  533 

336  967 
11296 
75  390 
65  222 

116  935 
47  872 

130 153 
80  516 

178  834 

149  062 

2  519  229 

598  735 
275  190 

402  474 

21266 
108  440 

87  903 
144  456 

73  271 
178  941 

92  285 
243  958 

'122 182 
183  666 

3  180  105 

836  724 
335  417 

520  720 
37  516 

133  758 

100  078 
68  647 
96  978 

197  533 
88  328 

316 164 

21166 
178  627 

4176694 

1 118  383 
393 101 

621  543 
71716 
119  914 
114  880 
69  706 
118  368 
209  851 
101  457 
425  489 

36  310 
141  934 

1169406 

1 071  548 

1338  668 

1  791 909 

2  432  767 

2931646 

3  542  652 

»  The  figures  are  for  1905. 


14.4  III.      RURAL   HUSBANDRY. 

Spirit-sale  revenue  given  to  the  Agricultural  Societies: 

Calendar  year  Annually,  kronor 

1856-1860 .'  .   .   .    183  143 

1861—1865 240  520 

1866—1869 ' 247  224 

Sale  year 

Vio  1870-«'/o  1875 364  334 

i/io  1875-"'/*  1880 860  224 

of  years  nearly  all  the  financial  support  received  by  agriculture  was  that  be- 
stowed by  the  Agricultural  Societies,  the  State  contributing  very  little  by  means 
of  direct  grants  for  this  purpose.  During  the  last  few  years,  however.  State 
grants  for  the  promotion  of  agriculture  have  become  more  and  more  liberal, 
but  these,  too,  have,  on  the  whole,  been  distributed  through  the  Agricultural 
Societies.  For  example,  nowadays,  the  societies  receive  State  grants  towards 
premiums  for  agriculture,  cattle,  horses,  and  swine;  for  the  fisheries  administra- 
tion and  the  promotion  of  fisheries ;  for  arranging  courses  of  instruction  for  small 
farmers,  and  journeys  for  the  purpose  of  agricultural  study;  for  pig-breeding 
associations  and  pig-breeding  stations;  for  the  support  of  seed-control  offices, 
farm-agency-  and  agricultural  book-keeping  offices,  and  for  the  appointment  of 
agricultural  experts  and  ambulatory  farming  instructors.  Since  the  beginning 
of  1913,  the  Societies  have  also  received  a  State  grant  towards  local  investigations 
for  agricultural  statistics  and  preliminary  reports  for  fishery-statistics.  A  number 
of  Agricultural  Societies  receive  grants  from  County  Councils,  too. 

The  revenue  and  expenditure  of  the  Agricultural  Societies  since  the  beginning 
of  the  year  1882  —  the  earliest  date  from  which  there  are  full  data  —  are 
shown  by  Table  31,  and  their  share  of  the  spirit-sale  revenue  received  before 
that  date  by  the  Table  in  the  text. 

The  largest' income  of  any  of  the  Agricultural  Societies  in  1911  was  that  of 
Malmohus  Lan's  Agricultural  Society,  amounting  to  S53  807  kronor;  the  least 
was  that  of  Kalmar  Lan  (north)   57  220  kronor. 

The  accumulated  capital  of  the  Agricultural  Societies  amounted  to: 

Kr. 

At  tlie  close  of  1880  ...'...... 3454831 

.      >        .      .    1890 3  658  209 

.      .        »      >    1900 5  414 198 

.      .        »      .    1910  .  ■ 7  347  839 

.      .        .      .    1912 8  233  576 

Inclusive  of  the  funds  for  special  purposes  (formed  by  donations  or  otherwise), 
the  total  sum  amounted  in  the  last-named  year  to,  9  030  287  kronor. 

As  is  shown  by  the  Tables,  both  the  amount  received  from  the  sale  of  spirits 
and  that  of  the  State  grant  have  increased  very  considerably  in  the  course  of 
time,  and  the  Agricultural  Societies,  consequently,  have  had  gradually  increasing 
sums  to  administer.  It  is  undeniably  a  peculiar  feature  of  Swedish  self-govern- 
ment that  such  considerable  sums  of  public  money  are  administered  by  these 
private  societies,  which  elect  their  members  and  appoint  their  governing  bodies 
themselves. 

A  special  task  lying  within  the  province  of  the  Agricultural  Societies  is  the 
procuring  of  preliminary  data  agriciiltural  statistics.  As  was  mentioned  above, 
the  Agricultural  Societies  nowadays  receive  a  State  grant  towards  covering  the 
expenses    of  local  investigations,  which  are  so  carried  out  that  one-eight  of  each 


PROVINCIAL   AGRICULTDRAL   SOCIETIES. 


145 


Table  32.     y^Own  Home    Loans  made  by  the  State  i)er  the  Agricultural 

Societies. 


Year 

Fan 

aing  Loans 
Kronor 

Dwelling  Loans 

Total 

Number 

Number 

Kroner 

Number 

Kroner 

1905  .    .    .   ;      664 

1  421 880 

245 

371  380 

909 

1793260 

1906  . 

441 

1 032  989 

196 

337  702 

637 

1370691 

1907  . 

645 

1  673  475 

366 

736  220 

1011 

2409695 

1908. 

900 

2  473  235 

446 

888  830 

1346 

3362065 

1909  , 

987 

2  698  355 

365 

697  600 

1352 

3395  955 

1910. 

1236 

3  552  060 

346 

660  325 

1582 

4  212385 

1911  . 

1036 

3  019  160 

307 

595  350 

1343 

3614510 

1912  . 

1113 

3  019  534 

359 

692  050 

1472 

3  711584 

Total 

7  022 

18  890  688 

2630 

4979457 

9652 

23  870145 

Society's  district  is  examined  every  year.  The  investigations  have  to  be  carried 
■out  during  the  months  of  June — August  by  specially  appointed  persons,  who, 
as  a  rule,  must  visit  each  independent  farm,  croft,  or  other  holding,  of  at  least 
1  hectare  in  area.  The  information  obtained  at  each  place  has  to  be  entered 
on  a  special  "question-card",  the  form  of  which  has  been  drawn  up  by  the 
Central  Bureau  of  Statistics  and  the  Board  of  Agriculture. 

Another  task  voluntarily  undertaken  by  the  Agricultural  Societies  is  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  State  loans  for  promoting  the  "own  homes"  movement.  Although 
there  are  other  societies,  etc.,  too,  that  arrange  such  loans,  it  is  the  Agricultural 
Societies  that  have  undertaken  the  greater  part  of  the  work,  especially  as  regards 
the  agricultural  holdings. 

According  to  the  conditions  and  regulations  for  the  State  "own  homes"  loan 
movement,  such  loans  may  only  be  advanced  for  the  purpose  of  creating  such 
homes  where  the  receiver  of  the  loan  owns  both  the  land  and  the  buildings 
■erected  on  it;  they  can  be  granted  for  the  acquisition  of  holdings  intended  for 
cultivation  (Sw.  jordbrukslagenhet),  or  of  holdings  where  the  dwelling  house  is 
the  principal  thing  (Sw.  bostadslagenhet).  Such  "own-home"  loans  may  only  be 
granted  to  anyone,  man  or  woman,  who  is  a  Swedish  subject,  at  least  21  years 
of  age,  of  good  character,  known  to  be  thrifty,  sober,  and  well-behaved,  and  who, 
although,  it  is  true,  is  not  in  want  of  means  to  contribute  in  some  degree  to- 
wards the  acquiring  of  an  "own  home"  needs  effective  assistance  to  be  able  to 
acquire  it. 

"Own  home"  loans  for  farming-holdings  shall  amount  to  not  less  than  ^/2, 
and  not  more  than  ^/g,  of  the  estimated  value  of  the  holding;  in  the  case  of  a 
dwelling-house  holding,  the  corresponding  figures  are  ^,'2  and  ^li  respectively. 
""Own  home"  loans  may  not  be  granted  in  those  cases  when  the  estimated  value 
of  the  holding  exceeds  1  000  kronor  for  a  farming-holding  provided  with 
necessary  houses,  8  000  kronor  for  a  farming-holding  without  houses  and  4  000 
kronor  for  a  dwelling-holding.  (Estimated  value  includes  value  of  land  and 
huildings  existing  there  on  or  which  are  intended  to  be  erected  there.) 

The  loan  is  divided  into  two  equal  parts,  an  amortization-loan  and  a  standing 
loan.  An  annual  payment  of  6  ^  has  to  be  made  on  the  amortized  part  of 
the  loan  on  a  farming-holding,  and  one  of  7  %  on  a  dwelling-holding  loan. 
Of  this  amount,  the  interest  is  calculated  as  coming  to  3 '6  %,  the  remainder 
heing  the  instalment  due  each  year.  Interest  at  3'6  %  is  paid  on  the  standing 
loan. 

As  the  obligation  to  pay  the  amortization  sum  does  not  commence  before  the 

10—133179.   Sweden  II. 


146  III.      RURAL    HUSBANDRY. 

fourth  year  after  the  close  of  that  calendar  year  during  which  the  loan  was 
granted,  a  period  of  about  29  years  elapses  before  the  final  payment  of  the 
amortization  loan  on  a  farming-holding,  and  about  24  years  for  the  payment  of 
that  on  a  dwelling-holding. 

As  long  as  the  receiver  of  the  loan  fulfils  the  obligations  imposed  on  him  by 
the  conditions  of  the  loan-agreement,  the  body  that  has  gTanted  the  loan  cannot 
give  notice  for  repayment  until  the  amortization  part  of  the  loan  has  been  fully 
paid  off.  The  State  "Own  Home"  loan  movement,  per  the  Agricultural  Societies 
(cf.  "Own  Home"  Movement),  which  began  in  1905,  may  be  seen  by  Table  32. 

Chemical  Analysis  Offices. 

The  object  of  these  offices  is  to  promote  the  development  of  farming  and 
other  industries  by  giving  advice  and  information,  more  especially  by  means  of 
analyses  of  farm  produce,  technical  products,  and  the  like.  The  first  public 
offices  of  this  kind  were  established  in  1876,  at  Skara,  Halmstad,  Kalmar  and 
Vasteras.  In  1881,  one  office  was  started  at  Orebro,  in  1885  two,  viz.,  at  Jon- 
koping  and  Hamosand,  in  1895  one  at  Lulea,  and,  finally,  one  in  1900  at 
Visby.  To  each  of  these  nine  State  offices  for  chemical  analysis  the  State 
gives  an  annual  grant  of  6  000  kronor  (exceptionally,  however,  to  the  office 
at  Lulea,  which  is  also  an  experimental  station,  11  250  kronor);  they  enjoy 
support  besides  from  the  Provincial  Agricultural  Societies  or  the  County  Coun- 
cils, varying  from  2500  to  7500  kronor.  There  is,  in  addition,  the  income 
from  fees  for  analyses,  which  varies  from  1200  to  6900  kronor.  At  every 
station  there  is  a  director  and  one  or  two,  or  sometimes  more,  assistants.  All 
these  offices  are  connected  with  Seed-control  offices  which,  with  one  exception, 
are  under  the  management  of  one  and  the  same  director.  —  Regulations  for 
the  work  of  these  State  Chemical  Analysis  Offices  were  issued  for  the  first 
time  in  1877;  those  at  present  in  force  respecting  the  carrying  out  of  tests  date 
from  June  15,   1906. 

Certain  Agricultural  Societies  and  County  Councils  have  also  by  degrees 
established  separate  chemical  laboratories  and  control-offices  for  public  analysis 
within  their  own  districts,  with  a  view  to  giving  the  farmers  in  their  respective 
lans  an  opportunity  to  get  analyses  made  at  a  lower  cost.  The  oldest  of  these 
is  at  Alnarp  and  was  opened  as  early  as  1866.  These  establishments  are  either 
connected  with  State  institutions,  as  is  the  case  with  the  chemical  offices  of 
the  State  Agricultural  High  Schools  at  Alnarp  and  Ultuna,  or  with  technical 
schools,  with  the  bureau  of  the  City  chemist,  etc.,  as  at  Norrkoping,  Gavle, 
Halsingborg,  Gothenburg,.  Boras,  and  Kristianstad.  These  eight  offices  have 
State  grants  varying  from  1  000  to  3  000  kronor.  Some  of  them  have  also  a 
department  for  seed-control.  The  milk-control  establishments  previously  existing, 
which  were  kept  up  at  the  expense  of  the  Agricultural  Societies,  on  the 
other  hand,  ceased  to  exist  during  the  first  few  years  of  the  present  century, 
this  being  the  result  of  control-associations  now  carrying  out  the  milk-tests 
in  question.  Some  of  the  chemical  analysis  offices,  however,  carry  out  a  large 
number  of  milk-testings  every  year;  at  Visby,  for  example,  some  50  000  are 
made  annually. 

In  1912  there  were  as  many  as  120  000  analyses  made  at  the  State  chemica 
offices,  and,  at  the  offices  of  the  Agricultural  Societies,  36  500. 

Some  of  the  chemical  offices  are,  at  the  same  time,  experimental  establish- 
ments, where  experiments  of  various  kinds  are  carried  out.  This  is  the  case 
with  the  offices  at  Kalmar,  Jonkoping,  Skara,  Orebro,  and  Alnarp,  and  also  with 
that  at  Lulea,  which  should  rightly  be  considered  as  an  experimental  establish- 
ment. 


AGRICULTnRAL   EXPERIMENTAL   INSTITUTIONS. 


147 


The  State  grant  to  these  17  analysis  offices  amounted  in  1912  to  60  000 
kroner,  and  the  combined  grants  from  the  Agricultural  Societies  and  the  County 
Councils  to  56  000  kronor. 

The  director  of  each  of  these  offices  issues  an  annual  report,  and  the  Board 
of  Agriculture  afterwards  publishes  a  summary  of  all  these  reports. 

Agricultural  Experimental  Institutions. 

As  in  other  countries,  agricultural  experiments  in  Sweden  were,  at  first, 
closely  connected  with  the  work  of  control.  The  earliest  experimental  work, 
both  at  the  Academy  of  Agriculture  and  at  the  Agricultural  High  Schools,  was  of 
this  kind,  and,  to  a  certain  degree,  is  so  still,  as  a  number  of  chemical  stations 
carry  on  their  researches  side  by  side  with  their  proper  tasks  of  giving  advice 
and  information  to  farmers  and  others,  and  of  inspecting  agricultural  products 
and  other  necessities  of  life. 


Photo.  Hertzeerg,  Stockholm. 


Central  Establishment  for  Agricultural  Experiments  at  the  Experimentalfdltet, 

Stockholm. 


Most  of  the  experiments  in  agriculture  are  made  in  connection  with  the 
Central  Establishments  for  Agricultural  Experiments,  founded  in  1906, 
which  is  a  development  of  the  work  that  has  long  been  carried  on  at  the 
Experimental  Grounds  of  the  Academy  of  Agriculture.  The  task  of  this  State 
institution  is  to  carry  out  systematic  experiments  and  scientific  investigations 
in  various  parts  of  the  country  for  the  purpose  of  benefiting  agriculture,  while 
it  is  also  to  place  itself  in  communication  with  other  experimental  Establishments 
that  work  for  the  improvement  of  agriculture. 


148  HI.       RURAL    HUSBANDRY. 

The  Central  Establishments  embraces  six  divisions.  The  division  for  Agriculture 
has  been  for  the  most  part  engaged  in  local  experiments  made  in  the  different 
country  districts.  These  experiments,  which  had  already  been  begun  in  Swe- 
den by  certain  of  the  Agricultural  Societies  as  early  as  the  close  of  the  last 
century,  and  which  were  intended  to  discover  the  most  suitable  manures  for 
the  soil  in  various  places,  and  also  to  carry  out  of  trials  with  certain  sorts  of 
seed,  have  been  more  or  less  intimately  included  under  this  division.  In  addi- 
tion to  this,  experiments  have  been  carried  out  at  the  Experimentalfaltet 
just  outside  Stockholm,  and  on  other  farms  in  the  country,  in  connection  with 
the  preparation  of  the  soil,  manuring,  the  cultivation  of  plants,  etc.  In  the  di- 
vision for  Agricultural  Chemistry  the  chief  experiments  have  been  those  made  in 
pots,  for  the  purpose  of  discovering  the  relative  effects  and  values  of  different 
manures.  The  division  for  Cattle-breeding  has,  by  means  of  experiments  on  large 
farms,  determined  the  values  of  many  of  our  different  kinds  of  cattle-foods; 
in  close  connection  with  this  stand  the  Dairy  experiments  intended  to  solve 
problems  connected  with  the  Swedish  dairy  trade.  A  separate  division  has  lately 
been  created  by  the  separation,  from  the  last-mentioned  division  of  the  Bacte- 
riological department,  for  the  study  of  the  microflora  of  the  soil,  manures,  and 
milk.  In  addition,  there  is  a  division  for  Agricultural  Botany,  which  is  chiefly 
directed  to  the  study  of  the  diseases  of  cultivated  plants  and  of  the  methods  of 
combating  these  diseases,  while,  finally,  there  is  the  Entomological  division, 
which  carries  out  investigations  respecting  the  insects  and  animals  injurious  to 
agriculture,  and  the  protective  measures  to  be  adopted  against  them. 

The  management  of  the  various  divisions  is  entrusted  to  6  professors  and  2 
chief  assistants,  who  are  stationed-  at  the  above-mentioned  Experimentalfaltet 
near  Stockholm,  where  the  institutes  and  the  dwellings  of  the  staffs  are  situated. 
During  the  last  few  years,  the  annual  cost  of  this  experimental  work  amounted 
in  Toimd  numbers  to  140  000  kroner.  An  account  of  the  work  done  and  the 
results  obtained  is  given  in  a  series  of  "Meddelanden",  which,  during  the  year 
1913,  amounted  to  no  less  than  88;  in  addition  to  these,  there  have  been 
published  40  fly-sheets,  containing  notices  of  smaller  scope. 

As  before  mentioned,  there  are  carried  out  local  experiments,  arranged  by  the 
Agricultural  Societies,  besides  experiments  with  certain  sorts  of  seeds  of  cultivated 
plants,  made  by  the  direction  of  the  Swedish  Seed  Association.  To  some  extent, 
these  co-operate  with  the  work  done  by  the  Agricultural  Societies  described 
,  above.  Quite  independent,  however,  is  the  work  carried  out  by  the  Swedish 
Moor-Culture  Association,  the  Phyto-Biological  Establishment  at  Lulea  —  the  latter 
for  the  purpose  of  solving  problems  connected  with  cultivation  and  manures  in 
Upper  Norrland  —  and  the  two  Agricultural  High  Schools  at  Alnarp  and  Ultuna. 

Seed  Control  Offices. 

The  first  establishment  for  the  testing  of  grain  and  seed  was  opened  in 
1869,  at  Tharandt  (Saxony)  by  Professor  Nobbe;  a  few  years  later,  in  1876, 
seed  control  was  introduced  into  Sweden  by  Aug.  LyWcens,  at  Nydala  in  Halland 
Lan.  Seed  control  in  Sweden  can,  therefore,  now  look  back  on  38  years  of 
work;  work  which  has  been  of  importance  for  the  agriculture  of  the  country  in 
more  respects  than  one.  At  present  there  are  17  seed  control  offices  in  Sweden 
supported  by  public  means.  At  first  the  seed  control  offices  were  maintained 
by  the  agricultural  societies  alone;  since  1887,  however,  the  Riksdag  has  placed 
at  the  disposal  of  the  Government  every  year  a  sum  of  10  000  kroner,  to  be 
employed  for  the  support  of  those  seed  control  offices  which  receive  grants  from 
agricultural  societies  or  County  Councils  of  at  least  the  same  amount  as  those 
given  by  the  State,  and  which  agree  to  be  governed  the  regulations  laid  down  by 


SOWING   SEED   QUESTION.  149 

the  Government.  The  instructions  now  in  force  for  seed  control  offices,  supported 
by  public  means  are  issued  by  the  Board  of  Agriculture  and  date  from  the  10 
June,  1914;  they  are  accompanied  by  special  rules  for  seed  control  examinations. 
These  instructioiis,  when  suitable,  have  been  adopted  in  Denmark  and  Norway 
too.  The  total  number  of  analyses  carried  out  at  the  Swedish  seed  control 
offices  amounted  during  the  working  season  ^/t  1913 — ^"/e  1014  to  17  100,  while 
5  708  482  kilograms  of  seeds,  or  67  602  sacks  were  officially  sealed.  During 
the  year  1913  there  was  received  from  public  means,  in  addition  to  the  above- 
mentioned  10  000  kroner  from  the  State,  a  sum  of  16  610  kronor  from  various 
bodies  in  the  different  lans. 


Sowing  Seed  Question. 

At  the  close  of  the  "seventies"  there  began  a  new  period  for  plant  cultivation 
in  Swedish  agriculture.  The  extensive  export  of  grain,  which,  during  the  few  pre- 
vious decades,  had  formed  the  chief  source  of  income  for  the  farmers,  began 
gradually  to  decline  in  consequence  of  the  pressure  caused  by  the  increasing 
supplies  of  cheaper  grain  sent  to  the  European  markets  from  trans-oceanic 
countries.  The  immediate  result  of  this  was  that  far  greater  attention  was  paid 
to  cattle-breeding  and  dairy  farming,  but  there  also  arose  an  endeavour  to 
utilize  the  advantages  —  much  spoken  of  at  the  time  —  of  a  northern  climate 
for  the  production  of  good  sowing-seed,  to  create  a  fresh  branch  of  export  — 
that  of  grain  and  seed  for  sowing  purposes  in  more  southern  countries.  This 
question  was  discussed  with  the  greatest  eagerness  at  special  seed  congresses  and 
exhibitions;  local  seed-cultivation  and  sowing-seed  associations  were  formed,  and 
sample  shipments  were  made  to  most  of  the  countries  of  Europe. 

The  result  of  this  experiment  was,  however,  quite  different  from  what  had  been 
expected,  and  it  became  evident  that  it  was  necessary  first  to  procure  better 
and  more  prolific  varieties  before  there  could  be  any  possibility  of  taking  up  the 
struggle  on  the  seed  markets  of  the  continent.  It  was  to  solve  this  problem 
that  the  Svalov  Association  was  formed,  which  then  became  the  body  that  —  more 
than  any  other  institution  in  the  country  —  brought  the  sowing-seed  question 
to  a  position  which  nobody  could  have  anticipated  at  the  beginning. 

Gradually,  however,  new  conditions  arose,  which  once  more  called  for  fresh 
efforts  in  the  sowing-seed  question,  and  led  to  the  formation  of  new  seed  cul- 
tivation associations,  whose  field  of  operations  was  a  more  restricted  one.  In 
consequence  of  an  increasing  import  of  red  clover  seed,  of  the  ordinary,  greatly 
varying  qualities  found  in  the  world's  markets,  and  which  were  seldom  suitable 
for  the  climatic  conditions  over  the  greater  part  of  Sweden,  a  general  sense  of 
insecurity  had  gradually  grown  up  with  regard  to  the  Swedish  trade  in  this 
kind  of  seed,  and,  as  a  result,  in  the  whole  department  of  the  grass  cultiva- 
tion of  the  country.  The  situation,  aggravated  by  the  failure  of  the  clover-seed 
harvest  in  1902,  became  a  most  threatening  one;  a  movement  was  aroused  in 
farming  circles  which  soon  led  to  the  adoption  of  energetic  measures  for  the 
preservation  of  the  valuable  resources  possessed  by  Sweden  in  its  native  late 
clover,  and  to  secure  an  increased  supply  of  seed  of  this  kind. 

As  the  result  of  an  investigation  made  by  the  Board  of  Agriculture,  a  State 
grant  has  been  annually  made  since  1907,  amounting  at  first  to  15  000  kronor, 
but  at  present  to  20  000  kronor,  to  the  agricultural  societies  which  had  taken 
steps  in  the  direction  mentioned  above,  especially  by  the  organization  of  seed 
cultivation  associations,  which  could  take  the  matter  in  hand  direct.  As  a  result, 
15  such  associations  have  sprung  into  existence  in  various  parts  of  the  country, 
which  now  endeavour  in  various  ways  to  promote  the  production  and  spread  of 


150  III.      RURAL   HUSBANDRY. 

pure  and  good  seed  —  of  grass  seed  in  the  first  place,  but  also  of  that  of 
root  crops.  By  an  ordinance  issued  in  1909,  requiring  all  imported  clover  seed 
to  be  coloured,  a  sure  method  has  also  been  got  for  preventing  the  spread 
of  less  hardy  sorts  of  seed  in  such  parts  of  the  country  for  which  they  are  not 
suitable. 

The  work  done  at  Svalov  through  the  eflForts  of  the  Swedish  Seed 
Assooiation  and  the  General  Swedish  Seed  Co.,  Ltd.  The  rise  of  this 
work  in  connection  with  the  seed-culture  question  has  already  been  mentioned.  Like 
so  many  other  enterprizes  of  public  importance  in  Sweden,  it  rose  from  private  initia- 
tive among  the  ranks  of  the  farmers  themselves,  and  from  the  demand  a  more  thorough 
system  of  agriculture  gave  rise  to  for  a  better  quality  of  seed  than  that  hitherto 
found  in  old,  native  sorts,  or  in  the  unreliable  seed  from  abroad.  In  1886 
there  was  established  for  this  purpose  a  local  association,  whose  chief  office  was 
at  Svalov  in  Skane,  but  this  society  was  developed  the  very  next  year  to  a 
general  Swedish  one,  and,  finally,  after  its  fusion  in  1894  with  an  association 
v;hich  had  been  founded  for  the  central  parts  of  the  country  after  the  rise  of 
that  of  Svalov,  it  became  the  Swedish  Seed  Association  (Sveriges  utsades- 
foreuing),  and,  as  such,  represents  the  work  performed  in  common  in  aid 
of  this  branch  of  agriculture.  All  the  agricultural  societies  came  with  their 
support  and  financial  assistance  (ca.  15  000  kronor  annually,  on  an  average) 
during  the  course  of  the  first  few  years,  and  from  1890  the  State  gave  a 
grant,  amounting  then  to  15  000  kronor,  but  increased  in  1905  to  40  000 
kronor,  in  191.3  to  50000  kronor,  and  in  1914  to  81  000  kronor,  after  the  agri- 
cultural societies  had  withdrawn.  The  number  of  members  is  1  300,  of  whom 
300  are  life-members,  the  remainder  paying  an  annual  subscription  of  5  kronor. 
The  budget  for  1913  amounts  to  more  than  100  000  kronor,  one  of  the  items 
being  60  000  kronor  received  in  payment  for  the  Association's  seed  offered  for 
sale.  The  fees  of  100  kronor  each  paid  by  the  life-members,  which  amoimt 
to  35  000  kronor,  have  been  made  over  to  the  building  fund,  which  has  also 
received  gifts  amounting  to  more  than  265  000  kronor,  a  speaking  testimony  to 
the  interest  felt  by  the  public  in  this  matter.  The  Association  now  owns  a 
magnificent,  specially  equipped  establishment  at  Svalov,  with  an  estate  in 
connection  with  it. 

The  work  of  the  Association  is  carried  out  chiefly  at  Svalov,  although,  in 
order  that  the  various  parts  of  the  country  may  profit  by  the  results  obtained, 
two  branch  establishments  have  been  opened,  one  for  central  Sweden  at  Ultuna, 
which  has  been  in  operation  since  1897  (from  1894  at  Orebro),  and  one  for 
Norrland,  at  Lulea,  since  1906.  The  work  is  superintended  by  a  director 
(since  1890,  Professor  N.  Hj.  Nilsson)  and  twelve  permanent  officials,  5  of 
whom  are  specialists  at  Svalov.     Each  branch-office  has  also  a  director. 

The  Association  has  pursued  its  task  of  improving  plant  cultivation  in  Swedish 
agriculture,  principally  by  the  breeding  of  new  and  richly  productive  varieties 
of  the  various  kinds  of  seed  which  are  specially  adapted  for  the  varying  con- 
ditions in  the  different  parts  of  the  country.  The  first  to  be  taken  in 
hand  were  wheat,  barley,  oats,  peas  and  vetches,  after  which  there  gradually 
came  rye,  potatoes,  clover,  grass,  and  root  crops.  The  new  varieties  obtained 
have,  after  being  thoroughly  tested,  gradually  come  into  very  general  use  all 
over  the  country;  in  certain  parts  of  Sweden  they  have  practically  entirely 
superseded  the  older  sorts  and  are  coming  into  more  general  use  in  the  more 
northerly  parts  of  the  country,  too.  It  is  acknowledged  very  generally,  too, 
that  they  have  essentially  contributed  to  the  considerable  increase  in  value 
exhibited  of  late  years  by  the  harvests  in  Sweden.  Abroad,  too,  they  have 
attracted  great  .  attention  and  are  being  much  employed,  and  have  made  the 
name    of  Svalov  known  over  the  whole  of  the  civilized  world,  which  is  proved, 


SOWING    SEED   (JUESTIOK. 


151 


among    other    things,    by    the    many    visitors    from    distant    parts    of  the  globe 
who  inspect  the  establishment  every  year. 

This  success,  which  was  somewhat  unexpected  in  a  land  lying  so  far  to  the 
north  and  so  little  favoured  by  climate,  is  explained  in  the  first  place  by  the 
fact  that  it  is  really  the  first  time  that  an  establishment,  fully  equipped  with 
scientific  resources,  has  been  exclusively  employed  for  the  purpose  of  improving 
cultivated  agricultural  plants.  The  independence  enjoyed  by  the  establishment, 
its  direct  connection  with  practical  farming  and  farmers,  and  the  consequent 
practical  arrangement  of  the  place,  have  clearly  contributed  to  its  success 
as  well. 


Svalov. 


Respecting  the  method  of  work  adopted  at  Svalov  —  an  account  of  which 
can  be  had  from  the  publications  issued  by  the  Association  —  no  more  need 
be  said  than  that  the  fundamental  principle  is  simply  applied  botany,  and  that 
it  has  adopted  the  laws  for  the  creation  of  forms  and  heredity,  the  existence  of 
which  has  been  proved  by  the  scientific  researches  of  the  last  few  years.  The 
discovery  of  valuable  forms,  wherever  they  are  to  be  found,  but  above  all  in 
native  material,  and  the  cross-breeding  of  these  again,  therefore,  form  the 
chief  feature  of  the  method  employed. 

The  work  of  the  Svalov  establishment  is  supported,  however,  by  another  in- 
stitution, too,  the  General  Swedish  Seed  Co.  Ltd  (Allmanna  svenska  ut- 
sadesaktiebolaget),  which  began  its  operations  in  1891.  The  Company  has 
undertaken  the  practical  utilization  of  the  results  obtained  by  the  more 
scientific  labours  of  the  Association,  and, '  consequently,  it  has  the  charge  of  the 
increase,  maintenance,  and  sale  of  the  new  varieties  of  seed,  on  their  appearance. 
All  this  is  carried  out  under  the  direct  and  thorough  control  of  the  Association,  as 
regards  the  cultivation  of  the  new  varieties  in  fields  in  various  parts  of  the 
country  —  at  present  amounting  to  about  8  000  hectares  —  and  the  treatment 
of  the  harvested  seed  in  the  magazines,  until  it  is  sent  in  officially  sealed 
sacks  to  the  purchasers.  This  very  effective  arrangement  has,  very  naturally, 
also  contributed  to  the  success  of  the  Svalov  seed  varieties  all  over  the  world. 
In  other  respects,  the  Company  is  entirely  independent  of  the  Association,  having 


152  III.      RURAL   HUSBANDRY. 

its  own  o3gauization  and  board  of  directors,  its  own  economy,  a  large  estate 
(nearly  600  hectares)  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  that  owned  by  the 
Association,  a  large  store-house  at  Svalov,  and  two  branch  offices  at  Norrkoping 
and  Gothenburg.     Its  capital  amounts  at  present  to   900  000  kroner. 

The  co-operation  between  these  two  enterprizes  has,  since  1909,  been  regulated 
by  the  Government,  and  the  Riksdag,  partly  by  their  appointment  of  a  repre- 
sentative of  the  Crown  among  the  board  and  auditors  of  the  Company,  and, 
also  by  the  limitation  of  the  Company's  dividends,  and  by  the  fixing  of  a  certain 
payment  for  the  new  varieties  received  from  the  Association,  etc.  As  the  labours, 
of  the  Company,  too,  have  lately  been  vastly  increased,  the  combined  Svalov 
organization  has  thereby  gained  greatly  in  internal  strength,  as  well  as  in  im- 
portance for  the  agriculture  of  the  country.  \ 

The  interest  with  which  the  work  of  the  Swedish  Seed  Association  has  been, 
received  has  also  encouraged  private  growers  to  try  in  the  same  way  to  produce 
new  varieties  of  Swedish  cultivated  plants.  The  leading  position  among  these 
private  growers  is  occupied  by  Messrs  Weibull.  On  their  estate,  situated  near  to- 
Landskrona,  this  firm  have  —  at  their  own  expense  and  without  relying  on  any 
public  grant  —  founded  a  seed-cultivation  establishment,  where  splendid  work 
is  being  done,  entirely  upon  scientific  principles.  Especially  deserving  of  recogni- 
tion is  the  work  being  done  for  the  production  of  new  varieties  of  roots. 


The  Swedish  Moor  Culture  Association. 

This  association  was  founded  in  1886,  on  the  initiative  of  Oarl  von  Feilitzen,, 
director  of  the  Jonkoping  chemical  station. 

The  purpose  of  the  Association  is  to  further  the  utilization  of  the  extensive 
moors  of  the  country,  and,  by  lectures,  publications,  meetings,  and  other  suitable 
means,  to  spread  a  knowledge  of  the  best  rdethod  of  cultivating  moors,  bogs, 
and  marshes,  of  the  employment  of  peat  as  a  means  of  improving  soil  and  as. 
litter,  fuel  and  for  technical  purposes,  and,  finally,  to  employ  its  financial 
resources  in  aid  of  experiments  for  the  promotion  of  moor-cultivation. 

As  the  estimated  area  of  bogland  in  Sweden  amounts,  in  round  numbers,  tO' 
5"2  million  hectares,  or  about  12'6  %  of  the  whole  area  of  the  country,  the 
importance  of  the  association  and  the  extent  of  its  field  of  work  will  at  once- 
be  seen. 

The  Association  possesses  its  own  Institute  at  Jonkoping,  with  a  chemical 
and  botanical  laboratory,  working  premises  for  its  various  officials,  and  a  special 
museum  with  extensive  collections  illustrating  moor-cultivation  and  the  different 
ways  of  employing  peat. 

Close  to  this  building  there  is  an  experimental  garden,  where  very  exact 
experiments  are  carried  out,  partly  in  sunken  vessels  of  cement  protected  by 
nets,  and  partly  in  pots,  which  can  be  wheeled  on  frames  into  a  green-housa 
whenever  necessary,  as  a  protection  against  unfavourable  weather. 

The  Association  also  has  two  experimental  farms  for  field  experiments  on 
a  larger  scale;  one  is  at  Flahult,  2  kilometers  from  Norrahammar  station  on  the 
Jonkoping — Vaggeryd  railway,  with  an  area  of  lOS's  hectares,  37  hectares  of 
which  are  at  present  under  cultivation,  and  the  other  at  Torestorp,  4  kilometers 
from  Bratteborg  station  on  the  same  railway,  with  an  area  of  10'2  hectares. 
The  Association  has  also  started  two  "moor-settlements"  or  "own  homes"  at. 
Flahult,  and  three  at  Torestorp.  The  Association  also  carries  out  agricultural 
experiments  every  year  for  moor-cultivators  on  small  fields  in  most  of  the  lans 
of    Sweden,    the    total    number   of  such  fields  in  1911   amounting  to   51  in    20 


THE   SWEDISH   MOOR   CULTURE    ASSOCIATION. 


153 


different  lans.  Some  of  them  are  exclusively  experimental  fields,  others  serve 
as  so-called  model-fields  for  demonstrations  to  farmers. 

The  work  of  the  Association  can  be  divided  into,  firstly,  practical  scientific 
work,  aiming  at  increasing  the  knowledge  of  peat  soil,  its  distribution  and 
various  characteristics  and  qualities,  and  of  the  extent  to  which  it  can  be  em- 
ployed, together  with  the  proper  method  of  treating  it  for  various  purposes; 
secondly,  advisory  worl;  by  means  of  which  the  experience  gained  by  the  associa- 
tion is  communicated  direct  to  the  owners  of  the  moors,  and,  thirdly,  the  worlc 
of  spreading  information,  in  one  way  or  another,  respecting  the  experiments  and 
observations   made. 

Besides  the  director  and  working  chief,,  the  staff  consists  of:  2  botanists  and 
peat-geologists,  2  chemists,  1  assistant  for  greenhouse-experiments,  "  culture- 
engineers,  each  with  his  own  district,  1  cashier,  1  typewriter,  1  inspector  at 
Flahult  and  1  foreman  at  Torestorp. 


Peat-hog  (uncultivated)  at  Flahult. 


Field-surveys  are  carried  out  by  the  botanist  each  year  in  a  different  Ian, 
in  order  to  obtain  a  more  exact  knowledge  of  the  character  of  the  peat-lands. 
Up  to  date  (1914),  23  lans  of  the  24  in  the  kingdom  have  been  thus  submitted 
to  a  preliminary  investigation. 

In  the  chemical  laboratory,  examinations  are  made  —  at  a  very  low  fee  — 
of  the  chemical  quality  of  the  peat,  and  the  extent  to  which  it  can  be  used, 
and  in  the  botanical  laboratory  there  are  determined  the  plant-constituents  of 
the  peat,  partly  by  means  of  the  microscope. 

The  consulting-work  of  the  culture-engineers  among  the  farmers  is  very  exten- 
sive. In  1913,  some  504  farmers  were  visit«d  on  275  days,  and  628  peat-bogs, 
were    examined,    with    a    total    area   of  16  701   hectares.      Consultative  work  has. 


154 


III.   RURAL  HUSBANDRY. 


been   carried  out  free   of  cost  to  small    farmers,  formerly  in  two  lans  every  year, 
and  now  in  three  lans,  for  a  period  of  20  days  each  year. 

Finally,  as  regards  the  work  of  supplying  information,  the  Association,  issues 
a  publication  appearing  6  times  a  year,  with  a  total  of  about  500  pages,  and 
■containing  an  account  of  the  work  done,  the  results  obtained  from  the  experi- 
ments, and  the  experience  gained  both  at  home  and  abroad  in  the  field  of  moor- 
•cultivation  and  the  peat  industry. 


Experimental  Garden  of  the  Swedish  Moor  Culture  Association,  Jonkbping. 


Pamphlets,  too,  are  frequently  printed  and  distributed  on  a  very  large  scale, 
in  addition  to  which  the  officials  of  the  Association  publish  a  number  of  articles 
in  the  daily  press  and  in  Swedish  and  foreign  agricultural  and  technical  journals. 
Two  ordinary  meetings  are  held  every  year,  one  of  them  in  some  district  with 
an  abundance  of  moors,  where  practical,  illustrative  work  is  carried  out,  excur- 
sions are  made,  and  lectures  are  given.  Up  to  the  close  of  1913  the  Associa- 
tion has  had  summer  metings  at  23  different  places  within  21  lans.  The  autumn 
meetings  at  Jonkoping  —  at  which  lectures  are  given  —  are  usually  held  in 
■connection   with  some  exhibition. 

Besides  this,  the  Association  often  takes  part  in  exhibitions  of  greater  or  lesser 
importance,  and  this  has  proved  to  be  a  very  effective  way  of  spreading  infor- 
mation on  the  subject  of  peat-cultivation. 

Lecturing  tours  are  made  every  winter  by  the  culture-engineers  of  the  Asso- 
ciation,   who,    yearly,    have    to    visit   3  different  lans,  and  to  give  at    least    10 


farmers'  societies.  155 

popular  lectures  at  various  places  in  each  Ijin,  the  publications  of  the  Associa- 
tion being  distributed  on  each  occasion;  all  this  at  the  expense  of  the  society. 
A  number  of  lectures  are  also  given  at  the  meetings  of  the  Association,  at 
the  courses  in  agriculture  given  for  small  farmers,  etc.  In  1913,  for  example, 
127  lectures  were  given  in  12  various  lans  by  the  officials  of  the  Associa- 
tion. Since  the  year  1906,  the  Association  has  given  a  course  of  instruction 
in  moor-cultivation  for  small  farmers  and  moor  cultivators,  with  lectures,  demon- 
strations, and  excursions.  These  courses  have  been  very  well  attended,  the 
average  attendance  on  each  occasion  being  about  300  persons.  Finally  it  may  be 
mentioned  that  the  Association  pays  the  expenses  attendant  on  the  lectures 
given  every  year  by  the  director  and  the  botanist  at  the  State  Agricultural 
High  School,  and  that  lectures  on  the  work  done  by  the  Association  have  also 
been  given  at  meetings  of  societies  and  at  congresses  abroad  —  in  Norway, 
Denmark,  Germany,  Austria,  England,  and  the  United  States. 

The  Association  has  devised  and  presented  to  higher  and  lower  schools  of 
agriculture  object-lesson  material,  for  purposes  of  instruction.  The  Association 
numbers  at  present  some  2  100  members. 

The  Moor  Culture  Association  enjoys  a  State  grant  in  aid  of  its  work,  which, 
in  1914,  amounted  to  about  50  000  kroner,  in  addition  to  which  the  Agricultural 
Societies  and  County  Councils  contributed  about  11  000  kroner. 

Farmers'  Societies. 

During  the  last  few  decades  the  various  farmers'  societies  have  powerfully 
contributed  to  the  promotion  of  the  development  of  agriculture  and  the  increased 
interest  exhibited  by  farmers  in  their  common  affairs.  These  farmers'  societies 
endeavour,  by  means  of  lectures  and  discussions,  to  spread  a  knowledge  of  new 
ideas  or  methods  of  work,  and  to  bring  about  an  exchange  of  thoughts  and 
opinions  on  these  matters,  and  also,  by  means  of  economic  associations,  to  faci- 
litate and  support  agricultural  production,  either  by  the  securing  of  cheaper  or 
improved  means  of  production,  or  by  providing  more  favourable  opportunities  of 
disposing  of  agricultural  produce.  In  connection  with  the  endeavours  made 
during  the  last  few  years  to  increase  the  number  of  small  farmers  in  Sweden 
and  to  promote  their  economic  prosperity,  there  have  arisen  in  various  parts 
of  the  country  a  number  of  "oivn  homes"  associations,  some  of  which  have  assumed 
the  form  of  limited  companies. 

To  the  first-named  group  of  farmers'  associations  belong  a  large  number  of 
agricultural  clubs,  farmers'-  and  small  farmers'  societies,  in  various  parts  of  the 
coimtry.  Many  of  the  sub-divisions  of  the  above-mentioned  Provincial  Agricultural 
Societies,  the  "hushdllsgillen  or  hushdUningsTcontraM"  as  they  are  called,  as  well 
as  several  associations  for  the  promotion  of  gardening,  fishery,  and  forestry, 
work  in  a  similar  way,  and  the  same  can  be  said  of  the  Swedish  Farmers' 
Association  (Svenska  lantmannaforbundet),  the  members  of  which  are  spread 
over  the  whole  of  the  country. 

Of  a  more  purely  economic  nature  are  the  associations  that  have  as  their 
aim  the  improvement  of  agricultural  products;  such  are,  the  breeding-associations 
for  the  various  kinds  of  domestic  animals,  the  cow-testing  associations,  the  inilk- 
testing-,  seedculture-,  moss-litter-  and  book-heeping  associations,  etc.  Among  these, 
the  breeding-associations  especially  —  the  stallion-,  bull-  and  boar-pig  associa- 
tions and  the  cow-testing  associations  —  have  spread  enormously  throughout  the 
country.  Those  last  mentioned,  the  aim  of  which  is  to  acquire  an  exact  know- 
ledge of  the  fodder-consumption  and  the  milk-returns  of  the  individual  cows, 
amounted  in  1914  to  more  than  750,  and  have  made  it  possible  to  carry  out 
a  systematized  calculation   of  the   milk-returns   in   cattle   breeding. 


156  III.      KURAL   HUSBANDRY. 

For  the  purpose  of  improving  and  increasing  the  sale  of  farming  produce, 
there  have  sprung  into  existence  a  large  number  of  co-operative  dairies,  egg- 
selling  associations,  starch  factories,  and  distilling  associations,  in  addition  to 
which,  during  the  last  few  years,  there  have  arisen  co-operative  slaughter-house- 
and  fruit-selling  associations,  etc.  The  Sk&nsha  smorexportforeningen  (the  Skane 
butter  export  association)  works  direct  for  export,  and  about  one-third  of  the 
total  amount  of  butter  exported  from  Sweden  passes  through  its  hands. 

A  considerable  number  of  purchase  associations  have  been  formed  for  the 
purpose  of  the  purchase  in  common  of  fodder,  manure,  and  other  farming 
necessaries.  First  among  these  associations  is  the  Svensha  lantmannens  rihs- 
forbund  (the  Swedish  Farmers'  National  Association),  which  was  founded  in 
1905  and  has  a  number  of  sub-divisions  in  various  parts  of  the  country;  the 
central  associations,  in  their  turn,  divide  the  goods  purchased  among  the  local 
associations  in  the  country  districts.  Last  year  (1913)  purchases  were  made  t^ 
a  value  of  almost  8  000  000  kronor. 

In  addition  to  the  above-mentioned  associations,  there  also  exist  a  number  of 
smaller  societies,  which  have  already  been  mentioned  elsewhere  in  this  work,, 
such  as,  the  Sveriges  utsddesfbrening  (the  Swedish  Seed  Association),  Svensha 
mosskulturforeningen  (the  Swedish  Moor  Culture  Association),  Avelsforeningarna 
for  svensh  ayrshireras  och  rodhrohig  svensh  hosTcap  (the  Swedish  Ayrshire  and 
Red-and- White  Swedish  Cattle-breeding  Associations),  Svensha  svinavelsforeningen 
(the  Swedish  Pig-breeding  Association),  Sveriges  allmdnna  fjdderfdavelsfdrening 
(the  Swedish  General  Poultry-breeding  Association),  etc.,  with  members  in 
various  parts  of  the  country.  Since  1911  the  greater  number  of  the  more- 
important  farmers'  societies  have  had  their  annual  meeting  during  the  Agrir 
cultural  Weeh  held  in  Stockholm  every  March,  which  thus  brings  together  yearly 
the  most  prominent  members  of  the  societies  in  question  and,  by  means  of 
discussions  and  lectures,  gives  opportunities  for  the  spread  of  information  on 
matters  of  actual,  common  interest. 


Agricultural  Meetings. 

After  the  Provincial  Agricultural  Societies,  in  the  forties,  had  begun  a  revived 
activity  to  awaken  an  interest  in  the  promotion  of  agriculture,  meetings  were 
arranged  in  various  parts  of  the  country,  where  various  discussions  took  place, 
and  good  breeds  of  cattle  and  new  agricultural  machines  and  implements  were 
exhibited.  The  first  general  agricultural  meeting  for  the  whole  country  was  held 
in  Stockholm  in  1846.  Since  that  date.  General  Swedish  Agricultural  Meetings 
have  been  very  frequent,  taking  place,  at  first,  every  second,  then  every  third, 
and,  finally,  and  at  present,  every  fifth  year.  Money-prizes  were  awarded  for  the 
first  time  at  the  meeting  in  1850.  At  the  twenty-first  meeting,  that  held  at 
Orebro  in  1911,  there  were  entered,  among  other  animals,  534  horses,  625  head 
of  cattle,  and  1  682  products  of  agriculture  and  implements  used  in  agriculture 
and  by-industries,  together  with  531  agricultural  machines  and  implements.  At 
the  meeting,  a  sum  of  79  094  kronor  was  awarded  in  prizes,  while  the  expenses 
came  to  330  000  kronor,  of  which  the  State  contributed  105  000  kronor.  Gradu- 
ally the  discussions  held  at  these  meetings  have  attracted  less  and  less  atten- 
tion, and  the  chief  aim  of  the  gatherings  is  the  exhibition  of  cattle,  machi- 
nery etc.  The  rules  for  these  meetings  were  approved  at  the  meeting  at  Norr- 
koping  in  1906,  afterwards  receiving  the  sanction  of  the  Government.  —  At 
certain  intervals  of  time^,  meetings  and  exhibitions  are  held  in  the  various 
Ldns,  too,  and  meetings  on  a  smaller  scale  are  also  organized  by  the  sub- 
divisions   of    the    Agricultural    Societies.     Of    late    years    there  have  been  held 


AGRICULTURAL   LEGISLATION.  157 

special  exhibitions  of  dairy-products,  poultry,  seed,  etc.  As  a  rule,  these  meet- 
ings have  been  arranged  by  one  or  several  Agricultural  Societies,  but  rarely  for 
the  country  as  a  whole. 


Agricultural  Bookkeeping. 

Until  the  year  1911,  the  work  of  promoting  the  proper  keeping  of  books  by 
farmers  consisted  chiefly  of  the  instruction  in  the  subject  given  at  the  Agricul- 
tural Schools,  both  higher  and  lower.  Certain  Agricultural  Societies  —  that  of 
Malmohus  Lan,  for  example  —  by  arranging  prize  competitions,  have  endeavoured 
to  obtain  bookkeeping  formularies  suitable  for  farmers,  especially  small  ones. 
Bookkeeping  by  the  pioneers  among  these  farmers  has,  too,  been  not  a  little  pro- 
moted by  the  regulation  appended  to  the  rules  for  small-farming  prize-competitions, 
that  farms  which  are  entered  for  these  prizes  must  exliibit  books  kept  in  accordance 
with  the  forms  approved  of  by  the  Board  of  Agriculture. 

In  spite  of  the  educational  work  that  has  been  carried  on  in  this  branch, 
bookkeeping  has  made  but  little  headway  in  practical  agriculture,  as  regards  the 
;small  or  iniddle-sized  farms,  at  least,  and  it  is  only  during  the  last  few  years 
that  greater  interest  in  the  matter  has  been  noticeable.  The  work  of  the  cow- 
testing  societies  has  certainly  led  to  a  considerably  increased  understanding  of 
the  value  of  detailed  control  in  the  rural  husbandry,  but  it  was  the  clause  in 
the  fiscal  legislation  of  1910,  that  taxes  should  be  paid  on  the  net  returns  of 
farms  instead  of,  as  was  previously  the  case,  on  their  assessed  value,  that  created 
an    increased    necessity    for,  and   interest  in,  the  proper  keeping  of  farm  books. 

Among  the  steps  taken  to  meet  this  necessity,  there  have  been  instituted  in 
several  lans  "Bookkeeping  Bureaus",  founded  partly  by  the  Agricultural  Societies 
and  partly  by  special  Bookkeeping  Societies.  The  first  Bookkeeping  Society  was 
founded  on  the  initiative  of  L.  Nanneson  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  People's 
High  School  of  Vilan,  in  Skane,  in  1908.  In  1911  this  Society  was  merged  in 
the  Malmohus  Ldn's  Agricultural  Boolclceeping  Society.  Similar  bookkeeping-bureaus 
iave  been  planned  or  are  being  established  in  a  large  number  of  other  lans. 

The  work  carried  on  by  the  Bookkeeping  Society  is  supported  by  a  State 
grant  of  15  kroner  yearly  for  those  members  the  area  of  whose  farms  does  not 
■exceed  75  hectares  (185  acres),  on  the  condition  that  a  similar  grant  is  made 
by  the  respective  Agricultural  Societies.  The  membership  of  these  Bookkeeping 
■Societies  at  the  beginning  of  1913  was:  in  that  of  Malmohus  Lan,  c:a  110 
members,  owning  a  total  area  of  6  000  hectares,  Stockholm — Uppsala  Lan,  20 
farms  of  a  total  of  2  700  hectares,  the  Sormland  Farmers'  Bookkeeping  Society, 
45  farms;  that  of  the  KJronoberg  Lan  ca.  25  members,  and  so  on.  These  book- 
keeping-bureaus have  before  them  a  great  field  of  labour  in  the  service  of 
economic  agriculture,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  their  endeavours  will  greatly 
promote  the  hitherto  all-too-much  neglected  bookkeeping  of  the  Swedish  farming 
industry. 


5.    AGRICULTURAL  LEGISLATION. 

The  origin  of  the  Agricultural  Legislation  .still  in  force  in  Sweden  may 
Le  traced  back  to  the  Middle  Ages.  All  the  land  in  Sweden  was  not, 
however,  equally  affected  by  such  enactments,  for  the  lands  called  by 
ihe  common  name  of  fee-farms  (Sw.  fralse)  which  had  comiB  to  be  exempted 


158  III.      RURAL   HUSBANDRY. 

from  certain  taxes,  and  which,  up  to  April  6,  1810,  could  ,only  be  owned 
by  the  Nobility  (not  taking  here  the  Church  as  landowner  into  con- 
sideration), v/ere  but  to  a  very  small  extent  affected  by  them.  It  was 
other  private  tax-lands  and  also  Crown  farms  that  this  legislation,  col- 
lected in  the  Building  Law  of  the  Code  of  1734,  especially  concerned.  As 
long  ago,  however,  as  1789,  by  a  decree  of  Gustavus  III,  issued  on  Fe- 
bruary 21  of  that  year,  it  was  declared  that  ''all  tax-paying  landowners 
(Sw.  skatteman),  have  the  same  rights  over  their  farms,  both  the  infield 
and  outfield  land,  which  have  been  fixed  by  legal  survej's  and  boundaries, 
with  woods  and  fields  and  fishing,  shooting  and  trapping  appertaining 
thereto,  as  unalterably  and  with  as  free  right  of  disposal  as  the  Nobility 
over  their  fee- farms",  and  herewith  a  great  part  of  the  agricultural  legisla- 
tion, which  till  then  had  been  in  force  with  regard  to  that  land,  ceased 
to  be  applicable  to  it. 

The  ordinance  regulating  the  manner  in  which  a  village  shall  be  established 
is  very  ancient;  it  may  be  said  still  to  remain  ia  force,  as  far  as  it  can  be 
applicable.  The  site  for  the  village  was  first  to  be  settled;  greater  shares  in  the 
village  entitled  to  larger  building  plots ;  and  the  plots  should  be  arranged  east , 
and  west,  north  and  south.  In  distributing  the  village  land  it  was  not  the  posi- 
tion of  the  plots  that  decided  matters,  but  everyone  had  to  get  a  share  in  the 
better  land  as  well  as  in  the  worse.  Plots  had  to  be  provided  with  farmhouses- 
and  barns  and  some  other  buildings  that  were  enumerated  as  necessary,  but,  in 
other  respects,  everyone  was  allowed  to  build  more  and  larger  houses  if  he  so 
needed.  Roads  and  ditches  for  drainage  were  to  be  taken  from  undistributed 
land;  and  if  any  one  wished  to  fence  round  his  private  land,  within  the  limits- 
of  the  village,  he  was  at  liberty  to  do  so,  provided  only  that  others  did  not 
suffer  damage  from  it.  Where  one  village  met  another,  the  obligation  of  fenciag 
was,  else,  to  be  shared  between  them.  The  land  which  a  peasant  thus  occupied, 
he  was  to  carefully  till  and  manure;  he  should  clear  and  keep  the  meadows  in 
condition,  and  he  should  bring  other  land  under  cultivation,  as  far  as  he'  could 
do  so  without  harm  to  forests  or  pasture-land  —  all  under  penalty  of  fines  for 
neglecting  these  duties.  Forests  and  pasture-lands  were,  in  general,  common  to 
all  the  villagers,  who  might  use  them  as  much  as  they  needed  for  grazing,  fire- 
wood, or  timber,  turf,  or  other  things,  but  not  for  purposes  of  sale,  nor  for  use 
outside  the  limits  of  the  village. 

Amongst  other  details  contained  in  the  Building  Law,  which  have  now 
for  the  most  part  lost  their  importance,  we  must  not,  however,  omit  to  speak 
of  the  enactments  about  burning  woodland  (Sw.  svedjande),  which  are  interestiag,, 
not  only  from  a  juridical  point  of  view,  but  also  from  that  of  cultural  history. 
In  the  extensive  tracts  of  country  where  the  inhabitants  were  still  few  and  the- 
supply  of  forest-land  ample,  the  peasants  were  wont,  without  regard  to  the  future, 
to  "singe",  or  burn,  the  woodland,  that  is,  to  allow  fire  to  pass  over  a  tract  of 
forest,  so  as  to  be  able  afterwards  to  sow  rye  in  the  ashes  for  two  or  three 
years  in  succession.  As,  however,  such  a  burning  of  woodland  rendered  th& 
tract  of  forest  for  a  very  long  time  unproductive,  both  with  regard  to  the  re- 
growth  of  the  timber  and  partly  also  as  regarded  pasturage,  it  was  decreed  that, 
for  such  burning  of  woodland,  permission  must  be  asked  both  of  the  co-pro- 
prietors in  the  village  and  of  certain  public  authorities. 

As  it  was  sought,  in  this  and  other  ways,  to  fix  by  law  the  duties  of  the 
peasant,  it  was  necessary,  too,  to  arrange  for  some  control  to  ensure  the  observ- 
ance of  the  ordinances.     This  was  to  be  obtained  by  inspection,  a  charge  to  bft 


AGRICULTURAL   LEGISLATION.  15& 

exercised  by  a  police  officer  and  two  jurats  (namndeman).  On  Crown  farms,  an 
inspection  should  be  held  every  third  year;  on  tax-land  (see  above),  "when  neglect, 
or  faulty  building  thereon  was  noticed"  (till  February  21,  1789).  Everything 
should  then  be  investigated;  the  buildings,  within  and  without,  fences  and 
ditches,  homefarm  and  forests  —  and  what  was  then  found  wanting  should  be- 
made  good,   and,  possibly,   even  a  fine  be  paid  for  it. 

The  agricultural  legislation  which  has  been  enacted  since  1734,  and  which 
ought  to  be  considered  in  connection  with  this  subject,  is  scanty  enough.  It  is,, 
in  fact,  contained  almost  entirely  in  the  Royal  Decrees  of  December  21,  1857, 
concerning  the  duty  of  fencing  property,  and  of  June  20,  1879,  concerning  draining- 
etc.  In  the  decree  concerning  fencing,  the  principle  was  laid  down  that  everyone 
is  bound  to  see  that  his  cattle  do  no  damage.  The  principle  in  regard  to  the 
duty  of  fencing  also  requires  that,  when  fencing  is  to  be  done  between  the- 
lands  of  two  neighbours,  the  two  shall  share  the  expense,  etc.  equally.  Only 
those,  however,  have  a  right,  with  inconsiderable  exceptions,  to  insist  on  their 
neighbours'  participation  in  fencing,  whose  forests  or  outfield  land  adjoin  infield 
land,  or  whose  land  adjoins  land  of  similar  character.  The  fence  which  is  thus- 
put  up  shall  be  kept  in  the  condition  in  which  it  is  first  constructed,  and  shall, 
in  general,  be  kept  in  the  condition  required  by  law,  from  May  15  till  frost, 
has  entered  into  the  soil. 

Conditions  with  regard  to  draining  and  the  possibilities  of  reclaiming  boggy 
land,  have  received  a  more  modern  form  of  expression  by  the  ordinance  of  1879. 
In  the  Code  of  1734  it  was  merely  prescribed  that  the  villagers  should,  each 
according  to  his  share  in  the  village,  keep  his  ditches  in  order;  and  that  each 
one  should,  if  necessary  for  his  field,  dig  40  fathoms  of  ditches  or  clear  out 
80  fathoms  of  old  ditches.  It  was  also  prescribed  that,  if  the  ditches  of  one- 
village  met  those  of  another,  each  village  should  dig  through  its  own  ground, 
and  that,  if  anyone  in  digging  ditches  through  his  ground  or  meadow-land  came 
to  the  meadow-land,  pasture-land,  or  other  outfield  land  of  an  other  village,  the 
said  village  might  not  prevent  the  outflow  of  the  water.  If  a  ditch  happened 
to  be  necessary  to  furnish  an  outlet,  and  if  the  neighbours  could  not  agree  as- 
to  who  should  keep  this  ditch  in  order,  the  judge  was  to  decide  the  question 
according  to  what  seemed  best  or  necessary.  In  the  ordinance  of  1879,  a  new 
principle  was  introduced,  viz.,  that  if  any  one  for  the  cultivation  and  drainagfr 
of  his  land  wishes  to  carry  a  ditch  to  a  depth  of  4  feet,  he  is  not  to  be  hindered 
from  doing  so  by  the  owners  of  land  lying  lower  down.  On  the  contraiy,  the 
owners  of  land  which  is  benefited  by  this  drainage  shall,  in  proportion  to  the 
benefit  derived,  share  in  the  cost  of  the  draining,  including  compensation  for 
the  ground  which  is  used  in  digging  the  ditch,  for  trespass,  etc.  It  is  also 
prescribed  that  a  ditch  shall  not  be  prevented  from  running  out  into  a  neigh- 
bour's already  existing  ditch,  but  that  the  cost  of  the  possible  alteration  of  the- 
latter,  necessitated  by  the  new  influx,  and  that  of  keeping  the  ditch  in  order, 
shall  be  met  in  the  same  way  as  prescribed  for  the  construction  of  a  new 
ditch. 

Much  the  same  principles  and  prescriptions  hold  good  in  the  question  of 
lowering  the  level  of  a  lake  or  of  tapping  a  lake;  but  public  consent,  given 
through  the  Governor  of  the  Lan,  is  required  in  this  case.  Anyone,  however, 
who,  in  such  a  matter  of  draining  a  piece  of  water,  is  not  himself  a  petitioner 
and  does  not  concur  in  the  petition,  can  be  exempted  from  sharing  in  the  cost 
of  the  undertaking  if,  within  a  year  after  its  execution,  he  renounces  before 
the  Governor  the  benefit  accruing  therefrom.  The  expense  incurred  on  account 
of  his  land  shall  be  met  by  cutting  off  from  his  share  of  the  improved  land  as. 
much  as  corresponds  to  the  value  of  the  improvement  to  him,  and  adding  it  to 
that  of  the  sharers  in  the  enterprise. 


160  III.      RURAL    HUSBANDRY. 


Tenant  Legislation. 

Tenant  Legislation  has  the  same  origin  as  Agricultural  Legislation. 
The  regulations  brought  together  in  the  Code  of  1734  can,  in  almost  all 
their  essentials,  be  traced,  not  only  in  the  laws  of  the  realm  laid  down 
during  the  latter  part  of  the  Middle  Ages,  but  also  in  various  provincial 
laws.  It  was.  consequently,  nothing  new  that  the  law  of  1734  introduced 
into  the  Swedish  code.  It  is  all  the  more  worthy  of  note,  then,  that, 
however  much  agricultural  conditions  have  altered  during  the  period 
since  1734,  tenant  legislation  itself  did  not  undergo  any  essential  change 
until  the  enactment  of  the  law  of  June  14,  1907,  respecting  the  law  of 
tenant  right.  If,  however,  anj-  change  in  its  conditions  can  be  observed 
this  is  due  to  changes  in  the  way  of  viewing  things,  and  not  least  to  the 
fact  that  the  relations  between  landlords  (lessors)  and  tenants,  which,  as 
late  as  1734,  were  relations  as  between  master  and  dependent,  have  now 
become,  the  crofter-system  excepted,  purely  economic  relations  between 
two  contracting  parties  on  the  same  footing. 

The  law  of  1907  enacted  that  leases  shall  be  drawn  up  in  writing,  unless  the  lessor' 
and  the  tenant  are  both  agreed  to  have  a  verbal  agreement  only.  For  the  sake 
of  security,  however,  as  against  a  third  person,  the  agreement  must  be  registered, 
and  registration  is  granted  by  the  court  on  y  when  the  lease  is  a  written  one 
and  witnessed  by  two  persons.  The  lease  shall  be  for  a  fixed  period  or  for  the 
tenant's  life-time,  but,  in  the  case  of  an  entailed  estate,  can  only  be  for  such 
a  period  as  the  lessor  holds  the  estate.  If  the  length  of  the  lease  is  not  stated 
in  the  agreement,  it  shall  be  considered  as  being  for  a  period  of  five  years. 

The  law  of  June  14,  1907,  annulled  the  previously  existing  right  of  ending  a 
lease  by  merely  giving  notice.  In  place  of  this,  the  law  enters  in  detail  into 
all  the  circumstances  that  can  confer  on  the  landlord  the  right  to  end  the  lease 
before  the  expiration  of  the  stipulated  period.  The  most  important  of  these 
circumstances  are:  delay,  exceeding  a  month,  in  payment  of  the  rent;  neglect  of 
the  land;  subletting  the  lease  to  a  third  person  without  permission;  removal  of 
straw  or  manure  from  the  farm;  damage  to  land  or  buildings,  etc.  In  addition, 
there  are  enumerated:  illegal  shooting  or  fishing;  illegal  sale  of  spirits,  wine  or 
ale;  illegal  housing  of  strangers,  etc. 

Unless  otherwise  determined,  the  rent  shall  be  paid  not  later  than  three  months 
before  the  end  of  each  year  of  the  lease.  Should  the  rent  be  paid  in  kind,  the 
tenant  cannot  be  obliged  to  deliver  these  products  beyond  the  limits  of  the  land 
leased,  or  of  the  mother-estate  of  which  the  farm,  etc.,  forms  a  part.  Should 
the  performance  of  a  certain  number  of  days'  work  form  part  of  the  rent,  and  if 
it  is  not  stated  in  the  lease  at  what  period  of  the  year  the  work  is  to  be  done, 
the  total  number  of  days'  work  shall  be  distributed  equally  throughout  the  weeks 
of  the  year,  as  far  as  this  can  be  done.  Before  the  beginning  of  each  year  of 
the  lease,  the  landowner  shall  inform  the  tenant  of  the  days  when  he  has  to 
perform  the  work.  The  obligation  of  performing  the  so-called  "extra  days'  work" 
cannot  be  legally  enforced  by  the  terms  of  the  lease.  This  provision,  therefore, 
is  the  first  step  made  by  Swedish  legislation  towards  the  systematization  and 
legalization  of  the  conditions  attaching  to  crofter-holdings. 

The  land  leased  shall  be  taken  possession  of  by  the  new  tenant  on  March 
14,    which,    hy    prescription,  is  now  the  legal  date  for  quitting  or  entering  into 


TENANT    LEGISLATION.  161 

possession.  The  new  tenant  has  the  right,  however,  to  obtain  possession  of  one 
half  of  the  house-room  attached  to  the  land  two  weeks  before  the  date  men- 
tioned. The  state  of  the  land  and  buildings,  etc.,  shall  be  examined  by  means 
of  inspection  (tilltradessyn)  carried  out  before  the  new  tenant  enters  into  pos- 
session, and  in  the  manner  fixed  for  the  inspection  on  the  termination  of  a  lease 
(avtradessyn).  The  tenant  has  the  right  of  enjoying  the  use  of  the  fields, 
meadows,  forest-land,  buildings  and  other  appurtenances,  unless  excepted  by  the 
terms  of  the  lease.  He  has  not  the  right,  however,  to  make  use  of  the  forest 
products  belonging  to  the  land,  nor  to  take  peat  from  peat-bogs  forming  part  of 
the  land,  otherwise  than  as  determined  by  the  lease.  Neither  may  he  remove 
from  the  land  anything  —  such  as  gravel,  stone,  and  the  like  —  which  does  not 
come  under  the  heading  of  annual  produce  of  the  land.  The  produce  returned 
by  the  land  can  be  utilized  by  the  leaseholder,  with  the  exception  of  that  from 
the  timber;  manure,  hay,  and  straw,  however,  may  not  be  removed  from  the 
land.  An  exception  to  this  is  formed  by  the  hay  and  straw  which  remains 
unused  when  a  tenant  is  about  to  leave,  and  which  the  landlord  refuses  to 
purchase  from  him. 

The  tenant  may  not  sub-let  the  land  or  any  part  of  it  to  any  other  person 
without  the  consent  of  the  landlord.  If  the  lease  is  for  a  term  exceeding  twenty 
years,  however,  and  should  the  tenant  desire  to  resign  the  lease  and  the  land- 
lord refuse  to  resume  possession  on  payment  of  a  reasonable  sum  in  compensa- 
tion, the  tenant  has  the  right  to  transfer  the  lease  to  another  person,  unless 
the  landlord  can  show  reasonable  grounds  for  refusing  to  accept  the  proposed 
new  tenant.  —  The  death  of  the  tenant  does  not  render  the  lease  void,  but 
the  tenant's  heirs  have  the  right  —  if  the  lease  is  for  a  term  exceeding  twenty 
years  —  to  offer  to  return  the  property  to  the  landlord,  at  a  period  not  exceeding 
six  months  after  the  death  of  the  tenant.  Should  he  refuse  to  accept,  the  heirs 
can  place  another,  acceptable,  person  in  possession  of  the  land. 

The  leaseholder  is  bound  to  farm  the  land  properly  and  to  take  care  of,  and 
keep  in  proper  condition,  the  houses  and  other  appurtenances,  so  that  nothing 
suffers  deterioration  during  his  tenancy.  The  way  in  which  the  tenant  has  car- 
ried out  this  part  of  his  undertakings  shall  be  investigated  by  an  inspection  (see 
above)  to  be  made  not  earlier  than  six  months  before  the  day  on  which  the  te- 
nant is  to  leave,  and  not  later  than  six  months  after  this  date.  The  inspectors 
shall  be  two  unchallengeable  men  belonging  to  the  number  of  the  jurats  (or 
certain  other  authorities),  all  of  whom  shall  be  chosen  within  the  assize-division 
(Sw.  tingslag)  in  which  the  land  in  question  is  situated.  During  the  inspec- 
tion, the  damage  and  deterioration  is  noted  and  the  amount  of  payment  for 
the  same  estimated;  the  total  damage,  etc.,  is  termed  active  dilapidation  (Sw. 
husrota).  If,  when  the  tenant  leaves,  the  dilapidation  is  more  than  when  he 
commenced  his  tenure,  then  there  exists  a  surplus  of  dilapidation  (husrotebrist), 
which  the  outgoing  tenant  has  to  make  good.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  less, 
the  tenant  is  entitled  to  compensation  for  the  improvements.  The  tenant  shall 
not  be  entitled  to  compensation  for  other  improvements,  unless  in  certain 
cases,  than  for  new  buildings,  if  the  landlord  has  approved  the  plans,  or  if  the 
building  is  otherwise  shown  to  be  suitable.  The  tenant,  however,  shall  receive 
compensation  for  the  drain-tiles  employed  for  drainage  carried  out  in  accordance 
with  a  plan  approved  of  by  the  landlord.  If  the  outgoing  tenant  has  erected 
other  buildings  than  those  required  of  him,  or  if  he  has  planted  trees  or  bushes, 
or  in  any  other  special  way  has  expended  money  on  the  land,  the  landlord  shall 
be  invited  to  purchase  the  same  when  the  tenant  is  leaving.  Should  he  refuse 
to  do  so,  the  tenant  may  remove  the  things  on  which  he  has  spent  money,  but 
if  the  materials  have  come  from  the  land,  the  tenant  shall  first  pay  for  them. 
The  land  and  the  buildings  affected  by  the  removal  of  the  above  extra  improve- 

11—133179.  Sweden.   11. 


162  in.       RUKAL   HUSBANDRY. 

ments  must  be  placed  in  the  condition  in  which  they  were  when  the  tenant  be- 
gan his  occupancy. 

If  the  landlord  has  lent  the  tenant  cattle  or  implements  to  be  employed  on 
the  land,  and  if  a  certain  value  has  been  placed  on  what  has  been  thus  lent, 
the  tenant  shall  be  obliged,  during  the  period  of  his  tenancy,  to  keep  on  the 
farm,  etc.,  animals  or  implements  of  a  corresponding  kind  and  value,  and  the 
said  animals  or  implements,  whether  they  are  the  original  ones  or  have  been 
procured  during  the  period  of  the  tenancy,  shall  be  the  property  of  the  land- 
lord. 

In  addition  to  the  above  paragraphs,  the  new  law  mentioned  contains  a  num- 
ber of  regulations  respecting  methods  and  formalities,  which  would  hardly  in- 
terest the  reader. 


A  proclamation  dated  June  4,  1908  contains  new  regulations  concerning 
Crown  farm  lands  let  on  lease.  As  a  rule,  the  length  of  the  lease  is  twenty 
years,  the  tenant  having  priority  of  choice  in  the  event  of  a  fresh  lease  being 
granted  at  the  close  of  this  term.  When  a  lease  is  granted,  it  shall  stipulate 
what  new  erections  the  tenant  is  to  carry  out.  If  these  prove  to  be  greater 
than  will  allow  of  the  work  being  spread  over  the  whole  term  of  tenancy,  the 
tenant  can  obtain  compensation  for  the  superfluous  amount,  in  the  first  place 
by  means  of  a  reduction  of  the  rent.  If,  with  the  consent  of  the  Crown  Lands 
Board,  the  tenant  carries  out  on  a  large  scale  the  cultivation  of  new  areas  or 
draining  operations,  which  are  to  the  great  advantage  of  the  land,  but  which, 
during  the  period  of  tenancy,  will  hardly  result  in  a  return  to  the  tenant  com- 
mensurable with  his  expenses,  he  may  be  compensated  by  a  reasonable  reduc- 
tion of  the  rent  for  one  or  more  years.  Compensation  shall  be  made  in  the 
same  way  for  drain-tiles  used  in  draining  operations. 

The  year  before  he  relinquishes  the  land,  the  tenant  shall  carry  out  the 
regular  autumn  work,  such  as  tilling  the  fallow,  plowing,  sowing  winter  corn 
and  seed  for  which  he  shall  receive  compensation  from  the  incoming  tenant.  No 
permission  can  be  given  to  remove  manure,  but,  on  certain  conditions,  the  Crown 
Lands  Board  can  permit  hay  and  straw  to  be  carried  away.  A  part  of  this 
fodder  remaining  at  the  close  of  the  tenancy,  shall  be  given  to  the  incoming 
tenant  without  compensation.  The  remainder  shall  be  dealt  with  in  accordance 
with  the  general  law  concerning  landlord  and  tenant. 

Respecting  the  inspections  carried  out  when  a  tenant  takes  possession  of  a 
farm  and  when  he  quits  it,  the  ordinary  regulations  shall  be  in  force,  but,  in 
addition,  the  Intendant  of  the  Crown  Lands  shall  inspect  the  land  at  least  once 
every  five  years,  for  the  purpose  of  seeing  how  the  land  is  being  farmed,  and 
whether  the  tenant  is  carrying  out  the  various  conditions  on  which  the  lease 
was  granted. 

The  Norrland  Laws. 

A  si)ecial  place  in  Swedish  legislation  is  occupied  by  the  so-called  Norr- 
land Laws,  passed  in  1906  ahd  1909,  and  supplemented  in  1912.  The 
law  of  1906,  wMcli  affects  the  Lans  of  Vasternorrland,  Jamtland,  Vaster- 
hotten,  and  Norrbotten,  and  parts  of  the  Lans  of  Gavleborg  and  Kopparberg, 
contain  prohibitions  for  companies  or  economic  associations  to  acquire  landed 
property  within  the  various  lans,  this,  with  certain  exceptions.  The  chief 
of  these  exceptions  are:  landed  estate  intended  for  building  plots,  storage 


THK    XORKLAXD    LAWS.  163 

places,  or  the  like,  or  which  consists  of  quarries,  gravel-  or  clay  pits, 
peat-bogs,  waterfalls,  fishery-  or  other  similar  site,  or  outfield  land  or 
forest,  which  cannot  be  considered  necessary  to  insure  the  economic  in- 
dependence of  a  farm  (Sw.  stodskog).  It  is,  however,  the  duty  of  the 
Grovernor  of  the  Ian  where  the  estate  or  estates  in  question  are  situated, 
to  decide  in  every  special  case,  after  application  has  been  made  in  the 
matter,  whether  such  company  or  association  may  be  permitted  to  acquire 
the  estate  in  question. 

The  laws  of  1909  and  1912,  on  the  other  hand,  contain  regulations 
concerning  the  supervision  of  certain  farm-lands,  (vanhavdslag;  uppsikts- 
lag)  and  regulations  respecting  the  leasing  of  certain  land  (see  below). 
These  laws  affect  the  lans  of  Gavleborg,  Vasternorrland,  Jamtland,  Vaster- 
botten  and  Norrbotten,  and  certain  parts  of  Dalarne,  and  refer  only  to 
such  landed  estates  as  belong  to  companies  or  to  economic  associations, 
or  private  persons  who  are  clearly  in  the  possession  of  such  estates 
principally  for  the  purpose  of  utilizing  the  timber  thereon,  and  who  are 
not  entered  in  the  schedules  of  population  as  dwelling  on  the  estate,  or  on 
an  estate  which  is  farmed  or  managed  together  with  the  one  first  mentioned. 

A.  The  Inspection  of  Lumber  Farms  Law  formerly  termed  The  Neglected 
Farms  Law.  The  proper  authorities  shall  see  that  the  farming  of  the  estate 
is  not  abandoned,  or  the  land  and  buUdings  otherwise  so  neglected  that 
there  is  a  danger  of  the  laying  down  of  the  farming.  This  control  is  exer- 
cised by  a  Commission  appointed  by  the  Government  for  a  period  of  three 
years,  and  consisting  of  a  president  and  two  members.  Whenever  there  is  reason 
to  suppose  that  the  land  is  being  neglected,  the  Commission  appoints  an  inspec- 
tion-committee of  three  persons  to  investigate  the  state  of  things  at  the  place, 
and  to  report  thereon  to  the  Commission  and,  at  the  same  time,  to  propose 
the  measures  the  committee  may  consider  necessary  for  remedying  the  neglect. 
Should  the  Commission  consider  that  the  land  has  been  neglected,  it  must 
endeavour  to  make  a  written  agreement  with  the  owner  concerning  the  measures 
to  be  taken  to  bring  about  an  improvement.  Not  more  than  four  years  may  be 
allowed  for  the  carrying  out  of  these  measures.  If  an  agreement  cannot  be 
made  with  the  good-will  of  the  owner,  an  action  must  be  brought  against  him, 
and  the  court  shall  decide  what  steps  the  owner  must  take  within  a  period  not 
exceeding  four  years. 

Should  the  owner  of  the  land  delay  the  measures  that  he  has  either  volun- 
tarily undertaken  to  carry  out,  or  which  have  been  enjoined  him  by  the  court, 
he  shall  be  mulcted  in  accordance  with  a  scale  far  in  excess  of  the  usual  rates 
of  fines,  but  the  fines  in  question  shall  not  have  the  alternative  of  imprisonment 
attached  to  them.  Finally,  it  is  to  be  observed  that  it  is  the  landowner  who  is 
responsible  for  remedying  any  existing  neglect  of  the  land,  even  if  the  land  is 
leased  to  a  tenant,  and  also  that  a  landowner  who,  voluntarily  or  by  the  judg- 
ment of  the  court  has  had  the  task  enjoined  him  of  remedying  the  neglect,  can- 
not escape  this  obligation  by  selling  the  land,  unless  —  with  the  consent  of  the 
Commission  —  the  new  landowner  has  undertaken  the  responsibility  in  question. 

B.  The  Farm-lease  Law.  The  following  special  regulations  are  in  force, 
as  distinct  from  these  of  the  general  law  on  tenants'  rights.  The  agreement 
or  lease  shall  be  a  written  one,  and  all  additions  or  alterations  in  the 
lease  shall  also  be  executed  in  writing,  otherwise  they  lose  their  validity.  If, 
however,    the    tenant    is    found    to    be  farming  land  and  is  in  possession  of  no 


164  III.      EURAL   HUSBANDRY. 

written  lease,  the  tenant  has  the  right  to  obtain  the  necessary  lease.  Should 
the  landowner  refuse  to  give  one,  or  should  he  refuse  to  confirm  the  conditions 
of  the  lease  which  it  is  assumed  were  those  according  to  which  the  tenant  was 
farming  the  land,  then  the  court,  on  the  application  of  the  tenant,  has  the  pow- 
er to  confirm  the  conditions  of  the  lease  as  far  as  they  can  be  discovered  after 
investigation,  and  to  the  degree  that  they  are  in  agreement  with  the  law.  Such 
decisions  of  the  court  are  as  binding  as  a  written  lease,  and,  when  they  have 
become  operative,  they  can  be  placed  on  the  records  of  the  court. 

The  length  of  the  lease  is  for  the  tenant's  lifetime  or  for  a  period  of  at  least 
fifteen  years,  unless  the  parties  to  the  agreement  mean  to  extend  the  life  of  a 
lease  which  has  already  been  in  existence  for  fifteen  years.  If  no  fixed  time 
is  mentioned  in  the  lease  it  is  considered  as  having  been  granted  for  fifteen 
years,  and  the  tenant  can  claim  the  right  to  give  notice  before  the  close 
of  the  term  of  the  lease.  If  the  period  for  which  th&  lease  was  granted  has 
ended  and  the  tenant  still  remains  on  the  farm,  the  lease  is  considered  as  hav- 
ing been  renewed  for  fifteen  years,  unless,  within  six  months'  time,  the  land- 
lord gives  the  tenant  notice  to  leave. 

With  respect  to  the  rent,  it  is  determined  that  this  can  be  paid  either  in  mo- 
ney, kind  or  labour.  When  the  labour  consists  of  farm-work,  it  may  not  be  so 
required  in  respect  to  time  that  the  tenant  is  prevented  from  properly  farming 
his  own  land.  In  addition  to  the  amount  of  day's  work  or  other  labour  fixed 
by  the  lease,  there  may  not  be  added  to  the  agreement  a  clause  reserving  to 
the  landlord  the  right  to  claim  the  assistance  of  the  tenant  on  other  occasions. 
If  there  should  be  a  serious  failure  of  crops,  the  tenant  that  pays  his  rent  in 
money  or  in  kind,  shall  receive  a  reasonable  reduction  in  the  rent. 

In  general,  the  tenant  enjoys  the  right,  even  if  no  special  mention  is  made 
of  it  in  the  lease,  either  of  resigning  his  lease,  or  else  of  making  it  over  to 
some  other  person.  In  the  same  way,  the  heirs  of  a  deceased  tenant  have  the 
right  either  to  proceed  with  the  farming  or,  within  six  months  of  the  decease  of 
the  tenant,  place  another  person  in  his  stead,  if  the  landlord  wiU  not  take  back 
the  farm. 

During  the  tenancy  of  the  farm,  the  landlord  is  responsible  for  the  erection 
and  repair  of  the  buildings  necessary  for  the  proper ,  farming  of  the  land.  Should 
the  landlord  neglect  his  duty,  in  this  respect,  the  tenant  has  the  right  to  call 
in  inspectors,  who  shall  determine  the  amount  of  building  or  repairs  to  be  done, 
and  direct  the  landlord  to  take  steps  to  have  the  work  carried  out.  If  the 
landowner  still  neglects  to  do  so,  the  tenant,  should  he  not  prefer  to  resign  his 
lease,  has  the  right  to  have  the  work  in  question  done  at  the  expense  of  the 
landlord.  When  the  tenant  begins  his  occupancy  of  the  farm,  the  landlord  shall 
place  him  in  possession  of  it  with  all  that  belongs  to  it,  in  a  state  in  accord- 
ance with  what  is  customary  in  the  neighbourhood.  If  the  landlord  has  failed 
in  this  respect,  the  tenant  may  make  good  the  defects  and  is  entitled  to  com- 
pensation from  the  landlord  for  what  has  thus  been  done. 

In  order  that  both  parties  to  the  agreement  shall  properly  perform  what  the 
lease  enjoins  on  each  of  them,  an  inspection  on  the  farm  shall  be  made  when 
the  tenant  takes  possession,  and  also  when  he  leaves  the  farm.  When  he  quits 
the  farm,  the  tenant  has  the  right  to  compensation  for  breaking  and  farming 
virgin  land,  or  for  work  that  has  permanently  increased  the  value  of  the  farm. 
Respecting  the  cultivation  of  virgin  land,  however,  the  law  lays  down  that  this 
must  not  be  done  without  the  consent  of  the  landlord  when  the  land  in  question 
is  woodland  with  young  trees,  or  is  land  where  promising  young  trees  are  grow- 
ing. If  the  tenant  intends  to  demand  compensation  for  the  cultivation  of  virgin 
land,  the  consent  of  the  landlord  is  always  necessary  before  the  work  i?  begun, 
or    an    inspection    must    be    carried    out    by    a  proper  person,  who  shall  decide 


THE    NORBLAND   LAWS.  165 

whether  the  land  is  suitable  for  farming  and  whether  the  farming  will  be  of 
permanent  value  to  the  estate. 

The  compensation  may  not  be  fixed  higher  than  an  amount  corresponding  to 
the  expense  necessary  for  carrying  out  the  work,  and  shall  be  equal  to  the 
amount  by  which  the  estate  has  gained  in  value  by  the  work  at  the  time  when 
the  tenant  gives  up  possession. 

An  inspection  of  the  farm  may  also  be  held  during  the  running  of  the  lease, 
partly  for  the  purpose  of  seeing  if  the  landlord  has  carried  out  the  repairs,  etc., 
enjoined  on  him  in  order  to  make  good  the  defects  that  may  have  existed  at  the 
inspection  held  when  the  tenant  took  possession,  and  also  to  see  whether  such 
work,  or  other  work  voluntarily  undertaken  by  the  landlord,  has  been  properly 
carried  out. 

If  there  is  not  sufficient  pasture  on  the  farm  for  the  cattle  and  horses  which 
can  be  fed  there  during  the  winter,  and  if  the  farm  form  part  of  a  larger  estate 
of  the  landlord's,  the  tenant  shall  obtain  the  necessary  pasturage  in  the  woods 
or  outfield  belonging  to  the  estate. 

The  tenant  has  the  right  to  obtain  wood  for  house-fuel  and  the  timber  neces- 
sary for  repairs,  fences,  the  short  wooden  fences  used  in  Sweden  for  drying  hay, 
ditching,  and  implements.  Should  the  woods  on  the  tenant's  farm,  or  on  the 
home-estate  of  which  the  farm  forms  part,  during  the  period  of  tenancy  have 
been  so  diminished,  in  consequence  of  the  action  of  the  landlord,  that  the  tenant 
is  unable  to  obtain  from  the  said  woods  all  the  timber  or  forest-products  to  which 
he  is  entitled,  the  landlord  is  obliged  to  make  good  in  some  suitable  way  what 
is  wanting  in  this  respect.  Otherwise  the  tenant  shall  not  take  timber,  etc., 
from  the  landlord's  woods,  unless  a  special  agreement  has  been  made  in  the  lease. 

The  landlord  has  the  right  to  give  the  tenant  notice  to  return  the  lease  if, 
in  general,  the  tenant  has  been  guilty  of  the  same  faults  and  neglect  as  those 
mentioned  in  the  general  law  of  tenant  right.  In  addition,  however,  there  is 
another  circumstance  that  may  lead  to  the  confiscation  of  the  lease,  viz.,  if  the 
tenant  leads,  or  allows  others  to  lead,  a  wicked  and  licentious  life,  such  as  may 
tend  to  give  the  estate  a  bad  reputation. 

Finally,  it  should  be  observed  that  the  Governor  of  the  Ian  can  suspend  the 
action  of  this  law  or  of  any  certain  part  of  it,  should  there  exist  any  special 
circumstances  making  such  a  course  necessary. 


Remark.      For   particulars    concerning  agricultural  labourers,   see    the 
article  Labour  Conditions  and  Workmen's  "Wages   (Part  I). 


IV. 

FORESTRY. 


1.    FORESTS. 

Of  the  41  million  hectares  constituting  the  total  area  of  Sweden,  if  the 
inland  waters  he  neglected,  it  is  estimated  that,  at  the  present  moment,  21-6 
million,  i.  e.  about  52  %,  or  somewhat  more  than  half,  is  covered  hy  forests. 
Among  all  the  countries  of  Europe  it  is  seen  that  only  Finland  has  a  larger 
proportion  of  its  surface  covered  with  timber  than  Sweden.  The  average 
figure  for  Europe  as  a  whole  is  33  % ;  that  for  the  western  portion  of  the 
continent  not  more  than  25  %. 

On  an  average,  Europe  has  about  74  hectares  of  forest-land  for  every 
100  inhabitants.  Western  Europe,  however,  has  only  37,  while  the  figure 
for  Sweden  is  392.  In  this  respect,  too,  Sweden  stands  next  to  Finland 
among  the  countries  of  Europe.  A  comparison  between  Sweden  and  some 
other  countries  from  this  point  of  view  is  given  by  the  diagram  on  page 
167. 

If  we  deduct  from  the  total  land-area  of  Sweden  that  part  which  is 
employed  for  higher  cultural  purposes  than  the  production  of  timber, 
viz.  for  building  sites  and  gardens,  cultivated  land  and  natural  meadow- 
land  —  altogether  5  million  hectares  —  there  remain,  in  round  numbers,  36 
million  hectares  of  "outfield"-lan]d.^  Of  this  area,  about  7  millions  hectares 
lie  above  the  pine-forest  limit  in  the  Lans  of  Kopparberg,  Jamtland,  Vas- 
terbotten,  and  Norrbotten.  By  far  the  greater  part  of  this  soil  is  the  pro- 
perty of  the   State;    fell-land  belonging  to   private  individuals  is   found 


'    Oatfleld    land    is   that   part    of  the  total,  area  of  the  corfntry  which  remains  after  the 
deduction  of  arable  land  and  natural  meadows. 


FOKESTS. 


167 


Forest-bearing  Areas. 
Hectares  per  100  inhab. 


436 

Sweden  Russia  Germanv         British 

392  bar  168  liar  22  bar  Isles 

3  bar 

mostly  in  Jamtland  Lan.     In  1913,  the  outfields  were  divided  between 

public  and  private  ownership  in  about  the  following  proportion : 

Foreats  belonging  to  tbe  State 8'3  million  hectares 

Undelimitated   lands*    belonging   to  the  State,  inclusive  of  tbe  naked 

fells  in  tbe  Lans  of  Vasterbotten  and  Norrbotten 5'2         >             > 

Tbe  property  of  towns,  hundreds  and  parishes  (rural) O"?         >             » 

>          »           >    individuals 218        >            > 

Total  360  million  hectares 

According  to  this  above  table,  therefore,  37-5  %  of  all  the  outfield-land 
of  Sweden  belongs  to  the  State;  1-9  %  is  the  property  of  towns,  hundreds, 
or  parishes,  and  60-6  %  belongs  to  private  individuals. 

Of  the  total  amount  of  outfield-land,  or  36  029  088  hectares,  no  less 
than  14  405  480  hectares  are  timberless,  some  in  consequence  of  the  land 
lying  above  the  forest-limit,  and  some,  lying  below  that  line,  because  the 
soil  itself  is  irreclaimable,  consisting  of  rocks,  bogs  or  morasses,  or,  for 
one  reason  or  another,  is  marked  by  an  absence  of  timber,  as  in  the  case  of 
heather-covered  moors,  fire- ravaged  areas,  or  areas  where  the  trees  have 
newly  been  cut  down.  The  wooded  area,  therefore,  amounts  to  21  623  608 
hectares.  These  figures  (concerning  1911),  however,  are  considered  as 
somewhat  unreliable. 

In  calculating  the  national  wealth  of  Sweden,  the  value  of  the  timber 

and  the  timber-covered  land  was  estimated  in   1908   as   follows: 

Forests  belonging  to  tbe  State 230  439  000   kronor 

Other  public  forests 79  104  000 

Private  forests 1247  651000        » 

Total    1557194000    kronor 

'  Delimitated  land  (Sw.  avvittrad  mark)  is  tbe  term  employed  to  distinguish  tbe  tracts 
of  land  which,  after  survey,  are  apportioned  between  tbe  State  and  private  persons. 


1<)8  IV.      FORESTRY. 


Public  Forests. 

THe  greater  part  of  the  public  forests,  including  those  not  belonging  to 
the  State,  are  either  managed  by,  or  stand  under  the  superintendence  of 
the  Crown  Lands  Board,  which  also  has  the  administration  of  the  agri- 
cultural domains  belonging  to  the  State. 

The  area  of  the  public  forests  amounted  to  8  964663  hectares  in  1913. 
The  corresponding  figure  for  1911  (for  which  year  more  complete  returns 
are  available)  was  8  958  448  hectares,  4  988  912  hectares  of  this  consisting 
of  timber-producing  land,  and  3  969  536  hectares  of  irreclaimable  land. 
Among  these  forests  are  included  such  as  belong  to  hundreds  and  commu- 
nes viz.: 

Forests  belonging  to  the  Hundreds  etc.  (Commons) 98  937  hectares 

>  >  >     >     Towns 34  947        > 

>  >  >      >     Parishes  (rnral)    . 559  601         > 

Total  (1913)   693  485  hectares 

A)  The  State  Forests,  in  the  wide  sense  of  the  word  in  which  the  term 
has  been  employed,  above,  were  distributed  as  follows,  the  areas  being  given 
in  hectares.     (The  irreclaimable  land  is,  as  a  rule,  included.)^ 

In  1890  In  1900  In  1913 

Crown  Parks 3  408  751           4  518  066           4  679  968 

Crown  lands  not  yet  organized  2  .    .    .  1049  249               927  671            12(i4051 

ForestB  of  the  Crown  Domains    ...  240  710              171 518              136  565 

>  .      >     civil  tenures'    ....  16  920                14  055                12 105 
Plantations  on  drift-sands. 1397 1333 1349 

Total  A  4  717  027  5  632  643  6  034  038 

Forests  let  to  Mining  Cos 40  604  32  572  36 109 

Forests  let  to  Saw-mill  Cos.*  .    .    .    .  269  070  119  835  52  959 

Belonging  to  ecclesiastical  benefices  .  342  083  348  952  353  655 

>           .  public  institutions  .   .    .  33  379  43347  40844 

>   Crown  farms  6 1472  907  1188  044  699  300 

Total  B    2  158  043  1  672  750  1  182  867 

ff  rand  toiai  hectares    6875070         [7  305393  7  216905 

In  addition  to  the  above,  there  are  the  forests  on  the  reindeer  grazing- 
grounds  on  the  fells,  which  grounds  embraced  1  051  065  hectares  in  1913. 
Of  this  area,  however,  887  398  hectares  consisted  of  naked  fells  and  other 
irreclaimable  land,  while  3  208  hectares  were  smaller  plots  of  Crown 
lands  let  on  lease  (Sw.  "kronolagenheter"),  islands,  and  skerries.  The 
diminution  in  the  area  of  the  forests  belonging  to  the  State  as  shown  by 

'  In  part  there  are  also  included  in  these  figures  other  public  forests  than  those  of  the 
State;  cf.  the  text.  —  '  (Sw.  "Sverloppsmarker")  Grounds  left  in  possession  of  the  State 
after  delimitation  (v.  p.  I,  236.),  or  which  have  not  been  delimitated  but  which  are  consi- 
dered to  remain  State  property  after  the  delimitation  is  completed.  —  '  Held  by  Civil 
Servants  of  various  classes.  —  *  The  "stockf§,ngst"  forests  as  they  are  called.  —  '  Incln- 
sive  of  the  woods  belonging  to  new  settlements.  Crown  farms  (Sw.  "kronohemman")  are 
farms  held  on  lease  from  the  Crown,  against  payment  of  special  dues. 


PUBLIC   FORESTS. 


169 


Gen.Srab:Li(Anst  Stockholm 


170  IV.      FOKESTRY. 

the  grand  totals  for  1900  and  1913  is  explained  by  the  fact  that  a  great 
deal  of  Crown  leased  farm-land  has  passed  to  the  category  of  taxed  land 
now  owned  by  the  farmer  (Sw.  "skatte"). 

Under  division  A  above,  are  given  the  forests-lands  belonging  to,  or 
leased  out  by,  the  State  itself,  while  division  B  shows  the  land  let  for  other 
purposes.  The  Crown  islands  belong  to  the  former  category;  the  Laplan- 
ders' tax-fells  ("lappskattefjall")  to  the  latter  group.  Some  of  the  lands 
given  in  group  B  do  not  belong  to  the  State. 

The  direct  revenues  from  the  Crown  parks,  from  forests  reserved  by  the 
State  when  leasing  out  Crown  domains,  and  from  the  remaining  non- 
organized Crown  lands,  etc.  (the  "Forest  revenues"  of  the  Public  Trea- 
sury) were  as  follows: 

1890  1900  1913 

Gross  receipts 3190  426  kr.  8318  927  kr.  14  878  818  kr. 

Expenses  of  forest  administration    .    .       947  883    .  1  855  284    >  5  280  619    > 

Net  receipts 2  242  543    >  6  463  643    .  9  598199   . 

These  figures  show-  a  considerable  increase  in  the  income  received  by 
it  was  impossible  for  the  State  to  carry  on  business  enterprizes  with 
years,  is  partly  the  result  of  the  unusually  favourable  state  of  the  markets 
everywhere  in  the  world. 

The  Crown  Parks.*  Influenced  by  the  political-economical  views,  that 
it  was  impossible  for  the  State  to  carry  on  business  enterprizes  with 
any  great  amount  of  success,  the  greater  part  of  the  Crown  forests  in  the 
southern ,  provinces  of  Sweden,  during  the  period  1810 — 30,  was  either 
given  away,  or  sold  to  private  individuals  at  exceedingly  low  prices.  In 
the  northern  Lans,  too,  at  the  great  "delimitation",  when  vast  tracts  of 
land  not  under  cultivation  were  divided  between  the  Crown  and  private 
owners,  the  rights  of  the  Crown  were  for  a  long  time  quite  neglected,  and 
sections  of  forest-land  were  apportioaed  to  farms  which  were  altogether 
out  of  reasonable  proportion  to  the  value  of  the  farm  as  a  whole.  After  the 
rise  in  the  value  of  forest-products  which  everywhere  took  place  about 
the  middle  of  the  19th  century,  the  forests  in  question  became  the  objects 
of  brisk  speculation,  and  soon  passed  into  other  hands  for  the  purpose  of 
cutting,  very  often  without  any  regard  to  the  future  prosperity  of  the 
farms.  This  called  public  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  State  should,  for 
the  future,  take  care  of  and  utilize  its  supply  of  forest-land,  especially  as 
it  still  possessed  vast  tracts  of  land  in  Norrland  and  in  a  part  of  Dalarne. 

Consequently,  ever  since  the  decade  1860 — 70,  the  Swedish  State  has 
acted  on  altogether  new  principles  as  regards  the  care  of  its  forest  domains, 
and  with  very  evident  results,  as  will  be  seen  when  we  state  that,  such  a 
short  time  back  as  in  1870,  the  total  area  of  the  Crown  parks  amounted 
to  no  more  than  425  794  hectares,  while,  in  1913,  as  shown  above,  the 
domains  in  question  covered  4  679  968  hectares.  At  the  present  time,  this 
area  is  steadily  increasing,  partly  by  the  addition  of  the  remaining  Crown 


Fully  organized  State  forests. 


PUBLIC   FORESTS. 


171 


land  to  the  total,  whenever  delimitation  is  carried  out,  and  also  by  the 
addition  to  these  Crown  parks  of  timbered  land  belonging  to  the  Crown's 
former  agricultural  estates. 

The  area  of  the  land  purchased  since  1875  by  the  State  for  the  purpose 
of  adding  to  the  Crown  parks  is  shown  by  the  following  figures: 


Year 


Area 


1875.    .    .    . 

1876-09  hectares 

1876-80.    . 

11  368-20 

1881-85  .    . 

952  60 

1886-90  .    . 

44  660-69 

1891-95  .   . 

46  995-72 

1896-00  .    . 

134  451-69 

1901—05  .    . 

54  756-09 

1906—10  .    . 

49  855-98 

1911—13  .    . 

38  258-41 

Total      383175-47  hectares 


Price 

Per  hectare 

51  634-00  kr.                    28  kr. 

778  558-98 

68   . 

100  487-36 

105   . 

1 353  823-70 

30  . 

2  530  689-42 

54   . 

7  889  068-38 

59   . 

5  249  207-50 

96  > 

5  024  716-65 

101  . 

4  208  988-39 

110   . 

27  187 174-28  ki 

71  kr. 

These  purchases  of  land  have,  for  the  most  part,  been  made  in  the 
southern  and  central  parts  of  the  country. 

Space  does  not  allow  of  more  than  the  following  short  remarks  con- 
cerning the  remaining  part  of  the  State  forest  land. 

The  area  of  the  Cro-wn  "iiverlopps" -lands  (v.  note,  p.  168)  amounted  in  1913 
to  1  204  051  hectares,  of  which,  however,  no  less  than  884  112  hectares  consisted 
of  irreclaimable  land. 

Woods  belonging  to  the  Crown  agrlcnltnral  domains  let  on  lease  have  a  total 
area  of  136  565  hectares.  The  area  of  these  woods  diminishes,  partly  in  con- 
sequence of  the  sale  of  the  farms,  and  also  because  certain  of  the  woods  are 
reserved  to  add  to  the  Crown  Parks. 

Tlie  forests  held  on  civil  tenures  are,  as  a  rule,  attached  to  the  residences 
of  rangers  and  constables,  and  have  a  total  area  of  12  105  hectares.  This  area 
is  growing  less,  however,  in  consequence  of  the  resumption  by  the  Crown  of 
such  residences,  these  being  then  either  sold  or  let. 

The  drift-sand  plantations,  situated  in  the  Lans  of  Blekinge,  Kristianstad,  and 
Halland,  embrace  1  349  hectares. 


Forests  belonging  for  the  most  part  to  the  State  and  under  its  admi- 
nistration, and  which  have  been  devoted  to  various  other  purposes,  are,  in 
the  tabular  summary  on  page  168  entered  in  division  B.  Under  this 
heading  come  the  different  kinds  of  forests  mentioned  below. 

The  Laplanders'  tax-fell  or  reindeer-grazing  fell-forests,  as  they  are  also  called 
had  in  1913  an  area  of  1051065  hectares,  of  which  163  667  hectares  were 
timbered.  The  revenues  from  these  woods  are  paid  into  a  fund,  which  is  em- 
ployed, amongst  other  things,  for  the  purchase  of  the  land  necessary  to  provide 
grazing  grounds  and  wandering-roads  for  the  reindeer. 

The  forests  assigned  by  the  State  for  the  support  of  the  mining-  industry 
embrace  36  109  hectares.  A  part  of  this  area  has  been  re-appropriated  by  the 
Crown,  however;  the  conditions  as  a  result  of  which  the  grant  was  made  no 
longer  existing. 

The  area  of  forests  allotted  for  supplying-  sa-n-mills  with  timber  amounts  to 
52  959    hectares.     At    the    close    of  the  18th  century  and  during  the  first  part 


172 


IV.      FORESTRY. 


of  the  19th,  the  State  tried  to  support  the  saw-mills  in  Norrland  by  guar- 
anteeing to  certain  saw-mills  the  right  of  felling  from  the  Crown  forests  a  larger 
or  smaller  number  of  marked  trees  at  a  fixed  price.  To  the  saw-mills  thus  pri- 
vileged there  was  soon  given  the  right  to  have  woods  set  apart  —  "stockfangst- 
skogar",  as  they  were  called  —  for  the  cuttiag  of  timber.  Later  on,  however, 
it  proved  that  these  forest-domains  assigned  to  the  saw-mills  were  able  to  yield 
considerably  greater  quantities  of  timber  fhan  the  annual  amount  of  timber  or 
trees  assigned  by  the  privileges  first  granted,  and  difficulties  arose  as  to  the 
right  of  disposal  of  this  excess.  In  consequence  of  this  and  other  reasons,  an 
agreement  has  been  come  to  since  1885,  between  the  State  and  the  holders  of 
the  privileges,  whereby  the  latter,  in  consideration  of  being  allowed  to  cut  down 
all  the  timber  in  the  said  forests,  up  to  a  certain  dimension  lower  than  that 
fixed  by  the  original  grants,  agree  to  restore  the  forests  to  the  State  as  soon 
as  the  timber  has  been  cut  down,  and  to  renounce  all  further  claim  to  the 
woods  and  timber  in  question. 


From  Nordingrd  in  Angermanland. 


The  area  of  the  forest-  and  pasture  land  appertaining  to  ecclesiastical  bene- 
fices amounts  to  353  655  hectares.  The  timber  obtained  every  year  is  allotted, 
in  the  first  place,  to  the  household  needs  of  the  holder  of  the  benefices  and 
to  the  timber-supply  of  the  parish,  when  a  rectory  or  (although  with  certaia 
restrictions)  a  church  is  to  be  built.  The  remainder  of  the  ordinary  production  of 
timber  is,  as  a  rule,  divided  between  the  clergyman  and  the  general  "Regula- 
ting-Fund for  the  Stipends  of  the  Clergy",  while  the  money  received  from  the 
sale  of  surplus  timber  (such  as  that  obtained  when  making  improvements  and 
clearings),  which  is  not  required  for  the  household  supply  above  mentioned, 
goes  to  the  "Forest-Fund  for  Clergy  benefices",  which  defrays  the  expenses  of 
forest  surveying  and  of  wood-plantation  at  such  ecclesiastical  residences  as 
do  not  own  timber-supplies  sufficient  to  provide  means  for  these  purposes. 
In  the  case  of  ecclesiastical  residences  which  have  been  purchased  by  the  parish- 


PUBLIC   FOEBSTS.  173 

es,  or  which  have  been  donated  by  private  individuals,  the  timber  produced  is 
assigned  to  the  benefit  of  the  clergyman  residing  in  the  said  house  and  of 
that  of  the  parish,  in  accordance  with  a  special  resolution  of  the  Government 
and  the  tenor  of  the  deed  of  gift.  The  new  legislation  regarding  these  matters 
will  bring  about  essential  alterations  in  the  method  of  disposal  of  the  timber 
obtained  from  the  church-forests.  As  a  rule,  the  rectories  and  other  dwellings  of 
the  clergy  will  be  let,  and  the  timber  obtained  each  year  will,  in  the  first  place, 
go  to  supply  the  household  needs  of  the  lease-holder.  If  there  be  a  sufficient 
supply  to  enable  it  to  be  done,  the  holder  of  the  benefice  will  also  be  given 
timber  for  his  household  needs,  and  the  parish  will  receive  building  timber  for 
the  rectories  and  the  churches.  Money  received  from  the  sale  of  timber  from  the 
church-forests  will,  as  a  rule,  be  placed  in  the  church-fund,  which  will  be  formed 
from  the  existing  ecclesiastical   funds. 

The  area  of  forests  belonging  to  Public  Institntions  such  as  churches,  acade- 
mies, hospitals,  etc.,  amounts  to  40  844  hectares. 

Forests  appertaining:  to  Crown  farms  and  settlements.  Their  return  goes  to 
the  tenant.     The  total  area  amounts  to  699  300  hectares. 

B)  The  total  area  of  the  Forests  belonging  to  the  Hundreds  (the  Com- 
mon Forests)  amounts  to  98  937  hectares.  The  part-owners  in  the  forests 
of  a  hundred  are  the  persons  that  live  in  that  hundred,  and  their  shares 
are  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  original  taxation-areas  each  occupies. 
The  forests  of  the  hundreds  may  not  be  divided,  but  must  be  kept  undi- 
minished in  area  and  must  be  cared  for  in  accordance  with  such  economic 
principles  —  based  on  scientific  principles  —  as  aim  at  the  continued  sur- 
vival of,  and  the  greatest  returns  from,  the  forests.  If  the  common  forest 
of  a  hundred  has  not  been  placed  under  the  administration  and  care  of  the 
Forest  Service,  the  State  foresters  shall,  nevertheless,  see  that  the  economic 
principles  laid  down  for  this  class  of  forests  are  followed.  The  products 
obtained  form  the  forest  of  a  hundred  are  used,  in  the  first  place,  to  defray 
the  expenses  of  the  keepers  and  the  management;  secondly,  for  such  build- 
ing purposes  as  are  common  to  the  whole  hundred,  and  lastly,  for  distri- 
bution among  the  part-owners. 

C)  The  Parish  Forests  amount,  altogether,  to  559  601  hectares.  The 
parish  forests  (the  forest-commons  of  the  parishes)  in  the  Lan  of  Norrbot- 
ten  are  under  the  care  and  administration  of  the  Forest  Service.  They  were 
formed  by  the  land-owners  of  the  various  parishes  having  decided  at  the 
"Delimitation"  to  reserve  part  of  their  forest-grant  to  form  common  forest 
land.  The  area  of  such  forests  amounts  to  292  295  hectares.  The  existen- 
ce of  the  parish  forests  (surplus  forests  and  forest-commons)  in  the  Lans 
of  Gavleborg  and  Kopparberg  is  due  to  the  fact  that,  at  the  "general  re- 
partition of  land"  (v.  p.  31),  large  areas  of  forest  were  granted  to  cer- 
tain parishes,  on  condition  that  the  said  forests  should  be  employed  for  the 
purpose  of  forming  parish-forests  common  to  all  the  landholders.  The 
area  of  these  forests  is  267  306  hectares.  The  regulations  in  force  with 
regard  to  their  care  and  management  impose  very  slight  restrictions  on 
the  part-owners'  right  of  disposal  of  the  timber  obtained,  so  that  the  fo- 
rests may,  in  some  cases,  have  been  too   freely  thinned.     Considerable 


174  IV.      FORESTRY. 

funds  have  been  formed,  however,  from  the  revenues  obtained,  and  they 
are  employed  for  the  common  needs  of  the  various  parishes.  (See 
p.  I  291.) 

D)  The  Forests  belonging  to  Towns  embrace  altogether  34  947  hectares. 
They  are  to  be  subjected  to  well-ordered  management  in  accordance  with 
plans  drawn  up  by  the  Crown  Lands  Board,  which  aim  at  the  continued 
survival  of,  and  at  the  securing  of  the  greatest  returns  from,  the  woods  in 
question.  Even  before  such  regulations  were  issued  in  1903,  forest-bailiffs 
had  been  appointed  for  the  forests  which  belonged  to  certain  towns  and 
which  were  found  to  be  well  cared  for. 

As  a  general  verdict  concerning  the  condition  of  the  public  forests  it 
has,  not  without  reason,  been  pointed  out  that,  in  consequence,  as  a  rule, 
of  a  too  conservative  administration,  the  supply  of  timber  has  become 
greater  than  a  rational  economic  system  required.  This  has  led,  during 
the  last  few  years,  to  gradually  increasing  cutting,  while,  at  the  same  time, 
efforts  have  been  made,  as  far  as  the  supply  of  labour  and  other  conditions 
have  rendered  it  possible,  by  means  of  thinning  and  clearing  operations, 
to  utilize  the  less  valuable  forest-products  which  were  formerly  allowed 
to  decay  in  the  forest.  The  first  condition  for  profitable  forest  economy  is 
that  a  paying  market  can  be  foand  for  such  second-rate  timber.  The 
increased  output  of  the  woodpulp  works  and  the  growth  of  the  net  of  rail- 
ways, among  various  other  causes  has,  during  the  last  few  years,  led 
to  a  partial  change  in  this  respect,  in  the  more  northerly  parts  of  the 
country  especially.  In  addition  to  this,  over  considerable  areas  in  the 
districts  in  question,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  rafting  streams  and 
railways  necessary  care  can  nowadays  be  given  to  the  growing  timber. 
The  red  line  on  the  accompanying  map  shows,  approximately,  the  extent 
of  the  districts  where  timber  for  pulpworks  and  charcoal-burning,  or  for 
one  of  these  purposes,  is  in  demand.  In  the  tracts  west  and  north  of  this 
line,  therefore,  there  do  not  at  present  exist  the  conditions  necessary  for 
good  forest  economy,  as  the  only  timber  from  these  tracts  which  can  be 
sold  is  still  that  of  larger  dimensions,  for  the  sawmills  industry.  For 
this  reason,  timber-cutting  en  masse  remains  for  the  present  a  compul- 
sory method  of  lumbering,  from  which,  east  and  south  of  the  limits 
marked  on  the  map,  it  is  possible  to  revert  to  such  forms  of  forest  eco- 
nomy as  make  it  possible  to  pay  more  attention  to  the  care  and 
re-growth  of  the  timber.  In  this  connection,  however,  it  should  be 
mentioned  that  the  above-mentioned  conditions  for  profitable  forest 
economy  can  also  lead  to  the  cutting-down  of  timber  on  too  large  a  scale. 
Such  excessive  lumbering,  whereby  the  supply  of  timber  is  diminished, 
can,  in  certain  cases  be  justified,  should  the  supply  in  any  forest  be  ab- 
normally large,  or  should  it  consist  of  over-mature,  degenerated  or  too 
densely  growing  timber,  in  which  case  forestry  demands  the  felling  of 
timber  on  a  large  scale  during  a  suitable  transition  period.  But  in  many 
cases  this  cutting  of  timber  on  a  large  scale  is  not  done  for  the  motives 


PRIVATE   FORESTS.  175 

mentioned,  even  though  it  may  be  carried  out  in  connection  with  proper 
care  o£  the  forest-land  and  the  remaining  trees.  If  the  two  latter  condi- 
tions do  not  exist,  such  excessive  cutting  of  timber  can  be  described  as 
nothing  short  of  forest  devastation. 

Private  Forests. 

As  was  shown  above,  by  far  the  greater  part  of  the  forests  of  Sweden, 
together  with  irreclaimable  land  amounting  to  about  22  million  hectares, 
or  about  half  the  area  of  Sweden,  belongs  to  private  owners,  and  private 
forest-economy  thereby  becomes  a  question  of  the  very  greatest  importance 
for  the  country.  The  way  in  which  the  private  forests  have  been  managed 
has  not  generally  conduced  to  the  preservation  of  the  timber.  For  the 
Lans  of  Norrbotten  and  Vasterbotten,  and  the  upper  parts  of  Dalarne 
(the  parish  of  Sarna),  as  well  as  for  the  island  of  Gottland,  the  proprie- 
tory rights  of  the  owners  of  private  forests  have  been  limited  by  special 
laws,  in  consequence  of  which  the  supply  of  timber  has  been  well  pre- 
served in  the  Lappland  districts  and  in  the  parish  of  Sarna,  though  less 
so  in  the  Lan  of  Vasterbotten  and  in  Gottland. 

A  survey  of  the  condition  of  the  private  forests  in  the  other  parts  of 
Sweden  gives  the  following  result. 

With  respect  to  the  condition  of  the  forests  south  of  the  Lans  of  Norrbotten 
and  Vasterbotten  the  three  following  regions  can  be  distinguished: 

a)  Central  and  Southern  Norrland  and  Dalarne,  as  regards  the  timber  ex- 
port of  Sweden,  are  of  greater  importance  than  the  entire  remaining  part  of 
the  country.  Excessive  felling  of  large-sized  timber  is  considered  to  be  general, 
and  the  same  may  be  said  of  timber  of  smaller  dimensions  in  districts  possess- 
ing good  communications,  especially  in  the  littoral  districts.  A  considerable 
number  of  large  forest  owners,  however,  take  great  care  of  the  woods. 

h)  The  Bergslags  district  embraces  a  belt  of  country  from,  and  inclusive  of, 
Varmland  to,  and  inclusive  of,  Stockholm  Lan,  or  that  part  of  the  country 
where  mining  operations  are  chiefly  carried  on.  The  woods  show  great  powers 
of  recuperation  but  are,  as  a  rule,  thinned  to  excess,  an  evil  that  has  increased 
SLQce  the  saw-mill  industry  became  more  general.  The  re-growth  of  the  forests 
after  felUng  for  charcoal-burning  purposes  is  good,  and  the  woods  belonging 
to  the  iron-works  are,  as  a  rule,  carefully  looked  after. 

c)  The  forests  of  the  country  south  of  the  belt  above  mentioned  no  longer 
support  any  great  industries.  Among  the  timber-exports,  which,  in  propor- 
tion to  the  supplies  of  timber,  is  very  considerable,  there  is  a  relatively  large 
percentage  of  small-sized  wood,  such  as  pit-props,  spars  etc.  The  greater  num- 
ber of  the  woods  belonging  to  farms,  especially  the  smaller  ones,  often  re- 
semble badly  cared-for  pasture-land,  where  birch,  aspen,  alder,  and  other  deci- 
duous trees  form  a  large  proportion  of  the  thin  woods.  In  order  to  increase 
the  pasture-land,  the  woods  are  usually  kept  thin,  the  same  need  for  grazing 
land  also  helping  to  counteract  any  inclination  to  afforest  naked  land.  Large 
forest  owners,  however,  in  many  places  take  exemplary  care  of  their  forests. 

Although  the  economy  of  the  private  forests  of  the  country  must  be 
considered  as  having  improved  since  the  coming  into  force  of  the  forests- 


176  IV.      FORBSTKY. 

laws  issued  in  1903,  the  forests  in  question  are  partly  in  a  neglected  state, 
and,  as  a  rule,  they  suffer  from  excessive  lumbering.  It  is  true  that 
exact  figures  do  not  exist  to  show  the  extent  to  which  this  excessive 
felling  of  timber  is  carried  on,  as,  in  order  to  obtain  such  figures,  an 
exact  knowledge  is  required,  not  only  of  the  annual  growth  of  the  forests, 
but  also  of  the  amount  of  the  timber  cut  every  j'ear. 

Various  associations,  however,  have  long  been  labouring  for  the  promotion  of 
forest-economy  in  Sweden.  The  most  important  of  these  associations  is  that 
called  the  "Svensha  Shogsvdrdsforeningen"  (Swedish  Forest  Conservation  Associa- 
tion), which  was  formed  in  1902  (under  the  name  "Foreningen  for  skogsvard"). 
Since  1903,  the  association  has  issued  a  journal  and  also,  for  many  years, 
popular  papers,  which,  from  the  year  1914  inclusive  have  been  replaced 
by  a  small  journal.  The  association  which,  one  year  after  its  establish- 
ment, numbered  almost  1 400  members,  now  has  about  twice  that  number. 
It  arranges  annual  meetings  and  excursions,  and,  among  other  things,  devotes 
special  interest  to  the  question  of  a  general  survey  for  the  purpose  of  estimating 
the  entire  timber-supplies  of  the  kingdom.  In  order  to  obtain  a  thorough 
investigation  of  this  question,  the  Riksdag  granted  the  means  necessary  to  carry 
out  an  experimental  valuation  of  the  timber-supply  and  the  probable  increase  in 
Varmland  Lan.     This  valuation  has  now  been  carried  out. 

The  first,  in  point  of  time,  of  the  associations  in  question  is  the  "Foreningen 
for  skogsvard  i  Norrland",  which,  since  1914  inclusive,  has  been  re-organized 
as  "Norrlands  STcogsvdrdsfbrhund"  (The  Norrland  Forest  Conservation  Union), 
two  other  associations  working  for  the  same  ends  having  been  incorporated  with 
the  body  first  mentioned.  The  Union  dates  back  to  1883,  since  which  year  it 
has  been  actively  engaged  in  the  promotion  of  forest  economy  in  Norrland,  by 
such  methods  as  holding  meetings  and  arranging  excursions,  and  by  issuing 
small  publications,  year-books  handbooks,  etc.  In  other  parts  of  the  country,  too, 
there  exist  active  associations  for  the  promotion  of  forest  economy,  such  as 
"Skogssdllskapet"  and  others. 

In  the  absence  of  reliable  statistical  information  with  regard  to  the 
produce  of  the  forests  and  the  consumption  of  timber,  the  reader  must  be 
satisfied  with  the  following  approximate  calculation. 


The  Produce 

of  the  forests  of  Sweden,  or  the  annual  growth  that  can  he  used,  has  been 
very  variously  estimated.  In  general,  all  older  calculations  suffer  from 
a  common  fault,  viz.,  all  of  them  are  too  low,  and  the  result  of  this  has 
been  that  altogether  too  gloomy  a  view  has  been  taken  of  the  future  of 
the  forests.  The  usable,  annual  produce,  too,  has  long  been  on  the  in- 
crease, partly  in  consequence  of  the  more  extensive  employment  of  a 
rational  system  of  forestry  in  the  care  both  of  the  public  and  a  consider- 
able number  of  private  woods,  and  partly  because  the  forest-products  are 
turned  to  better  account  than  formerly,  and  also  because  fairly  extensive 
areas  of  naked  soil  have  been  afforested  and  thus  rendered  productive. 
At  present,  the  annual  growth  in  question  need  not  be  set  lower  than  35 
million  cubic  meters. 


THE    PRODUCE.  177 

The  following  calculation  has  been  made  respecting  the  consumption 

of  timber  during  1913: 

Exported  unwrought  and  hewn  timber      1  344  679  cub.  m 

Exported  sawn  timber 4  778  911 

Exported  more  or  less  wrought  timber,  exclusive  of  wood-pulp        875  457 

Timber  employed  for  wood-pulp      4  360  528 

Timber  >  >    mining  purposes 6  000  OUO 

Timber  >  >    other  purposes ■.  31000  000 

Total    38359675  cub.  m 

The  present  consumption,  therefore,  should  exceed  usable  growth  by  about 
3-36  million  cubic  meters  annually.  It  should  be  remarked,  however,  that 
the  total  growth  is  greater  than  the  amount  of  timber  that  is  employed, 
as,  in  certain  tracts,  a  part  of  the  timber  that  could  be  felled  cannot  be 
utilized,  but  has  to  be  left  to  decay  in  the  forests.  For  example,  in  the 
woods  of  Norrbotten  and  Vasterbotten  Lans,  not  less  than  25  %  is  thus 
left  to  decay;  in  the  other  parts  of  Norrland  and  in  Dalarne,  the  propor- 
tion is  about  15  %,  while  in  Central  and  Southern  Sweden,  it  is  about 
5  %.  The  rising  prices  of  timber,  a  consequence  of  diminished  supplies 
and  improved  communications,  are  leading  to  the  result  that,  in  every 
part  of  the  country,  the  timber  is  turned  to  better  account  from  year  to 
year,  a  circumstance  which,  of  course,  tends  to  diminish  the  excessive 
felling  referred  to  above.  But  on  the  other  hand,  the  consumption  is 
continually  on  the  increase,  and  it  would  be  difficult  to  prophesy  whether 
equilibrium  can  be  reached,  so  that  the  consumption  (the  amount  of  timber 
felled)  will  be  quite  balanced  by  the  amount  of  the  growth.  The  produc- 
tion of  timber  will  probably  increase  in  no  inconsiderable  degree,  but  the 
consumption  of  forest-products  to  supply  the  requirements  of  the  country- 
itself  grows  with  the  increase  of  population  more  rapidly,  perhaps,  than 
that  of  the  forest-production.  If  it  were  possible  to  diminish  the  amount  of 
timber  employed  as  fuel  by  an  increased  use  of  —  amongst  other  resources 
—  electric  power  obtained  from  the  Swedish  waterfalls,  for  the  purpose  of 
Seating  dwellings  in  towns  and  other  large  centres  of  population,  it  would 
be  an  easier  task  to  limit  the  excessive  felling  of  timber. 

The  re-growth  of  the  forests  takes  place  chiefly  by  nature's  own  efforts;  even 
in  those  places  where  care  is  taken  of  the  forests,  this  must  still  be  the  case 
to  a  very  great  degree,  especially  in  the  northern  parts  of  the  country,  for 
there  the  period  of  the  year  when  re-planting  ought  to  and  can  take  place  is 
short,  and  labour  is  dear.  Seed  suitable  for  the  district  has  to  be  gathered  in  the 
same  tract,  this  being  a  more  expensive  matter  here  than  in  the  more  southerly 
parts  of  the  country.  In  consequence,  when  the  timber  is  being  felled,  suitable 
seed-trees  are  left  for  the  purpose  of  sowing  the  surrounding  soil,  and  other 
measures  are  taken  to  assist  the  growth  and  development  of  the  young  trees. 
For  this  purpose,  in  many  places,  the  ground  is  prepared  by  means  of  the  wood, 
or  hoeing  the  ground  to  assist  the  natural  sowing.  The  spruce,  however,  is  not 
left  singly,  as  this  tree  is  liable  to  be  broken  down  by  the  wind;  however, 
it  reproduces  itself  readily  by  seeding  from  the  skirts  of  adjacent  woods. 

Re-growth  by  means  of  forest-plantations  occur  most  generally  in  the  southern 
and    central    parts    of  the  country.     During  the  last  decade,  the  Forest  Conser- 

12  —  133179.  Sweden.   II. 


178  IV.      FORESTRY. 

vation  Boards  have  done  a  great  deal  to  promote  forest-plantation,  which  method, 
in  consequence,  has  gained  the  confidence  of  the  forest  proprietors  to  a  greater 
degree  than  formerly.  This  method,  too,  makes  it  possible  to  determine  the 
composition  of  the  future  forest  as  regards  the  proportion  in  which  the  various 
kinds  of  trees  are  to  be  represented  there.  Forest-plantations  are  raised  either 
from  seed  or  froom  seedlings.  Although  the  pine  and  the  spruce  appear  almost 
spontaneously  side  by  side,  mingled  together,  a  condition  of  things  that  seems 
to  promote  the  well-being  of  each,  it  has  been  found  that,  where  both  kinds 
of  trees  are  artificially  planted  simultaneously,  groups  or  belts  of  each  kind  of 
tree  should  be  arranged,  so  that  the  one  kind  of  tree  may  not  crowd  out  the 
other  which  happens  to  be  more  tardy  of  growth.  In  this  respect  it  has  been 
found  that  if  the  soil  is  more  suitable  for  one  kind  of  trees,  the 
best  plan  is  to  give  the  less  favoured  tree  a  start  of  some  years'  growth.  For 
this  purpose  sowing  and  planting  are  sometimes  carried  out  simultaneously,  the 
tree  that  has  to  be  given  a  start  being  planted,  and  the  other  being  reproduced 
by  means  of  seed.  When  assisting  nature  in  the  case  of  incomplete  re-growth 
after  artificial  or  natural  sowing,  planting  is  employed,  too.  Planting,  which  is 
dearer  than  sowing,  although  young  plantations  are  thereby  obtained  in  shorter 
time,  is  being  employed  on  an  increasing  scale  in  Sweden,  especially  in  pla- 
ces where  the  land  is  of  greater  value,  the  increased  cost  of  cultivation  beiag 
balanced  by  the  advantage  conferred  by  earKer  returns  from  the  forest-products. 
The  expense  of  forest-cultivation  as  regards  the  public  forests  amounts  annu- 
ally to  more  than  370  000  kronor,  by  far  the  greater  part  of  this  total  (or 
about  240  000  kronor),  being  expended  in  the  southern  and  central  parts  of 
the  country.  In  Norrland  and  Dalarne,  however,  forest-plantations  are  being  resorted 
to  more  and  more,  both  in  the  State  forests  and  in  those  belonging  to  private 
owners. 

For  the  promotion  of  the  economy  of  private  forests,  there  is  a  Forest 
Conservation  Board  in  every  county  council  district  south  of  the  two 
northernmost  Lans.  These  Boards  have  placed  at  their  disposal  every  year 
a  State  grant  of  100  000  kronor,  for  the  promotion  of  forest-cultivation, 
and  another  amounting  to  67  500  kronor,  to  help  to  cover  the  expenses 
of  the  Boards.  In  addition  to  this,  the  Boards  are  granted  a  total  sum 
of  100  000  kronor  by  the  County  Councils  and  the  Provincial  Agricultural 
Societies,  besides  which  there  are  the  fees  paid  for  the  care  and  supervision 
of  the  forests,  now  amounting  to  about  1  000  000  kronor  annually.  Although 
the  care  of  private  forests  has  considerably  improved  during  the  last  few 
years,  there  still  exist  great  short-comings  in  this  respect,  for  wbich  the 
Forest  Conservation  Boards  have  proposed  the  enactment  of  severer  laws 
and  an  increase  in  the  amount  of  the  grants.  The  area  covered  by  the 
forests  in  each  of  the  lans  of  Sweden  was  estimated  in  1911  as  being  of 
the  extent  shown  by  Table  9,  on  p.  43. 

A  diaerammatic  survey  is  given  by  the  map  on  p.  169.  Of  all  the  forest- 
land  of  Sweden,  two-thirds  lie  north  of  the  River  Dalalven.  In  propor- 
tion to  the  area  of  the  provinces,  the  far  north  of  the  country  is  not  so 
rich  in  forests,  a  great  part  of  the  land  here  lying  above  the  forest-limit. 
The  lans  of  Varmland,  Kopparberg,  Gavleborg,  and  Vastemorrland,  are 
those  relatively  richest  in  forests,  from  67  %  to  about  80  %  of  the  land 
there  being  timbered. 


LEGISLATION    AND    ADMINISTRATION.  179 

Legislation  and  Administration. 

Forest  Legislation  in  Sweden  was  first  concerned  with  the  reflation 
of  public  forests.  Mention  is  made  of  commons  in  the  earliest  existing 
legal  contracts  and  charters.  Under  that  designation  were  included  those 
stretches  of  wooded  land  that  intervened  between  the  tracts  of  cultivated 
country;  these  intervening  stretches  were  considered  by  the  owners  of  the 
adjacent  land  as  necessary,  both  for  yielding  them  forest  produce  and 
for  allowing  them  an  opportunity  to  extend  the  cultivated  land  ia  their 
possession. 

Hence  these  wooded  tracts  could  not  be  appropriated  by  any  one  who  chose 
as  was  the  case  with  waste  land.  Sometimes,  however,  the  name  "commons" 
is  found  applied  to  these  waste  lands,  which  by  degrees  came  to  be  regarded  as 
State  property.  In  the  proclamation  of  Gustavus  Vasa,  dated  April  20,  1542, 
it  is  declared  that  "uncultivated  tracts  of  land  belong  to  God,  the  King,  and 
the  Swedish  Crown".  These  tracts  were  not,  however,  dealt  with  exclusively  as 
the  property  of  the  State;  they  were,  on  the  contrary,  held  disposable  for  the 
furtherance  of  land-cultivation,  on  the  one  hand  by  apportionment  of  land  for 
colonization  by  settlers  (in  Norrland),  and  on  the  other  by  the  grant  of  the  right 
"to  such  cultivators  of  the  soil  as  do  not  enjoy  it  in  woods  of  their  own,  to 
make  use  of  pasture,  timber,  fencing-material,  leaves  for  fodder,  birch-bark,  peat 
and  bast,  besides  other  things  to  be  found  there,  to  supply  their  own  bare  ne- 
cessaries". This  enactment  gradually  produced  the  impressions  in  the  minds  of 
the  people  that  these  commons  were  public  forest-land,  belonging  in  some  cases 
to  parishes,  in  others  to  hundreds.  Those  that  belonged  to  the  parishes  have, 
with  few  exceptions,  been  divided  between  the  part-owners,  while  those  belong- 
ing to  the  hundreds  remained  intact  and  under  the  control  of  the  State.  In 
some  instances  the  tracts  were  retained  as  State  property  and  were  transferred 
to  Crown  parks,   after  iuvestigations  had  been  made  concerning  their  nature. 

Public  forests  are  either  managed  entirely  by  the  State  Forest  Ser- 
vice, or  are  under  the  superintendence  and  control  of  that  body.  In  nearly 
every  case  the  end  aimed  at  is  to  render  their  economy  as  permanent  as 
possible.  The  two  factors,  personal,  technical  knowledge  and  permanent 
economy,  were  the  fundamental  principles  of  the  strongly  conservative, 
but  —  for  its  era  —  excellent  (when  permanence  was  secured) ,  care  taken 
of  that  group  of  forest  especially  which  was  under  the  direct  administra- 
tion of  the  State  Forest  Service.  As  before  stated,  this  administration  is 
nowadays  extended  to  Crown  parks,  State  lands  not  yet  organized,  drift- 
sand  plantations,  mine  forests,  many  commons,  forests  attached  to  civil 
tenures,  the  Crown  domain  forests  let  out  on  lease,  and  the  forests  belong- 
ing to  one  town.  Under  the  superintendence  and  control  of  the  State  are 
the  other  commons,  forests  attached  to  residences,  and  those  belonging 
to  the  towns,  as  well  as  those  which  are  the  property  of  public  institutions, 
the  forests  left  to  supply  saw-mills  with  timber,  etc. 

The  appreciation  of  the  use  and  necessity  of  personal,  technical  know- 
ledge found  expression  in  the  legislative  measures  which  were  passed  in 
1903  for  the  purpose  of  ensuring  the  proper  care  of   private  forests. 


180 


IV.      FORESTRY. 


12  FlsT  dfi  Rrccmv 


GcT^.Stab.UtAnsi  SCockroln- 


LEGISLATION   AND   ADMINISTRATION.  181 

The  legislation  concerning  these  forests  has,  in  the  past,  gone  through  highly 
remarkable  phases  of  development.  From  complete  freedom,  three  hundred  years 
ago,  they  were  by  degrees  made  an  object  of  increasingly  severe  legislation,  and 
finally  even  lumber-felling  for  household  purposes  was  placed  under  the  con- 
trol of  the  State.  Then  followed  a  reversion,  which  at  last  once  more  led  to 
nearly  complete  freedom.  During  the  last  five  decades  a  reaction  has  set  in, 
imposing  several  restrictions  upon  private  forest-owners  with  regard  to  the  manage- 
ment of  their  forests. 

This  legislation  commenced  so,  that  the  right  to  establish  settlements  and  get 
them  converted  into  the  tax-farms  ("skattehemman")  was  attached  to  the  condition 
that  the  forests  belonging  to  farms  founded  in  this  way  could  be  freely  used  only 
for  household  needs,  while  timber  intended  for  sale  had  to  be  chosen  and  marked 
by  the  proper  forester  before  the  felling.  It  was,  however,  only  by  the  Royal 
Ordinance  of  June  29,  1866,  that  this  instruction  was  given  for  the  six  northern 
Lans.  The  settlement  system  had  before  been  so  one-sidedly  encouraged,  that  in 
many  places  it  had  degenerated  into  forest  speculation  under  the  guise  of  land  cul- 
tivation. And  as  the  permission  to  establish  settlements  concerned  not  only  "un- 
delimited"  forests,  but  also  such  areas  as  remained  after  "delimitation"  had  taken 
place,  there  was  in  many  places  but  little  woodland  left  for  the  State.  By 
Royal  decree  of  May  16,  1860,  it  was,  therefore,  ordained  that  an  examination 
should  be  made  of  the  said  "6verlopps"-areas,  to  see  whether  they  could  be  suitably 
reserved  for  Crown  forests.  A  Royal  ordinance  of  December  21,  1865,  ordered 
a  similar  procedure  to  be  adopted  with  reference  to  the  undelimited  forests  in 
the  Lan  of  Kopparberg  and  in  the  Norrland  Lans,  for  the  sake  of  increasing 
the  area  of  Crown  forests;  by  the  same  decree,  settlements  were  forbidden  for 
the  time  being,  not  only  on  the  remaining  State  grounds  but  also  in  the  un- 
delimited forests.  When,  by  the  aforesaid  Royal  ordinance  of  June  29,  1866, 
permission  was  subsequently  again  granted  for  settlements  to  be  made  on  ground 
found  unsuitable  for  Crown  parks,  the  above-mentioned  condition  was  attached. 
The    farms    formed   on  that  basis  have  a  total  area  of  nearly  200  000  hectares. 

The  principle  that  had  thus  established  itself  in  Swedish  forest-legisla- 
tion was  applied  with  far  more  thoroughness  in  Lappland,  where  delimita- 
tion had  not  been  introduced  at  this  period,  inasmuch  as  settlers  would 
have  no  other  right  to  forests  than  that  enjoyed  by  the  occupants  of 
Crown-farms.  Without  violation  of,  or  encroachment  upon,  the  rights  of 
individuals,  it  was  ordained  in  §  8  of  the  Royal  statute  of  May  30,  1873, 
concerning  delimitation  in  the  Lappland  territories  within  the  limits  of 
the  Lans  of  Vasterbotten  and  Norrbotten,  that  farm-owners  in  those 
districts  should  not  enjoy  other  rights  to  the  woods  on  their  farms  than 
those  of  taking,  without  previous  official  survey,  such  timber  as  they 
might  require  for  household  needs  and  for  fuel,  and  of  appropriating,  sub- 
sequent to  official  surveying  and  marking,  for  the  purpose  of  selling, 
such  timber  in  addition  as  can  be  annually  felled  without  injury  to  the 
future  preservation  of  the  forest.  During  the  delimitation  in  the  parish 
of  Sarna  and  the  sub-parish  of  Idre,  both  in  Dalarne,  homesteaders  were 
only  granted  a  similarly  restricted  right  of  disposal  of  the  woods  falling 
within  the  bounds  of  their  allotments,  and  that  in  accordance  with  their 
own  express  agreement.  In  this  way  a  very  considerable  section  of  the 
forests  of  North  Sweden  has  been  subjected  to  regulations  ensuring  system 
in  the  lumbering  there.    The  immense  importance  of  this  will  be  seen 


182 


IV.      FOEBSTllT. 


Production-areas 
for  timber  of  larger 
and  smaller  dimen- 
sions. 

1913. 

The  red  line  sliows  the 
boundary  below  which 
timber  of  small  dimen- 
sions may  be  cut. 

(See  text). 


12  E.si  de  Grco! 


Et^st  of  Grccn.w. 


22 


OstLv.  Greenvf- 


Gen. Stab.  i-it.Anst.  Stockholm 


LEGISLATION    AND    ADMINISTRATION.  183 

more  clearly,  when  it  is  remembered  that  the  situation  of  these  forests  in 
the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  the  Scandinavian  Alps  renders  their  pre- 
servation invaluable,  as  a  protection  against  over-severity  of  climate. 

Respecting  the  legislative  measures  adopted  for  private  forests  in 
other  parts  of  the  country,  mention  must  first  be  made  of  certain  local 
laws.  Among  these  is  the  Royal  Ordinance  of  September  10,  1869,  re- 
specting the  measures  to  be  taken  for  preventing  the  destruction  of  the 
woods  on  the  island  of  Gottland ;  this  was  renewed  by  a  law  dated 
March  30,  1894,  and,  finally,  was  replaced  by  an  enactment  dated  June 
13,  1908,  concerning  the  care  of  private  woods  in  the  island  mentioned. 
This  law,  which  in  1913  was  also  extended  to  the  island  of  Oland,  differs 
from  the  general  forest  law  by  the  presence  of  a  paragraph  making  it 
necessary  to  have  the  permission  of  the  Forest  Conservation  Board  before 
timber  can  be  cut  for  any  other  purpose  than  to  supply  household  needs, 
or  in  order  to  convert  timbered  land  into  gardens,  arable  land  or  pastures, 
or  into  building  sites. 

A  purely  "dimension"  law  has  been  enacted  for  the  coast  districts  of 
the  Lans  of  Vasterbotten  and  Norrbotten.  Originally  it  was  issued  only 
for  the  littoral  of  Norrbotten  Lan,  in  1874,  but  in  1882  it  was  enacted 
that  the  law  in  question  should  be  enforced  in  those  parts  of  Vasterbotten 
Lan  which  did  not  form  part  of  the  Lappland  districts.  By  a  Royal  Ordi- 
nance, dated  March  19,  1888,  these  two  enactments,  with  a  few  altera- 
tions of  lesser  importance,  were  formed  into  one  act,  which  was  repealed 
in  favour  of  the  Royal  Ordinance  of  July    24,  1903. 

This  enactment  forbids  the  shipping  and  the  sawing  at  export  saw-mills  and 
the  employment  for  the  purpose  of  manufacturing  wood-pulp,  of  pine-  or  spruce 
timber  which,  at  a  height  of  4"75  meters  from  the  base,  does  not  measure  at 
least  21  centimeters  in  diameter,  the  bark  not  included.  The  penalty  for  the 
infringement  of  this  regulation  is  the  confiscation  of  the  timber.  Such  a  law, 
directed  as  it  is  against  a  special  form  of  mismanagement  of  forests,  can  easily 
become  a  hindrance  to  the  proper  care  of  the  timber,  which,  in  many  places, 
requires  the  removal  of  second-rate  wood  in  order  that  space  may  be  secured  for  the 
growth  of  healthy  young  trees.  The  law  does  not  overlook  this  fact,  however,  as  it 
instructs  the  owner  of  timber  of  a  character  that  requires  the  felling  of  second- 
rate  trees,  so  as  to  promote  the  proper  growth  of  the  healthy  timber,  if  he 
wishes  to  ship  or  saw  such  secondary  wood,  to  apply  to  the  proper  forest-ranger, 
who  will  then  make  such  a  survey  of  the  forest  as  circumstances  may  require. 
Should  the  proposed  thinning  out  be  found  in  accordance  with  the  requirements 
of  good  forest-economy,  the  official  in  question  has  the  power  to  select  and 
stamp  the  second-rate  timber,   and  to  give  permission  for  its  felling. 

In  order  to  promote  a  rational  care  of  the  forests,  the  enactment  has  also 
been  made  that  the  above-mentioned  survey  of  secondary  timber  shall  be  carried 
out  free  of  expense  to  the  owner,  on  condition  that  the  forest  is  arranged  in 
sections  for  the  purpose  of  being  cut  in  proper  rotation  and  in  accordance  with 
a  plan  approved  of  by  the  Forest  Service,  and  that  the  survey  deals  with  timber 
which,  according  to  the  said  plan,  is  destined  for  immediate  cutting. 

A  law  respecting  "protective  forests"  was  issued  on  July  24,  1903, 
for  the  permanent  retention  of  forests,  the  existence  of  which  is  requisite 


184  IV.      FOKESTRY. 

as  a  protection  against  drifting  sand,  or  against  the  lowering  of  the  tree- 
limit.  After  proper  investigations,  such  forests  have  been  set  apart  in 
the  Lans  of  Jamtland,  Vasternorrland,  and  Kopparberg.^  The  law 
enjoins  that  timber-felling  for  other  than  domestic  requirements  may 
take  place  only  after  a  survey,  which  is  made  by  the  Forest  Service,  at 
the  cost  of  the  State,  when  the  owner  of  the  forest  is'  entitled  to  have 
such  a  number  of  trees  marked  at  once  as  is  conformable  with  the  re- 
growth  of  the  forest,  and  its  permanent  survival.  Should  it  be  necessary 
to  make  great  restrictions  in  the  right  of  the  owner  to  make  use  of  the 
forest,  special  regulations  in  the  matter  must  be  made;  if  the  owner  would 
rather  sell  the  forest  than  submit  to  such  restrictions,  the  State  can  ex- 
propriate the  land.  This  last-mentioned  regulation  has  not  yet  been  put 
into  force. 

The  other  private  forests  in  Sweden  are  subject  to  the  regulations  of 
the  law  dated  July  24,  1903,  respecting  the  care  of  private  forests. 
According  to  this  law,  in  forests  belonging  to  private  persons,  lumber- 
ing must  not  be  carried  on  in  such  a  way,  nor,  subsequent  to  lumbering- 
operations,  may  the  ground  be  so  treated,  as  to  clearly  endanger  the  re- 
growth  of  the  timber.  If  there  has  been  such  mismanagement  of  the 
forest,  the  guilty  person  is  obliged  to  take  the  steps  necessary  to  secure 
re-growth.  If  the  lumbering  rights  have  been  made  over  by  the  owner 
of  the  forest  to  another  person,  and  the  latter  has  been  guilty  of  the  above- 
mentioned  mismanagement,  the  owner  is  responsible  for  the  necessary 
restorative  measures  being  taken.  The  burden  of  seeing  that  the  law 
in  question  is  properly  carried  out  rests  on  the  Forest  Conservation  Board, 
which  must  exist  in  every  county  council  district  where  the  law  is  in 
force,  and  on  the  officials  and  inspectors  of  the  said  Forest  Conservation 
Board,  as  well  as  on  the  Forest  Conservation  Cominittees  appointed  by 
communes  affected. 

The  ivorh  of  the  Forest  Conservation  Boards  is  regulated  in  other  re- 
spects by  the  Royal  Ordinance  of  July  24,  1903,  respecting  the  Board 
mentioned.  Besides  being  entrusted  with  the  task  of  seeing  that  the  laws 
dealing  with  the  public  forests  are  carried  out,  the  said  Boards  have  also 
to  promote  the  proper  economy  of  the  private  forests  by  spreading  a 
knowledge  of  forestry,  by  making  grants  in  aid  of,  and  carrying  out,  the 
work  of  forest-culture,  by  supplying  seed  and  plants,  and  by  taking  other 
measures  calculated  to  promote  improved  forest  economy.  In  addition, 
the  said  Boards  are  entrusted  with  the  administration  of  the  Forest  Con- 
servation funds  obtained  from  fees  received  in  the  course  of  their  duties, 
or  in  any  other  way. 

The  first  Ordinance  respecting  Forest  Conservation  fees  was  issued  on 
July  24,  1903;  it  was  altered  in  1908  and  1910,  and  appeared  in  a 
new  form  on  October  11,  1912.  These  fees  are  calculated  on  the  same 
principles  as  those  adopted   for  the   forest-excise,  but   are   fixed   at  an 

'  In  addition  to  a  drift-sand  field  in  the  island  of  Gottland. 


LEGISLATION   AND   ADMINISTKATION.  185 

amount  equal  to  1-3  %  of  the  value  of  the  standing  timber.  In  the  Lans 
of  Vasterbotten  and  Norrbotten,  in  the  parish  of  Sarna,  and  in  the  sub- 
parish  of  Idre,  no  Forest  Conservation  fees  are  paid  and  the  same  di- 
stricts are  not  under  the  Forest  Conservation  Board. 

The  accompanying  map  shows  the  districts  affected  by  the  existing 
forest-laws,  viz.,  the  " Lappmark"  law,  or  the  regulations  governing  the 
private  forests  in  Lappmarken  and  in  the  parish  of  Sarna,  with  Idre  sub- 
parish,  in  Dalarne;  the  "protective  forests"  law;  the  "dimension"  law 
the  "Gottland  and  Oland"  law,  and  the  "public  forests"  law.  In  all  the 
districts  affected  there  are  public  forests,  for  which  special  laws  are  in 
force. 

The  Swedish  Forest  Service  dates  its  origin  from  a  Venery  Service 
established  as  early  'as  the  16th  century.  The  "deer  and  bird  huntsmen" 
and  the  "rangers  and  keepers"  mentioned  at  a  still  earlier  date  did  not 
form  a  regular  corps.  The  principal  work,  too,  of  the  Venery  Service,  until 
the  beginning  of  the  19th  century,  was  connected  with  hunting,  although 
in  the  middle  of  the  17th  century,  some  attention  seems  to  have  been 
paid  to  forest  economy.  On  behalf  of  forestry,  however,  the  Venery 
Service  did  not  do  very  much,  until,  after  the  founding  of  the  Institute 
of  Forestry  in  1828,  the  officials  were  given  an  opportunity  of  gathering 
special  information  respecting  the  science.  After  the  institution  of  the 
Board  of  Forestry  in  1859,  the  head  of  the  new  department  became  the 
head  of  the  Forest-and  Venery  Services  as  well. 

For  the  purpose  of  uniting  in  one  central  department  the  administra- 
tion, not  only  of  the  forests  but  also  of  the  landed  property  of  the  State, 
the  Forest  Board  was  transformed  in  1883  into  the  now-existing  Crown 
Lands  Board,  the  head  of  which,  consequently,  is  now  the  head  of  the 
Forest  Service,  too.  The  task  of  this  Board  is,  in  the  first  place, 
the  care  and  administration  of  the  public  forests.  The  care  and  improve- 
ment of  game  has  become  a  matter  of  subordinate  importance,  although 
it  is  still  included  among  the  tasks  of  the  Forest  Service.  The  titles  of 
the  officials  are  Chief  Foresters  and  Foresters  (overjagmastare  och  jag- 
mastare). 

According  to  the  regulations  which  came  into  force  at  the  beginning 
of  1909,  the  Forest  Service  consists  of  10  Chief  Foresters  and  90  Foresters. 
The  number  of  the  latter  officials  has  since  been  increased  and,  at  the 
close  of  1913,  amounted  to  97.  According  to  the  same  regulations,  the 
number  of  rangers  (kronojagare)  was  increased  to  417.  The  service- 
territory  under  the  superintendence  of  a  chief  forester  is  termed  a  district; 
that  of  the  forester  is  called  a  "revir",  and  that  of  a  ranger  a  "guarding- 
section". 

The  assistant  forest-officials  consist  of  assistant  foresters  and  assistant 
rangers.  The  total  number  of  assistant  officials  in  the  Forest  Service 
amounted  at  the  close  of  1913  to  respectively  153  and  294,  a  good  deal 
of  whom  had  other,  private  employment  as  well. 


186  IV.      FORESTRY. 

In  addition  to  the  officials  above-mentioned,  there  are  3  State  Forest- 
Engineers  employed  in  the  Forest  Service.  They  are  entrusted  with  the 
execution  of  forestry  matters  for  private  owners  in  those  parts  of  the 
country  where  there  are  no  Forest  Conservation  Boards.  The  forest- 
engineers  are  paid  by  the  State,  but  they  also  receive  fees  from  the  private 
forest  owners  who  have  called  for  their  assistance.  The  work  of  the  forest- 
engineers  consists  of  forest-cultivation,  draining  of  boggy  woodland,  the 
arrangement  of  thinning  operations,  and  other  forestry  work,  the  giving 
of  instruction  in  forest  economy  at  agricultural  schools,  etc. 

In  those  parts  of  the  country  where  there  are  Forest  Conservation 
Boards,  the  owners  of  private  forests  can  obtain  the  assistance  of  those 
officials  of  the  bodies  in  question  termed  "county  foresters"  and  "assistant 
county  foresters",  who,  as  a  rule,  are  also  assistant  foresters.  There  are, 
-altogether,  in  Sweden,  23  county  foresters,  one  on  each  Forest  Conserva- 
tion Board.  Assistant  county  foresters  have  been  appointed  only  in  such 
county  revenue  districts  where  the  duties  of  the  county  forester  are  so 
great  as  to  require  such  additional  help. 

During  recent  years,  several  committees  have  been  at  work  on  proposals 
partly  for  the  regulating  of  existing  forest-law,  and  partly  for  the  re- 
organization of  the  State  forest-system.  Important  changes  in  these 
matters  are  therefore  imminent. 


The  Forestry  Experimental  Service. 

It  was  not  before  the  beginning  of  the  present  century  that  a  more 
definite  form  was  given  to  the  Forest  Experimental  Service  in  Sweden. 
On  May  9,  1902,  there  were  promulgated  the  statutes  for  the  Forestry  Ex- 
perimental Establishment,  which,  on  December  18,  1908,  were  replaced  by 
Instructions  for  the  State  Forestry  Experimental  Establishment  (Statens 
skogsf  orsoksanstalt) . 

The  Experimental  Service,  in  the  year  1912,  was  re-organized  in  accord- 
ance with  the  existing  statutes,  which  date  from  October  25,  1912  (in  force 
from  1913).  In  1913,  the  grant  for  the  Experimental  Service  amounted  to 
47  100  kr.,  while  for  1915  it  is  62  200  kr.  The  direction  of  the  Establish- 
ment is  at  present  in  the  hands  of  a  special  Board  consisting  of  the  head  of 
the  Crown  Lands  Board  —  who  is,  ex  officio,  a  member  of  the  first-named 
Board  —  and  four  members  who  are  appointed  for  fixed  period  by  the 
Government.  The  Establishment  embraces  two  sections,  viz.,  a  forest- 
section  for  the  care  and  assessment  of  the  forests,  and  a  scientific  section 
for  the  study  of  forest  botany,  the  theory  of  soils,  and  forest  entomology. 
Each  of  these  sections  is  under  a  Principal,  who  has  the  title  of  Professor, 
and  who  is  aided  by  a  number  of  officials  and  assistants.  The  Government 
appoints  one  of  these  principals  to  act  as  the  head  of  the  Establishment  for 
a  period  of  three  years. 

The  object  of  the  Establishment  is  the  solution  of  problems  which  are 


INSTRUCTION    IN    FORESTKY.  187 

of  fundamental  importance  for  the  economy  of  the  forests  of  Sweden.  The 
work  embraces  investigations  respecting  the  species  and  diseases  of  forest 
trees,  injurious  insects,  the  various  methods  of  sylviculture,  the  rotations 
suitable,  the  conditions  governing  the  economic  returns  of  the  forests,  etc. 

For  the  purpose  of  carrying  out  investigations  and  experiments  in  the 
above-mentioned  respects,  experimental  areas  are  chosen  by  the  Establish- 
ment in  various  parts  of  the  country,  chiefly  in  forests  belonging  to  the 
Crown,  although  such  experimental  areas  can,  on  certain  conditions,  be 
selected  in  private  forests,  too,  should  the  owners  desire  this  to  be  done. 

During  the  short  period  during  which  it  has  existed,  the  Experimental 
Establishment  has  succeeded  in  carrying  out  some  very  thorough  work,  the 
results  of  which,  consequently,  are  worthy  of  much  attention.  An  account 
of  these  labours  and  their  results  is  given  in  the  Reports  of  the  State 
Forestry  Experimental  Establishment,  which  have  appeared  annually  since 
1904  inclusive. 

Instruction  in  Forestry. 

Until  quite  lately,  the  State  establishments  for  giving  instruction  in 
forestry  have  consisted  of  the  Institute  of  Forestry,  —  which,  since 
its  establishment  in  1828,  has  had  the  task  of  training  administrative 
officials,  foresters  —  and  the  Schools  of  Forersty,  two  of  which  were 
intended  to  train  pupils  for  entrance  to  the  Institute,  while  the  others  were 
for  the  training  of  rangers.  The  Riksdag  of  1912,  however,  decided  that 
the  Institute  of  Forestry  should  be  transformed  into  a  High  School  of 
Forestry,  at  which  a  higher  course  of  instruction  in  the  science  could  be 
given,  corresponding  to  that  imparted  at  the  universities  and  other  High 
Schools.  One  feature  of  this  reorganization  was  that  the  two  preparatory 
schools  of  forestry  were  to  be  closed,  their  work  now  having  to  be  carried  out 
in  a  so-called  "Preparatory  Course-' .  In  addition  to  this,  a  "Lower  Course" 
was  arranged  at  the  High  School  of  Forestry,  corresponding  to  that 
formerly  existing  at  the  Institute  of  Forestry,  and  intended  for  the 
training  of  forest  officials  in  private  service.  The  remaining  schools  of 
forestry  remained  unaltered.  It  is  calculated  that  this  reorganization  of 
the  sj^stem  of  training  in  forestry  will  be  completed  by  the  year  1915. 

A  fairly  large  site  at  Norra  Djurgarden,  just  outside  Stockholm,  has  been 
assigned  for  the  buildings  of  the  High  School  of  Forestry,  in  addition  to 
which  there  is  an  experimental  park  attached  to  the  establishment.  The 
requirements  for  admission  to  the  High  School  in  question  are,  that  the 
candidate  shall  have  passed  his  matriculation  examination  in  the  "modern" 
(or  science)  line,  while,  from  those  that  have  matriculated  in  the  classical 
line,  there  will  be  required  a  complementary  examination  in  Mathematics, 
Physics,  and  Chemistry,  corresponding  to  the  tests  in  these  subjects  in  the 
modern  line.  In  addition  to  this,  the  candidate  must  have  passed  through  the 
above-mentioned  preparatory  course,  which  lasts  about  9  months  and  consists, 
chiefly,  of  practical  forestry  work  in  Norrland  and  in  Central  Sweden.  To  this 
course  40  students  can  gain  admission  every  year,  but  of  these  there  are  chosen 


188  IV.      FORESTEY. 

25  for  admission  to  the  High  School  of  Forestry.  This  preparatory  course  is 
under  the  direction  of  a  chief  assistant,  aided  by  a  number  of  other  assistants, 
in  addition  to  which,  short  courses  of  practical  instruction  are  given  to  the  pupils 
taking  part  in  the  course,  by  the  teachers  in  pure  forestry  who  are  engaged  at 
the  High  School. 

The  instruction  given  at  the  High  School  is  both  theoretical  and  prac- 
tical. The  theoretical  instruction  is  imparted  in  the  form  of  lectures  illustrated 
by  exercises  in  the  class-room,  given  every  year  during  an  autumn  term  (^*/io 
— ^*'/i2)  and  a  spring  term  (^/a — ■'^/s).  In  addition  to  this,  a  certain  time  is 
devoted  to  oral  examinations.  The  practical  instruction  goes  on  during  the  period 
'"/s — '"/s,  in  forests  specially  devoted  to  the  purpose  in  various  parts  of  the 
country;  during  this  time,  the  pupils  have  to  manage  the  work  and  make  the 
calculations  connected  with  the  different  branches  of  the  management  of  forests. 
Besides  this,  journeys  are  made  under  the  direction  of  the  teachers  to  various 
parts  of  the  country,  for  the  study  of  forest  management,  the  transport  of 
timber  from  the  woods,  floating,  and  timber  manufacturing  works.  A  full  course 
of  study  at  the  High  School  embraces  3  autumn  terms,  2  spring  terms,  and  2 
summer  terms.     Twenty-five  pupils  are  admitted  to  the  High  School  each  year. 

The  High  School  is  under  the  superintendence  of  a  Board  of  Governors 
numbering  5  persons,  the  President  of  the  Crown  Lands  Board  being  ex. 
officio  one  of  these  members.  The  teaching  staff  consists  of  4  professors 
in  the  subjects  of  Forest  Management,  Forest  Mathematics,  Forest  Technology, 
and  Forest  Botany,  each  with  an  institute  and  collections,  in  addition  to  whom 
there  are  teachers  in  the  following  subjects:  Forest  Zoology,  the  Science  of 
Soils,  Forest  Policy,  General  Legislation,  the  Forest-  and  Game  Laws,  Bookkeep- 
ing, Technical  Chemistry  and  Agricultural  Economy.  One  of  the  Professors  acts 
as  the  Rector  of  the  High  School,  and  is  assigned  the  task  of  laying  its  business 
before  the  Governors. 

Pupils  that  have  passed  in  all  the  subjects  at  the  final  examination  at  the 
end  of  their  course  at  the  High  School  can  be  appointed  as  Extra  Foresters  in 
the  service  of  the  State. 

The  Lower  Course  given  in  connection  with  the  work  of  the  High  School 
will  embrace  a  training  period  of  about  V-k  years.  The  requirements  for  ad- 
mission to  this  course  are,  to  have  passed  the  "Realskolexamen"  (Modern  School) 
and  to  have  had  at  least  22  months'  practical  work  in  Forestry.  12  pupils  are 
admitted  to  this   Course  each  year. 

The  State  Schools  of  Forestry  are  7  in  number,  and  are  situated  in  various 
parts  of  the  country.  Each  is  under  the  superintendence  of  a  Director,  who  is 
also  the  head-master  of  the  school,  and  has  an  assistant.  Each  school  has 
been  assigned  a  large  tract  of  forest-land  which  is  managed  by  the  Direc- 
tor. The  period  of  training  lasts  from  ^/ii  to  ^^/lo  of  the  following  year. 
The  instruction  is  directed  mainly  to  giving  the  pupils  practical  skill  in  the 
more  important  branches  of  forestry  and  exercise  in  the  direction  of  such  work, 
but  it  also  embraces  theoretical  studies  in  the  fundamental  principles  of  Forest 
Economy.  The  number  of  pupils  at  each  school  is,  as  a  rule,  20,  who  enjoy 
instruction  gratis,  and  are  provided  with  rooms  free  of  cost,  but  have  to  pay 
for  their  board  themselves.  Pupils  without  means  can  be  awarded  bursaries, 
each  amounting  to  250  kronor.  For  entrance  to  the  schools  of  forestry  the 
candidate  must:  have  a  knowledge  of  the  subjects  taught  at  the  elementary 
schools,  enjoy  good  health,  and  be  not  less  than  20  and  not  more  than  30 
years  of  age. 

In  addition  to  the  above-mentioned  State  institutions  for  imparting  instruc- 
tion in  forestry,  instruction  in  forest  economy  is  given  at  the  Agricultural 
Schools    and    the    Agricultural    High  Schools  too;   at  special  schools  of  forestry 


FOREST    INDUSTRIES.  169 

and  charcoal-burning,  established  on  private  initiative,  and  also  at  People's  High 
Schools,  and  Farmers'  Schools.  A  most  extensive  work  of  disseminating  in- 
struction and  information  concerning  the  rearing  and  care  of  timber  and  forests 
is  also  carried  on  by  the  Forest  Conservation  Boards  of  the  various  lans,  by 
means  of  the  so-called  courses  in  Forest  Culture,  intended  for  the  peasantry,  by 
means  of  lectures,  and,  finally,  by  setting  apart  certain  days  on  which  the 
children  in  the  elementary  schools  go  out  to  plant  trees. 


2.    FOREST  INDUSTRIES. 

Even  when  the  population  of  Sweden  first  began  to  enter  into  more 
lively  commercial  relations  with  other  nations,  it  would  appear  that 
forest  products  formed  a  considerable  part  of  Swedish  exports,  although 
at  first  the  demand  mostly  comprised  other  forest  products  than  those 
which  are  now  the  most  important. 

From  various  documents  dating  from  the  Middle  Ages  we  find  that  furs  and  hides 
of  different  forest  animals  (elk  or  moose,  deer,  etc.)  were  in  great  demand  as 
articles  of  commerce  and  were  bought  in  the  Swedish  ports  by  foreign  traders. 
The  Hanseatic  cities,  which,  at  the  close  of  the  Middle  Ages,  controlled  the 
commerce  and  navigation  of  Northern  Europe,  took  from  Sweden  their  requisite 
supplies  of  pitch,  tar,  masts,  and  spars,  as  well  as,  to  a  certain  extent,  of  fire- 
wood, deals,  and  boards.  The  boards  exported  went  by  the  name  of  hewn  boards, 
i.  e.,  not  sawn,  but  hewn  by  the  axe  direct  from  the  log. 

In  early  modern  times  the  Dutch  inherited  the  commercial  supremacy  of 
the  Hanseatic  cities  in  the  North  and  also  became  the  principal  purchas- 
ers of  Swedish  timber.  As  they  were  in  need  of  much  timber  for  their  great 
commercial  and  naval  fleets  as  well  as  for  dams,  piles  for  building  purposes,  etc., 
which  could  not  be  obtained  in  their  country,  so  deficient  in  forests,  the  Swedish 
export  of  timber  to  Holland  became  very  extensive  for  those  times.  The  timber 
shipped  consisted  principally  of  masts,  spars  and  balks,  hewn  by  hand,  and  logs, 
which  were  afterwards  sawn  in  the  numerous  wind  saw-mills  in  Holland.  — 
During  the  eighteenth  century,  the  position  as  the  head  of  the  world's  commerce 
and  shipping  passed  from  Holland  to  England,  which  country,  for  nearly  the 
same  reasons  as  Holland,  found  it  necessary  to  import  timber. 

In  order  to  give  an  idea  of  the  extent  of  the  Swedish  timber-trade  at  the 
beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century,  it  may  be  mentioned  that,  in  the  year  1809, 
Sweden  exported  about  220  000  dozen  boards  and  deals,  about  two-thirds  of 
which  went  to  England.  The  whole  timber  export  was  then  estimated  at  a  value 
of  5  488  000  kroner,  which  equalled  one-seventh  of  the  total  export  of  the 
kingdom  at  that  time. 

During  the  wars  against  Napoleon,  the  development  of  the  timber  trade  was 
arrested.  For  in  1809  England  imposed  —  chiefly  as  a  retaliatory  measure 
against  Napoleon's  system  of  isolation  —  a  very  considerable  increase  of  the 
former  import-duties  on  timber  from  the  Continent,  which  increase  was  further 
raised  the  following  year  and  rose  once  more  in  1813,  so  that  the  import-duty 
per  load  (1"42  cubic  meters)  thus  finally  amounted  to  £.  3.  5  sh.  These  customs- 
duties  had  all  the  greater  effect  on  the  European  exports  to  England,  as,  at 
the  same  time,  only  an  inconsiderable  duty  was  paid  on  the  timber  imported 
from    British    North    America.     Consequently,    commerce    between    Sweden  and 


190 


IV.      FORESTRY. 


Marking  Trees  for  Felling. 


England  greatly  declined.  It  is  true  that,  in  1821,  after  the  termination  of 
these  wars,  the  English  customs-duties  on  timber  were  lowered  to  £.  2.  15  sh. 
per  load,  while  at  the  same  time  a  duty  of  10  sh.  was  imposed  on  American 
timber.  The  difference  was,  however,  still  large  enough  almost  entirely  to 
exclude    European    timber    from   English  ports.     It  is  even  said  that  sometimes 


FOREST   INDUSTBIES.  191 

such  timber  would  first  be  transported  across  the  Atlantic  and  then,  benefiting 
by  the  said  privilege  as  to  duty,  be  finally  re-shipped  to  some  English  port. 
That  any  direct  importation  of  Swedish  timber  could  take  place  at  all  was  due 
alone  to  the  fact  that  the  latter  was  more  highly  valued  than  the  American 
product. 

Finally,  a  change  of  opinion  took  place  in  England,  when  that  country's  need 
of  timber  for  different  industrial  purposes  became  considerably  greater.  Considerable 
reductions  were  made  in  the  custom-duty  on  timber  in  1842  and  1851.  This 
duty  was  further  reduced  again  in  1860,  so  that  it  only  amounted  to  one  or  two 
shillings  per  load,  and  at  last  it  was  entirely  abolished  in  1866.  With  this 
measure  the  Swedish  timber  export  gained  a  market  sufficiently  extensive  to 
create  in  Sweden  a  real  timber  industry.  The  foreign  market  for  Swedish  timber 
was  also  increased  by  the  commercial  treaty  with  France  of  1865,  whereby  various 
forest-products  imported  from  Sweden,  among  which  were  boards  and  deals,  were 
relieved  from  the  former  custom-duties. 

At  the  same  time  the  commercial  legislation  of  Sweden  underwent  important 
changes.  During  the  eighteenth  century,  sundry  restrictions  had  been  in  force 
both  in  regard  to  the  foreign  timber  trade  and  to  commerce  generally  within 
the  Idngdom.  Thus,  e.  g.,  for  boards  sent  to  Stockholm  certain  dimensions  were 
stipulated  by  law.  These  regulations,  obstructive  to  free  commerce,  were  gradually 
abolished  during  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  (more  particularly  so  by 
the  General  Commercial  Regulations  of  1846).  Export-duties  had  formerly  been 
imposed  on  many  different  kinds  of  timber,  such  as  rough,  sawn,  or  hewn  timber 
of  most  kinds  of  hard  wood,  unhewn  red  wood  and  white  wood,  and  small  beams 
and  rafters,  while  boards  and  deals  of  red  wood  or  white  wood  went  free  of  duty. 
Most  of  these  export-duties  were  removed  in  1857  and  ceased  entirely  on  the 
introduction   of  the  customs'  tariff  of  1863. 

As  the  foreign  demand  was  principally  for  sawn  timber,  the  Saw-mill  in- 
dustry in  Sweden  was  given  a  new  importance.  It  is  not  known  with  certainty 
when  the  first  saw-mills  were  erected  in  our  country;  this  may  possibly  have 
been  done  as  far  back  as  the  Middle  Ages.  It  is  certain,  however,  both  that 
there  have  been  water-power  saw-mills  in  use  in  this  country  for  several  centur- 
ies and,  on  the  other  hand,  that  it  was  not  until  during  the  nineteenth  century 
that  the  saw-mill  industry  became  a  genuine  branch  of  trade.  The  initiative 
was  taken  by  some  prominent  Gothenburg  merchants,  some  of  whom  were  of 
British  birth  and,  through  their  connections,  familiar  with  the  steadily  in- 
creasing demands  of  English  industries  for  wood.  In  the  decennium  1841 — 50 
vast  forests  were  bought,  first  in  Varmland  and  Dalsland,  afterwards  in  Norr- 
land,  and  large  water-mills  with  several  saw-frames  were  built.  These  saw-mills 
were  mostly  situated  by  some  water-fall  in  proximity  to  the  coast,  but  the 
fact  that  they  could  not  be  built  close  to  the  sea-shore  proved  a  disadvantage; 
for,  before  the  sawn  timber  could  be  shipped,  it  had  either  to  be  carted  over- 
land or  towed  in  barges  to  the  sea-port,  which  was  rather  expensive,  or  else  it 
had  to  be  floated,  which,  on  the  other  hand,  caused  a  deterioration  in  the  appear- 
ance and  quality  of  the  timber.  In  this  respect,  the  establishment  of  steam 
saw-mills  on  the  sea-coast  produced  a  complete  revolution,  whereby  essential 
advantages  were  gained.  By  locating  the  saw-miUs  on  the  coast,  the  former 
long  transport  of  the  timber  from  the  saw-mill  to  the  port  was  saved;  further 
more,  the  use  of  steam-power  in  the  saw-mills  brought  about  a  greater  productive 
capacity,  finer  product,  and  freedom  from  the  obstacles  to  the  steady  run  of 
the  works  arising  from  ice  in  winter  and  lack  of  water  iu  summer.  The  first 
steam  saw-mill  in  Sweden  was  built  iu  1851  at  Vivsta,  near  SundsvaU;  next 
in  order  were  Sando  and  Kramfors,  both  in  Angermanland  (1852).  During  the 
years  1851  —  60  and  especially  during  1861—70,  the  number  of  steam  saw-miUs 


192 


IV.      FORESTRY. 


Table  33.      Exports  of  Wood-wares  (all  Icinds)  from  the  most  important 
wood-exporting  countries.     Values  in  thousands  of  kronor. 


Country 


Tear 
190e 


Tenr 
1907 


Tear 
1908 


Tear 
1909 


Tear 
1910 


Annually 
1906—10 


Tear 
1911 


Sweden 

Norway 

Finland 

Eussia 

Austria-H  angary 
U.  S.  A."  .  .  .  . 
Canada' 


236  465 
79  709 
109  154 
.187  776 
253006 
257  670 
189  165 


244  484 
81858 
110  659 
206  360 
373  065 
310  894 
183  070 


217  474 
75  311 
101  964 
213  064 
233  634 
304074 
166  571 


212  784 
73  512 
108  Oil 
242  579 
225  289 
253  146 
199  638 


264  736 
79  490 
125  056 
264  250 
245  795 
293  975 
193  980 


235  189 
77  976 
110  969 
222  806 
246  158 
283  952 
186  485 


274 138 
78  059 
131 458 
271 851 
269180 
344  115 
172  756 


'  For    Canada  and  the  U.  S.  A.  the  mercantile  years  given  do  not  coincide  with  the  ca- 
lendar years. 


grew  rapidly.  The  timber  industry  was  also  greatly  promoted  by  the  growth 
and  development  in  Sweden  of  commercial  companies,  thanks  to  the  law  ctf  1848 
regarding  joint-stock  companies,  by  which  measure  the  co-operation  of  several 
persons  for  the  purpose^  of  establishing  large  industrial  enterprises  was  facilitated. 

We  may  add  to  this  the  enormous  improvements  the  means  of  communica- 
tion underwent.  Formerly  the  shipping  of  Norrland  timber  was  performed 
principally  by  sailing  vessels  from  that  part  of  the  country,  which  could  make  at 
most  only  two  trips  a  year  to  the  ports  of  destiaation  in  England  and  France; 
a  voyage  to  the  Mediterranean  and  back  took  a  whole  year.  The  freight  to 
England  might  then  amount  to  £4^/2  per  standard.  Since  steamships  have 
begun  to  be  used  in  the  timber  trade,  and,  consequently,  the  voyages  altogether 
have  become  more  rapid,  the  cost  of  transport  has  considerably  decreased.  The 
re-buUdLag  of  the  TroUhatte  Canal  (1838 — 44)  was  a  very  great  advantage  to  the 
export  via  Gothenburg,  and  finally  we  only  need  to  point  out  the  revolution  in 
the  transport  system  which  has  been  brought  about  by  the  railways. 

The  saw-mills,  when  first  established,  had  but  little  difficulty  in  getting  their 
necessary  supply  of  timber.  Although  only  the  largest  and  soundest  redwood 
timber  was  cut,  and  all  unsound  inferior  timber  and  white  wood,  together  with 
no  inconsiderable  proportion  of  the  top-logs  were  left,  still  it  was  not  necessary 
to  penetrate  far  into  the  forest  from  the  sea  or  the  great  rivers  in  order  to  get 
a  sufficient  amount  of  raw  material.  But,  with  the  constantly  increasing  dem- 
and from  abroad  and  the  increase  in  the  number  of  steam  saw-mills,  this 
state  of  things  soon  changed.  The  easily  accessible,  heavy  timber  nearest  to 
the  watercourses  began  to  be  exhausted,  and  it  became  necessary  to  select  the 
raw  material  from  the  upper  courses  of  the  rivers.  At  the  same  time  it  began 
to  pay  to  make  use  of  both  white  wood  and  poorer  red  wood  and  timber  of  smaller 
dimensions,  which  had  hitherto  been  despised  and  left  in  the  forest. 

For  rather  more  than  two  decades  from  the  founding  of  the  first  steam  saw- 
mills, the  saw-mill  industry  in  Norrland  continued,  under  the  favourable  conditions 
to  expand,  and  there  poured  in  a  regular  stream  of  native  and  foreign  specu- 
lators, and  of  workmen  from  the  southern  part  of  the  country.  The  workmen's 
wages  now  had  risen  to  a  very  high  standard,  and  the  manner  and  habits  of  life 
among  the  floating  population  of  workmen  were,  too,  in  accord  with  that  standard, 
but,  as  long  as  the  prices  of  timber  continued  to  rise,  everything  'ran  smoothly. 
In  1874,  however,  a  turning-point  was  reached,  the  foreign  market  beginning  to 
fluctuate,  and  the  prices,  after  having  once  more  risen  somewhat  in  1877,  sank 
the  next  year  at  a  breakneck  speed.    The  average  price  of  sawn  timber  in  Sunds- 


FOREST   INDUSTRIES. 


193 


vail,  which,  in  1874,  was  up  to  170  kronor  per  standard  (4'672  cubic  meters), 
fell  in  1879  to  76  kronor.  A  serious  commercial  crisis  followed.  In  one  respect, 
however,  it  brought  about  a  good  result,  by  clearing  the  timber  trade  from  a 
considerable  amount  of  unsound  elements;  from  persons  whose  only  purpose  was 
to  make  a  fortune  as  rapidly  and  with  as  little  work  as  possible,  without  the 
slightest  heed  to  the  future  stability  of  the  industry  or  to  the  future  of  their 
workmen.  For  the  men  of  better  character  engaged  in  this  industry,  the  hard 
years  brought  with  them  many  wholesome  lessons;  they  learned  to  neutralize 
the  fall  in  prices  by  more  carefully  utilizing  the  standing  timber,  by  employing 
cheaper  methods  of  work  at  the  mills,  by  a  more  perfected  working  up  of  the 
timber,  and  a  more  thorough  utilization  of  the  waste  wood  which  had  formerly 
been  considered  worthless.  The  prices  of  timber  have  since  then  undergone  many 
fluctuations,  but  none  so  violent  as  those  just  mentioned.  This  matter  will  be 
referred  to  further  on. 

In  order  to  illustrate  the  growth  of  the  saw-miU  industry,  a  few  figures 
may  here  be  given.  In  1821  (the  same  year  that  the  first  reduction  of  customs- 
duties  in  England  took  place),  Sweden  had  3  633  saw-mills  with  an  output  of 
267  000  dozen  deals  and  boards,  about  200  000  dozen  of  which  were  exported. 
Forty  years  later,  our  country  owned  59  steam  saw-mills  and  4  933  water  or 
wind  saw-mills,  and  the  export  of  deals  and  boards  alone  amounted  to  1  478  000 
dozen.  After  the  lapse  of  fifteen  years  more,  this  export  had  been  trebled  again, 
and  the  total  export  of  all  classes  of  rough  timber  rose  to  a  value  of  upwards 
of  100  million  kronor,  and  at  present  the  value  of  the  total  timber  export 
has  attained  the  figure  of  300  million  kronor  (in   1912). 

As  shown  by  Table  34,  below,  timber-goods  play  an  extraordi- 
narily important  role  in  the  foreign  trade  of  Sweden,  as  far  as  exports 
are  concerned. 


Table  34.     Sweden's   Imports   and   Exports    of  Timber  {unwrought  and 

wrought). 


Annually 

Imports. 

Thousands 

of  Kronor 

Exports.    Thousands  of  Kronor 

In  %  of  the  whole 

Sawn  and 

Sawn  and 

Un- 
wrought 

more  or 
less 

Total 

Un- 
wrought 

more    or 
less 

Total 

Imports2 

Exports* 

and  hewn 

wrought 1 

and  hewn 

wrougbti 

1871—75  .   .   . 

754 

983 

1737 

16  444 

74  734 

91178 

0-71 

44-58 

1876-80  .    .    . 

724 

1248 

1972 

15  476 

83  428 

98  904 

0-73 

47-13 

1881-85  .    .    . 

1486 

1849 

3335 

15  573 

94393 

109966 

105 

45-12 

1886-90.    .    . 

1544 

2193 

3  737 

14  955 

101  821 

ll(;77(i 

111 

4284 

1891-95  .    .    . 

1929 

2  624 

4553 

16  933 

119  786 

m,  719 

1-30 

42-96 

1896-00  .    .    . 

3  601 

1840 

6441 

18339 

161 140 

179479 

1-21 

50-05 

1901-05.    .    . 

2  747 

2114 

4861 

19  475 

180  040 

I'.ntolo 

0-91 

48-67 

1906-10.    .    . 

7  658 

2  766 

10424 

20  580 

214  669 

235 189 

1-62 

45-63 

1909 

8  043 

2  439 

10  482 

19  006 

193  778 

212  784 

1'70 

44-99 

1910 

12  438 

2  686 

15124 

18  319 

246  417 

2(M  Viii 

2-26 

44-65 

1911 

11004 

4  077 

15081 

18  711 

255  427 

274  lis 

2-16 

41-31 

1912 

12  748 

6  303 

19  051 

16  898 

284  435 

301333 

2-43 

39-62 

'  In  these  figures  there  are  included  among  the  -wrought  goods  both  wood  pulp  and 
matches.  —  ^Imports  and  exports  of  -wood-goods  in  %  of  the  total  imports  and  exports 
of  the  kingdom,  of  all  goods. 

1B~133179.  Sweden.   II. 


194 


IV.      FOKBSTRY. 


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mills           -' 

according  to  their 
situation. 

In  1912. 

The     larger      black 
spots     denote     dist- 
ricts  with   aggrega-  ' 
tions  of  saw-mills. 

s 

J-^OSjcbor^nRi'    ^^   ,wVj»nI=ii(|m^.J"- ' 

,^             Vis 
///oiand 

'>/^  r     J  ^ 

EKlftGE  L'jii/ 

QOTTtANO  S 

/ 

( 

G 

^■'              1 

A 

12  Est  de  Grcenw                                    16                      Easl  of  Groeiu-.-                20 

22                          OslLv  GreeHW 

. 

Sen.srab.UtAnsi.Swckholm 


SAW-MILLS.  195 

It  will  thus  seen  that,  during  the  last  few  years,  timber  has  re- 
presented nearly  one  half  of  the  total  exports  of  the  country.  A  satis- 
factory sign  is  that  it  is  chiefly  the  export  of  more  or  less  wrought 
timber  that  has  risen;  the  export  of  un wrought  or  hewn  timber  has 
remained  practically  stationary. 

In  our  own  days  Sweden  occupies  one  of  the  foremost  places  among  the 
timber-exporting  countries  of  the  world.  This  is  owing  to  its  abundant 
supply  of  timber,  the  facilities  for  getting  the  timber  out  of  the  forests 
—  afforded  by  the  winter's  cover  of  snow  and  the  frozen  lakes  and 
marshes  —  the  numerous  water-courses  which  are  suitable  for  floating, 
and  the  excellent  quality  of  the  Swedish  timber  —  a  good  heartwood 
and  one  particularly  free  from  knots  —  which  makes  it  especially  suitable 
for  joinery  purposes.  In  comparison  with  certain  other  richly  wooded 
countries,  Sweden  is  also  favoured  by  its  convenient  situation  for 
shipping  and  its   many  good  harbours. 


Saw-Mills. 

In  1912,  the  value  of  the  output  from  saw-mills  and  wood-planing 
mills  was  stated  to  be  174  144  189  kronor,  —  a  far  higher  amount  than 
any  other  class  of  manufactures  could  show.  The  income  of  the  trade  was 
estamit^d  at  about  10  million  kronor.  The  number  of  workmen  oc- 
cupied in  this  industry  amounted  to  37  908.  During  that  year,  1813 
saM'-frames  and  956  planing-machines  were  in  use.  As  motive  power, 
60  waterwheels,  298  turbines,  981  steam-engines,  11  steam-turbines  and 
20  petroleum-,  bensine-  and  gas-motors  were  employed  for  the  mill-work 
proper,  and  25  water-turbines,  130  steam-engines  and  33  steam-turbines 
for  running  electric-motors.  The  whole  number  of  electric  motors  is 
given  at  1  067. 

The  output  of  the  principal  kinds  of  wood  was  divided  among  the  diffe- 
rent lans  as  shown  by  Table  35.  As  will  be  noticed,  the  Ian  of  Vas- 
ternorrland  stands  easily  first,  with  nearly  30  %  of  the  total  produc- 
tion of  the  kingdom;  next  in  order  comes  the  Ian  of  Gavleborg.  —  The 
total  number  of  saw-mills  and  planing-mills  in  Sweden,  of  the  character 
of  genuine  factories,  is  stated  to  be  1  248.  The  provinces  situated  north 
of  the  River  Dalalven  embrace  about  one-third  of  the  saw-mills  of  the 
kingdom.  Numerically,  consequently,  they  do  not  preponderate,  but  the 
extent  of  their  output  is  so  much  the  greater. 

Staves  are  sawn  in  the  main  from  hard  wood.  As  far  as  re- 
gards the  chief  kinds  of  sawn  timber,  viz.,  deals,  battens  and  boards 
(planed  and  unplaned),  the  red  wood  goods  come  to  about  three-fifths  of 
the  whole,  and  the  white  wood  goods  to  about  two-fifths. 

In  the  preceding  pages,  we  have  already  referred  to  the  strong  influence 
that  the  company  system  has  had  on  the  development  of  the  saw-mill 
industry.   Among  the  1  248  saw-mills  and  planing-mills,  526  were  owned 


196 


IV.      FORESTRY. 


Table  35.  The  manufacture  of  the  most  important  Wood-wares  at  Saw-mills 
and  Pldning-mills  in  1912.   In  cubic  meters. 


Uuplaned 

deals, 

battens 

and  boards 


Planed 
boards 


Board 
and  deal- 
ends 


Lists 
and  laths 


Staves 

and 

handings 


Fuel- 
wood 


'  Total 

cubic 

meters! 


Stockholm  city 

Stockholm  Ian 

U-ppaala 

Sodermanland 

OstergStland  ...... 

Jonkoping 

Kronoberg 

Kalmar 

Grottland     . 

Blekinge     ....... 

Xristianstad 

Malmohns 

Halland 

Goteborg  och  Bohus  .   .    . 

Alvsborg     

Skaraborg 

Varmland 

Orebro 

Vastmanland 

Kopparberg 

Gavleborg 

Vasternorrland 

Jamtland 

Vasterbotten  ...  .  .  . 

Norrbotten 

The  whole  kingdom 


1897 

57  520 

194481 

60  066 

108  279 

81275 

79  788 

83  802 

1150 

9  344 

15  769 

6  780 

11  370 

50  484 

61960 

59  804 

324 195 

117  931 

85  039 

807  085 

641  208 

1  384  366 

71517 

333  836 

380  748 


3857 
21551 
29  622 
24  667 
33  931 
23  639 
21708 
25 193 

1827 

8  755 
634 

7  723 

5  798 

94  873 

19181 

10  517 

29  722 

16174 

20  345 

118  442 

224  605 

261 811 

42  779 

94  385 

9  839 


1719 
11056 
1765 
1011 
2153 
335 
3117 


56 


350 
220 

6  776 
1471 
1770 

7  209 
63  647 

174  758 

353 

59  059 

44  564 


115 
1512 

2  268 
511 
977 
981 

1543 
638 
160 
456 

3  595 
688 
220 

2  587 
1804 
498 
2  960 
2  805 
1116 

4  823 
8118 

28  689 

1621 

15  368 

13  738 


6  544 
303 

2  046 
441 

4326 

1656 

360 
2  885 
1839 

572 
1710 
1108 

4  681 
978 
673 

5  454 
26  631 
59  863 
15  483 
12848 
15960 


372 
18  492 
25  937 
25  210 
34  067 
29  535 
22  608 
18  709 
377 
3  360 

5  597 

6  540 
3  668 

14  770 
24  684 
21132 
76  636 
52  639 
45  064 
27  213 
26368 
150  825 

7  876 
3  338 

10833 


6241 

100  794 

369908 

112522 

180311 

138024 

130308 

133115 

3014 

22275 

2S536 

23520 

21628 

164421 

109037 

92171 

444970 

191998 

153907 

470226 

990577 

2060312 

139629 

518834 

475682 


4  529644  1151078  381389    97  791166261655  800  6981 


'    The  figures  do  not  inclnde  some  less  important  kinds  of  goods  (lath-  and  trellis  wood, 
etc.),  of  which  the  statistics  do  not  give  the  quantity  but  only  the  value. 


by  joint-stock  companies  (with  limited  liability)  and  227  by  other  companies 
—  thus  together  considerably  more  than  half.  The  preponderance  of  the 
companies  is,  however,  still  greater  than  is  shown  by  these  figures,  since 
nearly  all  the  largest  export  saw-mills  are  in  the  hands  of  companies, 
mostly  joint-stock  ones. 

The  following  survey  of  the  principal  saw-mills  will  show  their  situa- 
tion within  different  parts  of  the  country.^ 

Beginning  with  the  northernmost  Ian  of  Sweden,  and  omitting  a  few  mills' of 
minor  importance  in  the  Haparnnda  district  and  in  its  vicinity,  we  find  in  the 
parish  of  Neder-Kalix  the  Bdtskarsnas  or  Fortuna  saw-mill.  The  mill  is  pro- 
vided with  4  saw-frames,  edging-benches,  heading-machines,  etc.  and  ships  annu- 
ally about  8  000  standards  of  sawn  goods,  besides  a  large  quantity  of  charcoal 
etc.  In  the  same  parish  at  the  mouth  of  the  Kalix,  lies  Karkhorg,  belonging  to 
the  Baltiska' travaruaktiebolaget,  and  employing  10  saw-frames,  and  shipping 
about  20  000  standards  •  of  sawn  timber,  inclusive  of  timber  from  the  Siensborg 
saw-mills  in  the  Lulea  shipping-district,  belonging  to  the  same  company.    Some- 

'  Translation  of  some  Swedish  fexpressions.  Aktiebolag  =  joint-stock  company.  Boldg 
=  company  or  partnership.  Trdvaru  =  wood.  Sag  =  saw-mill.  Sdgverk  =  saw-mill. 
Angsag  =   steam  saw-mill. 


.     SAW-MILLS.  197 

what  farther  to  the  west  lies  Torefors,  with  3  saw-frames  and  an  annual 
shipment  of  8  000  standards  of  sawn  timber. 

In  the  district  of  Pited  lie  Munksund  and  Skuthamn  (owned  by  the  Munk- 
sund  Sagverksaktiebolag),  the  former  with  10  saw-frames  and  the  latter  with 
5,  and  shipping  altogether  about  18  000  standards.  Not  far  away  lies  the  Stor- 
fors  saw-mill,  belonging  to  a  joint-stock  company  of  the  same  name,  which 
also  owns  Brdnnfors,  in  the  Lan  of  Vasterbotten.  Its  shipments  probably  amount 
to  nearly  20  000  standards. 

In  the  lan  of  Vftsterbotten  we  find  Furuogrund,  owned  by  the  Ytterstfors 
travaruaktiebolag,  and,  in  the  vicinity  of  Skellefted,  the  important  saw-mills 
of  Sdvenas  and  Bjornsholmen,  which  are  owned  by  the  Savenas  Nya  Aktie- 
bolag;  altogether,  these  mills  have  an  output  of  about  15  000  standards.  Bure, 
belonging  to  the  company  of  the  same  name,  ships  about  12  000  standards  of  sawn 
timber  and  2  000  standards  of  planed  timber,  liobertsfors  is  a  water  (turbine-) 
saw-mill  with  5  frames  and  2  edging-benches.  At  the  mouth  of  the  Umed  lie 
Holmsund  and  Sandvik,  each  of  them  owned  by  a  separate  joint-stock  com- 
pany. Further  south,  in  the  parish  of  Nordmaling,  are  situated  Eundvik  (with 
8  saw-frames)  and  the  Mo  (or  Norrbyskaren)  dngsdg;  the  latter,  which  is  the 
largest  saw-mill  north  of  the  Sundsvall  district,  has  1  2  saw-frames  and  a  planing- 
mill  with  4  planing-machines ;  the  shipments  amount  to  about  20,000  standards. 
The  establishment  belongs  to  the  Mo  och  Domsjo  Aktiebolag. 

The  province  of  Jamtland,  being  distant  from  the  sea,  has  only  a  few  saw- 
mills of  importance.  The  principal  ones  are  Gallo  and  Trdng  (or  Trdngsviken); 
both  ship  their  products  largely  over  Norway. 

Vasternorrland,  on  the  other  hand,  is  distinguished  for  its  many  big  mills, 
only  a  few  of  which  can  here  be  mentioned.  Belonging  to  the  Ornskoldsvik 
shipping  district,  there  are  Jdrved,  with  9  saw-frames,  Kopinanholmen,  and  Dom- 
sjo, with  6  saw-frames,  a  planing-mill  with  2  planing-machines,  and  a  shipment 
of  9 — 10  000   standards;  it  is  owned  by  the  Mo  och  Domsjo  Aktiebolag. 

Along  the  AngermaiialTen  (the  district  of  Hamosand)  there  is  a  big  assem- 
blage of  large  saw-mills.  At  Nyland,  where  the  river  begins  to  be  navigable  for 
sea-going  vessels,  we  find  the  first  steam  saw-mUls.  Not  far  from  Nyland  lie 
Marieherg,  Koja,  and,  on  the  southern  bank,  Bollstn,  belonging  to  Graninge- 
verkens  Aktiebolag  and  shipping  about  12  000  standards  of  sawn  timber. 
Further  down  lie  Lugnvik  and  Hallsta;  Dal,  with  a  large  planing-mill;  Sando  on 
an  island  in  the  river;  Sandviken,  Stromnds,  Svano,  also  situated  on  an  island  in 
the  river,  and  Sprdngsviken,  both  of  which  latter  belong  to  the  same  company, 
and  finally,  KramforS,  the  largest  in  the  district,  with  12  saw-frames,  4  planing- 
machines,  edging-benches  and  heading  machines,  etc.;  its  shipments  amount  to 
more  than  20  000  standards.  Near  Hamosand  lie  Ulvvik  and  Lovvik,  shipping 
altogether  13  000  standards,  and  in  the  town  itself  there  is  Hdrnosands  dngsdg, 
belonging,  as  also  Bjorknas,  to  the  Bjorknas  Aktiebolag,  whose  annual  ship- 
ments are  estimated  at  about  17  000   standards. 

More  important  still  than  the  Hamosand  district  is  that  of  Sundsvall  (or 
Medelpad),  both  as  regards  the  magnitude  of  its  shipments  and,  particularly, 
the  prices  obtained  for  the  goods  shipped.  The  principal  saw-mill  owners  there 
are  the  Skonviks  Aktiebolag,  which,  among  other  mills,  run  the  great  steam 
saw-mills  of  Skonvik  and  Ostrand  (the  latter  recently  bumt  down),  each  with 
15  saw-frames,  besides  edging-machines,  planing-machines,  etc.  The  company 
was  organized  in  1861  and  has  had  a  most  successful  career,  at  the  same  time 
having  devoted  large  amounts  to  experiments  made  for  chemical  and  technical 
purposes.  Its  total  shipments  amount  to  about  23  000  standards  of  sawn  or 
planed  timber,   besides  fire-wood,  charcoal,  etc. 

Vivsta  varv,  north  of  Sundsvall,  is,  as  has  already  been  mentioned  in  another 


198 


IV.      FORESTRY. 


SAW-MILLS.  199 

connection,  the  oldest  steam  saw-mill  in  Sweden.  It  was  founded  in  1851,  but 
has  since  been  rebuilt  and  enlarged.  The  company  which  owns  it  has  been 
celebrated  for  its  dividends,  which  are  imique  in  Sweden  (amounting  to  as  much 
as  several  hundred  per  cent  per  annum  on  the  original  value  of  the  shares);  in 
1896  it  was  reorganized  into  a  company  with  limited  liability.  The  saw-mill  has 
12  saw-frames,  4  edging-benches  and  3  planing-machines,  and  its  shipments 
amount  to  more  than  18  000  standards. 

As  the  third  in  importance  of  the  great  saw-mills  in  this  district,  we  should 
mention  Svartvik,  situated  near  the  outlet  of  the  Eiver  Ljungan,  south  of 
Sundsvall.  It  has  12  saw-frames  and  5  planing-machines,  etc.  The  ship- 
ments are  estimated  at  about  16  000  standards,  of  which  6  000  standards 
consist  of  planed  wood.  Svartvik  was  formerly  owned  by  the  Dicksons,  of 
Gothenburg,  a  family  famous  in  the  history  of  the  timber  trade,  but  it  now 
belongs  to  the  Travarubolaget  Svartvik  (not  a  limited  company). 

J.  A.  Enhornings  Travaruaktiebolag  is  also  one  of  the  most  important 
timber  exporters,  owning  the  Kuhikenborg  mill  (with  8  saw-frames)  south  of 
Sundsvall,  and  the  so-called  Heffner  steam  saw-mills,  north  of  this  town.  Its 
estimated  shipments  amount  to  20  000  standards  of  sawn  timber,  and  5  000 
standards  of  planed  wood.  Besides  these,  we  need  only  mention  Mon  (the 
oldest  and  most  renowned  planing-mill  in  this  district),  Sund,  Johannedal, 
Klampenborg  and  Tunadal,  in  the  vicinity  of  Sundsvall;  on  Alno  island,  which 
protects  the  harbour  of  Sundsvall  from  the  sea-gales,  lie  Karlsmk,  Eriksdal, 
Oustavsherg,  Nacha,  Strand,  and  Hovvid,  and,  on  a  small  island  near  Alno,  is 
the  Horning sholm,  saw-mill. 

If  we  next  pass  on  to  Halsingland,  we  find  in  the  vicinity  of  Hndiksvall 
the  three  steam  saw-mills  Bergsjo,  Saltvih,  and  Hdstaholmen,  and  further  inland, 
Hybo,  all  of  which  belong  to  the  Hudiksvalls  travaruaktiebolag.  Of  their 
products,  about  30  000  standards,  a  large  proportion  (about  8  000  standards)  is 
sold  after  being  converted  into  planed  wood.     Further,  we  may  mention  StoaTca. 

In  the  Soderhamn  district  lie  Ala  and  Bergvik,  belonging  to  a  large  joint- 
stock  company  partly  working  with  English  capital.  Their  combined  shipments 
amount  to  about  10  000  standards  of  sawn  goods  and  50  000  railway  sleepers. 
The  Sandarne  planing-mill  and  the  Askesta  steam  saw-mill,  which  is  connected 
with  Sandarne  by  a  short  railway,  are  now  owned  by  Sandarne  Aktiebolag, 
in  which  the  above-mentioned  Bergvik  och  Ala  Nya  Aktiebolag  have  a  con- 
trolling interest;  the  shipments  are  estimated  at  12  000  standards  of  sawn  and 
5  000  standards  of  planed  wood.  Near  Askesta  lies  Marma,  Kdllskdr,  Langror, 
Asbacka;  and  further  inland,  Kilafors  and  Lottefors. 

The  GSvle  district;,  with  regard  to  the  export  of  sawn  timber,  is  not  far  behind 
the  Sundsvall  and  Hamosand  districts.  The  two  biggest  saw-mills  in  Europe 
belong  to  the  Gavle  district.  One  of  these  is  the  magnificent  establishment  of 
the  Korsnas  Sagverksaktiebolag,  (30  saw-frames),  situated  at  Bomhusvarvet 
(Kastet)  and  Lovharsudden  just  outside  Gavle,  having  been  removed  some  few 
decades  ago  to  its  present  site  from  Korsnas  in  Dalame  (whence  its  name). 
The  other  is  ShutsTcdr  in.  the  Lan  of  Uppsala;  (24  saw-frames),  which  resembles 
an  entire  town  and  has  a  very  good  harbour.  Both  mills  are  connected  with 
the  Dalalven  by  long  canals  for  floating  timber.  The  amount  stated  as  shipped 
from  each  place  is  above  40  000  standards. 

Skutskar  belongs  to  the  Stora  Kopparbergs  Bergslags  Aktiebolag,  which 
also  owns  Domnarvet  in  Dalarne  and  some  smaller  saw-mills.  Domnarvet  is 
principally  an  iron-works,  but  its  saw-mill,  which  is  driven  partly  by  water-power 
and  partly  by  electric-power  supplied  by  a  neighbouring  waterfall,  is  of  fairly 
great  importance  (9  saw-frames)  and  is  large  enough  to  employ  about  200  workmen. 
Further,    we    may  mention  Kopparbergs  och  Hofors  Sagverks  Aktiebolag, 


TIMBER  CUTTINIJ.  201 

which  owns  Norrsundet  in  Gastriklaud,  as  well  as  Nds  and  Linghed  in  Dalarne. 
EMnn  saw-mills  and  the  Siljan  saw-mills  lie  close  to  the  lakes  of  the  same  name. 

Most  of  the  other  exporting  saw-mills  in  Dalarne  have  Gothenburg  for  their  shipping 
port.  Generally  the  timber  is  transported  by  rail  to  Kristinehamn  on  Lake 
Vanem  and  from  there  in  covered  lighters  to  Gothenburg.  Among  these  saw- 
mills, we  may  here  mention  Vanshro,  Mora,  and  Saxriken.  The  exports  from 
the  majority  of  the  saw-mills  in  VSrmliiiid  and  Dalslaud  also  go  via  Gothen- 
burg; but  some  send  their  wood  over  Norvi^ay,  and  some  others  via  Uddevalla. 
Among  the  saw-mills  of  Varmland  the  most  notable  are  the  Karlstad  saw-mills, 
Orrholmen  and  Bergholmen,  both  near  Karlstad,  Munkfors  (belonging  to  the 
Uddeholms  Aktiebolag),  situated  farther  up  the  Klaralven,   and  Rdmen. 

The  South  of  Sweden  is,  with  respect  to  the  saw-mill  industrj',  far  behind 
the  provinces  previously  enumerated.  It  is  true  that  the  saw-mills  in  this  part 
of  the  country,  and  especially  in  the  Sm  aland  highlands,  are  very  numerous, 
being  found  here  even  in  greater  numbers  than  in  Norrland,  but  they  are 
mostly  small  —  sometimes  consisting  only  of  movable  locomobile  saws  —  adapted 
to  the  supply  of  local  needs,  and  contribute  but  small  quantities  for  export.  A 
few  of  them,  however,  do  business  on  a  scale  which  approaches  that  of  the 
Norrland  trade.  Such  are  Hellefors,  on  the  river  Svartalven  in  the  Lan  of 
Orebro,  Sparreholm  in  Sodermanland,  Norrhoping  export  planing-mills,  Blanka- 
holm  in  Kalmar  Lan,  and  Lessebo  in  Kronoberg  Lan.  The  saw-mills  of  Ctotheii- 
hurgr  and  its  vicinity  deserve  special  notice,  such  as  the  steam  saw-mills  belonging 
to  the  joint-stock  companies  of  Bark  &  Warburg,  F.  0.  Stromman  &  Lars- 
son,  Niels  Torelius,  Farjenas  and  the  Saveans  aktiebolag;  they  are  all 
connected  with  joinery  works,  however,  and  therefore  more  correctly  come  under 
the  woodmanufacturing  industry. 


Timber  (Jutting. 

In  order  to  obtain  the  necessary  raw  material  for  Ids  produce,  there 
are  several  different  courses  available  for  the  saw-mill  owner.  He  can 
either  purchase  forest-land  with  full  rights  of  ownership;  or  else  only- 
lease  the  right  of  cutting  timber  for  a  certain  term  over  a  certain  forest 
area;  or  buj'  the  trees  marked  with  the  crown  stamp  from  Crown  lands; 
or  finally,  buy  timber  from  owners  of  private  forests. 

In  the  "good  old  times",  about  two  hundred  years  ago,  everj'one  was  permitted 
to  cut  timber  (for  sawing)  in  the  extensive  Crown  forests  of  "Varmland,  Dalarne, 
and  Norrland.  During  the  eighteenth  century  this  privilege,  it  is  true,  was 
somewhat  restricted,  but,  nevertheless,  the  Crown  still  very  generously  granted 
privileges  for  the' establishment  of  saw-mills,  with  a  right  to  fell  timber  in  the 
Crown  forests,  a  privilege  which  was  called  "Stockf§,ng8t"  (see  p.  168).  Most 
frequently  this  "stockfangst"  was  restricted  to  a  certain  quantity,  and  sometimes 
reservations  were  made  protecting  the  exclusive  right  of  the  State  to  mast-trees  or 
the  like.  To  begin  with,  the  taxes  imposed  on  the  saw-mill  industry  also  included 
the  payment  for  the  forest  products  thus  used,  but  later  on  a  separate  charge 
was  levied  on  such  products,  under  the  name  of  "stubboresavgift"  (stumpage). 
This  charge  was,  however,  very  low,  varying  from  1/2  d.  to  2  V^  d.  per  tree; 
sometimes  it  was  payable  in  kind,  as  in  the  case  of  a  saw-mill  in  Vasterbotten, 
where  the  stumpage  for  the  privilege  of  felling  1  200  trees  annually  was  to 
consist  in  the  delivery  of  37  V^  dozen  plain  red  boards  and  6^/4  dozen  ship- 
deals.  After  1820,  these  grants  of  privileges  ceased,  and  of  late  years,  from  1870, 
the  Government  has  endeavoiired  to  abolish  them  altogether  by  offering  the  pri- 


202 


IV.      FORESTRY. 


vileged  saw-mills  the  right  to  cut  a  larger  quantity  of  timber  in  the  Crown 
forests  during  a  certain  limited  period,  on  condition  that  their  old  privilege  shall 
cease  at  the  expiration  of  this  term,  and,  consequently,  only  a  few  of  these 
privileged  saw-mills  still  exist  in  the  northernmost  lans. 


Log-cabin  for  Lumber-men. 


When  the  great,  modern  saw-mills  were  erected,  the  leading  men  of  the 
timber  trade  soon  recognized  the  fact  that  the  value  of  the  forests  would 
be  considerably  enhanced  if  floating-costs  were  lowered  (i.  e.,  by  re- 
gulating the  water-courses)  and  by  the  introduction  of  improved  methods 
of  work  at  the  saw-mills,  and  they  consequently  directed  their  attention 
to  securing  such  supplies  of  timber  as  seemed  necessary,  through  con- 
tracting with  private  individuals.  For  this  purpose,  contracts  were 
entered  into  with  private  landowners  or  village  communities,  giving  the 
saw-mill  owners  the  right  to  cut  timber  in  their  forests,  either  un- 
conditionally or  with  certain  restrictions.  The  terms  of  these  conces- 
sions varied.  By  the  legislation  then  in  force,  the  valid  duration  of  these 
compacts  was  limited  to  50  years  at  the  most,  and  this  was  also  the  term 
most  frequently  stipulated  in  these  contracts;  but  sometimes  they  were 
only  to  be  valid  for  one  decennium  or  more.  The  right  of  felling  was 
sometimes  altogether  unconditional,  at  other  times  restricted  to  trees  of 
certain  dimensions  varying  between  7  inches  in  diameter,  at  a  height  of 
fifteen  feet,  and  10  inches  at  a  height  of  20  feet;  sometimes  white 
fir  was  reserved  from  cutting  at  a  time  when  this  kind  of  timber  was 
still  considered  as  of  very  little  value.  No  doubt  these  regulations 
have  caused  some  confusion  in  certain  cases.  The  liquidation  of  these 
timber-purchases   was  generally   made  by  payment  of  a   lump-sum  for 


TIMBER   CUTTING. 


203 


the  whole  term  of  contract;  the  landowner  sometimes  also  stipulated 
for  the  payment  of  a  certain  annual  lease-rent  in  cash  or  cereals.  As 
a  rale,  the  saw-mills  procured  their  cutting-rights  at  very  cheap  rates. 
The  forests,  at  that  time,  had  so  little  value  that  the  peasants  burned 
off  vast  tracts  of  timber  land  simply  to  obtain  pasturage. 


^^R 

^^ 

W"                                                            ^^^^Hslfet 

*^m 

^.'■: 

i 

-^^^ 

Log  Transport  in  the  Forest. 


These  forest-purchases  formed  the  foundations  of  some  of  the  fortunes 
made  by  the  saw-mill  owners;  but  they  did  not  prove  advantageous  as  re- 
gards the  preservation  of  the  forests,  having,  on  the  contrary,  brought 
with  them  such  serious  disadvantages  that  they  have  called  for  the  special 
consideration  of  the  legislators.  A  speculator  who  by  contract  has  acquired 
the  right  to  fell  timber  in  the  forest  lands  of  another  person  for  a  cer- 
tain number  of  years  has,  of  course,  no  interest  in  caring  for  the  preserva- 
tion of  the  forest,  his  sole  aim  being  to  derive  the  greatest  possible  profit 
from  the  forest  during  the  term  of  the  contract;  and,  in  the  cases  where 
there  was  no  stipulation  made  as  to  minimum  dimensions,  the  immature 
timber  was  generally  taken  as  well.  But,  even  where  the  cutting-right 
was  not  unrestricted,  many  trees  were  felled  which  ought  to  have  been  left 
standing  as  seed  trees  or  for  other  reasons,  while  other  trees  which,  from 
a  sylvicultural  standpoint,  it  would  have  been  suitable  to  cut  down  were 
left  standing.  By  a  law  of  1889,  the  longest  term  for  wood-cutting 
leases  was  restricted  to  20  years.  (Since  the  beginning  of  1905  this  term 
is  limited  to  5  years.)  The  object  of  this  law,  was,  however,  only  im- 
perfectly realized.  Several  saw-mill  companies,  in  order  to  secure  forests 
sufficient  for  all   future  wants,   had  previously  to  this   already  begun 


204  IV.      POEESTRY. 

to  buy  up  the  properties  themselves,  and  this  movement  was  now  given 
a  new  impetus.  The  properties  thus  bought  from  the  peasants  generally 
consisted  of  a  large  tract  of  forest  land  and  a  small  area  of  cultivated 
or  cultivable  land.  Of  coarse,  the  purchaser  or  company  had  no  desire 
to  practise  agriculture,  but  the  arable  land  was  leased,  usually  to  the 
former  owner,  for  a  very  irconsiderajble  amount,  (sometimes  it  was 
given  free  of  rent)  on  condition  that  the  lessee  paid  the  taxes  due  on  the 
farm. 

For  the  care  and  preservation  of  the  forests,  it  has  undeniably  been  of 
advantage  that  .the  saw-mill  companies  obtained  the  possession  of  as  exten- 
sive forests  as  possible;  for  the  forests  of  which  these  companies  acquired  the 
ownership  have,  in  general,  with  a  view  to  their  future  preservation,  been 
managed  far  better  than  has  hitherto  usually  been  the  case  with  private  forests 
in  Sweden,  at  least  with  those  of  the  peasants.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
purchase  of  farms  entailed  a  most  serious  drawback,  inasmuch  as  the  agriculture 
on  the  companies'  farms  has  not  been  managed  as  it  ought.  The  state  of 
dependency  on  the  saw-mill  companies  into  which  the  farmers  easily  fell,  and  the 
danger  of  the  number  of  independent  farmers  decreasing  in  consequence  of  the 
purchase  of  the  farms  by  the  companies,  gave  rise  to  fresh  legislation,  first  in 
1896,  by  the  law  respecting  the  partition  of  lands,  which  made  it  possible  to 
purchase  forest  land  without  at  the  same  time  buying  the  cultivated  land  to 
which  the  said  woods  were  attached,  and,  later  on,  when  the  law  in  question 
proved  insufficient  for  its  purpose,  by  a  law  issued  in  1906,  which  forbade 
companies  and  associations,  in  certain  cases,  to  purchase  landed  property  (See 
the  article  on  Agricultural  Legislation,  Norrland  Laws). 

When  section-felling  does  not  take  place,  all  the  trees  to  be  felled  are 
specialls'  marked  or  stamped,  the  mark  being  struck  both  on  the  trunk 
and  at  the  root,  preferably  on  a  large  branch  of  the  root,  so  that  after 
felling  it  will  be  possible  to  verify  not  only  that  all  marked  trees  have 
been  felled,  but  also  that  no  others  have  been.  For  the  felling  of  trees 
in  the  forest,  the  owner  of  the  saw-mill  usually  makes  a  contract  with 
timber-drivers,  who  are  most  frequently  the  tenants  of  the  company  or 
farmers  from  the  vicinity.  If  possible,  the  owner  of  the  timber  has 
some  one  in  his  own  service  on  the  spot  to  see  that  the  timber  is  cross- 
cut into  proper  lengths;  in  most  cases  the  owner  himself  takes  steps  to 
have  timber  measured.  Where  the  working-place  is  too  far  from  a  village 
or  farm  for  the  workmen  to  live  there,  log-cabins  have  to  be  built  in 
the  forest. 

Usually,  timber  cutting  begins  in  October  or  November  and  continues 
all  the  winter.  This  season  of  the  year  offers  several  advantages:  the 
logs  can  then  most  uasily  be  brought  out  of  the  forest,  the  number  of 
workmen  available  is  greater,  as  farming  work  is  at  a  standstill,  and 
the  sawn  goods  from  timber  felled  in  winter  are  better.  It  is  customary 
to  begin  felling  operations  in  that  portion  of  the  forest  which  lies  furthest 
from  the  floating-way.  In  order  to  facilitate  the  transport  of  the  timber, 
a  large  number  of  roads  and  tracks  have  to  be  made  in  the  woods. 
The  chief  roads  are  made  as  carefully  and  as  substantialls'  and  as  wide 


FLOATr^"s.  205 

as  possible,  great  care  also  being  taken  to  keep  tkem  in  good  condition; 
sometimes  they  are  iced  over  artificially,  by  pouring  water  over  them. 
From  these  chief  roads  side-tracks  branch  off  to  the  interior  parts  of  the 
sections  appointed  for  felling.  In  Northern  Sweden,  with  its  snowj-  win- 
ters, it  is  chiefly  winter-roads  or  sledge-roads  that  are  made. 

In  these  times  of  competition,  the  old  prodigal  method  of  felling  the  tree  a 
couple  of  feet  above  the  ground,  has  been  almost  entirely  abandoned,  and  now 
the  tree  is  sawn  off  as  near  the  surface  of  the  ground  as  possible,  and  the  snow, 
which  may  be  sometimes  one  yard  deep,  must  be  shovelled  away,  so  as  to  give 
the  workmen  sufficient  room  to  run  the  saw.  The  latter  tool  has  supplanted 
the  axe  in  the  felling  operations,  as  more  timber  is  wasted  in  chips  by  hewing. 
After  the  tree  has  been  felled,  it  is  "adapted"  or  cross-cut  into  one  or  more 
logs  of  suitable  length.  Logs  for  sawing  axe  taken  of  a  top-diameter  of  as 
little  as  five  inches  for  white  wood,  or  six  inches  for  red  wood,  at  a  length  of 
15  feet.  The  farther  from  the  coast,  the  larger  the  logs  must  be,  in  order  to 
pay  for  their  transport.  Building-timber  ought  to  be  at  least  seven  inches  in 
diameter  at  the  top,  and  the  lengths  are  generally  from  28  to  32  feet.  Balks 
ought  to  be  of  at  least  8  inches'  diameter  in  the  middle  when  dressed,  but  the 
length  may  vary.  Smaller  squared  logs  are  called  rafters.  Whatever  cannot  be 
converted  into  larger  or  more  valuable  timber  is  cut  up  into  fuel-wood,  where 
there  is  a  market  for  it. 

The  most  usual  means  for  transporting  logs  is  by  using  a  sledge.  Formerly, 
the  timber  was  carried  on  two  sledges  in  tandem,  of  very  simple  construction, 
consisting  of  only  a  pair  of  runners,  an  intermediate  frame,  and  a  cross-piece 
joining  the  uppermost  or  front  points  of  the  runners.  Nowadays,  the  rear  sledge 
is  usually  made  longer  in  order  to  avoid  tearing  up  the  road.  In  this  manner 
tremendous  loads,  10  to  12  logs  each  18  feet  long,  can  be  drawn  on  the  smooth 
winter-roads  by  one  horse.  In  upper  Norrland  reindeer  are  sometimes  used  for 
hauling  out  timber.  In  such  places  in  the  forests,  luckily  very  rare,  where 
draught-animals  cannot  be  used,  the  only  means  of  removing  the  logs  is  by  hand, 
and  the  logs  are  then  slid,  top-end  first,  down  steep  slopes,  if  the  snow  is  suffi- 
ciently deep.  Wheeled  vehicles  are  used  in  transporting  timber  only  on  good 
roads,  and,  of  course,  only  when  the  ground  is  bare  of  snow. 


Floating. 

Some  saw-mills  are  fortunate  enough  to  have  forests  so  near  at  hand 
that  some  of  the  timber  can  be  carted  direct  to  the  mill.  A  considerable 
quantity  of  timber  is  also  transported  by  rail.  Floating  is,  however,  the 
most  important  means  of  conveying  timber,  and  it  is  considered,  besides, 
to  have  certain  advantages.  Coarse  red  wood  timber  which  has  lain  in 
water  a  few  months  is  less  liable  to  warp,  or  get  "shaken",  than  if  sawn 
immediately  after  felling.  The  floated  timber,  freed  from  sap  and  resin, 
is,  too,  eaiser  to  work  and  has  a  more  even  colour,  while  that  which  is 
not  floated  is  supposed  to  be  more  durable.  Opinions  differ  somewhat 
in  this  respect  in  different  places;  England  will  take  only  floated  timber, 
as  it  has  been  freed  from  sap  and  resin;  other  countries,  like  Germany  and 
Denmark  and  the  south  of  Sweden,  are  just  as  willing  to  take  unfloated 
timber.  —  Besides  the  timber  intended   for  the  saw-mills,   quite   a  con- 


206  IV.      FORESTRY. 

siderable  quantity  of  beams  or  balks,  oharcoal-wood,  pulpwood,  and,  in 
some  cases,  even  fueljwood,  is  transported  by  floating. 

If  it  were  not  for  the  floating-ways,  it  would,  in  many  cases,  be 
impossible  to  make  use  of  the  forest-products  from  the  interior  of  the 
country  otherwise  than  for  local  needs.  Sweden's  prominent  position 
in  the  world's  timber  trade  depends,  therefore,  to  a  certain  degree  upon 
the  numerous  rivers  and  their  suitability  as  floating-ways.  In  general, 
the  rivers  of  Sweden  run  towards  the  south-east,  south,  or  south-west,  a 
matter  of  great  importance  for  the  floating  of  timber  as,  in  consequence 
of  this  trend  of  the  rivers,  the  melting  of  the  snow  and  ice  begins  first 
at  the  mouths  of  the  rivers  and  proceeds  gradually  up  stream.  This 
makes  the  ice-drift  and  the  flood-water  of  less  extent  than  in  the  case 
of  rivers  the  course  of  which  is  to  the  north.  As  a  rule,  the  banks  of 
the  Swedish  rivers  are  so  high  that  the  water  does  not  flood  the  sur- 
rounding country  even  when  the  rivers  are  highest,  and  so  floating  can 
proceed  at  this  period,  too.  The  large  rivers  of  JN'orrland  and  Dalame, 
whose  sources  are  in  the  high  mountain  ranges,  have  such  a  constant 
supply  of  water,  owing  to  the  melting  of  the  snow  on  the  mountains,  that 
floating  can,  as  a  rule,  be  carried  on  all  through  the  summer.  As  regards 
the  waterways  of  Southern  Sweden  used  for  floating,  as  well  as  the 
smaller  rivers  and  tributaries  of  Northern  Sweden,  where  the  supply  of 
water  is  sufficient  only  during  the  time  of  the  spring  floods,  the  lakes  and 
mountain  tarns  through  which  they  run  have  frequently  been  transformed 
into  adjustable  water-reservoirs  in  the  service  of  the  floating  by  means 
of  relatively  cheap   dams. 

There  is  a  distinction  made  between  public  and  private  floating-ways.  Nearly 
all  the  main  waters  in  Northern  Sweden  are  public  floating-ways,  and  so  are 
many  of  the  tributaries.  Private  floating-ways  now  occur  almost  exclusively  in 
such  cases  where  all  the  forests  from  which  timber  is  to  be  floated  down  the 
water-courses  belong  to  a  single  owner.  Public  floating-ways  are  constructed, 
after  application  to  the  Governor  of  the  Ian,  by  one  or  several  of  the  forest 
owners  interested  therein.  The  line  of  the  floating-way  is  then  inspected  by  a 
functionary  appointed  by  the  Governor  of  the  Ian.  The  riparian  owners,  and 
others  whose  interests  may  be  affected  by  the  proposed  regulation  of  the  water- 
way, having  been  consulted,  it  is  then  desided  what  constructions  are  to  be 
made,  what  amortization  is  to  be  paid  in  consequence,  how  the  floating-course 
shall  be  divided  into  sections,  and  when  the  construction  is  to  take  place.  After 
the  work  has  been  completed,  the  final  inspection  takes  place,  and  the  floating- 
way  is  declared  open;  simultaneously,  the  Governor  of  the  Ian  issues  regulations 
for  a  Floating  Company,  which  has  to  superintend  the  floating  and  debit  the 
expenses  to  the  respective  floaters;  these  costs  include  the  amortization  of  the 
building-expenses  of  the  floating-way. 

Some  of  our  large  rivers  are  used  for  timber  floating,  in  larger  or  smaller 
portions  of  their  course,  without  any  alteration,  and  in  the  very  same  condition 
that  Nature  created  them.  For  the  regulation  of  the  tributaries,  proportionately 
more  work  and  expense  are  generally  required,  and,  consequently,  they  have  been 
adapted  to  floating  at  a  later  date  than  the  main  rivers  were.  At  present  most  of 
them,  probably,  are  cleared,  but  there  are  a  few  which  are  still  untouched. 
Whether  it  will  pay  to  form  a    floating-way   or  not,  depends  on  the  amount  of 


FLOATING.  207 

timber  which  can  be  expected  to  be  floated  down  it,  and  on  the  costs  of 
regulation.  As  a  rule,  it  may  be  said  that  it  pays  to  adapt  even  quite  small 
water-courses  to  this  purpose. 

In  the  main  waters  of  a  large  river  the  work  of  making  a  floating-way  con- 
sists principally  in  blasting  away  rocks  which  form  obstructions,  building  wooden 
troughs  to  regulate  streams  or  waterfalls  or  to  narrow  the  water-course,  building 
facings  along  such  river-banks  as  are  specially  liable  to  get  washed  out,  and 
placing  booms  to  guide  the  floating  timber  in  the  desired  direction,  thus 
protecting  low  meadows,  mills  and  other  water-works,  bridge-piers,  and  the 
like.  In  these  large  rivers,  and  also  in  such  smaller  watercourses  as  flow 
direct  into  the  sea,  sorting-booms  are  placed  at  the  mouths,  where  the 
floated  timber  is  sorted  according  to  the  marks  it  bears,  after  which  it 
is  delivered  to  its  respective  owners.  In  the  smaller  rivers,  besides  the  above 
arrangements,  it  is  frequently  necessary  to  build  dams  to  regulate  the  depth  of 
the  water,  as,  since  these  water-courses,  unlike  the  large  rivers,  are  not  fed  by  the 
melting  snow  in  the  high  mountains,  they  would  otherwise  contain  sufficient 
water  for  floating  only  during  the  spring  floods.  The  dams  are  built  either  at 
the  outflow  of  these  rivers  from  some  lake  or  tarn,  which  by  damming  can 
be  used  as  a  reservoir  (which  is  the  most  usual  manner),  or  at  the  lower 
end  of  some  swamp,  which  is  then  made  to  serve  the  same  purpose,  or  else 
in  some  part  of  the  water-course  that  runs  more  slowly  (dead  water).  The  dams, 
as  a  rule,  consist  of  stone  coffers,  strengthened  in  the  front  by  banks  of  earth.  In 
the  dam  there  are  made  openings,  which,  by  means  of  hatches,  can  be  entirely 
or  partially  closed,  whereby  the  height  of  water  can  be  regulated.  A  special 
opening  (the  outlet-sluicer  or  "shoot")  is  made  in  the  dam  for  the  escape  of  the 
logs.  Like  the  other  openings  it  is  provided  with  timbered  walls  and  a  some- 
what sloping  floor  of  round  timber. 

Floating-channels  (flumes)  can,  as  a  rule,  not  be  dispensed  with  in  the  smaller 
floating-ways.  A  precipitous  stream  with  small  water-supply,  a  large  fall,  an  irregular 
river-bed  with  large  stones  at  the  bottom,  —  such  conditions  make  floating 
channels  indispensable.  The  trough  or  flume  is  made  of  timber  and  is  either 
supported  by  trestles  or  by  beds  of  timber  or  stone,  the  latter  being  employed 
when  the  flume  lies  low.  In  certain  places  (in  Dalarne)  the  wooden  channels 
have  been  superseded  by  flumes  of  sheet  iron,  which  have  proved  very  practical. 
—  To  ensure  good  floating,  a  tolerably  equal  depth  of  water  should  be  maintained 
all  through  the  channel,  and,  consequently,  the  channel  must  be  made  narrower 
where  its  slope  is  greater.  The  width  should  be  relatively  large  at  the 
beginning  of  the  channel  and  then  decrease  somewhat,  because  part  of  the  water 
is  always  lost  by  evaporation  and  leakage.  The  width  and  depth  of  the  channel, 
too,  are  adapted  to  the  supply  of  water  and  the  quantity  of  timber  to  be  floated. 
An  incredibly  large  quantity  of  timber  can  be  conveyed  in  a  well-built  floating- 
channel,  even  if  the  dimensions  of  the  flume  are  not  considerable. 

In  front  of  the  inlet  of  the  channel  there  are  leader-booms,  so  that  the 
■  timber  is  carried  forward  by  the  current  toward  the  opening,  where  there  are 
always  workmen  posted,  however,  to  regulate  the  entrance  of  the  logs,  which 
should  enter  the  channel  evenly  and  so  slowly  that  they  do  not  accumulate  in 
such  numbers  as  to  burst  the  channel.  By  means  of  a  system  of  signals 
it  .  is  possible  to  give  notice,  if  necessary,  from  any  part  of  the  channel 
when  the  feeding-in  of  the  logs  is  to  be  interrupted.  The  lower  end  of  the 
channel  has  a  slight  slope,  so  that  the  logs  will  not  strike  against  the 
bottom  when  they  leave  the  flume.  If  the  water-course  is  shallow  here,  there 
is  built  below  the  trough  of  the  channel  a  "sliding  bottom",  of  round  timber, 
over  which  the  logs  slide;  this  flooring,  consequently,  receives  the  first  shock 
of  the  issuing  logs. 


208  IV.      FORESTRY. 

Other  constructions  also  occur  in  the  floating-ways,  such  as  fascine-coffers, 
canals  dug  in  the  ground,  etc.  The  most  important  means  for  clearing  or 
regulating  the  floating-waj's  is,  however,  by  the  blasting  of  rocks,  and  their 
subsequent  removal  from  the  bed. 

The  work  of  floating  commences  simultaneously  with  the  breaking 
up  of  the  ice  in  spring.  On  the  smaller  floating-ways,  especially,  it 
is  important  to  make  good  use  of  time;  in  certain  cases,  one  day's 
delay  may  be  the  cause  of  part  of  the  logs  remaining  unfloated  till  the 
next  year.  The  same  result  may  ensue  if  the  number  of  workmen  for 
drivers)  is  insufficient.  The  timber  may  be  floated  separately  or  united 
in  rafts;  the  latter  method  of  floating  being  especially  used  when  the 
stream  is  not  very  rapid.  If  the  timber  is  laid  up  on  the  ice  in  some 
lake  or  marsh,  it  is  enclosed  by  booms  of  heavy  logs,  chained  together, 
so  as  to  form  a  ring-boom  or  "halter",  frequently  enclosing  several 
thousand  logs.  This  ring-boom  is  either  towed  by  a  steam-tug  or  else 
warped  along  by  means  of  a  capstan  placed  on  a  raft  especially  built 
for  the  purpose. 

When  the  timber  has  entered  the  floating-way,  it  is  necessary  to  keep  it 
clear  of  the  land  by  means  of  boat-hooks  (driving  poles),  to  increase  its  speed 
in  certain  cases,  and  to  prevent,  as  much  as  possible,  the  forming  of  "jambs", 
or  blocking.  Wherever  such  jambing  occurs,  the  logs  must  be  loosened,  which 
may  be  not  only  a  difficult  task,  but  a  dangerous  one,  too.  If  it  is  possible 
to  find  the  log  which  has  caused  the  jamb,  it  is  sufficient  to  chop  it  off,  after 
which  the  heaped  timber  comes  adrift  again  of  itseK  and  disperses;  otherwise 
the  logs  have  to  be  hauled  out  of  the  jamb  one  by  one.  However,  it  is  now 
rare  that  fatal  accidents  occur  at  this  work.  —  On  all  floating-ways  a  large 
number  of  hands  are  stationed  at  the  upper  part  of  the  way  to  break  loose  the 
logs  which,  in  floating,  have  got  lodged  or  fastened  along  the  bank  (bank- 
jambs).  When  this  work  has  been  carried  down  as  far  as  to  the  sorting- 
booms,  the  general  floating  is  finished  for  the  year.  In  most  water-courses 
there  is  now  time  for  the  logs  to  reach  the  saw-mills  during  the  course  of 
the  first  summer  after  they  are  felled,  while,  formerly,  before  the  floating- 
ways  were  regulated,  it  was  usual  for  the  logs  to  be  two  or  even  three  sum- 
mers on  their  way  through  the  water-courses.  The  loss  of  timber  in  floating 
does  not  even  amount  to  one  per  cent,  in  some  Norrland  rivers. 

Usually  the  floating-way  is  divided  into  sections,  and  the  cost  is  calculated 
separatelj'  for  each  section.  The  floating  in  the  upper  sections  is  relatively  more 
expensive  than  in  the  lower  ones. 

A  fairly  good  idea  can  be  gained  of  the  importance  of  the  timber  float- 
ing-network of  Sweden,  when  we  learn  that  the  total  length  of  these  float- 
ing-ways is  estimated  at  about  29  000  kilometers.  Some  23  000  kilometers 
of  this  belong  to  the  general  floating-ways,  and  about  6  000  kilometers 
to  the  private  ones.  The  floating-ways  are  of  greatest  importance  in 
Northern  Sweden,  where,  in  Norrland  alone,  they  amount  to  more  than 
23  000  kilometers,  while  in  Dalarne  they  come  to  about  3  000  kilometers. 

The  expense  of  establishing  these  floating-ways  can  be  estimated  as 
having  been  about  60  million  kronor.    This  sum  does  not  include  working- 


SAWING    AND    EXPORT.  209 

expenses  and  up-keep,  the  cost  of  whicli  is  an  annual  charge  on  the  timber 
floated.  In  consequence  of  its  cheapness,  floating  becomes  a  very  important 
factor  in  the  timber  trade.  It  is  true  that  the  cost  of  floating  varies  very 
greatlj'  in  different  floating-waj's,  and  also  in  consequence  of  various 
circumstances,  such  as  the  suppl:\-  of  water,  the  amount  of  timber  floated, 
etc.  For  the  larger  floating-ways,  however,  the  expenses  are  estimated 
as  varying  between  3  and  1-1  ore  per  new  Swedish  mile  (six  English 
miles),  per  cubic  meter  timber,  fast  measure.  In  the  case  of  smaller 
floating-ways  the  corresponding  expenses  can  be  many  times  larger.  The 
expenses  quoted  for  the  large  floating-ways  are  considerably  lower  than 
the  freight-charges  for  the  transport  of  round  timber  by  rail.  The  freight 
charges  per  whole  railway-truck,  per  cubic  meter  of  timber,  per  new 
Swedish  mile  (10  km),  amount  to: 

17  ore  for  a  distance  amounting  to  15  new  Swedish  miles 

21  ...         .  .  .    10      .  .  ; 

28  »      »    >         >  »  >      5      »  .  . 

59  »      .    »         .  »  »     1      i  »  -, 

The  exceptional  condition  prevails  with  regard  to  the  floating-ways 
that  the  average  expense  of  the  floating  of  timber  per  length-unit  of 
floating-waj-,  when  the  timber  is  transported  through  two  or  more  se- 
parate districts,  becomes  proportionally  larger  the  greater  the  distance 
the  timber  is  floated;  as  a  rule,  it  costs  more  in  the  upper  reaches  of  the 
floating-ways  than  in  the  lower  districts. 

There  exist  no  uniform  reports  respecting  the  amount  of  the  timber 
tvhich  is  floated  doivn.  As  a  rule,  the  timber  thus  floated  is  reckoned 
by  the  piece,  varying  in  proportion  to  the  cubic  mass,  whether  it 
be  sawn  timber  or  other  timber  reduced  to  floating-units  (Sw.  klam- 
jar)  which  vary  according  to  tha  floating-wa3^s.  In  the  case  of  most 
of  the  floating- ways,  these  floating-units  do  not  correspond  to  a  fixed 
■cubic  mass,  but,  during  the  last  few  years,  the  expenses  of  floating 
liave  begun  to  be  calculated  per  cubic-unit  of  the  timber.  By 
this  means  it  will  gradually  become  possible  to  obtain,  among  other 
things,  fairly  satisfactory'  statistics  respecting  the  amount  of  timber 
liandled.  —  During  the  first  few  years  of  the  present  century,  some  40 
million  pieces  of  timber  were  floated  everjr  year  in  Norrland,  Dalarne,  and 
Yarmland  together.  The  corresponding  figure  for  1912  is  estimated 
at  about  90  millions.  During  the  last  few  decades,  the  dimensions  of 
the  timber  floated  have  been  on  the  decrease,  this  being  the  result,  in 
ihe  first  place,  of  the  increased  floating  of  pulpwood  and  pit-props. 

For  particulars  concerning  water-courses  etc.,  see  the  article  on  Hydrograhpy, 
TD.  I,  20. 

Sawing  and  Export. 

When  the  floated  timber  has  reached  the  saw-mill,  it  must  first  pass  the 
■sorting-booms,  where  it  is  sorted  according  to  size  (into  deal-logs,  batten-logs, 
■etc.).     By  means  of  a  windlass  or  capstan,  the  logs  are  now  hauled  up  a  sloping 

li— 133179.  Sweden  U. 


210 


IV.      FORESTRY. 


bridge  into  the  mill.  One  end  of  the  log  is  then  attached  to  a  frame  on  wheels 
("log-carriage"),  while  the  other  end  rests  on  a  cylinder  or  roller  near  the 
saw-blades.  The  latter  are  stretched  in  a  strong  swing-frame,  which  runs  up 
and  down  in  the  bearings  of  a  pair  of  upright  frames.  The  movement  of  the 
swing-frame  is  produced  by  a  rod ,  secured  to  the  lower  edge  of  the  frame, 
whose  other  end  is  connected  with  a  crank,  which  is  caused  to  rotate  by  wheels. 
By  means  of  gearing  connected  with  these,  the  log-carriage  is  led  forward, 
while  the  sawing  is  going  on.  The  number  of  saw-blades  in  a  frame  depends, 
npon  the  size  of  the  logs  and  the  thickness  of  the  boards  to  be  sawn,  so  that 
the  log  is  sawn  up  into  boards  at  its  first  passage  through  the  frame,  unless 
square-sawing  is  adopted,  which  is  frequently  the  case  with  large  logs;  in  this 
case,  the  logs  are  first  sawn  on  two  outer  sides  before  the  sawing  proper  begins 
in  the  next  frame.  On  account  of  the  evenness  of  Swedish  timber,  it  has  not 
been  found  necessary  to  make  use  of  band-saws,  the  working  up  of  the  logs 
being  made  almost  everywhere  by  gang-saws,  which,  in  its  simplest  form,  is  of 
the  kind  described  above;  at  large  saw-mills  with  modern  appliances,  special 
machines  are  often  used  to  perform  the  work  more  rapidly. 


m 

■ 

»j53 

.  .■>  '^'I&i;:'^ 

■:>M 

! 

Transporting  Timber  to  the  Lumber-yard. 


The  saw-blades  are  changed  every  time  a  new  dimension  is  to  be  sawn. 
In  this  respect  the  large  saw-mills  have  an  advantage,  as  they  can  with  more 
facility  saw  several  dimensions  at  a  time  without  needing  to  change  frames  so 
frequently.  The  old  saw-blades  were  rather  thick  and  had  a  long  stroke,  so  that 
they  consequently  worked  slowly  and  wasted  much  timber  (about  10  %).  On 
account  of  the  increased  prices  of  timber,  and  under  the  influence  of  competition, 


SAWING   AND   EXPORT.  211 

Value  of  the  Export  of  unwrought,  hewn,  and  sawn  Timber,  1871 — 1911. 


Tear  1871 


however,  great  efforts  have  been  made  to  remedy  these  deficiencies  as  much  as 
possible.  The  saw-blades  are  now  made  quite  thin,  and  consequently  they  require 
a  smaller  "set"  (the  alternate  inclination  of  the  saw-teeth  sideways),  and  give  less 
saw-dust,  but  a  smoother  surface.  —  After  the  logs  have  passed  through  the  frames 
and  have  been  cut  into  boards,  they  are  finished  by  edging,  the  boards  being 
then  passed  between  the  two  circular  saws  of  the  edging-machine. 

The  boards  or  deals  are  now  arranged  according  to  their  different  dimen- 
sions, and,  where  necessary,  are  sorted  according  to  quality,  after  which  they  are 
run  into  the  lumber-yard  on  trolley-cars  and  piled  up  in  stacks  to  dry.  The 
dimensions  of  sawn  wood  can  vary  between  12  in.  (Engl.)  by  4  in.  down  to 
1  in.  by  ^/2  in.  The  most  usual  kinds  are  deals,  battens,  and  hoards,  which 
are  also  the  largest  dimensions;  there  are  also  scantlings,  planchettes,  fence  pales, 
glass-box  boards,  slatings,  and  staves,  which  are  made  in  special  stave  machines, 
from  the  waste  resulting  from  frame-sawing  (laths  and  slabs). 

Timber  of  good  quality  is  characterized  by  the  wood  being  sound  and 
as  far  as  possible  free  from  knots,  and  by  its  being  close-grained.  This 
quality  depends  upon  the  shape  which  the  trunk  of  the  tree  had  (a 
"pillar-shaped"  tree  gives  the  best  timber),  and  upon  its  being  cut  before 
its  growing  capacity  has  essentially  ceased.  Many  things  may  deteriorate 
the  quality  of  the  wood,  e.  g.  "discolouration",  which  arises  from  fermen- 
tation of  tlie  sap;  cracks  or  warping  ("shakes"),  v/hich  are  caused  by 
uneven  seasoning,  or  else  depend  upon  the  tree  being  too  old,  and  "wane", 
caused  in  sawing.  —  Sorting  is  a  very  important  work,  and  the  men  who 
perform  it,  the  brackers  (klampare)  receive  higher  wages  than  others. 

Sawn  timber,  especially  red  wood,  is  sorted  according  to  quality  into 
firsts,  seconds,  thirds,  fourths,  and  fifths.  White  wood  is  often  shipped 
unsorted.  —  In  addition  to  the  French  sorting,  as  it  is  called,  there  was 
formerly  employed  another  classification  for  shipments  to  English-speak- 
ing countries,  where  a  distinctioii  was  made  between  "mixed"  (this 
properly  signifying  seconds  with  a  mixture  of  firsts),  3rds,  4ths,  5ths, 
6ths,  and  "wrack"  or  "wreck"  (wrack-refuse).     Consequently,  3rds  in  the 


212 


IV.       FORESTRY. 


Table  36.     Sweden's  Exports  of  unwrought,  heivn,  and  sawn  Timber,  accor- 
ding to  kind.     Cubic  meters. 


Kinds  of  goods 

Annually 
1886-90 

Annually 
1891-96 

Annually 
1896—00 

Annually 
1901—06 

Annually 
1906—10 

Tear 
1911 

Year 
1912 

Timber  and  masts.'  . 

Spars  and  small  tim- 
ber      

Beams  or  balks  ^     .    . 

Rafters 

Pitprops 

Sleepers 

Staves  

Fuel-wood 

Deals,  battens  and 
boards",  un- 
planed     .    . 

Planed  boards'  .    .    . 

Deal-  and  boardends. 

Other  kinds    .... 

Total 

155  543 

32  586 
103  279 
178  099 
513  749 

11490 
44  400 
93  484 

3  561  999 
193  210 
283  362 

33  070 

118  445 

52  553 
75  774 
224  464 
744  891 
10  820 
46  822 
95144 

3  894  857 

273  993 

352  558 

63145 

75380 

69  306 
67  953 
258 146 
871 391 
48  056 
47  246 
72  559 

4  371394 
467  290 
372  010 
101 407 

71779 

133  484 
60  032 
310  514 
965  634 
42  916 
65  606 
70  619 

3  940  514 
580 193 
384  884 
126  579 

45  254 

180  690 
45  747 
346  951 
622  892 
61547 
88  395 
49  053 

3  605  628 
571 287 
328  795 
105  752 

14  316 

179  091 
48  049 

310 100 

524217 
43  760 

111  913 
30  287 

3  530  437 
687  599 
314  935 
255  208 

24772 

158454 
41540 

328  654 

440192 
81094 

128  751 
31006 

4  024326 

656212 

303241 

78526 

5  204271 

5  953  4«6 

6  822138 

6  752  754 

6051991 

6  049912 

6296  768 

'  Measuring   25   centimeters    or   more    in    diameter   at   the    small    end.    —  '  Measuring 
20  centimeters  or  more  at  the  middle.  —  "  Including  box-boards. 


English  classification  corresponded  to  secunds  in  the  French.  —  Timber 
from  Dalarne  and  Southern  Norrland  ("Nederbotten")  generally  yields 
more  first-class  wood  than  that  from  Overbotten,  "the  Upper  Gulf",  or 
the  districts  north  of  Umea. 

The  time  during  which  the  timber  must  lie  and  season  is  of  varying 
length,  depending  partly  upon  the  time  of  the  year,  partly  on  the  kind 
of  wood  (white  wood  seasoning  quicker  than  red  wood),  and  partly  upon 
the  country  for  which  the  sawn  wood  is  intended;  the  wood  to  be  shipped 
to  the  tropics  needs  to  season  longer  than  other  wood,  as  does  the  wood 
intended  for  planing. 

Before  the  wood  is  ready  for  shipping,  it  must  also  be  given  the  desired 
length.  It  is  true  that,  immediately  after  the  felling  of  the  trees,  the 
logs  have  been  cut  into  certain  given  lengths,  but  during  the  process  of 
floating  or  in  transportation,  they  have  got  damaged  or  worn  at  the  ends; 
and  therefore  the  logs  are  cut  about  12  inches  longer  (wearing  allowance) 
than  the  length  stipulated  for  delivery.  Besides,  in  case  any  blemishes,  e.  g- 
dry  rot  or  wane,  happen  to  occur  near  the  end  of  a  board,  it  is  more  ad- 
vantageous to  cut  it  off,  so  as  to  get  a  somewhat  shorter  board  of  perfect 
quality  and  also  a  board  (or  board  end)  of  inferior  quality.  For  this 
reason  the  sawn  goods  are  marked  with  a  line  showing  where  they  are  to 
be  cut  off.  After  having  thus  been  adjusted,  they  are  cut  off  by  means 
of  a  cross-cutting  saw.  This  cross-cutting  may  be  done  hy  hand  and  is 
not  infrequentlj'-  done  in  that  way,  but  at  the  large  saw-mills  electric 
cross-cutting  machines  are  used  and  electric  feed-rollers,  on  which  the 
boards  are  run  automaticallj-  from  the  stacks  to  the  crosscutting  saws. 


SAWING   AND   EXPORT. 


213 


Several  saw-mills  are  combined  with  planing-mills.  In  Sweden  there 
are  comparatively  few  planing-mills  worked  independently. 

Eor  the  better  utilization  of  the  waste,  many  saw-mills  have  established 
charcoal  works  and  wood-pulp  works.  For  the  latter  see  under  Wood- 
Pulp  Manufacture. 

As  will  be  seen  by  Tables  36  and  37,  the  principal  articles  of  export 
among  wood-wares  are  sawn  products:  deals,  battens,  and  boards.  Great 
Britain  is  the  most  important  purchaser  of  these  goods,  and  next  comes, 
in  ordinary  years,  France;  among  other  importing  countries  may  be  men- 
tioned Germany,  the  Netherlands,  Belgium,  Denmark,  and  South  Africa. 
For  planed  boards,  besides  Great  Britain,  Denmark,  the  Netherlands, 
South  Africa,  and  Australia  are  the  most  important  markets.  In  several 
of  the  countries  of  the  European  continent  the  import  of  planed  boards  is 
hampered  by  high  duties.  —  Firewood  or  splittvood  (more  properly  termed 
deal-  and  board-ends,  not  more  than  2  meters  in  length)  consists  of  such 
serviceable  pieces  as  are  left  after  the  sorting.  The  quantity,  of  course,  de- 


Tablb  37.     Exports  in  1912  of  umvrought,  hewn,  and  saivn  Timber,  accor- 
ding to  Customs  districts.     Cubic  meters. 


Norrland : 

Deals,  bat- 
tens and 
boards 
(includ.  box- 
boards), 
unplaned 

Planed 
boards  (in- 
clud.  box- 
boards) 

Beams 
and  raf- 
ters 

Round 
timber 

Pit- 
props 

other 
kinds 

Total 
cubic- 
meters 

Haparanda 

Lulel 

i  350  932 

56 

45  946 

12 

1669 

38  614 

437  219 

Pitea 

1 

Skelleftea, 

Umea 

Ornskiildsvik  .... 

Harnosand 

Snndsvall 

\  376  861 

128 123 
608  328 
618 187 

69  918 

60  683 

619 

22  769 

82  464 

613194 

19  311 

20168 

164  645 

2  756 
29  549 
31474 

841 

16  877 
1178 

13  075 
61544 
19  959 

23  646 
113  906 

86  218 

187  750 
840371 
920661 

Hudiksvall 

Soderhamn 

Gavle 

I  475430 
431  267 

80  873 
50  266 

42  841 

271 

7 

54  983 
11163 

56  986 
39  010 

711384 
531  713 

East  Coast: 

Stockholm 

Norrkoping 

Vastervik 

Oskarshamn     .... 

Kalmar 

Other  districts ' .    .    . 

90  961 
108  109 
51220 
59  932 
45  935 
81378 

657 
13  095 
3  351 
678 
853 
734 

823 

9 

146 

6  900 

13  325 

3  265 

5 

100 

2 

2  761 
1215 
18  572 
27  078 
84  370 
20  826 

5  240 

3  691 
2  093 
6114 

4  824 
25  641 

100442 

12€  124 

75382 

99  802 

99  309 

130  744 

West  Coast: 

Gothenburg  

Other  districts'  .    .    . 

291  263 
306  420 

118  738 
112  869 

695 
133  883 

16  032 
148  282 

86  286 
74  943 

80  664 
64  609 

591 667 
831006 

Summary: 

Norrland 

East  Coast 

West  Coast  >    .    . 

Total 

2  989  118 
437  535 
697  673 

405  237 

19  368 

231  607 

213 148 

22  468 

134  578 

19  805 

107 

163  314 

176 142 
104  822 
160  228 

439  842 

47  603 

136  273 

4  242292 

631803 

1422  673 

4024326 

656  212 

370194 

183  226 

440192 

622618 

6296  76S 

Including  the  quantity  exported  by  land  to  Norway. 


214 


IV.      FORESTRY. 


pends  upon  the  extent  of  the  saw-mill  business.  The  export  goes  prin- 
cipally to  Great  Britain,  and  a  smaller  portion  to  Denmark  and  other 
countries.  Formerly  deal-ends  were  chiefly  used  as  fuel,  but  of  late  these 
goods  are  being  used  for  making  packing-cases    and  the  like. 

The  export  of  round  timber  of  larger  dimensions  has  long  been  statio- 
nary, or  even  decreased  somewhat.  To  this  sort  of  timber  belong  Dutch 
timber  or  Dutch  balks;  the  latter  designation  is  inc&rrect  —  it  has  proba- 
bly risen  owing  to  the  fact  that,  on  shipping,  two  sides  of  this 'timber  is 
slightly  hewn  at  the  butt  end,  partly  for  the  purpose  of  calculating  the 
dimensions,  and  partly  to  make  the  balks  lie  more  securely  in  place  when 
loaded.  Dutch  balks  of  ordinary  size  measure  24  feet  in  length  and 
10  inches  in  diameter  at  the  top;  they  are  usually  of  white  wood, 
seldom  of  red  wood.  The  export  goes  to  Holland,  were  the  timber  is 
afterwards  generally  sawn;  sometimes  it  is  used  as  piles  and  for  build- 
ing dams)  nowadays,  however,  poorer  timber,  such  as  dead  wood  and  the 
like,  is  used  for  piles).  The  export  of  Dutch  balks  has  decreased  for  two 
reasons:  in  the  first  place,  the  demand  for  them  in  the  Netherlands  has 
diminished  since  a  large  quantity  of  planed  boards  have  begun  to  be  im- 
ported into  that  country,  and  further,  the  supply  of  the  raw  material  hag 
decreased,  as  the  forests  have  come  into  the  hands  of  the  great  saw-mills 
whose  owners,  for  natural  reasons,  prefer  another  use  for  the  timber. 

For  heavy  beams  (balks),  old.  over-ripe  traes  are  preferably  taken,  and, 
as  the  supplj^  of  these  is  decreasing,  the  amount  exported  has  diminished 
considerably;  the  competition  in  price  with  American  pitch-pine  has  also 

Table  38.     Export  of  univrought,  hewn,  and  sawn  Wood-wares  to  different 
countries  1912.     Cubic  meters. 


Deals, 
battens 

and 
boards 
(incl.  box- 
boards), 
unplaned 


Planed 
boards 


Beams 

and 
rafters 


Ronnd 
timber 


Pit- 
props 


Other 
kinds 


Total 
cubic 
meters 


Norway 

Denmark  (with  Iceland) 
Great  Britain   .    .   ■     .    .    . 

Ireland 

The  Netherlands 

Belgium 

German  Empire 

France    

Other  European  countries' 
British  South  Africa  .    .    . 

Egypt 

Other  countries  in  Africa' 

Aaia 

America 

Australia 


104  245 

370  934 

963  047 

22  431 

211 024 

174  525 

726  324 

861 549 

246  327 

90  731 

65  476 

104  888 

13  01 

48  243 

21569 


35  635 
80  512 

313  434 

36  997 
32135 

327 

5154 

229 

6  431 

47  221 

12  563 

13  339 
13  484 

5  887 
52  864 


3  417 

130  994 

17  379 

8  779 

101  477 
19  788 
13  902 

66  757 

68 

7  633 


123  297 

24  033 

14194 

760 

19  066 

960 
585 


243 


10  366 
193 

425  217 


3  468 
65 

883 


20324 
79  283 

428  971 
262 
31900 
14  029 
30770 
12  726 
643 

"    3  361 

383 
10 


297284 

685949 

!  162  242 

60450 

302904 

1S8881 

868153 

894877 

267  368 

141313 

145039 

119599 

34140 

54130 

74439 


Total  4024826  656212  370194  183226  440192  622618  6296  768 


'  The  Canary  Islands  are  incladed  with  Spain. 


SAWING   AND    EXPOKT. 


215 


Frices  at  Sundsvall  and  NcderboUen^  of  thirds  red  battens  2^/2" x  7", 
1873 — 1912.     Kroner  per  standard. 


Year  1873  75 


'  For  the  years  up  to  and  including  1901,  the  prices  are  those  of  battens  from  Suuds- 
Tall,  after  which  they  are  those  from  Nederbotten.  Probably  no  great  differences  are  caused 
by  this  fact. 

,  contributed  to  this.  On  the  other  hand,  the  export  of  rafters  and  small 
talks  has  increased  somewhat.  Among  countries  affording  a  market  for 
rafters  we  should  mention,  besides  Denmark  and  Germany,  Egypt,  where 
Tafters  of  small  dimensions  are  used  for  roofing  the  Arabian  huts.  About 
twenty  years  ago,  these  Alexandria  rafters,  as  they  are  called,  were  taken 
from  the  Austrian  ports  on  the  Adriatic,  but  now  they  are  shipped  from 
Sundsvall.  —  Rafters  are  exported  from  most  of  the  Norrland  ports,  as 
well  as  from  Kalmar,  Malmo  and  Halmstad. 

Railway-sleepers  are  now  turned  out  in  large  quantities  at  the  saw- 
mills of  the  southern  provinces.  The  export  goes  principally  via  Gothen- 
Tjurg  to  England. 

One  branch  of  the  timber  industry  which  has  long  been  regarded  with 
a  certain  ill-will  or  suspicion  is  the  export  of  pit-props.  The  ill-will  is 
naturally  caused  by  the  fear  of  forest  exhaustion,  and  this  fear  is  by  no 
means  groundless.  The  cutting  of  pit-props  would  have  no  injurious  effects, 
if  for  this  purpose  were  used  only  such  undersized  trees,  as,  from  a 
rational  ss'lvicultural  point  of  view,  are  to  be  condemned;  but  it  is  most 
destructive  when,  as  is  often  the  case,  all  the  young  timber  is  mown 
idown.  The  main  part  of  the  pit-prop  export  is  from  South  Sweden,  from 
which  most  of  this  timber  originally  comes;  but  from  Norrland  also  a 
good  deal  is  exported.     This  article  goes  almost  exclusively  to  England. 

Pulp-wood  is  principally  shipped  from  Gavle  and  Soderhamn  and  goes 
to  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Denmark. 

The  export  of  staves  and  headings  (both  of  hard  wood  and  of  red  and 
white  wood)  shows  considerable  fluctuations  from  yea.T  to  j^ear,  but,  on 
the  whole,  it  has  increased. 


216 


IV.      FORESTRY. 


Average  Prices  {in  hronorper  standard)  of  exported  Sawn  and  Planed  Wood? 

■   Sawn  (rough). Planed. 


m-. 

ISO 
170 
ISO 
1S0 
1W 
150 
1ZO 
110 
WO 

90 

80 

70 

60 

SO 

■W 

SO 

W 

10 

Year  1887 


1 — 

/ 

\ 

y 

\ 

/ 

/ 

\, 

/ 

,'\ 

/ 

/ 

X 

^ 

/ 

1 

\ 

t 
f 

^ 

^-~ 

/ 

N 

/ 

\ 

f 
1 

^" 

^ 

/ 

k 

^ 

/ 

- 

\ 

/ 

.-'■ 

\ 

\ 

^ 

,-- 

■-.., 

.,- 

,'' 

— - 

■' 

h 

ISO 
170 
160 
ISO 
1-W 

15a 

1Z0- 

no 
loa 

90 

so 

70 

6a 
sa 
-w- 
3a 
zo 

10 


90 


1900 


10   11 


'  Based  on  reports  kindly  given  by  G.  Askergren,  Chief  Clerk  to  the  Swedish  Timber 
Export  Association. 

Among  oilier  hinds  of  unwrought  timber,  we  may  here  briefly  mention 
only  laths  and  trellis-wood,  which  is  almost  exclusively  shipped  to  Eng- 
land and  Denmark,  and  wood  for  fuel,  which  is  principally  exported  from 
our  most  southerly  ports  to  Denmark. 

As  regards  value,  deals,  battens,  and  boards  (unplaned),  and  other  sawn  goods 
were,  in  1912,  by  far  the  largest  item  in  the  Swedish  timber  exports,  amounting 
to  no  less  than  119-3  million  kronor.  Planed  boards  were  exported  to  a  value 
of  22'5  million  kronor.  Then  come  beams  (balks)  and  rafters,  to  a  value  of 
7-7  million  kronor,  round  timber  to  a  sum  of  3'9  million  kronor  and  pit-pr(|ps. 
to  2'6  million  kronor. 

The  not  unimportant  export  of  wood  wares  to  Norway  is  carried  on 
only  in  part  by  sea  (about  30  000  cub.  meters),  part  is  sent  by  rail,  and 
part  is  floated.  Of  course  it  is  mostly  timber  and  other  round  goods  that 
are  floated. 

In  regard  to  the  prices  of  timber,  particulars  are  certainly  given  in  our 
commercial  statistics,  but  it  is  difficult  to  summarize  these  figures  for 
the  different  kinds,  so  as  to  give  a  distinct  idea  of  the  fluctuations  of  price. 
Instead,  we  here  give  a  diagram  for  one  of  the  most  important  kinds, 
namely  "thirds"  in  red  battens  (according  to  the  present  french  sorting; 
see  above),  which  will  no  doubt  give  a  pretty  faithful  idea  of  the  average 


BY-TRADES   CONNECTED   WITH   FOKESTRY.  217 

rise  or  fall.  It  may  be  pointed  out,  however,  that  in  the  case  of  several 
kinds  of  timber,  especially  planchettes  and  other  sawn  goods  of  smaller 
dimensions,  the  rise  of  late  has  been  greater  than  for  red  wood  battens. 

The  diagram  illustrates  the  changes  ■  in  price  from  another  point 
of  view,  as  it  shows  the  variations  hi.  the  average  price  of  Lhe  exports, 
actually  existing.  In  its  movements  up  and  down,  this  average  price  can 
present  differences  from  those  distinguishing  a  special  kind  of  wood  goods, 
even  if,  as  is  the  case  with  the  3rds  red  wood  battens,  they  may  be  con- 
sidered as  belonging  to  the  leading  specifications.  If,  for  example,  there 
is  a  diminution  in  the  available  quantity  of  sorts  of  timber  of  larger  di- 
mensions and  of  the  best  quality,  the  average  price  of  the  actual  exports 
can  remain  constant  or  even  fall,  although,  at  the  same  time,  the  market 
prices   of  the   different   kinds   of   timber   rise. 

The  import  of  unwrought  timber  (when  the  timber  floated  from  ITorway 
is  not  taken  in  acount)  is  insignificant  in  comparison  to  the  export  (com- 
pare Table  34)  but,  on  the  whole,  it  is  increasing.  Its  value,  in  19^2, 
amounted  to  19  051000  kronor,  and  the  quantity  was  about  515  000 
cub.  meters. 

The  principal  sorts  of  imported  timber  of  native  kinds  of  wood  are  tim- 
ber and  spars  of  different  dimensions,  and  fuel-wood,  especially  birch, 
which  comes  almost  exclusively  from  Finland.  Aspen  wood  (for  the  manu- 
facture of  matches)  comes  principally  from  Russia.  Unwrought  foreign 
kinds  of  wood  are  also  imported  (in  1912  the  value  amounted  to  525  000 
kronor),  of  which  the  greater  part  comes  via  England  and  (rermany. 


By-trades  connected  with  Forestry. 

Sweden's  vast  forests  and  highly  developed  timber  trade  give  ample 
opportunity  to  a  number  of  by-trades,  but  as  it  is  generally  the  tendency 
of  the  Swedes  to  overlook  small  gains,  such  is  the  case  here  too.  It  is 
true  that,  of  late,  these  products  of  the  forests  have  been  gleaned  far  more 
thoroughly  than  before,  but  a  lot  of  waste-timber  is  still  left  to  rot  in  the 
forests  of  the  country,  and  many  a  by-trade  connected  with  forestry  has 
not  yet  been  started  or  only  leads  a  languishing  life. 

Concerning  Wood-Pulp  manufacture  see  the  Section  Timberware  In- 
dustry below. 

The  most  important  of  the,  so  to  say,  lesser  industries  of  forestrj^  is 
without  doubt  the  manufacture  of  charcoal,  a  subject  which  is  thoroughly 
dealt  with  in  the  following,  under  the  heading  of  Mining.  Nothing  more 
need  be  pointed  out  here  than  that,  of  late  years,  a  great  number  of  saw- 
i-nills  have  carried  on  the  manufacture  of  charcoal  on  a  large  scale,  with 
the  waste  timber  from  the  mills  as  raw  material.  The  burning-process  is 
carried  out  either  in  special  charring  kilns,  or  by  burning  in  stacks.  (Sw. 
milor.)  The  letter  method  is,  too,  one  that  has  been  used  in  forest-districts 
since  ancient  times. 


218 


IV.      FORESTRY. 


Altogether,  there  were  in  Sweden  in  1912  a  total  of  407  charcoal  works 
on  a  large  scale.  They  employ  more  than  6  600  hands;  and  the  value  of 
the  output  is  estimated  at  12-7  million  kronor.  (Cf.  also  Iron  and  Steel 
Industry). 


Tar-hoUoio. 

M 

In  olden  times,  the  preparation  of  tar  was  a  considerable  industry  in 
Sweden,  and  wood-tar  was  one  of  the  most  important  export  articles  of  the 
country.  The  export  mostly  went  via  Stockholm,  and  Stockholm  tar  was 
considered  the  best.  Nowadaj^s  this  manufacture  is  principally  confined 
to  the  two  northernmost  liins;  the  chief  place  of  export  being  Umea.  Some 


Table  39. 

Imports  and 

Export 

s  of  Tar  a) id  Pitch 

Tar 

Coal-tar 

Pitch 

Total  value 

Annually 

Quintals 

Quintals 

Qaiu 

tals 
-Exp. 

Kronor 

Imp. 

Exp. 

Imp.          Exp. 

Imp. 

Imp. 

Bip. 

1871-75 

17159 

83148 

5  942 1         48 

1551 

1418 

173  000 

1 069  000 

1876-80 

14  873 

70  437 

16 181 j       392 

2  248 

1610 

278  000 

896000 

1881-85  .    ,    .    :    . 

9  400 

83  412 

24  880      1826 

3  950 

727 

287  000 

1245000 

1886-90 

11995 

54  2.70 

20  296 

12  042 

2  995 

803 

236  000 

673000 

1891—95 

17169 

57  991 

16  217 

21317 

2  274 

982 

276  000 

756000 

1896-00 

17  640 

40185 

28  580 

26103 

8  077 

598 

385  000 

541000 

1901-05 

12  757 

43  222 

26  744 

16  514 

29  324 

455 

664000 

633000 

1906-10 

9  367 

74212 

34  911 

32122 

28  917 

1051 

546  000 

1055000 

1911 

12  882 

73  811 

37  661 

19191 

30  000 

2  093 

598000 

1290000 

1912 

10  932 

62  689 

60  969 

23  451 

31151 

2186 

615  000 

610  000 

BY-TRADES    CONNECTED    WITH    FORESTRY.  219 

figures  are  given  in  Table  39,  concerning  the  imports  and  exports  of 
tar  and  pitch  during-  later  years.  The  manufacture  of  tar  is  made  either 
in  open,  so-called  "'tar-hollow.';"  (see  illustration  below)  or  in  so-called 
"tarring- furnaces".  There  are  also  some  .small  e.stablishments  for  pro- 
duction on  a  larger  scale. 

The  manufacture  of  potash  has  decreased  considerablj  ;  it  even  appears 
to  be  on  the  point  of  extinction. 

As  a  by-trade  of  forestry  is  sometimes  reckoned  peat-digging  and  the 
industries  connected  with  it,  which,  however,  is  scarcely  correct.  Now- 
a-days,  peat-production  has  developed  to  on  independent  trade  of  great 
importance,  possessing  still  greater  future  possibilities.  An  account  of 
the  present  state  of  things  in  this  connection  is  given  in  the  following 
pages  under  the  heading:  Manufacturing  Industries. 


V. 

SHOOTING  AND  FISHING. 


1.    SHOOTING  AND  SHOOTING  LEGISLATION. 

In  ancient  times,  shooting  and  fishing  were  the  chief  sources  of  sub- 
sistence of  the  inhabitants  of  the  North,  but  after  cattle  had  begun  to  be 
raised  and  the  soil  had  begun  to  be  tilled,  shooting  was  no  longer  a  neces- 
sity for  the  support  of  life,  but  was  diligently  practised,  partly  as  a 
valuable  subsidiary  source  of  subsistence,  and  partly  to  protect  the  herds 
from  beasts  of  prey;  it  was,  besides  held  in  high  esteem  as  a  manly  sport. 

Game,  which  was  at  that  time  very  plentiful,  was  considered  as  "belonging 
to  nobody",  and  it  could  be  freely  hunted  everywhere.  With  the  gradual  progress 
of  civilization  and  the  consequent  decrease  of  game,  legislation  began  to  impose 
restrictions  on  the  general  right  to  free  shooting,  and  the  owners  of  land  were 
given  the  sole  right  to  shoot  over  their  own  land,  with  an  exception  in  the  case 
of  beasts  of  prey,  which  could  still  be  hunted  and  killed  anywhere  by  anybody. 
But  in  course  of  time  the  idea  became  prevalent  that  the  right  to  shoot,  even 
on  private  ground,  belonged  to  certain  privileged  persons,  and  by  the  Eoyal 
Statute  of  Aug.  29,  1664,  the  landed  peasants  almost  entirely  lost  the  right  to 
kill  or  catch  game  not  looked  upon  as  beasts  of  prey.  Only  by  the  Koyal 
Ordinance  of  Febr.  21,  1789,  more  minutely  confirmed  by  the  Royal  Statute  of 
April  13,  1808,  was  the  right  of  landowners  to  shoot  over  their  own  property 
re-established. 

The  game-law  now  in  force,  issued  Nov.  8,  1912,  also  recognizes  as  its 
main  principle  the  right  of  the  landowner  to  shoot  over  his  own  land,  hut 
if  the  land  is  let  to  anj'one  for  tillage,  the  right  of  shooting  over  it  goes 
to  the  tenant,  unless  otherwise  agreed.  Consequently,  unless  a  special 
agreement  is  made,  no  one  may  shoot  over  land  owned  or  leased  by  another 
person.  Exceptions  are  made,  however,  in  the  case  of  the  wolf,  the  glut- 
ton, and  the  seal,  or  seadog,  which  may  be  killed  wherever  they  may  be 
found,  even  if  they  happen  to  be  on  another  person's  property. 


SHOOTING   AND   SHOOTING   LEGISLATION. 


221 


A  subject  of  a  foreign  power  may  not  emplo\-  firearms  for  hunting  purposes 
in  Sweden  unless  he  be  provided  with  a  shooting-par inii  issued  for  him  person- 
ally: such  foreign  subject,  however,  is  entitled,  without  a  permit,  to  shoot 
game,  etc.,  on  an  estate  which  he  has  the  royal  consent  to  own  in  Sweden. 
Shooting-permits  are  issued  by  the  governments  of  the  liins  on  written  appli- 
cation and  are  available  anywhere,  in  the  kingdom.  Permits  available  for  the 
whole  year  cost  100  kroner;  day-permits  cost  .">  kronor.  They  do  not  permit 
the  holder  to  shoot  elsewhere  than  on  estates  of  which  he  has  obtained  the 
shooting-rights. 


Bear. 
From  a  painting  by  Bruno  Liljefors. 


The  shooting-rights  of  private  individuals  are  restricted  \>y  regulations 
issued  by  the  G-overnment  in  special  Game  Statutes.  According  to  these 
regulations,  game  which  has  anj-  value  may  be  killed  only  during  fixed 
shooting-seasons,  which,  for  the  most  part,  are  so  arranged  as  to  afford 
the  game  protection  during  pairing-time  and  until  the  young  are  big 
enough  to  look  after  themselves.  In  consequence  of  the  difference  in  the 
conditions  prevailing  in  the  northern,  central,  and  southern  part  of  the 
country,  the  shooting-season  for  the  same  kind  of  game  often  varies  for 
these  various  zones.  Apart  from  some  few  local  differences,  the  following 
shooting-seasons  are  those  allowed  at  present  for  the  more  important  kinds 
of  game: 


222 


SHOOTING   AND   FISHING. 


Elk:  In  the  Lans  of  Norrbotten,  Vasterbotten,  Vasternorrland,  and  Jamtland 
and  in  the  northern  parts  of  Kopparberg  Lan,  ^/9 — ^^/s;  in  Gavleborg  Lan  and 
in  the  remaining  districts  of  Kopparberg  Lan  ^"/lo — ^^/lo,  and  in  the  other 
parts  of  the  kingdom  ^"/lO — ^^/lo. 

Roe-deer:  everywhere  in  Sweden  ^^/s — '^/la. 

Hare:  in  the  Lans  of  Norrbotten,  Vasterbotten,  Vasternorrland  and  Jamtland 
1/9 — ^*/2;  in  Malmohus  and  Kristianstad  Lans  ^^/a — ^'/i2;  and  in  the  remaining 
parts  of  the  country  ^/9 — ^^/2. 


Capercailzie. 
From  a  painting  by  Bruno  Liljbpors. 


Hazel-grouse,  ptarmigan,  capercailzie,  and  blach-game:  in  the  above-mentioned 
northern  Lans  ^^/s — ^^/2,  and,  in  the  other  parts  of  the  kingdom,  hazel-grouse, 
ptarmigan,  capercailzie-  or  mountain-cock,  and  black-  or  heath-cock  ^'/s — ''/12, 
capercailzie-  or  wood-grouse  hen  and  heath-hen  ^^/s — ^^/lo. 

Partridge:  in  the  northerly  Lans  above-mentioned  ^^h — ^^/lO;  in  the  Lans  of 
Malmohus,  Kristianstad,  Halland,  Goteborg  och  Bohus,  Blekinge,  and  Gottland 
^*/9 — ^®/ii,  and  in  the  other  parts  of  the  country  ^^/9 — '^/lo. 

Woodcoch:  everywhere  in  the  kingdom  ■'^,'5 — ^^/li. 

Wild  ducTc  or  mallard  (Anas  Boschas),  snipe,  and  a  number  of  other  small- 
sized   waders:  in  the  above-mentioned  northern  Lans  ■''/a — '^/i2;  in  the  Lans  of 


SHOOTING    AND    SHOOTING    LEGISLATION.  223 

Malmohus,  Kristianstad,  Halland  and  Blekinge  ^^ji — ^V'^,  and  in  the  other  parts 
of  the  country  ^/s — ^Vi2. 

Eider:  on  the  west  coast  ^/ii — '^/2;  on  the  east,  female  and  year-old  birds 
1/9 — ^''/4;  male  birds  all  the  year,  excepting  between  ^V* — ^V^- 

Poachard  (Fuligula):  in  general  ^^/s — ^^/i2  and  1/4 — ^o/^^  although  in  some 
places  the  period     is  longer  for  one  or  two  varieties. 

A  great  number  of  species  of  birds  useful  to  the  farmers  are  protected  during 
the  period  ^/a — ^^/9. 

In  spite ,  of  the  above  restrictions  in  the  shooting-seasons  and  of  other 
regulations  for  the  protection  and  preservation  of  game,  the  supply  of 
game  useful  for  food  is  not  so  large  as  could  be  desired,  excepting  on  a 
number  of  large  estates  in  the  south  of  the  country,  where  there  are  ex- 
tensive game-preserves.  The  causes  of  this  are  to  be  sought  partly  in 
climatic  influences,  which  frequently  act  injuriously  on  the  development 
of  the  year's  broods,  partly  in  excessive  shooting  over  properties  which, 
in  consequence  of  the  continual  breaking  up  of  large  estates,  etc.,  are 
growing  smaller  and  smaller,  and,  finally,  in  the  excessive  number  of 
wild  beasts,  etc.,  which  pursue  the  useful  game  and  destroy  the  young  and 
eggs.  The  number  of  the  larger  animals,  such  as  elk  and  roe-deer,  seems  to 
be  increasing,  however,  rather  than  decreasing  —  in  some  parts  of  the 
country,  at  least  —  as  a  result  of  the  protection  afforded  to  them  by  the 
law.  This  is  shown  in  the  case  of  the  elk  by  the  official  figures  giving 
the  number  of  these  animals  killed.     For  example,  there  were  shot 

In  1895  a  total  of  1  409  elk 

»    1900  »      >  .    2  414     » 

>    1905  >      "  .    2  864     . 

.    1910  »      .  .    2  961     . 

One  thing  that  greatly  contributes  to  this  increase  is,  probably,  the  fact 
that  the  larger  beasts  of  prey,  the  bear,  wolf,  lynx,  and  glutton,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  keenness  with  which  they  have  been  hunted,  have  now 
been  driven  back  to  the  forest  and  mountain  wilderness  in  the  north-west 
of  the  country.  The  following  figures  show  the  extent  to  which  these 
animals  have  diminished  during  the  last  half  century: 

Killed  during  the                    ^  ^^j  ^vnx  Glntton 
quinqennial    period : 

1861—1865 532  556  679  546 

1901—1905 62  146  49  465 

1912 9  24  16  65 

In  order  to  prevent  the  extinction  of  the  bear,  this  animal  now  enjoys 
protection  in  the  Crown  parks  in  the  northern  part  of  the  country,  while 
the  bounty  for  killing  lynx  is  no  longer  given.  Bounties  are  nowadays 
paid  by  the  State  for  wolves  (50  kronor)  and  gluttons  (10  kronor). 
Bounties  of  varying  amounts  are  paid  in  most  parts  of  the  country  by  the 
County  Councils,  by  Agricultural  Societies,  by  communes,  or  by  associa- 
tions for  the  preservation  of  game,  for  the  killing  of  wild  animals  of  lesser 
size,  such  as  foxes,  badgers,  hawks,  great  owls,  crows,  etc.     The  following 


224  V.     SHOOTING    AND    FISHING. 

numbers  of  small  animals  and  birds  of  prey  are  stated  to  have  been  killed 
in  1912:  Foxes  16  706;  martens  121;  otters  34;  badgers  5  049;  seal-dogs 
7  274;  eagles  201;  great  owls  438;  hawks  14  027;  crows  253  913. 

If  we  make  a  survey  of  the  stock  of  useful  game  in  the  country,  we 
find  that  the  elk  occurs  more  or  less  frequently  in  most  of  the  provin- 
ces from  the  north  of  Skane  up  to  Norrbotten  and  seems  to  show  a  ten- 
dency to  spread  even  to  the  territories  where  it  is  not  at  present  generally 
found.  Among  the  other  cervidee,  the  ivild  reindeer,  formerly  numerous 
in  the  mountain  districts,  has  almost  entirely  disappeared  from,  the  fauna 
of  the  countrjr.  The  red-deer  occurs  only  within  a  very  restricted  area  in 
the  south  of  Skane.  The  falloiv-deer  is  kept  principally  within  fenced 
deer-parks,  although  exceptionallj'  it  occurs  in  i  wild  state  in  some  parts 
of  the  last-mentioned  provinces;  the  roe-deer  is  rather  numerous  in  the 
southern  parts  of  the  country  and  shows  a  tendency  to  spread  northward. 
Among  other  mammals,  the  hare  is  the  animal  most  generally  shot.  Over 
a  great  part  of  the  country  it  is  hunted  with  harriers,  and  this  manner 
of  hunting  ought,  possibly,  to  be  regarded  as  the  most  national  and  the 
most  typical  for  the  country.  In  the  southernmost -lans,  the  European  hare 
has  been  introduced  during  the  last  few  decades  and,  in  some  places,  has 
propagated  itself  very  considerably',  even  to  the  point  of  supplanting  the 
indigenous  animal. 

Among  the  rasores,  the  capercailzie,  the  black-game,  the  hazel-grouse, 
the  ptariitigan,  and  the  partridge  are  the  favourite  quarrj-  of  sportsman. 
Thejr  occur,  more  or  less  numerously,  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
ground,  the  capercailzie  and  the  hazel-grouse  chiefly  in  the  back-woods, 
the  black-game  in  forest-  as  well  as  pasture-land,  and  on  heaths,  the 
ptarmigan  only  in  the  mountain  districts,  and  the  partridge  in  culti- 
vated land.  The  pheasant  has  been  introduced  in  many  places  and,  where 
the  locality  is  favourable,  seems  to  thrive.  Among  wading  birds,  the 
woodcock  is  much  esteemed  as  game.  It  breeds  in  most  parts  where  damp 
woodland  is  to  be  found  but  is  decreasing  in  number,  in  spite  of  the  fact 
that  Sweden  is  one  of  the  few  countries  where  this  beautiful  bird  is  pro- 
tected by  law  during  part  of  the  breeding  time.  This  is  also  the  case 
with  the  commmi  snipe,  which,  in  consequence  of  the  continual  drainage 
of  the  bog-lands  is  being  deprived  of  suitable  breeding-grounds.  Among 
swimmers,  the  mallard,  as  far  as  shooting  is  concerned,  is  doubtless  the 
most  important,  and  it  occurs  in  varying  numbers  both  in  the  interior  and 
along  the  coast.  On  rocks  and  cliffs  in  the  sea,  as  also  in  mountain  lakes 
and  rivers  in  Norrland,  several  species  of  poachards  breed,  which,  like  the 
mallard,  are  migratory  birds  and,  during  their  flights  in  autumn  and 
spring  along  our  coasts,  are  eagerly  hunted  by  the  coast-population,  who 
also  exact  heavy  tribute  from  other  swimmers  dwelling  along  the  coasts. 

From  an  economic  point  of  view,  shooting  is  not  nowadays  of  the  same  im- 
portance as  before,  when  the  supply  of  game  was  more  ample.  Probably  only 
few  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  country  are  now  to  be  able  to  make  a  living  out 
of    hunting.     In    the    Lappland    districts   of  the  lans  of  Norrbotten  and  Vaster- 


FISHING.  225 

fcotten,  and  in  some  parts  of  the  Ian  of  Jamtland,  where  the  trapping  of  forest 
birds  and  ptarmigan  is  still  permitted  by  the  law,  the  poor  population  are,  perhaps, 
■able  to  obtain  a  considerable  contribution  to  their  means  of  livelihood.  Consi- 
derable quantities  of  birds  obtained  in  this  way  are  annually  sent  in  a  frozen 
state  from  these  regions  to  more  southern  parts  of  the  country.  The  hunter 
who  succeeds  in  killing  an  elk  or  two  in  the  year  can  also  be  said  to  make  a 
.good  profit,  as  a  full  grown  elk  has  a  value  of  75  to  150  kronor.  That  the 
■coast-population  can  gain  some  sort  of  livelihood  out  of  sea-fowl  is  mentioned  above. 
Otherwise,  only  a  comparatively  small  profit  can  be  gained  by  the  individual  out 
■of  shooting,  as  long  as  the  stock  of  game  is  kept  on  the  low  level  to  which  it 
has  gradually  fallen  in  the  more  densely  populated  parts.  The  shooting  is, 
however,  of  no  small  value  to  the  landowner,  inasmuch  as  well-to-do  sportsmen, 
for  their  own  pleasure,  try  more  and  more  to  obtain  the  shooting-rights  on 
adjoining  lands,  against  payment  of  so-Called  shooting-rents.  What  the  landowner 
■cannot  gain  by  his  own  shooting  he  can  thus,  by  letting  out  his  shooting, 
■obtain  to  an  amount  often  considerably  higher  than  that  which  the  game  existing 
on  his  grounds  really  represents. 

Though  the  shooting  for  individuals  can  thus  be  said  to  be  of  comparatively 
slight  importance  as  a  source  of  gain,  stUl  the  game  killed  in  the  whole  country 
Tepresents  a  considerable  capital,  *hich  is  well  worth  administering  in  a  practical 
way.  As  game,  besides,  makes  a  Wholesome  and  nourishing  food,  which  is  highly 
esteemed  for  its  excellent  taste,  and  as  shooting  is  a  strengthening  and  har- 
dening sport  for  the  growing  generation,  everything  seems  to  indicate  that  such 
■attention  should  be  paid  to  thH  game,  that  not  only  is  its  decrease  prevented, 
but  its  development,  on  the  contrary,  advanced.  The  interest  in  an  improved 
preservation  of  the  game  is,  happily,  steadily  increasing,  and  shooting  interests 
are  promoted  by  numerous  shooting  associations  and  unions  for  the  protection 
of  game,  which  have  united  to  attain  this  object,  under  the  name  of  "Svenska 
Jagareforbundet"  (Swedish  Hunters'  Association). 


2.    FISHING. 

Sweden  being  surrounded  to  a  large  extent  by  the  sea  and  possessing 
innumerable  lakes  scattered  in  its  interior,  its  inhabitants  turn  their  eyes 
to  the  waters  as  the  source  of  a  considerable  portion  of  their  livelihood. 
It  is  true  that  the  increasing  cultivation  of  the  country  and  its  industrial 
development,  as  well  as  the  great  value  which  its  vast  forests  now  have, 
compared  with  their  former  value,  have  had  as  a  result  that  fishing  is  not 
of  the  same  importance  nowadays  as  it  once  was  for  the  few  and  scattered 
inhabitants  of  former  days.  But  even  to  day,  fishing  has  a  consider- 
able value  as  a  source  of  livelihood.  In  consequence  of  improved  methods 
of  fishing  and  of  the  higher  price  of  fish,  it  is  certain  more  remunerative 
nowadays  than  at  any  previous  period.  With  regard  to  the  returns  of  the 
Swedish  fisheries,  we  have  as  yet  only  scattered  and  very  insufficient 
information.  According  to  an  approximate  estimation  for  the  period 
1891 — 95,  the  annual  value  will,  however,  have  amounted  to  about  9 
million  kronor,  of  which  4  million  come  from  the  coast-fisheries,  1-5  from 

lb— 133170.  Sweden.  II. 


226 


V.      SHOOTING   AND    FISHING. 


Photo.  X.  A.  Anderpson. 


Purse  seine  fishing  for  herring  (Bohnsldn). 


the  high-sea  fisheries,  and  3-5  million  kroner  from  the  fresh-water  fish- 
eries (including  salmon  and  eel-fishing).  The  herring- fishery  was  cal- 
culated to  produce  2  750  000  kronor,  the  small  (or  Baltic)  herring-fishery 
1  000  000,  lobster-  and  oyster- fishery  175  000,  the  salmon-fishing  950  000, 
and  the  eel-fishing  600  000  kronor.  During  1912  the  sea-  and  coast- 
fisheries  of  Sweden  brought  in,  in  round  numbers,  15  million  kronor,  no 
less  than  8  733  000  kronor  of  this  sum  falling  to  the  share  of  Goteborg 
och  Bohus  Ian.'-  The  herring-fishery  of  the  west  oo,ast,  the  trawled  herr- 
ing not  included,  gave  4  018  000  kronor;  the  herring  and  small  (Baltic) 
herring- fishery  in  the  Baltic  and  the  Sound  about  2  700  000;  the  mackerel- 
fishery  of  the  West  Coast  1  963  000  kronor;  the  trawling-fishery  of  the 
same  coast  1  478  000  kronor;  the  deep  sea  fishery  (ling,  cod,  etc.)  519  000 
kronor,  and  the  lobster-fishery  about  508  000  kronor.  The  oyster-fishery 
was  worth  no  more  than  2  735  kronor.  During  the  same  year,  the  eel- 
fishery  along  the  coasts  of  Sweden  gave  about  1  150  000  kronor;  the 
salmon  fishery  off  the  coast  and  in  the  larger  rivers,  about  300  000  kro- 
nor. The  fishery  in  the  largest  of  the  Swedish  lakes.  Lake  A^'anern, 
brought  in  687  000  kronor,  but  it  would  be  a  difficult  task  to  give  any 
definite  figures  for  the  value  of  the  fisheries  in  all  the  Swedish  lakes, 
though  the  catches  during  the  last  few  years  have  probably  amounted  in 


^  The   fishery   statistics  for  this  Lan  is  not  calculated  for  the  calendar  year,  but  for  the 
period  'A — "Vs  and  as  above,  for  1912 — 13. 


SALT-AVATBR   FISHING.  227 

value  to  about  3  million  kronor  annually.     Table  40  gives  returns  con- 
cerning the  import  and  export  of  fish. 

About  40  000  people  live  exclusive^?  by  fishing,  and  it  also  constitutes 
a  more  or  less  considerable  subsidiary  industry,  both  for  the  coast-popu- 
lation and  for  the  agricultural  population  in  the  interior  of  the  country. 

The  Baltic,  which  washes  the  east  and  south  coasts  of  Sweden,  is  an  inland 
sea  containing  a  low  proportion  of  salt,  which  decreases  from  south  to  north, 
and,  in  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia  as  well  as  in  the  inner  bays  and  fiords  of  the  ar- 
chipelagoes, is  only  minimal.  The  salt-constituent  of  the  water  increases,  how- 
ever, from  the  Kattegat  northward,  and  in  Bohus  Bay,  the  water  of  which  stands 
in  more  direct  connection  with  the  North  Sea,  it  is  about  the  same  as  in  this 
last-mentioned  sea.  A  natural  consequence  of  this  fact  is  that  the  proportion 
of  salt-water  fish  is  considerably  greater  there  than  in  the  Baltic,  where  there 
,are  but  few  and  they  decrease  in  number  towards  the  north  in  proportion  to 
the  decreasing  salt-percentage  of  the  water.  But  in  the  Baltic  there  is  another 
remarkable  circumstance,  namely,  that  along  the  coast,  and  especially  in  the  archi- 
pelagoes, purely  fresh-water  species  occur  in  equally  great  or  greater  numbers  than 
the  salt-water  species.  Thus,  of  about  40  kinds  of  Swedish  fresh-water  fish,  no 
less  than  30  species  are  also  found  in  the  Baltic,  and  some  of  them  are  a 
lucrative  source  of  income  to  fishermen. 

Another  circumstance  affecting  the  fishing  is  that  a  large  portion  of  the  coast 
is  bordered  by  a  fringe  of  innumerable  larger  or  smaller  islands  and  rocks,  forming 
a  so-called  "Skargard". 

A  consequence  of  the  above  circumstances  is  that  the  difference  between  salt- 
water and  fresh-water  fishing  is  less  marked  in  the  Baltic  than  on  the  west  coast 
of  Sweden  and  in  countries  surrounded  by  Salter  seas.  In  the  Baltic,  the  Swedish 
fishery  is  chiefly  coast-fishing  j  on  the  West  Coast  and  especially  in  Goteborg 
och  Bohus  Lan,  the  fishery  is  rapidly  becoming  deep  sea  fishing.  Further- 
more, in  comparing  the  fisheries  of  Sweden  with  those  of  other  countries,  it  is 
worthy  of  notice  that,  in  Sweden,  the  boats  and  fishing-tackle  are  owned  by  the 
fishermen  themselves,  the  members  of  the  crew  being  part-owners  in  the  boat, 
and  the  profits  are  divided  according  to  the  shares  owned,  after  a  certain  por- 
tion has  been  deducted  for  keeping  the  boat  in  repair.  It  was  only  when  steam- 
trawling  was  introduced  on  the  West  Coast  some  few  years  ago  by  shipping-  or 
other  companies,  that  Swedish  fishermen  were  engaged  as  hired  crews. 


Salt-Water  Fishing. 

For  the  Swedish  fishery,  herring  (Clupea  harengus)  and  small  (or 
Baltic)  herring  (Clupea  harengus,  var.  membras  L.)  are  the  most  im- 
portant of  all.  Swedish  species.  Herring-fishing  in  Bohuslan  attracts  the 
greatest  attention,  both  on  account  of  the  great  proportions  which  it  as- 
sumes at  certain  times,  and  also  because  of  a  peculiar  circumstance  with 
respect  to  the  appearance  of  the  herring  which  has  been  characteristic  of 
the  fishery  as  far  back  as  history  goes.  For,  after  having  appeared  along 
the  coast  and  entered  the  fiords  for  several  decades,  the  herring  has  for 
long  periods  ceased  to  enter  the  Bohus  archipelago,  where,  during  these 
intervals,  only  the  ordinary  coast  herring  has  appeared  and  then  but  in 
small  numbers  in  comparison  with  the  good  fishing  years.    Such  a  period 


228 


Y.     SHOOTING   AND   FISHING. 


of  prolific  herriiig-fishing  on  the  Bohus  coast  began  in  1877  and  con- 
tinued up  to  the  close  of  the  century.  In  the  middle  of  the  first  decade 
of  the  new  century,  after  a  few  years'  unsuccessful  seine-fishing  (vad- 
fiske),  the  Bohuslan  herring-fishery  began  to  flourish  again,  deep-sea- 
fishing  being  commenced  with  purse  seines  (snorpvadar),  from  boats 
provided  with  motors.  During  the  last  few  winters,  herring-fishery  has 
been  carried  on  by  means  of  trawling  and  occasionally  at  great  depths. 
I'he  existing  herring- fishery  on  the  West  Coast  cannot  be  compared  with 
any  previous  herring-fishery  period  in  the  old  sense  of  the  term.  It  is 
possible  that,  had  the  two  methods  of  herring-fishing  just  mentioned  been 
known  at  an  earlier  date,  successful  fishery  would  have  been  possible  even 
during  the  intervals  between  the  good  fishing  periods  in  past  times.  In 
connection  with  Table  40  below,  the  attention  of  the  reader  is  called  to  the 
following  list,  which  shows  the  amount  of  fresh  fish  exported  (the  greater 
part  consisting  of  herring)  for  each  of  the  years  in  question,  from  the 
beginning  of  the  last  herring-period.    The  export  was: 


Year 

1877  . 
1878. 
1879. 
1880. 
1881  . 
1882. 
1883. 
1884. 
1885. 
1886. 


Quintals 

Year 

Quintals 

Year 

Quintals 

Year 

.    .    .        227 

1887  ...   .     340960 

1897  .    . 

.  229  507 

1907.    .    . 

9  536 

1888. 

391 441 

1898  .    . 

.  396  691 

1908  . 

4  300 

1889. 

558  069 

1899.    . 

.226  344 

1909. 

11162 

1890. 

678  184 

1900  .    . 

.    44  778 

1910. 

20  346 

1891. 

681 278 

1901  .    . 

.  102  790 

1911  . 

45  811 

1892. 

907  022 

1902  .    . 

.    51619 

1912. 

43019 

1893. 

773848 

1903  .    . 

.144998 

1913. 

20  262 

1894  . 

1 001 344 

1904  .    . 

.138  780 

120  965 

1895  . 

816  090 

1905  .    . 

.  331 931 

221 313 

1896. 

677  232 

1906  .    . 

.  360 181 

Quintals 
.414737 
.579862 
.  634  692 
.459095 
.713  522 
.752080 
.  351 564 


Until  the  beginning  of  the  present  century,  the  herring  was  caught  in  Gote- 
borg  och  Bohus  Lan  partly,  and  chiefly,  by  means  of  land-seines  (Sw.  stang- 
vadar;    landvadar),    and    also    with  gill-nets  (Sw.   sattgarn).     In  1880  there  also 


Table  40.  Imports  and  Exports  of  Fish.    In  Quintals.^ 


rresh  fish 

Herring 

,  salted  2 

Anchovy,  sardine, 
tunnv 

other  fish 

Annually 

Imp. 

Exp. 

Imp. 

Exp. 

Imp. 

Exp. 

Imp. 

Exp. 

1866—70.    .    . 

1032 

277- 

244  070 

1784 

18 

12 

32  778 

1074 

1871-75  .    .    . 

1274 

851 

286  836 

7  090 

89 

210 

37  545 

2  328 

1876-80  .   .   . 

2  324 

5140 

222  629 

18  950 

778 

1014 

42  983 

2  743 

1881—85  .   .   . 

6  453 

50  079 

260  225 

46  755 

3  380 

898 

35116 

5932 

1886-90.   .   . 

8  719 

437  993 

265  027 

106  912 

6  901 

890 

.38  833 

5938 

1891-95  .    .    . 

14162 

835  916 

307  289 

328  683 

14  321 

966 

39  240 

.6  433 

1896-00  .    .    . 

21198 

314  910 

396  687 

123  834 

21289 

458 

43  460 

4  956 

1901—05  .    .    . 
1906— ID.    .    . 

47  853 

154  024 

424  553 

40  740 

22  976 

87 

60  586 

4585 

118  316 

489  711 

425  321 

67  887 

15  226 

1506 

61168 

18  610 

1911 

■    89  496 

713  522 

394  671 

69  063 

14118 

938 

46  614 

25810 

1912.    .... 

88  022 

752  080 

363  276 

73  205 

16  600 

778 

28  566 

19  231 

1913 

81540 

351564 

444920 

72  294 

7  001 

309 

52  045 

25498 

'  For  the  years  1866 — 84  a  hectoliter  of  salted  herring  has  been  calculated  as  correspond- 
ing to  87  kilograms.  —  ^  Including  tinned,  dried,  and  smoked  herring,  as  well  as  small 
(Baltic)  herring,  sprats,  etc. 


SALT-WATER   FISHING.  229 

arose  a  considerable  autumn  herring-fisheiy  with  drift-nets,  which,  during  August — 
October,  was  carried  on  off  Halland  and  the  southern  part  of  the  Ian  above- 
mentioned.  Fishermen  from  Skane  too  have  taken  part  in  this  fishery,  carrying 
on  their  operations  in  the  Kattegat.  Lil'ce  those  from  Blekinge,  these  fisher- 
men catch  the  herring  in  the  Sound  and  in  the  south  of  the  Baltic  during  the 
smnmer  and  autumn  by  means  of  drift-nets.  The  same  kind  of  fishing  is  also 
carried  on  during  summer  around  the  island  of  Gottland.  In  the  bays  and  fiords 
of  the  archipelago,  along  the  coast  from  Blekinge  northward,  herring  and  small 
(Baltic)  herring  are  fished  with  seines  principally  during  spawning  time  in 
spring  and  the  early  part  of  summer;  in  some  places  in  Central  Sweden,  also 
during  winter  under  the  ice  with  veij-  large  seines,  so-called  winters  seines.  Besides, 
there  is  used  a  special  kind  of  set  herring-nets,  which  along  the  Norrland  coast 
are  tied  very  deep  and  are  turned  inward  in  the  shape  of  a  hook  and  are  called 
"hook-nets"  or  "deep-nets".  Fykes,  too,  are  used  for  fishing  small  (Baltic)  herring 
in  certain  parts  off  the  Norrland  coast. 

Herring  is  nowadays  to  a  large  extent  sold  fresh,  partly  for  export,  especially 
to  the  German  curing  houses,  from  Bohuslan,  Halland,  and  Skane,  and  partly  for 
home  use.  In  years  when  the  herring-fishery  was  good,  large  quantities  of  herring 
from  Bohuslan  which  were  not  found  worth  salting,  were  used  in  preparing  guano 
and  herring  oil.     The    best  herring  was  salted  and,  for  the  most  part,  exported. 

Small  (Baltic)  herring  (var.  membras)  is,  when  fresh,  a  delicious  fish,  and 
also  when  salted  it  constitutes  an  every-day  article  of  food  among  the  popula- 
tion of  Central  and  Northern  Sweden.  Small  herring  is  also  eaten  smoked 
(bloater). 

The    real    anchovy    (Stolephorus    encrasicholus)  occurs  only  rarely  in   Swedish  ' 
waters,  but  the  other  species  of  herring,  the  sprat  (Clupea  sprattus),  occurs  both 
along    the   west   and  the  east  coast,-  and  is  prepared,  in  Bohuslan,  in  the  salted 
and  spiced    form    which,    in  tins  labelled  "ansjovis",  has  found  a  very  extensive 
sale  both  at  home  and  abroad. 

xlmong  the  cod  family  ((Jaclidse),  the  following  species  are  extensively 
fished:  the  cod  proper  (Gradus  morrhua),  the  haddock  (G-.  aeglefinus),  the 
whiting,  or  merling  (G.  merlangus),  the  ling  (Molva  vulgaris),  and  the 
hake  (Merluccius  vulgaris).  The  cod  occurs  all  around  the  coast  all  the 
way  up  towards  Norrland,  although  in  decreasing  numbers,  but  is  not  so 
very  extensi-v  ely  fished  in  Sweden  as  in  Norway,  although  cod-fishing 
along  the  west  coast  and  also  in  the  Baltic,  all  the  way  up  to  Grottland 
does  not  lack  importance.  The  other  species  mentioned  above  belong 
to  the  "West  Coast  only.  The  ling  plays  an  important  part  in  the  Bohus- 
lan fisheries,  and  it  is  tbe  fish  that  is  caught  in  greatest  numbers  in  the 
Bohuslan  deep-sea-  or  bank-fishery,  which  is  pursued  in  distant  waters 
—  near  the  Shetlands  and  in  other  parts  of  the  North  Sea.  Nowadays, 
the  fishery  in  question  is  carried  on  for  the  most  part  with  large  cutters 
bought  in  England,  but  large  motor-boats  are  also  employed.  The  long- 
line  (Sw.  "langrev;  backa")  is  used  in  this  fishery.  The  old-fashioned 
"bank-sloops"  have  quite  disappeared.  Besides  the  ling  are  also  caught 
the  cod  proper,  the  torsk  (Brosmius  brosme),  etc.  One  or,  as  a  rule,  seve- 
ral trips  are  made  during  the  spring  and  summer. 

Later  on  in  the  season,  many  Bohuslan  fishermen  go  with  the  same 
class  of  boats  on  the  mackerel  fishery,  with  mackerel-lines  (Sw.  dorj),  in 


230  V.      SHOOTING   AND    FISHING. 

the  North  Sea,  a  fishery  which,  carried  on  from  small,  decked  motor-hoats, 
is  pursued  at  an  earlier  period  in  the  Skagerrak  and  Kattegat,  where,  in 
the  early  part  of  the  summer,  mackerel  is  caught  by  means  of  drift-nets. 
The  Swedish  mackerel  line  fishery  in  the  North  Sea,  which  began  in  1884, 
now  ranks  in  importance  next  to  the  herring- fishery.  In  1912,  the  Swedish 
mackerel-fishery  brought  in  at  first  hand  about  1  892  000  kr.  The  greater 
part  of  the  mackerel  caught  by  line  in  the  North  Sea  is  salted  and  split, 
and  exported  to  the  U.  S.  A. 

Among  the  flounders,  the  plaice  (Pleuronectes  platessa)  is  of  the 
greatest  importance  for  the  Swedish  fisheries.  For  the  Baltic  fishery, 
however,  the  common  flounder  (Pleuronectes  flesus),  plays  the  most  im- 
poiiant  role.  It  is  found  as  far  up  as  in  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia.  Other 
kinds  of  flounder  caught  in  considerable  numbers  on  the  west  coast  are 
the  turbot  (Bothus  maximus),  the  brill  (Bothus  Rhombus),  the  sole  (Solea 
vulgaris),  the  halibut  (Hippoglossus  vulgaris)  and  the  pole-dab  (Pleuro- 
nectes cynoglossus).  The  two  latter  species  are  found  in  deep  water,  where 
the  pole-dab  is  caught  by  means  of  the  trawl. 

The  lobster  is  caught  only  on  the  west  coast,  but,  south  of  Hallands 
Vadero,  not  in  any  considerable  numbers.  The  oyster  fishery,  which,  of 
late  years,  has  fallen  off  very  considerablj^,  is  nowadays  carried  on  only 
in  some  few  firths  north  of  Marstrand. 

The  eel,  like  the  salmon,  belongs,  it  is  true,  both  to  salt  and  to  fresh 
water;  as,  however,  in  Sweden,  by  far  the  greater  part  of  the  eels  caught 
are  taken  in  the  sea  off  the  coast,  on  their  autumn  migration  to  the  Atlan- 
tic, there  is  good  reason  to  reckon  the  eel  as  belonging  to  the  sea-fisheries. 
The  most  productive  eel- fishery  is  that  carried  on  with  the'  help 
of  a  kind  of  fj'kes  (eel-traps)  called  "hommor",  on  the  coasts  of  Oster- 
gotland,  Smaland,  Oland,  Blekinge,  and  Skane.  A  fairly  lucrative  "hom- 
mor" eel-fishery  exists  as  far  north  as  Grisslehamn,  however.  During  the 
last  few  years  (from  and  including  1907),  the  fishermen  in  Skane  have 
begun  to  make  use  of  large  traps  or  pound-nets,  attached  to  stakes  driven 
into  the  sea-bottom  and  called  eel  pound-nets  (Sw.  albottengarn),  in  which 
considerable  quantities  of  migrating  eels  are  taken  during  the  autumn. 
Most  of  the  Swedish  coast-  or  migrating  eel  is  exported  to  Germany, 
whither  it  is  conveyed'  by  the  German  cauf-vessels,  which  make  regular 
visits  to  the  more  important  eel- fishing  centres. 


Fresh- Water  Fisheries. 

As  before  mentioned,  Sweden  possesses  a  great  number  of  large  and  small 
lakes,  and,  in  this  respect  occupies  tlie  second  place  among  the  countries  of 
Europe,  in  proportion  to  its  area.  Sweden  also  possesses  about  40  salmon 
rivers,  of  a  total  length  of  9  000  kilometers,  8,700  kilometers  of  which 
are  accessible  to  salmon.  The  "salmon",  is  found  not  only  in  these  rivers, 
but  also  in  the  great  lakes,  Vanern,  Viittern,  Siljan  and  Storsjon.     The 


FRESH-WATBE   FISHERIES. 


231 


latter  lake  is  in  Jamtland.  The  salmon  occurring  in  these  lakes  do  not 
go  down  to  the  sea,  and,  if  we  except  the  fish  found  in  Vanern,  the  are  really 
only  large  salmon-trout.  In  the  rivers,  the  salmon  are  caught  in  nets  and 
seines,  and  in  various  kinds  of  salmon-traps.  The  salmon-fishery  has 
fallen  off  considerably  during  the  last  few  decades.  The  most  productive 
river  salmon-fishery  is  that  in  the  Angermanalven,  Indalsalven,  Dalalven 
(the  lower  part),  Morrumsan,  Lagan,  Atran,  and  Grotaalv,  and  in  the 
Tornea  iilv,  where  the  fishery  is  carried  on  in  common  by  Swedish  and 
Einnish  fishermen.  Of  late  years  the  fishery  has  gradually  removed  to 
the  coast,  principally  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  mouths  of  the  rivers, 
hut  also  out  to  sea.  From  Blekinge  and  Skane,  for  example,  a  fairly 
lucrative  salmon-fishery  has  been  carried  on  by  means  of  drift-nets  and 
salmon-lines  (S\v.  uppflotade  revar)  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Bornholm, 
■and  even  nearer  to  the  German  coast.  Fishing  by  means  of  salmon-lines, 
however,  is  nowada^'s  never  practised,  and,  except  in  Hanobukten,  drift- 
net  fishing,  too,  is  carried  on  on  a  considerably  smaller  scale  than  before. 


Photo.  Fr.  G.  KLEM^risG,  Stocttolm. 


Salmon  Fishing  at  Alvkarleby. 


Of  far  greater  economic  importance  for  the  country  than  the  salmon  are 
the  so-called  coarse  fish  (Sw.  fjallfisk,  grafisk),  i.  e.,  pike,  perch,  bass,  bream, 
ids,  roach,  etc.,  which,  as  a  rule,  form  the  greater  part  of  the  fish  caught  in 
"the  Swedish  lakes.  In  the  northern  part  of  the  country,  in  the  mountain  lakes 
and  in  a  number  of  deep  lakes  resembling  mountain  lakes,  such  as,  for  example, 
lake  Vattern,  there    exist    a    number    of    salmonidse,    the  charr,  trout,  gwyniad 


232  V.      SHOOTING   AND    FISHING. 

(Coregonus  lavaretus)  and  grayling,  while  in  the  lower-lying  lakes  the  vendace 
(Coregonus  albula)  is  of  paramount  importance.  All  the  species  of  fish  men- 
tioned, with  the  exception  of  the  charr,  are  also  found  in  the  Baltic;  the  gray- 
ling, however,  is  caught  only  in  the  northern  part  of  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia. 

The  crayfish-fishery,  too,  in  Southern  and  Central  Sweden,  is  of  no  little  im- 
portance. In  1907,  however,  the  so-called  "crayfish  disease"  broke  out  in  Lake- 
Malaren,  with  the  result  that  it  has  exterminated  the  crayfish  in  that  lake,  in 
Lake  Hjalmaren,  and  in  a  number  of  streams  and  lakes  communicating  with 
the  waters  mentioned. 

In  general,  the  lake  fisheries  of  Sweden  have  not  been  managed  or  utilized  in 
a  rational  manner,  but  still  they  have  been  fairly  productive  (see  above).  The- 
average  annual  yield  of  the  Swedish  fresh-water  fisheries  has  been  calculated  as. 
being  no  more  than  about  3  kilograms  of  fish  per  hectare,  while  average. 
lakes  in  the  north  of  Germany  yield  15 — 30  kilograms.  One  chief  reason 
of  the  poor  yield  of  the  lake-fishery  in  Sweden  is,  that  it  is  carried  on  and 
managed  in  an  unsatisfactory  manner,  for  the  number  of  owners  of  the  fishing 
rights  is  so  great  that  it  is  impossible  to  carry  on  the  fishing  in  accordance- 
vnth  a  uniform  and  properly  organized  plan. 


Fish  Culture. 

Sweden  is,  as  far  as  is  known,  the  first  country  in  Europe  where  at- 
tempts were  made  to  assist  the  spawning  of  the  common  inland  lake  fish 
by  means  of  special  contrivances,  for  the  purpose  of  improving  the 
fishing.  As  early  as  1761,  the  Mayor  of  Linkoping,  K.  F.  Lund,  pub- 
lished in  the  "Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences"  an  essay 
called  "On  the  Planting  of  Fish  in  Inland  Lakes",  where  he  gave  an  ac- 
count of  a  method  for  hatching  out  perch  and  other  inland  lake  fish  (not 
salmon  idse)  in  pens  lined  with  brush.  His  attemps  were  afterwards  for- 
gotten until  about  1850,  when  attempts  at  fish-culture  were  again  begun,, 
and  it  was  not  until  1865  that  a  complete  institution  for  salmon-cultiva- 
tion was  established  at  the  expense  of  the  State,  whose  "normal  institu- 
tion" afterwards  became  a  pattern  for  a  large  number  of  such  institu- 
tions throughout  the  country,  of  which  there  are  now  between  thirty 
and  forty. 

Fish  culture  in  ponds  was  carried  on  in  ancient  times  at  the  monasteries  and! 
on  many  large  estates,  especially  in  Skane,  where  the  carp  was  introduced  from 
Denmark  at  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century,  but  these  ponds  were  after- 
wards neglected.  The  culture  of  carp  has  been  recommenced  of  late  years, 
and  in  Gustavsborg  in  Skane  there  is  a  large  number  of  carp-ponds  on  the- 
German  model,  built  in  1879.  From  these  ponds  about  20  000  kronors'  worth 
of  carp  was  sold  as  early  as  in  1896,  principally  to  Germany.  The  carp,  how- 
ever, thrive  as  far  to  the  north  as  Varmland,  where  experimental  carp-breeding 
ponds  were  laid  down  at  the  Langbanshyttan  estate;  it  appears,  however,  that 
carp-culture  cannot  be  carried  on  so  far  to  the  north  to  much  advantage.  In 
the  highlands  of  Smaland  and  north  of  them,  the  tench  can  probably  occupy 
the  same  position  in  regard  to  fish-culture  in  ponds  as  that  taken  by  the  carp- 
in  the  southernmost  parts  of  the  country.  The  culture  of  both  these  species, 
of  fish  has  received  a  great  impulse  since  the  formation,  in  1906,  of  the  fishe- 
ries   association    called    the   "Sodra  Sveriges  Fiskeriforening".     The  most  impor- 


FISHERY   LESISLATION.  263 

tant  experiments  with  regard  to  pond  fish-cultiire  and  lake  fisheries,  together 
with  the  investigations  in  connection  with  these  subjects,  have  been  carried 
out  chiefly  at  the  experimental  fishing  and  biological  station  at  Aneboda,. 
in  the  northern  part  of  Kronoberg  Lan,  and  partly  at  Eriksdal,  in  Malmohus 
Lan,  and  the  lakes  rented  around  these  places  by  the  named  association.  The 
fish-culture  establishment  which  was  founded  in  1894  by  a  company  at  Angels- 
berg  in  Vastmanland,  and  the  chief  end  of  which  was  the  hatching  and  further 
culture  in  ponds  of  two  members  of  the  salmon  family  from  America,  the  brook- 
trout  (Salmo  fontinalis)  and  the  rainbow-trout  (Salmo  irideus),  has  lately  been 
enlarged,  the  company  having  erected  a  system  of  ponds  on  ground  leased  from 
the  State  and  forming  part  of  the  Kloten  Crown  Park  in  Orebro  Lan.  The  same 
kind  of  pond  culture  has  been  going  on  for  some  years  at  Kallefall  in  Skara- 
borg  Lan,  and  a  company  is  engaged  in  similar  work  at  Kalarne,  in  Jamtland. 
It  is  remarkable  that  the  stocking  with  the  above-mentioned  brook-charr  of  lakes, 
so  far  north  as  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Are  has  had  very  good  results.  In  1890 
there  was  founded,  at  the  expense  of  the  State,  a  Fish  Culture  and  Fresh  Water 
Biological  Establishment  at  Finspang  in  Ostergotland,  with  a  number  of  small  ponds,, 
as  an  experimental  station  for  pond  fish-culture  and  fresh  water  biological  in- 
vestigations. As  the  supply  of  water  proved  to  be  uncertain,  the  establishment. 
—  in  accordance  with  a  resolution  of  the  Riksdag  —  has  been  closed  and  an- 
other, larger  State  establishment,  for  the  culture  of  salmon,  charr,  and  gwyniad 
from  Lake  Vattern,  is  to  be  erected  at  JMotala. 

Repeated  attempts  at  oyster  culture  have  been  made  in  the  coast-archipelago- 
off  Bohuslan,  the  last  being  in  accordance  with  a  new  method  elaborated  by  the 
director  of  the  Swedish  Hydrographic-biological  Commission.  Unlike  former 
attempts,  this  new  effort  seems  to  promise  success.  The  same  Commission 
has  also  begun  experiments  with  lobster  culture,  for  which  the  west  coast  of 
Sweden  offers  many  possibilities.  There  is  reason  to  hope  that  these  attempts. 
will  succeed,  and  that  they  will  result  in  lobster  culture  on  a  large  scale  being 
earned  out  on  behalf  of  the  State. 


Fishery  Legislation. 

In  regard  to  the  ownership  of  lishing-waters,  there  were  provisions- 
even  in  onr  oldest  laws  and  in  the  Code  of  1734,  too,  but  laws  tor  the  pro- 
tection of  fishing  were  not  made  until  late  in  Sweden,  namely  the  "  Common 
Fishery  Law"  of  1766.  The  Fishery  Law  now  in  force  is  of  October  17, 
1900.  The  provisions  in  regard  to  right  of  ownership  have,  however,  now- 
been  deleted  from  this  law  and  arranged  as  a  special  "Law  concerning  the 
Right  to  Fishing  Waters",  o"f  June  27,  1896. 

Nowadays,  the  State  owns  only  few  fisheries.  The  majority  belong  to  private 
persons,  according  to  the  common  i-ule  that  the  owner  of  the  shore  also  owns 
the  water  and  the  fishing;  but  in  the  villages  that  have  not  undergone  reparti- 
tion (cf.  p.  31),  this  right  is  only  applicable  to  the  villages  themselves,  while  the 
individual  owners  in  the  village  have  equal  fishing  rights  within  the  territory  of 
the  village.  The  shore  ownership  enjoyed  by  the  various  villages  extends,  in 
lakes,  streams,  and  the  bays  and  fiords  of  the  archipelago,  to  the  boundary-lines. 
On  the  open  sea-coast  and  in  the  largest  inland  lakes,  the  shore-ownership  extends- 
only  180  meters  outward  from  the  shore,  measured  from  a  depth  of  2  meters; 
beyond  this,  the  fishing  is  free  to  all  Swedish  subjects.  Furthermore,  there  is. 
the  important  provision  that  in  rivers  and  sounds,  one  third  of  the  width  of  th& 


234  V.     SHOOTING    AND    FISHING. 

watercourse  (in  certain  cases  one  sixth)  in  the  deepest  place,  shall  be  left  free 
from  fishing  appliances,  unless  special  privileges  to  close  the  water-course  have 
been  granted.  The  same  is  applicable  to  dam-buildings.  This  open  central 
channel  in  the  water-course  is  called  "the  King's  artery"  (kungsadra). 

With  respect  to  the  fishing  economy,  only  general  provisions  are  made  hi 
the  Fishing  Law,  while  detailed  regulations  are  left  to  the  local  governments  in 
the  different  lans,  which  have  the  right  to  issue  special  bye-laws  for  separate  water- 
courses, including  the  lakes,  or  for  the  whole  of  a  larger  or  smaller  portion  of 
the  Ian,  after  the  hearing  of  the  fishery-owners  concerned  and  the  fishery  of- 
ficials.   The  decision  of  the  authorities   can  be  appealed  from  to  the  Government. 

The  "Law  regulating  Fishing  Eights  held  in  common"  (Sw.  Lag  om  ge- 
mensamhetsfiske)  which  was  passed  by  the  Riksdag,  1913,  aims  at  facilitating 
uniform  and  organized  management  and  utilization  of  fisheries  which  are  held  in 
sole  possession  (Sw.  oskiftad;  cf.  above  and  p.  31),  or  which  belong  to  two  or 
more  persons. 

Fishery  Administration 

has  been  gradually  developed.  During  the  eighteenth  century,  the  care  of  the 
fisheries  devolved  on  the  Board  of  Trade.  Towards  the  end  of  the  century,  there 
was  appointed,  during  the  great  herring-period  in  Bohuslan,  a  "superintendent  of 
the  herring-fisheries",  but  when  this  period  came  to  a  close,  the  post  was  left 
unfilled,  and  the  fisheries  were  long  without  an  official  of  any  sort.  About  1850, 
the  authorities  in  Bohuslan  appointed  a  superintendent  of  sea-fisheries  of  the 
province.  At  about  the  same  time,  the  Academy  of  Agriculture  appointed  an 
itinerant  teacher  in  fish-culture,  etc.,  and  in  1864  a  fishery  intendant  with 
two  assistants,  who  were  paid  by  the  State.  In  1890,  when  the  administrative 
duties  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Agriculture  were  transferred  to  a  special  depart- 
ment, the  Royal  Board  of  Agriculture,  one  of  its  members  was  appointed,  under 
the  title  of  Fishery  Inspector,  to  take  over  the  principal  duties  of  the  fishery 
superintendent  and  to  be  chairman  in  debates  on  fishery  matters  in  the  Board. 
The  assistants  became  officials  subordinate  to  the  Board. 

It  was  not  before  1903  that  the  superintendence  of  the  sea-fisheries  of  Gote- 
borg  ooh  Bohus  Lan  was  transferred  from  the  Board  of  Trade  to  the  Royal 
Board  of  Agriculture.  A  thorough  re-organization  of  the  administration  of  the 
fisheries  took  place  in  1904,  when,  instead  of  the  two  fishery  assistants  and  the 
teacher  in  fish-culture,  it  was  determined  to  appoint  six  fishery  intendants,  each 
with  his  own  district  to  supervize,  a  fishery  assistant,  a  fishery  engineer,  and 
two  fishery  stipendiaries.  At  the  close  of  1912,  the  posts  of  the  fishery  inten- 
dents  were  all  filled  by  permanent  officials.  In  1885  a  State  fishery-  or  com- 
mercial fish  agency  was  established  in  London,  which,  in  1888,  was  trans- 
ferred to  Berlin,  and,  in  1912,  transformed  into  an  agricultural  expert's  office, 
one  of  the  duties  of  which  is  to  promote  the  interests  in  Germany  of  the  Swedish 
fish  export.  Fishery  instructors  or  fishery  superintendents  are  found  in  the 
^service  of  most  of  the  Swedish  Agricultural  Societies  and  in  that  of  the  Gott- 
land  County  Council,  who  are  paid  by  these  corporations  aided  by  a  contribution 
from  the  State  grant  for  the  support  of  the  fishing  industry. 

Several  other  measures  have  been  taken  by  the  State  during  the  last  few 
years  for  the  promotion  of  the  fisheries  of  Sweden.  The  loan-fund  for  the  pro- 
motion of  the  fisheries,  towards  which  the  Riksdag  contributed  100  000  kroner 
in  1892,  has  since  that  date  increased  to  2  767  250  kroner  outstanding  means 
at  the  close  of  1912,  2  100  900  kroner  being  to  the  account  of  Goteborg  och 
Bohus  Lan,  and  666  390  kroner  to  that  of  the  remaining  lans.  Since  the 
year    1907    inclusive,  a  sum   of  750  000  kroner  annuallv  has  been   disbursed  in 


FISHERY   ADMINISTRATION.  235 

the  form  of  loans.  The  i-ate  of  interest  is  3"6  %  and  the  am orti zing-period  is 
10  years  at  most.  The  loans,  which  are  granted  for  the  purchase  of  fishing-boats, 
motors,  and  other  fishing-gear,  or  for  the  erection  of  small  establishments  for  the 
utilization  in  various  ways  of  the  products  of  the  fisheries,  are  negotiated  by  the 
Agricultural  Societies  or  the  County  Councils,  who  undertake  the  risk  of  the 
loan,  which  is  granted  by  the  Royal  Board  of  Agriculture  or,  in  the  case  of 
Goteborg  och  Bohus  Liin,  by  the  Governor  of  the  liin.  The  fund  in  question 
has  been  made  full  use  of,  and  has  greatly  contributed  to  the  development  of 
fisheries  of  late  years,  especially  as  regards  the  sea-fisheries. 

In  1911,  the  Riksdag  granted  -1  788  000  kroner  for  the  erection  of  fishing- 
harbours  and  in  the  years  1912 — 14  a  total  sum  of  210  000  kr.  more  for  the 
same  purpose.  Since  the  year  )  905  a  vState  grant  has  enabled  the  Royal  Board  of 
Agriculture  and  the  Central  Meteorological  Office  to  issue  storm-warnings  to 
the  west  and  south  coasts  of  the  coujitry,  to  the  great  benefit  of  the  fisheries. 
In  1914  the  storm-warning-service  was  extended  to  the  east  cost.  By  a  Royal 
Ordinance,  dated  October  3,  1908,  the  State  Insurance  Office  took  measures 
specially  for  the  insurance  of  fishermen  against  accidents.  From  1903  inclu- 
sive, partly  by  means  of  a  State  grant  and  partly  by  means  of  grants  from  the 
Agricultural  Society  and  the  County  Council  of  the  Lan,  courses  of  instruction 
in  navigation  have  been  arranged  for  the  fishermen  in  Goteborg  och  Bohus  Lan. 
From  and  including  1901,  a  yearly  sum  of  7  000  kroner  has  been  granted  for 
division  between  the  Agricultural  Societies  and  the  County  Councils,  on  condi- 
tion that  these  corporation  contribute  an  equal  amount,  the  money  to  be  awarded 
as  bounties  ■  for  killing  seals  and  thus,  in  some  measure,  to  lessen  the  less 
caused  to  the  fisheries  by  the  animals  in  question.  Since  the  beginning  of  1914 
the  State  alone  pays  those  bounties  —  4  kr.  for  each  seal  killed.  As  the  num- 
ber of  seals  killed  yearly  off  the  coasts  of  Sweden  amounts  to  about  7  000 — 9  000 
kr.,  the  amount  to  be  paid  in  these  bounties  will  probably  be  about  28  000 — 36  000 
kr.  In  the  international  measures  which  have  been  taken  in  common  for  the 
investigation  of  the  northern  seas,  for  the  benefit  of  the  fisheries  and  for  scienti- 
fic purposes,  and  the  initiative  to  which  was  given  by  S\\'eden  in  1 899,  this 
country  has  ever  since  taken  an  active  part,  and  a  special  commission  has  been 
appointed  for  the  direction  of  the  share  of  the  investigations  which  has  fallen  to 
the  lot  of  Sweden.  During  the  last  few  years  this  commission  has  received  an 
annual  grant  of  21  000  kroner,  of  which  sum  5  100  kroner  is  to  help  to  cover 
the  common  international  expenses.  An  annual  grant  of  34  000  kroner  is  made 
for  the  investigating-  and  guard-vessel,  specially  built  for  the  work,  which  has 
been  in  use  since  1905.  For  a  great  number  of  years  back  another  Crown 
vessel  has  also  been  stationed  on  the  west  coast  for  the  protection  and  necessary- 
assistance  of  the  fisheries  there. 

In  1908,  the  Riksdag  granted  a  sum  of  29  000  kroner  for  a  vessel  to  be 
employed  in  fishery  experiments  and  investigations  in  the  Baltic  and  the  Swe- 
dish lakes  entrance  to  which  can  be  obtained  from  the  sea  in  question.  An 
annual  grant  of  about  8  500  kroner  is  now  made  for  the  up-keep  of  the  vessel 
—  a  large  motor-boat. 


VI. 

MINING  AND  METALLURGICAL 
INDUSTRY. 


A  General  Survey. 

Mining-  is  a  ^ery  ancient  occupation  in  Sweden:  it  has  assumed  for 
centuries  and  still  maintains  a  front  rank  position  among  her  industries. 
The  fame  o£  Sweden's  mineral  wealth,  particularly  in  copper  and  iron, 
penetrated  at  an  early  date  to  foreign  countries,  and  her  metallurgists  have 
a  reputation  from  of  old  for  masterly  skill  at  their  craft.  It  may  be  said 
without  exaggeration  that  Swedish  steel  and  iron  have  conduced  more 
than  anything  else  that  comes  from  Sweden  to  make  her  known  to  the 
world;  and  they  are  still  finding  their  way  to  all  the  countries  of  the 
globe. 

The  origin  and  continued  existence  of  the  Swedish  metallurgical  industry 
is  based  primarily  on  the  rich  and  once  easily  accessible  supplies  of  ore, 
which,  moreover,  as  far  as  the  iron  ore  is  concerned,  are,  as  a  rule,  of  great 
purity;  but  also  the  plentiful  supply  of  timber  and  of  easily  equipped 
water-power  have  been  factors  of  great  importance.  Utilization  of  these 
natural  advantages  led  to  the  result  that  Sweden  came  to  be  the  world's 
biggest  producer  of  copper  (17th  century),  and  afterwards  of  iron  (18th 
century).  However,  she  was  unable  to  maintain  this  position  in  the  long 
run.  The  enormously  increased  demands  for  metals  gave  rise  to  new 
metallurgical  processes,  and  led  to  the  discovery  of  new  and  large  supp- 
lies of  ore  in  different  parts  of  the  world.  A  great  revolution  was  brought 
about  by  the  employment  of  stone  coal  in  lieu  of  charcoal:  Sweden,  being 
poor  in  fossile  fuel,  was  unaible  to  make  use  of  the  new  method.  This 
method,  however,  only  permits  of  the  fabrication  of  a  product  of  ordinary 
quality,  and,  as  iron  and  steel  of  the  highest  quality  could  not,  and 
cannot  now,  be  dispensed  with,  the  Swedish  iron  industry  has  nevertheless 
appropriated  a  market  of  its  own,  which  it  has  contrived  to  maintain,  in 


A    GEKERAL    SURVEY. 


Mt.  Kirunatara. 


spite   of   improvements   in  metallurgical   processes  and   higher  standards 
of  quality. 

The  metals  and  alloys  —  gold,  bronze,  iron,  silver  — ,  which  were  first 
used  in  Sweden  were  imported  in  a  metallic  state.  Processes,  however, 
such  as  casting,  forging,  and  so  forth,  were  carried  on  in  Sweden  at  a 
very  earljr  date.  According  to  Montelius,  the  oldest  iron  object  foiind  in 
Sweden  the  date  of  which  could  be  definitely  determined,  belonged  to  the 
fifth  period  of  the  Bronze  Age,  that  is  to  the  9th  and  8th  centuries  B.  C. 
Soon  afterwards  iron  objects  in  the  subterranean  finds  become  as  plentiful 
as  those  of  bronze,  and  the  beginning  of  the  Iron  Age  in  Scandinavia  is 
assigned  by  Montelius  to  about  700  B.  C.  How  long  a  period  elapsed 
before  the  ancient  Swedes  learnt  to  reduce  iron  out  of  ore  is  not  known. 
The  frequently  occurring  heaps  of  slag  and  other  remains  of  primitive 
smelting  have  in  fact  been  very  little  investigated.  Montelius,  however,  is 
inclined  to  the  belief  that  this  knowledge  was  acquired  soon  after  iron 
had  come  into  general  use.  The  date  must  accordingly  be  assigned  to 
about  the  commencement  of  the  Iron  Age,  or,  approximatelj',  2  500  years 
ago.  It  seems  certain  that  ancient  metallurgy  in  Sweden  was  first  directed 
to  the  production  of  iron,  and  made  use  of  lake  and  bog  ore  as  a 
raw  product.  The  method  of  smelting  was  extremely  rude:  it  was  carried 
out  in  little  pits  in  the  ground,  often  formed  into  a  kind  of  furnace  by 


238  VI.      MINING   AND   METALLUKSICAL    INDUSTRY. 

stones  being  set  up  around  it.  Out  of  this  primitive  type  of  furnace 
were  then  developed  Osmund  "skiillingar"  and  hearths  of  different 
kinds  and  sizes.  Osmund,  that  is,  malleable  iron  produced  direct,  and 
also  steel  were  the  sole  products  of  the  Swedish  metal  industry  for  cen- 
turies. Copper  seems  scarcely  to  have  been  manufactured  in  Sweden  be- 
fore the  Middle  Ages,  but  at  all  events  not  later  than  the  13th  century. 
Silver  and  Lead  began  to  be  extracted  in  the  course  of  the  15th  cen- 
tury, perhaps  earlier.  Gold  was  found  in  Sweden  in  1636,  and  there  have 
been  preserved  samples  of  Swedish  gold  from  the  year  1695.  Zinc  was 
experimentally  extracted  for  the  first  time  in  1741,  when  also  brass  was 
made  out  of  exclusively  Swedish  metals.  Cobalt  began  to  be  exploited 
in  Sweden  in  1745.  Nickel  was  reduced  on  a  manufacturing  basis  for  the 
first  time  in  1839,  on  a  larger  scale  in  1844.  Manganese  ore  was  utilised 
aiS  long  ago  as  the  17th  century,  but  it  was  not  till  1868  that  a  metallur- 
gical extraction  of  the  metal  by  the  production  of  spiegel  iron  commenced. 
Chromium  and  Tungsten,  finally,  are  also  Swedish  metals;  they  have  been 
extracted  in  Sweden  from  ores  since  1892  and  1910  respectively.  Mercury 
was  temporarely  manufactured  as  a  by-product  at  Sala  in  1907.  It  is 
not  known,  even  approximately,  when  the  mining  of  ore  first  began  i 
probably  at  the  beginning  of  the  Middle  Ages,  perhaps  earlier.  Coal 
mining  in  Skane  is  mentioned  for  the  first  time  in  1571.  Traces  of  mining 
of  far  older  date  have  been  discovered  in  the  chalk  deposits  in  Skane, 
where  flint  was  mined  —  perhaps  as  early  as  the  Stone  Age  —  bjr  the- 
sinking  of  shafts  and  stoping.  Written  records  relating  to  Swedish 
mining  are  not  found  till  late,  and  the  early  history  of  mining  in  Sweden 
is  scanty  in  data.  The  earliest  information  on  this  subject  is  apparently 
to  be  gathered  from  the  old  "sagas".   The  dwarf  smiths  who  forged  famous 


Miniature  Sioord  of  Iron. 
From  the  5th  period  of  the  Bronze  Age  Discovered  at  Bjarsg&rd  in  Sk§,ne. 


A    GENERAL    SURVEY.  2of)' 

swords  and  won  fame  in  their  craft  doubtless  not  merely  fashioned  and^ 
tempered  the  weapons,  but  also  knew  the  still  greater  art  of  producing  a. 
good  steel  material  out  of  ore.  The  oldest  mining  records  preserved  are  a 
document  from  the  year  1288,  relating  to  a  share  in  Stora  Kopparberget 
(Great  Copper  Mountain),  a  deed  of  transference  of  the  year  1303  dealing 
with  a  share  in  the  iron  mountain  of  Norberg,  a  mining  statute  of  the- 
year  1340  concerning  "Vlastra  Berget"  (West  Mountain),  and  a  deed  of 
privilege  of  the  year  1347  referring  to  Stora  Kopparberget.  In  1461 
is  mentioned  a  blast  furnace  in  Narke.  However,  it  was  not  till  the  16th. 
and  17th  centuries  that  the  blast  furnace  process  came  into  general  use- 
ia  Sweden. 

The  later  development  of  Swedish  mining  and  metallurgical  science 
was  on  the  whole  influenced  by  Swedish  conditions  and  requirements,., 
though  investigations  and  inventions  of  wider  scope  are  not  lacking. 
The  early  felt  need  of  quality  and  the  consequent  endeavour  after- 
a  profounder  knowledge  of  the  essential  nature  of  the  processes  employed, 
explains  how  scientific  metallurgy  came  to  be  elaborated  earlier  in  Swe- 
den than  in  other  countries.  Within  this  sphere  Swedish  mining  and 
metallurgy  from  the  18th  century  down  to  the  present  day  can  boast  of 
quite  a  series  of  eminent  scientists.  Work  prolific  in  results  has  been  done- 
in  Sweden,  to  determine  the  chemical  composition  of  iron,  to  ascertain  the- 
physical  properties  of  iron  and  steel,  to  master  the  processes  employed  in 
roasting  kilns,  blast  furnaces,  hearths  and  so  forth,  and  to  study  the  right 
treatment  of  steal.  New  methods  of  quantitative  analysis  have  also  been 
elaborated  from  time  to  time  by  Swedish  scientists:  several  of  these 
methods  have  been  adopted  in  all  the  iron-producing  countries. 

Passing  to  the  technique  of  mining  and  metallurgy,  it  should  be  noticei 
that  dynamite,  the  far-reaching  importance  of  which  has  been  universally 
recognised,  is  a  Swedish  invention.  The  Bessemer  process,  the  most  in- 
genious of  refining  methods,  has  been  developed  to  the  point  of  effeciency 
in  Sweden.  This  process,  like  others  of  foreign  origin  transplanted  to  Swe- 
den, has  been  improved  there  and  adapted  to  Swedish  requirements.  The  ore- 
roasting  process  has  been  successfully  handled  by  Swedish  metallurgists, 
and  solutions  of  the  problem  have  been  attained  in  several  different  ways: 
the  latest  is  the  Ramen-Beskow  furnace  intended  for  the  manufacture  of 
copper;  this  furnace  is  also  extensively  used  abroad.  —  Two  other  old 
problems,  the  briquetting  of  pulverised  ore,  and  the  direct  production 
of  soft  iron,  have  also  been  solved,  for  certain  specific  purposes,  in  Swe- 
den, the  former  by  the  Grondal  process  of  briquetting  the  iron  ore  with- 
-  out  the  use  of  binding  mediums,  and  the  latter  by  the  reduction  of  ore  into- 
sponge  iron  with  inferior  fuel,  in  accordance  with  Sieurin's  method.  The- 
first  practical  electric  blast  furnace,  as  is  generally  known,  originated  in 
Sweden,  and  several  electric  steel  furnaces  —  among  them  the  remarkable 
Kjellin  furnace  —  have  also  been  constructed  there.  The  first  iron  works- 
driven  throughout  by  electricity  are  also  Swedish.    An  electric  process 


'iJ40  VI.      MINING    AND    METALLURGICAL   INDUSTRY. 

Table  41.  The  Mining  of  certain  Minerals  in  Sweden. 


Ores  and  other 
minerals. 


Annually 
1886—90 


Annually 
1891-9.5 


Annually 
1896—1900 


tons 


Annually 
1901—06 

tons 


Annually 
1906—106 

tons 


Year  1912 
tons 


Iron  ore     

Copper  ore  .... 
Silver  and  lead  ore 

Zinc  ore     

Manganese  ore^    .    . 

Nickel  ore 

Cobalt  ore 

Gold  ore*  .  .  .  .  . 
Iron  pyrites*    .    .    . 

Stone  coal 

'Refractory  clay  .  . 
Clinker  clay*  .  .  . 
Felspar* 


932  470 

20  266 

14  754 

53  402 

8  977 

495 

190 

1129 

1319 

176  516 

98  063 


1  519  335 

23  941 
16  552 
48  315 

6  090 

97 

79 

1809 

853 

203  390 

129  295 

24  765 


2  294  760 

23  590 

8  644 

57  701 

2  487 


1511 

448 

335  626 

130  913 

35  541 

16  813 


Total  tons     1307  581   1974511   2  808033   4221220   5206  716   7 


3  564  046 

38  306 

9  424 

54  971 

2  330 


14  887 

308  000 

159  348 

57  339 

17  619 


4  626  913 
15  237 

2  081 
47345 

4  519 


24  012 

291 424 

117  339 

58  623 

19  223 


6  700  565 

3059 

2877 

50036 

5101 


31 885 

360291 

135  773 

58846 

34305 


'  Manganiferous  iron  ore  is  included  in  iron  ore.  —  *  The  iigure  1  511  tons  is  the  average 
for  the  years  1896 — 98.  —  Auriferous  copper  ore  is  included  in  copper  ore.  —  '  The  figure 
14  837  tons  is  the  average  for  the  years  1903—05.  During  the  years  1901 — 02  no  iron 
pyrites  was  mined  —  *  Data  are  lacking  for  earlier  years.  The  figure  24  765  tons  is  the 
average  for  the  years  1894 — 95.  —  °  Data  are  lacking  for  earlier  pejiods.  —  "The General 
.Strike  in  1909  depressed  mining  considerably. 

for  the  manufacture  of  ferro-silicon,  combined  with  the  extraction  of 
potash  out  of  silicates  has  recently  been  invented  and  tested  in  Sweden. 
For  the  production  of  zinc  there  is  a  Swedish  electric  method  in  use  at 
Trollhattan.  Finally  the  manufacture  of  cannons  out  of  unhammered 
rsteel  at  Bofors  is  a  proof  as  good  as  any  of  the  excellence  of  the  Swedish 
steel  material  and  the  skill  of  the  Swedish  metallurgists. 

Mining  in  the  stricter  sense  of  the  word  (thus  excluding  the  stone  in- 
'dustry,  limestone  quarrying,  etc.)  has  yielded  in  Sweden  since  1886  the 
following  quantities  of  useful  products. 

"Table  42.      Import  and  Export  of  TJnwrought  Minerals  and  Metals. 


Annually 

Import.    Value  in  thousands  of 
Kroner 

Export.    Value  in  thousands  of 
Kronor 

In  percentage  of 
the  total 

Coal 
and 
coke 

other 
mine- 
rats 

Metals 

Total 

Iron 
ore 

other 
mine- 
rals 

Metals 

Total 

Import 

Export 

1871—76.   . 
1876-80.    . 
1881-85  .    . 
1886-90  .    . 
1891-95  .    . 
1896-00.    . 
1901—05'   . 
1906-10  .    . 

1911  .... 

1912  .... 

13  452 
12  719 
15  847 
22  560 
29  770 
53  494 
58  721 
65  540 

61654 
78186 

5  304 

5  635 

8048 

9  038 

10  855 

15  758 

21820 

25  032 

27  749 
55  683 

9  542 
9  306 

8  614 

9  300 
9  003 

17  931 
22  530 
33  842 

36  792 
38  658 

28298 
27  660 
32  509 
40  898 
49628 
87183 
103071 
124414 

126196 
172.V27 

251 

196 

284 

970 

4  241 

10962 

20  469 

33  237 

51413 
59  719 

826 
1217 
1463 
3  236 
4890 
7  582 
10  470 
13  074 

17  632 
21820 

46  409 
34  513 
40  645 
34  523 
30  995 
40  459 
41194 
51680 

58  996 

47  903 

47  486 
35926 
42392 
38  719 
40126 
69003 
72133 
97  991 

128041 
128942 

11-48 
10-31 
10-24 
12-19 
14-11 
19-27 
19-32 
19-29 

18-11 

21-98 

23-22 

1712 
17-40 
14-20 
12-61 

16-46 
17-57 
19-01 

19-29 
16-95 

'  Prior  to  1905  the  price  of  coal  appears  to  have  been  estimated  too  high. 


A   GENERAL   SURVEY.  241 

The  above  table  shows  very  clearly  the  great  advance  that  has  been 
made  by  iron  ore  mining  in  Sweden.  The  coal  mines  in  Skane  also  ex- 
hibit a  considerable  increase.  The  mining  of  felspar  and  of  iron  pyrites 
has  likewise  augmented:  the  development  in  the  latter  case  is  due  to 
improved  furnaces,  which  permit  of  poor  iron  pyrites  being  utilised  to 
advantage.  Gold  and  silver  ores,  on  the  other  hand,  show  diminishing 
figures  throughout.  The  value  of  the  raw  products  which  figure  in  the 
above  table  amounted  for  the  year  1912  to  57  356  770  kronor. 

Metal  manufacture  and  the  further  working  of  metals  in  metallurgical 
works  showed  for  the  year  1911  a  value  of  production  of  approximately 
134  mill,  kronor:  out  of  this  total  about  120-B  mill,  kronor  fell  to  iron 
alone. 

The  import  and  export  of  the  products  of  the  mining  and  metallurgical 
industry  is  figured  according  to  value  in  Table  42. 

The  import  figures  in  the  table  deserve  to  be  particularly  noticed.  It 
will  be  seen  that,  in  spite  of  the  utilization  of  water  power  on  a  large 
scale  during  the  last  few  decades  and  the  consequent  diminished  demand 
for  coal  for  the  generation  of  power,  the  import  of  coal  has  nevertheless 
greatly  increased.  The  same  has  been  the  case  with  the  other  crude  mine- 
rals and  unwrought  metals.  All  these  facts  taken  together  attest  the 
increased  demand  for  raw  products  entailed  by  the  growth  of  industrial 
enterprise :  but  they  also  suggest  the  query  whether  much  of  what  has  been 
imported  could  not  have  been  produced  within  the  country  itself.  The 
coke  iron  works  which  are  being  erected  at  Oxelosund  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  50  000  tons  anually  of  foundry  pig  iron  signifies  a  step  in  the 
right  direction.  The  export  figures  in  the  table  show  what  an  important 
part  is  now  played  by  the  export  of  iron  ore.  Thanks  to  the  total  sum 
of  close  on  51  ^/a  million  kronor  which  came  into  Sweden  in  return  for 
iron  ore  during  the  year  1911,  the  articles  which  figure  in  the  table 
show  for  that  year  a  balance  of  1-8  million  kronor  in  favour  of  export. 

The  sub-joined  accounts  of  the  different  sections  of  the  Swedish  mining 
industry  are  arranged  in  order  as  follows: 

1.  Mining. 

2.  Iron  and  steel  industry. 

3.  Production  of  other  metals. 

4.  Measures  for  the  promotion  of  mining. 


Gripenhielm's  Ducat. 
Commemorative  medal  strnck  ont  of  the  first  gold  obtained  in  Sweden,  in  1695. 

10—133179.  Sweden.  II. 


242  VI.      MINING    AND    METALLURGICAL   INDUSTRY. 


1.    MINING. 

Iron  Ore  Resources. 

Swedish  ore  deposits  occur  principally  within  two  separate  districts;  in 
the  southerly  part  of  the  country  in  the  district  known  as  "Mellersta  Sve- 
riges  Bergslager"  (Mining  District  of  Central  Sweden),  and  in  its  most 
northern  region,  Lappland. 

The  first-named  of  these  districts  is  situated  between  the  59th  and  61st 
degrees  of  Latitude  and  between  14°  and  19°  East  Longitude  from  Green- 
wich. It  comprises  the  lans  of  Stockholm,  Uppsala,  Sodermanland,  Vast- 
manland,  and  Orebro,  the  easternmost  part  of  the  Ian  of  Varmland  and 
the  southernmost  parts  of  the  liins  of  Stora  Kopparberg  and  Gavleborg, 
or  the  region  between  the  southernmost  part  of  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia  in 
the  East  and  north  of  Lake  Vanern  in  the  West.  This  area  is  about  15  000 
square  kilometers.  Within  this  region  are  found  the  world-famed  ore  de- 
posits of  Dannemora  and  Grdngesberg.  Other  important  deposits  which 
belong  to  this  district  are  those  of  Norberg,  Biddarhyttan,  Stripa,  Strdssa, 
Striberg,  Dalkarlsberg,  Persberg  and  Finnmossen.  Outside  the  rayon  of 
this  districts  there  are  only  minor  deposits  in  Southern  and  Central  Swe- 
den. The  biggest  of  these  is  the  titaniferous  iron  ore  deposit  at  Taberg 
in  the  Ian  of  Jonkoping. 

The  Lappland  ore  deposits  are  mainly  situated  North  of  the  Artie  Circle 
within  the  parishes  of  Gallivare  und  Jukkasjarvi  in  the  north-western 
part  of  the  Ian  of  Norrbotten  between  the  67th  and  the  68th  degrees  of 
Latitude  and  between  19°  and  22°  East  Longitude  from  Greenwich.  With- 
in this  region,  which  has  an  area  of  about  8  000  square  kilometers  there 
occur  the  biggest  iron  ore  deposits  in  Sweden,  namely  Kirunavara  and 
Gallivare,  from  which  for  some  twenty  years  a  considerable  export  of  ore 
has  taken  place;  Tuolluvara.  and  the  fields  of  Luossavara,  Svappavara, 
Levedniemi,  Ehstromsberg,  Mertainen,  etc.,  which  have  not  yet  been 
worked.  Outside  of  this  area  the  only  iron  ore  deposits  of  any  importance 
that  occur  in  the  North  of  Sweden  are  those  in  the  parish  of  Kvikkjokk 
at  67°  North  Latitude  17°  35'  East  Longitude  from  Greenwich,  where 
there  is  a  big  deposit  of  titaniferous  iron  ore  at  Riioutevare. 

All  the  iron  ores  referred  to  above  are  rock-ores  and  consist  of  magnetite  or 
hematite  or  both,  more  or  less  intimately  mixed  with  quartz,  limestone  or  so- 
called  skarn  (gangue).  The  "skarn"  consists  of  lime-magnesia-alumina-silioates: 
amphibole,  pyroxen,  granate,  chlorite  and  others.  From  practical  metallurgical 
point  of  view  the  Swedish  iron  ores  are  divided  into  three  groups: 

"torrstenar"  (quartz  ores),  ores  requiring  the  addition  of  flux  making  bases; 

"engdende  maimer"  ("skarn"-ores),  smelting  in  the  blast-furnace  without  any 
flux,   and 


laON   OEE   KESOUECBS. 


243 


iO  12  1*.  16  18  20 


2tt  2G  2a 


Location  of  the 

principal  Iron  Ore 

Resources  in 

Sweden. 


(Indicated  iu  red.) 


12  Esl  lie  Greenw 


Gen.Srab.Lit.Ansr  Stockholm 


244 


VI.      MINING   AND   METALLURGICAL   INDUSTRY. 


Photo.  Petiius  Mei.asdee. 


Open  Cut  Mining,  GalUvare. 


"blandstenar"  (limestone-ores)  rich  in  lime  used  to  make  suitable  charges  by 
mixture  with  the  quartz-ores. 

From  mineralogical  point  of  view  the  Swedish  iron  ore  are  dividid  into  two 
groups; 


IRON   OEE   EESOURCES. 


245 


"svartmalmer"  (magnetic  iron  ores)  and  "blodstenar"  (hematites). 

With  regard  to  the  different  qualities  of  ores  the  Swedish  iron  ores  are  divi- 
ded as  follows: 

ores  low  in  phosphorus,  with  less  than  O'oi  %  of  phosphorus,  for  high-quality 
production  by  the  acid  Bessemer  and  Martin  processes, 

ores  moderate  in  phosphorus,  with  a  phosphorus-content  exceeding  O'oi  %  but 
less  than  0"06  %,  suitable  for  refining  by  the  Lancashire  process,  and 

ores  rich  in  phosphorus,  with  more  than  0"06  %  of  phosphorus,  available  only 
for  refining  by  basic  processes. 

The  Swedish  iron  ores  are  as  a  rule  titanium-free  or  very  low  in  titanium. 
Only  at  Taberg  in  Sm  aland  and  at  Ruoutevare  in  Lappland  as  well  as  in  a  few 
other  minor  deposits  there  occurs  ore  rich  in  titanium. 


Photo.  Th.  Gehrsian,  Hedemora. 


Shaft  Head-house  and  Ore  Bins,  Klackberg  Mine,  Norberg. 


In  the  mining  districts  of  Central  Sweden  there  occur  both  magnetic  iron 
ores  and  hematites;  the  latter  are,  as  a  rule,  "torrstenar",  whereas  the  magnetic 
iron  ores  are  principally  "engaende"  och  "blandmalmer".  In  Central  Sweden  the 
ores  in  most  of  the  deposits  are  low,  or  moderate,  in  phoshorus;  however,  Cen- 
tral Sweden  has  also  large  supplies  of  ores  rich  in  phosphorus  with  about  1  % 
of  phosphorus,  as,  for  instance,  at  Grangesberg  and  its  vicinity. 

In  the  Lappland  ore  fields  magnetic  iron  ore  occurs  in  predominant  quantities, 
although  hematite  also  occurs  in  considerable  quantities,  as  at  Gallivare,  Svap- 
pavara,  and  Ekstromsberg.  The  ore  of  the  Lappland  ore  fields  is  generally  high 
in  phosphorus,  from  1  to  3  ^,  and  upwards,  but  there  also  occur  ores  low  in 
phosphorus  in  several  of  the  ore  fields  (as,  for  instance,  at  Gallivare,  Kirunavara, 
Tuolluvara,  Leveaniemi,  Mertainen). 


246  VI.      MINING    AND    METALLURGICAL   INDUSTRY. 

All  the  Swedish  rock-ores  belong  to  the  Archaean  system.  The  titaniferous 
ores  occur  exclusively  in  the  form  of  basic  segregations  in  gabbro  rocks.  The 
other  iron  ores  appear  as  a  rule  as  steeply  dipping  bed-,  lens-  or  stockformed 
masses,  striking  in  conformity  with  the  surrounding  rock,  either  directly  enclo- 
sed in  these  or  surrounded  by  more  or  less  thick  masses  of  "skam"  or  lime- 
stone. The  iron  ■  ore  deposits  rarely  occur  isolated :  as  a  rule  there  are  several 
ore  beds,  ore  lenses,  or  ore  stocks  more  or  less  close  to  each  other,  forming 
orefields  (malmfdlt)  of  greater  or  less  extent. 

In  addition  to  the  rock  ores,  there  also  occur,  though  in  a  comparatively 
small  quantities,  lahe  and  bog  ores,  deposits  of  impure  iron-oxide  hydrates  or 
iron  carbonates.  These  lake  and  bog  ores,  which  in  olden  times  played  quite  a 
considerable  role  in  the  Swedish  iron  industry,  are  nowadays  employed  in  but 
very  small  quantities,  for  the  production  of  cast  pig  iron,  principally  in  the  lans 
of  Jonkoping  and  Kronoberg.  In  1913  the  total  output  of  lake  ore  raised  in 
Sweden  was  not  more  than  3  822  tons. 


The  percentage  of  iron  in  the  Swedish  iron  ore  is  as  a  rule  rather  high, 
and  this  is  specially  the  case  with  the  Lappland  ores.  It  has  been  estimated 
that  the  iron  ores  of  Sweden  contain  on  an  average  about  60  %  of  iron. 
By  way  of  comparison  it  may  be  interesting  to  note  that  the  average  iron- 
content  for  the  rest  of  Europe  has  been  estimated  at  36-7  %,  and  for  the 
whole  world   (including  Sweden)  at  44-5  %. 

In  1913  over  69  J^  of  all  the  prime  ore  which  was  produced  in  that  year  in 
Sweden  showed  an  iron-content  exceeding  60  %,  or  on  an  average  6  3  "4  %. 

In  several  mining  fields  there  are  obtained  along  with  the  picked  ore 
varying  quantities  of  ferriferous  rock  with  too  low  a  proportion  of  iron  to 
be  available  for  direct  smelting.  This  ferriferous  rock,  which  was  formerly 
considered  quite  worthless,  is  nowadays  in  many  mining  fields  subjected 
to  concentration  (anrikning),  whereby  out  of  a  raw  material  containing 
from  25  to  50  %  of  iron  are  yielded  products,  called  "slig"  (concentrate) 
with  a  high  percentage  of  iron,  as  a  rule  fluctuating  between  60  and  71  %. 
As  the  concentrates  are  obtained  in  the  form  of  slime,  and  are  thus  hardly 
suitable  for  the  blast  furnace  process,  they  are  made  at  a  number  of  works 
into  briquettes.  By  the  introduction  of  the  concentrating  processes,  which 
in  Sweden  dates  from  about  1898,  it  has  in  fact  been  possible  to  utilize 
a  number  of  deposits  which  were  formerly  regarded  as  too  poor  in  iron. 


The  dimensions  of  the  Swedish  iron  ore  deposits  vary  within  wide  limits. 
In  Central  Sweden  the  thickness  of  the  middle-sized  deposits  amounts  from 
5  to  10  m,  and  the  length  to  some  hundred  meters.  At  the  larger  ore  fields 
the  thickness  of  the  ore  body  in  this  part  of  the  country  is  as  much  as 
20  to  30  m,  and  in  two  places,  Grangesberg  and  Strassa  they  amount  to 
as  much  as  90  to  110  m  resp.,  the  respective  lengths  of  the  bodies  are  here 
400  and  200  m.  A  continuous  body  of  ore  occurs  at  ISTorberg  to  a  length 
of  1  200  m  and  at  Grangesberg  to  a  length  of  1  000  m.    The  whole  serie 


IRON   ORB   RESOURCES. 


247 


"8 

'■o 


248  VI.      MINING    AND    METALLUEGICAL   INDUSTRY. 

of  ore-bodies,  following  each  other,  the  strike-direction  (malmstreck),  have 
for  example,  a  length  of  close  on  20  000  m  at  Norberg,  of  4  000  m  at  Gran- 
gesberg,  of  3  500  m  at  Riddarhyttan,  and  of  2  000  m  at  Dannemora. 

The  ore  deposits  of  Lappland,  as  a  rule,  have  larger  dimensions  than 
those  of  Central  Sweden.  Thus  the  ore  deposit  at  Kirunavara  has  a  thick- 
ness of  from  20  to  196  m  or  on  an  average  50  m  along  with  a  length  of 
3  000  m;  at  G-allivare  there  occur  thicknesses  of  up  to  100  m,  and  at 
Ekstromsberg  thicknesses  of  from  22  to  52  m  with  lengths  of  1 200 
m.  The  vein  at  Luossavara-Kirunavara  has  a  length  of  about  7  500  m, 
and  the  vein  called  "Stora  malmen"  at  Gallivare  has  a  length  of  5  000  m. 

The  titaniferous  ore  deposits  are  somewhat  irregular  in  their  occur- 
rence: out  of  the  two  above-named  deposits  of  this  kind  the  Taberg  ore 
deposit  has  a  length  of  900  m  and  a  breadth  of  360  m.  and  Ruoutevare 
has  a  length  of  about  1  600  m  and  an  average  breadth  of  about  200  m. 

An  index  of  the  size  of  the  various  ore  deposits  is  afforded  by  the 
"ore  area"  (malmarea),  that  is  the  size  of  the  horizontal  section  of  the 
ore  body.  The  subjoined  figures  give  the  ore  area  of  the  biggest  Swe- 
dish ore  deposits  according  to  the  latest  investigations. 

Central  Sweden. 

Grangesberg 94  000  sq.  m 

Norlierg 50  900  > 

mksberg 44  000  . 

Str9,ssa 26  400  . 

Biatberget 15  000  » 

Dannemora 12  000  » 

iTiken 12  000  . 

Idkerberg 10  000  » 

Riddarhyttan ■  .    .    .  8  500  > 

ELlacka-Lerberg 8  000  » 

Ickorrbotten 8  000  > 

Stripa 7  500  » 

Pershyttan 6  000  » 

Vintjarn  . 5  800  » 

Fredmundberg 5  500  » 

Persberg 5  200  > 

Kantorp 5  000  > 

Nyberget ca.  5  000  » 

Uto 5  000  » 

Taberg 260  000  » 

Other  Mining  Fields 71  OOP  »         eg4  yoO  gq.  m 

Lappland. 

Kirnnavara 436  000  sq.  m 

Gallivare 230400  . 

Svappavara 50000  » 

Ekstromsberg         '   .    50  000  ■> 

Leveaniemi 32  000  > 

Luossavara 25  000  » 

Tuolluvara  .  14  800  '» 

Ruoutevare 135  OOP  »        973  200  sq.  m 

Total  1 638  000  sq.  m 

To  this  total  ore  area  falls  to  be  added  the  area  of  the  numerous  ore  deposits 
in  Sweden  which  for  various  reasons  are  not  being  worked. 


Mill.  tons. 

7 


IRON   ORB   RESOURCES. 

Iron  Ore  Output  in  Sweden. 


249 


{. 

/ 

1 

/ 

^ 

w 

/ 

V 

^ 

,/" 

^^ 

'i6l 

Year  1371 


Table  43. 


Sweden's  Supplies  of  Iron  Ore. 


Central  Sweden. 

Ores  with  less  than  O'Ol  %  of  phos- 
phorus   

Ores  with  Q-Ol— 0-06  %  of  phos- 
phorus   

Ores  with  uaore  than  006  %  of  phos- 
phorus   

Reserves  of  unperfeotly  known  depo- 
sits    

Titaniferous  ore  (Taberg)    .... 

Lappland. 

Worked  mining  fields: 

Kirnnavara  and  Luossavara    .    . 

Tnollnvara 

Gallivare 

Svappavara 

Leveaniemi 

EketrSmsherg 

Mertaiuen 

Titaniferous  ore  (Buoatevare)     .    . 

Total  tons 


Lump  ore 
tons 


19  400  000 
11 500  000 
59  300000 


90200000 


Concentrating 
ore 


tons 


45  500  000 
6100000 
2  000  000 


53600000 


40  000  000 

50000  000 


758  000000 

7  000  000 

270  000  000 


30  000  000 

30  000  000 

50  000  000 

5  000  000 


Equivalent 
concentrate 


28  000  000 
2  900  000 
1200000 


32100000 


15  000  000 


Total  of  Lump 

ore  and 

concentrate 

tons 


17  400000 
14400000 
60500000 


122300000 


(40  000  000) 
15000000 


8000  000 


1035000000 


115000000 
8000000 


1335300000 


^50 


Mil],  tons 
6 


VI.      MINING   AND    MBTALLUBGICAL   INDUSTEY. 

Iron  Ore  Exports  of  Siveden. 


« 

/ 

/ 

/ 

W 

/ 

k 

^ 

y^ 

/ 

462 

Swedish  iron  ore  mines  are,  as  a  rale,  not  very  deep,  only  7  mines  iave 
the  mining  operations  carried  down  to  a  depth  of  300  m  and  over,  and 
only  in  one  of  them  to  a  depth  of  500  m.  In  none  of  these  places  the  ore 
has  been  different  in  composition  from  that  at  higher  levels,  nor  has  as  a 
rale  been  found  that  the  dimensions  of  the  ore  deposit  have  decreased  in 
the  depth.  On  the  other  hand,  a  number  of  minor  deposits  have  pinched 
out  at  comparatively  small  depths. 

In  a  number  of  deposits,  particularly  in  Lappland,  diamond  drillholes 
have  been  sunk  in  order  to  investigate  the  depth  of  the  deposit.  Thus  at 
Kirunavara  ore  of  considerable  thickness  has  been  shown  for  instance  at 
a  depth  of  540  meters  below  the  foot  of  the  mountain  or  300  meters  below 
the  level  of  Lake  Luossajarvi  situated  at  the  foot  of  the  mountain,  and 
at  G-allivare  it  has  been  ascertained,  even  by  diamond  boring,  that  both  the 
"TingvallskuUe"  ore  and  the  "Eredrika"  ore  have  the  same  thickness  at  a 
depth  of  240  meters  as  in  the  outcrop. 

A  computation  of  the  supplies  of  ore  in  Sweden  was  made,  for  the  ac- 
count of  the  International  Geological  Congress  at  Stockholm  in  1910  by 
the  Geological  Surv;ey  of  Sweden  as  regards  Central  Sweden,  and  by  Hj. 
Lundbohm  and  Wjalfr.  Petersson  as  regards  Lappland. 

This  investigation  has  yielded  the  results,  given  in  Table  43. 

Because  the  high  percentage  of  iron  in  the  Swedish  ores  alluded  to 
above,  these  supplies  of  ore  have  been  estimated  to  correspond  to  845 


OUTPUT  AND  EXPORT  OF  IRON  ORB. 


251 


million  tons  of  iron,  of  -which  750  million  tons  fall  to  the  ore  fields  of 
Lappland. 


Output  and  Export  of  Iron  Ore. 

The    annual    amount    of    iron  ore  mined  in  Sweden  during  the  last 
decades  figures  out  as  follo-ws: 


Annually 

Tons 

Annually 

Tons 

Annually 

Tons 

1833-40     . 

.    .235  000 

1876—80     . 

.    .    .726  712 

1906—10  .    . 

.    .  4  626  913 

1841-50     . 

.    .270  000 

1881-85     . 

.    .    .  877  408 

1851-60     . 

.   .349  000 

1886-90     . 

.    .    .  932  470 

1911  .... 

.    .  6  150  718 

1861-65     . 

.    .464  363 

1891-95  .    . 

.    .  1519  325 

1912  .... 

.    .6  699  226 

1866-70     . 

.    .553  759 

1896—00  .    , 

.    .  2  294  760 

1913  .... 

.    .  7  475  571 

1871-75     . 

.    .795  263 

1901-05  .    . 

,   .3  564  046 

The  output  of  ore  in  S-weden  for  1912  -was  6  699  226  tons.  As  the  total 
output  for  the  world  in  the  same  year  may  be  computed  at  157  million 
tons,  it  follows  that  Sweden's  contribution  was  about  4-3   %. 

Table  44  gives  a  conspectus  of  the  relative  share  taken  by  the  different 
provinces  in  the  output  since  the  begianing  of  the  nineties  of  the  last  century. 

Thus,  out  of  the  ore  at  present  mined  in  S-weden  about  65  ^  fall  to  the 
Norrbotten  mining  fields  and  about  35  ?^  to  the  mining  districts  of  Central 
Sweden,  out  of  these  35  %  about  19  %  proceed  from  Kopparberg  Ian,  7"6  %  from 
Orebro  Ian  and  4'6  %  from  Vastmanland  Ian. 

Over  69  %  of  all  the  prime  ore  produced  in  the  course  of  the  year  1913 
exhibited  an  iron-content  of  between  60  and  70  %;  the  bulk  of  it  was  produced 
in  the  big  ore  fields  in  the  Ian  of  Norrbotten  and  at  Grangesberg  in  Kop- 
parberg Ian.  Further  82'9  of  the  annual  output  contained  at  least  0"i  %  of  phos- 
phorus, the  bulk  of  which  came  from  Norrbotten  Ian  and  Grangesberg,  whereas 
the    ores    of    Central    Sweden    were  mostly  poor  in  phosphorus,  having  a  phos- 


Table  44.      Belative  Shares  of  the  Provinces  in  the  Output  of  Iron  Ore. 


L    a    n 

Percentage  of  Output  in  the  whole  of  Sweden,  annually 

1891— 
1895 

1896— 
1900 

1901— 
1905 

1906— 
1910 

1907 

1908 

1909 

1910 

1911 

1912 

1913 

Stockholm    .    . 
Uppsala    .    .    . 
Sodermanland 
Ostergotland   . 
Jonkoping    .    . 
Ualmohus    .    . 
Varmland     .    . 
Orebro  .... 
Vastmanland  . 
Kopparberg .    . 
Gravleborg    .    . 
Vasternorrlaud 
Vasterbotten   . 
Norrbotten  .    . 

Total 

1-39 
4-44 
1-58 
0-20 
0-06 

5-63 
19-18 
12-40 
31-09 

0-68 

23-35 

0-95 
2-55 
0-96 
0-07 

3-42 

12-98 

8-61 

34-26 

0-40 

35-80 

1-23 
1-74 
0-70 
0-05 

2-35 
9-16 
6-34 

25-85 

0-41 

52-17 

0-97 
1-19 
0-62 
007 

1-65 
8-25 
4-91 
21-36 
0-27 
0-01 

60-70 

1-00 
1-23 
0-73 

0-11 

1-71 

8-06 

4-99 

22-70 

0-37 
59-10 

1-09 
1-23 
0-60 
0-07 

1-67 
8-89 
4-83 
21-37 
0-24 

0-02 

59-99 

1-09 
1-29 
0-65 
0-08 

1-81 
8-38 

5-18 
20-17 

0-15 
61-20 

0-81 
1-07 
0-49 
0-02 

1-30 
8-10 
4-73 
19-95 
0-23 
0-02 

63-28 

0-75 
0-96 
0-54 

1-31 
7-31 
4-72 
19-16 
0-26 

64-99 

0-70 
0.95 
0-53 
0-01 

1-09 
8-23 
5-23 
19-24 
0-33 

63-69 

0-62 
0-83 
062 
0-05 

0-18 
0-81 
7-47 
4-62 
18-76 
0-31 

65-73 

100  00 

100-00 

100-00 

100-00 

100-00 

lOOoo 

100-00 

100-00 

100-00 

100-00 

lOOoo 

252  VI.   MINING  AND  METALLUEGICAL  INDUSTRY. 

phorus-content  rarely  exceeding  0'03  %.  As  to  the  proportion  of  sulphur,  87"7  % 
of  the  prime  ore  produced  in  1913  contained  less  than  O'Ob  %  and  only  3"i  ^ 
more  than   O'lO  %. 

In  1913  were  extracted  altogether  10  989  005  tons  of  ore  and  waste,  out 
of  which  were  obtained  7  475  571  tons  of  picked  ore  and  concentrate,  mak- 
ing on  an  average  68-0  fo  of  the  rock  hoisted.  The  average  quantity  of  iron 
ore  relatively  the  rock  hoisted  for  the  whole  of  Sweden  during  the  last  20 
years  has  fluctuated  between  54-5  %  in  1893  and  71-1  f°  in  1911,  and  since 
1903  has  exceeded  62  %.  This  may  be  to  a  great  extent  accounted  for 
by  the  big  contribution  to  the  output  of  iron  ore  made  during  these  years 
by  the  Norrbotten  mines,  in  which  the  quantity  of  ore  is  for  the  most 
part  high.  In  the  mines  of  Central  Sweden  the  quantity  of  iron  ore 
fluctuates  as  a  rule,  between  50  and  60  %  of  the  rock  hoisted. 

The  concentration  of  iron  ore  was  carried  on  in  1913  at  38  concentra- 
tion works,  in  which  out  of  1  537  664  tons  of  ferriferous  materials  381 190 
tons  of  concentrates  were  produced.  The  following  table  summaries  will 
serve  to  give  some  notion  of  the  quality  of  the  crude  ore  and  of  the  con- 
centrate produced  from  it. 

A    ».    „  T-  _  »„  i  „i  Crude  Ore       Concentrate 

Average  Iron-content  ^^^^  ^^^^ 

less  than  30  percent 220  691  — 

from  30  to  40  percent 911  545  — 

»     40    •    50       .       386  569  — 

.     50    .    60       .       18859  2  711 

.     60    >    70       .       —         609  482 

70  percent  and  over  .    . — 45  783 

Total    1537  664        657  976 

Average  Phosphorus-content  ^""tons'^"*^ 

less  than  O'ooa  percent 181 141 

from           0-006  to  O'oio  percent 220  687 

>  Ooio  »   O'oso         »        81 575 

0-020  »    O-oso          >         4  807 

»  0  030   »    0'o5o  =        87  3t')7 

J  0-050   .   0-100         . 18371 

O'loo  percent  and  over 64  038 

Total    657  976 

Average  sulphur-content  ^°ton°^'^**^ 

less  than  O'oos  percent 30  109 

from          0-006  to  O-oio  percent 67  457 

»             0-010    >   0-030        >         68  561 

0-020    »   0-030        >         65  082 

>  0-030    »    0-060          »           8  080 

0-060   »   0-100        >         139  844 

0-100  percent  and  over 238  765 

Sulphur-content  not  giveu 40  078 

Total    657  976 

The  number  of  workmen  employed  in  1913  in  Swedish  iron  mines  and  in 
concentration  and  briquetting  works  for  iron  ore  was  11  811,  out  of  which 


OUTPUT  AND  EXPORT  OF  IRON  ORE. 


253 


Table  45. 


Sweden's  Export  of  Iron  Ore. 


Total  iron 

Swede  n's     Expor 

toll 

r  0  n      0 

re      to 

Tear 

ore 
extracted 
in  Sweden 

Total 
Export 

Germany 

Great 
Britain 

Belgium 

France 

America 

Other 
countries  1 

tons 

tons 

tons 

tons 

tons 

tons 

tons 

tons 

1906  .... 

4501656 

2  941 245 

204  161 

18  341 

26  400 

30 

471  039 

3661216 

1907. 

4  478917 

2  838  561 

446  635 

112 153 

26  252 

11119 

86  997 

3  521717 

1908. 

4  712  494 

2  948  386 

450  014 

79  768 

39  521 

11140 

125  439 

3654268 

1909. 

3  885  046 

2  546  321 

407  855 

89  062 

24  898 

121 139 

7178 

3196463 

1910. 

5  549  987 

3  276  605 

584 185 

141 579 

42  251 

270  661 

98  319 

4413600 

1911  . 

6150  718 

3  706  636 

575  984 

159  290 

41422 

262  591 

340  975 

5086898 

1912. 

6  699  226 

4  217  958 

621  881 

211 155 

47  700 

334  678 

87  281 

5  520  653 

1913. 

7475  571 

4  977  394 

673  836 

231 647 

38  683 

361  215 

158  020 

6439  750 

'  These  figures  include  export  to  Norway  and  the  Netherlands,  to  which  countries  ore  is 
exported  only  in  transit,  chiefly  to  Germany. 

3  625  were  underground  workers  and  2  151  surface  workers.  The  output 
per  man  was  633  tons  of  ore  and  concentrates.  The  working  efficiency 
of  underground  workers  was  1  283  and  of  surface  workers  2  946  tons  of  ore 
and  rock.  This  represents  a  considerable  increase  of  efficiency  per  work- 
man. 

The  cause  of  this  increase  is  principally  the  vigorous  development  of 
the  technique  of  boring  machines  during  the  last  decennium. 

The  value  of  the  iron  ore  produced  in  1913  was  60  003  715  kronor,  cor- 
responding to  an  average  value  of  ore  of  8-03  kronor  per  ton. 

Sweden's  export  of  iron  ore  was  in  1913  6  439  750  tons,  corresponding 
to  86-1  %  of  the  output  for  the  whole  country  in  the  said  year.  The  bulk 
of  it  was  exported  to  Germany,  besides  which  Great  Britain,  the  United 
States,  Belgium,  France  and  other  countries  are  more  or  less  big  custo- 
mers for  Swedish  ore. 

The  Table  45  attempts  to  give  the  amount  of  the  export  of  ore  during 
recent  years. 

The  export  of  iron  ore  was  down  to  1886  conducted  only  on  a  small  scale 
—  in  the  last-named  year  19  288  tons  were  exported.  In  1887,  however,  the 
export  from  Grangesberg  commenced  and  the  figures  for  export  leapt  up  into 
100  000  to  180  000  tons.  In  1892  ore  began  to  be  exported  also  6-om  Galli- 
vare,  which  brought  the  export  gradually  up  to  over  1  700  000  tons  (1  729  303 
tons  in  1901).  After  Kirunavara  thanks  to  the  completion  of  the  railway  to 
Riksgransen,  had  secured  in  1902  an  export  route  to  Ofotenfjord,  the  export  rose 
at  one  blow  with  over  a  million  tons  (2  827  428  tons  in  1903),  and  has  since 
then  been  rapidly  augmenting.  The  appended  diagrams  serve  to  bring  this 
out,    as  well  as  the  ratio  between  the  export  and  the  domestic  consumption. 

Other  important  export  fields  are  Blotberget  since  1901,  Idkerberg  since  1902, 
Lekomberg  since  1902,  the  Carlvagns  mines  in  Norberg  since  the  end  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  and  Strassa  since  1909. 


254  VI.      MINING    AND   METALLURGICAL   INDUSTKT. 

The  total  iron  ore  export  of  Sweden  up  to  1910  inclusive  was: 

Iron  Ore  low  or  moderate  in  phosphorus 1705000  tons 

»        >     rich  in  phosphorus  from  Central  Sweden     .    .    .    11315  404     » 
>        >       >       »  >  >     Norrbotten,  circa  ...    27  623  400     > 

Total    40643804  tons 

The  ore  export  from  the  ore  fields  of  Lappland  as  well  as  from  the  export 
field  of  Grangesberg  has  been,  owing  to  the  agreements  concluded  in  1907,  1908, 
and  1913  between  the  Swedish  State  and  the  companies  who  own  these  fields, 
(Luossavaara-Kiirunavaara  aktiebolag,  Aktiebolaget  Gellivare  malmfalt  and  Trafik- 
aktiebolaget  Grangesberg-Oxelosund)  restricted  for  the  period  from  1908  to  1932  to 

for  Kirunavara 103 100  000  tons 

>  Gallivare 30  650  000     > 

>  Grangesberg 13  250  000     > 

Total  147  000000    > 

exclus.  the  ore  which  is  obtained  by  concentration  from  the  gangue  {varp), 
that  is,  the  ferriferous  rock  which  falls  away  in  the  extraction  of  the  ore  or 
which  has  to  be  extracted  in  order  to  get  at  the  ore,  but  which  is  too  poor  to 
be  available  in  its  unprepared  condition  for  export.  In  connection  with  these 
agreements  the  State  became  a  shareholder  as  to  half  in  the  Luossavaara-Kiiruna- 
vaara aktiebolag  and  the  proprietor  both  of  the  Luossavara,  the  Mertainen,  the 
Ekstromsberg  and  other  mines  and  also  of  the  Svappavara  and  Leveaniemi 
and  other  iron  ore  deposits  in  the  Ian  of  Norrbotten,  though  with  the  proviso 
that  there  should  be  no  export  of  ore  from  these  fields  prior  to  1932.  The 
State  receives  for  this  a  royalty,  calculated  according  to  various  considerations, 
on  every  unit  quantity  of  ore  raised,  and  has  the  right  to  buy  in  all  the  shares 
in  the  companies  in   1932,  after  a  valuation  of  them  has  been  made.     . 


Mines  with  Ores  other  than  Iron  Ore. 

Sweden  is  comparatively  poor  in  ores  other  than  iron  ore.  At  present 
the  only  ores  mined  are  zinc,  lead,  copper,  manganese  and  iron  pyrites. 
Thus  in  1913  10  013  tons  of  zinc  ore  were  extracted  in  4  mines,  3  924 
tons  of  copper  ore  out  of  6  mines,  215  tons  of  lead  ore  in  2  mines,  107 
tons  of  manganese  ore  in  one  mine,  and  34  295  tons  of  iron  pyrites  out  of 
one  mine.  The  aggregate  value  of  the  said  output  amounted  to  1  008  805 
kroner.  Besides  this,  there  were  obtained  by  concentration  40  739  tons 
of  zinc  concentrates,  3  007  tons  of  lead  concentrates,  1  534  tons  copper  con- 
centrates, 3  894  tons  of  manganese  concentrates,  and  24  tons  of  iron  pyrite 
concentrate,  with  an  aggregate  value  of  2  495  623  kronor. 

The  biggest  and  most  important  deposit  of  zinc  ore  is  that  at  Ammeberg  in 
Southern  Sweden  with  a  length  of  about  5  kilometers  and  with  a  breadth  which 
in  places  reaches  up  to  12  meters.  Other  deposits  of  zinc  are  those  at  Kavel- 
torp,  Saxberget,  StoUberg,  and  Sala.  In  all  these  deposits  the  ore  mineral  con- 
sists of  zinc  blende,  frequently  commingled  with  lead  glance  and  copper  pyrites 
and  it  is  from  these  mines  that  the  above  stated  quantities  of  lead  ore  have 
been  yielded. 

Copper  ore  is  mined  at  present  only  in  the  Falun  Mine,  where  however,  the 
output  of  copper  ore  plays  a  very  subordinate  role  in  comparison  with  the  output 


COAL  MINES.  255 

of  iron  pyrites.  The  Falun  Mine  also  yields  a  little  gold,  which  chiefly  occurs 
in  solid  form  along  with  seleno-wismuthit.  Copper  ore  has  also  been  extracted 
from  the  Bersbo  mines  at  Atvidaberg  and  at  Nautanen  in  Lappland. 

Manganese  ore  is  mined  at  present  at  Spaxeryd  in  Smaland,  where  it  occurs 
in  the  form  of  lodes  in  the  granite,  and  at  Langban  in  Varmland,  where  the 
ore  consists  of  braunite  and  hausmannite,  forming  more  or  less  irregular  strati- 
form bodies  in  the  dolomite. 

Nickel  and  cobalt  ore  were  mined  in  ancient  times  in  a  few  isolated  deposits 
in  different  parts  af  the  country.  The  chief  of  these  are  the  deposit  of  nickel 
ore  at  Kleva  in  Smaland  and  the  deposit  of  cobalt  ore  at  Tunaberg  in  Soder- 
manland. 

Gold  ore  has  been  mined,  besides  at  Falun,  at  AdeKors  in  Smaland.  A  good 
quantity  of  silver  was  in  former  times  produced  by  the  Sala  mines. 


Coal  Mines. 

Coal  is  found  in  Sweden  only  in  the  southernmost  part  of  the  kingdom, 
the  province  of  Skane,  in  seams  together  with  fire-clays  and  ordinary,  non- 
refractory  clays  in  layers  belonging  to  the  Rhset-Lias  system;  the  total 
thickness  of  the  coal  seams  does  not  exceed  1-5  meters,  out  of  which,  how- 
ever, only  from  0-3  to  0-6  meters  consist  of  coal  the  rest  being  bandes  of 
shales. 

The  coal-seams  vary  in  numbers  in  different  parts  of  the  district,  but  only 
two  of  them  are  worth  mining.  The  beds  of  the  coal-bearing  formation  are, 
for  the  most  part,  in  a  horizontal  position  or  very  slightly  inclined.  Dips  as  high 
as  20  degrees  or  more  are  rare.  Nowhere  have  folds  or  sharp  bends  been 
observed,  faults,  however,  are  quite  common.  In  1913  there  were  8  coal-fields 
in  work,  and  from  them  were  raised  through  15  shafts  363  965  tons  of  coal 
with  a  value  of  2  949  032  kroner,  136  944  tons  of  fireclay  with  a  value  of 
232  835  kronor,  and  50  936  tons  of  clinker  clay  with  a  value  of  117  753  kroner. 
The  principal  coal  mines  are  those  at  Hoganas,  Billesholm,  Bjuv,  Skromberga, 
Ormastorp,  and  Hyllinge. 

The  supply  of  coal  in  the  mining  fields  of  Skane  is  estimated  at  about  300 
million  tons;  out  of  which  about  50  J^  consists  of  coal  N:o  1  with  average  per- 
centage of  ash  up  to  13  %,  40  %  of  coal  N:o  2  with  from  14  to  35  ^  and 
10  5^  of  coal  N:o   3  with  from   36  to   55  ^  of  ash. 


The  Mining  Practice  in  Swedish  Mines. 

Breaking  Ground.  Boring  and  Blasting.  The  band-drilling  was  the 
only  method  of  boring  until  the  last  years  of  the  seventies;  machine-drill- 
ing with  compressed  air  begun  to  be  introduced  in  the  mines  of  Sweden,  at 
first  at  Ammeberg  in  1878  and  at  Falun  Mine  in  1879.  Nowadays,  after 
that  in  the  first  decennium  of  this  century  light  and  efficaceous  hammer- 
drill  machines,  specially  adopted  for  Swedish  mines  purposes  have  been 
constructed,  hand-drilling  is  used  only  in  some  smaller  mines  in  Sweden. 

Explosives.  The  explosive  almost  exclusively  used  in  the  Swedish 
ore  mines  is  gelatine  dynamite;  in  recent  years,  however,  a  new  explosive 


256 


VI.      MINING    AND    METALLURGICAL   INDUSTIIY. 


based  on  ammonium  perchlorate,  of  Swedish  make,  named  territe  has  come 
into  use  alongside  of  gelatine  dynamite. 

Concerning  the  general  effect  of  blasting  in  the  Swedish  ore  mines  the 
amount  of  rock  broken  down  varies  on  an  average  between  8  and  15  tons, 
and,  where  circumstances  are  favourable,  20  to  25  toms  per  kilogram  of 
explosive,  and  between  2  and  3  up  to  8  to  15  tons,  and  in  the  open-cuts  in 
the  export  fields  between  10  and  20  tons  per  meter  drilled. 


Swedish  Hammer-drill  Machine. 


Mining  Methods.  The  oldest  method  of  mining  employed  in  Swedish 
ore  mines  is  "pallbrytning"  (underhand  stoping)  this  ancient  method  is  still 
extentively  employed.  It  is  used  principally  in  open-cut  mines;  for  under- 
ground mines  nowadays  it  is  chiefly  the  smaller  mines  that  stick  to  it; 
the  bigger  mines  are  going  over  to  other  methods. 


THE   MINma   PRACTICE   IN   SWEDISH   MINES. 


257 


The  underhand  stoping  method  was  down  to  1858  the  only  method  of 
mining  employed  in  Swedish  ore  mines;  in  that  year  takhrytning  med 
igensdttning  (overhead  stoping  with  filling)  was  introduced  in  the  Amme- 
herg  zinc  mines,  but  it  was  not  till  1869  that  the  method  began  to  be  em- 
ployed in  a  Swedish  iron  mine,  notably  at  Dalkarlsberg,  after  which  the 
method  was  gradually  introduced  into  quite  a  number  of  mines,  both  in 
Central  Sweden  and  in  the  Gallivare  Malmberg  in  Norrbotten.  About 
1900  a  new  mining  method  was  introduced,  namely  magasineringshrytning , 
(strinkage  stoping)  that  is  overhead  stoping  without  filling,  in  which  a 
considerable  part  of  the  ore  broken  is  allowed  to  remain  until  the  working 
room  has  been  excavated.    This  method,  which  was  first  adapted  at  Gran- 


Ore  Bins,  Dalkarlsberg. 


gesberg  and  Striberg,  has  gradually  obtained  a  very  general  application, 
and  in  many  places  has  replaced  the  overhead  stoping  with  filling  process 
or  the  underhand  stoping  method.  The  crosscut  slicing  with  filling  (tvar- 
hrytning  med  igensdttning)  has  been  employed  since  the  seventies  in  a 
number  of  mines  with  loose  or  readily  crumbling  ore;  ia  the  last  ten  years, 
however,  the  methods  employed  in  mines  of  this  kind  have  been  the  sub- 
drift  of  caving  system  (rasbrytning)  specially  the  top  slice  system. 

In  the  Swedish  coal  mines  is  as  a  rule  used  a  combination  of  pillar  and 
stoll  working  and  longwall  system. 

The  shafts  in  Swedish  mines  are  either  perpendicular,  which  is  usually 
the  rule,  or  inclined  following  the  dip  of  the  ore  body. 

17—133179.  Sweden.  II. 


258 


VI.      MINING    AND    METALLURGICAL   INDUSTRY. 


The  older  shafts  are  usually  circular  with  a  cross  section  area  of  up  to 
about  40  square  meters.  The  more  modem  shafts  in  ore  mines  are  rec- 
tangular, and  have  an  area  usually  of  not  more  than  from  18  to  25  square 
meters,  occasionally  of  only  10  square  meters;  in  the  big  export  fields, 
on  the  other  hand,  they  are  considerably  larger,  vfiih  an  area  of  up  to  40 
or  41  square  meters.     The  shafts  at  the  coal-mines  are  circular. 

The  shaft  head-houses  are  usually  wooden  and  are  sometimes  wholly 
or  partially  covered  with  planks,  sometimes  uncovered.  More  rarely  occur 
shaft  head-houses  of  slag  bricks,  or  constructed  entirely  of  iron. 

The  Mine-drainage.  The  flow  of  water  in  Swedish  ore  mines  is  as  a  rule 
rather  slight,  and  only  in  isolated  cases  amounts  to  as  much  as  300  to  500 
liters  per  minute.  In  the  smaller  mines  lifting  pumps  are  used,  in  others 
force-pumps;  in  the  last  ten  years  electrically  driven  centrifugal  and 
plunge  pumps  have  been  coming  more  and  more  into  use :  they  are  installed 
at  the  bottom  of  the  mine.  In  quite  recent  times  water  pumps  worked 
by  pressure  air  have  come  into  use. 

The  hoisting  of  rock  and  water  in  several  smaller  mines  is  effected  with  the 
aid  of  water  wheels  and  turbines.  In  many  mines  steam  engines  as  well  as 
oil  and  gas  motors  are  employed.  During  the  last  few  decades  electric  motors 
have  been  coming  more  and  more  into  use  for  these  purposes,  whereas  the 
horse-gears  (Jidstvandringar)  which  were  once  so  common  have  now  practically 
disappeared. 

In  1913  were  employed  in  Swedish  ore  mines  for  the  raising  of  rock  and 
water : 


1 

*    -  ■ 

i'.         ■ 

i^0 

V 

2^MLMy 

i: 

1 

\ 

r '  ■  ■ 

^"-"""^ 

T! 

m 

^    ^'^ 

Pump-room,  Dalkarlsherg . 


THE   MINING   PRACTICE   IN   SWEDISH   MINES. 


259 


Magnetic  Coarse-Separator,  system  Wenstrom. 


33  waterwheels                     of 

altogether     684  horse  power. 

18  water   turbines 

453       " 

80  steam  engines 

2  852       " 

34  oil    and    gas    motors 

429       " 

296  electric  motors 

10  123       " 

Total  461  motors 


of  altogether  14  541  horse  power. 


Ventilation.  In  by  far  the  greater  number  of  Swedish  mines  natural 
ventilation  in  most  cases  suffices.  Where  artificial  ventilation  is  required, 
as  in  long  levels  or  in  raises,  electrically  driven  centrifugal  ventilators 
are  generally  employed,  or  else  ventilation  is  provided  by  means  of  injec- 
tors with  compressed  air. 

Lighting.  The  underground  working  rooms  are  lighted  by  open  lamps 
in  most  oases  gas-oil  or  petroleum  lamps;  in  recent  years,  however,  ace- 
tylene lamps  are  used  to  a  considerable  extent  in  the  Swedish  mines.  The 
main  levels  are  often  lighted  by  electric  incandescent  lamps.    In  the  rock- 


260 


VI.      MINING    AND    METALLURGICAL   INDUSTRY. 


houses  and  other  buildings  either  electric  lamps  or  Lux  lamps  are  em- 
ployed. At  the  open  cut  works  in  the  export  fields  electric  incandescent 
lamps  are  burnt  during  the  dark  hours. 

Ore-Treatment.  In  most  of  the  iron  mines  the  separation  of  the  valu- 
able minerals  from  the  valueless  material  is  carried  out  simply  by  hand- 
sorting  and  hand-picking  in  rock-houses  erected  in  the  immediate  neigh- 
bourhood of  the  shaft-head.  The  small  ores  (syltan)  is  afterwards  subjected 
to  washing  and  picking  by  hand. 


Magnetic  Ore-separator,  system  "Grondal  V"- 


Since  1884,  however,  the  washing  process  in  several  mines  with 
magnetic  iron  ore  has  been  replaced  by  coarse  separation  with  magnetic 
ore  separators  (malmskiljare).  Besides  the  Wenstrom  ore  separator 
which  was  the  first  employed,  several  more  modern  ore  coarse  separa- 
tors have  come  into  use  in  recent  years,  such  as  the  Landen-Josephson,  the 
Vulcanus,  the  Orondal,  and  several  others.  The  extent  to  which  magnetic 
coarse  separation  is  carried  on  in  Sweden  will  be  realized  by  the  fact  that 
in  the  course  of  the  years  from  1885  to  1913  3  892  699  tons  of  iron  ore  have 
been  produced  by  means  of  magnetic  coarse  separation.  In  1913  magnetic 
coarse  separation  was  employed  at  30  mines,  and  the  output  was  1  058  655 
tons  of  ore. 

At  the  end  of  the  nineties  the  concentration  (anrikning)  process  for 
poor  ores  and  ferriferous  gangue  began  to  make  its  way  into  Sweden,  and 


THE   MINING   PRACTICE   IN   SWEDISH   MINES. 


261 


since  that  time  has  become  more  and  more  widely  used.  Magnetic  concen- 
tration is  at  present  used  to  in  some  thirty  concentration  works.  In  1913 
the  output  of  iron  ore  concentrates  (jdrnnialmslig)  was  657  976  tons  with 
a  value  of  6  624  033  kronor,  and  since  1897  about  3  600  000  tons  of  iron 
ore  concentrate  have  been  produced. 

Besides  the  concentration  works  for  iron  ore  there  are  only  a  few  con- 
centration works  for  other  ores,  notably  at  the  Ammeberg  and  Ryllshyt- 
tan  zinc  mines,  at  the  Kaveltorp,  StoUberget  and  Saxberget  zinc  and  lead 
mines,  at  Sala  silver  mine  and  others.  For  graphite  there  is  a  small  concen- 
tration work  at  Vastanfors  and  for  manganese  ore  concentration  works 
at  Spaxerud  and  Langbanshyttan. 


Magnetic  Ore-dressing  Plant,  Ldngnas  mine. 


Mehtods  of  exploring  for  iron  ore.  As  most  of  the  Swedish  ores  contain 
magnetic  iron  ore  methods  of  discovering  ore  deposits  by  the  deflection  of 
a  magnetic  needle  in  the  vicinity  of  magnetic  ores  have  long  been  in  use.  In 
the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  miners  compass  ( gruvkompass) 
was  constructed;  with  that  simple  instrument  numerous  ore  deposits  have 
been  discovered  in  Sweden.  However,  in  the  sixties  and  seventies  of  the 
nineteenth  century  attempts  were  made  to  devise  magnetic  measuring  instru- 
ments by  means  of  which  a  more  exact  and  more  detailed  knowledge  of 
the  magnetic  conditions  could  be  attained.    These  endeavours  resulted  in 


262  VI.      MINING   AND    METALLBRGICAl   INDUSTRY. 

the  invention  of  the  Thalen's  Magnometer  (about  1870)  for  measuring 
magnetic  horizontal  intensity  as  well  as  the  Tiberg  Inclination  Balance 
(about  1880)  and  the  Thomson-Thalen  vertical  power  balance  (1899)  for 
measuring  magnetic  vertical  intensity.  The  magnetic  horizontal  and  verti- 
cal intensity  maps  of  mining  areas  at  the  surface  and  the  magnetic  force- 
lineas  plans  (kraftpilhartor)  of  mining  areas  underground  which  have 
been  drawn  up  with  the  aid  of  measurements  made  with  these  instru- 
ments have  greatly  facilitated  the  work  in  Swedish  iron  mines.  These 
Swedish  methods  have  indeed  been  coming  more  and  more  into  use  abroad 
and  particularly  in  America. 

In  addition  to  the  magnetic  investigation  methods,  prospecting  by  means 
of  diamond-boring  has  been  extensively  resorted  to  in  Swedish  ore  mines. 
On  account  of  the  ease  with  which  it  is  manipulated  and  the  moderate  cost 
at  which  boring  can  be  carried  out  with  it,  the  Croelius'  diamond  drill,  with 
a  bore-hole  diameter  of  35  millimeters  has  been  almost  the  sole  make  em- 
ployed. 

Mine  Maps  and  Mine  Surveying.  In  the  Mining  Act  of  the  16th 
May  1884  it  is  prescribed  that  all  mines  shall  be  mapped  out  by  specially 
authorized  mine  surveyors,  and  that  the  maps  shall  be  completed  to  date 
year  by  year.  The  maps  are  drawn  up  in  duplicate,  one  of  which  is  kept 
as  a  public  document  in  the  Office  of  Mine  Maps  belonging  to  the  Board 
of  Trade  (Kommerskollegium) .  Maps  of  ore  mines  shall  be  drawn  up  on 
a  scale  of  1 :800  and  be  executed  in  accordance  with  a  normal  chart  (nor- 
malkarta)  determined  by  the  Board  of  Mines. 

In  accordance  with  this  normal  map  only  one  horizontal  section  is  drawn  on 
each  sheet,  and  the  map  sheets  shall  contain  not  only  the  configuration  and 
the  position  relatively  to  one  another  of  the  working  rooms,  but  also  in  certain 
fixed  colours  the  geological  conditions  of  the  mine.  Besides  the  plane  charts 
each  mine  map  shall  have  attached  to  it  at  least  one  longitudinal  projection 
and  cross  sections  through  the  mine. 

In  the  case  of  coal  mines  the  scale  1  :  1  500  is  prescribed,  and  the  maps 
are  to  be  drawn  in  accordance  with  a  normal  map  prepared  expressly  for  coal 
mines. 

As  early  as  1628  a  Royal  Ordinance  was  promulgated  in  Sweden  providing 
that  all  mines  in  Sweden  should  be  surveyed  and  mapped,  and  in  1629  the 
first  Swedish  mine  map  (of  the  Falun  Mine)  was  drawn  up. 


Mining  Legislation. 

Ore  Mines.  In  persuance  of  the  Mining  Act  of  the  16th  May  1884  as  amended 
and  supplemented  by  the  subsequent  Acts  of  the  20  Oct.  1899,  the  5  June 
1901,  and  the  13  August  1910,  any  Swedish  subject  has  the  right  to  acquire  an 
inmutning  or  preliminary  claim  to  mineral  deposits  which  contain  (a)  the  ores 
of  the  following  minerals:  gold,  silver,  platinum,  mercury,  lead,  copper,  iron, 
(with  the  exception  of  lake  and  bog  ores),  manganese,  chrome,  cobalt,  nickel, 
zinc,  pewter,  titanium,  molybdenum,  tungsten,  vismuth,  arsenic,  and  antimony; 
(b)  iron  pyrites,  magnetic  pyrites,  and  graphite;  and  (c)  on  Crown  lands  which 
have  not  been  disposed  of  apatite  and  magnesite  —  provided  that  these  mineral 


IRON   AND   STEEL   INDUSTRY.  263 

deposits  are  situated  at  least  200  meters  from  dwellings,  building  sites,  and 
gardens. 

The  claimer  (inmutare)  has  the  right  to  carry  on  preliminary  work  (forsohs- 
arbeten)  within  the  area  claimed,  which  comprises  a  circumference  with  a  radius 
of  100  meters.  The  proprietor  of  the  ground  is  entitled  to  participate  with 
the  claimer  as  to  half  in  the  work  and  in  the  profit  that  may  accrue.  When 
a  deposit  to  which  a  preliminary  claim  has  been  acquired  has  been  exposed  and 
a  sample  of  the  ore  obtained,  an  area  called  utmdl  not  exceeding  200  meters  in 
length  and  breadth  shall  be  assigned  to  the  claimer.  Within  this  area  the 
owner  of  the  mine  has  the  sole  right  of  carrying  on  mining  work  both  at  the 
surface  and  underground.  The  downward  limits  of  the  utmdl  shall  be  reckoned 
perpendicularly. 

Within  each  inmutning  or  utmdl  a  certain  amount  of  mining  work  or  mine 
construction  work  shall  be  carried  out  yearly.  If  the  claimer  neglect  to  execute 
this  work,  the  mining  works  will  be  declared  forfeited  {sbnad)  and  the  rights 
founded  on  the  claim  certificate  {mutsedel)  forfeited. 

In  the  Ian  of  Norrbotten  certain  areas  at  and  in  the  vicinity  of  the  big  iron 
ore  fields  are  separated  of  as  "State  Mining  Fields",  and  within  these  areas 
claims  cannot  be  acquired. 

Coal  Mines.  Stone  coal  deposits  are  not  eligible  for  inmutning.  The  right 
to  iavestigate  and  work  such  deposits  under  the  Act  of  the  28th  May  1886  is 
dependent  on  a  special  concession  Qconcession')  granted  by  Government.  The 
concession  may  not  comprise  a  larger  area  than  one  thousand  six  hundred  hec- 
tares. The  holder  of  the  concession  is  under  obligation  to  pay  a  certain  fee 
yearly  to  the  proprietor  of  the  ground,  and  it  is  moreover  incumbent  on  him 
to  perform  annually  a  certain  amount  of  mining  work,  as  prescribed  in  the 
concession. 


2.     IRON  AND  STEEL  INDUSTRY. 

Since  time  immemorial  the  manufacture  of  iron  has  been  one  of  the  most 
important  tranches  of  industry  in  Sweden  and  Swedish  iron  is  famed  for 
its  superior  qualities. 

This  superiority  is  to  be  ascribed  mainly  to  two  causes:  an  abundance 
of  good  pure  ores,  and  the  use  of  charcoal  in  the  production  of  pig  iron. 

As  long  as  cbarcoal  was  used  exclusively  also  in  other  parts  of  the  world 
in  the  production  of  pig  iron,  Sweden's  share  in  that  production  was  very 
considerable,  even  quantitively. 

However,  as  long  ago  as  1730  coke  began  to  be  used  in  English  blast 
furnaces,  and  in  1785  a  new  fining  process  called  "puddling"  was  in- 
vented in  England,  and  in  that  process  coal  could  be  used. 

Owing  to  these  changed  circumstances,  Sweden,  who  possesses  but  little 
fossil  coal,  was  compelled  to  assume,  considering  the  quantity,  a  more  and 
more  modest  position  among  iron-producing  countries,  whereas  in  respect 
to  quality  she  still  leads.  And  it  may  be  presumed  that  she  will  contrive 
to  maintain  this  lead  far  into  the  dim  future. 

In  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  Sweden  seems  to  have  made 


264  VI.      MINING   AND    MBTALLUBGICAL   INDUSTRY. 

Table  46.         Sweden's  Output  of  Iron  Ore  and  Fig  Iron. 


Annually 

Swedens  Production 
tons 

Iron  Ore 

Pig  Iron 

1866—70 

1871-75 

1876-80 

1881-85 . 

1886-90 

1891—95 

553  759 
795  263 
726  712 
877  408 
932  470 
1 519  325 

267  854 
332  456 
357  224 
429  377 
446  580 
471 147 
517  796 
528  255 
567  503 

634  392 
699  816 
730  257 

1896-00 

1901-05 

1906—10 

1911 

1912 

1913 

2  294  760 

3  564046 

4  626  913 

6153  778 

6  700  565 

7  475  571 

more  pig  iron  than  any  other  country,  and  at  the  beginning  of  the  nine- 
teenth centurj'  Sweden  appears  still  to  have  produced  nearly  ten  per 
cent  of  all  the  pig  iron  then  made.  Since  then  Sweden's  position  in  this 
respect  has  shifted  very  much  relatively  to  other  countries,  as  will  be 
shown  in  the  sequel. 

From  Table  46  we  shall  find  that  the  ratio  between  the  yield  of  ore 
and  the  output  of  pig  iron  for  the  period  from  1866  to  1870  was  2-07,  as 
against  10-24  for  the  year  1913,  which  is  in  some  measure  an  index  of 
the  increasing  export  of  iron  ore. 

Alarmists  have  been  raising  an  outcry  against  the  export  of  iron 
ore  from  Sweden,  now  very  considerable,  scenting  therein  jeopardy  to 
the  iron  manufacture  of  the  future,  which,  they  aver,  will  suffer,  sooner 
or  later  from  dearth  of  ore.  If  the  ore  exported  actually  were  ore  of  the  best 
quality,  if  Sweden  possessed  any  appreciable  supplies  of  fossil  fuel 
(coal),  if  Sweden  were  a  populous  nation  vnth  a  big  iron  consumption  of 
her  own,  one  might  appreciate,  one  might  even  endorse  such  a  view. 
But  as  matters  now  stand,  it  is  perfectly  reasonable,  that  Sweden  should 
utilize  her  practically  exhaustless  stores  of  impure  ore,  useless  for 
the  high-quality  iron  she  manufactures,  utilize  that  ore  by  selling 
it  to  foreign  countries.  The  dead  capital  represented  by  the  unextracted 
ore  is  thus  turned  into  a  living  capital,  and  capital  is  certainly  wanted 
for  that  mode  of  iron  manufacture  which  is  most  natural  to  Sweden,  a 
mode  of  manufacture  indicated  by  the  words  quality  and  finish,  just 
a,s  it  is  wanted,  obviously,  also  for  the  industries  of  Sweden  in  general.  A 
high-quality  iron  manufacture  of  this  kind  is  now  eked  out  nicely  by  an 
ordinary  iron  manufacture,  to  supersede  imported  iron,  and  in  this  ordin-- 
ary  iron  manufacture  both  coke  and  phosphoriferous  ores  have  been  made 
use  of. 

During  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century,  broadly  speaking, 
only  pig  iron  and  wrought  iron  refined  from  it  were  produced  in  Sweden. 


IKON   AJSfD   STEEL   INDUSTRY. 


265 


The  bulk  of  this  wrought  iron  was  exported  in  the  form  of  bars,  in  order 
to  be  refined  abroad  into  steel  and  manufactured  into  finer  articles.  But 
in  the  latter  half  of  that  century  the  iron  industry  in  Sweden,  as  in  other 
countries,  went  forward  with  enormous  strides.  A  number  of  impro- 
vements were  introduced  in  the  manufacture  of  pig  iron,  as  also  in  the 
making  of  wrought  iron.  Moreover  entirely  new  fining  methods,  such 
as  the  Bessemer  and  the  Martin  processes,  came  into  use,  and  gave  a 
vigorous  push  forward  to  the  development  of  the  iron  industry'. 

It  is  true  that  the  soft  basic  ingot  metal  used  abroad  has  proved  a 
rather  awkward  competitor  to  Swedish  wrought  iron.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  production  and  manufacture  of  the  excellent  Swedish  ingot  metal  (steel) 
has  gone  ahead  with  gigantic  strides.  This  is  sufficiently  attested  by  the 
exhibitions  in  Sweden  and  abroad  in  which  Swedish  iron  works  have 
participated,  works  such  as  Avesta,  Bofors,  Degerfors,  Domnarfvet,  Fa- 
gersta,  Finspang,  Forsbacka,  Hagfors,  Hofors,  Iggesund,  Kolsva,  Munk- 
fors,  Sandviken,  Storfors,  Soderfors,  Vikmanshj'^ttan,  Osterby,  and  so 
forth. 

However,  the  Swedish  iron  industry  has  gone  forward  still  more  rapidly 
during  recent  years.  Thus,  in  1913  the  output  of  pig  iron  was 
232  000  tons,  that  is  46  %,  greater  than  in  1899.  Furthermore,  the 
ingress  of  the  twentieth  century  has  been  remarkable  for  a  number  of 
fresh  suggestions,  the  concentration  and  briquetting  of  iron  ore,  iron  ore 
smelting  by  electricity,  the  mahing  of  spongy  iron,  steel  smelting  by 
electricity,  the  manufacture  of  alloys.  It  is  also  marked  by  the  use 
of  coke  as  sole  fuel  in  certain  blast  furnaces,  by  enlargements  of  the 
ironworks  and  modern  improvements,  particularly  as  to  arrangements 
for  the  further  treatment  of  the  iron. 

In  the  sequel  a  more  detailed  account  of  the  progress  made  will  be 
given  in  connection  with  the  various  processes  of  manufacture. 

Before  we  pass  over  to  this  account,  we  must,  however,  first  set  forth 
a  few  figures  relating  to  the  import  and  export  of  iron,  and  then  touch 
upon  a  question  which,  as  indicated  above,  has  been  of  vital  consequence 
for  the  Swedish  iron  industry,  the  question  of  fuel. 

Export.  According  to  commercial  statistics,  the  value  of  iron  and 
steel  exported,  in  an  unwrought  or  only  partially  wrought  state,  was  as 
follows : 


Table  47.    Export  of  Iron  and  Steel  {unwrought  or  half-ivrought). 


Annually 

Million 
kroner 

Annually 

Million 
kronor 

Annually 

Million 
kronor 

1871-75 

1876-80 

1881-85 

1886—90 

43-20 
32-36 
38-89 
33-88 

1891-95 

1896-00 

1901-05 

1906-10 

29-97 
39-08 
38-54 
47-71 

1911 

1912 

1913 

54-78 
40-35 
41-20 

266 


VI.      MINING    AND    METALLURGICAL   INDUSTRY. 


The  diagrams  will  bring  out  the  fluctuations  still  more  easy  to 
survey. 

Import.  The  import  of  unwrought  or  only  partially  wrought  iron  and 
steel  was  during  the  same  periods  as  follows: 

Table  48.    Import  of  Iron  and  Steel  {unwrought  or  half-wrought). 


Annually 

Million 
kronor 

Annually 

Million 
kronor 

Annually 

Million 
kronor 

1871-75 

1876—80 

1881-85 

1886-90 

3-15 
3-47 
4-29 
4-04 

1891-95 

1896-00 

1901—05  . 

3-50 
5-05 

6-78 

1911 

1912 

1913 

13-52 
15-07 
18-22 

1906-10 

12-71 

Thus    the    import    of    iron    and    steel   (see  the  diagrams  further  down) 
exhibits  an  advance. 


Import  and  Export  of  Iron  and  Steel  {unwrought  or  half-wrought). 


Mill.  Kr 
60 


5S 


SO 


W 


/\ 

1 

'\ 

v^  A 

/ 

\     / 

w 

\    1 

SX\/\ 

,     A 

/ 

w 

V  / 

W 

\  J 

/ — 

\/ 

V 

l\ 

^  .  / 

\'''' 

^^ 

,y-- 

"^.^—^ 

"-x/  ^- 

~.y       ' 

125 

Year  1871 


85 
Export. 


90 


00 
Import. 


05 


Fuels. 

In  the  Swedish  iron  industry  the  following  fuels  are  employed:  wood 
(splitwood,  twigs,  stumps,  saw-dust),  charcoal,  coal,  coke,  and  peat. 

Wood,  Wood  in  various  forms  is  used  mainly  as  fuel  in  gas  producers 
for  reheating  furnaces,  Siemens-Martin  furnaces  and  other  furnaces,  often 
mixed  with  coal  and  peat. 

Charcoal.  The  making  of  pig-iron  in  Sweden,  as  has  been  mentioned, 
is  based  on  the  use  of  charcoal  in  the  blast  furnaces,  and  this  is  one  of  the 


FUELS. 

Table  49.      Consumption  of  Charcoal  in  Swedish  Iron  Works. 


267 


Tear 

Consumption 

Year 

Consumption 

in  1  000 
cub.m 

in  tons 

in  1000 
cub.m 

in  tons 

1899 

1900    ...••.... 

1901 

1902 

1903 

1904 

1905 

1906 

4  418-2 
4  685-6 
4  531-4 
4528-5 
4  329-1 
4  406-4 
4  346-9 
4  640-7 

662  730 
702  840 
679  710 
679  275 
649  365 
660  960 
652  035 
696  105 

1907 

1908 

1909 

1910 

1911 

1912 

1918 

4  694-5 
4 144-7 
3 141-6 
4  083-2 
4054-1 
4  322-0 
4  265-9 

704 175 
621  705 
471  240 
612  480 
608  115 
648  306 
639  885 

reasons  of  the  superior  quality  of  the  pig-iron.  Charcoal  is  moreover  used 
in  the  various  processes  for  refining  in  hearths. 

The  Table  49  sho-ws  the  consumption  of  charcoal  in  Swedish  iron 
works  during  a  series  of  years. 

The  consumption  as  a  whole  has  decreased  pretty  considerably.  Various 
circumstances  are  answerable  for  this,  first  and  foremost  the  rise  in  the 
price  of  charcoal  in  recent  years.  This  rise  is  in  its  turn  due  to 
higher  wages,  and,  above  all,  to  the  enormous  demand  on  the  part  of 
the  flourishing  wood  pulp  industry  for  woods  formerly  appropriated 
exclusively  to  charring. 

The  Table  50  shows  the  consumption  of  cellulose  wood  in  1  000  cubic 
meters  (dry  measure)  during  each  of  the  years  from  1899  to  1913. 


Table  50. 


Consumption  of  Cellulose   Wood. 

Tear 

in  1  000  cub.m 

Tear 

in  1  000  cub.m 

1899  . 

1 793  9 

1907 

4  693-3 

1900. 

2 119-4 

1908 

5  294-6 

1901 

2  273-1 

1909 

4  961-0 

1902 



2  667-5 

1910 

6  719-2 

1903  . 

2  954-9 

1911 

7  014-4 

1904 

3  158-7 

1912 

7  954-4 

1905 

3  586-5 

1913 

8  453-2 

1906 

3  855-2 

Tables  49  to  51  are  here  subjoined  diagrammatically  presented,  in  order 
to  facilitate  comparison. 

Table  51.   Average  Value  of  the  Charcoal  consum-ed  in  Swedish  Iron  Works. 


Year 

Kr.  per  hi 

Tear 

Kr.  per  hi 

Year 

Kr.  per  hi 

1899  .     .     . 

0-46 

1904.     .     . 

0-46 

1909  .    .    . 

0-58 

1900  .     .     . 

0-61 

1906  .    .    . 

0-51 

1910  .    .    . 

0-63 

1901  .   .    . 

0»53 

1906  .    .    . 

0-54 

1911  .    .    . 

0-66 

1902  .    .    . 

0-45 

1907  .    .    . 

0-55 

1912  .    .    . 

0-66 

1903  .    .    . 

0-45 

1908.    .    . 

0-55 

1913  .    .    . 

066 

268  VI.      MINING    AND    METALLURGICAL   INDUSTRY. 

Consumption  of  Charcoal  and  Cellulose  Wood.  Average  Value  of  Charcoal. 


1  000  cub.  m 

8000 


7000 


6000 


1000 


WOO 


""jOOO 


2000 


1000 


0 


/ 

/ 
/ 

/ 

y 

y 

y 

} 

^ 

/ 

yi 
y^  1 

i' 

•-.-\ 

, ■ 

/ 

/ 

7\ 

t 

y 

-^ 

f 

V 

y 

4 

.-" 

y 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

,    126 

Kr.  per  hi 
0.80 


0.7O 


Year  1899   00     01 


02     05     O't     05     OG     07 

■    Average  Value  of  Charcoal. 


08     09      10      11    1912 


0.60 


0.50 


Oao 


0.30 


O.ZO 


0.10 


0 


— —  —    Consumption  of  Cellulose  Wood. 

__ .  -_ . .  _,  .    >  >   CIiaTcoal. 


The  rising  prices  of  charcoal  have  compelled  iron  makers  to  use  all  endea- 
vours to  restrict  the  consumption  thereof,  both  absolutely  and  per  ton  of 
pig  iron  and  wrought  iron  produced;  these  endeavours  have  met  with  no 
small  success. 

Preparation  of  Charcoal.  Charcoal  is  made  chiefly  in  oharringheaps 
(milor)  in  the  forests.  But  a  good  deal  of  it  is  produced  in  charring 
kilns,  situated  either  at  the  iron  works  or  in  other  places,  favourably 
located  for  the  up  transport  of  wood  and  the  down  transport  of  charcoal. 
Moreover,  in  the  north  of  Sweden  at  the  seaside  there  are  large  numbers 


FUELS. 


269 


of  saw-mills,  which  make  charcoal  out  of  wood  waste;  in  these  saw- 
mills the  charcoal  usually  made  in  heaps,  sometimes  in  kilns.  These 
"saw-mill  charcoals"  are  conveyed  by  boat  and  rail  down  to  the  mining 
districts.  Many  of  the  saw-mills  in  the  south  of  Sweden  also,  for  instance 
in  Smaland  char  the  waste  from  the  saws  in  heaps. 

The  reason  why  so  much  of  the  charring  is  done  in  heaps  in  the  forests 
is  that  in  winter-time  the  charcoal  can  easily  be  conveyed  from  the  forests 
on  sledges,  without  necessitating  the  laying  down  of  expensive  roads. 


Vertical  Charcoal  Heap,  burning. 


Charcoal  Heaps.  There  are  two  kinds  of  charcoal  heaps,  resmilor,  or  ver- 
tical heaps,  in  which  the  billets  of  wood  are  piled  vertically,  and  liggmilor,  or 
horizontal  heaps,  in  which  the  billets  are  laid  horizontally. 

An  ordinary  resmila  has  a  diameter  of  from  9  to  10  meters,  and  takes  about 
three  weeks  to  char.  20  hectoliters  (=  1  last)  of  charcoal  is  yielded  by  about  20 
hectoliters  of  wood,  solid  measure,  or  about  4D  hectoliters  of  wood,  dry  measure. 

In  liggmilor,  the  bottom  of  the  heap  is  rectangular.  The  billets,  6  to  7 
meters  in  length,   are  stacked  horizontally  and  transversely. 

Charcoal-burning  in  Eilns.  Out  of  the  charcoal  consumed  at  the  iron 
works  in  1913  3  815  376  hectoliters,  or  about  8.9  %  of  the  total  consumption, 
were  prepared  in  kilns.  Charcoal-burning  in  kilns  is  thus  now  quite  a  conside- 
rable industry;  the  importance  of  this  process  lies  particularly  in  the  by-products 
obtained  in  it,  the  value  of  which  aggregates  over  a  million  kroner  per  year 
(=  circa  •'/s  krona  per  hectoliter  of  charcoal).  In  fact  charcoal  kilns  were  origi- 
nally   built   mainly  with  the  intent  of  recovering  some  of  the  gases  escaping  in 


270 


VI.      MINING   AND    MBTAILUKGICAL   INDUSTHY. 


OeaSt3Jj.UtAnstStocliholm 


FUELS. 


271 


the  combustion  and  obtaining  from  them  a  number  of  valuable  products  (tar, 
oU  of  terpentine,  wood  spirit,  and  acetic  acid).  Presumably  they  will  come  into 
more  extensive  use  in  the  future.  Another  reason  why  the  kilns  are  resorted 
to  is  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  a  sufficient  number  of  skilled  charcoal-burners 
for  the  heaps. 

In  1912  there  were  charcoal  kilns  running  at  21  different  places  in  Sweden. 
The  map  overleaf  shows  the  position  of  these  places.  Besides  these  larger 
charcoal  works,  there  are  some  smaller  ones,  for  the  charring  of  pine  stumps 
(generally  known  as  tore,  or  dry  wood),  in  which  tar  and  terpentine  are  the 
chief  products. 


Charcoal  Kilns  at  Yanshro. 


The  kilns  yield  a  larger  output,  by  volume,  than  the  heaps;  but  the  charcoal 
obtained  in  the  kilns  is  of  inferior  quality:  it  is  not  so  well  charred  as  the  heap- 
charcoal.  A  particiilarly  inferior  quality  is  obtained  from  kilns,  in  which  the 
process  is  short  and  the  temperature  low.  On  an  average,  10  hectoliters  of 
kiln-charcoal  may  be  said  to  have  about  the  same  fuel-value  as  9  hectoliters  of 
heap-charcoal. 

There  are  several  types  of  kilns  in  use,  but  all  of  them  fall  under  one  of 
the  two  main  groups:  1)  kilns  in  which  the  heat  is  supplied  directly,  and  2) 
kilns  in  which  the  heat  is  supplied  indirectly.  In  the  first  group  the  hearth  is 
placed  in,  or  communicates  directly  with  the  chamber  in  which  the  charring 
takes  place,  in  the  second  group  the  wood  does  not  come  into  direct  contact 
with  the  flame  from  the  hearth. 

The  consumption,  of  fuel  varies  greatly  according  to  the  type  of  kiln,  and 
according  to  the  degree  of  moisture  in  the  wood.  It  may  be  said,  generally 
speaking,    that  for  kilns  in  which  the  heat  is  supplied  indirectly,  and  in  which 


272 


VI.      MININa   AND    METAILUEGICAL  INDUSTEY. 


air-dried  wood  is  employed,  the  consumption  of  fuel  is  up  to  20  %  of  the  wood 
to  be  charred,  besides  which  aU  the  gas  generated  in  the  charring  is  consumed. 
In  kilns  where  the  heat  is  supplied  directly,  the  consumption  of  fuel  is  some- 
what larger. 

Coal.  The  Swedish  coals  will  not  do  for  coking,  and  they  have  not 
been  used  in  the  actual  iron-industry.  On  the  other  hand,  since 
the  end  of  the  year  1909  they  are  used  in  the  production  of  "spongy 
iron"  (jarnsvamp)  at  Hoganas  in  accordance  with  the  Sieurin  pro- 
cess. Coal  with  35  %  of  ash  is  there  used  for  the  reduction  of  the  iron 
ore  concentrate,  and  coal  with  50  %  of  ash  for  the  generation  of  gas  to  heat 
the  reducing  furnace.  In  1912  altogether  74  050  hectoliters  of  these  ashy 
coals  were  employed  for  the  manufacture  of  "spongy  iron"  and  in  1913 
114  760  hectoliters. 

Coke.  With  the  exception  of  gas-works  coke  and  occasionally  of  small 
quantities  made  in  some  cement  factories  for  their  own  requirements,  coke 
is  not  made  at  all  in  Sweden.  The  coke  works  at  Islinge  near  Stockholm, 
in  which  furnaces  on  the  Coppee  system  formerly  were  employed,  were 
closed  down  some  j'^ears  ago. 

Peat.  An  account  of  the  peat  industry  in  Sweden  will  be  given 
in  the  sequel  in  the  section:  Manufacturing  Industries.  In  the  manufac- 
ture of  iron,  peat  is  used  almost  exclusively  as  producer  fuel.  Peat  coal 
is  not  employed  at  all  in  the  iron  industry.  Pulverised  peat  (torvpulver) 
has  been  used  experimentally  during  the  last  few  years  in  reduction  of 
iron  ore  concentrate;  these  experiments,  however,  have  not  yet  led  to  any 
definite  results. 


Briquetting  and  Roasting  of  Pulverised  Iron  Ores. 

Intimately  connected  with  the  problem  of  the  concentration  of  iron  ores 
(treated  in  the  section:  Mining)  is  the  problem  of  the  further  treatment 
of  the  iron  ore  concentrate  obtained  in  that  process.  Some  part  of  the  slick 
can  be  used,  and  is  actually  used,  in  the  state  in  which  it  proceeds  from  the 
concentrating  works;  a  smaller  portion  is  roasted  and  sintered  in  flame  fur- 
naces; the  major  portion  is  pressed  into  briquettes,  which  are  afterwards 
roasted  and  burnt  in  furnaces  constructed  expressly  for  that  purpose. 


Table  52. 

Output  of  Briquettes  in  Sweden. 

Tear 

ProTU  Blick 
tons 

From 

purple  ore 

tous 

Total 
tons 

Tear 

From  slick 
tons 

From 

purple  ore 

tons 

Total 
tons 

1903  .... 

1904  .... 

1905  .... 
1906.   .   .   . 

1907  .... 

1908  .... 

4  205 

14  011 

29  600 

60  925 

138  434 

202  516 

15  875 
21171 
49168 
31320 

4205 
14011 
46476 

82  096 
187  602 
233836 

1909  .... 

1910  .... 

1911  .... 

1912  .... 

1913  .... 

141 936 
262  719 
248  809 
279 131 
333  252 

34  620 
62  751 
45  277 
58168 
64  345 

176556 
315470 
294  0S6 
337299 
397  597 

FUELS.  273 

I'he  output  of  briquettes  in  Sweden  is  shown  by  the  Table  52. 

In  1913  there  were  19  briquette  works  in  Sweden;  one  of  these  works, 
that  at  Halsingborg,  manufactures  briquettes  out  of  purple  ore. 

For  the  roasting  and  sintering  of  slick  is  employed  firstly  a  flame 
furnace  with  two  storeys,  constructed  by  J.  G.  Wiborgh:  furna- 
ces of  this  type  are  found  at  Bagga,  Jadraas,  Ljusne,  Norn,  Eiddarhyttan, 
Saderfors,  Ulvshyttan,  Uttersberg  and  Ag;  secondly,  the  G.  0.  Peters- 
son  roasting  flame  furnace  with  four  storeys:  at  Koping  and  Lang- 
hanshyttan.  Both  of  these  furnaces  are  heated  with  blast-furnace  gas.  Pro- 
vided they  are  properly  managed,  they  effect  a  pretty  satisfactory  de- 
sulphurisation  and  oxidisation  of  the  slick. 

Experiments  made  in  Sweden  with  rotary  slick  furnaces  have  not  yiel- 
ded very  encouraging  results. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  Grondal  briquette  furnace  has  proved  of  great 
importance  for  Swedish  iron  industry,  as  is  indicated  bj'  the  rapid  develop- 
ment of  the  briquette  industry  revealed  by  Table  52  above. 

The  Grondal  furnace  consists  of  a  brickwork-tunnel  from  50  to  60  meters 
in  length,  and  from  I"i2  to  1"60  meters  in  breadth.  Sometimes  two  of  these 
tunnels  are  built  into  one,  which  produces  what  is  known  as  a  "double  furnace". 

The  slick  proceeding  from  the  concentrating  works  and  containing  from  6  to 
8  %  oi  water,  is  fed  down  into  a  briquette  press,  in  which  it  is  pressed  without 
any  special  binding  medium  into  briquettes  of  150  by  150  by  65  millimeters 
in  size.  These  briquettes  are  then  placed  in  two  layers  on  cars,  each  of  which 
takes  from  170  to  200  briquettes.  At  intervals  of  certain  minutes  one  car 
after  the  other  is  pushed  into  the  one  end  of  the  briquette  furnace ;  this 
shoves  forward  all  the  cars  in  the  furnace  one  car-length,  and  thus  one  car 
with  finished  briquettes  comes  out  at  the  other  end.  The  above-mentioned 
interval  varies  acbording  to  the  quality  of  the  slick:  with  sulphuriferous  slicks 
it  is  about  dn  hour;  at  Sandviken,  for  instance,  the  time  is  from  40  to  45 
minutes.  A  bar  of  briquettes  weighs  there  on  an  average  830  kilograms,  and 
the  output  per  week  of  7  working  days  is  from  190  to  210  tons. 

The  actual  hearth  of  the  furnace  is  formed  by  the  refractory  brickwork  upper 
frame  of  the  cars.  The  furnace  is  heated  with  producer  gas  (occasionally  with 
blast-furnace  gas),  and  the  consumption  of  coal  is  from  6  to  8  ?^  of  the  weight 
of  the  briquettes.  The  producer  gas  is  admitted  at  about  the  centre  of  the 
furnace.  The  combustion  gases  are  carried  in  the  opposite  direction  to  the 
cars,  and  the  air  used  in  the  combustion  of  the  gas  is  led  in  the  same  way 
through  the  rear  part  of  the  furnace,  where  it  cools  the  briquettes  already  burnt, 
and  is  itself  heated  before  it  reaches  the  inlet  for  the  gas. 

Provided  it  be  properly  managed,  the  Grondal  furnace  desulphurises  the  bri- 
quettes very  completely  and  oxidizes  them  in  an  extremely  high  degree.  Thus, 
it  may  be  mentioned  that  sulphur  percentages  of  0'i7  and  I'ss  %  have  been  redu- 
ced by  it  to  0"oo6  and  0"030  %  respectively,  and  that  the  degree  of  oxidation  in 
the  former  case  was  raised  from  89  to  99"6  %. 

The    pores    take  up  from  20  to   30  %  of  the  whole  volume  of  the  briquettes. 

The  great  importance  of  briquettes  for  the  Swedish  iron  industry  lies 
in  the  saving  of  charcoal  effected  by  their  use  in  blast  furnaces.  It  may 
be  roughly  estimated  that  on  an  average  a  saving  of  12-5  %  of  charcoal 
has  been  effected  in  the  works  employing  briquettes. 

iS— 133179.  Sweden.  II. 


274 


VI.      MINING    AND    METALLURGICAL   INDUSTRY. 


The  Manufacture  of  Pig  Iron. 

Pig-iron  was  first  manufactured  in  Sweden  not  later  than  the.  fif- 
teenth century:  the  date  cannot  be  determined  more  precisely.  The  manu- 
facture of  pig-iron  gradually  developed  out  of  the  process  called  hl(kter- 
smide  or  the  blast  forging,  the  product  of  which  was  wrought  iron. 

Statistics  of  pig-iron  manufacture  are  also  unsatisfactory  for  the  earlier 
periods :  they  can  scarcely  be  said  to  be  reliable  before  they  get  down  to  the 
nineteenth  century. 

Table  53  gives  the  figures  for  the  production,  import  and  export,  etc.,  of 
pig-iron  during  the  last  50  years. 

The  world's  output  of  pig  iron  since  1871  is  represented  in  Table  54.  This 
table  shows,  that  the  output  of  pig  iron  in  Sweden  has  relatively  declined. 
The  causes  of  this  decline  have  been  pointed  out  above. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  one  examines  the  Swedish  pig  iron  industry  se- 
parately, it  will  be  found  that  the  output  has  been  more  than  trebled  in  the 
last  fifty  years,  that  the  export  during  the  said  period  has  been  more  than 
thirteen  times  greater,  and  that  the  consumption  per  head  of  population 
has  been  more  than  doubled.  Further,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  number  of 
blast  furnaces  on  an  average  for  the  years  from  1861  to  1865  was  222,  with 
30  678  working  days  as  against  117  blastfurnaces  and  35  265  working 
days  in  1913,  and  that  during  the  said  period  the  output  per  blast  furnace 
and  year  was  923  tons,  and  per  working  day  6-68  tons,  as  against  6  241 
and  20-73  tons  respectively  in  1913.  The  output  per  blast  furnace  and 
year    has    thus    been    nearly  septupled  since  the  period   from   1861  to 


Table  53.     Production,  Import  and 

Export 

etc.,  0 

f  Pig  Iron  in  Sweden. 

Production 

Import 

Export 

Surplus  of 

Consumption 

Annually 

Population 

tons 

kg  per 
head  of 

tons 

tons 

tons 

tons 

pop. 

1861-66 

3  993  000 

204  826 

5  533 

14  212 

8  679 

196  147 

49 

1866-70 

4166  000 

267  854 

4  630 

24  280 

19  750 

248 104 

60 

1871-76 

4274  000 

332  466 

13  436 

54320 

40884 

291 572 

68 

1876-80 

4  600  000 

367  224 

16  900 

36  973 

20  073 

337  151 

75 

1881-86 

4  606  000 

429  377 

20  050 

53  093 

33  043 

396  334 

86 

1886—90 

4  742  000 

446  580 

26  515 

69  206 

33  690 

412  890 

87 

1891-96 

4  833  000 

471 147 

28  027 

66  766 

38  739 

432408 

89 

1896-00 

5  032  000 

617  796 

47  233 

82  781 

35  548 

482  248 

96 

1901-05 

5  214  000 

528  256 

46174 

86  470 

39  296 

488  9551 

94 

1906-10 

5  406  000 

1 567  418 

70  868 

117  891 

47  033 

520  385 

96 

1911 

6  642  000 

'  634  392 

77  049 

160  444 

73  396 

560  997 

101 

19ia 

5  583  000 

>  699  816 

84  473 

192  788 

108  315 

591 501 

106 

1913 

5  621 000 

1  730  257 

94  675 

195  230 

100  565 

629  702 

m 

1  In  electric  blast-f  arnaces  in  1908,  1909,  1910,  1911,  1912  and  1913  122,  302,  890,  5  786, 
17  561  and  31  916  tons  respectively. 


THE   MANUFACTURE   OF   PIG   IRON.  275 

Table  54.    The  World's  Production  of  Pig  Iron.    In  thousands  of  tons. 


Annua 

1   1   y 

Country 

1871—76  187C— 30 

1881—85 

1886—90 

1891-96 

1896-00 

1901—06 

1906-10 

1911 

1912 

1913 

Sweden  .... 

332 

357 

429 

447 

471 

518 

528 

568 

634 

700 

730 

Great  Britain   . 

6  562 

6  765 

8  227 

7  883 

7  361 

9  002 

8  880 

9  944 

9  875 

8  891 

10  647 

Belgium.    .    .    . 

.589 

495 

720 

781 

766 

1006 

1129 

1510 

2  045 

2  345 

2  477 

6«iniaiiy    .    .    . 

1946 

2176 

3  411 

4  215 

5  082 

7  446 

9  472 

13  010 

15  567 

17  869 

19  309 

Austria  .... 

31G 

186 

475 

573 

686 

932 

1020 

1416 

1528 

1760 

,  Hungary    . 

153 

232 

185 

234 

323 

444 

422 

512 

600 

553 

France    .... 

1265 

1518 

1899 

1693 

2  006 

2  525 

2  742 

3  592 

4  507 

4  948 

5122 

i  Russia    .... 

389 

428 

493 

695 

1185 

2  315 

2  600 

2  760i    3  579 

4185 

0.  S.  A.     ... 

2  284 

2  604 

4  370 

7193 

8  263 

11677 

18  531 

24  410  24  028 

30  204 

31462 

Other  Countries 

335 

356 

477 

569 

608 

764 

1287 

15781    1867 

2  040 

Total 

14171 

15 117 

20  686 

24  283  26  751  36  029 

46611 

59300  64230 

73495 

■ 

1865,  and  the  output  per  working  day  has  during  the  same  time  been 
trebled.  One  observes  distinctly  the  greater  concentration,  the  larger  scale 
of  operation. 

The  Domnarfvet  Iron  Works  show  the  biggest  output  per  average  day 
that  was  attained  during  the  year  1913,  namely  52-05  tons. 

The  use  of  coke  solely  or  of  coke  mixed  with  charcoal  in  the  making 
of  pig  iron  has  increased  during  the  last  few  years.  The  iron  thus  pro- 
duced is  intended,  for  home  consumption,  to  supersede  imported  iron  of 


Output  of  Pig  Iron  in  Sweden. 


1  000  tons 
800 


700 


600 


500 


100 


500 


ZOO 


100 


0 


J 

i 

/^ 

rv 

a/ 

^-v 

/ 

V 

r^ 

^  1 

/ 

\Zh 

Year  1866       70 


75 


8b  85 


90 


95 


00  05 


10  1912 


276 


VI.      MINING   AND   METALLURGICAL   INDUSTEY. 


Ocn.Stao.  LitAnsL.StocKholir 


THE    MANUPACTDKE    OF   PIG   IRON.  277 

coke  quality,  or  to  supersede  wrought  iron  (Lancashire  iron);  in  the  lat- 
ter case  it  is  applied  to  not  very  exacting  purposes. 

A  blast-furnace  plant  for  coke  is  now  being  constructed  at  Oxelosund. 

The  location  of  the  blast  furnaces  at  work  in  1912  is  shown  by  the 
map  overleaf. 

Out  of  the  total  production  of  pig  iron  in  Sweden  in  1913 

23-53  %  fell  to  Orebro         Ian,  26-2-2  %  fell  to  Kopparberg    Ian 

14-88  >     >  >  Gavleborg  >  9-D4   i     »      >    Vastmanland    > 

8-53  »     >  >  Varmland  •  4-68  »     .      j    Uppsala  > 

3-27  »     .  .  Norrbotten  »  2-68  >     >      ■>    Ostergotland     » 

2-52  >     »  .  Stockholm  •  and   the    remaining   3-7.5    %  to 

Sodermanland,     JonkSping,    Kalmar,    Alysborg     and    Vasternorr- 

land    Ian. 

The  pig  iron  produced  in  1913  was  proportioned  as  follows: 


Pig-iron  for  refining  in  hearths  ....  25-98  %  (year  1892  .    .    .  66-13  ?^' 

Bessemer  pig-iron 19-77  >1, 

Martin  »  50-03  .p    ' 

Splegeleiseu 0-01  »  (    >        > 

Pig-iron  for  malleable  castings     ....      1-99  >  (    >        > 
J         >     other  purposes 2-22  »  (    >        > 


30-53 

0-19 
1-10 
2-06 


About  75  %  of  the  total  output  was  consumed  in  Sweden  itself,  hy 
far  the  greater  part  of  it  for  the  production  of  wrought  iron  and  steel. 

The  imported  pig  iron  was  used  mainly  by  the  foundries. 

Out  of  the  pig  iron  exported  in  1913  104  958  tons  (54  %)  went  to 
Great  Britain,  37  732  tons  (19  %)  to  Germany,  14  596  tons  (7-5  %)  to 
France. 

Out  of  the  pig  iron  imported  in  the  same  year  84  589  tons  (89  %)  came 
from  Great  Britain,  and  8  612  tons  (9  %)  from  Germany. 

Preparation  of  Pig  Iron.  The  manufacture  of  pig  iron  in  Sweden  has  under- 
gone very  great  changes  in  the  course  of  the  years. 

In  olden  times  wrought  iron  in  Sweden,  as  in  other  countries,  was  always 
made  direct  from  the  ore.  The  first  method,  used  for  this  work,  of  which 
anything  definite  is  known  was  the  blast  forging  process  (blastersmide).  The  blast 
forge  or  kiln  (bldsterugn)  was  about  3  meters  in  height. 

In  the  fifteenth  century  the  furnaces  were  made  higher,  and  wood  charcoal 
was  used  in  lieu  of  wood.  The  heat  of  the  furnace  was  now  intenser,  and  the 
reduction  of  the  ore  more  complete;  a  more  carburetted  and  easily  smelted  iron 
was  obtained.  The  iron  produced  was  taclejarn,  pig-iron,  and  the  furnaces 
which  yielded  this  iron  were  designated  masugnar,  blast-furnaces.  Out  of  the 
pig  iron  malleable  iron  was  than  made  by  remelting. 

This  system,  of  first  producing  pig  iron  out  of  the  ore  and  then  from  that 
pig  iron  producing  malleable  iron  or  steel,  by  an  oxidizing  smelting  process  in 
hearths  or  furnaces,  was  during  the  following  centuries  and  right  down  to  the 
present  time,  practically  the  only  system  in  use. 

Blast  furnaces.  The  masugnar  or  blast  furnaces  which  were  used  in  Sweden 
in  the  15th  and  16th  centuries  in  passing  over  from  blastersmide,  the  blast 
forge  process,  to  the  manufacture  of  pig-iron  were  rather  different  in  construc- 
tion from  the  hldsterugnar  or  blast  forges.  The  lower  part  of  the  furnace  was 
built    of    stone;    ia    the    upper    part   the  outer  walls  were  made  of  timber,  and 


278 


VI.      MINING   AND   METALLURGICAL   INDUSTRY. 


on  the  inner  side,  next  to  the  shaft  wall,  was  filled  with  earth  and  sand.  The 
height  of  the  ftirnace  was  only  from  6  to  7  meters. 

From  a  technical  point  of  view,  the  manufacture  of  pig-iron  went  forward 
very  slowly.  The  height  of  the  shaft  was  slightly  raised,  and  the  timber  walls 
were  replaced  by  walls  of  stone;  but  the  form  of  the  shaft,  the  material  of 
which  it  was  constructed,  the  blowing-machines,  and  so  forth,  remained  much 
the  same  as  before  down  to  the  thirties  of  the  nineteenth  century.  Then,  however, 
several  important  improvements  were  introduced.  Hot  blast  came  into  use,  the 
shaft  was  made  of  fire  bricks  instead  of  stone,  and  its  lower  part,  the  stalle,  was 
given  a  round  shape  and  was  made  of  stamped  quartz,  mixed  with  some  fireclay, 
this  mixture  being  rammed  in  round  wooden  frames.  These  stdllen  with  their 
covering  of  stamped  quartz  stood  a  great  deal  of  wear  and  tear,  and  thus  allowed 
of  longer  blasts. 

However,  the  most  important  improvement  then  introduced  was  with  regard 
to  the  calcining  or  roasting  of  the  ores. 


Blast  Forge. 


The  roasting  process,  as  everyone  knows,  is  intended  to  remove  certain  useless 
or  injurious  bodies  (water,  carbonic  acid,  sulphur)  out  of  the  ore,  to  render  the 
ore  more  porous  and  easily  crushed,  and  to  increase  the  degree  of  oxidation,  in 
certain  ores,  so  that  they  may  be  more  easily  reduced  in  the  blast  furnace. 

Formerly  the  roasting  had  been  carried  out  in  open  "roasting  stalls"  rostbds. 
These  were  now  replaced  by  special  furnaces,  rostugnar,  or  roasting  furnaces, 
which  were  heated  with  wood  or  with  blast-furnace  gas.  These  furnaces  were 
gradually  more  and  more  improved,  until  Director  E.  Westman  in  1850  intro- 
duced ■  his  well-known,  admirably  designed  roasting  furnace,  which  is  greatly 
responsible  for  the  excellent  quality  of  the  Swedish  iron. 

In  the  fifties  a  number  of  improvements  were  made  in  the  actual  buUd  of 
the  blast  furnaces :  the  heavy  walls  hitherto  in  use  were  replaced  by  those  of  a 
lighter  construction,  and  for  this  purpose  the  upper  part  was  built  of  brickwork 
and  of  a  circular  shape  etc. 

A    figure    shows    the  appearance  of  a  Swedish  blast  furnace  from  the  fifties. 

When  the  blast  furnaces  were  made  larger  and  the  hearth  of  the  furnace 
wider,  it  became  necessary  to  distribute  the  blast  more  effectively,  by  using  a 
larger  number  of  tuyeres.  The  older  blast  furnaces  had  only  one  tuyere,  but 
afterwards  their  number  was  increased  to  two,  three,  and  finally  four.  More 
than  four  could  not  be  arranged  in  the  furnace,  as  long  as  the  shaft  rested  on 
bulky  comer  pillars  of  hewn  stone.  Hence  in  the  seventies  the  plan  began 
to  be  adopted  of  erecting  the  upper  shaft  on  iron  supports  (bdrdjdrn)  resting 
on    cast    iron    columns    or  trestles,  as  had  long  been  the  practice  in  coke  blast 


THE   MANUFACTUEE   OF   PIG  lEON. 


279 


The  Westman  Roasting  Furnace. 


furnaces  abroad.  In  1876  the  first  blast  furnace  constructed  on  this  principle 
was  erected,  and  this  method  was  adopted  in  most  of  those  built  after  that 
time.  In  1913  there  were  19  blast  furnaces  equipped  with  six  tuyeres.  In  1910 
one  was  built  with   5   tuyeres. 


280 


VI.      MINING    AND    MBTALLURGICAIi   INDUSTRY. 


The  blast  furnaces  constructed  in  the  last  twenty  or  thirty  years  have  a 
height  of  from  16  to  18  meters. 

When  blast-furnace  gas  came  into  use  in  the  thirties  as  fuel  gas  for  hot-blast 
stoves  and  roasting  furnaces,  the  gas  v^as  extracted  through  one  or  more  openings 
in  the  furnace  wall,  situated  4  to  5  meters  down  in  the  flue  (see  m  in  the  Figure 
below).  In  the  sixties  the  method  of  gas  extraction  was  improved:  from  the 
upper  part  of  the  shaft,  the  throat  (uppsdttningsmdlei),  a  sheet-iron  cylinder  from 
2"5  to  3  meters  in  height  was  suspended  dovra.  the  shaft:  this  cylinder  was 
termed  the  gas-collector  cylinder.  The  gas  mounted  behind  this  cylinder  to  openings 
in  the  wall,  and  from  these  openings  proceeded  the  gas  pipes  to  the  roasting 
furnace,  hot-blast  stove,  etc.  This  arrangement  has  proved  to  be  extremely 
effective.  In  all  open  blast  furnaces  the  gas  is  now  extracted  in  this  manner. 
However,  closed  charging  devices  (slutna  uppsdttningsmdl)  have  been  coming 
more  and  more  into  use  in  recent  years.  About  half  the  blast  furnaces  now 
in  work  are  thus  constructed. 


Swedish  Blast  Furnace  from  1850. 


Charcoal  is  always  charged  into  the  furnace  in  fixed  quantities;  the  charcoal- 
charge  (technically  called  the  Icolsattning) ,  varies  according  to  the  size  of  the 
furnace,  the  normal  amount  being  from  14  to  16  hectoliters. 

As  early  as  1835  35  Swedish  blast  furnaces  were  equipped  with  hot-blast 
stoves.  All  of  them  were  on  the  Wasseralfinger  system  (horizontal  iron  pipes) 
and  very  small,  giving  a  blast  temperature  of  only  from  150°  to  200°  Celsius. 
When  pig  iron  began  to  be  made  for  the  Bessemer  process,  the  need  of  hotter 


THE   MANUFACTURE   OF   PIG   IRON. 


281 


blast  became  urgent.  In  order  to  meet  this  need,  hot-blast  stoves  were  con- 
structed with  vertical  pipes,  on  the  Gjers  system,  and  also  of  improved  Wasseral- 
finger  type.  The  latter  are  now  very  common;  with  them  a  constant  tempera- 
ture of  400°  and  an  occasional  temperature  of  500"  Celsius  can  easily  be  ob- 
tained. "Regenerative"  stoves  are  used  only  at  Degerhamn,  Domnarvet,  Bjorne- 
borg,  and  Avesta.  The  blast  pressure  (for  charcoal)  is  usually  from  50  to  100 
millimeters  of  quicksilver. 

Drying    apparatus    for    charcoal  came  into  use  in  the  seventies,  but  are  now 
no  longer  employed. 


Open  Blast  Furnace. 


Blast  Furnaces  ivith  Charging  Device. 
Charleville  System.  Tholander  System. 


The  pig  iron  made  obviously  differs  in  quality  according  to  the  purpose  for 
which  it  is  to  be  employed. 

As  has  been  previously  mentioned,  the  cast  iron  needed  for  home  require- 
ments is  imported;  only  a  small  quantity  is  made  in  Sweden. 

Owing  to  the  complete  roasting  of  the  ores  and  the  freedom  of  the  charcoal 
from  sulphur,  the  Swedish  pig-iron  is  very  free  from  sulphur;  the  sulphur  con- 
tained in  it  seldom  amounts  to  0'03  %  it  generally  keeps  below  0'02  %,  and  it  fre- 
quently descends  to  about  O'oi  %  and  under. 

The  phosphorus-content  is  also,  as  a  rule,  low;  but,  as  in  Sweden  there  is  a 
plentiful  supply  of  ores  rich  in  phosphorus  as  well  as  ores  poor  in  phosphorus, 
pig  iron  may  be  made  at  pleasure  with  the  most  varying  phosphorus-contents, 
ranging  from  the  iron  rich  in  phosphorus  needed  for  the  basic  Bessemer  process. 


282  VI.      MINING    AND    METALLURGICAL   ENDUSTEY. 

to  iron  containing  only  about  O'oi  %  of  phosphorus.  A  large  number  of  ores  in 
Central  Sweden,  for  instance  certain  Dannemora  ores,  etc.,  and  also  certain  con- 
centrated ores,  contain  merely  from  one  to  two  thousandth  per  cent  of  phosphorus. 
When  smelted  with  charcoal,  practically  free  from  phosphorus,  these  ores  yield  a 
pig-iron  with  from  0"oi2  to  0"0i5  of  phosphorus.  The  fact  is  that  the  pig-iron 
absorbs  from  the  charcoal  a  certain  amount  of  phosphorus,  as  a  rule  from  O'Oio 
to  O'ois,  occasionally  less  (the  amount  of  phosphorus  in  charcoal  made  in  kilns 
from  barked  and  floated  pine-wood  is  extremely  low). 

Pig-iron  intended  for  Bessemer  and  acid  Siemens-Martin  usually  contain  from 
0'020  to  0"030  %  of  phosphorus. 

Several  magnetite  ores  in  the  midlands  of  Sweden  contain  from  1  to  5  ^  of 
manganese  and  a  very  trifling  amount  of  phosphorus;  they  yield  a  pig-iron  of 
very  superior  quality,  especially  for  the  Bessemer  process. 

In  1865  spiegeleisen  with  from  12  to  18  %  of  manganese  began  to  be  worked 
at  Schisshyttan.  The  fuel  was  a  mixture  of  coke  and  charcoal  and  the  charge 
a  magnetic  iron  ore,  containing  knebelite. 

■  The  consumption  of  charcoal  per  ton  of  pig-iron  in  the  Swedish  blast  furnaces 
varies  considerably  according  to  the  quality  of  the  charcoal  and  the  ores,  and 
according  to  the  kind  of  iron  it  is  desired  to  produce.  At  present  it  is  from 
45  to  75  hectoliters,  but  the  average  consumption  for  the  whole  country,  not 
counting  the  iron  made  with  coke,  was  in  1913,  according  to  the  official  sta- 
tistics, 57-7  hectoliters.  In  1912,  1911,  1910,  1909,  and  1908  the  consump- 
tion was  59'2,  61'2,  62'8,  63"4,  and  63"6  respectively.  Thus  the  consumption 
of  coal  is  decreasing,  thanks  to  the  improved  construction  and  operation  of 
the  blast  furnaces. 


Manufacture  of  Pig  Iron  by  Electricity. 

The   following  figures   give  the   quantities   of  iron  made  in  Sweden 
in  electric  tlast-furnaces   (see  TaMe  53): 


Year  .  . 

.  .  1908 

1909 

1910 

1911 

1912 

1913 

Tons  .  . 

.  .  122 

302 

890 

5  786 

17  561 

31916 

At  the  beginning  of  the  year  1914  there  were  5  electric  blast  furnaces 
at  work  in  Sweden  (one  at  TroUhattan,  one  at  Domnarvet,  three  at  Hag- 
fors).  Besides  this,  one  was  projected  to  be  built  at  Soderfors  and  two  at 
Hagf ors.  Each  of  these  furnaces  have  a  power  of  from  2  000  to  3  000 
kilowatts. 

The  idea  of  producing  pig  iron  by  the  reduction  of  iron  ore  in  electric 
furnace  is  not  a  novel  one  in  Sweden.  That  this  idea  should  arise  in 
Sweden  was  quite  in  the  natural  course  of  things:  no  country  possesses 
the  necessary  conditions  —  a  plentiful  supply  of  comparatively  cheap 
water-power  and  rich  pure  ores  —  in  a  higher  measure  than  does  Sweden. 
Moreover,  the  increasing  difficulty  of  obtaining  charcoal  at  reasonable 
rates  in  conjunction  with  great  developments  in  electricity  brought  mat- 
ters to  a  head,  and  people  addressed  themselves  in  earnest  to  tackle  the 
knotty  problem. 

The  engineers  A.  Gronwall,  A.  Lindblad,  and  0.  Stdlhane  at  Ludvika  formed 
a  company  under  the  name  of  Aktiebolaget  Elektrometall,  one  of  the  objects  of 
which    was    to    construct    an   electric  furnace  suitable  for  the  reduction  of  iron 


MANUFACTURE   OF   PIG   IRON   BY   ELECTRICITY.  283 

ore.  They  succeeded  in  interesting  in  their  schemes  the  Manager  of  the  Stora 
Kopparbergs  Company,  E.  J.  Ljungberg,  and  Major-General  G.  Geijer  of  the 
Grangesberg  Company.  With  the  financial  support  of  these  great  companies 
smelting  experiments  were  commenced  in  the  spring  of  1907  at  Domnarvet. 

After  several  different  types  of  furnace  had  been  tested  without  result,  a 
furnace  was  finally  constructed,  consisting  of  a  shaft  5  "2  meters  in  height,  placed 
above  a  smelting  chamber  I'S  meters  in  height  and  with  an  interior  diameter 
of  about  2-25  meters  at  the  greatest  width.  Through  the  vault  of  the  smelting 
chamber  there  passed  three  carbon  electrodes  with  a  section  of. 660  by  330 
millimeters.     The  current  employed  was  a  three-phase  current  of  25  periods. 

The  furnace  was  started  on  the  7th  of  May  1909  and  ran  continuously,  apart 
from  minor  interruptions,  until  the  30th  of  July  of  the  same  year,  when  for  certain 
reasons  the  smelting  had  to  be  terminated.  With  an  average  load  of  496  kilo- 
watts the  output  during  this  time  was  about  280  tons  of  pig-iron,  the  con- 
sumption being  354-1  kilograms  of  charcoal  and  coke,  3  181  kilowatt-hours,  and 
30  kilograms  of  electrodes  (gross  amount)  per  ton  of  iron. 


"Jernkontorets  Forsoksverk"  at  Trollhattan.  —  Electric  Blast  Furnace. 

Considering  all  the  difficulties  and  troubles  with  which  a  first  experimental 
working  is  invariably  attended,  the  results  thus  obtained  were  found  sufficiently 
satisfactory  to  warrant  an  application  to  Jernkontoret,  The  Corporation  of  Iron- 
masters, that  Jernkontoret  should  take  the  matter  in  hand,  and  by  dint  of  ex- 
periments on  a  large  scale,  endeavour  to  conduct  the  problem  to  a  satisfactory 
solution. 

Jernkontoret  did  so,  and  on  the  15th  November  1910  the  furnace  at  Troll- 
hattan (Jernkontorets  forsoksverk)  was  started. 

The  furnace  consists  of  two  parts,  the  smelting  chamber  and  the  shaft,  both 
of  which  are  surrounded  with  stout  plate  jackets  and  lined  with  Chamotte  bricks. 
The  shaft  is  suspended  from  strong  iron  beams,  which  are  carried  by  the  walls 
of  the  furnace  house.  The  total  height  of  the  furnace  from  the  bottom  of  the 
smelting  chamber  to  the  upper  floor  is  12'7  meters,  the  greatest  interior 
diameter  of  the  shaft  2"2  meters,  the  greatest  interior  diameter  of  the  smelting 
chamber  about  4  meters,  its  height  about  2  meters,  and  the  whole  capacity  of 
the  furnace  about  40  cubic  meters. 

Down  through  the  vaidt  are  passed  4  carbon  electrodes,  660  millimeters 
square  (now  600  millimeters  in  diameter),  which  form  an  angle  of  65°  with 
the  horizontal  line.  The  current  —  three-phase,  10  000  volts,  25  periods  —  is 
transformed  in  two  transformers,  each  of  1  100  kilovolt-amperes,  to  two-phase 
with    a    tension   of  from  50  to  90  volts. 

With    the    aid   of  a  fan,  gas  is  sucked  from  the  upper  part  of  the  shaft  and 


284 


VI.      MINING    AND    METALLURGICAL   INDUSTRY. 


s 


eq 


H 


y n;:i^  ri 


THE   MANUFACTURE   OF   SPONGY   IRON.  285 

pressed  through  four  nozzles  into  the  smelting  chamber.  The  object  of  this 
gas  circulation  is  partly  to  cool  the  vault  and  thereby  protect  it  from  deteriora- 
tion, partly  to  convey  heat  from  the  smelting-chamber  up  into  the  shaft,  in  order 
thus  to  aid  the  preheating  of  the  metal  and  the  reduction  of  the  ore  with 
carbon  monoxide. 

The  work  in  this  furnace  is  conducted  as  in  an  ordinary  blast  furnace. 

In  the  course  of  the  experimental  period,  from  15  November  1910  to  30 
September  1912,  a  large  number  of  Swedish  rock  ores,  and  also  slick  and  bri- 
quettes from  different  localities  were  put  to  the  test.  Experiments  were  more- 
over made  with  coke  as  a  reducing  agent,  but  without  success.  Altogether 
13  660  tons  of  ore,  slick  and  briquettes  and  1  101  tons  of  limestone  were 
smelted,  and  8  450  tons  of  pig-iron  were  produced.  On  an  average  for  the 
whole  period  23"i4  hectoliters  of  charcoal  were  consumed  per  ton  of  iron,  and 
3'84  tons  of  iron  were  produced  per  kilowatt-year  read  off  on  the  dial  (=  2  280 
kilowatt-hours  per  ton  of  iron).  The  consumption  of  the  electrodes  during  the 
third  campaign  was  about  4 '6  kilograms  per  ton  of  iron,  and  is  the  present  mo- 
ment of  writing  about  the  same. 

The  experiments  made  at  the  works  have  carried  the  problem  of  the 
electric  reduction  of  iron  ore  a  good  step  forward.  They  have  shown  that 
the  Swedish  iron  industry  has  much  to  gain  along  this  line,  and  that  in 
the  electric  blast  furnace  it  has  obtained  an  excellent  new  weapon  for 
its  struggle  in  the  world's  market. 

The  saving  of  charcoal  which  may  be  counted  on  in  electric  blast  fur- 
naces, is  from  55  to  65  %  of  the  constimption  in  ordinary  blast  furnaces. 


The  Manufacture  of  Spongy  Iron. 

Under  the  heading  "Coal"  it  has  already  been  mentioned,  that  "spongy 
iron"  (jcirnsvamp)  has  in  quite  recent  years  been  prepared  at  Hoganas. 

This  industry  was  started  on  experimental  lines  during  the  latter  half 
of  1909,  and  the  results  obtained  both  at  Hoganas  and  also  when  the  spongs* 
iron  was  used  in  a  Siemens-Martin  furnace  (for  the  first  time  at  Lesjofors 
in  January  1910)  led  to  the  construction  of  a  special  reducing  furnace  for 
the  further  elaboration  of  the  method.  The  line  thus  entered  upon  was 
afterwards  pursued.  The  output  of  spongy  iron  at  Hoganas  in  1911  was 
3  772  tons  with  an  average  value  of  226  320  kroner.  In  1912  the  output 
was  3  979  tons  with  a  value  of  242  719  kronor,  and  in  1913  6  073  tons 
with  a  value  of  884  420  kronor  were  made. 

The  preparation  of  spongy  iron  in  accordance  with  E.  Sieurin's  method  has 
hitherto  been  based  essentially  on  the  use  of  iron  ore  slick,  obtained  by  the 
concentration  of  Gallivare  gangue  ore,  and  on  the  use  of  the  inferior  ashy 
coal  of  the  Hoganas  Company.  The  said  slick  contains  from  71  to  71-b  %  of 
iron,  from  O'oos  to  0'009  %  of  phosphorus  and  O^oos  %  of  sulphur. 

The  reduction  process  is  carried  out  in  the  following  manner:  alternating  layers 
of  slick  and  coal  dust  are  heated  in  closed  brick  cases,  which  are  placed  in  a  cir- 
cular furnace  of  the  same  kind  as  is  used  for  burning  bricks,  heated  with  pro- 
ducer gas.  When  the  reduction  has  been  completed,  the  cases  are  allowed  to 
cool,  after    which    they  are  removed  and  emptied;  the  spongy  iron  is  then  me- 


286 


VI.      MINING   AND    METALLURGICAL   ESTDUSTET. 


chanically  separated  from  the  reducing  agent.  The  silicon  and  phosphorus 
impurities  in  the  latter  remain  unreduced,  and  the  bulk  of  the  sulphur  is  bound 
with  lime  and  is  removed  along  with  the  ashes,  as  well  as  the  impurities  men- 
tioned. 

Spongy  iron  made  from  the  above-mentioned  Gallivare  slick  contains  96'6  % 
of  metallic  iron,  1'6  %  of  ferrous  oxide,  O'oio  %  to  O'oso  %  of  sulphur  and  O.ois 
%  of  phosphorus.  The  specific  gravity  of  the  spongy  iron  is  2  to  2"6,  and  it 
thus  contains  up  to  70  %  of  pores.  By  severe  pressure  the  specific  gravity 
can  be  raised  to  4 '6  or  5. 

Spongy  iron  is  used  with  advantage  as  a  substitute  for  wrought  iron 
scrap  in  Siemens-Martin  furnaces.  Moreover,  rather  extensive  experiments 
have  been  made  to  smelt  it  in  Lancashire  hearths.  Attempts  have  also 
been  made  in  German  chemical  factories  to  use  the  spongy  iron  for  re- 
ducing purposes. 

The  supplies  of  coal  which  the  Hoganas  Company  has  available  for  the 
immediate  future  for  the  preparation  of  spongy  iron,  will  probably  allow 
of  an  annual  output  of  up  to  200  000  tons. 


The  Manufacture  of  Wrought  Iron. 

The  production  of  wrought  iron  in  Sweden  during  the  last  35  years  is 
shown  by  the  Table  55. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  Table  that  the  output  of  wrought  iron  has 
diminished  in  the  course  of  the  last  25  years.  The  reasons  of  this 
decrease  are  firstly  that  this  industry  is  entirely  dependent  on  the  price 
of  charcoal,  which  is  constantly  rising,  secondly,  that  the  soft  ingot  metal 
(Bessemer  and  Martin)  has  entirely  or  partially  ousted  wrought-iron  for 
a  number  of  uses. 

However,  if  the  wrought  iron  industry  has  declined,  it  is  not  for  lack 
of  efforts  to  keep  it  alive.  On  the  contrary,  much  labour  has  been 
expended  and  much  interest  has  been  lavished  both  on  the  production 
of  the  pig  iron  intended  for  the  fining  (hotter  blast,  more  basic  slag, 
richer  charges  and  faster  driving  of  the  blast  furnaces)  and  also  on  the 
actual  finery  process.  With  regard  to  the  latter,  the  Lagerwall  machine 
(1895)  for  breaking  up  the  iron  mass  (first  used  at  Laxa)  effected  quite 
a  revolution  in  the  Lancashire  process.  These  machines  rendered  possible 
the  use   of  hotter  blast   and   larger   charges,   without   entailing  heavier 


Table  55. 

Output  of  Wrought  Iron  in  Sweden. 

Annually 

Tons 

Annuajly 

Tons 

Annually 

1 

Tons 

1876-80  .... 
1881-85  .... 
1886—90  .... 
1891—95  .... 

116  125 

153  495 
205  945 
215  770 

1896-00  .... 
1901-05  .... 
1906-10  .... 
1911 

192  147 
183  081 
155  468 
146  722 

1912 

1913 

148828 
153  400 

THE   MANUFACTURE   OF   WROUGHT   IRON.  287 

Table  56.    Number  of  Forging  Hearths  and  Puddle  Furnaces  employed. 


Scrap       1      -syaiion        I'ranche- 

Annually                smelting          hearths           Comt6 

hearths                               hearths 

German 
.hearths 

Puddling 
furnaces 

Lanca- 
shire 
hearths 

Total 

1891-95  ....          10              25 
1896-00  .    .    .    .  i        15      1        23 
1901-05  .   .   .    .  !        13      1        25 
1906-10  ....           8              22 

1911 1          7              22 

1912 8      1        21 

1913 10      I        21 

43 

18 

13 

5 

t 

2 

1 

_ 

4 
4 
3 

1 

328 
287 
275 
239 

199 
201 
202 

410 
34S 
32!) 
275 

232 
233 
235 

labour  on  the  part  of  the  workmeii:  an  increased  output  was  thus  thereby 
obtained,  while  a  saving  of  iron,  charcoal  and  labour  was  effected. 

Export  of  Wrouglit  Iron.  See  the  Table  57.  It  may  be  said, 
that  by  far  the  greater  part  of  the  wrought  iron  produced  is  exported 
in  the  form  of  "bar  iron"  (stdngjdrn)  or  "rough  bars"  (rdskenor),  but 
also  to  some  extent  in  the  shape  of  blooms  (smnltstychen). 

Import  of  Wrought  Iron.  There  is  no  import  of  wrought  iron  into 
Sweden. 

The  chief  Processes  used  in  the  Manufacturing  of  Wrought  Iron. 
A  brief  account  of  these  processes  is  furnished  below. 

The  most  ancient  known  method  of  preparing  malleable  iron  (wrought  iron) 
in  hearths  from  pig  iron  was  that  known  as  tyshsmide,  or  "German  forging" 
which  was  introduced  into  Sweden  at  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

This  kind  of  forging  was  performed  in  an  open  hearth  composed  of  coarse 
cast-iron  slabs,  in  which  the  pig  iron  was  melted  down  with  charcoal.  After 
the  smelting  it  was  broken  up  from  the  bottom  of  the  hearth  with  heavy  iron 
bars  in  order  to  be  remelted,  and  this  operation  was  sometimes  repeatedly  per- 
formed. The  silicon  and  carbon  in  the  pig-iron  was  oxidized  in  the  smelting, 
and  a  lump  (smdlta)  ai  soft  slaggy  iron  was  obtained.  The  latter  was  belaboured 
with  a  heavy  hammer,  and  afterwards  cut  up  into  smaller  pieces,  called  smdlt- 
stycTcen  or  "blooms". 

In  a  "German  hearth"  (tyskhdrd)  2  to  3  tons  of  bar  iron  were  produced  per 
week  with  a  consumption  of  more  than  200  hectoliters  of  charcoal  per  ton.  The 
waste  was  1&  °/„. 

The    method    was    gradually  improved. 

An  improved  process  was  introduced  in  1740  from  France  under  the  name  of 
Wallonsmide  or  Walloon  forging  into  the  Dannemora  mining  district,  where  it  is  still 


Table  57. 


Export  of  Wrought  Iron. 


Annually 

Blooms  and 

rough  bars 

tons 

Bar  iron 
tons 

Annually 

Blooms  and 

rough  bars 

tons 

Bar  iron 
tons 

1891-95    .   .   . 
1896-00    .   .   . 
1901-05    .    .    . 
1906-10    .    .    . 

11616 
21  4.53 
21740 
26  380 

168  563 
166  626 
172  680 
143  780 

1911 

1912 

1913 

27  600 

35  500 
39  500 

129  200 
131  200 
129  400 

288 


VI.      MINING   AND    METALLURGICAL   INDUSTRY. 


practised.  The  Walloon  hearth  is,  like  the  German  hearth,  open,  but  conside- 
rably smaller. 

In  this  process  is  employed  pig  iron  made  with  cold-blast;  the  pig-iron  is 
cast  in  sand  in  pigs,  called  "gosar",  having  a  semicircular  cross-section,  and  these 
pigs  are  about  5  meters  long,  and  have  a  weight  of  from  800  to  1  000  kilo- 
grams. The  pigs  are  pushed  from  behind  into  the  hearth,  up  to  the  tuyere 
and  are  there  covered  with  charcoal.  After  the  smelting,  the  metal  is  broken 
up  in  the  usual  manner.  The  small  lumps  are  cut  up  into  blooms,  which  are 
welded  and  then  hammered  out  under  a  hammer. 

In  this  process  the  phosphorus  and  sulphur  contained  in  the  iron  is  removed 
to  a  remarkable  extent. 


O.  Ekman. 


Walloon  iron  is  used  only  for  the  preparation  of  blister  steel,  which  is  then 
smelted  in  crucibles  (crucible  steel). 

The  consumption  of  fuel  is  about  150  hectoliters  of  charcoal  per  ton  of  bar 
iron.  About  1'5  tons  of  bar  iron  a  day  is  the  output  per  hearth,  the  waste 
{avhranning)  being  about  25  ^.     This  iron  is  therefore  very  expensive  to  make. 

The  Lancashire  Process.  In  the  twenties  of  the  nineteenth  century  a  very 
important  improvement  was  made  in  the  construction  of  the  forging  hearths.  In 
lieu  of  the  open  hearth  hitherto  in  use,  the  actual  smelting-chamber  was  sur- 
rounded with  cast-iron  slabs,  and  furnished  with  a  firebrick  arch  as  a  roof,  so 
that  the  hearth  was  closed,  and  provided  with  only  one  working  opening.  The 
bottom  of  the  hearth  was  kept  cooled  by  a  tank  of  water  placed  under  it,  and 


THE   MANUFACTURE   OF   WROUGHT   IRON. 


289 


finally  there  was  arranged  behind  the  hearth  a  heating  chamber  for  the  pig 
iron.  The  latter  was  in  that  chamber  preheated  to  redness  with  the  combustion 
gases  proceeding  from  the  hearth,  before  it  was  pushed  down  into  the  hearth  to 
be  smelted. 

These    arrangements    effected    a    great    saving   in  fuel  and  time  as  compared 
with  the  German  and  the  Walloon  processes. 


Lancashire  Hearth. 


In  Sweden  the  new  forging  process  particularly  attracted  the  attention  of 
G.  Ekman.  He  undertook  several  journeys  to  England  in  order  to  study  it,  he 
called  in  English  smiths,  and  made  experiments,  first  at  the  Soderfors  Works 
in  1831,  and  then  on  a  larger  scale  at  the  Liljendahl  Works  in  1836.  From 
this  time  this  process,  which  was  designated  lancashiresmide,  and  which  has 
played,  and  still  plays,  an  important  part  in  the  Swedish  iron  industry,  may  be 
considered  to  have  got  itself  established  in  Sweden. 

The  accompanying  figure  shows  the  look  of  a  Lancashire  hearth  with  2 
tuyeres. 

The  hearth  has  sometimes  one,  more  rarely  three,  frequently  two  tuyeres, 
placed    opposite    one  another,  on  either  side  of  the  hearth.     The  blast  pressure 

i^— 133179.  Sweden.  II. 


290 


VI.      MINING   AND   METALLURGICAL   INDUSTRY. 


is  from  90  to  120  millimeters  of  mercury.  Nowadays  hot-blast  is  always  used: 
it  is  obtained  from  a  small  hot-blast  stove,  which  lies  in  the  path  of  the  esca' 
ping  gases. 

The  main  features  of  the  Lancashire  process  are  as  follows: 
Each  charge  consists  of  from  140  to  150  kilograms  of  iron  in  flat  pigs,  pre- 
viously heated  in  the  heating  chamber.  These  pigs  are  raked  down  into  the 
hearth,  which  is  filled  with  charcoal  to  a  level  slightly  above  that  of  the 
tuyeres,  whereupon  they  are  covered  over  with  charcoal,  the  blast  is  tur- 
ned on  and  the  smelting  begins.  As  the  charcoal  bums  away,  fresh  coal  is 
thrown  on.  From  .time  to  time  a  little  water  is  sprinkled  on  the  coals  with  a 
dipper,  in  order  to  relieve  the  workman  from  the  intense  heat,  and  also  to 
prevent  the  carbonic  oxide  from  burning  away  befqre  it  enters  the  heating 
chamber.  The  charcoal  employed  has  previously  been  washed  free  from  sand 
and  earth;  this  obviously  renders  the  charcoal  moist,  but  is  actually  an  advan- 
tage for  the  process. 


^^^^^BB^^^^I^^^^^^HHj^^^^H^^^ 

1 

Shingling  Hammer. 


When  all  the  iron  has  been  smelted  and  collected  on  a  bedding  of  hearth 
slag  previously  spread  on  the  bottom  of  the  hearth,  the  breaking-up  process 
begins.  This  work  is  performed  in  the  manner  indicated  with  respect  to  the 
German  process  —  though  nowadays  as  a  rule  with  the  aid  of  the  Lagerwall 
machine  —  and  goes  on  until  the  carbon,  manganese,  and  silicon  contained  m 
the  pig-iron  have  been  reduced  to  a  minimum,  and  lumps  of  soft  iron  called 
fdrskor  have  thus  been  obtained.  These  are  finally  melted  and  welded  to- 
gether into  a  larger  ball  called  smdlta  which  is  removed  from  the  hearth, 
and  under  the  blows  of  a  largish  hammer  called  smdlthammare  or  mumblings- 
hammare  ("shingling  hammer")  is  first  pounded  out  and  then  divided  into  smal- 


THE   MANUFACTURE   OF   STEEL. 


29 


ler  pieces.  The  latter  are  sometimes  immediately  rolled  out  into  bars,  which 
are  then  termed  rdstdnger  or  rough-bars.  But,  if  a  superior,  more  slagless  iron  is 
to  be  made,  they  will  have  to  be  heated  anew  (welded)  in  hearths  or  heating  fur- 
naces and  are  thereupon  either  hammered  into  bar  iron  imder  a  smallish  ham- 
mer (termed  rdckhammare  or  extending  hammer),  or  rolled  under  rollers. 

Pig  iron  to  be  suitable  for  Lancashire  forging  should  be  white  or  mottled 
and  contain:  0'2  to  0"3  %  of  silicon,  0*2  to  O's  %  of  manganese,  O'oos  to  O'oio  % 
of  sulphur,  0'05  to  O'O?  %  of  phosphorus,  and  4  to  4'26  %  of  carbon. 

The  usual  consumption  per  ton  of  blooms  is  from  25  to  35  hectoliters  of 
charcoal  and  from  1  100  to  1  150  kilograms  of  pig  iron.  The  output  per  hearth 
with  two  tuyeres  a  week  is  as  a  rule  15  or  16  tons  of  blooms. 


The  Manufacture  of  Blister  Steel. 

Manufacture  of  blister  steel  during  the  period  from  1891  to  1913.     See 


Table  58. 
Table  58. 


Oiitput 

of  Blister  Steel 

in  Siveden. 

Annually 

Tons 

Annually 

Tons 

1891- 
1&9B- 
1901- 
1906- 

-96 

-00 

-05 

797 
920 
795 
410 

1911. 
1912. 
1913  . 

436 
425 
196 

-10 

1 

The  output,  as  will  be  seen,  is  very  small  and  has  been  steadily 
declining.  In  1913  there  were  3  cementation  furnaces  in  use  (2  at  Osterby, 
1  at  Svana) . 

Blister  steel  is  used  chiefly  as  a  raw  material  in  the  manufacture  of 
crucible  steel. 


The  Manufacture  of  Steel. 

By  steel  in  contradistinction  from  wrought  iron  is  signified  steel  and 
malleable  iron  which  when  produced  is  obtained  in  a  molten  condition. 

The  preparation  of  ingot  iron  (steel)  is  carried  out  in  different  manners : 
in  Bessemer  converters,  in  Siemens-Martin  furnaces,  in  crucibles,  and  in 
electric  furnaces. 

In  Sweden  the  Bessemer  process  was  first  used  in  1858,  the  Uchatii 
method  of  crucible  smelting  in  1860,  the  Siemens-Martin  process  in  1868, 
crucible  smelting  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  the  term  in  1871  and  electric 
steel  smelting  in  1900. 

The  Bessemer  Process.  Although  this  process  bears  the  name  of  its 
inventor,  Henry  Bessemer,  an  Englishman,  it  may  be  said  to  be  the 
fruit  of  Swedish  work.  It  was  in  Sweden  and  by  Swedes  that  it  was 
elaborated  and  rendered  practicable,  and  therefore  the  history  of  this 
process  will  always  be  of  very  special  interest  to  Sweden. 


292  VI.      MINING   AND    METALLURGICAL   INDUSTRY. 

The  leading  idea  of  the  Bessemer  process  is  for  the  fining  of;  the 
pig  iron  to  use  only  (1)  the  heat  residing  within  the  metal  itself  when 
in  a  molten  state  (2)  the  heat  generated  when  the  blast  sent  through 
the  molten  pig  iron  burns  away  the  bodies  (carbon,  manganese,  silicon,, 
phosphorus),  which  it  is  the  object  of  the  fining  entirely  or  partially 
to  remove. 


G.  F.  Oorans.ion. 


In  1855  and  1856  Bessemer  had  achieved  such  small  success  in  carrying 
his  process  into  effect,  that  in  England  its  prospects  were  regarded  as 
practically  nil.  No  better  success  attended  the  experiments  made;-!at 
Dormsjo  in  1857  under  the  superintendence  of  a  Swedish  engineetj  John 
Leffler,  and  at  the  instigation  of  the  proprietor  of  the  works,  Pontus 
Kleman.  Despite  all  this,  Bessemer's  patent  was  bought  m  Sweden  by 
Consul  G.  F.  Ooransson,  who  embarked  on  his  experiments  in  November 
of  that  year,  at  Edsken,  with  the  assistance  of  the  engineers  C.  Lundvih 
and  C.  P.  Lindberg.  '% 

At  Edsken  was  employed,  to  begin  with,  the  same  furnace  that  hap. 
been  used. at  Dormsjo;  but  afterwards  a  new  Bessemer  furnace  was  construc- 
ted, likewise  after  Bessemer's  designs.  This  furnace  was  a  perpendicular 
stationary  furnace  with  two  rows  of  tuyeres  placed  round  the  furnace  near 
the  bottom.  The  results,  however,  were  far  from  encouraging:  the  steel, 
as  a  rule,  flowed  sluggishly,  and  could  be  only  partially  tapped  from 
the  furnace  or  ladle.     Goransson  accordingly  had  the  furnace  altered  with 


THE   MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 


293 


the  abject  of  increasing  the  area  of  the  tuyeres,  and  thus  the  amount 
of  the  hlast  per  unit  of  time.  In  the  furnace  thus  improved  (see  the 
Figure,  next  side)  was  carried  out  on  the  18th  July  1858  the  first 
completely  successful  Bessemer  steel  blowing.  The  problem  was  solved. 
One  now  obtained  an  easily  flowing  steel,  easily  tapped,  which  exhibited 
excellent  qualities  when  subjected  to  the  test  forging.  The  successful  issue 
of  the  experiments  revived  people's  faith  in  the  Bessemer  process.  It 
was  carried  on  at  Edsken  until  March  1866,  when  these  works  were 
shut  down.  In  the  meantime  the  Hogbo  Company  had  been  constituted 
with  Goransson  as  its  manager,  and  in  1862  and  the  year  following 
this  Company  built  a  new  iron  work,  Sandviken,  with  a  Bessemer  plant. 
It  was  here  that  the  first  Swedish  tilt  furnaces  or  converters  were  erected, 
and  the  blowings  were  superintended  by  the  engineers,  C.  Lundvik  and 
0.  Kollberg.  The  latter  subjected  the  process'  to  a  thorough  scientific 
analysis,  and  ascertained  the  conditions  under  which  it  could  be  most 
effectively   carried    out. 

Once  elaborated  at  Edsken,  the  process  was  introduced  into  several 
other  Swedish  iron  works.  It  was  deemed  particularly  well  adapted  for 
Sweden,  with  her  pure  ores  and  her  abundance  of  water  power  for 
driving  the  blowing  engines.     At  first  stationarj^   furnaces  were  every- 


Edsken.     The  first  Bessemer  Works  in  the  World  (1838). 
(The  little  vignette  in  the  right  hand  corner  shows  the  present  aspect  of  Edsken). 


—    y  f  "--f  t^  -v  -^   ■ 


294 


VI.      MININS    AND    METALLURGICAL   INDUSTRY. 


Bessemer  Furnace  at  Edsken,  1858. 

where  constructed.  However,  this  impeded  the  development  of  the  process: 
the  stationary  furnaces  proved  very  awkward  to  handle  and  had  a 
number  of  other  defects,  The  result  was  that  several  Bessemer  works 
which  had  already  been  constructed  were  abandoned,  partly  at  any  rate 
for  these  reasons.  At  Sandviken,  on  the  other  hand,  .the  work  went 
steadily  forward.     Arrangements  were  made  there  for  working  up  the 


Table  59. 

Output  of  Bessemer  Steel  in  Sweden. 

Annually 

Acid 
tons 

Basic 
tons 

Total 
tons 

Annually 

Acid 
tons 

Basic 

tons 

Total 
tons 

1861-65  .   .   . 
1866—70  .    .    . 
1871-75  .   .   . 
1876—80  .    .    . 
1881-85   .    .    . 
1886—90  .   .   . 
1891-95  .   .   . 

2  292 

3  666 
14  665 
21975 
47  976 
73102 
79  822 

8  267 

2292 
3666 
14665 
21975 
47  976 
73102 
880S9 

1896-00  .   .   . 
1901-05  .   .   . 
1906-10  .   .   . 

1911 

1912 

1913 

74  235 
47  295 
38730 

41116 
43  317 
45  069 

27168 
33156 
42  001 

52737 
68  937 

70  770 

101403 
80451 
80731 

93853 
107254 
115839 

THE   MANUFACTURE   Ot   STEEL. 


295 


Steam  Hammer,  Sandviken. 


steel  ingots  into  finished  articles  in  various  forms,  instead  of  exporting 
them  as  ingots,  which  was  hecoming  less  and  less  remunerative  the  more 
Bessemer  metal  was  made  abroad. 

By  and  by  other  works  followed  the  example  set  by  Sandviken;  at 
present  the  Bessemer  process  is  carried  on  at  the  following  Swedish 
works:  Bangbro,  Domnarvet,  Forsbacka,  Hagfors,  Hofors,  Iggesund, 
Langshyttan,  Nykroppa  and  Sandviken,  in  the  two  first-named  also  in 
the  form  of  "basic  Bessemer".  The  situation  of  these  works  is  shown  by 
the  accompanying  map. 


296 


VI.      MINING    AND   METALLURGICAL   INDUSTRY. 


The  great  importance  the  Bessemer  process  has  assumed  for  the  Swedish 
iron  industry  will  be  gathered  from  the  figures  showing  the  output  of 
Bessemer  metal  given  in  the  Table  59  and  in  the  diagrams  further 
down. 

Excepting  1913  the  maximum  output  was  reached  in  1896.  During  the 
following  years  the  acid  process  declined,  but  in  quite  recent  times  a  fresh 
advance  is  noticeable.     The  basic  process  has  gone  steadily  ahead. 

The  reason  of  the  decline  of  the  acid  process  is  the  competition  of 
open  hearth  steel,  which  is  cheaper  to  produce.  Owing  to  the  larger  con- 
sumption of  charcoal  for  acid  Bessemer  pig  iron,  this  kind  of  pig  iron 
has  suffered  even  more  than  others  from  the  rising  prices  for  charcoal; 
the  result  has  been  that  the  manufacture  thereof  has  had  to  be  restricted 
or,  in  some  cases,  to  be  stopped  altogether.  The  advance  in  1910  to  1913 
seems  to  be  mainly  due  to  the  keen  demand  for  Swedish  iron  and  steel 
in  general,  but  as  regards  acid  Bessemer  steel. in  particular,  also  to. the 
fact,  that  a  number  of  purchasers  have  found  it  consonant  with  their 
advantage  to  use  this  quality  of  steel  in  face  of  its  higher  price. 

Output  of  Wrought  Iron,  Open  Hearth-  and  Bessemer  Steel  in  Sweden. 


wo 

350 
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250 
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Year  1891         95  95  97  99  01  03 

Wrought  Iron. 

Bessemer  Steel. 

Open  Heartli  Steel  (Siemens-Martin  Steel). 


09  11  191Z 


THE  MANUFACTURE   OF   STEEL. 


297 


Gen.SiaD.Lit/\nst.Stockholni 


298 


VI.      MINING-   AND    METALLURGICAL   INDUSTRY. 


Output  of  Acid  and  Basic  Open  Hearth  and  Bessemer  Steel  in  Sweden. 


1  000  tons. 


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Tear  1891 


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if  in  r  Open  Hearth  Steel  (Siemens-Martin  Steel). 


acid 
basic 


u 


Bessemer  Steel. 


The  Acid  Bessemer  Process.  In  the  acid  Bessenter- process,  as  carried  on  in 
Sweden,  is  employed  a  pig  iron  containing  from  2  to  3  ^  of  manganese  and 
from  0'8  to  I'l  %  of  silicon.  The  sulphur-content  is  about  O'oio  %  and  under, 
and  the  proportion  of  phosphorus  0'020  to  O'oao  %.  The  most  distinctive  feature 
of  the  acid  process  is  the  relatively  high  manganese-content  and  the  relatively 
low  silicon-content  and,  as  regards  the  actual  operation,  that  the  pig  iron 
is  taken  in  a  molten  condition  direct  from  the  blast  furnace  to  the  converter, 
thus  without  previous  remelting  in  a  cupola  furnace. 

Bessemer  pig  iron,  being  taken  direct  from  the  blast  furnace  to  the  converter, 
demands  particularly  great  care  in  the  making,  inasmuch  as  disturbances  in  the 
running  of  the  blast  furnace  directly  affect  the  composition  of  the  pig  iron  and 
its  temperature,  and  thus  indirectly  the  blowing  operation  and  the  quality  of 
the  steel. 

The  Basle  Bessemer  Process.  In  the  Swedish  acid  process  the  silicon  in  the 
pig  iron  is  the  real  generator  of  heat,  though  quite  a  respectable  additional 
amount  is  supplied  by  the  manganese.    In  the  basic  process,  on  the  other  hand, 


THE   MANUPACTaRE   OF   STEEL. 


299 


the  place  of  the  silicon  is  taken  by  the  phosphorus,  the  manganese  again  playing 
a  more  subordinate  role. 

The  honour  of  having  elaborated  a  Bessemer  process  for  phosphoriferous  pig 
iron  belongs  to  the  Englishmen,  Oilchrist  and  Thomas,  who  in  1878  had  suc- 
cess with  their  experiments  in  this  line.  The  method  is  in  fact  called,  after  the 
latter,  the  Thomas  process. 

The  basic  Bessemer  process  was  first  introduced  in  Sweden  at  Bangbro  on 
the  24  May  1880.  It  was  afterwards  worked  there  for  a  short  time  every  year 
up  to  1890  inclusive,  when  the  method  was  abandoned,  and  was  not  taken  up 
again  before  the  30  August  1906.  At  Domnarvet  it  was  employed  for  the 
first  time  in  1891. 

Swedish  pig  iron  for  the  basic  Bessemer  process  contains  about  2"5  %  of  phos- 
phorus, a  few  tenths  percentage  of  manganese,  and  a  couple  of  tenths  percentage 
of  silicon.  It  is  made  from  the  most  phosphoriferous  ores  of  the  Grangesberg 
mines,  the  fuel  being  charcoal,  or  coke,  or  a  mixture  of  both.  The  pig  iron  is 
taken  direct  from  the  blast  furnace  to  the  converter. 


Bessemer  Converter. 

The  bodies  first  given  off  in  the  process  are  silicon,  manganese  and  carbon, 
after  which  comes  the  phosphorus.  The  product  is  always  soft;  no  recarburizing 
occurs.  In  other  respects  the  process  is  the  ordinary  Thomas  process,  as  applied 
in  German  works,  and  Thomas  slag  (Thomas  phosphate)  is  obtained  as  a  by- 
product. 

The  basic  Bessemer  metal  made  in  Sweden  is  consumed  mainly  in  the  home 
country. 

The  waste  in  basic  Bessemer  is  from  14  to  15  %. 


The  Siemens-Martin  Process  (Open-hearth  Process).  This  process  has 
received  its  name  from  the  two  brothers  P.  and  E.  Martin,  who  in  1866 
succeeded  in  making  steel  in  a  flame  furnace  equipped  with  regenerators 
(Siemens  furnace)  at  their  little  works  at  Sireuil  in  France. 


300 


VI.      MESriNG   AND   METALLURGICAL   INDUSTRY. 


The  process  calls  for  a  very  high  temperature  in  the  furnace,  from 
1  500°  to  1  800°  Celcius,  according  to  the  carbon-content  in  the  product 
to  be  made  —  to  render  it  possible  to  tap  the  metal  from  the  furnace  in  a 
molten  state.  The  raw  materials  are  pig  iron,  steel-scrap  and  iron  ore 
in  varying  ratios.  By  the  action  of  the  oxidizing  furnace-gases,  and' 
secondarily  by  the  action  of  the  slags,  the  silicon,  manganese  and  carbon, 
and,  in  the  basic  method,  also  the  phosphorus  and  sulphur  are  more  or  less 
completely  removed  in  the  process. 


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Photo.  GEHnMAN,  Hedemora. 


Converter  at  Work  (Langshyttan.) 


The  open-hearth  method  immediately  attracted  attention  in  Sweden, 
and  L.  Rinman  went  to  Sireuil  in  order  to  study  it  on  the  spot.  On  Rin- 
man's  return  to  Sweden,  the  first  experiments  with  the  new  process  were 
started  under  his  superintendence,  and  with  the  financial  support  of 
Jernkontoret,  at  the  Munkfors  Iron  Works:  this  was  in  1868.  A  re- 
generative heating  furnace  which  already  existed  there  was  transformed 
into  an  open-hearth  furnace,  for  the  purpose  of  experiment.  In  the  follow- 
ing year  a  heating  furnace  at  Hellefors  in  Sodermanland  was  similarly 
revamped,  and  the  first  real  open-hearth  furnace  in  Sweden  was  con- 
structed at  the  Kilafors  "Works  in  Halsingland. 

However,  the  process  was  tardy  in  its  development.  The  few  works 
who  experimented  with  it  employed  small  furnaces  of  from  1  to  2  tons 


THE   MANUFACTURE   OF   STEEL. 


301 


with  open  regenerators.  The  fuel  used  was  producer  gas  made  from 
wood,  and  condensers  were  employed  to  rid  the  gas  of  its  water. 

It  was  not  till  the  eighties  that  the  process  began  to  win  general 
confidence.  Since  that  time,  as  will  be  seen  from  Table  60,  the  production 
of  open-hearth  steel  has  developed  steadily  and  at  a  rapid  rate.  The  greater 
cheapness  of  the  method,  the  greater  choice  with  regard  to  raw  materials, 
the  greater  certainty  with  which  the  carbon  content  of  the  final  product 
can  be  determined  and  the  superior  quality  of  the  product  for  certain  pur- 
poses explain  the  rapid  encroachment  of  the  open-hearth  steel  in  quarters, 
where  Lancashire  iron  and  Bessemer  steel  hitherto  practically  held  the 
field. 

The  output  of  open-hearth  steel  exceeds  the  output  of  Bessemer  steel 
from  the  year  1894  and  the  output  of  wrought  iron  from  1900. 

Concurrently  with  this  rapid  development,  the  furnaces  were  built  of 
larger  size  —  to  begin  with  for  from  5  to  10  tons,  now  for  12,  15, 
to  20  tons  and  upwards,  —  ore  began  to  be  used  for  the  refining,  the  re- 
generators were  made  larger  and  closed,  seperate  channels  and  ports  for 
gas  and  air  were  arranged  and  producer  gas  was  used  as  fuel. 

A  preceding  map  shows  the  situation  of  the  Siemens-Martin  fur- 
naces actually  running  in  1912. 


imM'/////',^;  '/,i// 


Open  Hearth  Furnace. 


7}/M/'/,/)//77!7/'' 


The  Acid  Open-hearth  Process.  The  acid  process,  like  the  acid  Bessemer 
process,  demands  a  raw  material  practically  free  from  phosphorus  and  sulphur, 
for  neither  of  these  bodies  are  removed  in  the  acid  furnace.  In  Sweden  both 
pig  iron  and  scrap  with  extremely  low  phosphorus  and  sulphur  contents  are 
used  for  the  acid  process. 

The  ratios  between  the  pig  iron  and  the  scrap  vary  considerably,  according 
to  the  supply  of  raw  material  and  the  purpose  for  which  the  product  is  intended. 
The  charge  may  be,  for  example,  73  ?^  of  pig  iron  -f-  7  J^  of  scrap  +  20  ^  of 
ore,  or,  at  the  opposite  extreme,   26  ?^  of  pig  iron  +  74  ^  of  scrap. 

Pig  iron  for  the  acid  open-hearth  process  contains  as  a  rule  from  O'so  to 
0-75  %  of  silicon.  The  finery  ore  should  contain  as  much  iron  as  possible.  Ore 
of  this  kind  often  contains  from  65  to  70  %  of  iron. 


302  VI.      MINING   AND    METALLURGICAL   INDUSTRY. 

Table  60.  Output  of  Siemens-Martin  Steel  in  Sweden. 


AnnnaUy 

1 

Acid 
tons 

Basic 
tons 

Total 
tons 

Annually 

Acid 
tons 

Basic 
tons 

Total 
tons 

1876-80  .   .   . 
1881—85  .   .   . 
1886-90  .   .   . 
1891-95  .   .   . 
1896-00  .   .   . 

3  498 

14077 

113  703 

57  418 

3498 

14077 

47  489 

83981 

171 121 

1901-05  .   .   . 
1906-10  .   .   . 

1911 

1912 

1913 

119  385 
137  417 
148  322 
160  418 
186  501 

113  463 

187  847 
224383 
243  700 

282  886 

232848 
325264 
372  705 
404118 
469387 

The  time  occupied  by  a  charge,  reckoning  from  tapping  to  tapping,  varies 
greatly  in  different  works;  usually  from  8  to  12  hours. 

The  consumption  per  ton  of  steel  is  from  350  to  450  kilograms  of  coal,  or 
about  40  to  50  hectoliters  of  wood  or  stumps. 

"Alloy  steels"  (legerat  stdl),  containing  e.  g.  nickel,  cliromium,  man- 
ganese, tungsten,  are  now  made  in  Sweden  for  certain  purposes  in  acid 
open-hearth  furnaces.  Moreover,  the  Swedish  manufacture  of  castings  of 
acid  open-hearth  steel  has  long  been  famed  for  its  superior  quality. 

The  Basic  Open-hearth  Process.  The  basic,  process  is  employed  in  Sweden 
chiefly  for  the  production  of  soft  material,  but  in  certain  places  also  for  the 
making  of  high-carbon  steel,  in  the  latter  case  from  pure  materials.  The  pro- 
cess was  in  Sweden  first  applied  at  the  Jader  Works  in  1889;  soon  afterwards 
it  was  adopted  on  a  larger  scale  at  Kallinge. 

The  advantage  of  this  process  is  that  one  can  use  more  phosphoriferous,  and 
thus  cheaper,  pig  iron  and  scrap  than  is  possible  in  the  acid  process,  and  that 
the  cost  of  production  is  lower  both  for  the  above  reasons  and  on  account  of 
the  shorter  time  taken  by  the  charges  (from  6  to  8  hours  between  the  tap- 
pings). 

Pig  iron  for  the  Swedish  basic  open-hearth  process  usually  contains  from  0'3 
to  0'5  %  of  silicon,  about  the  same  amount  of  manganese  and  not  more  than  0"i  % 
of  phosphorus. 
\ 

Crucible  Steel.  Crucible  steel  is  at  present  made  at  Osterby,  Vikmans- 
hyttan,  Soderfors,  and  Fagersta.  For  the  output  of  crucible  steel  see  the 
Table  61. 

Steel-making  in  Electric  Furnaces.  Since  the  beginning  of  the  present 
century  endeavours  have  been  made  in  Sweden  to  utilize  her  rich  supplies 
of  water  power  for  metallurgical  purposes;  the  aim  being  partly  to 
diminish  the  consumption  of  charcoal,  and  partly  to  render  oneself  less 
dependent  on  imported  fuel.     In  the  foregoing  pages  we  have  indicated, 


Table  61. 


Output  of  Crucible  Steel  in  Sweden. 


Annually 

Tons 

Annually 

Tons 

1891-95 

1896-00 

1901-05 

1906-10  ...... 

598 

931 

1153 

3  385 

1911 

1912  .   .   

19;3 

1325 
2  275 
2  656 

THE   MANUFACTURE   OF   STEEL.  303 

Table  62.      Output  of  Steel  in  Eleptric  Furnaces  in  Sweden. 


Tear 

Tons 

Year 

Tons 

Year 

Tons 

Year 

Tons 

1900  .  .  . 

14 

1904  .  .  . 

552 

1908  .  .  . 

967 

1912  .  .  . 

1285 

1901  .  .  . 

37 

1905  .  .  . 

995 

1909  .  .  . 

591 

1913  .  .  . 

2  276 

1902  .  .  . 

208 

1906  .  .  . 

935 

1910-  .  ,  . 

431 

1903  .  .  . 

639 

1907  .  .  . 

1116 

1911  .  .  . 

2  034 

what  measure  of  success  has  accrued  to  these  endeavours  with  respect  to 
the  reduction  of  iron  ore. 

The  development  in  Sweden  of  the  production  of  steel  in  Electric  Fur- 
naces is  shown  hy  the  subjoined  Table  62. 

The  pioneer  for  this  industry  in  Sweden  was  the  Swedish  engineer, 
F.  A.  Kjellin,  who  in  1900  started  at  G-ysinge  a  small  induction  furnace, 
constructed  by  himself.  This  little  furnace  was  replaced  in  the  same 
year  by  a  somewhat  larger  one  and  in  the  following  year  by  a  furnace 
taking  1  800  kilograms  and  intended  for  an  output  of  1  500  tons  of  steel 
per  annum.  It  is  still  running.  The  electric  power  available  for  this 
larger  furnace  is  175  kilowatts. 

The  raw  material  used  is  pig  iron  and  wrought  iron  in  varying  ratios, 
according  to  the  carbon  content  required  in  the  final  product.  A  little  carbon 
and  silicon  is  oxidized  in  the  smelting;  but  the  greater  the  percentage  of  pig 
iron  used  and  the,  more  rusty  the  material,  the  larger  is  the  amount  of  carbon 
and  silicon  oxidized.  Occasionally  the  process  is  carried  out  in  the  manner  of 
a  real  fining  process,  in  which  case  iron  ore  or  iron  ore  briquettes  are  used 
in  the  required  quantities.  The  process  is  then  very  similar  to  the  open  hearth 
process.  In  any  case  samples  are  taken,  and  a  forging  test  is  made  in  the  usual 
manner. 

The  smelting  takes  about  4 1/2  to  6  hours.  In  the  tapping  about  a  third 
of  the  steel  is  left  in  the  furnace,  in  order  to  serve  as  a  conductor  for  the 
current,  so  that  there  may  be  no  interruption  in  the  supply  of  heat.  About 
1  000  kilograms  of  steel  are  tapped  in  each  discharge.  The  output  is  thus  about 
4'5  to  5  tons  per  day  of  24  hours,  and  700  to  1  000  kUowatt-hours  are  consumed 
in  the  smelting  per  ton  of  steel. 


In  1903  was  installed  at  Kortfors  an  electric  steel  furnace  with  a 
capacity  of  three  tons;  it  is  of  the  type  constructed  by  the  Frenchman, 
P.  Heroult.  The  Heroult  furnace  is  an  "electrode  furnace",  that  is,  the 
electric  current  is  supplied  to  the  furnace  by  electrodes  of  coal  or  graphite. 
In  1909  a  similar  furnace  was  built  at  the  same  spot  for  charges  of  7 
tons. 

At  Ljungby  and  Heroult-furnace.  (charge  1  ton)  for  steel-castings  is 
now  being  built. 

Since  1910  an  electrode  furnace  of  the  Aktiebolaget  Elehtrometall  type 
has  been  run  at  Soderfors. 

In    1912    was   started   at    the    Hallstahammsr   Bolt    Factory    a   small 


VI.      MINING  AND   METALLUEQICAL  INDUSTRY. 


Induction  Furnace,  constructed  by  Kjellin. 

electrode  furnace    (charge   200  kilograms),   constructed  by  the   Swedish 
engineer  Ivar  Rennerfelt. 

At  the  present  moment  of  writing  (October  1914)  there  are  alltogether 
9  furnaces  of  this  type  installed  at  different  places  (Hallstahammar, 
Ljusne,  Svedala,  Soderhamn,  TroUhattan,  Virsbo)  in  Sweden,  the  capa- 
city^  ranging  between  200  and  1000  kilograms. 


THE   MANUFACTURE   Op   ALLOYS.  305 

At  Guldsmedshyttan  an  electric  furnace  of  about  the  same  type  as  the 
Eennerfelt-furnace  has  been  running  since  1913,  producing  steel  specially 
for  steel-castings. 


The  Manufacture  of  Alloys. 

The  electric  manufacture  of  certain  alloys  used  chiefly  in  the  iron 
industry  has  been  carried  on  in  Sweden  since  1904.  For  this  purpose 
electrode  furnaces  of  the  same  type  as  those  used  in  the  carbide  industry 
are  employed. 

The  places  wh^re  this  manufacture  exists  are  Domnarvet,  GuUspang, 
Kortfors,  Mansbo,  Sandsta  (near  Hagge),  TroUhattan  and  Vargon  (near 
Vanersborg).  At  present  (February  1913)  there  are  at  these  places  1,  6, 
2,   1,   1,  3,  6   furnaces  respectively  in  work. 

The  output  has  been  as  follows  (approximate  figures) : 

Year  Ferro-silicon      Manganese-silicon 

Tons  Tons 

1904 225  — 

1905 230  3 

1906 665  — 

1907 950  — 

1908 1077  25 

1909 2  524  — 

1910 4  570  186 

1911 4104  472 

1912 5  984    .  1028 

1913 9  863  1375 

At  Mansbo  since  1901  about  25  tons  of  15  per  cent  ferro-silicon  has  been 
yielded  per  year  as  a  by-product  in  the  manufacture  of  calcium  carbide. 

At  the  Sandsta  furnace,  which  was  started  in  the  middle  of  August  1912,  is 
manufactured  a  potashiferous  manure  (electro-potash),  in  which  ferro-silicon  is 
obtained  as  a  by-product. 

The  ferro-silicon  contains  from  12  to  96  %,  as  a  rule  about  50  Jo  of 
silicon,  and  the  manganese-silicon  contains  from  20  to  30  %  of  silicon 
and  70  down  to  50  %  of  manganese. 

The  manufacture  of  other  alloys,  such  as  manganese  iron  and  chrome 
iron  has  also  occurred  sporadically;  at  present  there  is  a  factory  at  work 
at  TroUhattan,  where  the  last-named  alloy  is  manufactured  in  electric 
furnaces.  In  1913  760  tons  of  chrome  iron  and  136  tons  of  silico-man- 
ganese-aluminium-iron  were  produced  in  Sweden. 

During  the  years  from  1885  to  1907  chrome-pig-iron  was  made  at 
Gothenburg  in  a  furnace  of  the  Wittenstrom  type  heated  with  masut. 


20—133179.  Sweden  II. 


306 


VI.      MINING    AND    METALLUR(3ICAL   INDUSTRY. 


3.    PRODUCTION    OF   OTHER    METALS. 

The  iron  industry  now  has  such  a  dominant  position  in  Sweden  that 
all  other  metals  are  comparatively  insignificant.  This  has  not  always  been 
the  case:  during  the  16th,  17th,  and  18th  centuries  silver,  and  still  more 
copper,  were  of  supreme  importance  for  the  industry  and  economy  of 
Sweden.  During  the  greater  part  of  the  17th  century  Sweden  was  by  far 
the  biggest  producer  of  copper  in  the  world.  The  maximum  output  was 
reached  in  1655,  namely  3  453  tons:  a  quantity  then  sufficient  to  cover 
the  whole  world's  consumption  of  copper.  Ever  since  the  18th  century 
the  Swedish  mining  industry,  setting  aside  iron,  has,  on  the  whole,  been 
steadily  declining:  this  will  be  realized  very  clearly,  if  we  compare  it 
with  the  world's  production  of  these  other  metals.  In  recent  years, 
however,  a  noticeable  improvement  has  taken  place,  mainly  due  to  the 
invention  of  electro-metallurgical  processes  for  the  manufacture  of  certain 
metals.  Whether  Sweden's  metal  industry  shall  one  day  recover  its 
ascendant  position,  will  depend  very  much  on  these  electro-metallurgical 
processes:  whether  those  processes  shall  be  developed  to  such  perfection, 
that  they  can  advantageously  replace  the  smelting  processes  hitherto  in 
use.  If  this  is  to  be,  Sweden  has,  owing  to  her  abundant  supply  of 
comparatively  cheap  water-power,  very  fair  prospects  for  setting  on  foot 
a  metal  manufacture  on  a  big  scale:  and  this,  even  if  the  necessary  raw 
materials  should  not  be  found  within  the  country  in  sufficiently  large 
quantities,  and  it  is  necessary,  to  some  extent,  to  resort  to  import.  The 
first  step  in  this  direction  has  been  taken  by  the  erection  five  years  ago 

Table    63.     Manufacture    of   certain    Other   Metals   and  Metal  Products 

than  Iron. 


Annually 


Gold 
kg 


Silver 
kg 


Lead 
tons 


Copper 
tons 


Copper 
vitriol 


Zinc 
tons 


1861-65 
1866—70 
1871-75 
1876—80 
1881—85 
1886—90 
1891-95 
1896—00 
1901-05 
1906—10 

1911  .    . 

1912  .    . 

1913  .    . 


15 

1129 

444 

8 

1185 

395 

5 

780 

53 

6 

1117 

72 

25 

1713 

269 

78 

4  254 

274 

94 

3  478 

636 

110 

2110 

1519 

65 

1086 

735 

17 

608 

473 

11 

1289 

1134 

31 

962 

1073  , 

25 

1037 

1  235  ■- ! 

1731 

2  003 

1162 

925 

771 

835 

480 

217 

600 

2  216 


31 

95 

137 

175 

304 

754 

1308 

1185 

545 


3  218 

320 

3  9.07 

870 

4  215 

428 

106 


2123 
3  228 
2115 


PRODUCTION    OP    OTHER   METALS. 


307 


Table    64.     Imports    and   Exports   of  certain  other   unmanufactured    or 
partly  unmanufactured  Metals  than  Iron. 


1 

Total 

Gold    1          Silver 

Lead 

Coppe  r 

Zinc 

import    1 
balance  of 

kg                     kg 

tons 

tons 

meials 

other  than 

Import     Import  | 

Export 

Import 

Export 

iron 

Import 

Export 

Import      Export 

Million 
isronor 

1861-65  . 

56'    5  007  1 

10 

151 

155 

196 

1487 

365'          5 

1866-70  . 

113:    8  407i 

3  088 

152 

297 

268 

1804 

298 ;        21 

1871-75  . 

1639!    9  964 

6  054 

481 

137 

577 

910 

658 1        18 

3-2 

1876-80  . 

1492:    1002 

1729 

593 

79 

768 

694 

959 '        57 

1881-85  . 

659 1      426 

1 

645 

253 

1084 

755 

1  664          21 

2-6 

1886-90  . 

985 

876  i 

168 

910 

187 

1233 

662 

1  765 1        52 

4-6 

1891-95  . 

386 

2  659; 

2  849 

1515 

709 

3  281 

537 

1  952  1        86 

i-h 

1896-00  . 

1849 

12  779 

HS,s 

2  055 

1046 

5  021 

1155 

2  708        162 

11-5 

1901-05  . 

564 

9  553 

180 

2  863 

575 

6  453 

1733 

3  387 

228 

13-1 

1906-10  . 

623 

16  760 

325 

3106 

480 

8  585 

2  446 

5  108 

862 

17-2 

1911  .    .    . 

366 

11230 

10901 

2146 

1177 

5  497 

575 

5  916 

2168 

190 

1912  .   .    . 

320 

16  833 

2  021 

2  309 

995 

6  807 

1586 

6  912 

3135 

16-0     1 

1913  .   .   . 

2104 

20  550  : 

4  299  1 

2  676 

726 

9  560 

1401 

6  018 

6  531 

17  7      ' 

of  an  establishment  for  the  manufactiare  of  zinc  by  electricit:\-  (see  Electro- 
chemical Industry). 

Table  63  furnishes  a  bird's  eye  view  of  the  annual  output  in  Sweden 
of  gold,  silver,  lead,  copper,  and  zinc  since  1861.  In  Table  64  is  given 
the  yearly  import  and  export  of  these  metals  during  that  period,  and 
also  the  value  of  the  total  balance  of  import  for  all  metals  except  iron. 
It  will  be  apparent  from  the  Table  that  this  balance  is  rapidly  increasing, 
notwithstanding  that  the  output  of  metal  has  considerably  augmented 
during  the  last  few  years. 

Table  6.5  displays  the  annual  mining  of  other  ores  than  iron  ore  since 
1871. 


Table  65. 


Mining  of  Other  Ores  than  Iron  Ores. 


Silver  and 

Copper 

Nickel 

Manganese 

Iron 

Annually 

lead  ore 

ore 

ore 

ore 

pyrites 

tons 

tons 

tons 

tons 

tons 

ton= 

1871—75    .... 

10  949 

44  274 

5  026 

30  539 

488 

2123 

1876-80    .... 

11  002 

28  055 

2  802 

40  712 

718 

1144 

1881-85    .... 

14  045 

25  276 

1289 

45  779 

3  426 

1481 

1886-90    .    .    .    . 

14  754 

20  266 

495 

53  402 

8  977 

1319 

1891-95    .... 

,  j     16  552 

23  941 

97 

48  315 

6  090 

853 

1896-00    .... 

.  i       8  644 

23  590 

— 

57  701 

2  487 

448 

1901-05    .... 

.1       9  424 

33  306 

— 

54  972 

2  331 

6103     1 

1906-10    .... 

2  081 

15  217 

47  345 

4  519 

22  012 

1911 

.1       2  999 

1623 



51242 

5  377 

30  096 

1912 

2  877 

3  059 



50  036 

5101 

31835 

1913 

3  222 

5  458 

— 

50  752 

4  001 

34  319 

308 


VI.      MINING    AND    MBTALLUBSICAL   INDUSTRY. 


At  the  present  time  Sweden  produces,  except  iron,  no  other  metals  but 
copper,  gold,  silver,  lead,  and  zinc. 

Copper.  The  amount  of  copper  ore  at  present  mined  in  Sweden  is  very  small 
as  is  manifest  from  Table  65,  and  the  ore,  which  is  obtained  almost  exclusively 
from  the  Falun  Mine,  is  not  worked  into  metallic  copper,  but  into  copper  vitriol. 
On  the  other  hand,  metallic  copper  has  since  1886  been  manufactured  from 
imported  copper  ore  (cupriferous  pyrites  with  about  Z  %  oi  copper),  mainly 
from  Norway. 


The  Falun  Copper  Mine. 


In  former  times  the  copper  industry  in  Sweden  was  carried  on  in  a  large 
number  of  small  works,  mostly  situated  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  mines; 
these  small  works  were  in  the  course  of  time  amalgamated  into  a  few  large  ones, 
but  this  was  not  till  the  eighties  of  the  last  century.  They  were  shut  down 
one  after  the  other,  particularly  in  the  seventies,  copper  having  then  greatly 
fallen  in  price.  Thus,  in  the  middle  of  the  eighties  only  three  copper  works  were 
being  run,  namely  those  at  Falun,  Atvidaberg,  and  Kaveltorp :  the  two  latter  have 
now  likewise  been  shut  down.  On  the  other  hand,  works  have  been  established 
since  the  eighties  at  Halsingborg,  Naverberg,  Nautaunen,  and  Garpenberg:  at 
present  only  the  first-named  of  these  is  being  run. 

The  Falun  Copper  Worhs.  The  Falun  Mine  is  certainly  the  oldest  copper  mine 
in  Sweden.  It  began  to  be  worked  in  the  13th  century  at  latest,  and  since 
that  time  it  has  been  run  almost  continuously  right  down  to  the  present  day. 
It  is  true  that  the  output  of  copper  ore  is  now  very  slight:  on  the  other  hand, 
iron  pyrites  is  mined  there  pretty  extensively.  This  mine,  which  during  the 
whole  of  the  seventeenth  century  was  by  far  the  most  important  copper  mine 
in  the  world,  is  computed  to  have  yielded  in  the  course  of  its  long  existence 
from  35  to  4-0  millions  tons  of  ore,  out  of  which  have  been  extracted  about 
TjOO  000  tons  of  copper,  representing  a  value  of  about  a  milliard  of  kroner.   The 


PRODUCTION    OF   OTHER    METALS.  309 

ore  consists  of  copper  pyrites,  mixed  either  with  iron  pyrites  (soft  ore),  or 
with  quartz  (hard  ore),  and  contains  about  2  to  3  %  of  copper.  In  the  seventies 
of  the  last  centuiy  gold  was  also  discovered  in  the  ore,  and  afterwards  extracted. 
From  the  earliest  times  right  down  to  the  beginning  of  the  seventies  of  the 
last  century,  copper  was  smelted  in  shaft  furnaces  by  the  so-called  Swedo-German 
process.  Afterwards,  owing  to  the  higher  price  of  fuel  and  the  diminishing 
amount  of  copper  in  the  ore,  the  Henderson  lextraction  process  was  introduced, 
and  in  1904  the  smelting  process  has  again  been  reverted  to. 

Since  1894  all  the  ore  mined  is  worked  up  into  vitriol,  and  no  commercial 
copper  has  been  manufactured. 

The  Hdlsingborg  Copper  Worlcs.  The  Halsingborg  Sulphuric  Acid  and  Super- 
phosphate Factory  began  in  the  eighties  to  work  up  into  copper  the  burnt  pyrites 
obtained  in  the  manufacture  of  sulphuric  acid.  In  1902  was  erected  a  separate 
copper  works  in  the  vicinity  of  Halsingborg,  and  now  more  than  85  000  tons 
of  burnt  pyrites  are  being  annually  worked  up  into  copper  (from  the  Sulitelma 
mines). 

Copper  is  obtained  from  those  burnt  pyrites  as  "blister  copper"  by  the  Hen- 
derson wet  extraction  process  and  is  refined  to  "best  selected"  quality. 

The  output  of  the  works  for  1913  amounted  to:  4  215  tons  of  refined  cop- 
per obtained  from  blister  and  crude  copper  from  the  locality,  1  206  tons  of  refined 
copper  obtained  from  crude  copper  from  Sulitelma,  and  64  345  tons  of  briquettes, 
representing  altogether  a  value  of  more  than  6  million  kroner.  The  number  of 
hands  is  about  350. 

Although  the  output  of  copper  in  Sweden  has  increased  considerably  during 
the  last  few  years,  it  is  far  from  being  able  to  cope  with  the  demand,  as  will 
be    apparent    from    Table  64. 

Silver  and  Lead.  The  production  of  silver  and  lead  is  now  of  comparatively 
slight  importance.  In  1911,  when  the  output  was  far  larger  than  in  the  years 
immediately  preceding,  only  1  289  kilograms  of  silver,  and  1  134  tons  of  lead 
were  manufactured.  The  manufacture  of  lead  has  never  been  of  any  conse- 
quence in  Sweden,  and  lead  has  mostly  been  obtained  as  a  by-product  in  the 
manufacture  of  silver.  The  latter,  however,  was  in  former  times,  that  is,  during 
the  15th,   16th,  and  17th  centuries,  of  great  economical  importance  for  Sweden. 

Silver  is  now  produced  only  at  the  Sala  Silver  Works,  and  in  very  small 
quantities  as  a  by-product  at  the  Halsingborg  and  the  Falun  Copper  Works. 
Lead  is  obtained  at  Sala,  and  also  at  the  Trollhattan  Zinc  Works  as  a  by-pro- 
duct in  the  smelting  of  plumbiferous  zinc  ore.  Two  smaller  lead  works  —  at 
Kallmora  and  Kaveltorp  —  have  been  abandoned  since  the  beginning  of  the  nineties. 

The  Sala  Silver  Mines.  In  the  14th  and  15th  centuries  Sweden's  require- 
ments of  silver  were  supplied  from  the  Ostra  and  Vastra  Silvberget  Mines;  in 
the  16th  century  this  role  was  assumed  by  the  Sala  Silver  Mine,  which  since 
that  time  has  been  the  only  silver  mine  of  any  importance  in  the  country. 
Its  history  dates  back  to  the  end  of  the  15th  century,  but  it  cannot  be  deter- 
mined with  certainty  whether  any  mining  of  silver  had  taken  place  there  prior 
to  that  time.  The  Sala  Mine  has  for  centuries  been  endowed  by  the  State 
with  privileges:  grants  of  land  and  forests,  and  licenses  to  obtain  timber  and 
charcoal  from  the  neighbouring  parishes.  In  return  the  State  reserved  to  it- 
self the  right  to  manage  the  mines,  and  claimed  a  payment  in  kind  (avrad), 
consisting  of  10  ?^  of  the  silver  produced.  This  state  of  things  continued  till 
1890,  when  the  mine  and  the  works  were  purchased  by  a  private  company. 

The  output  of  silver  attained  its  maximum  during  the  reign  of  Gustavus  Vasa, 
when  it  was  about  3  000  kilograms  per  annum:  since  then.it  has  been  steadily 
declining.  This  decline  is  due  to  the  increasing  dearth  of  the  ore:  for  about 
ten  years  neither  silver  nor  lead  have  been   extracted  from  the  mine  itself.     The 


310 


VI.      MINING    AND    METyiLLURGICAL    INDUSTRY. 


ore  which  is  now  worked  is  obtained  from  the  old  heaps  of  gangue,  and  from 
other  mines  in  the  country.  The  ore  is  smelted  in  shaft  furnaces  for  lead 
from  which  the  silver  is  then  separated  by  zinc,  and  is  then  precipitated  by 
electrolysis. 

With  regard  to  the  production  of  silver,  Sweden  possesses  data  ranging  over 
a  longer  succession  of  time  than  any  other  country:  right  away  from  1400  down 
to  the  present  das^,  with  the  exception  of  two  short  periods.  The  output  during 
the  different  periods  was  as  follows. 


Year 

1400—93  . 
1506—43  . 
1544—51  . 
1560-00  . 
1601-00  . 


kg 
61591 
52  881 
22  718 
19  432 
60  728 


Year 
1701—00  , 
1801—20  . 
1821-30  , 
1831-40  . 
1841—45  . 


kg     1 

.    .  365081 

7  894 

5  621 

8  095 

4  749 

Year 
1846—50 
1851-55 
1856—60  , 
1861-00  , 
1901-10  , 


kg 

6  271 
6  329 
5  548 
79  014 
4  074 


Year 
1911  . 
1912. 
1913. 

kg 
.    1289 
.      962 
.    1037 

Total' 

384  786 

Adding  the  years  for  which  statements  are  lacking,  the  entire  output  of  silver 
for  the  last  five  centuries  is  computed  at  about  400  000  kilograms,  by  far  the 
greater  part  falling  to  the  Sala  Mine. 

Gold.  Gold  is  obtained  in  Sweden  only  from  the  Falxm  Copper  Mine,  and 
now  in  very  small  quantities.  Gold  was  not  discovered  in  the  ore  till  1881, 
although  it  had  been  ascertained  in  the  sixties  that  the  copper  obtained  from 
the  ore  was  auriferous.  Gold  occurs  in  well-formed  quartz  veins  together  with 
bismuth,  and  in  varying  quantities:  from  a  couple  of  grams  to  several  hundred 
grams  per  ton  of  ore. 

As  long  as  the  Henderson  extraction  process  was  used  for  the  working  of  the  ore, 
the  gold  was  released  by  treatment  with  chlorine  by  the  Plattner-Munktell  process. 
Now  that  the  smelting  process  has  been  reverted  to,  the  gold  is  obtained 
together  with  the  silver  in  the  refined  copper.  The  total  amount  of  gold  ob- 
tained from  the  Falun  Mine  aggregates  about  2  tons,  representing  a  value  of 
approximately  5  million  kronor. 

Besides  the  Falun  Mine,  there  has  existed  only  one  real  gold  mine  in  Sweden, 
namely  Adelfors.  This  mine,  which  was  discovered  in  1738,  was  worked  till 
1822,  but  on  a  very  small  scale,  and  with  very  poor  results. 

Nickel.  Nickel  was  formerly  produced  at  two  works  in  Sweden,  notably 
Kleva  and  Sagmyra.  When,  in  the  eighties  of  the  last  century,  the  biggest 
known  nickel  deposit  in  the  world  was  discovered  —  at  Sudbury  in  Canada  — 
and  the  price  of  nickel  sank  to  nearly  half,  these  two  works  had  to  be  shut 
down,  and  since  that  time  no  nickel  has  been  manufactured  in  Sweden.  Besides 
the  nickel  ores  at  Kleva  and  Sagmyra,  there  are  several  other  ore  deposits,  e.  g. 
at  Frustuna,  Haddbo,  Ruda.  The  ore  in  all  the  mines  consists  of  magnetic 
pyrites;  however,  the  supplies  are  in  most  cases  comparatively  insignificant,  and 
the  percentage  of  nickel  is  so  low,  that  prospects  for  a  remunerative  production 
of  nickel  are  almost  nil  with  the  metal  at  its  present  price. 

Zinc.  Sweden  possesses  pretty  considerable  supplies  of  zinc:  they  consist  ex- 
clusively of  zinc  blende.  In  1913  were  obtained  50  752  tons  of  ore,  making 
about  3  ^  of  the  world's  production,  and  representing  a  value  of  about 
2 100  000  kronor.  The  bulk  of  the  ore  mined  is  obtained  from  the  Amme- 
berg  mines,  belonging  to  the  Belgian  company  Vieille  Montague,  and  the  rest 
from  Ryllshyttefaltet,  Kaveltorpsfaltet,  Saxbergsfaltet,  Stollbergsgruvan,  and  the 
Dannemora  mines. 

Notwithstanding  the  rich  supplies  of  zinc  ore,  there  has  been  no  manufacture 
of    zinc    in    Sweden    in    recent  years.     The  chief  reason  is  that  the  usual,  and 


'  Data   are   lacking   for   the  periods  from  1494  to  1505  and  1552  to  1559. 
be  observed  ttat  the  periods  do  not  include  equal  number  of  years. 


It  is  also  to 


MEASURES   FOR    THE   PROMOTION    OF   MINING.  311 

until  latterly  the  sole  process  employed  for  the  manufacture  of  zinc  demanded 
a  great  consumption  of  fuel,  and  Sweden  is  deficient  in  cheap  fuel  for  this 
purpose.  Now,  however,  electric  smelting  furnaces  have  been  successfully  used 
for  the  manufacture  of  zinc:  in  these  furnaces  the  fuel  is  to  a  great  extent 
replaced  by  electric  energy.  This  process,  originally  proposed  by  the  swede  de 
Laval,  has  been  adopted  at  the  zinc  works  erected  ijxe  years  ago  at  TroUhat- 
tan,  the  only  zinc  works  that  now  exist  in  Sweden.  For  an  account  of  these 
works  the  reader  is   referred  to  the  section:  The  Electrochemical  Industry. 


4.    MEASURES   FOR   THE    PROMOTION    OF   MINING. 

Administration  of  Mining.  Matters  relating  to  Mining  were  formerly 
managed  by  the  Bergskollegium  or  Board  of  Mines,  instituted  in  1630.  In 
1858,  this  office  was  abolished  and  its  business  transferred  to  the  Kom- 
merskoUegium  or  Board  of  Trade  (until  1900  under  the  Home  Depart- 
ment, but  now  under  the  Finance  Department).  After  reorganization  in 
1891,  one  of  the  three  bureaus  into  which  the  Board  was  divided  was 
reserved  for  mining  matters  as  well  as  industry  in  general.  With  reference 
to  the  Office  of  Mine  Maps,  which  is  under  the  same  bureau,  see  p.  262 
Mining  statistics  since  1858  have  been  compiled  by  the  Board  of  Trade; 
the  statistical  methods  have  recently  been  reorganized,  and  yielded  results 
of  far  greater  value  and  reliabilitj'. 

•Jernkontoret  (Iron  Institute)  or  the  Society  of  Ironmasters  is  an  in- 
stitution peculiar  to  Sweden;  its  mission  is  to  give  financial  support  and 
encouragement  to  the  Swedish  iron  industry. 

The  actual  founder  of  the  "Jernkontoret"  was  A.  Nordencrantz.  The  Society 
founded  by  Royal  charter  of  the  29th  Dec.  1747,  commenced^  its  work  in  1748. 
At  first  it  was  under  the  supervision  by  the  Secret  Committee  of  the  Riksdag, 
but  since  1769,  it  has  possessed  complete  independence.  The  present  regula- 
tions date  from  the  26th  Jan.  1894,  with  minor  amendments  of  the  26th  July 
1901. 

Most  of  the  Swedish  Iron  works  are  part-owners  in  the  "Jernkontoret",  where 
they  have  a  vote;  they  pay  annual  contributions  to  the  funds,  amoimting  to 
about  0'69  kroner  per  ton  of  originally  registered  iron.  The  Board  consists  of  10 
members  of  which  5  form  an  executive  committee.  Each  member  is  appointed 
for  three  years  at  the  general  meeting  of  the  Society,  generally  known  as  the 
'^Jernkontorsrihsdagyy  or  "Iron  Parliament". 

The  main  object  of  the  "Jernkontoret"  is  to  assist  the  members  with  loans  on 
favourable  conditions.  Especially  during  the  first  period  of  its  existence,  the 
"Jernkontoret"  sent  considerable  sums  of  money  down  to  the  big  iron  market  at 
Kristinehamn ;  and  in  times  of  depression  the  "Jeukontoret"  itself  purchased 
iron  from  iron  manufacturers,  with  the  express  purpose  of  keeping  prices  at  a 
"fair  and  equable  level".  It  now  restricts  itself  mainly  to  advancing  working 
capital,  and  making  other  loans  for  special  purposes  (e.  g.  for  building  loans,  etc.). 

But,  as  has  been  said,  the  "Jernkontoret"  has  another  important  mission,  namely 
the  scientific  and  technical  improvement  of  the  Swedish  iron  industry. 

For    this    purpose    the    "Jernkontoret"    annually    grants   considerable  sums  for 


312  VI.    MiNma  and  metalluegical  industry. 

research  and  experiment  to  mining  colleges,  training  courses  for  charcoal-burners, 
testing  institutes  at  home  and  abroad,  geological  surveys,  and  so  forth;  it  employs 
a  body  of  technical  advisers  to  assist  its  members,  awards  travelling  bursaries  to 
engineers  and  workmen,  financially  supports  the  publication  of  scientific  periodicals 
and  treatises,  and  the  representation  of  the  Swedish  iron  industry  at  domestic 
and  foreign  exhibitions.  Since  1817  the  "Jernkontoret"  has  published  a  periodical 
of  its  own,  "Jemkontorets  annaler",  the  very  oldest  metallurgical  periodical  in 
the  world. 

The  "Jernkontoret"  has  received  no  support  from  the  State,  except  during  the 
first  period  of  its  existence,  when  its  members  obtained  the  right  of  raising 
money  in  the  Bank  of  Sweden  on  publicly  weighed  iron;  this  right  was  after- 
wards commuted  for  a  credit  at  the  bank  for  900  000  kroner  at  4  ^  interest 
(from  1818  to  1870).  With  a  minor  exception,  the  members  have  received  no 
dividend. 

At  the  close  of  1912,  the  "Jernkontoret"  possessed,  in  round  figures,  a  Working 
Capital  of  4  million  kroner,  a  Reserve  Fund  of  2  million  kroner,  and  a  General 
Fund    of  1  300  000    kroner,  the  totals  assets  aggregating  over  7  million  kroner. 

It  is  also  to  be  noted  here  that  a  number  of  associations  are  founded  for 
the  promotion  of  the  mining  industry,  e.  g.  the  "Jarnverksforeningeii", 
the  "Bergshandteringens  vanner",  and  others. 

Instruction  in  Mining:  is  imparted  at  the  Tekniska  hogskolan^  (Roj'al 
Technical  High  School)  at  Stockholm  (which  includes  a  special  depart- 
ment for  mining  commonly  known  as  "Bergshogskolan"),  and  at  the 
Mining  schools  at  Filipstad  and  Falun. 

At  Falun  a  School  of  Mines  was  established  as  early  as  1822;  it  was 
primarily  inteinded  for  imparting  instruction  in  mining  to  university 
graduates.  In  1868  the  school  was  incorporated  in  the  Stockholm  Royal 
Technical  High  School,  of  which,  as  mentioned  above,  it  constitutes  a 
separate  department  under  its  own  director.  The  "Jernkontoret"  has 
granted  an  annual  subsidy  of  15  000  kroner  for  the  practical  training 
of  the  students  under  experienced  teachers. 

The  course  for  mining  and  metallurgical  engineers  at  the  "Bergshogskolan"' 
ranges  over  4  years;  and  is  distributed  over  three  lines  of  study:  mining, 
metallurgy  and  mechanics.  The  conditions  for  admission  are  the  same  as  those 
for  other  departments  of  the  Royal  Technical  High  School. 

The  (lower)  Mining  School  at  Falun  was  formed  after  the  former 
School  of  Mines  had  been  removed  to  Stockholm  (see  above).  The  (lower) 
School  at  Filipstad  was  established  in  1830.  These  schools  are  supported 
by  the  "Jernkontoret",  the  State  also  contributing  to  their  maintenance, 

Both  these  Schools  are  intended  for  the  training  of  superintendents  and 
clerks  in  iron  works,  as  well  as  of  foremen  and  overseers  of  mines.  The  course 
lasts  one  year,  and  comprises  the  elements  of  metallurgy,  assaying,  mining 
and  mechanics,  along  with  the  theoretical  subjects  on  which  these  sciences  are 
based.  In  each  of  the  schools  there  are  three  regular  instructors.  One  of  the 
conditions  for  admission,  is  lengthy  practical  experience  in  the  branch  previous 
to  entering  the  school. 

'  A  hogskola  has  in  Sweden  the  rank  of  a  university. 


VII. 

MANUFACTURING  INDUSTRIES. 


In  accordance  with  Swedish  statistical  praxis,  all  the  branches  of  in- 
dustrial life  which  have  not  already  been  dealt  with  are  here,  inclusive  of 
handicrafts  and  domestic  industries,  brought  together  under  the  title  of 
manufacturing  industries.  Dairy-farming  and  the  saw-mill  industry,  as 
well  as  mining  and  the  crude  metal  industries  are  thus  excluded,  as  they  are 
treated  of  separately  in  chapters  6,  7  and  9  respectively. 

As  we  have  already  had  an  opportunity  of  pointing  out,  mining  was  the 
industry,  which  was  the  first  to  attain  to  any  considerable  degree  of  develop- 
ment in  Sweden.  Apart  from  this  branch,  it  must  be  allowed  that  the  manu- 
facturing industries  which  are  carried  on  at  all  extensively  in  Sweden  are  of 
comparativelj'  late  date. 

In  the  Middle  Ages  and  for  some  considerable  time  later,  the  industrial  life  of 
Sweden  may  be  said  to  have  been  exclusively  domestic  in  character;  hence,  the 
review  given  below  of  the  history  of  handicrafts  embraces  at  the  same  time 
the  story  of  the  first  beginnings  of  industry  in  the  country  in  past  times.  First 
in  the  sixteenth  century  can  the  beginning  of  the  great  industries,  in  the 
modem  sense  of  the  word,  be  traced  in  Sweden;  here,  as  in  almost  all  other 
fields,  the  leaders  and  promoters  were  the  two  Bangs,  Gustavus  Vasa  and 
Charles  IX.  Gustavus  Vasa  (1523 — 60)  was  the  great  regenerator  of  the 
country,  first  and  foremost  by  re-establishing  the  independence  of  Sweden  and 
by  securing  for  her  a  firm  political  organization ;  at  the  same  time  he  was  himself, 
as  a  farmer,  as  a  manufacturer  and  a  man  of  business,  the  largest  employer 
in  his  kingdom.  Sweden  had  already  at  that  date  attained  a  fairly  high  position 
in  shipbuilding  and  in  the  manufacture  of  arms.  Charles  IX  (1599 — 1611)  did 
great  service  to  industry  in  his  time.  In  the  compass  of  his  duchy,  many  factories 
were  set  up,  such  as  for  cloths,  arms,  and  glass;  there  too,  a  very  considerable 
manufacture  of  tar  was  carried  on,  an  article  which  at  that  time,  and  for  long 
afterwards,  formed  one  of  the  chief  articles  of  exports  from  Sweden. 

The  industrial  history  of  the  seventeenth  century  is  also  closely  and  primarily 
connected  with  the  names  of  the  great  statesmen  of  the  time,  viz.  the  two  Bangs 
Gustavus  Adolphus  and  Charles  XI,  and  the  famous  Chancellor  of  the  former 
monarch  —  Axel  Oxenstierna.  The  name  of  a  private  individual,  is  here  met  with 
for  the  first  time,  that  of  Louis  De  Geer.    The  contributions  of  Gustavus  Adolphus 


314 


Vn.      MANFFACTURING   INDUSTRIES. 


Gen.  Stab.  LitAnst.Stockholm 


Vir.      MANITFACTURING    INDUSTRIES.  315 

(1611 — 32)  and  Axel  Oxenstierna  to  the  industrial  life  of  their  age  were  chiefly 
in  the  fields  of  trade  and  navigation,  but  they  also  made  great  efforts  to 
stimulate  and  promote  manufactures.  In  this  department,  by  far  the  greater 
part  had  to  be  created  afresh.  Skilled  workmen  were  called  in  from  abroad  to 
instruct  the  Swedish  artisans,  who,  as  a  class,  have  never  forgotten  what  they 
then  acquired;  and,  to  remedy  the  lack  of  capital  in  the  country,  competent  and 
wealthy  business  men  were  induced  by  various  means  to  settle  in  Sweden  and 
invest  money  in  industrial  enterprises.  The  most  eminent  of  these  foreigners 
was  Louis  De  Geer  (1587 — 1652),  a  Dutchman,  who,  after  having  already 
embarked  largely  in  business  on  Sweden  at  an  early  period  of  his  life,  settled 
in  the  country  in  1627.  As  a  naturalized  Swedish  subject,  he  served  his  new 
country  well  and  faithfully,  while,  in  return,  it  threw  open  to  him  its  manifold 
natural  resourses,  granting  him  very  extensive  privileges  and  thereby  rendering 
his  opportunities  and  consequent  gains  greater.  Every  circumstance  gives  evidence 
of  a  remarkable  policy,  pursued  with  great  consistency  by  Gustavus  Adolphus 
and  Oxenstierna,  of  discovering  men  of  the  greatest  capacity  in  every  domain, 
and  endeavouring  to  attract  them  to  the  country  for  the  benefit  of  Sweden  —  a 
broad  and  enlightened  patriotism  that  has  had  the  most  beneficent  results.  Louis 
De  Geer  did  a  great  deal  at  Dannemora,  but,  above  all,  he  transformed  Finspang 
into  the  chief  seat  of  manufacturing  industry  in  Sweden,  erecting  blast-furnaces, 
tilthammers  and  factories  there,  improving  the  forges  on  the  French  or  Walloon 
pattern,  and  erecting  gun-founderies,  etc.  Norrkoping  became  the  port  from 
which  were  shipped  the  products  of  this  increased  activity  and  it  grew  so 
rapidly  as  from  that  time  to  rank  with  the  chief  towns  of  Sweden,  although, 
until  then,  it  had  been  a  very  inconsiderable  place.  In  Norrkoping  itself,  indu- 
strial establishments,  too,  were  founded;  rifle-factories  and  a  brass-foundry;  the 
manufacture  of  cloth,  that  has  since  been  a  noted  production  of  the  town,  dates 
its  origin  from  that  period.  (The  first  cloth  factory  in  Sweden  of  any  import- 
ance had  been  established  at  Jonkoping  about  1616.)  The  linen  industrj'  and 
leather  manufacture  attained  a  considerable  development;  breweries  were  started 
on  the  model  of  those  in  Gerrdany  and  England,  and  paper-works  were  established ; 
the  production  of  arms  continued  to  flourish;  the  famous  copper-mine  in  Falun 
attained  at  this  time  its  maximum  output,  while  the  Eskilstuna-ware,  in  our 
days  so  renowned,  began  to  be  manufactured  in  the  reign  of  Charles  X  Gustavus 
(1654—60). 

Charles  XI  (1660 — 97),  whose  eflergetic  influence  covered  a  very  wide  field, 
paid  attention  to  industry,. too.  Cloth-manufacture,  in  particular,  developed  with 
rapid  strides,  largely  owing  to  the  King's  orders  that  the  uniforms  then  intro- 
duced into  the  armj^  should  by  exclusively  made  of  home  manufactured  material. 
The  production  of  arms  was  further  developed  and  great  quantities  were  manufac- 
tured, not  only  in  the  larger  factories,  but  also  by  artisans  and  in  the  homes. 
Swedish  shipbuilding,  an  ancient  industry,  made  important  progress,  and  at 
Soderfors  there  was  erected  an  anchor-forge  which  soon  became  famous  throughout 
Europe. 

To  sum  up,  then,  the  Swedish  industries  of  the  seventeenth  centurj'  were  by  no 
means  insignificant.  They  may  be  said,  however,  to  have  been  confined  to  a 
few  branches  only  and  were  far  from  being  able  to  satisfy  the  needs  of  the 
country.  It  was  the  chief  object  of  the  eighteenth  century  to  extend  manufac- 
turing industry  to  all  departments  in  order  to  diminish,  as  for  as  possible, 
the  import  of  manufactured  articles;  altered  political  conditions  caused  the 
role  of  promoter  to  pass  to  the  representatives  of  the  people  in  the  Riksdag, 
and  to  private  individuals.  Among  the  latter,  the  foremost  place  now  belongs, 
no  longer  to  a  foreigner  but  to  a  Swede,  Jonas  Alstrdmer.  This  remarkable 
man    was    born    at    Alingsas    in   1685.     He  began  his  career  as  a  merchant  in 


316  VII.      MANUFACTUaiNG   INDUSTRIES. 

London.  It  was  not  long,  however,  before  he  conceived  it  to  be  his  life's  work 
to  make  his  native  land  a  participant  in  the  flourishing  industry  that  formed 
the  basis  of  the  wealth  of  England,  and  he  laboured  incessantly  during  the 
remainder  of  his  life  to  accomplish  this  end,  displaying  those  qualities  of  strength 
of  will,  unselfishness,  and  unpretentiousness,  that  are  often  to  be  met  with  in 
Swedes  when  a  man  has  found  an  object  in  life  to  which  to  devote  his  entire 
energy. 

Alstromer  began  this  project  by  sending  over  to  Sweden  workmen  and  ma- 
chinery for  the  weaving  of  woollen  and  cotton  goods,  but  he  soon  determined 
to  move  to  Sweden  himself.  In  Alingsas  he  erected  all  kinds  of  factories  for 
textile  goods,  and,  under  his  guiding  hand,  Alingsas  became  the  chief  seat  of 
this  species  of  industry,  and  engineers,  artisans,  and  foremen  came  in  large 
numbers  to  study  the  methods  in  use  there.  One  of  the  leading  principles 
that  Alstromer  held,  was,  as  far  as  possible,  to  make  use  of  Swedish  raw  ma- 
terials. He  was,  therefore,  specially  active  in  furthering  an  improved  sheep- 
breeding,  the  culture  of  dyeing-plants,  tobacco  etc. 


Jonas  Alstromer. 

In  his  efforts  Alstromer  enjoyed  generous  support  and  encouragement  from 
the  Government  and  the  Riksdag.  The  mercantile  system  —  at  that  time 
already  losing  ground  in  most  other  countries  —  now  first  began  to  flourish  in 
Sweden  in  form  of  an  extremely  comprehensive  system  of  subventions  and 
protection.  Beside  the  textile  industry,  which  was  chief  favourite  at  that  time, 
and  attained  a  not  insignificant  development,  although,  as  far  as  concerns 
quality  and  cheapness,  it  could  only  with  difficulty  compete  with  that  of  other 
countries,  a  great  number  of  other  industrial  branches  were  begun  which  were 
also  liberally  supported  by  grants  and  protected  by  high  duties  or  by  import- 
prohibitions  for  foreign  manufactured  articles. 

It  is,  however,  a  deplorable  truth,  that  much  of  the  youthful  enthusiasm 
which  had  been  so  promising  in  the  beginning,  died  away  unproductively.    Clever 


VII.      MANUFACTURING    INDUSTRIES.  317 

mercantile  ideas  that  were  pursued  in  Sweden  with  the  utmost  consistericj',  gave 
rise  to  many  industrial  enterprises  not  adapted  to  the  conditions  of  the  countr>' ; 
it  was  subsequently  found  that  they  had  been  doomed  to  failure  from  their 
very  inception.  The  end  of  the  decade  1751 — 60  was,  most  probably,  the 
summit  of  the  development  just  mentioned;  in  the  next  decade  a  crisis  occurred, 
that  swept  away  many  of  the  creations  artificially  brought  into  being,  and  entailed 
ruinous  effects  on  different  parts  of  the  Swedish  industrial  life  of  the  period. 
But,  though  the  edifice  built  up  by  Alstromer  and  his  helpers  and  supporters, 
partly  broke  down,  one  element  of  their  work  was  not  lost,  viz.,  the  industrial 
education  which  they  imparted  to  their  countrymen,  for  that  is,  in  a  great 
measure,  owing  the  economic  progress  that  has  come  about  in  later  times. 

The  reign  of  Gustavus  III  (1771 — 92)  was  of  import  for  Swedish  industry 
up  tfl  a  certain  point,  in  so  far  that  a  more  liberally-minded  legislation  con- 
tributed its  quota  towards  placing  industrial  enterprises  on  a  sounder  basis.  The 
credit  of  this  improvement  belongs  principally  to  the  great  financier  J.  Liljen- 
crantz  (1730 — 1815).  Generally  speaking,  this  period,  though  poorer  in  initia- 
tive, was  on  the  whole  characterized  by  a  quiet  progressive  development. 

With  the  dawn  of  the  nineteenth  ccntnry  came  the  vast  revolution  in  the 
industrial  world  entailed  by  the  discovery  of  steam  as  a  motive  power.  Sweden 
appropriated  the  epoch-making  discovery  at  a  very  early  date,  a  circumstance 
due  to  the  efforts  of  A.  N.  Edelcrantz  (1754 — 1821),  a  very  versatile  official, 
scientist,  and  literary  man.  He  went  to  England  in  1804,  returning  with  four 
steam-engines  of  the  best  construction,  on  Watt's  system.  To  set  up  these 
engines  he  procured  the  services  of  an  English  engineer,  Samuel  Owen  (1774 — 
1854),  a  man  who  earned  the  gratitude  of  Sweden  for  what  he  has  done  in 
many  branches  of  work.  The  mechanical  workshops  that  Owen  established  (1809), 
at  Kungsholmen,  Stockholm,  mark  the  beginnings  of  mechanical  industry  in 
Sweden.  The  series  of  eminent  foreigners  who  have  worked  as  pioneers  to 
promote  the  industries  of  Sweden  is  headed  by  De  Geer  and  closed  by  Owen. 
It  was  Owen's  merit  that  Sweden  came  second  only  to  England  among  the 
nations  in  apiDlying  steam-power  in  the  service  of  navigation. 

From  this  time  forward,  the  history  of  Swedish  industry  becomes  one  of  the 
several  special  branches  into  which  activity  in  this  direction  resolved  itself;  many 
of  the  more  important  features  of  each  will  be  briefly  touched  upon  in  the 
following  pages.  The  most  important  events  in  the  general  history  of  legislation 
on  the  subject  during  the  nineteenth  century  are  the  emancipation  of  industry 
from  antiquated  restraints  in  the  years  1846  and  1864,  the  French  commercial 
treaty  of  1865,  whereby  the  system  of  free  trade  was  introduced,  and  the  sub- 
sequent return  to  a  modified  system  of  protective  duties  in  the  years  1888  and 
1892. 

The  number  of  people  gaining  their  livelihood  from  industries  of  all  kinds, 
including  handicrafts,  was  estimated  in  1870  at  613  000,  i.  e.  14-7^  of  the 
whole  population;  the  number  in  1910  had  risen  to  1  831  000,  or  32-2  %  of  the 
whole  population.  Agriculture,  on  the  other  hand,  which,  in  the  first  named 
year,  gave  employment  to  71'9  %  of  the  population,  was  pursued  in  1910  by 
only  48'2  %. 

The  development  of  Swedish  manufacturing  industries  during  the  last 
ew  decades  may  be  rouglily  given  by  actual  figures,  though  those  for 
the  earlier  periods  are  not  very  reliable.  It  is  not,  indeed,  until  1896  that 
the  statistics  on  this  point  can  be  fairly  trusted.  It  must  be  noted,  that, 
from  the  year  mentioned,  the  figures  are  not  only  more  exact  but  also 
include   a   greater  number  of  industries  —  amongst  others,   chiefly  the 


318  VII.      MANUFACTURING   INDUSTRIES. 

Table  66.       Development  of  Manufacturing  Industries  of  Sweden. 


Annually 
(Statistics  altered  from  1896) 


Number  of 
factories 


Number  of 
bands 


Value  of  manufac- 
tures in  kroner 


1861-65 
1866-70 
1871—75 
1876—80 
1881—85 
1886-90 
1891—95 

1896-00 
1901—05 
1906—10 

1910  .    , 

1911  . 

1912  .    . 


2  465 
2  235 
2  516 
2  827 
2  916 
3174 
4165 

9  745 
11476 
11492 

11435 
11692 
11787 


30016 
31601 
52  207 
57  423 

68  627 

84482 

117  207 

238  181 
271  096 
297  US 

302  157 
304  58ti 
310  437 


71  693  000 
82  966  OOU 
143  912000 
154  587  000 
185  643  000 
219  960  000 
316100000 

871 708  000 
1 116  038  000 
1463  073000 

I  603 176  000 
1 651 057  000 
1  778  373  000 


important  flour-  and  saw-mill  industries;  —  while  the  method  of  accounts 
as  regards  the  value  of  semi-products  obtained  has  been  changed.  The  fi- 
gures for  the  years  1861 — 95  and  those  for  the  years  1896 — 1912  ought 
therefore  to  be  considered  separately  and  may  not  be  compared  with  each 
other. 

Another  proof  of  the  advance  made  by  Swedish  industries  is  afforded 
by  Table  67,  which  shows  the  annual  consumption  of  coal  and  coke. 

Thus,  in  fifty  years  the  consumption  of  coal  and  coke  has  risen  from 
370  000  tons  to  i  640  000  tons  annually,  or  from  less  than  100  kg  to  more 
than  865  kg  per  inhabitant.  The  increase  during  the  last  ten  years  has 
been  extraordinarily  great. 

For  Europe  as  a  whole  in  our  days,  the  consumption  of  coal  per  head  of  the 
population  is  about  1  500  kilograms  annually.  The  fact  that  the  figures  for 
Sweden  are  still  so  low  is  the  result,  in  a  great  measure,  of  other  kinds  of  fuel 
being  employed  on  a  larger  scale  than  is  usually  the  case  elsewhere.    For  example; 


Table  67. 


Consumption  of  Coal  and  Colce. 


Annually 

Production 
tons 

Import 
tons 

Consumption 
tons 

Consumption  per  inh. 

1861—65 

1866-70 

1871-75 

1876-80 

1881—85 

31000 

40  000 

50  000 

93  000 

151  000 

177  000 

203  000 

236  000 

308  000 

291  000 

303  000 
312  000 
360  000 

335  000 
378  000 
595  000 
782  000 
1042  000 

1  322  000 
1759  000 

2  614  000 

3  206  000 

4  349  000 

4  453  000 

4  288  000 
4  774  000 

366  000 
418000 
645  000 
875  000 
1 193  000 
1 499  000 

1  962  000 

2  850  000 

3  514  000 

4  640  000 

4  756  000 
4  600  000 
5 133  000 

92 
100 
151 
194 
259 

1886—90 

1891—95 

316 
406 

1896-00 

1901-05 

1906—10 

1910 

1911 

1912 

566 
674 
865 

861 
827 
916 

VII.       MANUFACTURINK    INDUSTRIES. 


319 


the  iron  industry  of  the  country  employs,  as  is  well  known,  hardly  anything 
but  charcoal  as  fuel,  and  in  many  other  instances,  especially  for  household  use, 
wood  is  employed,  where,  in  other  countries,  coal  or  other  fossil  fuel  would  be 
used.  In  addition  to  this,  we  have  the  great  number  of  water-power  plants  in 
Sweden,  which,  in  some  degree,  render  the  use  of  coal  unnecessary.  Water- 
power  in  1912  formed  55  %  of  the  total  motive-power  employed  for  the  whole 
of  Swedish  industries,  inclusive  of  mining. 

A  complete  survey  of  the  present  state  of  all  the  manufactures  of  Sweden 
for  the  last  few  years  may  he  obtained  by  consulting  the  factory  statistics. 
Including  the  saw-mill-  and  mining  industries,  which  have  been  dealt  with 
separately  above,  the  total  number  of  industrial  concerns  and  of  hands 
employed  in  them,  together  with  the  value  of  the  manufactured  articles 
—  handicrafts  and  domestic  trades,  as  well  as  the  building  industry  and 
dairy-farming,  excluded  —  amounted  to  the  figures  shown  by  Table  68. 

As  regards  the  value  of  the  output  it  should  be  noticed  that  products 
which  are  subject  to  several  processes  during  the  course  of  manufacture  are 
estimated  in  each  case  at  their  full  value,  this,  of  course,  making  the  total 
for  all  the  groups  too  high.  At  the  present  moment  it  is  impossible  to  decide 
how  much  ought  to  be  deducted  in  order  to  obtain  the  exact  values. 

The  statistics  shows  for  1912  a  total  value  of  output  of  2  061  million 
kronor,  i.  e.,  369  kronor,  on  an  average,  for  each  inhabitant  in  Sweden.  It 
may  be  seen  from  the  accompanying  map  how  this  relation  between  value 
of  output  of  manufactures  and  population  varies  in  different  parts  of  the 
kingdom.  The  foremost  place  is  occupied  by  Malmohus  Lan,  with  a  value 
of  industrial  output  amounting  to  614  kronor  per  inhab.,  while  Jamtland 


Table  68. 


View  of  Swedish  Industries  in  1913.^ 


Branch  of  industry 


Number  of 
factories  2 


Number  of 
hands 


Value  of  output 
kronor 


Articles  of  food  and  consumption  .    .    . 

Textile  and  clothing  industry 

Hides,  skins  and  hair 

Oils,  tar,  rubber,  etc 

Timber  (raw  and  manufactured)     .    .    . 

Paper  and  paper-goods 

Mauuf.  from  various  vegetable  substances 
Mannf.  of  stone,  clay,  charcoal,  and  peat 

Chemical  industry 

Ores  (mines)  ^ 

Iron,  steel  and  other  metals 

Metal  goods,  ships,  etc 

Other  branches*      


3  340 
730 
372 
232 

2198 

244 

31 

1661 
306 
389 
152 

1859 
814 


33  706 
43  607 
10  258 
3  692 
71789 

13  050 
731 

48  365 
3  869 

14  658 
17  263 
69  441 
11929 


476  142  000 
221  590  000 

76  350  000 
41  771 000 

353  087  000 

77  936  000 
2  664  000 

104  538  000 

43 175  000 

61  781 000 

220  639  000 

321 470  000 

59  650  000 


Total 


12328 


342  358 


2060  793000 


I 


'  While  including  the  mining  industry,  these  figures  are  far  more  compiehensive  than 
those  given  on  Table  66,  and  are,  consequently,  not  comparable  with  those  last  men- 
tioned. —  2  factories  that  carry  on  the  manufacture  of  several  articles  of  different  classes 
are  included  in  the  table  under  each  of  these  classes,  so  Ihat  the  total  number  of  factories 
is  much  too  large.  —  ^  Inclusive  of  coal,  clay,  other  ores  and  minerals.  —  *  Chiefly  gra- 
phical industries  and  electric  power- works. 


320 


VII.      MANUFACTURING  INDUSTRIES. 


comes  last  with  only  84  kronor.  —  Table  69  shows,  too,  the  special 
branches  of  manufacturing  industrs'  that  have  attained  the  greatest  scope 
in  Sweden. 

Sweden  may  be  roughly  divided  into  three  industrial  spheres.  The 
southern  section  of  the  country,  extending  northwards  to  about  the  latitude 
of  the  north  shores  of  the  great  lakes,  is  chiefly  devoted  to  agriculture;  in' 
addition,  however,  a  very  considerable  industry  is  carried  on  in  branches 
allied  to  agriculture,  and  in  others  also.    In  central  Sweden,  besides  agri- 


Tablb  69.    The  Scope  of  Industries  in  the  various  Ldns  in  1912  and  a 
Schedule  of  the  Output-Value  of  the  principal  Classes  of  Industries. 


Value  of 

D;o  per 

Value  of 

L  a  n 

Factories 

Hands 

manulac. 
Mill,  kr 

inhab. 
Kronor 

Important  industries 
Total  (or  wLole  kingdom 

output  , 
Mill,  kr 

Stockholm  (city)    . 

774 

29  048 

178-86 

513 

Saw-mills  and  planing 

Stockholm  Ian    .    . 

454 

13  729 

100-30 

420 

mills 

174-J4 

Uppsala 

306 

7  292 

39-86 

307 

Flour  and  grain  mills 

118-19 

Sodermanland  .    .    . 

445 

10  465 

45-76 

254 

Wood-pulp  factories  . 

115-73 

Ostergotland    .    .    . 

775 

19  895 

116-00 

391 

Iron-  and  steel-goods- 

Jonkoping    .... 

641 

14121 

56-88 

264 

factories'  

11307 

Krouoberg    .... 

325 

6134 

21-17 

134 

Mechanical  workshops 

98-38 

Kalmar 

475 

9  021 

45-76 

200 

Wool-  and  cotton  cloth- 

Gottland 

72 

1154 

5-19 

94 

factories   

89-61 

Blekinge 

356 

8  434 

29-75 

198 

Bar-iron  works'  .   .    . 

80-44 

Kristianstad    .    .    . 

557 

8  730 

73-27 

318 

Sugar  reiineries'    .    . 

73-66 

Wtalmohus     .... 

1200 

35144 

284-20 

614 

Iron  works* 

73-63 

Halland 

257 

5  086 

34-46 

234 

Spinning  mills   .    .    . 

70-73 

Goteborg  och  Bohns 

761 

33  756 

194-67 

501 

Paper  mills^    .... 

64-H 

Alvsborg 

586 

20  211 

102-34 

353 

Ore  mines 

58-12 

Skaraborg    .... 

i        511 

8  728 

38-58 

160 

Blast  furnaces.   .    .    . 

53-39 

Yarmland     .... 

568 

15  434 

91-58 

352 

Raw  sugar  factories  . 

43-69 

Orebro 

614 

16  841 

97-70 

467 

Malt  liquor  breweries ' 

40-60 

Vastmanland  .    .    . 

477 

12  819 

81-77 

518 

Shoe  factories .... 

36-04 

Kopparberg  .... 

591 

17  201 

116-17 

491 

Metal-goods  factories" 

35-39 

Gav  eborg    .... 

668 

18  805 

124-26 

486 

Joineries 

30-83 

Vastemorrland   .    . 

425 

16  429 

99-18 

390 

Tanneries 

30-36 

Jamtland 

152 

2  260 

10-07 

84 

Spirit  factories^    .    . 

30-19 

Vasterbotten    .    .    . 

153 

4216 

23-07 

141 

Distilleries '....' 

25-14 

Norrbotten  .... 

185 

7  405 

49-95 

303 

Margarine  works    .    . 
Book  printing  works. 

24-47 
23-74 

Total 

12328 

342358 

2060  79 

3C9 

Electric     machinery 

works* 

Tobacco  factories   .    . 

Bakeries 

Stone  quarries'  .   .    . 

23-43 
2303 
21-20 
20-17 

Rem.    The   spe 

cification 

embraces 

industri 

es  the 

Electric-power  works. 

19- U 

total   value    of    -v, 

hose    outi 

lut   is    at 

least  IE 

)  mill. 

Sewing  establishments 

17-62 

kronor  annually. 

As  to  th 

e  valuatio 

n,  see  th 

i  text, 

Match  factories   .   .    . 

16-67 

above,  and  note  1 

below. 

Wharfs  and  dock-yards 
Brick  works'  .... 
Other  industries.   .    . 

Total 

15-97 

15-62 

384-60 

2060  79 

'  It  should  be  remarked  that,  in  evaluation,  the  increase  of  value  in  consequence  of  the 
excise  is  included.  —  *  And  foundries.  —  ^  Bar-iron,  hammer-  and  rolling-mills.  —  *  Iron- 
works for  unrolled  intermediate  products.  —  '•'  And  board  factories.  —  °  Manufacture  of 
metals  other  than  iron.  —  '  And  stone-dressing  works.  —  '  Factories  for  the  manufacture 
of  electric  machines  and  apparatus.  —  '  And  pottery-works. 


VII.       MANUFACTUKING    INDUSTRIES 


321 


culture,  mining  and  allied  manufactures  form  a  very  important  source  of 
livelihood  for  the  people.  Finally,  in  northern  Sweden,  agriculture  is,  to 
some  extent,  minimised  b:\'  the  timber  industr:\-.  and,  in  the  far  north, 
by  mining. 


Bust  of  John  Ericsson,  Stockholm. 


The  characteristics  that  maj-  be  specially  ascribed  to  Swedish  industry 
are  the  employment  of  the  very  best  materials  —  in  some  cases  almost 
unnecessarily-  superior  in  quality  —  and,  moreover,  honest  and  careful 
workmanship.  This  last-mentioned  characteristic  of  Swedish  manufac- 
tures is  due,  in  great  measure,  to  the  personal  interest  that  Swedish  ar- 
tisans very  frequently  take  in  the  work  they  have  in  hand,  and  their  pro- 
nounced objection  towards  letting  anything  come  from  their  hands  that 
is  not  perfected  to  the  best  of  their  ability.  On  the  other  hand,  it  may  be 
said  that  the  mechanical  skill  in  routine  production  possessed  by  the  Swe- 
dish workmen  is  not  always  as  great  as  might  be  wished;  this,  again,  is 
due  to  the  fact  that  production  is  often  necessarily  carried  on  on  a  small 
scale,  precluding  a  thoroughly  satisfactory  distribution  of  special  processes 
exclusively  among  specially  expert  hands.  The  result  of  these  circum- 
stances is  that  the  products  of  Swedish  industry  are,  as  a  rule,  of  excellent 
quality,  but  not  infrequently  so  dear  that  it  is  difficult  for  them  to 
compete  with  goods  imported  from  countries  where  manufactures  can 
be  carried  on  on  so  much  vaster  a  scale.  A  contributory  cause  to  the 
expensiveness  of  Swedish  manufactured  goods  is  also  the  fact,  to  which 

2i— 133179.  Sweden.  II. 


322 


VII.      MANUFACTURING  INDUSTRIES. 


attention  has  latterly  been  called,  that  the  Swedish  workman  not  seldom 
lacks  the  desirable  intensity  in  his  labour,  and  that  there  is  a  want  of  pro- 
per organization  of  the  direction  and  management  of  the  work. 

The  facts  enumerated  above  will  be  enough  to  account  for  only  few  of 
the  branches  of  Swedish  industry  having  succeeded  in  establishing  an 
export  trade  on  a  large  scale.  To  remedy  this  drawback  is  the  immediate 
task  set  before  industrial  enterprise  in  the  country  at  the  present  time,  if 
it  is  to  attain  those  dimensions  which  alone  can  render  it  of  the  economic 
importance  desirable  for  the  country  as  a  whole.  As  has  been  pointed  out 
several  times  in  the  foregoing  pages,  the  prospects  of  a  realization  of  these 
hopes  seem  brighter  at  present  than  in  the  past.  As  is  well-known,  the 
chief  basis  of  these  hopes  is  the  immense  motor-power  possessed  by  Sweden 
in  its  many  waterfalls  (cf.  below). 

Eor  administrative  measures  concerning  industries  and  other  branches 
of  employment  other  than  agriculture,  there  is  a  central  official  depart- 
ment called  the  Board  of  Trade  (KommerskoUegium)  one  of  whose  three 
bureaus  is  intended  for  matters  concerning  the  mining-industry,  factories, 
etc.  The  State  also  endeavours  to  promote  the  development  of  industries 
by  means  of  up-to-date  educational  establisments,  partly  for  general  tech- 
nical instruction  (cf.  p.  I,  417)  and  also,  in  certain  cases,  by  means  of 
special  professional  schools  —  the  greater  part  of  these,  however,  being 
of  a  private  character  — ■  an  account  of  which  will  be  found  in  their  proper 
sections  in  this  book.     The  State  also  makes  grants  for  exhibitions,  etc.. 


Table  70.     Factory  Industries  in  the  Towns  and  in  the  Country  Districts 

of  Sweden  in  1912} 


Output  in 

Output  in 

Towns 

Factories 

Hands 

thousands 
of  kroner 

Towns 

Factories 

Hands 

thousands 
of  kroner 

Stockholm    .    . 

774 

29  048 

178  864 

Halmstad     .    . 

63 

1307 

10  529 

Gothenlmrg .    . 

373 

15133 

106  541 

Sodertalje 

44 

1672 

■      9  812 

Malmo  .    .    .    . 

340 

10  916 

86  458 

Lidkoping 

43 

1138 

8193 

Norrkoping  .    . 

179 

8  509 

50  790 

Nykoping 

45 

1481 

7  976 

Halsingborg     . 

118 

3  532 

31970 

Huskvarna 

9 

1739 

7  672 

BorJls    .    .    .    . 

101 

4  933 

28  252 

Eslov    .    . 

42 

646 

7547 

Gavle    .    .    .    . 

145 

4  233 

26  370 

Karlskrona 

50 

2158 

7  365 

Landskrona .   . 

68 

1871 

25152 

Soderhamn 

46 

1340 

7032 

Vaateras  .   .    . 

54 

2  857 

23  072 

Linkoplng 

77 

1215 

6  810 

Eskllstuna   .    . 

156 

5151 

21632 

Falkenberg 

19 

353 

6  334 

Kristianstad    .. 

40 

1006 

18  486 

Uddevalla 

39 

1363 

5907 

Kalmar     .    .    . 

53 

1092 

17  848 

Vanersborg 

26 

1135 

5  410 

Jonkoping    .    . 

93 

4  290 

17  562 

Arvika .   . 

33 

817 

5  058 

Orebro  .... 

102 

2  888 

17130 

Other  towns    . 

1049 

19  414 

93  996 

Ystad    .... 

49 

765 

15  909 

Tralleborg    .    . 

52 

877 

14  788 

Towns  .... 

4  508 

138  693 

908544 

Uppsala    .    .    . 
Lund     .... 

94 

65 

2  317 
1714 

14  010 
13  013 

Country    distr. 
The     whole 

7  820 

203  665 

1152  249 

Karlstad  .    .    . 

67 

1833 

11056 

kingdom  . 

12  328 

342  368 

2060  793 

'  It  should  be  pointed  out  that,  in.  many  cases,  large  factory-indostries  are  carried  on  in 
the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  towns;  this  is  the  case,  for  example  at  Gothenburg,  Sunds- 
vall,  etc.;  in  the  above  table,  consec[uently,  such  industry  is.  placed  to  the  credit  of  the 
country  districts. 


WATERFALLS    OF   SWEDEN.  323 

and  gives  stipendiums  for  journeys  for  the  purpose  of  studj',  both  to  the 
leaders  of  the  industries  and  to  the  workmen.  An  account  is  given  in  a 
special  division  in  Part  I  of  this  work  concerning  the  legislation  aiming 
at  the  protection  of  workmen  against  the  inconveniences  and  dangers  they 
incur  by  their  labour. 

Annual  statistical  reports  respecting  the  state  of  the  various  industries 
of  Sweden  have  long  been  issued  by  the  Board  of  Trade.  Unfortunately, 
the  execution  of  the  work  was,  in  earlier  times,  very  defective,  and  no  great 
importance  can  be  ascribed  to  the  Swedish  factory-statistics  before  the 
year  1896  —  after  a  special  statistical  bureau  had  been  established  in  the 
Board  of  Tra/de,  with  a  sufficiently  large  staff,  and  after  the  supplying 
of  information  to  the  national  industrial-statistics  had  been  made  obliga- 
tory by  a  Royal  Rescript,  dated  November  13,  1896.  The  existing  Swe- 
dish factory  statistics  when  compared  with  the  corresponding  statistics  of 
other  countries  have,  in  spite  of  undeniable  shortcomings,  above  mentioned, 
the  merit  of  giving  a  y  e  a  r  1  y  survey  of  most  industries. 

A  large  number  of  special  associations  havb  been  formed  for  the  promo- 
tion of  Swedish  industries.  In  addition  to  these,  there  exists  a  general 
organization,  Sveriges  Industriforbund  (The  Industrial  Association  of 
Sweden),  the  aim  of  which  is  to  combine  the  manufacturers,  etc.,  of  the 
country  and  the  associations  of  the  various  branches  of  industry,  for  the 
purpose  of  protecting  their  common  interests  and,  more  especially,  of  di- 
recting the  attention  of  the  Government  authorities  to  the  needs  of  indu- 
stry.  At  the  present  moment  the  Industrial  Association  embraces  371  fac- 
tories, employing  a  total  of  114  000  hands  (end  1914). 

In  drawing  up  here  the  list  of  the  various  branches  of  industry,  the 
division  is  employed  that  is  made  use  of  in  the  official  factory-statistics, 
against  which,  it  is  possible,  criticisms  respecting  details  may  be  made, 
but  which  have  the  great  merit  of  being  connected  with  that  employed 
for  the  last  four  decades  in  the  commercial-statistics,  a  fact  which  of 
course,  facilitates  comparisons  between  the  manufactures,  the  imports  and 
the  exports. 

Before  proceeding  to  a  detailed  account  of  the  manufacturing  industries, 
some  words  may  be  said  here  respecting  one  of  the  most  important  factors 
for  the  industries  of  the  country  in  general,  viz.,  the  Swedish  waterfalls. 


Waterfalls  of  Sweden. 

Sweden  is,  wdth  regard  to  the  supply  of  water  power,  one  of  thecoun- 
tries  in  Europe  which  Nature  has  most  favoured.  It  is  true  that  reliable 
data  as  to  the  measure  of  Sweden's  water-power  are  still  lacking,  but  a 
rough  estimate  has  given  the  result  of  10  million  horse-power,  available 
during  from  six  to  nine  months  of  the  year.  Another  estimate  has  led  to 
a  final  figure  of  6  "/i  million  turbine  horse-power,  available  during  nine 
months  of  the  vear.     Full  certainty  in  this  respect  can  obviously  not  be 


324  VII.      MANUFACTURING   INDUSTRIES. 

gained  except  by  a  thorough  registration  based  on  detailed  investigations. 
This  work  has  in  fact  been  started  in  the  shape  of  the  "Register  of  Water- 
falls" (vattenfallsfortechning),  which,  in  conformity  with  the  resolution 
of  the  Riksdag  of  1910,  is  being  drawn  up  by  the  Board  of  Waterfalls 
and  by  the  Hydrographic  Bureau,  the  first  pages  of  which  issued  from  the 
press  at  the  beginning  of  the  year  1913.  This  work,  however,  will  take 
many  years.  An  approximate  estimate  of  the  measure  of  the  water-power 
in  Sweden,  based  on  certain  assumptions,  has  recently  been  made  by  M. 
Serrander,  Lieutenant  in  the  Roj^al  Engineering  Corps  and  will  be  found 
as  an  appendix  to  part  V  of  " Finansstatistisha  Utredningar,  utgivna  genom 
Kungl.  Finansdepartementet"  (Financial  and  Statistical  Investigations 
published  by  the  Roj^al  Finance  Department),  plublished  in  1912  and 
prepared  under  the  direction  of  I.  Flodstrom.  The  exact  title  of  the  said 
part  V  is  "Sveriges  nationalformogenhet  omkring  ar  1908  och  dess  utveck- 
ling  sedan  mitten  av  1880-talet"  (The  National  Wealt  of  Sweden  about  the 
year  1908  and  its  Development  since  the  middle  of  the  eighties).  In  this 
work  the  water-power  of  Sweden  is  estimated  at  6-2  million  turbine  horse- 
power, which  can  be  utilized  for  about  9  months  in  the  year. 

For  the  purpose  of  comparison  with  these  figures,  it  may  be  mentioned  that 
Norway,  from  where  also  there  are  no  exact  data  forthcoming,  is  stated  to  pos- 
sess about  7^/2  million  turbine  horse-power  available  during  nine  months  in  the 
year,  and  that  Finland  has  2 '6  millions  at  average  water  level.  Austria  is  said 
to  possess  6"i  millions,  France  5'9,  and  Italy  5-6  millions.  Next  come  Switzer- 
land with  1'5,  Germany  with  1'4,  and  Great  Britain  with  1  million;  all  in 
turbine  horse-power,  in  round  numbers  and  available  during  nine  months  of 
the  year. 

If  Sweden  has  thus  a  very  considerable  supply  of  water-power,  that 
power,  however,  has  not  as  yet  possessed  a  very  high  value.  Most  of  it  is  to 
be  found  in  the  interior  of  the  country,  where  the  population  is  sparse,  com- 
munications but  little  developed,  and  the  prospects  for  industrial  enterprise 
as  a  rule  not  very  great. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  abundance  of  lakes  in  Sweden  constitutes  an  ex- 
tremely favourable  factor  in  the  rational  utilization  of  water-power.  For 
not  only  does  the  accumulating  and  regulating  action  of  the  lakes  render 
the  natural  flow  much  less  fluctuating  than  in  other  countries  not  so  well 
supplied  with  lakes,  but  this  action  of  the  lakes  can  as  a  rule  be  still  further 
utilized  at  moderate  expense  by  the  erection  of  regulating  dams  at  the 
outlets  of  the  lakes.  The  out-of-the  way  situation  of  the  waterfalls, 
moreover,  is  not  a  matter  of  so  much  consequence  as  heretofore,  when  the 
utilization  of  the  water-power  was  restricted  in  consequence  of  the  impossi- 
bility or  the  difficultj'  of  transmitthni  energy  over  long  distances  from  the 
source  of  power.  Especially  the  discoveries  of  recent  years  have  produced 
a  revolution  in  this  respect,  since  it  has  been  proved  that  electric  power 
transmissions  can  work  at  tensions  hardly  dreamt  of  a  few  years  ago. 
"What  a  solution  of  the  storage  battery  problem  would  signify  for  Sweden 
will    at    once    be    realized.     In    this    connection    it    may  be  pointed  out 


WATERFALLS   OP   SWEDEN. 


325 


Cen.  Slab.  Lit  AiisUSiockliolin 


326 


VII.      MANUFACTURING   INDUSTRIES. 


that  several  of  the  modern  electro-chemical  branches  of  industry  are  not 
very  dependent  on  their  locality  and  can  often  utilize  even  that  part  of  the 
water-power  which  is  only  available  during  certain  parts  of  the  year. 

The  Distribution  of  Waterfalls.  How  the  waterfalls  are  distributed 
over  Sweden  will  be  seen  from  the  following  figures,  taken  from  the  work 
cited  above,  "Sveriges  nationalformogenhet": 


The  Stora  Sjofallet  Falls  in  the  river  Lule  alv. 


Turbine    horse-power. 

State  Private  Total 

Central  Sweden 6  610  80  390  87  000 

Sonth-East  Sweden 28 150  278  850  307  000 

SMne 380  36  620  37  000 

West  Sweden 258  240  545  760  804000 

Lower  Norrland  and  Dalarne  .     100  620  2  459  380  2  660000 

Upper  Norrland 646  330  1763  670  2410000 

Total  1040330  61G4  670  6205000 


The  water-power  owned  by  the  State  thus  forms  16-7  %  of  the 
total.  Among  State  waterfalls  have  been  included  those  entered  in  the 
register  issued  by  the  Royal  Committee  on  Waterfalls  of  1903,  with  the 
modifications  necessitated  by  purchases  subsequently  made  and  by  other 
circumstances.  On  the  other  hand,  for  obvious  reasons,  consideration  has 
not  been  paid  to  the  changes  of  proprietary  rights  which  maj'  result  from 


WATERFALLS    OF   SWEDEN.  327 

the  legal  actions  instituted  in  recent  years  by  the  State,  with  the  object 
of  establishing  the  State  ownership  of  a  large  number  of  waterfalls  which 
have  hitherto  been  regarded  as  the  private  property  of  the  riparian  ow- 
ners. 

A  rough  estimate  of  the  water-power  which,  with  suitable  regulation 
of  lakes,  can  be  utilized  with  profit  has  shown  that  it  amounts  to  about  3-8 
million  horse-power.  In  "Sveriges  Nationalformogenhet"  the  aggregate 
amount  of  the  water-power  which  has  already  been  equipped,  or  is  of  such 
a  nature  that  it  may  be  excepted  to  be  equipped  before  1959  is  estimated 
at  3  511540  turbine  horse-power,  distributed  as  follows: 

Turbine- 
horse-power 

Central  Sweden 83  600 

South-East  Sweden 280  270 

Sk8,ne 27120 

West  Sweden      /.....     680000 

Lower  Norrland  and  Dalarne 1 537  710 

Upper  Norrland 902  840 

Total  3511540 

Out  of  this  total,  about  750  000  turbine  horse-power  or  21  %  should  be 
equipped  at  the  end  of  1913,  and  out  of  that  amount  again,  654  000  tur- 
bine horse-power  by  private  or  communal  enterprise,  and  the  remainder, 
about  96  000  turbine  horse-power  by  the  State.  The  State  power  works 
at  TroUhattan  are  included  in  this  estimate  with  80  000  turbine  horse- 
power. 

If  we  include  the  works  now  in  process  of  construction  at  Porjus  and 
Alvkarleby  and  the  works  being  constructed  by  the  Citj'  of  Stockholm  at 
Untra,  the  corresponding  figures  will  be:  870  000  —  25  fo  —  692  000  — 
178  000. 

In  the  above  figures  are  not  included  a  great  number  of  plants  of  less  than 
100  tm:bine  horse-power,  which,  if  included,  might  increase  the  total  amount  of 
installed  turbine  horse-power  by  some   50  000. 

If  we  observe  how  the  utilization  of  water  power  has  developed  in  different 
parts  of  the  country,  we  shall  find  obvious  proofs  of  the  influence  that  the  geo- 
graphical position  of  the  sources  of  power  has  exerted  on  their  utilization.  The 
relation  between  utilized  and  available  water-power  (the  latter  according  to  as- 
sumptions made  in  "Sveriges  Nationalformogenhet")  at  the  end  of  1912  then 
figures  out  as  follows: 

. ,   ,,         ,  Do.,  incl.  of 

f  iQil"  TroUhattan,  Porjus, 

01  laid  Alvkarleby,  Untra' 

Central  Sweden 74'0  %  74-0  % 

South-East  Sweden 290  ■>  29-0  » 

SkUne 13-5  »  13-5  > 

West  Sweden 40-0  .  400  » 

Lower  Norrland  and  Dalarne    ....  9'5  >  12'5  » 

Upper  Norrland 10  ■>  2'7  > 

'  The  Alvkarleby  and  Untra  plants  are  here  (according  to  assumptions  made  in  "Sveriges 
nationalformogenhet")  reckoned  as  belonging  to  Lower  Norrland  and  Dalarne. 


328 


VII.      MANUFACTUKING    INDUSTRIES. 


WATERFALLS    OF   SWEDEN.  ;^29 

The  accompanying  map  should  furnish  a  clear  idea  of  the  distribution  of 
water-power  in  Sweden,  and  also  of  that  portion  of  it  which  has  been  actually 
utilized.  The  total  supply  of  economically  available  water-power  has  for  this 
purpose  been  assumed  to  be  6  300  000  horse-power. 

It  may  also  be  of  interest  in  this  connection  to  give  the  latest  available  official 
data  as  to  power  consumption  for  industrial  purposes.  In  the  statistics  of  the 
Board  of  Trade  for  1910  and  1912  we  find  the  following  figures: 

Mines  Factories  Total 

1910         1912  1910        1913  1910  1912 

Total  power  for  direct  running   .    68  422      78  280        417  873    410  571      486  2i)5      4S8  851 
Total  power    for  running  electric 
generators 31173      33  222        393  911     579  519      425  084      C12  741 

Total    99  595    111502        811784    990  090      911379   1101692 

Amonunt  generated  by  water-po- 
wer for  direct  running  .    .    .    .    46  421      48  741        207  001    200  635      253  422      249376 

Amonunt  generated  by  water-po- 
wer for  running  electric  gene- 
rators  20  005      19194        272  236    429137      292  241      448  331 

Total    66426      67  935        479237    629  772      545663      697  707 

These  figures  show  that  respectively  60^  and  63^  of  the  total  power  consu- 
med was  by  water-power.  They  show  also  that,  while  during  the  year  1910 
about  46  %  of  the  total  water-power  used,  was  still  consumed  by  direct  shafting 
without  electric  transmission  of  power,  this  same  figure  for  1912  has  declined 
to  36  ?i.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  near  future  will  see  a  still  more  remar- 
liable  change  in  this  respect,  as  by  far  the  greater  part  of  the  water-power 
recently  equipped  or  now  in  process  of  equipment  —  the  latter  amounting  to 
about  100  000  turbine  horse-power  —  will  apparently  be  transformed  into  elec- 
tric energy  for  transmission  over  shorter  or  longer  distances. 

One  may  classify  the  water-power  plants  equipped  at  the  end  of  1913  as 
follows : 

Size  of  equipment  Number  of  Total  number  of 

in  turbine  HP  plants  turbine  HP 

50  000  or  more  1                             80  000 

35  000—50  000  2                             68  000 

10  000—25  000  6                            109  000 

5  000—10  000  18                            116  000 

1 000—5  000  126                            245  000 

200—1 000  _296 133  OOP 

Total  449  750000 

•    The    utilization   of  the  water-power  for  different  purposes  is  given  approxima- 
tely in  the  following  table: 

Number  of  turbine  HP  % 

Iron-industry 215  000                        29 

Paper  and  pulp  industries 240  000                       32 

Textile  industry 40  000                         5 

Electro-chemical  industry 90  000                        12 

Power-distribution,'  and  various    .    .    .    .    165  OOP 22 

Total  750  000  100 


•  The    larger   industrial    subscribers    for  energy  from  the  electric  generating  stations  are 
not  included,  as  they  have  been  included  under  their  respective  groups. 


330 


Vn.      MANUFACTURING    INDUSTRIES. 


The  value  of  Swedish  Water-Power.  It  would  seem  to  be  a  very  delicate 
matter  to  estimate  aright  the  value  represented  by  Swedish  water-power.  How- 
ever, in  "Sveriges  Nationalformogenhet"  an  attempt  has  been  made.  In  this 
preliminary  estimate  the  basis  for  calculation  has  bfeen  partly  the  prices  actu- 
ally paid  on  the  sale  of  certain  waterfalls,  partly  statements  as  to  the  profit 
made  by  certain  water-power  enterprises  which  may  be  assumed  to  have  come 
into  normal  working  order.  The  results  yielded  by  this  estimate  are  a  capital 
value  for  the  north  of  Sweden  of,  on  an  average,  75  kroner,  and  for  the  south 
of  Sweden  of,  on  an  average,  90  kroner  per  turbine  horse-power  for  the  water- 
falls which  in  1908  had  been  equipped  or  were  in  process  of  equipment.  Fur- 
ther, the  estimate  has  been  extended  to  the  corresponding  value  of  the  water- 
falls which  it  may  be  assumed  will  be  '  equipped  in  the  course  of  the  next  fifty 
years,  distributed  in  different  groups,  and  this  value  has  been  reduced  to  the 
year   1908  at  Q%  interest  for  private  enterprises  and  4'5  ^  for  State  enterprises. 

The  outcome  of  this  preliminary  computation  is  that  Sweden's  water-power 
"fit  to  be  equipped"  may  be  assumed  to  represent  in  1908  a  total  value  of 
138'6  million  kronor,  out  of  which  21  %  fall  to  State  enterprises,  and  79  %  to 
private  enterprises. 

This  figure  is  surprisingly  low.  But,  in  the  first  place,  the  rate  at  which 
the  utilization  of  water-power  is  assumed  to  take  place  during  the  term  of  50 
years  in  question  seems  to  have  been  rather  cautiously  estimated,  since  the  basis 
of  calculation  has  been  that  3  million  horse-power  would  be  equipped  during 
this  period  of  fifty  years,  that  is,  on  an  average,  60  000  horse-power  per  an- 
num, or  about  the  same  amount  of  power  as  was  added  in  each  of  the  years 
1912    and  1913.     However,  as  far  as  can  be  judged  at  present,   the  immediate 


Photo.  L.  Westkelt,  Porju 


The  Porjus  Falls. 


WATERFALLS   OF   SWEDEN. 


331 


The  Trollhdttan  Power  Station. 

prospects  for  Sweden's  water-power  lie  in  its  appropriation  to  electro-chemical 
and  electro-thermic  industries,  and  those  industries  require  very  great  amounts 
of  power.  Thus  for  instance,  at  Svaelgfos  and  Rjukan  in  Norway,  no  less  than 
290  000  horse-power  are  consumed  almost  entirely  for  a  single  industrial  estab- 
lishment of  this  kind,  and  the  18  000  horse-power  output  of  the  recently  built 
Ljunga  Works  is  taken  by  a  single  lime-nitrogen  factory.  Nor  has  consideration 
been  paid  to  what  the  development  of  electro-technics  can  and  must  achieve  half 
a  century  onwards. 

The  direct  valuation  is  not  of  so  much  consequence.  The  main  importance 
in  estimating  the  value  of  water-power  must  be  laid  not  on  the  direct  earnings 
but  in  a  very  special  degree  on  the  indirect  profit.  For  the  increased  use  of 
water-power  signifies  increased  independence  of  foreign  fuel,  increased  industrial 
■progress,  and  increased  economic  strength,and  increased  self-reliance.  And  from 
this  point  of  view  the  water-power  of  Sweden  constitutes  a  very  material  portion 
of  her  national  wealth. 


In  Sweden,  with  her  dearth  of  coal,  water-power  has  been  used  for 
centuries:  at  first  for  the  small,  but  very  numerous  mills,  saws,  and 
hammers,  afterwards  for  big  industrial  plants,  for  iron  works  and  for  mines, 
textile  and  cellulose  industry.  Even  before  electric  transmission  of  power 
had  proved  to  be  a  practicable  possibility,  which  was  in  the  nineties,  the 
energy  of  the  waterfalls  was  transmitted  over  considerable  distances.  We 
need  only  remind  the  reader  of  Polhem's  famous  rod-and  crank  transmis- 
sions (stdnggdngar),  which  are  still  in  use  in  some  places,  as  for  instance 


332  VII.      MANUFACTURING   INDUSTRIES. 

Grrangesberg.  The  teclmical  success  of  electric  power-transmission  opened 
up  new  possibilities  for  the  use  of  water-power,  and  these  possibilities 
were  soon  seized  upon  by  far-sighted  men  in  Sweden.  The  first  water- 
power  works,  whose  mission  it  was  to  transmit  electric  energy  over  greater 
or  smaller  areas  and  vend  it  to  different  consumers,  so-called  overlands- 
centraler  (over  lands  central  stations),  were  constructed  by  private  enter- 
prise. Those  that  were  first  in  the  field  were  The  Builders  of  Hissmofor- 
sen  and  Skramforsen,  further  Yngereds  Kraftaktiebolag,  Hemsjo  Elraft- 
aktiebolag,  Gullspangs  Kraftaktiebolag,  and  Sydsvenska  Kraftaktiebola- 
get.^  Later  on  the  State  herself  appeared  on  the  scene  and  built  the  big 
power  works  at  TroUhattan,  the  first  section  of  which  was  completed  in 
1910,  those  at  Porjus,  and  those  at  Alvkarleby,  the  former  of  which  is 
to  be  finished  and  in  working  order  in  1914,  and  the  latter  in  1915. 

A  considerable  amount  of  energy  is  now  disposed  of  for  electro-chemical 
and  electro-metallurgical  purposes.  Electric  furnaces  are  thus  working 
for  different  purposes: 

For  pig  iron  at  Domnarvet,  Hagfors  and  TroUhattan,  for  zinc  at  TroU- 
hattan, for  ferrosilicium  and  ferromanganese  at  the  same  place,  as  well 
as  at  Vargon  and  GuUspang,  for  clorates  at  Mansbo  and  Alby,  for  carbide 
and  cyanamide  at  Alby  and  Ljunga-works. 

(See,  further,  sections  on  iron-manufa'Cturing  and  other  industries.) 

For  several  years  plans  have  been  rafted  for  the  electrification  of  the 
State  railway  system.  An  important  section  of  it,  "Kiruna — Riksgran- 
sen",  carrying  the  large  iron-ore  traffic  from  the  mining  districts  of  Lapp- 
land  will  be  run  electrically  this  year,  receiving  energy  from  the  State 
water-power  station  at  Porjus. 

Evidence  of  the  interest  in  the  development  of  the  water-power  of  the 
country  is  also  afforded  by  the  foundation  of  the  "Svenska  vattenkraft- 
foreningen"  (the  Swedish  Water-Power  Association),  a  union  of  com- 
munal and  private  water-power  concerns,  and  of  private  persons.  The 
aim  of  the  Association  is  to  promote  the  utilization  of  Sweden's  water- 
power  by  the  spread  of  technical,  economic,  and  legal  information  in  the 
matter. 

Symptomatic  of  the  interest  evinced  by  the  State  in  the  exploitation 
of  water  power  is  the  creation  of  two  new  Government  offices:  Hydro- 
graflska  Byr&n,  the  Hydrographical  Bureau,  in  1908,  and  Vattenfalls- 
styrelsen,  the  Board  of  Waterfalls,  in  1909,  the  latter  replacing  the  Troll- 
hatte  Canal  and  Water-Works  Board,  established  in  1905. 

The  Hydrographical  Bureau.  It  devolves  on  the  Hydrographical  Bureau  to  col- 
lect and  work  up  all  such  data  as  may  be  necessary  for  an  exhaustive  and 
practical  working  knowledge  of  the  hydrography  of  the  Swedish  fresh  water  la- 
kes^ rivers,  etc,  and  to  make  observations  and  measurings  for  that  purpose. 
The  Bureau  shall  make  its  results  accessible  to  the  public  by  the  publication 
of  year-books,  monographies  on  rivers,  treatises,  and  essays.  Above  all,  the 
Bureau  is  responsible  for  the  editing  and  publication  of  the  above-mentioned  "Re- 

'  Kraftaktiebolag  =  Power  Company.    Fors  =  Falls.  Sydsvenska  =  South  Swedish. 


WATERFALLS    OF    SWEDEN.  333 

gister  of  Waterfalls".  This  Register  contains  information  on  the  flow  of  water 
in  the  rivers  at  different  water-levels,  heights  of  falls,  geological  data,  and  so 
forth,  and  should  prove  to  be  of  great  benefit  for  the  development  of  the  water- 
power  industry.  The  Hydrographical  Bureau  also,  insofar  as  its  time  allows,  un- 
dertakes, investigations  and  surveys  for  communes  and  private  persons  for  which 
certain  fees  are  charged. 

The  Board  of  Waterfalls.  The  principal  duties  of  the  Board  of  Waterfalls, 
in  regard  to  water-powei  in  Sweden,  are  to  adopt  measures  calculated  to  encou- 
rage its  exploitation.  For  this  purpose  it  constructs  and  manages  the  State's 
own  power  works  and  is  entitled  to  utilize  the  waterfalls  which  are  not  equipped 
for  the  State,  by  leasing  them  to  private  persons  or  concerns.  The  planning 
and  advancement  of  lake-regulation  works  also  falls  within  the  work  of  the 
Board.  The  Board  is  composed  of  a  Chairman  and  Director,  "Vattenfallsdirek- 
toren",  who  devotes  all  his  time  to  the  business  of  the  Board,  and  four  mem- 
bers who  take  an  active  part  only  in  the  treatment  of  more  important  matters. 
These  members  act  in  the  capacity  of  expert  advisers  in  various  practical 
spheres,  such  as  technique,  commerce,  industry,  and  law,  and  place  the  Board 
in  intimate  communication  with  the  needs  of  practical  life.  In  the  treatment 
of  special  questions,  such  as  those  coming  within  the  sphere  of  activity  of  the 
Board  of  Agriculture,  the  Crown  Lands  Board  and  the  Eailway  Board, 
representatives  of  those  bodies  shall  take  part  in  the  deliberations,  but  not  in 
decisions.  However,  in  case  one  of  these  delegates  records  an  opinion  at  vari- 
ance with  the  decision  of  the  Board,  that  decision  shall  be  submitted  for  the 
consideration  of  Government.  Thus,  it  is  intended  that  the  Board  of  Waterfalls 
shall  as  far  as  possible  see  matters  from  the  practical  point  of  view,  moreover, 
in  virtue  of  the  regulations  of  December  31,  1908,  and  of  other  resolutions,  the 
Board  is  armed  with  powers  as  to  the  conclusion  of  contracts,  etc.  which  are 
less  restricted  than  is  the  case  generally  within  the  State  Administration. 

It  is  under  the  superintendence  of  the  Board  of  Waterfalls  that  the  big  State 
power  stations  have  been  erected  or  are  in  process  of  erection,  notably  those 
at  Trotthattan  for  80  000,  those  at  Porjus  for  50  000,  and  those  at  Alvkarleby 
for  45  000   turbine  horse-power. 

Especially  in  the  case  of  the  two  first-named  stations  there  will  be  great 
possibilities  of  further  development,  when  the  two  sources  of  water-supply,  Lake 
Vanern  and  the  Lulealv,  have  been  regulated,  while  the  Alvkarleby  station 
has  been  planned  with  a  view  to  the  regulation  of  Lake  Siljan.  The  Board 
have  such  regulation-problems  under  consideration. 

The  leasing  of  Stale  tvaterfalls,  on  the  other  hand,  has  proceeded  rather 
languidly;  partly  because  the  State  waterfalls  are,  as  a  rule,  less  suitably 
located  than  a  number  of  those  in  private  hands;  partly  because  it  is  more 
difficult  to  procure  credit,  as  mortgages  on  the  property  cannot  be  given 
as  security.  An  attempt  has  been  made  to  remove  the  last-named  diffi- 
culty by  a  Eesol-ution  of  the  Riksdag  of  1911,  which  amplifies  the  leasing 
conditions  with  regard  to  certain  Crown  waterfalls  as  laid  down  Ijy  the 
Resolution  of  the  Rikisdag  of  1910;  the  added  classes  introduce  a  new  legal 
right,  "waterfall  rights"  (vattenfallsrdtten),  which  is  similar  to  ground 
rights  and  allows  of  the  conveyance  being  mortgaged.  In  devising  these 
forms  for  the  conveyance  of  the  State  waterfalls,  the  chief  object  kept 
in  view  was  to  mitigate  the  effects  of  the  legal  actions  alluded  to  above, 
and  that  in  such  a  wise  that  the  proprietor  of  a  waterfall  in  dispute  should 
be  enabled  to  conclude  a  conditional  contract  for  the  conveyance  of  the 


334  VII.      MANUFACTURING   INDUSTRIES. 

waterfall  at  a  small  rental  and  for  a  long  period  of  time,  whicli  contract 
was  only  to  come  into  force  in  case  the  Crown  was  awarded  the  proprietary 
rights.  In  this  manner  the  present  proprietor  would  be  secured  in  the 
right  to  use  the  water-power  for  a  considerable  time  to  come,  even  If  the 
finding  of  the  court  went  against  him.  However,  in  actual  practice  these 
"waterfall  rights"  have  not  hitherto  been  made  use  of,  the  reason  appa- 
rently being  the  novelty  of  the  legal  form,  and  the  fact  that  lenders  prefer 
to  take  an  ordinary  mortgage  on  real  property. 

One  way  of  encouraging  the  conveyance  of  waterfalls  with  such  rights 
would  be,  obviously,  that  the  State  itself  should  step  forward  as  a  lender. 
In  fact,  in  the  Riksdag  of  1912  a  bill  was  introduced  to  investigate  the 
question  of  the  creation  of  a  loan  fund  for  users  of  State  waterfalls  with 
waterfall  rights,  and  the  Riksdag  passed  the  bill.  In  the  following  year, 
a  supplementary  bill  was  brought  forward  proposing  that  the  investiga- 
tion thus  called  for  might  likewise  be  extended  to  a  loan  fund  for  the  users 
of  waterfalls  in  private  hands. 

In  conclusion,  as  a  step  in  the  waterfall  policy  of  the  State,  it  may  be 
pointed  out  that  the  Crown  has  purchased  several  large  waterfalls  from 
private  persons  and  concerns,  partly  in  order  to  hold  them  in  reserve  for 
a  future  electrification  of  the  State  railways,  partly  in  order  to  complete 
its  property  in  certain  river  areas.  Among  the  latter  purchases  are  to  be 
noted  those  in  virtue  of  which  the  State  has  acquired  practically  sole 
ownership  of  all  the  water-power  in  the  River  Gota  alv  between  Lake 
Vanern  and  the  Sea. 

But  the  State  can  and  should  encourage  the  utilization  of  water-power 
even  in  other  ways  than  those  just  indicated,  namely  by  framing  its  le- 
gislation in  such  a  spirit  that  the  least  possible  obstacles  shall  be  encoun- 
tered and  the  greatest  possible  promptitude  effected  in  the  legal  treatment 
of  questions  relating  to  the  construction  of  power  works  and  dams.  In 
this  respect  much  remains  to  be  done. 

True,  Sweden  posses  a  Water  Act  of  such  a  recent  date  as  the  Royal 
Ordiaance  "concerning  the  landowner's  right  to  the  water  on  his  land",  of 
December  30,  1880,  supplemented  by  Royal  Proclamation  of  October  20, 
1899  "concerning  regulations  to  be  observed  by  those  desirous  of  acquiring 
a  license  from  the  King  to  build  on  a  Crown  water-course  (hungsadra^)". 
But  the  regulations  of  that  act  do  not  by  any  means  satisfy  the  legitimate 
demands  of  the  modern  water-power  industry.  ]^ot  only  is  the  legal  and 
administrative  procedure  far  too  cumbrous  and  slow  and  leaves  too  little 
scope  for  expert  knowledge,  but  the  law  actually  places  obstacles  in  the 
way  of  a  rational  utilization  of  water  power,  and  in  many  cases  renders 
it  impossible.  In  the  last  respect  it  is  specially  to  be  noted  that  the  law 
does  not  concede  the  right  of  expropriating  ground  for  the  actual  power 


^  The  purpose  and  definition  of  the  term  "Knngs^dra"  ("Kings  artery")  will  be  found  in 
the  second  section  of  paragraph  7  of  the  said  Royal  Proclamation.  Cf.  also  the  article  on 
Fishing. 


ARTICLES   OF   FOOD   AND   CONSUMPTION.  335 

station,  and  that  it  does  not  provide  facilities  for  a  water-power  user  to 
effectuate  the  regulation  of  a  lake  or  the  damming  up  of  water,  supposing 
damage  thereby  to  be  caused  to  a  building,  waterfall,  or  the  like,  belong- 
ing to  another,  no  matter  how  great  the  public  benefit  accuring  from  the 
enterprise.  On  the  other  hand,  by  the  Electric  Installations  Act  of  June 
27,  1902,  the  water  power  industry  has  been  tolerably  well  provided  for, 
with  reference  to  the  right  to  carry  over  another  ground  the  electric  power 
lines  often  imperatively  necessary  for  modern  power  works. 

A  revision  of  the  Water  Act  was  set  on  foot  in  1906,  when  the  Gro- 
vernment  appointed  a  committee  to  draft  proposals  for  new  legislation 
with  regard  to  a  landowner's  rights  over  the  water  in  his  ground.  That 
committee,  jointly  with  another  committee  of  same  year  appointed  to  draw 
up  proposals  for  amendments  in  the  law  relating  to  the  drainage  of  ground, 
brought  forward  on  the  December  17,  1910,  a  scheme  for  an  amended 
Water  Act.  This  extensive  scheme,  which  contains  many  new  and  remark- 
able suggestions,  is  at  present  being  considered  by  the  authorities.  Further- 
more, of  late  a  scheme  for  a  new  floating  law,  as  well  as  a  new  bill  provid- 
ing for  greater  security  with  regard  to  agreements  for  delivery  of  electrical 
energy,  etc.,  have  been  worked  out.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  Riksdag 
will  soon  see  its  way  to  decide  this  very  important  question,  and  that  the 
new  law  will  be  framed  in  such  a  spirit  that  it  will  not  impede,  but  facili- 
tate and  encourage  the  speedy  and  scientific  exploitation  of  Sweden's 
water  power. 

The  formal  stumbling-blocks  once  removed,  tliere  is  no  doubt  whatever 
that  the  people  of  Sweden  -will  contrive,  within  a  not  too  far  distant  future, 
to  turn  to  account  the  national  wealth  which  lies  in  her  magnificent  supp- 
lies of  water-power,  and  which,  utilized  in  the  right  way,  should  give  her 
an  extremeley  favourable  position  in  the  competition  going  on  between 
the  nations. 


1.    ARTICLES  OF  FOOD  AND  CONSUMPTION. 

This  large  group,  which  embraces  about  ^/^  of  the  industrial  products 
of  Sweden  reckoned  according  to  value,  may  be  subdivided  — ■  in  accordance 
with  the  nature  of  the  raw  materials  employed,  or  with  that  of  the  pro- 
ducts in  question  —  as  given  below,  the  figures  being  for  the  year  1912: 

Factories  Hands  Value  of  production 

Products  from  Grain  and  Eoot  crops  ....  1  744                7  769  155  042  000  kroner 

Dairy  produce  (Figures  for  1910) ,  1  416                4  155  95  454  000       > 

Otlier  Food-stuffs  from  tlie  animal  Itingdom  .  118                1 911  49  204  000       » 

Sugar,  Chocolate,  Tobacco,  etc 292              16  007  165  094  000      • 

Drinkables,  etc. .    .    .    1186 8  019  106  802  OOP      ■ 

Total    4  756  37  861  571596  000  kroner 


336  VII.      MANUFACTURING   INDUSTRIES. 

Table  71.     Imports  and  Exports  of  Articles  of  Food  and  Consumption. 


Imports.    Value 

in  thousands  of 

Exports.    Value 

in  thousands  of 

" 

kronor 

kronor 

Excess  o( 
imports, 

Annually 

Produce  of 

Other 

Produce  of 

Other 

thous- 

agricul- 

Colonial 

commo- 

Total 

agricul- 

Colonial 

commo- 

Total 

ands  of 

ture  and 

produce 

dities 

ture  and 

produce 

dities 

kr 

fishing 

fishing 

1871-75  . 

36  876 

37101 

10  950 

84927 

43  759 

72 

492 

44323 

40  604 

1876-80  . 

55  593 

44  076 

8  939 

108608 

48  846 

97 

1143 

50086 

58  532 

1881—85  . 

62  436 

40  604 

13110 

JlCLjll 

47  803 

177 

2  274 

50254 

65896 

1886-90  . 

46  036 

50115 

12151 

108302 

58  879 

691 

3  437 

63007 

45  295 

1891—95  . 

50  304 

47  688 

12  071 

110  063 

74  480 

1136 

1203 

76819 

33  244 

1896-00  . 

61224 

40  952 

17  073 

119249 

53  362 

301 

1375 

55038 

64  211 

1901-05  . 

84  462 

39  260 

20  702 

144424 

46  884 

468 

2  509 

49861 

95463 

1906-10  . 

79  880 

44  759 

21031 

145670 

52  894 

568 

2  739 

56201 

89469 

1910  .   .    . 

77121 

47  579 

23  216 

147  916 

61642 

462 

2145 

64249 

83  667 

1911  .    .    . 

69  450 

59  479 

24  301 

153230 

78  322 

938 

1958 

81218 

72012 

1913  .    .    . 

91720 

60  306 

26  328 

178354 

88  404 

752 

1603 

90  759 

87  595 

1913.    .    . 

94116 

60  086 

26  845 

181047 

84483 

686 

1652 

86821 

94226 

The  dairy-farming  industry  has  already  been  dealt  with  in  the  previous 
pages. 

A  survey  of  the  imports  and  exports  of  Sweden,  of  articles  belonging 
to  this  group,  is  given  in  Table  71  above. 

Sweden  is,  therefore,  obliged  constantly  to  purchase  articles  of  food,  on 
a  considerably  larger  scale  than  it  can  export  the  same  articles.  The 
amount  of  the  difference  is  shown  by  the  last  column  of  Table  71  above. 
Even  if  we  deduct  what  is  called  colonial  'produce,  the  most  important  of 
which  is  coffee  —  of  which,  in  1906 — 10,  the  imports  amounted  on  an 
average  to  32  million  kronor  annually,  and  in  1913  to  39-4  million  kronor 
—  there  is  still  a  considerable  excess  of  imports.  This,  it  is  true,  is  dim- 
inished by  the  export-excess  of  living  cattle,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  is 
increased  to  a  still  higher  degree  by  a  very  great  excess  of  imports  for 
cattle-fodder,  which,  in  1913,  amounted  to  about  30  million  kronor. 


Flour  Mills. 

In  all  parts  of  Sweden  there  are  numerous  mills,  usually  rather  small, 
to  which  the  people  of  the  neighbourhood  take  their  corn  to  be  ground. 
These  mills  are,  as  a  rule,  driven  by  the  waterfalls  along  the  streams  and 
rivers  in  which  Sweden  abounds.  It  is  only  along  the  coasts  and  in  a 
few  provinces,  such  as  Skane  and  ^astergotland,  which  have  large  expan- 
ses of  flat  country,  that  ivindmills  are  found,  owing  to  the  dearth  of  water- 
falls. In  spite  of  the  improved  construction  of  both  water  motors  and 
wind  motors,  whereby  the  mills  have  been  enabled  to  utilize  the  forces  of 
nature  to  better  effect,  steam  has  gradually  made  its  way  into  the  mill 
industry,  and  to  some  extent  modified  its  character:  for  steam  mills 
can  be  erected  anywhere,  even  in  large  commercial  centres,  where  the  mill 


FLOUR  MILLS. 


337 


industry  is  always  combined  with  the  flour  trade.  Many  a  farmer  who 
used  to  have  corn  for  his  own  household  ground  at  the  nearest  mill,  now 
finds  it  worth  his  while  to  sell  his  corn  and  buy  his  flour.  The  chief 
reason  is  that  the  flour  from  the  industrial  mills,  especially  wheaten  flour, 
is  greatly  superior  in  quality  to  home-ground  flour;  this  is  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  industrial  mills  do  not  take  their  corn  from  one  district 
only,  but  blend  together  corn  from  places  far  apart;  thus  the  occasional 
differences  in  quality  are  to  great  extent  neutralized.  Further,  Swedish 
wheat  does  not,  on  the  whole,  possess  the  most  suitable  composition  for 
baking  purposes:  in  order  to  produce  a  really  good  baking  flour, 
it  is  necessary  to  blend  it  with  harder  kinds  (richer  in  gluten)  e.  g. 
Russian  wheat.  For  this  reason  a  great  deal  of  Russian  or  Hungarian 
flour  used  to  be  imported  and  mixed  at  the  bakeries  with  the  Swedish. 
The  advent  of  industrial  mills  has  changed  this:  the  corn  itself  is  now 
imported.  By  dint  of  judicious  selection  the  industrial  mills  can  now 
obtain  a  mixture  which  yields  a  flour  satisfying  the  most  exacting  require- 
ments, and  since  at  present  there  is  only  a  small  quantity  of  flour  produced 
solely  from  Swedish  wheat,  the  importation  of  highly  glutinous  flour  is 
no  longer  necessary. 

Although  rye  is,  in  point  of  quantity,  the  most  widely  used  grain  in  Sweden 
for  breadmaking  purposes,  the  output  of  rye  flour  from  the  industrial  mills  is 
generally  of  secondary  importance.  The  explanation  of  this  is  that  only  a  small 
proportion  of  rye-flour  consists  of  sifted  flour.  The  national  "hard  bread"  (hart 
brod),  which  is  the  bread  par  excellence  in  the  country  districts,  is  made  almost 
solely  of  bolted  flour.  As  the  making  of  such  flour  is  a  very  simple  process, 
and  therefore  suitable  for  very  small  mills,  the  farmers  generally  have  their 
rye  ground  to  bolted  flour  at  the  small  mUls  in  their  own  districts.  In  the  year 
1912  there  were  1  356  mills  with  1  822  pairs  of  rollers  and  4  724  pairs  of 
stones.  The  whole  output  was  5  969  878  quintals  of  flour,  groats,  bran  and 
grits,  of  which  3  999  486  quintals  were  flour;  among  the  larger  mills  of  Sweden 
may  be  mentioned:  Saltsjokvarn  and  Tre  Kroner  in  Stockholm,  Uppsala  Ang- 
kvarn  (steam  mill),  J.  G.  Swarts'  Kvarnverk,  Norrkoping,  Kalmar  Angkvam, 
Marten  Persons  Valskvain  (roller  mUl),  Kristianstad,  Tralleborgs  Angkvarn,  Malmo 
Stora  Valskvarn. 

The  development  of  the  mill  industry  during  the  last  years  is  shown  by 
Table  72. 

As  shown  in  the  Table  72  the  import  of  flour,  groats  and  bran  has  decreased 
in  recent  times.    As  the  import  of  unmUled  grain  has  at  any  rate  not  decreased, 


Table  72. 

The  Mill 

Industry 

^ 

Annually 

Number  of 
mills 

Number  of 
workmen 

Output 
quintals 

Value  of 

output 

thousands 

ol  kr. 

Import 
quintals 

Export 
quintals 

1901—05 

1906-10 

1910 

1911 

1912 

1627 
1447 

1384 
1381 
1356 

4481 
4  161 

3  975 

4  017 
4  003 

5  410  228 
5  509  807 

5  612  283 
5  799  076 
5  969  878 

92  243 

105  777 

106  392 
108  613 
118  194 

1  208  185 
1  058  918 

1 176  667 
761 891 
818  728 

61526 
66  513 

56  241 
122  972 
305 127 

22—133179.  Sweden.  11. 


338  VII.      MANUFACTUEING  INDUSTRIES. 

and  the  home  crops  have  actually  increased,  it  is  manifest  that  the  milling  indu- 
stry has  enlarged  its  scope  considerably,  and  since,  as  already  mentioned,  the 
large  factory  mUls  driven  by  machinery  have  been  gradually  ousting  the  small 
mills  of  former  days,  the  output  of  the  big  steam  mills  must  evidently  have 
increased  stUl  more. 

Margarine  Industry. 

The  raw  material  out  of  which  margarine  was  originally  made  was  simply 
fresh,  unclarified  tallow,  obtained  from  homed  cattle.  This  tallow  is  melted  in 
water  at  a  temperature  of  about  50° — 60°  C,  so  as  to  form  what  is  called  "pre- 
mier jus",  which  is  then  allowed  to  solidify  at  about  30°  C,  after  which  it  is. 
placed  in  cotton  cloths  and  exposed  to  high  pressure,  whereupon  a  fluid  portion, 
called  oleo-margarine,  is  obtained,  together  with  a  solid  mass  called  pressed-tallow. 
The  oleo-margarine  is  then  mixed  with  milk  and  chiimed,  and  afterwards  mani- 
pulated like  ordinary  butter,  the  product  obtained  being  margarine.  Oleo-marga- 
rine alone,  however,  is,  in  general,  too  hard  to  give  a  fully  satisfactory  substitute 
for  butter,  so  that,  before  the  process  of  churning,  pure  vegetable  oils,  such  as 
cotton-oil,  sesam  oil  or  pea-nut  oil  are  added,  these  substances  also  contributing  to 
make  the  margarine  cheaper.  In  accordance  with  a  Royal  Regulation  of  October 
13,  1905,  margarine,  in  order  that  it  may  be  easily  distinguished  chemically 
from  butter,  must  contain  at  least  10  ^  of  sesam  oil  "of  all  the  fat  and  vegetable 
oils,  sesam  oil  therein  included,  employed  in  the  manufacture".  In  the  super- 
ior kinds  of  margarine,  we  find  among'  these  ingredients  the  best  lard,  so-called 
neutral  lard,  together  with  natural  (ordinary)  butter,  in  considerable  quantities.  During 
the  last  few  years,  considerable  progress  has  been  made  in  the  margarine  indu- 
stry, in  consequence  of  the  fact  that,  after  efforts  made  during  the  preceding  25 
years,  it  was  at  length  found  possible  to  clarify  cocoa-nut  oil  and  palm-kernel  oil  so 
that  they  remain  fresh  and  of  agreeable  taste,  and  can  thus  be  employed  in 
the  manufacture  of  margarine.  In  such  vegetable  margarine  (as  it  is  called,  in 
order  to  distinguish  it  from  animal-margarine  with  oleo-margarine  and  lard  as  the 
principal  raw  ingredients),  there  exists  no  oleo-margarine,  but  only  some  of  the 
above-mentioned  purified  oils,  together  with  the  vegetable  oils  also  mentioned 
above.  Vegetable  margarine  has  a  purer  taste  than  the  animal  product,  and  is  therefore 
better  suited  for  direct  consumption,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  the  margarine 
prepared  from  animal  ingredients  is  better  for  baking  and  cooking  in  general. 
Since  the  beginning  of  1910,  vegetable  margarine  has  supplanted  the  animal  pro- 
duct, so  that  the  greatest  part  of  the  margarine  consumed  now  consists  of 
vegetable  margarine.  This  is  the  result,  not  only  of  the  better  taste  in  the  case 
of  the  vegetable  margarine,  but  also  its  lower  price  which  is  about  ^/3  of  that  of 
the  animal  margarine  of  the  same  quality ;  at  the  same  time,  the  price  of  cocoa- 
nut  oil  and  palm-kernel  oil  has,  consequently,  risen,  and  nowadays  these  oils  are 
for  the  most  part  employed  for  the  manufacture  of  margarine,  instead  of  being 
devoted  to  the  manufacture  of  soap  as  they  formerly  were.  If  the  selling-price 
of  the  better  class  of  animal  margarine  is  about  ^/s  of  that  of  ordinary  butter, 
that  of  vegetable  margarine  is  not  more  than  about  half  of  the  latter,  so  that 
vegetable  margarine  forms  a  very  good  and  cheap  nutriment  for  the  masses. 

The  manufacture  of  margarine  was  first  begun  in  France  in  1869  by  Mege- 
Mouries.  In  Sweden  the  first  margarine  factory  was  built  in  1881,  at  Halsing- 
borg,  and  in  1912  the  country  possessed  10  margarine-factories  employing  585 
workmen.  The  consumption  of  margarine  in  1912  was  about  23  million  kg, 
corresponding  to  4'i  kg  per  head  of  the  population  per  annum  while,  in  Den- 
mark, for  example,  it  is  about  12  kg,  or  3  times  as  much  as  in  Sweden.  Table  73 
gives  a  survey  of  the  development  of  the  margarine  industry  in  Sweden. 


Table  73. 


MANUFACTURE   OF   BEET-SUGIAR. 

Margarine  (ace.  to  the  official  statistics). 


339 


Annually 


Manufacture 
kg 


Cost  ol 
production 
ore  pr  kg 


Import 


Export 


Consumption 
kg 


1886-90 
1891—95 
1896—00 
1901-05 
1906-10 

1910.  . 

1911.  . 

1912.  . 


216  377 

1840  745 

6122  913 

12  503  813 

14237  920 

16  337  418 
19  062  467 

22  887  787 


93 

84 

83 

107 

116 

118 

95 

107 


543  375 

791  910 

1 185  930 

55  410 

40  284 

128  906 
173  990 
147  829 


5  696 

52  494 

93  975 

222  786 

130  364 

91909 
41235 
22141 


754  056 

2  580161 

7  214  868 

12  336  437 

14  147  840 

16  374415 
19 195  212 
23  013  475 


According  to  the  Royal  Regulation  of  July  1,  1898,  which  has  since  under- 
gone several  alterations,  the  manufacture  of  margarine  is  now  under  the  super- 
intendence in  every  factory  of  a  Comptroller,  specially  appointed  by  the  govern- 
ments of  the  respective  lans,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  there  is  no  security  that 
imported  margarine  is  manufactured  under  any  kind  of  control;  this  fact,  nowa- 
days, since  the  import  has  almost  come  to  an  end,  is  a  matter  of  less  import- 
ance than  it  formerly  was.  The  sale  of  margarine  is  also  subjected  to  certain 
regulations,  in  order  that  the  article  may  not  be  taken  as,  or  employed  for  the 
adulteration  of,  natural  butter.  Margarine-cheese  must  be  coloured  red  exteriorly, 
and  not  less  than  5  ^  of  its  fatty  constituents  must  consist  of  sesam  oil. 

In  this  coim.ection  it  may  be  mentioned  that,  in  1911,  the  manufacture  in 
Sweden  of  "premier  jus"  amounted  to  566  844  kg,  whUe  2  816  979  kg  were 
imported;  the  corresponding  figures  for  oleo-margarine  were  1  409  908  and 
386  805  kg,  while  of  9  591  742  kg  imported  cocoa-nut  oil,  8  127  916  kg,  or 
85  %,  were  employed  for  the  manufacture  of  vegetable  margarine.  "• 

Since  1912,  there  has  existed  in  Kalmar  a  factory  for  the  purification  of 
cocoa-nut  oil  and  palm-kernel  oil  for  the  manufacture  of  margarine. 


Manufacture  of  Beet-Sugar, 

As  far  back  as  between  1830  and  1840,  attempts  were  made  in  Sweden 
to  manufacture  beet-sugar,  but  the  factories  then  started  soon  had  to  be 
closed  down,  as  the  percentage  of  sugar  extracted  was  too  small.  Though 
experiments  were  renewed  from  time  to  time,  especially  in  the  beginning 
of  the  seventies,  the  industry  cannot  be  said  to  have  really  taken  firm 
root  in  Sweden  until  the  first  half  of  the  following  decade. 

In  1913,  there  were  24  factories  making  beet-sugar  in  Sweden,  of  which 
one  was  in  Gottland,  one  in  Oland,  one  in  each  of  the  Lans  of  Blekinge, 
Ostergotland,  Vastergotland,  and  Halland,  and  the  rest  in  Skane.  Of  the 
latter,  three  were  so-called  juice-stations  (see  below).  The  Swedish  sugar 
factories,  as  regards  technical  equipment,  are  fully  abreast  of  the  times; 
the  larger  of  them  are  capable  of  working  up  as  much  as  1  000  tons  of  beet 

'  Some  of  the  figures  in  this  section  are  not  in  fall  agreement  with  those  of  the  offi- 
cial statistics,  as  the  latter  are  somewhat  incomplete.  The  correct  figures  have  been 
gained  from  reports,  obtained  direct  from  the  margarine  factories  by  the  Committee  which  was 
appointed  by  the  Board  of  Trade,  in  the  spring  of  1911,  for  the  purpose  of  drawing  up 
proposals  for  alterations  in  the  duty  on  margarine  and  its  raw  materials. 


340  Vn.      MANUFACTURING   INDUSTRIES. 

Table  74.  Manufacture  of  Beet-Sugar  in  Sweden. 


Arinuallyi 

No.  of 
factories 

Beet-land 
Hectares^ 

Beet 
worked 

Quintals 

Production 

in  quintals 

Percentage  of  Yields 

£aw  sugar 

Molasses 

Haw  sugar 

Molasses 

1876-80.   . 

1 

400 

113  300 

9  472 

8-3i 

1881-85  . 

2 

1100 

327124 

28  505 

12  635 

8-69 

4-06 

1886-90  . 

4 

4  000 

1162  286 

118  241 

37  354 

10-34 

3-18 

1891—95  . 

13 

14  000 

4157  316 

460  664 

116  914 

11-20 

2-83 

1896-00  . 

19 

25  960 

7170  540 

897  305 

190  318 

12-54 

2-69 

1901-05  . 

20 

26  076 

7  077  150 

1 022  928 

103  350 

14-49 

1-44 

1906-10  . 

23 

32  669 

9  406  965 

1  421 458 

122  406 

15-01 

1-31 

1910  (1910/11) 

24 

35134 

11  051 120 

1 739  213 

134  661 

15-72 

1-21 

1911  (1911/12) 

24 

29  052 

8  240  670 

1273  782 

112  449 

15-44 

1-36 

1912  (1912/1 

3) 

24 

27092 

8  365  081 

13  196  150 

124  354 

15-77 

1-48 

'  The  years  given  here,  denote  the  beet-seasons,  i.  e.,  the  manufacturing-years  commenc- 
ing during  the  years  named  and  ending  in  the  following  ones.  —  ^  For  the  quinquennial 
periods  1876 — 95,  the  number  of  hectares  are  roughly  estimated  on  the  basis  of  a  crop  of 
300  quintals  per  hectare.  —  "  The  figures  for  the  quinquennial  periods  are  averages  of 
the  percentages  of  yield  for  the  respective  years. 


per  diem,  corresponding  to  about  140  tons  of  sugar.  As  a  result,  the  sugar- 
season,  -which,  according  to  law,  is  reckoned  from  September  1  to  August 
31,  but  -which  usually  begins  in  the  early  days  of  October,  has  become  still 
shorter,  so  that  many  factories  nowadays  have  finished  treating  their  beet 
about  Christmas-time. 

The  diffusionrmethod  is  employed  at  all  the  factories;  the  beet  is  cut  into 
slices,  which  are  thoroughly  steeped  in  warm  water  in  diffusers.  At  the 
juice-stations,  only  extraction  is  carried  out,  the  juice  being  afterwards 
conducted  in  underground  pipes  to  the  main  factory. 

The  seed  required  for  the  cultivation  of  the  beet  is  purchased  abroad. 
The  crop  of  beet  per  hectare  varies  between  270  and  320  quintals,  the 
average  being  estimated  at  295  quintals.  By  way  of  comparison  it  may 
be  mentioned  that  the  mean  figure  for  Germany  is  300  quintals,  and  that 
for  France  270  quintals  per  hectare.  The  yield  of  sugar  per  hectare  in 
Sweden  is  45  q,  in  Germany  49  q  and  in  France  33  q.  The  percentage  of  su- 
gar in  the  beet  during  the  last  quinquennial  period  has  averaged,  in  Sweden 

15  %,  in  Germany  15-6  %  and  in  France  13-3  %. 

There  has  from  early  times  been  a  customs  duty  on  sugar  in  S-w-eden,  the 
revenue  yielded  thereby  being  very  considerable.  Since  July  1,  1873,  the  home 
production  has  paid  excise.  This  has  always  been  in  the  form  of  a  beet-tax, 
based  on  an  assumed  fixed  percentage  of  sugar  in  the  beet;  the  amount  depend- 
ing on  the  current  customs  duty  on  unrefined  sugar:  to  begin  -with,  20?^  of 
this  duty,  later  on,  40  %,  and  finally,  60  ?^.  In  order  to  determine  the  amount 
of  the  duty,  the  yield  -was  first  estimated  to  be  6 '25  of  the  -wreight  of  the  raw 
beet,  but  this  ivas  gradually  increased  to  12?^.  In  1906,  a  consumption-tax 
was  imposed  on  sugar,  all  sugar  intended  for  consumption  being  subjected  to  a 
duty  of  an  equal  amount,  irrespective  of  the  quality  of  the  goods ;  this  tax  was, 
at  first,  13  ore  per  kilogram,  but,  from  and  inclusive  of  1913,  it  was  raised  to 

16  ore. 


MANUPACTUEE   OF   BEET-SUGAR. 


341 


10  12  .rt  It;  38  20 22 2* 26        28 


Gen.  Stat),  UtAnstAochholm 


342 


VII.      MANUFACTURING    INDUSTRIES. 


The  control,  when  the  old  beet-tax  was  in  force,  was  intended  merely 
for  ascertaining  the  weight  of  the  beet  employed.  Since  the  introduction 
of  the  consumption-tax,  it  has  been  transformed  into  a  complete  control  of  the 
factories,  so  that  no  sugar  can  be  taken  from  these  places  without  the  know- 
ledge of  the  control-officials,  who  have  to  note  the  amount,  etc.,  so  removed. 
Every  raw-sugar  factory  and  sugar-refinery  works  is  under  the  immediate  super- 
vision of  a  First  Controller,  who  is  assisted  by  a  greater  or  lesser  number  of 
controllers.  The  chief  control  of  the  sugar  manufacture  is  exercised  by  the 
Royal  Control  Board.  The  Royal  Ordinance  now  in  force  respecting  the  taxation 
of  sugar  is  dated  October  11,  1907. 


Karpalund  Sugar  Factory. 


The  principal  cause  of  tlie  rapid  rise  of  the  sugar  industry  in  Sweden  is 
to  be  found  in  the  very  considerable  protective  duty  on  the  imported  ar- 
ticle. Even  after  the  introduction  of  the  consumption-tax,  the  three  sugar- 
factories  last  erected,  viz.,  in  the  island  of  Oland,  and  in  the  Lans  of  Oster- 
gotland  and  Vastergotland,  have  enjoyed  a  certain  reduction  in  the  amount 
of  the  tax  to  be  paid.  The  establishment  of  new^  factories,  too,  is  facilita- 
ted by  the  regulation  issued  in  1893,  that  factories  which  are  opened  at  a 
distance  of  more  than  30  km  from  another  factory  which  is  in  operation, 
will  be  considered  as  having  a  lesser  j'ield  per  weight  for  the  first  five 
j-ears,  and  so  will  pay  a  lower  tax  than  older  factories.  Altogether,  four 
factories  have  enjoyed  such  a  reduction  of  tax. 

Owing  to  the  rise  of  a  home-production  of  sugar,  the  import  of  this  ar- 
ticle, which  was  formerly  very  great,  has  almost  entirely  ceased,  but  the 
consumption  has  increased  to  such  an  extent  that,  nowadays,  Sweden  is 
among  the  number  of  the  chief  sugar-consuming  countries  of  Europe,  being 
surpassed  only  by  England  and  Denmark. 


MANUFACTURE  OF   BEBT-SUOAR.  343 

The  figures  relative  to  this  matter,  both  for  Sweden  and  for  other  coun- 
tries, are  given  on  page  I,  171. 

The  economic  importance  of  the  cultivation  of  the  sugar-beet.  Among 
the  lans  of  Sweden,  Skane  and,  more  especially,  Malmohus  Lan,  are,  very 
suitable  for  the  cultivation  of  the  beet,  both  as  regards  climate  and  the 
soil.  Malmohus  Lan,  for  example,  yields  about  11%  oi  the  total  quantity  of  beets 
obtained  in  Sweden  for  the  sugar  industry,  and  the  beet-harvests  there  are,  too, 
larger  per  hectare  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  country.  The  area  devoted 
to  the  cultivation  of  the  beet,  consequently,  amounts  to  5  %  of  the  total  cultiva- 
ted area  of  the  lan,  while  in  Kristianstad  Lan  the  proportion  is  1'2%  and  in 
the  island  of  Gottland,  2'8  %. 

The  cultivation  of  the  beet  is  attended  with  considerable  expense,  ne- 
cessitated by  the  great  use  of  artificial  manures,  potash  salts,  and  superphos- 
phates. The  successful  cultivation  of  the  beet  requires  not  only  a  suitable  cli- 
mate and  soil,  but  also  a  careful  cultivation  and  manuring  of  the  groun-d,  and 
continual  weeding  during  the  season  of  growth.  For  this  reason,  the  cultivation 
of  the  beet  has  a  beneficial  influence  on  the  returns  given  by  the  other  crops. 
As  the  chemical  constituents  of  the  sugar  are  obtained  from  the  atmosphere 
alone,  a  sugar-harvest  does  not  imply  any  loss  of  the  mineral  substances  of  the 
soil;  these  are  found,  on  the  other  hand,  in  the  beet-tops  and  beet-substance 
which  are  fed  to  the  live  stock,  and  the  greater  part  of  which  is  returned  to 
the  soil  in  the  form  of  manure.  Without  exaggeration  it  may  be  said  that  the 
cultivation  of  the  beet,  thanks  to  its  promotion  of  very  thorough  methods 
of  work,  the  improved  culture  of  the  soil,  and  a  harvest  which  is  a  more 
uniform  and  lucrative  one  than  that  of  other  forms  of  crops,  has  been, 
and  still  must  be,  considered  as  one  of  the  most  powerful  factors  in  the  improve- 
ment of  agriculture  in  those  tracts  where  the  cultivation  of  the  beet  can  be 
carried  on  with  profit.  Of  the  beets  that  are  supplied  to  the  factories,  incom- 
parably the  greater  part  (during  the  season  of  1!I12/13,  some  96'6  %  of 
•  the  whole),  was  grown  on  land  belonging  to  private  landowners  and  not  on 
that  of  the  factories.  In  Malmohus  Lan  a  good  third  part,  and  in  Gottland  more 
than  half,  of  all  the  farmers  tilling  their  own  ground  devoted  themselves  to  the 
cultivation  of  the  sugar-beet.  The  price  paid  for  the  beets  by  the  factories  con- 
sists, first,  of  a  certain  fixed  rate  —  which,  of  late  years,  has  been,  for  beets 
■delivered  before  December  1,  2"10  kr.  per  quintal,  and  for  delivery  after  Decem- 
ber 1,  2'30  kr.  per  q  —  and  also  of  an  additional  payment  of  1  ore  for  each 
one-tenth  percentage  of  sugar  above  14  %.  In  this  manner,  the  average  price 
during  1912 — 13  has  been  as  much  as  2-65  kr.  per  quintal.  With  this  price 
for  beets,  the  gross  returns  per  hectare  for  land  under  beets  in  Skane,  amounted  the 
same  year  to  880  kr.  The  cost  of  cultivation  can  probably  be  estimated  at  about 
300  kr.,  so  that  the  net  returns  of  beet-growing  land  in  Skane  may  be  put  at 
almost  580  kr.  per  hectare,  an  amount  that  is  seldom  equalled,  we  imagine,  by 
any  cultivated  crop  grown  in  Sweden. 

The  by-products  from  the  raw-sugar  factories  are  molasses  and  beet-pulp. 
The  former  is  the  final  mother-liquor  from  the  raw-sugar  and  forms  a  dark-brown, 
evil-smelling  syrup  which,  in  addition  to  water  and  salts  contains  about  50  %  oi 
«ugar,  however.  The  sugar  in  this  molasses,  which  makes  up  about  3  %  of  the 
weight  of  the  beets  used,  is,  in  some  factories,  precipitated  by  means  of  lime, 
and  the  sugar-lime  thus  obtained  is  afterwards  treated  in  the  factory,  in  order 
to  extract  the  sugar  from  the  mass.  The  molasses  which  is  not  treated  in  this 
way  is  either  employed  for  the  manufacture  of  spirits,  or  —  and  this  is  nowa- 
•days  the  usual  plan  —  for  cattle  food,  either  alone,  or  mixed  with  husks,  peat, 
fodder-cakes  or  beet-pulp. 


344 


Vn.      MANUFACTURING   INDUSTKIES. 


Beet-pulp  is  the  practically  sugar-free  beet-shreds  which  remain  after  diffusion, 
and  constitutes  from  40^-50  %  of  the  total  weight  of  the  beet;  it  forms  a  much 
esteemed  cattle-fodder,  which  is  usually  sold  at  a  very  low  price  to  the  beet- 
growers. 

According  to  a  fairly  new  method  of  sugar-extraction  -. —  the  so-called  Steffen'a 
boiling-method  —  a  certain  percentage  of  the  sugar  of  the  beet  is  allowed  to 
remain  in  the  beet-pulp,  which,  when  dried,  is  termed  sugar-shred  and  has  a 
much  greater  value  as  a  cattle  fodder  than  ordinary  beet-pulp.  A  comparison 
between  the  three  food-stuffs  shows  that  for  one  fodder-imit  there  is  required 
12"5  kg  of  fresh  beet-pulp,  l"a  of  dried  pulp,  I's  kg  of  molasses  and  1.2  kg  of 
dried  sugar-shreds. 

Sugar  Refineries. 

Some  of  the  sugar  refineries  are  directly  connected  with  one  or  more 
raw  sugar  factories;  all  of  them,  as  a  rule,  prepare  only  Swedish  raw 
sugar;  moreover,  the  improved  technical  processes  of  recent  years  have 
rendered  it  possible  to  rectify  the  beet  juice  direct,  so  that,  after  boiling, 
it  yields  a  product  equal  in  quality  to  refined  sugar,  termed  "melis",  or 
coarse  loaf-sugar.  Sugar  of  this  kind  is,  however,  manufactured  at  only 
one  factory,  namely  at  Hasslarp,  which  must  therefore  be  regarded  as 
both  a  raw  sugar  factory  and  a  refinery.  Table  75  shows  the  number 
of  sugar  refineries  in  Sweden  and  their  output. 

Out  of  these  ten  refineries  there  were  eight  situated  in  towns,  notably  at: 
Stockholm,  Norrkoping,  Lidkoping,  Gothenburg,  Halsingborg,  Lands- 
krona,  Lund,  and  Ystad;  the  remaining  two  are  located  in  the  country,  in 
Skane,  namely  at  Hasslarp  and  Arlov.  With  this  year  (1914)  the  refine- 
ries at  Norrkoping,  Halsingborg,  Lund,  and  Hasslarp  are  stopped  owing  to 
changes  in  the  customs  tariffs  (cf.  below). 

As  the  bulk  of  the  sugar  treated  in  the  refineries  nowadays  is  beet  sugar,  the 
treacle  obtained  can  scarcely  be  used  in  cooking  but  must  be  utilized  in  the 
same  way  as  white  beet  molasses.  Only  the  treacle  obtained  in  refining  cane 
sugar  is  fit  for  human  food,  and  treacle  of  this  kind  is,  in  fact,  nowadays 
imported  in  great  quantities,  particularly  from  England  and  America.  The  ordin- 
ary qualities  of  sugar  used  for  consumption  are:  refined  sugar  (raffinad)  occurring 
in  the  form  of  loaf,  lump,  and  granulated  sugar,  and  brown  sugar  (farina),  which 


Table  75. 


Sugar  Eefineries. 


Annually 
(Working  year) 

Number 

of 
refineries 

Number 

oJ 
workmen 

Refined  Sugar 

Treacle  and  molasses 

Total 
thousands 
of  kronor 

quintals 

thousands 
of  kroner 

quintals 

tbonsands 
of  kroner 

1896-00    .     . 

1901-05  .    . 
1906-10  .    . 

1910(1910/11) 
1911(1911/12) 
1912(1912/13) 

9 

9 

10 

10 
10 
10 

2  499 

2  641 

3  077 

2  759 
2  682 

801  613 

967  125 
1 187  300 

1298  085 
1  231 680 
1  347  916 

42  005 
50  01)9 
61445 

69  954 
72  475 

46174 
54  628  ' 
65  441 

88  947 
100  865 
115  375 

288 

302 
419 

588 
1171 

42  293 

51)  .511 
61864 

70  542 
73  646 

Remark.    Regarding  working  year,  see  explication  Table  74. 


SWEETS,   CHOCOLATE,   AND   COFFEE   SUBSTITUTES.  345 

resembles  the  "powdered  sugar"  (pudersocher)  formerly  in  general  use  in  Sweden, 
which  consists  of  the  raw  sugar  obtained  in  the  preparation  of  the  juice  from 
the  sugar  cane. 

The  duty  on  sugar  and  treacle  has  been  subject  to  considerable  fluctuations. 
For  many  years  prior  to  the  introduction  of  the  tax  on  consximption  (kon- 
sumtionsshatt)  the  duty  on  refined  sugar  was  33  ore  per  kilogram,  23  ^/2  ore 
for  raw  sugar,  and  10  ore  for  treacle.  As  a  result  of  the  introduction  of  the 
tax  on  consumption,  imported  sugar  was  made  liable  to  a  tax  as  weU  as  duty, 
and  the  aggregate  amount  of  both  was  lowered  from  33  to  30  ore  for  refined 
sugar.  Out  of  this  amount  17  ore  was  the  duty  and  13  ore  the  tax;  for  raw 
sugar  the  tax  was  the  same  as  for  refined,  but  the  duty  was  only  11'75  ore  per 
kilogram,  no  tax  was  levied  on  treacle,  and  the  duty  was  10  ore,  as  before. 
At  the  end  of  the  year  1913,  the  tax  on  sugar  was  16  ore  and  the  duty 
on  refined  sugar  14  ore,  on  raw  sugar  9  ore;  treacle  was  exempt  from  the  tax, 
but  was  subject  to  a  duty  of  10  ore.  For  1914  onwards,  the  tax  on  sugar  has 
been  fixed  at  16  ore,  as  before;  the  duty  on  refined  sugar  has  been  fixed  at 
11  ore,  on  raw  sugar  at  8  ore;  treacle  is  stni  to  be  exempt  from  the  tax,  but 
the  duty  on  it  has  been  lowered  to  5  ore  a  kilogram. 

The    tax    on    sugar    during  the  last  years  has  yielded  the  following  amounts: 

Kr. 

1908 14469  097 

1909 16  979  051 

1910 17  458  297 

1911 19  888  138 

1912 17  962  981 

1913 20  941 622 


Sweets,  Chocolate,  and  Coffee  Substitutes. 

Instead  of  coffee-beans,  there  are  employed  substitutes  of  different  kinds,  for 
instance:  roasted  grain  and  malt,  with  or  without  the  addition  of  sugar  or 
treacle,  the  roasted  root  of  cichorium  intybus,  the  roasted  root  of  the  dandelion, 
or  roasted  beet.  Malmo  is  the  chief  centre  of  the  manufacture  of  sweets, 
chocolate,  and  coffee  substitutes,  for,  while  the  total  value  of  the  manufacture 
of  these  commodities  in  1912,  in  the  whole  of  Sweden,  was  20  980  000  kronor, 
no  less  than  4  746  000  kroner  was  the  value  of  the  manufacture  at  Malmo 
alone.  The  total  number  of  factories  of  this  class  in  Sweden  in  1912  was  109, 
employing  2  494  hands.  Cocoa  beans  are  imported  mainly  via  Hamburg;  crushed 
or  powdered  cocoa  principally  from  Holland. 

(By  the  way  it  may  here  be  noted  that  the  produce  of  the  coffee-roasting 
works  in  Sweden  during  1912  represented  an  output  value  of  5  776  000  kronor.) 


Spirit  Production. 

For  the  production  o£  spirits  use  is  made  principally  of  potatoes,  al- 
though grain  of  all  kinds  is  used  as  well  and,  also,  although  to  a  less 
extent,  molasses  and  the  sugar-beet.  Of  the  ordinary  cereals  employed 
in  the  manufacture  of  spirits  the  first  place  is  occupied  by  rye,  barley, 
and  meslin,  the  most  important  of  them  being  barley,  which,  as  a  rule,  is 
employed  for  the  manufacture  of  malt.  In  years  when  the  potato-crop 
was  a  poor  one,  maize  used  to  be  imported  to  supply  the  demands  of  the 


-346  VII.      MANUFACTURING   INDUSTRIES. 

distilleries,  but  since  an  extra  duty  of  10  ore  was  imposed  on  spirits  ma- 
nufactured from  this  cereal,  the  import  for  this  purpose  has  diminished 
very  considerably. 

Regarding  the  employment  of  the  potato  for  the  purpose  of  manufacturing 
spirits,  it  may  be  mentioned  that,  as  early  as  the  middle  of  the  18th  century, 
i.  e.,  immediately  after  the  introduction  of  the  potato  into  Sweden,  it  was  discov- 
ered that  use  could  be  made  of  it  for  distilling  purposes,  although  the 
general  use  of  the  potato  for  the  purpose  in  question  probably  did  not  occur 
before  the  beginning  of  the  19th  century.  As  to  the  proportion  of  the  potato- 
crop  used  for  spirits,  it  may  be  stated  that,  in  1872,  about  17  %  of  the  total 
potato-crop  of  the  country  and  1"6  %  of  the  grain-crop,  found  their  way  to  the 
distilleries;  in  the  manufacturing  year  1912 — 13,  there  were  used  235  165  quintals 
of  grain  of  all  kinds  and  1  772  000  hectoliters  of  potatoes  and,  as  the  harvest  ia 
1912  was  estimated  at  28  311  982  quintals  of  grain  of  all  kinds  and  28  175  600 
hectoliters  of  potatoes,  there  was,  consequently,  employed  in  1912 — 13  for  the 
manufacture  of  spirits,  only  O'ss  %  of  the  grain-harvest  and  7'6  %  of  the  potato- 
crop. 

The  spirit  industry  is  becoming  more  and  more  an  independent  branch 
of  industry,  while,  in  earlier  times,  and  even  as  late  as  the  seventies, 
it  was  partly  carried  on  as  a  branch  of  agriculture. 

The  number  of  the  verj'  small  factories,  which  often  confine  themselves 
to  the  mashing  of  their  own  products,  shows  an  absolute  decrease.  The 
average  amount  manufactured  per  distillery  which,  in  the  seventies, 
amounted  to  about  1  100  hectoliters,  had,  for  the  quinquennial  period 
1907—12,  increased  to  2  978  hi. 

While,  during  the  fifties -all  the  provinces  of  the  kingdom  carried  on  the 
distilling  of  spirits,  nowadays  it  is  chiefly  Skane,  Uppland,  Blekinge, 
Gastrikland,  and  Halland  that  pursue  the  business.  Of  all  the  provinces, 
Skane,  in  1912 — 13,  occupied  the  first  place,  having  72  %  of  all  the 
distilleries  and  nearly  71  %  of  the  total  manufacture. 

A  special  phase  in  the  manufacture  of  spirits  in  Sweden  was  the  experiment- 
al distilling  carried  on  with  lichens,  which,  on  the  proposal  of  Professor  Sten- 
berg,  was  carried  on  during  the  years  1867 — 77.  Reindeer-moss  contains  a 
kind  of  cellulose  which  can  be  easily  saccharified  and  be  made  to  ferment  alco- 
holically.  The  spirit  manufactured  from  lichens  had  a  peculiar  flavour,  which 
made  it  difficult  to  dispose  of  the  article. 

Sulphite  Spirits.  In  spite  of  repeated  attempts  to  employ  wood-fibre 
—  either  in  the  form  of  sawdust  or  of  peat  —  for  the  production  of 
spirits,  no  very  satisfactory  result  has  been  reached  in  the  effort  to  obtain 
spirits  from  wood.  On  the  other  hand,  two  Swedish  engineers,  J.  A. 
Wallin  and  G.  Ekstrom,  have  succeeded  in  producing  spirits  from  the 
waste-lye  from  the  sulphite-cellulose  factories.  It  was  found  that  this 
waste-lye  contains  about  2  %  of  fermentable  sugar,  which  can  be  made 
to  ferment  in  the  ordinarj-  way  by  means  of  yeast.  By  this  process  there 
is  obtained  a  spiritous  solution  which,  it  is  true,  contains  only  about 
1   volume-percentage   of  alcohol,   but  by  modern   methods   of  distillation 


SPIRIT   PRODUCTION. 


347 


it  is  easy  to  obtain  from  it  a  95 — 96  %  spirit.  This  manufacture  has 
already  gone  on  for  some  years  and,  in  1912,  was  pursued  at  three  sul- 
phite factories,  viz.,  Skutskar  in  Uppland  Lan,  Kvarnsveden  in  Koppar- 
herg  Lan,  and  Bergvik  in  G-avleborg  Lan.  The  amount  of  sulphite  spirit 
manufactured  during  1912  amounted  to  43  466  hi  of  50  %-spirit,  or 
about  10  %  of  the  entire  amount  of  spirits  produced  in  the  country.  If 
a  large  number  of  the  sulphite  factories  of  Sweden  produced  sulphite 
spirits,  however,  the  entire  Swedish  demand  for  spirits  could  be  satisfied, 
for,  after  suitable  rectification  and  re-distillation,  sulphite  spirit  becomes 
quite  palatable.  At  present,  however,  all  such  spirit  is  either  methylated 
or  exported. 

Taxation.  The  distillation  of  spirits  began  in  Sweden  as  early  as  the  15th 
century,  but  was  not  subjected  to  any  control  until  the  year  1638,  when  a  levy 
on  the  manufacture  was  made  for  the  first  time,  distillation  for  home  consump- 
tion and  that  for  sale  being  treated  on  different  bases.  From  that  time  onwards, 
the  distilling  industry  has  had  a  very  chequered  career,  having  been  altogether 
prohibited  in  years  when  the  grain  crop  has  been  poor.  In  1*775,  the  distillation 
of  spirits  became  a  State  monopoly,  being  carried  on  at  Crown  works.  This  state 
of  things  was,  however,  abolished  in  1798,  the  license  to  distil  having,  as  early 
as  1787,  been  leased  to  private  persons. 

The  system  adopted  in  some  countries  of  fixing  the  amount  of  spirits  allowed 
to  be  distilled,  was  once  tried  in  Sweden  too,  for  in  17!»9  the  amount  to  be 
distilled  was  restricted  in  accordance  with  an  assumed  consumption  of  ll's  liters 
per  male  and  5 '9  liters  per  female  of  over  15  years  of  age,  or  an  average  of  6 
liters  per  inhabitant  of  the  whole  population.  (This  quantity,  which  was  thus  at 
that  time  considered  a  reasonable  and  natural  amount,  is  somewhat  less  than  the 
lowest  average  in  recent  times  —  6'i  liters  per  inhabitant  in  1909.)  As  early 
as  1800,  however,  this  arrangement  was  abandoned,  and  it  was  enacted  that,  in 
the  rural  districts,  only  farmers  should  be  entitled  to  distil,  the  size  allowed  for 
the  still  being  made  proportionate  to  the  area  of  the  farm. 

In  the  early  part  of  last  century,  the  taxation  of  spirits  was  made  to  depend 
on  several    different    factors,  viz.,  the    cubic    contents  of   the  still,  the  assessed 


Table  76. 


Spirit  Manufacture. 


steam 

engines 

Eaw  materials  employed 

Spirits  produced  2 

Annually  i 

No.  of 

l-CHXj  v\/ 1  iw^O 

No. 

HP. 

Grain 

Root  crops 

Molasses 

Total 

Per  day 

quintals 

hi 

quintals 

hi 

hi 

1871-75  .'  . 

429 

399  835 

2  634  259 

9130 

457  188 

11-74 

1876-80  . 

380 

70 

640 

346  464 

2  314  424 

3  352 

445019 

1201 

1881-85  . 

293 

93 

833 

292  505 

1  839  717 

5  333 

381440 

13-99 

1886-90  . 

172 

107 

920 

243  293 

1 505  404 

5  281 

336430 

15-47 

1891-95  , 

138 

113 

1016 

292  878 

1  240  212 

16152 

330182 

17-14 

1896-00  . 

128 

132 

1269 

378  319 

1 372  790 

43186 

421190 

21-00 

1901-05  . 

133 

157 

1667 

271  449 

1816  873 

32  060 

401757 

20-90 

1906—10  . 

131 

150 

1964 

244  976 

1  740  688 

49  040 

427  595 

22-30 

1910  (1910/11 

142 

154 

2  211 

180  800 

1  954  887 

27  061 

407160 

22-70 

1911  (1911/12 

139 

148 

2  328 

169  928 

1  639  937 

30  527 

402152 

24-00 

1912  (1912/ 

L3 

143 

148 

2  332 

235  165 

1  932  721 

27  483 

453  301 

24-20 

Maunfacturing-year,  ending  September  80.  —  "  Reduced  to  50  %  alcohol. 


348  Vn.      MANUFACTURING  INDUSTRIES. 

value  of  the  farm,  and  the  amount  of  consumption.  In  1855,  the  duty  was  increased 
considerably,  and  since  that  year  a  new  system  of  taxation  has  been  in  force 
a  certain  rate  being  fixed  for  a  liter  of  spirits  of  50  ^  volume  percentage  of 
alcohol  at  15°  C.  Spirits  with  this  proportion  of  alcohol  are  called  proof  spirits, 
and  this  is  what  is  meant  by  "spirits"  in  all  legal  enactments  and  business  trans- 
actions. The  strength  and  temperature  of  spirits  are  determined  by  so-called 
thermo-alcoholometers,  the  reduction  to  the  standard  being  effected  by  means  of 
tables  drawn  up  for  the  purpose.  The  excise,  which  in  1855,  was  19"i  ore  per 
liter,  has  since  then  been  raised  several  times,  and  at  present  amounts  to  65 
ore  per  liter  of  spirits  containing  50  %  of  alcohol.  Of  the  total  amount  produced, 
2  ^  is  free  from  excise. 

The  total  amounts  raised  by  the  taxation  of  spirits  manufactured  in  the  country 
are,  in  thousands  of  kroner  (without  reductions  for  returns,  see  below): 

1904 24487  1907 26575  1910 24414 

1905 24470  1908 24459  1911 24410 

1906 37  156  1909 22  487  1912 24  212 


Since  1884,  the  measurements  of  spirit  for  the  purposes  of  excise  have  been 
made  by  a  Controlling  Apparatus,  constructed  by  Gebriider  Siemens  of  Berlin; 
this  apparatus  not  only  registers  the  total  number  of  liters  of  spirits  that  pass 
through  it,  but  also  the  number  of  liters  of  the  same  spirits  reduced  to  proof 
spirits;  hence,  the  apparatus  itself  does  the  necessary  reduction  for  purposes  of 
excise.  These  apparatus  are  established  by,  and  belong  to,  the  State.  At  every 
distillery  there  must  be  a  Comptroller  present  while  the  distilling  is  in  progress, 
to  watch  the  manufacture,  take  down  the  figures  registered  by  the  controlling 
apparatus,  and  see  that  sufficient  spirits  are  kept  in  stock  in  a  receptacle  to  which 
he  has  sole  access,  to  cover  the  value  af  any  unpaid  excise.  A  Chief  Comptroller 
exercises  supervision  over  a  fairly  large  number  of  distilleries;  he  alone  has  the 
right  to  open  the  controlling  apparatus  and  he  is  required  to  keep  himself  infor- 
med of  the  way  they  work  by  testing  them  at  frequent  intervals.  Final  super- 
vision of  the  manufacture  of  spirits  in  the  whole  country  is  exercised  by  the 
Royal  Control  Board.  —  The  supervision  by  the  "witnesses  of  the  distillation",  who 
were  first  appointed  in  1855,  was  not  continued  after  the  introduction  of  the 
new  system  of  excise,  when  the  controlling  apparatus  was  adopted. 

The  law  now  in  force  regulating  the  manufacture  of  spirits  dates  from  July 
13,  188Y,  but  has  subsequently  been  amended  in  some  points.  The  distilling 
year  runs  nominally  from  1  October  to  30  September,  but  embraces  in  reality 
only  the  seven  months,  October  to  April;  it  is  only  those  distilleries  which  also 
manufacture  German  yeast  that  are  allowed  to  go  on  working  during  the  months. 
May  to  September. 

Information  as  to  legislation  regarding  the  sale  of  spirits  is  given  in  the 
article  on  the  Temperance  Question.  In  the  same  place  (pp.  I,  740  foil.),  and  also 
on  p.  I,  171,  will  be  found  data  concerning  the  consumption.  It  may  be  here 
noted  with  regard  to  the  latter  that  the  import  of  cognac  for  the  quinquennial 
periods  1871  —  1910,  averaged  10  782,  15  745,  13  274,  9  910,  9  396,  11  303, 
11  769,  and  12  329  hectoliters  annually,  in  1911,  14  114  hi,  in  1912,  14  319 
hi  and  in  1913,  15  396  hi.  The  corresponding  figures  for  arrack  were  13  957, 
10  252,  8  701,  8  232,  7  662,  8  618,  9  068,  7  570  hectoliters  annually,  and,  in 
1911,  7  969  hi.  In  1912,  the  amount  imported  was  8  542  hi  and  in  1913,  8  836 
hi.  In  the  general  figures  for  the  consumption  of  spirits,  these,  as  well  as  other 
varieties  of  imported  spirits  are  included  under  the  one  general  heading  — 
always  after  reduction  to  ?>Q  %  alcoholvolume. 


SPIEIT   PRODUCTION.  349 

Bectiflcation.  By  far  the  greater  proportion  of  the  spirits  consumed 
in  Sweden  is  rectified,  either  by  means  of  charcoal  filtration  alone  or 
by  re-distillation,  with  which  latter  process  fresh  charcoal  filtration  is 
often  combined. 

The  re-distillation  of  crude  spirits  is  effected  in  special  rectifiers,  in  which, 
fusel-oU  and  other  impurities  are  separated  from  the  spirits,  and  ethyl  alcohol  is 
obtained  iu  a  pure,  or  almost  pure,  state.  Though  several  distilleries  are  now 
furnished  with  their  own  rectifiers,  the  rectifying  of  spirits  is  carried  on  princi- 
pally as  a  special  industry  at  factories  where  distilling  is  not  done.  The  total 
number  of  the  rectifying-works  and  the  amount  of  rectified  spirits  produced  is 
shown  by  the  following  table: 

J,        „  Amount  of 

works  V     V.1 

vol.,  hi 

1901—05      20  403  660 

1906-10 18  395  537 

1910 17  332  055 

1911 12  297  287 

1912 9  257  872 

Important  rectifying-works  are  those  at  Beymersholm,  near  Stockholm,  and 
those  at  Gothenburg,  Kristianstad,  Karlshamn,  Motala,  etc. 

The  largest  rectifying-establishment  that  ever  existed  in  Sweden  was  the  one 
started  at  Earlsbamn  about  1885;  its  object  was  to  refine  crude  spirits  for  sub- 
sequent exportation.  Between  1885  and  1891,  no  less  than  1  650  000  Jiecto- 
hters  of  crude  spirits  of  50  j^  alcohol-volume  were  dealt  with  at  this  establishment. 

The  methylation  of  spirit  for  the  purpose  of  rendering  it  unfit  for  consump- 
tion has  been  permitted  since  1888;  the  restitution  of  excise  follows.  The 
methods  of  effecting  it  are  different,  according  to  the  purpose  for  which  the 
spirits  are  to  be  applied.  The  spirits  that  have  been  methylated  by  the  so-called 
general  methylating  means  (a  mixture  of  ten  parts  of  methylic  alcohol  to  three 
parts  of  pyridine  base),  13  cubic  centimeters  of  which  are  added  to  each  liter 
of  spirits  at  proof,  can  be  sold  without  let  or  htadrance.  At  the  present  time 
64  ore  per  liter  is  returned  of  the  spirit  manufacturing  excise  paid.  —  The 
amount  of  spirits  methylated  has  been,  on  an  average  per  year,  in  hectoliters 
of  50^  strength: 

1901—05:  31465  hi;  1906— 10:  47  972  hi;  1911:  61812  hi;  1912:  69  000 
hi;  1913:  57  280  hi,  inclusive  of  fusel-oil  and  sulphite  spirit.  The  methylation 
of  spirits  in  1912  and  1913  was  for  the  following  purposes: 

Tear  1912  1913 

for  scientific  purposes 184  hi  168  hi 

>  hospitals 564  >  561  > 

>  vinegar  works 2  965  »  3  009  > 

>  chemical  technical  works 3  498  »  3  604  » 

>  gunpowder  factories 3  211  »  2  998  > 

>  colour-  and  varnish  factories   ...  3  082  »  2  317  » 
,    free  sale 55502  .  44623  » 

Punch  Manufactories.  A  kind  of  drink  peculiar  to  Sweden  is  the  so- 
called  Swedish  punch,  a  mixture  of  arrack,  water,  and  sugar  in  varying 
proportions. 


350  VII.      MANUFACTURING   INDUSTRIES. 

Annually  ^^°-  »/        Prodnction  Export 

•'  Drewenes  nl  hi 

1901—05 102  30  778  1 157 

1906—10 97  27  006  1 373 

1910      94  29  000  670 

1911 93  29  391  657 

1912 97  31 833  597 

From  1904,  inclusive,  Swedish  punch  has  been  subject  to  a  stamp-duty  of  60 
ore  per  liter. 

Yeast. 

The  yeast  required  for  the  baking  of  bread  was  formerly  obtained  from  the 
brewage  of  beer  and  small  beer;  it  is  now  produced  in  factories  established 
solely  for  the  purpose,  usually  arranged  like  distilleries.  WhUe,  however,  the 
chief  feature  of  an  ordinary  distillery  is  the  production  of  alcohol,  the  main 
end  of  yeast-factories  is  the  manufacture  of  yeast.  It  should  be  mentioned  that 
it  is  possible,  to  some  extent,  to  increase  the  yield  of  yeast  at  the  expense  of 
that  of  alcohol,  and  vice  versa.  Thus,  the  infusion  of  air  into  the  yeast-mash 
is  an  especially  efficacious  method  of  increasing  the  yield  of  yeast.  Yeast  pre- 
pared in  this  way  goes  by  the  name  of  aerated  yeast,  in  distinction  to  that  pre- 
pared without  the  infusion  of  air,  which  is  called  surface  yeast.  While  of  the 
latter  from  25  to  30  kg  of  yeast  is  obtained  from  100  liters  of  spirits  of  50  %■ 
■  strength,  the  figure  for  ssrated  yeast  can  be  raised  to  100  kg,  or  more,  per  100 
liters  of  spirits.  Most  factories  now  employ  both  these  methods.  Aerated  yeast, 
is  coi^idered  to  be  less  effective  in  use  than  surface  yeast. 

The  wholesale  manufacture  of  yeast  may  be  traced  as  far  back  as  about 
1850,  but  the  industry  was  not  subjected  to  legislation  until  1871.  In  that 
year,  the  distilleries  making  German  yeast  were  allowed  to  distU  during  th& 
otherwise  prohibited  months  May — September.  The  oldest  known,  and  until 
1873  the  only,  yeast  factories  in  Sweden  were  those  at  Humlegarden  in  Stock- 
holm, and  at  Nacka  in  Stockholm  Lan.  From  1885  onwards,  the  yield  of  yeast 
has  been  entered  in  the  reports  of  the  distilleries.  In  1912 — 13,  the  total 
production  of  pure  yeast  amounted  to  33  332  quintals,  from  9  factories.  — 
Pure  unmixed  yeast  is  sold  only  exceptionally;  in  general  potatoflour  is  added 
to  a  weight  of  ^ji — ^/2  of  that  of  the  yeast. 


Vinegar  Factories. 

The  vinegar  of  commerce  is,  generally  speaking,  of  two  kinds:  spirit  vinegar, 
prepared  from  alcoholic  fluids  by  the  agency  of  the  vinegar  bacillus  with  an 
abundant  supply  of  air,  and  wood  vinegar,  obtained  by  the  dry  distillation  of 
wood,  principally  that  of  leaf-trees.  While  spirit  vinegar,  as  a  result  of  its  me- 
thod of  preparation,  is  usually  somewhat  weak,  containing  less  than  8  ^  of  acetic 
acid,  rectified  wood  vinegar  is  manufactured  wholesale  as  ice-vinegar  with  a  per- 
centage of  100  of  acetic  acid,  and  must  therefore  be  considerably  diluted  for  use 
in  the  preparation  of  food.  The  vinegar  most  in  favour  is  wine  vinegar,  im- 
ported principally  from  France.  The  manufacture  of  wood  vinegar  has  consid- 
erably increased  of  late  years,  in  consequence  of  the  employment  of  the  refuse 
from  the  saw-mills  for  this  industry. 

In  1912,  there  were  manufactured  at  11  factories  a  total  amount  of  5  422  000 
kg    of    vinegar,    calculated    as   containing  10  %  of  acetic  acid.     The  chief  spirit 


WINE   AND   SYRUP   FACTORIES.  35! 

vinegar  factory  is  that  of  Th.  Winborg  &  Co.,  Stockholm,  and  the  largest  wood 
vinegar  factory  that  of  W.  \Yendt,  Perstorp;  these  two  turn  out  about  10  %  oi 
the  total  manufacture.  In  1912,  55  960  kg  of  vinegar  and  acetic  acid  were 
imported,  chiefly  from  France.  The  exports  amounted  to  132  035  kg,  to  Eng- 
land, Norway  and  the  Argentine. 


Wine  and  Syrup  Factories. 

The  production  of  syrup  from  the  juice  of  berries  sweeted  with  sugar  has 
long  been  a  domestic  industry  in  Sweden,  all  kinds  of  berries  being  made  use 
of,  especially  raspberries,  strawberries,  gooseberries,  currants,  and  certain  kinds 
of  cherries.  Of  late  years,  the  wholesale  manufacture,  more  particularly  of 
variously  flavoured  lemonades,  has  been  carried  on,  but,  for  economic  reasons, 
the  juices  of  the  berries  have  been  supplanted  to  a  skadily  increasing  degree 
by  a  variety  of  artificial  essences,  and  the  sugar,  or  to  some  extent,  by  saccha- 
rine, whereby  the  quality  of  the  beverages  obtained  has  deteriorated.  The  manu- 
facture of  berry-wine,  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  word,  flourished  about  the 
middle  of  the  seventies  for  a  brief  season,  but  not  until  twenty  years  later  did 
it  acquire  any  firm  footing  in  the  country;  now  it  is  carried  on  with  greater 
success  in  consequence  of  its  being  based  on  more  scientific  principles,  and  of 
experience  gained  from  other  countries. 

Many  of  the  berries  found  in  Sweden,  both  cultivated  and  wild,  are  suitable 
for  the  production  of  wine.  The  percentage  of  sugar  in  the  berries  is  so  low, 
however,  that  a  considerable  quantity  of  sugar  has  to  be  added,  in  order  to 
obtain  the  necessary  strength  of  alcohol.  By  employing  the  ferment  of  natural 
■  wines  as  a  means  of  fermentation,  something  of  their  bouquet  can  be  commu- 
nicated to  the  berry-wines.  Berry-wines  can  also  be  made  to  ferment  of  them- 
selves, i.  e.,  fermentation  can  be  produced  by  means  of  species  of  ferments 
present  in  the  berries,  a  wine  of  a  special  type  being  thus  obtEiined,  which  can 
be  of  good  quality,  though  it  is  strange  to  the  palate. 

In  1912,  there  existed  34  manufactories  of  berry-wines  and  syrups,  the 
value  of  their  annual  production  being  estimated  at  817  000  kronor.  For 
the  consumption  of  wine,  cf.  Temperance  Question,  Part  I.  The  whole  of  the 
consumption  there  spoken   of  refers  to  that  of  imported  wines. 


Breweries. 

Maltliquors  have  been  produced  in  Sweden  from  time  immemorial.  At 
first,  all  the  beer  consumed  was  brewed  at  home,  and  it  was  only  gradually 
that  its  manufacture  developed  into  an  industry.  It  was  not  before  the 
introduction  of  the  Bavarian  method  of  decoction  and  bottom-fermenta- 
tion, which  was  introduced  into  Sweden  in  the  forties  b^'  Lieutenant 
F.  Rosenquist  af  Akershult  and  his  Geunan  master-brewer,  F.  A.  Beck- 
mann,  that  brewing  may  be  considered  to  have  developed  from  a  handi- 
craft into  a  real  industry.  The  brewerj-  industry  was  placed  on  a  still 
stronger  basis  in  the  eighties,  when  Emil  Chr.  Hansen  made  his  revolu- 
tionizing discoveries  concerning  the  pure  cultivation  of  yest,  which  has 
been  of  immense  importance  for  brewing  technics. 

In  the  main,  the  Swedish  brewing  industry  has  followed  the  develop- 
ment of  the  German  brewing  industry  and,  at  present,  may  be  considered 


352  Vn.      MANUFACTUEING  INDUSTRIES. 

as  standing  on  quite  as  higli  a. plane  as  the  latter.  In  the  malt-houses, 
manual  labour  has  in  many  places  been  replaced  by  machinery,  pneumatic 
drum  malthouses,  and  mechanical  green  malt  turners.  In  the  brewery, 
boiling  with  direct  fire  under  the  mash-tuns  and  brewing-pans  has  been 
replaced  by  steam-boiling;  greater  production  has  been  obtained  in  the 
brewing  by  the  employment  of  new  mash-methods,  the  strainer-tanks 
have  been  improved  and,  in  some  places,  replaced  by  filter-presses,  while 
the  amount  of  hops  used  has  been  reduced  by  the  introduction  of  appa- 
ratus for  the  crushing  and  sorting  of  the  hops.  In  most  of  the  large  brewe- 
ries, cooling  by  means  of  natural  ice  has  been  superseded  by  the  use  of 
cooling  machines.  But  while,  ^n  the  brewing  industry,  Sweden,  as  we 
said  above,  has  in  the  main  followed  the  lead  of  Germany,  in  one  point 
the  former  country  has  adopted  its  own  method,  viz.,  that  for  the  distri- 
bution of  the  beer,  the  sale  of  the  liquor  from  the  barrel  being  replaced 
by  the  sale  in  bottles.  This  method  of  sale  has,  too,  made  it  necessary 
to  produce  special  apparatus  for  the  cleansing,  filling,  and  corking  of  the 
bottles.  Special  mention  may  be  made  of  the  apparatus  invented  by 
brewery-manager  N.  M.  Simonsson,  brewery-master  K.  Simonsson,  brew- 
ery-manager S.  Hyden,  and  engineer,  J.  K:son  Lannmark.  The  disin- 
fecting medium  for  pans,  tubes  and  hoses,  antiformin,  invented  by  en- 
gineer V.  Tornell  and  brewery-master  A.  Sj56,  is  now  very  widely  em- 
ployed. 

On  account  of  the  relatively  limited  market,  there  is  not  in  Sweden  any  spec- 
ial brewery-machinery  industry,  the  plant  required  being  taken  mostly  from 
Germany.  Wiklund's  Mechanical  Works,  however,  (which  have  now  ceased  to 
exist)  constructed  a  number  of  brewery-plants  in  Sweden.  It  is  also  worthy  of 
mention  that  cooling-machines  are  manufactured  by  the  Munktell  Mechanical 
Works,  EskUstuna,  Tullgarn's  Foundery  and  Mechanical  Works,  Uppsala  and  by 
the  Ludvigsberg  Workshops,  Stockholm,  the  last-named  factory  also  turning  out 
breweries  pumps.  Of  late  years,  too,  the  Swedish  Metal  Works,  Vasteras,  has 
begun  the  manufacture  of  aluminium  fermenting  vessels. 

Excise  on  malt  liquors  was  imposed  in  Sweden  as  early  as  the  close  of  the 
16th  century  and,  during  the  course  of  time,  have  been  submitted  to  various 
modifications  until,  in  the  middle  of  the  19th  century,  it  was  altogether  removed. 
In  consequence  of  the  ever-increasing  demands  made  on  the  State  treasury, 
however,  a  proposal  was  made  at  the  beginning  of  the  present  century  to  rein- 
troduce the  taxation  of  malt-liquors.  After  lengthy  committee-investigations,  a 
Bill  to  this  effect  was  brought  before  the  Riksdag  of  1903,  and  on  June  17  of 
the  same  year,  a  law  was  issued  concerning  the  manufacture  and  taxation  of 
malt  liquors.  According  to  this  law,  the  breweries  are  divided  into  two  classes: 
those  liable  to  the  payment  of  excise  and  those  exempt.  The  latter  class 
of  breweries  may  only  manufacture  small-beer  (Sw.  svagdricka),  by  which  is 
meant  a  malt  liquor  which  does  not  contain  more  than  3^/4  %  by  volume  of 
alcohol  and  is  brewed  with  wort,  which  does  not  contain  more  than  6  ^  of  ex- 
tract content  (Balling).  The  scale  in  the  amount  of  the  excise  was  fixed  as  follows : 
2  ore  for  the  first  30  000  kg  of  malt  manufactured  during  the  working  year  (Oct. 
— Sept.);  5  ore  for  the  next  30  000  kg;  7  ore  for  the  next  40  000  kg;  9  ore  for 
the  next  50  000  kg;  11  ore  for  the  next  50  000  kg;  and  12  ore  for  all  additional 
malt,    reckoned    per    kg.     But    in    1907    the  lowest  excise-rates  were  increased, 


BREWERIES.  353 

partly  to  cover  the  expenses  of  control  over  the  smallest  "breweries  and  partly  to 
prevent  the  establishment  of  new  small  breweries.  These  increased  taxes  were  as 
follows:  4  ore  for  the  first  50  000  kg;  7  ore  for  the  next  50  000  kg;  10  ore 
for  the  next  50  000  kg,  and  13  ore  for  all  additional  malt,  reckoned  per  kg. 
In  1909  the  excise-rates  were  again  raised  and,  at  present,  amount  to  17  ore  for 
the  first  100  000  kg;  20  ore  for  the  next  100  000  kg,  and  23  ore  for  all  addi- 
tional malt,  reckoned  per  kg.  In  the  first  excise-year,  1903/04,  the  excise 
amounted  to  2  845  922-19  kronor;  after  the  second  increase  it  amounted,  for  the 
year  1907/08,  to  3  031  442-83  kronor,  for  the  year  1911/13,  after  deduc- 
tion of  the  restitution  for  small-beer  malt  (kr.  252  630-49)  to  4  928  045-67  kr., 
and  for  the  year  1912/1913,  to  5  153  373-96  (—  kr.  265  638-09)  kronor  respectively. 
According  to  the  reports  issued  for  the  manufacturing  year,  October  1911 
— September  1912,  by  the  Board  of  Control,  the  excise-duty  amounted  on 
an  average  to  19-9  ore  and,  for  1912/13,  to  20 'i  ore  per  kg  of  malt  em- 
ployed. The  excise-rate,  33  ore  per  kg,  is  equal  to  not  quite  2  ore  pr  '/s 
liter-bottle  of  lager-beer.  On  the  occasion  of  the  last  increase  of  the  excise,  in 
1909,  restitution  was  permitted  for  the  malt  which  is  employed  directly  for  the 
manufacture  of  small-beer  at  the  breweries  subject  to  the  payment  of  excise. 
This  restitution  of  duty  was  fixed  at  14  ore  per  kg  of  malt,  but  was  not  to 
extend  to  more  than  '/s  of  the  entire  quantity  of  malt  employed  at  the  brewery 
during  the  manufacturing  year.  For  the  manufacture  of  malt-liquors  liable  to 
excise  there  may  be  employed  nothing  but  barley-malt,  hops,  yeast,  and  water, 
and,  on  certain  conditions,  sugar-colouring.  For  porter,  sugar  and  glucose  maj"^ 
also  be  employed.  Saccharine  or  other  similar  sweetening  material  may  not  be 
employed  in  the  manufacture  either  of  excisefree  malt-liquors  or  of  those  that 
are  free  from  duty.  Breweries  that  are  excise-free  pay  a  certain  small  fee  as  a 
contribution  to  the  expenses  of  control. 

The  sale  of  malt-liquors.  The  regulations  issued  in  1885  concerning  the  sale 
of  wine  and  malt-liquors  have,  during  the  course  of  time,  undergone  various 
changes  in  order  to  promote  the  cause  of  temperance.  Among  other  things, 
it  was  proposed  that  a  fixed  limit  should  be  drawn  between  the  malt  liquors 
containing  a  large  percentage  of  alcohol  and  those  containing  a  very  small  per- 
centage of  spirit.  After  such  a  limit  had  been  fixed  by  the  regulation  adopted 
in  1903,  concerning  the  manufacture  and  taxation  of  malt  liquors,  the  above 
alteration  became  possible.  On  June  9,  1905,  there  was  issued  a  new  regula- 
tion for  the  sale  of  wine  and  beer  and  also  of  manufactured  alcohol-free  liquors 
and  small-beer.  Alterations  in  some  of  the  paragraphs  of  this  regulation  were 
made  on  June  10,  1910.  By  these  regulations  the  Governors  of  the  various 
lans  of  Sweden  have  been  given  extensive  powers  to  limit  the  sale  of  malt 
Kquors,  and  wide  use   has  been  made  of  the  authority  thus  conferred. 

Of  the  raw  material  employed,  the  barley  is  taken  from  Skane,  Gottland  and 
Oland;  it  is  only  in  unfavourable  years  that  there  is  any  import  of  this  grain 
from  Germany  or  Austria.  On  the  other  hand,  all  the  hops  employed  are  taken 
chiefly  from  Bohemia  and  Bavaria.  Of  late  years,  however,  attempts  have  been 
made  in  Skane  to  introduce  the  cultivation  of  hops,  which,  as  a  matter  of  fact, 
have  been  grown  since  very  ancient  times  in  Sweden. 

All  the  statistics  concerning  the  Swedish  brewery  industry  are  more  or  less 
incomplete.  It  is  only  after  the  introduction  of  the  malt-tax  that  we  obtain 
fully  reliable  statistics,  which  are  given  in  the  annual  reports  of  the  Board 
of  Control.  From  these  publications  it  is  seen  that  the  number  of  brewe- 
ries subject  to  the  payment  of  duty  has  declined  from  323  in  the  taxation- 
year,  October  1903 — September  1904,  to  190  during  the  taxation-year,  October 
1912 — September  1913.  The  number  of  small-beer  breweries  has  declined  from 
924    to  637  during    the    same    period.     In    passing    it  may  be  mentioned  that, 

23—133179.   Sweden.  11. 


354  Vn.       MANUFACTURING    INDUSTRIES. 

before  the  introduction  of  the  malt-tax,  the  number  of  small-beer  breweries 
was  estimated  to  be  about  400,  instead  of  the  more  than  900  that  they  after- 
wards proved  to  be. 

The  report  for  the  taxation-year  1912/13  shows  that  lager-beer  forms  the 
greater  part  of  the  liquor  manufactured  in  the  breweries  paying  excise,  or  40'2  % 
of  the  whole,  while  pilsener-beer  comes  next,  with  33'6  '/o.  It  is  also  seen  that 
porter  is  manufactured  chiefly  in  Gothenburg;  lager-beer  mostly  in  Southern  and 
Western  Sweden;  pilsener-beer  mostly  in  Stockholm  and  Norrland,  lager-  and 
pilsener-small-beer  mostly  in  Stockholm  and  Gothenburg.  Of  the  largest  breweries 
subject  to  the  payment  of  excise,  4  are  situated  in  Stockholm  and  2  in  Gothen- 
burg; altogether  these  used  a  total  of  10  591  820  kg  of  malt,  or  39'3  %  of  all  the 
malt  used  in  the  country,  and  paid  in  excise  2  382  118"60  kroner,  or  43'9  %  of 
the  entire  excise  paid  in  the  country.  Of  the  breweries  subject  to  excise,  the 
greater  number  (119)  are  situated  in  the  towns,  while  71  are  situated  in  country 
districts.  The  strength  of  the  wort  amounted  on  an  average  to  the  following  fi- 
gures for: 

Porter 17-5— 190  %  Balling 

Lager-beer 110 — 12  o  >        > 

Pilsener-beer 105 — 115   .        > 

Lager-  and  pilsener-small-beer 8o —  90  >        > 

Small-beer 4-0 —  5'5  >        » 

The  average  price  of  barley  amounted  to  about  16  kroner,  and  of  hops  to 
about  350  kroner  per  100  kg.  With  these  prices  of  barley  and  hops,  it  is 
estimated  that  the  cost  of  ingredients  for: 

1  liter  lager-beer  amounts  to 7'0   ore 

1      J     pilsener-beer  amounts  to 6'-l     » 

1      >     lager-  and  pilsener  small  beer  amounts  to     .    .    .    .  5o     > 

Of  the  excise-free  breweries,  534  used  malt  to  a  weight  of  not  more  than 
20  000  kg,  from  which  it  may  be  seen  that,  on  the  whole,  the  small-beer  in- 
dustry is  carried  on  as  an  inconsiderable  handicraft. 

The  following  raw  materials  have  been  used  at  the  breweries  liable  to  the 
payment  of  excise. 

Taxation-year  ^^^}^ 

1903  (1903/04) 33  856  188 

1901  (1904/05) 36128  348 

1905  (190.5,06) 35  555  821 

1906  (1906/07) 34  767  682 

1907  (1907/08) 33  626107 

1908  (1908/09) 30  314  639 

19U9  (1909/10) 25102  061 

1910  (1910/11) 26  875  392 

1911  (1911/12) 25  992  833 

1912  (1912,13) 26  917  210 

At  the  breweries  exempt  from  excise: 

1903  (1903/04) 12  562  641 

1904  (1904/05) 11547  087 

1905  (1905/06) 11734  238 

1906  (1906/07) 10  570  337 

1907  (1907/08)  .  .  .  .  .  .  10  575  786 

1908  ( 1908/09) 8  774  928 

1909  (l!i09/10) 9176  784 

1910  (1910/11) 9  688  305 

1911  (1911/12) 9  032  818 

1912  (1912/13) 9  093  284 


Hops 

Sugar-colouring 

Sugar  and 

kg 

kg 

syrup,  kg 

495  544 





540  612 

972 



523  179 

18  595 



526  229 

25  072 



507  117 

27  789 



452  983 

23  653 



378  759 

22  902 



407  575 

22  039 



383  292 

18  812 



398  880 

17  224 

— 

64  264 

194  962 

61060 

193  956 

— 

65179 

201 175 

— 

60  061 

186  948 

30  533 

63197 

190 182 

155  073 

54  773 

161 101 

157  313 

55  010 

170  419 

184  077 

59  617 

188  349 

248310 

53  789 

186  267 

313  828 

54140 

195  260 

331  573 

MINERAL   WATERS    AND    COOLING    DRINKS.  355 

In  general,  100  kg  of  barley  give  78  kg  of  dried  malt.  The  total  amount 
of  malt  used  during  the  taxation-year  1912/13  corresponded,  accordingly,  to 
about  46  000  000  kg  of  barley,  or  nearly  15  %  oi  the  total  barley-crop  of  Sweden. 

The  consumption  of  malt-liquors  is  given  below. 


Porter 

Beer,  all 

Lager-  and  pilsener 

Small  beer 

hi 

kinds,  hi 

small  beer,  hi 

hi 

1903  (1903/04)  . 

.  44  030 

1 182  990 

177  858 

1  770  680 

1904  (1904/05)  . 

.  54  858 

1  293  316 

183  892 

1675  606 

1905  (1905/06)  . 

.  58  829 

1  245  653 

190  633 

1  797  904 

1906  (1906/07)  . 

.  66  277 

1230  871 

181756 

1  673  000 

1907  (1907/08)  . 

.  60  386 

1 161 002 

207  084 

1  690 125 

1908  (1908/09)  . 

.  51072 

1  065  627 

203  064 

1414865 

1909  (1909/10)  . 

.  33  627 

871443 

148  601 

1527  491 

1910  (1910/11)  . 

.  42  466 

933  943 

158  785 

1  635  751 

1911  (1911/12)  . 

.  41944 

904  689 

146  845 

1564  838 

1912  (1912/13) . 

.  44  848 

962  290 

149  253 

1588  759 

Malt-manufacture.  The  malt  required  for  the  brewing  industry  is,  for 
the  most  part  produced  at  the  breweries  themselves. 

Malt  extract  and  maltose-compounds  were  made  at  two  factories  in 
1912,  to  a  value  of  29  500  kronor. 

Mineral  waters  and  cooling  drinks. 

Since  the  middle  of  the  seventies  there  have  existed  firm  foundations  for  the 
work  carried  on  by  these  factories,  thanks  to  A.  T.  Almen's  valuable  compara- 
tive researches  regarding  the  character  of  natural  and  artificial  mineral  waters. 
A  distinction  must  be  made  between  medicinal  waters,  prepared  from  distilled  water 
and  the  necessary  chemically  pure  salts,  by  which  they  are  given  exactly  the 
same  composition  as  the  corresponding  natural  waters,  and  cooling  drinks,  in 
the  preparation  of  which  less  care  is  observed.  It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that 
the  medicinal  waters  made  at  the  best  factories  in  Sweden  are  of  the  very 
finest  quality,  and  that,  owing  to  their  uniformity  of  composition,  they  are  even 
superior  to  the  corresponding  natural  waters.  The  waters  produced  by  the 
Chemists'  Mineral  Waters  Manufactory  (Sw.  Apotekames  Mineralvattenfabrik),  in 
Stockholm,  have  gained  considerable  recognition. 

There  are,  too,  a  large  number  of  natural  springs  in  Sweden,  containing 
chalybeate  waters  of  medicinal  virtue,  which  are  bottled  and  sold;  such  are 
the  waters  of  Porla,  Ronneby,  and  Karlstad.  The  two  last-named  are  exception- 
ally rich  in  iron.  There  are  also  other  springs  which  contain  iodine,  sodium 
carbonate,  and  sodium  chloride,  though  only  in  small  quantities. 

Among  cooling  drinks  may  be  reckoned  lemonade  and  fruit-drinhs,  in  the 
manufacture  of  which,  however,  artificial  essences  are  now  largely  used,  in- 
stead of  natural  fruit-juices. 

In  1912,  the  total  number  of  factories  engaged  in  this  industry  amounted 
to  250,  with  a  total  production-value  of  4  545  000  kronor.  In  addition,  mineral 
waters  and  lemonades  were  manufactured  at  a   nuinber  of  country  breweries. 

Tobacco. 

The  earliest  mention  of  tobacco  in  Sweden  is  in  1629.  In  1640  the  imports 
probably  amounted  to  about  36  000  kg,  and  as  early  as  1641  the  so-called  "So- 
derkompaniet"  (Southern  Company)  obtained  the  exclusive  privilege  of  importing 
tobacco.     In     1662    a  kind  of  State-monopoly  was  introduced,  so  that  the  trade 


356  Vir.      MANUFACTURING    INDUSTRIES. 

in,  and  wholesale-purchase  of,  tobacco  was,  in  future,  to  be  administered  by  a 
Board  appointed  by  the  Government,  the  Board  being  empowered  to  lease  out  the 
exclusive  right  of  importing  tobacco  and  of  erecting  tobacco-factories  everywhere 
in  the  country,  with  the  exception  of  Estland  and  Livland,  in  consideration  of 
an  annual  payment  for  the  first  5  years  of  120  000  copper  "daler"  and  for  the 
following  5-yearly  periods  of  170  000  copper  "daler"  (a  "riksdaler"  specie,  corre- 
sponding to  about  4  kroner  of  the  present  coinage,  was,  at  the  time  in  ques- 
tion, equal  to  6  copper  "daler").  At  first  the  leasing  of  the  monopoly  seems 
to  have  acted  satisfactorily,  and  the  income  received  by  the  State  appears 
to  have  been  of  some  importance,  but  the  Estate  of  Burghers  complained  at 
several  Riksdags  of  the  inconveniences  caused  to  their  body  by  the  monopoly, 
and  after  the  lease  had  been  renewed  in  1672  for  the  reduced  sum  of  100  000 
copper  "daler",  the  monopoly  was  entirely  withdrawn  in  1685  and  the  trade  in 
tobacco  made  perfectly  free.  The  income  received  by  the  State  from  tobacco 
has,  since  that  time,  chiefly  consisted  of  the  duties  paid. 

The  usual  method  of  consuming  tobacco  in  the  I7th  century  was  by  smoking 
in  pipes,  or  by  chewing. 

In  conformity  with  the  endeavours  made  during  the  "Period  of  Liberty"  to 
promote  commercial  industries,  it  was  decided  in  1748  that  tobacco-plantations 
should  be  established  near  all  towns,  excepting  those  in  the  far  north  of  the 
country;  these  plantations  were  placed  under  controllers,  who  had  to  see  that 
a  prescribed  amount  of  Swedish  tobacco  was  employed  in  every  tobacco-fac- 
tory. At  an  earlier  date,  for  the  purpose  of  preventing  smuggling,  of  which 
complaints  had  often  been  made,  it  was  prescribed  that  all  tobacco,  both  native 
and  foreign,  should  pay  stamp-duty,  and  in  1748  the  existing  restrictions  con- 
cerning the  import  of  tobacco  in  the  leaf  were  removed,  and  instead  there  was 
imposed,  in  addition  to  the  ordinary  duty,  a  "consumption-excise",  or  tax,  which 
had  to  be  paid  by  every  man  and  woman  that  wished  to  use  tobacco;  this 
latter  payment  amounted  to  not  more  than  one  silver  "daler"  for  "noblemen, 
clergymen,  persons  of  quality,  and  the  burghers  in  the  large  cities,  for  smoking- 
tobacco";  a  smaller  sum  was  demanded  from  those  using  snuff;  soldiers  and 
mariners  in  the  service  of  the  Crown  were  exempt  from  this  payment.  As  a 
peculiarity  it  may  be  mentioned  that  Gustavus  III,  1785 — 1786,  had  propo- 
sals drawn  up  for  a  State-monopoly  of  tobacco,  which,  however,  in  consequence 
of  the  opposition  offered  by  the  Riksdag  and  of  the  unfortunate  experiences 
with  regard  to  the  Crown-distilleries,  did  not  lead  to  the  creation  of  the  pro- 
posed monopoly  but  merely  occasioned  the  State  some  considerable  expense. 
From  the  beginning  of  the  19th  century,  the  legislative  measures  concerning 
tobacco  become  fewer  and  merely  concerned  the  amount  of  duty  to  be  paid. 

During  the  last  few  years,  proposals  have  been  worked  out,  partly  for  a  manu- 
facturing-duty, and  partly  for  a  State-monopoly  of  the  goods  manufactured  from 
tobacco;  this  proposal,  has  been  accepted  by  the  Riksdag  of  1914  which  resolved 
to  form  a  State-monopoly  for  tobacco  and,  in  this  connection,  to  control  the  cul- 
tivation of  the  tobacco-plant  in  Sweden.  The  monopoly  can  be  made  over  by  the 
State  to  some  other  body  or  individual ;  the  cost-price  of  the  manufactured  article 
shall  also  include  the  duty  to  be  paid  in  the  following  proportion  of  the  price: 

for  cigars  and  cigar-cigarettes     ...■ 15^ 

»  cigarettes 20  » 

»  cut  tobacco 10  » 

»  spun-,  pressed-  and  roll-tobacco 10  » 

»  snuff 15» 

The  monopoly  will  come  into  force  during  1915,  on  a  day  to  be  determined 
by  the  Government. 


TOBACCO. 


357 


The  import-duty,  according  to  a  resolution  adopted  by  the  Riksdag  of  1914, 
amounts  to  the  following  sums  per  kilogram : 

unmanufactured  tobacco :  stalk 2  kr. 

»                     »  leaf 2a3» 

manufactured             i  cigars  and  cigar-cigarettes  .    .  7     » 

»                       »  cigarettes 5    » 

»                       »  cut 3-60    » 

»                       »  other  kinds 2'60    » 

The  tobacco  factories  in  earlier  times  were  chiefly  situated  in  Stockholm  (where 
the  oldest  establishment  seems  to  have  been  founded  in  1660),  Norrkoping,  Gavle, 
and  Kristianstad,  but  they  have  gradually  spread  to  other  towns  and  even  to 
country  districts.  Of  the  102  tobacco-factories  in  Sweden  existing  in  1912, 
41  were  in  Stockholm,  Gothenburg  and  Malmo,  the  value  of  the  manufactured 
tobacco  turned  out  by  them  amounted  to  a  total  of  more  than  67  %  of  the 
tobacco-manufactures  of  the  country,  23  028  000  kr.  Of  the  102  factories,  82 
were  situated  in  the  towns,  and  20  in  the  country  districts,  chiefly  in  Skane. 
The  cultivation  of  tobacco,  on^  a  scale,  worth  mentioning,  began  about  1750, 
and  in  this  industry,  as  in  so  many  others,  it  was  the  great  Jonas  Alstromer 
that  led  the  way.  About  1770,  the  tobacco-harvest  was  estimated  at  7  000  quin- 
tals, or  almost  as  much  as  in  our  own  times,  for  during  the  last  25  years  the 
harvests  show  the  following  average  figures: 


Annually 

Quintals 

Annually 

Qaintals 

Annually 

Quintals 

1886-90  . 

.    10  405 

1896—00  .    . 

.     7  745 

1906-10  . 

.    .    9  894 

1891—95  .    . 

.    10  837 

1901-05  .    , 

.   10  450 

1911  .    .    . 

.    .    7  064 

The  area  devoted  to  the  growth  of  tobacco  varies  very  much.  For  example, 
during  the  years  1897 — 1902,  it  varied  between  365  hectares  in  1902  and  482 
hectares  in  1901.  At  the  present  time,  more  than  half  of  all  the  tobacco  grown 
in  Sweden  is  obtained  from  Kristianstad  Lan,  where  the  tract  of  country  round 
Ahus  comprises  by  far  the  largest  area  devoted  to  this  plant,  although  it  is 
divided  into  a  very  large  number  of  small  plots.  Formerly,  much  tobacco  was 
grown  in  and  around  a  number  of  towns,  Stockholm  especially.  The  average 
crop  per  hectare  amounted  in  1902  to  16  quintals  of  air-dried,  unsweated  tobacco; 


Table  77. 


Survey  of  the  Tobacco-industry  in  Sweden. 


Production. 

In  Quintals 

Total  production 

Imports. 

Quintals 

Fac- 

Packet 

Boll  and 

Value. 

Leal 

Cigars 

tobacco 

cake 
tobacco 

Snufe 

Quintals 

Thousands 
of  kroner 

tobacco 

tobacco 

1871—75  . 

103 

4  698 

4159 

8  737 

28423 

46  017 

8  872 

31915 

562 

1876-80  . 

107 

5  512 

4  825 

9  327 

32191 

51855 

10  778 

35125 

1242 

1881-85  . 

105 

4  229 

4  780 

10  007 

32  812 

51828 

10  831 

32  784 

1022 

1886—90  . 

92 

2  916 

2  780 

11868 

.35  084 

52  648 

10316 

34  206 

11)71 

1891-95  . 

91 

5011 

3  797 

10791 

39  331 

58  930 

11994 

34  029 

1064 

1896-00  . 

96 

6  940 

4  058 

8  821 

45847 

65  666 

15045 

36  604 

1737 

1901-05  . 

113 

8  677 

3  924 

8105 

52418 

73124 

17  202 

40  361 

2  381 

1906-10  . 

108 

10879 

3  593 

6  344 

59  811 

80  626 

21136 

41108 

3  713 

1910.    .    . 

107 

11695 

3  855 

5  90? 

62  211 

83  668 

22  325 

42  811 

4  569 

1911  .    .   . 

108 

11127 

3  627 

5  679 

61291 

81724 

22  218 

45  605 

4  804 

1912.    .    . 

102 

11186 

3  380 

5  559 

62  989 

82  844 

23  028 

44  966 

5  574 

358  VII.      MANUFACTURING   INDUSTRIES. 

in  the  Ahus  district  the  average  crop,  in  years  that  give  average  returns,  is  esti- 
mated   at   about  20 — 25   quintals,  both  of  better  and  inferior  quality. 

As  Swedish  tobacco  possesses  a  peculiar  aroma,  different  from  that  of  superior 
foreign  brands,  it  cannot  be  mixed  with  the  latter  to  any  very  great  extent. 
Such  mixture  occurs  only  for  the  cheaper  varieties  of  cigars  and  snuff. 

Tobacco  is  nowadays  consumed  in  many  different  forms,  being  consumed 
in  the  form  of  pipe-tobacco,  cigars,  cigar-cigarettes  or  cigarettes,  and  also  as  che- 
wing-tobacco and  snuff.  SmoTcing-tohacco  occurs  either  cut  or  in  complete  leaves; 
chewing-tobacco  is  usually  twisted  and  sold  in  rolls.  Of  snuff,  the  greater  quan- 
tity is  stated  to  be  used  for  chewing. 

As  in  so  many  other  industries,  a  number  of  factories  in  the  tobacco-industry 
have  lately  (1912)  united  to  form  one  large  company. 

The  imported  tobacco  comes  mostly  from  America,  via  Bremen,  and  is  partly 
of  the  heavier  kind,  such  as  Kentucky  tobacco,  and  partly  of  the  lighter  sorts, 
such  as  Virginia  tobacco. 

The  total  number  of  hands  engaged  at  the  Swedish  tobacco-factories  amounted 
in  1912  to  4  704,  of  which  number  3  215  were  women. 

Other  Manufactures. 

With  regard  to  other  industries  for  the  production  of  articles  of  food 

and  consumption,  the  following  details  may  be  given,  including  the  number 

of  employees  and  the  total  value  of  the  productions  for  the  year  1912. 

Factories     Employees  Value,  kr. 

Bakeries 97  2  411  21202  000 

Pig  slaughter  houses 12  126  11  244  000 

Factories  for  porkbutchers'  commodities  56  562  10  713  000 

Fish-pickling  businesses 40  638  2  780  000 

Preserve  factories 13  129  1080000 

With  regard  to  these  figures,  it  should  not  be  forgotten  that  only  the  few 
establishments  are  here  included  which  can  be  reckoned  as  belonging  to  the 
greater  industries.  The  greater  part  of  the  production  in  these  branches  is,  of 
course,  carried  on  on  a  smaller  scale  and  comes  within  the  category  of  domestic 
industries. 


2.    TEXTILE  AND  CLOTHING  INDUSTRY. 

This  group,  which,  nowadays,  as  regards  the  value  of  its  productions, 

is  the  most  important  of  Swedish  manufacturing  industries,  on  account  of 

the  great  number  of  neccessaries  it  comprises,  is,  in  the  official  statistics, 

divided  in  the  following  way  (1912) : 

Factories     Workmen     Production,  kr. 

Yarn  and  thread,  etc' 189  11371  74  680  200 

Textile  fabrics 156  16  497  89  614300 

Calendered  fabrics 116  2161  5  608  600 

Articles  of  clothing,  etc." 269  13  578  51687  400 

Total    730         .  43607  221590500 

'  Including    rope  work,    etc.    —    "    All    kinds   of   manufactures    of   spinning    materials, 
Buch   as  textile  fabrics,  ribbons,  embroideries,  hats  and  bonnets,  clothes,  etc. 


TEXTILE    AND    CLOTHING    INDUSTRY. 


359 


Although  the  home  production  is  so  considerable,  this  group  of  manufac- 
tures is  one  of  those  that  figure  most  in  Swedish  imports,  which  testifies 
to  the  fact  that  the  Swedish  textile  industry  is  far  from  sufficient  to  supply 
the  country's  own  needs.  During  the  last  few  years,  however,  it  has  in- 
creased in  a  most  remarkable  way,  above  all  as  regards  the  manufacture 
of  yarn  and  articles  of  clothing,  the  value  of  which  has  multiplied  many 
times  during  the  last  ten  years.  From  Table  78  appears  that  the  imports 
of  articles  of  this  class  —  raw  materials  as  well  as  manufactured  goods 
—  during  1871 — 80  amounted  to  65  million  kroner  per  annum;  during 
188T— 90,  to  85  millions;  during  the  years  1891—1900  to  84  million 
kronor;  from  1901—1910  to  103  millions,  and  in  1912  to  130  million 
kroner.  In  comparison  with  the  total  imports,  a  decrease  is  noticeable, 
however,  the  imports  of  this  group  of  manufactures  in  the  beginning  of 
the  decade  1871 — 80  forming  27  %  of  our  entire  imports,  but  nowadays 
only  about  17  %. 

One  favourable  circumstance  is  that  the  import  of  yarn  and  manufac- 
tured goods  has  not  undergone  any  increase  worth  mentioning  during  the 
last  few  years,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  there  has  been  an  increase  in 
the  import  of  raw  materials.  This  points  to  the  fact  that  the  Swedish 
textile  industry  is  in  a  most  flourishing  condition,  which  is  the  case 
especially  with  regard  to  the   cotton  industry.     For  example,   we   find 


Table  78.    Imports  and  Exports  of  Textile  raw  Materials,  Manufactures, 
and  Articles  of  Clothing. 


Imports.    Value  in  thousands  of 

Exports.    Value  in  thousands  of 

In  per  cent  of 

Aanually 

tronor 

kronor 

the  total  s 

Tarn 

Yarn 

Raw 

and 

Manu- 

Raw 

and 

Manu- 

Im- 

Ex- 

mater- 

tbread 

factures  2 

Total 

mater- 

thread, 

factures^ 

Total 

ports 

ports 

ials 

etc.i 

ials 

eto.i 

1871-75  .    . 

20  556 

8  635 

37  574 

66  767 

307 

178 

2  009 

2  494 

27-10 

1-22 

1876-80.    . 

16  843 

8  202 

38  427 

63471 

294 

286 

2  766 

3346 

23-63 

1-60 

1881-85  .    . 

20  433 

9  375 

51394 

81202 

394 

.S06 

4182 

5  082 

25-57 

2-09 

1886-90.   . 

23  864 

10  356 

55  520 

89  740 

366 

1043 

5  594 

7  003 

26-75 

2-57 

1891-95  .   . 

20  592 

11936 

48  414 

80942 

122 

1052 

7  879 

9053 

23-02 

2-85 

1896-00.    . 

24  666 

17  419 

44  505 

86  590 

176 

1080 

4  462 

5  718 

19-U 

1-59 

1901—05  .   . 

35  353 

14  375 

40121 

89  849 

455 

1350 

2  037 

3842 

16-84 

0-94 

1906-10.   . 

47  323 

13  908 

55129 

116360 

804 

1434 

2  367 

4605 

18-05 

0-89 

1908.   .   .    . 

43  335 

10847 

51297 

106479 

707 

1286 

2  580 

4  573 

17-32 

0-95 

1909  .... 

40  687 

12  324 

53  212 

106  223 

983 

1311 

2187 

4  481 

17-22 

0-95 

1910  .... 

51069 

15  700 

59  494 

126  263 

992 

1245 

2  680 

4  917 

18-80 

0-83 

1911  .... 

48  622 

15  305 

63167 

127  094 

878 

1547 

2  723 

5148 

lS-24 

0-78 

1912.    .    .    . 

57  025 

18  756 

53  997 

129  778 

2  297 

3  043 

4  556 

9896 

16-54 

1-30 

Note.  Concerning  the  import-  and  export  tables  it  should  be  remarked,  that  the  year 
1912  is  not  quite  comparable  in  every  respect  -with  earlier  years,  on  account  of  alterations 
in  the  official  grouping  of  the  wares. 

'  Including  rope--work,  etc.  —  '  All  kinds  of  manufactures  of  spinning  materials,  such 
as  textile  fabrics,  ribbons,  embroideries,  hats,  bonnets  and  clothes,  etc.,  and  for  the  years 
before  1907,  for  artificial  flowers  too.  —  ^  The  last  two  columns  show  the  imports  and  ex- 
ports of  textile  fabrics  in  %  of  the  total  import-  and  export  values  of  all  kinds  of  goods  in 
the  kingdom. 


360  VII.       MANUFACTURING   INDUSTRIES. 

that  the  weaving  mills  have  considerably  increased  their  output,  espe- 
cially of  pattern  fabrics  and  stuffs  of  better  quality. 

The  exports  of  textile  manufactures  go  principally  to  Norway.  After 
the  revocation,  in  1897,  of  the  Special  Commercial  Treaty  (mellanriksla- 
gen)  between  Sweden  and  Norway  it  has  considerably  diminished  — 
though  not  in  the  proportion  shown  by  Table  78.  As  we  shall  several  times 
have  occasion  to  remind  our  readers,  the  Swedish  figures  for  the  exports 
to  Norwaj?^  are,  in  fact,  very  incomplete  and  especially  so  after  1897. 

The  Swedes  have,  from  time  immemorial,  displayed  considerable  liking  and 
natural  taste  for  the  textile  arts.  But  even  though  Swedish  native  textile  art 
goes  back  to  remote  ages,  and  the  textile  manufacturing  industry  to  the  days  of 
Gustavus  II  Adolphus,  nevertheless,  this  manufacture  was  always  intended  primarily 
to  supply  the  actual  necessities  of  the  country.  One  consequence  of  this  is  that 
the  fabrics  produced  in  this  branch  of  industry  are  generally  of  a  simpler  sort, 
suitable  for  use  by  the  people  at  large.  The  home  market  is  not  extensive 
enough  to  repay  the  expense  connected  with  the  manufacture  of  new  or  special 
products.  And  if  the  native  manufacturer  is,  with  any  hope  of  success,  to  com- 
pete with  the  foreigner  who  is  flooding  the  Swedish  market  with  his  products, 
he  must  avoid  embarking  on  this  too  precarious  venture,  but  confine  himself  to 
the  simpler  and  cheaper  goods   already  known  to  his  customers. 

There  has  been  a  remarkable  change  in  this  respect,  however,  during  the 
last  few  years,  more  attention  having  been  devoted  to  the  manufacture  of  the 
better  qualities  of  cloth. 

The  first  place  in  the  textile  industry  of  Sweden  —  chiefly,  however,  in  the 
cotton-industry  —  is  occupied  by  the  Lan  of  Alvsborg,  with  a  manufacture- 
value  of  about  one-fourth  of  that  of  the  entire  country,  the  town  of  Boras 
and  the  neighbourhood  being  the  centre  of  the  business.  The  chief  seat  of  the 
Swedish  woollen  industry,  on  the  other  hand,  is  in  Ostergotland  Lan,  the  prin- 
cipal centre  being  Norrkoping. 

For  promoting  skill  in  the  textile  industry,  there  are  two  Weaving  schools, 
originally  started  by  private  persons,  viz.,  John  Lenning's  Weaving  School  at 
Norrkoping,  and  the  Boras  Technical  Weaving  School.  The  former  was  founded 
in  1879,  by  means  of  a  donation  of  300  000  kroner  by  a  manufacturer,  named 
John  Lenning.  This  school  has  a  higher  course  for  training  manufacturers,  foremen, 
designers,  etc.,  and  a  lower  one  (chiefly  with  evening  lectures)  for  workmen  and  ap- 
prentices in  the  trade.  The  weaving  school  in  Boras  was  originally  a  private 
establishment  founded  by  a  teacher  of  weaving,  named  S.  F.  Erebs,  but,  in  1866, 
at  the  suggestion  of  the  Board  of  the  Boras  Technical  School,  it  became  a  public 
institution,  and,  at  the  present  time,  receives  a  grant  from  the  State  of  4  800 
kronor  per  annum  and  2  900  kronor  annually  from  the  Alvsborg  Lan  Comity 
Council.  —  Besides  these,  there  are,  in  other  parts  of  the  country,  a  large 
number  of  weaving-schools  for  promoting  domestic  industry  amongst  which  may 
be  especially  mentioned  the  Weaving  School  of  the  society  called  "Friends  of 
Art  Needle-work"  in  Stockhdm;  the  Trdlgam  Weaving  School,  established  and 
supported  by  H.  M.,  the  Oueen;  Miss  N.  v.  Engestrom's  School  in  Orebro; 
Johanna  Brunsson's  Practical  Art  Weaving  School  in  Stockholm;  Thora  Kulle's 
in  Lund,  etc. 

Woollen  Industry. 

The  real  improvement  in  Sweden's  native  breed  of  sheep  did  not  begin 
until  after   1715,   when  Jonas  Alstromer,  rightly  called  "the  father  of 


WOOLLEN   INDUSTRY.  361 

Swedish  industries",  began  his  experiments  in  naturalizing  foreign  breeds 
of  fine-woUed  sheed,  particularly  the  Spanish  merinos. 

These  experiments  apparently  succeeded  in  the  beginning,  so  that  in  1764 
there  were  in  Sweden  no  less  than  89  000  sheep  of  a  pure,  and  23  000  of  a 
mixed  merino  breed.  Great  efforts  were  made  by  the  Government  to  increase 
the  stock  of  fine-wooUed  sheep.  Prizes  were  given  for  wool;  sheep-breeding 
farms  were  established;  the  so-called  "Wool  Discount"  was  introduced  for  granting 
loans  to  tradesmen  in  a  small  way  of  business  for  the  purchase  of  native  wool;  in 
addition  to  which,  wool-stores  and  wool-markets  were  established  to  facilitate  its  sale. 
Notwithstanding  all  these  efforts,  this  breed  of  sheep  has  declined  more  and  more, 
and  at  present  hardly  numbers  1  000.  Several  causes  have  contributed  to  this 
state  of  things,  especially  the  difficulty  in  disposing  of  native  merino  wool  to 
the  manufacturers,  who  preferred  the  foreign  kind  as  the  former  was  very 
unequal  in  quality.  The  thoroughbreds  imported  at  different  times  are  also  said 
not  always  to  have  been  of  the  best  race.  Attempts  to  naturalize  fine-wooUed 
Angora  goats  turned  out  even  a  greater  failure. 

During  the  whole  of  this  time  —  the  Alstromer  period  —  attention  had 
been  exclusively  directed  to  the  production  in  this  country  of  fine  wool  or  me- 
rino wool.  When,  however,  after  nearly  a  century  of  incessant  attempts  to  pro- 
mote the  use  of  native  wool  in  Swedish  mills,  these  efforts  had  proved  unsuc- 
cessful, then  people  began  to  see  that  even  the  coarser  wool  might  be  worth 
attention. 

The  next  phase  in  the  history  of  Swedish  wool  production,  beginning  with  the 
nineteenth  century,  thus  gave  a  new  direction  to  this  industry.  Instead  of,  as  be- 
fore, chiefly  regarding  the  fineness  or  quality  of  the  wool,  stress  was  now  laid 
on  increasing  the  quantity  of  coarse  kinds  of  wool.  And  these  attempts,  in 
spite  of  many  unfavourable  circumstances,  have  proved  profitable.  Besides  the 
unimproved,  Swedish  country  sheep  —  the  so-called  peasant  breed  —  the  wool 
of  which  is  uneven  and  somewhat  coarse,  chiefly  suited  for  coarse  textures  (home- 
spun or  rough  clothing),  there  are  at  present  the  following  breeds,  mostly 
imported  from  England,  viz..  Southdown,  Shropshiredown,  and  Oxfordshiredown 
(especially  in  Sodermanland,  Skane,  and  Halland);  further,  Leicester,  Dishley, 
and  Cheviot  —  the  latter  especially  in  Gottland  and  Norrbotten,  —  and,  finally, 
the  merino  breeds  (Ostergotland,  Sodermanland).  According  to  later  observations 
it  seems  as  if  the  Cheviot  breed  would  still  further  increase  in  Gottland  — 
where,  apart  from  other  favourable  circumstances,  its  propagation  has  been  en- 
couraged by  the  operations  of  the  old  Roma  State  sheep-farm  —  and  also  as  if  the 
long-haired  breeds  (Oxfordshiredovsoi  etc.)  would  steadily  increase  and  supplant  the 
white-faced  ones  (Leicester,  Cotsewold,  etc.).  Among  native  breeds,  the  Gottland 
sheep  on  the  island  of  Faron  have  begun  to  attract  notice,  as  a  breed  in  many 
respects  suited  to  Sweden.  One  circumstance  which  speaks  for  the  improvement 
of  the  native  breed  by  crossing  with  English  and  not  merino  sheep  is  that  the 
latter  do  not  make  good  mutton. 

The  stock  of  native  sheep,  has  nevertheless  decreased  more  and  more.  Whilst 
in  ISTO  it  amounted  to  1  600  000  there  are  now  only  about  900  000,  of  which 
more  than  100  000  in  the  Lan  of  Jonkoping.  The  cause  of  this  decline  must  be 
sought  for  partly  in  the  circumstances  that  the  native  wool,  from  its  unevenness 
and  the  difficulty  in  obtaining  it  in  larger  parcels,  is  not  readily  bought  by 
manufacturers,  and  that  the  wool-market  is  flooded  with  foreign  and  artificial  wool 
(shoddy,  mungo,  extract,  etc.),  and  partly  in  the  circumstance  that  the  farmers 
have  inclosed  larger  spaces  for  dairy  purposes,  in  addition  to  which,  the  lack 
of  fodder,  which  often  occurs  in  certain  parts  of  the  kingdom,  results  in  the 
slaughtering    of    the   sheep.     For    the    encouragement  of  the  breeding  of  native 


362 


Vn.      MANtlFAOTURING   lijDUSTEIBS. 


&eil.5iab.  Ut  Anst.Siocknoim 


WOOLLEN    INDUSTRY. 


363 


Table  79.     Imports  and  Exports  of  Wool  and  Woollen  Stuffs. 

In  quintals. 


Wool 

Woollen  yarn, 

WooUer 

yarn, 

Woollen  cloths 

undyed 

dyed 

Annually 

Imports 

Exports 

Imports 

Exports 

Imports 

Exports 

Imports 

Exports 

1861-65.   .    . 

12  875 

110 

693 

1118 

2 

4  934 

36 

1866-70 

13  750 

202 

626 

3 

1322 

1 

5  212 

246 

1871-75 

17  521 

318 

1427 

4 

3  420 

6 

15  998 

460 

1876-80 

13  729 

146 

1524 

2 

4  072 

8 

16  838 

894 

1881-85 

18  429 

271 

3  910 

3 

5  435 

27 

22  442 

1023 

18->6-90 

21790 

286 

8  950 

45 

5  752 

460 

23  062 

1586 

18fll— 95 

24  001 

252 

14  263 

53 

4  528 

777 

25  776 

2  603 

1896-00 

33  602 

491 

21468 

116 

5188 

1076 

22  399 

2  385 

1901— ()5 

44  719 

1244 

14  257 

113 

4  695 

1212 

15  424 

992 

1906-10 

52  398 

778 

13  031 

394 

5  040 

1253 

16103 

916 

1908.   . 

55  877 

323 

10  695 

366 

4  788 

1256 

14  842 

948 

1909  .    . 

51627 

948 

12  971 

297 

4  390 

1115 

14  656 

838 

1910.   . 

49  749 

638 

17  617 

308 

5  881 

1059 

15  762 

1081 

1911  .   . 

50  674 

604 

15  826 

273 

5  549 

1194 

16  031 

1197 

1912.   . 

66  237 

618 

14  502 

479 

5  240 

1974 

12  360 

2  006 

sheep,    the    State    has  in  recent  times  appointed  a  specialist  to   give    instruction 
in  wool-culture  and  sheep-farming. 

The  wool  imported,  which  is  admitted  free  of  duty,  is  brought  for  the  most 
part  by  way  of  England  and  Germany,  but  also  via  Denmark,  Bergium,  and 
France.  The  superior  sorts  of  carding-wool  come  from  the  Cape,  Buenos  Ayres, 
Australia,  and  Silesia. 

A  summary  of  the  production  value  of  the  Swedish  wool  industry  is 
given  in  Table  80.    The  table  also  gives  the  values  of  the  imports  (for  the 


Table  80.    Survey  of 

Manufactures  and  Imports  in 

the  Woollen  industry. 

Spinneries. 

Cloth- 

facioriet. 

Manu- 

Imp 

oris.     Value  in  thousands  of  Kron 

Manufactures!       i 

AnnusUy 

Value,  In 

tbou- 

Textile 

Textile 

Quintals 

thousands 
of  kronor 

sands  of 
kronor 

Wrol 

Yarn 

fabrics 

fabrics, 
% 

1  ■i;;i-70  .    .    . 

668 

92 

9  569 

5194 

1871-75.    .    . 

1642 

253 

13  613 

6  320 

3  692 

16118. 

2G130 

61-7 

187(1-80  .    .    . 

3  197 

711 

10  743 

4  486 

3  032 

16  924 

24442 

63-2 

1««1— 85  .    .    . 

6  543 

1288 

11880 

5  428 

3  479 

21 804 

30  711 

710 

l.-S'l-gO  .    .    . 

16136 

3167 

12  816 

6  874 

5179 

22  373 

3442C 

650 

18J1-95  .    .    . 

22  937 

4  276 

19  389 

4  820 

6  511 

20  227 

31558 

641 

1*^96-00.    .    . 

65  064 

16  862 

26  765 

7  332 

10  503 

15  800 

33  635 

470 

1901-05  .    .    . 

82  190 

22  849 

33  277 

12  301 

8  623 

11 712 

32  63G 

35  9 

190ii-10  .    .    . 

96  892 

28  727 

42  276 

15  406 

7  316 

11897 

34619 

34-4 

190.S 

96  010 

27  682 

42  043 

13  865 

5  259 

10  926 

30  04S* 

36-4 

19o'.l  .... 

90  675 

26  682 

39  273 

13  775 

6  271 

10  887 

30  933 

35-2 

1910 

103  954 

30  359 

47  460 

13  608 

9154 

11765 

34  527 

341 

19J1 

102  472 

29  294 

44  600 

13  289 

8  323 

11769 

33  381 

353 

1912 

109  613 

32  675 

44  804 

18  438 

9  899 

9  928 

38  265 

25-9 

'  The  figures  for  former  years  are  incomplete.     Altered  statistics  from  1896. 


364 


Vir.      MANUFACTURING    INDUSTEIBS. 


quantities,  see  Table  79).  On  the  whole,  all  the  figures  bear  witness  to  a 
considerable  increase  of  the  manufacture  of  late,  whilst  the  imports  now- 
adays remain  almost  stationary.    A  pleasing  fact  is  that  the  imports  of 

woollen  textiles  have  diminished,  both  relatively  and  absolutely;  in  1881 

85  about  71  %  of  the  entire  import  were  textiles;  in  1912  this  figure  had 
fallen  to  about  26  %.  The  value  of  the  imported  woollen  woven  goods  has 
now  fallen  from  25  million  kronor  in  1890  and  13  million  kroner  in 
1900,  to  about  10  million  kronor  at  present,  while,  at  the  same  time,  the 
value  of  the  goods  manufactured  in  Sweden  during  the  last  10  years  has 
almost  doubled,  having  risen  from  29  million  kronor  in  1900  to  47  million 
kronor  in  1910.  During  the  same  period  the  manufactured  value  of 
woollen  yarn  has  increased  from  20  million  kronor  to  30  million  kronor. 
The  woollen  goods  imported  come    for  the  most  part  from  Germany. 

The  wool  manufactories  of  Sweden  are  to  a  large  extent  situated  in 
Norrkoping,  where  in  1850  there  were  no  less  than  122  cloth  manufacto- 
ries, but  now,  since  the  smaller  ones  have  for  the  most  part  disappeared, 
only  about  20,  amongst  which  may  be  mentioned  the  Brag,  Briick, 
Wahren  and  Strom,  the  three  last  named  being  now  merged  in  the  Aktie- 
hoLaget  de  forenade  yllefahrikerna.  Norrkoping,  "the  Manchester  of  Swe- 
den", has  a  particularly  advantageous  situation  for  this  industry,  having 


Slottsmollan  Cloth-Mills  {Wallhergs  fahriksahtiebolag),  Halmstad. 


WOOLLEN    INDUSTRY. 


365 


John  Lenning. 


abundant  supply  of  water-power.  For  more  than  200  years  this  town  has 
been  the  centre  of  a  flourishing  textile  industry,  which  was  founded  by 
Crustavus  Adolphus.  Drag's  cloth-mills,  established  in  1810,  have  a  great 
and  well-deserved  reputation  for  the  excdlence  of  their  productions.  After 
being  turned  into  a  limited  liability  Company  in  1854,  it  became, 
under  the  direction  of  John  Lenning  (1819 — 79),  the  principal  business 
of  its  kind  in  the  country.  A  prominent  business  man  and  manufacturer 
and  a  great  friend  of  the  workmen,  whose  conditions  he  always 
endeavoured  to  improve,  he  donated  at  his  death  nearly  the  whole  of  his 
fortune  to  the  town  of  Norrkoping  for  public  utilitarian  purposes.  This 
donation  led,  among  other  things,  to  the  erection  of  the  school  of  weaving 
in  the  town  in  question,  which  has  been  called  by  his  name.  (Cf.  above.) 
Among  the  other  larger  wool  manufactories  may  be  mentioned  the  Malmo 
yllefahrih,  Goteborgs  hamgarnsspinneriahtiebolag,  Aktiebolaget  Fors  ull- 
spinneri  in  Nykoping,  Aktiebolaget  Skdnska  yllefabriken  in  Kristian- 
stad,  the  Sahlstrom  fabrik  at  Jonkoping,  Wallbergs  fabrihsdktiebolag 
in  Halmstad,  C.  0.  Borgs  soner  in  Lund,  and  several  factories  in  Bo- 
ras, among  which  there  are  a  wool  and  vigogne  spinning-mill,  and  also 


366 


VII.      MANUFACTURING   INDUSTIIEES. 


a  worsted  spinning-mill.   There  are  also  a  number  of  spinning-mills  in  the 
rural  districts,  mainly  for  the  treatment  of  native  wool. 

The  number  of  spindles  in  the  Swedish  woollen  industry  amounted  in 
1912  to  abo-ut  240  000  and  the  number  of  looms  to  5  000.  Among  the 
most  remarkable  features  of  this  industry  in  later  times  may  be  mention- 
ed the  growing  employment  of  ring-spindle  looms  in  the  carding-wool 
industry,  although  mostly  for  the  coarser  yarns;  further,  the  so-called 
dyeing  of  felling  —  previously  introduced  into  the  cotton  industry,  and, 
finally,  the  general  introduction  into  the  mills,  of  the  two-loom  system 
and  quick-working  looms,  this  making  possible  an  essential  increase  in  the 
output. 


.  ~^^H 

■^^t 

1 
• 

^^ 

^^^"^S 

r  ;■ 

i^HM^^MWII^~^iiii  ''"^'liiii'^irTiii'^^^--*'''**^ 

^.    '■'■ 

:^ 

r"""^ 

^^^g^  rr  ii^i^^^y^ 

^^Mk 

%'  - 

--*'»-*■-  .-" 

'lis 

Drag  Cloth-Mills,  Norrkoping. 


While  the  larger  factories  have  developed  more  and  more,  even  if 
partly  at  the  expense  of  the  smaller  ones,  the  value  of  the  output  has, 
during  the  last  thirty  or  forty  years,  increased  many  times  over.  The 
manufacture  of  fine  cloth  for  wearing  apparel  seems  to  be  gradually  de- 
creasing, while  the  contrary  is  the  case  with  regard  to  the  coarser  kinds. 
The  Drag  Company's  manufactures  of  cloth  for  uniforms,  suits,  and  over- 


COTTON    INDUSTRY.  367 

coats,  of  black  cloths,  satins,  and  twills,  are  well-known  and,  in  respect 
to  quality,  can  compete  with  the  best  foreign  makes.  Coarser  cloths, 
such  as  duffel,  baize,  corduroy,  and  frieze,  etc.,  are  manufactured  on  a 
large  scale  in  Sweden,  as  well  as  shawls,  rugs,  blankets,  flannels,  and 
Cotton  warp  stuffs  (thread-cloth,  buckskin,  velvets,  etc.).  Latterly,  comb- 
ing-wool  cloths  for  ladies  have  begun  to  be  manufactured  by  Aktiebolaget 
Merinos  and  Aktiebolaget  Boras  klddningstygsfabrih  in  Boras,  such  as 
cheviots,  thibet,  paramatta,  etc.,  both  pure  wool  and  linseys,  twills,  black 
and  fancy  cloth  for  ladies'  dresses.  Wallbergs  fabriksaktiebolag  at  Slotts- 
mollan  in  Halmstad,  occupies  a  conspicuous  place  among  the  makers  of 
felt.  There  is  manufactured  there  woven  felt  (for  paper-  and  wood-pulp 
machines,  filtering,  etc.)  as  well  as  pressed  (felt  squares;  pipes;  felt  for 
isolating  purposes).  Even  pattern-weavings  with  Jacquard  wool  are 
produced  at  several  factories,  particularly  damask  for  furniture  and  carpets, 
both  the  simpler  kinds  (stair-carpets)  and  so-called  Kidderminster  and  Ax- 
minster  carpets.  The  Stockinet  manufacture,  i.  e.,  machine-made  knitted 
stuffs,  is  of  great  importance.  This  manufacture,  the  production  value 
of  which  has  increased  many  times  over  during  the  last  few  years,  uses 
both  pure  wool  and  wool  mixed  with  cotton  (vigogne  thread)  and  also 
old  carded  stuffs.  —  An  important  economic  fusion  in  this  domain  is  the 
Aktiebolaget  Sveriges  forenade  trilmfabriker,  Boras. 

Of  the  wool  consumed  by  wool  factories,  amounting  to  about  6  or  7  million 
kg  per  annum,  about  45  %  is  imported,  10  %  or  15  J^  consists  of  native  wool, 
and  the  remaining  40  or  45  %  of  artificial  woo]  (carded  worsted,  shoddy, 
mungo,  extract,  or  the  like).  Among  the  imported  wools  may  be  noticed  also 
the  BO-called  "noils",  or  the  waste-wool  left  in  the  process  of  wool-combing,  which 
is  mixed  with  other  wool  or  cotton.  The  import  of  worsteds  amounts  to  nearly 
half  of  the  entire  consumption  of  such  textUe  fabrics  in  Sweden  —  during  the 
last  few  years,  however,  it  has  been  much  less. 

Quite  an  important  industry  has  arisen  in  recent  years  in  Sweden,  as  well  as 
abroad,  by  the  use  of  old  wool  stuffs  as  raw  material,  either  alone  or  with  an 
admixture  of  wool  or  cotton.  By  tearing  up  unfulled  stuffs,  worsted,  etc.,  a  better 
and  longer  haired  material  ("shoddy")  is  obtained  than  from  such  as  have  been 
fulled  ("mungo"),  which  by  tearing  become  shorter  and  more  worn.  Nevertheless, 
a  large  quantity  of  such  stuffs  are  produced  —  often  testifying  to  great  skill 
in  manufacture  —  such  as  rugs,  blankets,  and  shawls,  coarse  stuff  for  cloaks 
and  coats,  and  common  cloths  for  wearing  apparel. 

In  certain  parts  of  the  country  —  ia  the  hundred  of  Nordmark  in  Varmland 
Lan,  for  example  —  there  was  formerly  carried  on  a  very  lively  domestic 
industry  of  homespun  (Sw.  vadmal).  —  The  cloth  was  made  of  piu^e  Swedish 
wool,  and  the  manufacture  was  carried  on  by  means  of  a  stamping  mUl,  driven 
by  water-power.     In  some  places  this  manufacture  is  still  carried  on. 

Cotton  Industry. 

This  manufacture,  although  it  occupies  a  very  important  place  in  the 
.textile  industries  of  Sweden,  is  however,  confinsd  chiefly  to  the  simpler 
stuffs,  viz.,  cotton  and  twills,  drill,  dress  materials,  ginghams,  fustian, 
sail-cloth,  and  cotton  drill. 


368 


VII.      MANUPACTURING   INDUSTRIES. 


a  20  22  24-  26  28 


"•  Factory. 

9  Locality  with  a 
number  of  factories. 


12  K51  t](?  Green' 


Gen.  Stab.  LitAnst.Stockholm 


COTTON   INDUSTRY.  369 

Table  81.    Imports  and  Exports  of  Cotton  and  Cotton-stuffs.    In  quintals. 


Cotton 

Tarn 

Thread 

Textile 

fabrics 

Annually 

ImportB 

Exports 

Imports 

Exports 

Imports 

Exports 

Imports 

Exports 

1861-65.    .    . 

29  392 

3  336 

490 

245 

3196 

101 

1866-70 

54  532 

— 

5  057 

140 

354 

— 

3  750 

1077 

1871-75 

79  206 

— 

16  363 

338 

722 

2 

10171 

1347 

1876-80 

83  836 

— 

17  786 

800 

1137 

5 

8122 

1771 

1881—85 

109  806 

— 

20  976 

2  849 

2  023 

17 

10  384 

3  655 

1886-90 

117  481 

— 

17  036 

5127 

2  503 

23 

12176 

4  755 

1891-95 

141  476 

— 

21329 

4  812 

2  944 

4 

15  415 

8  059 

1896-00 

166  779 

— 

30  836 

3  625 

3159 

1 

18  561 

5  657 

1901—05 

178  965 

— 

11359 

4  048 

3  272 

1 

16  404 

1821 

1906-10 

201 233 

1527 

12  611 

3  069 

3  341 

1 

19  942 

1141 

1908.   . 

212 110 

1556 

13  542 

3  347 

2  374 

1 

17  589 

999 

1909  .    . 

173  103 

2134 

9  470 

3  432 

3  622 

1 

18  699 

■      908 

1910.    . 

206  947 

2129 

10  515 

2  344 

3150 

— 

21056 

1152 

1911  .   . 

200  400 

1794 

9  620 

3  084 

3  095 

— 

22129 

1358 

1  1912  .   . 

216  596 

1947 

11295 

6  896 

3168 

— 

16  765 

2  675 

The  total  production  value  of  the  Swedish  spinning-mills  was  estimated  at  12"40 
million  kroner  per  annum  during  the  last  half  of  the  decade  1861 — 70;  during 
the  earlier  half  of  the  decade  1871 — 80  at  14'39  millions;  but,  during  the  last 
half,  at  only  12"28  millions.  The  production  then  remained  at  this  point  up  to 
quite  recently,  when  it  made  an  enormous  advance,  rising  from  about  20  million 
kroner  in  1900  to  30  millions  in  1910.  From  the  weaving-mills  the  following 
figures  are  given:  for  the  decade  1861 — 70,  a  yearly  production  of  4'67  million 
kronor;  for  1871 — 80,  10"12  millions,  without  any  decline  during  the  last  part 
of  the  decade;  for  1881 — 90,  12'7i  millions,  and,  for  the  first  half  of  the  decade 
1891 — 1900,  12'88  million  kronor.  There,  too,  the  value  of  production  remained 
stationary  qUite  a  long  time,  but  for  1898  it  is  stated  to  be  no  less  than  21-46 
million  kroner,  from  which  it  rose  in  1912  to  35  million  kronor.  It  ought, 
however,  to  be  observed  that  the  figures  before  and  after  1896  (owing  to  altered 
statistics)  are  not  fully  comparable.  —  The  number  of  hands  engaged  in  the 
cotton  industry  amounted  in  1912  to  12  309,  of  whom  5  525  were  engaged  at 
the  spinning-mills  and  6  784  at  the  weaving-mills.  The  corresponding  figures 
for  1898  were  11  413  hands,  the  value  of  the  goods  produced  being  39  million 
kronor,  i.  e.,  3  417  kronor  per  head,  that  year,  as  compared  with  5  159  kronor 
per  workman  in  1912.  This  shows  an  increase  in  the  production  per  workman 
of  nearly  50  ^,  showing  the  sound  development  and  economic  management  of 
this  branch  of  industry. 

The  imports  are,  as  regards  quantity,  given  in  Table  81.  Their  value  was 
estimated  in  1912  at  23'8S  million  kronor  for  cotton;  for  cotton  yarn  at  3-20 
millions;  for  thread  at  2'77  millions,  and  for  textile  fabrics  at  9'3i  millions  or, 
altogether,  39'ii  million  kronor.  With  the  exception  of  the  last  few  years, 
the  import  of  cotton  presents  a  very  steady  increase,  and  it  has  almost  doubled 
during  the  last  decades.  The  greater  part  comes  from  Great  Britain.  The  ex- 
ports go  chiefly  to  Norway. 

The  first  more  important  mechanical  cotton-spinning  mill  in  Sweden  was 
established  at  Lerum  about  1800,  and  the  first  mechanical  weaving-mill 
—  the  Eydboholm  Art  Weaving  mills  —  the  latter  being  established  at 

24— W3f7fl.  Sweden.  II. 


370 


VII.       MANDPACTUEING   INDUSTRI33S. 


Kinna  by  Sven  Erikson,  one  of  the  great  names  in  the  history  of  the 
Swedish  textile  industry.  Erikson  began  with  a  so-called  "money-advance- 
business"  (Sw.  forlaggareaffar)  for  the  manufacture  of  woven  articles  in 
his  native  district,  the  hundred  of  Mark  in  Vastergotland;  then  he  gradu- 
ally extended  the  scope  of  his  operations  by  the  erection  of  a  spinning- 
mill,  whereby  the  weaving-mill  became  independent  of  foreign  yarn,  and 
the  factory  became  the  largest  of  its  kind  in  the  country.  At  the  present 
day  the  Swedish  cotton  industry  employs  500  000  spindles  and  13  000 
looms. 


Sven  Erikson. 
After  a  portrait  by  Geskbl  Saloman. 


As  an  important  modern  factor  in  this  industry  may  be  mentioned  the 
increasing  use  that  is  made  of  the  so-called  automatic  looms,  i.  e.,  those 
looms  possessing  a  device  for  the  automatic  introduction  of  the  weft 
into  the  spindle.  Of  these  there  are  now  some  3  000  in  use,  chiefly 
IsTorthrop  looms.'  The  Eydboholm  Weaving  Mills,  Ltd.,  at  Viska- 
fors,  for  example,  have  all  their  looms  provided  with  the  device  in 
question.  They  are  employed  chiefly  for  smooth,  plain  cloths,  as  exper- 
ience has  shown  that  they  do  not  always  give  a  perfectly  faultless  pro- 
duct. The  ring-spindle  machines,  too,  have  been  generally  introduced,  in 
place  of  the  so-called  "self-acting"  or  mule  spinning  machines.   The  larger 


COTTON  INDUSTRY. 


371 


spinning-mills  and  weaving-mills  have  introduced  artificial  moistening  of 
the  air  in  the  weaving-sheds,  which  is  maintained  at  a  constant  temperature 
and  percentage  of  moisture,  whereby  the  hygienic  conditions  have  been 
improved  and  the  output  increased.  Finally,  another  important  factor  is 
the  increasing  employment  of  electric  power,  not  only  for  the  looms  but 
also  for  the  spinning  machines.  The  G-amlestaden  factories,  in  Gothen- 
burg, for  example,  a  few  years  ago  introduced  electric  motive-power  trans- 
mitted from  the  State  power-station  at  TroUhattan,  and  several  other  mills 
have  followed  the  example. 


Viskafors  Cotton  Spinning-  and  Weaving-Mills. 


Among  the  larger  establishments  for  the  manufacture  of  these  stuffs 
may  be  mentioned:  Gamlestadens  fabriker  in  Gothenburg,  with  45  800 
spindles,  970  looms,  Kroksldtts  fabriker  (Claes  Johansson  &  Co.)  in  Gothen- 
burg, Norrkopings  bomullsvaveriaktiebolag ,  Holmens  fabrik  (and  Bergs 
bolag)  in  Norrkoping,  Boras  vdveriaktiebolag,  Ndas  spinning-mill,  the 
Viskafors,  Fritsla,  Kungsfors,  Alingsas  factories,  etc.  In  Stockholm 
there  is  a  large  spinning  and  cloth  factory  at  Barnangen,  and  the  Gavle 
Manufacturing  Company  has  a  large  factory  at  Stromsbro. 

Of  late  years,  very  successful  efforts  have  also  been  made  in  this 
branch  of  industry  to  manufacture  goods  that  demand  greater  skill  on 
the  part  of  the  workmen.     For  instance  the  Svenska  gardinfabriken  (the 


372 


VII.      MANUFACTURING    INDUSTRIES. 


Swedish  Curtain  Manufactory)  in  Gothenburg,  with  a  branch  in  Christi- 
ania,  since  the  abrogation  of  the  commercial  treaty  between  Sweden  and 
Norway  ("mellanrikslagen"),  manufactures  so-called  thread  curtains  or 
network  textiles,  white  as  well  as  coloured,  which  ha.ve  already  secured  a 
firm  footing  on  the  market  and  are,  as  far  as  quality  is  concerned,  fully 
worthy  of  comparison  with  the  best  obtained  from  abroad.  These  goods 
are  exported  as  well.  There  is  a  Norwegian  competitor  in  the  trade 
at  Bergen,  who  has  had  a  branch-works  at  Svartvik,  outside  Stockholm, 
since  the  abrogation  of  the  commercial  treaty  between  Sweden  and  Norwav. 


Room  luith  500  automatic  weavinq-lnoms  (Claes  Johansson  &  Co.,  Krokslatt, 

Gothenburg). 


What  is  noticeable  within  this  department  is  the  great  extension  of  domestic 
handicraft  (hemslojd)  in  certain  districts,  which  has  almost  developed  into  a  home 
industry.  Such  is  the  case  more  especially  in  the  Lan  of  Alvsborg,  viz.,  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Boras  and  Ulricehamn,  and  in  the  hundreds  of  Mark,  Kind,  and 
As,  where  the  country-people,  owing  to  the  indifferent  nature  of  the  sod,  have  turned 
from  agriculture  to  weaving.  Here,  the  former  extensive  cultivation  of  flax  and 
the  linen  industry  have  completely  made  way  for  cotton-weaving.  The  rich 
peasants  are  the  suppliers;  i.  e.,  they  supply  the  yarn  on  credit  to  their  de- 
pendents, who  carry  on  weaving  in  their  homes  and  afterwards  sell  to  the 
suppliers.  Both  Jaoquard  and  other  tapestries,  more  particularly  linen  and  twUl, 
undyed  and  dyed  stuffs,  are  the  objects  of  this  home  industry,  which  produces 
about  a  quarter  of  all  our  manufactures  of  cotton  stuffs.     The  goods  are  strong, 


LINEN    AND    JUTE-CLOTH    INDUSTRIES,    ETC.  373 

good,  and  cheap,  but  they  are  often  wanting  in  finish.  A  certain  division  of 
labour  with  respect  to  different  sorts  of  weaving  has  been  introduced,  so  that 
in  some  parts  of  the  country  only  dress  materials  are  woven;  in  others,  domestic 
and  other  white  linens;  in  others,  again,  huckaback,  carpets,  curtain  stuffs,  etc., 
from  other  raw  materials  than  cotton  as  well.  As  the  suppliers,  in  order  to  be 
in  a  position  to  compete  with  the  large  factories,  are  obliged  to  pay  verj'  low 
prices  to  the  weavers,  their  economic  position  is  a  bad  one.  Of  late  years, 
however,  much  has  been  done,  especially  by  the  home-sloyd  associations  of  the 
country,  to  improve  the  position  of  these  home-workers,  as,  for  example,  by 
the  acquisition  of  time-saving  and  labour-saving  machines,  the  choice  of  suitable 
patterns,  the  improvement  of  the  workpeople's  dwellings  and  hygienic  conditions, 
etc.,  all  of  which  has  enabled  them  to  compete  more  successfully  with  the  great 
industries  and,  at  the  same  time,  has  considerably  improved  the  less  attractive 
features  of  this  system  of  employment. 

Printed  cotton  goods  are  manufactured  at  a  few  factories,  among  which 
Rydboholm  on  the  Viskaan  River,  in  Alvsborg  Lan,  is  the  principal. 
Cotton  prints,  cretonnes,  etc.,  of  recognized  good  quality,  are  produced 
here,  although,  as  regards  variety  in  patterns,  they  cannot  compete  with 
those  from  abroad,  as  the  expensive  printing-rollers  are  not  manufactured 
in  the  country. 


Linen  and  Jute-cloth  Indnstries,  etc. 

The  'Norrland  provinces,  Halsingland,  Angermanland,  and  Jamtland, 
are  renowned  in  Sweden  for  their  excellent  flax  and  fine  linen,  but 
Smaland,  Halland,  and  Yastergotland  also  occupy  an  important  place  in 
this  respect.  In  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century,  much  was  done 
both  by  the  Government  and  the  Riksdag,  as  well  as  by  private  indi- 
viduals, for  the  promotion  of  the  linen  industry.  Especially  noticeable  is 
the  bonus-system  introduced  in  1740,  according  to  which  the  makers  of 
linen  of  a  certain  fineness  (there  were  8  classes)  were  rewarded,  and,  con- 
sequently, manufacturing  skill  was  raised  to  a  high  pitch  of  perfection.  As 
early  as  1741,  D.  Kropp  obtained  certain  privileges  on  his  establishment 
of  a  linen  manufactory  at  Harnosand,  in  Angermanland.  —  The  manufac- 
ture of  sail-cloth,  especially,  is  a  very  ancient  industry  in  Sweden.  In  the 
middle  of  the  18th  century  it  was  in  such  a  flourishing  state  that  it  was 
able  not  only  to  satisfy  the  home  demands  but  also  to  export  considerable 
amounts,  especially  to  the  countries  of  the  Mediterranean. 

The  retting  of  the  flax  takes  place  in  the  northern  parts  of  the  country 
in  pools  of  still  water;  in  the  southern  parts,  on  the  other  hand,  on 
meadows  — ■  then  called  dew-retting.  The  ISTorrland  flax  is  usually  of 
a  light  grey,  nearly  white  colour;  that  from  the  southern  parts,  e.  g., 
Smaland,  is  grey  and  more  uneven  in  colour.  The  cultivation  of  flax  has 
steadily  declined.  In  1875,  36  490  quintals  were  gathered;  in  1898,  only 
16  529  —  a  reduction  of  55  %.  The  Swedish  linen  industry  has,  how- 
ever, at  the  same  time  somewhat  increased,  very  large  quantities  <of  flax 


374 


Vn.      MANUFAOTURINa   BfDUSTEHS. 


Gen.Srab.LitAnstilockholn 


LINEN   AND   JUTE-CLOTH   INDUSTRIES,   ETC. 


375 


being  imported,  but  the  home  manufacture  is  far  from  sufficient  to  supply 
the  needs  of  the  country. 

Among  the  11  existing  linen-mills  in  Sweden,  mention  may  be  made 
of  Almedal,  Jonsered,  established  1833,  Dalsjofors,  and  Holma  (Tidaholm), 
with  a  total  production-value  of  nearly  7V2  million  kroner  in  yam  and 
staffs.  The  reason  that  the  linen  trade  is  of  subordinate  significance,  in 
spite  of  the  fact  that  flax  of  splendid  quality  can  be  produced  in  Swe- 
den, must  be  sought  for,  partly  in  the  increasing  popularity  of  cotton 
stuffs,  partly,  and  more  especially,  in  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  sufficient 
raw  material  of  even  quality,  and,  finally,  in  the  difficulty  there  is  in 
obtaining  labour  for  the  troublesome  preparation  of  the  fibres.  The 
country  people  do  not  carry  on  the  retting  in  a  rational  way;  the  sorting 
of  the  flax  purchased  by  the  factory  proves  difficult  to  do,  and  the 
product  thus  becomes  very  uneven.  Attempts  have  been  made  in  Hal- 
singland  at  retting  the  flax  on  a  large  scale,  by  purchasing  the  raw  flax 
from  the  peasantry,  and  manufacturing  the  flax  into  yarn  and  linen-cloth. 
The  chief  difficulty  is  to  secure  a  sufficient  supply  of  raw  flax.  In  1912 
there  were  15  200  linen-spindles  and  1  000  linen-looms  at  work  in  Sweden, 
and  the  value  of  the  production  has  more  then  doubled  during  the  last  ten 
years. 

Jute  (Corchorus  capsularis),  a  raw  material  of  this  class,  has  of  late 
years  become  the  object  of  a  rapidly  developed  and  most  extensive  trade, 
the  leading  representatives  of  which  are  Shandinavisha  Jutespinneri-  och 
vdveri-aktiebolaget  (Jute  factory)  at  Oskarstrom  (which  turns  out  goods 
to  a  value  of  about  3  000  000  kronor  annually)  and  Svenska  Jutevdveriak- 
tiebolaget,  Sodertalje  (established  1889,  and  employing  about  360  hands 


Table  82.     Imports  and  Exports  of  Flax  and  Hemp,  and  Articles  ma- 
nufactured from  them.    In  quintals. 


P  aT 

HeTTITl 

Tarn  and  thread 

Linen  and  hemp 

of  flax  and  hemp 

cloth                1 

Annually 

Imports 

Exports 

Imports 

Exports 

Imports 

Exports 

Imports 

Exports 

1861-65  .    .    . 

2  315 

34 

17109 

27 

194 

1 

1366 

91 

1866-70 

3  544 

576 

16  641 

17 

432 

5 

2  433 

339 

1871-75 

4  398 

485 

19  443 

38 

1159 

6 

5  395 

586 

1876-80 

5  469 

147 

16  023 

61 

1209 

3 

3  295 

503 

1881-85 

5140 

27 

15  992 

208 

1596 

27 

3  548 

463 

1886—90 

5  845 

4 

16  797 

139 

1489 

1 

2  984 

358 

1891-95 

7  256 

18  681 

130 

1661 

1 

3  933 

211 

1896-00 

6  622 



22  472 

46 

3  000 

18 

5  891 

108 

1901—05 

11583 

152 

25  208 

234 

2  739 

32 

4  995 

74 

1906-10 

16  483 

71 

26  832 

38 

2  056 

195 

5  447 

116 

1908.    . 

14  327 

98 

30  381 

65 

1548 

38 

4  395 

108 

1909.    . 

13  303 

40 

22  511 

9 

1983 

298 

5177 

111 

1910.    . 

18  447 

103 

26  361 

17 

2  080 

629 

5  987 

130 

1911.    . 

17  268 

31032 

21 

2  261 

1051 

7  531 

138 

1912  .   . 

25102 

— 

30187 

103 

2  803 

683 

4  867 

242 

376  VII.      MANUFACTURING   INDUSTKIES. 

and  with  a  production-value  of  about  1  ^U  million  kronor),  and  the 
Shdnsha  jutefabriks-aktiebolaget,  Hiilsingborg.  These  manufactories  have 
exceedingly  varied  productions,  comprising  jute-yarn,  netting  yarn,  mat 
warp,  string,  rope,  etc.,  and  sacking,  packing,  mattress  and  decoration-cloth, 
saddle-;girths,  and  mats.  Jute  is  also  used  in  certain  factories,  together 
with  wool  or  cotton,  for  curtain-  and  furniture-cloths,  as  well  as  carpets. 
The  eight  jute-factories  of  Sweden  employ  1  560  workpeople,  and  the  ave- 
rage annual  value  of  their  production  is  9  000  000  kronor. 

The  value  of  the  manufactures  at  Swedish  flax  and  hemp  spinning-mills- 
was,  in  1912,  3"60  million  kronor,  and  at  the  weaving-mills,  4 '86  millions;  at  the 
jute  spinning-mills  4"47  million  kronor,  and  at  the  weaving-mills  4'80  millions. 
(The  calculation  include  overlapping,  as  the  production  ligures  in  general.) 

The  imports  of  linen  and  hemp  goods  are,  as  regards  quantity,  shown  by- 
Table  82.  The  values  of  the  several  imports  were:  flax,  2'28  mill,  kronor; 
hemp,  2'17  millions;  hards,  0"60  million;  jute,  2'98  million,  yam  and  thread  for 
0'78  million,  and  flax,  hemp,  and  jute  textiles  2'22  millions;  total  10'93  million 
kronor.  The  import  of  linen  has  increased,  but  not  sufficiently  to  compensate 
for  the  above-mentioned  decline  in  the  home  production. 

Certain  other  flbrons  materials  have  been  used  for  the  manufacture  of  cloth, 
although  more  by  way  of  experiment.  Special  mention  may  be  made  of  Prof. 
H.  V.  Post's  experiments,  made  in  the  'sixties,  for  the  manufacture  of  yarn  and 
cloth  from  the  down  of  plants,  i.  e.  seed  catkins  of  willows  and  osiers  (Salix), 
and  of  aspens  and  poplars  (Populus),  especially  the  down  of  Salix  pentandra. 
Other  vegetable  down-producing  species,  such  as  Eriophorum,  Sonchus,  Typha 
etc.,   have   been  experimented  with  in  Sweden,  but  all  without  practical  results. 

Another  raw  material  made  into  home-manufactm:ed  cloth  by  the  peasantry 
in  certain  places,  was  the  ordinary  nettle  (Urtica  dioica),  which  was  treated  like 
flax  and  produced  a  particularly  good,  strong,  and  long  fibre.  The  cloth  thus 
produced  rivalled  linen  in  quality;  it  was  exceedingly  fine  and  strong  and  was 
called  "nettle-cloth",  a  name  that  has  now  been  transferred  to  certain  kinds  of 
thin  cottons. 

Of  late  years,  attempts  have  been  made  in  Sweden  to  employ  peat-fibre  for 
the  manufacture  of  cloth  (i.  e.  the  stalk  and  root  fibres  of  certain  species  of 
Eriophorum),  either  alone  or  spun  up  together  with  wool.  The  fibre  is  generally 
obtained  as  a  by-product  in  the  process  of  making  peat-coal.  Such  cloth  has 
been  manufactured  at  the  Sahlstrom  Manufactory  in  Jonkoping,  and  the  yarn 
spun  with  about  40  %  of  fibre  and  60  %  of  sheep's  wool.  The  cloths  which 
have  cotton  in  their  warp  and  fibre  yarn  in  their  woof  are  fulled.  This  manu- 
facture has  not,  however,  led  to  any  practical  result,  probably  from  want  of 
perfectly  satisfactory  fibre  and  the  special  machinery  necessary  for  cleansing 
and  spinning. 

Silk  Industry. 

The  Swedish  silk  industry,  at  present  of  exceedingly  unimportant 
dimensions,  should  be  regarded  as  a  relic  from  a  time  when  the  people  and 
the  ruling  princes  always  regarded  it  as  essential  to  a  country's  welfare 
to  introduce  and  encourage  every  industry  at  anjr  price,  whether  there 
was  any  probability  of  its  flourishing  in  that  country  or  no. 

As  early  as  in  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century,  there  was  a  silk  manu- 
factory   with    50    looms    in    Stockholm,  and  in  1673  one  Jurgen  Enhorn,  from 


THE   SILK   INDUSTRY.  377 

Hamburg,  obtained  leave  to  set  up  a  silk  manufactory  in  Gothenburg  or  Lands- 
krona,  where  plush,  velvet,  and  silk  ribbons  also  might  be  manufactured.  The 
sale  was  bad  in  consequence  of  the  import  of  such  goods,  on  account  of  which 
all  introduction  into  the  country  of  such  articles  was  forbidden  in  1683,  and  a 
special  "sUk-house"  was  established  under  government  control,  all  silk  stuffs 
having  to  be  furnished  with  its  stamp  and  seal.  The  silk  was  brought  from  Persia 
and  other  places  in  Asia,  and  also  from  South  Europe.  After  the  long  wars  of 
Charles  XII,  the  silk  trade  led  a  languishing  existence,  but  recovered  again 
under  the  eighteenth  century's  zealous  system  of  protection  and  bonuses. 

In  the  middle  of  the  last-named  century,  many  attempts  were  made  to  in- 
troduce the  cultivation  of  the  silkworm  into  Sweden.  In  1750,  there  were  some- 
thing like  100  000  white  mulberry  trees  to  be  seen  in  Lund;  native  silk  was 
actually  produced  in  spite  of  the  northern  latitude,  and  the  State  supported  the 
project  with  bonuses  and  grants,  in  the  hope  that  it  might  call  into  being  a 
new  home  industry.  In  1830,  a  "Society  for  promoting  the  rearing  of  native 
silk  worms"  was  established,  under  the  patronage  of  the  then  Crown  Princess 
Josephine,  and  with  illustrious  men  of  science,  such  as  Berzelius,  Sven  Nilsson, 
and  many  others,  as  members.  The  production  of  silk  was,  however,  never 
very  large,  possibly  10  or  12  kg  per  annum;  and  more  particularly  after 
the  yearly  Government  subvention  of  4  000  kroner  was  withdrawn  in  1876,  it 
may  safely  be  said  that  the  undertaking  lost  all  significance  as  far  as  Swedish 
industry  was  concerned.  The  attempts  made  by  this  Society  seem,  however,  to 
demonstrate  that  the  so-called  oak  silk-worm  {Bomhyx  Yama-Mai),  a  Japanese 
species,  can  thrive  exceedingly  well  in  Sweden.  The  Society  ceased  its  operations 
in  1898,  after  nearly  70  years'  work  without  practical  results.  The  last  year's 
yield  (about  2  kg)  was  obtained  at  the  Society's  institution  at  Alnarp  in  Skane. 

Although,  in  1845,  there  were  18  silk  manufactories  at  work,  at  present 
Sweden  has  only  one,  viz.,  K.  A.  Almgren's,  Stockholm.  This  factory  (establish- 
ed 1834)  certainly  produces  excellent  simple  silk  stuffs  (taffety,  gros,  croise, 
rep,  satinet,  atlas,  and  a  certain  amount  of  damask)  for  wearing  apparel, 
kerchiefs,  ribbons,  and  neckties.  Notwithstanding  the  high  duty  on  imported 
sOk  goods  (6  kronor  per  kilogram,  while  the  raw  silk  is  admitted  duty  free), 
this  industry  continues  to  decline.  Silk  goods  are  fashionable  articles,  and,  as 
such,  often  subject  to  fluctuation,  and  they  are  therefore  hardly  likely  to  be 
manufactured  at  a  profit  in  so  small  a  country  as  Sweden.  The  silks  of 
home  manufacture  probably  cost  50  %  more  than  the  French,  and  the  former 
are  inferior  to  the  latter  with  regard  to  colour,  though  possibly  somewhat  superior 
in  durability. 

Especially  interesting  are  the  attempts  that  have  been  made  in  Sweden  to 
produce  the  so-called  artificial  silk,  or  coUodium  thread.  This  method  consists 
in  pressing  fine  threads  out  of  a  gelatinized  solution  of  cellulose  (cotton,  straw, 
or  chemical  wood-pulp)  through  extremely  fine  holes  in  glass  tubes;  this 
thread  is  in  quality  very  much  like  natural  silk.  The  inventions  in  this  branch 
of  trade  have  not,  as  yet,  given  rise  to  any  industry,  but  may  be  said  still  to 
be  in  the  experimental  stage.  The  fabrics,  which  have  hitherto  been  manu- 
factured of  this  material  have  consisted  of  natural  silk  in  warp  and  cellulose 
silk  in  woof,  the  latter,  as  regards  durability,  however,  being  considerably  in- 
ferior to  the  former.  Such  silk  has  also  been  manufactured  in  Sweden  of 
sulphite,  presumably  for  the  first  time  in  any  country.  This  silk,  however,  be- 
comes yellowish  and  is  difficult  to  bleach. 

Sweden's  imports  of  pure  and  cotton-silk  fabrics  has,  in  yearly  averages  for 
the  five-year  periods  1871 — 1910  and  for  the  year  1911,  been  estimated  at  re- 
spectively 2-78,  2-90,  3-44,  4'73,  3'i6,  4'66,  4-80,  6-76,  and  7'69  million  kronor.  Of 
the  sum  for  1912,   3'75  millions  were  for  pure  silk  and  2'8i)  millions  for  cottonsilk. 


378  VII.      MANUFACTURING   INDUSTRIES. 


Other  Manufactures  in  the  Clothing  Industry. 

Of  the  large  number  of  manufactures  in  these  branches  there  are  a  great  num- 
ber which  chiefly  fall  within  the  department  of  handicraft  and  home-manufacture, 
while  the  manufacturing  industry,  properly  so  called,  has,  on  the  whole,  made 
only  its  first  entry  into  the  domain  of  Swedish  industries.  This  is  due  to  the 
smallness  of  the  home-market  and  the  obstacles  lying  in  the  way  of  exports  on 
a  large  scale.  The  development  of  these  special  trades,  however,  has  made  very 
rapid  progress.  For  example,  the  number  of  the  sewing  factories  has  risen  during 
the  last  ten  years  from  24  to  64,  and  the  value  of  their  products  from  4  million 
kroner  to  15  millions.  Sweden  is  still  obliged,  however,  to  rely  on  a  considerable 
import  from  the  countries  that  set  the  taste  in  these  branches.  The  entire  value 
of  the  imports  in  1912  amounted  to  no  less  than  2S"90  million  kroner.  The 
largest  items  were  ribbons  (silk,  and  others)  2'i6  million  kroner;  embroideries 
1"94  million  kroner;  hais  1"96  million;  clothes  and  clothing-articles,  Q'Si  millions, 
including  household  articles  of  all  kinds,  such  as  table-linen,  etc.;  further,  lace- 
worh,  0'69  million  kroner;  lace,  1"05  million;  stoclcings  and  stocking-loom  worlc, 
2'65  millions;  thread-gloves,  0*9i  million;  waterproof  stuffs,  3"6i  million  kroner,  etc. 

The  branches  which,  in  1912,  had  the  largest  manufacture  in  the  branches 
in  question  are  the  following: 

Factories     ^°^^'     ^'^^'"■^  °^  ^*°'^" 
people      factare,  kroner 

Sewing  factories     . 68  4  920  17  622 142 

Stockinet  factories  and  hosieries    ....  59  3  681  13 156  708 

Dyeing  works  and  Calendering  works  .    .  116  2161  5  608  567 

Hat  factories 24  1  219  4  685  257 

Cap  factories 21  761  2  710  594 

Teat-Cloth,  and  tarpauling  factories     .    .  13  264  2  602  397 

Curtain  factories ♦.    .    .    .  2  349  1 800  000 

Ribbon  factories 17  440  1 497  577 

Necktie  factories 7  398  1 165  018 

Corset  factories 6  453  1396  000 

Cotton-wool  factories 13  199  994381 

Brace-factories 4  278  868  631 

Umbrella-  and  parasol  factories     ....  8  101  814  965 

Of  dye  and  bleach  works  for  yam  and  cloths  there  are  a  large  number  but 
mostly  small  ones;  still  there  aife  some  which  work  on  a  larger  scale;  the  most 
important  are  the  dye-works  of  Levanten,  near  Gothenburg.  At  the  large  wool 
and  cotton  factories  there  are  also  dye  and  bleach-works  established,  quite  suffi- 
cient for  the  greatest  demands  that  can  be  made  nowadays  in  this  branch. 

Of  late  years  arrangements  have  been  made  at  several  textile  works  for  the 
calendering  of  a  large  proportion  of  the  woven  material  brought  from  abroad,  the 
goods  being  re-exported  afterwards,  the  Customs  then  restoring  the  amount  of 
duty  paid  on  the  raw  goods,  allowance  being  made  for  the  loss  of  weight  the 
material  has  suffered  during  the  process.  This  process  of  preparation,  which 
is  chiefly  applied  to  cottons  and  woollens,  usually  comprises  dyeing,  printing, 
and  mercerizing.  Among  the  more  important  factories  in  this  branch  may  be 
mentioned  the  J.  F.   Vennerstens  fabrihsahtiebolag,  Boras. 

Of  stockinet-factories  the  largest  are  to  be  found  in  Alvsborg  Lan,  and 
in  the  towns  of  Malmo,  Gothenburg  and  Karlstad. 

The  most  important  sewing-factories  are  Wettergren  &  Go's  mantle-factory 
in  Gothenburg,  and  Ahtiebolaget  Moresco,  Malmo. 

Hats  manufactured  in  Sweden  are  principally  of  felt.  The  most  important  fac- 
tories for  goods,  of  this  kind  are  in  Stockholm,  Falkoping,  Karlskrona  and  Malmo. 


MACHIXES    AND    APPARATUS    USED    IX    THE    TEXTILE    IXDISTEY.  379 


Machines  and  Apparatus  used  in  the  Textile  Industry. 

Of  the  large  number  of  machines  used  in  the  textile  industrj',  only  a 
small  number  are  manufactured  in  Sweden,  although,  for  instance,  the 
manufacture  of  ordinary  machine-looms  for  simple  cotton  cloths  could, 
for  several  reasons,  be  carried  on  at  a  profit  here.  The  Huskvarna  factory 
makes  sewing  and  knitting  machines  of  acknowledged  good  quality.  P. 
Persson's  counting  apparatus,  with  the  pattern  discs  belonging  to  it,  has 
proved  of  great  importance,  in  domestic  industry  especially,  as  it  facilitates 
the  work  in  the  manufacture  of  a  large  number  of  articles  of  clothing 
by  the  ordinarj'  knitting  machine.  Eor  dyeing,  bleaching,  and  washing 
cotton,  as  well  as  in  the  department  of  calico-printing,  G.  Jagenhurg,  of 
Rj^dboholm,  has  made  several  important  inventions,  and  there  are  several 
clever  Swedish  inventions  for  impregnating  cloth  for  the  purpose  of 
rendering  it^  waterproof  or  less  inflammable.  IE.  Schenson's  svsdngle 
apparatus  for  treating  flax,  and  R.  Strehlenert's  arrangement  for  spinning 
artificial  silk  may  also  be  mentioned.  Electricity  also  has  been  utilized, 
as  in  G.  Wenstrom's  device  in  singeing-machines  for  cotton  cloth,  and 
G.  Cassel's  device  in  outting-machines.  Weavers'  reeds  are  made  at  the 
Mora  factory. 

Kristoffer  Polhem  (1661 — 1751)  made  many  important  inventions  in  tex- 
tile machinery,  especially  in  the  stockiQet  industry,  which  sprang  into  exi- 
stence during  his  time.  There  still  exist,  for  example,  several  of  Polhem's 
pedal  stocking-looms  at  the  Polhem  Museum  at  Falun,  manufactured  at  the 
Stjamsund  works  established  by  him  in  Dalame  at  the  beginning  of  the 
18th  century.  He  also  invented  a  ribbon-loom  for  the  simultaneous  weaving 
of  several  ribbons;  a  wool-washing  machine;  a  cloth-press,  etc.;  and  he  invented 
a  number  of  other  very  ingenious  machines,  such  as  mechanical  spinning-looms 
and  carding-looms,  which,  however,  could  not  be  constructed  from  want  of  skil- 
led labour. 

The  import  of  machinery  in  this  branch,  chiefly  from  Great  Britain  and  Ger- 
many, amounted  in  1912  to  about  1'9  million  kroner.  The  value  of  the  machine- 
imports  for  the  years  1910  and  1911  is  shown  in  the  following  table.  It  must 
be  noted,  however,  that  the  figures  here  given  are  not  quite  comparable  with 
the  total  value  for  1912  on  account  of  alterations  in  the  official  grouping  of 
wares,  distributed  as  follows: 

1910  1911 

Kroner  Kroner 

Looms 581  000           550  000 

Spinning  machines 672  000            658  000 

Mangles  (Callenders,  etc.) 36  000              31000 

Bobbins 142  000            146  000 

Carders  and  card-leatier 119  000            116  000 

Opening  machines,  Willows,  carding-machines,  etc.  .    919  000 859  OOP 

2  469000         2360000 

For  exercising  control  over  the  textile  industry  in  Sweden,  both  for  individual 
and  State  needs,  the  Material-testing  Institute  of  the  Technical  High  School  has 
a  special  department  furnished  with  the  requisite  apparatus  for  the  purpose.  In 
addition    to  microscopic  examinations  of  the  fibre  substances  of  yarn  and  cloth, 


380  VII.      MANUFACTURING   INDUSTRIES. 

tests  of  different  kinds  are  made  as  to  the  strength  of  the  material.  For  example, 
yam  is  tested  as  to  strength,  elasticity,  evenness,  purity,  and  uniformity,  the 
quality  of  the  thread  and  the  fibre;  cloth  is  tested  as  to  strength,  elasticity, 
curability,  perviousness  to  gases  and  fluids,  permanence  of  dyes,  shrinkage.  Even 
separate  fibres  are  examined  with  regard  to  strength  and  spinning  qualities.  For 
these  various  purposes  there  are  modern  apparatuses,  dynometers  for  stresses 
ranging  from  1  gram  to  500  kg,  etc.,  some  of  which  have  been  constructed 
specially  for  the  Institute. 


3.     HIDES,  SKINS,  AND  HAIR. 

The  official  statistics  make  the  following  distinctions  between  the 
several  different  manufactures  under  this  general  heading;  the  figures 
are  those  for  1912   (handicrafts  excluded) : 


Factories 

Tanneries 198 

Far  goods  factories 22 

Shammy  leather  factories 2 

Workmen 

1850 

498 

10 

Valuti  of  prodnc- 
tion,   kr. 

30  355  000 

4  511000 

59  000 

Total 
Shoe  factories 

222 

86 
16 
48 

2358 

6  765 
351 

784 

34925000 

36  043  000 
865  000 

Other        >          .           .            .... 

4  517  000 

Total 

150 

7900 

41425000 

Grand  total 

372 

10258 

76350000 

The  advance  which  has  been  made  in  this  industry  will  be  seen  from  a 
comparison  with  the  returns  for  1898,  which  were,  respectively,  685 
factories,  7  461  workmen,  and  a  production  of  the  value  of  24  271  000 
kroner.  The  number  of  factories  has  thus  decreased  by  46  %,  that  of 
workmen  increased  by  37  fo,  and  the  value  of  the  production  shows  an  in- 
crease by  214  %. 

The  more  important  increases  in  the  production  of  the  wares'  referred 
to  in  the  groups  will  be  seen  from  the  following  tables. 

Tanneries. 

The  splendid  development  of  tanning  since  the  middle  of  the  decade 
1891 — 1900  is  to  some  extent  fictitious  owing  to  subsequent  statistics  being 
fuller,  but  it  is,  nevertheless,  to  a  great  extent  real,  partly  owing  to  im- 
proved technics  in  general,  as  is  proved  by  the  increased  amount  of  produc- 
tion in  proportion  to  the  number  of  workmen,  partly  from  the  general 
employment  of  tanning  extract,  and  also  from  the  more  favourable  duties 
which  came  into  operation  in  the  beginning  of  the  decade  1891 — 1900. 

Shammy-leather  tanning  has  always  been  inconsiderable,  showing  an 
average  yearly  production  of  only  3  475  kroner  between  1861  and  1865; 


Table  83. 


TANNERIES. 

Tanneries. 


381 


Annually 
Altered  statistics  from  1896 

Number 

Workmen 

Value  of  production 
in  thousands  of  kr. 

1861-65 

1866—70 

1871-75 

1876-80  . 

1881—85 

658 
656 
679 
666 
658 
618 
578 

561 
456 

276 

243 
226 
198 

1897 

1566 
1896 
1787 
1685 
1666 
1810 

2  401 
2  332 
2  034 

2  084 
1915 
1850 

4  554 

4  404 
7  241 

5  676 
5185 
5139 
5  908 

9  681 
15  355 
23  291 

28  878 
27  959 
30  355 

1886—90 

1891—95 

1896-00 

1901-05 

1906—10 

1911 

1912 

this  sum  rose  to  142  000  kronor  between  1896  and  1900,  but  then  there 
was  a  decrease  to  59  100  kronor  for  the  year  1912. 

Tables  83  and  84  show  that  at  the  same  time  as  the  manufacture 
in  Swedish  tanneries  has  rapidly  increased,  the  import  of  bottoms  leather 
(sole-leather  and  insole  leather)   has   rapidly   decreased.     The  export  is 


Table  84. 


Imports  and  Exports  of  Hides  and  Skins. 


Leather 

Other  dressedi 
hides  and  skins 

Undressed  hides 

Fur-goods 

Value  in  thousands 

Annually 

Quintals 

Quintals 

Quintals 

of  kronor 

Imports 

Exports 

Imports 

Exports 

Imports 

Exports 

Imports 

Exports 

1861—65.    .    . 

1386 

11 

315 

29 

25  342 

2  540 

1866-70  .    .    . 

1879 

202 

357 

9 

23  229 

6119 

1871-75.   .    . 

6  426 

295 

1044 

18 

36  595 

6  737 

669 

141 

1876-80  .    .    . 

15  007 

938 

1472 

70 

20  227 

8  860 

504 

119 

1881-85  .    .    . 

20  256 

818 

2  044 

40 

24  648 

13  779 

700 

82 

1886-90  .    .    . 

20178 

355 

2  678 

48 

28  848 

17  982 

1159 

128 

1891-95  .    .    . 

24  613 

1047 

4  427 

105 

30  756 

20171 

1652 

534 

1896—00  .    .    . 

25  720 

61 

6  955 

142 

46  385 

35  264 

2  575 

445 

1901-05  .    .    . 

10  623 

116 

8  088 

215 

74  780 

57  904 

1997 

360 

1906-10.   .   . 

3  531 

315 

7  654 

359 

99  032 

78  536 

2  928 

870 

1910 

4  814 

41 

8  484 

628 

124  777 

100  785 

3  580 

980 

1911 

2  965 

288 

8  957 

709 

111017 

134868 

3  576 

1174 

1912 

2  680 

575 

7  240 

502 

119  740 

113  732 

5  810 

4010 

Value  in  thousands 

of  kronor 

748 

68 

8  084 

271 

11872 

7  066 

2  928 

870 

1906-10.    .    . 

1910 

1100 

10 

10193 

565 

15  243 

8  652 

3  580 

980 

1911 

700 

70 

10  483 

562 

13842 

13  564 

3  576 

1174 

1912 

784 

117 

10728 

446 

15  569 

15  206 

5  810 

4  010 

'  Not  including  furs. 


382 


VII.      MANUEACXURING   INDUSTEIES. 


inconsiderable.  Other  dressed  hides  and  skins  are  continually  imported 
in  large  and  increasing  quantities,  the  value  for  the  year  1912  being 
about  10-7  million  kroner,  of  which  the  larger  part  consists  of  "dyed"" 
3kins  (upper-leathers  of  all  kinds)  for  9-8  million  kronor,  the  next  most 
important  being  patent  leather  to  the  amount  of  600  000  kronor.  The 
manufacture  of  this  sort  of  skins  is,  hov^ever,  on  the  increase  in  Sweden, 
so  there  are  prospects  that  the  imports  will  gradually  decrease.  The 
imports  and  exports  of  hides  have  balanced,  so  that  the  values  are  also' 
nearly  equal. 

Undressed  hides  and  skins  (not  furs)  are  chiefly  sent  over  Norway, 
Denmark,  and  Germany  as  transit  goods  from  the  Argentine  and  East 
Indies,  sole-leather  principally  from  the  United  States,  dyed  skins  from 
Germany,  Denmark  (in  transit),  and  the  United  States.  The  export  of 
undressed  hides  is  chiefly  to  Norway  and  Germany,  of  which  a  part  is 
in  transit  to  North  America. 

The  largest  tanneries  in  the  kingdom  are  in  the  district  of  Stockholm 
(Jarla),  in  Valdemarsvik,  Solvesborg,  Nattraby,  Simrishamn,  Malmo, 
Landskrona,  Angelholm,  Falkenberg,  Vanersborg,  Alingsas  (chevreau), 
Gavle,  and  Malung  in  Dalarne  (finer  sorts  of  skins).  At  the  beginning 
of  the  decade  1901 — 10,  chrome  tanning  was  introduced  into  Sweden,  a 
process  which  had  long  before  been  in  vogue  in  other  countries.  There 
are  factories  for  chrome  tanning  in  Klippan  (Skane)  and  Askersund. 

Other^manufactures. 

Shoes.  Shoemaking  as  a  trade  has  now  little  importance  since  the  large  shoe 
factories  with  up-to-date  American  machinery  began  to  compete  with  improved 
and  cheaper  shoes.  Since  the  commencement  of  the  manufacture  of  shoes 
in  factories  in  the  decade  1881 — 90  the  turnout  has  risen  rapidly  to  a  value  of 
36  million  kronor  in  the  year  1912  (see  Table  85)  and  is  thus  one  of  the 
largest  industries  in  Sweden.  The  principal  shoe  factories  are  in  Orebro  and 
in  the  Lans  of  Stockholm,  Malmohus,  Goteborg  och  Bohus,  and  Alvsborg.  The 
import  of  shoes  is  inconsiderable;  about  450  000  kronor  in  1911;  the  export  is- 
practically  nil. 


Table  85. 


Shoe  Manufactories. 


An  n  u  a  1  1  y 
Altered  statistics  from  1890 

Number 

■Workmen 

Value  of  production 
in  thousands  of  kr. 

1881-85 

1886-90 

1891-95 

1896—00 

1901-05 

1906—10 

1910 

1911 

1912 

2 

5 

12 

34 
49 

80 

89 
86 
86 

47 
243 
874 

2  592 

3  824 
5845 

6  776 
6  680 
6  765 

66 
469 

3167 

8134 
14  766 
24408 

34138 
33  692 
36043 

OILS,   TAR,   INDIA-RUBBER  AND    ALLIED   COMMODITIES. 

Table  86.  Fur  and  Glove  Factories. 


383 


Annually 
Altered  statistics  from  1896 

Fur    factories 

Glove    lactorles 

Number 

Workmen 

Value  of  pro- 
duction in 
thousands 
ot  kr. 

Number 

Workmen 

Value  of  pro- 
duction in 
tliousands 
of  kr. 

1861-65 

1866-70 

1871-75 

1876-80 

1881-85 

1886-90 

1891-95 

1896-00 

1901-05 

1906-10 

1910 

1911 

1912 

1 

5 

15 
19 
25 

25 

21 

a2 

38 
220 

558 
515 
565 

522 
466 
498 

143 
735 

2153 

2  658 

3  776 

4  017 

3  623 

4  511 

9 
8 
9 
11 
6 
8 
9 

19 
21 
21 

19 
17 
16 

256 
198 
268 
380 
388 
370 
325 

592 
467 
399 

384 
367 
351 

96 
158 
327 
486 
490 
512 
532 

1059 
976 
962 

934 
814 
865 

Gloves.  The  maniifacture  of  gloves  is  an  industry  of  old  standi^ig  in  Skane, 
whence  the  name  Slcdne  gloves.  Lamb-skins  and  goat-skins  are  used  almost 
exclusively  for  glove-making.  The  so-called  gants  de  Suede  are  a  special  sort 
of  shammy-leather  gloves  with  the  flesh-side  of  the  skin  outermost.  Elk,  reindeer, 
and  buck-skins  are  also  employed  for  gloves.  The  chief  seats  of  the  glove-making 
industry  in  Sweden  are  Malmo,  Lund,  and  Halsingborg.  Particulars  are  shown 
in  Table  86;  the  value  for  the  last  13  years  approaches  1  million  kroner 
yearly;  in  1912,  490  000  pairs  were  made.  The  imports  in  1913  were  of  the 
value  of  266  000  kroner  and  the  export  negligible. 

According  to  Table  86  the  fur  factories  show  a  considerable  productive  value, 
4  million  kr.  during  the  last  few  years.  To  this  must  be  added  an  import  of 
furs  for  about  5 '8  million  kronor  and  an  export  of  4"o  millions  for  1912  (see 
Table  84  above).  The  imports  come  chiefly  from  Finland,  Germany  (transit 
goods),  and  Denmark,  the  exports  go  chiefly  to  Norway,   Germany  and  Finland. 

The  value  of  the  manufactures  in  the  saddle  trade  was  692  000  kronor  in 
1912,  that  of  brusli-makiug  Ts  millions,  leatlier  strap  factories  918  000  kr.  and 
other  manufactures  comprised  in  the  above  group,  1  410  000  kronor. 


4.    OILS,  TAR,  INDIA-RUBBER  AND  ALLIED 
COMMODITIES. 

In  this  section  a  distinction  is  made  between  the  industries  which 
produce  the  raw  material  and  those  which  refine  and  manufacture  it. 
The  totals  in  1912  show,  in  each  case,  the  following  figures: 


Factories     'Worknien 

Production  of  raw  material  .    .    125  762 

Refining  industry 107  2  930 


Value  of  production 

17  135  000  kronor 
24  636  000 


Total    232 


3692 


41771000   kronor 


384 


VII.      MANUFACTURING   INDUSTRIES. 


It  is  also  necessary  for  Sweden  to  import  considerable  quantities  of 
these  articles  as  well,  while  the  export  is  much  less.  The  chief  import 
is  petroleum  (lamp-oil),  in  1912  to  a  value  of  14-6  million  kronor.  (Mine- 
ral-oils to  a  total  value  of  22-2  million  kronor.)  Then  come  fatty  oils  and 
tallow  to  a  value  of  23-7  millions,  about  half  going  to  the  margarine  fac- 
tories. The  import  of  paraffine  amounts  to  837  000  kronor:  india-rubber 
to  14-2  millions,  and  oil-cakes  to  23-4  millions,  of  which  further  details  are 
given  below.  The  chief  exports  are  tar  (524  000  kronor),  galoshes  and 
other  india-rubber  goods  (6-17  millions).  The  total  exports  within  this 
group  amounted  to  10-5  million  kronor  in  1912. 


Fatty  Oils, 

The  only  fatty  oils  Sweden  produces  on  a  large  scale  are:  linseed-oil  and 
rape-oil.  They  are  derived  from  the  corresponding  seeds  by  means  of  pressure. 
The  leavings,  after  the  process  of  pressing  is  completed,  are  used  in  the  form 
of  oil-cakes,  or  ground  as  food-stuffs  for  cattle.  Fish-oil  was  produced  from 
herring  about  the  year  1890,  when  large  shoals  visited  the  west  coast,  in  connec- 
tion with  the  production  of  herring-guano,  though  now  the  production  is  only 
exceptional.  The  herring  was  boiled  in  water,  when  the  fat  rose  to  the  surface 
and  was  skimmed.  What  was  left  was  pressed,  and  a  new  quantity  of  oil 
obtained  and  more  or  less  refined,  before  being  placed  on  the  market.  The 
refuse  left  in  the  press  was  then  dried  for  herring-gauno  (See  under  section: 
Artificial  Fertilizers).  Train-oils  are  also  produced,  chiefly  as  a  home  industry 
in  connection  with  seal-shooting. 

The  total  number  of  factories  belonging  to  this  group  amounted  in  1912  to 
20,  with  196  workmen  and  a  producti9n-value  of  9  641  000  kronor,  of  which 
amount  5  198  000  kronor  were  for  70  295  quintals  of  linseed-  and  rape-oil,  and 
3  399  000  kronor  for  276  948  quintals  of  oil-cake.  —  Fatty  oils  are  used  to  a 
large  extent  in  making  hard  and  soft  soap,  stearine  candles,  oil-colours,  and  var- 
nishes. The  manufacture  of  oils  and  oil-cakes  does  not  nearly  cover  the  demand 
of  the  country.  The  import  is  consequently  considerable,  as  may  be  seen  from 
Table  87. 


Table  87.    Import  of  Linseed  and  Bape-seed,  Fatty 

Oil-cakes,  and  Train-oil. 


Oils  and  Tallows, 


Annually 

Linseed  and 

rape-seed 

kronor 

Fatty  oils  and 
taUows 
kronor 

Oil-cakes 
kronor 

Train-oil 
kronor 

1871—80 

1340  000 
1695  000 
2  312  000 
2  718  000 
5  501000 
5  557  000 

5  956  000 
7 182  000 
7  227  000 
9  028  000 

2  526  000 

3  746  000 

4  737  000 
7  019  000 
7  674  000 

13  447  000 

22  860  000 
20  388  000 

23  715  000 
22  706  000 

1168000 

2  580  000 

3  279  000 

4  268  000 
9  736000 

16  812  000 

17  868000 
20  369  000 
23  382  000 
20  904  000 

385  000' 
516  000 
539000 
555000 
503000 

688000 
580000 
518000 
569  000 

1881—90 

1891-95 

1896-00 

1901—05 

1906—10 

1910 

1911 

1912 

1913 

'  The  figure  385  000  kronor  expresses  the  average  for  the  years  1886 — 90. 


MINERAL   OIL.  385 

In  greater  detail,  the  import  of  linseed  during  1913  amounted  in  value  to 
8  663  000  kronor,  rape-  and  colza-seed  to  365  000  kronor;  linseed-,  rape-  and 
colza-oil  to  226  000  kronor;  and  sweet  or  olive-,  hemp-,  palm-,  cotton-,  soya- 
and  maize-oil  etc.  to  5  842  000  kronor;  arachide-  and  sesame  oil  (chiefly  for  the 
manufacture  of  margarine)  to  2  475  000  kronor;  cocoa-nut  oil  (also  chiefly  for 
manufacture  of  margarine)  to  9  881  000  kronor;  all  in  barrels.  In  other  vessels, 
to  34  000  kronor.  The  large  increase  in  the  import  of  oils  beginning  with 
1910  —  the  import-value  rose  all  at  once  to  7  million  kronor  —  was  due  to 
the  increase  in  the  use  of  cocoa-nut  oil  in  the  margarine  industry  (See:  The 
Ijlargarine  Industry).  The  export  of  fatty  oils  and  tallows  in  1913  only  amounted 
to  a  value  of  944  000  kronor. 


Mineral  Oil. 

Mineral  oil  is  generally  imported  in  a  refined  form  as  petroleum  (lamp  oil), 
benzine,  and  lubricating  oils,  but  some  is  also  refined  in  Sweden  itself.  There 
are  no  sources  of  mineral  oils  in  Sweden.  It  was  the  two  brothers  L.  and  B. 
Jfobel,  themselves  Swedes,  who  established  the  Russian  petroleum  industry,  on 
the  peninsula  of  Apscheron,  in  the  Caspian  Sea.  Under  their  management,  this 
Russian  industry  has  developed  to  such  an  extent  that  it  can  compete  with  the 
American  in  certain  branches. 

The  import  in  1913  was: 

Tons  Kronor 

Crude  petroleum 15  34B                1535  000 

Petroleum  refuse 1 513                  182  000 

Lamp  oUs 120  476              16  867  000 

Lubricating  oils 22  373           -3  765  000 

Benzine 15  414                4  932  000 

Other  oils 4  809 577  000 

Total     179931  S?  858  000 

In  1912  most  of  the  crude  oil  and  petroleum  refuse  came  from  Austria  and 
Russia,  of  the  petroleum  (lamp  oil)  12%  from  America,  1  %  from  Russia  (chiefly 
for  compressed  air-lamps,  such  as  the  "Lux"),  via  Danmark,  18  '/,,  and  via  Germany 
5  %  etc.  The  lubricating  oils  came  chiefly  from  America,  Russia,  and  Germany, 
itt  the  last-mentioned  case  probably  chiefly  as  transit  shipments.  Benzine  came 
from  the  Netherlands,  from  Germany  —  most  likely  from  raw  material  received 
from  the  Sunda  Islands  and  refined  in  Hamburg  — ,   and  from  America. 

The  following  table,  drawn  up  from  official  Swedish  statistics,  will  serve  to 
show  the  import  of  petroleum  (lamp  oil)  into   Sweden: 

Import  Per  annum  Price 

Annually  in  and  inhabitant  pr  kg 

quintals  kg  in  ore 

1871-75 66  707  1-5  36 

1876—80 113  860  2-5  26 

1881—85 182  294  40  20 

1886—90 310  484  65  19 

1891-95 449116  9-3  15 

1896-00 622  710  13-6  15 

1901-05 749  908  144  15 

1906-10 988  837  18-5  15 

1910  1013  786  18-3  13 

1911 1181176  213  11-5 

1912 1040442  18'6  14 

1913 1204  759  21-4  14 

'ih— 133179.  Sweden  11. 


386  VII.      MANUFACTUEING   INDUSTRIES. 

The  export  of  mineral  oils  in  1913  amounted  to  a  value  of  1  163  000  kroner. 

The  production  of  mineral  oils  and  machine  and  carriag'e  lubricants  in  Swe- 
den in  1912  amounted  to  a  value  of  1  036  000  kroner.  In  this  connection,  it 
may  b^e  mentioned  that  without  mineral  lubricating  oils,  which  stand  great  heat 
without  decomposing,  the  steam-engines  of  the  present  day  would  hardly  have 
attained  their  high  stand-point. 


Glue  and  Gelatine. 

Various  parts  of  animal  bodies  contain  substances  which,  if  boiled  for  a  con- 
siderable time  in  water,  dissolve  and  yield  glue.  A  technical  distinction  is  made 
between  leatlier-gflue,  obtained  from  various  refuse  matter  from  hides  and 
sinews,  and  bone-glue,  obtained  from  the  bones  of  animals,  from  which  the 
fat  is  extracted  by  benzine;  the  bones  are  then  thoroughly  boiled  in  water 
under  pressure,  the  glue  being  thereby  dissolved,  or  also  in  hydrochloric 
acid,  which  dissolves  the  mineral  ingredients  and  leaves  the  glue.  The  bone- 
fat,  which  possesses  the  soft  consistency  of  lard,  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
hard  and  soft  soaps,  stearine  etc.  Finally,  gelatine  is  an  almost  colourless, 
tastelass,  and  odourless  glue,  prepared  with  great  care,  and  appearing  in  a 
finished  state  in  very  thin  leaves.  The  raw  material  for  the  manufacture  of 
gelatine  consists  of  the  hide  of  calves'  feet  and  heads;  the  hide  is  first  subjected 
to  processes  for  removing  the  fatty  ingredients  and  the  hair.  The  principal 
variety  of  fish-glue  is  isinglass,  which  is  the  dried  inner  membrane  of  the  air- 
bladder  of  a  number  of  sturgeon  varieties.  In  connection  with  the  manufacture 
of  glue  may  be  mentioned  that  of  roller-composition,  obtained  by  dissolving  glue 
in  glycerine  of  a  given  strength,  to  which  is  added  sugar.  The  ordinary  roller- 
composition  used  by  printers  is  blackened  with  lamp-black. 

In  1912  there  were  7  factories  for  the  manufacture  of  glue  and  gelatine, 
employing  229  workmen,  and  producing  goods  to  the  value  of  1  228  000  kroner. 
There  were  also  3  factories  for  roller-composition,  their  production  amounting 
to  a  value  of  19  700  kroner.  The  production  of  glue  has  been  given  in  the 
factory  statistics  with  increasing  figures.  The  import  is  insignificant;  in  1913 
it  amounted  to  a  value  of  164  000  kronor,  including  isinglass  and  gelatine.  The 
export  amounted  in  value  to  18  500  kronor. 

Tar  and  allied  Substances. 

In  earlier  times,  when  the  value  of  timber  was  not  so  great  as  it  is  now, 
tar-burning  and  pitch-boiling  were  very  customary,  especially  in  the  forests  of 
tSTorrland;  at  that  time,  wood-tar  was  one  of  the  chief  exports  from  Sweden. 
Nowadays,  tar-distilling  is  almost  entirely  confined  tp  the  two  most  northerly 
lans,  where  it  is  carried  on  as  a  domestic  industry.  Figures  for  the  export 
in  recent  times  have  already  been  given  in  Table  39,  Page  218. 

About  the  year  1870,  a  number  of  wo<(d-oil  factories  sprang  up,  the  purpose 
of  these  being  to  turn  to  advantage  the  stumps  of  coniferous  trees,  left  behiud 
when  the  timber  was  felled  and  removed.  By  means  of  dry  distillation,  certain 
{iroducts  were  obtained  from  these  stumps  and  other  pinewood,  such  as  tar,  oil 
of  wood-tar,  wood-oil,  etc.  Of  these,  wood-oil  is  the  most  valuable,  possessing, 
as  it  does,  certain  of  the  chemical  properties  of  turpentine  oil.  In  the  year 
1912,  there  were  26  factories,  employing  117  workmen  in  producing  these  sub- 
stances, the  value  of  which  was  then  1  153  358   kronor,  distributed  as  below. 

The  manufacture  of  coal-tar  is  dealt  with  in  a  later  chapter  under  chemico- 
technical  industries. 


CARBOLIC   ACID,   CREOSOTE,    ETC.    —    INDIA-RUBBER.  387 

K.g  Kroner 

Pitch  and  pitch-oil 219  661                    20  876 

Tar  and  tar-oil 6  041  614                  564  254 

Wood-oil 84  622                     8  433 

"Wood-spirit  at  100  ji 613  646                  858  507 

Turpentine  and  turpentine-oil  ....       675  991 201 289 

Total    7  635  524  1153  358 


Carbolic  Acid,  Creosote,  etc. 

From  the  distillation  of  coal-tar  a  number  of  different  products  are  obtained; 
among  others,  all  the  substances  which  form  the  basis  for  the  manufacture  of 
aniline  colours,  viz.:  benzole  and  its  homologues,  aniline,  phenol  (carbolic  acid), 
naphthaline,  anthracene,  chinoline,  etc.  The  preparation  of  colours,  artificial 
medicines,  etc.  from  these  substances  gives  rise  to  an  extensive  and  profitable 
industry  in  several  countries.  In  Sweden,  the  distillation  of  coal-tar  is  carried 
on  for  the  preparation  of  only  a  few  products,  such  as  carbolic  acid  and  oils  used 
for  the  preservation  of  wood  (called  carbolineum),  naphthaline,  asphalt-varnish, 
and  asphalt-tar.  That  this  industry  has  not  made  more  progress  in  Sweden  than 
is  the  case  at  present  may  perhaps  be  due  to  the  preponderating  attention  de- 
voted to  inorganic  chemistry  at  the  expense  of  organic. 


India-Rubber 

is  manufactured  chiefly  in  three  different  forms:  pure  india-rubber,  vul- 
canized india-rubber,  and  ebonite.  Pure  india-rubber  is  soft  and  elastic,  and 
is  used  in  the  production  of  sheets,  pipes,  gloves  etc.,  specially  for  surgical  pur- 
poses. Vulcanized  india-rubber  is  used,  partly  by  itself,  partly  with  an  insertion 
of  a  strong  woven  material,  for  tubes,  ■  tires,  straps,  etc.  Ebonite  is  a  kind  of 
india-rubber  vulcanized  by  a  special  process;  it  is  used  for  many  purposes,  by 
reason  of  its  great  power  of  effecting  electrical  isolation  and  its  property  of 
resisting  the  action  of  acids.  Galoshes  consist  primarily  of  a  woven  material 
covered  with  a  thin  coating  of  slightly  vulcanized  guttapercha  or  india-rubber. 
The  use  of  india-rubber  goods  increases  year  by  year;  india-rubber  galoshes  have 
become  a  well-nigh  indispensable  article  of  wear  for  a  large  proportion  of  the 
inhabitants  of  the  country,  even  for  the  poorer  classes.  The  popularity  of  bi- 
cycling and  motoring  has  occasioned  a  very  great  consumption  of  india-rubber  tires. 

Galoshes  and  other  rubber  articles  are  now  manufactured  at  several  factories, 
which  have  been  erected  since  1890,  and  these  have  been  able  to  compete  suc- 
cessfully with  those  abroad.  Of  the  eight  rubber  factories  in  Sweden,  employing 
1  686  hands  and  producing  goods  to  a  value  of  10  998  000  kroner  in  1912, 
those  in  Hdlsingborg,  Malmd,  Oislaved,  and  Trdlleborg  are  the  largest.  Of  the 
total  output  in  this  industry  in  1912,  not  less  than  87  %  (by  value)  came  from 
these  factories.  About  the  year  1870,  the  total  output  in  the  rubber  trade  in 
Sweden  amounted  to  only  a  few  thousand  kronor.  The  import  of  the  raw 
material,  as  well  as  of  manufactures,  has  also  increased  considerably,  and  was 
valued  at  13-5  million  kronor  in  1913,  6  982  000  kronor  of  which  were  for  raw 
rubber  and  guttapercha;  1496  000  kronor  for  tubes,  pipes,  and  straps;  553  000 
kronor  for  shoes;  3  494  000  kronor  for  rubber-tires;  and  1  020  000  kronor  for 
other  articles  in  the  rubber-trade.  In  recent  years,  there  has  also  arisen  a 
notable  export,  which  was  valued  at  3'16  million  kronor  in  1913,  2  241  000 
kronor  being  for  shoes;  the  greater  part  goes  to  Norway  and  Denmark,  Germany, 
Belgium.  France,  Austria,  and  the  East  Indies. 


388  VII.      MANUFACTURING    INDUSTRIES. 


Candles. 

Up  to  about  the  year  1860,  wax  candles  and  "steeples"  and  tallow  caudles 
were  almost  the  only  kind  of  artificial  light,  for,  though  colza-oil  lamps  attained 
a  certain  degree  of  popularity,  the  tallow  candles  dipped  at  home  were  and 
remained  indispensable  in  every  household,  until  the  time  when  gas  and  Ame- 
rican petroleum  almost  simultaneously  became  known  and  brought  into  use.  In 
place  of  tallow  candles,  8tearine  caudles  are  now  almost  universally  employed, 
and  in  recent  years,  composition  candles  (of  stearine  and  paraffine  wax)  or,  more 
seldom  in  Sweden,  candles  of  paraffine  wax,  in  cases  where,  for  some  reason, 
candle  light  is  preferred  or  must  be  used.  The  manufacture  of  stearine  candles 
in  Sweden  dates  from  1841,  when  L.  J.  Hierta,  a  prominent  and  active  man 
in  many  directions,  in  conjunction  with  J.  Michaelson,  established  the  factory  at 
Liljeholmen.  In  1843,  Lars  Monten  founded  the  Clara  candle-factory,  the  second 
of  the  kind  in  the  country.  In  1912,  Sweden  had  five  stearine  candle  factories, 
with  369  workmen  and  an  output  of  22  823  quintals  of  candles,  valued  at 
1  975  000  kronor,  mostly  of  pure  stearine.  Besides  this,  in  both  the  stearine 
factories  of  Liljeholmen  and  Clara,  the  by-products  glycerine  and  oleine  were 
obtained  to  a  value  of  502  000  and  596  000  kronor  respectively.  The  import 
of  candles  in  1913  amounted  to  20  600  kronor,  of  glycerine  to  445  000  kronor, 
of  oleine  to  457  000  kronor,  and  of  stearine  to  127  000  kronor.  The  exports  were 
37  500,   185  000,   and  144  000  kronor  respectively. 

In  the  manufacture  of  stearine  candles,  certain  fatty  substances  are  used  for 
raw  material,  such  as  tallow  and  various  oils  consisting  of  a  mixture  of  fluid 
and  solid  fat,  chiefly  oleine,  palmitine,  and  stearine.  In  the  manufacture  of 
candles,  these  so-called  neutral  fats  are  decomposed  by  the  actions  of  some  base, 
such  as  lime,  magnesia,  or  oxide  of  zinc,  under  pressure  or  with  concentrated 
sulphuric  acid,  and  during  recent  years  in  an  emulsion  with  dilated  acid,  into 
glycerine  and  oleine,  palmitic  and  stearic  acids.  Oleic  acid  is  fluid  at  ordinary 
temperatures,  palmitic  and  stearic  acids,  on  the  other  hand,  are  solid,  and,  after 
due  purifying,  these  are  employed  in  the  moulding  of  candles.  The  by-products 
in  candle-making,  glycerine  and  oleic  acid  (oleine'),  are  collected  and  purified 
separately.  Glycerine  is  utilized  in  a  large  variety  of  ways,  as  a  medical  agent, 
but  chiefly  for  cosmetics  and  for  nitro-glycerine.  Oleine  (oleic  acid,  as  it  is  in- 
correctly named  in  the  trade)  is  employed  both  in  the  manufacture  of  hard  and 
soft  soap,  and  as  a  dressing  agent  for  wool  in  the  textile  industry. 

The  consumption  of  candles  in  Sweden  may  be  seen  from  the  following  figures : 

Annually  Kg 

1881-85 1481000 

1886—90 1  578000 

1891-95 1761000 

1896-00 2  067  000 

1901—05 2  454  000 

1906—10 2  407  000 

1910 2  503  000 

1911 2  211000 

1912 2  239  000 

1913 2  415  000 

Scents. 

Scents,  in  the  ordinary  sense,  are  most  frequently  solutions  of  fragrant  sub- 
stances in  pure  spirit.     In  general,  scents  and  the  choicer  soaps  are  made  in  the 


HARD   AND   SOFT   SOAPS. 


389 


same  factories.  The  whole  output  of  scent  was  valued  at  1  107  000  kronor  in 
1912,  and  the  export  at  100  000  kronor.  The  number  of  factories  was  23 
employing  81  hands,  in  1912. 

Hard  and  Soft  Soaps 

are  obtained  by  the  decoroposition  of  different  kinds  of  fat,  both  solid  and  fluid, 
by  means  of  alkalies.  Generally  speaking,  hard  soap  is  soda,  soft  soap,  potash, 
chemically  combined  with  fatty  acids  to  form  salts.  The  boiling  of  hai'd  soap, 
like  so  many  processes,  used  to  be  done  on  a  small  scale  to  supply  domestic 
needs;  from  wood-ashes  and  lime  was  obtained  the  required  potash  lye,  which 
was  boiled  with  an  admixture  of  tallow.  A  soft  tallow  soap  was  the  result,  from 
which,  by  the  addition  of  common  salt,  a  firm  and  good  hard  tallow-soap  was 
obtained.  The  first  soft-soap  factory  in  Sweden  was  founded  in  1823  by  Lars 
Monten,  iu  co-operation  with  the  famous  chemist,  Berzelius.  Though  the  raw 
materials  for  this  industry,  especially  tallow,  linseed  oil,  and  train-oil,  might 
partly  be  obtained  in  the  country  itself,  the  greater  proportion  of  the  raw  ma- 
terials used  are  now  brought  from  abroad,  because  the  home  production  is  in- 
sufficient, more  especially  since  certain  oils  obtained  from  tropical  plants,  such 
as  cocoa-nut  oil,  palm-oil,  etc.,  have  begun  to  be  used  in  soap-making.  Soft 
soap  used  to  be  generally  employed  for  washing,  but  has  latterly  been  superseded 
by  hard  soap.  For  cheap  toilet  soaps,  cocoa-nut  oil  is  primarily  made  use  of. 
Soaps  have  also  been  recently  manufactured  by  taking,  first  of  all  as  neutral 
a  soap  as  possible,  and  grinding,  perfuming,  and  pressing  it.  Besides  other 
good  qualities  possessed  by  soaps  prepared  by  this  method  they  also  admit  of 
being  scented  better  and  more  lastingly  than  others. 

The  production  of  soft  and  hard  soaps  has  made  great  progress  in  Sweden 
during  the  last  50  years.  In  1860,  there  were  13  factories  producing  2  105  000 
kg  of  a  value  of  859  000  kronor. 

In  1912  there  were  60  factories,  employing  745  workmen  and  producing 
24  472  000  kg,  valued  at  10  236  000  kronor. 

The  consumption  of  cleansing  materials,  which  is  considered  as  a  standard  of 
civilization,  has  increased  about  seven  times  per  person  and  per  annum  in  Sweden, 
in  spite  of  the  fact  that  alkalies  are  now  much  used  directly  for  cleaning  pur- 
poses. The  price  of  soft  soap  and  hard  soap  has,  on  an  average  remained  the 
same    as   then,   40'8  and  41"8  ore  pr  kg.  respectively  but  for  hard  soap  alone  it 


Table  88. 


The  Manufacture  of  Soaps. 


Per  inhab., 

Annually 

Soft  soap 

Hard  soap 

Total 

annually 

kg 

kg 

kg 

kg 

1861-1865 

2  141  879 

390  034 

2  531913 

0-63 

1866— 187U 

3  059  072 

285  737 

3344  809 

0-80 

1871-1875 

4  567  896 

441  228 

5009124 

1-14 

1876—1880 

6  062  230 

406  038 

6468  268 

1-42 

1881—1885 

6  889  811 

422  312 

7  312123 

l-bG 

1886-1890 

7  150  225 

770  331 

7  920  556 

1-65 

1891-1895 

9205  783 

1 544  436 

10  750219 

2-18 

1896-1900 

11  912  229 

3  233  664 

15145  893 

2-95 

1901-1905 

14  085  820 

3  627  667 

17  713487 

3-34 

1906-1910 

18072  212 

4  244  243 

22316455 

4-07 

1910 

20  307  546 

4  575  283 

24882829 

4-51 

1911 

17  025  571 

4  562  856 

21688427 

3-90 

1912-    

19  905  353 

4  566  820 

24  472173 

4-38 

390  Vn.      MANUFACTURING    INDUSTRIES. 

is  the  double  39'3  and  79'i  ore  pr  kg  respectively,  owing  to  the  fact  that  better 
qualities  of  hard  soap  are  now  being  used,  and,  during  recent  years,  to  the 
increased  price  of  cocoa-nut  and  palm-kernel  oU.  The  price  of  soft  soap,  on 
the  other  hand,  has  decreased,  41'2  and  33'2  ore  pr  kg  resp.,  while  the  quality 
has  been  considerably  improved.  Since  the  sp.  Commercial  Treaty  between 
Sweden  and  Norway  was  repealed  in  1897,  the  export  has  decreased  somewhat, 
while  the  home  consumption  has  been  almost  doubled  since  then.  It  may  also 
be  remarked  that,  although  the  quantity  of  soft  soap  used  still  surpasses  that 
of  hard  soap,  the  manufacture  of  the  latter  has  shown  a  greater  increase  during 
recent  years.  The  soaps  imported  had  a  value  of  302  000  kroner  and  the  export 
amounted  in  value  to  70  600  kronor  in  1913. 

Stockholm  takes  the  leading  place  in  this  industry,  with  10  factories  (out 
of  60)  and  about  30  %  of  the  total  output  in  1912;  then  comes  the  Lan  of 
Goteborg  och  Bohus,  with  8  factories  and  19  ?»  of  the  production. 


Other  Manufactures. 

Of  such,  varnish  chiefly  deserves  to  be  mentioned  here.  There  were,  in  1912, 
18  factories  for  the  manufacture  of  varnish  in  Sweden.  The  number  of  hands 
employed  was  179  and  the  value  of  the  output  was  put  at  1  733  000  kroner. 
The  import  amounted  in  value  to  706  000  kronor  in  1913.  The  export  only 
amounted  to   50  000  kronor. 


5.    TIMBER-WARE  INDUSTRY. 

Of  this  important  industry,  the  most  extensive  of  any  in  Sweden,  the 
branch  comprising  the  production  of  non-manufactured  wooden  goods  has 
been  treated  of  in  an  earlier  section,  under  the  heading:  Forest  Industries. 
The  number  of  centres  for  this  last-named  branch  of  the  timber-ware  indust- 
ry, in  1912,  was  1  266,  employing  37  958  hands  and  producing  goods  to 
the  value  of  174  million  kronor.  It  now  remains  to  give  an  account  of  the 
production  of  manufactured  articles  of  ivood,  this,  too,  being  one  of  the 
most  considerable  of  Swedish  industries.  In  1911,  there  were  932  facto- 
ries, employing  33  831  hands,  the  value  of  the  output  being  estimated  at 
nearly  179  million  kronor.  It  should  be  noted  that  match-making  is  in- 
cluded in  these  figures,  as  is  customary  in  Swedish  statistics,  though  the 
manufacture  in  question  might,  of  course,  equally  well  be  referred  to  the 
chemical  industries. 

In  Table  34,  page  193,  will  be  found  the  figures  for  the  exports  and 
imports  of  manufactured  wooden  goods  (more  or  less  wrought).  As  will 
be  seen,  the  export  trade  is  increasing  in  a  very  gratifying  manner,  this 
being  primarily  due  to  the  rapid  development  of  the  wood-pulp  industry- 


WOOD-PULP    INDUSTRY. 


391 


Wood-Pulp  Industry. 

Wood-pulp  maj-  be  fairly  called  one  of  the  natural  products  of  Sweden, 
owing  to  the  vast  s^plj^  of  timber  suitable  for  its  production  and  the  great 
supply  of  power  in  the  numerous  waterfalls.  The  manufacture  of  wood- 
pulp  has,  indeed,  increased  immensely  during  the  last  few  years,  and  now 
forms  one  of  the  most  important  of  Swedish  industries.  As  regards  ex- 
ports, the  wood-pulp  industry  is  now  in  the  foremost  rank,  side  by  side 
with  those  of  timber  and  iron.  At  the  present  time  the  export  of  wood- 
pulp  amounts  in  value  to  about  12  %  of  the  total  export-trade  of  the 
country. 

The  wood-pulp  industry  which  in  earlier  days  was  concentrated  chiefly 

Production  of  Sulphite-,  Sulphate-,  and  Mechanically  produced  Pulp. 


Ton. 
700000 


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191 

Tear  1900      M         02        03         0%        05        06        07        08        09        10         11         12 

Sulphite  pulp.  Mechanically  Sulphate  pulp, 

produced  pulp. 


392 


Vn.      MANUFAOTUHIKG-   INDUSTRIES. 


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Gen.Stah.  LitAnstStOChnolm 


WOOD-PULP   INDUSTRY. 


393 


Export  of  Chemically  produced  and  Mechanically  produced  Pulp. 


700000 


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193 

Tear    1900      01         02        03        0<t        05        06        07        08        09        10  11         12 

Chemically  produced  pulp.  Mechanically  produced  pulp. 


in  Varmland,  thougli  it  existed  here  and  there  in  the  south  of  Sweden  too, 
has,  of  late  years,  gained  a  footing  in  Norrland,  where,  at  present,  nearly 
half  of  the  wood-pulp  of  the  country  is  made.  The  economic  importance 
of  the  growth  of  this  industry  lies,  of  course,  principally  in  the  fact  that 
it  represents  a  higher  stage  of  manufacture  than  its  older  sister-industry, 
the  saw-mills  industry,  with  which,  to  a  certain  degree,  it  competes  for  the 
supplies  of  raw  material,  and  which,  possibly,  it  will  soon  outdistance. 
But  even  in  this  respect,  its  development  represents  a  fact  of  immense  im- 
portance, as  it  has  made  possible  the  economic  utilization  of  timber  for 
which,  previously,  there  had  been  no  profitable  use;  it  has  provided  a  mar- 
ket for  timber  waste  and  timber  cut  for  the  thinning  of  forests,  this  last- 
mentioned  step  thus  making  the  wood-pulp  industry  a  means  of  carrying 
out  a  judicious  system  of  forestry.     In  the  technical  development  of  this 


394 


VII.      MANUFACTURING   INDUSTRIES. 


industry,  Sweden  now  occupies  a  prominent  place,  especially  as  regards 
the  invention  and  employment  of  various  new  and  improved  methods. 

The  first  wood-grinding  mill  in  Sweden  for  the  manufacture  of  wood-pidp 
by  mechanical  processes  (mechanical  woodpulp;  was  established  as  early  as  1857 
at  Trollhattan,  according  to  Volter's  improved  adaptation  of  Keller's  system 
which  was  first  made  practical  use  of  in  1846.  From  the  beginning  of  the 
seventies,  the  number  of  wood-grinding  mills  in  Sweden  rapidly  increased  until 
about  the  year  1895,  when  the  demand  for  chemical  wood-pulp  resulted  in  the 
rapid  establishment  of  cellulose  factories. 

The  pulp  is  obtained  by  the  purely  mechanical  defibration  of  the  wood  by 
grinding  blocks  of  wood  against  sandstone-grindstones,  the  whole  being  kept 
continually  supplied  with  water.  A  variation  of  this  raw-grinding  is  the  method 
of  first  steam-boiling  the  wood,  which  is  then  either  ground  or  totally  defibrated 
by  some  other  means.  This  gives  the  pulp  a  stronger  and  tougher  consistency, 
but  also  a  darker  colour  (brown  wood-pulp,   Sw.  brunslip). 

The  number  of  wood-pulp  mills  in  the  country  is  now  about  100,  the  value 
of  the  output  being  some  18  million  kroner. 


Photo.  J.  Vesterghen,  Tumba. 


Lessebo  Sulphite  Mills. 


Chemical  wood-pulp  is  manufactured  chiefly  according  to  two  methods,  viz., 
the  soda-  or  sulphate  method,  and  the  sulphite  method.  According  to  the  soda 
method,  which  is  the  oldest,  and  was  first  employed  in  America  during  the 
sixties,  the  wood,  which  is  first  cut  into  short  chips,  is  boUed  imder  pressure 
in  soda-lye.  The  first  Swedish  cellulose  factories  were  established  in  1870 — 71 
at  Delary  and  Vermbohl,  by  Count  Sten  Lewenhaupt,  who  later  on  also  opened 
works  at  Borkhult  and  Krontorp,  the  latter  of  which  is  now  known  as  Back- 
hammar.  The  soda-cellulose  factories  at  Gustavsberg  (established  1877)  and 
Munksjo  (opened  1879)  added  to  the  list  of  this  type  of  factory  in  Sweden, 
but  although  the  soda-cellulose  manufacturers  soon  commenced  to  employ  im- 
proved technical  methods,  the  system  began  to  suffer  from  the  placing  on  the 
market  of  the  cheaper  sulphite  cellulose.  The  discovery  made  by  Dahl,  a 
German  engineer,  that  soda  could  be  replaced  by  the  cheaper  sodium  sulphate 
diminished,  however,  the  cost  of  production  of  soda-cellulose,  besides  which,  the 
method  in  question  gave  a  larger  output  of  pulp,  and  a  firmer  and  more  easily 


WOOD-PULP   INDUSTRY.  395 

bleached  mass.  This  method  of  manufacture  — ■  the  sulphate  method  —  is,  at 
present,  the  alkaline  boiling  method  most  employed  in  Sweden.  Another  factor 
of  great  importance  for  the  cellulose  industry  was  the  quality  of  soda-cellulose 
produced  by  A.  Miintzing  at  Munksjo,  in  1885,  which  forms  the  material  for 
the  celebrated  Swedish  strong  brown  paper  ("kraftpapper").  The  number  of  sul- 
phate cellulose  factories  at  the  present  time  is  21,  the  value  of  the  output 
being  about  16  million  kronor. 

The  sulphite-method  had  been  suggested  as  early  as  1866,  by  Tilghman,  an 
American,  but  it  did  not  become  of  any  practical  importance  until  1874,  when 
a  Swede,  C.  D.  Ekman,  succeeded  in  producing  on  a  large  scale  a  satisfactory 
cellulose,  by  means  of  boiling  spruce  with  magnesium  bi-sulphite.  Independently 
of  the  researches  of  Ekman,  who  had  kept  his  invention  a  secret,  Mitscherlich, 
a  German,  some  time  afterwards  obtained  good  practical  results  with  calcium 
bisulphite,  which  has  since  retained  its  position  as  the  solvent  most  employed. 
The  Swede  who,  next  to  Ekman,  has  done  most  for  the  technical  improvement 
of  the  sulphite  cellulose  manufacture  in  the  country  is  C   IT.  Flodqvist. 

The  second  sulphite  factory  to  be  established  in  Sweden  was  Billerud,  founded 
in  1883.  Five  years  later,  sulphite  cellulose  began  to  be  made  at  Storvik  too. 
At  present,  the  number  of  sulphite  factories  is  about  65,  with  an  output-value 
of  about  85  million  kronor. 

The  greater  part  of  the  wood-pulp  produced  by  mechanical  processes  is  made 
from  spruce,  though  aspen  is  also  employed,  this  last-mentioned  wood  giving  a 
specially  white  and  resin-free  product.  For  brown-grinding,  some  fir  can  also 
be  employed.  In  the  sulphate  method,  both  spruce  and  fir  can  be  used  as  raw 
material,  although,  in  some  respects,  the  first-named  wood  is  considered  to 
possess  the  greater  advantages.  Sulphite  cellulose  is  made  almost  exclusively  of 
spruce. 

Sulphite  cellulose  is,  of  itself,  fairly  white,  and  can  be  employed  for  making 
the  cheaper  kinds  of  writing-  and  printing  paper  without  any  bleaching.  Sul- 
phate cellulose,  on  the  other  hand,  is  more  or  less  dark  brown  in  colour,  and 
is  employed  chiefly  in  the  manufacture  of  different  sorts  of  paper  in  natural 
colours.  It  possesses,  however,  certain  qualities  that  make  it  specially  valuable 
as  a  material  for  the  production  of  finer  kinds  of  paper,  a  bleaching  process 
being  necessary,  however.  Three  of  the  sulphate  cellulose  factories  in  Sweden 
have  large  bleaching  establishments  for  the  sulphate  pulp,  one  of  them  being 
electric. 

The  chief  part  of  the  wood-pulp  exported  goes  to  Great  Britain  and  France. 
Some  is  sent  to  the  U.  S.  A.,  Japan,  Belgium,  Holland,  Germany,  Denmark, 
and  Spain.  Nearly  all  the  lans  of  Sweden  are  engaged  in  the  wood-pulp  in- 
dustry, the  chief,  however,  being  Varmland,  Vastemorrland,  and  Gavleborg  Lans, 
the  total  value  of  whose  production  is  somewhat  more  than  one-half  of  that 
for  the  whole  country. 

The  import  of  wood-pulp  is  very  small  indeed,  amounting  in  1912  only  to 
about  5  tons. 

While  the  cellulose  trade  in  Sweden  has  grown  in  a  comparatively  short  time 
to  a  great  industry,  and  one  on  which  a  great  part  of  the  economy  of  the 
country  is  based,  the  necessity  has  not  been  ignored  of  obtaining  the  greatest 
possible  returns  from  the  supply  of  raw  material  possessed  by  Sweden  — ■  a 
supply  which,  it  is  true,  is  rich  but,  still,  limited  —  by  an  increased  produc- 
tion of  cellulose  of  a  high  quality,  and  by  the  utilization  of  the  various  by- 
products obtained. 

Among  the  many  Swedes  who  have  contributed  materially  towards  the  in- 
vestigation   of    the    chemical   processes   occurring  in  the  manufacture  and  utiliz- 


396 


VII.      MANUFACTURING    INDUSTRIES. 


ation  of  the  by-products,  special  mention  must  be  made  oi  Peter  Klason.  In 
addition  to  turpentine  and,  in  a  lesser  degree,  resin-soap,  which  are  obtained 
at  a  number  of  the  sulphate  factories  in  the  country,  there  are  produced  at 
three  of  the  sulphite  works  spirits,  obtained  from  the  sulphite-lye  by  a  method 
developed  by  the  Swedish  engineers,  Ehstrom  and  Wallin.  The  amount  obtained 
from  sulphite-lye  during  the  period  September  1,  1912 — September  1,  1913 
was  4  313  992  liters  50  %  spirits  (cf.  Spirit  Production). 


'    f^m^^fi 

';i."'»'^/^^^i  il 

1 , \   r- 

m\ 

1  1 

1 '         iffifflu 

m''"'^' 

Photo.  J.  Vestehgbeh,  Tumba. 
Lessebo  Sulphite  Mills  Horizontal  rotating  Sulphite-boilers. 

The  development  of  the  Swedish  wood-pulp  industry  since  1871  is  shown 
by  the  following  Table,  the  quantities  being  given  in  dry  measure: 


Annually 

1871—75  . 
1876-80  . 
1881—85  . 
1886-90  . 
1891—95  . 

1896-00  . 
1901—05  . 
1906-10  . 

1911  .    .    . 

1912  .    .    . 


Mills 

19 
24 
32 

57 
87 

123^ 
132 
153 

161 
167 


Hands 

900 

927 

1343 

2  765 

4152 

6  058' 

7  986 
11568 

12  776 

13  10 


Production, 
quintals 

63  499 

116  631 

234  670 

620  809 

1 534  525 

2  596  6731 
4  304  Oil 
7190  679 

9  582  195 
11  25?  52' 


Export 
quintals     value,  kr. 


46  570 

73  094 

109  795 

418  536 

1 061  531 

1 977  796 
2  906  090 
4  900  000 

7  357  730 
8 121  236 


1 095  568 
1  719  560 
1 971 552 
5  050  678 
10  216  534 

18  830 194 
33  770000 
58  948  400 

84  307  334 
93  954  732 


Altered  statistics  from  189 


Although  there  has  been  a  considerable  development  as  regards  the  manu- 
facture both  of  mechanically  produced  pulp  and  of  sulphate-pulp,  this 


WOOD-PULP   INDUSTRY. 


397 


Photo.  J.  Vestebgren,  Tumba. 

_  Chip-funnels  at  the  Sulphite-boilery,  Lessebo. 


development  cannot  be  compared  with  that  which  has  taken  place  in  the 
sulphite  cellulose  industry.  The  following  Table  and  graphic  figures  show 
how  the  total  production  of  wood-pulp  is  distributed  among  the  sulphite-, 
sulphat-  and  mechanically  produced  pulp,  both  as  regards  the  production 
and  the  amount  exported.  As  regards  the  production,  the  report  has  been 
supplied  by  Svenska  cellulosaforeningen  (the  Swedish  Cellulose  Associa- 
tion) : 


Production,     in    tons 


Year 


Sulphite 
pulp 


1900 147  000 

1901 160  000 

1903 186  400 

1903 212  500 

1904 233  500 

WO."! 268  500 

1906 297  500 

1907 383  000 

1908 442  000 

1909 382  500 

1910 543  000 

1911 593  000 

1912 667  000 


Sulphate 
pulp 


46  000 

55  000 

55  600 

59  500 

66  500 

71500 

74  500 

78  000 

95  000 

89  500 

124  000 

134  000 

138  000 


Mechanically 

prodnced 

pulp 


125  000 
118  000 
153  000 
165000 
159  000 
185  000 
188  000 
216  000 
214  000 
208  000 
274  000 
240  000 
330  000 


Exports, 
Chemically 
produced 

pulp 
(sulphite 

and 
sulphate) 

138  096 
148  586 
183  603 
233  819 
242  482 
251 105 
265  626 
339  352 
381  344 
387  458 
510  308 
585  510 
645  792 


in  tons 

Mechanically 

produced 

pulp 


66  820 

69  876 

67141 

82  304 

99138 

84  988 

95  648 

116  489 

109  075 

103  242 

141 457 

150  263 

166  331 


398  Vn.      MANUFACTURING   INDUSTEIES. 


Hatch  Industry. 

The  manufacture  of  matches  is  one  of  the  most  important  among 
the  Swedish  chemical  industries.  During  the  thirties  and  forties  of 
last  century,  J.  S.  Bagge,  professor  at  the  Technical  High  School  in  Stock- 
holm, was  very  successful  in  his  exertions  for  the  introduction  of  im- 
proved means  of  obtaining  artificial  light  by  means  of  friction  matches. 
Though  the  importance  of  ordinary  phosphorus  in  the  production  of 
matches  of  that  kind  was  evident  and  had  actually  been  pointed  out  by 
Berzelius,  its  use  was  purposely  avoided,  until  it  was  discovered  that  really 
practical  matches  could  not  be  obtained  without  phosphorus  in  the  ful- 
minating composition,  and  Bagge  himself  drew  up  a  formula  for  the 
manufacture.  Phosphorus  matches  have  been  produced  on  a  large  scale 
in  Sweden  since  1843.  The  world-renowned  match-factory  in  Jonkoping 
was  started  by  Johcm  Edvard  Lundstrom  in  1844.  At  first,  sulphurized 
phosphorus  matches  were  almost  the  only  kind  made  there.  In  the  same 
year  (1844),  however,  G.  E.  Pasch,  professor  at  the  Royal  Caroline  Medico- 
Surgical  Institute  in  Stockholm,  made  the  discovery  that  a  rubbing 
surface  containing  amorphous  phosphorus,  called  by  Pasch  phosphorus 
oxide,  could  be  used  for  matches  with  a  fulminating  composition  con- 
taining no  phosphorus.  His  invention  was  patented  on  October  30,  1844, 
—  a  date  of  importance  as  proving  the  priority  of  Pasch's  invention 
against  claims  on  behalf  of  a  foreign  inventor.  The  manufacture  of 
matches  according  to  the  new  patent  began  at  once.  The  method  Pasch 
employed  for  producing  the  "phosphorus  oxide"  was  not,  however,  a  very 
practical  one,  and  it  was  not  until  a  cheaper  method  had  been  discovered 
in  England,  in  1851,  that  his  invention  could  be  put  to  practical  use. 
In  this  respect  too,  the  priority  belongs  to  Sweden,  for  in  1852  the  Jon- 
koping Match-factory  commenced  to  manufacture  those  safety-matches 
which,  at  the  Paris  International  Exhibition  of  1855,  were  pronounced 
the  best  of  their  kind.  The  goods  turned  out  by  the  firm  have  since  attained 
a  world-wide  celebrity,  and  there  can  be  few  commodities  that  have  been 
so  often  imitated  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  both  as  regards  labels  and 
general  appearance,  as  the  "Jonkopings  sakerhetstandstickor"  (Swedish 
saf  etjr-matches) . 

In  the  progress  of  the  match-industry,  it  has  proved  necessary  to  make 
great  use  of  labour-saving  machines,  and  many  had  been  brought  into 
use  before  the  beginning  of  the  seventies,  more  especially  such  as  were 
calculated  to  simplify  the  arranging  in  frames  of  the  ready-shaped  splints 
previous  to  their  dipping  in  the  igniting  composition  to  form  the  heads. 
A.  Lagerman,  by  his  so-called  " completemachine" ,  contributed  greatly 
towards  reducing  the  manual  labour  in  match  manufacture  to  a  minimum. 
One  of  those  machines  turns  out  about  66  000  packed  boxes  in  a  working- 
day  of  10  hours.  The  first  machine  of  this  description  was  put  into 
operation  in  1892. 


MATCH  INDUSTRY. 


399 


8 10 12  it JG  30  20 32  2^  26 


Match-Factories. 

1912. 

#  Factory. 

(In  Junkbping  three 
factories.) 


12  Est  de  Greenw, 


EasT  of  Oreemv 


OstL.v.Oreenw. 


Gen,  Stab.  LitAnst-Stockholm 


400 


VII.       MANUFACTURING   INDUSTRIES. 


A  large  number  of  other  match-factories  have  gradually  sprung  up, 
but  many  of  them  have  soon  been  obliged  to  close,  in  consequence  of  the 
severe  competition.  Though  the  old  phosphorus  matches  began  to  be  driven 
out  of  the  market  by  the  safety-matches,  they  still  continued  to  be  made, 
but  since  July  1,  1901,  their  sale  in  Sweden  has  been  prohibited,  on 
account  of  the  danger  to  health  connected  with  the  yellow  phosphorus 
contained  in  the  fulminating  composition,  and  also  because  they  had  been 
employed  for  purposes  of  abortion.  They  possess,  however,  one 
undeniable  advantage  over  the  safety-matches,  and  that  is  the  possi- 
bility of  striking  them  on  almost  any  surface.  Continued  experiments 
have,  however,  resulted  in  the  production  at  Jonkoping  of  so-called 
"sesquisulphide  matches"  which,  to  a  certain  degree,  can  serve  as  a 
substitute  for  the  old  phosphorus  matches  without  containing  the  yellow, 
poisonous  phosphorus. 


Johan  Edvard  Lundstrom. 


Most  of  the  chemicals  required  in  match-making,  such  as  phosphorus, 
antimony,  sulphur,  paraffine,  etc.,  must  be  imported;  chlorate  of  potash, 
on  the  other  hand,  can  now  be  obtained  in  Sweden.  The  sort  of  wood 
in  greatest,  and  almost  exclusive,  request  for  matches  is  aspen;  it  is 


JOINERY-   AND   FURNITURE   FACTORIES. 

Table  89.      Manufacture,  Imports,  and  Exports  of  Matches. 


401 


Annually 


Factories 

Hands 

19 

1858 

30 

3  578 

32 

3  755 

33 

4  920 

30 

5  059 

29 

5  494 

22 

5  697 

19 

5  948 

20 

6  558 

20 

6  758 

20 

6  551 

18 

6  592 

Production 
Value  in  kr.i 


Imports 
Kg 


Exports 


Kg 


Value  in  kr. 


1866—70  . 
1871-75  . 
1876-80  . 
1881-85  . 
1886-90  . 
1891-95  . 
1896-00  . 
1901-05  . 
1906—10  . 


1910 
1911 
1912 
1913 


1294 
4  377 

6  301 
8176 

7  875 

7  923 

8  342 

9  968 
13  904 


000 
000 
000 
000 
000 
000 
000 
000 
000 


16  709  000 
14  985  000 
16  573  000 


3  027 

1319 

12  725 

5  092 

3  316 
2  996 
1801 

4  875 
1670 

790 
652 
467 
609 


1  739  111 
6  188  671 
8  303  090 
11894  943 
13  066  366 
14 104  983 
15  990  035 
17  835 161 
24  397  362 

28  547  800 
28  212  815 

33  030 194 

34  614  924 


3  640  000 
5  860000 
8  329  000 
8  656  000 
8  602  000 
7 196  000 
8  097  000 
11 141 000 

,  11 854  000 
11  787  000 

15  693  000 

16  413  000 


'  The  figures  for  the  exports,  in  the  last  column,  show  that  the  value  of  the  output  in 
certain  years  has  been  put  at  too  low  a  figure. 

easy  to  cut  up  and  is  sufficiently  porous  to  admit  of  impregnation 
with,  sulphur  or  paraffine. 

A  most  serious  obstacle  to  the  progress  of  the  match  industry  in 
Sweden,  or  even  to  its  continuance  in  its  present  proportions,  consists, 
not  so  much  in  foreign  competition,  as  in  the  excessively  high  pro- 
tective duties  imposed  by  other  countries,  to  the  benefit  of  their  own 
manufacture  —  duties  often  so  high  as  to  preclude  all  import  —  and 
also  the  State  monopoly  on  the  manufacture  of  matches  established  by 
several  countries,  e.  g.,  France,  Spain,  Greece,  etc. 

The  largest  match-factories  in  Sweden  at  present  are:  The  Vulcan 
Factory  at  Tidaholm,  the  Old  Factory  and  the  West  Factory  at  Jonhoping, 
besides  which,  some  other  factories  are  owned  by  the  "Jonhopings  och 
Vulcans  tdndsticksfabriks  A.  B." 

The  exports  of  matches  go  — ■  chiefly  via  Hamburg  and  London 
—  to  all  parts  of  the  world,  Of  the  exports  in  1912,  amounting  to  a 
total  of  33  030  000  kg,  12  099  000  kg  went  to  England,  2  752  000  kg 
to  the  German  Empire,  887  000  kg  to  the  Netherlands,  709  000  kg  to 
Belgium,  10 136  000  kg  to  the  East  Indies,  1  336  000  kg  to  Africa, 
3  789  000  kg  to  North-  and  South- America,  406  000  kg  to  Denmark,  etc. 
The  total  value  of  the  exports  was  estimated  at  15  693  000  kronor. 


Joinery-  and  Furniture  Factories. 

In  many  parts  of  the  country,  joinery  as  a  handiwork  employment  is 
very  general,  and  on  every  farm  there  is  usually  one  man  able  to  under- 
take at  least  rough  carpenter's  work  and  any  necessary  repairs  of  agri- 
cultural implements.  In  some  provinces  it  was  the  general  thing  in 
former  times,  in  the  long  winter-evenings,  when  no  outdoor  work  was 

26— i.?3i  79.  Sweden.  II. 


402  VII.       MANUFACTURING    INDUSTRIES. 

possible,  for  the  men  to  devote  their  attention  to  some  form  of  handiwork, 
or  "sloyd",  such  as  the  making  of  wooden  shoes,  chairs,  baskets,  and  other 
.domestic  utensils,  just  as  the  women  spent  such  time  in  spinning  and 
weaving. 

This  carpentry  was  facilitated  by  the  plentiful  supply  of  cheap  wood, 
oak,  birch,  alder,  and  white-wood.  By  degrees,  this  domestic  industry  has 
given  place  to  an  extensive  manufacturing  industry,  inasmuch  as  facto- 
ries have  been  established  in  many  places  for  the  manufacture  of  common 
furniture  and  of  the  wooden  fittings  of  houses,  such  as  doors,  window- 
frames,  etc.  One  product  of  this  industry  that  has  found  a  not  inconsider- 
able market  abroad,  especially  in  warm  countries  with  a  poor  supply  of 
native  timber,  are  complete  houses  of  wood,  a  market  for  which,  especially 
as  summer  residences,  is  also  found  in  Sweden  itself.  : 

In  the  furniture-  and  wooden-house  industry,  the  same  improved  taste 
can  be  remarked  that  has  been  in  evidence  in  architecture  and  art-industry 
generally  during  the  last  twenty  years. 

The  export  of  joiner's  work  proper,  in  1912,  amounted  to  13  935  000 
kronor,  in  addition  to  planed  deals,  packing-case  material,  staves,  etc., 
to  a  value  of  38-9  million  kronor.  Of  the  first-named,  the  exports  to  Eng- 
land amounted  to  7  716  000  kronor;  to  Russia  2  263  000  and  to  Denmark 
641  000  kronor,  etc. 

Joinery  work  and  furniture-making  flourish  best  in  Jonkoping  Lan, 
after  which  come  the  Lans  of  Kalmar,  Ostergotland,  Goteborg  och 
Bohus,  Sodermanland  and  the  city  and  Lan  of  Stockholm.  Among  the 
largest  joinery- factories  may  be  mentioned:  Atvidabergs  snickerifabrih 
(Snickerifabrik"  =  joinery-factory),  Atvidaberg;  Stegeholms  Snicherifa- 
brik,  Vaster vik,  and  Carl  Fredrikssons  TraforddlingsaMiebolag,  Katrine- 
holm. 

In  1912,  there  were  in  Sweden  565  joinery-  and  furniture-factories,  em- 
ploying ^^a  total  of  10  464  hands  and  turning  out  goods  to  a  value  of 
30  830  000  kronor.  These  figures,  however,  do  not  include  the  joinery- 
factories  turning  out  machines,  which  are  33  in  number,  employ  779  hands 
and  manufacture  goods  to  a  value  of  1  633  000  kronor.  In  Swedish  sta- 
tistics, these  last-named  factories  are  included  in  the  Machines  and  Im- 
plements group. 

Other  Manufactures. 

Cooperies.  In  some  industries,  the  demand  for  bulging  casks,  such 
as  kegs  and  drittles,  is  very  considerable;  for  example,  in  the  butter  and 
margarine-,  snuff-,  cement-,  herring-,  spirit-,  and  soap  trades,  etc.,  and, 
in  our  own  days,  this  want  is  supplied  by  factory-made  goods.  The 
largest  cask-factories  are  the  Vddevalla  Tunnfabriks-  och  Travaruaktie- 
bolag  at  Uddevalla,  whose  output,  however,  depends  very  much  on  the 
annual  catch  of  herring,  and  the  Astorps  Tunnfabrik  in  Kristianstad  Lan. 


PAPER  MILLS.  403 

In  the  whole  of  Sweden  there  were,  ia  1912,  38  cooperies  and  drittle- 
factories,  employing  422  hands  and  producing  goods  to  a  value  of  1  521  000 
kroner. 

Wooden  shoes  are  either  made  entirely  of  wood,  preferably  of  alder,  being 
then  a  very  warm,  dry,  and  also  cheap  foot-wear,  or  else  they  are  made  of 
leather,  in  the  form  of  half-slippers  on  a  wooden  sole.  Such  wooden  slippers  are 
more  easily  made  in  factories  than  are  wooden  shoes  proper.  The  manufacture  of 
wooden  shoes  is  mostly  carried  on  in  the  Lans  of  Jonkoping,  Kronoberg,  and 
Kristianstad.  In  1912  there  were,  altogether,  45  wooden  shoe-  and  last-factories, 
employing  400  hands  and  with  an  output  amounting  to  1  220  000  kroner. 

Chip-boxes  form  the  object  of  a  large  manufacture,  and  are  made  in  millions 
for  the  match-factories.  The  number  of  factories  in  1912,  which  carried  on  this 
business  exclusively,  amounted  to  6,  with  170  hands  and  an  output  valued  at 
588  000  kroner. 


6.    PAPER  INDUSTRY. 

Of  such  mills  in  operation  in  1912,  73  were  engaged  in  the  manufacture 
of  paper  and  pasteboard,  and  171  manufactured  other  commodities  within 
the  same  branch  of  industry.  The  numbers  of  employees  were  re- 
spectively 8  609  and  4  441,  and  the  total  values  of  the  finished  products 
were  respectively  64  139  329  kroner  and  13  796  229  kronor.  The  import 
and  export  —  especially  the  latter  —  of  paper  is  considerable;  for  parti- 
culars see  below.  The  total  value  of  the  imports  for  1912  was  3  590  518 
kronor,  and  of  the  exports,  40  352  319  kronor.  Hence  this  industry  is  one 
of  those  that  tend  considerably  to  improve  the  balance  of  trade  in  Sweden. 

Paper  Mills.  ^ 

The  Swedish  paper  industry  dates  back  to  the  16th  century.  The  oldest 
paper  mills  in  the  country  are  the  Klippan  mills,  which  were  probably 
founded  in  1573.  Of  other  still  flourishing  paper  mills  the  oldest  are 
the  Lessebo  mills,  which  were  erected  during  the  decade  1661 — 70  and 
were  granted  their  privileges  as  paper  mills  in  1719;  Grycksbo  mills, 
established  by  J.  Munktell  in  1740;  and  Gransholm  mills,  established 
about  1790.  At  these  mills,  as  also  at  a  number  of  smaller  establishments 
the  paper  was  made  by  hand  until  1832,  when  machinery  was  introduced 
at  the  Klippan  mills,  upon  which  the  Lessebo  and  Grycksbo  mills  followed 
suit  in  1836.  The  chief  productions  of  the  above-named  manufac- 
tories comprise  chiefly  better  quality  printing-  and  writing-paper;  Grycksbo 
mills  also  produce  wrapping-paper  and  fllterpaper,  which  last  has  en- 
joyed a  high  reputation  ever  since  the  time  of  Berzelius.  Bank  note 
paper  and  stamped  paper  are  made  at  the  Tumha  mills  (established  1758), 
belonging  to  the  Bank  of  Sweden. 


404 


VII.      MANUFACTURING    ISDUSTRIBS. 


Gen.Stab.UtAnst.Slockholm. 


PAPKR   MILLS.  405 

Manufactures,  Imports  and  Exports  of  Paper  and  Cardboard. 


Ton. 
9S0OOO 


y 

•^ 

^ 

/ 

/ 

y 

/ 

-'' 

/ 

,. 

-  _  _ 

/ 
/ 

/ 

^ 

• 

• 

• 

^ 

^  " 

J' 





Tsif    '" 

Year  1900      01         02        03        04         05         06        07         08        09         10         11         42 

Imports. 


Manufactures. 


Exports. 


During  the  period  1861 — 80,  was  begun  the  manufacture  of  sheathing- 
paper,  chiefly  for  building  purposes,  and  this  industry  is  pursued  on  a 
large  scale  at  Munksjo  (1862),  Vargon  (1869),  Katrinefors  (1871),  Mun- 
kedal  (1872)  and  Fiskeby  (1873). 

The  development  of  the  paper  industry  during  the  last  thirty  years  has 
shown  a  pronounced  tendency  towards  specialization,  especially  in  the 
manufacture  of  newspaper  paper,  as  at  Holmen  in  Norrkoping,  where  are 
to  be  found  the  machines  for  producing  the  broadest  paper  turned  out  in 
the  country,  at  Lilla  Edet,  and  at  the  great  mills  at  Domnarvet  (1900); 
another  speciality  is  wrapping  paper,  manufactured,  among  other  places, 
at  Stromsnas  mills  (1896),  Frovifors  mills  (1901),  and  Orebro  mills  (1901). 
Furthermore,  a  number  of  the  older  mills  have  been  rebuilt  or  extended,  in 
order  to  develope  one  or  other,  or  both,  of  these  branches. 


406 


VII.       MANUFACTURING    INDUSTRIES. 


The  materials  used  in  the  manufacture  of  the  better  qualities  of  writing  and 
printing  paper  are,  apart  from  rags,  bleached  sulphite-  and  sulphate-pulp,  small 
quantities  of  imported  cellulose,  aspen-tree  pulp,  straw-pulp,  and  esparto-pulp. 
For  the  manufacture  of  pasteboard  is  used  white  or  brown  mechanical  pulp 
often  with  a  slight  addition  of  cellulose,  except  for  roofing-board,  which  is  made 
exclusively  from  rags.  The  Swedish  wrapping  paper  —  with  the  exception  of 
\  the  so-called  Havanna  paper,  made  from  boiled  mechanical  pulp  —  is  produced 
mainly  from  sulphite-  or  sulphate-cellulose. 

As  the  Swedish  manufactories  generally  work  with  their  own  half-manufac- 
tured material,  cellulose  and  mechanical  pulp,  and  thus  with  comparatively 
cheap  raw  material,  they  might  be  expected  to  be  in  a  stronger  position  in  the 
world's  markets  than  they  now  are.  In  point  of  fact,  the  sudden  advance 
(indicated  above)  of  the  Swedish  wood-pulp  industry  has  not  proved  an  unmixed 
advantage  to  the  paper  industry,  since  it  has  enabled  the  exporters  to  supply 
foreign  producers  with  low-priced  half-manufactured  materials. 


Photo.  J.  Vestergben,  Tumba. 


Paper-making  Machine,  Lessebo. 


The  development  of  the  Swedish  paper  industry  since  the  year  1866  is  shown 
by  the  following  table: 


Manufactures 

Annually 

Mills 

Employees 

value  in 
kronor 

1866—70  .    . 

.  63 

1861 

4005  000 

1871-75  .    . 

.  53 

2  329 

6  419  000 

1876-80.    . 

.  50 

2  442 

7  217  000 

1881—85  .    . 

.  41 

3  917 

7  899  000 

1886—90  .    . 

.  37 

3  078 

8  819  000 

1891-95  .    . 

.  54 

4  579 

12  084000 

1896-00  .    . 

.  59 

5  209 

18  280  000 

1901—05  .    . 

.  67 

6  931 

30  318  000 

1906—10  .    . 

.  69 

7  829 

46  666  000 

Imports 
quintals 

1999 
9  600 
13  703 
15  313 
23155 
39  429 
54  952 
44  450 
58435 


Exports 
quintals 

12  881 

25  811 

62  761 

78482 

135381 

244255 

425907 

922  966 

1 459  614 


MANUFACTURES  FROM  VARIOUS  VEGETABLE  MATERIALS.        407 

Annually  Mills     Employees         value  in  Imports         Exports 

kronor  quintals         quintals 

1910 70  8 100  53  886  000  67  890        1  664  880 

1911 69  8  216  57  069  000  74  828         1760  408 

1912 73  8  609  64 139  000  59  683         2  037  017 

The  official  statistics  for  191P  afford  the  following  details  as  to  the 
■manufactures,  exports    and  imports: 

Manufacture 
,  quintals 

Burnishing  and  emery  paper 1  864 

Packing  paper  etc 1  241  556 

Letter,  writing,  printing  paper  etc.  .    .  1 109  719 

Other  kinds  of  paper 58  000 

Card-board  used  in  building 124  504 

Other  kinds  of  board 218  857 

The  manufactures,  imports  and  exports  during  1900 — 12  are  also  indi- 
cated by  the  following  graphs,  which  have  been  based  upon  particulars 
obtained  chiefly  from  Svenska  cellulosaforeningen. 

While,  during  the  last  12  years,  the  imports  have  not  shown  any  great 
increase,  the  exports  have  more  than  trebled.  Paper,  like  wood-pulp,  is 
one  of  the  most  important  articles  of  Swedish  export. 

Apart  from  insignificant  quantities  of  wrapping  paper,  intended  for 
special  uses,  such  as  straw  waste  paper,  the  paper  imported  chiefly  com- 
prises various  sorts  of  more  valuable  paper,  which  are  not  made  in  Sweden, 
and  of  which  only  small  quantities  are  used.  The  exports,  on  the  other 
hand,  include  two  great  groups :  newspaper  paper  (6.3  000  tons,  of  the  value 
of  9-78  million  kronor),  and  fine  and  coarse  wrapping  paper  (98  000  tons, 
of  the  value  of  20-19  million  kronor). 


imports 

Exports 

quintals 

quintals 

1783 

601 

1304 

445  806 

31986 

1105  857 

1153 

42 

37  584 

13  477 

1018 

194  625 

7.    MANUFACTURES  FROM  VARIOUS  VEGETABLE 

MATERIALS. 

In  1912  there  were  in  Sweden  31  factories  engaged  in  the  manufacture 
of  such  goods,  employing  in  all  731  hands  and  with  an  output  amounting 
to  2  664  000  kronor.  The  most  important  article  under  this  category  is 
cork.  Aktieholaget  Wikanders  Korkfabrik,  in  Stockholm,  which  also 
owns  Goteborgs  Korkfabrik,  Gothenburg,  is  of  European  importance  in 
its  branch,  possessing  as  it  does  large  branch-establishments  at  Abo, 
Helsingfors,  Riga,  Libau  and  Odessa,  with  a  total  output  of  25  million 
kronor.  The  output  in  Sweden  is  estimated  at  a  value  of  more  than  2  million 
kronor  per    annum.     Altogether   there   were  in  1912  a  total  of  14  cork- 

'  For  1912  the  detailed  figures  for  the  manufactures,  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  imports 
and  exports,  on  the  other,  are  not  comparable,  for  which  reason  the  particulars  for  1911 
are  given,  since  they  are  more  satisfactorily  comparable. 


408  Vir.      MANUFACTURING   INDUSTRIES. 

factories  in  Sweden,  employing  425  hands  and  with  an  output  of  a  value 
of  2  050  000  kronor.  The  imports,  however,  in  1912,  amounted  to  1  612  430 
kronor  for  cork-bark,  and  68  430  kronor  for  cut-corks,  while  the  export 
of  cut-corks  amounted  to  209  800  kronor. 

There  are  in  Sweden  11  basket-factories  with  233  hands,  the  value 
of  the  manufactures  amounting  to  511  700  kronor.  In  1912  the  imports 
amounted  to  273  185  kronor  and  the  exports  to  307  845  kronor,  thus 
showing  an  inconsiderable  excess  of  exports. 


8.  MANUFACTURES  OF  STONE,  CLAY,  COAL, 
CHARCOAL,  AND  PEAT. 

This  important  branch  of  industry  includes  the  following  main  sub- 
divisions (the  figures  refer  to  1912): 

Value  of 
Factories     Workmen        production 
kronor 

Stone  and  Clay  manufactures  ....        965  31980  63225000 

Glass,  and  Glass  manufactures     ...  70  5278  12364000 

Products  of  Coal  Charcoal  and  Peat  .        626  11107  28  949  000 

Total    1661  48  365         104538000 

This  branch  is  closely  allied  to  the  mining  industries,  and  many  data 
concerning  it  vnll  be  found  under  the  said  heading.  Thus,  on  p.  240 
figures  are  given  with  reference  to  the  large  imports  of  raw  materials 
for  the  manufactures  here  concerned;  for  instance,  of  coal  used  directly  as 
fuel  and  indirectly  in  gasworks  for  the  production  of  lighting-gas.  The 
exports  of  raw  materials  are  also  considerable;  the  total  value  of  the 
exports  is  given  on  page  240.  As  regards  the  special  items,  cf.  the  follow- 
ing articles. 

Stone  Industry. 

Sweden's  great  wealth  in  different  varieties  of  stone  that  can  be  em- 
ployed industrially  for  building  purposes,  for  decoration,  etc.,  has  given 
rise  to'  an  industry  on  a  large  scale,  which,  during  the  last  few  decades 
especialljr,  has  advanced  with  great  rapidity  and,  all  appearance,  has 
every  prospect  of  still  greater  development. 

Even  during  the  earliest  period  of  the  historic  era  of  the  country  —  the 
12th  and  13th  centuries  —  may  be  traced  the  first  beginnings  of  a  stone-in- 
dustry, which  was  not  restricted  to  the  employment  of  this  material  within 
the  country  exclusively,  but  which  also  enjoyed  a  probably  not  unimportant  ex- 
port. Of  course,  the  varieties  of  stone  which,  at  that  period,  were  most  made 
use  of  —  chiefly  for  church  buildings  and  the  like  —  were  those  which  could 


STONE   INDUSTRY. 


409 


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410  Vri.      MANUFACTURING   INDUSTRIES. 

be  most  easily  dressed,  viz.,  limestone  and  sandstone,  though  for  the  erection  of 
fortresses,  castles  etc.,  the  harder  kinds  of  stone  were  also  employed. 

During  the  16th  century,  there  were  erected  a  great  number  of  buildings  in  lime- 
stone and  sandstone.  Still  livelier  did  this  architectural  activity  become  during 
the  following  century,  especially  after  the  close  of  the  30  Years'  War,  when 
the  great  captains,  on  their  return  home,  had  stately  mansions  and  castles  erected 
in  Stockholm  and  in  the  country.  For  the  majority  of  these  buildings,  granite 
began  to  be  more  widely  employed. 

In  the  middle  of  the  18th  century  a  change  was  made,  brick  becoming  the 
sole  building  material,  and  this  so  exclusively  that  not  only  granite,  but  also 
those  kinds  of  stone  that  can  more  easily  be  worked  were  completely  neglected. 

For  nearly  a  century,  granite,  as  a  building  material,  was  almost  forgotten. 
The  construction  of  canals  during  the  first  part  of  the  19th  century,  however, 
once  more  directed  public  attention  to  this  kind  of  stone,  as  being  that  which 
was  most  suitable  for  works  of  this  and  similar  kinds.  It  was,  most  certainly, 
the  experience  he  gained  of  the  excellent  qualities  of  granite  as  a  building  stone 
that  led  Nils  Ericson  to  establish  stone-works  in  Malmon,  near  Lysekil. 

The  Malmon  stone-cutting  and  stone-polishing  works  soon  found  imitators  in 
Bohuslan,  Halland,  Blekinge,  Smaland,  Ostergotland,  and,  later  on,  in  Skane,  the 
latter  province  being  the  chief  seat  of  production  of  the  beautiful  and  valuable 
"blach  granite"  (diabase)  in  Sweden.* 

Bohuslan  granite,  from  its  beautiful  colour  and  fine  grain,  is  now  used  on 
an  extremely  large  scale  both  for  constructional  and  ornamental  work,  not  only 
in  Sweden,  but  also  abroad,  and  especially  in  Denmark,  Germany,  and  Great 
Britain. 

Of  the  granites  in  Smaland,  the  beautiful  red  stone  from  Virbo,  TJthammar, 
and  Vanevik,  have  been  exported  in  undressed  blocks  to  Germany,  Scotland  and 
England,  where  it  is  employed  for  monuments,  pedestals,  etc. 

From  the  Alvdal  porphyry  works,  which  were  established  in  1778,  there  issued 
during  the  course  of  nearly  a  century,  numerous  productions  executed  in  this 
magnificent  and  richly  coloured  stone,  which  came  into  well-deserved  demand, 
both  at  home  and  abroad.  The  articles  produced  by  means  of  the  remarkable 
and  ingenious  machinery  that  was  employed  for  the  treatment  and  polishing  of 
the  hard  porphyry  were  mostly  ornamental  in  character,  such  as  urns,  vases, 
candlesticks,  letter-presses,  brooches,  buttons,  etc. 

Potstone,  from  Handol  in  Jamtland,  has  long  been  quarried  and  worked  up, 
chiefly  for  stoves,  small  domestic  vessels,   and  decorative  objects. 

Clay-slate  is  chiefly  used  for  making  roofing-slates.  It  is  quarried  at  Gryt- 
hyttehed,  in  Vastmanland,  and  at  Hallan  and  Halangen,  in  Dalsland. 

Sandstone  is  one  of  the  most  important  building-stones  found  in  Sweden,  this 
being  due  to  the  relative  ease  with  which  it  can  be  quarried  and  dressed,  and 
also  to  its  power  of  resistance  to  weathering.  Its  chief  varieties  are  the  fol- 
lowing : 

Gdvle  sandstone,  quarried  at  a  good  many  places  between  Gavle  and  Storvik. 
South  and  south-east  of  Gavle  there  occur  masses  of  sandstone-block,  the  so- 
called  Boslag  sandstone,  which  has  been  much  employed  for  buildings  in  Stock- 
holm, in  both  earlier  and  more  recent  styles, 

Oved  sandstone,  from  Skane,  with  its  fine  grain  and  its  warm  red  colour, 
has  come  greatly  into  use  of  late. 

Oottland  sandstone,  which  was  much  used  in  earlier  times  for  the  adornment 
of  all  the  churches  in  the  island. 


"Black  granite"  is  a  technical  and  not  any  petrographical  term.   It  includes  the  following 
rocks:  diabase,  diorite,  hyperite,  and  gabbro. 


STONE   INDUSTRY.  411 

At  the  foot  of  the  Vastgota  Hills  there  exists  sandstone,  which  is  quarried 
at  KinnekuUe,  Billingen,  Lugnas,  etc.  In  this  group  there  is  also  included  the 
Narke  sandstone,  which  is  quarried  at  Sjotorp,  east  of  Orebro,  and  at  other 
places. 

Dala  sandstone,  which  is  found  over  a  large  area  between  the  eastern  and  the 
western  branches  of  the  river  Dalalven. 

At  Simrishamn,  and  in  Runno  in  Kalmar  Sound,  there  is  found  a  sandstone 
that  is  employed  for  making  grindstones. 

Limestones  and  marble.  Among  the  most  important  of  the  limestones  of 
Sweden,  special  mention  must  be  made  of  the  Kolmdrd  marble,  whose  greenish 
tinge,  caused  by  the  serpentine  existing  in  this  variety,  makes  it  an  extremely 
original  variety  and  one,  we  venture  to  think,  almost  unique  amongst  the  many 
kinds  of  marble.  Kolmard  marble  is  nowadays  no  longer  used  for  exterior 
architecture,  as  it  has  proved  to  be  too  sensitive  to  weathering.  The  marble, 
however,  is  a  first-class  raw  material  for  interior  facings,  for  columns,  wall- 
facings  and  floorslabs,  etc.,  and,  when  polished,  especially  in  combination  with 
bronze,  has  a  singularly  beautiful  effect.  In  addition,  Kolmard  marble  has 
from  early  times  been  employed  for  making  many  kinds  of  large  and  small 
decorative  articles. 

The  Lower  Silurian,  close-grained  limestones  of  Sweden  have  also  been  em- 
ployed on  a  large  scale  in  both  early  and  recent  times.  It  is  found  in  Skane, 
Oland,  and  the  more  northerly  lans. 

The  Upper  Silurian  limestones  are  foxmd  iu  Gottland  and  in  Skane.  At 
present  they  are  quarried  on  a  large  scale  north  of  Visby. 

The  comparative  statistics  issued  by  the  statistical  branch  of  the  Board 
of  Trade  supply  further  information  respecting  the  development  and  extent  of 
the  Swedish  stone  industry.  The  figures  given  are,  however,  very  incomplete 
for  the  first  few  years  of  issue,  as  only  very  few  and  incomplete  reports  were 
received  from  stone-works  and  stone-polishing  works.  The  following  figures  are 
taken  from  the  statistics  mentioned: 


Stone 

works 

1865  .... 

.  .  .  .    4 

1880  .... 

....   22 

1890  .... 

....   43 

1895  .... 

....  124 

1900  .... 

....  228 

1905  .... 

....  299 

1910  .... 

....  347 

1911  .  .  .  . 

....  357 

1912  .  .  .  . 

....  359 

No.  of 

Value  of  ontpat 

hands 

kr. 

211 

101  000 

1737 

641 000 

1912 

1213  000 

6  379 

4  411  000 

11697 

11  063  000 

12  346 

13  647  000 

13  815 

19  251  000 

13  913 

19  534  000 

13  925 

20173000 

Of  the  total  value  of  the  output  of  stone  for  1912,  that  of  Goteborg  och 
Bohus  Ian  amounted  to  8  347  000  kroner,  or,  approximately,  41  %  of  the  whole. 
Then  come,  in  the  order  given:  the  Lans  of  Blekinge,  Kristianstad,  Malmohus, 
and  Kalmar. 

Felspar.  From  the  46  felspar  quarries  worked  during  1911  there  were  obtain- 
ed, according  to  the  report  sent  in  —  which,  however,  must  be  considered  as 
rather  incomplete  —  34  300  tons  of  a  stated  value  of  333  000  kronor,  which, 
on  an  average,  makes  about  10  kronor  per  ton. 

Quartz.  In  1912  there  were  quarried  22  400  tons  of  quartz,  with  a  stated 
value  of  103  000  kronor. 

The  great  development  of  the  stone  industry  during  the  last  decade  of  the  19th 
century  was,  it  is  true,  the  result  in  some  measure  of  an  essential  increase  in 
the  employment  of  undressed  varieties  of  stone,  for  various  purposes  within  the 


412 
Table  90. 


VII.      MANUFACTURING   INDUSTRIES. 

Stone  Export.     Value  in  kroner. 


To 

Annually 

To  Germany 

To  Denmark 

Great  Britain 

countries 

Total 

1890 

2  603  029 

597  365 

278  803 

205  071 

3684268 

1896 

4  299  328 

376  238 

273  825 

311  729 

5261120 

1900 

7  553  249 

1 402  764 

855  961 

575414 

10387388 

1905 

9  333163 

1 122  267 

1 135  561 

1273  352 

12864343 

1910  ;  

7  472  086 

1036  943 

941082 

3  510  826 

12960937 

1911  . 

8  213  908 

1 239  896 

821 876 

3  691  856 

•13967  536 

1912 

8  343  561 

1225  348 

686  398 

3  876  703 

n4 132  000 

1913 

• 

• 

»16083000 

•  Felspar  and  qnartz  to  a  value  of  741  444  kr.  not  included. 
'■^        »  n         ».»»       j>       >   757  000    >      >  » 

3>  s         i        »>»;&   866  000    j      »  » 

country,  but  it  chiefly  results  from  the  fact  that  the  stone  in  question  received 
its  final  preparation  in  the  foreign  market,  where  it  was  employed  on  a  steadily 
increasing  scale,  chiefly  in  Germany.  At  the  present  day,  Sweden  is  one  of  the 
principal  stone-exporting  countries  in  the  world.  Apart  from  the  fluctuations 
of  .the  market  during  the  last  few  years,  the  value  of  the  Swedish  stone-export 
has,  on  the  whole,  increased,  as  is  seen  by  Table  90. 


With  respect  to  a  number  of  geological  questions  connected  with  the  stone 
industry,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  article  on  the  geology  of  Sweden,  where 
it  has  been  considered  advisable  to  give  also  some  fairly  detailed  information 
respecting  the  employment  of  the  various  classes  of  stone. 


Cement  and  Mortar. 

The  manufacture  of  cement  in  the  form  known  as  Portland  cement  is 
not  of  very  old  date  in  Sweden,  though  a  sort  of  hydraulic  mortar,  made 
of  burnt  alum  shale  powder  and  lime,  was  formerly  used  in  connection 
with  earlier  canal  structures.  Cement  was  employed  as  early  as  1860  but 
then  only  to  the  extent  of  1  180  tons.  The  first  cement  factory  in  Sweden 
was  established  at  Lomma  in  Skane  in  1871,  on  the  initiative  of  professor 
Otto  Torell  and  Otto  Fahnehjelm,  an  engineer.  Clay  of  suitable  quality  is 
to  be  found  there  in  unlimited  quantity,  and  lime  was  obtained  from  the 
neighbouring  place  of  Limharan  and  sent  by  sea  to  Lomma.  This  was  the 
beginning  of  the  Scanian  Cement  Company  (Skanska  cementaktiebolaget), 
the  first  manager  of  which,  R.  F.  Berg,  has  done  a  great  deal  towards  fur- 
thering the  development  of  the  cement  industry  in  Sweden.  In  Sweden  the 
natural  conditions  necessary  for  the  manufacture  of  cement  are  amply 
satisfied,  owing  to  the  great  resources  of  suitable  raw  material,  and,  aftef 
the  Lomma  factory  (which  was  closed  in  1904)  other  factories  were  started 
at  Limhamn  (established  by  the  Scanian  Cement  Company),  Visby  1885, 
Oland  1888,  Hallekis  1892,  and  at  Klagshamn  and  Maltesholm  1898.  The 
latest  factory  is  the  If 6  Cement  Factory  (1909).    The  sale  of  the  products 


CEMENT   AND    MORTAR. 


413 


Photo.   Ri>TKTT'K,   ilrilmb. 

Cement  Factory  at  Limhamn  {Skanska  Cementaktiebolaget). 

of  all  these  factories  is  negotiated  tlirough  the  Svenska  cementforsaljning-s- 
aktiebolaget  (Swedish  Cement  Selling  Co.)  of  Malmo.  Owing  to  its 
excellence,  this  Swedish  cement  has  obtained  a  first  class  reputation,  also 
for  export,  at  first  under  the  name  of  lommacement.  The  output  of  the 
factory  at  Lomma  was  at  first  20  000  casks  of  Cement  yearly.  The  capa- 
city of  production  of  the  Limhamn  factory  is  now  about  900  000  casks 
yearly.  When  working  at  full  pressure,  all  the  Swedish  factories  can  now 
produce  about  2^/2  million  casks  yearly.     The  product  was  339  618  tons 


Table  91. 


Cement  Industry. 


Annually 
(Altered  statistics  from  1S96)  , 

Value  of 
production 

tr. 

Imports 
kr. 

Exports 
kr. 

Consumption 
kr. 

1875 

1876-80 

221  000 

398  000 

634  000 

1063  000 

1829  000 

265  000 

285  000 

328  000 

360  000 

69  000 

119  000 

204  000 
332  000 
310  000 
971 000 

367  000 

479  000 

630000 

1113  000 

927000 

1881—85 

1886-90 

1891-95 

1896-00 

1901-05 

1906—10  .   , 

3  322  000 
3  849  500 
6  834  100 

67  800 

260  000 

,  373  500 

914  700 

662  000 

1  042  200 

2  475 100 

3  447  500 
6154400 

1910 

1911 

1912 

8  480  000 

8  344  600 

9  621  000 

691  000 
636  900 
436  000 

2  392  000 
8  390  400 

3  369  000 

6  779  000 
6  591 100 
6  688  000 

414  VII.      MANUFACTURING   INDUSTRIES. 

(1  187  000  casks)  in  1912,  with  a  value  of  9  621  000  kronor.  1  447  work- 
men vere  then  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  cement.  With  the  year 
1889  when  cement  became  subject  to  a  duty  of  40  ore  per  100  kg  the  manu- 
facture rose  somewhat,  and  later  increased  rapidly  when  the  duty  was  in 
1895  increased  to  60  ore  per  100  kg;  the  manufacture  and  export  have 
steadily  increased  since. 

The  development  of  the  cement  industry  and  the  consumption  in  Sweden 
since  1875  is  shown  in  Table  91. 

Of  the  total  export  in  1912,  amounting  to  127  141  tons,  42  420  tons  went 
to  Russia,  33  286  tons  to  the  Argentine,  22  155  tons  to  the  Sunda  Islands, 
14  810  tons  to  Finland,  and  12  189  tons  to  Denmark;  the  remainder  was 
distributed  over  British  South  Africa  and  Brazil. 

The  consumption  of  Portland  cement  has  shown  a  rapid  increase  and 
it  is  now  just  as  necessary  as  mortar  in  all  branches  of  building,  both  on 
land  and  water.  The  result  has  been  that  a  number  of  cement  foundries 
have  been  erected.  In  the  year  1912,  their  number  was  60,  with  1  067 
workmen  and  an  output  value  of  4  394  000  kronor.  The  oldest  and  largest 
of  them  is  Aktiebolaget  Skanska  cementgjuteriet  (The  Scanian  Cement 
Foundry,  Ltd),  with  branches  in  many  places  in  the  kingdom. 

There  is  also  a  considerable  manufacture  of  mortar.  In  1912  there 
were  11  factories  at  work,  with  199  workmen  and  a  production  to  the 
value  of  1  082  000  kronor. 


Earthenware. 

The  raw  materials  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  earthenware  are 
clay,  sand,  felspar,  quartz,  chalk,  etc. 

Clay  and  sand  are  used  for  making  bricks.  The  various  kinds  of  clay 
have  different  consistencies  and  qualities.  The  principal  difference  between 
heavy  and  light  clay  is  that  the  former  is  less  mouldable,  the  latter  more 
so  (plastic).  The  Swedish  clay  is  generally  too  heavy  for  making  bricks, 
for  which  reason  sand  is  added  and  the  mixture  must  be  prepared  with 
water,  shaped,  and  burnt. 

Clay  was  formerly  shaped  by  hand,  dried  in  the  open  air  and  in  open 
drying-houses,  and  burnt  in  furnaces  heated  with  wood.  Hand-labour  is 
not  yet  altogether  a  method  of  the  past,  since  bricks  made  in  this  fashion 
are  considered  to  be  as  durable  as  machine-made  goods,  but  the  adoption 
of  machines  for  the  shaping  of  bricks  can  now  be  considered  as  being 
general. 

The  system  of  baking  bricks  has  also  been  modernized  through  the 
introduction  of  annular  kilns,  which  burn  continuously,  instead  of  the  old 
simple  kilns,  which  were  heated  with  wood  at  intervals.  In  ancient  times 
so-called  field-baking  was  employed. 

The  production  in  1912  at  Sweden's  363  brickyards  and  earthenware  factories 
amounted    to    366  146  000  clinker,  wall-,   roof-  flint-,  limesand,  quartz  and  ash- 


EARTHENWARB. 


415 


bricks;  33  914  000  pipes  and  parts  of  piping,  165  570  tons  of  fireproof,  facade, 
revetting  and  stack  bricks,  also  fire-clay  and  a  number  of  other  brick  and  clay 
wares  to  a  total  value  of  15  620  000  kr.  The  manufacture  of  tiles  is  greatest 
in  Malmohus  Lan,  which  produced  bricks  and  earthenware  to  a  value  of  5  576  000 
kr.  or  about  36  %  of  the  whole.  Next  comes  Kristianstad  Lan  with  1  385  000 
and  then  Stockholm  Liin  with  1  330  000  kr.  and  llvsborg  Lan  with  1  055  000 
kr.  The  export  of  crockery  amounted  in  1912  to  156  668  tons  and  rose  in 
1913  to  159  903  tons. 


Jtorstrand  Pottery-  Works. 

Fireproof  clay.  In  the  carboniferous  formation  of  Skane  occur  alter- 
nate strata  of  coal,  fireproof  clay,  and  slate  claj?.  Many  different  articles 
are  made  from  these  wares,  such  as  bricks,  pipes,  vessels  of  different 
kinds,  ornamental  articles,  etc.  The  manufacture  of  fireproof  bricks  was 
commenced  at  the  factory  at  Hogands  in  1827,  and  now  more  than  12 
million  bricks  are  turned  out  every  j'ear.  Several  buildings  have  been 
erected  for  this  industry.  The  manufacture  of  clay  vessels  was  begun 
in  1833;  at  first  only  tinglazed  vessels  or  those  with  lead  glaze,  yellow 
in  colour  were  produced.  In  1835  the  brown  salt-glazed  ware  was 
introduced.  The  manufacture  of  pipes  commenced  in  1869,  and  there  are 
DOW  two  large  pipe  factories.  Drain  pipes,  cribs  troughs,  chimneys 
etc.  are  also  made.  At  the  works  for  ash-brick,  for  which  the  demand 
becomes  greater  every  year,  are  made  air-dried  building  bricks,  the  com- 
position of  which  is  *U  ash  and  ^/s  lime. 

In  1903  Hoganas  stenkolsbolag  amalgamated  with  Billesholms — Bjuvs  aktiebolag 
under   the    style    of  Hoganas — Billeholms  aktiebolag.     The  manufacture  of  fire- 


416 


Vn.      MANUFACTURma    INDUSTRIES. 


proof    products    is    carried  on  at  many  manufactories  in  Skane.     The  following 
were  manufactured  from  clay  and  slate  in  1912: 


Fireproof  products 
Klinker  > 


i  937  tons  of  the  value  of  1  665  000  kr. 
>    >       >       »   1849  000    » 


Total  sum  3514000  kr. 


The    export    of  fireproof  clay  in  1912  was  37  922  tons  and  rose  in  1913  to 
40  530  tons. 


Workshop  for  Sand-pressing,  Ghtstavsberg. 


Pottery. 

In  Sweden  earthenware  and  china  have  long  been  produced  and  since 
1911  at  five  large  factories.  There  also  exist  a  great  number  of  small 
works  for  the  manufacture  of  stoves  and  crockery.  Rorstrands  fabrik 
(present  proprietors  Rorstrands  fabriksaktiebolag)  is  tke  oldest  factory  and 
is  situated  in  Stockholm.  It  was  founded  in  1726  and  up  to  the  be- 
ginning of  1800  produced  Delftfaience.  In  1782  Rorstrand  bought  the 
Marieberg  factory,  built  in  1758  and  closed  down  in  1788.  These  two 
works  made  ware  for  domestic  use,  tiles  for  stoves,  and  fancy  articles,  all 
made  of  red  Uppsala-clay,  covered  with  thick  tin  glaze.  In  1820  the 
manufacture  of  Wedgwood's  "Queen's  ware",  made  of  white  clays  and 
flint  and  covered  with  transparent  glazes,  was  introduced  at  Rorstrand, 
but  the  results  were  not  satisfactory  before  1850.  —  In  the  year  1827,  the 
Gustavsberg    factory    was    established    at    Varmdon  (present  proprietors 


POTTERY. 


417 


Specimen  of  Rorstrand  Pottery.  ' 
Vase  in  majolica,  7  feet  high. 

Aktiebolaget  Gustavshergs  fahriks  intressenter) ,  and  during  the  thirties 
and  forties  the  same  articles  were  produced  there  as  at  Rorstrand.  Between 
1850  and  1860,  energetic  efforts  were  made  to  develop  and  modernize  the 
factories,  and  although  they  have  both  continued  to  make  domestic  ware 
and  dinner  services  of  earthenware  and  china,  they  have  each  introduced 
special  lines  of  their  own.  Thus  Rorstrand  has  turned  out  ornamental  tile 
stoves  of  majolica,  insulators,  and  other  aTticles  for  electrical  use  of  felspar 
china,  besides   exquisite  art-ware  with  underglaze-decorations   of   felspar 

27— ;5,3i79.  Sweden.  II. 


418 


Vn.      MANUFACTURING    INDUSTRIES. 


and  bone  china.  Gustavsberg  makes  beautiful  articles  of  Parian-porce- 
lain, usually  reproductions  of  well-known  sculptures,  jasper-ware,  and 
scrafittoworks  in  delicate  colours.  During  recent  years  both  firms  com- 
menced the  manufacture  of  sanitary  ware. 

In  1898 — 99  a  new  earthenware-factory  (proprietors  Aktiebolaget  Gote- 
horgs  porslinsfabrik)  was  built  at  Hisingen  in  Gothenburg.  This  factory 
has  in  a  few  years  succeded  in  making  ware  of  good  quality  and  all  kinds 
of  articles  for  domestic  use,  and  it  enjoys  a  good  reputation.  In  1913  the 
factory  was  bought  by  Rorstrand. 


Specimen  of  Rorstrand  Pottery. 
Vase  of  Felspar-China  nnderglazepainted. 


In  the  town  of  Gavle  a  stove  factory  closed  down  in  1910,  and  it  then 
was  rebuilt  as  an  earthernware-factory  (proprietors  Gavle  porslinsfabrihs- 
ahtiebolag),  and  in  Lidkoping  works  were  started  in  1911  for  making 
felspar-china  (proprietors  Aktiebolaget  Lidkopings  porslinsfabrik).  The 
productions  of  these  factories  are  rather  too  new  to  the  market  for  a  verdict 
as  to  their  quality  to  be  given. 

The  raw  materials  used  in  thf  Swedish  factories  are  largely  imported 


TILE    STOVES   AND    CROCKERY.  419 

Table  92.     Production,  Imports,  Exports  of  China  and  Earthenware. 


Annually 


Workmen 


Production 
kr. 


Imports 
kr. 


Earthen- 
ware 


Exports 
kr. 


1861-65  . 

1866—70  . 
1871—76  . 
1876—80  . 
1881—85  . 
1886-90  . 
1891-95  . 
1896-00  , 
1901-05  , 
1906—10  . 


1910. 
1911, 
1912, 
1913 


524 
576 
996 
1032 
1421 
1559 
1639 
1823 
1945 
2142 

2147 
2  209 
2  550 


945  000 
1018000 
2  093  000 

1  767  000 

2  445  000 

3  538  000 

2  734  000 

3  242  000 

3  568  000 

4  532  000 

4  831 000 

4  757  000 

5  306  000 


195  000 
132  000 
199  000 
216  000 
245  000 
331  000 
652  000 
924  000 
990000 
593  000 


132  000 
76  000 
96  000 
106  000 
243  000 
326  000 
369  000 
379  000 
886  000 
611000 


418  000!  806  000 
423  000!  911000 
434  0001  891000 
543  00011433  000 


350 

4  200 

2  600 

7  600 

17  000 

76  0U0 

73  000 

89  000 

10  000 

19  000 

19  000 

16  000 
12  000 

17  000 


1800 

18  800 

44  000 

60  000 

186  000 

475  000 

394  000 

146  000 

64  000 

100  000 

177  000 
204  000 
236  000 
228  000 


from  .England,  where  the  greatest  supplies  of  good  clay  are  foTind,  and 
from  where  also  the  coal  for  the  kilns  are  obtained.  From  Scania  (Skane) 
in  the  south  of  Sweden  a  good  deal  of  excellent  fireclay  is  taken.  Felspar 
and  quartz  are  also  found  in  Sweden  itself,  but  most  of  the  flint  is  obtained 
from  Denmark  and  France. 

Swedish  china  enjoys  a  high  artistic  reputation  and  is  exported  in  large 
quantities,  and  the  earthernware  produced  in  Sweden  is  of  the  best. 

The  above  figures  testi:fy  to  the  increase  in  the  use  of  china  and  earthenware  in 
Sweden  which  has  taken  place  in  the  last  forty  years.  At  the  same  time  as  the 
home  manufacture  has  increased  considerably,  the  import  of  foreign  goods  has  also 
risen  and  the  home  manufactures  have  to  face  this  steady  competition.  The 
difficulty  in  competing  with  the  import  trade  is  caused  by  the  lower  prices  at 
which  the  foreign  goods  often  are  sold,  which  is  due  to  the  specializing  in  the 
manufacture  possible  in  a  country  with  a  large  population,  partly  to  the  variety 
of  models  and  patterns  which  are  offered  from  abroad.  The  foreign  manufac- 
tories often  resort  to  the  dumping  system  and  flood  Sweden  with  the  surplus 
of  their  manufactures  at  sale  prices. 

Sweden's  export  has,  however,  risen  during  the  last  decade,  although,  unfor- 
tunately, it  cannot  be  compared  with  the  imports.  The  export  of  earthenware 
goes  chiefly  to  Norway  and  Denmark,  whilst  the  export  of  better  and  finer  goods, 
chiefly  of  china,  are  disposed  of  on  the  continent  and  in  America. 


Tile  Stoves  and  Crockery. 

The  first  tile  stoves  in  the  country  were  made  in  the  south  of  Sweden 
in  the  fifteenth  century,  from  where  the  manufacture  gradually  extended 
to  other  parts  of  the  country.  Further  particulars  as  to  the  history 
of  this  industry  are  wanting  until  the  seventeenth  century,  when  the 
manufacture  was  carried  on  both  at  Rorstrand  and  Marieberg.  The 
material   used    at   that    period    for   the   production    of  tiles   was    plastic 


420  YII.      MANUFAOTUEING   INDUSTRIES. 

stratified  clay-marl;  the  best  clay  has  long  been  found  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Uppsala. 

The  manufacture  of  tiles  in  Stockholm  was  considerably  developed  by 
A.  J.  Westman  between  1840  and  1850,  and  also  later  by  0.  H.  Akerlind; 
new  methods,  copied  from  earthenware  factories,  were  introduced,  and  also 
an  opaque  lead-tin  oxide  glaze,  far  superior  to  what  had  been  hitherto 
used,  was  produced. 

In  the  year  1857,  at  Eorstrand,  where  the  old  manufacture  of  tiles  had 
ceased  at  the  end  of  the  17th  century,  was  started  the  industry  of  making 
tile-stoves  of  white  faience  with  transparent  glaze,  and  in  the  beginning 
of  the  seventies,  majolica  fireplaces  and  other  large  stoves,  decorated 
profusely  with  enamel,  were  introduced;  these  served  later  as  models 
for  many  firms  in  Sweden. 

Among  the  great  tile  stove  manufactories  may  be  mentioned  Rorstrands 
fahrik  in  Stockholm,  Uppsala-EJceby  ahtieholag,  Boivies  kakelfabriks- 
aktiebolag,  Uppsala  kakelfahrik,  and  8:t  Eriks  lervarufabriker,  all  in 
Uppsala,  Sandbdck  in  Kalmar,  Ostbergs  kakelfabrik  in  Orebro,  Aktie- 
bolaget  Svenska  kakelfabriken,  Orebro,  OskarsJiamns  kakelfabrik,  Karls- 
krona  kakelfabrik,  Arbrd  kakelfabrik,  Skattkdrrs  kakelfabrik,  etc. 

During  the  eighties  and  nineties,  the  manufacture  of  tiles  made  rapid 
strides,  and  tile  stoves  and  crockery  were  produced  at  some  60  works,  to  the 
value  of  1  ^U — 2  million  kronor  yearly.  During  the  last  few  decades, 
however,  the  trade  has  encountered  great  difficulties,  and  a  number  of 
factories  have  been  closed,  owing,  in  the  first  place,  to  the  ever-increasitig 
competition  from  caloriferes,  and  also  to  the  change  in  taste  in  favour  of 
simple  white  tile  stoves. 

At  many  tile  and  brick  factories,  as  at  several  small  crockery  works 
in  Sweden,  a  considerable  quantity  of  unglazed  flower  pots  and  dishes 
of  ordinary  plastic  red-clay  are  produced,  and  also  glazed  pottery  and 
crockery.  These  are  often  decorated  with  various-coloured  fluted  glaze, 
which  gives  a  good  effect. 

As  has  been  mentioned  above,  a  very  important  trade  in  crockers''  and  a 
large  export  trade  is  carried  on  in  Skane.  Besides  the  manufacture  of 
bricks,  paving  stones,  and  draiu-pipes  of  fire-proof  clay,  there  is  also 
a  large  production  of  salt-glazed  jugs  and  fancy  articles  in  majolica  glaze. 


Lime. 

Several  geological  formations,  for  instance  the  primary  formation, 
the  Silurian,  the  Cambrian,  and  the  chalk  formation,  yield  the  raw 
material  necessary  for  the  production  by  industrial  means  of  carbonate 
of  lime.  At  limeworks,  limestone  is  burned  to  form  quicklime;  at  chalk- 
works,  loose  chalk  in  its  natural  state  is  washed  and  purified. 

Limeworks  are  found  in  16  of  the  lans  in  the  country.  The  largest 
number  are  in  the  Lan  of  Skaraborg;  after  that  come  the  Lans  of  Orebro, 


GLASS   MANUFACTURE. 


421 


Kopparberg  and  Kristianstad.  In  1912  there  were  88  limeworks,  em- 
ploing  1  773  hands.  The  output  amounted  to  4  244  857  hectoliters,  valued 
at  4  009  247  kronor.  The  number  of  chalkworks  was  10  employing  118 
workmen  and  with  an  output  of  184  480  quintals,  valued  at  398  000  kronor. 

In  1913  there  were  imports  to  Sweden  of  1  058  tons  of  lime,  to  a  value 
of  19  900  kronor;  the  imports  of  chalk  were  60  260  kronor.  In  the  same 
year  there  were  exports  of  12  334  tons  of  lime  to  a  value  of  242  000 
kronor,  and  of  chalk  to  a  value  of  380  000  kronor. 

Kieselguhr  or  infusorial  silica,  consisting  of  silicified  diatom  skeletons, 
is  found  in  considerable  layers  in  Sweden,  both  at  Osby,  in  Skane,  and 
in  Lappland.  Its  chief  use  is  as  an  isolating  medium  for  steam  boliers, 
bakers  ovens,  etc.,  and,  formerly,  for  dynamite.  In  1912  there  were  2 
factories  for  the  preparation  of  this  article,  with  an  output  valued  at 
about  7  300  kronor. 


^■Lk  ,.^,;H 

■ 

^^I9H 

^^^rI 

H|M^H 

^M 

^^^hH 

^^^^9 

HH 

IH 

Spenimens  of  Heavy  Crystal  Glass-Ware  from  Reijmyre. 


Glass  Manufacture. 

The  origin  of  the  Swedish  glass  industry  is  to  be  traced  to  a  work 
which  was  started  between  1640  and  1650.  This  factory  existed  till  1815, 
making  both  common  and  finer  glassware,  but  owing  to  changing  vicissi- 
tudes it  never  attained  important  dimensions.  In  the  middle  of  the  18th 
century  the  industry  began  to  develop  through  the  starting  of  new  works. 
The  older  factories  still  in  existence  are  Limmared  in  Vastergotland 
founded  1740,  Kosta  in   Smaland   1741,  Sando  in  Angermanland   1745, 


422 


VII.      MANUFACTUHmG   INDUSTRIES. 


10  12  It  ]G  18  20  22  2*  26 


12  Est  6e  Greem>.' 


East  of  Gre.;it\v.  20 


dsQ.v.Oreeiiw. 


Gen,  Stall.  LitAnst-Stocknoim 


GLASS   MANUFACTURE. 


423 


Liljedahl  in  Varmland  1761,  Beijmyre  in  Ostergotland  1808;   also  Eda, 
Surte,  Glava,  etc. 

To-day  Sweden  possesses  an  important  glass  industry,  carried  on  at  60;  glass 
works.  Of  these  28  are  occupied  in  table-glass  manufacture,  10,  in  making 
window-glass,  and  16,  in  bottle  making.  Some  of  them  carry  on  different 
branches.  The  productive  value  in  liil2  at  the  table-glass  works  was  5  l.jT  000 
kr.,  at  the  bottle-making  works  4  403  000  kr  ,  and  at  the  window-glass  works 
2  292  000,  making  a  total  of  11  922  000  kr.  The  number  of  workmen  employed 
during  the  same  period  was  5  182.  Reckoning  by  liins,  Kronoberg  takes  the 
first  place  having  an  output  in  glassware  of  3  1T2  000  kr.  and  1  638  workmen. 

During  1913,  the  value  of  the  export  from  the  Swedish  glass  works  amounted 
to  4  019  000  kr.  The  import  in  the  same  year,  consisting,  principally  of  plate 
glass  and  technical  glass  amounted  to  3  145  000  kr. 


Hi 

w^r^^^^M 

Hi  ^  \   .  icSH^^BlH 

mMi^             m 

^^K^         V^^u^ffiKflS^Hni^wBl' 

ff^jKffV'^r                       ^H 

^^^H^^**  ^utw«^^^^3EIH 

IffiHSMHlP^  ^^^1 

^^^^Hk,  V  '^.TlMaMBftB&M^PM 

^^^^^^■k-%^  ^yWB^WgwaHMtBBgtW 

^^^^h^^^^^^BSP^  ^^^^^^hi 

^1^9 

HH 

^^^^^9^ '  Wlinf 

Hfl^H^S^H 

PJmp|HH|^^^^BB 

^H 

H 

Glass-Bowl  from  Beijmyre. 
Height:  44  centimeters.     Diameter:  52  centimeters. 

In  1898,  the  total  product  was  valued  at  6  812  000  kr.  The  number  of 
workmen  being  4  672.  The  production  value  has  thus  risen  in  14  years  by 
5110  000  kr.  per  annum.  The  increase  in  quantity  is,  thus,  very  important, 
but  also  in  quality '  there  has  been  considerable  improvement.  The  Swedish 
glass  is,  now  highly,  valued  in  the  markets  of  the  world  and  competes  success- 
fully with  the  products,  of  any  foreign  works. 

All  the  different  branches  of  the  glass  trade  are  well  represented  in  Sweden 
with  the  exception  of  plate-glass  manufacturing,  which  is  not  carried  on  to  the 
same  extent  as  abroad. 


424 


VII.      MANUFACTURING   INDUSTKIBS. 


^ 


"S 


Table  93. 


PEAT   MANUFACTURE. 

Glass  Works  and  Cutting  Houses. 


425 


Number 

Number  of 

Production 

Imports 

Exports 

A  nnually 

of  works 

workoien 

Value  in 
thousands 

Thousands 

Thousands 

of  kr. 

of  kr. 

of  kr. 

1861-65  .... 

23 

1138 

1581 

1866-70  .... 

29 

1241 

1645 

— 

— 

1871-75.    .    .    . 

31 

1659 

2  721 

1635 

697 

1876-80  .... 

34 

1909 

2  698 

2  949 

1187 

1881-85  .... 

33 

2171 

2  894 

3  025 

2116 

1886-90  .... 

34 

2  483 

3122 

1692 

1422 

1891-95  .... 

45 

3  644 

4  620 

1523 

3  426 

1896-00  .... 

53 

4  952 

7  063 

1830 

3  896 

1901-05  .... 

55 

5  277 

8  848 

1687 

3  415 

1906-10.    .    .    . 

59 

5  066 

10  025 

1959 

2  575 

1910 

62 

5  000 

10  368 

1960 

2  352 

1911 

59 

5  054 

10  718 

2  013 

3177 

1912 

60 

5182 

11922 

2  208 

4  366 

1913 

3145 

4  019 

Artisticly  decorated  glass  and  superior  kinds  of  crystal  are  made  principally 
at  the  large  table-glass  works  at  Kosta,  Reijmyre,  Eda,  Fare,  Foglavik  and  Lim- 
mared,  while  the  smaller  works  manufacture  more  common  goods  for  regular  use. 
Whether  the  manufacture  be  of  finer  or  cheaper  goods,  the  finish  and  metal 
are  of  acknowledged  quality. 

Some  years  ago  the  larger  works  in  the  different  branches  amalgamated.  In 
the  window-glass  branch  may  be  mentioned  Forenade  fbnsterglashrukens  aktie- 
bolag,  in  the  bottle-making  branch  AMiebolaget  Snrte-Liljedahl  and  in  the  table- 
glass  branch  AMiebolaget  Be  Svenska  Kristallglashruken ;  the  last-mentioned 
company,  with  a  production  in  1912  of  over  2^'4  millions,  occupies  the  third 
place,  with  respect  to  output  among  the  glass  works  of  the  world. 

The  glass  industry  has  thus  developed  into  a  very  important  one  for  Swe- 
den, so  much  the  more  as  glass-manufacturing  is  done  largely  by  hand  and 
does  not  depend  upon  machinery,  power,  raw  materials,  fuel,  etc.;  it  conse- 
quently gives  work  for  more  hands  than  other  industries,  in  which  machinery  is 
the  principal  consideration.  It  can  be  stated  that  on  an  average  the  cost  of 
production  is  50  %  of  the  finished  article,  while  the  cost  of  the  raw  material  is 
only  about  10  %.  These  raw  materials  are  imported,  as  also,  to  an  ever  increasing 
extent,  coal  is  employed  for  the  furnaces,  instead  of  wood  fuel,  which  can  be  got 
in  the  country,  but  the  work,  which  is  the  principal  thing,  is  Swedish  and  it 
can  therefore  be  contemplated  with  equanimity  that  the  absence  of  the  natural 
requirements  for  this  industry  is  of  small  importance  so  long  as  the  employers 
still  keep  and  develop  their  skill,  so  long  as  technical  improvements  enable 
Sweden  to  hold  her  place  in  the  competing  markets  of  the  world,  and,  finally, 
so  long  as  the  quality  of  the  finished  product  maintains  the  high  place  which 
it  has  acquired  in  all  countries. 


Peat  Manufacture. 

In  Sweden  there  are  very  approximate^^  4  million  hectares  of  peat  bogs 
available  for  the  production  of  peat;  their  average  depth  is  2  meters.  Every 
hectare  of  medium  quality  peat-moss  yields  nearly  2  000  tons  of  prepared 
peat;  the  total   area,   therefore,   of  the   bogs    corresponds   to    8  thousand 


426  VII.      MANUFACTURING   INDUSTRIES. 

million  tons  of  peat  for  fuel,  which,  on  the  presumption  that  peat  possesses 
half  the  heating  power  of  coal,  is  equivalent  to  4  thousand  million  tons  of 
coal,  or  enough  fuel  to  last  for  centuries.  With  the  exception  of  Russia, 
there  is  no  country  in  Europe  having  such  a  plentiful  supply  of  peat  as 
Sweden,  and  scarcely  any  country  has  peat  of  such  good  quality. 

Although  peat  can  be  used  successfully  as  fuel  for  domestic  purposes,  various 
industries  such  as  ironworks,  cellulose  factories,  glass  and  tile  works,  etc.,  its 
use  is  very  insignificant  as  compared  with  that  of  coal  and  wood,  and  is  not 
at  all  proportionate  to  the  natural  resources.  This  is  owing  to  the  fact  that 
the  preparation  of  peat  depends  upon  the  weather  and  also  to  the  fact  that  it 
has  not  yet  been  possible  to  arrange  for  the  production  of  peat  fuel  on  a  large 
scale,  and  therefore  there  is  a  state  of  uncertainty  regarding  the  quantity  and 
quality  of  the  peat  and  also  as  to  the  cost  of  manufacture.  The  continuous  rise 
in  wages  enhances  the  cost  of  manufacture,  so  that,  for  example,  the  cost  of 
manufactured  peat  in  the  last  12  years  has  risen  from  5 — 6  to  8 — 9  kr.  per 
ton,  at  the  same  time  as  the  price  of  coal  in  port  has  meanwhile  increased  from 
14  to  20  kr.  and  upwards  per  ton;  all  of  which  circumstances  have  caused  a 
state  of  uncertainty  in  the  peat  industry,  which  can  only  be  removed  by  an 
invention  by  'which  peat  can  be  manufactured  on  a  large  scale,  irrespective  of 
weather  and  seasons.  There  are,  however,  good  prospects  for  such  an  invention 
(the  wet   carbonizing   process).  , 

Every  form  of  fuel  is  judged  according  to  its  calorific  power,  which  is  dis- 
covered by  experimental  burning  or  by  calorimetric  analysis. .  Such  methods  has 
been  employed  by  professor  P.  Klason  and  others,  with  the  result  that  1  ton  of 
ordinary  coal  is  found  to  be  equivalent  to  1"3  tons  of  average  machine  peat, 
2  tons  of  cut  peat  or  2'5  tons  of  wood.  The  cost  of  freight  is,  naturally,  a 
matter  of  greater  importance  when  the  fuel  is  of  low  value  than  when  it  is  of 
high  value,  this  being  another  disadvantage  for  peat. 

Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  refine  peat  to  a  more  valuable  fuel  in  the 
form  of  peat-coal,  powdered  peat,  and  peat  briquettes.  Peat-coal,  which  seemed 
at  first  to  promise  well,  has  not  become  an  article  of  great  production,  prin- 
cipally owing  to  the  meagre  production  of  the  raw  material  for  its  manufac- 
ture. Powdered  peat  has  attracted  a  little  attention  but  has  not  as  yet  been 
produced  on  a  large  scale.  Endeavours  have  been  made  to  manufacture  such 
powder,  by  air-drying  the  raw  peat,  taken  out  by  hand  or  by  excavator,  till  it 
contains  about  50  %  of  water,  after  which  the  product  is  dried  artificially,  until 
the  water  is  reduced  to  about  15  %,  and  can  then  be  either  ground  to  a  fine 
powder  which  can  be  used  directly  as  fuel  or  burnt  in  a  so-called  powder-burning 
apparatus,  or  it  can  be  compressed,  at  a  temperature  of  90' — 100°  C.  under  a 
pressure  of  as  much  as  2  000  atmospheres,  into  peat  briquettes  in  the  same 
manner  as  in  the  manufacture  of  lignite.  But  up  to  the  present  time  these 
attempts  have  failed  through  want  of  raw  material  in  sufficient  quantities  and 
low  enough  in  price.  Thus  the  -peat  problem  has  not  yet  been  solved.  It  has 
been  suggested  that  power  stations  should  be  located  on  the  bogs,  by  which 
means  the  quality  of  the  peat  would  not  be  of  such  great  consideration,  and  this 
proposal  has  been  adopted  on  a  small  scale,  but  the  state  of  uncertainty  in  the 
preparation  of  the  peat  has  made  itself  felt  even  here. 

In  addition  to  peat  fuel  there  is  an  enormous  supply  in  Sweden  of  white 
moss,  from  which  moss  litter  is  prepared,  both  for  home  consumption  and 
export;  during  the  last  few  years  this  material  has  become  of  increasing  econo- 
mic importance  in  farming  as  a  manure  absorbant  and  afso  as  an  addition  to 
the  manure.   The  enormous  sums  which  have   been  lost  in  ammonia  from  dung- 


CHARCOAL.  427 

yards  by  its  evaporation  into  the  air  can  now  be  saved;  and  the  employment 
of  moss  litter  increases  yearly.  It  is  also  useful  as  a  preserving  element  in 
fruit  packing  etc.,  as  packing  for  double  floorings,  and  for  other  purposes,  among 
others  for  town  cleaning  purposes,  as  a  disinfectant  for  closets,   etc. 

In  1912,  Sweden  possessed  32  peat  manufactories,  apart  from  those  which 
manufacture  for  domestic  use;  these  latter  do  not  make  statistical  returns,  al- 
though they  actually  produce  greater  quantities  than  the  regular  manufactories. 
The  32  above-mentioned  manufactories  employed  892  hands  and  produced  41  924 
tons  of  peat,  with  a  value  of  407  400  kronor.  In  the  same  year  there  were 
125  moss  litter  manufactories,  employing  1  972  hands  and  producing  192  790 
tons,  with  a  value  of  2  767  000  kronor.  The  export  of  moss  litter  in  the  same 
year  was  7  276  tons,  and  in  1913,  including  3  100  tons  of  powdered  peat,  the 
export  was  7  135  tons. 

In  1902  the  Riksdag  made  a  grant  of  I's  million  kronor  as  a  so-called  peat 
loan  fund,  which  was  gradually  increased  to  3'5  million  kronor  owing  to  the 
many  applications  for  grants.  Advances  are  made  out  of  this  fund  to  appro- 
ved factories  up  to  ^/s  of  the  value  of  the  manufactory  against  good  security, 
which  must  be  approved  by  the  Exchequer.  The  interest  is  4  %,  and  the 
amortization  of  the  loan,  at  the  rate  of  10  %  of  the  total  sum,  need  not 
begin  until  the  fourth  year  after  the  making  of  the  grant.  The  State  also  affords 
financial  assistance  in  other  ways  for  the  solving  of  the  peat  problem.  In  order 
to  assist  the  peat  industry  with  scientific  aid  the  State  has  appointed  two  peat 
engineers  with  three  assistants.  In  Emmaljunga  in  Skane,  there  is  a  peat  school, 
maintained  by  the  State,  in  which  instruction  is  given  in  the  preparation  of 
peat  for  such  as  wish  to  fit  themselves  for  the  positions  of  managers  or  fore 
men  of  peat  manufactories. 


Charcoal. 

The  Swedish  statistics  of  industry  include  in  the  group  now  under  considera- 
tion also  the  manufacture  of  charcoal;  in  1912  there  was  no  less  than  23  009  569 
hectoliters  produced,  valued  at  12  762  000  kronor.  The  total  number  of  fac- 
tories producing  it  was  stated  to  be  407,  employing  6  639  hands.  The  greatest 
output  was  in  Kopparberg  Lan,  its  value  being  2'6  million  kronor;  then  came 
the  Lans  of  Gavleborg,  Orebro  and  Vasternorrland,  each  with  an  output  valued 
resp.  at  2'3,  2'0  and  1'7  million  kronor.  —  The  production  of  charcoal  in  the 
whole  kingdom  is  greater  than  what  is  represented  by  the  above  figures,  owing 
to  the  requirements  of  the  ironworks  being  supplied  from  sources  from  which 
no  returns  are  obtainable.  Thus  during  1912  the  ironworks  alone  consumed 
the  following: 

Charcoal  from        Charcoal  from 
forest  wood  saw-mill  laths 

Stack  (Heap)  charred hi     30  456  684  9  458  828 

Kiln  charred •        29143U  389753 

Value Kr.    22156390  6296232 

The  ironworks  thus  consumed  43  219576  hi  valued  at  28  452  622  kr.,  about 
double  the  quantity  stated  above.  The  average  price  for  charcoal  for  the  iron 
industry  was  66  ore  per  hi  against  the  above  stated  55   ore  per  hi. 

Even  the  last-mentioned  figures  are  too  low,  since  charcoal  is  used  in  other 
industries  to  no  inconsiderable  extent. 

In  the  year  1913,  there  were  imported  1  198  824  hi  and  exported  64  815  hi 
of  charcoal. 


428 


VII.      MANUFACTUUINS    INDUSTRIES. 


Gas  and  Acetylene. 

Gas  was  first  used  as  an  illuminant  in  Gothenburg  in  1846,  in  Norr- 
koping  in  1852,  and  in  Stockholm  in  1853.  There  were  30  gasworks  in 
Sweden  in  1912,  employing  1  586  hands  and  manufacturing  81  646  000 
cubic  meters  of  gas  (not  less  than  51  %  of  which  was  produced  at  the 
Stockholm  gasworks),  and  11  822  tons  of  coal-tar.  —  The  consumption 
of  gas  in  Stockholm  for  the  five-year  periods  during  1856 — 1910  has 
averaged  13-1,  19-7,  20-1,  23-9,  30-4,  35-2,  44-9,  56-1,  76,  92,  and  107  cubic 
meters  per  inhabitant.  In  1911  it  was  as  much  as  110;  in  1912  and  1913 
the  figures  rose  to  117  and  124  respectively. 


^^^^ji^l^^^HHHHHHittj^u^g^^ 

^MM-~'  ■""->-      ■ 

y:  ,.TJ1.              .--      -    - 

'^ 

^ 

^ 

^^^■MnH^^^^^lj^^i^^flf^lB 

:,,r|.v-i:,'  ^^^^^^  .-^^^^^ 

IH^^^^^^Htt^^^^^l^^it^vV^^HI! 

photo.  Magnuson  &  NORBERG,  Fraustfl. 
The  Carbide  Factory  at  Ljungafors. 


Gasworks  have,  as  a  rule,  been  established  by  private  companies,  but  the 
towns  have  .reserved  to  themselves  the  right  of  taking  them  over  after 
a  certain  number  of  years.  In  the  larger  towns  the  gasworks  form  a  very 
appreciable  source  of  income  (that  of  Stockholm  yielded  a  profit  of 
1310  000  kroner  in  1913,  after  allowing  for  interest  and  depreciation). 
Besides  being  used  as  an  illuminant  and  a  heating  agent  in  domestic  cook- 
ing, gas  is  employed  as  a  driving  power  in  gas  motors.  These  motors  are 
exceedingly  convenient  and  easily  managed,  especially  when  a  power  not 
exceeding  ten  horse-power  is  required. 

■■  As  already  mentioned  above,  gas  is  now  widely  used  as  fuel  in  households 
(there  are  about  112  000  gas  cooking-stoves  in  use  in  Stockholm  alone); 
occasionally  also  in  those  industrial  establishments  where  an  even  and  easily 
regulated  heat  is  required,  what  is  called  generator-gas  is  made  use  of,  the  fuel 
^  which,  for  such  use,  can  be  of  inferior  quality  —  being  transformed  into 
gas,  before  being  employed  as  a  heating  agent.     Water-gas,  so  much  used  abroad, 


GAS    AND    ACETYLENE.  429 

especially  in  America,  has  not  yet  been  at  all  generally  introduced  into  Sweden,  even 
though  C.  A.  Delhvih,  a  Swede,  has  discovered  an  economical  method  of  producing  it. 


G.  Dalen. 

The  coal-tar  produced  at  the  large  gas-works  is  used  to  make  asphalte, 
carbolic  acid,  creosote,  and  other  oils,  which  are  used  for  impregnating  wood  and 
paste-board.  For  the  figures  dealing  with  the  import  and  export  of  coal-tar,  see 
Table  39,  page  218,  and  for  the  manufacture  of  cohe  see  page  272.  —  The 
sulphur  left  behind  in  the  oxide  after  the  purification  of  the  gas  is  recovered 
by  a  roasting  process,  similarly  that  employed  for  the  production  of  sulphur  acids 
from  pyrites  (in  the  manufacture  of  sulphite  cellulose).  At  the  ten  largest  gas- 
works the  ammonia  is  recovered  principally  in  the  form  of  ammonium  sulphate; 
and  also  the  cyan-compounds  are  recovered  at  some  of  the  larger  gasworks. 

A  new  form  of  illuminant  has  been  in  use  since  about  1895:  Acetylene 
gas.     That  gas  is  now  generated  by  a  very  simple  process,  viz.  the  action 


430  VII.      MANUFACTURING    INDUSTRIES. 

of  water  on  calcium  carbide,  that  commodity  being  itself  obtained  by  the 
reduction  of  lime  by  means  of  coal  in  an  electric  furnace.  A  kilogram 
of  calcium  carbide,  the  manufacture  of  which  at  present  may  be  said 
to  cost  scarcely  20  ore,  produces  about  0-3  cubic  meters  of  acetylene  gas. 
The  use  of  the  new  illuminating  agent  spread  very  rapidly,  owing  to  its 
unrivalled  luminosity  and  the  facility  with  which  it  can  be  produced,  but 
the  results  have  not  answered  expectations.  The  requisite  electric  power 
for  the  manufacture  of  calcium  carbide  is  ready  to  hand  at  a  very  cheap  rate 
in  the  shape  of  the  numerous  Swedish  waterfalls,  and  there  are  excellent 
prospects  of  production  on  a  large  scale  in  Sweden;  unfortunately,  in  this 
case  as  in  many  others,  enterprise  has  been  checked  hitherto  by  the  in- 
completeness and  uncertainty  of  the  law  as  regards  the  ownership  of  the 
waterfalls.  —  In  1897,  a  calcium  carbide  manufactory  was  established  at 
the  TroUhdttan  falls  by  G.  de  Laval,  and  subsequently  manufactories  were 
established  at  Mdnsbo  and  Alhy. 

In  1912,  the  three  manufactories  of  Mansbo,  Alby,  and  Ljimgafors,  employing 
260  hands,  produced  about  11  120  tons  of  calcium  carbide,  valued  at  1  724  000 
kroner,  and  of  this  amount  1  255  tons  were  exported.  Calcium  carbide  is  now 
directly  used  chiefly  for  motor  car  and  bicycle  lamps.  Recently,  too,  a 
considerable  amount  has  been  used  for  the  so-called  AGA  (automatic)  lighthouse 
lanterns,  which  were  invented  by  G.  Dalen,  a  Swede,  who  was  awarded  the 
Nobel  prize.  At  a  pressure  of  10  atmospheres  and  a  temperature  of  +  15°  C. 
100  volumes  of  acetylene  dissolve  in  one  volume  of  acetone,  giving  the  so- 
called  "dissousgas",  invented  by  the  Frenchmen,  Claude  and  Hess,  in  1896. 
When  dissolved  in  acetone,  acetylene,  which  is  normally  explosive  at  a  pressm'e 
of  2  atmospheres,  remains  inexplosive  up  to  a  pressure  of  20  atmospheres.  And, 
further,  by  placing  the  acetone,  before  the  acetylene  is  dissolved  in  it,  in  steel 
reservoirs  containing  a  quantity  of  some  very  porous  substance,  all  danger  of 
explosion  is  avoided.  The  gas  is  then  delivered  under  reduced  pressure.  Dalen 
has,  in  a  brilliant  manner,  employed  this  arrangement  in  the  construction  of 
his  self-lighting  and  self-extinguishing  lanterns  for  lighthouses,  which  are  now 
known  and  employed  over  the  whole  world.  Recently  they  have  been  adopted 
for  the  lighting  of  the  Panama  Canal. 

Calcium  carbide  is  now  most  important  as  constituting  the  raw  material  for 
the  preparation  of  the  new  fertilizer  known  as  calcium  cyanamide,  which  is 
produced  by  bringing  calcium  carbide  to  red-heat  in  nitrogen. 

At  Alby  6  000  tons  of  this  preparation  were  produced  in  1912  for  export, 
and  it  has  now  begun  to  be  manufactured  at  Mansbo.  A  new  manufactory  has 
also  been  established  at  Ljungafors,  near  Johannisberg  station.  It  belongs  to 
the  Stockholm  Superphosphate  Manufacturing  Co.  and  is  run  by  a  water-power 
of  18  000  h.  p.  It  seems  probable  that  this  industry  may  be  of  importance 
for  the  utilization  of  a  part  of  the  country's  unused  water-power;  besides  which, 
this    nitrogenous    fertilizer    will    undoubtedly    be    of    importance  for  agriculture. 

See,  further,  under  Chemical  Industry  (introduction)  and  Electro-chemical 
Industry,  where  these  manufactories  are  dealt  with  statistically. 


CHEMICAL    INDUSTRIES.  431 


9.    CHEMICAL  INDUSTRIES. 

From  a  technical  point  of  view,  this  industry  has  attained  a  high  degree 
()f  development  in  Sweden,  but,  in  spite  of  an  increase  in  production  of 
about  182  °/o  since  1900,  the  output  is  still  as  a  rule  comparatively  incon- 
siderable, since  in  general  little  can  be  manufactured  beyond  the  require- 
ments of  the  countrj',  on  account  of  the  difficulties  of  export.  The 
establishments  coming  under  the  heading  of  chemical  industries  were 
classified  in  the  official  statistics  for  1912  as  in  the  following  table, 
which  gives  the  number  of  factories  and  of  the  workmen  employed  and  the 
value  of  the  output: 

Factories        Workmen        Value  of  production 

Inorganic  acids,  bases,  and  salts 47  375                6  915  000  kronor 

Fertilizers 52  985  12  604  000       > 

Explosives 21  1 148               7  891 000      » 

Dyes  and  miscellaneous  preparations 186  1  361  15  765  000       i> 

Total    30(5  3  869  43176  000  kronor 

Under  this  heading  the  match-making  iudustrj',  which  has  been  dealt 
with  above  might  also  have  been  included.  If  this  branch  had  been  in- 
cluded, the  number  of  factories  would  have  been  raised  to  324,  the  number 
of  workmen  to  10  461,  and  the  value  of  the  production  to  59  748  000 
kronor. 

There  seems  to  be  every  chance  of  Sweden  making  considerable  advance 
in  the  future  with  regard  to  the  chemical  industrj?.  In  certain  branches 
development  has,  indeed,  been  cheoked  by  the  circumstance  that  in  Sweden 
hitherto  the  interest  in  organic  chemistry  has  not  been  so  strong  as  in  the 
case  of  inorganic  chemistry,  which  fact  is  the  result  of  the  countrj^'s  rich 
supply  of  minerals,  even  of  those  which  are  comparatively  rare.  This  does 
not,  however,  imply  that  organic  chemistry  has  been  neglected.  In  this 
respect  also  Sweden  is  one  of  the  foremost  countries  with  regard  to  chemi- 
cal investigations  and  experiments.  One  of  the  most  important  branches  of 
organic  chemistry  in  other  countries  —  aromatic  chemistry  —  has  natur- 
ally had  no  considerable  development  on  account  of  the  shortage  of  coal 
and  capital.  Defective  legislation  with  regard  to  the  utilization  of  the 
great  supply  of  water  power  has  also  had  a  paralysing  effect  on  electro- 
chemical and  electro-thermic  industry. 

Sulphuric  Acid. 

In  Sweden  sulphuric  acid  is  manufactured  for  the  most  part  in  con- 
junction with  the  production  of  superphosphate,  for  which  it  is  directly  re- 
quired. It  is  further  used  on  a  large  scale  for  the  manufacture  of  hydrochlo- 


432  VII.      MANUFACTURING   INDUSTRIKS. 

ric  acid,  nitric  acid,  in  factories  for  making  stearins,  explosives,  Ger- 
man yeast,  and  many  other  articles.  In  1912  there  were  8  sulphuric  acid 
factories  with  121  workmen  and  an  output  of  126  749  000  kilograms  (50° 
B.),  of  the  value  of  2  921  000  kroner.  During  the  seventies  of  last  century, 
1  he  production  amounted  to  only  4  000  000  kilograms  a  year,  during  the 
eighties  to  11  200  000  kilograms,  and  in  the  first  half  of  the  nineties  to 
28  000  000  kilograms  a  year.  For  some  years  there  has  also  heen  a  manu- 
facture in  Sweden  of  fuming  sulphuric  acid,  so-called  "Oleum",  mostly  for 
the  preparation  of  explosives.  The  import  in  1913  amounted  to  1  113  000 
kilograms  of  the  value  of  61  200  kronor;  the  export  amounted  to  about 
40  000  kronor.  Iron  pyrites,  the  raw  material  for  sulphuric  acid,  which  is 
also  used  in  the  manufacture  of  sulphite  pulp,  was  imported  in  1913  to 
the  extent  of  141  005  000  kilograms  (mostly  with  about  3  %  of  copper), 
of  the  value  of  3  525  000  kronor.  The  import  of  sulphur,  which  is  mostly 
used  for  the  production  of  sulphite  pulp,  was  in  the  same  year  no  less  than 
39  715  000  kilograms,  of  the  value  of  3  574  000  kronor. 

The  manufacture  of  sulphuric  acid  is  given  in  the  following  table: 

Annnally  Tons  Annually  Tons 

18fi6— 1870 751  1901—1905 60  740 

1871—1875 3  994  1906—1910 101 564 

1876—1880 5  044 

1881—1885 9  357  1910 117  991 

1886—1890 13127  1911 126  810 

1891—1895 30  025  1912 126  749 

1896-1900 37  289 


Chlorates. 

Chlorate  is  an  indispensable  ingredient  in  the  manufacture  of  matches, 
fireworks,  and  certain  kinds  of  gunpowder;  since  the  electrolytic  method 
of  manufacturing  has  become  known,  the  electric  energy  required  for 
its  manufacture  has  been  generated  with  the  aid  of  water  power.  The 
first  chlorate  factory,  which  was  at  the  same  time  the  first  electro-chemical 
factory  in  Sweden,  was  established  in  1893,  at  the  instigation  of  Director 
Oscar  Carlson,  by  the  Stockholms  Superfosfatfabriks  Aktiebolag  at 
Mdnsbo,  in  Avesta,  at  one  of  the  waterfalls  of  the  river  Dalalven.  In 
1898  was  erected  at  Alhy,  in  Vasternorrland  Lan,  another  chlorate  factory, 
deriving  power  from  the  waters  of  the  Ljungan,  which  flows  past  the 
factory.  Bjr  means  of  the  electric  current,  chlorine  is  liberated  from  an 
alkaline  chloride  and,  by  acting  on  the  alkali  which  is  at  the  same  time 
liberated,  forms  chlorate. 

In  1912  the  two  factories  above  mentioned  employed  together  185  workmen 
and  about  5  700  horse-power. 

Kg  Kr, 

Production,  mostlv  potassiam  chlorate 3  418  000        1859000 

Import ■ 227  800  132  000 

Export 1653000  794000 


ARTIFICIAL   FERTILIZERS.  433 

In  1913  the  imports  and  exports  were  253  400  and  1  123  000  kg  respectively. 

In  order  to  produce  this  quantitj-,  2  222  000  kg  of  potassium  chloride,  with  a 
value  of  410  000  kroner,  were  imported  in  the  same  year  (1912). 

The  chlorate  factory  at  Alby  is  owned  by  the  Alby  Nya  Kloratfabriks  Aktie- 
bolag,  all  the  shares  of  which  are  in  the  hands  of  the  Jonkopings  och  Vulcans 
Tandsticksfabriks  Aktiebolag. 

Since  1S95  a  factory  has  existed  at  Bengtfors  for  the  electro-chemical  pro- 
duction of  caustic  soda  and  potash  and  chloride  of  lime  (bleaching  powder).  The 
value  of  the  output  amounts  to  about  235  000  kronor  per  year. 


Artificial  Fertilizers. 

The  manufacture  of  fertilizers  containing  phosphoric  acid,  in  the  form 
known  as  superphosphate,  commenced  about  the  year  1871,  since  when 
this  industry  has  undergone  considerable  development.  The  pioneers  in 
Sweden  for  this  industrj-,  which  has  now  attained  such  considerable  di- 
mensions, are  Director  0.  Carlson,  of  Stockholm,  and  Consul  N.  Persson,  of 
Halsingborg.  Although  both  conglomerates  and  apatite  containing  phos- 
phorus occur  in  Sweden  in  such  a  pure  state  as  to  suppls'  a  suitable  raw 
material  for  the  manufacture  of  superphosphate,  it  has  nevertheless  proved 
necessary  to  cover  the  demand  of  the  factories  for  raw  phosphate  to  a 
great  extent  bj'  importation,  principallj^  from  America.  The  phosphates 
of  lime  obtainable  from  Florida,  Carolina,  and  other  recently  discovered 
sources  of  supply  are  to  be  had  at  prices  which  exclude  all  possibility  of 
competition.  Sweden  possesses  at  the  present  time  (1912)  6  superiihos- 
phate  factories  with  579  workmen  and  an  output  of  168  478  tons,  valued 
at  9  253  000  kronor. 

The  production  of  superphosphate  is  shown  bj'  the  following  figures: 

Annually  Tons  Annually  Tons 

1871—1875 2  993  1901—1905 98 154 

1876—1880 8  698  1906—1910 146  220 

1881—1885 28  943 

1886—1890 42965  1910 167103 

1891—1895 54  057  1911 184  883 

1896—1900 56  986  1912 168  478 

Sweden  possesses  excellent  possibilities  for  an  extensive  manufacture  of 
Thomas  phosphate  (basic  Bessemer  slag),  as  the  iron  ores  containing  apa- 
tite, which  occur  in  many  places,  particularly  in  Grrangesberg  and  Norr- 
botten,  on  being  worked  by  the  basic  Bessemer  process,  j'ield  phosphate  as 
a  by-product  in  and  with  the  slag.  This  process  was  applied  for  the  first 
time  in  1892,  at  Domnarvet,  for  the  manufacture  of  iron  from  Grangesberg 
ores.  In  1912  there  existed  one  factory  for  the  manufacture  of  Thomas 
phosphate,  and  the  entire  output  amounted  to  14  978  tons. 

The  manufacture  of  bone  meal  was  carried  on  in  1912  in  15  larger  and 
smaller  factories  and  bone-grinding  mills  in  several  provinces  of  Sweden. 
In  addition  to  bone-meal,  some  of  them  also  produce  bone-fat,  bone-glue, 
and  bone-charcoal. 

'28—133179.  Sweden.   II. 


434  VII.      MANUFACTURING    INDUSTRIES. 

In  years  when  the  herring  fishery  is  good,  a  part  of  the  catch  is  de- 
voted to  the  preparation  of  herring-oil  (see  Fatty  Oils)  and  herring- 
guano;  these  products  are  obtained  by  boiling  the  herrings  until  the  oil 
separates,  after  which  the  remainder  is  pressed  and  dried;  the  substance 
then  obtained  is  called  fish-guano.  This  industry  is  confined  to  Goteborg 
och  Bohus  Lan,  where  in  1897  no  less  than  17  factories  were  engaged  in 
it,  with  a  production  estimated  at  1 064  000  kronor,  of  which  778  000 
kronor  was  for  guano.  In  recent  years,  however,  this  industry  has  practi- 
cally come  to  a  standstill,  since  the  herring  fishery  has  diclined,  and  a 
better  sale  for  the  fish  has  been  obtained,  as  a  result  of  improved  means 
of  communication. 

Various  towns,  such  as  Stockholm,  Gothenburg,  and  Karlstad,  have 
established  pudrette  factories,  for  the  purpose  of  utilizing  refuse.  The 
total  output  of  these  factories,  however,  did  not  exceed  about  199  000 
kronor  in  value  in  1912. 

Ammoniuta  sulphate  is  included  in  the  "inorganic  acids,  bases  and 
salts"  (see  above).  Concerning  Calcium  Oyanamide,  see  Gas  and  Ace- 
tylene and  Electrochemical  Industry. 


Explosives. 

The  manufacture  of  ordinary  black  gunpowder  was  known  in  Sweden 
as  early  as  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century.  As  is  well  known, 
gunpowder  is  made  from  charcoal,  sulphur,  and  potassium  nitrate.  Sweden 
possesses  natural  supplies  of  charcoal  and  sulphur  (in  the  form  of  metallic 
sulphides),  whereas  formerly,  before  potassium  nitrate,  the  so-called  con- 
version saltpetre,  was  obtained  by  the  addition  of  potassium  chloride  to 
sodium  nitrate,  this  ingredient  had  to  be  produced  artificially  by  soaking 
it  out  of  the  earth  under  stables  and  cattle  sheds  and  mixing  it  with 
potash.  Saltpetre  was  also  produced  by  means  of  special  so-called  salt- 
petre boxes,  in  which  a  mixture  of  soil,  wood  ashes,  and  urine  was  com- 
bined in  such  a  way  as  to  yield  a  tolerably  large  quantity. 

In  previous  centuries,  since  the  time  of  Gustavus  Vasa  (1523 — 60),  when  the 
manufactxire  of  gunpowder  was  taken  over  by  the  State,  the  government  levied 
saltpetre  as  a  kind  of  crown  tax  on  almost  all  land,  at  the  beginning  in  the 
form  of  a  right  to  dispose  of  the  saltpetre  soil  from  under  the  cattle  sheds,  which 
the  State  saltpetre  makers  were  entitled  to  boil  out;  subsequently  the  landowners 
themselves  were  obliged  to  supply  the  saltpetre  or  pay  an  equivalent  sum  of 
money.  From  1815  to  1893,  the  country  was  divided  into  saltpetre-making 
districts  for  the  management  of  matters  connected  with  saltpetre,  each  district 
being  under  a  director;  at  first  there  were  13  districts,  but  the  number  gradu- 
ally diminished,  so  that  in  1883  only  one  district,  that  of  Vasterbotten,  remain- 
ed. The  manufacture  of  saltpetre  was  under  the  superintendence  from  1811 
to  1866  of  the  committee  for  matters  connected  with  saltpetre,  and  subsequently 
of  the  artillery  department  of  Army  Board.  In  1893  the  State  relinquished  all 
connection  with  saltpetre,  which  is  not  now  produced  in  the  country,  the  small 
amount  required  being  imported  from  abroad,  principally  from  Germany. 


EXPLOSIVES. 


4.15 


436  VII.      MANUFACTURINa   INDUSTRIES. 

In  the  meantime,  the  manufacture  of  explosives  has  entered  upon  a  new- 
phase;  the  year  1864  marks  a  new  epoch  in  the  technics  of  explosives,  for 
it  was  in  that  year  that  Alfred  Nobel  established  the  Vinterviken  dyna^ 
mite  factory,  the  oldest  of  its  kind  in  the  world.  The  effective  ingre- 
dient of  dynamite  is  nitro-glycerin,  and  this  substance,  which  is  obtained 
by  treating  glycerin  with  a  mixture  of  strong  nitric  and  sulphuric  acids, 
is  much  cheaper  and  more  powerful  than  ordinary  gunpowder.  By 
mixing  nitro-glycerin  with  infusorial  earth,  a  solid  explosive  is  obtained, 
which  is  less  dangerous  to  handle,  and  this  it  is  which  is  called  dynamite. 
It  is  also  possible  to  combine  nitro-glycerin  with  other  explosive  substan- 
ces and  thus  to  obtain  explosives  with  slightly  varying  qualities,  suitable 
for  various  purposes.  Such  combinations  are  called,  for  instance,  sebastine 
and  ammoniac-gunpowder.  Another  very  powerful  explosive  is  gun-cotton 
or  nitro-cellulose,  which  is  obtained  by  immersing  cotton  in  a  mixture  of 
strong  nitric  and  sulphuric  acids.  It  is  also  possible  to  combine  nitro- 
cellulose and  nitro-glycerin;  the  former  then  swells,  or  becomes  gelati- 
nized, in  the  nitro-glycerin.  A  gelatinized  composition  of  this  nature  is 
called  blasting  gelantin;  if  the  gelatinizing  process  is  carried  out  in  a  suit- 
able manner,  the  composition,  after  being  dried,  can  be  compressed  into 
a  horny,  elastic  substance,  which  is  less  dangerous  than,  but  otherwise 
quite  as  effective  as,  gun-cotton. 

Gelatinized  and  compressed  gun-cotton  is  employed  in  the  production 
of  smokeless,  or,  more  properly  speaking,  almost  smokeless,  kinds  of  pow- 
der. The  fact  of  the  matter  is  that  the  products  of  combustion  of  nitro- 
glycerin and  gun-cotton  consist  solely  of  colourless  gases,  which  fact  is  of 
immense  importance,  particularly  in  warfare.  Smokeless  powder  was 
introduced  into  the  Swedish  army  in  1890.  The  first  variety,  known  as 
apyrite,  was  manufactured  by  the  Swede  Shoglund,  but  subsequently  the 
so-called  Troisdorf  powder,  called  after  the  German  factory  at  Troisdorf, 
was  adopted  for  the  army  and  is  manufactured  on  a  large  scale  at  the 
State  powder  factory  of  Aher.  This  powder  consists  solely  of  gun-cotton, 
which  has  been  gelatinized  with  a  mixture  of  alcohol  and  ether;  it  occurs 
in  the  form  of  small  glittering  scales.  For  cannon  and  torpedoes,  where  a 
more  powerful  effect  is  required,  a  gelatinized  mixture  of  nitro-cellulose 
and  nitro-glycerin  is  used,  called  after  its  inventor  Nobel  powder  or 
ballistite. 

It  is  possible  to  say  without  exaggeration  that  Sweden  has  contributed 
in  a  very  extraordinary  degree  to  the  development  of  the  technics  of 
explosives,  and  it  has  even  been  termed  "the  classic  land  of  the  modem 
technics  of  explosives".  Besides  Alfred  Nobel's  inventions  of  dynamite  and 
Nobel  powder,  both  of  which  have  been  epoch-making,  the  former  as  a 
blasting  agent,  the  latter  as  a  powder  for  war  purposes,  there  are  several 
;  other  explosives,  both  powerful  and  almost  free  from  danger  in  use,  which 
trace  their  origin  from  Sweden.  It  will  be  sufficient  to  mention  bellite  (with 
its  improvement  bellona),  invented, by  C.  Lamm,  principally  consisting  of 


DYES   AND   PAINTS. 

Table  94.     Gunpowder  and  Explosives  Industry. 


437 


Annually 

Factories 

■Workmen 

Value  of  production,  kr. 

1866-70 

1871—75 

1876-80. 

1881—85 

1886-90 

1891—95 

1896-00 

1901—05 

1906—10 

1910 

1911 

!     1912  

1 

2 

5 

6 

5 

10 

12 

11 

11 

12 
12 
13 

40 

124 
127 
116 
141 
225 
826 
487 
582 

514 
554 

558 

129  000 

498000 

599  000 

613  000 

648  000 

910  000 
1886  000 
3  283  000 

3  906  000 

3106  000         1 
4138000 

4  928  000 

dinitro-benzol;  this  substance,  even  when  in  contact  vs^ith  red-hot  metals, 
is  zs  harmless  as  wax,  while  at  the  same  time  it  is  unaffected  by  water; 
hut  with  a  sufficiently  strong  initial  lighting  it  has  considerable  explosive 
power. 

Among  explosives  are  also  to  be  reckoned  match-cord,  percussion  caps 
and  cartridges,  and  also  fireivorhs,  which  last  are  chiefly  manufactured 
for  use  in  the  army. 

All  kinds  of  explosives,  whether  for  public  or  private  requirements,  are 
for  the  most  part  manufactured  in  the  country,  and  the  supply  practi- 
cally corresponds  to  the  demand.  The  value  of  imports  and  exports  re- 
spectively in  1913  were  699  000  and  570  000  kronor. 

The  Table  94  affords  an  idea  of  the  development  of  the  gunpowder  and 
•explosives  industry  in  Sweden  since  1866. 

In  1912  there  was,  in  addition,  1  match-cord  and  fuse  factory,  employing 
18  workmen;  the  value  of  the  total  output  was  estimated  at  96  000  kro- 
ner. Ammunition  and  cartridge  factories  also  existed  to  the  number  of  8, 
■empkying,  590  workmen  and  producing  goods  to  a  value  of  2  964  000 
kronor. 

As  already  mentioned,  the  Swedish  State  possesses  the  powder  factory 
•of  Aker,  Sodermanland  Lan,  and,  in  addition,  two  ammunition  factories, 
Jtfarieberg,  near  Stockholm,  and  Karlsborg  in  Skaraborg  Lan. 


Dyes  and  Paints. 

No  coal-tar  dyes  are  made  in  Sweden,  but  the  coal-tar  and  other  dyes  impor- 
ted are  used  for  making  drop-colours,  colours  soluble  in  spirit  or  water,  and  colour 
compositions,  which  can  be  applied  directly  to  the  dyeing  of  both  cotton  and 
wool.  Of  the  colouring  matters  obtained  in  the  country  may  be  mentioned 
lampblack,  reddle,  chalk,  umber  or  ochre  of  different  shades,  etc. 

Lampblack  is  prepared  by  an  incomplete  combustion  of  resin,  wood,  and 
refuse  from  the  manufacture  of  resin,  tar,  and  pitch,  the  soot  which  is  thereby 
formed  being  collected;  it  can  also  be  obtained  by  grinding  charcoal  to  a  fine 
powder. 


438  VII.      MANUPACTUEING   INDUSTRIES. 

Reddle,  consisting  of  iron  oxide,  is  obtained  principally  by  bringing  to  a  red- 
heat  the  slime,  consisting  of  basic  iron  sulphate,  which  occurs  as  a  decomposi- 
tion product  in  a  number  of  mines,  e.  g.,  the  Falun  mine;  it  was  also  obtained 
formerly  as  a  by-product  in  the  preparation  of  alum  from  alum-schist.  After 
being  mixed  with  a  weak  solution  of  glue  and  green  vitriol,  it  is  very  generally 
employed  for  painting  buildings,  and  it  is  considered  to  be  particularly  durable 
and  instrumental  in  preserving  wood.  Reddle  from  the  Falun  copper  works  has 
long  enjoyed  a  high  reputation. 

Fire-proof  paint  is  prepared  in  such  a  way  as  to  deposit  on  the  object  coated 
with  it  a  layer  of  silica,  which  is  neither  ignitable  nor  fusible,  and  therefore 
protects  the  wood  beneath  it  from  the  danger  of  fire.  This  kind  of  paint  can 
be  prepared  either  with  the  help  of  water-glass  or  by  stirring  kieselguhr,  or 
finely  ground  asbestos,  in  ordinary  water-colours. 

The  greatest  output  in  the  colour  industry  in  Sweden  is  of  colours  ground 
in  oil  and  printers'  inh. 

The  total  number  of  factories  coming  under  this  heading  amounted  in  1912 
to  37  with  106  workmen.  The  value  of  the  production  was  estimated  at 
2  284  000  kroner. 

With  regard  to  coal-tar  dyes,  the  value  of  the  imports  amounted  in  1913  to 
3'6  million  kroner.  The  total  imports  of  colours  and  dyeing  materials  had  in 
1913  a  value  of  7  "3  million  kronor,  while  the  exports  were  insignificant, 
amounting  in  all  to  about  692  000  kronor  in  value. 

Other  chemico-technical  factories. 

Among  the  products  of  these  factories  may  be  mentioned  writing  inh,  car- 
honic-acid,  fruit-tinctures,  aseptine,  and  all  kinds  of  antiseptic  agents,  hair-oils, 
pomades,  lanoline,  lac,  etc.  Among  the  older  and  better  known  manufactures 
we  may  mention  Henrik  Oahns  AmyTcos-aseptine,  in  which  boric  acid  and  pepper- 
mint-oil are  the  most  effective  ingredients;  among  newer  products  may  be  noted 
Stomatol,  containing  terpineol,  together  with  Salubrine  and  Lazarol,  in  which 
acetic  ether  plays  the  most  important  part.  The  value  of  the  output  in  1912 
was  11176  000  kronor. 

Another  industry  in  Sweden  is  the  manufacture  of  fluid  carbonic  acid;  it 
dates  from  the  beginning  of  the  nineties  of  last  century  and  is  now  carried  on 
in  three  factories,  two  at  Lovholmen,  near  Stockholm,  and  one  at  Limhamn,  in 
Skane.     The  total  output  in  1912  amounted  to  868  000  kilograms. 


lO.    METAL  AND  MACHINE  INDUSTRY. 

This  large  group  may  be   divided,   according  to  the  official  statistics 
available  for  1912,  in  the  folio-wing  manner: 

Factories  Workmen     p.J^ctTon.^r. 

Iron  and  Steel  Goods 687  24  754  113071000 

Other  metal  works 364  6  522  45  721 000 

Vessels  and  boats 75  6  252  15  970  000 

Carriages  and  vehicles 90  2  509  13  826  000 

Machines  and  implements 562  28108  128  461000 

Instruments 74  1159  4  200  000 

Clocks  and  watches 7 137 220  000 

Total  18.59  69441         321469000 


METAL   AND    MACHINE    INDUSTRY. 


439 


Gen,  Stab.  LitAnSi-Stockholm 


440  VII.      MANUFACTURING    INDUSTRIES. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  these  figures  do  not  include  the  produc- 
tion of  raw  material,  iron  and  steel,  or  other  metals,  already  dealt  with  un- 
der the  heading  of  Mining. 

Even  before  the  great  industrial  revolution  brought  about  by  the  inven- 
tion and  perfection  of  the  steam  engine,  at  the  end  of  the  18th  century, 
and  its  introduction  into  Sweden,  at  the  beginning  of  the  19th,  several 
Swedes  had  made  themselves  known  in  the  machine  industry  of  that  time 
both  by  theoretical  work  and  practical  applications,  of  which  fact  we  are 
reminded  by  the  names  of  Polhem,  Rinman,  Nordewall,  Broling,  and 
others;  to  this  list  may  appropriately  be  added  the  esteemed  name  of  the 
iron-works  owner  P.  Lagerhjelm,  through  whose  invention,  in  1826,  of  a 
machine  for  testing  iron  and  steel,  the  initiative  was  given  for  the 
mechanical  tests  of  materials  which  have  now  been  generally  introduced, 
and  the  importance  of  which,  for  all  kinds  of  building  and  consequently 
also  for  the  machine  industry  in  general,  cannot  be  overrated. 


Kristoffer  Polhem. 

An  independent  machine  industry  in  the  modern  sense  of  the  expression 
naturally  did  not  exist  in  Sweden,  but  the  industry  was  coupled  with  the 
production  of  the  most  important  raw  material,  iron,  and  its  first  refining 
process,  and  was  thus  transferred  to  the  iron  works.  At  several  of  these 
places  important  mechanical  works  were  subsequently  established;  but  the 
present  machine  industry  in  Sweden,  with  its  numerous  modern  technical 
resources,  really  dates  from  the  period  when  the  steam  engine  began  to 
come  into  general  use  and  the  machine  tools  invented  in  England  for  work- 
ing iron  v/ere  introduced.     Since  that  time,  several  Swedes  have  invented 


METAL    AXD    MACHINE    IXUrSTRY.  441 

machines  of  great  value,  such  as  JoJdi  Ericsson,  Cfiihatid.  Pahiicraiils: 
(machine-guns),  L.  M.  Eticssov  (telephonic  apparatus),  Ver  Persson  (knit- 
ting machines),  A.  Lagerman  (complete  machines  for  the  match  industry), 
J.  G.  V.  Zander  (gymnastic  treatment  apparatus),  Jonas  Wenstrom  (elec- 
trical apparatus),  de  Laval,  the  brothers  Ljirngstrdm,  Wingquist,  and 
others. 

Tthe  centres  of  the  machine  industry  are  the  niechunical  worhs  and  the 
foundries.  These  are  scattered  all  over  the  country  in  great  numbers, 
particularly  in  the  coast  towns  and  at  inland  places  from  which  communi- 
cations are  facilitated  by  means  of  lakes,  canals,  and  railways.  In  the 
choice  of  a  situation  for  mechanical  works,  weight  has  often  been  attached 
to  the  existence  of  a  waterfall  in  the  neighbourhood,  the  fertility  of  the 
surrounding  country  and  the  proximity  to  large  factories,  such  as  spinning 
mills,  weaving  mills,  paper  mills,  etc.  Even  until  about  thirty  years  ago, 
new  mechanical  works  were  established  principal^'  for  the  purpose  of 
carrying  out  repairs  and  supplying  rough  castings  for  the  requirements  of 
agriculture  and  of  factories.  In  order  to  be  able  to  afford  the  hands 
regular  employment,  these  repairing  works  were  soon  obliged  to  devote 
themselves  to  special  manufactures,  which  however,  as  a  rule,  only  consisted 
of  articles  such  as  were  used  in  the  country  and  especially  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  workshop.  Within  the  last  few  decades,  howe\er,  an  essential 
change  has  taken  place  in  this  respect,  and  not  only  have  the  old  mechani- 
cal works  been  reorganized,  but  many  new  ones  have  been  established  and 
equipped  with  the  best  modern  machines  and  methods,  in  order  to  devote 
themselves  exclusively  to  special  manufactures.  In  this  connection  may  be 
mentioned  a  more  general  use  of  moulding  machines  in  the  foundries,  to- 
gether with  grinding  and  cutting  machines,  when  this  can  be  convenientlj' 
•eff-ected,  in  order  to  avoid  the  more  expensive  work  on  lathes  and  planing 
machines.  Finally,  important  improvements  have  been  effected  in  many 
establishments  by  the  application  of  motive  power  and  its  distribution 
liydraulically,  pneumatically,  or  electricallj^  and  by  the  introduction  of 
■electric  lighting,  etc. 

Swedish  works  have  successfully  competed  at  most  of  the  large  inter- 
national and  other  industrial  exhibitions  and  have  carried  off  well-deserved 
prizes,  and  it  is  no  longer  unusual  that  foreign  engineers  and  other 
"professional  men  visit  the  larger  Swedish  establishments  for  the  purpose 
•of  study. 

According  to  the  official  statistics,  the  value  of  the  goods  produced  by 
ihe  iron  and  steel  manufactories,  together  with  foundries  a.nd  mechanical 
Tvorks,  amounted  in  1912  to  290  134  000  kroner  and  have  increased  since 
1900  by  154  %.  It  must,  however,  be  observed  that  these  sums  include 
also  the  value  of  a  number  of  rolling-mill  products,  such  as  sheetmetal, 
Avire,  tubes,  etc.  Some  details  with  regard  to  manufacture,  as  also  in 
lespect  of  import  and  export,  are  given  below. 

It  is  worthy  of  notice  that  the  proportion  obtaining  between  the  produc- 


442 


VII.      MANUFACTURING    INDUSTRIES. 


tions  of  the  various  centres  for  the  machine  and  metal  industry  in  Sweden 
has  considerable  changed  in  recent  times.  Gothenburg,  for  instance,  has 
shown  a  remarkable  stagnation,  while  Stockholm  has  made  great  progress; 
there  has  been  a  great  advance  also  in  the  case  of  iNorrland  and  of  Malmo  with 
the  places  in  its  neighbourhood.  In  the  case  of  Malmo,  this  is  explained  by 
the  great  development  of  industry  in  general  in  Skane,  which  is  endowed 
by  nature  with  an  especially  fertile  soil,  extremely  suitable  even  for  the  beet 
sugar  industry,  and  which  possesses  a  considerable  supply  of  coal  and  va- 
rious raw  materials,  such  as  fire-clay  etc.  A  progressive  development  of 
the  metal  industry  is  also  noticeable  at  Eskilstuna  and  the  surrounding 
district,  suggesting  that  industrial  products  from  this  town  have  begun  to 
gain  ground  on  the  world's  markets. 

With  regard  to  the  country's  machine  industry  in  general,  there  appear 
to  be  grounds  for  hoping  for  a  still  greater  development  in  the  near  future 
than  that  which  has  taken  place  in  the  last  few  decades.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  the  progress  at  present  being  made  is  extraordinary  and  even  exceeds 
the  great  development  which  took  place  at  the  beginning  of  the  seventies 
of  last  century,  in  the  years  immediately  following  the  Franco-Prussian 
war.  At  that  time  also  the  fires  in  the  furnaces  of  the  machine  industry 
blazed  livelier  than  ever  before,  but  the  liveliness  then  depended,  in  many 
respects,  principally  upon  foreign  capital,  which  overflowed  when  the 
dams  were  burst  which  the  war  had  set  up  against  it.  Towards  the  end 
of  the  same  decade,  a  decline  set  in,  so  that  several  newly  established 
undertakings  were  obliged  to  stop  work  or  to  change  hands,  while  older  and 
larger  establishments  which  had  begun  to  decline  were  reorganized.  The 
development  which  is  now  taking  place  in  the  Swedish  machine  industry 
may  perhaps  be  explained  principally  hy  the  favourable  economic  conditions 
in  the  world's  markets,  but  it  also  appears  to  be  based  more  than  was  the 
case  in  the  seventies  of  last  century  upon  the  natural  resources  of  the 
country,  and  consequently  the  hope  appears  to  be  justified  that  it  will 
continue  for  a  considerable  time  to  come. 

Of  the  more  important  articles,  which  are  included  in  the  official  manu- 
facturing returns  under  the  two  headings  "Metal  "Works"  and  "Vessels, 
Carriages,  Machines  and  Implements"  —  which  are  not  always  easy  to 
distinguish  from  each  other  —  the  following  show  the  highest  value  of 
production   in  1912: 


Articles 


Valne 


Diverse  iron  and  steel  wares    Kr.  40  826  000 


Articles  Value 

Vessels  and  boats Kr.  15  970  000 

Machines    for  industry   and 

traded .14  352  000 

Dairy  machines j     13  914  000 

Machines  and  implements  for 

asricalture .13094000 


'  Also  musical  instruments,  clocks,  and  watches.  —  '  Dynamo  machines,  accumulators, 
transformers,  telegrafic  apparatus,  telephones,  lifts,  electric  and  incandescent  lamps.  — 
^  Of  other  metals  than  iron.  —  *  Gas-,  petroleum-,  warm  air-  and  water  turbines,  but  not 
steam  engines.  —  ^  Not  specified. 


Castings  of  pig  iron  .... 

.     27  797  000 

Diverse  machinery,  incl.    of 

instruments' 

.     25  387  000 

Electric  machines'"     .... 

>     24  905  000 

Diverse  metal  wares'    .    .    . 

.     23  414000 

Diverse  motors* 

.     16  972  000 

METAL  AND  MACHINE  INDUSTRY. 


443 


Articles 


Value 


Cold   rolled   iron    and  steel, 

incl.  of  drawn  iron  wire  . 

Kr. 

9  663  000 

Railway  and  tramway  cars . 

s 

8  745  000 

Plate  vessels,  tinning  goods 

» 

8  004  000 

Gasification    lamps  and  pet- 

roleum stoves 

» 

7  063  000 

Machines  for  working  metals 

and  wood 

» 

6 169  000 

Galvanized  and  etched  works 

» 

5  774  000 

Steam    boilers,    locomotives. 

portable  engines     .... 

» 

5  761000 

5  642  000 

Diverse  carriages    

i 

5  081000 

Nails 

5  001 000 

Cast  metal  goods' 

» 

4  912  000 

Articles 

Value 

Thin  sheet  iron 

Kr 

4  410  000 

Tubes    of   wrought   iron  and 

. 

steel     

3  932  000 

Electric  wire,  covered  .... 

3  386  000 

Guns,  mitrailleuses, rifles,  pro- 

jectiles     

'i  974  000 

Gold  and  silver  goods     .    .    . 

2  817  000 

Horse  shoes,    nails,  and  frost 

nails 

2  803  000 

Knives  and  scissors     .... 

3  055  000 

Joinery    goods    for    machines 

and  implements 

1633  000 

Chains,  cables,  and  wire  ropes 

1  662  000 

Saw-blades  and  saw-blade  ma- 

terials   

» 

1 286  000 

'  Not  iron. 

With  regard  to  instruments,  watches,  and  clocks,  see  Table  95  and  also 
the  articles  specially  mentioned  below. 

A  summary  of  the  imports  and  exports  of  articles  under  this  heading 
is  given  in  Table  95.  This  table  testifies  to  excellent  progress  in  the 
Swedish  metal  and  machine  industry,  exports  from  1912  being  prepon- 
derant. The  greatly  increased  importation  of  machinery,  together  with  the 
simultaneous  enormous  rise  in  exportation,  is  one  of  the  often  recurring 
testimonies  of  the  great  industrial  development  of  these  years. 

The  imports  and  exports  of  wrought  iron  and  steel  goods  and  of  other 
wrought  metals  include  a  multiplicity  of  articles,  only  a  few  of  which 
attain  to  considerable  values.    Among  the  imported  goods  may  be  specially 


Table  95.  Import  and  Export  of  Metal  Goods,  Machines,  Instruments,  etc. 
Value  in  thousands  of  kroner. 


Articles 

An- 
nually 
1871—76 

An- 
nually 
1876—80 

An- 
nually 
1881—86 

An- 
nually 
1886—90 

An- 
nually 
1891—96 

An- 
nually 
1896-00 

An- 
nually 
1901—06 

An- 
nually 
1906—10 

Tear 
1913 

Iron      and      steel  1  Imp. 
goods \  Exp. 

Other  metal  works  |  ^™P- 
Vessels  and  boats  |^™P- 

Carriages    ....  {^-P; 

Machines,     imple-  ( Imp. 
ments,  and  tools  \  Exp. 

Instruments  .    .    .  f^^' 
IJixp. 

Clocks,    watches     1  Imp. 
and  parts  .    .    .  \  Exp. 

'Total  {S: 

6  846 

1458 

2  680 
79 

340 

222 

17 

11555 
1137 

571 

18 

'1373 
10 

5  070 

1285 

2  779 
105 

96 
55 

88 
68 

7  679 
1386 

395 

13 

1780 
2 

7  290 

4  227 

4  961 
109 

348 
25 

59 
238 

8  903 
2  483 

1037 
23 

2167 
4 

8  979 
4111 

5  097 
138 

754 
762 

224 

27 

10  612 
2  738 

1148 
88 

2  407 
4 

10  556 

4  735 

7  287 
244 

1330 
937 

124 
41 

11059 
4  076 

1865 
331 

3116 
9 

17148 

7  893 

8  720 
1094 

5  699 
613 

287 
18 

23  321 
9155 

2  526 

1758 

3  376 

10 

17750 

11881 

11782 
1416 

6  501 
543 

412 
69 

20  567 
11507 

2  733 

2  823 

3  023 

14 

19110 

14  569 

13  935 
3  459 

6  721 
345 

1537 
254 

27  908 
26  835 

3  530 
3  727 

2  435 
10 

26  658 

46163 

17  208 
8  538 

8139 
941 

5  082 
1425 

29  768 
59  970 

5182 
622 

3  097 
8 

23  587 
2  719 

17  887 
2914 

24  765 
7109 

29  221 

7  868 

35337 
10373 

61076 
20541 

62  768 
28253 

75176 
49199 

95134 
117  667 

The  classification  corresponds  approximately  to  that  adopted  in  the  introduction  above. 


444 


TII.      MANUPACTURINS    INDUSTRIES. 


mentioned  rails  with  accessories,  amounting  to  a  value  of  6-64  million  kro- 
ner in  1912,  (6-72  millions  in  1913);  beams,  chammels,  and  angles,  amount- 


Table  96.     Imports  and  Exports  of  Machinery,  Tools,  and  Instruments?^ 


I.  Machinery  and  im- 
plements not  specified 
in  the  customs  tariff. 

A.  Motors,  not  electric  . 


B.  "Working  Machines 


First 

Second 

Third 

Fourth 

Fifth 

Sixth 

Seventh 

Eight 

Ninth 

Tenth 

Eleventh 

Twelfth 

Thirteenth 

Fourteenth 

Fifteenth 

Sixteenth 

Seventeenth 

Eighteenth 

Nineteenth 

Twentieth 


group' 


Imports 

kroner 

Tear  19U 


Exports 

krODOr 

Year  1911 


C,  Tools 


534  385 


1  706  387 

2  094  474 
165  244 
547  621 
960  844 

765  614 
126  460 

77  671 

766  481 
2  368  947 

718  639 

118  521 

163  949 

25  937 

2  604  486 

410  274 

1796 

1 170  221 

62  413 

6  522  731 


6  678  372 


66  230 
753  485 

2  167  259 

52  614 

110  400 

72  734 

2  003 

446  552 

15  362 

83  665 

12  266 

18  718 

61495 

19 110  680 

1  336  974 

30  420 

697  324 

29  624 

3  346  520 


1017  616    1286  320 


II.  Machinery  and  im- 
plements specified  in 
the  customs  tariff. 

Squirts'^' 

Electric  incandescent 
lamps 

Electric  machines*"   .    . 

Gas-  and  water  meters. 

Locomotives     ..... 

Shovels,  spades,  etc.**  . 

Sewing  and  knitting  ma- 
chines**      

Saws,  sawblades*^  .   .    . 

Cycles** 

Steam  engines*' .... 


Total  II 


III.     Instruments. 

Compasses  and  drawing 

instruments 

Weighbridges 

Electricity  meters  .  .  . 
Photographic  cameras** 
Lighthouse   apparatus** 

Surgical*' 

Optical 

Telephones** 

Musical 


Imports 

kroDOr 

Tear  1911 


131 535 

1  055  851 
1 009  560 

339  937 
156  622 
149  312 

2  106  812 
148050 

1 422  007 
450  008 


6969594 


103  650 
7  961 

766  620 
209  910 

969  806 

219  266 

239  470 

1 140  941 


Exports 

kronor 

Tear  1911 


133  119 

197  400 

3  454441 

191 

25000 

151 663 

125  503 
427  621 
449787 
972  924 


5937  649 


2  450 
10073 

1365 

3  290 
826  490 
237  740 

4398 

6  052  158 

62129 


Total  I  21  809  701 36  267  907  Total  III  3  657  624  6  200  098 

Total  export  for  I,  ll,  ni*« 48405  549  kronor 

»     import    »           .                 32436919 

Surplus  of  export 15  968  630  kronor 


'  Using  electricity,  exclusive  of  physical  instruments.  —  *  For  working  metals.  —  °  For 
working  wood  and  similar  materials.  —  *  "Wood  pulp  industry.  —  ^  Paper  industry.  — 
■'  Printing  industry.  —  '  Book-binding  industry.  —  *  Match  industry.  — °  Leather,  rubber, 
and  glue  industry  and  hat-making.  —  '"  Textile  industry.  —  ^'  Grain-mill,  oil  pressing, 
chocolate,  bakery  and  sweets  industries.  —  '*  Sugar  and  starch  production.  —  ''  Yeast, 
spirit,  malt  beverage  and  mineral  water  production.  —  '*  Margarine  manufacture.  — 
'■^  Agriculture.  Of  the  imports,  the  greatest  value  (1  767  737  kronor)  falls  under  the  heading 
of  ploughs,  sowing-  and  reaping  ma'^hines,  reaping  machine  knives  and  mowing  machines, 
and  of  the  exports  16  371 969  kr.  for  mowing  machines,  horse  rakes  and  hay  turners, 
together   with    separators    (13  446166    kr.).  —  '^  Stone,  clay,  cement,  and  jglass  industries. 

—  "  Peat  production.  —  '*  Lifting  and  pressing.  —  '^  Foundries.  —  *"  Other  purposes, 
including  the  import  of  cash  desk  apparatus,  typewriters,  and  calculating  machines  to  the 
value  of  1  224  166  kr,  —  *'  Fire-engines  and  garden  hose.  —  **  Dynamo  machines,  electro- 
motors, transformers  and  parts.  —  ^'  Pitch-forks  and  hay-forks,  sieves  and  riddles.  — 
**  And  parts.  —  *^  And  materials  for  making  saw-blades.  —  **  And  boilers.  —  *'  Surgical, 
mathematical,  physical,  chemical,  and  navigation  instruments.  —  **  And  telegraphic  appa- 
ratus,   gramophones    and  phonographs,  including  5  035162  kr.  for  the  export  of  telephones. 

—  *'  Sections  I  and  II  in  this  table  together  correspond  to  the  group  Machines,  Implements 
and  Tools  in  Table  95  above,  and  Section  III  corresponds  to  the  group  Instruments  in  the 

isame  table. 


METAL    AND    MACHINE   INDUSTllY. 


445. 


ing  to  5-61  millions  in  1912,  (6-15  millions  in  1913);  and  tubes  and  parts 
of  tubes,  amounting  to  3-03  millions  1912  (2-96  millions  in  1913).  Among 
the  exports,  important  positions  are  occupied  by  beams,  chammels  and 
angles,  and  other  products  of  rolled  iron  and  steel,  to  the  value  of  28-3- 
million  Jkronor  in  1912,  and  22-7  millions  in  1913;  by  dairy  machines, 
amounting  to  13-4  millions  in  1912,  and  to  15-2  millions  in  1913;  by  tubes- 
and  parts  of  tubes,  of  iron  and  steel,  to  the  value  of  5-57  millions  in  1912, 
and  5-26  millions  in  1913.  The  export  of  cooking,  soldering,  and  warm- 
ing apparatus  consuming  petroleum,  gasoline,  spirit,  etc.  amounted  in  value- 
to  6-75  million  kroner  in  1912  (6-44  millions  in  1913);  and  of  telephones  to 
5-16  millions  in  1912  (3-07  millions  in  1913).  The  import  and  export  of 
machinery,  tools,  and  instruments  is  given  in  greater  detail,  for  1911,  in 
Table  96,  vs^hich  is  divided  according  to  the  headings  of  the  customs  tariff 
of  that  time.  From  1912  a  different  classification  is  emploj^ed  and  there- 
fore only  the  following  summaries  for  1912  and  1913  can  be  given. 

In  order  to  illustrate  the  present  position  of  the  machine  industry,  the 
following  notes  are  given  with  regard  to  some  of  the  largest  establish- 
ments in  the  country. 

The  first  place  among  Swedish  works,  not  only  with  regard  to  the  annual 
value  of  production,  but  also  in  respect  of  the  wide  dissemination  of  its  products, 
is  at  present  occupied  by  the  Aktiebolaget  Separator  (share  capital  24  million 
kronor),  an  account  of  which  has  been  given,  along  with  other  factories  for 
dairy  machines,  under  the  heading  Dairies  and  Dairy  Industry.  The  honour  of 
having  brought  this  branch  of  manufacture  to  such  a  high  level  belongs  jointly 
to  the  inventor  of  separator  machines,  Dr  G.  de  Laval,  and  the  manager  of  the 
firm  J.  Bernstrom.  The  company  has  also  branch  establishments  at  Berlin,  in 
Austria-Hungary,  Denmark,  Russia  (Siberia),  while  in  America  the  patent  rights 
of  the  company  are  held  by  a  joint-stock  company,  the  de  Laval  Separator,  Co., 
of  New  York,  in  which  the  Aktiebolaget  Separator  is  a  large  shareholder.  The 
factories  of  the  American  company  are  situated  at  Poughkeepsie. 

Eockuins  mekaniska  verkstads  aktiebolag:,  with  foundry,  works,  and  shipyard  at 
Malmo,  produces  boilers,  steam-engines,  railway  carriages,  warships  and  merchant 
ships,    machines    for    sugar  works,  etc.,  to  the  value  of  about  3  500  000  kronor 


Table  97. 


Imports  and  Exports  of  Machinery  etc. 


Machines,      apparatus, 
ments: 

a.  Electric 

b.  Not  electric  .    .    . 

imple- 

Tear 

19  12 

Year 

19  13 

Imports,  kr. 

Exports,  kr. 

Imports,  tr. 

Exports,  kr. 

5  456  000 
18  011000 

10  040  000 
42  457  000 

6  477  000 
23  291000 

12  256  000 
47  714  000 

23467  000 

4  537  000 
2  765  000 

52  497  000 

759  000 
9  000 

29  7(W0O0 

5  182  000 
3  097  000 

59970000 

622  000 
8  000 

Clocks  and  ivatches 

Surplus  of  export  .    .    . 

Total 
Import 

30  769000 

53  265000 

30  769  000 

38  047  000 

60600000 

38  047  000 



22  4t)6  000 

— 

22  553000 

446 


VII.      MANUFACTURING   INDUSTRIES. 


Launching  of  the  Iron-clad  "Thule",  at  Finnboda. 


and  employs  1  000  workmen.  The  foundry  and  the  mechanical  works  were 
founded  in  1840 — 41  by  P.  H.  Kockum,  who  enlarged  the  business  with  a  ship- 
yard in  1871.     The  business  was  taken  over  in  1873  by  a  joint-stock  company. 

Ber^sunds  mekaniska  verkstads  aktiebolag,  in  addition  to  a  foundry  and  works 
at  Sodermalm  in  Stockholm,  near  the  Malaren,  also  possesses  a  slip-dock  at  2''mn- 
hoda  near  Stockholm  on  the  Baltic  side  of  the  town.  The  Bergsund  mechanical 
works  are  among  the  oldest  in  Sweden.  They  were  founded  in  1769  by  a  Scotch- 
man, Thomas  Lewis,  were  taken  over  in  1807  by  an  Englishman,  G.  D.  Wilcke, 
whose  leading  engineer  was  for  three  years  the  famous  Samuel  Owen.  After 
the  works  had  changed  ownership  several  times,  they  were  bought  in  1858  by 
A.  W.  Frestadius  and  gradually  worked  up  to  their  present  high  level,  under  the 
direction  of  the  engineer  E.  A.  Oilman.  The  most  important  manufactures  are 
steamships  and  railway  bridges,  all  kinds  of  machinerj'',  castings,  and  sheet  metal, 
to  which  have  been  added  in  recent  years  oil  motors.  Most  of  the  Swedish 
state  railway  bridges  are  supplied  by  the  Bergsund  Works.  At  the  Finnboda 
slip-dock  armoured  vessels  are  also  built.  The  value  of  the  manufactures  of  the 
Bergsund  Works,  including  the  Finnboda  slip-dock,  amounts  to  about  3  200  000 
kroner  and  the  number  of  workmen  to  1  000. 

The  Atlas  Works.  In  1873  this  magnificent  establishment  was  founded  at 
Stockholm,  by  the  Aktiebolaget  Atlas,  principally  for  the  purpose  of  manufactur- 
ing railway  material,  for  which  there  was  at  that  time  a  large  demand,  and  which 
also  brought  about  a  rapid  development  of  this  company.  But  when,  after  some 
years,  economic  conditions  changed  for  the  worse,  it  had  to  be  reorganized  and 


METAL    AND    MACHINE    INDUSTRY. 


447 


was  taken  over  by  the  Nya  Aktiebolaget  Atlas.  For  many  years  the  principal 
manufactures  were  locomotives  and  railway  carriages,  machine  tools,  steam  boilers, 
steam  engines,  hot-water  pipes,  etc.,  but  the  chief  products  are  now  air-compres- 
sors, pneumatic  tools,  oil  motors,  and  transport  appliances.  Among  the  pneumatic 
tools  may  be  specially  noted  the  company's  famous  boring  machines  for  mines, 
which  are  used  almost  exclusively  in  all  mines  in  Sweden,  and  in  a  great  num- 
ber of  mines  in  other  countries.  Oil  motors  are  also  articles  of  export.  In  ad- 
dition, bridges  are  manufactured.  The  value  of  the  annual  production  is  about 
3  2Q0  000  kronor  and  the  number  of  the  workmen  is  600. 

The  Bolindei-  Works,  which  are  now  owned  by  J.  &  C.  G.  Bolinders  Meka- 
niska  Verkstads  Aktiebolag,  were  established  at  Stockholm  in  1845,  by  the  bro- 
thers Jean  Bolinder  and  C.  G.  Bolinder,  and,  after  undergoing  steady  develop- 
ment, have  risen  to  be  one  of  the  most  important  establishments  of  their  kind 
in  the  country.  In  addition  to  the  works  at  Stockholm,  the  company  owns  the 
KaUhall  foundry  for  cooking-ranges  and  the  Bastholmen  slip-dock  in  Bohuslan 
for  fitting  motors  in  boats.  In  Stockholm  it  produces  steam  engines  of  all  sizes, 
petroleum  motors,  steam-boilers,  saw-mills,  the  famous  wood-planing  machines,  and 
cleave-saws  made  under  Westman's  patent,  stoves,  gas-ovens,  iron  ranges  with 
patented  safety  apparatus, '  also  of  the  largest  sizes  for  hotels,  boilers  and  other 
articles  for  hot-houses,  ornamental  castings,  etc.  The  total  value  of  the  output 
amounted  in  1913  to  about  9  million  kronor,  and  the  establishment  employed 
1  800  workmen. 

The  HuskTarna  establishment,  in  the  town  of  the  same  name,  has  a  long 
history.  It  was  originally  founded  in  1689,  for  the  manufacture  of  rifles  for 
the  State,  but  was  taken  over  in  1757  by  private  persons,  since  when  it  has 
undergone  various  changes;  it  is  now  owned  by  the  Huskvarna  Vapenfabriks 
Aktiebolag    (1867).^  ^The    principal  manufactures    are    sewing    machines,  cycles. 


Rock  Drills  (Nya  Aktiebolaget  Atlas,  Stockholm). 


448 


VII.      MANUFACTURING    INDUSTKIBS. 


cooking-ranges,  stoves,  radiators,  and  other  cast  articles.    The  value  of  the  output 
is  7  500  000  kronor  and  the  number  of  workmen  is  1  800. 

The  TroUhattan  foundi'y  and  mechanical  works,  situated  at  the  famous  Troll- 
hattan  Falls,  the  first  real  locomotive  works  in  Sweden,  were  founded  in  1847, 
principally  for  the  manufacture  of  castings,  etc.  for  mills,  saw-works,  mining, 
etc.,  steel  castings  and  turbines,  which  last  articles  have  continued  to  form  a  spe- 
ciality of  the  works.  They  developed  rapidly  under  the  firm  Nydqvist  &  Holm,  and 
in  the  beginning  of  the  seventies,  was  introduced  the  manufacture  of  locomotives, 
which  afterwards  became  an  additional  speciality  of  the  establishment.  The 
works  can  now  manufacture  one  locomotive  a  week.  A  great  number  of  the 
machine-tools  used  in  the  establishment  are  manufactured  in  the  company's  own 
factory.  In  addition  to  turbines  and  locomotives,  the  works  manufacture  pumping 
apparatus  for  municipal  waterworks,  iron  bridges,  air  compressors,  gas  machines, 
etc.  The  value  of  the  articles  produced  is  about  3'6  million  kronor  and  the 
number  of  workmen,  from   1  100  to  1  200. 


From  the  Bolindcr  Mechanical  Works,  Stockholm. 


Motala  mechanical  works,  at  one  time  the  largest  industrial  establishment  in 
Sweden,  is  situated  at  the  point  where  the  Gota  Canal  debouches  into  Lake 
Vattern.  It  was  founded  in  1823,  by  the  Gota  Kanalbolag  under  the  superin-' 
tendence  of  the  Englishman  Daniel  Fraser,  developed  very  rapidly  under  his  skil- 
ful management  and  that  of  his  successor,  0.  E.  Garlsund,  and  was  equipped  with 
the  best  known  machine-tools  for  manufactures  in  almost  all  branches  of  iron  work- 
ing, such  as  merchant  ships  and  warships,  dredging  apparatus,  locomotives,  steam 
boilers,    railway-carriage  wheels)  '  sheet-iron,  ' 'shap(3-iron '  rkils,  *heel  and  cannon 


METAL   AND    MACHINE    INDUSTRY. 


449 


band  etc.  In  time  the  owners  incorporated  other  mechanical  works,  ship-yards, 
and  iron  works,  with  the  head  works  at  Motala,  but  were  compelled  by  unfa- 
vourable economic  conditions  at  the  end  of  the  eighties  to  reorganize  the  busi- 
ness, when  the  original  works  were  taken  over  by  the  Motala  Verkstads  Nya 
Aktiebolag  (1893).  The  manufacture,  which  for  some  years  had  been  on  the 
decline,  now  entereil  on  a  new  phase  of  activity.  The  manufacture  of  locomo- 
tives especially  gained  ground.  Under  the  present  owners,  twelve  locomotives 
per  year  have  been  produced,  but  this  branch  has  developed  to  such  an  extent 
that  the  output  capacity,  has  been  practically  quadrupled,  so  as  to  be  raised  to 
about  one  locomotive  a  week.  In  addition  to  this  main  product,  the  works  also 
manufacture  blooms  and  ingots,  bar-iion,  rolled  wire,  thin  sheet  metal,  large 
engines  for  warships  and  merchant  ships,  turbines,  steamships,  railway  and  other 
bridges,  various  iron  and  metal  castings.  The  number  of  employees  is  1  000.  • 
In  conjunction  with  the  Lindholmen  mechanical  works  (with  slip-dock  and  dr>' 
dock)  at  Gothenburg,  orders  for  armoured  vessels  are  executed.  The  annual 
value  of  production  is  about  4'25  million  kroner. 


Locomotive  No.  1  000  built  by  Nydqvist  &  Holm,  Trollhcittan. 


The  Carl  Holmberg  mechanical  works  at  Lund  have,  in  the  last  few  decades, 
been  worked  up  from  a  modest  beginning  as  a  repairs  workshop  to  a  factory  for 
industry  on  a  really  large  scale.  The  principal  products  are  dairy  appliances, 
distilling  apparatus,  brick-making  machines,  steam  engines  and  cast  goods,  etc. 
The  value  of  the  total  production  is  estimated  at  800  000  kroner  per  year,  and 
the  number  of  workmen  is  about  250.  The  same  firm  also  owns  the  Arniatur- 
fabrlk  at  Lund,  which  is  the  largest  of  its  kind  in  Sweden  for  the  manufacture 

29— i33i  79.  Sweden.  II. 


450 


Vir.      MANUFACTUKING    INDUSTRIES. 


',    The  Motala§Mechanical"  Works.'  j 


of  cranes,  valves,  steam-whistles,  etc.     The  value  of  the  output  is  700  000  kro- 
nor,  and  325  workmen  are  employed. 

The  Goteborg  mechanical  works  (Giitaverken),  with  branches  in  the  town  of 
Gothenburg  and  in  the  parish  of  Lundby,  on  the  island  of  Hisingen,  near  Go- 
thenburg, were  founded  in  1841,  by  Alexander  Keiller,  a  manufacturer  of  Scotch 
origin,  under  whose  successful  management  they  rapidly  developed  and  were  taken 
over  in  1867  _  by  the  Goteborgs  mekaniska  verkstads  aktiebolag,  which  was  in- 
corporated in  '1906  in  the  Goteborgs  nya  verkstads  aktiebolag.  The  articles 
manufactured  are  steamships,  including  armoured  vessels,  steam-ejigines,  includ- 
ing engines  of  considerable  size,  steam  boilers,  cranes  and  elevators,  radiators, 
railway  carriages,,  iron  bedsteads,  various  cast  goods,  etc.,  of  a  total  value  of 
about .  3  million' kronor.     The  number  of  workmen  is  900. 

The  Lindholineu  meclinnical  works,  with  ship-yard,  slip  and  dry  dock"  on  the 
island  of  Hisingen,  near  Gothenburg,  were  established  in  l851,  by  Th.  Tranchell, 
but  were  sold  and  amalgamated  with  the  Motala  works  in  1858.  The  present 
company,  Lindholmens  verkstads  aktiebolag,  was  .formed  in  1894,  under  the 
management  first  of  Carl  Norrman  and  later  of  8ven  Almqvist.  The  works  have 
gradually  grown  to  be  a  ship-yard  of  the  first  class,  manufacturing  passenger 
and  cargo  steamships  of  all  kinds,  warships,  steam-engines  and  steam  boilers, 
and  repairing  steamships.  The  value  of  the  output  is  about  2  million  kroner, 
and  800  workmen  are  employed. 

The  Ball  bearing  factory  (Sw.  abbrev.  S.  K.  F.)  at  Gothenburg  was  established 
in  1907,  by  the  Aktiebolaget  svenska  kullagerfabriken  (share  capital  12  million 
kroner).  Ball  bearings  are  manufactured,  which  adjust  themselves  to  the  axle 
automatically,  in  accordance  with  Wingquist's  patent.  They  are  not  only  sold 
on  the  Swedish  market,  but  are  also  exported  on  a  large  scale.  The  company 
has  branches  and  warehouses  at  Berlin,  Paris,  London,  Vienna,  St.  Petersburg, 
New  York,  Melbourne,  Buenos  Aires,  Yokohama,  and  other  places.  In  the  space 
of  a  few  years,  the  production  has  attained  enormous  proportions,  and  its  value 
now  amounts  to  more  than  6  million  kronor.  The  number  of  workmen  employed 
is  2  000. 

The  Mnnktell  Mechanical  works  were  founded  at  Eskilstuna,  at  the  beginning 
of    the    thirties    of  last  century,  by  Johan  Teofron  Munktell,  were  subsequently 


METAL   AND    MACHINE    INEUSTRY. 


451 


developed  and  were  completed  in  185!>,  by  the  erection  of  the  Klosterstrom 
foundry.  The  manufactures  of  these  works  have  been  steam  engines  for  large 
industrial  works,  the  first  Swedish  railway  locomotive,  the  first  Swedish  machines 
for  manufacturing  rifles  on  a  large  scale,  machines  for  wood  pulp  manufacture, 
etc.  At  present  the  principal  products  are  portable  engines,  steam  boilers,  thresh- 
ing mills,  straw  presses,  steam  dredging  apparatus,  digging  machines,  machine 
tools  and  hand  tools,  raw  oil  motors,  refrigerators,  etc.  The  value  of  the  out- 
put is  about  4  million  kronor.     The  number  of  workmen  amounts  to  850. 

The  Karlstad  and  Kristinehamn  Dieclianical  works,  which  are  owned  by  the 
Aktiebolaget  Karlstads  mekaniska  verkstad,  at  Karlstad,  manufacture  steam  laun- 
ches, lathes  for  iron  rolling  works,  machinery  for  the  wood  pulp  and  paper  in- 
dustry, portable  engines,  railway  carriages  and  other  railway  material,  turbines, 
etc.,  with  a  value  for  both  establishments  of  about  1  500  000  kronor.  The 
number  of  workmen  is   500. 

The  Ludyigsberg  mechanical  works  at  Stockholm,  which  were  founded  in 
the  middle  of  the  19th  century  by  Jacques  Lamm  and  are  now  owned  by  the 
Ludvigsbergs  verkstads  aktiebolag,  are  also  very  active  in  the  manufacture  of 
radiators  and  ventilators,  refrigerators,  pumps,  steam  fire-engines,  etc.  The  value 
of  the  output  is  about  1   million  kronor,  and  the  number  of  workmen  500. 

The  Carriage  and  machine  factory  of  Falun,  the  Sodertalje  works,  the  Arlof 
Dieclianical  works  and  wagon  factory,  and  the  Swedish  railway  works  at  Tan- 
nefors  manufacture  annually  large  quantities  of  railway  coaches  and  tramcars. 
The  Jonkoping  mechanical  works  make  a  speciality  of  steam  engines,  steamv 
turbines,  steam  boilers,  sulphite  boilers,  paper-making  machinery,  etc. 

The    Aktiebolaget    Diesels    inotorer,    Sickla,  near  Stockholm.     The  firm  was 


From  the  Motala  Mechanical  Works. 


452 


VII.      MANUFACTURING   INDUSTRIES. 


founded  in  1898,  and  the  share  capital  is  now  2  million  kronor.  The  number 
of  employees  is  about  500.  The  company  manufactures  exclusively  Diesel  m-otors 
up  to  the  largest  sizes,  for  use  as  stationery  engines  and  for  propelling  vessels. 
The  Swedish  Diesel  motor  is  protected  by  international  patents  and  has  won  a 
world-wide  reputation.  Of  the  output,  about  4  million  kronor,  i.  e.  approximately 
two-thirds,  is  exported.  The  firm  executes  large  orders,  particularly  for  ship  mo- 
tors, which  are  built  under  the  patents  of  the  company's  head  engineer,  K.  J.  E. 
Hesselman.  The  Swedish  Marine  Polar  Motor  was  the  first  directly  reversible 
Diesel  motor  to  be  constructed  and  has  been  fitted  in  a  great  number  of  ships 
—  a  greater  number,  indeed,  than  any  other  firm  in  the  world  has  fitted. 
Patent-rights  for  America  have  been  transferred  to  Mc  Imposh  &  Seymour, 
Auburn,  N.  Y. 


Self-regulating  Ball  Bearing  {Srenska  Kitllagerfabriken;  S.  K.  F.) 


During  the  last  ten  years  the  motor  car  industry  has  made  great  progress  in 
Sweden,  and  good  passenger  and  goods  oars  are  now  produced,  capable  of  com- 
peting with  those  of  other  countries,  in  the  fiffst  place  by  the*  Aktiebolag'et 
Scania-Yabis,  of  Sodertalje,  which  has  factories  in  that  town  for  pleasure  cars 
and  in  Malmo  for  goods  cars,  boat  motors,  motor  bogies,  and  railway  motor  cars. 
The  company  is  a  fusion  of  the  older  works  of  the  Maskinfabriksaktiebolaget 
Scania,  of  Malmo,  and  the  "V agnf abriksaktiebolaget,  of  Sodertalje.  The  output 
amounts  in  value  to  about  2"8  million  kronor,  and  the  number  of  employees  is 
450.  The  company  exports  motor  cars,  even  as  far  as  to  Australia,  the  value 
of  the  exports  being  about  400  000  kronor. 

Steel  pressing  is  now  an  important  branch  of  the  mechanical  industry;  from 
a  single  sheet  of  metal  whole  pressed  vessels  are  manufactured,  for  use  in  the 
household  and  in  dairies,  of  aluminium,  copper,  steel,  and  other  metals.  By  this 
process,  separator  balls,  mantles  for  torpedoes,  etc.  are  also  produced.  The  prin- 
cipal factories  in  this  branch  are  those  owned  by  the  Eskilstuna  st&lpressnings- 
aktiebolag'  and  the  Srenska  sl&lpressningsaktiebolaget  01oYstr5iu,  which,  in 
addition,  manufacture  enamelled  goods.  The  value  of  the  annual  production  of 
both  together  is  over  3  million  kronor.     The  number  of  employees  is  900. 

One  of  the  youngest,  but  at  the  same  time  most  successful,  of  Swedish  in- 
dustrial enterprises  is  the  Svenska  aktiebolaget  Gasaccumulator,  of  Stockholm, 
founded    in  1904  for  the  purpose  of  manufacturing  lighting  apparatus  (so-called 


.METAL    AND    MACHINE    INDUSTRY. 


453 


AGA),  made  in  accordance  with  the  inventions  of  the  engineer  Gustaf  DaUn, 
(Nobel  prize,  1912).  The  company  turns  out  gas  accumulators  for  "dissous"  gas 
stations  (see  page  430),  automatic  light  signals  for  lighthouses,  buoys  and  beacons, 
lighting  apparatus  for  railway  carriages,  so-called  Dalen  light,  flash-light  apparatus 
for  railway  signals,  lighting  apparatus  for  motor  cars  and  motor  boats,  military 
signalling  lights,  and  apparatus  for  welding  and  cutting  iron  and  steel,  etc.  The 
company  has  a  factory  at  Skarsatra,  on  the  island  of  Lidingon;  the  share  capital 
is  6  million  kroner;  the  value  of  the  output  is  3  million  kroner,  of  which  2 
miUion  kroner  is  exported.     The  number  of  employees  is   300. 


Diesel  Polar  Motor,  650  h.  p. 


The  work  of  the  above-mentioned  establishments  is  devoted  almost 
exclusively  to  products  which  do  not  require  any  further  treatment,  but 
which  may  be  considered  as  finished  articles.  The  same  applies  also  to 
the  great  mass  of  so-called  mechanical  works,  of  which  those  mentioned 
are  only  a  few  of  the  most  important.  In  addition  to  these,  there  are 
many  other  establishments,  which,  in  addition  to  carrying  on  the  usual 
business  of  mechanical  works,  also  proiduce  metals  from  the  oxes  and 
perform  the  first  refining  processes;  these  establishments,  generally  known 
as  iron' works,  as  a  rule  own  large  forests  and  tracts  of  land,  etc.,  while 
their  mechanical  works  are  also  often  of  greater  importance  than  many 
of  the  actual  works  in  the  country.  The  following  examples  may  be 
given  of  such  establishments. 

Doinnarvet,  in  the  parish  of  Stora  Tuna,  on  the  Bergslagernas  railway  and 
on  the  river  Dalalven,  twenty  kilometers  from  Falun  in  Dalarne.  These  works, 
which  are  the  largest  charcoal  iron  works  in  the  world,  were  established  in  the 
middle  of  the  seventies  of  last  century;  they  are  owned  by  the  Stora  Koppar- 
bergs  Bergslags  aktiebolag  (share  capital  12  million  kroner)  and  comprise  the 
following  main  departments:  a)  smelting  department  with  5  blast  furnaces,  7 
Cowper  apparatus,   5  roasting  furnaces,   3  pounding  mills,  3  blast  apparatus,  etc. : 


454 


VII.      MANUFACTURING   INDUSTRIES. 


Motor  Car  from  Scania-Vabis. 


h)  'Bessemer  works  with  4  basic  convertors,  blasting  apparatus,  hydraulic  power 
plant,  and  Thomas  phosphate  (basic  slag)  works  (15  000  tons);  c)  Martin  works 
with  4  basic  Martin  furnaces,  2  for  35  tons  and  2  for  20  tons,  together  with 
steel  foundry;  d)  rolling-mill  department  with  continuous  wire  works,  2  medium 
works,  2  fine  rolling  works,  2  universal  loUiiig  works,  thick  and  thin  sheet 
works;  e)  rolling  works  for  coarser  form  iron  and  rails,  driven  by  2  steam  en- 
gines of  6  000  h.  p.  each.  The  total  annual  production  is  90  000  tons  of  pig- 
iron,  of  which  30  000  tons  is  produced  by  electric  smelting,  75  000  tons  of 
rolled  iron  and  steel;  nail  factory,  factory  for  bolts  and  nuts,  etc.;  f)  workshop 
department  with  foundry;  g)  charcoal  department  with  8  coaling  furnaces  and 
a  factory  for  the'  utilizing  of  by-products  (1  700  tons);  annual  charcoal  produc- 
tion  1'4  million  hectoliters.     The  number  of  workmen  is  2  200 

The  Sandviken  Iron  works,  in  Gastrikland,  were  established  in  1862,  by  Con- 
sul 0.  F.  Goransson,  who  is  famous  for  his  successful  work  in  the  direction  of 
rendering  the  Bessemer  process  of  practical  use.  The  works  are  now  owned  by 
Sandvikens  jernverksaktiebolag  and  have  become  known  all  over  the  world  by 
reason  of  their  excellent  products.  The  works  at  present  consist  of  4  blast 
furnaces,  2  Bessemer  furnaces,  7  Martin  furnaces,  14  steam  hammers,  several 
rolling  mills,  four  of  which  are  for  tubes  and  turn  out  300  tons  of  tubes  per 
week,  wire-drawing  works,  manufacture  forge,  foundry,  mechanical  works,  etc.; 
they  produce  bessemer  steel  ingot,  bar-iron  (rolled  and  forged),  tube  billets,  large 
shafts,  rolled  wire,  hoop-iron  and  horse  nail  rods,  sectional  iron  and  steel,  saw 
blades,  drawn  wire,  cold-rolled  hoop-steel,  and  various  other  manufactures,  of  a 
value  of  about  1 1  million  kronor.  The  total  number  of  workmen  employed  is 
about  2  500. 

The  Bofors  iron  works,  situated  in  the  parish  of  Karlskoga,  in  Orebro  Lan, 
comprise  iron  works  with  2  blast  furnaces,  3  Martin  furnaces,  10  Lancashire 
forges,  3  rolling  mills,  manufacture  forge  and  mechanical  works,  etc.     The  Bo- 


METAL    AND    MACHINE    INDUSTRY. 


455 


fors  works  makufacture  blooms,  ingots,  rolled  bar-iron,  war  material,  such  as 
cannon,  projectiles^,  armour  plate  etc.,  and  steel  castings  (propellors,  etc.).  The 
value  of  the  output  is  about  5  million  kronor  per  year,  and  the  number  of 
employees  is  about  1  300. 


AGA  Lightbuoy  from  the  Akticholaget  Gasacciimwlator,  Stoclchohii. 


The  Fagersta  iron  works  in  Vastmanland  manufacture,  in  addition  to  rolling 
mill  products,  also  saw  blades,  springs,  drawn  wire,  steel  ropes,  etc.  The  LesjiJ- 
fors  iron  works  in  Varmland  produce  hoop  and  horse-nail  iron,  drawn  wire  and 
steel  ropes.  The  Hag-fors  iron  works,  in  Varmland,  produce  tube  billets,  wood 
screws,  horse-shoe  nails,  and  frost-nails.  The  Suraliaminar  iron  works,  in  Vast- 
manland, manufacture  shafts  and  wheels  for  railway  carriages.  The  KolSTa  iron 
works,  in  Vastmanland,  produce  various  steel  castings,  such  ?s  propellers.  The 
Hallstahammar  bolt  factory,  in  Vastmanland,  manufactures  exclusively  bolts,  nuts, 
fish-plates,  and  rivets.  The  Iggesund  iron  works,  in  Gavleborg  Lan,  manufacture 
saw  blades,  planing  steels,  stone  and  mine  implements.  The  Ankarsrum  iron 
works,  in  Kalmar  Lan,  produce  projectiles.  The  Skultuiia  brass  works  at  Svartan 
in  Vastmanland,  which  were  established  as  far  back  as  1611,  are  owned,  to- 
gether with  Granefors  and  the  Nordiska  metallv'erken  by  the  Nya  Aktiebolaget 
Syenska  Metallverken  and  manufacture  copper  and  brass  plate  and  wire,  bolts, 
tubes,  etc.  The  Granefors  copper  and  brass  works,  Blekinge,  with  sheet  rolling 
mill,  wire-drawing  factory,  etc.,  manufacture  tubes,  bar-copper,  wire,  etc.  The 
Ifordiska    Metallverken,    of    Vasteras,    manufactures  the  same  kinds  of  products 


45a 


VII.      MANUFACTDEING   INDUSTRIES. 


01 


s 


■s 


g 


METAL    AND    MACHINE    IXDUSTRY.  457 

as    Skultuna    and    Granefors    and   also  products  of  aluminium.     The  total  value 
of  the  manufactures  of  the  three  works  now  amounts  to  22'5  million  kronor. 

From  the  above,  whicli  only  deals  with  the  conditions  in  a  few  of  the 
larger  establishments,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  country  can  produce  every- 
thing at  present  used  in  respect  of  machinery  and  tools,  etc.,  whatever  it 
is  called  or  whatever  its  use,  whether  in  war  or  peace,  from  large  armoured 
vessels  and  the  heaviest  guns  down  to  the  smallest  machine  tools  and 
implements  for  working  metals,  wood,  textiles,  etc.,  and  for  agriculture. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  there  are  extremely  few  articles  which  are  not  pro- 
duced within  the  country.  As  examples  of  such,  we  may  mention  spinn- 
ing machines  and  power  looms,  etc.  in  the  textile  industrjr,  large  printing- 
machines,  calendering  and  cotton-printing  machines,  material  testing  ma- 
chines, etc. 

The  difileulties  which  the  Swedish  machine  industry  has  to  overcome 
are  in  the  first  place  those  already  named,  the  lack  of  coal  and  of  cheap 
cast  iron;  the  latter,  however,  will  shortly  be  remedied  by  the  new  great 
coke  cast  ironworks  at  Oxelosund.  To  these  may  be  added  the  fact  that,  by 
reason  of  the  great  area  of  the  country-,  the  number  of  mechanical  works, 
particularly  repairing  works,  has  become  greater  than  is  required,  whereby 
competition  has  become  keener,  all  the  more  so  as  most  of  the  Swedish 
works  do  not  export  their  products  to  foreign  countries.  The  fact  that 
the  Swedish  metal  industry  is  thus  divided  over  a  large  number  of,  in 
many  cases,  quite  small  works  and  factories,  scattered  over  a  wide  area, 
is,  however,  of  considerable  advantage  from  a  social  point  of  view. 

As  examples  of  manufactures  in  which  Swedish  works^  have  shown 
themselves  capable  of  competing  with,  the  best  foreign  works,  we  may 
mention  the  following,  although  the  list  is  by  no  means  complete.  Aniong 
those  mentioned  below,  several  are  based  on  Swedish  inventions,  such  as 
de  Laval's  separators,  steam  turbines,  Diesel  motors  and  petroleum  motors, 
Jonas  Wenstrom's  three-phase  dynamo,  the  petroleum  stove  "Primus", 
Ljungstrom's  steam  turbine,  which  may  now  be  considered  to  be  the  best 
steam  engine  in  the  world,  as  far  as  the  consumption  of  steam  is  concerned, 
L.  M.  Ericson's  telephones,  ball  bearings,  harvesting  machines,  petroleum 
cooking  stoves,  etc. 

Steamships:  Bergsund  (Stockholm),  Kookum  (Malmb),  Motala,  Lindholmen, 
Gothenburg  mechanical  works,  Eriksberg  and  Torskog  (Gothenburg),  Oskarhamn 
mechanical  works,  Karlstad  mechanical  works  (steam  launches,  Karlstad  and 
Kristinehamn)  and  the  Jonkoping  mechanical  works.  —  Locomotives:  Trollhattan, 
Motala,  Atlas,  Halsingborg  mechanical  works,  Ljunggren  works  at  Kristianstad, 
Falun  carriage  factory.  —  Portable  engines:  Munktell  (Eskilstuna),  Kristinehamn 
mechanical  works,  Vulcan  (Norrkoping),  Fole  (Visby).  —  Cycles:  Scania- Vabis, 
Wiklund,  Per  From  (Stockholm),  Huskvarna.  —  Steam-engines:  all  the  works 
which  construct  steamships  and,  in  addition,  Bolinder,  Atlas,  Aktiebolaget  de 
Lavals  angturbin,  Aktiebolaget  Mekanikus  (Stockholm),  Vulcan  (Norrkoping), 
Munktell  (Eskilstuna),  Jonkoping  mechanical  works.  -'-  Petroleum  engines:  Bo- 
linder, Bergsund,  Atlas,  etc.  —  Turbines:  Arboga  mechanical  works,  Trollhattan, 
Motala,    Halmstad.    ^—    Electric    motors    and  dynamo  machines  etc.:  Allmiinna 


458 


VII.      MANUFACTURING   INDUSTRIES. 


svenska    elektriska    aktiebolaget    (Vasteras),  Luth  &  Rosens  elektriska  aktiebolag 
(Stockholm),  Nya  forenade  elektriska  aktiebolaget,  Ludvika,  etc. 

Machine  tools  for  working  iron  and  other  metals:  Bolinder,  Atlas,  Koping 
mechanical  works,  Munktell.  TV'ood-workingf:  Bolinder,  Jonsered  factories  (near 
Gothenburg),  Skovde  mechanical  works,  Munktell,  C.  Holmberg  (Lund).  — '  Sew- 
ing and  knitting'  machines:  Huskvarna,  Per  Persson's  weaving  and  knitting  ma- 
chine factory  (Stockholm),  Stenholm  factory  for  boot-sewing  machines  (near  Jon- 
kbping).  Machines  for  wood-pulp  and  paper  factories:  Karlstad  mechanical  works, 
Jonkoping  mechanical  works,  Hellefors  works,  Lilla  Edet,  Arboga  mechanical 
works.  For  the  peat  industry:  Abjorn  Andersson's  mechanical  works,  Svedala. 
For  the  match-industry:  Gerhard  Arehn  (Stockholm),  Siefert  &  Fornander  (Kal- 
mar).  For  brick-yards:  C.  Holmberg  (Lund),  Svedala  (Skane),  Landskrona  new 
mechanical  works,  Halldin  &  Co.  (Orebro).  For  dairies:  Aktiebolaget  Separator, 
Centrator,  Pumpseparator,  Svenska  centrifugaktiebolaget  (Stockholm),  Excelsior 
(Brannudden),  Morgardshammar  (Dalarne),  Soderblom  foundry  (Eskilstuna),  C. 
Holmberg  (Lund),  Ystad  foundry  and  mechanical  works,  Svedala  (Skane).  For 
printing  works:  Aktiebolaget  Mekanikus  (Stockholm). 


500  eff.  h.  p.  de  Laval  Steam  Turbine. 


Sugar  factory  machines:  Kockum  (Malmo).  Distilling  apparatus:  Holmberg 
mechanical  works  (Lund),  Svedala  (Skane),  Ljunggren  (Kristianstad).  Apparatus 
for  breweries:  Ludvigsbergs  verkstads  aktiebolag,  W.  Wiklunds  verkstaders  ak- 
tiebolag. Rapid  works  (Stockholm).  Fire  cxtinguisliing  apparatus:  Ludvigsbergs 
verkstads  aktiebolag,  Aktiebolaget  de  Lavals  angturbin,  Bolinder,  Brannudden 
factory  (Vaxholm).  Railway  carriages  and  other  railway  and  tramway  material: 
Atlas,  Gothenburg  mechanical  works,  Falun  carriage  factory,  Kockum,  Karlstad 
mechanical  works,  Halsingborg,  Landskrona,  Sodertalje  and  Ljunggren's  works 
(Kristianstad).  Mill-gearing:  Hessleholm  foundry  and  mechanical  works  (Skane), 
Arboga  mechanical  works,  Morgardshammar  (Dalarne),  Soderbloms  gjuteriaktie- 
bolag  (Eskilstuna). 

Agricultural  implements  in  general:  Overum  works,  Kallinge  iron  and  manu- 
facturing works.     Mowing,  reaping  and  solving  machines:  Arvika  works  (Arvika), 


METAL   AND   MACHINE    INDUSTRY.  459 

International  Harvester  (Norrkoping),  Morgardshammar  (Dalame),  Rottneros 
works  (Varmland).  Threshing-machines:  double-winnowing  and  sorting:  Munktell 
■  (Eskilstuna),  Thermsenius  (Hallsberg),  Torp  mechanical  works  (Moheda),  Aktie- 
bolaget  Andrew  HoUingworth  &  Co.  (Orebro).  Horse-rakes:  Kallinge  iron  and 
manufacture  works,  Morgardshammar,  Rottneros  works,  Gronkvist  mechanical 
works  (Katrineholm),  Stenfors  works  (Smaland).  Ploughs  and  harrows:  Norra- 
hammar  (near  Jonkoping).  Spades,  shovels,  hoes,  etc.:  Vedevag  works,  Strids- 
berg  &  Biork  at  Gullofors  (Trollhattan),  P.  Liljeqvist  (Eskilstuna),  Canell's  ma- 
nufacturing works  (Koppom's  works,  Amot),  Katrinefors  (Motala),  Svangsta  ma- 
nufacturing works  (Svangsta).  Saw  blades:  Sandviken  iron  works  (see  above), 
Fagersta,  Stridsberg  &  Biorck  (Gullofors  at  Trollhattan),  P.  Liljeqvist  (Eskilstuna), 
Nyby  works  (Sodermanland).  Macliine-kniTes:  Gullofors,  P.  Liljeqvist  (Eskils- 
tuna). Edged  tools  in  general,  skates,  etc.:  Tunafors,  C.  W.  Dahlgrens  fabriks- 
aktiebolag,  Rosenfors,  Stalfors,  Hadar  Hallstroms  knivfabriks  aktiebolag,  Erik 
Anton  Berg  etc.  (Eskilstuna),  Hult's  iron  works  (Aby).  Wrought  Iron  for  build- 
ing purposes,  such  as  window  fittings,  hinges,  locks,  stove-shutters,  etc.:  Aug. 
Stenman,  E.  A.  Nsesman  &  Co.,  Lagerbacks  fabriksaktiebolag,  C.  W. .  Dahlgrens 
fabriksaktiebolag,  F.  A.  Stenman  etc.  (Eskilstuna).  Iron  bedsteads:  Svenska 
jamsangsfabriken,  Skandinaviska  jamsangsfabriken  (Stockholm),  Gothenburg  me- 
chanical works,  Eriksberg  mechanical  works  (Gothenburg).  Lamps:  Arvid  Bohl- 
mark's  lamp  factory  (Stockholm),  Karlskrona  lamp  factory,  Ornberg  &  Andersson 
(Gothenburg)  and  Aktiebolaget  Lux  (Stockholm),  the  last  of  which  has  an  an- 
nual output  of  the  value  of  2'B  million  kroner  and  an  export  over  the  whole 
world.  Portable  petroleum  stoves:  Aktiebolaget  Primus  (Stockholm)  with  a  sale 
of  6  million  kronor  and  large  export,  C.  R.  Nyberg's  mechanical  works  (Stock- 
holm),  etc. 

Telephone,  telegraph  and  fire-alarm  apparatus:  Aktiebolaget  L.  M.  Ericsson 
&  Co.  (Stockholm).  Clocks,  watches  and  taxameters:  Halda  watch  factory  (Ble- 
kinge),  G.  W.  Linderoth,  F.  W.  Tornberg  (Stockholm).  Umbrella  ribs:  See 
(Gavleborg  Lan),  Grytgol  (Ostergotland).  Gymnastic  treatment  apparatus  accord- 
ing to  Dr  Zander's  system:  Goransson's  mechanical  works  (Stockholm).  Cannon: 
Bofors.  Projectiles:  Ankarsrum,  Bofors.  Bifles:  Huskvarna,  Eskilstuna.  Tin- 
Itoxes,  metal  capsules  etc.:  Aktiebolaget  svenska  kapsylfabriken  (Stockholm). 
Tinned  or  enamelled  vessels  of  pressed  steel-plate:  Olovstrom,  Kallinge  (Ble- 
kinge),  Ankarsrum,  Eskilstuna,  C.  A.  Vedholms  mejerikarlsfabrik  (Nykoping). 
Stoves  and  heating  apparatus  of  excellent  quality  are  made  by  a  great  number 
of  the  larger  foundries. 

Many  of  the  above-mentioned  branches  of  industry  have  developed 
during  the  last  thirty  years,  and  prizes  have  been  awarded  for  their  products 
at  international  exhibitions.  The  list  could  be  considerably  increased,  but 
from  the  above  it  is  sufficientlj'  proved  that  the  Swedish  machine  in- 
dustry has  already  advanced  very  far  in  the  multitude  of  its  products. 
In  this  respect  it  is  also  pleasing  to  note  that  production  is  taken  up 
with  increasing  interest  both  at  new  and  old  iron  works,  so  that  many 
of  them  are  in  a  position  to  supply  horse-shoes,  horse-shoe  nails,  nails, 
chains,  steel-ropes,  wire,  shafts,  and  all  kinds  of  rolled  and  forged  pro- 
ducts of  excellent  quality. 


160 


VII.      MANUFAOTUEING   INDUSTRIES. 


The  Eskilstuna  Industry. 

As  this  town  occupies  a  special  position  in  the  iron  manufacture  of 
Sweden,  we  may  here  give  a  few  historical  and  statistical  data  concerning 
it.  A  wrought  iron  industry  in  the  real  sense  of  the  word  arose  there 
after  the  year  1771,  when  the  so-called  free  town  of  Eskilstuna  was 
founded  and  received  privilegies.  The  manufacture  of  wrought  iron  was, 
until  the  last  few  decades,  carried  on  principally  by  hand  in  small  low 
forges,  but  the  products  gained  a  good  reputation  and  were  even  exported 
abroad. 


The  Tunafors  Factories  at  Eskilstuna. 

The  so-called  Eskilstuna  work,  which  is  specially  characteristic  for  the 
town,  includes  manufactures  of  iron,  steel,  and  other  metals,  such  as 
knives,  scissors,  hinges,  locks,  mountings,  hooks,  and  other  wrought  iron 
articles  for  building  purposes,  files,  hammers,  tongs,  gimlets,  saw-blades, 
pitch-forks,  spades,  household  articles,  skates,  fancy  goods,  etc.  The 
Eskilstuna  work  has,  in  recent  decades,  more  and  more  developed  into  a 
great  industry,  inasmuch  as  the  small  forg-es  have  had  to  give  place  to 
large  factories.  New  and  improved  machines  have  been  acquired,  and 
during  the  last  ten  years  alone  about  twenty  new  factories  have  been 
established.  Among  the  manufactures  which  have  been  added  in  recent 
years  may  be  mentioned  household  articles  of  pressed  iron,  copper,  brass, 
nickel,  and  aluminium,  automatic  blind-rollers,  drawing  instruments  and 
cases  of  compasses,  steel  for  chisels  and  planes,  screw  tools,  and  spiral 
drills  of  American  pattern. 


THE   ESKILSTUNA    INDUSTRY. 


4(51 


Owing  to  the  efforts  of  the  manufacturers  to  keep  their  products  on  a 
level  with  increasing  requirements  in  respect  of  appearance  and  quality, 
the  demand  in  the  country  for  articles  of  this  kind  can  now  be  satisfied  by 
home  manufacture.  A  considerable  proportion  of  the  finer  wrought  iron 
articles  was  formerly  imported,  especially  from  Sheffield  (England)  and 
Solingen  (Germany).  Eskilstuna  has  also  been  called,  not  without  reason, 
the  Sheffield  of  Sweden. 


The  Tvnafors  Factories  at  Eskilstuna.     Interior 


The  present  extent  of  the  metal  industrj-  at  Eskilstuna  and  neighbour- 
hood (the  parishes  of  Fors  and  Kloster)  may  be  seen  by  the  following 
figures.  In  1912  the  total  number  of  factories  amounted  to  113,  in 
which  altogether  i  403  workmen  were  employed,  and  products  to  the  value 
of  about  17-0  million  kronor  were  manufactured. 

Several  of  the  factories  also  possess  foundries  and  mechanical  works, 
so  that  Eskilstuna  is,  on  the  whole,  one  of  the  most  important  industrial 
centres  in  Sweden.  The  largest  establishments  are  those  of  Munktell, 
mentioned  several  times  above,  and  Tunafors,  which  is  situated  near  the 
town. 

In  connection  with  Eskilstuna,  we  may  mention  the  State  rifle  factory 
t^arl  Gustavs  stads  gevarsfaktori,  situated  quite  near  the  town,  which 
was  established  in  1814.     It  employs  400  workmen  and  has  an  output  of 


462 


VII.      MANUFACTURING   INDUSTRIES. 


1-4  million  kroner.  It  manufactures  rifles  and  carbines  for  the  Govern- 
ment. This  and  the  Huskvarna  arms  factory  are  the  only  rifle  factories 
in  the  country. 


Gold,  Silver,  and  Tin  (pewter)  Articles. 

The  official  statistics  for  1912  include  19  gold  and  silver  factories,  with 
776  employees  and  a  total  output  of  2  817  000  kronor.  With  regard  to  the 
manufacture  of  gold,  silver,  and  tin  articles  in  the  Kingdom  quantitive  returns 
are  also  available  as  far  back  as  1754,  that  is  to  say,  probably  going  further 
back  than  in  any  other  country.  As  early  as  the  middle'  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, hall-marks  were  introduced  in  Sweden  for  gold,  silver,  and  tin  articles.  This 
hall-marking,  which  was  effected  by  the  Eonirollverhet  (Assay  Office),  was  em- 
ployed for  the  articles  manufactured  in  Sweden  from  1754  to  1913  to  the 
extent  shown  by  the  following  table,  the  quantities  being  given  in  kilograms. 


Annually 

Gold 

Silver 

1754— 60  «.    . 

10-69 

3  302 

1761—70  .    . 

8-29 

2  900 

1771—80  .    . 

9-74 

2  763 

1781-90  .    . 

19-64 

3  476 

1791-00  .    . 

100-83 

5154 

1801-10  .    . 

120-65 

8  397 

1811—20  .    . 

95-93 

3  761 

1821-30  .    . 

57-33 

3183 

1881-40  .    . 

70-73 

3«i8 

1841—50  .    . 

88-29 

3  811 

Tin 

54  344 
52  408 
51259 
33  375 
28 148 
19  953 
14  277 
10713 
10  445- 
7  307 


Annually 

1851—60 
1861—70 
1871—80 
1881—90 
1891-00 
1901-10 


1911, 
1912  , 
1913. 


Gold 

Silver 

Tin 

127-88 

4812 

4780 

145-19 

3  014 

2  490 

259-55 

2  570 

828 

292-51 

1630 

290 

449-62 

2  910 

90 

772-55 

6  621 

2 

877-11 

8534 



946-84 

9  758 



1 008-59 

10  336 

— 

During  the  170  years  from  1754  to  1913,  of  the  articles  manufaetured  in 
Sweden,  altogether  29  113-33  kg  of  gold,  585  626  kg  of  silver,  and  2  744  040 
kg    of  tin,    have    been  hall-marked.    (Tin  is  not  to  be  hall-marked  since  1913.) 

The  production  of  gold  and  silver  articles  in  Sweden  has  of  late  years  made 
marked  progress.  Among  the  firms  engaged  in  this  industry,  may  be  specially 
mentioned  Ouldsmedsahtieholaget,  Mollenborg,  and  Hallberg,  of  Stockholm,  and 
Dahlgren,  ai  Malmo. 


Instruments,  Clocks,  and  Watches. 

The  manufacture  of  instruments  and  clocks  has  gro-wn  to  very  consider- 
able proportions  in  S-weden,  and  there  is  an  important  export  trade,  as 
shown  in  Tables  95 — 97. 

In  1912  Sweden  possesed  55  musical  instruments  factories  -with  840 
-workmen  and  a  production  value  of  3  305  000  kr.  Both  organ  and  piano 
manufactories  have  risen  to  a  high  state  of  perfection  and  the  manufacture 
of  organs  is  of  considerable  proportions.  Special  mention  may  be  made 
of  J.  G.  Malmsjo  ahtieholag  and  Billbergs  pianofahrik  in  Gothenburg, 
Pianofabriksaktiebolaget  Gustafson  &  Ljungqvist  in  Norrkoping,  Aktie- 
bolaget  Ostlind  S  Almqvist  in  Arvika,  -which  makes  both  pianos  and  or- 
gans, and  ■  Akerman  &  Lund's  organ  works  in  Stockholm. 

There  are  4  surgical  instrument  works,  with  141  workmen  and  a  pro- 
duction valued  at  474  700  kronor.     There  is  an  illustration  in  the  article 


INSTRUMENTS,   CLOCKS,   AND   WATCHES. 


463 


"Hygiene  and  Care  of  the  Sick"  (p.  I,  277)  of  an  operating  table  made  by 
Alb.  SHlle  in  Stockholm;  this  table  is  considered  as  attaining  the  highest 
degree  of  perfection  known. 


The  Halda  Watch  Factori 


Seientiflc  instruments  (mathematical,  optical,  physical,  etc.)  made  in 
Sweden  have  attained  a  very  high  standard  of  technical  perfection.  Se- 
veral of  Fr.  J.  Berg's  instruments  are  renowned.  Mention  may  be  made 
of  the  levelling  instruments,  constructed  by  the  founder  of  the  firm 
and  highly  esteemed  for  their  easy  manipulation  and  strength.  The 
late  instrument-maker  to  the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences,  P.  M. 
Sorensen,  of  Stockholm,  has  manufactured  a  number  of  exceedingly  fine 
scientific  instruments,  among  which  may  specially  be  remarked  A.  G. 
Theorell's  meteorograph,  which  registers  temperature,  barometric  con- 
dition, and  the  velocity  and  direction  of  the  wind,  by  means  of  an  auto- 
matic pressure  apparatus,  giving  the  result,  not  by  means  of  curves,  but  of 
ordinary  figures.  The  apparatus,  which  is  one  of  the  most  marvellous 
of  inventions,  has  come  into  use  in  several  countries;  for  example,  Brazil 
has  4;  but,  on  account  of  the  considerable  cost  of  manufacture,  its  more 
general  use  is  hindered.  —  The  total  number  of  factories  employed  in  the 
manufacture  of  scientific  instruments  amounted  to  15  in  1912,  employing 
178  hands,  and  with  a  value  of  output  of  420  600  kroner. 

Among  the  wateh  and  clock  manufactories,  mention  may  be  made  of 
the  Halda  factory,  illustrated  above.     Tn  Stockholm  there  are  the  well- 


464  VII.      MANUFACTURING   INDUSTRIES. 

known  manufactories  owned  respectively  by  G.  W.  Linderoth  and  F.  W. 
Tornberg.  Including  factories  for  the  manufacture  of  clock  parts  Sweden 
has  7  watch  and  clock  factories,  employing  137  workmen  and  with  an 
output  of  the  value  of  220  000  kronor.  The  imports  and  exports  are  shown 
in  Tables  95  and  97.  While  on  the  subject  of  watch  and  clock  manufac- 
ture it  may  be  stated,  in  conclusion,  that  the  higly  esteemed  chronometer 
manufacturer  in  London,  V.  Kullberg,  is  a  Swede. 


11.    OTHER  INDUSTRIES. 

Of  the  industries  comprehended  statistics  under  this  heading  in  the  offi- 
cial factory  (embracing,  in  1912,  a  total  of  814  factories  with  11  929 
employees  and  a  production  value  of  59  650  000  kronor),  the  greater 
number  are  of  inconsiderable  extent.  In  this  category  are  included,  how- 
ever, establishments  for  electric  lighting  as  well  as  the  graphic  industry, 
which  deserve  a  more  detailed  treatment. 


Electro-technical  Industry. 

Whilst,  not  more  than  some  ten  years  ago,  a  considerable  part  of  the 
electrical  machinery  and  apparatus  in  use  in  Sweden  was  imported, 
nowadays  the  home  production  exhibits  a  gratifying  improvement,  with 
the  result  that  there  is  now  only  a  very  inconsiderable  import  of  electrical 
machinery;  though  apparatus,  instxuments,  and  installation-material  are 
still  imported  in  rather  large  quantities.  On  the  whole,  there  was  an  exces.s 
of  imports  of  about  5'7  million  kronor  in  1913. 

Allmdnna  svenska  eleldrisha  aktiebolaget,  in  Vasteras,  is  the  oldest  and  larg- 
est factory  in  the  country  for  the  production  of  electrical  machines,  transformers, 
and  apparatus.  The  undertaking,  which  dates  from  1883,  began  its  develop- 
ment by  taking  up  and  manufacturing  the  dynamos  invented  and  patented  by 
Jonas  Wenstrom,  and  it  has  subsequently  continued  to  expand.  Electric  lifts 
and  cranes,  trams,  and  locomotives  are  also  produced  there.  In  1913,  electrical 
machines  amounting  to  about  11  000  in  number  and  460  000  h.  p.  capacity  were 
constructed  there,  and  the  number  of  hands  employed  was  3  287.  The  total 
turnover  was  25'B  million  kronor.  The  company  carries  on  an  extensive  export 
trade  with  the  Scandinavian  countries,  Russia,  England,  Spain,  Canada,  South 
America,  and  other  countries. 

Other  firms  that  manufacture  all  types  of  electrical  machines  are  Luth  och 
Rosens  eleMriska  aktieholag,  of  Stockholm  (founded  1897)  and  Nya  fbrenade 
elektriska  aktiebolaget,  of  Ludvika,  (founded  1900).  In  1912,  the  latter  firm 
turned  out  2  914  electrical  machines,  with  a  generating-capacity  of  126  390 
h.  p.  The  total  number  of  employees  amounted  to  850.  The  production  of 
small  motors  on  a  large  scale  has  been  taken  up  by  Motor fahriken  Eck,  of 
Gothenburg,  who  have  reached  a  high  standard  of  perfection  with  this  speci- 
ality. 


ELECTRIC   POWER   INDUSTRY. 


465 


All  kinds  of  electrical  apparatus  are  now  produced  by  the  three  largest  of  the 
above-mentioned  firms.  Electrical  instruments  are  manufactured  by  Graham 
Brothers,  a  firm  also  known  for  its  electric  lifts.  Considerable  quantities  of 
electric  wiring  are  produced  by  Max  Sieverts  fahriks  aktiebolag,  Sundbyberg,  and 
by  Liljeholmens  TcabelfabriJcs  aktiebolag,  Stockholm.  The  first-named  firm, 
which  was  founded  in  1888,  has  also,  in  recent  years,  taken  up  the  manufac- 
ture of  the  important  articles  iron-  and  lead-armatured  cables.  The  value  of 
the  output  for  1912  amounted  to  over  3   million  kroner. 

Porcelain  insulators  are  manufactured  by  the  Borstrand  porcelain  factory,  and 
to  some  extent  by  the  Gustavsberg  porcelain  factory.  Insulating  tubes  are  made 
by  Elektriska  rorfabriken,  Sodertalje. 

Storage  batteries  are  manufactured  on  the  alkali  principle  by  Nya  aktiebolaget 
Jungnerackumulaiorn,  whose  products  are  rather  extensively  used  for  electric 
locomotives,  in  service  within  industrial  establishments  and  for  similar  traction 
purposes.     Lead  accumulators  are  imported. 


Workshop  of  the  Allmdnna  Svenska  Elektriska  Aktiebolaget  (A.  S.  E.  A.),  Vdsterds. 


Electric  Power  Industry. 

Ever  since  the  introduction  of  electricity  has  made  it  possible  to 
transmit  power  over  great  distances,  important  industrial  undertakings 
have  been  established,  in  Sweden  as  elsewhere,  with  the  object  of 
transmitting  and  distributing  power  from  central  sources.  Thus  the 
possession  of  water-power  has,  in  Sweden,  given  rise  to  a  power-industry 
which  has  greatly  developed  during  the  .last  20  years.     The  first  really 

iO— 133179.  Sweden.  II. 


466 


VII.      MANUFACTURING   INDUSTRIES. 


considerable  transmission  of  power  was  that  effected  in  1892 — 93,  betweea 
Hdllsjon  power-station  and  the  Grdngesberg  mines.  The  power  transmitted 
amounted  to  300  h.  p.,  the  tension  being  9  000  volts,  and  the  distance  14 
kilometers.  During  the  following  ten  years, ,  a  great  number  of  similar 
undertakings  were  started,  chiefly  for  mining  and  factory  service. 

At  the  same  time,  in  a  good  number  of  towns  and  other  populous  places, 
local  central  stations  were  erected,  chiefly  for,  lighting  purposes;  in  somer 
cases  they  were  driven  by  water-power,  though  more  generally  by  steam. 
The  first  municipal  steam  central  station  in  Stockholm  city  was  erected 
in  1891 — 92.  (It  may  be  mentioned  as  a  curiosity  that  Hamosand  was 
the  first  town  in  Europe  to  establish  —  in  1885  —  an  electric  generating 
plant  for  street  lighting.) 


Power  Station,  Trollhdttan. 


Finally,  during  the  last  ten  years,  a  large  number  of  power  plants 
have  been  established,  which  distribute  energy  over  wide  areas  of  the 
country  to  a  number  of  industries  and  communes,  and  from  whose  chief 
mains  secondary  supply-lines  radiate  for  the  purpose  of  local  distribution, 
for  the  lighting  of  houses,  for  sma,ller  industrial  undertakings,  agricul- 
ture, etc.  The  most  important  plant  of  this  kind  is  that  at  the  Troll- 
hatte  falls,  which  is  State-owned  and  has  a  total  capacity  of  about  83  000 
h.  p.  In  Skane  and  the  neighbouring  parts,  SydsvensJca  kraftahtie- 
bolaget  distributes  energy  over  a  wide  area  (including  the  larger  towns). 
In  Blekinge  and  east  Skane  there  is  a  large  power-distributing  enter- 
prise, Hemsjo  hraftaktiebolag ,  and  in  Vastergotland  there  are  two,  both 


ELECTRIC   POWER  INDUSTRY. 


467 


Table  98.    Some  more  Prominent  Plants,  distributing  Electric  Energy  over 

Long-Distance  Lines. 


Plants 


H.    p.  generated 

Trans- 

Water 

steam 

voltage 

50  000 

80  000 

5  000 

— 

40  000 

9  400 

. 

35  000 

4  525 

— 

6  000 

9150 



40  000 

3  300 

— 

20  000 

4  000 

— 

40  000 

2100 

1000 

7  000 

8  000 

— 

20  000 

19  200 

— 

50  000 

3  870 

500 

10  000 

56  250 

— 

70  000 

37  000 

— 

100  000 



40  000 

6  000 

3  045 

_ — 

33  000 

6  750 

650 

33  000 

3100 

— 

40  000 

16  950 

— 

40  000 

3  420 

— 

40  000 

4  200 

— 

15  000 

82  700 

— 

50  000 

8  500 

7  750 

4000Q 

7100 

1800 

33  000 

3  000 

— 

30  000 

27  000 

7  000 

40  000 

8  500 

3  700 

40  000 

Porjus  kraftvork  (owned  by  the  State) ' 

Sikfors  kraftaktiebolag 

Finnforsens  kraftverk  (SkellefteS,  city) 

KlabbBle  kraftverk  (UmeS.  city) 

Forsse  fabrik  och  kraftstation 

Wii  elektriska  aktiebolag   . 

Adolf  Ungers  industriaktiebolag 

Bergvik  och  Ala  nya  aktiebolag 

Horndals  jarnverksaktiebolag 

Vasterdalalfvens  kraftaktiebolag 

Aktiebolaget  Ludvika  bruksagare 

Alykarleby  kraftverk  (owned  by  the  State)'  .    .    . 

Untra  kraftverk  (Stockholm  city)' 

Vartans  kraftverk  (Stockholm  city) 

Virsbo — Ramnas  kraftaktiebolag 

Gnldsmedshytte  aktiebolag. 

Orebro  elektriska  aktiebolag 

Kiaftaktiebolaget  Gnllsping — Mnnkfors 

Aktiebolaget  Knutsbro  kraftstation 

Skarblacka  aktiebolag 

Trollhatte  kraftverk  (owned  by  the  State)  .... 

Yngeredsfors  kraftaktiebolag 

Sor&s  stads  elektricitetsvery 

Stenkvill — Klinte  kraftaktiebolag 

Sydavenska  kraftaktiebolaget 

Hemsjo  kraftaktiebolag 

'  Under  constrnction.  —  ^  Partly  under  construction. 

of  considerable  importance,   namely,   Kraftaktiebolaget   Gullspdng-Munk- 
fors  and  Yngereds  kraftaktiebolag.    In  Table  98  are  assembled  more  de- 


^77 


Transmission  Cost,  in  kr.  per  kiloivatt,  at  diffe- 
(^^  rent  Outputs  and  Distances. 


f20 

too 


80 
60 

20 


\ 

l\ 

i 

\ 

s^ 

-X 

-^ 

— 

eoofwi 

-^ 

•■-^ 

^ookm 

^Okm 

lookm 

■200km 

moo 


30000        50000        70000 


iw: 


468'  VII.      MANUEAOTUKING   INDUSTRIES. 

Table  99.     Electric  Plants  and  Energy  Production  in  1912. 


Plants 

Number 

of 
plants 

Driving  power  h.  p.  eff. 

Total 
h.  p. 

Energy  prod. 

Millions  of 

kilo-watt- 

bours 

water 

steam 

oil,  gas 

Communal  central  stations  and 
sub-stations 

Power  plants  (distributing  com- 
panies and  industrial  works) 

Total 

181 
381 

15696 
416  628 

40  670 

80  277 

9  430 
7  043 

65  796 
503  948 

55-69 
1 055-48 

662 

432324 

120947 

16473 

569  744 

111117 

tailed  particulars  concerning  these  and  a  number  of  other  similar  under- 
takings (the  figures  given  refer  to  the  end  of  the  year  1913). 


The  Generator  House  of  the  Trollhattan  Water-Power  Station. 


In  Table  99  some  figures  are  given  concerning  the  total  electric  energy 
production  in  1912.  At  the  same  time  the  total  length  of  the  long-distance 
transmission  lines,  known  to  the  inspectors  of  the  State,  amounted  to  6  757  km. 

From  the  figures  given  can  be  gauged  the  great  importaSce  of  the  transmis- 
sion of  electric  energy  for  the  industrial  development  of  the  country,  an  impor- 
tance that  will  increase  more  and  more  with  the  progress  of  technics.  The 
highest  tension  in  use  is  50  000  volts,  but  at  present  (1914)  some  80  000  and 
100  000  volts  transmission  lines  are  about  to  be  installed.  In  America,  however, 
experience  has  shown  that  there  are  no  technical  obstacles  to  the  transmission  of 


ELECTRIC    POWER   INDUSTRY. 


469 


0  —  lOOOh.p 
•     1000—  5  000  I. 

1  5  000-10  000  . 
■  10  000—20  000  > 

Long-distance 

lines. 


12  ESI  de  Grewiw. 


Ostl.v.Qr^enw. 


Gen  Stab.  LitAnst  Stockholm 


470  ■  VII.      MANUFACTURING   INDUSTRIES. 

100  000 — 150  000  volts.  With  this  tension,  transmission  over  a  distance  of  some 
500  kilometers  can  be  effected,  e.  g.,  from  Indalsalven  to  the  middle  of  Sweden. 
The  cost  would  not  work  out  particularly  high  per  h.  p.,  provided  the  energy- 
consumption  called  for  were  sufficiently  great.  The  cost  of  transmission,  rela- 
tively to  the  power  transmitted,  appears  from  the  appended  diagram  (based  on 
calculations  by  Centervall  and  Rossander).  The  cost  is  given  in  kronor  per 
kilo-watt  (1  kilo-watt  =  1'36  h.  p.)  per  year.  In  these  figures  are  included  the 
transformation  cost  at  both  ends  of  the  line.  The  shape  of  the  curves  indicates 
how  the  transmission-  (and  distribution-)  cost  rises  when  less  considerable  quan- 
tities of  power  are  transmitted. 

The  effective  power-cost  is  the  total  of  the  transmission-  and  distribution-cost, 
on  the  one  hand,  and  the  production-cost,  on  the  other.  In  the  case  of  water- 
power,  the  production-cost  involves  interest  on  the  value  of  the  fall,  interest  on 
and  amortization  of  the  money  invested  in  the  construction  of  the  plant.  Under 
the  conditions  prevailing  in  Sweden,  the  construction-cost  can  (according  to 
engineer  Sven  Liibeck)  be  estimated  at  an  average  of  250 — 350  kronor  per  h.  p., 
giving  an  annual  cost  of  25  to  35  kr.  per  h.  p.  Thus  the  price  of  energy  will 
vary  from  a  minimum  of  about  25  kr.  per  h.  p.,  in  the  case  of  large  supplies 
for  industrial  purposes,  to  100  kr.  and  more,  in  the  case  of  small  quantities  of 
distributed  energy. 

As  a  rule,  the  demand  for  energy  from  the  consumers  is  not  a  constant  one, 
but  varies  from  month  to  month  and  from  hour  to  hour.  A  water-driven  gene- 
rating plant,  as  a  rule,  is  subject  to  considerable  variation  in  the  water-flow 
according  to  the  time  of  year.  In  order  to  secure  something  like  correspondence 
between  the  demand  for  and  the  supply  of  power,  it  is  necessary  either  to 
regulate  the  water-flow  —  day-regulation  by  collecting  the  water  in  small  reser- 
voirs, or  year-regulation  by  damming  the  water  up  in  large  lakes  —  or  the 
station  must  be  supplied  with  auxiliary  machinery  driven  by  power  other  than  water. 
Such  auxiliary  machinery  also  renders  good  service  in  the  case  of  fault  on  the 
transmission-line,  when  placed  at  the  receiver  end.  Indeed,  several  of  the  plants 
mentioned  have  erected  auxiliary  stations,  generally  steam-driven.  Since  the 
production-cost  of  steam-power  depends  almost  entirely  on  the  cost  of  fuel, 
while  the  cost  of  water-power  chiefly  depends  on  the  capacity  of  the  station, 
a  combination  of  water-power  for  the  normal  load  with  steam-power  for  peak- 
load  has  been  found  to  be  a  good  economical  arrangement.  This  is  particularly 
the  case  with  central  stations  with  light-load,  such  as  communal  stations.  The 
light-load  generally  has  a  "load-factor"  of  only  about  1  500  hours  out  of  the 
8  760  hours  of  the  year,  and  factories  working  during  the  day  only  require  the 
supply  during  2  600  to  3  000  hours  in  the  year.  Certain  industries,  again,  such 
as  mills,  wood-pulp  mills,  etc.  consume  energy  during  nearly  1  000  hours  in 
the  year.  These  facts,  and  what  has  been  said  above  as  to  the  cost  of  water- 
power  as  compared  with  steam-power,  tend  to  show  the  economical  advantages 
of  water-power  in  industrial  development. 

It  is  also  clear  from  what  has  been  said  that  water-power  in  use  only  for  a 
few  hours  of  the  year,  as  for  electric  lighting,  agriculture,  etc.,  will  be  rather 
expensive.  In  these  cases  also  the  rather  complicated  and  expensive  distributing 
systems  must  set  limits  to  the  use  of  water-power.  In  more  populous  districts, 
however,  it  has  been  possible  to  establish  such  distribution  with  economic  suc- 
cess, and  in  several  parts  of  the  country  electric  energy  is  used  for  threshing, 
pumping,  etc.,  in  a  few  cases,  even  for  ploughing. 

The  use  of  electrical  energy  for  electro-chemical  purposes  (see  Electrochemical 
Industry)  and  for  electric  smelting-furnaces  for  iron,  steel,  zinh,  etc.  is  increasing 
rapidly.  For  purely  heating  purposes,  such  as  in  houses,  electricity  is  only  suitable 
where    the  energy   can   be  obtained  at  a  particularly  low  price  (surplus  energy). 


ELECTRIC   POWER   INDUSTRY. 

Table  100.     Consumption  of  Electric  Energy  in  Totvns 
15  000  Inhabitants.     1911. 


471 

with  more  than 


Opened 
in 


Driving 
power 


Consumers'  installation  in  kilo-watts 
per  1  000  inhab. 


light 


power 
etc. 


trams 


total 


Consump- 
tion per 
inhab.  in 
kilowatt- 
liours 


Stockholm . 
Gothenburg 

Malmo    .    . 

Norrkoping 

Gavle  .    .    . 

Halsingborg 

Orebro  .  . 
Eskilstuna 

Karlskrona 

Jonkoping  . 

Uppsala  .    . 

Boris  .    .  . 

Land  .    .  . 

Vasteris  . 

Halnastad  . 

Linkiiping  . 
Karlstad  . 
Snndsvall  . 

Landskrona 
Kalmar  .    . 


1892 
1908 

1901 

1904 

1903 

1891 

1886 
1895 

1907 

1907 

1906 

189i 

1907 

1905 

1890 

1903 
1906 
1891 

1908 
1908 


steam 

f    water    \ 

\    steam    | 

I    water    \ 

\    steam    ( 

I     water    I 

\  Dieselm./ 

j    water    \ 

\  Dieselm.  J 

water    I 

steam    [ 

Dieselm.) 

water 

steam 

j.   water    \ 

\  Dieselm.  f 

steam 
I  Dieselm.  I 
I  gas  eng.  | 
j  steam  1 
(  water  / 
I  water  1 
\  Dieselm./ 
/  water  1 
1^  Dieselm./ 
/  water  I 
\  steam  ( 
f  water  1 
\  Dieselm./ 
water 
water  \ 
steam  J 
(  water  \ 
\  Dieselm./ 
Dieselm. 


67-03 

sao.'i 

48-81 
41-30 
27-98 

44-39 
45-39 

13-68 
29-21 
19-41 
43-17 

55-08 

28-21 

83-30 

42-87 

36-92 
32-77 
50-34 

29-96 
19-69 


45-36 
37-30 

120-64 

41-75 

32-41 

45-65 

51-92 
8-12 

19-10 

11-66 

33-93 
58-62 
40-62 
17-30 

25-45 

52-55 
64-40 
26-66 

74-90 
13-52 


16-80 
24-80 

19-40 

14-76 

14-15 

10-75 


6-36 
11-90 
14-20 


23-70 


135-10 
133-20 

190-08 

98-50 

75-90 

102-00 

98-40 
21-96 

54-70 

43-25 

92-40 

113-90 

79-90 
50-60 
69-00 
90  80 

98-00 

101-06 

105-20 
34-60 


59-00 
122-10 

208-00 

54-60 

30-46 

61-05 

85-90 
8-38 

15-48 

19-88 

34-85 

96-68 

39-90 

23-00 

36-39 

106-80 
53-87 

121-92 
9-11 


A]  considerable  number  of  local  central  stations  exist  in  towns,  communes, 
and  larger  populated  places.  Not  less  than  90  \  of  the  towns  of  Sweden  are 
equipped  with  electric  central  stations,  most  of  them  being  communal  under- 
takings. 

In  the  older  town-plants,  steam  engines,  steam  turbines,  Diesel  motors,  gas 
■engines,  etc.,  were  installed,  but  later  on  also  water-power  was  used.  In  1909, 
75  %  of  the  communal  plants  depended  on  water-power;  in  64  %  heat-engines 
were  installed:  thus  39  %  worked  with  combined  systems. 

At  first,  electric  energy  was  distributed  within  towns  by  means  of  continuous 
■current,  the  generating  units  being  paralleled  by  storage  batteries.  Nowadays 
the  direct  distribution  of  alternating  current  has  been  more  and  more  adopted. 
'Of  the  above-mentioned  townplants,  66  %  used  continuous  current,  and  59  J^ 
alternating  current;  thus   35  %  employed  both  systems. 

Electric  light  has  become  more  and  more  general,  thanks  to  the  appearance 
and  improvement  of  the  metal  filament  lamps.  Owing  to  the  small  consumption 
of  current  by  these  lamps,  electric  light  has  become  as  cheap  as  oil  lamps. 
The    price    for    electric  energy  varies  between   25   ore  and  45   ore  per  kilo-watt- 


472  VII.      MANUFACTURING  INDUSTRIES. 

hour  (generally  somewhere  in  the  neighbourhood  of  35  or  40  ore  per  kilo- watt- 
hour).  The  rate  for  small  motors  is  15  to  30  ore,  generally  about  20  ore  per 
kUo-watt-hour.  For  big  consumers  a  great  number  of  combined  rates  have  been 
brought  into  use. 

Electric  trams  are  running  in  ten  of  the  larger  towns  of  Sweden. 

In  Table  100  are  assembled  particulars  referring  to  the  progress  of  the  elec- 
tric central  station  development  (from  the  statistics  of  the  Union  of  the  Electric 
Generating  Industry). 


Electro-chemical  Industry. 

Since  the  electro-chemical  industry  has,  on  account  of  Sweden's  copious 
supply  of  "white  coal",  teen  called  the  future  industry  of  the  country, 
we  have  thought  it  advisable  to  deal  collectively  and  from  a  general  point 
of  view  with  a  number  of  branches  of  this  industry,  even  though  they 
have  been  treated  in  some  other  part  of  this  work. 

By  electro- chemical  industry  is  understood,  according  to  established 
ideas,  all  industry  in  which  chemical  products  are  obtained  with  the  aid  of 
electricity.  Such  production  can  take  place  in  two  ways.  Either  electricity 
can  be  employed  solely  as  a  source  of  heat  —  such  processes  are  called 
electro-thermic  —  or  it  is  possible  to  utilize  the  capacity  of  the  electric 
current  to  decompose  compounds,  by  electrolytic  processes.  In  respect  of 
the  products  obtained,  it  is  also  possible  to  divide  electro-chemical  methods 
into  electro-metallurgical  methods,  which  aim  at  the  production  of  metals 
or  alloys,  and  such  methods  as  are  used  for  obtaining  chemicals.  For  the 
latter  division  there  is  no  particularly  suitable  name. 

The  electro-chemical  industry  has  developed  rapidly  in  Sweden  and  is 
still  growing  at  a  quick  rate.  It  would,  however,  doubtless  already  now 
have  been  of  greater  importance  than  it  is,  had  not  the  water  legislation 
greatly  prevented  the  utilization  of  the  natural  resources  of  the  country. 
This  state  of  affairs  has,  on  the  other  hand,  resulted  in  the  circumstance 
that  only  a  small  proportion  of  Swedish  water-power  has  hitherto  been 
acquired  by  foreigners. 

After  these  preliminary  remarks,  we  will  proceed  to  give  a  detailed 
account  of  the  Swedish  electro-chemical  industry. 

Electro-nietallurgical  products.  Pig-iron,  steel,  and  iron  alloys.  With 
regard  to  the  production  of  pig-iron,  steel,  and  iron  alloys  (priucipally  ferro- 
silicon  and  ferro-manganese-silicon)  an  account  is  given  under  the  heading  "Iron 
and  Steel  Industry",  see  page  263. 

Zinc  and  lead.  To  produce  zinc  by  heating  roasted  zinc  ore  with  charcoal  in 
electric  furnaces,  instead  of  in  small  retorts  of  burnt  clay,  according  to  the  old- 
fashioned  method,  is  a  very  alluring  task.  The  electric  furnaces  can  be  built  of 
large  size  and  can  be  fed  continuously;  they  are  also  durable,  as  the  charge  protects 
the  walls  of  the  furnace  against  too  great  heating  by  the  source  of  heat  (electric 
arc),  which  is  situated  in  its  interior.  An  economy  in  the  cost  of  work  and 
in  material  is  thus  effected.  The  heat  can  further  be  better  utilized,  on  account 
of  the  source  of  heat  being  placed  in  the  interior  of  the  furnace.  Finally,  it 
does  not  matter  if  the  charge  contains  a  large  percentage  of  lead  (in  which  case 


ELECTRO-CHEMICAL  INDUSTRY. 


473 


Eleetro-chemical 
Factories. 


Factory. 


ObU.v  OrcFTnv 


Oen.StaO  LilAnsiStockholm 


■474  VII.      MANUFACTURING   INDUSTRIES. 

■clay  retorts  suffer  damage),  as  on  the  contrary,  in  the  electric  furnace,  the  lead 
is  distilled  together  with  the  zinc.  In  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  unit  of 
heat  produced  electrically  is  dearer  than  that  produced  from  fuel,  the  electric 
production  of  zinc  has  nevertheless  been  the  object  of  numerous  experiments. 
Among  the  few  which  have  led  to  any  result  are  those  conducted  by  the  famous 
.Swedish  inventor,  O.  de  Laval,  whose  method  has,  however,  now  been  modified. 


Direct  Current  Generators.     Chlorate  Works  at  Mansbo. 

The  electrical  manufacture  of  zinc  is  carried  on  in  the  country  on  a  large 
•scale  by  this  method  at  Trollhattan,  at  the  works  of  the  Elektrotermiska 
Aktiebolaget.  This  company  started  in  1910,  with  a  power  of  1  000  electric 
iorse-power;  in  1912  buildings  were  constructed  for  a  further  11  000  horse- 
power, so  that  the  capacity  of  the  works  is  now  18  000  h.  p.  A  part  of  the 
zinc  is  re-distilled,  so  as  to  form  zinc  of  a  very  high  degree  of  purity  (99 '96  ^), 
which  is  used  for  producing  brass  and  other  alloys.  A  number  of  iron  alloys 
are  also  manufactured.  In  1911  the  production,  not  including  ferro-alloys, 
.amounted  to-': 

Tons  Talne,  kr. 

Lead  (incl.  tin-lead  and  silver-lead) 367  99  000 

Spelter 1 572  ,                 668  000 

Commercial  zinc 106  48  000 

Pure  zinc 2  017  1  069  000 

In  the  year  1913,  6  851  tons  of  zinc  and  191  tons  of  lead  were  manu- 
d'actured. 


'  Values  obtained  from  the  factories;  not  included  in  the  official  statistics.    Overlapping 
not  excluded. 


ELECTRO-CHEMICAL    INDUSTRY.  475 

Silver  refining.  The  Sala  mine  possesses  a  small  plant  for  the  electrolytic 
lefining  of  silver,  obtained  from  the  argentiferous  lead  ore  of  that  place. 

Chemical  Products.  Carbide  and  Cyanamide.  The  Alby  Karbidfabriks 
Aktiebolag  was  founded  in  1901,  and  its  works  are  situated  at  Alby  railway 
station,  on  the  river  Ljungan,  about  l».'i  kilometers  to  the  west  of  Sundsvall. 
Immediately  to  the  east  of  the  railway  station,  the  Ljungan  forms  a  fall  of 
22  meters,  from  which  power  amounting  to  about  7  000  electric  horse-power  is 
obtained.  The  place  was  formerly  uninhabited,  but  since  the  carbide  factory 
and  the  chlorate  works  mentioned  below  were  erected,  a  community  of  about 
1  600  inhabitants  has  arisen  at  Alby. 

The  carbide  factory  uses  5  000  electric  h.  p.  from  the  waterfall  at  Alby.  In  1907, 
a  further  6  000  electric  h.  p.  was  harnessed  from  the  Ringdal  rapid,  situated 
about  2  kilometers  below  the  Alby  fall,-  and  this  power  was  taken  by  the  already 
existing  carbide  factory  at  Alby,  which  has  thus  a  total  capacity  of  11  000 
electric  h.  p.     In   1913  the  production  amounted  to   14  008  tons. 

In  1912,  a  cyanamide  factory  was  also  established  by  the  same  company  at 
Alby.  As  is  well  known,  cyanamide  is  manufactured  by  heating  finely  ground 
■carbide,  with  or  without  any  other  ingredient,  up  to  about  900°  C.  in  a  current 
of  pure  nitrogen,  whereupon  the  carbide  gives  off  half  of  its  carbon  in  the  form 
of  graphite,  and  combines  with  the  nitrogen  to  form  a  compound,  the  scientific 
name  of  which  is  calcium  cyanamide.  The  mixture  of  calcium  cyanamide,  gra- 
phite and  unchanged  carbide  thus  obtained,  together  with  the  impurities  of  the 
carbide,  .is  called  cyanamide.  The  percentage  of  nitrogen  may  amount  to  about 
20  %,  that  is  to  say,  as  much  as  in  ammonium  sulphate  and  more  than  in 
Chile  saltpetre  (15'b  %).  Cyanamide  can  be  ground  and  used  directly  as  a  nitro- 
gen fertilizer,  as  it  is  convei-ted  by  the  moisture  in  the  earth  into  ammonia  or 
salts  of  ammonia.  This  direct  application  is,  however,  combined  with  certain 
disadvantages.  For  instance,  cyanamide  must  be  strewn  out  a  week  before 
the  seed  is  sown,  so  as  to  allow  time  for  the  conversion  to  ammonia,  otherwise 
poisonous  effects  are  produced,  as  a  result  of  the  existence  of  unchanged  calcium 
cyanamide.  Unchanged  cyanamide  is  further  unpleasant  and  injurious  to  handle. 
It  appears,  therefore,  to  be  becoming  more  customary  to  heat  the  cyanamide  with 
water  or  steam,  so  as  to  expel  the  ammonia,  which  is  absorbed  in  sulphuric 
acid,  to  form  ammonium  sulphate. 

The  nitrogen  used  for  the  production  of  cyanamide  is  best  obtained  by  the 
fractional  distillation  of  liquid  air.  Numerous  organic  compounds  can  also  be 
obtained  from  calcium  cyanamide,  such  as  urea,  compounds  of  guanidine,  etc. 
Saltpetre  or  ammonium  nitrate  can  now  be  obtained  without  difficulty  from 
ammonia. 

The  output  of  cyanamide  at  Alby  amounted  in  J.913  to  16  350  tons. 

At  the  branch  of  the  Stockholms  Superfosfatfabriks  Aktiebolag,  situa- 
ted at  Mansbo,  near  Avesta,  on  the  Dalalven  (see  below  under  the  heading 
Chlorate),  a  small  carbide  factory  (about  650  h.  p.)  was  established,  at  about  the 
same  time  as  at  Alby.  Experiments  have  sipce  been  conducted  at  this  factory 
for  the  conversion  of  carbide  to  cyanamide.  These  experiments  have  led  to  the 
establishment  of  the  Ljunga  Works  by  the  same  company,  at  the  rapids  of  the 
Ljunga  River,  known  as  Johannesbergsfors  and  Hangstafors,  which  are  about  40 
meters  high,  and  which  are  situated  about  15  kilometers  below  Alby  (see  Figure 
page  428).  The  power  used  during  the  greater  part  of  the  year  amounts  to 
18  000  electric  h.  p.  As  about  I'B  tons  of  carbide  are  produced  per  electric 
horse-power  per  year,  i.  e.,  about  2  tons  of  20  %  cyanamide,  it  will  be  seen 
that  this  factory  has  a  very  considerable  capacity. 

Before  the  discovery  of  cyanamide,  carbide  was  employed  almost  exclusively 
&r    hghting    purposes,  as    it  produces  acetylene,  when  mixed   with  water.     This 


476 


VII.      MANUFACTURING  INDUSTRIES. 


fl 

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ELECTRO-CHEMICAL   INDUSTRY.  477 

method  of  lighting  has  been  used  at  only  a  few  places  in  Sweden  (e.  g.,  Strom- 
stad,  Enkoping),  one  reason  being  that  the  waterfalls  supply  a  ready  source  of 
electric  light.  The  carbide  intended  for  lighting  purposes  is,  therefore,  to  a  great 
extent,  exported,  principally  to  tropical  countries.  On  the  other  hand,  acetylene 
lighting  has  come  into  vogue  to  an  increased  extent  for  special  objects,  such  as 
motorcars  and  cycles,  and  not  least  for  railway-signals,  light-buoys,  and  lighthouses, 
in  accordance  with  Dalen's  inventions,  which  have  been  exploited  by  the  Aktie- 
bolaget  Gasaccumulator  (see  p.  452).  Acetylene-oxygen  blasts  are  also  considerably 
employed  for  welding  and  cutting  metals.  On  account  of  the  production  of  cyan- 
amide,  the  prospects  of  an  increased  production  of  carbide  have,  however,  been 
considerably  increased.  This  is  a  result  of  the  large  demand  for  combined 
nitrogen  for  fertilizing  purposes.  The  present  consumption  (1913)  of  Chile  saltpetre 
with  15'5  %  nitrogen  is  about  2  700  000  tons  per  year,  corresponding  to  420  000 
tons  of  combined  nitrogen,  and  for  ammonium  sulphate  with  20  %  of  combined 
nitrogen,  about  1  400  000  tons  per  year,  corresponding  to  280  000  tons  of  combi- 
ned nitrogen,  thus  making  a  total  of  TOO  000  tons  of  combined  nitrogen. 

Nitric  Acid.  The  methods  of  producing  nitric  acid  and  nitrate  by  oxidizing 
the  nitrogen  of  the  air,  at  a  high  temperature  in  electric  furnaces,  require  par- 
ticularly cheap  power  and  therefore  cannot  as  a  rule  compete,  for  instance,  with 
the  production  of  cyanamide,  so  long  as  no  cheap  method  is  discovered  of 
concentrating  the  diluted  nitric  acid  which  is  directly  obtained  in  the  process 
of  manufacture.  Attempts  in  this  direction  seem,  however,  to  have  been  success- 
ful in  recent  years.  As  already  mentioned,  it  is  also  possible  from  cyanamide 
to  obtain  ammonia,  and  therefrom  nitric  acid.  A  small  plant  for  the  manufacture 
of  nitric  acid  for  special  purposes  on  the  Birkeland-Eyde  method  is  to  be  found 
at  the  Ljunga  Works,  mentioned  above  as  belonging  to  the  Stockholms  Su- 
perfosfatfabriks  Aktiebolag. 

Alkali  and  Chloride  of  Lime.  The  Elektrokemiska  Aktiebolaget  employs 
at  its  factory  at  Bengtsfors,  in  Dalsland,  400  electric  horse-power  for  the  electro- 
lysis of  alkaline  chloride  solutions,  using  a  cathode  of  quicksilver.  By  this 
process  are  obtained  a  solution  of  potassium  hydrate  (caustic  potash)  or  sodium 
hydrate  (caustic  soda),  which  is  converted  into  solid  potassium  hydrate  or  sodium 
hydrate  by  evaporation,  and  chlorine,  which  is  converted  into  chloride  of  lime 
by  action  upon  slaked  lime.  Of  these  products,  the  following  quantities  can  be 
obtained  per  year,  with  the  above-mentioned  power:  900  tons  of  35  ^  chloride  of 
lime  (which  at  95  kronor  per  ton  is  worth  85  500  kronor),  250  tons  of  potassium 
hydrate  (which  at  400  kronor  per  ton  is  worth  100  000  kronor),  and  250  tons 
of  sodium  hydrate  (worth  about  50  000  kronor).  The  total  value  of  the  pro- 
ducts is  accordingly  235  500  kronor  per  year.  This  figure  is,  however,  too  low, 
as  the  alkaline  hydrates  are  sold  as  pure  products. 

The  electrolytic  production  of  caustic  alkalis  (potash  or  soda)  and  of  chloride 
of  lime,  which,  in  other  countries,  such  as  Germany  and  France,  has,  in  spite 
of  unfavourable  circumstances,  such  as  dearer  power,  almost  superseded  the  older 
purely  chemical  methods,  appears  to  have  prospects  of  development  in  Sweden 
to  a  much  greater  extent  than  has  hitherto  been  the  case,  especially  since  the 
advantage  has  been  seen  of  combining  this  industry  with  the  manufacture  of 
wood-pulp.  At  the  same  time  as  alkali  is  obtained  for  boiling  the  wood  (by  the 
soda  method),  the  chloride  of  lime  necessary  for  bleaching  the  wood-pulp  is  also 
obtained;  for  this  purpose,  the  method  of  electrolysing  a  solution  of  common 
salt  is  to  a  great  extent  used  in  America.  The  building  of  a  new  factory  for 
the  electrolysis  of  alkaline  chloride  solutions  has  now  (1914)  been  begun  by  the 
Stjerns  Aktiebolag,  at  Uddeholm,  in  Varmland. 

Bleaching  Liquor  (Sodium  Hypochlorite).  Another  form  of  the  electrolysis  of 
common    salt    takes    place    in    Sweden    in    connection    with  the    wood-pulp    in- 


478  VII.      MANUPACTUlUNii    INDUSTRIES. 

dustry,  namelj^  the  production  of  bleaching  agents  without  the  use  of  the 
alkali.  If,  on  the  electrolysis  of  a  solution  of  common  salt,  the  caustic  soda 
formed  at  the  negative  electrode  is  not  separated  by  a  diaphragm  from  the 
chlorine  which  is  formed  at  the  positive  electrode,  and  which  is  fairly  soluble 
in  water,  and  if  the  products  are  allowed  to  meet,  particularly  if  the  solution 
is  cold  and  not  perceptibly  alkaline,  the  result  is  at  first  a  solution  of  sodium 
hypochlorite,  which  is  an  efficacious  bleaching  agent,  exactly  as  is  chloride  of 
lime,  which  has  an  analogous    composition. 

Such  bleaching  liquor  is  produced  by  electrolysis  in  Siemens-Schuckert  appa- 
ratus, at  Billingsfors,  in  Dalsland,  by  the  Billingsfors  Aktiebolag,  for  the- 
purpose  of  bleaching  soda  pulp.  The  plant  consumes  400  electric  h.  p.,  and 
the  quantity  of  bleaching  liquor  produced  is  sufficient  to  bleach  the  annual 
production  of  soda  pulp,  which  amounts  to  4  000   or  5  000  tons. 

Chlorate  and  Perchlorate.  The  electrolysis  of  alkaline  chlorides  can  be  carried 
on  in  a  third  direction.  When  the  concentration  of  sodium  hypochlorite  has. 
reached  a  certain  limit,  it  begins  to  change  into  sodium  chlorate,  which  is- 
richer  in  oxygen,  while  at  the  same  time  a  quantity  of  chloride  is  again  formed; 
this  change  is  promoted  by  high  temperature,  and  by  the  solution  being  as  a 
rule  somewhat  more  strongly  alkaline  than  in  the  production  of  hypochlorite. 
In  the  electrolytic  production  of  chlorate  direct  from  a  chloride  solution,  a  high 
temperature  is  therefore  maintained,  and  the  solution  is  allowed  to  be  a  little  more- 
alkaline  than  in  the  manufacture  of  hypochlorite.  The  most  important  chlorate 
is  potassium  chlorate,  which  can  be  produced  either  directly  by  electrolysis  of 
a  solution  of  potassium  chloride,  or  by  the  electrolysis  of  a  solution  of  common  salt,, 
which  is  then  converted  into  sodium  chlorate ;  by  adding  potassium  chloride,  the 
less  soluble  chlorate  of  potash  is  precipitated,  while  common  salt  (sodium  chlo- 
ride) is  again  formed  in  the  solution.  Chlorate  of  potash  is  principally  used 
for  the  heads  of  matches,   but  also  for  fireworks  and  for  medicinal  purposes. 

The  electrolytic  method  of  producing  chlorate  of  potash  has  proved  so  su- 
perior to  the  older,  purely  chemical  method,  which  consisted  in  conducting  chlo- 
rine into  warm  lime-white  and  adding  potassium  chloride  to  the  solution  of  chlo- 
rate of  lime  thus  produced,  that  the  older  method  has  been  almost  entirely  su- 
perseded. 

The  first  electrochemical  chlorate  factory  in  Sweden,  and  the  second  in  the 
the  world,  was  established  in  1894,  at  the  branch  of  the  Stockholms  Super- 
fosfatfabriks  Aktiebolag,  at  Mansbo,  on  the  Avesta  Fall  of  the  Dalalven 
River.  This  took  place  on  the  initiative  of  the  managing  director  of  the 
company,  0.  '  Carlson,  who  has  been  one  of  the  most  active  pioneers  of  the 
electro-chemical  industry  in  Sweden  (cf.  above  under  the  heading  Carbide  and 
Cyanamide).  He  also  worked  out  the  method  employed.  The  manufacture  is 
carried  on  with  the  use  of  about  3  750  h.  p.,  and  about  2  000  tons  of  chlorates 
and  perchlorates  are  produced  annually,  of  a  value  of  1  270  000  kroner. 
Chlorate  of  potash  is  the  principal  product,  but  sodium  chlorate  and  other 
chlorates  and  perchlorates  are  also  produced.  Of  the  latter,  which  have  come  to  be 
used  as  explosives,  sodium  perchlorate  is,  for  instance,  obtained,  simply  by  a 
continued  electrolysis  of  a  sohition  of  sodium  chlorate.  Ammonium  perchlorate 
etc.  is  obtained  by  conversion  with  sal-ammoniac. 

Somewhat  later  (1900),  the  Alby  Chlorate  Factory  was  established  at  the 
Alby  railway  station,  on  the  Ljungan  (cf.  above  under  Carbide),  on  a  method 
originally  worked  out  by  G.  E.  Cassel.  The  factory  is  now  owned  by  the  Alby 
Nya  Kloratfabriks  Aktiebolag  and  employs  about  2  000  electric  h.  p.  With 
a  production  of  0'7  tons  of  chlorate  of  potash  per  horse-power  per  year,  this, 
corresponds  to  an  annual  production  of  about  1400  tons  of  chlorate  of  potash^ 
with  a  commercial  value  of  about  840  000   kroner. 


ELECTRO-CHEMICAL   INDUSTRY.  479^ 

The  home  production  of  chlorate  of  potash  is  more  than  is  required  for  the 
country's  consumption,   and  there  is  a  considerable  export. 

Bicalcic  Phosphate.  Working  on  a  method  invented  by  V.  Puhnmr,  the  first 
small  factory  has  been  erected  by  the  Aktiebolaget  Difosfat,  at  Trollhattan, 
for  the  manufacture  of  bicalcic  phosphate,  for  use  as  a  fertilizer,  with  the  help 
of  acid  and  alkali,  produced  by  the  electrolytic  process.  The  raw  material,  which 
may  be  veiy  poor,  is  soaked  with  acid,  where  upon  the  tribasic  phosphate  of  lime 
contained  in  it  is  extracted;  the  alkali  obtained  by  electrolysis  is  added  to  the 
solution,  when  bicalcic  phosphate,  with  35  '/.  of  citrate-soluble  phosphoric  acid  is 
precipitated,  and  the  electrolyte  is  regenerated  in  order  to  be  used  afresh.  The 
method  is  principally  intended  to  render  possible  the  utilization  of  the  poor  raw 
material  to  be  found  in  the   country. 

Hydrogen  and  Oxygen.  The  Nordiska  Syrgasverken,  Aktiebolag,  have, 
at  Orebro,  a  plant  for  the  electrolytic  production  of  hydrogen  and  oxj'gen,  by 
means  of  Schmidt  electrolysers.  The  power  used  amounts  to  35  h.  p.  Most 
of  the  oxygen  produced  by  the  factory  is,  however,  manufactured  by  the  fractional 
distOlation  of  liquid  air. 

Galvano-technks.  The  largest  galvano-technical  plant  in  the  country  is  pro- 
bably the  factory  for  silver-plating,  gilding,  etc.  owned  by  the  Guldsmeds- 
aktiebolaget.  This  factory  has  about  350  male  and  female  employees.  For 
silver-plating,  650  kg  silver  was  used  in  1912,  and  for  gilding,  d'l  kg  of  gold. 
The  value  of  the  galvano-technical  products  of  the  factory  in  the  same  year 
amounted  to  about  half  a  million  kroner.  In  addition  to  this  factory,  there  are 
a  number  of  smaller  works  for  silver-plating,  gilding,  and  nickel-plating,  and  for 
the  manufacture  of  stereotype  plates. 

Accumulators  and  Galvanic  Cells.  The  manufacture  of  accumulators  and  gal- 
vanic cells  should,  in  reality,  come  under  the  heading  of  electro-chemical  industry, 
although  it  is  not  included  in  the  definiton  of  this  industry,  which  is  conse- 
quently, like  most  definitions,  not  quite  exact.  In  this  branch  of  industry  may 
be  mentioned  the  accumulator  invented  by  the  Swede  E.  W.  Jungner,  of  which, 
when  charged,  the  active  parts  are,  on  the  one  hand,  iron  sponge  and,  on  the 
other  hand,  nickel  oxide,  and,  as  electrolyte,  a  solution  of  potash.  Edison  has 
also  arrived  at  the  same  system,  although  the  two  inventors  have  worked  inde- 
pendently of  each  other.  The  great  advantages  of  Jungner's  accumulator  are 
its  insensibility  to  shaking  and  the  fact  that  it  requires  little  care  in  manipula- 
tion; in  a  word,  that  it  is  more  durable  than  the  lead  accumulator  and  can 
therefore  be  employed  for  a  large  number  of  so-called  traction  purposes,  for 
which  the  lead  accamulator  is  unsuitable.  It  is  manufactured  by  the  Svenska 
Ackumulatoraktiebolaget  Jungner  in  their  factories  at  Fliseryd  in  Smaland. 
The  main  'use  is  for  accumulator  locomotives,  train  lighting,  submarine  batteries, 
and  other  transportable  batteries.  The  value  of  the  output  is  one  million  kro- 
ner a  year,  about  a  100  000  cells  a  year  being  produced.  At  present  the  ca- 
pacity of  the  factories  is  about  2  million  kroner. 

Among  the  manufacturers  of  galvanic  cells  (Leclanche  cells,  dry  cells)  in 
Sweden  may  be  mentioned  Rylander  &  Rudolphs  Fabriksaktiebolag,  Hen- 
riksdal,  Stockholm. 

Carbon  Electrodes.  The  manufacture  of  carbon  electrodes  for  electric  furnaces 
is  carried  on  by  the  Hoganas-Billesholms  Aktiebolag,  which  in  1913 
turned  out  1  870  tons  of  electrodes  to  the  value  of  430  000  kroner,  and  by 
the  Aktiebolaget  Heroults  Elektriska  Stal  of  Kortfors,  which  in  1913 
produced  167  tons  to  the  value  of  39  800  kroner. 

The  table  given  below  shows  an  estimate  of  the  extent  to  which  the 
electro-cliemical  industry  in  its  entirety,  i.  e.,  including  the  electro-metall- 


480  VII.      MANUFACTURING   INDUSTRIES. 

urgical  industry,  has  hitherto  developed  in  Sweden.  The  galvano-technical 
industry,  together  with  the  production  of  accumulators  and  galvanic  cells, 
is,  however,  not  included  in  the  table. 

Number  Electric  Value 

Year  of  horse-power  of 

Establisments    employed       Production,  kr. 

1904 8  12  000  4  500  000 

1908 10  18000  7  500000 

1911 13  33000  11000000 

1913 22  80000  20000000 

The  value  of  the  output  is  still  small  in  comparison  with  the  total  pro- 
duction of  the  country,  but  it  is  the  rapid  increase  which  is  so  remarkable. 
That  this  industry  will  continue  to  develop  largely  and  will  contribute 
greatly  to  the  economic  prosperity  of  the  country  would  also  appear 
to  be  beyond  doubt. 

The  accompanying  map  illustrates  the  electro-chemical  establishments 
in  the  country. 

Graphic  Industries. 

Printing-offices.  The  art  of  printing  was  early  introduced  from 
Germany  to  Sweden,  where,  in  1483,  a,  printing-house  was  established 
in  Stockholm.  The  first  book  printed  in  Sweden  —  a  legend  of 
saints  in  Latin  —  was  issued  that  same  year  from  the  said  printing- 
house,  and  the  first  book  printed  in  Swedish  was  published  in  1495.  In 
the  Vadstena  monastry,  founded  by  St.  Bridget,  a  printing-office  was 
set  up  the  last-mentioned  year,  but  it  was  burnt  down  the  sajme 
year.  During  the  16th  century,  printing-works  were  founded  in  Upp- 
sala and  Stockholm,  and  during  the  17th  century  in  several  other  towns 
in  Sweden.  At  the  beginning  of  the  18th  oentruy,  Stockholm  possessed 
six  printing-offices  and  Uppsala  had  two,  but  at  the  beginning  of  the 
19th  century,  the  whole  country  still  possessed  no  more  than  50.  Later 
on,  however,  the  development  was  much  quicker.  In  1912,  Sweden 
had  421  printing-houses  with  more  than  2  350  printing-presses.  The 
number  of  typographers  amounted  to  7  223,  and  the  value  of  production 
is  given  at  23  738  000  kronor,  —  certainly  too  low  a  figure. 

The  increased  numbers  and  capacity  of  the  printing-offices  was 
accompanied  by  the  introduction  of  printing-machines  and  then  of  tjrpe- 
setting  machines.  In  1829  the  first  stop-cylinder  press  was  brought  into 
the  country,  and  the  number  of  hand-presses  has  gradually  declined, 
so  that  they  are  now  used  only  exceptionally.  That  platen  machines 
have  come  into  extensive  use  and  increase  in  number  year  by  year 
need  hardly  be  mentioned. 

For  the  printing  of  newspapers  ordinary  stop -cylinder  presses  were 
long  in  iise;  in  the  sixties  and  seventies,  when  the  issues  began  to 
increase,   they  were,   however,   succeeded  by  French   double-presses   (by 


GRAPHIC    INDUSTRIES. 


481 


SI— 133179.   Sweden.   II. 


482  VII.      MANUFACTURINfi   IRDUSTRIBS. 

Marioni  or  Alauzet).  But  the  newspaper  issaes  contiaued  to  increase, 
and  in  1881  the  first  rotary  press  was  introduced,  which  has  since  been 
followed  by  more,  so  that  the  number  of  them  now  (1914)  amounts  to 
some  60.  Several  machines,  of  English  and  French  origin,  are  con- 
structed for  printing  in  two  colours. 

The  first  composing-machine,  Linotype,  was  imported  from  America. 
At  present  607  type-setting  machines  are  at  work,  of  which  400  Lino- 
types from  America,  England  or  Germany,  207  Typographs  from  Ger- 
many. 

The  largest  printing-house  in  Sweden  is  the  Government  Printing-Office 
(Kungl.  Boktryckeriet,  P.  A.  Norstedt  &  Soner)  of  Stockholm,  where 
this  book  has  been  printed.  It  is  owned  by  a  joint-stock  company,  P.  A. 
Norstedt  &  Soner,  which  is  at  the  same  time  the  largest  publishing-house 
in  Sweden,  for  which  reason  the  firm,  besides  printing  official  docu- 
ments, carries  on  a  publishing  business  of  its  own.  The  firm,  founded 
in  1823  and  turned  into  a  company  in  1878,  gives  occupation  to  700 
hands  and  makes  use  of  28  printing-machines,  of  which  two  are  rotary. 
Xext  in  size  comes  the  Central  Printing-Office  (Cehtraltryckeriet),  founded 
in  1874.  The  production  value  in  1912  amounted  at  the  Government 
printing  office  to  more  than  2  million  kronor,  and  at  the  Central  Printing- 
Office  to  2  200  000  kronor  in  1913.  The  latter  company  employs  90 
machine  printing-presses  and  13  hand-presses.     450  hands  are  employed. 

Among  the  newspaper  printing-offices,  the  size  of  which  is  chiefly 
dependent  on  that  of  the  respective  issues,  the  chief  are  those  of  Afton- 
bladet  and  Stockholms-Tidningen. 

Of  type-foundries  the  first  in  Sweden  was  established  already  in 
1739,  but  at  present  they  are  of  comparaltively  little  importance.  Generally 
they  belong  to  the  printing-offices  and  generally  also  make  stereotypes 
and  electrotypes. 

At  the  very  first  appearence  of  the  photographic  methods  of  reproduc- 
tion their  great  significance  was  understood  in  Sweden,  and  establish- 
ments were  founded  for  their  application.  To  begin  with,  the  result  did 
not  prove  altogether  a  success,  but  by  perseverance  the  work  has  now 
advanced  so  far  that  cliches  made  in  Sweden  can  be  considered  very 
satisfactory. 

Lithographic  and  phototype  establishments.  For  the  production  of 
plates,  particulary  for  scientific  purposes,  lithographic  establishments 
were  founded  at  an  early  date,  and  their  number  steadily  increased  till 
the  end  of  the  eighties,  when  the  competition  of  the  printing-offices  began 
to  make  itself  felt.  In  1912,  there  existed  in  Sweden  40  Lithographic  in- 
stitutions with  1  451  workers  and  a  production  value  of  4  142  000  kronor. 
The  greatest  was  the  Lithographic  Joint-Stock  Company  of  Norrkoping 
(Norrkopings  Litografiska  Aktiebolag),  which  chiefly  produces  mercantile 
prints  in  large  issues  to  a  value  (1914)  of  about  2  300  000  kronor.  Then 
come  the  Lithographic  Printing-Office  of  the  General  Staff  (A.  Bortzells 


HANDrCRAFTS.  483 

tryckeriaktiebolag),  which  mainly  prints  maps,  scientific  plates,  and  photo- 
graphic reproductions,  especially  all  the  official  maps  of  Sweden,  with 
a  production  value  of  600  000  kronor,  and  the  Lithographic  department  of 
the  Central  Printing-Office  for  music,  securities,  and  mercantile  documents. 

The  phototype  establishments,  as  a  rule,  form  part  of  the  photo-chemi- 
graphic  establishments  and  are  chiefly  employed  in  the  reproduction  of 
works  of  art  and  scientific  prints,  as  well  as  of  photographs. 

An  important  economic  amalgamation  in  this  domain  is  the  Aktiebolagei 
Sveriges  litografiska  trycherier,  Stockholm  1913. 


12.  HANDICRAFTS  AND  DOMESTIC  INDUSTRIES. 

Handicrafts. 

The  main  features  of  the  history  of  handicrafts  in  Sweden,  as  far  as 
regards  its  earlier  phases,  and  those  of  the  Middle  Ages  in  particular, 
may  be  said  to  be  connected  with  the  rise  and  development  of  the  guild- 
system,  as,  in  consequence  of  German  and  also,  in  part,  of  Danish 
influence  in  the  country,  the  system  in  question  was  introduced  into 
Sweden,  and  the  way  thereby  prepared  for  the  promulgation  of  guild- 
regulations,  which,  as  in  Germany,  were  calculated  to  enable  the  masters 
of  the  handicrafts  to  pursue  their  work  profitably  and  also  to  obtain 
for  them  certain  social  privileges. 

Just  as  elsewhere,  Swedish  professional  handicraft  traces  its  origin  from  the 
domestic  industries  of  the  towns,  where  a  more  numerous  population  could  make 
division  of  labour  advantageous  and  supply  special  craftsmen  with  enough 
customers  to  secure  them  a  living. 

The  attention  devoted  to  the  well-being  of  the  towns  caused  the  authorities 
at  an  early  period  to  attempt  to  concentrate  in  them  trade  as  well  as  handi- 
crafts; a  letter  written  by  Duke  Valdemar  in  1315  contains  instructions  on  this 
point.  The  common  law  of  the  rural  districts  (country  law  of  1347),  however, 
grants  the  artisans  the  right  of  carrying  on  their  trades  in  these  districts,  and 
the  urban  (borough)  law  did  not  forbid  this  at  any  rate;  only  goldsmiths  were 
at  this  time   absolutely  enjoined  to  live  in   towns. 

The  first  noteworthy  technical  progress  of  handicrafts,  as  well  as  the  legal 
forms,  by  which  they  were  controlled  down  to  our  own  days  —  The  Guilds  — 
Sweden  chiefly  owes  to  foreigners  —  i.  e.,  to  those  German  craftsmen  who, 
after  the  middle  of  the  13th  century,  came  to  settle  in  the  larger  Swedish 
towns.  As  early  as  in  the  town-law  of  the  city  of  Visby,  on  the  island  of  Gott- 
land,  more  than  twenty  different  guilds  are  enumerated;  in  the  other  parts  of 
Sweden  this  institution  was  most  probably  not  introduced  till  the  beginning  of 
the  14th  century.  The  oldest  Swedish  guild  document  in  existence  is  King 
Magnus  Erikson's  letters  patent  of  1356  to  "the  Tailors'  Company"  in  Stockholm; 
the  oldest  guild  regulations  are  those  for  the  Stockholm  shoemakers  (earlier 
than  1474).  The  guild  regulations  for  the  capital  were  probably  also  in  force 
for  the  craftsmen  of  country  towns. 


484  VII.      MANUFACTORIKG   INDUSTRIES. 

A  native  artisan  class  was  the  fruit  of  the  industrial  policy  of  King 
Oustavus  Vasa  (1523 — 60),  the  principle  of  which  was  to  effect  a  bene- 
ficial division  of  labour  among  the  various  leading  trades  as  well  as  among  the 
various  minor  branches  of  these  trades.  For  this  purpose  artisans  were  forbidden 
to  engage  in  commerce  or  to  carry  on  more  than  one  trade;  merchants  were 
forbidden  to  carry  on  a  handicraft;  nor  were  merchants  allowed  to  import  from 
abroad  such  manufactured  goods,  by  the  import  of  which  the  town  artisans 
might  be  "ruined".  To  carry  on  a  craft  it  was  necessary  to  be  vested  with  the 
rights  and  privileges  of  a  burgher  and  to  be  a  member  of  a  guild.  The  end- 
eavours of  the  Middle  Ages  to  concentrate  the  trades  in  the  towns  were  taken 
up  afresh  and  in  greater  earnest.  The  rural  districts  were,  however,  allowed  to 
keep  their  "tailors,  shoemakers,  skinners,  blacksmiths,  and  carpenters"^,  who  were 
considered  indispensable.  Another  exception  was  occasioned  by  the  King's  right 
of  appointing  "free-masters",  who  were  permitted  to  carry  on  their  trades  inde- 
pendent of  guilds  and  burghership.  This  privilege  was  generally  granted  to 
foreigners,  as  there  was  still  a  complaint  of  the  lack  of  clever  Swedish  crafts- 
men, which  still  remained  the  case  during  the  reign  of  King  Johan  III 
(1568—92). 

The  next  stage  of  development  is  marked  by  a  still  greater  favour  shown 
to  the  towns  at  the  expense  of  the  rural  districts  and  by  an  increasing  rigour 
in  the  enforcement  of  the  rule  making  membership  in  the  guilds  obligatory. 
Charles  IX  (1599 — -1611)  fixed  the  number  of  artisans  for  each  hundred  (ha- 
rad),  and  as  early  as  1576  he  ordered  all  the  guilds  of  his  duchy  to  be  close, 
i.  e.,  they  were  to  have  a  certain  number  of  masters  proportionate  to  the  popu- 
lation and  size  of  the  town.  The  town  artisans  obtained  a  monopoly  of  work 
inside  the  town  and  within  a  Swedish  mile  (6  English  miles)  radius  outside 
of  it,  but  they  were  not  allowed  to  work  beyond  that  limit.  To  exercise  a  craft 
it  was  required,  that  the  masterpiece  should  have  been  approved  by  the  bailiff, 
the  council,  and  the  alderman  of  the  guild,  which  authorities,  moreover,  were 
to  exercise  superintendence  over  the  guilds,  examine  the  wares,  and  fix  a 
suitable  price  for  them.  In  the  same  spirit,  or  a  still  severer  one,  (the  exten- 
sion of  "the  mile  of  freedom"  to  two  miles,  the  stricter  requirements  respect- 
ing apprentices  and  journeymen,  etc.),  Charles,  when  king,  issued  guild  privile- 
ges for  special  crafts  as  well  as  for  whole  towns. 

Oustavus  Adolphus  (1611 — 32)  went  even  farther  than  his  predecessors  in 
his  attempts  to  restrict  the  pursuit  of  crafts  in  the ,  rural  districts.  Country 
artisans  were  not  now  allowed  to  work  at  less  than  four  Swedish  mi- 
les' distance  from  a  town,  whereas  urban  artisans,  with  the  knowledge  of  the 
alderman,  had  permission  to  work  for  the  country  people.  In  1644,  liberty  of 
trade  in  the  rural  districts  was  restricted  still  more,  so  far  even  that  all  crafts- 
men in  the  country  districts  had  to  apply  for  burgership  of  the  cities  and  to 
pay  taxes  there.  If  urban  crafts  had  thus  been  almost  completely  delivered 
from  the  rivalry  of  the  rural  districts,  they  were,  however,  threatened  with  a 
more  dangerous  intrusion  from  another  quarter.  The  Nobility  privileges  of 
1612,  as  well  as  those  of  1617,  granted  a  nobleman  the  full  right  to  keep  any 
number  of  artisans  he  might  need,  and  to  hold  his  domain  free  from  all  the 
impositions  of  Crown  and  Town,  unless  the  people  living  on  the  estate  carried 
on  a  townsman's  craft.  In  this  way  the  nobility  found  a  pretext  for  "protec- 
ting" from  taxes  and  military  conscription  a  number  of  "handicraftsmen"  in  the 
rural  districts  who  were  working  there  for  other  people,  as  also  for  releasing  a 
number  of  artisans  in  the  towns  from  all  kinds  of  taxes.  The  attempts  to  check 
this  undue  interference  did  not  lead  to  any  satisfactory  results. 

On    the    other    hand,    the    new    statutes  of  1621  and  1622  do  not  recognize 
any  close    guilds,    though    some    older  ones  were  kept  up  in  many  places,  and 


HANDICRAFTS.  485 

the    sole    right    of    the    guild    to  examine  the  masterpiece  of  an  applicant  con- 
siderably restricted  competition. 

It  is  also  about  this  time  that  voices  are  heard  against  the  obligatory 
membership  of  guilds,  as  a  remedy  against  the  unreasonable  prices  of 
craftsmen's  goods.  Axel  Oxenstierna,  Sweden's  real  regent  during  the  years 
1632 — 44,  enforced  the  holding  of  open  markets,  in  Stockholm  and  Kal- 
mar  at  least.  But  the  promises  of  Government  to  amend  the  guild  statutes 
remained  unfulfilled.  The  only  thing  done  during  the  reign  of  Christina  (1644 
— 54)  was  the  appointment  (in  1653)  of  a  commissioner  to  inquire  into  the 
reform  question,  to  inspect  all  kinds  of  manufactured  articles,  and,  in  general, 
to  exercise  superintendence  over  the  artisans.  The  decree  was  renewed  in  1662, 
and  the  activity  of  the  guild  commissioner  was  now  placed  under  the  control 
of  the  Board  of  Trade.  A  new  general  statute  for  the  guilds  was  also  issued 
in  1669.  By  it  close  guilds  were  expressly  forbidden;  any  one  who  honestly 
and  well  had  learnt  his  trade  was  to  be  admitted  as  a  master.  On  "masterpieces" 
and  most  other  concerns  of  the  guilds,  the  guild  should  not  decide  alone  but  in 
concert  with  the  mayor  and  the  council.  No  meetings  were  to  be  held  without 
the  permission  of  these  authorities,  and  at  each  session  one  of  the  magistrates, 
"the  guild  magistrate",  was  to  be  present.  In  1672,  the  right  was  granted  to 
artisans  to  settle  as  free-masters  at  Kungsholmen,   close  to  Stockholm. 

The  reign  of  Charles  XI  (1672 — 97),  on  the  contrary,  seems  to  mark  a  re- 
action as  far  as  the  guilds  are  concerned.  During  his  time,  even  close  guilds 
were  sometimes  allowed,  and  the  prohibitions  —  after  falling  into  disuse  in  the 
regency  during  the  King's  minority  (1660 — 72)  —  against  the  interference  of 
"protected  men",  were  now  re-enforced.  As  to  the  country  districts,  Charles  XI 
entertained  a  more  liberal  opinion,  however;  to  each  parish  was  given  the 
right  of  keeping  one  tailor  and  one  shoemaker;  the  larger  parishes  were  allowed 
to  have  several.  Against  a  fixed  payment  to  the  Crown,  these  artisans  were 
also  relieved  from  all  taxes  hitherto  accruing  to  the  towns  and  from  the  duty  of 
applying  for  burghership  in  them,  and  they  were  also  shielded  from  any  action 
that  might  be  brought  against  them  by  the  guilds. 

The  decline  of  industry  and  the  high  prices  of  craftsmen's  goods  during  the 
last  years  of  Charles  XII  (1697 — 1718),  were  essentially  attributed  to  the 
guilds.  One  of  the  first  measures  of  the  new  political  era  was,  consequently,  the 
statute  of  1719  concerning  free-masters.  Kvery  one  that  had  learnt  a  trade 
should  be  allowed  to  pursue  it,  after  giving  notice  to  the  magistracy  and  being 
vested  with  the  rights  and  privileges  of  citizenship.  The  reform,  however,  was 
too  radical  to  be  of  long  duration;  the  very  next  year,  the  right  of  free- 
mastership  was,  by  the  new  guild  ordinance,  limited  to  immigrating  foreig- 
ners. In  spite  of  protests  from  the  burghers,  the  ideas  of  liberty  certainly 
made  headway  again  in  the  statute  of  1724  concerning  free-mastership  for 
natives  as  well  as  foreigners,  but  reaction  was  soon  in  full  sway,  and  in  1731 
it  was  decreed  that  no  native-born  free-masters  of  such  trades  as  stood  under  a 
guild  could  be  admitted  to  the  towns.  In  opposition  to  the  explicit  direction  of 
the  guild-ordinance,  the  making  of  the  guilds  into  close  bodies  followed  in  1734;  for 
the  prevention  of  poverty  and  the  unauthorized  carrying  on  of  the  crafts,  no  larger 
number  of  craftmasters  should  be  admitted  than  the  magistracy  and  the  respec- 
tive guilds  considered  expedient  and  necessary.  In  1739,  these  retrogressive 
efforts  were  crowned  by  a  prohibition  against  the  free-masterhip  of  foreigners 
too.  With  this  step  legislative  action  concerning  handicrafts  was  for  the  time 
brought  to  a  close;  henceforth,  it  is  the  regulation  of  industrialism  that  attract 
our  chief  attention. 

During  the  year  just  mentioned  (1739),  a  new  hallrstatute  was  issued  (to  re- 
place   that    of    1722),   as  well  as  new  manufacturers'  privileges.     Released  from 


486  VII.      MANUFACTURING    INDUSTRIES. 

the  duty  of  belonging  to  any  guild,  but  subject  to  the  Court  of  Industry 
(Hallratt)  should  be :  all  silk,  woollen,  and  linen  manufactories,  together  with  all 
the  works  and  factories  belonging  to  them,  "as  well  as  other  manufactories  and 
artificers,  of  whatever  name  they  may  be,  who  choose  to  place  themselves  in 
subjection  to  the  Court."  In  the  quarrels,  called  forth  by  this  most  indefinite 
wording,  between  guild  craftsmen  and  manufacturers,  the  authorities  sided  with 
the  latter,  while  the  former  continued  to  be  favoured  at  the  expense  of  the 
rural  artisans.  Even  in  1723,  the  old  difference  between  town  and  country 
trades  —  essentially  done  away  with  by  the  wars  —  revived  again;  all  crafts- 
men had  to  return  to  the  towns,  with  the  exception  of  those  who  were  engaged 
by  the  year  in  the  service  of  the  nobility,  or  who,  in  their  capacity  of 
parish  or  factory  artisans,  were  entitled  by  law  to  live  in  the  country  districts. 
In  1734,  it  is  true,  the  farmers  obtained  the  right  of  carrying  on  handicrafts  as 
by-trades  and  of  selling  their  own  articles,  as  well  as  those  made  by  others  in 
general,  anywhere  they  pleased,  but  the  categories  of  handicraftsmen  proper 
increased  but  slowly. 

Complaints  of  the  exorbitant  rise  in  guild  prices  called  forth  in  1762  an  or- 
dinance requiring  the  value  of  the  goods  to  be  fixed  by  impartial  persons,  this 
replacing  the  regulations  of  1720  concerning  the  election  of  valuers  from  among 
the  members  of  the  guild.  The  valuation  was  now  to  be  performed  by  one 
magistrate  (not  a  guild  magistrate),  one  merchant,  one  broker,  and  one  guild 
artisan,  who  had  to  state  their  decision  before  a  court,  after  which  the  matter 
was  to  be  settled  "summario  processu". 

The  accession  of  Oustavus  III  (1771 — 92)  again  accelerated  the  reform  agitation. 
By  the  rescript  of  1773  it  was  decreed  that  the  regulation  in  the  guild  statute 
of  1720  concerning  a  journeyman's  right  to  become  a  master  should  be  observed 
without  any  alteration,  and  that  thus  no  journeyman,  after  having  served  the 
prescribed  time,  should  be  denied  mastership  and  burghership.  After  hearing  the 
parties  concerned,  the  magistracy  was  to  decide  what  masterpieces  an  applicant 
had  to  execute,  and  what  fees  had  to  be  paid.  Married  journeymen,  who  wished 
to  become  masters,  were  guaranteed  a  reduction  in  the  term  of  joumeymanship 
amounting  to  one  or  two  years.  The  subsequent  industrial  policy  of  the  king 
long  remained  decidedly  liberal.  Under  the  administration  of  Liljencrantz 
as  Secretary  of  State,  the  organization  of  "free  towns"  (begun  in  1766) 
was  continued  and  extended,  and  in  these  towns  "real"  articles  of  manufac- 
ture in  the  iron  and  steel  branches  might  be  produced  without  any  master- 
piece test.  This  liberty  was  now  to  be  extended  to  all  kinds  of  tradesmen 
in  the  new  towns  henceforth  founded.  All  reformatory  plans  were,  however, 
interrupted  by  the  resignation  of  Liljencrantz.  The  king's  need  for  the 
assent  of  the  burghers  to  a  new  Constitution  (1789)  forced  him  into  another 
course  of  industrial  policy.  By  a  proclamation  of  1789  to  the  burgesses  of 
the  kingdom,  it  was  enacted  that  nobody  should  carry  on  a  burgher's  trade  or 
business  that  had  not  been  vested  with  the  rights  and  privileges  of  citizenship 
(but  with  the  exception  of  those  granted  to  nobility  and  gentry),  and  that,  in 
case  a  greater  number  of  craftsmen  should  present  themselves  than  might 
reasonably  be  expected,  to  be  able  to  find  their  livelihood,  due  regard  should  be  paid 
to  the  opinions  pronounced  on  the  point  by  the  company,  the  elders  of  the  town, 
and  the  magistracy.  Another  resolution  annulled  the  right  of  admitting  crafts- 
men conferred  upon  the  universities  (by  former  constitutions)  and  upon  public 
offices  (since  1739)  and  forbade  the  "courts  of  industry"  to  bring  under  their 
control  journeymen  and  soldiers,  so  that  these  could  keep  joint  workshops, 
although  the  latter  retained  their  privilege  of  working  in  a  guildmaster's  work- 
shop or  on  his  account.  As  early  as  1790,  it  was  enacted  that  this  liberty 
of    work    granted  to  the  soldiers  (which,  in  1804,  was  extended  to  the  country 


HANDICRAFTS.  487 

militia)  should  also  be  granted  to  workmen  at  rifle  manufactories  and  salt-petre 
works,  etc.,  as  well  as  "to  other  persons  in  the  works  and  on  the  estates  of  the 
Crown",  besides  which  the  universities,  in  1791,  regained  their  right  of  appointing 
craftsmen;  but  the  declaration  of  1789  remained  in  force  and  rendered  journey- 
men's right  to  mastership  very  difficult  to  obtain.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
freedom  of  handicrafts  in  the  rural  districts  was  extended  in  1802.  On  the 
representation  of  the  governor  of  a  Ian,  the  Government  should  henceforth 
in  every  special  case  be  entitled  to  examine  whether  other  artisans  than  those 
already  admitted  by  law  could  be  admitted  in  the  future.  In  consequence  of  such 
special  concessions,  there  were  thus,  in  1843,  at  various  places,  craftsmen  in  no 
less  than  26  trades  in  addition  to  the  five  original  ones,  (tailors,  shoemakers, 
smiths,  masons,   and  glaziers). 

After  the  introduction  of  the  new  constitution  (1809),  the  development  to- 
wards free  trade  found  its  first  legal  expression  of  any  importance  in  the  two 
ordinances  (of  1821  and  1828)  by  which  was  settled  the  old  matter  of  dispute 
concerning  the  limits  of  the  respective  spheres  of  work  for  guild  artisans  and 
for  manufacturers.  It  was  now  stipulated  that  the  protection  of  the  manufac- 
turing privileges  was  to  be  granted  by  the  Board  of  Trade:  a)  to  those  who  had 
duly  proved  their  ability  to  manufacture  either  such  articles  as  were  not  made 
within  the  guilds  or  else  such  as  were  of  a  better  quality  than  those  generally 
made  by  the  guild  masters  ;  6)  also  to  those  who,  at  a  manufacturer's,  had  gained  a 
complete  knowledge  of  his  trade,  and  who,  according  to  the  certificate  of  the 
proper  magistrate  or  "court  of  industry",  were  clever  enough  to  work  on  their 
own  account.  Such  a  manufacturer  was  to  have  the  right  to  produce  all  kinds 
of  goods  within  the  trade  of  which  he  had  obtained  the  privileges;  the  same 
liberty  of  work  was  to  be  enjoyed  by  manufacturers  already  appointed  and  their 
workmen.  In  1828,  the  clauses  of  the  guild  ordinance  were  declared  to  be  no 
longer  applicable  to  brewers,  bakers,  and  butchers  in  the  towns,  and  in  several 
new  towns  and  boroughs  the  same  liberty  was  granted  handicrafts  in  general. 
In  1845,  the  parishes  obtained  the  right  to  decide  what  kinds  of  artisans 
ought  to  be  allowed  to  exist  in  them. 

Then  in  1846,  followed  the  abolition  of  the  guilds.  In  their  place 
were  to  be  instituted  free  handicraft  unions  to  promote  the  interests  of  the 
artisans.  The  right  of  exercising  a  trade  as  a  master  was  made  dependent  on 
several  civil  qualifications  and,  for  most  trades,  on  the  obligation  of  having 
quaUfied  as  a  master;  burghership  was  required,  besides,  to  keep  a  workshop  in 
town.  But  any  trade  might  be  carried  on  in  the  country,  and  it  became  permissible 
to  carry  on  several  trades  at  the  same  time.  The  right  was  granted,  besides, 
to  every  respectable  Swedish  man  that  had  reached  his  majority,  of  manufactu- 
ring goods  with  the  assistance  of  his  wife  and  such  children  as  were  living  at 
home,  even  although  he  had  not  become  a  master  or  a  citizen  of  any  town  — 
this  right  was,  moreover,  extended  to  women.  Complete  freedom  in  carrying  on 
trade  was  established  in  1864. 

Shortly  after  the  pronmlgation  of  the  liberty  of  trade  ordinance  of  1864 
lie  artisans  discovered  that  this  unrestricted  throwing  open  of  trades  and 
crafts  was  not  a  good  thing,  and  before  many  years  had  passed,  the  question 
began  to  be  discussed  at  meetings  of  industrial  workers,  whether  this  ex- 
tension of  liberty  of  trade  was  in  agreement  with  the  claims  that  tradesmen 
and  craftsmen  considered  themselves  to  possess,  and  what  alterations  of  the 
act  were  to  be  considered  necessary. 

There  were,  properly  speaking,  three  details  in  the  act  in  question 
on  which    criticism    was    concentrated.      The    first    was    §    2,    in    whicli 


488 


VII.      MANUFACTURING   INDUSTRIES. 


the  only  claim  laid  on  those  that,  wished  to  follow  a  trade  or  craft  was 
that  they  should  be  of  goad  character,  and  that  they  themselves  and 
their  property  should  not  be  under  the  control  of  any  other  person. 

The  second  was  the  regulations  in  §§  13  and  14,  where,  in  contrast 
with  the  requirements  of  the  enactment  of  1846  regarding  those  that 
established  factories  or  followed  a  craft,  it  was  left  to  the  workers  them- 
selves to  decide  whether  they  should  form  unions  or  not. 

The  third  objection  was  directed  against  the  absence  in  the  act  of  regu- 
lations enabling  the  followers  of  a  trade  to  train  workmen  to  become  skil- 
ful artisans. 

Ever  since  the  beginning  of  the  decade  1870 — 80,  i.  e.,  only  a  few 
years  after  the  grant  of  the  formerly  so  much  longed  for  freedom 
of  trade,  the  above-mentioned  defects  in  the  law  have  made  themselves 
felt  with  undiminished  force,  and  this  is  the  more  remarkable  as  the 
alterations  made  in  the  above-mentioned  details  may  be  considered  as 
the  chief  points  in  the  act  of  1846.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  they  may 
be  regard  as  relics  of  the  guild-system,  whose  constitution,  among 
other  things,  was  distinguished  by  regulations  concerning  a)  the 
ability  necessary  for  being  allowed  to  follow  a  trade,  b)  the  formatioE 
of  unions  or  associations,  and,  c)  the  training  of  apprentices  and  journey- 
men. At  the  present  time,  there  seems  to  exist  a  general  desire  to  renew 
in  some  modern  form,  among  other  things,  the  regulations  determining  the 
skill  that  an  artisan  should  possess  before  being  allowed  to  carry  on  his 
trade,  just  as  in  Germany,  where  such  a  rule  has-  already  been  estab- 
lished (Befahigungsnachweis).  Of  late  years,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  pro- 
positions have  been  made  to  this  end. 


Table  101. 


Factories  and  Handicrafts^. 


Ko.  of  factories  and 

No.  of  workpeople  be- 

Assessed Income.  Millions 

handicraft  establishments 

longing  to 

rTofal  no.  of 

of  kroner 

Year 

handicraftsmen 
and  their  work- 

Handicraft 

Handicraft 

Handicrafts 

Factories 

establish- 
ments 

Factories 

establish- 
ments 

people 

Factories 

establish- 
ments 

1899 

10  364 

42  350 

257  526 

43  023 

84  373 

74-20 

25-33 

1900 

10  549 

44  517 

265  479 

42  805 

87  332 

74-55 

26-78 

1901 

10904 

48  038 

262  229 

44315 

92  353 

75-22 

29-35 

1902 

10  978 

51089 

263  244 

45  319 

96  408 

69-42 

30-63 

1908 

11588 

53  077 

271  157 

47  741 

100  818 

69.94 

31-87 

1904 

11  963, 

54  831 

277  853 

49  005 

103  836 

76-00 

31-11 

1906 

11919 

57  053 

280  995 

51010 

108  063 

77-96 

35-90 

1906 

11804 

55  603 

295  808 

.53  070 

108  673 

85-67 

36-97 

1907 

11659 

56  811 

303  029 

53173 

109  984 

9232 

38-40 

1908 

11303 

58  575 

295  392 

51  951 

110  526 

92-78 

40-97 

1909 

11  261 

61362 

289  205 

52  484 

113  846 

81-65 

40-82 

1910 

11435 

63  485 

302 157 

53  793 

117  278 

78-78 

40-99 

Increase 

1 

'    1899   to 

\  10'.33  % 

49-91  % 

17-33% 

25.03  % 

37-37  % 

%.\Tf, 

61-82  i, 

191(i 

'  In  consequence  of  tbe  re-arrangement  of  the  Swedish  ofiicial  statistics,  later  figures 
than  those  given  are  not  available.  It  should  be  noted  that  builders  and  master-masons 
are  reckoned  among  handicraftsmen. 


HANDICRAFTS.  4«9 

When,  a  few  years  ago,  machinery  gained  the  upper  hand  in  the  in- 
dustrial world,  and  one  industry  after  the  other  was  either  transformed 
into  a  great  manufacturing  pursuit,  or  else  was  pushed  to  the  wall,  it 
probably  appeared  to  people  at  that  time  as  if  the  golden  days  of  handi- 
crafts were  past.  In  any  case,  this  opinion  became  to  deeply  rooted  that, 
in  spite  of  everything,  it  still  remains. 

It  can  be  shown,  however,  that  handicraft-industries  have  held  their 
own  very  well  indeed  in  the  war  of  competition;  they  have  even  held  their 
own  so  well  that,  as  a  rule,  they  can  point  to  far  greater  development  than 
that  reached  by  factory-industries. 

The  great  national-economic  importance  of  handi- 
crafts can  nowadays  be  plainly  seen,  and  the  proofs  of  this  importance  are 
found  both  in  statistics  and  in  the  general  industrial  development  of  the 
country. 

Although  it  must  be  acknowledged  that  our  existing  statistics  with 
regard  to  handicrafts  are  in  some  respects  rather  defective,  especially  in 
respect  to  the  trades  in  which  it  is  difficult  to  draw  a  definite  line  be- 
tween factory-work  and  handicraft,  and  also  in  regard  to  the  number 
of  the  last-mentioned  class  of  industries;  still  it  should  be  possible  to 
gain  much  valuable  information  from  the  statistics  that  are  available,  and 
attention  is  therefore  drawn  to  Table  101. 

These  figures  are  deserving  of  attention,  for  several  reasons.  For 
example,  it  is  seen  by  the  Table  that  the  handicraft-industries  during 
the  period  given  have  increased  far  more  than  factory  industries  have 
done,  a  fact  that  shows  the  inaccuracjr  of  the  statement  that  handicrafts 
in  general  have  decreased  in  consequence  of  the  competition  of  the  factory 
industries  experienced  in  the  past.  The  figures,  consequently,  bear  evident 
testimonj^  to  the  great  national-economic  importance  of  the  handicrafts 
and  show  the  enormous  importance  in  Swedish  production  of  the  handi- 
crafts. 

The  figures  showing  the  assessed  income  from  handicrafts-industries  do 
not,  probably,  convey  quite  a  correct  impression,  partly  in  consequence  of 
the  error  caused  by  certain  deductions  from  the  amount  on  which  taxes 
must  be  paid,  and  also  because  the  census-lists  which,  at  present,  form 
the  basis  of  the  statistics  concerning  the  number  of  handicraft-establish- 
ments, make  no  distinction  between  the  handicraftsmen  that  carry  on 
work  as  indepedent  masters  and  such  as  are  either  purely  "self supporting", 
or  else  are  in  the  service  of  master-handicraftsmen,  but,  in  spite  of  this 
fact,  are  entered  on  the  lists  under  a  title  which  is  misleading,  since 
"workman"  has  not  been  added  to  the  list  of  professions. 

The  number  of  handicraft-establishments  which  is  given  in  the  existing 
Swedish  statistics  is,  consequently,  clearly  incorrect  and  greater  than  the 
actual  number.  It  is  impossible  to  state  the  exact  number  of  independent 
handicraftsmen  there  are  in  Sweden,  but  it  is  probably  very  considerable. 

The  "voluntary"  unions  of  handicraftsmen  formed  after  the  enactment 


490  VII.      MANUFACTURING   INDUSTRIES. 

of  1864  concerning  liberty  of  trade  which  are  either  entirely  new  ones  or 
else  have  arisen  on  the  basis  of  older  "official"  unions  founded  on  the 
enactment  of  1846  —  several  amongst  the  latter  group  dating  back  to  the 
old  guilds  —  had,  until  the  year  1893,  no  central  organization  to  unite 
the  interests  of  all  and  to  watch  over  the  vital  matters  that  were  common 
to  the  handicraft-industries.  In  the  last-mentioned  year  was  established 
the  "Central  Board  for  the  Handicraft-  and  Industrial  Associations  of 
Sweden",  the  seat  of  which  was  in  Stockholm;  this  laid  the  foundation, 
some  years  after,  for  the  "Handicraft-  and  Industrial  Organization  of 
Sweden",  which,  in  its  turn,  was  later  reconstituted  as  the  "Central  Or- 
ganization for  the  Industries  and  Handicrafts  of  Sweden".  The  title  of 
the  organization  not  being  a  correct  one,  as  the  union  never  embraced  the 
great  industries,  and  as  its  field  of  activity  also  included  the  protection  of 
the  economic  interests  of  the  employers,  it  soon  became  necessary  once 
more  to  transform  the  institution,  and  so,  in  1905,  there  was  founded 
"The  Handicraft  Organization  of  Sweden",  which,  since  the  date  mentioned, 
has  developed  exceedingly  degree  and,  at  present  (1913),  embraces  111 
handicraft-associations,  with  a  total  of  7  500  members,  besides  some  one 
or  two  hundred  passive  members,  who  are  chiefly  men  belonging  to  the 
great  manufacturing  industries,  but  who  are  interested  in  the  development 
of  handicrafts. 

During  the  8  years  of  its  activity  the  Handicraft  Organization  of  Swe- 
den has  shown  that  it  is  suited  to  be  a  central  organization  for  the  promo- 
tion of  the  development  of  handicrafts,  both  as  regards  technical-econo- 
mic interests  and  also  as  regards  professional  skill.  In  addition  to  the 
internal  measures  taken  by  the  Handicraft  Organization,  for  the  purpose  of 
awakening  and  supporting  interest  in  common  efforts  for  the  general  de- 
velopment of  handicrafts  —  such  as  the  organization  of  annual  meetings, 
the  publication  of  the  Swedish  Handicraft  Journal,  the  Swedish  Handi- 
craft Calendar  etc.,  —  the  Organization  has  taken  the  initiative  for 
several  measures  for  the  attairunent  of  increased  professional  training;  it 
has  brought  forward  proposals,  amongst  other  things,  for  the  drafting  of 
an  Apprentice  Bill;  it  has  made  an  investigation  with  regard  to  the 
establishment  of  practical  trade  schools,  the  obtaining  of  State- 
bursaries  for  technical  teachers  and  the  directors  of  technical  evening- 
schools  and  other  similar  educational  establishments;  it  has  endeavoured 
to  obtain  an  increased  State  grant  for  travelling  bursaries  for  handi- 
craftsmen and  their  workmen,  and  for  the  creation  of  a  State  loan-fund 
for  handicrafts  and  the  smaller  industries.  In  regard  to  this  last-named 
measure  the  Organization  has  also  been  intrusted  by  the  Government  with 
the  task  of  being  the  channel  for  the  application  for  and  grant  of  loans. 
The  Organization  has  also  brought  into  existence  funds,  the  interest  of 
which  is  devoted  to  the  support  of  the  various  items  of  the  above  pro- 
gramme. These  funds  at  present  amount  to  a  little  more  than  50  000 
kronor. 


DOMESTIC   INDUSTRIES.  491 

Among  the  internal  measures  may  be  mentioned  that  the  Organization 
has  drawn  up  a  general  journeyman-diploma  and  apprenticeship-certificate, 
and  that  it  awards  prize-medals,  these  latter  bearing  the  portrait  of  the 
patron  of  the  Organization,  King  Gustavus  V,  together  with  the  motto  of 
the  Organization  "Till  yrkenas  forkovran"  (For  the  promotion  of  handi- 
crafts). 

During  the  last  few  years  the  Organization  has  enjoyed  a  State  grant, 
partly  for  the  publication  of  its  journal  and  also  in  consideration  of  its 
position  as  the  channel  for  the  State  loans,  granted  for  the  procuring  of 
machinery,  motors,  etc.  for  handicraftsmen  and  smaller  enterprises. 

The  Organization  has  had  its  headquarters  in  Kristianstad  since  1905. 


Prize  Medal  of  the  Handicraft  Organization  of  Sweden. 


Domestic  Industries. 

German  political  economists,  such  as  SchmoUer  and  Biicher,  usually 
define  domestic  industry,  in  its  original  form  (Hausfleiss),  as  that  form 
of  production  which  is  carried  on  in  the  home  in  order  to  supply  domestic 
needs,  and  for  which  the  producer  himself  obtains  his  raw  material  direct 
from  nature.  Although  not  belonging  to  any  certain  period  of  the  deve- 
lopment of  culture,  this  home  industry  for  domestic  needs,  in  Sweden,  as 
elsewhere,  was  for  a  long  period  the  chief  form  of  industrial  production; 
this  may  be  called  the  period  of  domestic  economy.  From  domestic  in- 
dustry for  supplying  home  needs  there  have  at  a  later  period  been  deve- 
loped domestic  industries  for  the  purpose  of  sale,  where  the  producer,  in 
addition  to  the  articles  made  to  supply  his  own  needs,  also  manufactured 
others  for  purposes  of  exchange  or  to  be  sold  for  money. 

That  the  pursuer  of  a  domestic  industry,  in  carrying  on  his  work  for 
the  purpose  of  gain,  or  for  home-use,  obtains  by  exchange  or  purchase  the 
necessary  raw  material  can  hardly  be  said  to  alter  the  character  of  the 
article  produced  as  being  one  made  by  domestic  industry;  the  determining 
factor  in  this  case,  on  the  other  hand,  should,  we  think,  be  the  absence 
of  any  assistant,  specially  engaged  and  paid  for  the  purpose  of  carrying 
on  the  work.     Other  distinctive  features  of  domestic  industry  in  the  real 


492  VII.      MANUFACTUKING   INDUSTRIES. 

sense  of  the  word  are,  that  it  rarely  occupies  the  whole  time  of  the  worker, 
but  is  rather  carried  on  as  a  subsidiary  employment,  usually  side  by  side 
with  agriculture,  and  also  that,  in  general,  it  is  based  on  inherited  designs 
and  models  characteristic  of  the  district  in  which  it  is  carried  on. 

It  is  clear  that,  in  our  own  days,  domestic  industry  no  longer  forms  an 
essential  proportion  of  the  productions  of  the  land  as  a  whole.  The  rise  of 
the  towns  and  of  handicrafts,  and,  above  all,  the  improved  communications 
of  later  times,  modern  industrialism,  together  with  the  taste  for  change 
and  alterations  in  domestic  utensils,  clothing,  etc.,  which  the  former  phe- 
nomena, in  their  turn,  called  forth  among  the  agricultural  population,  too, 
and  which  is  not  so  easily  satisfied  by  home  industries,  are  factors  that, 
in  most  places  in  Europe,  have  more  or  less  completely  exterminated  do- 
mestic industries,  unless  they  have  degenerated  into  house-industries 
or  "sweating",  with  an  unscrupulous  exploitation  on  the  part  of  capitalist 
middle-men. 

1  Among  the  few  countries  where  domestic  industries  have  succeeded  in 
retaining  their  position  to  any  great  extent,  Sweden  is,  beyond  possibility 
of  contradiction,  one  of  the  principal.  The  reason  of  this  is  partlj^  the  fact 
that  from  ancient  times  the  Swedish  nation,  with  its  love  of  work  and  sense 
of  beauty,  has  been  able  to  produce  designs  and  models  of  rare  beauty  and 
originality,  especially  as  regards  textiles  and  carpentry-sloyd,  and  that 
it  has  since,  with  unswerving  conservatism  and  devotion,  held  fast  to  the 
work  and  methods  of  work  handed  down  from  ancestral  times.  But  the 
chief  reason  why  domestic  industries  have  survived  in  Sweden  is,  we  think, 
to  be  found  in  the  position  and  natural  features  of  the  country.  In  thinly 
populated  districts,  where  the  communications  are  but  littl«  developed,  it 
is  greatly  to  the  economic  advantage  of  the  rural  population,  even  to-day, 
to  supply  their  own  needs,  as  far  as  certain  branches  of  production 
are  concerned,  and  in  tracts  where  the  soil  is  not  very  fertile,  or  where  the 
climate  is  less  suitable  for  agriculture,  domestic  industries  carried  on  for 
profit  form  a  by  no  means  contemptible  minor  source  of  income.  When, 
during  four  to  seven  months  of  the  year,  cold  and  the  short  daylight  pre- 
vent any  very  great  amount  of  agricultural  work  being  done,  during  the 
afternoons  at  least,  domestic  industries,  especially  if  there  be  no  forest- 
work  or  other  suitable  winter  occupations  to  be  had,  give  a  welcome  addi- 
tion to  the  limited  income  derived  from  work,  and  prevent  many  a  one 
from  idling  his  time  away.  The  great  economic  and  ethical  importance 
for  Sweden  of  domestic  industries  has,  too,  of  late  years,  although  as  yet 
still  insufficiently,  in  an  ever-increasing  degree  awakened  the  attention  of 
the  authorities  and  private  individuals,  this  attention  finding  expression 
in  the  adoption  of  various  measures  for  the  encouragement  and  promotion 
of  home-sloyd. 

Domestic  industry  for  domestic  supply.  It  is  in  the  very  nature  of 
things  that  it  is  within  the  domestic  industries  that  are  carried  on  to  supply 
domestic  needs,  rather  than  in  similar  industries  carried  on  for  the  sake  of  profit, 


DOMESTIC   INDUSTRIES.  493 

that  the  so-called  peasant-art  is  to  be  met  with.  In  the  case  of  domestic  in- 
dustries for  domestic  supplj'  the  workman,  of  course,  feels  the  greatest  imaginable 
interest  for  the  article  he  makes,  an  interest  which  lasts  for  a  far  longer  time 
than  that  needed  for  the  production  of  the  article  in  question,  and  which  does 
not  cease  before  the  object  thus  produced  is  altogether  worn  out.  A  successful 
piece  of  work  the  producer  honours  with  its  daily  use  while,  for  an  unsuccessful 
article,  he  would  every  day  be  put  to  shame  in  the  presence  of  relatives, 
companions,  and  friends.  The  workman,  therefore,  not  only  exercises  all  his 
technical  ability,  but  he  also  embodies  in  the  work  of  his  hands  his  artistic 
skill  and  his  sense  of  beauty  and   harmony. 

Productions  of  this  interest,  of  this  artistic  sense,  are  seen,  amongst  other 
things,  in  the  rich  Dalecarlian  domestic  industry,  with  its  original  lace-designs, 
many-coloured  textiles,  quaintly  painted  wall-hangings  and  cupboards,  its  well- 
designed  chairs  with  other  articles  of  domestic  use,  and  implements.  We  trace 
the  same  interest,  the  same  artistic  spirit,  in  the  large  chests  of  the  rich  Skane 
peasant,  filled,  as  they  are,  with  gaily-coloured  woven  treasures  with  their 
quaint  untranslatable  names  —  "rodlakan,  krabbasnar,  dukagang,  munkabalte, 
opphamta,  rosengang",  with  the  rest  of  all  these  many  kinds  of  artistic  textile 
productions,  which,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  were  once  in  general  use  almost  every- 
where in  the  country  but,  above  all  —  besides  Skane  —  in  Vastergotland,  Bohus- 
lan,  Blekinge,  Smaland,  Dalarne,  Halsingland,  and  Angermanland.  Bobbin-lace- 
work,  too,  in  the  districts  around  the  towns  of  Motala,  Vadstena,  and  Skanninge, 
and  in  many  places  in  Dalarne  and  Skane,  show  us  traces  of  this  peasant-art; 
so  does  the  art-knitting  of  Halland  and  the  various  forms  of  Laplanders'  sloyd 
in  leather,  bone,  wood,  and  horn.  It  has  been  asserted  that  this  artistic  peasant 
industry  hardly  exists  in  our  own  times,  but  the  incorrectness  of  this  assertion 
is  plainly  shown  by  the  investigation  now  being  carried  out  by  the  Domestic 
Industries  Committee,  appointed  by  the  Government  during  1912.  It  is  true 
that  this  art-sloyd  has  fallen  off  tremendously,  but  the  fact  is  that,  even  at  the 
present  day,  it  is  carried  on  especially  in  Skane,  Dalarne,  and  Norrland,  and 
that  in  many  places,  in  consequence  of  the  encouragement  it  has  received  from 
Agricultural  Societies  and  Societies  for  the  Promotion  of  Domestic  Industries, 
it  has  increased  somewhat  during  the  last  few  years  and,  in  not  a  few  in- 
stances, has  become  a  fairly  lucrative  market-sloyd. 

The  same  investigation  shows  that  domestic  industries  to  supply  domestic 
needs  for  practical  use  alone  still  play  a  fairly  essential  part  in  the  life  of  the 
Swedish  peasant.  Agricultural  Societies  and  Societies  for  the  Promotion  of 
Domestic  Industries  in  most  of  the  lans  report  that  spinning  for  domestic  needs 
is  carried  on  in  a  number  of  farmers'  families,  and  that  weaving  is  practised 
in  still  more.  This  is  especially  the  case  in  the  more  remote  districts  of  the 
country,  which  are  less  affected  by  modern  "culture",  such  as  those  in  the  Lans 
of  Norrbotten  and  Vasterbotten,  where,  even  at  the  present  day,  homespun  and 
other  articles  of  attire  required  by  the  family,  such  as  linen  and  stockings,  are  made 
at  home.  The  same  state  of  things  exists  in  districts  where,  as  in  the  parishes 
round  lake  Siljan  in  Dalarne,  the  ancient  peasant  dresses  are  still  worn.  In  more 
centrally  situated  tracts,  on  the  other  hand,  especially  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
the  larger  towns,  the  peasants  prefer  factory-goods  to  home-made  articles. 

The  total  gross  value  of  sloyd-articles  made  for  home  needs  —  ordinary  needle- 
work, repairing-  and  buildingwork  not  included  —  is  for  1912  estimated  at  about 
13  million  kronor.  Of  this  amount  the  Lans  of  Kopparberg,  Vasternorrland, 
"Vasterbotten,  and  Norrbotten  claim  1 — 1^/2  million  kronor  each.  It  is  quite 
natural  that  such  figures  do  not  by  any  means  claim  to  be  exact,  and  they 
are  rather  to  be  considered  as  fairly  rough  estimations,  which  in  every  case  are 
certainly  much  too  low. 


494  VII.      MANUFACTURING    INDUSTRIES. 

Domestic  industries  carried  on  for  profit.  When  domestic  sloyd  tends 
to  become  a  means  of  pecuniary  gain,  it  often  loses  what  may  be  termed  its 
artistic  point.  It  is  the  purchasers'  taste  that  is  followed;  it  is  the  market- 
demand  that,  to  a  certain  degree  at  least,  determines  the  method  of  work  and 
the  models  used;  attempts  are  made  to  imitate,  as  far  as  possible,  popular  indu- 
strial productions,  but  this  does  not  exclude  the  fact  that  this  form  of  domestic 
industries  has,  in  many  places,  retained  its  artistic  spirit  and  its  characteristic 
patterns,  especially  in  places  where  they  are  pursued  together  with  domestic 
industries  for  the  supply  of  home  needs. 

Certain  sloyd-centres,  or  centres  of  these  domestic  industries,  have  arisen  where 
certain  sloyd-productions  are  those  chiefly  produced;  this  depends  on  the  raw 
materials  to  be  had  at  these  places,  and  on  other  external  circumstances,  or  on 
the  character  of  the  inhabitants  there.  If  such  a  manufacture  is  carried  on  on 
a  large  scale,  it  often  shows  a  tendency  to  degenerate  into  sweated  industry, 
where  the  work  is  carried  out  to  order,  while  those  employed  in  the  work  are 
likely  to  be  people  who  have  little  or  no  private  interest  in  the  land,  and 
who  have  domestic  industries  as  their  principal  means  of  livelihood. 

Spinning,  during  the  18th  century  and  the  first  half  of  the  19:th,  was  a 
domestic  industry  carried  on  for  the  sake  of  profit  to  which  the  Government 
gave  its  special  support  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  home  raw-material  for  the 
weaving-mills,  then  in  course  of  establishment.  At  the  same  time  that  it  was 
forbidden  to  carry  on  domestic  weaving  in  the  towns  for  purposes  of  sale,  orders 
were  given  that  skill  in  spinning  should  be  encouraged  in  every  possible  way. 
Sheep-breeding  stocks  were  established,  instruction  was  given  in  the  cultivation 
and  preparation  of  flax,  and  spinning-schools  were  established  all  over  the  country, 
to  which  every  parish  was  obliged  to  send  one  person  to  learn  the  work,  who,  on 
his  return,  was  bound  to  spread  a  knowledge  in  his  native  place  of  the  art  thus 
learned.  But  as  the  payment  offered  by  the  factories  for  the  yarn  spun  was 
very  small,  the  people  gradually  refused  to  work  for  them  and  spinning  gradually 
declined,  even  if  home-spun  woollen-  and  linen  yarn  long  remained  articles  that 
the  peasi^nts  themselves  carried  to  market.  In  Angermanland  and  Halsingland, 
especially,  the  cultivation  and  spinning  of  flax  was  carried  on  on  a  large  scale. 
The  fine,  silvery  linen-yam,  which,  ever  since  the  middle  of  the  18th  century, 
has  been  manufactured  in  the  first-named  province,  is  still  unsurpassed  in 
quality.  The  high  quality  of  this  production  depends,  to  a  great  extent,  on  the 
suitable  soil  where  the  flax  is  grown  and  the  character  of  the  river-beds  in  the 
streams  where  the  flax  is  steeped.  In  our  own  days  there  are  only  a  few 
places,  most  of  them  in  Smaland,  with  a  few  here  and  there  in  the  Lans  of 
Kopparberg,  Gavleborg,  Vasterbotten,  and  Norrbotten,  too,  where  such  yarn  is 
offered  at  the  fairs;  otherwise  the  peasantry  itself  makes  use  of  its  home-spun 
yarn  for  weaving  purposes.  Everywhere  complaints  are  heard  of  a  decrease  in 
sheep-breeding  and  the  cultivation  of  flax;  this  is  due,  however,  in  most  places, 
on  a  perfectly  natural  phenomenon,  being  the  result  of  the  birth  of  more 
thorough  systems  of  agriculture  and  cattle-breeding,  and  of  a  livelier  lumber- 
trade.  The  following  figures  may  be  given  to  illustrate  the  decrease  in  the 
cultivation  of  linen  and  in  sheep-breeding,  and,  consequently,  to  a  certain  degree 
in  that  of  the  domestic  spinning  industry.  While,  in  1865,  the  yield  of  raw 
materials  for  spinning  purposes  was  estimated  at  37  840  quintals,  in  1911,  it 
amounted  to  only  5  575  quintals;  during  the  same  period  the  number  of  sheep 
had  fallen  from  1  589  875  to  945  709  head.  In  1865,  the  area  of  land  devoted 
to  the  cultivation  of  flax  or  hemp  amounted  to  O'es  %  of  the  entire  cultivated 
land  of  Sweden,  while  to  every  1  000  inhabitants  there  were  386  sheep;  in 
1911,  these  figures  had  fallen  to  0'04  %  and  172. 

As   regards  textile  productions,  it  may  be  pointed  out  that,  just  as  the  cultiva- 


DOMESTIC  INDUSTRIES.  495 

tion  and  spinning  of  flax  had  their  chief  seat  in  Halsingland  and  Angerman- 
land,  so  too  did  the  weaving  of  linen  reach  its  highest  degree  of  perfection  in 
these  provinces.  Halsingland  was  well  known  for  its  coarse  drill;  the  worth  of 
the  manufacture  amounted  in  1857  to  ^/s  million  kroner.  In  that  province, 
the  wife  who  did  not  every  year  provide  her  husband  with  at  least  1  000 
ells  of  linen  oloth  for  sale  was  considered  to  be  very  incapable.  The  fine 
linen  cloth  of  Angermanland  was  celebrated  beyond  the  borders  of  the  country. 
As  early  as  1751,  the  four  Estates  of  the  Kingdom  began  to  give  premiums 
for  such  linen  but,  in  spite  of  this  encouragement,  the  production,  which,  in 
the  middle  of  the  19th  century  was  valued  at  700  000  kronor,  steadily  de- 
creased and  is  now  of  little  importance  in  that  province.  The  greater  part  of 
the  Angermanland  linen  went  to  Russia,  and  its  sale,  like  that  of  the  Halsinge 
textiles,  was  carried  out  by  the  peasants  themselves  or  by  a  special  class  of 
pedlars.  Vastergotland,  too,  especially  the  hundreds  of  Mark,  Kind,  Bollebygd, 
As,  and  Redvag,  have  long  been  the  seats  of  the  linen-weaving  home-sloyd 
which  is  still  carried  on,  on  a  considerable  scale  in  the  hundred  of  Mark,  but 
the  yam  which  is  employed  nowadays  is  a  factory-product  and  the  industry 
has  fallen  into  the  hands  of  middlemen.  Cotton-textiles  soon  took  the  lead, 
however,  in  these  Vastgota  country  districts,  and  even  to-day  it  is  widely  spread 
in  the  hundreds  of  Mark,  Kind  and  Bollebygd,  but  it  is  almost  exclusively  an 
industry  that  exists  by  executing  the  middleman's  orders.  Woollen  textiles,  too, 
have  heen  manufactured  from  very  ancient  times  in  these  tracts,  and  the  process 
of  development  from  a  domestic  industry  proper  to  a  sweated  industry  has 
been  the  same  as  for  the  other  forms  of  textile  sloyd  carried  on  there.  A  large 
amount  of  plain  woollen  and  linen  cloth,  too,  is  manufactured  and  sold  in  the 
Lan  of  Vasterbotten,  while  the  artistic  textUe  production  intended  for  sale  has 
its  chief  seat  in  the  Lan  of  Kristianstad. 

The  value  of  home-woven  cloth  sold  in  1911  is  calculated  at  2^/2  million 
kronor. 

Knitting  by  hand,  as  a  home  industry  carried  on  for  profit,  has  been  most 
widely  spread  in  the  south  part  of  the  Lan  of  Halland,  where  it  is  stn  carried 
on,  on  a  small  scale,  to  order.  Knitting  by  machine,  also  to  order,  is  carried 
on,  on  a  large  scale,  in  the  districts  round  Boras. 

Bobbin  lace-work  for  purposes  of  sale  has  been  carried  on  since  the  Middle 
Ages  in  the  country  round  the  towns  of  Vadstena,  Motala,   and  Skanninge. 

Joinery  was  formerly  carried  on  extensively  in  several  places  where  now 
it  has  either  been  transformed  into  factory-production,  or  where  it  is  still 
pursued  as  a  domestic  industry  carried  on  for  profit;  it  exists  chiefly  at  Oster- 
vala  in  Vastmanland  Lan,  KyrkefaUa  in  Skaraborgs  Lan,  Lindome  in  Halland 
Lan  and  in  the  hundreds  of  Ostra  and  Vastra  Goinge  in  Kristianstad  Lan. 
The  furniture  is,  as  a  rule,  sold  to  middlemen,  who  sell  it  either  in  their  own 
shops  or  at  fairs. 

Caslcs  are  chiefly  manufactured  in  the  Lans  of  Kopparberg,  Vastmanland,  Ore- 
bro,  Halland  and  Kristianstad. 

The  carpentry-sloyd  carried  on  for  the  purpose  of  sale  is  mostly  carried  on 
in  Smaland,  Vastergotland,  Halland,   and  Vasterbotten. 

The  gross  value  of  carpentry-sloyd  articles  sold  in  1911  is  estimated  at  SV^ — 4 
million  kronor. 

Basket-maMng  is  of  several  kinds.  Coarse,  so-called  coal-baskets,  for  the  use 
of  the  railways,  are  manufactured  mostly  in  Alvsborg  Lan,  south  of  Alingsas,  and 
in  the  Lans  of  Kopparberg,  Blekinge,  and  Kristianstad  while  baskets  made  of 
chip  are  made  in  the  Liins  of  Kopparberg,  Kronoberg,  and  Kristianstad.  Fine 
wicker-work  baskets  are  made  purely  as  a  domestic  industry  carried  on  for  profit; 
it  exists   on   a   large  scale    in    the    north-east    of    Blekinge,    and   it  is  here,  too, 


496  VII.      MANUFACTURING    INDUSTRIES. 

that    the    most    flexible    and    beautiful  forms  of  all  kinds   of  baskets  are  found, 
even  among  the  coarsest  qualities. 

"Small  sloyd"  (whisks,  brooms,  wooden  spoons,  etc.)  are  manufactured  on  a 
very  large  scale  in  the  south  of  Alvsborg  Lan,  especially  in  the  hundred  of 
Bollebygd,  and  also  in  the  hundred  of  Ostra  Goinge  in  Kristianstad  Lan. 

The  production  of  toys  as  a  domestic  industry  carried  on  for  profit  is  an  un- 
important one ,  and  the  only  place  where  it  is  pretty  generally  carried  on  is  the 
parish  of  Oderljunga  in  Kristianstads  Lan. 

Pottery  manufacture  as  a  domestic  industry  in  connection  with  small,  indepen- 
dent farming,  was  formerly  carried  on  in  the  south  of  Halland,  and  is  still 
found  in  the  hundred  of  Asbo  in  Kristianstad  Lan. 

Wrought-Iron  manufacture  (nails,  tacks,  horse-shoes,  knives,  scissors,  etc.)  was 
formerly  carried  on  in  the  parish  of  Lerback  in  Orebro  Lan  and  in  the  parish 
of  Godegard  in  Ostergotland  Lan,  but  nowadays  it  is  rarely  found.  Scythes  are 
still  made  in  the  Lans  of  Kristianstad  and  Kronoberg;  locksmith's  work  and 
girdler's  work  are  carried  on  in  the  parish  of  Loshult  in  Kristianstad  Lan  and 
in  Hallaryd  parish  in  KJronoberg  Lan.  Stirrups  and  other  fine  smith's-work  for 
horse  trappings  were,  until  some  ten  years  ago,  supplied  to  the  army  from  these 
places.  Their  sale  is,  for  the  most  part,  now  carried  on  by  means  of  shop- 
keepers living  in  the  neighbourhood. 

The  hand-manufacture  of  wire-netting  and  bolting  cloth  is  still  carried  on  in 
the  parish  of  Gnosjo  in  Jonkoping  Lan,  but  the  once  widely-spread  domestic 
industry  carried  on  for  profit,  in  the  shape  of  the  manufacture  of  hair-pins, 
hooks-and-eyes  and  purses,  etc.,  is  nowadays  pursued  only  by  a  few  elderly 
persons. 

The  manufacture  of  fishing-tacMe  is  carried  on  everywhere  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  the  coasts. 

The  mahing  of  shoes  and  boots  as  a  domestic  industry,  pure  and  simple,  was 
once  of  great  importance  in  the  whole  of  Orebro  Lan,  especially  in  the  parish 
of  Kumla,  but  now  it  has  been  more  and  more  transformed  into  factory-work 
or  a  sweated  trade.  —  Lappland-shoes  and  skis  for  sale  are  made  in  the  northern- 
most lans;  this  holds  good  also  of  skins,  horn-  and  bone-work.  The  parish  of 
Malung  in  Kopparberg  Lan  is  the  seat  of  a  leather-sloyd  carried  on  on  a  large 
scale. 

In  addition  to  these  "sloyd-centres",  domestic  industries  for  sale  are  stiU 
carried  on  by  persons  who  work  to  order  or  who  themselves  sell  their  pro- 
ductions at  fairs  and  on  market-days.  Over  the  whole  of  Sweden  there  are 
women-weavers,  basket-makers,  carpenters  and  makers  of  small-sloyd  who,  as  a 
rule,  carry  on  their  domestic  industry  as  a  by-occupation  in  addition  to  their 
agricultural  pursuits.  But,  as  a  rule,  they  do  not  themselves  know  very  exactly 
how  much  they  sell  every  year  and,  as  they  know  still  less  how  much  they 
earn  by  means  of  their  domestic  industries,  the  figures  in  this  respect  must 
always  be  treated  with  a  certain  amount  of  caution.  The  distinction,  especially, 
between  a  real  domestic  industry  on  the  one  hand,  and  a  handicraft  and 
sweated  industry,  on  the  other,    is    often   a  very  fine  one. 

According  to  the  investigation  in  1911  by  the  Domestic  Industries  Com- 
mittee, the  number  of  persons  occupied  in  domestic  industries  pursued  for  profit 
amounted  to  about  49  000,  and  the  value  of  the  "articles  sold  to  16  million 
kroner,  one  half  of  which  comes  from  real  domestic  industry  and  the  other 
from  similar  work  of  sweated  industry  and  handicraft.  The  total  wages  are 
calculated  at  7  ^/2  million  kroner  about  5  millions  of  which  can  be  assigned  to 
real  sloyd  and  only  2  ^/i  million  kroner  to  sweated  industry  and  handicraft. 
Domestic  industry  for  the  purpose  of  profit  is  most  spread  in  the  southern  part 
of    Alvsborg    Lan,    with    an    gnnual  production  of  5  million  kroner,  the  greater 


INDUSTRIAL    ART.  497 

part  of  which,  however,  is  derived  from  sweated  industry.  Other  districts 
where  domestic  industries  for  the  purposes  of  profit  are  of  importance  are  the 
Lans  of  Kopparberg,  1  289  000  kroner,  Vasterbotten,  1  288  000  kronor,  and  the 
Lans  of  Jonkoping,  Kristianstad  and  Halland,  each  of  which  has  a  production- 
value  of  600  000  —  800  000  kronor. 

The  domestic  industries  movement.  It  is  certain  that  the  production 
of  home-industry  articles,  especially  those  made  with  a  view  to  sale,  has,  after 
a  long  period  of  decline,  considerably  increased  during  late  years,  and  this, 
thanks  to  the  modern  home-sloyd  movement,  which  has  as  its  object  the  re- 
awakening of  the  old  national  love  of  work,  the  development  of  manual  skill 
and  the  creation,  on  the  basis  of  inherited  traditions,  of  a  revivified  home-sloyd 
as  a  source  of  income  for  the  great  mass  of  the  people.  The  movement  may 
be  said  to  date  from  the  foundation  of  the  Northern  Museum.  By  the  efforts 
of  the  society  called  "Handarbetets  vanner"  (The  Friends  of  Art  Needle-work), 
Jacob  and  Thora  Kulle,  and  others,  many  beautiful  textUe  designs  and  ancient 
technics  have  been  preserved  from  falling  into  oblivion,  and  the  artistic  pro- 
ductions of  domestic  industries  turned  into  articles  of  trade,  chiefly  by  the  efforts 
of  the  Association  for  Swedish  Domestic  Industries  (Sw.  Foreningen  for  Svensk 
Hemslojd).  The  Agricultural  Societies,  which,  ever  since  their  establishment, 
have  had  the  improvement  of  domestic  industries  as  one  item  of  their  pro- 
gramme, began  to  work  most  zealously  in  the  above-mentioned  direction,  aided, 
as  they  were,  by  increased  State  grants.  By  means  of  co-operation  between 
the  Agricultural  Societies,  the  Domestic  Industries  Associations  (which,  at  the 
present  day,  exist  in  most  of  the  lans),  and  private  persons,  there  have  been 
established  within  the  districts  of  the  various  Agricultural  Societies  fixed  schools 
of  domestic  industries,  and  ambulatory  sloyd-courses,  where  the  peasants  are 
instructed  in  domestic  industrial  pursuits,  especially  in  those  peculiar  to  the  pro- 
vince, either  gratis  or'  for  a  very  low  fee;  old  designs  have  been  imitated,  new 
ones  drawn  which  were  based  on  the  old  ones,  and  steps  have  been  taken  to  pro- 
vide for  the  sale  of  the  objects  produced  by  these  domestic  industries,  by  the 
establishment  of  special  shops  for  this  purpose.  But  much  remains  to  be  done 
ere  domestic  industries  once  more  occupy  the  place  they  deserve  —  not  in  rivalry 
with  great  manufacturing  industries  and  handicrafts,  but  side  by  side  with,  and 
supplementing  these  forms  of  production,  and  as  a  weighty  ethical,  esthetical 
and  economic  factor  in  the  life  of  the  nation. 


13.     INDUSTRIAL   ART. 

The  flourishing  condition  of  the  industrial  art  of  Sweden  took  its  rise 
more  than  forty  years  ago  and  has  steadily  developed  ever  since.  The 
first  inspiring  impulse  in  this  branch  of  industry,  after  nearly  half  a  cen- 
tury of  extreme  decadence,  came  from  England,  where  the  Great  Ex- 
hibition of  1851  showed  this  decline  in  most  discouraging  aspect.  The 
reaction  which  then  commenced,  stimulated  by  artists  and  others  inte- 
rested in  art,  found  its  first  and  momentous  expression  in  the  establish- 
ment of  the  South  Kensington  Museum  and  the  industrial  art  schools, 
associated  with  it.     From  England  the  movement  extended  to  other  coun- 

S2— 133179.   Sweden  IJ. 


498 


VII.      MANUFACTURING   INDUSTRIES. 


tries,   and  industrial   art  museums  and  establishments   for  instruction  in 
industrial  art  were  founded  everywhere. 


{Binding  by  G.  Hedberg,  Stockholm. 


In  Sweden,  the  movement  found  expression  in  a  form  which  very 
essentially  differs  from  those  of  other  countries,  the  result  being  that 
Swedish  industrial  art,  in  one  branch  especially,  attained  to  a  most  flour- 
ishing and  notable  degree  of  development,  at  an  earlier  date  than  that  of 
other  countries. 

This  special  branch  consisted  of  women's  textile  handicrafts  —  art- 
weaving,  and  art-needlework  —  those  which,  in  Sweden,  first  became  the 


INDUSTRIAL   ART.  49<) 

objects  of  a  reformation  in  an  artistic  direction.  The  society  called  "Hand- 
arbetets  vdnner"  (the  Friends  of  Art  Needle-work),  founded  in  1874,  by 
Sofia  Adlersparre,  Banna  Winge,  and  Molhj  Rothlieb,  made  it  its  chief 
aim  to  raise  Swedish  textile  art  to  a  higher  plane,  in  an  artistic  and 
patriotic  direction.  It  was,  in  the  first  place,  the  rich  treasures  of  peasant 
textiles,  those  of  Skane  especially,  that  formed  the  basis  of  their  studies 
for  purposes  of  imitation  and  development.  In  the  task  of  collecting  these 
ancient  textiles,  the  Society  obtained  valuable,  expert  assistance  from 
Jahob  Kulle,  an  artist  warmly  interested  in  the  work.  It  was,  too,  about 
this  time  that  Artur  Haselius  formed  his  fine  collections  of  peasant  tex- 
tiles. 

From  the  very  beginning,  when  the  work  of  the  Society  was  chiefly  devoted 
to  the  preservation  and  development  of  the  ancient  peasant  designs,  the  move- 
ment has  been  one  of  constant  development.  At  a  very  early  period  of  the 
Society's  existence,  some  Swedish  artists  began  to  compose  designs  for  the 
Society,  at  first  in  connection  with  the  historical  styles,  but,  by  degrees, 
their  compositions  became  more  independent  and  individual  and  this  feature, 
since  the  beginning  of  the  present  century  at  least,  has  been  distinctive  of  the 
textile-  as  well  as  of  other  forms  of  Swedish  industrial  art.  Sweden  now  posses- 
ses a  large  number  of  clever  and  artistic  women-designers  for  textile  work,  as 
in  the  very  nature  of  things,  it  has  chiefly  been  women  that  have  devoted  them- 
selves to  this  branch  of  work.  Among  the  principal  of  these  may  be  mentioned: 
Sofia  Oisberg,  Selma  Giobel,  Agnes  Branting,  Karin  Wastberg,  Maria  Adelborg,  Maja 
Sjostrom,  Annie  Frykholm,  Agnes  Sutihoff,  etc.  Among  the  artists,  chiefly  paint- 
ers, who  have  also  devoted  themselves  to  textile  composition,  the  principal  have 
been:  Alf  Wallander  (f),  Carl  Larsson,  Gunnar  Wennerberg  (f),  Ounnar  Hallstrom 
Gustaf  FjcBstad.  All  these  and  many  others  have  worked  both  for  the  Friends 
of  Art-Needle-work  and  for  the  other  associations  with  similar  aims  that  have 
arisen  at  a  later  date.  The  oldest  of  these  last-named  societies  is  A.  B.  Svensh 
Konstsloidutstdllning,  S.  Oiobel,  (Swedish  Art  Industry  Company,  Ltd.),  estab- 
lished and,  for  a  number  of  years,  directed  by  Selma  Oiobel  —  who,  at  present,  is 
the  directress  of  an  enterprise  of  a  similar  character  at  Vadstena  —  and  which 
later  on  came  into  the  hands  of  a  Company  whose  artistic  director  was  the 
painter  Alf  Wallander ;  the  Company  has  since  extended  its  field  of  activity  to 
the  manufacture  of  artistically  designed  furniture.  The  large  A.  B.  NordisTca  Kom- 
paniet  (Northern  Company,  Ltd.)  also  embraces  a  department  for  textile  art,  dir- 
ected by  Thyra  Qrafstrom.  The  Atelier  Licium,  which  has  made  a  speciality  of 
ecclesiastical  textile  art,  has  been  started  by  Agnes  Branting,  who  is  also  the 
textile  leader  of  the  society  called  Pietas,  whose  field  of  work  is  the  restoration 
of  ancient  textile  fabrics. 

A  special  branch  of  textile  art,  the  mahing  of  lace,  has,  of  late  years,  been 
the  object  of  great  and  special  interest.  The  ancient  Swedish  bobbin-work,  which 
seemed  to  be  on  the  point  of  entire  extinction,  has  been  revivified  by  societies 
and  private  persons,  and  interest  in  its  beautiful,  national  designs  has  spread 
to  all  classes  of  society.  In  the  three  chief  centres  where  this  art  has  been 
carried  on  since  ancient  times,  viz,  Skane,  Dalarne,  and  the  town  of  Vadstena 
in  Ostergotland,  schools  and  courses  of  instruction  have  been  established.  In 
Skane,  Augustine  Ehrensvdrd,  in  Dalarne  chiefly  Ottilia  Adelborg,  and,  at  Vad- 
stena, Ingeborg  Petrelli  have  devoted  themselves  to  the  revival  of  this  beautiful 
form  of  lace-making.  The  initiative  to  the  development  of  higher-class  and  more 
artistic  needlework-lace  has  been  taken  by  Hilda  Starck-Lilienberg,  who  devotes 


500 


VII.      MANUFACTURING    INDUSTRIES. 


her  talents,  both  as  a  teacher  of  the  work  and  also  as  a  practical  artist,  to  the 
promotion  of  this  form  of  lace-makin  g. 

It  was,   consequently,   specially  women's   needlework  that  in   Sweden 
first  became  the  object  of  artistic  attention  and  development,  and  this  at 


INDUSTRIAL    ART. 


501 


an  earlier  date  than  in  any  other  country,  and  we  find  here  the  reason  why 
Swedish  textile-art  now  stands  absolutely  foremost  and  without  a  com- 
petitor. As  regards  the  other  branches  of  Swedish  industrial  art,  many 
years  passed  before  they  experienced  a  similar  revival  for,  as  a  matter  of 
fact,  it  was  under  the  influence  of  the  great  artistic  reformation  which, 
originating  in  England,  commenced  its  triumphal  march  through  the  whole 
of  the  civilized  world,  towards  the  end  of  last  centurjr,  that-  Swedish 
industrial  art  was  first  given  a  really  artistic  direction. 


Antejiendium  by  The  Friends  of  Art  Needle-work. 
Cathedral  of  Lund. 


Swedishcabinet-making  has  long  been  known  for  its  good,  sound  work. 
As  regards  the  designs  employed,  the  system  of  copying,  or  applying, 
ancient,  historical  patterns,  which  was  a  distinctive  feature  of  the  latter 
part  of  the  19th  century  has,  under  the  influence  of  the  artistic  renaissance 
of  our  own  days  been  succeded  by  free,  individual  creations.  In  Sweden,  as 
in  other  countries,  it  has  been  artists  and  in  the  first  place,  architects  that 
have  headed  this  new  movement.  Ragnar  Ostberg,  Carl  Westman,  Axel 
Lindegren,  Lars  Wahlman,  and  Elis  Benchert  (lately  deceased),  all  of 
whom  possess  original  and  personal  talents,  are  some  of  the  principal  names 
that  should  be  mentioned  in  this  connection.     A  special  place  is  occupied 


502  VII.      MANUFACTURING    INUUSTRIBS. 

by  Ferdinand  Boherg,  whose  gifted  hand  in  this  branch,  as  in  all  other 
departments,  of  industrial  work,  produces  elegant  compositions  of  unmis- 
takeably  original  individuality.  The  painter  Alf  Wallander  has  already 
been  mentioned  as  a  cabinet-making  artist  in  connection  with  his  textile 
v/ork.  It  should  be  especially  pointed  out  that  the  demand  foi  modern, 
independent  forms  has  given  rise  to  a  great  number  of  prominent  specia- 
lists in  this  branch  of  industrial  art  —  real  "furniture-architects",  who 
devote  themselves  exclusively  to  designing  furniture.  Among  the  foremost 
of  these  maj^  be  mentioned  David  Blomherg,  Ragnar  Ostman,  Isidor  Hor- 
lin,  A.  Nordenborg,  and  A.  Elisson.  All  these  architects  and  furniture-  , 
architects  work  for  the  most  part  for  the  large  "furniture-firms"  in  Stock- 
holm and  in  some  provincial  towns,  which  carry  on  furniture-manufacture 
on  a  large  scale,  such  as  the  Nordisha  Kompaniet,  Myrstedt  &  Stern,  Karl 
Johansson,  etc.,  of  Stockholm,  Selander  &  Soner,  of  Gothenburg,  Axel 
Beckman,  of  Norrkoping,  etc.  They  also  work  for  the  many  skilful  cabi- 
net-makers who  carry  on  their  trade  as  a  handicraft. 

Swedish  ceramic  manufacture,  which  has  its  principal  representatives 
in  the  two  great  china-factories  of  Ror strand  (founded  1727)  and  Gustavs- 
herg  (founded  1827)-,  has,  in  our  own  days,  attained  a  hitherto  unapproa- 
ched  degree  of  development.  Rorstrand,  with  its  feldspar  porcelain  and 
its  "under-glaze  painting",  has  produced  decorative  objects,  table-servi- 
ces, etc.,  of  great  artistic  merit,  composed,  for  the  most  part,  by  Alf  Wal- 
lander, aided  by  a  staff  of  other  excellent  and  well-schooled  artists.  Gus- 
tavsberg  received  a  powerful  artistic  impulse  under  the  direction  of  the 
painter  Gunnar  Wennerberg,  whose  faince-works  in  sgraffiati-decoration 
and  crockery- ware  with  barbotine-colouring  —  the  latter  work  continued 
in  a  specially  successful  manner  by  Beata  Mdrtensson,  even  after  both 
these  artists  had  left  the  factory  —  form  the  finest  production  of  the  works, 
from  an  artistic  point  of  view. 

During  the  last  few  years,  too,  the  manufacture  of  earthenware  of  ar- 
tistic design  and  execution  has  sprung  up  in  different  parts  of  the  country. 
The  chief  producer  among  these  artistic  potters  is  Tagc  Zickerman,  Witt- 
sj6,  with  his  admirable  designs  and  shapes  and  his  varying  glazings. 
Among  other  producers  of  such  pottery,  may  be  mentioned  Hilma  Persson, 
Arvika,  Anders  and  Bess  Wissler,  Mariefred,  and  the  Uppsala-Ekehy 
Aktiebolag,  Uppsala,  while  the  old  Hogands  Works,  with  sometimes  very 
successful  results,  have  also  turned  their  attention  to  the  artistic  side  of 
earthenware-manufacture. 

Artistic  glaas-manufaoture  is  carried  on  chiefly  by  the  two  large 
glass-factories  of  Kosta  and  Repnyre.  Specially  deserving  of  mention 
are  the  beautiful  decorative  objects  in  sculptured-  or  cameo-glass,  for 
which,  at  first,  Gunnar  Wennerberg  designed  the  models,  this  artist  being 
succeeded  by  Alf  Wallander,  who  has  also  made  designs  for  the  crystal- 
glass  ware. 
Goldsmiths' art  is  carried  on  by  only  few  firms,  but  these  carry  on  the 


INDUSTRIAL   ART.  503 

work  on  a  very  large  scale.  In  addition  to  the  large  Guldsmedsaktiebola- 
get,  of  Stockholm,  which  supplies  all  the  goldsmiths  and  silversmiths  of 
the  country  with  goods,  the  three  firms,  C.  G.  Hallberg,  K.  Andersson, 
and  Gust.  Mollenborg  have  large  workshops  in  Stockholm,  the  first  two 
with  branches  in  provincial  towns.  Among  the  more  prominent  artists 
who  have  worked  for  these  firms,  may  be  mentioned  Ferd.  Boberg,  — ■  who 
in  this  branch  of  art  has  produced  perhaps  his  most  exquisite  compositions 
—  Agi  Lindegren,  Vict.  Andren,  Olga  Lanner,  &nA.  H.  Lundstedt. 

In  the  treatment  of  the  base  metals  for  the  purposes  of  industrial  art, 
artistic  ironsmith's  work  occupies  a  prominent  place,  and  grows  in  popu- 
larity from  day  to  day.  Petrus  Forsberg,  Stockholm,  carries  on  this 
beautiful  work  on  a  large  scale.  Among  other  excellent  producers  of 
artistic  ironsmith's  work  may  be  specially  mentioned  Fetter  pa  Myra,  of 
Arvika.  In  artistic  founding,;  H.  Bergman  and  0.  Meyer,  both  of  Stock- 
holm, vie  with  each  other  in  producing  work  of  singular  perfection.  Du- 
ring the  last  few  years,  a  sculptor,  H.  Elmquist,  has  employed  a  method  of 
casting  invented  by  him,  which  has  attracted  attention  for  the  possibilities 
it  affords  of  producing  delicate  artistic  effects. 

Finally,  as  regards  artistic  bookbinding,  this  branch  of  industrial  art  is 
pursued  with  unrivalled  elegance  and  taste  by  Gust.  Iledberg,  of  Stock- 
holm. 

Nearly  all  the  professional  designers  who  have  been  mentioned  above, 
as  working  in  the  various  forms  of  industrial  art,  have  been  trained  in 
the  higher  industrial-art  division  of  the  Technical  School,  Stockholm. 
This  institution,  which  is  a  most  excellent  one  of  its  kind,  and  whose 
principals  (F.  Adler  was  succeeded  by  Th.  Thoren  in  1910)  unremittingly 
endeavour  to  conduct  the  instruction  on  modern  lines,  possesses  a  staff  of 
excellent  teachers  and  is  attended  by  a  very  considerable  number  of  pupils. 
The  other  technical  schools  of  the  country,  of  which  those  at  Gothenburg 
and  Malmo  are  the  principal,  are  under  the  inspection  of  the  Director  of 
the  Technical  School  of  Stockholm. 

The  Technical  School  of  Stockholm  was  founded  in  the  middle  of  last 
century  bj'  the  Svenska  Slojdforeningen  —  the  Swedish  Sloyd  (Industrial 
Art)  Association  — ,  which  in  many  waj-s,  has  contributed  to  the  progress 
made  by  the  industrial  art  of   Sweden. 

Founded  as  early  as  the  forties  and  recruited  from  those  employed 
in  industrial  art  and  from  other  interested  circles,  the  Society  has  arranged 
prize-competitions  and  lotteries  for  artistic  objects;  technical  lectures  and 
exhibitions  of  older  and  newer  productions  of  industrial  art  have  been 
held  at  its  meetings,  and^  it  has  also  issued  handbooks,  designs,  and  returns 
(Sw.  meddelanden).  Since  1905,  this  publication  has  been  entitled  the 
"Svenska  Slojdforeningens  Tidskrift"  (The  Swedish  Industrial  Art  Asso- 
ciation's Journal).  Among  the  more  important  measures  and  undertakings 
of  the  Society,  may  be  mentioned,  in  addition  to  the  establishment  of  the 
Technical  School  of  Stockholm,  the  presentation  to  the  State  in  1884  of  the 


504 


VII.      MANUFACTURING    INDUSTRIES. 


Industrial  Art  Museum  belonging  to  the  Society;  the  arrangement  of  the 
Gustavian  Exhibition,  1891,  the  Metal  Exhibition,  1895,  the  Charles  XIV 
John  Exhibition,  1900,  the  General  Swedish  Exhibition  of  Industrial  Art 
in  Stockholm,  1909,  and,  now  recently,  of  the  Swedish  Industrial  Art 
Association's  great  Swedish  Industrial  Art  Lottery,  1911 — 13. 


14.  THE  MOST  PROMINENT  SWEDISH  INVENTORS  IN 
THE  DOMAIN  OF  INDUSTRY. 

We  shall  close  this  chapter  with  an  enumeration  of  some  of  the  most 
prominent  of  the  great  number  of  Swedish  inventors  in  the  domain  of 
industry,  and  of  the  most  important  of  their  inventions. 


0.  A.  Betulander  (b.  1872).  Import- 
ant inventions  for  automatic  ^telephone- 
exchange  apparatus. 

J.  A.  Brinell  (b.  1849).  Important 
improvements  in  the  technics  of  testing  ■ 
materials. 

0.  E.  Carlsund  (1809—84).  Pro- 
minent constructor  and  inventor  in  the 
steam-engine  industry  and  in  ship- 
building. 

J.  A.  Dahlgren  (1810—70).  Con- 
structor of  cannons  of  large  calibre, 
called  "Dahlgren  cannon". 

G.  Dalen  (b.  1869).  Inventor  of  the 
automatic  regulator  and  other  devices 
for  lighthouses,  floating  lights,  and  rail- 
way-signals (sun-valve,  Aga-light).  Was 
awarded  the  Nobel-prize  for  physics 
in  1912. 

C.E.Egner{l?,Q9, — 1914).  Important 
improvements  in  telephone-technics '  in 
general,  especially  in  long  distance 
telephony. 

C.  D.  Ehman  (1845—1904).  In- 
ventor of  the  sulphite-method,  of  great 
importance  in  the  manufacture  of 
cellulose. 

G.  Ehman  (1804—76).  Introduced 
important  improvements  in  the  Swedish 
iron-industry. 


John  Ericsson  (1803 — 89).  Disco- 
vered the  practical  solution  of  the  screw- 
propeller  problem ;  inventor  of  the  steam 
fire-engine,  the  monitor,  the  hot-air- 
engine,   etc. 

L.  M.  Ericsson  (b.  1846).  Important 
improvements  in  the  telephone  and 
its .  accessories. 

O.Fahnehjelm. (1846 — 1911).  Invent- 
or of  the  magnesia-comb  for  incandes- 
cent lights  (a  fundamental  principle 
for  modem  incandescent  lighting). 

J.  G.  Grondal  (b.  1859).  Important 
inventions  connected  with  the  briquet- 
ting  of  iron-ore  and  briquetting-fur- 
naces,  etc.  in  the  metallurgical  branch. 
Hon.  D.  Ph. 

G.  F.  Goransson  (1819—1900).  Ef- 
fected improvements  in  the  Bessemer- 
process,  which  first  rendered  this  me- 
thod of  practical  use. 

J.  G.  Holmstrom  (b.  1874).  Import- 
ant improvements  in  telephone-technics 
and  especially  in  long  distance  tele- 
phoning. 

C.  A.  Hult  (b.  1867)  and  0.  W.  Hult 
(b.  1863).  Inventors  of  an  extremely 
ingenious  friction-gearing  mechanism 
("centratorvaxeln"),  a  rotary  steam- 
engine,  etc. 


THE  MOST  PROMINENT  SWEDISH  INVENTORS  IN  THE  DOMAIN  OF  INDUSTRY.   505 


E.  V.  Jungner  (b.  1869).  Important 
improvement  in  the  electric  accumu- 
lator, etc. 

F.  A.  Ejellin  (1872—1910).  Im- 
portant improvements  in  electric  fur- 
naces for  the  production  of  iron  and 
steel.     Hon.  D.  Ph. 

P.  Lagerhielm  (1787—1856).  Con- 
structor of  a  machine  for  testing  the 
tensile  strength  of  iron  and  steel,  there- 
by becoming  the  founder  of  the 
mechanical  testing  of  materials. 

A.  Lagerman  (1836—1904).  Im- 
portant inventions  in  the  match  indu- 
stry; type-setting  machine  (typotheter). 

0.  de  Laval  (1845—1913).  A  great 
number  of  important  inventions  in  the 
dairying  industry,  such  as  the  separa- 
tor, the  lactocrite,  the  emulsor;  and  in 
steam-turbines,  etc. 

B.  Ljungstrom  (b.  1872).  Inventor 
of  the  "Svea-bicycle"  with  changeable 
gearing  and  vertical  treadling,  and  also 
of  important  improvements  in  steam- 
turbines,  etc. 

F.  Lundgren  (b.  1854).  Prominent 
inventor  of  machinery  in  the  match- 
industry. 

J.  E.  Lundstrom  (1815 — 88).  Import- 
ant improvements  in  the  manufacture 
of  safety  matches. 

A.  Nobel  (1833—96).  Inventor  of 
dynamite  and  smokeless  gunpowder 
(Nobel-gunpowder). 

1.  Nobel  (1801—72).  Introduced 
nitro-glycerine  as  an  explosive  (Nobel- 
blasting  oil);  inventor  of  the  first  sub- 
marine-mine. 

C.  B.  Nyberg  (b.  1853).  Inventor 
of  ingenious  apparatus  for  producing 
a  high  temperature  by  direct  and  smoke- 
less combustion  of  petroleum  (soldering- 
lardp,  etc.) 

0.  G.  von  Otter  (1827—1900).  In- 
ventor of  lighthouses  with  intermittent 


H.  Palmcrantz  (1842—80).  Construct- 
or of  the  machine-gun,  afterwards  im- 
proved by  Maxim  and  Nordenfeldt,  the 
latter  also  a  Swede. 

0.  E.  Pasch  (1788—1862).  Invent- 
or of  the  safety-match. 

Kr.  Polhem  (1661—1751).  A  great 
number  of  ingenious  inventions  in  the 
mining  industry. 

S.  Rinman  (1720 — 92).  Various  im- 
portant inventions  in  the  same  in- 
dustry. 

E.  0.  N.  Salenius  (b.  1862).  Inventor 
of  the  radiator  for  making  butter  from 
milk. 

A.  Stille  (1814—93;.  Improved  sur- 
gical instruments  and    appliances. 

R.  V.  Strehlenert  (b  1863).  Import- 
ant improvments  in  apparatus  and 
chemical  methods  for  the  production 
of  artificial  sUk. 

/.  G:  Swartz  (1819—85).  Inventor 
of  tbe  so-called  ice-method  in  dairy- 
farming. 

A.  G.  Theorell  (1834—75).  Con- 
structor of  a  meteorograph,  registering 
and  printing  automatically  in  ordinary 
type  the  indications  of  the  barometer, 
of  the  dry  and  wet  thermometers,  of 
the    anemometer   and  the  anemoscope. 

A.  Welin  (b.  1862).  Inventor  of  an 
improved  breech-loading  mechanism  for 
ordnance  and  of  important  improvements 
in  boat-davits. 

J.  Wensirom  (1855— 93).  One  of  the 
founders  of  the  three-phase  system  (of 
great  importance  for  transmission  of 
electric  power). 

E.  V.  Westman  (1823—91).  Con- 
structor of  a  roasting-furnaoe  of  great 
importance  in  the  iron  industry. 

M.  Wiberg  (1826—1905).  Machine 
for  automatically  calculating  and  print- 
ing logarithms. 


506 


VII.      MANUFACTURING   INDUSTRIES. 


J.  G.  Wiborgh  (1839—1903).  Me- 
tallurgical inventions ;  Wiborgh-phos- 
phate. 


J.  G.  V.  Zander  (b.  1835).  Founder 
of  medical-mechanical  gymnastics,  and 
constructor  of  the  accessory  apparatus 
and  appliances. 


John  Ericsson's  Mausoleum  at  Filipstad. 


VIII. 

COMIVIERCE. 

Historical. 

Swedish  foreign  trade  has  had  great  difficulties  to  contend  with.  Only 
in  proportion  as  new  impulses  in  productive  labour  have  rendered  more 
abundant  those  of  the  country's  own  products  available  for  the  purpose 
of  foreign  trade,  and  as  the  development  of  political  conditions  and  of  in- 
ternal communications  have  lessened  the  gap  between  Sweden  and  the 
foremost  civilized  countries,  have  better  conditions  been  shaped  for  a 
brisker  exchange  with  foreign  countries. 

During  the  Middle  Ages,  the  commerce  of  Sweden  had  reached  only  an  in- 
significant stage  of  development  —  with  one  brilliant  exception:  Yisby.  Even 
at  the  time  of  the  introduction  of  Christianity,  Gottland  enjoyed  a  brisk  com- 
mercial activity,  which  developed  more  and  more,  when  it  became  the  centre- 
point  of  the  commercial  communications  between  Northern,  Western,  and  Eastern 
Em-ope,  right  away  to  the  Orient.  The  importance  of  this  island  was  rendered 
possible  by  its  convenient  position  in  respect  to  the  communications  of  that 
time.  Later  on,  the  commerce  of  Gottland  was  concentrated  in  Visby,  which 
advanced  to  importance  during  the  twelfth  century,  and  was  organized  under 
German  auspices.  During  several  centuries,  Visby  was  a  wealthy  and  powerful 
republic,  whose  importance  as  regards  shipping  matters  of  the  time  can  be 
estimated  from  the  fact  that  Visby  maritime  law  was  taken  as  a  standard  even 
in  foreign  countries.  To  the  advanced  culture  which  flourished  on  the  island 
imder  the  shelter  of  wealth  witness  is  borne  by  the  magnificient  architectural 
memorials  which  are  still  preserved  on  Gottland.  The  zenith  of  Visby's  great- 
ness was  reached  during  the  13th  century,  but  the  town  was  still  flourishing  even 
later.  Her  decline  may  be  ascribed  to  the  new  commercial  higways  which  the 
Crusades  opened  up,  and  further  to  the  rise  of  Liibeck;  but,  above  all,  to  the 
exclusion  of  European  culture  and  commerce  from  Russia,  owing  to  her  conquest 
by  the  Mongols  —  an  event  of  the  most  fatal  importance  for  Sweden,  for,  by  it, 
was  totally  obstructed  the  civilizing  influence  that  had  gone  out  from  Sweden 
over  the  whole  of  eastern  Europe,  and  the  barbarism  of  the  far  East  was 
brought  into  our  immediate  neighbourhood.  As  regards  Visby,  in  1361  it 
became  a  victim  of  the  Danish  king  Valdemar  Atterdag's  predatory  raids,  and 
after  the  lapse    of  another  century  the  town's  ancient  grandeur  had  vanished. 


508 


VIII.      COMMBECE. 


Within  Sweden  herself,  during  the  Middle  Ages,  commerce  was  chiefly  in  the 
hands  of  the  Germans,  As  there  was  no  real  export  from  Sweden,  foreigners 
came  here  to  get  rid  of  their  own  wares.  Stockholm,  which  was  the  only- 
trading  town  in  the  country  worthy  of  mention,  besides  Visby,  was  long  under 
German  control.  The  treaty  that  was  concluded  between  Ltibeck  and  Sweden 
was  extremely  profitable  to  the  powerful  republic,  and  for  nearly  three  hundred 
years  our  trade  was  under  the  control  of  the  Hanseatic  League,  Oustavus  Vasa 
was  the  first  to  burst  these  fetters,  which  prevented  every  possibility  of  fuller 
prosperity  in  Sweden. 


The  Harbour  of  Gothenburg. 


When  Gustavus  Vasa  assumed  watch  and  ward  over  the  Swedish  people,  the 
Swedish  trade  was  strictly  limited  to  the  Baltic;  scarcely  a  single  Swedish 
vessel  sailed  beyond  its  limits.  At  the  same  time  as  the  king  worked  to 
secure  an  increased  trade  in  Swedish  commodities,  he  directed  his  endeavours 
towards  extending  her  shipping.  At  this  period  the  Swedes  began  to  sail  to 
Holland,  England,  and  France,  —  nay,  even  to  Spain  and  Portugal.  By  fair 
means  or  foul,  we  can  say,  Gustavus  Vasa  tried,  besides,  to  educate  his  Swedes 
as  traders. 

Charles  XI  effected  the  division  of  our  tovra.s  into  staple  towns  and  inland 
towns,  of  which  the  former  carried  on  the  foreign  trade.  Among  them  Stock- 
holm was  to  be  the  chief  Baltic  port  and  Gothenburg  the  chief  port  on  the 
North  Sea. 

Gustavas  Adolphus  did  extraordinary  services  for  the  improvement  of  Swedish 
trade  and  Axel  Oxenstierna  likewise.  "The  kingdom's  welfare  depends  upon 
trade  and  shipping"  was  a  pronouncement  often  heard  from  Gustavus  Adolphus. 


HISTORICAL.  509 

Side  by  side  with  growth  of  her  political  power  at  this  time,  Sweden's  foreign 
oommercial  relations  expanded.  Interest  in  the  development  of  industrialism  was 
■created,  and  especially  Swedish  iron  secured  a  prominent  position  in  the 
markets  of  the  world.  With  its  excellent  position  in  the  very  middle  of  the 
realm  which  was  in  process  of  creation  round  the  Baltic,  Stockholm  became 
an  important  trading  town,  and  several  great  commercial  houses  arose  there. 
Few  periods  in  our  history  have  been  so  characterized  as  this  by  such  great 
endeavours  to  expand  our  trade  and  industries. 

New  methods,  too,  were  introduced  into  our  industrial  activity,  private  capital 
began  to  make  its  appearance  and  to  make  itself  felt,  and  from  this  time  can 
be  reckoned  the  beginnings  of  the  company  system,  which  is  of  such  significance 
in  our  own  day. 

With  the  attitude  that  the  state  assumed  towards  the  industries  of  the 
■country  at  that  time,  however,  the  great  companies  could  scarcely  be  established 
without  state  intervention  and  state  assistance.  Thus  the  so-called  companies 
often  got  a  monopoly  in  the  trade  in  certain  wares  and  with  certain  countries. 
In  1619,  the  Copper  Company  was  established,  which  obtained  the  monopoly 
of  purchasing  and  exporting  all  Swedish  copper.  After  ten  years'  activity, 
however,  it  had  to  be  dissolved.  A  new  copper  company  was  established  in 
1636  but  was  dissolved  two  years  later,  after  which  the  trade  in  copper  was 
■unrestricted.  Far  more  comprehensive  in  its  operations  was  the  so-called 
Southern  Company,  which  obtained  its  privilegies  in  1626,  on  the  initiative  of 
the  Dutchman,  W.  Usselincx,  and  was  formed  to  carry  on  trade  with  Asia, 
America,  Africa,  and  Australia,  thus  exercising  a  monopoly  over  the  shipping 
with  the  chief  continents  of  the  world.  Unfavourable  conditions,  however, 
prevented  the  company  from  fully  realizing  its  great  plans.  Of  other  trading 
■companies  we  will  only  mention  the  Tar  Trading  Companies,  which,  from  1648 
to  1715,  had  the  exclusive  right  to  purchase  tar  in  Norrland  and  Finland  for 
exportation. 

Among  the  countries  with  which  foreign  trade  was  carried  on  during  the 
seventeeth  century,  Holland  occupies  the  first  place.  By  the  commercial  treaties 
■of  1614  and  1640,  this  country  enjoyed  greater  privileges  than  other  countries. 
During  the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  century,  Holland  played  practically 
the  same  role  with  respect  to  our  trade  as  Liibeck  had  played  during  the 
fifteenth  and  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  centuries.  A  number  of  Dutch 
merchants  came  to  Sweden  and  invested  a  considerable  amount  of  capital, 
especially  in  our  iron  industry,  which  was  of  benefit  to  the  country;  but,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  Dutchmen  tried  to  exploit  our  resources  to  the  advantage 
of  their  own  country.  The  Dutch  frustrated  the  Swedish  attempts  at  colonization, 
both  in  America  and  in  Africa,  and  secretly  and  openly  worked  against  the 
attempts  of  our  statesmen  to  improve  Swedish  commerce.  And  so  also  did 
the  Danes,  who  injured  the  commerce  of  Sweden  especially  by  annoyances  and 
extortions  for  which  the  Oresund  Customs  were  used  as  a  pretext.  Through 
the  Peace  of  Bromsebro  in  1645,  Sweden  succeeded  in  putting  an  end  to  the 
last-mentioned  inconvenience,  inasmuch  as  the  Oresund  Customs  were  abolished. 
In  the  year  1720,  however,  after  Charles  XTI's  disastrous  wars,  they  were  re- 
introduced. 

During  Charles  Xl's  reign,  too,  certain  steps  were  taken  to  benefit  Swedish 
trade,  even  though  the  king's  policy  of  stripping  the  nobles  of  their  wealth 
and  influence  ("reduktionspolitik")  tended  to  hinder  the  accumulation  of  capital 
that,  during  the  immediately  preceding  decades,  had  served  to  further  the  in- 
terest for  industrialism.  At  the  same  time  —  though  without  any  particular 
success  —  endeavours  were  made  to  attract  the  .Russian-Dutch  trade  from 
Archangel    to  ports  on  the  Baltic,  and  attempts  were  made  to  lead  the  Persian 


510  VIII.      COMMERCE. 

silk    trade   up  to  Narva  and  Riga,  which  attempts,  however,  stranded,  owing  to 
insurmountable   difficulties. 

Charles  XII,  too,  attached  much  importance  to  trade,  but  during  the  con- 
stant wars  all  trades  were  ,  ruined. 

During  the  so-called  "Period  of  Liberty",  the  Government  and  the  Estates 
devoted  much  attention  to  material  development.  The  mercantile  theories  of 
the  day  were  stringently  applied.  In  order  to  protect  home  shipping,  the 
so-called  "Products  Proclamation",  an  imitation  of  the  English  Navigation  Acts, 
was  promulgated  in  1724,  by  which  every  foreign  nation  was  forbidden  to 
import  into  Sweden  any  products  other  than  its  own.  Moreover,  increased 
customs  and  other  import  prohibitions  were  established. 

During  the  period  1731 — 40,  Swedish  trade  already  began  to  experience  con- 
siderable expansion.  From  this  time  England  replaces  Holland  as  the  greatest 
purchaser  of  the  products  of  Sweden.  Large,  privileged  companies  still  con- 
tinued to  be  formed  for  more  far-reaching  and  .risky  enterprises.  The  most 
important  of  these  was  the  East  India  Company,  which  lived  more  than  eighty 
years  (1731 — 1813)  and  maintained  a  regular  and  profitable  commercial  con- 
nection between  Sweden  and  the  Far  East. 

The  clogging  fetters  and  the  arbitrary  privilegies,  under  cover  of  which  many 
abuses  were  introduced,  led  to  many  inconveniences,  however,  and  after  the 
great  crisis  towards  the  end  of  the  decade  1761 — 70  more  liberal  ideas  began 
to  prevail.  Through  Gustavus  IlT's  reform  of  the  currency  and  the  armed 
neutrality  during  the  American  War  of  Independence,  our  foreign  trade  entered 
upon  a  period  of  prosperity,  and  it  is  probable  that  our  shipping  has  never 
been  more  profitable  than  during  that  period.  Failures  of  the  harvest  and  the 
Russian  war  of  1788 — 90,  however,  gave  our  trade  a  great  set-back.  Then, 
in  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Gustavus  IV  Adolphus,  favourable  trade  con- 
ditions followed,  owing  to  the  neutrality  which  Sweden  observed  during  the  great 
Napoleonic  wars,  but  soon  the  country  was  visited  by  fresh  crop-failures,  trade 
dwindled  on  account  of  the  insecurity  of  the  seas,  and  finally  the  war  with 
Napoleon  paralyzed  our  foreign  commerce  and  shipping,  in  spite  of .  the  fact 
that  the  profitable  smuggling  trade  with  England  (who  sent  her  goods  here  to 
be  forwarded  to  the  continent)  produced  temporary  profit;  Gothenburg  in  par- 
ticular enjoyed  a  brief  period  of  splendid  prosperity. 

During  the  unbroken  peace  that  Sweden  has  enjoyed  since  1814,  our  foreign 
trade  has  made  great  general  progress.  Even  during  the  reign  of  Charles  XIV 
it  expanded  noticeably,  particularly  through  the  regulation  of  the  finances  and 
the  more  extended  freedom  of  commerce  and  trade  which  slowly  worked  its 
way  through.  More  thorough  still  were  the  reforms  in  commercial  legislation 
carried  out  in  the  reign  of  Oscar  I.  By  means  of  new  commercial  treaties  and 
more  especially  by  the  annulment  of  the  Oresund  Customs,  concerning  which  an 
agreement  was  made  with  Denmark  in  1857,  Swedish  foreign  trade  was  advanced. 
That  the  progress  of  the  communication  system,  as  well  as  the  increased  capacity 
of  production  and  consumption,  was  also  a  powerful  lever  is  a  matter  of  course. 
Through  the  commercial  and  maritime  treaty  with  France  of  1865,  Sweden 
accepted  the  free-trade  system  to  a  wider  extent  than  before.  In  1888  and  1892, 
the  raising  of  many  old  customs  and  introduction  of  new  ones  marked  a  return 
to  the  old  system.  Subsequently  the  customs  have  been  further  revised  in  the 
direction  of  prohibition  by  resolutions  of  the  Riksdags  of  1910  and  1911.  (An 
idea  of  the  extent  to  which  the  new  customs  tariff  differs  from  the  old  may 
be  gained  from  the  figures  in  the  articles  Customs  and  Commercial  Policy.) 

At  present,  however,  the  commerce  of  Sweden  can  be  considered  to  be 
of  considerable  importance  in  comparison  with  the  size  of  the  population.. 


HISTORICAL.  511 

The  progress  within,  several  departments  of  civilization  and  culture 
which  has  characterized  the  last  decennium  in  Sweden  has  also  made 
itself  felt  in  the  sphere  of  commerce.  With  constantly  increasing  com- 
mercial activity,  modern  commercial  methods  have  gained  an  increasingly 
firm  footing,  and  thanks  to  a  growing  spirit  of  combination,  Swedish 
merchants  have  been  able  to  make  their  influence  felt  even  in  tbe  outer 
world.  Insofar  as  political  conditions  have  placed  no  hindrances  in  the 
way,  the  State  has  put  into  execution  a  number  of  the  wishes  submitted 
to  it  since  a  considerable  time  back  by  the  representatives  of  the  com- 
mercial world. 

Amongst  the  measures  that  have  thus  been  taken  to  promote  foreign 
trade  may  be  mentioned  the  following,  some  of  which  have  been  formu- 
lated by  the  Commerce  and  Shipping  Committee,  whose  activities  date 
from  1898 — 1900.  By  means  of  state-assisted  steam  ship  lines  to  distant 
countries,  direct  trade  has  been  considerable  facilitated,  and  a  considerable 
proportion  of  our  trade  has  been  snatched  from  the  hands  of  powerful 
intermediaries.  So,  for  example,  nearly  all  our  coffee  is  now  imported 
direct  from  Brazil  under  the  Swedish  flag.  Further,  international  traffic 
has  been  facilitated  by  arrangements  come  to  with  regard  to  co-operation 
with-  foreign  railways.  For  the  promotion  of  transit-trade,  regulations 
have  been  issued  providing  for  refunding  of  customs  charges  on  certain 
favourable  conditions,  and  for  free  stores  and  free  ports.  Increased  state 
grants  have  been  made  for  studentships  for  the  study  of  export-  and  trade- 
conditions,  and  at  the  same  time  the  State  has  made  grants  to  institutions 
intended  for  the  communication  of  commercial  intelligence  and  for  the 
spreading  of  information  on  trade  questions.  The  consular  service  has 
been  modernized,  and  the  administration,  together  with  trade  legislation, 
has  been  reformed  in  the  direction  of  facilitating  foreign  commerce. 

The  state  now  awards  two  kinds  of  travelling  bursaries,  with  the  object  of 
promoting  trade,  namely  "export  bursaries",  intended  for  young  men  who  wish  to 
work  for  the  widening  of  the  market  for  our  articles  of  export,  and  "travelling 
trade  bursaries",  which  are  intended  to  facilitate  practical  training.  For  each 
group  the  State  grants  20  000  kroner  annually,  which  sum  is  suitably  distri- 
buted among  the  applicants.  The  stipendiaries  are  nominated  by  the  Govern- 
ment, and  applications,  accompanied  by  plans  of  the  journeys  proposed  and  the 
work  to  be  undertaken,  and  by  calculations  as  to  the  amounts  required,  have 
to  be  returned  to  the  Board  of  Trade. 

For  information  with  regard  to  other  arrangement  mentioned  here 
see  below  and  in  special  articles  (cf.  Index),  viz:  for  regular  steam  ship 
lines;  for  railway  co-operation;  for  refunding  of  customs  charges,  free 
ports,  and  free  stores;  for  commercial  information;  for  commercial  educa- 
tion; for  the  consular  service  and  administration;  for  commercial  legisla- 
tion. 

Administrative  matters  to  do  with  trade  are  dealt  with  by  the  Board 
of  Trade,  of  whose  departments  two  deal  with  matters  connected  with 
commerce  and  shipping,  namely,  one  with  home  commerce  and  shipping, 


512  VIII.      COMMERCE. 

and  another  with  foreign.  The  Board  of  Trade  is  under  the  Finance 
Department.  A  number  of  matters  dealing  with  foreign  trade  are  taken 
by  the  Foreign  Office,  whose  trade  department  is  under  the  direction  of 
a  Bureau  Chief. 

For  the  consideration  of  more  important  trade  questions  the  Foreign 
Minister  and  the  Finance  Minister  are  entitled  to  call  to  their  assistance 
the  so-called  Commercial  Council,  wihose  members,  to  the  number  of 
seven,  are  nominated  by  the  Government  from  amongst  practical  leaders 
of  trade,  industry,  and  shipping. 

As  a  medium  for  the  leaders  of  industry  themselves,  the  Chambers  of 
Commerce,  founded  by  voluntary  co-operation,  have  by  degrees  assumed 
increasingly  great  importance. 

No  special  trade  courts  exist  in  Sweden,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  in  the 
hearing  of  certain  cases  in  the  borough  courts  in  our  three  largest  towns 
trade  experts  are  called  as  members,  and  these  are  nominated  by  the 
tovTU  councils. 

The  Consular  Service,  which  before  1906  was  in  certain  respects  under  the 
control  of  the  Board  of  Trade,  is  now,  like  the  diplomatic  corps,  entirely 
subordinated  to  the  Foreign  Minister,  and  consular  questions  are  dealt  with 
by  the  Foreign  Office;  what  has  to  do  with  its  personnel,  organization,  etc.  by 
the  trade  department  of  the  Foreign  Office.  The  different  grades  among  con- 
suls are  Consul-Generals,  Consuls,  and  Vice-Consuls,  besides  which,  to  assist  in 
the  execution  of  the  consular  business,  are  appointed  clerks  and  attaches.  The 
consuls  of  the  different  grades  are  either  officials  sent  out  from  home  (salaried 
consuls,  consules  missi),  or  else  merchants  or  other  suitable  persons  living  on 
the  spot  (unpaid  consuls,  consules  electi).  The  latter  have  the  right  to  reim- 
burse themselves  for  office  expenses  in  connection  with  their  duties  without 
rendering  accounts.  Salaried  consuls  must  be  Swedish  subjects,  which  is  not 
a  condition  for  the  unpaid  ones.  Consul-Generals,  consuls,  and  salaried  vice- 
consuls  are  appointed  and  dismissed  by  the  King,  but  unpaid  vice-consuls  and 
other  officials  by  the  Foreign  Minister.  —  The  duties  of  consuls  are  with 
faithfulness  and  zeal  to  watch  over  Sweden's  interests,  and  to  the  best  of  their 
ability  to  promote  the  country's  welfare,  especially  in  the  matter  of  trade,  ship- 
ping, and  industry.  They  are  also,  as  far  as  lies  in  their  power,  to  protect 
Swedish  subjects,  their  property  and  rights,  and  to  assist  them  with  advice  and  help. 

The  Stock  Exchange,  as  an  institution,  is  but  little  developed  in  Sweden. 
Stockholm  and  Gothenburg  possess  fine  Stock  Exchange  buildings,  and  several 
other  towns  posses  similar  premises.  Brokers  (so-called  "official  brokers")  are 
accepted  by  the  commercial  and  shipping  boards  of  the  respective  towns, 
after  which  their  nomination  is  issued  by  the  magistracy.  At  the  present  time 
the  members  of  the  Stockholm  Stock  Exchange  consists  of  5  brokers,  16  banks, 
and  8  banking  firms  ("free"  brokers).  The  stock  exchange  business  done  in  1912 
amounted  to   317   million  kronor  and  in  1913  to  180  millions. 

The  institution  of  a  Clearing  House  was  not  introduced  into  Sweden  until 
1899,  since  which  time  the  Bank  of  Sweden  has  maintained  premises  and  a 
personnel    for    a  clearing  house  in  Stockholm.^     (The  cashing  of  country  notes, 

^  By  "Clearing  House"  is  to  be  understood  an  institution  by  means  of  ■wiich  the  different 
banks  can  daily  arrange  a  mutual  exchange  of  bills  and  cheques,  so  that  payment  or  trans- 
fers need  only  be  arranged  for  balances  due  between  the  different  banks.  The  total  of  the 
business  dealt  with  by  the  London  Clearing  House  amounts  to  over  a  hundred  milliards  of 
krouor  a  year. 


HISTORICAL.  513 

which  to  a  certain  degree  gave  rise  to  the  Clearing  House,  was  undertaken  from 
1857—1865  by  the  Stockholms  Enskilda  Bank  and  after  the  latter  year  chiefly 
by  the  Scandinavian  Credit  Company  —  "Skandinaviska  Kreditaktiebolaget".) 
In  the  clearing  operations  participate  at  present,  besides  the  Bank  of  Sweden, 
13  private  banks  with  offices  in  Stockholm,  and  these  represent  other  banks 
on  a  system  securing  that  all  the  business  banks  in  the  country  are  represented 
in  the  clearing  operations.  The  operations  in  1913  involved  6  milliards  of 
kronor  of  which  80  per  cent  balanced  out  and  20  per  cent  was  settled  by 
transfers  at  the  Bank  of  Sweden.  (A  certain  amount  of  clearing  takes  place, 
besides,  at  all  the  branches  of  the  Bank  of  Sweden,  between  the  banks  on  the 
spot.) 

The  Swedish  Chamber  of  Commerce  Organization  now  covers  nearly  the 
whole  country.  The  first  Chamber  of  Commerce  was  founded  in  Stockholm  in 
1902,  and  subsequently  Chambers  of  Commerce  have  been  established  at  Boras, 
Luled,  Gothenbnrff,  Malmo,  Jonkoping,  Orehro,  GdvU,  Visby,  Karlstad,  Norr- 
koping,  and  Sundsvall,  most  of  them  embracing  several  lans,  or  extensive 
districts  beyond  the  urban  areas.  The  Chambers  of  Commerce  occupy  them- 
selves with  trade,  industry,  and  shipping.  Their  duties  are  chiefly  to  submit 
pronouncements  and  propositions  to  the  authorities  as  regards  industrial  questions, 
but,  by  the  side  of  this,  they  are  active  in  the  supply  of  commercial  intelligence, 
they  issue  publications  and  act  as  arbitration-courts  for  the  settlement  of  com- 
mercial disputes.  Representatives  of  the  Chambers  of  Commerce  assemble 
yearly  at  a  so-called  Chamber  of  Commerce  Assembly,  for  the  purpose  of  con- 
sidering matters  of  common  interest.  —  There  are,  too,  Swedish  Chambers  of 
Commerce  in  several  places  abroad,  namely,  in  London,  New  York,  and  Sydney, 
whose  object  it  is  to  promote  Swedish  commercial  relations  with  the  countries 
in  which  they  are  situated. 

The  General  Swedish  Export  Association  was  formed  in  the  year  1887,  with 
the  object  of  securing  new  or  increased  facilities  for  the  disposal  of  Swedish 
products  abroad.  It  is  constituted  more  especially  after  the  Austrian  pattern. 
The  Association  works  by  obtaining  information  as  to  prices,  credit,  freightage, 
conditions,  etc.;  by  arranging  depots  for  and  small  exhibitions  of  Swedish  pro- 
ducts in  important  places ;  by  distributing  catalogues  of  suitable  Swedish  export- 
articles  abroad;  etc.  Further,  the  Association  publishes  a  paper  "Swedish 
Export". 

The  Swedish  Statistical  Report  of  Trade,  which  dates  from  a  considerable 
time  back,  is  published  by  the  Chamber  of  Commerce,  partly  in  the  form  of  an 
annual  publication  containing  a  complete  report,  and  partly  in  the  form  of 
monthly  reports,  which  only  contain  accounts  of  the  imports  and  exports  of  the 
more  important  wares.  In  earlier  times,  these  reports  were  none  too  complete, 
but  with  1871  a  considerable  improvement  began,  and  many  reforms  have  been 
effected  during  the  period  1891 — 1900,  the  publication  of  the  reports  having 
been  much  expedited.  Further  reforms  are  to  be  anticipated,  especially  as  regards 
the  valuation  of  the  goods,  which  has  hitherto  left  much  to  be  desired  in  some 
respects.  In  this  '  respect  it  has  been  suggested  that  the  returns  as  to  value 
shall  be  given  by  the  importers  and  exporters  themselves  for  every  lot  of  goods 
(the  so-called  declared  value).  According  to  the  Ordinance  Nov.  28,  1913  such 
declarations  shall,  with  certain  exceptions,  be  made  since  Jan.  1,  1914.  The 
monthly  statistics,  which  were  formerly  published  by  the  Royal  Board  of  Customs, 
have,  since  1913,  been  incorporated  with  a  publication  issued  by  the  Board  of 
Trade,  under  the  name  of  "Commercial  Returns"  ("Kommersiella  Meddelanden"), 
in  which  are  also  published  the  reports  of  Swedish  consuls  and  other  official 
communications  having  to  do  with  foreign  trade  and  shipping. 

33—133179.  Sweden.  11. 


514 


VIII.      COMMERCE. 


Total  of  Imports  aud  Exports  with  Foreign  Countries. 

The  value  of  the  commercial  exchange  between  Sweden  and  foreign 
countries  (specialhandel;  special  trade)  during  the  time  since  1836  is  shown 
by  Table  102  below.  During  the  period  1836 — 40,  it  amounted  to  57 
million  kroner  annually,  but  in  1912  it  rose  to  1  545  millions.  The  im- 
mense increase  is  partly  to  be  explained  by  the  fact  that,  before  the  middle 
of  the  19th  century,  Sweden  still  lay,  as  it  were,  outside  the  system  of 
international  communications.  The  period  between  1850  and  1870  is  one 
of  transition  in  this  respect  to  the  modern  state  of  things.  An  enormous 
stride  lies  between  the  two  periods  1866 — 70  and  1871 — 75;  during  the 
former,  Sweden's  commercial  exchange  amounted  to  259  million  kroner 
annualls^,  during  the  latter,  to  451  millions,  or  nearly  75  %  more. 

In  Sweden,  as  in  the  majority  of  European  countries  to-day,  trade  sta- 
tistics show  an  inferiority  in  the  money-value  of  the  exports  in  relation 
to  that  of  the  imports.  It  is,  however,  hardly  necessary  to  enter  into  a 
discussion  of  the  general  principles  underlying  this  circumstance,  which 
show  that  the  difference  is,  at  least  in  part,  only  apparent. 

As  to  the  very  marked  increase  of  imports  into  Sweden  during  the  last 
few  years,  this  is  partly  to  be  explained  by  increased  consumption,  but 
still  more  by  an  increased  demand  for  raw  materials  and  machinery  for 
the  very  flourishing  manufacturing  industries. 

That  the  value  of  the  exports  has,  in  certain  cases,  shown  a  decrease 
is  partis'-  explained  by  the  fact  of  corrections  having  been  made  in  the 
commercial  statistics,  which  formerly  put  too  high  unit-values  on  several 


Table  102. 

Imports  and  Exports. 

Value,  in  kronor 

Kronor,  per  head  of 

Annually 

Mean 
population 

population                | 

Imports 

Exports 

Total 

Imports 

Exports 

Total 

1836-40.    . 

3  083  000 

27  216  000 

29  887  000 

57103  000 

8-83 

9-69 

18-62 

1841-45  .    . 

3  224  000 

29149  000 

.33  519  000 

62(i68000 

9-04 

10-40 

1944 

1846-50  .    . 

3  389  000 

36  405  000 

39  916  000 

7fi320000 

10-74 

11-78 

22-52 

1851—55  .    . 

3  558  000 

60144  000 

61738  000 

121882  000 

16-90 

17-35 

34-26 

1856-60.    . 

3  727  000 

80  953  000 

78  983  000 

159936000 

21-72 

21-19 

42-91 

1861—65  .    . 

3  993  000 

100  826  000 

92  467  000 

193293  000 

25-25 

23-16 

48-41 

1866-70.    . 

4  166  000 

132  626  000 

126  723  000 

259349  000 

31-84 

30-42 

62-26 

1871-75  .    . 

4  274  000 

246  372  000 

204  525  000 

450897  000 

57-64 

47-85 

10549 

1876-80  .    . 

4  500  000 

268  506  000 

209  856  000 

47S362000 

.59-fi6 

46-64 

106-30 

1881—85  .    . 

4  605  000 

317  526  000 

243  699  000 

561225  000 

68-95 

52-92 

121-87 

1886-90  .    . 

4  742  000 

335  527  000 

272  629  000 

608156000 

70-76 

57-49 

128-25 

1891  -95  .    . 

4  832  000 

351  633  000 

318  226  000 

669S59000 

72-77 

65-86 

138-63 

1896-00.    . 

5  032  000 

452  324  000 

358  581 000 

810905000 

89-89 

71-26 

161-15 

1901—05  .    . 

5  214  000 

5.33  391000 

410  446  000 

943  837  000 

102-.S0 

78-72 

181-02 

1906-10  .    . 

5406  000 

644  740  000 

515  362  000 

1160102  000 

119-27 

95-33 

214-60 

1909  .... 

5  453  000 

616  806  000 
671633  000 

472  980  000 
592  864  000 

1089  786  000 
1264  497  000 

113-11 
122-14 

86-74 
107-81 

199-85 

229-96 

1910  .... 

5  499  000 

1911  .... 

5  542  000 

696  617  000 

663  575  000 

1360192000 

125-70 

119-73 

245-43 

1912  .... 

5  583  000 

793  714  000 

760  626  000 

1554340000 

142-17 

136-24 

278-41 

TOTAL   OP   IMPORTS   AND    KXPORTS   WITH   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

Value  of  Imports  and  Exports,  1866-1911. 


515 


Imports. 


Exports. 


Tea    1866 


of  our  more  important  export  articles.  The  inconsiderable  fall  in  the 
total  value  for  1909  should  probably  be  set  down  as  one  of  the  effects 
of  the  great  General  Strike  of  that  year. 

With  regard  to  the  figures  for  the  year  1912,  it  is  to  be  noticed  that 
the  Unit-values  on  which  the  statistics  are  based  for  that  year  have  been  to 
a  considerable  extent  worked  out  afresh. 

Table  103  shows  that,  in  the  matter  of  imports  as  well  as  exports  per 
head  of  the  population,    Sweden   stands   in  a   comparatively   favourable 


516 

Table  103.     Value    in 


VIII.      COMMERCE. 


Tcronor   of  Imports  and   Exports  per  Inhabitant, 
for  1912. 


Sweden 

Norway 

Denmark 

German  Empire 

France  

Great  Britain  and  Ireland 

Russia 

Europe 


Kroner  per  inhab. 


Imports 


143 
223 
264 
147 
150 
265 
19 
111 


Exports 


Total 


136 

278 

138 

361 

214 

478 

123 

270 

122 

272 

167 

432 

21 

40 

87 

198 

position  as  against  the  other  countries  situated  in  the  same  continent;  she 
stands,  for  example,  on  a  level  with  the  German  Empire. 


Imports  and  Exports  of  "Various  Wares. 

Detailed  particulars  as  to  the  imports  and  exports  of  various  special 
wares  have  already  been  given  in  the  preceding  pages,  when  dealing  with 
particular  branches  of  industry  in  Sweden.  What  now  remains,  chiefly, 
is  to  give  a  survey  of  the  situation  for  goods  considered  by  larger  groups. 
The  accompanjdng  tables  given  provide  the  most  general  data. 

A)  We  shall  first  consider  such  groups  as  show  an  excess  of  imports 
over  exports. 

Since  about  1880,  this  has  been  the  case  with  cereals  and  cereal  pro- 
ducts, of  which  there  had  been  an  excess  of  exports  during  the  preceding 
forty  years.  For  detailed  information,  reference  should  be  made  to  the 
special  section  under  Agriculture. 

A  class  of  merchandise  that  has  always  shown  an  excess  of  imports  is 
colonial  wares,  of  which  we  imported  to  a  value  of  60  million  kroner 
in  1912,  while  the  exports  were  insignificant.  The  most  important  article 
within  this  group  is  coffee,  of  which,  next  to  coal,  we  import  more  than 
of  anything  else.  Figures  dealing  with  the  consumption  of  coffee  (which 
is  the  same  as  the  import)  have  already  been  given  for  earlier  and  more 
recent  times.  In  the  year  1912,  the  total  value  of  the  coffee  imported 
amounted  to  30-69  million  kroner.  Next  to  coffee  comes  tobacco,  raw  and 
manufactured,  (11-63  millions),  which  commodity  has  also  received  a  more 
detailed  consideration  in  the  foregoing  pages.  Sugar,  which  was  formerly 
imported  to  a  value  of  some  10  million  kroner  a  year,  has  of  recent  years 
been  manufactured  in  sufficient  quantities  at  home,  but  golden  syrup,  on 
the  contrary,  has  been  relatively  largely  imported  (2-5  millions).  —  Of 
other  colonial  wares  the  greatest  import  occurred  in  1912,  to  the  values 
indicated:  rice,  3-10  million  kronor;  cocoa  and  chocolate,  2-09  million  kro- 
nor;  tea,  0-62  million  kronor;  cardamom,  0-59  million  kroner;  pepper,  0-36 
million  kronor;  cinnamon,  0-18  million  kronor,  etc. 


IMPORTS    AXD   KXPOKTS    OF   VARIOUS   WARES.  517 

Even  of  fruits  and  garden-produce  the  imports  show  a  decided  excess 
over  the  exports.  The  most  important  imports  for  the  year  1912  are: 
hops,  2-08  million  kroner;  oranges,  2'06  million  kronor;  dried  plums,  1-66 
million  kronor;  almonds,  1-49  million  kronor;  fresh  apples,  1-10  million  kro- 
nor; potatoes,  0-96  million  kronor;  raisins,  0-80  million  kronor;  dried  apples, 
0-70  million  kronor;  preserves,  0-64  million  kronor;  grapes,  0-41  million  kro- 
nor; onions,  0-32  million  kronor;  bananas,  0-30  million  kronor,  etc.  Red 
wltortleherries  are  now  largely  exported  —  in  ordinary  years  to  the 
value  of  more  than  1  million  kronor  yearly  (in  1909,  2-13  million  kronor, 
and  in  1912,  103  million  kronor). 

Liquors  are  imported  to  a  value  of  nearly  9^/2  million  kronor  a  year, 
comprising  chiefly  wines  (5  mill,  kr.),  brandy  (2V2  mill,  kr.),  arrack  (0-79 
mill.  kr.  in  1912),  and  whisky  (0-67  mill.  kr.  in  1912).  During  the  eight- 
ies of  last  century  a  Karlshamn  firm  carried  on  a  brisk  trade  by  import- 
ing raw  spirit  from  Russia,  which  was  then  refined  and  exported,  chiefly 
to  Spain.  But  this  trade  was  soon  extinguished  on  account  of  increased 
import-duties  imposed  by  the  last-named  country. 

Textile  materials  were  imported  into  Sweden  to  a  value  of  57-02  million 
kronor  in  1912,  but  the  exports  only  amounted  to  2-30  million  kronor.  The 
wares  which  were  imported  to  the  greatest  value  were  cotton  (23-82  mill, 
kr.),  wool  (18-44  mill,  kr.),  jute,  hemp,  flax,  etc. 

Yarn,  thread,  spun  goods,  etc.  were  imported  to  a  value  of  18-76  million 
kronor  in  1912;  the  most  considerable  items  were  woollen  yarn  (9-9  mill, 
kr.)  and  cotton  thread  (3-20  mill.  kr.).  The  value  of  the  exports  amounted 
to  3-04  million  kronor. 

The  textiles  and  other  spun  goods  constitute  the  group  of  imports  of 
which  Sweden  has  to  import  the  greatest  amount  to  satisfy  her  needs.  The 
total  value  of  these  imports  amounted  to  54  million  kronor  in  1912.  This 
total  was  distributed  as  follows:  fabrics  woven  wholly  or  partly  of  silk, 
6-63  mill,  kr.;  woollens,  9-93  mill,  kr.;  cotton  fabrics,  9-31  mill,  kr.;  linen, 
hemp,  and  jute  fabrics,  2-22  mill,  kr.;  clothes  (new)  and  household  articles, 
6-63  mill,  kr.;  hose,  cotton  gloves,  etc.  3-56  mill,  kr.;  and  so  on. 

From  the  statistics  covering  a  succession  of  years  we  may  conclude  that 
no  great  increase  in  the  import  of  textiles  has  taken  place,  but  that  especi- 
ally the  textile  industry  shows  increased  capacity  to  provide  for  home 
needs.     Exports  amount  to  4^/2  million  kronor  in  value. 

Hides  and  skins  were  imported  (1912)  to  a  value  of  32-90  million  kr.; 
other  animal  products  (not  foods)  1-5  million  kronor,  and  such  fertilizers 
etc.  as  can  be  included  here  about  0-5  million  kronor.  Unprepared  hides 
were  exported  to  a  value  of  15-30  million  kronor;  the  export  of  other  goods 
of  this  class  was  slight.  The  import  of  articles  manufactured  from  hides, 
skins,  hair,  bone,  horn,  etc.  amounted  to  about  5  million  kronor,  as  against 
an  inconsiderable  export  of  similar  wares. 

Oils,  tallow,  resins,  and  such  substances  are  collected  in  our  statistics 
into  one  group,  and  the  total  import  amounted  in  1912  to  63-64  million  kro- 


518 


VIII.      COMMERCE. 


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IMPORTS   AND   EXPORTS   OP   VARIOUS   WARES. 


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yill.      COMMERCE. 


Table    105.     Imports   into   Sweden   of  Coal   and  Coke,  and  Exports  of 

Minerals. 


Auuually 

Value  in  1  000  kronor 

Import  of  coal 
and  coke 

Export  of 
minerals 

1871-75 

1876—80 

1881-85 

1886-90 

1891-95 

1896-00 

1901-05 

1906-10 

1911 

13  452 
12  719 
15  847 
22  560 
29  770 
53  494 
58  723 
65  566 

61654 

1077 

1413 

1747 

4196 

9131 

18  544 

•   30  939 

46  311 

69  045 

Note.     The  statistics  for  1912,  which  do  not  allow  of  direct  comparison,  give  91  615  and 
81  031  kr.  respectively. 


nor,  of  which  22-2  mill:  kr.  was  for  mineral  oils,  10-79  mill.  kr.  for  ve 
able  fat,  8-82  mill.  kr.  for  vegetable  oils,  8-06  mill.  kr.  for  raw  rubber,  2-45 
mill.  kr.  for  tallow,  2-12  mill.  kr.  for  resin,  1-07  mill.  kr.  for  oleo-margarine. 


Table  106.        Export  of  Iron  Ore  from  Sweden.     In  tons. 


Exported  from 

Of  this 

was  exported  to: 

Year 

Total 
export 

Norr- 

other 

berg  2 

botten 

Germany  s 

England 

countries 

1888 

31144 

70  622 

117  330 

39192 

65  406 

12  762 

1889 

56  415 

34  815 

118573 

94  365 

12  760 

11448 

1890 

103  875 

27  520 

187  732 

158  550 

6  390 

22  792 

1891 

126  892 

450 

174148 

156 174 

3  220 

14  754 

1892 

126  515 

139 194 

320071 

296  780 

11371 

11920 

1893 

204  973 

260  754 

484055 

4«7  464 

37  356 

19  235 

1894 

289  267 

525  729 

831395 

727  419 

85197 

18  779 

1895 

393  685 

384  007 

800452 

687  093 

75165 

38194 

1896 

496  102 

625  795 

1150695 

955  105 

87  203 

108387 

1897 

539  956 

828  316 

1400801 

1213  283 

95  076 

92  442 

1898 

579  787 

821  267 

1439860 

1  258  487 

101  600 

>    79  773 

1899 

568  473 

1 023  698 

1628011 

1  403  634 

123  239 

101 138 

1900 

531  904 

1 054  675 

1619902 

1 389  874 

102  772 

127  256 

1901 

646  991 

1  090  108 

1  761 257 

1  518  866 

91991 

150  400 

1902 

609  070 

1  074  434 

1729303 

1 358  958 

173  726 

196  619 

1903  ' 

700  253 

2  059  007 

2827  428 

2  037  703 

400  038 

1904  ' 

670  305 

2  317  010 

3065  622 

2  224  633 

543  489 

1905' 

663  930 

2  545  724 

3316626 

2  484  234 

626  015 

1906  ' 

786  663 

2  775  475 

3661218 

2  941  245 

582  449 

1907 

834  049 

2  556  333 

3  521717 

2  838  561 

446  635 

236  521 

1908 

709  602 

2  805  718 

3654268 

2  948  386 

450  014 

255  868 

1909 

635 113 

2  407  382 

3196453 

2  546  321 

407  855 

242  277 

1910 

883  087 

3  312  510 

4413600 

3  276  605 

584185 

552  810 

1911 

884  393 

3  965  690 

5  086898 

3  706  636 

575  984 

804  278 

1912 

951 981 

4  205  150 

5  520653 

4  217  958 

621881 

680  814 

'  For  these  years  the  distribution  between  England  and  Germany  of  the  ore  exported 
over  the  frontier  has  had  to  be  taken  from  the  Norwegian  trade  statistics.  —  '^  Exported 
via  Oxelosund.  —  '  Inclnding  transit-traffic  through  Holland. 


IMPORTS    AND    EXPORTS    OF    VARIOUS   WARES. 


52L 


The  exports  amounted  to  6-61  mill,  kr.,  including  wood-tar,  Oo  mill.  kr.  Of 
manufactured  articles  of  the  above  description  of  wares,  the  imports 
amounted  to  6-6  mill,  kr.,  and  the  exports  to  3-87  mill,  kr.,  of  which  amount 
the  export  of  galoshes  accounts  for  2-85  mill.  kr. 

Paints  and  colours  amount  to  6-5  mill.  kr.  among  the  imports  (aniline- 
and  other  tar  dyes  2-49  mill.,  zinc  white  1-43  mill.),  while  the  export  is 
scarcely  worth  mentioning.  The  group  various  vegetable  substances. 
shows  imports  to  a  value  of  more  than  40  million  kroner  for  1912,  while  the 
exports  do  not  amount  to  2  millions.  For  the  year  in  question,  the  most 
important  imports  comprised :  oil-cake,  23-38  mill.  kr. ,  linseed,  6-65  mill,  kr., 
cork  bark,  1-61  mill,  kr.,  flower  bulbs,  1-37  mill,  kr.,  etc.  The  imports  of 
articles  manufactured  from  such  substances  (exclusive  of  paper)  amount- 
ed in  value  to  3-79  million  kroner,  of  which  tannic  acid  accounted  for  l-8(> 
million  kroner;  the  exports  scarcely  exceeded  ^U  million  kroner. 

As  regards  unwrought  minerals,  Sweden  now  exports  considerable  quan- 
tities, but  the  imports  are  far  in  excess,  since  they  include  coal,  of  which  we 


Table  107.     Imports  and  Exports,  grouped  according  to  uses^.    Values  in 

thousands  of  kroner. 


Annu- 

Annu- 

Annu- 

Annu- 

Annu- 

Annu- 

Annu- 

Annu- 

Year 

Grroups  of  merchandise 

allv 

ally 

ally 

ally 

ally 

ally 

ally 

ally 

1911 

1871—75 

1876—80 

1881—85 

1886-90 

1801—96 

1896-00 

1901—06 

1906—10 

Imports. 

Articles    of    food  aad 

consamption    .    .    . 

85  391 

108  850 

116  419 

108  594 

109  755 

112  976 

130  915 

134  691 

141  287 

Clothing    and    toilet- 

requisites     .    .    .    . 

38  031 

39  504 

54167 

59  602 

54  093 

50  006 

44  935 

59  670 

69137 

Household  articles  etc. 

17  882 

21857 

31319 

37  075 

39  513 

53  735 

61216 

70  821 

70170 

Eaw     materials     for 

manufactures  .   .    . 

80  531 

78  885 

94  814 

109  471120  670 

188 178 

240  518 

311 500 

342  006 

Machinery  and  trans- 

' 

port  articles   .    .    . 

20  697 

14  437 

17  083 

19  356 

26  724:  46  794 

52  774 

64  259 

69  433 

Coin 

Total 

3  850 

4  973 

3  724 

1429 

878 

635 

3  033 

3  800 

4  584 

246372 

268506 

317  526 

335527 

351633 

452324 

533391 

644  741 

696  617 

Exports. 

Agricultural  products^ 

52  311 

56  913 

58  688 

70  563 

83107 

62  280   69  680 

71166 

113  856 

Timber,       unwrought 

and  wrought    .    .    . 

92  255 

99  679 

110  930 

116  384 

137  242 

180  1381200  520 

236  415 

275  623 

Textiles 

2  332 

3177 

4  816 

6  596 

8  617 

5  511!     3  456 

4183 

4  786 

Products  (if  paper  in- 

dustry   

2  715 

5  864 

9  925 

17113 

20  803 

11609[  20  654 

30  983 

36  046 

Minerals  and  mineral 

products 

2178 

3  620 

5  740 

9  251 

18  728 

31537 

45  461 

59  941 

85105 

Metals  and  metal  pro- 

ducts   

48  520 

36  398 

46  635 

41499 

40  276 

60  361 

70  424 

96  524 

122  331 

Other  merchandise    . 

1899 

3  206 

6  628 

11088 

9  371 

7144 

10  251 

16149 

25  828 

Coin 

Total 

2  315 

1000 

337 

135 

82 

,    1 

1 

— 

— 

204525 

209857 

243699 

272629 

318  226 

358581 

410447 

515  361 

663575 

'  According  to  the  official 
been  made  from  that  formerly 
fishery  products. 


trade    statistics.     In  this  classiiication  slight  changes  have 
employed  in  corresponding  cases  in  this  work.  —  ^  Including: 


522 


Vlir.      COMMERCE. 


import  greater  quantities  than  of  anything  else.  The  development  of  our 
■coal  import  and  of  the  export  of  minerals  is  shown  hy  Table  105. 

From  these  figures  for  the  import  of  coal  and  from  the  information  re- 
garding the  increasing  utilization  of  water-power,  it  oughl;  to  he  possible 
to  gain  an  idea  of  the  country's  industrial  advance  during  recent  times. 
(With  regard  to  the  attempt  to  substitute  peat-mosses  for  coal,  see  p.  425.) 
Among  the  imports  within  this  group  are  further  to  be  noticed  Chili 
salpetre,  7-55  mill.  Irr.,  stassfurtite,  5-77  mill,  kr.,  raw  phosphates,  3-87  mill, 
kr.,  sulphur,  3-46  mill,  kr.,  and  common  salt  (which  necessary  of  life  is  not 
found  anywhere  in  Sweden),  2-38  mill.  kr.  The  total  value  of  the  imports  in- 
■cluded  in  this  group  amounted  to  134  million  kronor  in  1912,  while  that 
of  the  exports  amounted  to  81  millions. 

The  export  of  iron-ore,  which  has  been  considerably  increased  since  the 
railway  between  Gallivare  and  Narvik  was  opened,  is  shown  in  tons  by 
Table  106  and  in  1912  reached  the  total  value  of  59-72  million  kronor. 
Other  more  important  articles  of  export  in  this  group  amounted  in  value 
the  same  year  to:  cement,  3-37  mill,  kr.;  super-phosphates,  3-18  mill,  kr.; 
block  granite  etc.  3-00  mill,  kr.;  and  zinc  ores,  2-65  mill.  kr. 

Of  those  wares  that  cannot  be  referred  to  any  of  the  specified  groups, 
which  are  arranged  in  one  final  group  in  the  trade  statistics  of  Sweden, 
the  imports  are  also  somewhat  in  excess  of  the  exports  (in  1912  respecti- 
vely 9-65  and  3-11  mill.  kr.). 

If  the  exported  and  imported  wares  are  classified  according  to  the 
different  groups  of  production  we  get  the  following  result  for  the  year 
1912  (Table  108). 

Of  the  25  groups  into  which  the  commodities  handled  by  the  import  and 
•export  trade  of  Sweden  (apart  from  coin)  are  divided  in  Table  104  we 
Ihave  now  dealt  with  16.  The  total  value  of  the  imports  included  in  these 
■groups  was  599  million  kronor  in  1912,  while  the  exports  did  not  reach 
more  than  137  million  kronor. 

B)  Groups  within  v/hich  the  exports  are  in  excess.  To  these  groups 
belong  chiefly  the  products  of  forestry,  cattle-breeding,  the  stone  industry, 
and  the  metal  industries. 


Table  108.    Imports  and  Exports  according  to  Production  Groups,  1912. 


Products  of  agriculture,  dairying  etc 

»               forestry  and  the  timber  industry  . 
>               the  sewing,   and  textile  industry  . 
»               paper  industry 

Imports 

Exports 

kronor 

% 

kronor 

% 

273  649  000 

20  751 000 

79  384  000 

9  626  000 

140  243  000 

111458  000 

149  756  000 

34-87 

2-64 

10-11 

1-23 
17-87 
14-20 
19-08 

130  648000 
192  701 000 
9  522  000 
136  671000 
115  745000 
158  778  000 
16  561000 

17-18 
35-33 

1-26 
17-97 
15-22 
20-87 

2-18 

Minerals  and  products  thereof,  other  than  metals 

Metals  and  products  thereof 

Products  of  other  industries 

Total 

784867  000 

10000 

760626000 

100-00 

IMPORTS  AND  EXPORTS  OF  VARIOUS  WARES.  523 

Among  the  articles  of  export  a  predominating  position  is  taken  by 
timber,  which,  in  the  statistical  tables,  is  divided  into  two  groups,  un- 
wrought  and  wrought,  and  which  has,  in  some  years,  exceeded  in  value 
all  the  other  Swedish  exports  together.  The  total  value  of  the  exports  in 
1912  amounted  to  192  mill,  kr.,  against  18  mill.  kr.  for  imports.  The 
most  important  items  show  the  following  values:  sawn  planks,  boards,  etc. 
of  spruce  and  fir,  114-88  mill,  kr.;  planed  boards  of  do.,  20-03  mill,  kr.; 
hewn  timber  of  the  same  sorts,  9-34  mill,  kr.;  timber,  3-91  mill,  kr.;  unplaned 
casing,  7-99  mill,  kr.;  furniture,  6-04  mill,  kr.;  turnerjr  articles,  5-08  mill,  kr.; 
doors,  4-30  mill,  kr.;  coopering  materia,ls,  2-75  mill.  kr. 

Living  animals  and  animal  foods  were  imported  to  a  value  of  29  mill, 
kr.  in  1912,  but  the  exports  amounted  to  nearly  100  mill.  kr..  The  import 
articles  are  chiefly  bacon  (1-70  mill.)  and  salt  herring  (8-17  mill.).  The 
most  important  export  articles  are  butter,  46-08  mill,  kr.;  cattle,  11-96  mill. 
kr.;  bacon,  11-48  mill  kr.;  fresh  (cattle-) meat,  5-99  mill,  kr.;  and  cream,  3-11 
mill.  kr.  Fresh  herring  is  an  important  export  article  in  j^ears  when  the 
herring  fishery  has  been  productive  (7-20  mill.  kr.  in  1912).  Eggs  are 
imported  to  a  value  of  3-29  mill.  kr.  and  exported  to  a  value  of  2-69  mill, 
kr. 

With  regard  to  the  group  machines  etc.,  the  imports  have  exceeded  the 
exports  up  to  and  including  the  year  1909.  Since  then,  however,  the  posi- 
tions have  been  reversed,  and  in  1912  the  imports  amounted  in  value  to 
42-5  mill,  kr.,  while  the  exports  amounted  to  57  mill.  kr.  Thus,  in  spite 
of  the  great  demand  for  imported  machinery,  the  industry  has 
succeeded  in  creating  a  useful  balance  of  exports,  chiefly  of  power-engines 
and  machines  for  dairywork  and  agricultural  purposes.  Among  the  ex- 
ports for  1912,  the  following  deserve  special  mention:  separators,  13-37 
mill,  kr.;  combustion  and  explosion  motors,  8-84  mill,  kr.;  harvesting  and 
mowing  machines,  3  mill,  kr.;  electric  generators  and  motors,  2-31  mill,  kr., 
and  telephone  apparatus,  5-16  mill.  kr.  The  imports  for  the  same  year 
included  automobiles,  2-36  mill,  kr.;  sewing  machines,  1-07  mill,  kr.;  and 
watches,  1-93  mill.  kr.  , 

The  group  manufactures  of  mineral  products  shows  imports  to  the 
value  of  7-39  mill.  kr.  in  1912,  and  exports  to  the  value  of  35-19  mill.  kr. 
Of  the  exports  8-76  mill.  kr.  represent  paving  stone  and  15-69  mill.  kr. 
represent  matches,  which  latter  commodity  is  now  referred  to  this  group, 
according  to  the  official  statistics.  Glass  and  glass-ware  were  exported 
to  a  value  of  4-37  mill,  kr.,  while  the  value  of  the  imports  was  2-81  mill, 
kr.  The  export  of  earthenware  amounted  to  4  mill,  kr.,  while  the  imports 
showed  a  value  of  2-23  mill.  kr. 

Of  unwrought  or  partly  wrought  metals  the  imports  amounted  in 
1912  to  38-58  mill.  kr.  in  value,  including  pig-  and  scrap-iron,  (9-03  mill, 
kr.)  against  47-88  mill.  kr.  in  exports.  The  most  important  of  the  typ- 
ical exports  of  Sweden  were,  in  1912,  pig-iron  16-77  mill,  kr.;  cold-rolled 
and  cold-drawn  iron  in  bars  etc.  above  10  mm    in  diameter,  5-43  mill,  kr.; 


524 


VIII.      COMMERCE. 


Table  J  09.      The  Trade  of  Sweden  with  Different  Countries. 


Annually 


In  thousands  of  kr. 


Imports       Exports 


Percentage  of  the  total  ^ 


Im- 


Ex- 


ports.       ports 


In  thousands  of  br. 


Imports    Exports 


Percentage  of  the  totaU 


Im-  Ex- 

ports       ports      ^°  ^'■^ 


1871—75  . 
1876-80  . 
1881-85  . 
1886-90  . 
1891—95  . 
1896—00  . 
1901—05  . 
1906-10  . 

1911  .  .  . 


1871-75  . 
1876—80  . 
1881—85  . 
1886-90  . 
1891-95  . 
1896-00  . 
1901—05  . 
1906-10  . 


1911 


1871-75  . 
1876-80  , 
1881-85  . 
1886-90  . 
1891-95  . 
1896-00  . 
1901-05  . 
1906—10  . 


1911 


1871—75  , 
1876-80  , 
1881-85  , 
1886—90  , 
1891-95  . 
1896-00  . 
1901—05  , 
1906—10  , 

1911  .    .    . 


German  Empire. 


55  565 
59  075 
88  239 
101  803 
116  913 
156  538 
303  559 
226  098 

244  188 


14  333 

22-55 

7-01 

14411 

22-00 

6-87 

18  958 

27-79 

7-78 

29  026 

30-34 

10-65  II 

42  498 

33-25 

13-36 

51872 

34-61 

14-47 

70  246 

38-16 

17-12 

106  070 

35-07 

20-58 

133  518 

35-05 

20-12 

15-50 
15-36 

19-10 
21-51 
23-80 
25-70 
29-0  L 
28-63 


27-7; 


Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 


81362 

108  228 

33-03 

52-91 

77  223 

109  084 

28-76 

51-98 

82  333 

119  468 

25-93 

49-02 

92  875 

126  029 

27-68 

46-23 

95152 

140  485 

27-06 

44-15 

138  072 

153  828 

30-53 

42-90 

138  887 

154 169 

26-04 

37-56 

164 147 

173  783 

25-45 

33-72 

160  830 

195  829 

23-09 

29-51 

Denmark. 


39193 

22  371 

15-91 

10-94 

49184 

22  267 

18-31 

10-61 

52  862 

28  610 

16-65 

11-74 

44  350 

32  006 

13-22 

11-74 

41375 

38  829 

11-77 

12-20 

55  455 

43  987 

12-26 

12-27 

61022 

54  312 

11-44 

13-23 

44  885 

51775 

6-96 

10-05 

46  778 

,66  136 

6-71 

9-97 

Norway.'' 


12  939 
14  213 
20  489 
28  283 
31203 
25  037 
23  586 
22  583 

20113 


7139 

5-25 

3-49 

7  029 

5-29 

3-35 

9  841 

6-46 

4-04 

14  376 

8-43 

5-27  II 

17  018 

8-87 

5-35  i 

11875 

5-54 

3-31 

25  850 

4-42 

6-30 

27  724 

3-50 

5-38 

37  559 

2-89 

5-66 

42-05 
38-95 
35-96 
3600 
35-18 
36-00 
31-05 
29-13 

26-22 


13-65 
14-94 
14-52 
12-56 
11-97 
12-26 
12-22 
8-33 

8-30 


4-45 
4-44 
5-40 
7-01 
7-20 
4-55 
5-24 
4-34 

4-24 


9  237 

10  349 

7  894 

7  427 

8  343 

9  813 
14  591 
16  217 

19  394 


5  943 

8  068 
9139 

10  236 
10  356 
14161 
16  245 
9147 

9  940 


4  938 

6  743 

7  237 

6  649 

5  037 

7  433 
7  016 

10  945 

15309 


Holland. 


5  634 

3-75 

2-75 

7  842 

3-81 

3-73 

9163 

2-48 

3-75 

12  243 

2-21 

4-49 

16  634 

2-37 

5-23 

25105 

2-17 

7-00 

23  643 

2-74 

5-76 

17  516 

2-52 

3-40 

23  927 

2-78 

3-61 

Belgium. 


8  943 

2-41 

4-37 

9  691 

3-00 

4-61 

8  906 

2-87 

3-65 

9  572 

3-05 

3-51 

10  724 

2-95 

3-37 

13  457 

3-13 

3-75 

14  958 

3-05 

3-64 

14  034 

1-42 

2-72 

18  276 

1-43 

2-75 

Russia. 


14  666 

2  825 

5-95 

1-38 

20  665 

1645 

7-70 

0-78 

23  373 

2  597 

7-36 

1-07 

21344 

3  293 

6-36 

1-20 

14875 

4  341 

4-23 

1-36 

20  640 

5100 

4-56 

1-42 

25176 

5  051 

4-72 

1-23  |! 

24  564 

12127 

3-81 

2-36 

30  788 

22  910 

4-42 

3-45 

Finland. 


3  346 
3  433 

5100 
5  360 
6121 
9  977 
9  007 
11316 

11 436 


2-00 
2-51 
2-28 
1-98 
1-43 
1-64 
1-31 
1-70 

2-20 


3-29 
3-78 
3-03 
3-23 
3-73 
4-31 
4-05 
2-91 

3-18 


3-30 
3-71 
3-21 

3-26 
3-15 
3-41 
3-31 

2-00 

2-07 


3-88 
4-66 
4-63 
4-05 
2-87 
3-17 
3-20 

]  3-16 

i  3-96 


1-64 
1-64 
2-09 
1-97 
1-92 
2-78 
2-20 
2-20 

1-72 


1-97 


'  Imports  and  exports  and  total  trade  -with  each  country  expressed  as  a  percentage  of 
the  total  imports  and  exports  and  trade  of  Sweden.  —  *  Particulars  of  Sweden's  exports  to 
Norway  are  incomplete,  especially  before  the  year  1902. 


IMPORTS   AND   EXPORTS   OF   VARIOUS   WARES. 


525 


Table  109  (contd.).     The  Trade  of  Sweden  with  Different  Countries. 


In  thousands  of  kr. 

Percentage  oC 
the  total  I 

In  thousands  of  kr. 

Percentage  of 
the  total' 

Add  n  ally 

Im- 

Ex- 

Annually 

Im- 

Ex- 

Imports 

Exports 

ports 

ports 

In  all 

Imports 

Exports 

ports 

ports 

In  all 

France. 

United  States  of  America. 

1871-75 

8  058 

19  049 

3-27 

9-31 

6-01 

1871—75 

5  522 

5  095 

2-24 

2-49 

2-35 

1876—80 

8168 

26  562 

3-04 

12-65 

7-26 

1876-80 

7  613 

1195 

2-84 

0-67 

1-82 

1881-85 

7  945 

29  373 

2-50 

12-05 

6-66 

1881—85 

7  894 

973 

2-49 

0-40 

1-58 

1886-90 

7  059 

25188 

2-10 

9-24 

5-30 

1886-90 

6  711 

1791 

2-00 

0-66 

1-40 

1891-95 

8  265 

28111 

2-35 

8-83 

5-43 

1891-95 

11754 

772 

3-34 

0-24 

1-87 

1896-00 

8  300 

29  544 

1-83 

8-24 

4-67 

1896-00 

9  312 

199 

2-06 

O-oe!   1-171 

1901-05 

10  788 

29  017 

2-02 

7-07 

4-22 

1901-05 

16  955 

1976 

3-18 

0-48 

2-00 

1906-10 

22  734 

38  315 

3-53 

7-43 

5-26 

1906-10 

56  454 

14  744 

8-76 

2-86 

6-14 

1911  .    . 

32  231 

48  510 

4-63 

7-31 

5-94 

1911  .    . 

54  656 

24  280 

7-84 

3-66 

5-80 

Other  countries. 

Other  countries.               \ 

1871—75 

8  949 

7  562 

3-64 

3-71 

3-68 

1896-00 

7  563 

13  637 

1-67 

3-80 

2-62 

1876-80 

7  305 

6  698 

2-74 

3-21 

2-95 

1901-05 

15  566 

22  218 

2-92 

5-41 

4-00 

1881-85 

10121 

10  710 

3-19 

4-41 

3-72 

1906-10 

46  966 

47  958 

7-28 

9-3) 

8-18 

1886-90 

8  790 

13  745 

2-63 

5-04 

3-71 

1891-95 

8  360 

12  693 

2-38 

3-99 

3-14 

1911  .    . 

62  390 

81194 

8-96 

12-24 

10-56 

'  See  note  1  above. 


wrought  bar-iron,  5-31  mill,  kr.;  and  crude  bars  and  blooms,  5-22  mill.  kr. 
Even  as  regards  metal--work  the  exports  (57-48  mill,  kr.)  for  1912  show 
an  excess  over  the  imports  (45-46  mill.  kr.).  The  most  important  exports 
were:  hot-rolled  iron  (referred  to  this  group)  to  a  value  of  28-26  mill,  kr.; 
rolled  or  hot-drawn  tubing  to  a  value  of  3-55  mill,  kr.;  horse-shoe  nails, 
2-31  mill,  kr.;  brass  cooking  apparatus,  such  as  oil  stoves  etc.,  5-91  mill, 
kr.  The  imports  included  the  following  articles:  railway  and  tramway 
rails,  6-64  mill,  kr.;  girders  etc.,  and  other  hot-rolled  iron,  6-08  mill,  kr.; 
iron  tubing,  rolled  or  hot-drawn,  3-01  mill,  kr.;  and  electric  cables  and 
wiring,  4-51  mill.  kr.  —  Paper  and  paper-pulp,  1912  imports  4-60  mill, 
kr.,  exports  134-31  mill.  kr. 

The  nine  groups  dealt  with  above  represent  an  import  value  of  186  mill, 
kr.  and  an  export  value  of  624  mill.  kr.  for  1912. 

A  survey  of  the  imports  of  Sweden,  grouped  according  to  the  uses  to 
which  they  are  put,  and  of  the  exports,  grouped  according  to  the  chief  in- 
dustries to  which  wares  trace  their  origin,  is  given  by  Table  107. 

In  the  above  general  view  the  feature  calling  for  special  attention  is 
the  fact  that  the  imports  of  raw  materials  for  the  support  of  the  indu- 
stries show  a  relatively  extremely  important  increase.  We  observe  that  in 
1911  the  importation  of  wares  for  feeding  the  productive  industries 
amounted  to  59-45  %  of  the  total  imports,  and  of  this  percentage  49-42  % 
is  represented  by  raw  materials  and  10-08  by  machinery,  transport  appli- 
ances, etc. 

Of  the  imports  of  articles  of  consumption  in  1912  —  totalling 
37-56  %  of  the  total  imports  —  19-94  %  is  represented  by  articles  of  food  and 


526  Vm.      COMMERCE. 

consumption,  7-97  %  by  clothing  and  toilet  requisites,  and  9-65  %  by  articles 
of  household  use,  etc. 


Commercial  Exchange  with  different  Countries. 

The  countries  with  which  Sweden  carries  on  the  liveliest  trade  are  the 
German  Empire,  Great  Britain,  Denmark,  Norway,  Russia,  and  Finland; 
then  come  France,  Holland,  Belgium,  and  the  United  States  of  America. 
A  point  that  demands  attention  is  the  important  remodelling  of  the  Swe- 
•dish  foreign  trade  statistics  in  1905.  Before  that  year,  they  were  based 
upon  the  last  foreign  place  of  loading  or  unloading  of  the  goods,  as  the 
case  might  be;  while,  from  and  including  the  year  1905,  they  refer  to 
the  country  from  which,  in  the  case  of  imports,  the  goods  have  been  bought 
or  sent  for  sale  or  other  purposes,  direct  or  through  another  country,  to 
Sweden.  In  the  case  of  exports,  they  refer  to  the  country  to  which  the 
goods  have  been  sold,  or  to  the  final  destination  to  which  they  are  dis- 
patched, for  sale  or  other  purposes.  Hence,  e.  g.,  the  decline  in  the  imports 
from  Denmark  which  are  given  for  the  year  1905  ought  to  be  attributed 
to  this  cause,  rather  than  to  any  real  changes  in  the  conditions  of  trade. 
A  survey  of  the  Swedish  trade  with  different  countries  since  1871  is  given 
in  Table  109. 

Swedish  exports  to  the  German  Empire  comprised  unwrought  timber 
goods,  joinery,  paper  and  paper  pulp,  stone,  iron-ore,  bar-iron,  other  de- 
scriptions of  iron  and  steel,  herrings,  red  whortleberries,  separators,  meat, 
milk  and  cream,  hides,  etc.  The  imports  comprised  coffee,  tobacco,  wheat, 
rye,  oats,  seed,  wool,  paints  and  dyes,  cotton,  woollen  goods,  silk  goods, 
articles  of  dress,  hides,  fertilizers,  iron  and  steel,  machinery,  copper,  etc. 

Germany,  with  which  country  commercial  intercourse  has  been  very 
brisk  ever  since  the  days  of  the  Hansa  League  —  a  commercial  inter- 
course that  has  been  regulated  by  detailed  commercial  treaties  and  agree- 
ments —  has  its  chief  importance  for  Sweden  in  the  considerable 
import  from  there,  partly  of  articles  of  food  and  consumption  (the  greater 
part  of  the  import  of  wheat,  a  considerable  part  of  the  import  of  rye,^ 
and  the  greater  part  of  the  import  of  coffee  and  tobacco),  partly  of  raw 
materials  for  the  textile  industries,  and,  finally,  partly  of  a  multitude  of 
industrial  products,  first  and  foremost  clothes,  but,  besides,  numerous 
products  of  Germany's  metal  and  chemical  industries. 

It  is  at  once  apparent  that,  during  the  whole  time.  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland  have  played  the  most  important  role  as  regards  Swe- 
dish exports,  although  during  most  recent  years  the  total  commercial  ex- 
change with  Germany  shows  somewhat  higher  figures.  At  one  time,  more 
than  half  the  total  exports  went  to  the  first-mentioned  countries;  the  fact 
that  the  proportion  has  been  lower  during  recent  years  depends  partly  on 
the  correction  of  Swedish  trade  statistics,  which  specially  affected  some 


'  Grain,  however,  is  largely  transit-merchandise  from  Russia. 


COMMERCIAL    EXCHANGE    WITH    DIFFERENT   COUNTRIES.  52T 

of  the  exports  to  England.  It  is  worthy  of  remark  that,  at  least  before- 
1905,  a  considerable  part  of  the  Swedish  exports  to  Denmark  were  in 
reality  exported  to  England  through  Danish  intermediation.  —  Half  a 
century  ago,  the  importance  of  England  as  a  buyer  of  Swedish  products 
was  not  nearly  so  great  as  it  has  been  during  this  last  decade. 

The  Swedish  exports  to  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  comprise  un- 
wrought  timber  goods,  wood-pulp,  paper,  joinery,  glass,  matches,  butter, 
eggs,  bacon,  rolled  bar-iron,  other  descriptions  of  iron  and  steel,  iron-ore, 
etc.  The  imports  from  Great  Britain  comprise  coal,  cotton,  wool,  shoddy, 
yarn,  cotton  yarn  and  thread,  oils,  iron  and  steel,  copper,  machinery,  ships, 
rubber,  etc. 

As  has  been  mentioned,  Great  Britain  is  the  greatest  buyer  of  the  most 
important  Swedish  exports  and  supplies  most  of  the  coal  consumed  in 
Sweden. 

To  Denmark  Sweden  exports  butter,  paper  pulp,  super-phosphates,  bar- 
iron,  iron  and  steel  goods,  unwrought  timber  goods,  etc.  In  return,  Swe- 
den imports  from  Denmark  coffee,  wheat,  petroleum,  other  oils,  and  also 
oilcake,  hides  and  skins,  furs,  textiles,  etc. 

{Sweden  has  long  had  a  brisk  commercial  intercourse  with  Denmark, 
thanks  chiefly  to  the  existence  of  Copenhagen  as  a  free  port  for  transit- 
merchandise. 

To  Norway  are  exported  from  Sweden  cattle,  textiles,  wood  pulp, 
certain  timber  goods,  iron  and  steel  goods,  machinery,  etc.  The  imports 
from  that  country  comprise  fish,  hides  and  skins,  sulphur  pyrites,  etc. 

Next  to  Great  Britain,  France  is  Sweden's  greatest  buyer  of  unwrought 
timber  goods,  and  a  by  no  means  insignificant  buyer  of  iron  and  steel,  as 
well  as  wood  pulp.  From  France  again  Sweden  imports  brandy,  wines, 
oil-cake,  oils,  silk  fabrics,  etc. 

Sweden  exports  to  Russia  machinery,  telephone  apparatus,  super- 
phosphates, iron  and  steel,  metal  work,  furniture,  etc.  From  Russia  she 
imports  grain,  linseed,  bran,  eggs,  flax,  rubber,  mineral  oils,  oil-cake, 
aspen  wood,  etc. 

The  principal  Swedish  import  from  Finland  is  unwrought  timber, 
which  is  floated  over  the  sea,  and  other  articles,  though  not  to  any  great 
extent.  The  exports  to  Finland  consist  chiefly  of  iron  and  steel,  machinery, 
books,  etc. 

To  Holland  Sweden  exports  considerable  quantities  of  timber,  as  well 
as  paper  pulp,  pig  iron,  bar-iron,  etc.  The  imports  comprise  coffee,  her- 
rings, arrack,  fat  oils,  flower  bulbs,  etc.  —  The  exports  to  Belgium  com- 
prise chiefly  timber,  paper  pulp,  metals,  and  ore. 

The  exports  from  Sweden  to  the    United  States  of  America    comprise, 

for  the  most  part,  paper  pulp  and  paper,  partly  manufactured  iron  goods, 

and  iron-ore;  whilst  the  imports  from  the  United  States  comprise  cotton, 

mineral  oils,  copper,  grain,  bacon,  fertilizers,  machinery,  etc. 

Trade  with  other  countries  outside  Europe  has  advanced  considerably 


528 


VIII.      COMMERCE. 


during  recent  decades,  thanks  to  improved  shipping  communications.   Thus 

for  the  following  years,  the  value  of  the  exports  from  Sweden,  expressed 

in  thousands  of  kronor,  are  as  given  in  the  tahle  below. 

1905  1908  1910  1911  1912 

British  South  Africa 4  567  3  844  9  089  7  183  6  949 

British  East  Indies 3  326  3  549  4  478  4  585  5  955 

China 733  504  1381  1840  1255 

Japan 608  2  274  5  565  5866  6  359 

Australia 2  693  5  080  8895  9800  8499 

The  Argentine 1 100  3  032  5  183  7  422  9  405 

Uruguay 40  94  346  842  571 

Brazil 609  651  1256  1412  2  485 


Customs. 

With  regard  to  matters  concerning  Commercial  Policy,  the  reader  may  consult 
the  special  article  below. 

In  order  to  give  an  approximate  comparison  in  the  matter  of  customs  be- 
tween Sweden  and  other  countries  from  which  figures  are  available,  a  few  guid- 
ing, data  are  given  below.  (In  the  case  of  Sweden  the  figures  are  taken  from 
the  returns  for  the  year  1912;  for  other  countries  the  figures  represent  an  ave- 
rage for  the  period  1905 — 09.) 

Customs  collected. 
Per  inhab.    As  percentage 
Countries  kronor  of  imports 

Sweden 11-63  8-2 

Norway 17-94  11-9 

Denmark 1414  6-5 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland 13-56  6-1 

German  Empire   .    .    .    . , 9-30  7-8 

Switzerland 14-14  43 

France 916  8-0 

Spain 5-36  145 

United  States  of  America 13'00  23-0 


How  the  conditions  in  this  respect  have 
is  shown  by  the  following  figures: 


changed  in  Sweden  at  different  times 


Customs 

receipts 

Annually 

Mean 

Value  of 

Customs 

Per  inhab., 

Injiof 

pop. 

imports,  kr. 

receipts,  kr. 

kronor 

imports 

1841-50  . 

3  306  000 

32  774  000 

5  983  000 

1-81 

18-3  % 

1851-60  •. 

3  642  000 

70  549  000 

10  270  000 

2-82 

14-6  . 

1861—70  . 

4  079  000 

116  726  000 

13  731 000 

3-37 

11-8  . 

1871-80  . 

4  387  000 

257  439  000 

23  690  000 

5-40 

9-2  . 

1881-90  . 

4  673000 

326^529  000 

33  969  000 

7-27 

10-4  . 

1891—95  . 

4832  000 

351633  000 

37  372  000 

7-73 

10-6   . 

1896-00  . 

5  032  000 

452  324  000 

50  419  000 

10-02 

11-1   . 

1901-05  . 

5  214  000 

633  391 000 

55  704  000 

10-68 

10  4   > 

1906-10  . 

5  406  000 

644  740  000 

59  010  000 

10-92 

9-2  . 

1911  .   .   . 

5  542  000 

696  617  000 

60  373  000 

10-88 

8-7  > 

1912  .   .   . 

5  583  000 

793  714  000 

64  350  000 

11-53 

8-1  . 

The  transition  to  a  system  of  freer  trade,  which  followed  immediately  upon 
■the  year  1850,  can  be  traced  here  with  great  clearness.  With  regard  to  the  re- 
sults of  the  new  tariff  of  June  9th,  1911  (which  came  into  force  on  Dec.  1,  in 
the  same  year)  reference  should  be  made  to  the  above  mentioned  separate  article 
■on  Commercial  Policy,  from  which  more  detailed  information  can  be  gained. 


CUSTOMS.  529 

Table  110.     Customs  Receipts  on  more  Important   Wares.^     In  kroner. 


Wares 

Annually 
1906—10 

1911 

Wares 

Aonually 
1906—10 

1911 

Grain,  nnmilled  .  .    . 
milled      .    .    . 

Meat  and  bacon     .    . 

Coffee 

Sugar,  refined  and  un- 
refined   

Syrup  and  molasses  . 

Tobacco,     raw     and 
manufactured  .    .    . 

Oranges 

Fruits,      unspecified, 
fresh,   canned,   and 
dried 

Plums,  dried  .... 

Spirits      

Wines 

9  765  000 
1137  000 

1  036  000 

4  053  000 

416  000 
1514  000 

5  473  000 
519  000 

822  000 
539  000 

2  661 000 
2  332  000 

8  456  000 
873  000 
608  000 

3  903  000 

248  000 
1 503  000 

6  294  000 
552  000 

892  000 

545  000 

2  827  000 

2  115  000 

Woollen  yarn  .... 
Whole-  and  half-silk 

textiles 

Woollen  fabrics  .  . 
Cotton  fabrics  .  .  . 
Watertight  fabrics    . 

Hats 

Hides  and  skins  (not 

furs),  prepared  .  . 
Paper  and  paper  wares 
Iron    and    steel,    un- 

wronght  &  wrought 
Machines  and  tools  . 
Other  wares'   .... 

Total 

497  000 

800  000 
2  409  000 

1  697  000 
971  000 
467  000 

638  000 
602  000 

2  821 000 

3  235  000 
14  606  000 

582  000 

927  000 

2  338  000 
1929  000 

932  000 
567  000 

701  000 
758  000 

3  207  000 
3  391000 

16125  000 

59010  000 

CO  273  000 

1  For  the  specified  wares  the  amount  of  the  import  duties  is  only  calculated.  —  ^  When 
the  amounts  given  for  the  specified  wares  are  only  calculated,  but  the  final  total  is  the 
actual  amount  received,  the  figures  for  "other  wares"  must  be  to  some  extent  incorrect. 

In  Table  110  is  given  a  survey  of  those  wares  which,  up  to  and  including 
the  year  1911,  have  produced  the  greatest  revenue  from  import  duties. 

Table  111  shows  the  revenue  from  customs  duties  at  the  most  important  custom- 
honses.  It  may  be  pointed  out  with  what  comparative  success  Stockholm  has 
been  able  to  retain  its  place  in  the  matter  of  the  import  trade,  which  was  hardly 
to  be  expected  in  consideration  of  the  circumstance  that  the  Norrland  towns  have 
begun  more  and  more  to  import  their  necessaries  direct  from  foreign  countries, 
instead  of  relying  on  the  Stockholm  merchants,  as  a  result  of  which  several  new 
custom-houses  have  been  established.  Yet  an  inconsiderable  decline  is  to  be 
observed  as  a  result  of  the  circumstances  indicated.  Between  the  years  1861 
— 65,    Stockholm    collected    37'0  %  of  the  total  import  duties  of  the  country,   as 


Table  111. 

Customs 

Receipts,  annual 

averages.     In  thousands  of  kroner. 

Custom  house 
districti 

1871—75 

1876-80 

1881—86 

1886—90 

1891—95 

1896-00 

1901—06 

1906-10 

1911 

1912 

1913 

Stockholm  . 

9  345 

9  635 

11197 

12166 

12  995 

18  516 

19  853 

20  814 

21009 

22  595 

24  378 

Gothenburg 

6  530 

7  031 

8  231 

8  526 

8  229 

10  703 

10  480 

11017 

11364 

11836 

12  812 

Malmo     .    . 

1949 

2195 

2  703 

3167 

4  037 

5161 

6  441 

6  639 

6  626 

6  689 

7  541 

Norrkoping 

783 

888 

1164 

1580 

1650 

1762 

2  030 

3  013 

2  498 

2  940 

2  997 

Kalmar  .    . 

191 

177 

167 

321 

515 

1154 

1823 

1703 

1632 

1849 

1585 

Halsingborg 

407 

445 

584 

694 

1101 

1723 

1699 

1645 

1616 

1846 

2  317 

Tralleborg  . 

39 

32 

21 

13 

19 

271 

742 

983 

1397 

1726 

2135 

Ahus  .    .    . 

114 

74 

62 

305 

422 

998 

1160 

1367 

1272 

1614 

1493 

Gavle  .    .    . 

442 

565 

772 

1186 

1028 

1371 

1401 

1330 

1394 

1531 

1649 

Halmstad  . 

141 

133 

134 

152 

242 

669 

876 

1131 

966 

1056 

1125 

Snndsvall  . 

345 

464 

845 

1382 

1378 

1317 

1045 

1189 

927 

993 

1141 

Laudskrona 

445 

1087 

2108 

2  031 

813 

571 

491 

560 

531 

580 

605 

Tstad.   .    . 

135 

168 

609 

1251 

1084 

613 

436 

356 

397 

407 

411 

Other  places 
Total 

1575 

2  050 

2  863 

3  704 

3  859 

5  772 

7  227 

8  365 

8  644 

8  688 

9  412 

22441 

24939 

31460 

36  478 

37  372 

50601 

55  704 

59010 

60273 

64350 

69601 

'  Towns  that  form  custom  house  districts,  i.  e.  are  staple  towns,  are  indicated,  e.  g.  by 

Wo     11« 


Table  118. 
iir— 133179 


Sweden.  11. 


530  VIII.      COMMERCE. 

against  35-3  ^  during  the  years  1906—10  (the  corresponding  figure  for  1912  is 
35"i  %).  In  the  case  of  Gothenburg,  this  decline  is  considerably  greater,  possibly 
on  account  of  the  fact  that  Stockholm,  in  its  turn,  began  more  and  more  to 
take  its  supplies  from  abroad  direct,  instead  of  partly  via  Gothenburg,  as  it  had 
done  before.  Specially  noteworthy  is  the  rapid  development  of  Tralleborg,  due 
to  the  steam-ferry  service  with  Sassnitz,  begun  in  1909. 


Customs-Tariif  Legislation  and  Custom-House  Establishments. 

By  the  articles  of  the  Swedish  Constitution,  it  lies  within  the  domain 
of  the  Riksdag  to  determine  not  only  whether  an  article  shall  be  liable 
to  duty  or  not,  but  also  the  principles  on  which  such  duty  is  to  be  com- 
puted and  its  amount.  The  Tariff  (Tulltaxan)  enumerates  all  the  various 
kinds  of  goods,  the  stipulations  respecting  exemption  from  customs-duties  or 
the  customs-duty  rates,  and  the  basis  upon  which  these  are  to  be  calculated. 
The  Tare-Tariff  (Taratariffen)  contains  particulars  o£  the  amount  of  draw- 
back that  is  allowed  for  packing  materials  in  the  calculation  of  the  duti- 
able weight  of  certain  articles.  The  Customs-Tariff  Ordinance  (TuUtaxe- 
fdrordningen) ,  amongst  other  things,  lays  down  the  regulations  concern- 
ing the  concessions  that  hold  good  with  regard  to  border  traffic,  concerning 
exemption  from  duty  in  certain  cases,  concerning  the  repayment  of  cus- 
toms-duty paid  on  certain  specific  articles,  and  concerning  the  fees,  called 
tonnage  dues  (lastpenningar),  imposed  on  vessels  engaged  in  foreign  com- 
merce; while  certain  principles  for  customs-treatment  are  annexed  to  the 
Customs  Tariff  in  the  form  of  "Information  as  to  certain  points  that  are  to 
be  observed  in  the  application  of  the  customs-tariff'.  —  In  Sweden,  there 
are  now  only  import-customs-duties.  The  majority  are  specific;  the  levying 
of  customs-duties  on  the  basis  of  value  occurs  nevertheless  with  respect 
to  a  very  considerable  number  of  articles. 

More  detailed  regulations  respecting  the  manner  of  Customs  taxation, 
control  over  the  importation  of  goods,  penalty  in  cases  of  unlawful  import, 
and  the  like,  are  found  in  the  Customs  Statute  (Tullstadgan). 

All  vessels  in  Swedish  waters  are  subject  to  the  inspection  of  Customs  Staff- 
Vessels  coming  from  foreign  ports  are  forbidden  to  put  in  at  any  places  on  the 
coast  of  Sweden  except  a  Customs-station  or  the  entrance-station  to  certain 
staple  towns.  The  clearing  of  vessels  and  the  unloading  and  passing  through 
the  Customs  of  cargoes  from  abroad  must  take  place  in  a  staple  town  (cf.  Table 
111  n.),  or,  if  the  ship  does  not  contain  goods  liable  to  duty,  at  any  other 
C  ustom-station. 

Masters  of  vessels  coming  fom  foreign  ports  and  bound  to  a  Swedish  port 
must  be  provided  with  a  Manifest  (Marhrulla),  which  is  to  be  delivered  to  the 
Custom-House  officer  that  comes  on  board.  The  Manifest,  which  must  be 
drawn  up  on  the  lines  of  a  certain  formulary,  contains  certain  information 
respecting  the  vessel,  her  crew  and  voyage,  and  also  presents  a  clear  accoimt 
of  her  cargo.  —  The  examination  of  the  vessel  takes  place  on  her  arrival  at 
the  port  where  she  is  to  discharge  her  cargo. 

The  owner  must  deliver  a  written  declaration  of  the  goods  that  have  arrived 
with    the    ship    within  eight  days  from  the  day  when  the  Manifest  was  handed 


CUSTOMS-TARIFF   LEGISLATION   AND   CUSTOM-HOUSE   ESTABLISHMENTS.         531 

to  the  Customs  in  the  port  of  discharge,  or,  if  the  goods  have  arrived  from 
another  Custom-station  by  direct  transit  in  bond,  within  eight  days  from  the 
day  of  arrival.  And  now  there  takes  place  the  customs-treatment  of  goods,  i.  e. 
the  examination,  and,  for  articles  liable  to  duty,  the  computation  and  charging 
of  such  duty.  This  duty  must  be  paid,  or  security  given  for  the  payment, 
before  the  goods  are  delivered  to  their  owner.  In  any  case  the  dues  are  to  be 
paid  within  twenty  days  from  the  delivery  of  the  Manifest,  or,  in  the  case  of 
goods  that  have  been  transferred  in  bond,  within  twenty  days  of  their  arrival. 
This  also  holds  good  of  ship's-dues. 

With  regard  to  navigation  and  export  of  goods  to  foreign  ports,  the  loading 
may  take  place  in  any  port  whatsoever,  provided  only  that  notice  of  such  loading 
be  given  to  the  Customs  authorities  in  that  place,  or  else  to  the  nearest  Custom- 
house. After  the  loading  has  been  completed,  the  master  of  the  vessel  is  required  to 
hand  in  bill  of  cargo  and  the  owner  to  deliver  a  declaration.  Where  these 
documents  have  been  handed  in  and  the  fees  paid,  the  masters  is  given  an 
official  discharge. 

There  are  special  regulations  concerning  foreign  navigation  with  smaller  mer- 
cantile vessels,  concerning  decked  vessels  and  open  boats  engaged  in  certain 
kinds  of  fishing,  and  also  concerning  steam-vessels  used  in  foreign  trade,  as  well 
as  the  Custom-house  inspection  and  passing  of  passengers'  effects ;  and  rules  have 
been  drawn  up  for  the  purpose  of  expediting  the  examination  of  steamboats  with 
regular  sailings,  and  the  passing  through  the  Customs  of  the  goods  therein. 

There  are  also  certain  regulations  for  the  control  of  coastwise  navigation  and 
the  coastwise  movement  of  goods.  The  vessels  thus  employed,  unless  they  are 
passenger  steamers  with  regular  sailings  or  only  navigate  the  Customs-district 
of  their  own  port,  or  only  lakes,  rivers  and  canals,  must  be  provided  with  so- 
called  annual  permits,  and  even  goods  should  in  some  cases  be  accompanied 
by  a  transire. 

Even  attempts  to  import  articles  that  are  subject  to  duty  without  proper  declara- 
tion of  the  same  are  punished  as  illicit  importation  of  goods. 

Customs  Stores  (Tullager)  in  Sweden  have  long  comprised  Bonded  Warehouses, 
Transit  Warehouses,  and  Free  "Victualling  Stores;  and  to  these  have  been  added 
in  Customs  legislation  (but  not,  as  yet,  in  actual  use)  three  new  kinds  —  Free 
Harbour,  Free  Stores,  and  Drawback  Warehouses. 

In  Bonded  Warehouses  (Nederlag)  dutiable  goods,  after  they  have  been  offici- 
ally examined,  are  warehoxised  under  lock  and  key  of  both  owner  and  Custom- 
house; but  no  customs-duty  is  paid  on  them  till  they  are  removed  for  home 
consumption.  Goods  may  also  be  re-exported  from  the  bonded  warehouse.  Build- 
ings for  this  purpose  are  provided  sometimes  by  the  town,  sometimes  by  the 
owners  of  goods.  The  fee  for  bonding  is  one  per  cent  of  the  total  duty  charged. 
The  maximum  time  for  bonded-warehousing  is  five  years.  The  proprietor  is 
allowed  to  look  after  and  take  care  of  the  goods,  and  take  samples  of  them  in 
suitable  small  quantities.  Re-packing  and  racking  may  be  permitted  after  special 
examination,  but  only,  as  a  rule,  when  there  is  danger  of  injury  or  destruction 
of  goods  in  consequence  of  defect  in  the  wrapper  or  vessel,  always  to  a  very 
limited  extent. 

In  a  Transit  Warehouse  {Transitupplag),  goods  arriving  from  abroad  are  stored 
under  lock  and  key  of  the  Customs  without  examination  on  the  part  of  same. 
The  goods  thus  warehoused  may  afterwards  be  passed  through  the  Customs, 
moved  to  another  warehouse,  or  re-exported.  The  right  of  transit-warehousing  is 
only  conceded  to  certain  towns,  which  have  to  provide  buildings  for  the  purpose. 
Only  piece-goods  may  be  stored  in  this  way.  The  period  is  a  year;  and  the 
fee  accrues  for  a  period  of  three  months  at  the  rate  of  70  ore  (about  9d.) 
for  the  first  and  35  ore  (about  4d.)  for  the  following  periods  per  100  kg.     The 


532  VIII.       COMMERCE. 

owner  is  not  allowed  to  look  after  or  take  samples  of  the  goods  stored  in  this 
manner. 

Free  Victualling  Stores  (Provianteringsfrilager)  may,  under  certain  conditions, 
be  established  in  a  sea-port  that  has  a  Custom-house:  they  are  intended  to 
facilitate  the  provisioning  and  general  supply  of  vessels  touching  at  the  port. 
The  charge  for  goods  kept  in  such  stores  is  in  certain  cases  reckoned  as  one 
per  cent  of  the  duty  on  the  goods. 

A  Free  Harbour  (Frihamn)  means  a  certain  part  of  a  port  which,  from  a  Customs 
point  of  view  may  be  regarded  as  a  foreign  place.  A  concession  for  a  free 
harbour  may  be  obtained  by  a  municipality  or  by  a  company  consisting  of 
Swedish  shareholders.  From  a  free  harbour  goods  may  be  either  exported  or 
placed  on  the  home  market. 

Free  Stores  (Frilager)  are,  in  the  main,  intended  to  form  a  simple  and  cheap 
kind  of  free  harbour  and  are  not  restricted  to  maritime  towns.  In  free  stores 
goods  may  be  received  and  warehoused,  repacked  and  divided  without  being 
examined  or  passing  through  the  Customs.  The  Government's  consent  is  re- 
quired for  the  right  to  carry  on  any  industrial  work  in  such  stores.  Retail  trade 
is  allowed  neither  in  a  free  harbour  nor  in  free  stores. 

The  intention  of  a  Drawback  Warehouse  (Restitutionsupplag)  is  that  an  article 
consisting  wholly  or  partly  of  foreign  materials  worked  up  within  the  kingdom, 
the  import  duty  paid  on  which  is  wholly  or  partly  repaid  on  export,  may, 
instead  of  being  immediately  exported,  be  stored  in  a  staple-town  in  a  warehouse 
standing  under  the  control  of  the  Customs  authority.  When  the  article  is  thus 
entered,  the  customs  duty  is  repaid,  or,  in  cases  where  the  duty  has  not  been 
paid  but  security  therefore  has  been  deposited,  the  deed  of  security  is  restored 
and  the  amount  charged  in  the  books  is  written  off. 

The  Riksdag  of  1912  petitioned  the  Government  to  institute  an  inquiry  as 
to  whether  permission  to  establish  Credit  Warehouses  {Kreditupplag)  might 
profitably  be  granted  in  such  a  way  that  it  might  benefit  those  forms  of 
industry  which  concerned  themselves  with  the  working  up  of  dutiable  goods  for 
export. 

The  refunding  of  Customs-duty  by  way  of  drawback  is  allowed  by  the  Customs 
Tariff  Ordinance  for  materials  and  necessaries  for  the  building,  rebuilding  or 
repair  of  ships  at  a  dockyard  or  works  in  Sweden  and  for  certain  goods  manu- 
factured in  Sweden  from  entirely  foreign  raw  materials,  such  as  cocoa-powder, 
maccaroni,  manufactured  tobacco,  certain  paperwares  and  textile  fabrics,  jute 
canvas  for  packing  etc.,  the  refund  for  which  is  fixed  at  a  certain  amount 
per  kg.  A  refund  is  also  allowed  to  persons  engaged  in  the  milling  industry, 
on  the  export  of  rye-flour  and  wheat-flour,  for  the  customs-duty  which  they 
may  have  paid  on  a  corresponding  quantity  of  grain  imported  from  abroad 
in  accordance  with  fixed  rate  of  exchange;  that  is  to  say,  for  such  meal,  in 
which  Swedish  grain  has  been  blended,  compensation  may  be  enjoyed  provided 
that  a  corresponding  quantity  of  foreign  grain  has  been  previously  imported. 
Moreover  the  customs-duty  may  be  refunded  with  the  special  permission  of  the 
Government,  on  foreign  commodities  which,  with  or  without  the  addition  of 
Swedish  raw  materials,  have  been  used  in  the  production  of  export  goods. 

Finally  from  the  year  1913  there  has  been  introduced  in  certain  cases  customs- 
refund  on  the  re-export  of  foreign  goods,  whereby  is  meant  the  right  conferred 
on  firms  of  good  repute  to  receive  back  the  customs-duty  paid  on  import  when 
they  re-export  foreign  goods  that  have  not  been  worked  up  or  altered  within 
the  kingdom.  This  right  to  refund,  for  which  is  paid  a  special  fee  amounting 
to  one-half  per  cent  of  the  customs-duty,  embraces  only  certain  kinds  of  goods 
determined  by  the  Government;  and  for  some  of  these  it  is  provided  that  the 
right  to    refund    shall    not    be    enjoyed  unless  the  owner  of  the  goods  certifies 


CUSTOMS-TARIFF   LEGISLATION    AND    CUSTOM-HOUSE    ESTABLISHMENTS.         533 

that  it  is  not  intended  to  send  back  the  goods  either  to  the  country  of  produc- 
tion or  of  purchase  or  to  any  foreign  agent  of  the  producer  or  seller. 


Laboratory  of  the  Customs  Training  School,  Stockholm. 

The  Customs  Establishments.  The  Royal  Board  of  Customs  (General- 
tuUstyrelsen)  has  charge  of  the  local  Customs  administration,  of  the  Coast- 
guard and  of  the  Frontier-guard.  The  Customs  Service  (Tullverket) 
looks  after  the  collection  of  Customs-revenue  —  i.  e.  customs-duties  on 
imports,  tonnage  dues,  fees  for  bonded-warehouses,  transit-warehouses, 
free  victualling  stores,  and  customs-refunds  —  and  also  the  tax  on  sugar 
imported  from  abroad  and  dues  for  lights  and  beacons.  The  Customs 
Service  has  also  to  collect  certain  statistical  information  concerning 
trade  and  navigation,  to  see  to  the  observance  of  the  laws  that  aim  at 
preventing  the  introduction  of  infectious  diseases  into  the  kingdom,  or 
that  provide  for  prohibition  or  control  in  the  import  or  export  of  certain 
goods,  as  to  goods  with  incorrect  statement  as  to  place  of  origin,  poisonous 
substances,  meat,  margarine,  certain  forest  productions;  and  in  the  event 
of  a  ship  going  on  shore  or  suffering  shipwreck,  the  Department  has  to 
exercise  supervision  and  protect  the  rights  of  the  Crown. 

The  Royal  Board  of  Customs  is  divided  into  four  sections:  the  secretariate, 
the  exchequer  office,  the  audit  office,  and  the  examination  and  information 
office.      Besides     exercising    a    general    guidance    and    control    over    the    entire 


534  VIII.      COMMBKCE. 

Customs  administration,  the  Royal  Board  of  Customs  has  to  act  as  a  Court  of 
first  instance  in  settling  disputes  between  the  owners  of  goods  and  the  local 
Customs  authorities,  and  to  give  official  information  beforehand  concerning  the 
Customs  treatment  of  goods.  Executive  details  are  handled  by  the  local  Customs 
authorities,  which  in  Stockholm  and  Gothenburg  are  divided  into  special  sections : 
the  Custom-house,  the  Collector's  Office,  the  Confiscation  Office  and  Counting 
House,  Warehouse  Inspection,  Bonded-Warehouse  Office,  and  Preventive  Service. 
The  country  is  divided  into  48  Custom-house  Districts,  one  for  each  staple-town 
(see  too  page  556).  In  addition  to  those  in  the  staple-towns,  there  are  Custom- 
houses in  Lund,  Boras,  Falun,  and  Ostersund,  and  at  the  railway  stations  of 
Mon,  Charlottenbeig,  Storlien,  and  Riksgransen.  Besides  these  fully  equipped 
Custom-houses  {Tullkamrar),  there  are  a  number  of  minor  centres  for  Customs 
and  Frontierguard  service  known  as  "inspehtioner" ,  "stationer',  and  "expeditioner"; 
but  of  these  only  those  on  the  frontier  have  unlimited  rights  for  Custom  pur- 
poses. 

For  the  training  of  candidates  for  Customs-service,  and  for  existing  members 
of  the  service,  the  Customs  Department  has  a  special  Customs  Training  School 
{Tullverhets  Undervisningsanstalt),  where  instruction  is  given  in  articles  of  mer- 
chandise, customs-regulations  and  living  languages. 

The  Coastguard  Service  {Kusthevahningen)  in  the  Stockholm  Custom-house 
District  is  under  the  chief  preventive  officer  in  that  town;  in  Skane  and  Ble- 
kinge  and  also  in  the  lans  of  Halland,  Gothenburg  and  Bohus,  it  is  under  the 
Coastguard  Commanders ;  and  elsewhere  it  is  managed  by  the  Surveyors  of  Customs. 
The  Coastguard  has  at  its  disposal  a  coastguard  steamer  and  a  considerable 
number  of  revenue  cutters  (usually  motor-boats)  and  smaller  vessels. 

The  Frontier-guard  Service  (GrdnsbevaJcningeri)  in  Dalsland,  Varmland  and 
Dalame  is  under  a  Frontier-guard  Commander;  elsewhere,  under  certain  Surveyors 
of  Customs. 

To  conduct  suits  concerning  breaches  of  Customs  regulations  there  are  special 
Customs  Prosecutors  {Tullfishaler)  established  in  certain  districts. 

The  State's  Customs  expenses  amounted  to  the  following  percentage  of  the 
receipts:  in  1870,  ll"?  %;  in  1890,  5-8  %;  and  in  1913,  9-3  %. 

Commercial  Policy. 

Although  in  most  countries  State  intervention  in  commercial  matters 
is  now  far  less  extensive  than  formerly,  it  is  nevertheless  of  great  im- 
portance. Home  trade  is,  indeed,  left  entirely  free  nowadays;  but  foreign 
trade  is  regulated  by  means  of  customs  duties,  commercial  treaties,  and 
also  by  direct  measures  for  facilitating  export.  A  brief  review  of  the 
recent  history  of  this  subject,  supplemented  by  a  conspectus  of  existing 
conditions  will  serve  to  show  how  matters  have  shaped  themselves  in 
Sweden. 

Sweden's  commercial  policy  enters  on  its  modern  phase  in  the  middle  of  the 
late  'fifties.  As  early  as  the  twenties  of  the  nineteenth  century  considerable  mo- 
difications had  indeed  been  made  in  the  rigorously  prohibitive  economic  policy, 
in  the  spirit  of  the  Mercantile  System,  which  had  long  been  traditional,  but  it 
was  not  until  the  'fifties  that  it  was  definitely  broken  away  from.  In  conformity 
with  the  views  then  generally  held,  a  change  was  made  to  a  system  rather 
favourable  to  free  trade;  all  the  prohibitions  against  import  that  still  survived 
were  abolished,  articles  of  food  and  most  raw  materials  were  made  free  of  duty, 
and  the  remaining  duties  were  lowered. 


COMMERCIAL   POLICY.  535 

When  these  reforms  were  introduced  into  Sweden,  nearly  all  the  countries 
on  the  continent  of  Europe  still  adhered  to  the  old  Mercantile  System;  Sweden 
was,  thus,  one  of  the  very  first  countries  to  follow  England's  example  in  this 
respect.  Theoretically,  however,  free-trade  theories  were  everywhere  in  vogue, 
and  in  the  'sixties  these  theories  were  actually  carried  into  practical  effect.  The 
first  step  was  "Cobden's  Treaty",  the  free-trade  Treaty  concluded  between  England 
and  France  in  the  year  1860.  On  the  basis  of  that  Treaty,  France  concluded  a 
series  of  similar  treaties  with  most  Western  European  countries.  Sweden's  turn 
came, in  1865,  when,  partly  in  response  to  French  demands  and  partly  of  her 
own  free  will,  her  customs  tariff,  was  further  revised  decidedly  in  favour  of 
free  trade.  At  this  time,  the  easy  and  rapid  victory  of  free  trade  was  looked 
upon  all  over  Europe  as  a  foregone  conclusion;  the  committee  which  was  ap- 
pointed in  Sweden  to  draw  up  proposals  for  the  new  customs  tariff,  in  sub- 
mitting its  proposals  in  1865,  recorded  as  its  opinion  that  free  trade  was  the 
only  policy  and  avowed  that  it  looked  upon  its  own  proposals  merely  as  a  trans- 
itional step  to  a  free-trade  system. 

At  the  end  of  the  seventies,  however,  an  abrupt  revulsion  of  opinion 
occurred  on  the  continent  of  Europe.  Bad  times  and  falling  prices,  more  espe- 
cially those  of  cereals,  soon  gave  rise  to  a  powerful  movement  in  favour  of  a 
rigorous  protective  policy,  embracing  all  branches  of  industry.  It  was  then  that 
"protection"  in  the  modern  sense  of  the  word  became  a  vital  factor  in  practical 
politics,  and  as  early  as  the  eighties  customs  duties  on  articles  of  food  and  in- 
creased protective  duties  were  introduced  in  several  countries;  the  definite 
transition  to  the  present  system  came  in  the  course  of  the  early  niaeties,  when 
many  commercial  treaties  expired. 

In  Sweden  no  steps  were  taken  until  the  latter  period.  The  eighties  were 
occupied  with  a  violent  struggle  between  free-trade  and  protection,  in  which,  as 
in  several  other  countries,  the  latter  come  off  victorious.  In  the  year  1888, 
the  introduction  of  duties  on  articles  of  food  was  resolved  upon,  and  even 
as  regards  general  industries  protective  duties  were  to  be  increased  as  soon  as 
the  expiration  of  treaties  made  untramelled  action  possible;  this  occurred  in 
1892.  This  step  laid  the  foundation  of  Sweden's  present  system  of  protection; 
for  a  long  period  merely  minor  alterations  were  made,  of  which  the  majority 
entailed  a  further  increase  in  protective  duties;  the  chief  of  these  was  the 
raising  of  the  duties  on  cereals  to  their  present  figure,  in  the  year  1895. 

The  most  momentous  recent  event  in  Swedish  commercial  policy  was  the  com- 
mercial   treaty    with  Oermany  and  the  consequent  revision  of  the  customs  tariff. 

When  the  old  commercial  treaties  expired  in  the  year  1892,  Sweden,  like 
several  other  smaller  countries  entirely  abandoned  the  system  of  tariff  treaties. 
The  later  treaties,  therefore,  did  not  oontaia  any  mutual  concessions  as  to  the 
amount  of  the  duties  imposed,  but  merely  the  "most  favoured  nation  clause", 
i.  e.  that  each  party  is  as  a  matter  of  course  to  enjoy  such  advantages  as  are 
granted  to  any  other  power.  Sweden's  position  was  under  such  conditions 
extremely  favourable.  She  had  full  liberty  to  raise  her  own  duties  and  was 
under  no  obligation  to  make  any  concessions ;  she  entered,  as  it  were,  automatic- 
ally into  the  enjoyment  of  all  such  reductions  as  the  various  countries  conceded 
to  each  other,  without  having  to  grant  any  favours  in  return. 

,  The  country  which  felt  this  condition  of  things  most  was,  for  obvious  reasons, 
Germany.  That  country  in  fact  decided  to  compel  Sweden,  as  well  as  some 
other  minor  countries  in  a  similar  position,  to  enter  into  a  regular  tariff  treaty. 
Accordingly,  in  the  new  tariff  which  was  issued  at  the  end  of  1902,  some 
duties  specially  levelled  at  Sweden  were  introduced,  e.  g.  upon  paving  stoties 
and  red  whortleberries,  besides  which  the  duties  on  coarser  joinery,  separators, 
etc.,  were  greatly  increased. 


636  VIII.      COMMERCE. 

These  duties  struck  at  the  most  vulnerable  points  in  Sweden's  export  trade 
with  Germany,  and  the  object  aimed  at  was  gained:  Sweden  applied  to  Germany 
with  a  request  for  negotiations.  It  was,  however,  now  discovered  that  the 
Swedish  customs  tariff  was  quite  antiquated  and  would  have  to  be  submitted  to 
a  thorough  revision  before  any  definite  result  could  be  attained.  All  that  was 
done  therefore  was  to  conclude  a  preliminary  treaty  in  the  year  1906,  which, 
after  an  extension  to  which  Germany  had  acceded,  remained  in  force  imtil 
Dec.  1,  1911.  In  this  treaty  the  duties  most  fatal  to  Swedish  export  were 
removed  or  reduced. 

In  this  manner  Sweden  gained  time  to  elaborate,  through  the  instrumentality 
of  a  committee,  a  proposal  for  a  new  tariff,  which,  with  minor  alterations  and 
amendments,  was  passed  by  the  Riksdag  of  1910.  The  most  characteristic  feature 
of  this  treaty  is  a  thorough-going  specification  of  the  various  kinds  of  goods. 
Whereas  the  old  tariff  contained  740  headings,  the  new  one  embraces  no  less 
than  1  325.  The  earlier  treaty  scheduled  chiefly  semi-manufactured  and  coarser 
goods;  the  various  kinds  of  finer,  finished  goods  were  only  very  incompletely, 
or  not  at  all,  specified,  and  therefore  did  not  receive  any  greater  protection  than 
the  coarser  articles. 

On  the  basis  of  the  new  tariff  negotiations  were  then  opened  with  Germany, 
and  a  great  number  of  mutual  concessions  were  made,  so  many  that  a  detailed 
enumeration  of  them  is  out  of  the  question.  It  must  suffice  to  say  that  Swe- 
den, on  the  whole,  succeeded  in  safeguarding  the  advantages  gained  in  the  year 
1906.  Sweden,  on  her  part,  granted  to  Germany  a  reduction  on  a  great  many 
goods,  especially  leather  goods  and  textiles,  and  undertook  not  to  impose  any 
export  duty  on  iron  ore.  As  Sweden  retained  her  single  tariff  system,  the 
reduced  duties  immediately  passed  into  the  new  tariff,  which  came  into  force 
on  Dec.  1,  1911.  The  treaty  is  to  be  in  force,  unless  terminated  by  one  of 
the  parties,  until  the  year  1921;  it  may,  however,  be  terminated  any  time  after 
the  year  1917  after  one  year's  notice,  and  it  is  quite  probable  that  it  will  be 
so  terminated  by  Germany. 

It  is  not  possible  to  determine  directly  how  the  rates  of  the  duties  have 
varied  under  the  various  customs  tariffs.  The  rate  of  a  duty  can  be  gauged 
only  if  it  is  expressed  as  a  percentage  of  the  value  of  the  goods  imported, 
but  this  is  rendered  difficult  by  the  fact  that  most  —  in  the  1911  customs 
tariff  practically  all  —  duties  were  not  ad  valorem  but  were  levied  on  quantity. 
However,  by  an  indirect  procedure  it  is  possible  to  form  some  idea  of  their  value, 
namely  by  deducting  from  the  total  imports  the  amount  of  imported  raw  ma- 
terials, on  which  duties  can  scarcely  be  imposed  under  any  circumstances,  and 
then  calculating  the  percentage  of  revenue  from  customs  duties  on  the  remainder 
of  the  imports.  In  this  way  we  arrive  at  the  result  that  the  duties  during  the 
seventies  amounted  to  about  IZ  %,  and  during  the  eighties  to  about  15  %,  of  the 
value  of  the  goods.  These  figures,  however,  include  both  protective  and  revenue 
duties.  If  we  deduct  the  latter,  the  average  protection  during  the  eighties  works 
out  at  6  ^  to  7  ?^  of  the  value. 

We  now  come  to  the  application  of  the  new  system  in  the  years  1888  to 
1892.  What  effect  has  resulted  from  the  introduction  of  duties  on  cereals  is 
not  clearly  shown  by  the  figures  of  these  years  for  all  the  duties;  an  increase 
certainly  sets  in  in  the  years  1888  to  1891,  but  in  the  years  1891  to  1892 
there  is  again  a  standstill  at  about  15  %.  After  this,  however,  there  ensues  a 
considerable  rise  at  the  rate  of  about  1  %  per  annum,  up  to  and  including  the 
year  1896,  when  19  %  was  attained.  Afterwards  the  figure  keeps  at  19  ji  to  20  ?^ 
up  to  and  inclusive  of  the  year  1904.  The  extent  of  the  change  will  obviously 
be  brought  out  far  more  clearly,  if  we  consider  solely  the  protective  duties; 
these  latter  rose  in  fact  from   an  average  of  6  %  to   7  ^  to  about  17  %. 


COMMEKCIAL  POLICY.  537 

With  the  year  1905,  there  sets  in  quite  a  considerable  fall;  for  the  following 
years  the  figure  for  all  duties  fluctuates  between  11  %  and  18  %,  for  the  protective 
duties  solely  between  15  and  1&  %,  which  is  equivalent  to  an  average  fall  of 
i/io  in  the  rates  of  the  duties,  and  this  in  spite  of  no  appreciable  reductions 
having  occurred.  This  must  be  ascribed  to  the  way  in  which  prices  kept  going 
up  from  the  end  of  the  nineties.  The  duties  are,  as  has  already  been  mentioned, 
levied  on  the  quantity,  not  on  the  value  of  the  goods.  Thus,  when  a  certain 
rate  has  been  fixed  for  a  certain  quantity,  but  that  quantity  continually  rises  in 
price,  the  duty  forms  an  ever  diminishing  portion  of  the  value;  a  period  of 
rising  prices  like  the  one  in  which  we  are  now  living  ought  thus  to  entail  a 
continuous  fall  in  the  protective  effect  of  duties.  On  account  of  the  reform  of 
the  tariff,  rising  and  falling  markets,  unsatisfactory  statistical  data  as  to  value, 
and  other  factors,  this  tendency  certainly  receives  but  imperfect  expression  in 
the  figures,  but  we  see  from  the  above  inquiry  that  it  is  nevertheless  distinctly 
perceptible. 

For  the  year  1911,  the  figure  thus  obtained  was  17  %.  The  average  rate  of 
duty  ought,  however,  to  be  put  at  something  slightly  higher,  as,  besides  the  group 
of  raw  materials,  there  are  some  goods  which,  in  Sweden  as  well  as  in  other 
protectionist  cbuntries,  are  exempt  from  duty;  if  we  deduct  these  also,  the  figure 
obtained  will  be  18  %.  The  new  customs  tariff  of  Dec.  1,  1911,  has  not 
entailed  any  change  in  this  respect;  the  figure  calculated  for  the  year  1912 
according  to  this  principle  also  works  out  at  18  %,  and  for  the  year  1913  at  17  %. 
In  this  regard  Sweden  comes  very  close  to  Germany,  where  the  corresponding 
figure  for  a  number  of  years  has  been  19  to  20  %,  and  with  Norway,  where  it 
is  about  19  %.  For  Denmark  again,  which  is  mainly  a  free-trade  country,  the 
figure  is  about  8  %.  On  the  whole,  it  may  be  said  that  customs  duties  in 
Sweden  stand  at  about  the  normal  figure  for  protectionist  countries,  and  rather 
below  than  above  it. 

These  figures,  however,  do  not  constitute  a  reliable  index  of  the  effective 
protection,  as  they  include  both  revenue  and  protective  duties,  which  for  this 
purpose    must    be   separated.     In  the  case  of  Sweden,  matters  stand  as  follows. 

The  revenue  duties  are,  as  a  rule,  higher  than  the  protective  duties.  In 
Sweden  they  average  about  30  J^  of  the  value.  They  are  imposed  principally 
on  three  different  kinds  of  goods.  The  most  important  is  the  duty  on  tobacco, 
which,  however,  like  the  duty  on  alcohol,  may  be  looked  upon,  to  some  extent, 
as  a  protective  duty.  This  duty  is  1  krona  per  kg  for  unmanufactured  tobacco, 
which  may  only  be  imported  by  a  concessionaire  under  the  State  Monopoly, 
1  krona  80  ore  for  pipe-tobacco,  snuff  and  the  like,  and  6  kroner  for  cigars 
and  cigarettes;  on  an  average,  the  duty  is  about  50  ?^  for  manufactured  goods 
and  over  SO  %  for  unmanifactured.  Next  in  order  comes  the  duty  on  wine 
and  spirits,  which  amounts  to  about  55  to  60  %  of  the  value.  The  third,  the 
duty  on  coffee  at  12  ore  per  kg,  is,  on  the  other  hand,  one  of  the  lowest 
duties,  amounting  to  only  about  10  %  of  the  value. 

The  protective  duties  are  on  an  average  about  15  ?^  of  the  value,  which  was 
also  the  case  when  the  earlier  tariff  was  in  force;  the  new  tariff  has  therefore 
not  entailed  any  change  in  the  rates  of  the  protective  duties.  The  protective 
duties  may  be  divided  into  duties  on  articles  of  food  and  industrial  duties. 

Amongst  the  duties  on  articles  of  food  the  most  important  are  undoubtedly 
the  duties  on  cereals.  These  latter  are,  for  all  kinds  of  cereals  except  oats  and 
maize,  which  are  free  of  duty,  3'70  kronor  per  quintal  for  unmilled  grain  and 
6'60  kronor  for  milled.  This  makes,  in  proportion  to  the  value,  (still  following 
the  figures  of  the  trade  statistics),  for  unmilled  wheat  25  %,  and  for  rye  30  ^, 
for  flour  again  32  and  43  %  respectively.  Both  wheat  and  rye  flour  fall  under 
the  category  of  goods  on  which  the  heaviest  duties  are  imposed.    For  sugar  the 


538  VIII.      COMMBECE. 

duty  is  H  ore  per  kg  (from  1916  it  is  to  be  IOV2,  and  from  1918  10  ore), 
corresponding  to  37  %  of  the  value,  and  for  margarine  15  ore,  or  15  %  of  the 
value. 

As  regards  general  industries,  the  most  important  duties  are  those  on  textiles. 
These  are,  however,  so  numerous,  that  it  is  impossible  to  enumerate  the  different 
rates.  The  ad  valorem  duty  on  different  kinds  of  yarns,  however,  may  be 
estimated  at  about  1  %;  on  silk  fabrics  it  is  14  %,  on  cotton  fabrics  18  %  and 
OQ  woolen  fabrics  20  %.  The  duty  on  boots  and  shoes  is  6  kroner  per  kg;  as 
the  boots  and  shoes  imported  are  of  the  more  expensive  sorts,  this  only  represents 
2^1%  of  the  value;  this  figure,  however,  includes  the  protective  duties  for  the 
domestic  tanning  industry.  The  duty  on  galoshes  is  1'20  kroner  per  kg,  or  25  j^ 
of  the  value.  Further,  it  might  be  mentioned  that  the  duty  on  glass-wares  is 
'^jt  to  ^/3  of  the  value;  on  cement  60  ore  per  quintal,  representing  above  20  % 
of  the  value;  on  sem,i-manufactured  steel  and  iron  16  5^,  if  duty-free  goods  are 
deducted,  otherwise  5  %;  for  iron  and  steel  goods,  if  goods  exempt  from  duty 
are  deducted,  25  %,  otherwise  14  ?^.  For  machinery  in  some  cases  the  ad 
valorem  duty  of  10  %  has  been  retained,  and  in  no  case  must  the  duty  fall 
below  6  %  oi  the  value;  on  an  average  it  amounts  to  10  %. 

As  to  the  benefit  which  various  industries  receive  from  the  duties,  this  can  be 
estimated  only  in  certain  cases.  The  sugar-duty  may  be  taken  by  way  of 
example.  The  sugar  factories  sell  more  than  130  million  kg  of  sugar  annually, 
and  as  the  price  is  usually  raised  above  that  of  foreign  sugar,  up  to  the  limit, 
or  very  nearly  to  the  limit  which  the  duty  allows  of,  the  Swedish  people  pay 
to  the  sugar  factories  and  the  sugar-beet  growers  in  the  shape  of  higher  prices 
11  ore  per  kg,  i.  e.  between  14  and  15  million  kroner  per  annum.  Most  of  the 
other  industries,  however,  do  not  permit  of  an  estimate  of  this  kind  being  made, 
until  exhaustive  investigations,  which  are  not  yet  made,  have  been  instituted. 
t  Duties  are  intended,  of  course,  to  protect  home  production  and  to  restrict 
import.  It  is  thus  quite  natural  that  the  State  should  also  encourage  the  sale 
of  Swedish  goods  to  foreign  countries,  and  endeavour  to  increase  the  export 
trade.  Formerly,  export  premiums  were  resorted  to  for  this  purpose.  ,  These 
have  now  been  abolished,  but,  as  a  set-off,  countries  with  State  railways,  more 
particularly  Germany,  have  introduced  remarkably  low  export  tariffs.  Sweden 
resolved,  in  1912,  to  introduce  these  low  export '  rates,  principally  for  iron  and 
steel,  manufactures  of  iron,  machinery,  paper,  and  cardboard.  These  tariffs  are, 
however,  merely  provisional  and  are  likely  to  be  considerably  extended.  (Of. 
also  the  preceding  section  on  Customs-Tariff  Legislation  and  Customs-House 
Establishments.) 

Inland  Trade. 

The  Inland  Trade  of  Sweden  has  at  all  times  been  of  great  importance 
for  the  deveJlopment  of  the  country.  Considerably  facilitated  by  the  ex- 
cellent waterways  —  wbich  have  to  a  certain  exteni;  been  a  necessary 
factor  in  the  country's  onward  march  in  civilization  —  the  communications 
between  the  different  parts  of  the  country  have  always  been  particularly 
brisk.  Still  more  has  inland  trade  been  forwarded  by  the  modern  means 
of  communication  on  land,  and,  and  by  liberal  trade-legislation,  which  did 
away  with  the  guild-system,  with  its  clogging  restrictions  on  trade. 

The  total  number  of  traders  in  Sweden,  which  in  1845  amounted  to 
only  some  7  000,  had  increased  to  37  729  in  1911,  employing  54  591  hands 
(more  recent  figures  not  available). 


INLAND   TRADE.  539 

During  the  greater  part  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  far  long  afterwards,  attempts 
were  made  to  centralize  practically  all  trade  in  the  towns,  and  one  of  the 
factors  in  this  policy  was  the  ban  on  anything  which  could  be  called  rural 
trading.  As  early  as  during  the  latter  half  of  the  13th  century,  we  meet  with 
a  prohibition  against  such  trading.  The  town  markets  were  the  only  places 
where  country  people  were  allowed  to  dispose  of  their  goods;  though  in  a  few 
cases  permission  •  was  given  for  the  exercise  of  trade  outside  the  towns.  In  the 
Swedish  towns,  markets  and  market  days  were  instituted,  which  often  attracted 
people  from  distant  regions,  such  as,  the  fairs  at  Uppsala,  Enkoping,  Vasteras, 
Orebro,  Strangnas,  Vaxjo,  etc.  Gustavus  Vasa  rendered  more  stringent  the  old 
prohibitions  against  rural  trading.  Thus,  according  to  an  edict  of  1546,  who- 
ever was  caught  exercising  such  unlawful  trade  for  the  third  time  was  punished 
with  death.  Exceptions  were  made  only  for  the  most  northerly  parts  of  the 
country.  In  consideration  of  the  fact  that  there  were  no  towns  up  there,  a 
few  rural  traders  were  permitted  in  every  parish;  otherwise  the  country  people 
had  to  go  to  the  towns  to  buy  or  sell.  Later  on,  however,  several  exceptions 
were  made  from  these  stringent  regulations  against  rural  trading;  thus,  for 
example,  in  1569  the  nobles  obtained  the  right  of  trading  in  the  produce  from 
their  own  estates. 

In  the  beginning  of  Gustavus  Adolphus'  reign,  the  principles  which  can  be 
traced  in  Gustavus  I's  measures  were  strengthened  and  found  expression  in  the 
trade  ordiuances  of  1614  and  1617.  By  the  terms  of  the  former  of  these,  in- 
land trade  was  reserved  to  inland  towns,  while  foreign  trade  was  exclusively 
allotted  to  the  staple  towns.  By  the  latter  of  these  ordinances,  the  regulations 
were  so  far  modified  that  the  staple  towns  acquired  the  right  to  sell  their  wares 
direct  to  the  country  people  at  the  markets  of  the  inland  towns,  by  which  the 
trade  of  the  inland  towns  became  considerably  curtailed. 

Few  sovereigns  have  exerted  themselves  to  such  an  extent  to  develop  the  in- 
land trade  of  Sweden  as  Gustavus  Adolphus,  even  though  the  results  did  not 
correspond  to  the  magnitude  of  his  efforts.  Inland  trade  was  especially  checked 
by  the  "petty  customs",  imposed  in  1622  and  not  abolished  until  1810,  which 
were  levied  on  all  "eatable  and  perishable"  home  wares  brought  to  any  market 
in  the  kingdom.  However,  the  petty  customs  were  one  of  the  chief  causes  of 
the  constitution  of  new  towns,  which  was  continued  by  Axel  Oxenstierna  after 
the  example  of  Gustavus  Adolphus. 

For  a  long  time,  the  inland  trade  of  Sweden  continued  in  the  old  ruts.  Still, 
in  the  beginning  of  the  Period  of  Liberty,  the  statutes  against  rural  trading 
were  revived,  and  the  peasantry  were  forbidden  to  carry  on  coastal  shipping  by 
means  of  sloops.  By  degrees,  however,  the  oppressive  shackels  were  loosened.  In 
1T48,  the  Government  declared  that  "hereafter  provincial  governors  must  not  lay 
any  obstacles  in  the  way  of  the  towns  and  theii  trade  and  industry,  by  imposing 
any  prohibitions  against  the  export  in  their  vessels  of  wares  to  Stockholm  and 
other  towns  in  the  country".  After  the  notable  Eiksdag  of  1765 — 66,  .a  law 
was  issued  on  the  20th  of  November,  1766,  according  to  which  country  people 
were  declared  to  be  free  to  carry  on  shipping  to  all  places  within  the  kingdom 
and  to  dispose  of  their  wares  and  agricultural  products  at  any  place  or  places 
they  deemed  suitable.  During  Gustavus  Ill's  reign  also,  matters  developed  in 
the  same  direction.  The  trade  in  grain  was  freed  from  restrictions  in  1775,  so 
that  everybody,  irrespective  of  rank  or  grade,  was  allowed  to  trade  in  grain, 
both  in  town  and  country.  ^ 

In  1832,  the  inland  shipping  of  the  coast  population  was  freed  from  all  re- 
strictions, and  they  were  even  given  the  right  to  sail  to  Finland,  Norway,  and 
Denmark.  Of  far  greater  importance  were'  the  changes  introduced  in  1846. 
By  the    ordinances    of    Dec.  22,  the  same  year,  opportunities  were  afforded  for 


540 


VIII.      COMMERCE. 


trading  in  the  rural  districts,  although  under  certain  conditions  and  at  specified 
distances  from  the  towns.  The  ordinance  of  June  18,  1864,  was  more  radical 
and  permitted  almost  unconditional  freedom  of  trade.  By  later  ordinances, 
however,  peddling  has  been  made  subject  to  special  permission  from  the  local 
provincial  authorities. 

The  important  old  fairs,  at  which  trading  in  all  kinds  of  goods  was  free, 
have  lost  a  great  deal  of  their  importance  in  our  own  days  and  are  be- 
coming superseded  by  the  more  frequently  recurring  market  days  and 
monthly  meetings,  at  which  agricultural  produce  and  the  products  of 
home  industries  (hemslojd)  etc.  are  sold,  and  by  regular  cattle  markets. 

The  inland  trade  of  Sweden  is  largely  carried  on  by  means  of  very 
numerous,  but  generally  small,  steamers,  which  maintain  a  brisk  traffic 
in  the  innumerable  lakes  and  water-ways,  and  along  the  coast.  During 
the  most  recent  decades,  however,  the  railways  have  entered  into  keen 
competition  for  this  trade.  The  highroads,  along  which  in  earlier  days 
there  passed  an  endless  succession  of  gigantic  loaded  waggons  —  which 
provided  the  chief  means  of  subsistence  over  large  stretches  of  the  country 
—  have,  however,  lost  more  and  more  of  their  importance  for  inland 
trade,  except  for  the  more  distant  regions  of  North  Sweden,  where,  to  a 
large  extent,  things  have  naturally  remained  where  they  were. 


Commercial  Edncation. 

As  far  back  as  1734  a  Trade  Statute  prescribed  a  certain  period  of 
apprenticeship  (generally  from  11  ^/a  to  12  years)  as  a  condition  for  the 
right  to  carry  on  a  trade,  and  also  enacted  that  the  applicant  should 
be  examined  in  commercial  subjects  by  two  business  men.  The  employer 
was  certainly  required  to  give  his  apprentice  not  only  practical  experience, 
but  also  a  theoretical  knowledge  of  his  trade;  but  it  is  clear  that  these 
amounted  to  very  little  as  a  rule,  and  with  the  expansion  of  trade  and  the 
increasing  importance  of  the  mercantile  community,  the  need  of  real  com- 
mercial schools  became  more  and  more  pressing. 

The  first  known  commercial  school  of  any  importance  was  founded  towards 
the  end  of  the  18th  century  at  Oringe  in  Halland  by  Councillor  Wurmh,  without 
doubt  the  same  man  who  had  previously  aided  in  the  establishment  of  the  Com- 
mercial School  at  Hamburg.  The  number  of  its  pupils  at  times  reached  40, 
and  many  of  the  merchants  who,  at  the  beginning  of  the  19th  century,  were 
regarded  as  the  most  prominent  merchants  in  Gothenburg  had  received  their 
mercantile  education  there.  However,  about  1790  the  founder  and  owner  of  the 
school  went  into  bankruptcy,  and  the  estabhshment  was  closed. 

The  manifest  decline  in  the  commerce  of  Sweden  during  the  second  and  the  early 
part  of  the  third  decades  of  the  19th  century  caused  public  attention  to  be  directed 
once  more  to  the  lack  of  business  training  among  the  mercantile  community. 
The  Riksdag  of  1823  therefore  urged  the  desirability  of  establishing  commercial 
schools  or  a  central  "Commercial  and  Navigation  Institute".  The  motion  was 
referred  to  the  Gothenburg  Mercahtile  Society,  and  led  to  the  establishment  of 
the  Oothenburg  Commercial  Institute,  which  was  opened  in  1826  imder  the  auspices 


COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION.  541 

of  the  Society.  Its  existence  was  assured  —  as  far  as  finances  go  —  in  1829  by  a 
yearly  grant  of  2  OGO  Rdr.  bco.  (=  3  000  kroner)  from  the  town.  At  first  about 
30  pupils  were  instructed  at  the  Institute,  which  number  diminished  considerably 
in  the  forties,  but  soon  rose  again  to  about  40.  On  the  model  of  the  Gothen- 
burg Commercial  Institute  was  founded,  in  1865,  the  Stockholm  Merchant  So- 
ciety's commercial  school,  Frans  Schartaus  Practical  Commercial  Institute,  named 
after  the  man  who,  by  his  energetic  intervention,  effectually  contributed  towards 
mitigating  the  consequences  of  the  commercial  crisis  of  1857.  But  a  really 
marked  advance  in  commercial  education  had  to  wait  tiU  the  early  nineties, 
when  the  institutes  first  received  Government  grants.  In  1893  the  Riksdag 
voted  a  grant  of  15  000  kronor  for  the  year  1894  to  the  two  existing  commer- 
cial institutes.  The  grant  was  renewed  in  the  years  immediately  following,  at 
the  same  figure,  but  was  increased  in  1898  to  20  000  kronor,  and  in  1902  to  28  000 
kronor.  With  the  support  of  the  communal  authorities,  new  commercial  institu- 
tes were  founded  (1904)  in  Malmo  and  Halsingborg.  The  Malmo  institute  par- 
ticipated in  1908  in  the  government  grant,  which  was  raised  in  that  year  to 
38  000  kronor,  and  in  the  year  following  to  42  000  kronor.  The  same  support 
was  granted  in  1912  by  the  Riksdag  to  the  Halsingborg  institute. 

The  Government  appointed  a  Committee  in  1908  to  investigate,  and  make 
suggestions  for  systematizing,  the  commercial  education  of  the  country.  However, 
the  report  of  this  committee  (1910)  gave  the  Government  no  inducement  to 
propose  any  general  organizing  of  commercial  education;  but  in  1913  the  Riks- 
dag agreed  in  the  main  to  the  Government's  proposal  to  raise  the  grant  to  the 
higher  commercial  institutes,  which  were  to  be  known  in  future  as  "commercial 
gymnasiums^".  The  regular  estimates  included  a  grant  of  85  000  kr.  to  the  com- 
mercial gymnasiums  in  Gothenburg,  Stockholm,  and  Malmo.  In  1914  the  Riks- 
dag decided  upon  the  establishment  of  two  new  commercial  gymnasiums,  in  Ore- 
bro  and  Norrkoping,  and  at  the  same  time  raised  the  ordinary  grant  to  115  000 
kronor.  The  Halsingborg  Commercial  Gymnasium  received  an  extra-ordinary 
grant  of  10  000  kronor  per  annum. 

In  1909  was  opened,  in  Stockholm,  the  first  High  School  of  Commerce  (Com- 
mercial University)  in  Sweden,  about  which  more  information  is  given  below. 

A.  Higher  Commercial  Education.  The  Riksdag  having  made  con- 
siderably increased  grants  to  higher  commercial  education  in  1913,  the 
Government  issued  a  communication  on  November  28th  of  that  year,  which 
stipulated  the  conditions  on  which  these  grants  may  be  enjoyed.  But  in  all 
essentials  the  various  School  Boards  have  retained  their  old  functions. 
The  most  important  change  is  the  reduction  of  the  fees  to  150  kronor  per 
annum  for  pupils  in  the  two-shears'  course. 

The    instruction    is    afforded    by    the    five  State-supported  commercial  gymna 
siums,  mentioned  above,  in   Gothenburg,  StocTcholm,  Malmo,  Halsingborg,  and  Ore 
bro,    together    with   the  Gdvle  Borgarshola,  which  was  accorded  equal  rank  with 
the  other  institutions.     The  commercial  gymnasium  in  Norrkoping   has    not    yet 
begun  operations. 

The  organization  of  these  institutions  is  similar. 

The  course  takes  two  years  to  complete.  At  the  commercial  institutes  in  Go- 
thenburg and   Stockholm  there  is  also  a  one-year's  course. 

To  gain  entrance  to  the  two-years'  course  at  the  State-aided  schools,  applicants 
must,    as    a    rule,    have    attained    a  standard  of  knowledge  equal  to  that  of  the 


'  A  >  commercial  gymnasium  >  is  a  higher  commercial  school. 


542  VIII.      COMMERCE. 

6th    form  in  the  public  secondary  schools.     Most  of  the   applicants  have  passed 
the  "Realskole"-examination  (see  p.  I,  385  foil.). 

The  subjects  of  instruction  are:  a)  obligatory:  Swedish,  German,  English, 
French,  Book-Keeping,  Commercial  Arithmetic,  The  Science  of  Commerce,  Che- 
mistry and  Knowledge  of  Merchandise,  Commercial  Geography  and  the  History 
of  Commerce,  Economics,  Political  Science,  Commercial  Law,  Shorthand,  Calli- 
graphy, and  Type-writing;  b)  optional:  Spanish  and  Russian. 

To  the  higher  one-year's  course,  only  those  students  are  admitted,  as  a  rule, 
who  have  passed  the  "Studenf'-Examination  (Matriculation  see  p.  I,  385  foil.). 
The  subjects  are  the  same  as  for  the  two-years'  course,  though  a  somewhat 
greater  freedom  of  choice  is  usually  permitted. 

At  Schartau's  Commercial  Institute  there  is  also  a  lower  one-year's  course,* 
intended  for  pupils  from  senior  forms  below  the  Matriculation  Form,  or  for  those 
who  have  gone  through  the  8  forms  of  the  girls'  secondary  schools.  At  the 
Halsingborg  and  Malmo  Institutes,  pupils  with  higher  attainments,  especially 
those  who  have  passed  the  "Student"-Examination,  may  enter  the  second-year's 
forms  at  once. 

Pupils  of  both  sexes  are  admitted  to  all  the  courses.  During  the  Autumn 
Term  of  1914  the  number  of  pupils  at  the  commercial  gymnasiums  was  as 
follows:  Gothenburg  191  (including  27  girls),  Stockholm  155  (23),  Malmo  57 
(5),  Halsingborg  41  (9),  Orebro  34  (17),  Gavle  9,  (1),  making  a  total  of 
487  (82). 

The  average  age  of  those  admitted  to  the  two-years'  course  is  somewhat 
over  17. 

A  pupil  who  has  gone  through  the  full  course  in  a  satisfactory  way,  and  has 
taken  the  written  and  oral  examinations,  receives  a  certificate  testifying  to  his 
diligence  and  good  conduct  during  the  courses,  and  specifying  the  degree  of 
proficiency  he  has  attained  in  the  subjects  studied. 

A  certificated  pupil  has  the  right  to  a  further  examination  in  any  subject 
in  which  he  has  not  yet  been  approved,  or  in  which  he  has  not  attained  a 
high  degree  of  proficiency. 

A  satisfactory  pass  from  the  commercial  gymnasiums'  two-years'  course,  together 
with  the  "Real8kole"-examination,  gives  the  right  of  entrance  to  the  High  School 
of  Commerce  in  Stockholm,  qualifies  for  an  appointment  in  the  Customs  Ser- 
vice or  in  the  Bank  of  Sweden,  and  for  a  cadetahip  in  the  reserve.  The  same 
pass,  without  the  "Realskole"-examination,  qualifies  for  an  appointment  under  the 
State  Railways  Board,  or  in  the  traffic  department  of  the  State  Railways. 

In  conformity  with  the  statute  of  November  28,  1913,  a  permanent  staff 
is  to  be  appointed  in  the  State-supported  scholastic  institutions.  Members  of 
the  staff  are  to  receive  at  least  the  same  remuneration  as  assistant  masters  in 
the  public  secondary  schools,  i.  e.,  3  000 — 5  000  kroner  pro  tem. 

The  head-master  is  to  receive,  in  addition  to  his  stipend,  the  sum  of  not  leas 
than  2  000  kroner.  In  point  of  fact,  the  remuneration  of  the  staff  in  Gothen- 
burg and  Stockholm  exceeds  by  500  kroner  per  member  the  minimum  rate  of 
remuneration  appointed  by  statute,  and  the  head-masters  are  also  placed  on  a 
more  favourable  footing.  At  the  Gothenburg  Commercial  Institute,  both  the 
head-master  and  the  members  of  the  staff  are  entitled,  on  reaching  the  age  of 
65,  to  a  pension  of  4  000  and  3  000  kroner,  respectively.  The  Gothenburg 
Commercial  Institute  has  at  present  on  the  permanent  staff  a  head-master  and 
6  assistant  masters,  the  commercial  gymnasiums  in  Stockholm,  Malmo,  and  Ore- 
bro, a  head-master  and  one  assistant  on  the  permanent  staff,  each.  At  the  Hal- 
singborg Commercial  Gymnasium  the  post  of  head-master  is  filled  by  a  mem- 
ber of  the  staff  of  one  of  the  public  secondary  schools  there.  The  Gavle  Bor- 
garskola  has  a  staff  of  four  masters,  exclusive  of  the  head-master. 


COMMERCIAL   EDUCATION.  543 

The  financial  position  of  the  commercial  institutes  was  formerly  dependent 
mainly  on  the  pupils'  fees,  which  were  fairly  high,  varying  between  225  and 
320  kronor  per  annum.  A  considerable  number  of  the  pupils,  about  50  %  at 
the  two  older  institutes,  were  however  excused  part  of  or  all  the  fees,  thanks 
to  the  Government  grant,  which  was  shared  between  the  two  institutes  in  pro- 
portion to  the  remissions  conceded.  From  1914  onwards,  the  annual  fees  for  pu- 
pils in  the  two-years'  course  are  150  kronor,  and  in  the  one-year's  course  they 
are  slightly  higher.  Exemption  from  fees,  either  in  whole  or  part,  still  goes 
on,  though  the  need  for  the  latter  has  somewhat  diminished. 

The  State  grant  is  fixed  at  a  certain  maximum  figure  for  each  of  the  gym- 
nasiums, viz.,  Gothenburg  40  000  kr.,  Stockholm  30  000  kr.,  Malmo  and  Orebro 
15  000  kr.  each.  The  commercial  gymnasium  in  Halsiugborg  enjoys,  as  we 
have  before  mentioned,  an  extraordinary  grant  of  10  000  kr.  All  the  com- 
mercial gymnasiums  are  furthermore  supported  by  the  communes  or  mercantile 
corporations.  A  distinct  position  is  occupied  by  the  Gavle  Borgarskola,  which 
has  at  its  disposal  donations  amounting  to  over  1  100  000  kr.  It  enjoys  no 
State  grant,  but  has  an  annual  grant  of  about  2  000  kr.  from  the  town. 

At  Pdhlman  Brothers'  Commercial  Institute  in  Stockholm,  a  higher  two-years' 
course,  starting  at  the  standard  of  the  "Realskole"-examination,  has  recently  been 
organized  on  the  pattern  of  the  commercial  gymnasiums.  It  is  also  Government- 
inspected. 

Kristinehamn  Practical  School  has  a  one-year's  course  with  the  same  entrance 
qualification. 

The  commercial  gymnasiums  are  under  the  control  of  the  Board  of  Trade, 
chiefly  excercised  by  a  commercial  inspector  appointed  by  the  Government. 

B.  Lower  Commeroial  Education  in  Sweden  has  not  yet  taken  a  settled 
form.  The  committee  mentioned  above,  which  considered  the  question  of 
commercial  training,  had  held  out  the  prospect  of  the  establishment  of 
lower-grade  commercial  schools  in  a  large  number  of  towns.  Delegates 
who  have  since  been  summoned  recently  proposed  the  establishment  of  4 
two-years'-course  commercial  schools  for  pupils  who  have  passed  through 
the  6  years'  course  in  the  elementary  schools,  and  of  4  one-year's-course 
commercial  schools  for  pupils  with  the  same  qualifications  plus  at  leaist 
two  years'  practical  work  in  the  service  of  trade  or  industrj',  who  during 
the  said  period  have  attended  continuation  classes. 

Of  the  two-years'-course  commercial  schools,  only  one  was  to  be  independent; 
the  remaining  three  were  to  come  into  being  by  remodelling  higher  elementary 
schools,  and  were  to  remain  in  close  touch  with  elementary  school  instruction 
in  general. 

In  common  with  the  higher  commercial  schools,  these  latter  were  also  to  be 
under  the  inspection  of  inspectors  of  commeroial  education. 

The  annual  cost  of  these  8  schools,  once  they  have  got  into  full  working  order, 
is  estimated  at  76  400  kr. 

Some  scheme  for  the  working  arrangements  of  the  commercial  evening  schools 
may  be  expected  before  long. 

Of  the  existing  lower  commercial  schools,  the  most  important  is  the  commer- 
cial side  of  the  Stockholm  Borgarskola,  started  in  1887,  which  includes  both 
day  and  evening  classes.  The  school  itself  was  founded  in  1836,  enjoys  a  con- 
siderable grant  from  the  City  of  Stockholm,  and  has  a  very  large  number  of 
pupUs.  Further  may  be  mentioned  Sundsvall  Commercial  Institute,  which  also 
has    day-courses,    Landskrona  Technical  Trade-School    and    Commercial  Institute, 


544  VIII.      COMMERCE. 

the  evening  classes  of  the  Society  for  the  Advancement  of  Commercial  Knowledge  in 
Gothenburg,  the  Practical  Schools  in  Karlskoga  and  Kristinehamn,  the  Norrkoping 
Higher  Commercial  Institute  (Gustaf  Smedman),  and  Krok's  Commercial  Institute  in 
Hdlsingborg  All  these  institutions  receive  grants  from  their  respective  municipalities. 
Proprietory  schools  for  teaching  writing  and  commercial  subjects  —  sometimes 
with  very  pretentious  names  —  are,  moreover,  to  be  met  with  in  all  the  large 
towns  and  in  many  smaller  ones.  As  a  rule  they  receive  pupils  without  regard 
to  their  grounding,  and  allow  them  full  freedom  in  their  choice  of  subjects  for 
study.  However,  some  of  the  larger  and  better  schools  have  methodically 
arranged  courses  for  a  year,  a  term,  or  a  shorter  period,  which  aim  at  impart- 
ing suitable  instruction,  adjusted  to  the  point  of  view  and  the  aims  of  the  pu- 
pils, in  the  more  important  commercial  subjects,  at  times  including  languages, 
commercial  law,  economics,  etc.  Such  are  Pdhlman  Brothers'  Commercial  Insti- 
tute in  Stockholm,  Filip  Eolmqvist's  and  the  Gothenburg  Private  Commercial  lr\r 
stitute  (Benno  Eosenbund)  in  Gothenburg,  and  Bendtz  Brothers'  Language  and 
Commercial  Institute  in  Malmb.  The  lack  of  control  over  the  private  commer- 
cial schools,  in  Sweden  as  in  many  other  countries,  has  in  a  number  of  cases 
caused  certain  drawbacks.  Yet  an  undoubted  tendency  towards  improvement 
has  shown  itself  in  recent  years. 

C.  The  High  School  of  Commerce  in  Stockholm  was  founded  on  the 
initiative  of  bank-director  K.  A.  Wallenberg  of  that  city,  now  Minister 
for  Foreign  Affairs.  In  1903  he  donated  a  sum  of  100  000  kroner  to  start 
a  fund  for  a  commercial  and  economic  university  college,  and  in  1906  set 
afoot  tbe  establishment  of  the  High  School  of  Commerce  Association, 
whose  object  was  to  set  up  and  develop  a  Swedish  university  college  of 
commerce.  Thanks  to  the  magnanimous  generosity  of  bankers,  commercial 
companies,  and  private  merchants,  and  to  the  decision  of  the  Town  Council 
of  Stockholm  in  1907,  to  appropriate  for  the  purpose  the  sum  of  475  000 
kronor  from  the  Forsgren  Fund  in  Stockholm,  the  Association  was 
able  to  proceed  to  carry  the  scheme  into  effect  in  1909.  In  this 
manner  the  High  School  of  Commerce  could  enter  upon  its  work  on  October 
1st,  1909.  At  the  suggestion  of  the  Government,  the  Riksdag  voted  a 
grant  of  30  000  kronor  towards  the  working  expenses  of  the  High  School, 
a  grant  that  has  been  renewed  in  subsequent  years.  The  expenses  of  the 
High  School  during  the  academic  year  1913/14  rose  to  about  133  000 
kronor. 

At  present  there  are  professors  in  Economics  (with  Statistics),  Science  of  Com- 
merce, Economic  Geography  (with  the  science  of  raw  products).  Jurisprudence, 
and  Political  Science  (with  the  history  of  economics).  Five  lectors  in  modem 
languages,  mostly  natives,  give  instruction  in  German,  English,  French,  Russian, 
and  Spanish.  There  are  also  docents  and  assistant  masters.  Next  to  the  lec- 
tures, the  practical  classes  and  courses  play  an  important  part.  After  two  years 
study,  the  pupils  are  held  to  be  sufficiently  prepared  to  enter  for  the  so-called 
"examination  in  economics",  which  comprises  the  compulsory  subjects  Economics, 
Commercial  Science,  Economic  Geography  or  Jurisprudence,  and  one  language, 
and  the  optional  ones,  i.  e.  any  other  subject  taught  at  the  High  School.  There 
is  a  special  examination  for  those  who  intend  to  be  teachers  of  commercial  sub- 
jects. The  fee  is  250  kronor  a  year,  to  which  must  be  added  the  entrance 
and  examination  fees. 


COMMERCIAL   LEGISLATION.  545 

Thanks  to  generous  donations,  the  High  School  is  able  every  year  to  let  a  consider- 
able number  of  its  examined  students  complete  their  education  by  a  stay  abroad. 
Journeys  about  Sweden,  intended  to  give  an  insight  into  the  economic  life  of 
the  country,  are  undertaken  annually  under  the  guidance  of  the  teaching  staff;  a 
certain  proportion  of  the  students  take  advantage  of  these  opportunities. 

The  High  School  contains  a  collection  of  business  records,  a  well  equipped 
geographical  institution,  and  a  technical  library  of  some  11  500  vols. 

From  the  first,  the  High  School  has  had  a  much  larger  attendance  than 
was  anticipated.  According  to  the  Calendar,  there  were  180  students  during 
the  Autumn  Term  of  1914.  The  majority  of  these  had  passed  the 
"Student '-'-Examination,  but  entrance  can  also  be  obtained  by  certificates 
from  the  higher  commercial  institutes  and  technical  schools,  while  at  the 
option  of  the  Teaohers'  Council,  other  applicants  with  satisfactory  quali- 
fications may  be  admitted  to  the  courses.  Some  of  the  lectures  are  also 
attended  by  external  students.  The  High  School  also  arranges  for  popular 
lectures  on  scientific  subjects,  intended  for  the  general  public,  which  deal 
with  various  themes  of  immediate  interest  in  the  sphere  of  economics. 

A  scheme  is  being  prepared  at  Gothenburg  for  academic  courses  similar 
to  the  above;  sufficient  donations  having  been  received,  the  couijses  will 
begin  in  1915. 


Commercial  Legislation. 

The  regulations  in  force  concerning  the  carrying  on  of  trade  are  to  be  found 
in  the  Boyal  Ordinance  of  June  18,  186-i.  Anyone  and  everyone  has  uncondi- 
tional liberty  of  carrying  round  for  sale  necessaries  of  life,  agricultural  and  farm 
produce,  and  the  productions  of  Swedish  domestic  industry.  Anyone  who  has 
announced  his  intention  of  carrying  on  any  manufacturing  or  handicraft  trade, 
has  likewise  a  right  himself  to  carry  roimd  for  sale,  or  have  carried  round  by 
his  wife  or  bj"^  any  of  his  children  living  at  home,  the  articles  of  his  own 
manufacture  or  production,  it  being,  however,  necessary  for  the  person  so  en- 
gaged to  have  with  him  or  her  a  certificate  as  to  his  or  her  identity  as  well  as 
a  certificate,  issued  by  the  proper  authority,  concerning  the  character  of  the 
trade  pursued  by  the  person  for  whose  benefit  the  goods  are  offered  for  sale. 
Furthermore  there  is  full  liberty  with  regard  to  trade  at  fairs. 

In  other  respects  a  Swedish  man  or  woman  only  enjoys  the  right  to  carry 
on  trade,  to  export  to  and  to  import  from  foreign  parts,  and  to  transport  goods 
from  one  place  to  another  within  the  country,  subject  to  the  conditions  and 
restrictions  mentioned  below. 

The  right  to  carry  on  wholesale  trade,  or  to  sell  goods  in  a  shop  or  from 
other  place  of  storage,  accrues  to  anyone  provided  he  or  she  be  of  good  repute, 
be  of  age  and  in  unrestricted  possession  of  his  or  her  property  and  have  be- 
sides lodged  an  application  in  writing  for  the  right  to  do  so  at  the  offices  of  the 
Governor  of  the  Lan  (in  rural  districts)  or  the  Magistracy  (in  towns).  Certifi- 
cates with  regard  to  the  conditions  named  having  been  complied  with  must 
accompany  the  application.  If  an  application  is  made  for  a  firm  in  accordance 
with  the  regulations  prescribed,  such  application  is  considered  to  fulfil  the  require- 
ments also  of  the  Ordinance  respecting  the  Liberty  of  Trade.  The  stipulation 
with  regard  to  being  of  age  and  in  unrestricted  possession  of  one's  property  is 
dispensed  with  in  the  following  cases :  a  married  woman  living  with  her  husband, 

Sb— 133179.  Sweden.   11. 


546  VIII.       COMMERCE. 

a  person  under  age,  a  tradesman  who  has  been  placed  under  the  charge  of  a 
trustee,  —  provided  that  the  husband  or  the  trustee  is  willing  for  the  business 
to  be  carried  on  and  assumes  responsibility  for  the  obligations  incurred  in 
connection  therewith  by  the  wife  or  the  minor  or  the  ward  respectively. 

In  certain  cases  a  special  licence  is  requisite  for  the  carrying  on  of  trade.  Such 
cases  arise :  firstly  when  a  tradesman  desires  to  dispose,  in  a  short  space  of  time, 
of  a  stock  of  commodities  at  some  other  place  than  the  one  where  he  has 
applied  for  the  right  to  carry  on  business,  or  at  a  place  where  he  has  not  yet 
established  permanent  business  premises,  and  in  other  manner  than  that  preva- 
lent at  a  fair,  for  instance  by  auction  or  by  private  sale  {Clearance  Sales),  and 
secondly  when  a  person  desires  to  carry  round  articles  himself  or  send  someone 
else  round  with  them  in  his  stead  in  a  district  other  than  that  where  he  re- 
sides for  purposes  of  sale  by  other  methods  than  those  holding  good  at  fairs 
(Pedlar  s  Sales).  The  right  to  carry  on  a  pedlar's  trade  without  a  special  licence 
is,  however,  accorded  to  anyone  who  has  lodged  an  application  in  writing 
for  the  privilege  of  carrying  on  trade,  at  any  place  where,  owing  to  the  appli- 
cation in  question,  business  premises  of  a  permanent  character  shall  have  been 
established.  Together  with  the  application  for  a  licence,  written  testimonials 
must  be  handed  in,  certifying  that  the  tradesman  himself  and  the  assistant 
or  assistants  whom  he  intends  to  employ  to  aid  him  in  the  selling,  are  of  good 
repute  for  honesty  and  straightforwardness.  Those  who  have  not  previously  made 
an  application  for  the  right  to  carry  on  trade  are  required  also  to  hand  in  a 
certificate  of  good  character  and  a  document  to  show  that  they  are  of  age  and 
are  in  unrestricted  possession  of  their  own  property;  the  last-named  is  not  essen- 
tial for  a  married  woman  living  with  her  husband,  provided  his  permission  is 
attested  to  her  project.  The  granting  of  a  licence  to  a  person  to  hold  a  clear- 
ance sale  as  above  delineated  involves  a  fee  of  from  25  to  500  kroner. 
The  licence  may  be  at  any  time  withdrawn  if  due  cause  for  such  a  measure 
should  be  deemed  to  have  arisen. 

To  the  unrestricted  enjoyment  of  the  right  of  carrying  on  trade  in  Sweden 
there  are  sundry  exceptions,  viz.  for  the  occupants  of  certain  official  positions 
such  as  tax  collectors,  public  prosecutors,  officials  in  the  customs  department; 
the  restriction  applies  likewise  to  the  wives  of  these  officials. 

In  certain  cases  there  are  special  regulations  in  force  concerning  the  kind  of 
business  carried  on.  Among  these  are  (a)  the  selling  of  com  brandy,  potato  spirit 
or  any  other  distilled  spirituous  liquors;  (b)  the  selling  of  wine,  beer,  bottled 
non-alcoholic  beverages  and  small  beer;  (c)  the  trade  in  margarine,  margarine- 
cheese  and  artificial  lard;  (d)  the  selling  of  poisonous  substances;  (e)  the  trade 
in  medicines;  (f)  the  trade  in  ether  and  in  commodities  containing  either  ether 
or  spirits;  (g)  the  trade  in  explosives  and  inflammable  oils;  and  (h)  the  import 
and  export  of  gold  and  silver  goods.  It  ought  to  be  mentioned  that  the  booh- 
trade  is  excepted  from  the  general  trade  legislation,  the  regulations  for  it  being 
given  in  the  Liberty  of  the  Press  Law. 

The  Board  of  Trade  has  to  consider  and  determine  with  regard  to  the  holding 
of  fairs,  their  discontinuance  etc.,  and  for  that  purpose  to  hear  the  opinion  of 
the  parties  concerned.  A  list  of  fairs  is  published  in  the  Official  Swedish  Al- 
manack. 

With  respect  to  assistants  in  shops  and  places  of  business  the  reader  is  refer- 
red to  the  section  of  the  present  work  dealing  with  Labour  Questions. 


IX. 

SHIPPING  AND  NAVIGATION. 


Historical. 

It  is  natural  tliat  Sweden  with  its  long  coast-line  and  many  harbours, 
its  abundance  of  rivers,  and  innumerable  inland  lakes  should  always  have 
made  our  nation  a  sea-faring  one.  Still  the  history  of  our  foreign  shipp- 
ing shows  many  vicissitudes,  and  times  of  progress  have  not  seldom  been 
followed  by  a  decided  decline.  At  present  the  realization  of  the  need 
for  improvement  in  Swedish  shipping  asserts  itself  more  and  more,  as 
well  to  the  trading  community  as  to  the  legislative  authorities. 

The  short  summary  given  in  the  preceding  pages  of  the  history  of 
Swedish  commerce  also  comprises  the  leading  features  of  that  of  shipping. 
Still  the  latter  shows  certain  peculiar  characteristics,  and,  on  the  whole, 
it  is  of  course  not  necessary  that  the  shipping  and  the  commerce  of  a 
people  should  show  parallel  development,  though,  as  a  rule,  this  has  been 
the  case  in  Sweden. 

During  the  famous  "Viking  Age",  the  sea  voyages  of  the  Scandinavians  were 
longer  and  more  daring  than  those  of  any  other  nation.  When,  during  the 
latter  part  of  the  Middle  Ages,  wars  were  carried  on  more  by  land  than  by  sea, 
the  naval  defence  fell  into  decay,  and  therewith  not  only  did  the  old  superiority 
at  sea  of  the  Scandinavian  peoples  cease,  but  for  a  certain  time  also  the  sea- 
manship of  the  people  and  their  taste  for  navigation  ceased  too.  Instead  of 
the  Scandinavians,  the  Hanse  towns  became  masters  of  the  Baltic  and  the  North 
Sea,  and  appropriated  to  themselves  shipping  as  well  as  commerce.  King  Gnstavus 
Vasa  (1523 — 60)  tried  to  revive  in  his  Swedish  people  their  former  skill  in 
seamanship  and  naval  architecture,  and  how  he  in  some  measure  succeeded  has 
already  been  mentioned  above. 

During  the  seventeenth  century,  great  efforts  were  made  by  sovereigns  and 
statesmen  to  promote  Swedish  shipping,  and  to  a  certain  extent  with  success.  That 
the  result  was  not  better  was  principally  due  to  the  unequal  competition  with 
the  Dutch. 

The  wars  of  Charles  XII  (1697 — 1718)  were  ruinous  for  Swedish  shipping  as 
well  as  for  other  trades.  In  the  beginning  of  the  decade  1721 — 30,  the  Swedish 
merchant    fleet   is  said  to  have  numbered  only  about  a  hundred  vessels.     After 


548 


IX.      SHIPPING   AND   NAVIGATION. 


the  issue  of  the  above-mentioned  "Proclamation"  of  1724,  however,  it  made 
such  rapid  progress  that  towards  1730  it  already  amounted  to  about  five 
hundred  vessels.  Through  the  East  India  Company  Swedish  shipping  with 
distant  countries  was  also  considerably  advanced.  A  splendid  period  was  entered 
upon  during  the  American  War  of  Independence  (1775 — 83),  in  which  the 
greater  maritime  powers  gradually  became  involved,  owing  to  which  their  ship- 
ping declined,  to  the  benefit  of  the  neutral  powers.  As  already  indicated  above, 
the  Swedish  shipping  has  probably  never  been  more  profitable  than  during  that 
time. 

The  Mercantile  Marine. 

During  the  long  period  of  peace  which  Sweden  has  enjoyed  since  1814, 
its  shipping  has  undergone  no  small  development,  although  its  relative 
importance  is  scarcely  the  same  as  during  preceding  periods.  Of  the  com- 
bined mercantile  marines  of  all  nations,  the  Swedish  comprised,  in  1850, 
about  2-66  fo  —  reckoned  according  to  the  "reduced"  tonnage  (see  Table 
112),  and  using  the  epoch-making  maritime  statistics  of  A.  N".  Kiser. 
In  1865  this  had  gone  down  to  1-92  %.  During  the  next  decade,  more 
especially  during  the  beginning  of  the  decade  1871 — 80,  a  tremendous 
improvement  occurred,  which,  in  1875,  advanced  the  figures  to  3-22  % 
of  the  world's  tonnage,  but  after  that  came  twenty  years  that  con- 
stituted one  af  the  feeblest  chapters  in  the  whole  history  of  Swedish 
shipping.  Then  the  mercantile  marine  was  not  even  2  %  of  the  world's  ton- 
nage. Since  the  end  of  the  decade  1891 — 1900,  however,  another  period  of 
improvement  has  been  entered  upon,  and  at  present  the  figures  for  Swe- 
den's mercantile  marine  can  be  reckoned  to  be  2'36  %  of  those  given  for 
the  total  of  the  shipping  of  all  countries.  —  The  progress  of  the  develop- 
ment since  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  appears  from  Table  112. 

Table  112.  TAe  Swedish  Mercantile  Marine. 

(Before  1900  all  vessels ;  from  1900  inclusive,  vessels  of  20  tons  and  over.) 


Number 

of 
vessels 

Total  net 
tonnage 

Sailing 
vessels 

steam  ships 

"Eediiced" 
tonnage^ 

1 

steam- 1 

At  the  end  of 

Tonnage 

Tonnage 

• 

Do.  multi-       Horse- 
plied  by  3       power4 

ships  1 
in  %i 

1S50    . 
1860    . 
1870    . 
1880    . 
1890    . 
1900'  . 
1910'  . 
1911>  . 
1912'  . 

2  744 

3  200 

3  376 

4  333 
3  874 
2  987 
2  849 
2  758 
2  793 

205  800 
283  600 
350  200 
552  400 
510  947 
613  792 
769  985 
765  068 
805  386 

201 800 
271  600 
319  300 
461  600 
369  680 
288  687 
176  912 
154  968 
153  827 

4  000 

12  000 

30  900 

90  800 

141267 

325 105 

593  073 

610 100 

651  559 

13  000 

36  000 

92  700 

272  400 

423  801 

975  315 

1 779  219 

1830  300 

1954  677 

? 

6  000 

11601 

24  601 

37  843 

67  317 

466  410 

481  805 

514  144 

213  800 

307  600 

412000 

734000 

798481 

1264002 

1956131 

1985268 

2108504 

5-6  i 

11-7 
22-5 
37-1 
53-4 
77-2 
91-0 
92-2 
92-7 

'  See  note  immediately  under  heading.  With  regard  to  the  figures  previous  to  1900,  they 
are  certainly  somewhat  too  high  for  the  tonnage,  and  much  too  high  for  the  number  of 
vessels.  —  ^  The  tonnage  of  the  sailing  vessels  +  three  times  that  of  the  steam  vessels. 
—  ^  The  steam  vessels'  eifective  tonnage  (i.  e.  tonnage  multiplied  by  three)  expressed  as  a 
percentage  of  the  whole  of  the  "reduced"  tonnage  (previous  column).  —  *  Before  1910  the 
nominal,  after  1910  the  indicated  horse-power. 


THE   MERCANTILE   MARINE. 


549 


As  has  been  the  case  in  other  countries  during  recent  times,  the  number 
of  vessels  has  rather  decreased  than  increased,  whilst  the  tonnage  has 
grown  —  though  the  latter  circumstance  is  only  true  of  steam  vessels. 


Table  113.      The  Swedish  Mercantile  Marine  during  1912. 

steam-ships 

Sailing  vessels 

Total 

Tonnage-groaps 

Home-ports 

Num- 

Gross 

Horse- 

Num- 

Gross 

Num- 

Actual 

"Reduced" 

ber 

tonnage 

power 

ber 

tonnage 

ber 

gross 
tonnage 

tonnage  1 

A)  Groups: 

Of      20—50     tons. 

77 

2  887 

3  231 

391 

14  794 

468 

17  681 

23  455 

50—100      .    . 

180 

13  246 

18  215 

689 

48  658 

869 

61904 

88  396 

.      100-200      .    . 

280 

43  585 

45  438 

237 

31847 

517 

75  432 

162  602 

.      200-300     .    . 

109 

25  725 

24  274 

98 

23  887 

307 

49  612 

101 063 

.      300—500      .   . 

99 

38  954 

31658 

92 

34  436 

191 

73  390 

151  298 

.      500-700     >   . 

72 

42  817 

31404 

14 

7  996 

86 

50  813 

136  447 

.      700-1000  .   . 

76 

64  305 

37145 

12 

10  048 

88 

74  353 

303  963 

.    1000-2  000  .   . 

254 

363  820 

168  377 

5 

5  929 

259 

369  749 

1 097  389 

>  2000  tons-uj  .   . 

107 

330  241 

154402 

1 

2  057 

108 

333  398 

993  780 

Total 

1254 

925  5S0 

514144 

1539 

179652 

2  793 

1105232 

2956392 

B)    Home-ports,  by 

Num- 

Net 

Horse- 

Num- 

Net 

Num- 

Actual 

"Beduced" 
net 

Isns: 

ber 

tonnage 

power 

ber 

tonnage 

ber 

tonnage 

tonnagei 

Stockholm  town  .    .    . 

250 

148  643 

115  612 

24 

2  643 

274 

151 286 

448  572 

Stockholm  Ian  .    .        . 

68 

6  991 

15  277 

170 

19  015 

238 

26  006 

39  988 

Uppsala 

7 

703 

1390 

2 

85 

9 

788 

2194 

SBdermanland  .... 

16 

1590 

3145 

13 

583 

29 

2172 

5  352 

OstergStland 

32 

11539 

9  364 

47 

3  671 

79 

15  210 

38  288 

Jonkdping 

10 

1353 

1710 

7 

253 

17 

1606 

4  312 

Kalmar 

37 

13  417 

11692 

197 

25  640 

234 

39  057 

65  891 

Gottland 

8 

2  095 

3  020 

33 

3173 

41 

5  268 

9  458 

BlekiQge 

25 

19  644 

12164 

44 

2  833 

69 

22  477 

61765 

Kristianstad 

3 

527 

360 

177 

31316 

180 

31843 

32  897 

Malmohns 

186 

180  686 

126  513 

162 

19  417 

348 

200 103 

561 475 

Halland 

13 

4  833 

5  600 

62 

5  591 

75 

10  424 

20  090 

GBteborg  och  Bohna    . 

330 

204  922 

156  934 

420 

39  508 

750 

234  430 

644  274 

Alvsborg    

32 

2  387 

2  820 

36 

1849 

68 

4  236 

9  010 

Skaraborg 

16 

1577 

1680 

63 

3  381 

79 

4  858 

8  012 

Varmland 

66 

10147 

9  548 

34 

3  039 

100 

12186 

32  480 

Orebro 

18 

1728 

2169 

16 

808 

34 

2  536 

5  992 

Vastmanland     .... 

3 

433 

740 

3 

97 

6 

529 

1393 

Kopparberg 

5 

226 

443 

3 

101 

8 

327 

779 

G-avleborg 

45 

24  782 

16  589 

16 

1263 

61 

26  045 

75  609 

Vasternorrland     .    .    . 

57 

11882 

13  604 

3 

132 

60 

12  014 

35  778 

Jamtland 

12 

607 

1245 

— 

— 

12 

607 

1831 

Vasterbotten     .... 

6 

315 

935 

2 

358 

8 

673 

1303 

Norrbotten 

9 

533 

1590 

5 

172 

14 

705 

1771 

Bottniska  viken'  .    . 

117 

37  512 

32  718 

26 

1935 

143 

39  437 

114  461 

Ostersjoknsten'.    .    . 

455 

218  260 

190 129 

708 

89  397 

1163 

307  557 

744  077 

Tastkusten*  .... 

513 

376  627 

269  552 

641 

54  092 

1154 

430  719 

1183  978 

Other  counties^     .    . 
Total 

169 

19160 

21745 

164 

8  513 

333 

27  673 

65  993 

1254 

651559 

514144 

1639 

153827 

2  793 

805386 

2108504 

'  Sailing  ships'  tonnage  +  three  times  steam  ships';  cf.  Table  113.  —  "^  The  four  most 
northerly  coast  lans.  —  '  The  lans  on  the  Baltic  (and  all  the  county  districts  of  the  Ian 
of  Kristianstad).  —  *  Malmohus,  Halland,  Goteborg  och  Bohns  lans,  excepting  the  towns  of 
Ystad  and  Tralleborg.  —  *  Lans  which  do  not  touch  on  the  sea. 


550  IX.       SHIPPING    AND    NAVIGATION. 

Table  113  (cont.)     The  Swedish  Mercantile  Marine  during  1912. 


Tonnage-groups 
Home-ports 

Steam-ships 

Sailing  vessels 

Total 

Num- 
ber 

Gross- 
tonnage 

Hor-i^e- 
pover. 

Num- 
ber 

Gross 
tonnage 

Num- 
ber 

Actual 

gross 

tonnage 

"Reduced" 
tonnage i 

C)   Home-ports,  certain 
toirns  :^ 

Gothenburg 

Stockholm .    . 

Halsingborg 

Malmo 

Gavle 

Landskrona 

Tralleborg 

Solvesborg     

Karlshamn 

Oskarshamn 

266 
250 
92 
35 
29 
22 
15 
8 
14 
13 

193  822 

148  643 

101  223 

28  607 

21501 

19  997 

13  781 

9  751 

9  250 

8  086 

143  035 
115  612 
59  845 
24  870 
13  313 
11920 
19  335 

5  465 

6  001 
6  303 

22 

24 

35 

1 

4 

4 

5 

14 
24 

7  486 

2  643 
6  420 

605 

180 

1502 

266 
658 

3  448 

288 
274 
127 
36 
33 
26 
15 
13 
28 
37 

201 308 

151 286 

107  643 

29112 

21681 

21499 

13  781 

10  017 

9  908 

11 534 

588  952 
448  572 
310  089 
86  326 
64  683 
61 493 
41 343 ; 
29  519 
28408 
27  706 

'  See  note  1  on  page  549.  —  ''  Towns  which  possess  the  largest  shipping  fleets. 
As  regards  sailing  vessels,  in  recent  years  we  observe  everywhere  a  de- 
crease, as  well  in  number  as  in  burthen.     However,  the  decline  in  sail- 
ing vessels  began  later  in  Sweden  than  in  other  countries,  increase  being 
observable  there  until  about  the  year  1880. 

The  Swedish  mercantile  marine's  notable  inferiority  during  the  period 
1881 — 90  is  chiefly  due  to  the  fact  that  the  fleet  of  steam  ships  was  not 
developed  in  conformity  with  the  exigencies  of  the  time.  Sweden  had 
many  steam  ships,  but  they  were,  as  a  rule,  small  — ■  a  natural  result  of 
the  fact  that  her  shipping  was  limited  to  the  waters  in  the  near  neighbour- 
hood of  Sweden.  During  the  last  decade,  however,  a  notable  improvement 
has  shown  itself,  which  is  connected  with  the  development  of  trans-atlantic 
steamboat  lines.  In  the  year  1901  was  built  the  first  vessel  of  over  3  000 
tons  net  tonnage,  and  now  there  are  no  less  than  19  vessels  of  a  tonnage 
exceeding  that  figure.  The  largest  has  a  tonnage  of  4  444  tons  net  tonnage. 
Whilst  in  the  year  1898  there  were  only  5  vessels  of  2  000  tons  and  over, 
net  tonnage,  the  corresponding  figure  is  now  56. 

A  classification  of  Swedish  trading  vessels  according  to  their  size  and  home 
ports,  by  liins  and  leading  towns,  is  given  in  Table  113.  In  1912  there  were 
1  083  steam  ships  built  of  iron  or  steel,  while  56  were  built  of  wood,  and  118  of 
wood  and  iron  combined.  The  gross  tonnage  of  steam  vessels  built  of  iron  or  steel 
amounted  to  899  080  tons,  for  ships  built  of  wood  to  6  353  tons,  and  for  ships 
built  of  iron  and  wood  combined  to  20  147  tons.  Of  the  steam  vessels  added 
to  the  merchant  fleet  during  1912,  23,  of  a  net  tonnage  of  3  707  tons  were 
built  in  Sweden,  and  44,  of  a  net  tonnage  of  51  348  tons  were  acquired  from 
foreign  countries.  Of  the  sailing  vessels  only  18,  of  a  gross  tonnage  of 
8  316  tons,  built  of  iron  or  steel,  as  against  1  508  vessels,  of  a  gross  tonnage 
of  170  012,  built  of  wood,  and  13  vessels,  of  a  gross  tonnage  of  1  324  tons 
built  of  wood  and  iron  combined.  9  sailing  vessels,  649  tons  net  tonnage, 
were  built  in  Sweden  during  the  year  1912,  while  55  vessels,  of  8  812  tons 
net  tonnage,  were  acquired  from  abroad. 

Below  are  given  some  figures  concerning  the  more  important  shipping  compa- 
nies of  Sweden  (end  1913). 


SHIPPIN(J    IN    6EXERAL.  551 

Some  important  Stvedish  Shipping  Companies  {end  1913). 

Shipping  Companies                             No.  of  Vessels         Gross  TonnaKi- 

Angfartygsaktiebolaget  Tiriing,  Gothenburg 20  69  ]  14 

Stockholms  rederiaktiebolag  Svea,    Stockholm 74  64  880 

Rederiaktiebolaget  Lulea,— Ot'oten,    Stockholm 16  59 175 

Eederiaktiebolaget  Nordstjernan  (Johnson  Line),  Stockholm   .  16  49  353 

Rederiaktiebolaget  Trans-Atlantic,  Gothenburg 9  34346 

Aktiebolaget  Svenska  ostasiatiska  kompaniet,  Gothenburg  .6  25  379 

Angfartygsaktiebolaget  Thule,  Gothenburg 11  16  345 

Fornyade  Angfartygsaktiebolaget  Svenska  Lloyd,    Gothenburg  12  13  977 

Eederiaktiebolaget  Henckel,  Malmo 9  13  756 

Trelleborgs  Angfartygs  nya  aktiebolag,    Tralleborg 11  13  064 

Angfartygsaktiebolaget  Svithiod,  Gothenburg 8  9  812 

Aktiebolaget  Svenska  Amerika-Mexiko-linien,    Gothenburg .    .  -^  9  330 

On  the  whole,  it  may  be  said  of  the  Swedish  shipping  industry,  that  it 
has  more  and  more  succeeded  in  asserting  itself  in  the  rivalry  for  long- 
distance shipping,  and  that  it  has  substantially  succeeded  in  getting  into 
its  own  hands  Sweden's  sea-trade  with  foreign  countfies  —  something 
which  it  had  failed  to  do  during  a  succession  of  years.  For  the  promotion 
of  the  shipping  industry,  too,  the  State  has  tried  to  intervene,  and  also 
the  Commerce  and  Shipping  Committee,  mentioned  in  another  connection, 
has  taken  the  initiative  in  reforms.  Thus,  in  the  years  1904  and  1905, 
the  State  formed  a  loan-fund  of  10  million  kronor  for  the  assistance  of 
the  shipping  industry,  and  more  recently  the  State  has  granted  subsidies 
in  support  of  regular  steam-ship  lines  (see  below). 

Shipping  in  General. 

The  entire  shipping  (home  and  foreign)  of  the  Swedish  ports  amounted, 
in  1912,  to  319  786  vessels  entered  and  cleared,  of  a  total  of  51  802  208 
tons.  These  figures  for  home  shipping  include  all  vessels  of  10  tons  and 
over,  but  not  the  local  traffic  in  and  about  the  respective  harbours 
themselves.  The  above  figures  embrace  253  236  steam,  ships,  of  a  tonnage 
of  48  124  620  tons,  whicih  corresponds  to  about  nine-tenths  oi  the  sum  total.' 

As  is  well  known,  a  great  obstacle  for  Swedish  shipping  is  the  fact 
that,  during  a  great  part  of  the  year,  the  harbours  in  the  more  northerly 
parts  of  the  country  are  ice-hound.  In  South  Sweden,  on  the  other  hand, 
it  may  be  said  that,  generally  speaking,  the  shipping  is  open  practically 
all  the  year  round.  A  comparison  with  earlier  times,  however,  shows 
that  the  time  during  which  shipping  is  held  up  by  ice  has,  on  the  whole, 
grown  shorter.  This  is  chiefly  due  to  the  increased  use  of  steam  ships 
and  the  building  of  stronger  vessels,  which,  here  and  there,  are  specially 
intended  for  winter  traffic.  The  most  important  towns  have  provided 
themselves  with  special  ice-breakers. 

Some  information  with  regard  to  Sweden's  ports  and  docks,  her  canals 
and  fairways,  is  given  in  special  sections  in  the  following  pages. 

*  The  figures  are  given  as  the  sum  of  those  given  in  the  following  pages.  According  to 
another  method  of  calculation,  the  entire  shipping,  in  1912,  is  represented  by  309  652  vessels 
with  a  total  of  54  000  020  tons. 


552 


IX.      SHIPPINS   AND   NAVIGATION. 


Shipping  between  Sweden  and  Foreign  Countries. 

The  extent  of  Swedish  foreign  shipping,  that  is  to  say,  the  number  and 
tonnage  of  vessels  leaving  Sweden  for  foreign  ports,  or  arriving  in  Sweden 
from  foreign  ports,  is  indicated  for  the  period  elapsed  since  1875  in  Table 
114.  The  average  tonnage  of  such  vessels  entered  and  cleared  during  the 
years  1876- — 80  amounts  to  6-43  million  tons.  In  1912  a  tonnage  of  25-51 
million  tons  had  been  reached. 

On  the  whole,  the  foreign  shipping  with  Swedish  ports  is  quite  excep- 
tionally extensive  in  comparison  with  the  population.  The  average  for 
the  years  1906 — 10  amounted  to  nearly  400  tons  for  every  hundred  of  the 
population. 

Of  all  the  countries  in  Europe,  only  Denmark,  Holland,  and  Norway 
can  present  higher  figures  than  these;  even  Great  Britain  and  Ireland 
stop  short  at  300  tons  for  every  hundred  of  the  population.  If  we  bear 
in  mind,  besides,  that  the  home-shipping  in  Sweden  is  more  extensive 
than  in  the  countries  just  named  as  surpassing  us  in  foreign  shipping,  the 
final  result  will  be,  probably,  that  the  total  shipping  of  the  Swedish  ports 
is,  in  proportion  to  the  population,  more  lively  than  in  any  other  country 
in  Europe.  The  cause  of  this  circumstance  is  that  the  goods  that  Sweden 
handles  are,  on  the  whole,  of  a  very  hulky  nature.  This  is  the  case,  too, 
even  with  the  imports,  of  which  fossil  coal  is  the  chief;  but  above  all  it 
is  the  case  with  the  exports,  of  which,  as  is  well  known,  the  bulk  consists 
of  timber,  minerals,  and  metals. 

The  result  of  this  circumstance  is  that  Sweden  stands  in  a  position  of 
far  greater  international  importance  in  respect  to  the  tonnage  she  keeps 
employed  than  in  respect  to  her  actual  commerce.  According  to  Kiaeer's 
investigations,  it  is  probable  that,  at  the  present  time,  no  article  of  the 
world's  commerce  requires  so  great  a  ship-tonnage  for  its  carriage  as  tim- 
ber does;  and  it  is,  of  course,  Sweden  that  is  the  greatest  seller  of  timber 
throughout   the   world.      Even   in  the   coal-trade,    Sweden   plays   an   im- 


Table  114.     Shipping  between  Sweden  and  Foreign  Countries. 


Annnally 

Vessels  entered 

"Vessels  cleared 

Total 

Number 

Tonnage 

Number 

Tonnage 

Number 

Tonnage 

1876-80 

1881—85 

1886-90 

1891-95 

1896-00 

1901-05 

1906-10 

1911 

1912 

21919 

27  611 

28  640 
30  241 
34140 

35  958 
35164 

36  241 
38  057 

3  196  448 

4  226  782 

4  934  938 

5  931836 

7  781 894 

8  896  728 

10  132  689 

11  634  258 

12  681 250 

21 472 
26182 
27  012 
29  485 
34179 
36  036 

35  246 

36  318 

38  584 

3  231885 

4  204353 

4  933  878 

5  970121 

7  793  822 

8  888  616 
10 141 969 

11  756  389 

12  830  640 

43391 
53  793 
55652 
59  726 
68  319 
71994 
70  410 

72  559 
76641 

6428333 
8  431035 
9868816 
11901957 
15575  716 
17  785344 
20274658 

23390647 
25511890 

SHIPPING   BETWEEN   SWEDEN    AND   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 


553 


554  IX.      SHIPPING   AND    NAVIGATION. 

Table  115.     Vessels  entered  from  and  cleared  for  Foreign  Countries. 


Annually 

Swedish  vessels 

Foreign  vessels 

Tonnage  in  thousands 

Number 

Tonnage 

Number 

Tonnage 

Stea^n  ships 

Sailing  vessels 

Swedish 

Foreign 

Swedish 

Foreign  ! 

1876-80  .     .     . 

1881-85  .    .    . 
1886-90  .    .    . 
1891-95  .    .    . 
1896-00  .    .    . 
1901—05  .    .   . 
1906—10  .    .    . 

1911 

1912 

19  565 

35  953 
25149 
28  623 

34  860 
39  443 

36  747 

35  825 

37  475 

2  271 437 

3  036  018 
3  454  269 
4011511 
5  805  671 
8 177  307 

10183  876 

11 633  878 
12  370  227 

23  826 
27  840 
30  503 
31103 
.33459 

32  551 

33  663 

36  734 
39166 

4 156  896 

5  395  017 

6  414  547 

7  890446 
9  770045 
9  608  037 

10  090  782 

11 756  769 
13  141  663 

1056 
1726 

2  206 
2  678 
4  356 
6  742 
8  965 

10  605 
1136a 

1545 

3  027 

4  616 
6  316 

8  471 
8  439 
9179 

10  843 

12  217 

1215 
1310 

1248 
1334 
1449 
14.35 
1219 

1029 
1008 

2  612 
2  368 
1799 
1574 
1299 
1169 
912 

913 

924 

portant  part.  Of  all  the  customers  o£  England  only  Grermany,  France, 
and  Italy  buy  more  coal  than  Sweden.  If  we  bear  this  in  mind,  it  ought 
to  be  clear  that,  when  it  comes  to  the  conclusion  of  commercial  and  mari- 
•  time  treaties,  Sweden  holds  considerably  higher  trumps  —  owing  to  her 
important  position  in  the  shipping  world  —  than  might  be  expected  from 
her  comparatively  insignificant  position  in  the  matter  of  commerce  pure 
and  simple. 

Table  116.     Foreign  Shipping  for  1912,  arranged  under  Nations} 


Steam  ships,  in  thousand  tons 

Sailing  vessels,  in  thousand  tons 

Nationality 

Entered 

Cleared 

Total 

Entered 

Cleared 

Total 

Laden 

In 
ballast 

Laden 

In 
ballast 

Laden 

In 
ballast 

Laden 

In 
ballast 

Swedish    .... 
Norwegian   .    .    . 
Finnish    .... 
Russian    .... 

Danish 

Grerman    .... 

Dutch 

Belgian 

English    .... 

French 

Spanish    .        .    . 

Italian 

Austrian  .       .    . 
Argentine     .    .    . 
Canadian  .... 
Siamese     .... 

Total 

3  840 

478 

49 

11 

360 

1012 

22 

6 

469 

7 

16 
5 
3 

1827 

395 

248 

13 

1932 

566 

196 

5 

.243 

8l 

7 
2 
3 
5 

4  237 

759 

65 

21 

834 

1447 

215 

9 

574 

13 

7 

15 
2 
3 
5 

1  458 

154 
294 

8 

1417 

115 

7 

172 
1 
9 
5 
3 
2 

11362 

1786 

656 

53 

4543 

3140 

440 

20 

1458 

29 

82 

10 

28 

6 

6 

10 

238 
32 
46 
10 
63 
58 
15 

1 

253 

77 

18 

3 

82 

48 

6 

1 

3 

470 

92 

37 

10 

125 

104 

19 

1 

3 

48 
12 

27 
3 

18 
6 
3 

] 

l(J0i) 
213 

l!!8 

26 

288 

216 

43 

2 

6 

2 

6278 

5  450 

8  206 

3645 

23579 

462 

491 

861 

118 

1932 

'  By  "ships  in  ballast"  is  to  be  understood  such  ships  as  have  cargoes  amounting  to 
less  than  one-tenth  of  the  registered  capacity.  Hence  the  description  applies  to  most 
passenger  boats. 


SHIPPING    BETWEEN    SWEDEN    AND    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES.  555 

Table  117.     Shipping  Communications  with  Foreign  Countries  in  1912. 


To  or  from 


Norway 

Denmark 

Finland 

Great  Brit,  and  Irel. 

Holland 

Belgium 

Germ.  Emp.     .    .    . 

France   

Enssia 

Other  Countries  .   . 

Total 


Laden  Tessels 
thousand  tons 


Swedish      Other      Total 


197 
737 

56 
3  249 
599 
194 
2  936 
292 
232 
293 


8  784 


66 
794 

99 

1794 

426 

79 

2  721 

248 

111 

685 


7  023 


263 

1531 

155 

5  013 

1025 

273 

5G57 

510 

343 

977 


15  807 


Vessels  in  ballast 
thousand  tons 


Swedish     Other      Total 


166 
1689 
157 
496 
159 

12 
698 

12 
180 

17 


3  58G 


168 
3  525 
589 
348 
296 

34 
906 

18 
191 

43 


6118 


334 
5  214 
746 
844 
455 

46 
1604 

30 
371 

60 


9  704 


Total 
thousand  tons 


Swedish      Other 


363 

2  426 
213 

3  745 
768 
206 

3  634 
304 
412 
309 


12  370 


234 

4  319 

688 

2142 

722 

113 

3  627 

266 

302 

728 


13141 


Total 


597 

6  745 
901 

5887 

1480 

319 

7  261 
570 
714 

1037 


26  611 


Motor-vessel,  the  "Suecia",  belonging  to  the  Bederiaktiebolag.et  Kordstjernan 
{Johnson  Line),  Stockholm. 

Built  in  1912;  2  000  H.  P.;  6  550  tons  burden. 


According  to  nationality  the  shipping  is  distributed  as  shown  in  Tables 
115 — 117.  On  an  average,  during  the  years  1876 — 80,  vessels  with  a  ton- 
nage of  altogether  2-27  million  tons  flew  the  Swedish  flag;  in  1912,  the 
figure  had  advanced  to  12-37  millon  tons.  During  the  same  period  the 
tonnage  of  foreign  vessels  had  grown  from  4-16  million  tons  to  13-14  mil- 
lion. Expressed  as  a  percentage  of  the  sum  total,  the  figure  for  Swedish 
vessels  during  the  first-named  period  reached  35  %,  and,  for  the  year 
1912,  nearly  50  %,  which  shows  a  considerable  advance. 


556 


IX.       SHIPPING   AND   NAVIGATION. 


As  is  to  be  seen  from  the  table,  this  change  for  the  better  has  only  been 
notable  during  the  last  decade,  in  connection  with  the  above-mentioned 
advance  of  the  mercantile  marine.  Even  at  the  end  of  the  .18th  centuryN 
the  Swedish  tonnage  comprised  only  37  %.  Of  the  foreign  vessels,  it  is 
the  Danish  that  have  long  held  a  preponderating  position  as  regards  inter- 
national shipping  communications.  At  the  end  of  the  decade  1891—1900, 
the  traffic  between  Denmark  and  Sweden  was  maintained  by  Danish 
vessels  to  the  extent  of  about  80  %,  while  the  share  of  Sweden  amounted 
to  only  15  %.  By  the  readjustment  of  the  Oresund  traffic  this  state 
of  things  has  now  been  changed,  so  that  the  share  falling  to  Danish  vessels 
is  put  at  61  %,  and  that  falling  to  Swedish  vessels  at  36  %,  in  the  case  of 
the  communications  between  the  two  countries. 

A  still  more  predominating  position  is  held  by  foreign  vessels  in  the 
shipping  with  Finland,  the  Swedish  share  amounting  to  only  24  %.  As 
regards  the  communications  with  Russia,  the  Swedish  tonnagq  has,  du- 
ring recent  years,  acquired  a  greater  and  increasing  influence,  in  connec- 
tion with  the  establishment  of  regular  lines.  Of  the  vessels  cleared  for 
Russia  and  entered  from  Russia  the  Swedish  now  comprise  58  %,  whilst 
the  corresponding  figure  at  the  end  of  the  decade  1891 — 1900  was  28  %. 

The  share  in  the  Swedish  shipping  of  the  Norwegian  vessels  has  shrunk 
from  34  %  in  1870  to  8  %  in  1912.    On  the  other  hand,  the  proportion  of 


Table  118.    Foreign  Shipping  in  1912  according  to  Custom-House 

Districts.^ 


Custom-house 

Custom-house 

Custom-house 

district 

Tons 

district 

Tons 

district 

Tons 

LuleS,    .... 

1 421 760 

Kristianstad    . 

169  252 

Malmo"    .    .    . 

4071460 

Gavie    .... 

1 023  138 

Oskarshamn     . 

161 126 

Gothenburg.    . 

3  760178 

Sundsvall     .    . 

698412 

Karlshamn  .    . 

150  200 

Halsingborg"  . 

2  761986 

Harnosand    .    . 

464  951 

Karlskrona 

135  582 

Landskrona    . 

347 162 

SBderhamn  .    . 

303 188 

Ystad    .    . 

114  875 

Lysekil    .    .    . 

345  859 

Umea    .... 

195  232 

Solvesborg 

74193 

Stromstad 

319  919 

Hndiksvall  .    . 

187  628 

Vastervik 

66  455 

Halmstad 

308  485 

Skelleftea    .    . 

172 189 

Ronneby  . 

47195 

Uddevalla 

95898 

Haparanda   .    . 

135  938 

VasterSiS  . 

29  838 

Varberg  . 

83155 

Ornskoldsvik  . 

116  172 

Simrishamn 

27  505 

Karlstad  . 

54769 

Pitea,     .... 

67  769 

Sodertalje 

24  949. 

Falkenberg 

31112 

Soderkoping 

16  363 

MaTBtrand 

30  914 

Norrland    .   . 

4786377 

Uppsala    . 

1604 

Lidkiiping 

3804 

Eakilstuna 

353 

Tralleborg    .    . 

3 173  850 

Vadstena  . 

218 

Vdstkusten   . 

12214  701 

Stockholm    .    . 

2  077  670 

Jonkoping 

— 

Nykoping     . 

1 163  289 

LinkBpiQg 

— 

Total 

25511890 

Visby    .... 

402  329 

Orebro  .    . 

— 

Norrkoping  .    . 

393  702 

Ostkusten 

8  510  812 

Kalmar     .    .    . 

280  264 

'  Sam  of  the  tonnage  for  vessels  entered  and  cleared  (foreign  trade).  A  vessel  that  has 
visited  several  ports  on  the  same  voyage  is  only  counted  once,  namely  for  the  port  where 
it  has  loaded  or  discharged  the  greatest  amount  of  cargo.  —  '  To  or  from  Denmark 
3145  889  tons;  other  countries  925  621  tons.  —  '  To  or  from  Denmark  2  278  063  tons ;  other 
countries  483  923  tons. 


SHIPP1N&   BETWEEN    SWEDEN    AND    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


557 


German  ships  has  increased  from  3-5  %  to  13-2  %  during  the  same  inter- 
val. With  regard  to  the  English  tonnage,  great  changes  are  to  be  obser- 
ved. In  the  year  1870,  14  %  of  our  shipping  was  in  English  hands;  in 
the  year  1890,  over  20  %;  in  the  year  1898,  it  had  declined  to  12  %,  and 
in  the  year  1912  it  had  further  declined  to  5-7  %. 

Table  117  shows  how  the  shipping  facilities  are  distributed  among  the 
different  countries,  while  Table  118  shows  the  extent  of  the  foreign  shipp- 
ing maintained  in  the  different  parts  of  the  country. 

The  number  of  direct  Swedish  lines  to  foreign  countries  has  conside- 
rably increased  during  recent  years,  and  almost  invariably  it  is  the  Swe- 
dish shipping  that  has  benefited. 


Pbuto.  Klemjung,  Stockholm. 

Steamer  the  "Gaiithiod",  the  Stockholms  Rederiaktiebolag  Svea,  Stockholm. 


The  regular  traffic  with  Finland  is  still  maintained  by  Finnish  boats, 
and  similarly  the  Danish  boats  have  a  sort  of  monopoly  of  the  steam- 
ferry  service  maintained  between  Halsingborg  and  Halsingor  since  1891. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  steam-ferry  service  which  was  set  up  in  1895 
between  Malmo  and  Copenhagen  is  carried  on  by  Swedish  and  Danish 
companies  conjointly. 

The  so-called  "Continental  Route"  between  Tralleborg  and  the  harbour 
of  Sassnitz,  on  the  island  of  Riigen,  which  was  started  in  1897,  has,  since 
1909,  been  organized  as  a  ferry-service,  taking  through  carriages  between 


558  IX.       SHIPPING   AND    NAVIGATION. 

Stockholm  and  Christiania  and  both  Berlin  and  Hamburg.  In  accordance 
with  an  arrangement  entered  into  between  the  respective  countries,  Swe- 
dish and  German  vessels  run  alternately  on  the  route,  which  has  become 
more  and  more  frequented  on  account  of  its  convenience,  as  the  crossing 
occupies  a  short  4  hours,  and  the  whole  journey  from  Stockholm  to  Berlin 
takes  only  22  hours. 

The  lines  running  to  Russia,  Germany,  England,  France,  and  other 
European  countries,  organized  by  Swedish  shipping  companies,  have  also 
developed  in  extension  and  importance.  Since  1908,  the  state  has  subsidised 
a  steam-boat  line  running  between  Stockholm  and  Riga,  and  at  the  same 
time  arrangements  have  been  made  for  connected  and  co-operative  traffic 
on  the  Russian  and  Swedish  Railways. 

But  of  far  greater  importance,  especially  for  Swedish  export  communi- 
cations, are  assuredly,  the  trans-atlantic  steam-boat  lines  (cf.  the  accompa- 
nying map). 

In  1903,  the  South  Africa  Trading  Company  of  Stockholm,  in  con- 
nection with  a  Danish  line,  inaugurated  a  traffic  with  South  Africa  and 
East  India.  In  the  next  year,  facilities  were  arranged  for  traffic  with 
S.  Africa  by  a  Gothenburg  firm,  too,  — the  so-called  Swedish  South  Afri- 
ca Line  —  which  has  since  extended  operations  to  Australia. 

In  1904,  the  so-called  Johnson  Line  (Rederiaktiebolaget  Nordstjernan), 
of  Stockholm  began  its  services  to  La  Plata;  and  since  it  began  to  receive 
state  assistance  in  1906,  it  has  considerably  developed  (cf.  map). 

In  1907  was  founded  the  Swedish  East  Asia  Company  of  Gothenburg. 
This  company  maintains  a  traffic  with  East  Asia  in  combihation  with 
foreign  lines,  and  has,  since  1907,  been  in  receipt  of  state  assistance. 

There  are,  besides,  similar  lines  to  the  Levant  and  Mexico,  and  in  1912 
was  opened  a  Scandinavian  line  to  North  America. 

Swedish  Vessels  engaged  in  Foreign  Shipping. 

In  the  foregoing  paragraphs  it  has  been  mentioned  that,  of  the  total 
tonnage  of  vessels  entered  and  cleared  in  1912  which  maintained  the  traf- 
fic between  Sweden  and  other  countries  —  which  amounted  to  25  511  890 
tons  —  altogether  12  370  227  tons  was  carried  in  Stvedish  bottoms. 

That  is  one  side  of  the  activity  of  the  vessels  of  the  Swedish  mercantile 
marine  engaged  in  foreign  shipping.  The  other  side  consists  naturally 
of  the  voyages  which  Swedish  vessels  made  between  foreign  country  and 
foreign  country  —  which  voyages  thus  do  not  touch  Sweden,  and  which 
are  therefore  not  reckoned  in  under  "The  Foreign  Shipping  of  Sweden". 

As  regards  the  part  Swedish  vessels  play  in  Shipping  on  Sweden,  this  has 
already  been  dealt  with  in  the  foregoing  section,  both  as  regards  the  vessels' 
number  and  burthen,  and  as  regards  their  most  important  countries  of  departure 
and  destination.  The  above-cited  information,  gathered  through  the  custom- 
houses, practically  agrees  with  certain  information  returned  from  the  shipping 
companies    in    the    matter    of    their  respective  vessels'  foreign  voyages,  in  that, 


HOME    SHIPPING. 


559 


Table  119.     Swedish  Vessels  employed  in  Foreign  Shipping. 


Total  of  vessels 

Total  tonnage  in 

Gross 

freightage  earned 

entered 

and  cleared 

thousand  tons 

in  thousand  kronor 

Annually 

Between  i  „ 

In  bal- 

Stenm 

Sailing 

Total 

Sweden 

iieiween 

Number 

Tonnage 

Laden 

last 

ships 

vessels 

amount 

and 
abroad 

foreign 
countries 

!  1876-80  . 

22  256 

4472  951 

3  238 

1235 

1997 

2  476 

35  514 

18  965 

16 .549 

1881-85  . 

25  917 

5  242  730 

3  928 

1315 

2  778 

2  465 

33916 

19  652 

14  264 

1886-90  . 

28  942 

6  701  704 

4  864 

1838 

4  393 

2  309 

33428 

20  877 

12  551 

1891—95  . 

30  786 

7  779  571 

5  473 

2  307 

5  546 

2  234 

32  520 

21993 

10  527 

'  1896-00  . 

36  385 

10  635  624 

7  293 

3  342 

8  529 

2106 

47  321 

34180  1  13J41 

1901—05  . 

40086 

16  005  855 

10  871 

5135 

14  068 

1938 

54  550 

37  421 

17129 

1906-10  . 

44  827 

24  407  033 

16  876 

7  531 

22  807 

1600 

75  383 

46  403 

28  980 

1911  .    .    . 

48  815 

28  613  564 

20  091 

8  523 

27  215 

1399 

94973 

55  242 

39  731 

1  1912  .    .    . 

48  505 

29  436  116 

20  986 

8  450 

28  052 

1384 

106  285 

65  878 

40  407 

according  to  the  companies'  returns,  the  voyages  of  Swedish  vessels  between 
Sweden  and  foreign  countries  in  1912  should  have  given  a  total  of  11  952  663 
tons.  It  is  of  further  interest  to  calculate  the  amount  of  the  gross  freightage 
earned  on  such  voyages.  According  to  the  shipping  companies'  returns,  the 
gross  freightage  earned  by  their  vessels  (calculated  on  arrival)  amounted  to 
65  878  000  kronor  in  1912.  Of  this  total  29  335  000  kronor  was  derived  from 
voyages  to  and  from  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  9  959  000  kronor  from  voyages 
to  and  from  Germany,  4  813  000  kronor  from  the  intercourse  with  France, 
2  956  000  from  that  with  Denmark,  4  945  000  from  that  with  Holland,  2  438  000 
from  that  with  Belgium,  and  so  on.  Voyages  to  other  continents  than  Europe 
produced  only  6  333  000  kronor  altogether. 

The  shipping  companies  also  render  returns  of  the  freights  carried  by  Swedish 
ships  between  foreign  country  and  foreign  country,  and,  according  to  these 
returns  for  the  year  1912,  the  number  of  Swedish  vessels  arriving  at  one  foreign 
port  from  another  amounted  to  10  758,  with  a  tonnage  of  8  773  575  tons,  and 
there  were  about  the  same  number  of  sailings.  The  total  of  the  gross  freigh- 
tages  earned   on  voyages  between  foreign  ports  amounted  to  40  407  000  kronor. 

A  survey  of  the  Swedish  mercantile  marines'  employment  on  foreign 
shipping  during  a  succession  of  years  is  given  in  Table  119,  but  in  this 
connection  it  is  to  be  noticed  that  the  returns  for  different  periods  are  not 
fully  comparable,  as  they  emanate  from  various  sources,  the  data  during 
earlier  periods  having  been  supplied  by  the  consuls.  However,  the  table 
indicates  a  gradual  increase,  especially  during  recent  years. 


Home  Shipping. 

Even  if,  during  a  succession  of  years,  the  foreign  shipping  of  Sweden 
has  exhibited  weak  points,  to  eradicate  which  serious  attempts  have  been 
made  only  during  the  last  decade,  yet  it  can  be  said  that  the  home  shipping 
has  long  been  organized  to  absolute  perfection.  The  extremely  lively  com- 
munications between  the  different  parts  of  the  country  have  been  main- 
tained by  several  hundreds  of  steamers,  and,  for  the  local  traffic  between 
the  numerous  islands  of  our  extensive  archipelago,  - —  as  also   for  the 


560 


IX.      SHIPPING    AND    NAVIGATION. 


fishing  industry  —  peculiar  types  of  Swedish  boats  have  developed,  of 
which  several  may  deserve  mention  here. 

The  Swedish  coastal  steamers  early  developed  to  a  real  type,  which  are 
as  different  from  those  of  other  countries  as,  e.  g.  the  river  steamers  which 
have  become  a  speciality  for  America. 


Photo.  Pn.  G.  Klemmikg,  Stockholm. 

In  the  Stockholm  Archipelago  (Skargdrd). 


The  Swedish  coastal  steamer  is  generally  of  medium  size,  about  60  meters  in 
length.  In  appearance  it  is  extremely  elegant  and  almost  resembles  a  pleasure 
yacht;  it  is  kept  extremely  well,  being  painted,  washed,  and  cleaned  on  every 
possible  occasion.  The  fitting-up  affords  every  comfort:  the  saloons  are  cosy, 
carpeted,  well-lighted,  and  well-ventilated;  the  cabins  are  furnished  with  the 
most  comfortable  reclining  places,  broad  and  with  soft  upholstering  (with  scarcely 
ever  two  berths  placed  one  above  the  other,  as  is  so  often  the  case  in  vessels 
of  other  countries).  The  attendants  are  exclusively  women,  and  the  catering, 
which  is  at  the  same  time  excellent  and  cheap,  is  as  a  rule  mangaged  by 
women.  This  perfection  of  comfort  and  ease  in  everything,  combined  with  the 
pleasure  of  passing  through  the  most  splendid  scenery,  without  any  rolling  and 
consequently  without  any  sea-sickness,  make  the  trips  on  Swedish  island-  and  canal- 
steamers  really  pleasurable,  a  circumstance  that  has,  in  recent  years,  received 
the  attention  of  tourists  from  foreign  countries. 

Among  the  various  types  of  Swedish  sailing-boats,  the  Koster  boat,  the 
Roslag  sloop,  and  the  Blekinge  punt  are  the  most  noteworthy. 


HOME   SHIPPING. 


561 


The  Koster  boat,  so  called  after  the  Koster  islands  off  the  coast  of  Bohus- 
liin,  exhibits  a  happy  combination  of  the  qualities  of  a  good  and  safe  fishing 
boat,  which,  in  case  of  need,  can  accommodate  a  considerable  cargo,  and  those  of 
a  good  sailer,  which  can  successfully  brave  the  notorious  gales  of  the  Skagerrak. 
The  Koster  boat  is  decked,  particularly  strongly  built,  and  is  provided  with 
two  sails,  fore-sail  and  main-sail.  This  type  is  generally  employed  in  the  pilot- 
service. 

The  Boslag  sloop,  which  can  be  traced  back  to  the  seventeenth  century,  is 
quite  open  and  is  provided  with  one  large  sail  fixed  to  a  boom  —  somewhat 
after  the  fashion  of  the  mizzen-sail  of  a  schooner  —  and  also  with  a  fore-sail. 
The  construction  of  the  boat,  which  derives  its  origin  from  the  celebrated  naval 
architect  Chapman,  is  particularly  elegant,  though  its  lines  are  full.  This  type 
derives  its  name  from  Eoslagen,  or  the  tract  immediately  north  of  Stockholm 
bn  the  coast. 

The  Blehinge  punt,  as  the  name  indicates,  is  found  chiefly  in  Blekinge.  This 
type'  of  boat  is  capacious  and  easy  to  row,  it  is  a  good  tacker  and  easily  handled, 
besides  which  it  runs  exceedingly  well  before  the  wind.  It  is  also  used  for 
fishing  in  the  open  sea,  in  which  case  it  has  a  single,  very  large  square-sail; 
otherwise  it  has,  besides  a  main-sail,  at  least  a  fore-sail. 


Boslag  Sloop. 


Photo.  Fe.  G.  Klemmikg,  Stockholm. 


The  entire  Home  Shipping  in  Sweden  in  1912  ■ —  apart  from  vessels  of 
less  than  10  tons  and  excluding  traffic  within  and  about  the  respective 
harbours  —  comprised  243  145  vessels  entered  and  cleared,  with  a  total 
tonnage  of  26  290  318  tons.    Of  this  total  206  041  were  steam-ships  with  a 

SG— 133179.  Sweden.  II. 


562  IX.      SHIPPING    AND    NAVIGATION. 

tonnage  of  24  545  081  tons,  the  steam-ships  thus  comprising  85  %  in  point 
of  numbers  and  no  less  than  93  %  in  point  of  tonnage. 

With  regard  to  the  traffic  on  the  canals,  some  information  is  given  in  a 
special  paragraph  below. 

It  may  be  pointed  out  that  in  most  countries  the  home  shipping  is  a 
privilege  reserved  to  native  vessels;  but  in  Sweden,  in  certain  cases,  foreign 
vessels  have  the  right  to  carry  on  so-called  coastal  traffic. 


Canals  and  Waterways. 

In  Sweden,  a  country  munificiently  endowed  with  lakes  and  rivers, 
natural  watercourses  have  always  been  of  great  importance.  It  was  along 
the  waterways  the  cultivation  of  the  land  began  and  settlements  were 
built,  as  in  early  times  they  were  practically  the  only  means  of  commu- 
nication available  during  the  seasons  of  the  year  when  the  absence  of 
snow  rendered  sledge  traffic  impossible.  This  is  still  the  case  over  large 
stretches  of  the  northern  provinces,  where  the  rowingboat  and  the  »rapids 
boat»  (forsbdt)  still  play  'an  important  role. 

It  was  therefore  quite  in  the  natural  course  of  things  that  from  an 
early  date  efforts  were  directed  towards  improving  and  connecting  the 
natural  watercourses  by  the  construction  of  artificial  canals  and  water- 
ways. The  term  canal  (which  renders  the  Swedish  kanal)  will  be  used 
in  the  sequel  to  signify  an  entirely  or  partially  artificial  waterway  equip- 
ped with  one  or  more  locks,  whereas  the  term  waterway,  (which  renders 
the  Swedish  farled),  designates  either  a  natural  or  in  some  cases  an  arti- 
ficial watercourse  without  locks. 

As  early  as  at  the  beginning  of  the  16th  century  Gustavus  Vasa,  the  Great 
I  Economist,  was  thoroughly  alive  to  the  importance  of  waterways  for  the  develop- 
ment of  the  land,  and  designed  several  schemes  to  that  end,  schemes  which  the 
troubled  conditions  of  the  time  prevented  him  from  carrying  into  effect.  One 
of  those  had  the  object  of  rendering  Sweden  independent  from  the  powerful 
Hansa  League  and  the  Oresund  tolls  by  arranging  an  inland  waterway  between 
the  Baltic  and  the  Kattegat.  All  the  sons  of  Gustavus  Vasa  who  succeeded 
him  on  the  throne,  devoted  their  attention  to  waterways.  However,  it  was  re- 
served for  the  youngest  of  them,  Charles  IX,  actually  to  set  on  foot  projects 
for  canal  construction.  It  was  he  too  that  gave  the  first  impulse  to  the  ambi- 
tious scheme  for  water  communication  through  out  Sweden  which  was  drawn 
up  by  his  son  Gustavus  Adolphus  II  and  Axel  Oxenstierna,  the  Great  Chancellor, 
and  which  they  as  far  as  depended  on  them  were  in  a  fair  way  to  carry  into 
effect. 

This  Charles  IX,  amongst  other  projects,  constructed  a  canal  equipped  with 
wooden  locks  between  Lake  Malaren  and  Lake  Hjalmaren  from  the  Torshalla  Falls 
to  Hyndevad.  This  canal,  which  was  in  course  of  construction  from  1596  to 
1610,  was  called  the  Hjdlmare  Canal,  and  was  the  first  of  its  kind  in  Sweden. 
However,  it  soon  fell  to  pieces,  and  not  more  than  thirty  years  had  elapsed  ere 
there  was  a  new  Hjalmare  Canal  completed,  this  time  situated  between  the  little 
river  Arboga  and  Lake  Hjalmaren,  and  running  in  pretty  much  the  same  direction 
as  the  present  canal.     This  canal  too  was  rebuilt  several  times.    It  was  in  1830, 


CANALS   AND    WATERWAYS. 


563 


Gen.  Stab.  LitAnsL  StocUtolrri 


564 


IX.      SHIPPING   AND    NAVIGATION. 


Photo.  Alfred  Sj6berg,  Karlsborg. 
The  Gota  Canal,  the  Berg  Locks. 


under  the  hands  of  the  engineer  Edstrom,  finally  put  into  what  is  virtually  its 
precent  condition. 

One  of  the  oldest  canal  works  in  Sweden,  the  Stockholm  lock,  was  constructed 
as  far  back  as  1639 — 42,  but  was  rebuilt  by  Kristoffer  Polhem  in  1744 — 53. 
The  present  lock  was  completed  in  1850  under  the  superintendence  of  Nils 
Ericson. 

The  Stromsholm  Canal  was  started  in  1776,  and  its  first  section,  between 
Vastanfors  and  Ramnas,  was  opened  in  1782.  But  it  was  not  completed,  by 
being  carried  down  to  Lake  Malaren  at  Strornsholm,  until  1795.  During  the 
years  from  1842  to  1860  it  was  rebuilt  and  assumed  its  present  form.  The 
once  busy  traffic  to  and  from  the  mining  districts  has  in  recent  times  declined 
considerably  owing  to  the  severe  competition  of  the  railways.  The  small  size 
of  the  canal  is  a  great  handicap.  i 

The  Trollhdtte  Canal,^  which  passes  all  the  falls  in  the  Gota  alv,  ^  was  actu- 
ally opened  for  traffic  in  1800.  The  works  took  seven  years  and  were  super- 
intended by  Nordevall,  a  most  eminent  engineer  of  the  time  and  the  designer 
of  the  project.  Many  fruitless  attempts  had  previously  been  made  to  construct 
a  navigable  communication  between  Lake  Vanern  and  the  Kattegat.  As 
early  as  in  1607,  Charles  IX  had  a  lockage  constructed  at  the  lowest  waterfall,' 
the  Lilla  Edet  Falls,  and  started  on  the  trench,  called  "Karls  Grav"  which,  ^ 
greatly  enlarged,  still  connects  Lake  Vanern  with  the  reach  of  the  Gota  alv 
above  Trollhattan.  Kristoffer  Polhem,  the  renowned  engineer,  concluded  at 
Lund  in  1718  veritable  contract  with  Charles  XII  "to  make  a  shipping  route 
between    Stockholm,    Gothenburg,    and    Norrkoping",    and  the  works  were  even 


^  Named  after  the  falls  of  Trollhattan  (The  Goblins  Cap), 
river). 


^  Alv  =  river  (alven  =  the 


CANALS   AND   WATERWAYS. 


565 


immediately  commenced  at  the  Gota  alv.  Owing  to  the  Kings  death  that  same 
year,  the  project  though  was  abandoned.  In  the  eighteenth  century  repeated 
attempts  were  made  to  carry  out  the  enterprise  with  the  aid  of  the  State,  and 
at  Trollhattan  traces  of  the  works  for  this  canal  are  still  visible;  in  the  first 
place  Polhem's  Lock,  which  affords  abundant  testimony  to  the  genius  and 
daring  imagination  of  the  projector.  The  canal  which  was  completed  in  1800 
was  executed  by  a  private  company,  which  however,  was  aided  and  favoured 
in  many  respects  by  the  State.  In  similar  way  most  of  the  great  canal  projects 
during  the  first  haK  of  the  nineteenth  century  were  carried  into  execution. 
The  Gota  Canal  between  Lake  Vanem  and  the  Baltic  was  completed  in  1832. 
As  it  had  been  given  greater  lock  dimensions  than  the  Trollhatte  Canal,  claims 
were  naturally  advanced  that  the  latter  should  be  rebuilt  to  the  same  measure- 
ments as  the  Gota  Canal.  These  proposals  were  even  carried  into  effect  in 
1838 — 1844  by  a  new  company  which  replaced  the  old  one.  The  works  were 
executed  under  the  superintendence  of  Nils  Ericson,  famous  both  as  a  canal 
and  as  a  railway  engineer.  The  canal,  thus  rebuilt,  is  still  in  use  as  even  the 
flight  of  locks  at  Trollhattan,  remaining  from  the  old  canal  continually  utilizes 
after  more  than  hundred  years.  At  present  the  Trollhatte  Canal  is  being  subjected 
to  a  drastic  reconstruction  (see  below). 

Another  old  canal,  still  in  use,  is  the  Sodertdlje  Canal,  which  was  con- 
structed under  the  superintendence  of  Nordevall  from  1806  to  1819. 

The  Gota  Canal  from  Soderkoping  to  Motala  and  from  Karlsborg  to  Sjotorp 
on  Lake  Vanem  was  in  process  of  construction  from  1809  to  1832.  It  owed 
its  existence  chiefly  to  the  vigorous  efforts  of  Baltzar  von  Platen,  who  devoted 
all    his   energy   to  this  part  of  Sweden's  "blue  ribbon".     The  enterprise,  magni- 


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The  oldest  Flight  of  Locks  at  Trollhattan. 


566  IX.      SHIPPING   AND   NAVIGATION. 

fioent  in  itself,  assumes  enhanced  lustre  from  the  consideration  that  at  this  time 
the  resources  of  the  country  had  been  seriously  depleted  by  the  Finnish  war  and 
the  loss  of  Finland.  It  is  true  that  the  canal  never  acquired  the  great  im- 
portance originally  assigned  to  it  as  a  transit  between  the  seas.  Nevertheless 
the  benefit  conferred  by  this  waterway,  eked  out  by  the  TroUhatte  Canal, 
must  not  be  underestimated.  Besides  serving  the  local  traffic,  it  facilitated  the 
cheap  carriage  of  goods  between  the  extensive  upland  country  along  the  shores 
of  the  big  lakes,  and  the  coasts  of  the  nearest  seas. 

Other  important  canals  are  the  Sdffle  Canal,  constructed  in  1835 — 37  and 
rebuilt  in  1866 — 69,  which  places  the  lakesystem  of  the  Byalven  in  com- 
munication with  Lake  Vanern  and  the  Kattegat;  the  Dalsland  Canal,  affording 
easy  access  from  the  lakes  Stora  Le  and  Lelangen  to  Lake  Vanern  at  Kop- 
mannabro,  and  the  Kinda  Canal,  connecting  the  Gota  Canal  with  Lake  Asunden, 
the  former  built  in  1865—69,  the  latter  in  1865—71. 

During  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  technique  of  canal  con- 
struction was  carried  to  a  high  pitch  of  perfection.  This  is  abundantly  testified 
by  the  many  canal  works  then  achieved  and  which  are  in  use  to  this  very  day. 
But  as  the  century  waned  to  its  close,  the  canal  building  was  almost  entirely 
abandoned.  The  railways  had  now  begun  their  triumphal  march  even  in  Swe- 
den, and  the  canals,  which  were  handicapped  with  regard  to  cheap  and  speedy 
freights  by  their  small  dimensions  adapted  to  the  needs  of  earlier  tinjes,  were 
regarded  by  many  as  mere  historical  curiosities.  This  was  also  the  case  in 
other  countries.  But  in  the  enormous  development  of  traffic  which  has  taken 
place  in  recent  times,  the  water  routes  once  more  came  into  favour.  It  was 
realised  that  both  means  of  transport  had  their  raison  d'etre  alongside  of  one 
another,  nay  that  in  the  case  of  large  traffic,  a  natural  division  of  labour  ensued, 
the  bulky,  heavy  and  less  urgent  goods  falling  to  the  water  routes,  which  con- 
veyed them  at  the  cheapest  price.  This  radical  change  of  view  as  to  the  im- 
portance of  waterways  has  in  several  civilized  countries  given  rise  to  magnificent 
new    canal    projects,    and    to    the    improvement  of  older  canals. 

People  have  begun  to  realize  this  in  Sweden  too.  An  index  of  how  opi- 
nion in  this  respect  has  veered  is  the  investigation  which  Government  in  1896, 
at  the  request  of  official  bodies  and  private  persons  interested  in  the  question 
instructed  the  Vag-  och  Vattenbyggnadsstyrelsen  "^  to  set  on  foot  with  respect 
to  'a  new  improved  waterway  between  Lake  Vanern  and  the  Kattegat.  Another 
case  in  point  is  the  Government  Bill  which,  at  the  instance  of  the  Vag-  och 
Vattenbyggnadsstyrelsen,  was  brought  before  the  Riksdag  providing  for  among 
others  an  investigation  of  new  canal  routes  with  large  dimensions  from  Lake 
Vanern  via  Lake  Vattern  to  the  Baltic  and  from  Lake  Vanern  via  Lake 
Hjalmaren  to  Lake  Malaren.  It  is  true  that  this  latter  Bill  was  thrown  out  by 
the  Riksdag,  on  the  ground  of  the  investigations  then  in  progress  for  the  canal 
from  Lake  Vanern  to  the  'Kattegat,  but  in  the  other  hand,  these  latter  investiga- 
tions were  fraught  with  far-reaching  consequences. 

In  1902  the  Vag-  och  Vattenbyggnadsstyrelsen  submitted  a  petition,  based  on 
investigations  and  proposals  by  Laurell,  the  then  major  in  the  of  Royal  Engineer- 
ing Corps,  requesting  that  an  improved  canal  and  waterway  between  Vdnersborg 
and  Gothenburg,  with  a  depth  of  6  meters  at  low  water,  might  be  carried  into 
execution.  This  proposal  having  been  submitted  to  official  bodies  and  interested 
persons,  for  their  consideration,  was  finally  in  1906  forwarded  to  the  Royal  Board 
of  the  TroUhatte  Canal  and  Water  Works,  constituted  in  1905.  The  fact  was  that 
the  Government  (in  order  to  be  in  a  position  satisfactorily  to  solve  the  question 


'  A  Royal  Board  that  controls  and  partly  executes  the  construction  of  highways,  private 
railways,  canals,  harbours  etc. 


CANALS   AND   WATERWAYS. 


567 


of  how  best  to  utilize  the  water  power  of  the  Trollhatte  Falls  and  also  the  ques- 
tion of  the  waterway),  had  in  1904  purchased  all  the  property  of  the  New  Troll- 
hatte Canal  Company  and  had  placed  it  under  the  administration  of  the  Board 
just  mentioned.  The  investigations  of  the  Board  were  brought  to  a  termination 
in  1908  and  issued  in  a  scheme  for  the  reconstruction  of  the  waterway  for  vessels 
with  a  draught  of  4  meters,  but  with  locks  and  other  artificial  works  for  ves- 
sels with  a  draught  of  5  meters.  Government  having  immediately  appointed  a 
larger  commission  to  consider  the  proposal,  and  the  latter  having  given  its  app- 
roval. Government  Bill,  drawn  up  in  conformity  with  that  proposal  was  brought 
before  the  Riksdag  in  1909.  This  Bill  made  its  passage  into  law,  and  thus  this 
vital  question  after  years  of  investigations  and  parleyings  to  and  fro,  was  finally 
solved. 


The  neio  Flight  of  Locks  at  Trollhdttan ;  in  course  of  cnnstruetion  1912. 


The  works  of  construction,  which  have  been  estimated  to  22'8  million  kroner  were 
immediately  started  under  the  superintendence  of  the  Royal  Board  of  Waterfalls, 
and  are  estimated  to  be  completed  in  1916.  The  locks  will  be  given  the  following 
dimensions:  90xl3'lX5'6  meters,  whereas  the  present  locks  in  the  Trollhatte 
and  Gota  Canals  measure  33  X  T'ls  x  2-97  meters. 

Another  canal  question  has  come  into  prominence  of  late.  As  the  rebuilding 
to  a  double  track  line  of  the  Sodra  Stambanan  (the  South  Trunk  Railway) 
advanced  to  Sodertalje,  it  showed  necessary  to  satisfactorily  arrange  the  point 
of  crossing  the  Sodertalje  Canal.  The  Riksdag  of  1912  then  decided  on  the 
purchase  of  the  same  canal  from  the  owning  company  and  placed  it  under 
the  administration  of  the  Board  of  Waterfalls.  The  Board  of  Waterfalls  ha? 
afterwards  by  command  of  the  Government  worked  out  a  project  on  the 
rebuilding  of  the  canal,  in  which  was  recommended  a  size  allowing  until  further 


568 


IX.      SHIPPING    AND   NAVIGAXION. 


the  passage  of  up  to  5"6  m.  deapgoing  vessels,  but  providing  for  larger  lock 
dimensions.  The  Eiksdag  furthermore  has  assigned  a  certain  amount  for  the 
dredging  of  the  south  part  of  the  canal  to  the  corresponding  depht,  with  the 
main  reason  though  to  obtain  necessary  fill  for  the  railway-works  mentioned 
above.  This  decision  is  also  indicative  of  the  interest  in  water  communication, 
which  has  been  perceptible  of  late.  That  an  improvement,  on  modem  lines, 
of  the  water  communication  between  that  big  inland  lake  and  the  Baltic  is  of 
paramount  importance,  and  is  a  question  which  can  no  longer  be  put  by  the 
board  is  attested  not  only  by  the  purchase  just  alluded  to,  and  by  the  keen 
interest  displayed  in  the  project  and  its  probable  consequences  by  the  towns  on 
Lake  Malaren  and  the  tradesmen  and  industrial  classes  in  the  country  round 
it,  but  also  by  the  plans  which  the  City  of  Stockholm  has  long  been  nursing 
to  provide  a  canal  for  large  vessels,  south  of  Stockholm  via  Lake  Hammarby 
and  the  bay  of  Arsta.  This  question  hangs  together  with  the  proposals  for 
shorter  approaches  to  Stockholm,  as,  for  instance,  through  the  Moranedet,  through 
Sagsjon  (Baggensfjarden  to  Halvkakssundet),  through  Alstaket,  and  other  routes. 
Other  signs  pointing  in  the  same  direction  are  the  works  just  completed  for 
the  extension  of  the  Dalsland  Canal  from  Stora  Le  to  Lake  Osten  and  the 
project,  now  under  consideration,  for  the  construction  of  the  Nykoping  canal, 
which  is  intended  to  place  the  Sodermanland  lakes,  Baven,  Lidsjon,  Yngaren, 
Langhalsen  and  others,  in  communication  with  the  Baltic.  Further  have  of  late 
several  towns  and  cities  submitted  to  the  Government  on  investigations  with 
regard  to  the  rebuilding  of  the  Gota  Canal  into  a  watercourse  answering  to  the 
claims  of  the  time.  Other  less  ambitious  canal  projects  are  in  progress  of  exe- 
cution, or  under  disciission. 


Photo.  Nils  G.  Ahlik,  Haverad. 

The  Dalsland  Canal,  the  Aqueduct  at  Hdverud. 


CANALS   AND   WATERWAYS.  569 


Photo.   K.   SiDENBLADH,  J:R. 

The  Sodertdlje  Canal. 


Waterways.  Sweden  has  countless  waterways,  if  one  includes  under 
that  term  all  the  smaller  water  routes  which  Nature  has  created  and 
which  art  has  here  and  there  improved. 

No  exhaustive  data  are  procurable  with  regard  to  the  waterways  of  Sweden. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  Vag-  och  Vattenbyggnadsstyrelsen  has  compiled  statistics 
with  regard  to  the  waterways  that  have  been  constructed  or  improved  with 
State  aid.  It  is  true  that  this  excludes  such  important  waterways  as,  for 
instance,  the  entrance  to  Gothenburg,  which  is  maintained  by  that  City,  and 
the  approaches  to  Stockholm  from  the  sea  (except  as  regard  the  channel  at  Ko- 
djupet  near  Vaxholm).  Nevertheless  an  extract  from  this  said  compilation  eked 
out  by  the  latest  information  obtainable  from  the  same  source,  has  been  inserted 
here,  as  being  of  no  small  interest  for  the  subject  in  hand  (Table  120). 

One  of  the  groups  of  waterways  included  in  the  table  consists  of  those  which 
do  not  communicate  with  sea.  We  note  in  this  respect  chiefly  the  busily 
plied  waterway  communicating  with  the  Fryken  lakes  in  Varmland. 

Another  group  is  formed  by  waterways,  abridging  the  distance  between 
waters  previously  connected  with  each  other,  and  which  are  chiefly  intended  to 
provide  facilities  for.  the  coast  shipping  to  pass  within  the  cover  of  the  islands, 
avoiding  the  risks  of  the  open  sea.  Such  are,  for  instance,  the  Vaddo  water- 
way in  the  Uppland  skargard,^  and  the  Albrektssund  waterway  in  the  Marstrand 
skargard.  The  Vaddo  waterway,  which  connects  Ortalaviken  with  Bagghusfjarden 
has  a  very  ancient  history.    It  was  rebidlt  to  a  depth  of  3"i  meters  in  1898 — 1904. 

The  Albrektssimd  waterway  affords  facilities  for  sailing  within  the  shelter 
of   the    islands   almost  the  whole  way  from  Gothenburg  to  Stromstad.  Formerly 


'  »Skarga,rd»  =  a  coastline  splittered  in  numerous  islands. 


570 


IX.      SHIPPING   AND   NAVIGATION. 


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CANALS   AND   WATBIIWAYS. 


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572 


IX.      SHIPPING   AND   NAVIGATION. 


Table  121.        Traffic  in  Canals  and  Waterways  in  1912. 


Name 


Vessels, 

Barges, 

and 

Floats 
passing 

Oanal 


Number 


Tons 


Sailingboats 

of  more  than 

10  tons 


Num- 
ber 


Tons 


Smal- 
ler 
sail- 
ing- 
boats 


Barges 


Tim- 
ber 
Floats 


Canal  Dues 
in  Eronor 


A.     Canals. 

Dalsland 

Eskllstnna,  lower  .  . 
Eskilstnna,  upper  .  . 
Eilipstads  bergslag  . 
Forshaga  aud  Karlstad 

Gota 

Gothenburg  Lock  .  . 
Nya  Hjalmare    .    .    . 

Kinda   

Knappfors 

Rappe-Tofta-Asasjon . 

Snacke  

Stockholm  Lock .  .  . 
Stromsholm     .    .    .    . 

Safde 

Sodertalje 

Tisken-Rnnn  Lock     . 

TroUhatte 

Aker 

Orebro 

Total 


B.    Waterways. 

Albrektssnnd  . 
Almarestaket  . 
Djurg8,rdsbrnnn 
Granso .... 
HarnBsaud  .  . 
Harnestad  waterway  a 

"Sydostra  kanalen" 

Karlberg 

Malaren — Alby   and 

TuUinge  lakes    .    . 

Nattraby 

Stegeholm 

Stromma 

Stromsholm   at   Vas- 

tervik   

Tjnvholmssnnd  .  .  . 

Tyndero 

Vaddo 

Alkistan 

Orsnndsbro — Hogby  . 

Total 


12  713 

1532 

794 

12 

351 

5  289 

3  928 

1320 

2  986 

289 

754 

418 

31020 

2  996 

2158 

7996 

1930 

11281 

949 

1902 


5  820 

907 

636 

12 

124 

2  032 

482 

1666 

135 

423 

212 

12  061 

673 

1431 

2  976 

1662 

8  947 

528 

1523 


166  776 
48  000 
39  005 

1240 
197  605 

44873 

57  759 

552 

X 

8056 

412  108 

10358 

130  967 

291 749 

1 

796  209 
21453 
68  071 


403 

14 

2 


1312 

6 
16 


52 

2  039 

44 

493 

1178 

823 

178 
58 


15  066 
440 

82 


73  834 

207 
626 


1976 
92  572 

1341 
18  250 
63  256 

50  077 
2  989 
2179 


1249 
393 


424 
5^90 
243 

28 


109 
612 


854 


1605 
218 
156 

159 
1469 
3  838 

589 
1021 

154 

325 

15  499 

1909 

234 

2  297 

268 

1464 

47 

321 


3  636 


68 
52 


256 

6 
45 

787 
870 

691 


196 


110 122-88 

16  16302 

6  205-88 

22-00 

2093-96 

241 106-94 

4  005  28 

3076440 

25633-33 

556-00 

2  687-88 

2  238-31 
91 995-78 
27  260-73 
58731-11 
73415-71 

414-69 
655847  25 

3  322-46 
16 175-96 


90618 


42  249  2294  781 


3  313 

2  775 
5  586 
5  903 
1642 


1208 
1037 
5  225 
4  264 
1311 


11164 

262 

5  753 

478 

622 

1095 
1556 
1062 
2  704 
1160 
10 


9135 

109 

5111 

293 

622 

375 
1189 

988 
1306 

792 


6618 


4002 


31573 


6107 


1368  763  54 


69167 
1 

10  316 
45  634 


2 

1236 

291 

11 

62 


270 

61523 

4121 

161 

909 


2  082 

1 

1612 

125 


21 

69 
14 

58 


602 

2 
86 


98 

2  676 

1 

60  993 


2  635 

864  069 

47  253 

34  311 


158 

16 

188 

95 


7  026 

628 
4  535 

8  926 


20 

8 

454 

21 


1851 

126 

65 


257 
179 

467 

10 


7  668 
14  715 

22  974 

308 


279 
61 


182 
133 
57 
466 
179 


2  325-18 
3 115-80 
324-00 
1 886-90 
3215-95 


1 543-00 

327-51 

648-48 

3 167-33 

828-00 

1 143-97 

114  356-48 

181-00 

7  615-15 

402-10 

23-55 


45085  32  9651137  052 


2  972  133  764  4002 


3  221 


689 


141103  40 


'  Number  of  tons  not  stated.  —  "  Including  even  vessels  withont  charge.  —  'No  vessels 
have  plied  the  canal  during  the  year. 


CANALS    AND    WATERWAYS.  573 

it    was    only    1-78    meters    deep,    but    it    has    now    been    excavated  to  a  depth 
of  4  meters. 

Finally,  there  is  a  group  of  waterways  comprising  what  may  be  called  as 
"inland"  water  routes,  though  all  of  them  communicate  with  the  sea.  Take,  for 
instance,  the  fairways  from  the  sea  to  certain  important  ports,  such  as  Lulea 
(depth  7-5  meters),  notable  for  its  great  export  of  ore,  Gavle  (6-5  meters), 
Norrkoping  (4-3i  meters),  Uddevalla  (5-m  meters).  Then  there  is  the  Brandal- 
sund  (depth  6  meters),  which  serves  as  a  link  of  communication  for  the  traffic 
to  and  from  Sodertalje  and  Lake  Malaren  through  Sodertiilje  Canal.  Nor  must 
we  forget  in  conclusion  the  water  routes  of  this  class  which,  ramifing  from 
Lake  Malaren  to  Uppsala,  Enkoping,  Koping,  Arboga,  place  these  towns  in 
communication  with  the  sea. 


Photo.  Nelson,  Malmii. 


The  Neio  Dry  Dock  at  Malmo. 


It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  revived  interest  in  the  long-neglected  water- 
routes  which,  to  judge  by  numerous  signs  has  at  last  been  aroused  in 
Sweden,  and  for  which  the  works  and  projects  touched  upon  in  the 
foregoing  are  the  symptoms,  is  destined  to  subsist,  and  that  it  will  con- 
tribute its  quota  to  the  development  and  progress  of  Swedish  enterprise 
and  of  Swedish  industry. 

The  canals  and  waterways  of  Sweden,  with  the  exception  of  the  Trollhatte 
and  Sodertalje  canals,  which  are  administered  by  the  Board  of  Waterfalls,  are 
all  under  the  supervision  of  the  Vag-  och  Vattenbyggnadsstyrelsen.  That  depart- 
ment   also   administers  the  Vaddo  and  Albrektssund  waterways,:  which  are  State 


574 


IX.      SHIPPING   AND    NAVIGATION. 


property.  The  beacon  and  lighting  arrangements  are  subject  to  the  supervision 
of  the  Pilotage  Board.  However,  there  are  certain  private  waterways  which  in 
this  regard  do  not  fall  within  the  purview  of  the  Pilotage  Board. 

Harbours  and  Dry  Docks. 

In  virtue  of  the  long  line  of  the  Swedish  coast,  the  almost  entire 
absence  of  tide,  the  existence  of  numberless  firths  and  river-mouths  pene- 
trating deeply  into  the  country,  provided  with  good  anchorages,  and  shel- 
tered by  nature  from  wind  and  wave,  and  also  of  a  number  of  lakes  con- 
nected by  canals  with  the  sea,  Sweden  has  in  proportion  to  her  population, 
an  extremely  large  number  of  harbours.  Most  of  these  are  natural  har- 
bours, that  is,  harbours  protected  entirely  or  to  a  very  great 
extent  by  the  natural  conformation  of  the  land.  But  Sweden  has  also 
a  good  many  harbours,  and  some  of  them  of  very  considerable  importance, 
which  to  a  great  extent  have  been  protected  by  artificial  means.  To  the 
former  category  belong  the  two  greatest  harbours  in  Sweden,  Stockholm 
and  Gothenburg,  besides  Lulea,  Sundsvall,  Gavle,  Oxelosund,  and  Norr- 
koping.  Among  artificial  harbours  should  be  reckoned  Malmo,  Kalmar, 
Tralleborg,  Halsingborg,  Visby,  Ystad,  and  Halmstad. 


Table  122. 

Important 

Harbours. 

Harbour 

In      19  10 

At      the      end     of      1910 

Total 
Conatnic- 

tion 
Costs  of 

Har- 
bouri  in 
mill.  kr. 

Ships  entering 
or  leaving 

Dues  for 

Quays  in  use  for  general  traffic  for  depth 
under  mean  water  level 

under  4  m 

4  to  6  m 

over  6  m 

Number 

Beg. 
Tons 

Tonnage 
kr. 

Freight 
kr. 

Stone 
m 

Wood 
m 

Stone 
m 

Wood 

m 

Stone 
m 

Wood 
m 

Stockholm    . 
Gothenburg  . 
Malmo  .    .    . 
LuleS,    .    .    . 
Ornskoldsvik 

Harnosand   . 
Sundsvall 
Hndiksvall  . 
Soderhamn  . 
Gavle    .    .    . 

Oxelosnnd    . 
NorrkiSping  . 
VasteWik     . 
Oskarshamn 
Kalmar     .    . 

Karlskrona  . 
Tralleborg   . 
Landskrona . 
Halsingborg 
Halmstad  .   . 

15-4 

11-9 

17-5 

1-9 

0-9 

0-6 
1-6 
0-4 
20 

3-9 

1-9 

3-4 

0'5 
1-6 
1'5 

1-8 
2-2 

10 

5-2 

1-5 

85  663 
16  809 
12  789 

2  493 
1738 

6  572 
9  617 
1310 
4397 

3  846 

2834 

4  265 

5  060 
2  545 
6152 

2  408 
2  905 
4154 
12  059 
4  012 

6  799  603 
4  510 108 
4  463  560 

1  698  604 
534  244 

726  582 

1425  064 

516  818 

774 144 

1436  872 

1417.803 

1016  574 

538  232 

554  256 

1055  542 

537  568 

2  670  085 
883  383 

2  981  276 
700 197 

316  081 

384  243 

141  995 

81551 

27  909 

22  730 
62  634 
30  264 
56  679 
95  749 

2 

75  279 
16  816 
21  956 
47  342 

34  091 
24004 
40  082 
93  548 
52  815 

619  143 

470124 

288  607 

14895 

19  338 

23548 
60  951 

20  793 
49  655 

185  019 

2 

184  014 
22  593 
36  063 
82  406 

35145 

94  763 

88  400 

203  529 

124  744 

179 
3  775 

100 

60 
245 

335 

140 

70 

150 

26 
392 

651 

232 

1150 

200 

340 

541 

240 

4  050 

3  917 

117 

665 
270 
700 

165 

135 

400 

22 

882 

2  309 
1864 

267 

330 

404 

1628 

150 
2  806 

300 
1005 

905 

155 

698 
576 

5  921 

1565 
732 
435 

565 
713 
229 
620 
2110 

738 
110 

425 

675 
36P 
570 
535 
1181 

2  427 

1249 

2  400 

540 

564 

480 

497 

200 

410 
1378 

1642 
3  300 

180 
208 

100 

340 
505 
490 
142 

In  some  cases:  approximate  value  of  harbour  works.  —  *  No  harbour  dues  are  paid. 


HARBOURS   AND   DRY   DOCKS. 


575 


576 


IX.      SHIPPING   AND   NAVIGATION. 


Owing  to  the  rapid  advance  of  shipping,  harbour-works  have  especially 
during  recent  years  undergone  considerable  development  in  point  of  tech- 
nique. In  several  places  expensive  quays  with  warehouses  and  arrange- 
ments for  loading  and  dischargixig,  have  been  executed.  —  Sweden  does  not 
yet  (1914)  boast  of  any  free-poris,  but  projects  have  been  mooted  for  the 
establishment  of  a  free-port  at  Stockholm,  G-othenburg,  Malmo,  and  else- 
where. Particulary  great  interest  in  the  project  has  been  evinced  at 
the  two  latter  towns,  and  at  Gothenburg  a  large  extension  of  the  harbour 
which  was  resolved  on  in  1912  will  in  all  probability  be  made  a  free-port. 

The    Statistics    of    the    Board    of  Trade  show  that  Sweden  in  1910  had  260 » 
harbours,  that    331  064    ships    of    10  ,  tons    and    upwards    entered  or  left  those 


Table  123. 


Doclcs  in  1<)12. 


Eepth 

A 

c  t  u  a  1 

D  0  0  k'  s 

at'thre- 
Bbold 

Width 

(at 

at 

W 

L  d  t  h 

Length 

Place 

Proprietor  of  Dock 

moan 
water- 

entran- 
ce 

! 

at 

at 

level) 

at 

water- 

at 

water- 

bottom 

line 

bottom 

line 

m 

m 

m 

m 

m 

ni 

Stockholm : 

Galarvarvet     .    . 

State  (Navy) 

,  6-97 

16-7 

16-6 

22-4 

125-0 

129-0 

Beckhiolmen     .    \ 
do.             .    / 

Grosshandelss&iieteten 

j  5:18 
\  3-&6  ,; 

'  15-8 
106 

15.5 
10-5 

18-1  a22-7 
11-9  al7o 

99-0 
980 

103-6 
100-5 

Floating  .... 

fBergsunds   mekaniskal 
\verkstads   aktiebolag'j. 

5-48  '. 

'         1 

(16-8) 

1 

74-0 

74-0 

do 

Sodra  varvet'' 

4-50 

9-0 

9-0 

90 

31-0 

31-0 

Norrkoping  .... 

Private 

Boo 

10-8 

5-6 

15-7 

69-4 

74-2 

Soderkoping    .    .    . 

Gota  kanalbolag 

3-10 

7-5 

261 

35-4 

810 

89-0 

Motala ■  . 

do. 

300 

7-2 

221 

27-1 

98-9 

101-4 

Sjotorp     

do. 
Oskarshamns  meka-  ] 

30ff 

7-3 

23-0 

350 

67-6 

70-0 

Oskarshamn    .    .    . 

niska  verkstads  och  1 

4-66 

14-8 

fl6-5 

\102 

210 

105-0 

105-0 

do.           ... 

skeppsdockas  aktie-  ( 

11-4 

44-8 

47-5 

■bolags 

Karlskrona: 

Old 

State  (Navy) 

5-37 

13-7 

17-1 

24-0 

68-7 

68-7 

No.  1 

do. 

5-91 

14-1 

15-4 

20-2 

55-6 

66-2 

.3 

do. 

■'6-00 

14-2 

15-4 

20-8 

77-3 

89-7 

.3 

do. 

6-05 

14-2 

151 

21-3 

58-6 

67-4 

>    4 

do. 

611 

141 

15-7 

22-6 

61-9 

71-5 

»    5 

do. 

611 

141 

15-7 

22-6 

61-9 

71-3 

Oscars  JI's  .    .    . 

do. 

7-63 

20-8 

20-8 

25-5 

119-0 

125-0 

Solvesborg  .... 

SolvesborgB  skeppsvarv 

4-80 

120 

16-5 

19-5 

84-9 

86-4 

Limhainn     .... 

(     SkJnska  cement-      1 
\         aktiebolaget     "    / 

1-35 

7-2 

7-2 

110 

42-0 

50-0 

Malmd:  old.    .    .    . 

City 

3-70 

10-4 

10-4 

15'4 

6  72-0 

^78-4 

new    .    .    . 

do. 

7-25 

*  200 

21-7 

27-1 

81600 

6163-0 

Halsingborg    .    .    . 

do. 
j  Lindholmens   meka-  1 

4-90 

131 

12'0 

19-5 

82-0 

90-0 

Gothenburg .... 

<      niska  verkstads      j- 
I           aktie-bolag          J 

5-50 

17-8 

160 

21-0 

125-0 

125-0 

TroUhattan  .... 

State 

4-50 

10-8 

10- 

)  a 30o 

74-.5 

75-0 

'  Floating  Dock,  lifting  capacity  2  200  tons,  L  section.  —  '^  Floating  Dock,  lifting  capa- 
city 350  tons,  U  section.  —  °  Gates  common  to  both  docks.  —  *  At  -waterline,  width  at 
port  opening  240  m.  —  '  Lengths  in  normal  cases  8  m  less.  —  *  Lengths  in  normal  cases 
4  m  less. 


PILOTS   AND   LIGHTHOUSES.      LIFE-SAVIXG  INSTITUTIONS.  577 

harbours,  and  that  the  total  tonnage  of  those  ships  was  52^/2  million  register 
tons.  In  235  of  these  harbours  the  tonnage  dues  aggregated  2  355  529  kronor, 
and  in  79  of  them  the  freight  dues  totalled  3  417  975  kronor. 

The  Table  122  gives  more  detailed  data  as  to  the  harbours  which  in  1910 
showed  a  tonnage  of  over  500  000  register  tons. 

There  are  dry  docks  for  public  use  at  Stockholm,  Gothenburg,  Malmo, 
Oskarshamn,  Norrkoping,  and  other  places.  Moreover  Stockholm  has  one 
naval  dock,  and  Karlskrona  seven.  The  Table  123  shows  dimensions  of 
docks,  etc. 

There  are  large  slips  for  vessels  at  Stockholm  (Finnboda),  Gavle  (Gavle 
varv  och  verkstader),  Malmo  (Kockums  mekaniska  verkstad),  and  Go- 
thenburg (Lindholmens  verkstad  and  Gotaverken).  These  five  slips 
(according  to  data  received  from  their  owners)  can  take  vessels  of: 

79-3,  84,  84,  76  and  75  meters  greatest  length  respectively,  and  about 
1  500,  2  000,  1  300,  1  200,  and  1  500  tons  greatest  dead-weight. 


Pilots  and  Lighthouses.    Life-Saving  Institutions. 

The  pilot  and  lighthouse  services  and  the  life-saving  institutions  for 
those  wrecked  at  sea  constitute  in  Sweden  one  single  department  called 
Lotsverket,  the  Pilot  Service.  This  department  is  subordinate  to  the  Lots- 
siyrelsen,  the  Pilotage  Board. 

As  early  as  the  middle  of  16th  century  there  existed  enactments  prescribing 
that  whosoever,  after  having  undertaken  to  pilot  a  ship,  ran  her  aground  should 
forfeit  his  life,  unless  the  accident  had  been  due  to  heavy  seas  and  violent 
storm.  The  Pilot  Service  as  an  institution  dates  back  to  the  time  of  Charles  XI. 
In  1655  the  Crown  pilots  had  assigned  to  them  certain  farms  out  of  the  Crown 
demesnes  which  were  exempted  from  incumbrances,  in  return  for  which  their 
owners  were  under  obligation  to  serve  as  pilots  on  the  ships  of  the  Crown  in 
precedence  to  all  others.  According  as  the  navy  was  increased,  the  pilotage 
institution  was  expanded.  In  1687  the  lotsdirektorsdmbetet,  the  Office  of  the 
Director  of  Pilots,  was  instituted.  In  1774  was  introduced  "lotspliktighet" ,  that  is 
the  obligation  for  vessels  entering  from  the  open  sea  to  make  use  of  a  government 
pilot.  Perch  beacons  (prickar)  and  other  sea-marks  were  in  use  as  long  ago  as 
the  Middle  Ages,  but  during  the  reign  of  Gustavus  I  the  peasants  dwelling  in 
the  skdrgdrd  (belt  of  skerries)  were  enjoined  to  beacon  all  reefs,  shoals,  and 
shallows  both  within  and  without  the  skerries  with  "broom  beacons"  (stakes 
surmounted  with  a  broom).  At  the  present  time  the  approaches  to  ports  and 
the  waterways  are  beaconed  thus:  red-painted  broom  beacons  (kvastprickar)  on 
one   side,    and  plain  beacons  (sldtprickar)  painted  black  and  white  on  the  other. 

As  regards  lighthouses,  it  should  be  noted  that  the  Kullen  lighthouse  in  Skane 
is  the  most  ancient  in  Sweden,  having  been  erected  as  early  as  1560.  However, 
it  was  not  till  after  1800  that  the  development  of  lighthouse  arrangements  has 
gone  rapidly  forward.    The  first  lightship  was  stationed  at  Falsterborev  in  1884. 

The  Life-Saving  Service  dates  its  origin  from  the  close  of  the  seventeenth 
century;  it  was  then  managed  by  private  persons.  It  was  not  until  1855  that 
the  first  life-saving  station  supported  by  the  State  was  erected,  but  since  that 
time  this  service  has  gone  forward  pretty  rapidly,  until  it  reached  its  present 
stage  of  development. 

Zl— 133179.  Sweden.  II. 


578  IX.      SHIPPING   AND   NAVIGATION. 

A  kind  of  nautical  description  of  the  Baltic  was  written  as  early  as  1644  by 
Johan  Mdnsson,  a  captain  in  the  Admiralty,  who  also  published  a  sort  af  mari- 
time chart  of  that  sea.  An  improved  chart  was  published  in  1694  by  Captain 
Gddda,  but  it  was  not  till  1737  that  the  first  step  was  taken  towards  the  in- 
stitution of  a  nautical  chart  office.  At  the  present  time  there  are  excellent 
iharts  of  the  coast  of  Sweden.  An  account  of  the  Nautical  Chart  Office  will 
06  found  in  the  section  entitled:  Official  Cartography  p.  I,  226. 

The  Pilotage  Board.  The  Pilotage  Board,  which  is  governed  by  regu- 
lations of  the  13  December  1907,  consists  of  a  director-general  and  three 
members,  one  of  whom  is  the  head  of  the  chancery,  one  the  head  of  the 
pilot  office,  and  the  third  superintendent  lighthouse  engineer  and  head  of 
the  corresponding  office.  —  The  permanent  staff  of  the  Board  numbered 
in  1911  23  persons. 

The  Pilot  Service.  The  present  organization  of  the  Pilot  Service  dates 
from  1881,  with  a  few  subsequent  alterations  introduced  especially  by  the 
Royal  Ordinance  of  the  30  September  1904.  In  this  Ordinance  it  is 
enacted  that  the  coasts  of  Sweden  and  adjacent  waters  shall  be  divided  into 
6  pilotage  districts,  namely  Ovre  Norra,  the  Upper  North  district,  com- 
prising the  coasts  of  the  Norrbotten  and  Viasterbotten  lans;  Nedre  Norra, 
the  Lower  North  district,  embracing  the  coasts  of  the  Vastemorrland,  Gav- 
leborg,  and  Uppsala  lans,  and  those  of  Stockholm  Ian  up  to  the  north  bound- 
ary of  Vaddo  parish;  Mellersta,  the  Midland  District,  including  the  coasts 
from  the  last-named  boTindary  and  down  to  the  boundary  between  the  pa- 
rishes of  Balinge  and  Tystberga  in  Sodermanland,  Lake  JVIalaren  and  Lake 
Hjalmaren,  and  the  island  of  Gottland;  Ostra,  the  East  district,  covering 
the  coasts  from  the  last-named  boundary  in  Sodermanland  to  the  bound- 
ary between  the  parishes  of  Kristianopel  and  Torhamn  in  Blekinge  as 
well  as  the  island  of  Gland  and  Lake  Vattern;  Sodra,  the  South  district, 
comprehending  the  coasts  from  the  last  named  frontier  in  Blekinge  besides 
the  Malmohus  and  Kristianstad  lans;  Vdstra,  the  West  district,  embo- 
dying the  coasts  of  the  Halland,  Got^borg  och  Bohus  lans  and  Lake  Va- 
nern.  Each  district  is  superintended  by  a  pilot  captain  (lotskapten) .  The 
pilot  captains  are,  as  a  rule,  selected  either  out  of  the  corps  of  naval  officers 
or  from  among  the  pilot  lieutenants  (lotslojtnant) .  The  pilot  lieiutenants  are 
the  pilot  captains'  right-hand  men  and  deputies;  one  of  them  is  assigned 
to  each  division,  and  in  addition  one  to  the  island  of  Gottland.  The  lieu- 
tenants too  are  as  a  rule  chosen  out  of  the  corps  of  naval  officers  or  from 
the  Naval  Reserves. 

The  pilot  personnel  consists  of  overlotsar,  senior  pilots,  at  certain  im- 
portant stations,  lotsformdn,  head  pilots,  at  other  stations,  and  the  re- 
quisite number  of  pilots  rated  as  mdsterlotsar,  master  pilots,  lotsar,  ordi- 
nary pilots,  and  lotslarlingar,  articled  pilots.  The  lighthouse  personal  is 
composed  of  fyrmastare,  lighthouse  keepers,  fyrvahtare,  lighthouse  men, 
and  fyrhitrciden,  assistant  lighthouse  men.  The  staff  at  the  life-saving 
stations  consists  of  uppsyningsman,  overseers,  bntstyrare,  steersmen,  and 
roddare,  rowers. 


PILOTS   AND   LIGHTHOUSES.      LIFE-SAVING-  INSTITUTIONS.  579 

All  who  belong  to  the  permanent  pilotage  staff  are  obliged  in  time 
of  war  or  important  preparations  for  war,  when  the  King  so  commands, 
to  serve  in  the  Royal  Navy.  However,  even  in  time  of  peace  the  pilot 
service  manages  the  rather  intricate  coast  signal  service  of  the  Navy.  The 
Director-General  of  Pilotage  and  the  personnel  belonging  to  the  pilotage 
divisions  are  subject  to  military  law. 

The  Pilot  Personnel.  The  pilot  personnel  should  have  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  waters  in  their  district  and  of  the  shallows  and  reefs 
in  their  vicinity,  even  when  no  seamarks  have  been  set  up;  it  devolves 
upon  them  to  set  up  beacons  immediately  after  the  ice  has  given  way; 
to  keep  watch  so  as  to  ensure  that  vessels  arriving  from  abroad  shall  only 
enter  the  officially  sanctioned  fairways  and  shall  call  at  the  custom-house; 
to  render  their  services  as  pilots  to  the  seafaring  public,  and  so  forth.  The 
pilots  are  not  in  receipt  of  any  fixed  salary:  their  chief  source  of  income 
consists  of  the  pilot  dues  paid  by  the  public.  However,  at  pilot  stations 
where  there  is  little  or  nothing  to  be  earned  in  this  way,  the  personnel  are 
as  a  rule  in  receipt  of  a  salary,  ranging  from  60  to  1  200  kronor.  The 
pilot  dues  at  each  pilot  station  are  divided  at  the  end  of  each  month  be- 
tween the  pilots,  generally  in  equal  shares  called  lotslotter.  These  shares 
vary  greatly.  Thus  in  1911  the  biggest  share  was  4  911  kronor, 
and  the  smallest  merely  4  kronor.  The  big  share  fell  to  the  pilots  at  Oxe- 
losund,  the  tiny  one  to  the  personnel  at  a  small  station  on  the  coast 
of  Oland. 

In  the  lautumn  of  1912  the  Pilotage  Board  (Lotsstyrelsen)  submitted 
to  the  Government  a  proposal  for  a  revised  scale  of  wages  for  the  pilot 
and  lighthouse  personnel.  This  scheme  contained  several  new  elements. 
But,  as  it  provided  inter  alia  that  the  pilots  should  receive  only  20  %  of 
the  pilotage  dues,  and  that  their  chief  income  should  consist  of  their 
fixed  salary,  it  encountered  stout  opposition  both  from  the  shipping  inte- 
rest, who  were  alarmed  lest  under  the  new  arrangement  the  pilots  should 
lose  interest  in  their  work  and  consequently  also  their  efficiency,  and 
from  the  pilots  themselves,  who  declared  that  it  would  be  impossible  to 
keep  a  wife  and  family  under  such  miserable  conditions. 

The  new  scheme,  which  has  been  revised  by  a  special  committee,  is  to 
be  laid  before  the  Riksdag.^ 

The  Lighthouse  Personnel.  The  lighthouse  personnel  has  to  attend  to 
the  illumination  of  lighthouses:  they  must  keep  sea  lights  kindled  from 
sunset  to  sunrise,  as  long  as  navigation  within  the  range  of  the  light  is 
not  impeded  by  solid  ice;  they  have  also  to  attend  to  fog-signalling.  As 
to  the  smaller  lighthouses  stationed  in  the  waters  of  the  sMrgdrds,  and 
which  are  only  looked  after  once  a  week  or  more  seldom  being  allowed 
to  burn  on  day  and  night,  special  lighting  seasons  are  prescribed.     The 


•  Proposals  have  now  been  brought  forward  in  the  Riksdag  for  fixed  scales  of  salary  and 
40  %  of  the  pilot  dues,  but  have  not  yet  been  parsed  (October  1914). 


580  IX.      SHIPPING    AND   NAVIGATION. 

Table  124.        Pilotage  and  Lighthouses  in  1871  to  1911. 


Annually 

Pilotings 
Number 

Pilotage 
Dues 

Kronor 

Pilot 
Service 
Expen- 
diture!   ■ 

Kronor 

Casual- 
ties at 
sea2 

At    the    end    of    the    period 

Pilot 
Sta- 
tions 

Light- 
house 
Sta- 
tions 

Pilot 
StaH3 

Light- 
house 
StaH 

Value  of 
Materiel* 

Kronor 

1871—80  .  . 
1881—90  .  . 
1891-00  .  . 
1901-05  .  . 
1906-10.  . 

1911  .... 

45  080 
28  639 
38  630 
44  859 

46  062 

47  393 

674  627 

617  905 

856  216 

1048  507 

1 183  240 

1  258  720 

1032  201 

1337  350 
1583  033 
1 815  620 
1  875  433 

1 796  063 

183 
208 
216 
235 

213 

203 

144 
135 
131 

124 
117 

117 

85 
241 

312 
320 
331 

347 

856 

780 
939 
880 
841 

842 

235 
361 
414 
417 
465 

448 

6133  491 

8  429  081 

10310  218 

11195172 

11  973  899 

12  059  595 

'  Inclusive  of  expenses  for  life-saving.  —  "On  the  coasts  of  Sweden.  —  '  Subordinate 
officers  and  servants,  inclusive  of  those  servants  (32  in  1911)  who  belong  both  to  the  pilot 
and  the  lighthouse  service.  —  *  Exclusive  of  the  value  of  the  boats  belonging  to  the  mem- 
bers of  the  staff  personally. 

lighthouse  personnel  are  on  the  permanent  establishment  and  are  in 
receipt  of  fixed  salaries. 

The  light-ships  on  the  East  coast  of  Sweden  are  stationed  out  early  in 
the  spring  as  the  drift  ice  allows;  they  are  withdrawn  as  soon  as  there  is 
serious  risk  of  their  becoming  ice-bound.  On  the  South  and  West  coast 
of  Sweden,  on  the  other  hand,  the  lightships  are  sometimes  allowed  to  re- 
main moored  at  their  stations  the  whole  year  round.  —  The  value  of  the 
22  lightships  was  estimated  in  1911  at  2  215  879  kronor. 

The  personnel  at  the  Life  Saving  Stations  in  1911  numbered  165 
hands,  besides  19  belonging,  properly  speaking,  to  the  pilot  and  light- 
house services.    They  are  remunerated  for  each  salvage    operation. 

The  whole  entire  pilot  service  is  supported  solely  out  of  the  "lighthouse  and 
beacon  dues"  (fyr-  och  bdkmedlen),  that  is,  the  dues  paid  by  ships  leaving  the 
harbours  for  foreign  ports,  or  entering  them  from  abroad.  These  dues  at  pre- 
sent amount  to  25  ore  for  every  ton  and  for  certain  voyages  according  to  the 
tonnage  certificate  (mdtbrev).  In  1911  they  yielded  the  total  sum  of  1  929  181 
kronor. 

The  waterways  in  which  official  pilotage  is  prescribed  are  2  200  in  number, 
and  the  sea-marhs  total  4  759.  —  The  number  of  vessels  that  foundered  in 
1911  with  a  Government  pilot  on  board  was  28,  but  only  in  five  eases  was  the 
pilot  sentenced  by  the  maritime  court  as  responsible  for  the  accident.  —  As  to 
the  development  of  the  pilot  and  lighthouse  services  since  1871,  data  are  fur- 
nished by  Table  124. 

In  the  16  life-saving  stations  in  Sweden  7  lives  were  saved  in  1911  and  from 
the  very  start  altogether  1  861  lives. 

In  addition  to  the  State  life-saving  stations  above  referred  to,  a  few  other  such 
stations  have  been  established  with  the  aid  of  voluntary  contributions  by  a  pri- 
vate society  for  the  saving  of  lives  at  sea.  However,  since  1907,  when  it  was 
started,  that  Society,  for  all  its  rather  expensive  paraphernalia,  has  only  succeeded 
in  saving  three  lives. 

The  Pilot  Service  supports  entirely  or  partially  no  less  than  27  schools  in 
out-of-the-way  stations,  and  in  these  schools  instruction  has  been  imparted  to 
222  children  (1911). 


SALVAGE   AND   DIVING.  581 

Sweden  has  always  been  to  the  fore  in  the  matter  of  lighthouse  technique 
and  invention.  Thus  the  first  revolving  light  that  is  known  to  have  existed 
was  erected  at  Marstrand,  an  island  off  the  west  coast  of  Sweden.  Another 
Swedish  invention  was  the  von  Otter  System  for  illuminating  with  different 
intermittent  lights  certain  sectors  which  contain  shoals  within  their  radius. 
Of  Swedish  origin  is  the  Lindherg  System  of  automatic  rotators  for  producing 
intermittent  light  in  smaller  lighthouses,  whereby  continual  superintendence  can 
be  dispensed  with:  this  system  is  employed  in  inshore  waterways  almost  all  over 
the  world.  Finally  a  lamp  for  constant  burning  specially  constructed  for  these 
lighthouses,  with  petroleum  as  an  illuminant,  was  invented  by  a  Swede. 

In  conclusion  the  reader's  attention  must  be  directed  to  the  "Ago"  light- 
houses erected  a  few  years  ago,  which  have  been  rapidly  disseminated  throughout 
the  whole  world,  and  to  which  such  importance  has  been  attached  that  their 
inventor,  the  Swede  G.  Dalen,  was  in  1912  awarded  the  Nobel  Prize  for  Physics. 
These  lighthouses  may  be  said  to  be  almost  ideal:  they  do  not  require  any 
attendance,  but  burn  automatically  for  a  whole  year.  They  are  charged  with 
acetone  gas  accimiulators,  which  are  changed  every  year.  By  means  of  an  in- 
genious device,  the  "sun-valve"  (solventil),  they  are  extinguished  at  sunrise  and 
Ughted  at  sunset  automatically.  They  can  be  adjusted  to  a  different  number  of 
flashes  of  varying  periods.  These  lighthouses  are  manufactured  by  the  Gasaccu- 
mulator  Company  at  Stockholm,  which  is  said  also  to  have  large  branch  facto- 
ries abroad. 


Salvage  and  Diving. 

Diving  operations  for  salving  the  cargoes  of  shipwrecked  vessels  are 
first  recorded  in  Sweden  in  the  latter  part  of  the  17th  century,  when  a 
foreigner,  F.  A.  von  Treuleben,  received  a  Koyal  license  to  transact  diving 
and  salvage  business.  Subsequently  (in  1692  and  1729)  two  diving  com- 
panies, as  they  were  called,  were  started,  whose  charters  were  renewed 
from  time  to  time.  These  two  companies  succeeded  in  subsisting  side  by 
side  down  to  1802,  when  they  were  amalgamated  into  one.  The  amalga- 
mated Company  survived  until  1831,  though  in  the  later  years  of  its  exi- 
stence, it  was  shorn  of  certain  of  its  privilegies.  In  the  thirties  attempts 
were  once  more  made  to  set  on  foot  a  chartered  company,  and  a  charter 
for  one  was  actually  issued.  However,  diving  operations  soon  passed  into 
the  hands  of  private  speculators. 

The  credit  for  having  organized  salvage  work  in  Sweden  is  due  chiefly 
to  Consul  E.  Liljewalch,  who  in  1869  founded  the  Neptun  Salvage  and  Di- 
ving Company,  famous  all  over  the  world.  The  operations  of  the  Com- 
pany are  by  no  means  confined  to  Sweden:  they  have  been  extended  to 
many  parts  of  Europe  and  Africa.  The  Neptun  Company  has  moreover 
received  offers  of  salvage  business  from  America,  although  it  has  not  been 
in  a  position  to  avail  itself  of  them. 

The  chief  materiel  of  the  Company  consists  at  present  of  10  salvage  stea- 
mers, 8  stationary  centrifugal  pumps,  18  portable  steam  pumps,  2  motor  pumps 
actuated  by  electricity,  28  complete  diving  apparatus,  4  pontoons  made  of  iron 
cylinders,  2  prismatic  iron  pontoons,  4  wooden  pontoons,  1  800  fathoms  of  nine- 
inch  steel  cables,  200  fathoms  of  Galle's  chain,  100  fathoms  of  chain-cable,  42 


582 


IX.      SHIPPING   AND   NAVIGATION. 


hydraulic  jacks,  lifting  100  tons  each,  and  a  number  of  sea-going  hulks  with 
steam  cranes,  sea-going  barges  with  hoisting  cranes,  submarine  rock-blasting  and 
rock-boring  apparatus,  tackle,  and  so  forth. 


The  Salvage-Steamer  the  Neptun. 


Since  its  formation,  the  Company  has  salved  4  ironclads,  2  destroyers,  1 
cruiser,  1  submarine,  1  torpedo-boat,  and  1  371  steamships  and  sailing-ships,  4 
dredgers,  1  lightship,  and  1  366  cargoes,  riggings,  and  other  sundries.  Alto- 
gether 7  008  successful  salvage  operations  have  been  carried  out,  representing 
in  value  after  the  salvage,  and  in  allowing  for  the  damaged  condition  of  the 
objects  rescued,  an  aggregate  of  181  423  000  kroner.  Notable  cases  of  wrecks 
raised  by  the  Neptun  Company  are  those  of  the  Easington  in  1889  near  Con- 
stantinople, of  the  Coningsby,  a  British  steamer,  in  1890  near  Cape  Finisterre,  of 
Eider,  a  German  emigrant,  in  1892  off  the  Isle  of  Whight  (a  brilliant  achieve- 
ment), of  the  Howe,  a  British  ironclad,  in  1893  off  Ferrol,  a  world-renowned 
achievement  which  elicited  from  the  British  Admiralty  the  most  lavish  encomi- 
ums on  the  Company  and  its  officials.  The  Company  also  achieved  great  no- 
toriety by  its  raising  of  the  Willysike,  a  British  steamer,  in  1898  off  the  Canary 
island,  of  the  China,  likewise  a  British  steamer,  in  the  same  year  off  Perim 
in  the  Red  Sea,  of  the  Chile,  a  French  steamer,  in  1903  off  Bordeaux,  of  the 
Cyclops,  a  British  steamer,  in  1910  in  the  Red  Sea,  and  of  the  Minehaha  in 
the  same  year  off  the  ScUly  islands.  A  remarkable  instance  of  a  wreck  having 
been  raised  from  a  considerable  depth  is  that  of  the  steamer  Bore,  which  in 
1901  sank  off  Kapelskar  north  of  Furusund  at  a  depth  of  35  meters,  and  in 
the  teeth  of  enormous  difficulties  was  brought  up  to  the  surface.  Many  other 
difficult  cases  of  wreck-raising  were  successfully  tackled  by  the  Neptun  Company, 
as  for  example  that  of  a  pontoon  dock  which  in  1901  sank  off  Dar-es-Salem  on 
the    east    coast    of    Africa,   the  British  submarine  A I  which  foundered  in  1904 


NAVIGATION   SCHOOLS.  583 

close  to  the  Nab  lightship,  and  the  Swedish  tugs,  the  Eol  and  the  Styrbjorn, 
the  former  of  which  sank  in  1908  and  the  latter  in  1912.  All  these  vessels 
were  brought  up  from  very  respectable  depths. 

In  recent  years  endeavours  have  been  made  in  Sweden  to  work  at  greater 
depths  than  formerly,  when  30  meters  was  the  greatest  depth  to  which  a  diver 
could  descend.  A  remarkable  invention  for  this  purpose  is  the  Waller  Tube, 
an  ingenious  diving  apparatus  constructed  in  1895  by  the  Swedish  engineer 
P.  A.  Waller.  It  consists  of  a  sheet-iron  tube  composed  of  several  parts,  ex- 
panded at  the  bottom  into  a  working  chamber  somewhat  wider  than  the  rest  of 
the  tube;  through  this  working  chamber  pass  firstly,  in  a  vertical  direction, 
iron  rods,  movable  up  and  down  through  hermetically  closed  apertures,  and  which 
can  be  turned  in  different  positions  from  within  the  chamber;  secondly,  in  a 
horizontal  direction,  instruments  projecting  through  ball-bearings,  which,  from 
inside,  through  the  wall  of  the  chamber,  can  be  pushed  in  and  out,  as  well  as 
turned  and  adjusted  in  different  positions.  At  the  bottom  the  vertical  rods  are 
fitted  with  hooks,  so  that  they  can  be  thrust  down  to  grapple  under  the  object 
to  be  raised;  at  their  upper  extremities  they  are  furnished  with  chain-couplings 
which  pass  up  to  winches  or  cranes  above  the  surface  of  the  water.  The  work- 
ing implements  projecting  through  the  wall  are  intended  for  emergency  pur- 
poses, for  which  purpose  there  is  an  exterior  semi-spherical  opening,  which  can 
be  closed  hermetically  or  opened,  according  to  requirements.  It  was  with  the 
Waller  Tube  that  the  Sodra  Sverige,  a  Swedish  steamer  (about  600  tons)  which 
foundered  in  the  Stockholm  Skargard  in  September  1895,  was  raised  in  the 
autumn  of  1896  to  May  1897  from  a  depth  of  from  55  to  56  meters,  that  is, 
double  the  greatest  depth  from  which  it  had  hitherto  been  accounted  possible 
to  raise  a  wreck. 

Though  primarily  intended  for  wreck-raising  at  great  depths,  the  Waller  Tube 
is  pretty  sure  to  be  enlisted  in  the  service  of  deep-sea  exploration.  With  that 
apparatus  it  is  an  easy  matter  for  a  diver  to  descend  to  a  depth  of  two  hund- 
red meters  or  more,  and  to  remain  below  for  any  length  of  time. 


Navigation  Schools. 

The  origin  of  the  Swedish  navigation  schools  dates  from  June  4th 
1658,  when  a  school  for  training  mates  was  established  at  Stockholm 
by  Royal  Decree.  Their  present  organization  is  based  principally  on 
Koyal  Decree  of  April  7th  1841,  while  at  present  the  Royal  Regulation 
of  March  29th  1912  is  in  force.  Four  schools,  comprising  both  a  naviga- 
tion and  an  engineers  department,  are  established  at  Stockholm,  Gothen- 
burg, Malmo,  and  Harnosand,  while  one  school,  consisting  of  only  a  navi- 
gation department,  is  situated  at  Kalmar. 

The  navigation  department  includes  classes  for  masters,  mates  and  first 
skippers;  the  engineers  department  classes  for  first  engineers  (chief  engin- 
eers), second  and  third  engineers.  The  Supervisory  Board  for  the  Schools  — 
at  present  the  Navy  Board  —  is  assisted  by  an  inspector  appoint- 
ed by  the  Government  for  a  period  of  three  years.  An  expert  is  appointed 
by  the  Supervisory  Board  to  conduct  examinations  and  to  assist  in  the 
execution  of  certain  work  in  the  engineers  departments.  A  board  consisting 
of  five  or  seven  members  is  appointed  for  each  school  by  the  local  municipal 
Government  for  a  period  of  three  years.     An  expert  is  appointed  by  the 


584  IX.      SHIPPING   AND    NAVIGATION. 

Supervisory  Board  to  conduct  examinations  and  to  assist  in  the  execution 
of  certain  work  in  the  engineers  departments.  A  board  consisting  of  five 
or  seven  memhers  is  appointed  for  each  school  by  the  local  town  council; 
the  director  is  appointed  by  the  G-ovemment  and  the  regular  and 
extra  teachers  by  the  Supervisory  Board.  The  provisions  of  the  law  regard- 
ing the  right  of  civil  servants  to  a  pension  apply  to  the  pensioning  of 
directors  and  regular  teachers.  The  teaching  staff  is  paid  from  State 
funds,  but  the  school  premises  and  dwellings  for  the  directors  are  found 
by  the  respective  communes.  Other  expenses  are  covered  by  State  grants 
and  by  the  pupils'  fees,  which  vary  from  8  to  30  kroner. 

A  course  preparatory  to  passing  the  navigation  teacher's  examination,  which 
is  required  of  directors  and  regular  teachers  in  the  navigation  department,  is 
arranged  every  other  year  at  Stockholm,  at  the  beginning  of  September.  The 
course  comprises  mathematics,  physics,  mechanics,  theory  of  deviation,  nautical 
meteorology,  theoretical  and  practical  astronomy,  terrestrial  and  astronomical 
navigation.  Regular  teachers  in  the  engineers  department  must  have  gone 
through  the  department  for  machine  construction  and  mechanical  technology  of 
the  Technical  High  School,  or  some  other  equivalent  course. 

Pupils  in  the  mates  class  at  the  navigation  school  must  have  served  on  deck 
on  a  sailing  vessel  and  steamer  in  a  certain  trade  for  42  months,  and  pupils  in 
the  skippers  class  for  36  months.  Pupils  in  the  second  engineers  class  must 
have  served  as  assistant  to  the  engineer  on  a  steamship  and  as  machine  and 
boiler  workman  in  a  mechanical  work  for  a  total  of  48  months,  and  pupils  in 
the  3rd  engineers  class  for  30  months.  These  pupils  must  pass  an  entrance 
examination  in  Swedish  and  arithmetic,  while  pupils  in  the  mates  class  must 
also  pass  in  algebra  and  geography.  Pupils  in  the  masters  class  must  possess  a 
mate's  certificate,  while  pupils  in  the  first  engineers  class  must  have  obtained 
an  engineer's  certificate  of  the  second  class  and  have  subsequently  served  for 
24  months  as  engineer  on  a  steamship  in  a  certain  trade.  All  pupils  must 
possess  a  medical  certificate  that  they  have  good  hearing,  while  pupils  in  the 
navigation  department  must  also  possess  a  certificate  that  their  sight  is  good 
and  that  they  are  not  colour  blind. 

The  instruction  begins  at  the  various  schools,  in  the  mates  classes  on  the 
Ist  and  15th  of  August  and  on  the  1st  of  September,  in  the  second  engineers 
classes  on  the  1st  and  15th  of  August,  in  the  first  engineers  classes  on  the  1st 
and  15th  of  September,  in  the  masters  classes  on  the  1st  and  15th  of  Sep- 
tember and  on  the  1st  of  October,  in  the  skippers  and  3rd  engineers  classes  on 
the  7th  of  January. 

The  courses  extend,  in  the  mates  class  over  about  9  months,  in  the  mas- 
ters and  second  engineers  class  8  months,  in  the  first  engineers  class  7  months, 
in  the  skippers  and  3rd  engineers  class  3  months. 

The  instruction  comprises,  in  the  masters  class:  mathematics,  physics,  mecha- 
nics, navigation,  shipbuilding,  applied  mechanics,  seamanship,  the  Swedish  and 
English  languages,  law,  hygiene  and  bandaging;  in  the  first  engineers  class: 
physics,  mechanics,  appUed  mechanics,  machine  drawing,  electricity,  the  Swedish 
and  English  languages,  hygiene  and  bandaging.  In  the  other  classes  certain  of 
these  subjects  are   omitted. 

The  examinations  are  partly  written  and  partly  oral.  Papers  are  set  for 
the  former  by  the  inspector,  with  the  assistance  of  the  above-mentioned  experts, 
as  far  as  the  first  and  second  engineers  classes  are  concerned.  In  order  to  ob- 
tain   the    right    to    undergo    the    oral    examination    all  pupils  must  have  passed 


MARITIME    LEGISLATION.  585 

the  written  examination  in  mathematics,  while  pupils  in  the  navigation  depart- 
ment must  also  have  passed  in  navigation,  and  pupils  in  the  1st  and  2nd  en- 
gineers class  in  physics  and  mechanics. 

To  obtain  the  right  to  command  sailing  vessels  of  a  certain  tonnage  on  in- 
land waters  and  in  the  Baltic,  there  is,  further,  an  examination  at  the  navigation 
school  for  skippers  of  the  second  class.  Persons  taking  this  examination  howe- 
ver do  not  receive  instruction  at  the  navigation  school. 

In  the  educational  year  1911 — 12,  when  the  regulations  of  June  6th  1890 
were  still  in  force,  160  candidates  passed  the  masters  examination,  184  the 
mates  examination,  133  the  chief  engineers  examination  and  116  the  engineers 
(second  engineers)  examination. 


Maritime  Legislation. 

On  June  12,  1667,  a  Swedish  maritime  law  was  passed,  which,  based  on 
Dutch  ordinances  and  subsequently  supplemented  by  —  amongst  other  things 
—  certain  sections  of  the  regulations  for  merchant  captains  and  sailors  of  March 
30,  1748,  as  well  as  the  insurance  and  damage  ordinances  of  Oct.  2,  1750,  was 
not  entirely  abrogated  until  two  hundred  years  later.  The  maritime  law  then 
passed  (Feb.  23,  1864)  was  founded  upon  the  main  principles  of  the  law  it  was 
to  replace,  but  was  supplemented  according  to  the  requirements  of  the  time  by 
profiting  by  more  recent  legislation  in  foreign  countries.  This  was  succeeded, 
on  June  IS,  1891,  by  the  maritime  law  now  in  force,  which  came  into  opera- 
tion from  the  year  1892  inclusive,  and  which  was  drafted  after  collaboration 
with  Norwegian  and  Danish  delegates,  and  this  less  on  account  of  the  necessity 
for  amendments  in  the  law  of  1864,  than  owing  to  an  endeavour  to  secure 
uniformity  in  the  maritime  legislation  of  the  Scandinavian   countries. 

Swedish  maritime  legislation,  except  for  the  part  exlusively  or  mainly  belon- 
ging to  civil  law  and  included  in  the  maritime  law,  has  furthermore  found 
expression  in  a  multitude  of  statutes  passed  by  the  Government. 

A  vessel  is  considered  to  be  Swedish,  either  when  at  least  two-thirds  of  it 
are  owned  by  Swedish  subjects,  or  when  it  belongs  to  a  joint-stock  company 
whose  board  sits  in  Sweden  and  is  composed  of  shareholders  who  are  Swedish 
subjects. 

Every  Swedish  man  or  woman  has  the  right  to  own  ships  for  both  home  and 
foreign  shipping.  When  several  persons  are  owners  of  a  ship,  a  principal  owner 
must  always  be  selected  among  them,  who  must  always  be  a  Swedish  citizen 
and  domiciled  in    Sweden. 

A  shipowner  is  personally  responsible  with  all  his  property  for  the  liabilities 
he,  personally  or  through  some  other  person,  assumes  in  respect  to  the  vessel, 
as  well  as  for  the  claims  of  the  crew  in  virtue  of  the  hiring-agreements  and 
contracts  of  service  which  the  master  of  the  vessel  has  entered  into.  For  all 
other  claims  the  owner  is  responsible  only  and  solely  to  the  extent  of  the  vessel 
and  cargo.  When  there  are  several  owners  of  a  vessel,  each  one  is  personally 
responsible  only  in  proportion  to  his  share  in  the  vessel. 

Of  all  Swedish  vessels  intended  for  the  merchant  service  or  the  conveyance 
of  passengers  and  having  a  tonnage  of  20  register  tons  or  more,  a  register  is 
kept.  This  registration  is  centralized  at  the  Board  of  Trade.  After  registration 
has  been  effected  a  certificate  of  nationality  and  registration  is  issued,  which, 
together  with  a  muster-roll,  are  the  papers  a  Swedish  vessel  going  to  foreign 
ports  carries  on  board  in  order  to  prove  its  nationality.  A  vessel  of  20 
register  tons  burden  or  more,  which  has  been  registered,  can  be  mortgaged 
for    claims,    which  gives  the  creditor  mortgagee-rights  in  the  vessel.     Mortgages 


-586  IX.      SHIPPING    AND    NAVIGATION. 

on  vessels  are  applied  for  before  the  City  Court  of  Stockholm.  A  vessel's 
home-port  is  decided  on  by  the  owner,  who  must  give  notice  of  it  for  registration. 

Amongst  the  provisions  regulating  the  rights  and  duties  of  the  master,  those 
laying  upon  him  the  chief  care  and  responsibility  for  the  sea-worthiness  of  the 
vessel  are  particularly  important.  The  master's  duty  with  regard  to  the  seaworth- 
iness of  the  vessel  covers  not  only  the  vessel  itself,  but  also  the  equipment, 
<!rew,  provisioning  etc.,  the  stowing  of  the  cargo,  and  everything  appertaining 
thereto.  During  the  voyage  he  shall  do  everything  to  keep  the  vessel  in  a 
seaworthy  condition.  Neglect  of  this  entails  punishment,  which  may  also  under 
-certain  circumstances  fall  upon  the  owner  or  other  person  who,  in  the  owner's 
place,  has  had  anything  to  do  with  the  vessel.  Under  special  circumstances, 
■defined  in  the  maritime  law,  the  master  has  to  take  measures  for  making  an 
inspection  of  the  vessel,  to  make  a  written  report  to  the  Board  of  Trade,  i.  e. 
the  nearest  consul  and  render  his  maritime  declaration,   etc. 

Up  to  the  present  time,  the  control  of  the  seaworthiness  of  ships  in  general 
has  only  been  exercised  in  this  manner,  that  is  has  been  chiefly  a  restraining 
■control.  Only  the  passenger  and  emigrant  ships  have,  as  a  rule,  been  subjected 
to  a  preventive  control  as  to  their  seaworthiness.  From  1915  and  onwards, 
however,  new  legislation  in  these  questions,  based  on  the  report  published  in 
1910  by  the  so-called  Committee  on  the  Safety  of  Navigation,  will  be  in  force, 
through  which  a  directive  state  control  will  be  established,  with  the  object  of 
superintending  the  observance  of  certain  rules  laid  down  in  advance  by  law  or 
■ordinance  as  to  the  condition  or  safety  of  ships.  At  the  same  time,  the  res- 
training control  will  be  in  some  respects  developed  and  perfected.  The  preven- 
tive control  is  to  be  exercised  partly  by  a  Central  Inspection  Office  attached  to 
"the  Board  of  Trade  and  partly  by  local  inspectors.  Detailed  rules  as  to  the 
requirements  with  regard  to  their  construction  and  equipment  etc.,  which  ships 
in  general  or  ships  employed  for  certain  purposes  are  to  satisfy,  have  also  been 
laid  down.  The  new  legislation  will  give  the  inspection  authorities  the  right, 
within  certain  limits,  to  prohibit  the  use  of  a  ship  with  regard  to  which  such 
■defects  or  grievances  are  established  that  its  use  would  manifestly  endanger  the 
lives  of  the  persons  on  board. 

A  right  possessed  by  the  crew,  which  aims  at  securing  the  employment  of 
seaworthy  vessels,  is  that  they  are  entitled  to  obtain  their  discharge  if  the  master 
neglects  to  put  the  vessel  in  a  seaworthy  condition,  in  the  event  of  its  not  being 
in  such  a  condition  for  the  voyage  it  is  about  to  make;  the  master  is  also 
■obliged  to  have  the  vessel  surveyed  to  ascertain  its  seaworthiness,  when  more 
than  half  the  crew  demand  it,  and,  in  case  of  the  vessel's  being  already  laden, 
if  the  mate  or  engineer  join  in  the  demand  for  such  survey. 

In  this  connection  it  ought  to  be  mentioned  that,  when  a  maritime  declaration 
is  before  the  borough  court,  two  experts  have  to  assist  the  court,  and  that,  in 
the  event  of  special  technical  knowledge  being  needed,  a  third  expert  may  be 
•called  in.  If  a  vessel  has  been  lost  or  abandoned,  or  considerable  damage  has 
been  caused  by  its  running  aground  or  colliding  with  another  vessel,  or  in  certain 
other  contingencies,  the  Court  shall,  with  the  help  of  the  maritime  declaration, 
■open  an  inquiry  (maritime  examination)  in  order  to  clear  up  thoroughly  the 
■causes  of  the  disaster. 

The  obligations  of  ship-owners  towards  the  master  and  crew,  when  they  leave 
their  service  by  reason  of  particular  circumstances  mentioned  in  the  maritime 
law,  are  regulated  by  law.  The  cost  of  sending  home  master  and  crew,  in  cases 
where  they  have  left  their  service  at  a  foreign  port,  on  account  of  shipwreck, 
•condemnation,  or  capture  of  the  vessel  as  a  good  prize  during  war,  is  defrayed 
hy  the  State. 

The  maritime  law  regulates  the  relation  between  consigrter,  charterer  and  con- 


MARITIME   LEGISLATION.  587 

signee,  such  as  the  signing  of  a  charter-party  or  agreement  concerning  the  carriage 
of  goods;  the  calculation  of  lay  days  or  time  of  waiting  allowed  by  the  charter- 
party  for  loading  or  unloading;  the  legal  relation  between  the  charterer  and  con- 
signee according  to  the  bill  of  lading;  the  raising  of  a  bottomry-loan,  or  loan 
with  the  vessel,  freight,  or  cargo  as  pledge.  It  contains  also  provisions  concern- 
ing wrecks,  damage  by  collision,  salvage  money,  marine  insurance,  etc.  It  ought 
to  be  mentioned  that  the  so-called  silent  prior  rights,  the  maritime  claims  proper 
which  carry  with  them  the  right  of  pledge  of  vessel  and  cargo,  entitle  those 
possessing  them  to  the  settlement  of  claims  before  those  due  to  other  creditors. 
Amongst  these  maritime  claims  are  the  claims  for  pay  due  to  master  and  crew, 
and  the  prescription  period  for  this  claim  is  one  year  from  the  date  on 
which  the  service  ceased.  The  prescription  periods  for  other  claims  is  fixed  by 
the  provisions  of  common  or  of  maritime  law. 

The  crew  of  a  Swedish  vessel  shall  be  signed  on  as  the  law  directs  when  the 
vessel  runs  to  foreign  ports,  or,  if  it  only  plies  between  home  ports,  when  the 
ship  is  to  be  assigned  to  the  1st  or  2nd  class  of  passenger  vessels;  this  rule, 
however,  does  not  apply  if  the  voyage  undertaken  is  only  a  pleasure  voyage  or 
some  other  occasional  voyage.  Also  in  other  cases  the  master  is  entitled  to 
have  the  crew  signed  on.  In  Sweden  itself  shipping  as  well  as  paying-off  the 
crew  is  effected  by  the  representative  of  the  Seamen  Registry  Office,  or  in 
some  cases  by  the  town  clerk;  abroad  by  a  Swedish  consul.  When  shipping  a 
crew  on  a  Swedish  vessel  within  the  kingdom,  it  has  to  be  observed  that  two 
thirds  of  the  crew,  including  the  master,  are  Swedish  subjects;  that  every 
member  of  the  crew  is  entered  on  the  list  at  a  Swedish  Seamen  Registry 
Office  and  is  in  possession  of  a  sailor's  book,  unless  he  is,  or  has  been,  in  the 
navy;  and  that  the  vessel  carries  the  proper  officers.  When  men  are  shipped 
abroad,  less  stringent  regulations  are  in  force.  The  person  signing  on  the  crew 
has  also  to  see  that  every  member  of  the  crew  is  supplied  with  a  contra-booh 
by  the  master,  as  well  as  that  the  master,  in  cases  where  such  are  prescribed, 
has  a  ship's  log  and  an  engine-room  log  of  the  prescribed  description;  besides 
this,  he  is  to  make  the  necessary  entries  in  his  register  of  seamen  shipped  and 
to  prepare  a  muster-roll  of  the  vessel,  unless  such  has  already  been  done.  Even 
for  foreign  vessels,  there  are,  in  Sweden,  certain  obligations  to  be  observed  when 
shipping  a  Swedish  seaman,  in  which  connection  it  is  necessary  to  draw  up  a 
fixed  agreement  between  the  master  and  the  Swedish  seaman.  The  number  of  the 
crew  of  a  Swedish  vessel  shall  be  kept  up  to  that  appearing  in  the  muster-roll. 

On  a  merchant  ship  of  30  tons  or  more  (gross)  burden,  as  well  as  on  every 
passenger  vessel  —  with  which  in  this  connection  is  meant  a  merchant  vessel 
used  for  the  conveyance  of  passengers,  which,  apart  from  the  crew  and  other 
persons  engaged  or  performing  duties  on  the  vessel,  has  accommodation  for  more 
than  12  persons  paying  for  accommodation  —  there  is  to  be  a  qualified  master 
as  well  as  other  qualified  officers.  As  regards  what  is  to  be  looked  upon  as  a 
qualified  officer  in  every  particular  case,  detailed  rules  are  laid  down  for  the 
different  routes  (in  home  waters,  the  Baltic,  European  waters,  Atlantic  trans- 
oceanic routes  etc.)  taken  by  the  vessel,  its  nature  (steam-ship  or  sailing  vessel) 
its  burden,  horse  power,  etc.  Competency  is  based  upon  certificates  issued  by 
the  Board  of  Trade,  of  which  there  are,  for  deck  officers,  four  kinds:  captain's 
certificate,  mate's  certificate,  skipper's  certificates  of  the  1st  and  2nd  class.  For 
the  engineers  the  Board  issues  certificates  of  three  classes.  As  qualification  to 
act  as  master  a  captain's  certificate  is  required:  for  voyages  in  the  Baltic  on 
all  passenger  vessels,  for  European  voyages  on  steam  ships  and  on  sailing  vessels 
of  over  500  tons  burden,  and  for  trans-oceanic  voyages  on  all  vessels.  For  motor 
vessels  regulations  corresponding  to  those  for  steam-ships  are  in  force  with  regard 
to  the  deck-officers. 


588  IX.      SHIPPING   AND   NAVIGATION. 

For  obtaining  the  above-mentioned  certificates  it  is  necessary  to  have  satisfied 
certain  theoretical  and  practical  requirements;  with  regard  to  the  deck-officers, 
these  must,  furthermore,  be  Swedish  subjects.  For  obtaining  a  mate's  certifcate 
it  is  necessary  to  have  completed  19  years  of  age,  for  a  captain's  certificate,  21 
years.  One  condition  for  obtaining  a  captain's  certificate  is  the  possesion  of  a 
mate's  certificate. 

For  the  security  of  navigation  there  are  also  some  enactments  in  the  ordi- 
nance concerning  measures  for  avoiding  collisions,  etc.  containing  both  inter- 
national regulations  accepted  by  Sweden  and  special  regulations  concerning  navi- 
gation in  Swedish  waters.  With  regard  to  signal-lights  on  board  ship  detailed 
rules  have  been  laid  down.  For  the  purpose  of  security  to  navigation,  regu- 
lations are  also  in  force  concerning  the  conveyance  of  explosives  and  inflam- 
mable oils  on  board  ship. 

The  State  has,  moreover,  fixed  the  limits  of  activity  in  the  matter  of  navi- 
gation and  commerce  exercised  by  shipping  agents  and  ship-hrolcers,  just  as  the 
State  has  ratified  an  ordinance  for  average  adjusters.  In  this  connection  atten- 
tion might  also  be  drawn  to  the  duties  with  regard  to  assisting  persons 
carrying  on  shipping  and  commerce  which  has  been  imposed  on  the  Swedish 
Consuls.  According  to  the  consular  ordinance  of  Sep.  24,  1906,  supplemented 
by  the  consular  instructions  of  April  27,  1908,  consuls  are  bound  to  the  best 
of  their  ability  to  try  and  advance  the  Swedish  interests,  especially  with  regard 
to  commerce,  navigation,  industry,  etc.  and  to  give  to  captains  and  crews  of 
Swedish  vessels,  as  well  as  to  other  Swedish  seafaring  folk,  such  information 
and  such  assistance  as  they  are   able  to  do  in  virtue  of  their  office. 

Through  treaties  with  most  of  the  seafaring  nations,  Sweden  has  secured  to 
her  shipping,  on  condition  of  reciprocity,  the  most-favoured-nation  treatment, 
or  a  national  treatment,  in  foreign  ports.  Freighlrcarrying  in  Sweden  (Coast- 
wise trading,  cabotage)  has,  however,  only  been  conceded  to  Belgian,  British, 
Danish,  Italian,  Dutch  and  German    vessels. 


Shipping  Dues. 

In  accordance  with  Swedish  legislation  there  are  general  dues  on  shipping 
to  be  paid,  partly  in  Swedish  ports  by  Swedish  and  foreign  vessels,  partly  abroad 
by  Swedish  vessels.  These  dues  are,  as  a  rule,  calculated  on  the  net  register 
tonnage  of  the  vessel.     This  latter  is  ascertained  by  measurement. 

Prior  to  1874,  the  measurement  in  Sweden  was  based  upon  the  weight  of 
cargo  the  vessel  was  able  to  carry,  and  a  corresponding  tonnage  was  calculated 
for  the  vessel.  In  the  said  year  the  Moorsom  system,  already  adopted  by  many 
seafaring  nations  a  number  of  years  previously,  was  introduced  into  Sweden,  by 
which  the  capacity  of  the  vessel  was  made  the  basis  of  the  survey  and  deter- 
mined its  burden,  expressed  in  register  tons  (1  reg.-ton  =  2'8S  cubic  meters  = 
100  English  cubic  feet).  The  tonnage  on  which  dues  have  to  be  paid  is 
obtained  by  deducting  from  the  total  capacity  the  space  intended  for  the 
master  and  the  crew,  as  well  as  that  for  the  machinery  used  for  propelling, 
navigating,  and  manoeuvring  the  vessel.  Concerning  the  deduction  from  a  steam-, 
er's  capacity  for  engine  room  and  coal-boxes,  a  distinction  is  made  between  the 
so-called  British  rule,  according  to  which  a  percentage  depending  upon  the  relation 
between  the  capacity  of  the  engine-room  and  the  gross  tonnage,  is  deducted  from 
the  latter;  and  the  so-called  German  rule,  according  to  which  the  actually  mea- 
sured capacity  of  the  engine-room  and  the  coal-boxes  is  deducted.  Most  of  the 
seafaring  nations  apply  the  British  rule  when  measuring  steamers.  In  Sweden 
this    rule  was  also  introduced  by  the  ordinance  of  1874,  but  in  1880  already  a 


SHIPPING    DUES.  589 

change  was  made  to  the  German,  which  is  still  in  force,  but  with  the  right  for 
steamers  to  have  their  burden  also  calculated  after  the  British  rule,  and  the 
result  thereof  entered  in  an  appendix  to  the  Bill  of  Tonnage.  Quite  lately,  a 
return  to  the  British  rule  has  been  urged  from  several  quarters,  and  experts 
consulted  in  1911  have  submitted  a  proposal  for  the  revision  of  the  regulations 
concerning  the  measurement  of  ships,  which  would  be  necessitated  by  the  sug- 
gested change  to  the  last-mentioned  rule. 

General  dues  iii  Swedish  ports  for  Swedish  and  foreign  vessels  are:  lastage, 
pilotage,  light-house,  and  light-ship  dues,  tonnage  fees  to  the  Seamen  Registry 
Office,  harbour-dues,  and  land    money. 

The  lantage,  which  in  the  decade  1877  —  85  was  14  ore  per  ton,  was,  in  1885, 
reduced  by  4  ore  and  is  the  same  for  Swedish  and  foreign  vessels,  being  10 
(ire  (1"3  d)  per  ton,  according  to  the  bill  of  tonnage.  They  are  payable  each 
time  a  vessel  enters  from,  or  clears  for  a  foreign  port,  as  the  case  may  be.  If 
a  vessel  makes  several  voyages  during  one  calendar  year  between  Sweden  and  a 
foreign  port,  these  dues  are  paid  only  when  leaving  for  the  first  voyage,  and  on 
return  only  when  the  vessel  carries  a  cargo  and  unloads  a  greater  or  smaller  portion 
thereof,  in  which  connection  a  vessel  is  considered  as  being  in  ballast  when  the 
cargo  falls  below  one  tenth  of  the  vessel's  net  register  tonnage.  A  vessel  which, 
on  its  voyage  between  foreign  ports,  loads  or  unloads  in  a  Swedish  port  goods 
amounting  to  not  more  than  one  fourth  of  its  burden  is  exempt  from  the  pay- 
ment of  dues. 

Pilotage  fees.  Swedish  legislation  combines,  as  a  rule,  compulsory  pilotage 
with  pilotage  fees.  A  vessel  making  voyages  betwen  Swedish  and  foreign  ports, 
which  has  to  pass  through  some  pilotage  channel,  where  the  vessel  has  paid  pilo- 
tage fees  10  times  during  the  current  calendar  year,  in  the  case  of  a  steamer 
or  steam  barge,  and  6  times  in  the  case  of  a  sailing  vessel,  is  exempt  from 
pilotage  fees  for  the  remainder  of  the  year,  provided  the  foreign  port  lies  within 
the  line  Lindesnas — Hanstholm;  but  these  fees  are  reduced  by  one  half,  if  the 
foreign  port  lies  beyond  the  said  line.  Vessels  of  40  tons  and  under  are  exempt 
from  these  dues,  likewise  steamers  making  regular  voyages  between  Swedish  and 
Danish  ports  on  the  Sound,  as  well  as  certain  other  vessels. 

The  light-house  dues,  which,  formerly,  were  also  levied  on  vessels  trading 
between  home  ports,  are  now  levied  only  on  foreign-going  vessels  of  more  than 
40  tons.  Every  vessel  arriving  from  or  leaving  for  a  foreign  port  has  to  pay 
dues  of  25  ore  per  register  ton,  but  in  the  event  of  such  dues  having  been 
paid,  in  the  case  of  a  steamer  or  steam  barge  eight  times,  and  in  the  case  of 
a  sailing  vessel  four  times,  the  vessel  is  exempt  from  further  payment  of  these 
dues  during  the  remainder  of  that  year. 

Exemption  from  the  afore-mentioned  three  kinds  of  dues  is  granted  to  vessels 
calling  for  orders,  coaling,  or  provisioning,  as  well  as  to  vessels  forced  to  seek 
a  refuge.   Crown  vessels,  and  others. 

The  tonnage-fee  to  the  Seamen  Registry  Office  for  a  vessel  leaving  a  Swedish 
port  for  a  foreign  one  is  3  ore,  if  the  vessel  be  Swedish  or  belongs  to  some 
foreign  nation  in  whose  harbours  Swedish  vessels  enjoy  national  treatment,  but 
otherwise  5  ore  —  everything  per  ton  according  to  Swedish  or  equivalent 
foreign  bill  of  tonnage.  If  a  vessel  leaves  a  Swedish  port  several  times  in  the 
course  of  a  calendar  month,  the  fee  is  payable  only  once  a  month. 

Harbour-dues  are  levied  upon  vessels  and  goods  in  conformity  with  special 
tariffs  ratified  by  the  Government,  with  the  application  of  certain  main  prin- 
ciples, on  the  advice  of  the  authorities,  and  in  force  for  five  years. 

Land-money  is  levied  for  vessels  utilizing  institutions  for  shipping  at  certain 
sufferance-wharves,  chiefly  in  Norrland,  after  the  owners  have  obtained  Government 
permission  to  levy  the  duties  according  to  a  tariff  fixed  for  that  particular  case. 


590 


IX.      SHIPPING   AND   NAVIGATION. 


The  measurement  dues  in  Sweden  at  present  fall,  as  a  rule,  upon  the  owner. 
For  bills  of  tonnage  and  some  other  shipping  documents,  stamp-  and  office- 
fees  are  payable. 

Abroad;  Swedish  vessels  nowadays  do  not  pay  any  other  fees  except,  in  Great 
Britain,  a  fee  to  the  Swedish  Church  in  London,  as  well  as  such  fees  or  dues 
as  have  the  character  of  office-fees  to  the  consul.  The  fee  to  the  Swedish 
Church  in  London  amounts  to  0"6  penny  per  ton  for  vessels  arriving  in  Lon- 
don, and  to  O's  penny  for  vessels  arriving  at  other  ports  in  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland. 

Sailors. 

On  account  of  the  peculiar  nature  of  the  sailor's  calling,  the  conditions  under 
which  that  profession  is  to  be  pursued  have  from  ancient  times  been  made  the 
subject  of  special  legislation.  The  present  regulations  on  the  subject  are  con- 
tained in  the  Maritime  Law  of  1891  with  the  statutes  incorporated  therewith.  That 
Act  prescribes  in  detail  the  duties  and  rights  of  the  crew  and  the  master 
reciprocally  and  in  relation  of  the  ship-owner,  as  well  as  the  extent  of  the 
master's  responsibility  for  the  vessel.  In  order  to  maintain  the  rigorous  disci- 
pline which  is  so  necessary  on  board  ship,  and  to  prevent  the  crew  being  able  to 
leave  the  ship  then  and  there  on  the  slightest  occasion  arising,  the  law  has 
deposited  very  extensive  disciplinary  powers  in  the  hands  of  the  Master,  and 
made  the  conditions  of  the  seaman's  articles  more  rigorous,  which  has  corres- 
pondingly diminished  the  personal  liberty  and  independence  of  the  crew.  (See 
the  section:  Maritime  Legislation). 

As  to  the  amount  of  the  wages  (hire)  to  be  paid  in  different  cases  to  the 
master  and  crew,  the  law  says  nothing.  This  is  a  matter  entirely  dependent 
on  a  free  contract  between  the  shipowner,  the  master  and  the  crew.  The  salary 
of  the  Master,  which,  obviously,  varies  greatly  according  to  the  size  of  the  ship 
and  the  voyage  on  which  she  is  bound,  consists,  as  a  rule  partly  of  a  fixed  salary, 
partly  of  a  commission  on  the  freight  earned.  This  commission  in  Sweden  is 
called  happlaTce.  The  masters  of  large  steamships  have  as  a  rule  from  5  000 
to  6  000  kroner,  those  of  smaller  steamers  from  2  000  to  4  000  kronor  as  a 
total  yearly  income.  According  to  data  obtained  from  the  Seamen  Registry 
Office,  the  average  monthly  wages  in  1912  for  different  ratings  of  officers  and 
crew   in  the  Swedish  merchant  fleet  was  as  follows:-' 


Rating 


Steamer     Sailing-sliip 
kr.  kr. 


First  Mate .... 

.    130 

90 

Second  Mate  .    .    . 

.    100 

75 

First  Engineer  .    . 

.    200 

— 

Second  Engineer  . 

.    125 

— 

Quartermaster    .    . 

.      80 

— 

Boatswain  .... 

.      75 

70 

Eating 


Steamer     Sailing-ship 


kr.  kr. 

Carpenter 70  65 

Able-todied  Seaman  .    .  55  50 

Ordinary  Seaman    ...  45  25 

Steward 90  65 

Cook 55  30 

Stoker 6(5  — 


The  hours  of  work  on  Swedish  ships  sailing  to  foreign  countries  are  12 
hours  a  day  (from  6  a.  m.  to  6  p.  m.)  with  two  hours'  interval;  On  coasting 
vessels  the  working  hours  vary  greatly  owing  to  the  shorter  voyages  and  the 
numerous  stoppages;  but  they  do  not  appear  to  exceed  12  hours  on  an  average. 
When  the  work  is  divided  into  "shifts  watches",  the  number  of  hours  into 
which  a  watch  is  divided  varies. 

Lodgings.  Under  the  Royal  Decree  of  1894,  a  deduction  may  be  made 
for    lodgings    from    the    gross    burden    of  the  ship,  provided  that  each  room  or 


In  the  following  two  years  the  wages  have  been  considerably  raised. 


SAILORS.  591 

cabin  is  exclusively  appropriated  to  the  Master  or  the  crew,  but  subject  to  the- 
stipulation  that  the  room  or  cabin  shall  have  a  capacity  of  at  least  2'04  cub.  m 
and  a  minimum  floor  area  of  at  least  I'li  sq.  m  per  person  accommodated, 
and  moreover  come  up  to  a  certain  minimum  standard  with  respect  to  hygiene- 
and  seaworthiness.  The  spaciousness  of  the  lodgings  on  board  Swedish  merchant 
ships,  as  a  rule,  far  exceeds  these  minimum  requirements,  but  the  sanitary 
arrangements  and  comfort  are  badly  in  need  of  improvement.  The  same  may 
be  said  of  the  scale  of  food  prescribed  by  the  Royal  Decree  of  1896  for  the- 
crews  of  Swedish  vessels.  The  legislative  proposals  drafted  by  the  Committee 
on  Safety  of  Navigation,  which,  at  the  present  moment  of  writing,  have  been 
passed  by  the  Riksdag,  also  contain  considerable  ameliorations  for  the  better 
accommodation  and  the  food  on  board.  With  a  view  to  obtaining  a  foundation 
on  which  to  rear  further  reforms  of  the  labour  conditions  of  seafaring  men,  a: 
statistical  investigation  with  respect  to  the  sailor's  standard  of  life  is  at  present 
being  made  by  the  Royal  Social  Board. 

The  peculiar,  the  severe  conditions  under  which  the  sailor  exercises  his 
profession,  have  been  deemed  in  Sweden,  as  in  other  countries,  to  call  for 
special  sollicitude  on  the  part  of  the  body  public.  The  State  institutions  for 
this  purpose  are  the  Sjomanshus,  Seamen  Registry  and  Shipping  Offices,  and 
Handelsflottans  pensionsanstalt,  the  Mercantile  Marine  Pension  Fund. 

Sjomanshus,  shortly  Seamen  Registry  Offices,  are  found  in  47  of  the  shipping 
towns  of  Sweden.  It  is  part  of  their  mission  to  afford  relief  to  sailors  of  all 
ratings  in  distress  or  out  of  work,  and  to  their  widows  and  children.  The  costs 
of  these  institutions  are  defrayed  partly  by  the  tonnage  fees  paid  by  the  ship- 
owners and  the  sailor's  own  shipping  fees  (hyresavgifter),  paid  by  all  Swedish 
saUors  on  board  ships  sailing  to  foreign  countries,  inclusive  of  the  masters, 
at  the  rate  of  1  ^  of  their  wages  or  salary,  and  thirdly  by  State  sub- 
vention. In  1912  the  tonnage  dues  amoimted  to  192  916  kroner,  the  shipping 
fees  to  125  848  kroner,  and  the  State  grant  to  40  000  kronor.  In  the  same- 
year  the  sum  expended  in  annual  and  occasional  aid  was  288  660  kronor,  wages, 
salaries  and  expenditure  ran  into  215  399  kronor;  and  the  balance  at  the  end 
of  the  year  figured  at  134  247  kronor.  The  aggregate  balance  of  capital  held 
by  the  Sjomanshusen  was  6  029  563  kronor,  which  sum  also  includes  donations. 
Each  Sjomanshus  is  governed  by  a  Board,  consisting  of  elected  members  repre- 
senting the  shipowners  and  sailors  of  various  ratings.  The  Sjomanshus  axe  sub- 
ject to  the  supervision  of  the  Board  of  Trade,  which,  at  the  recommendation  of 
the  Board,  appoints  their  Commissioner,  who  is  a  salaried  official,  with  fiscal  duties.. 
The  Mercantile  Marine  Pension  Fund  was  founded  in  1864  as  a  set-off  to  the 
right  enjoyed  by  sailors  on  board  ships  sailing  to  foreign  countries  to  introduce 
into  Sweden  free  of  duty  a  certain  quantity  of  goods  (known  as  faring).  The 
State  grant  to  this  Fund  was  in  1912  174  075'36  kronor.  Pensions  are 
granted  to  Swedish  sailors  who  have  been  principally  employed  on  board  ships- 
sailing  to  foreign  countries  after  attaining  the  age  of  55,  provided  they  have 
been  entered  for  25  years  on  the  Seamen  Registry  Offices.  The  pensions  are 
divided  into  four  classes,  of  which  the  two  first  are  intended  for  certified 
masters,  the  third  for  other  masters  as  well  as  mates  and  engineer,  and  the 
fourth  for  other  sailors  and  stokers  on  steamships.  The  number  of  pensioners, 
in  1912  was  in 

Kr. 

lat    class      324  at  the  rate  of  160  kr 51.840 

2nd      »        328   >      »      -'      >    130    »     28  560 

3rd      .        233   »      »      '      »    100    »     23  300 

4th      »      1140   >      >      »      "     60    > 68400 

Total  172100 


592  IX.      SHIPPING   AND   NAVIGATION. 

However,  there  has  long  been  a  feeling  among  sailors  that  their  pension  and 
relief  system  is  quite  inadequate  for  their  needs,  and  not  sufficiently  centralized. 
An  attempt  to  meet  these  demands  was  made  by  the  Sailors'  Pension  Committee 
(1900 — 04).  What  that  Committee  proposed  was  a  combined  Accident  and 
Old  Age  Insurance,  towards  which  fees  were  to  be  paid  by  all  Swedish  sailors. 
That  proposal,  however,  did  not  lead  to  any  definite  results.  The  matter  was 
referred  to  the  consideration  of  the  Old  Age  Insurance  Committee,  whose  scheme 
for  combined  national  pension  and  insurance  system,  which  the  Riksdag  of 
1913  passed  into  law,  naturally  embraces  all  the  seafaring  classes.  That 
Committee  has  moreover  been  instructed  to  draft  proposals  for  a  law  providing 
for  the  accidence  insurance  of  sailors.  In  spite  of  their  perilous  craft  with  its 
great  frequency  of  accidents,  sailors  fall  outside  the  purview  of  the  Workmens' 
Compensation  Act  of  1901.  Nevertheless  shipowners  have  not  deemed  them- 
selves exonerated  from  insuring  the  crews  of  their  ships,  which  they  have  done, 
as  a  rule,  at  their  own  expense. 

A  Society  has  been  founded  to  take  measures  for  diminishing  to  the  greatest 
feasible  extent  the  numerous  oases  of  drowning  which  occur  in  connection  with 
the  stranding  and  wreckage  of  ships.  It  is  called  "Svenska  sallskapet  for 
raddning  av  skeppsbrutna"  (The  Swedish  Society  for  the  Safety  of  Life  at  Sea), 
and  its  object  is  to  arouse  the  interest  of  the  public  in  this  matter,  and  to 
establish  Lifeboat  Stations  in  places  along  the  coast  of  Sweden  particularly  ex- 
posed to  shipwrecks  and  still  in  need  of  such  stations. 

As  the  sailors  spend  a  great  part  of  their  time  outside  the  purlieus  of  Sweden, 
and  as  a  considerable  number  of  Swedish  sailors  are  engaged  in  foreign  service 
—  at  certain  times  during  recent  years  no  less  than  6  000  Swedes,  that  is  a 
sixth  of  the  total  manning  strength  of  the  Swedish  merchantile  fleet,  have 
been  employed  on  board  English  vessels  —  measures  have  been  adopted  in 
large  foreign  ports  to  afford  them  assistance  and  protection,  such  as  sailors' 
homes,  sailors'  churches  with  chaplains,  and  so  forth.  In  order  to  encourage 
them  to  thrift,  the  savings  of  Swedish  sailors  are  forwarded  carriage  free  from 
places  abroad  to  Sweden,  through  consular  channels. 

The  kind  of  corporate  feeling  which  has  always  prevailed  among  sailors,  and 
in  virtue  of  which  the  youngest  ordinary  seaman  on  board  may  one  day  look 
forward  to  pace  his  own  deck  in  the  proud  capacity  of  a  certified  Master,  and 
possibly  of  shareholder  in  the  ship,  has  discouraged  the  growth  in  the  seafaring 
profession  of  sharp  social  distinctions  between  employers  and  employed.  Whether 
the  modern  development  which  shipping  has  been  undergoing,  the  larger  scale 
■of  operations  on  which  that  trade  its  now  tending  to  be  conducted,  the  amal- 
gamation of  shipping  lines  into  large  trusts,  the  gradually  increasing  size  of 
the  units,  is  likely  to  effect  a  revolution  in  these  conditions,  time  only  can 
•show.  The  partriarchal  peace  which  has  hitherto  prevailed  in  labour  conditions 
in  the  shipping  profession  has  naturally  been  promoted  greatly  by  the  fact  that 
the  relations  between  shipowners,  officers,  and  crew  have  been  regulated  by 
law.  The  conflict  of  interests  in  this  sphere  of  labour  has  thus  taken  the 
direction  of  legislatory  reform.  The  interested  parties  have  been  represented  by 
•different  unions,  the  shipowners  by  Sveriges  Redareforening,  the  officers  by 
Sveriges  Fartygshefalsforening,  the  certified  engineers  by  Svensha  Maskinistfor- 
hundet,  and  common  sailors  by  different  local  trade  unions.  The  crews  of 
numberless  small  craft,  steamers,  tugs,  and  barges  employed  in  the  shipping, 
the  coasting  and  the  canal  trade  are  not  sailors  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  the 
word,  and  therefore  belong,  as  far  as  they  are  organized  (which  is  only  in  a 
minor  degree),  to  Svenska  Transportarbetareforbundet. 

Collective  Bargaining,  which,  though  restricted  in  several  respects  by  the 
maritime    law,   is    legitimate    in  the  shipping  trade,  in  point  of  fact  occur  very 


SAILORS. 


593 


seldom.  At  the  present  moment  of  writing  there  are  only  a  few  in  force,  notably 
that  concluded  between  the  two  most  prominent  trade  organizations  on  both  sides, 
Sveriges  Bedarefdrening  (representing  the  shipowners)  and  Svenska  Mashinist- 
forbundet  (representing  the  engineers).  The  Shipowners'  Association  is  extremely 
well  organized.  Although  only  formed  in  1906,  at  the  close  of  1912  it  em- 
braced 157  shipping  companies  with  446  (steam)ships  aggregating  594  480  gross 
register  tons,  and  with  crews  numbering  1  850  men.  The  Shipowners'  Associa- 
tion has  moreover  established  a  Maritime  Labour  Exchange,  superintended  by 
its  officials  and  based  on  fees  paid  by  the  owners  of  ships  with  offices  in  the 
larger  ports  of  Sweden.  In  1911  as  many  as  11663  vacancies  were  filled 
through  its  instrumentality. 


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X. 


INTERNAL  COMMUNICATIONS. 


1.     RAILWAYS. 

The  building  of  railways  was  commenced  late  in  Sweden,  but  once 
begun,  it  was  continued  with  great  energy.  On  the  whole,  the  network 
of  railways  in  Sweden,  such  as  it  is  now  in  the  second  decade  of  the  present 
century,  forms  the  greatest  economic  achievement  that  the  nineteenth  and 
twentieth  centuries  can  boast  of  in  that  country. 

The  real  pioneer  of  railways  in  Sweden  was  Count  A.  E.  von  Rosen  (1797 
— 1886).  In  1845,  this  nobleman  received  a  concession  to  build  railways  in  the 
central  and  southern  parts  of  the  country,  on  a  magnificent,  if  also  somewhat 
ambitious,  plan,  which,  otherwise,  in  its  characteristic  features,  is  closely  identi- 
cal   with    that    of    the    present  Government  railways.     Although  von  Rosen,  on 


Table  125. 

Length  of  Mailway 

s  in  Sweden. 

At  the  end  of  tlie  years 

Btate 
railways! 

Private 
railways 

Total 

Of  which  in 

Gauge 

Southern 
Sweden 

Northern 
Sweden^ 

Normal 

Narrow 

I860 

1865 

1870 

1875 

1880 

1886 

1890 

1895 

1900 

1905 

1910 

1911 

1912 

1913 

303 
869 
1118 
1513 
1956 
2  385 

2  613 

3  269 

3  849 
4199 

4  418 

4  453 
4  610 

4  688 

204 

416 

590 

2168 

3  923 

4  505' 

5  405 

6  486 

7  453 

8  449 

9  411 

9  489 
9  561 
9  689 

507 

1285 

1708 

3681 

5879 

6890 

8018 

9  755 

11302 

12648 

13  829 

13  942 
14171 
14377 

375 
1138 

1561 
3  344 
5  075 

5  602 

6  438 

7  334 

8  354 

9  290 
10  228 

10  306 
10  367 
10  552 

132 

147 

147 

337 

804 

1288 

1580 

2  521 

2  948 

3  358 
3  601 

3  636 
3  804 
3  825 

496 
1177 
1457 
2  996 

4  638 

5  508 

6  343 

7  744 

8  681 

9  756 
10  551 

10  636 
10  854 
11010 

11 

108 
251 
685 
1211 
1382 
1675 
2041 

2  621 
2892 

3  278 

3  306 
3  317 
3367 

'  Exclusive  of  the  steam  railway-ferry  route, 
berg  Lan. 


The  five  northernmost  lans  and  Koppar- 


RAILWAYS. 


595 


The  most  important 
Traffic  Routes 


596 


X.      INTERNAL   COMMUNICATIONS. 


Mailways  at  the  end  of  1912,  in  proportion  to  Population. 
(Kilometers  per  10000  Inhab.) 


Sweden 

Denmark 

Switzerland 

Norway 

France 

British  Isles 

Belginm 

German  Empire 

Austria-Hungary 

Spain 

Holland 

Russia 

Italy 


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Kilometer  o    1     £     3     "i     5     6     7     8     9    10    -11    IE  13    l"!    15   16    17    18    19    eo    21    SS   23  24    £5    26 


account  of  the  general  hesitation  to  embark  in  the  hazardous  enterprise,  was 
not  actually  able  to  carry  out  more  than  an  insignificant  part  of  his  scheme,  he 
nevertheless  succeeded  by  his  unwearied  energy  in  winning  recognition  for  his 
views  as  to  the  necessity  of  railways.  Contrary  to  Rosen's  plan  of  providing 
the  country  with  a  system  of  private  railways,  the  Riksdag  of  1853  resolved, 
however,  that  the  main  lines  should  be  constructed  as  Government  ones. 

The  commission  to  carry  into  effect  this  resolution  was  entrusted  in  1855  to 
Nils  Ericson  (1802 — 70),  already  known  as  a  canal  constructor,  who  for  this 
purpose  was  invested  with  extraordinary  authority'.  Nils  Ericson  constructed 
several  of  our  Government  lines  and  drew  up  plans  for  all  the  Government 
railways  in  Central  and  Southern  Sweden.  The  first  Government  line  was 
opened  on  December  1,  1856;  the  first  private  one,  some  months  previously. 
For  the  further  development  of  the  Railways,  see  Table  125,  and  the  accompany- 
ing diagram. 

At  the  end  of  1913,  Sweden  possessed  about  14  377  kilometers  of  rail- 
ways in  actual  use,  besides  which  about  2  200  km  are  in  course  of  con- 
struction or  have  concessions  granted.  In  proportion  to  population,  Swe- 
den has  more  railways  than  any  other  country  in  Europe.  For  every  ten 
thousand  inhabitants,  Sweden  possesses  26  km,  of  railway,  while  Denmark, 
which  comes  next,  has  only  13-6.  The  average  figure  for  the  whole  of 
Europe  is  8. 

Having  regard  to  the  sparse  population  of  Sweden,  it  is  natural  enough 
that  circumstances  are  somewhat  different,  when  the  network  of  lines  is 
compared  with  the  area.  For  every  ten  thousand  hectares,  Sweden  has  3-2 
km  of  railway,  a  by  no  means  insignificant  figure,  seeing  that  the  average 


'  Nils  Ericson  was  a  brother  of  the  celebrated  John  Ericsson,  of  whom,  by  the  way, 
it  may  be  mentioned,  that  he,  too,  has  left  a  name  in  railway  history.  In  the  memorable 
competition  at  Rainhill,  in  October,  1829,  John  Ericsson,  also  took  part,  and  would  in  all 
probability  have  proved  victorious  over  Stephenson,  had  not  his  locomotive  met  with  a 
temporary  accident. 


RAILWAYS. 


597 


The  red  Jiuto  s'aovf 
the  State  raiiwH.A  b;  the 
black  lines,  the  pri- 
vate railways. 

Railways  in  course 
of  construction  are 
shown  by  dotted  lines. 


East  of  Oreenw 


cfsU.vGreenw 


Gen.Slab.  Lit  Ansi  Stockholm 


598 


X.      INTERNAL   COMMUNICATIONS. 


New  Railways  opened  for  Traffic  in  Sweden  each  year  during  the  period 

1856—1913. 


figure  for  Europe  is  3-4;  but  the  inferiority  of  the  figure  for  Sweden  is 
here  chiefly  due  to  the  enormous  distances  in  North  Sweden.  If  the  six 
lans  situated  farthest  to  the  north  are  left  out  of  consideration,  the  figures 
rises  to  7  km  per  ten  thousand  hectares,  which  is  about  the  same  as  in 
Italy.  And  Malmohus  Lan  even  reaches  19  km  for  the  same  area,  which  , 
is  more  than  the  average  for  any  other  countries  in  Europe,  with  the 
exception  of  Belgium  and  Luxemburg.  Kristianstad  Lan  has  about  12  km 
of  railways  per  ten  thousand  hectares,  or  the  same  as  that  possessed  by 
the  British  Isles,  while  Blekinge  Lan  has  about  11  km,  which  is  approxi- 
mately the  average  figure  for  the  German  Empire.  The  mining  districts 
of  Central  Sweden  are  also  particularly  well  provided  with  railways. 

Of  the  whole  length  of  railways  lines  in  use  in  Sweden  at  the  end  of 
1913,  4  688  km  were  State  lines  and  9  689  km  were  Private  lines  (cf.  Table 
125).     The  most  important  lines  in  Sweden  at  present  are  the  following: 


State  railways,  a)  Stockholm — Malmo — Tralleborg  649  km,  the  principal 
route  of  communication  with  the  Continent;  direct  steam-ferry  communication 
by  sea  is  effected  via  Sassnitz  with  Germany;  at  Malmo  there- is  also  direct 
steam-ferry  communication  with  Copenhagen  .(see  below);  &)  Stockholm — Go- 
thenburg, 458  km,  to  Katrineholm  station  in  common  with  the  above;  c)  Stock- 
holm— Christiania,  575  km,  to  Laxa  in  common  with  the  above;  439  km  of 
the  whole  length  belong  to  Sweden,  and  136  km  to  Norway;  d)  Stockholm — 
Uppsala— Bracke — ^Boden — Kiruna — Riksgransen  (frontier-station)  1  542  km,  with 
a  continuation  on  the  Norwegian  side  to  Ofoten  on  the  Atlantic;  from  Boden 
there  is  a  branch  line  running  towards  the  Finland  frontier;  e)  Sundsvall 
— Ange — Trondhjem,  465  km,  363  km  of  which  belong  to  Sweden  and  102 
to  Norway ;  by  means  of  this  line,  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean 


KAILWAYS.  599 

are'  joined  six  or  seven  hundred  km  farther  to  the  south  than  by  the  line  last 
ipentioned;  f)  Mjolbj' — Orebro — Krylbo,  253  km,  which  considerably  shortens 
the  distance  between  the  .State  railways  in  the  north  and  in  the  south  of 
Sweden;  g)  Tralleborg — Malmo — Gothenburg — Christiania,  138  km,  381  km 
of  which  is  the  property  of  the  Swedish  State,  188  km  belong  to  private  Swe- 
dish companies,  and  169  to  the  Norwegian  State;  li)  the  railway  running  length- 
wise through  Bohuslan,  between  Gothenburg   and  Stromstad,  181  km. 

The  private  railways  are  distributed  between  about  150  comi»ny-proprietors 
and  therefore  only  occasionally  form  large  complexes.  Of  the  most  important  lines 
may  be  mentioned:  Stockholm — Orebro — Svarta,  267  km,  lately,  partly  (Frovi — 
Svarta,  75  km)  taken  over  by  the  State;  Uppsala — Gavle — Ockelbo,  175  km; 
Gavle — Falun — Orsa,  194  km,  leading  to  the  picturesque  country  round  lake 
Siljan;  BIristinehamn — Mora — Alvdalen,  262  km,  between  the  lakes  Vanern  and 
SUjan;  Gothenburg — Falun,  486  km,  west  of  lake  Vanern;  Halmstad — Nassjo, 
280  km  and  Nassjo — Oskarshamn,  148  km;  Karlskrona — Vaxjo — Alvesta,  132 
km,  in  connection  with  Alvesta — Yarnamo — Gothenburg,  245  km;  Halsingborg 
— JonkopLng,  246  km,  from  Oresund  to  lake  Yattern;  Orebro — Palsboda — Kors- 
holm — Hultsfred,   300  km,  etc. 

During  the  last  few  years,  attempts  have  been  made  in  different  places  to 
unite,  under  one  management,  private  lines  situated  near  each  other,  and  special 
mention  should  be  made  in  this  respect  of  the  Traffic  Joint-Stock  Companj' 
Grangesberg — Oxelosund  (established  in  1896),  which  to  a  large  extent  has 
acquired  Frovi — Ludvika,  Frovi — Koping,  and  Oxelosund — Flen — Vastmanland 
railways  (altogether  300  km)  and  does  a  considerable  business  in  the  carriage 
of  iron-ore  from  the  Grangesberg  mines  (also  acquired  by  the  Company)  in  Da- 
lame,  to  the  harbour  of  Oxelosund  on  the  Baltic,  for  export  abroad. 

Since  a  few  years  back,  the  Gavle — Dala,  Stockholm — Vasteras — Bergslagen, 
and  Bergslagernas  railways  which  all  carry  on  a  lively  traffic  between  the  south- 
western parts  of  Sweden,  Dalarne  and  the  coast  towns  of  central  Xorrland,  ha^'e 
been  under  a  common  administration  called  The  Traffic  Administration  Gothen- 
burg— Stockholm — Gavle. 

To  the  construction  of  a  large  number  of  our  private  railways  the  State  has 
contributed  with  considerable  subventions,  in  all  about  92  million  kroner,  chiefly 
in  the  shape  of  loans  on  favourable  conditions,  besides  which,  the  terms  of 
construction,  with  respect  to  private  railways,  have,  in  general,  been  made  as 
little  burdensome  as  possible  from  the  side  of  the  State.  The  position  the  State 
has  thus  assumed  as  advancer  of  capital  to  no  mean  extent  for  private  enter- 
prise in  the  domain  of  railway  building,  has  powerfully  contributed  to  the  de- 
velopment —  which  is  exceedingly  great  for  Swedish  conditions  —  which  the 
private  railways  have  attained.  —  Something  like  900  km  of  railway  built  by 
private  companies  have  been  purchased  by  the  State  at  various  times. 

As  regards  the  form  of  construction  employed,  it  may  be  mentioned  that 
all  the  Swedish  railways  are  single-tracked,  with  the  exception  of  the  sec- 
tions on  the  State  railways,  Stockholm  Central — Uppsala,  and  Stockholm 
Central — Ronninge,  with  a  total  distance  of  94-3  km ;  Malmo — Hassleholm, 
83-3  km,  and  Gothenburg — Jonseredl3-8  km.  Double  tracks  will  probably 
be  laid  down  in  course  of  time  on  the  chief  lines  in  Southern  and  Central 
Sweden. 

On  six  of  the  private  lines,  double  tracks  are  already  laid,  to  a  length 
of  26  km. 

All  the  State  railways  are  normal  gauge  (1-435  meters)  and  so  are  65  % 


600 


X.      INTERNAL   COMMUNICATIONS. 


of  the  total  length  of  the  private  lines.  Altogether,  Sweden  has  11 010 
km  of  normal  gauge  lines  and  3  367  km  of  narrow  gauge  (cf.  Table  125, 
page  594).  Of  the  narrow-gauge  lines,  77  %  have  a  width  of  0-891  meters, 
and  15  %  a  width  of  1-067;  the  remaining  8  %  are  divided  between  three 
different  gauges  down  to  0-6  meters,  which  last  exceedingly  small  gauge 
(the  "Kosta  system")  is  met  with  on  some  of  the  smaller  local  lines,  and 
has  a  total  length  of  altogether  154  km. 


— — ^ 


The  Bridge  across  the  River  Ore  dlv. 


The  weight  of  rails  per  meter  on  the  State  railways  varies  between  40-5  and 
27  kg.  Besides  those  lines  in  the  extreme  north  of  Sweden  which  are  designed 
for  the  carriage  of  ore,  the  chief  lines  south ,  of  Uppsala  are  already  partly  pro- 
vided with  rails  of  the  first  above-mentioned  weight.  The  weight  of  rails  on 
the  normal  gauge  private  lines  varies  betveei}  45  and  17-2  kg,  and  on  the  narrow 
gauge,  between  32-7  and  9-5  kg  pr  meter. 

On  the  State  lines,  steel  rails  are  for  the  most  part  used,  on  the  private 
lines,  both  steel  and  iron  rails.  The  rails  are  generally  of  English,  German,  or 
Belgian  manufacture.  On  the  larger  broad-gauge  lines,  the  highest  gradient  is, 
as  a  rule,  1  %,  and  the  smallest  radius  of  curvature  300  meters.  The  majority 
of  the  stations  on  the  chief  lines  of  the  State  railways  and  a  considerable 
number  of  stations  on  the  larger  private  lines,  have  been  provided  with  modern 
shunt-locking  and  safety  signalling  apparatus,  this  at  some  of  the  stations  being 
in  connection  with  a  central  adjusting  office. 

The  ample  supply  of  wood  in  Sweden  has  made  the  cost-price  of  sleepers 
so  cheap  that  their  impregnation  has  not  been  considered  economical.  Now, 
however,  the  State  railways  have  begun  to  impregnate  the  sleepers,  for  which 
purpose  specially  designed  and  portable  apparatus  is  employed. 

As  a  particular  feature  of  the  Swedish  railways,  notice  should  be  called  to 
the  numerous  and,  in  some  cases,  splendid  railway  bridg'es,  more  especially 
in  Norrland,  which  have  been  necessitated  by  the  great  number  of  rivers  to  be 
crossed.     Many  of  these  can  be  regarded  as  good  specimens  of  Swedish  engine- 


RAILWAYS. 


601 


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ering  skill,  and  among  them  should  be  chiefly  mentioned  the  new  bridge  across 
the  Angermanalven  at  Forsmo,  which  is  263-6  meters  long,  and  which  crosses 
the  river  at  a  height  of  48-8  meters  above  the  lowest  level  of  the  water.  It 
has  four  arches,  the  longest  of  which,  spanning  the  steam  itself,  is  104  meters 
wide.  Its  construction  forms  the  most  important  bridge-building  work  hitherto 
undertaken    in    Sweden    and    is    worthy    of  special  attention  on  account  of  the 


602 


X.       INTERNAL  ■COMMUNICATIO^^S. 


method  that  was  employed  for  the  erection  of  the  iron-construction  of  the  great 
span  across  the  stream. 

In  erecting  the  span  across  the  river,  no  fixed  supports  from  the  river-bed 
were  employed,  as  their  employment  would,  in  consequence  of  the  great  height, 
have  added  considerably  to  the  cost  of  the  bridge,  but  the  iron-construction  work 
of  the  central  span  proceeded  unsupported,  from  either  side  of  the  river,  and 
was  continued  until  the  two  half-sections  of  the  span  met  above  the  centre  of 
the  stream,  at  a  distance  of  52  meters  from  the  sides,  and  were  then  united 
with  each   other. 


Saihcay-hridge  {of  granite)  over  the  Fldsjbalven. 


The  iron  track-way  of  the  bridge  weighs  1  244  tons,  and  the  total  cost  of 
the  erection,  inclusive  of  foundations  and  stonework,  which  latter  everywhere 
consists  of  granite-faced  beton,  amoijnted  to  about  860  000  kronor.  The  bridge 
was  opened  for  traffic  on  September  26,  1912.  Further  may  be  mentioned  the 
bridge  over  the  Ore  alv,  which  is  168"9  meters  long  and  has  four  arches,  the 
longest  of  which  is  53  meters;  the  bridge  over  the  Ume  alv,  which  is  178'5 
meters  long  and  has  three  arches,  two  of  which  are  59*6  meters  each;  one  of 
the  bridges  over  the  Vindelalven,  which  is  181  meters  long  and  has  four  arches, 
two  of  which  are  62  meters  each;  and  the  bridge  over  the  Lule  alv,  which  is 
162  meters  long  and  has  three  arches,  the  longest  of  which  is  62  meters.  Two 
important  bridges  have  been  constructed  on  the  State  line  through  Bohuslan, 
viz.,  those  over  the  rivers  Gota-  and  Nordre  alvar,  both  erections  being  provided 
with  swinging-spans,  so  that  the  bridges  may  not  be  a  hindrance  to  navigation. 
The  swing-bridge  across  the  Gota  alv,  of  a  total  length  of  56"2  meters,  is  one 
of    the    largest    moveable    bridges  in  the  country.     The   bridge  over  the  Nordre 


RAILWAYS. 


603 


alv  has  a  fixed  span  of  83-81  meters  in  width,  in  addition  to  a  swinging-spdn, 
4'7'i8  meters  wide. 

■W;hile  the  material  of  the  bridge  track-ways  of  the  State  lines  has  hitherto 
consisted  of  iron,  natural  stone  and  concrete  and  reinforced  concrete,  so  much 
in  use  nowadays,  have  been  employed  for  arch-construction. 

For  example,  a  railway-bridge  of  granite  and  reinforced  concrete,  with  a  span 
of  35  meters,  is  at  present  being  erected  over  the  Flasjoalv,  in  Jamtland,  on 
the  Inland  Railway  now  in  course  of  construction. 


Bogie-car. 


Among  other  works  of  skill,  we  must  not  omit  to  mention  the  tunnel,  433 
meters  long,  under  Sodermalm,  in  Stockholm,  and  the  extensive  bridge-building, 
banking,  and  piling-work  executed  in  connection  with  the  completion  of  the 
railway  through  Stockholm  city;  also  the  works,  noteworthy  from  several  points 
of  view,  on  the  Stockholm — Saltsjobaden  line,  amongst  which  may  be  speciallj'- 
noticed  a  tunnel  643  meters  long  in  curve  and  gradient,  and  the  terminus  of 
this  line  at  Stadsgarden,  in  the  south  of  Stockholm.  In  the  same  connection, 
mention  must  be  made  of  the  extensive  quay-buildings  and  loading  arrange- 
ments that  have  been  carried  out  at  Svarton,  near  Lulea,  and  at  Oxelosund  — 
both  for  the  iron-ore  export. 

There  are  no  specially  noteworthy  station  buildings  in  Sweden,  except  the 
terminus  at  Stockholm  and  the  station  at  Malmo.  The  important  increase  of 
traffic  has,  however,  necessitated  the  rebuilding  and  enlargement  of  the  stations 
in  some  of  the  larger  towns.  With  this  object,  extensive  preparatory  work  is 
at  present  being  carried  out  at  the  principal  stations  in  Stockholm,  Gothenburg, 
Malmo,  and  Halsingborg. 


604 


X.      INTERNAL   COMMUNICATIONS. 


The  Rolling-stock  is  of  very  good  quality  and  quite  on  a  level  with 
that  of  other  countries.  The  Swedish  passenger-carriages  are  specially 
renowned  for  their  comfort  and  easy  running. 

The  total  number  of  locomotiTes  amounts  to  about  2  000,  of  which  number 
900  are  the  property  of  the  State  railways,  the  construction-price  of  this  latter 
group  of  engines  amounting  to  about  49  million  kroner.  During  the  last  few 
years,  a  great  number  of  locomotives  have  been  made  with  superheating  arrange- 
ment for  the  steam,  according  to  Schmidt's  system.  Specially  powerful  locomo- 
tives have  been  acquired  for  the  ore-traffic  in  Upper  Norrland,  the  largest  of 
them  having  five  coupled  axles  and,  including  the  tender,  a  service-weight  of 
130  tons.  —  The  fuel  used  is  chiefly  English  coal,  but  on  the  State  lines 
Swedish  coal  from  Skane  is  also  used  to  some  extent.  On  one  or  two  oi  the 
larger  private  lines,  experiments  have  been  for  some  time  carried  on  with  a 
device  invented  by  Hj.  von  Porat,  mechanical  engineer,  for  firing  locomotives 
with  peat-powder,  a  fuel  of  which  large  quantities  exist  in  Sweden. 

The  passenger  carriages  amount  to  a  total  of  3  800,  of  which  number  1  700 
belong  to  the  State  railways.  The  cost  of  construction  of  these  latter  amounts 
to  28  million  kroner.  Both  on  the  State-,  as  well  as  on  most  of  the  private 
lines,  hogie-carriages  are  employed,  with  side-corridors  and  a  through-passage 
right  along  the  entire  train;  these,  so  far  as  fittings  and  technical  arrangements 
are  concerned,  are  thought  to  satisfy  the  most  exigent  claims.  Special  dining- 
cars  are  attached  to  the  principal  day  trains,  and  there  are  sleeping  carriages 
in  all  the  night  trains.  As  a  result  of  the  comparatively  severe  climate,  pains 
have  been  taken  —  and,  on  the  whole,  successfully  —  to  warm  the  passenger- 
carriages  in  a  satisfactory  manner,  and  this  has  been  effected  by  means  of  steam 
from  the  engine.  The  lighting  on  the  State  railways  is  effected  by  means  of 
oil-gas,  according  to  the  Pintsch  system,  for  the  production  of  which  special 
gasworks  are  established  at  several  places.  A  considerable  improvement  in  this 
system  of  illumination  has  been  introduced  during  the  last  few  years  by  the 
employment  of  mantles  for  the  burners,  whereby  the  strength  of  the  light  is  very 
essentially  increased.  A  large  number  of  the  private  lines  employ  acetylene- 
gas  for  lighting  their  passenger-carriages.  Quite  lately  it  has  been  found  pos- 
sible to  employ  mantles  for  this  system  of  illumination,  too.  Automatic  vacuum- 


Photo.  JOHS  Wallgbex,  Motala. 
A  State  Railway  Express  Locomotive. 


RAILWAY.- 


605 


Open  Freight-goods  Bogie-car,  Stnfe-Raihcays. 


brakes  running  through  the  entire  train,  in  accordance  with  Korting's  or  Hardy's 
systems,  are  in  use  on  the  express  trains  of  all  the  State  lines. 

The  Goods  waggons  of  all  the  railways  number  altogether  5 1  000,  with  a  total 
carrying  capacity  of  about  640  000  tons.  The  cost  of  the  building  of  the  23  000 
waggons  belonging  to  the  State  railways  amounted  to  72  million  kroner.  Among 
the  different  types  of  waggons  characteristic  of  the  country  and  its  conditions 
of  traffic,  may  be  mentioned  the  three-axled  ore-waggons,  of  which  those  for  the 
conveyance  of  ore  in  Norrland  have  their  bodies  made  of  iron,  and  are  now  built 
with  a  carrying-capacity  of  35  tons  each;  and  also  the  so-called  butter-waggons, 
which  are  constructed  for  the  carriage  of  butter  and  other  more  perishable  artic- 
les, and  which  are  provided  with  treble  walls  and  roofs,  refrigerators,  etc.  There 
are  also  special  waggons  for  the  transport  of  cattle,  of  charcoal  and  limestone, 
and  foui-axled  bogie-waggons,  specially  intended  for  the  carriage  of  ore  and  with 
a  carrying-capacity  of  36  tons.  The  carrying-capacity  of  the  double-axled  wag- 
gons of  newer  types  is,  as  a  rule,  16 — 18  tons.  The  heavy  ore-trains  running 
on    the   line   Lulea — Riksgransen  are  all  provided  with  the  Westinghouse  brake. 

With  regard  to  the  rolling-stock  of  the  State  railways,  this  is,  manufactured 
in  Sweden  itself.  Of  the  factories  which  supply  the  railways  with  locomotives, 
the  TroUhattan  and  the  Motala  Mechanical  Works  have  brought  the  manufacture 
to  a  comparatively  high  state  of  perfection.  The  TroUhattan  Works  produce  an 
average  of  50  locomotives  per  annum,  and  the  Motala  works  about  30.  Fac- 
tories for  the  manufacture,  on  a  large  scale,  of  rollingstock  are  now  to  be  found 
in  several  places,  as  for  instance  at  Falun,  Malmo,  Kristianstad,  Hassleholm, 
Linkoping,  Sodertalje,  and  Arlov. 

The  railways  themselves  have  workshops  for  the  repairs  of  stock;  some  private 
lines  also  have  works  for  the  manufacture  of  rolling-stock.  There  is  a  Central 
Repairing  Workshop  at  Orebro  for  the  State  railways,  these  owning  ten  work- 
shops of  varying  importance  in  different  parts  of  the  country. 


606 


X.      INTERNAL   COMMUNICATIONS. 


Sleeping-ear,  State  Railways. 

The  average  speed  of  passenger-  and  goods-trains  is  comparatively  low;  on  the 
State  lines,  for  expresses  it  is  50  km  an  hour;  for  ordinary  passenger  trains,  36 
km,  and  for  goods-trains  18  km  an  hour  (1913).  The  greatest  allowable  speed 
for  express  trains  is,  at  present,    00  km  an  hour. 


Management.    Tariffs. 

The  central  administration  of  the  State  railways  is  in  the  hands  of  the 
Boyal  Railway  Board,  which  is  appointed  by  the  Government,  whilst  the 
current  traffic  and  its  regulation  is  managed  by  five  District  Administra- 
tions, the  members  of  which  are  also  appointed  by  the  Government.  In 
connection  with  the  very  extensive  right  of  determining  matters  relative 
to  economic  questions  conferred  on  the  Royal  Railway  Board,  on  the 
occasion  of  the  last  reorganization  of  that  body  (1908),  there  have  been 
placed  on  that  Board  two  railway -commissioners  appointed  by  the  Govern- 
ment for  two  years  in  succession,  who  take  part  in  the  greater  number  of 
the  important  decisions  come  to  by  the  Board.  There  is  also  a  special 
superior  hoard  of  revisors,  consisting  of  three  persons  outside  of  the 
body  of  the  railway  administration  and  appointed  by  the  Government 
each  successive  year  for  the  examination  and  control  of  the  accounts  of 
the  State  Railways  and  of  the  administration  carried  out  by  the  Board. 

The  private  railways,  on  the  other  hand,  are  managed  by  Boards 
appointed  by  the  railway  companies  concerned,  on  which  Boards,  if  any 
public  loans  or  government  subventions  of  any  kind  have  been  given,  the 
Government  usually  has  representatives. 

Concessions  for  the  construction  of  private  railways  are,  as  a  rule, 
granted  by  the  Government,  which  also  fixes  the  tariffs  for  the  State  rail- 
ways, as  well  as  for  private  ones.  The  ordinary  regulations  for  the  general 
rules  of  traffic  on  all  railways  are  also  issued  by  the  Government,  whilst, 
on  the  other  hand,  tbe  more  special  service  instructions,  such  as  those  ha- 
ving regard  to  signalling,  measures  of  precaution,  etc.,  are  drawn  up  by 


MANAGEMENT.      TARIFFS. 


607 


the  Board  ol"  the  State  railways  both  i'or  the  State  and  the  private  rail- 
ways. In  certain  matters,  the  private  railways  are  subject  to  the  inspec- 
tion and  control  of  the  "Vag-  och  vattenbyggnadsstyrelsen"  (Royal  Engin- 
eering Board;  cf.  Canals  and  Waterways).  Otherwise  no  check  has  been 
laid  by  the  State  on  thefreedom  of  action  of  the  private  railways,  and  their 
lines  are  worked  under  financial,  as  well  as  administrative,  independence. 
Thus,  for  instance,  the  Boards  of  the  private  railways  have  the  right  to 
grant,  for  goods  forwarded  on  iheir  own  lines,  the  privileges  and  reduc- 
tions which  may  seem  fit  to  them.  As  regards  carriage  of  goods  on  the 
State  railways,  the  Board  of  these  railways  can  under  certain  conditions 
grant  reductions.  As  regards  goods  traffic,  these  conditions  are,  chiefly, 
that  the  reductions  may  be  made,  if  they  are  considered  needful  and  if 
it  be  to  the  economic  interest  of  the  State  railways  to  grant  the  reductions 
in  question. 

The  network  of  private  railways  in  Sweden  is,  as  we  mentioned  before, 
distributed  among  a  number  of  different  owners.  In  order  to  counteract 
unhealthy  competition,  there  was  organized  in  1882  a  Joint  Traffic  Union 
(samtrafiksforeningen)  of  the  State  railways  and  a  number  of  private 
lines,  which  most  of  the  railways  in  the  kingdom  subsequently  joined.  For 
goods  traffic  between  the  railway  lines  affiliated  to  this  Joint  Traffic 
Union  there  exists  a  common  joint  traffic  tariff  (tallying  with  the  tariff 


wm^m^^^ 

1 

^\:. 

'\         ^^^^^^^^^M 

m 

m 

\ 

Q                                    F,69 

%    ...mm.  'flKM 

k 

m 

Photo.  Axel  SjOberg,  Malmb. 


Isi  Class  Sleeping -ear. 


608  X.      INTERNAL    COMMUNICATIONS. 

of  the  State  Railways,  but  with  certain  additional  fees),  which  also  gives 
the  rules  for  determining  the  routes  that  are  to  be  employed  for  the  trans- 
port of  the  goods  (the  total  line-length  forms  the  basis  for  determining 
the  tariff  employed;  cf.  below),  and  for  the  settlement  of  any  dispute  that 
may  arise.  The  beneficial  effects  of  the  work  of  this  union  have  been 
felt  both  by  the  travelling  public  and  by  the  railways  themselves. 

There  is  also  a  common  tariff  existing  for  the  joint  passenger  traffic 
between  the  various  railway  lines. 


Photo.  A.  Malmstr6m,  Stockholm. 
5''*  Class  Sleeping-car. 

The  private  railways  have  a  special  organization  in  the  Railway  Union  (Jarn- 
vagsforeningen),  formed  in  1876,  which  embraces  nearly  all  the  private  railways 
and  is  composed  of  the  administrations  of  these  lines.  It  was  mainly  through 
cooperation  between  this  Union  and  the  Board  of  the  State  Railways  that  the 
above  mentioned  Joint  Traffic  Union  was  founded. 


MANAGEMENT.      TARIFF. 


609 


The  tariff  that  is  in  force  for  the  traffic  of  the  State  Rail-ways  them- 
selves dates  from  1889,  but  since  that  year  it  has  been  revised  in  essential 
particulars  and  is  at  present  being  submitted  to  a  thorough  re-casting. 
First,  as  regards  the  goods  traffic,  there  are  certain  fundamental  principles 
of  calculation  for  freight-goods,  for  express-goods,  and  also  for  parcels, 
living  animals,  vehicles,  etc.  As  freight-goods  is  included  the  great  ore- 
traffic  from  the  mines  in  Lappland.  Of  the  total  freight-income  for  goods 
on  the  State  lines  in  1913,  -which  amounted  to  56-6  million  kronor,  there 
was  received  from  the  Lappland-ore,  carriage  13-8  million  kronor,  from 
other  freight-goods,  parcels,  and  express-goods,  41-4  million  kronor  (of 
■which  amount  it  -was  calculated  that  the  parcels  and  express-goods  yielded 
2-8  million  kronor),  -while  the  balance  -was  obtained  by  the  transport  of 
li-ving  animals,  vehicles,  etc.  The  freight-goods  traffic  is,  consequently, 
incomparably  the  most  important.  In  the  cases  -when  no  special  ex- 
ceptional rates  are  granted,  goods  -which  are  transported  as  freight-goods 
are  classified  under  the  ordinary  tariffs,  by  the  assistance  of  a  so-called 
goods-classification,  -wherein  respect  is  paid  partly  to  the  nature  and  the 
value,  etc.  of  the  articles  sent,  and  also  to  the  size  of  space  occupied  by 
the  goods.  The  goods-classification  in  force  dates  from  1902,  but  includes 
several  alterations  and  additions  of  a  later  date.  At  the  present  time, 
there  are  14  different  tariffs;  the  rates  are  lower  the  greater  the  distance, 
i.  e.,  the  freight  per  km  is  lower  for  longer  distances  than  for  short  ones 
(for  exemple,  the  freight  in  tariff  8  is  10  ore  for  10  km;  47  ore  for  100 
km;  and  195  ore  for  1,000  km;  all  per  100  kg). 

The  tariffs  for  the  carriage  of  passengers  have  been  in  force  since  1906; 
they  are  drawn  up  in  accordance  with  the  so-called  zone-tariff,  according 
to  which  also  there  is  an  essentially  lower  rate  per  km  for  longer  distances 

Table  126.        Passenger  Traffic  on  the  Swedish  Railways} 


Annually 

Number  ol  passengers 
In  thousands 

Passenger-kilometers 
In  millions 

Gross  receipts  of  the 
passenger  traffic 

Thousands  of  kronor 

State 
railways 

Private 
railways 

Total 

State 
railways 

Private 
railways 

Total 

State 
railways 

Private 
railways 

Total 

1866-70  .     . 

1871-75  .    . 
1878-80  .    . 
1881—85  .    . 
1886-90  .    . 
1891-95  .    . 
1896—00  .    . 
1901-05  .    . 
1906-10.    . 

1911  .... 

1912  .... 
1913^    .    .    . 

1498 
2  524 
3168 
.3  708 
4  240 
5108 
9  331 
12  454 
17  592 

21824 
23134 
24  886 

837 
1805 

3  741 

4  729 
6  476 

10  408 
16  290 
24  294 
35  356 

38  493 

39  823 
42  497 

2  335 

4329 

6909 

8  437 

10  716 

15  516 

25  621 

36  748 

52  948 

60  317 
62  957 
67  383 

77-22 
127-66 
144-87 
171-44 
188-56 
223-16 
389-23 
515-62 
753-42 

89302 

968-20 

1027-32 

20-51 
43-20 
90-48 
111-43 
145-70 
320-50 
313-69 
458-22 
677-85 

745-00 
761-48 
822-11 

97-73 

170-86 

235-35 
282-87 
334  2  r. 
443-66 
701-92 
97384 
1  431  27 

1638-02 
1  729-68 
1 849-43 

2  585 
4  734 
6158 
7  334 

7  770 

8  636 
14176 
16  489 
31537 

25  359 

26  925 
28  544 

727 
1613 
3  927 

5  031 

6  297 
8  820 

11654 
15169 
20  571 

23  532 

24  556 
26  201 

1 

3312 
6337 
10  085 
12  365 
14067 
17  456 
25  830 
31658 
42 108 

48  881 
51  481 
54  745 

'  Inclusive  of  the  steam  railway-ferry  routes.  —  =  Provisional  iigures  as  regards  the  pri- 
vate lines. 

Z^— 133179.  Sweden.  11. 


610 


X.       INTERNAL   COMMUNICATIONS. 


Dining-car. 


than  for  shorter  ones.     For  example,  the  railway  fares  for  the  following 
distances  are  as  shown  as  follows: 

1  class  2  class  3  class 

up  to  10  km 1-00  kr.  060  kr.  0-30  kr. 

»     100     » 6-50    >  3-90    >  2-60    > 

»  1 000     » 45-00    >  27-00    >  18-00    » 


besides  wich  there  is  a  special  additional  fare  of  2-50,  1-50,  and 
1-00  kronor  for  travellers  by  the  express  trains,  independent  of  the  distance 
travelled.  The  employment  of  this  zone-tariff  has  resulted  in  a  great 
increase  of  traffic  for  longer  distances.  —  For  repeated  journeys  over 
shorter  distances,  monthly  and  book-tickets  can  be  had  at  reduced  rates. 
The  staff  which  handles  the  traffic  on  the  Swedish  railways  may  at 
present  be  reckoned  at  amount  to  about  50  000  persons,  40  000  of  whom 
have  regular  or  permanent  employment.  About  28  000  of  the  above  total 
number  are  engaged  on  the  State  railways.  The  closest  supervision  over 
the  employees  is  exercised  by  the  superintending  staff  of  the  line,  which 
also  controls  the  safety  and  regularity  of  the  train  service,  etc.  The  nomi- 
nation and  dismissal  of  employees  is  —  except  in  the  case  of  high  officials 
on  the  State  railways,  who  are  appointed  and  dismissed  by  the  Govern- 
ment, —  in  the  hands  of  the  respective  Boards,  or  the  authorities  imme- 
diately subordinate  to  them,  while,  with  regard  to  the  personnel  of  the  pri- 
vate lines,  the  Government  has  not  thought  fit  to  fix  any  general  rules  for 
employment  except  by  requiring  an  examination  conducted  by  specialists 
as  to  the  applicant's  capability  of  distinguishing  between  colours. 

No  general  rules  are  set  down  with  regard  to  the  length  of  the  working  day; 
but,  with  regard  to  the  partic-ularly  trying  and  important  service  devolving  on 
the  train-  and  shunting-staff,  attempts  have  been  made  to  render  the  ser-nce  as 


MANAGEMENT.      TARIFF. 


(511 


Table  127.  Goods  Traffic  on  the  Swedish  Railtvays. 


1 

Goods  carried 

Ton-kilometers 

Gross  receipts  of  the 
goods  traffic  . 

Annually 

Thousands  of  tons 

In  millions 

Thousands  of  kronor 

State 

Private 

State 

Private 

State 

railways 

railways 

railways 

railways 

Total 

railways 

railways 

Total 

I  1866-70  .     . 

479 

1022 

1601 

57-81 

35-34 

93-15 

3  387 

2  584 

5971 

'  1871-75  .    . 

1036 

1998 

3034 

125-22 

62-68 

187-90 

6  713 

4  591 

11 3M 

1 1876-80  .    . 

1508 

3  292 

4800 

174-44 

118-92 

293-36 

9  316 

8  801 

18117 

;  1881-85  .   . 

2119 

4  993 

7112 

226-74 

200-68 

427-42 

11855 

13  062 

24917 

'  1886-90  .   . 

2  591 

5  929 

8  520 

262-32 

246-97 

509-29 

12  523 

14  576 

27  099 

\  1891-95  .   . 

3  300 

8  868 

12168 

333-40 

375-27 

708-67 

14  726 

19  611 

34337 

1896-00  .   . 

5  897 

13  080 

18977 

658-93 

585-36 

1 244  29 

23  757 

26  574 

60331 

1901—05  .    . 

8  829 

16  354 

25183 

1  056-63 

758-04 

1 814-67 

31459 

32186 

63045 

1 1906-10  .   . 

11587 

21598 

33185 

1  384-20 

963-34 

2347  54 

40  402 

40  037 

80439 

; 1911  .... 

13  735 

24  318 

38  053 

1  692-30 

1 106-03 

2  798-33 

48  046 

45  544 

93590 

1912.    .    .    . 

15  079 

26  349 

41428 

1  847-42 

1  228-25 

3  075-67 

52  799 

49  812 

102  611 

19132    .   .    . 

16  670 

27  037 

43  707 

2  050-52 

1  292-97 

3343  49 

56  558 

52  622 

109180 

'  Inclusive  of  the  steam  rail-way-ferry  routes.  —  ^  Provisional  figures  for  the  private  lines. 

easy  as  circumstances  permit.  With  regard  to  Sunday  labour  on  the  part  of  the 
personnel,  reductions  have  been  made  in  respect  to  goods  traffic,  to  the  extent 
that  neither  the  receiving  nor  the  delivery  of  goods  takes  place  on  such  days;  in 
addition  to  -vrhich,  a  number  of  goods  trains  do  not  run  then.  With  regard  to 
the  staff  of  the  State  lines,  it  is  laid  do-wn  that,  as  far  as  possible,  the  employees 
are  to  enjoy  leave  of  absence  every  third  Sunday,  so  that  they  may  have  an 
opportunity  to  attend  Divine  Ser-vice.     Night-worh,  naturally,  occurs  both  for  the 


Central  Station  Buildings,  Stockholm. 


612 


X.       INTERNAL   COMMUNICATIONS. 


train-,  station-,  and  inspection  staffs,  on  lines  where  night-trains  run.  This,  how- 
ever, is  chiefly  the  case  as  far  as  concerns  the  State  railways. 

The  rates  of  ivages  vary,  of  course,  on  different  lines  and  for  different  kinds 
of  service.  In  the  main,  they  may  be  said  to  equal,  or  to  be  higher  than,  those 
paid  on  railways  in  neighbouring  countries.  The  recent  marked  increase  in  the 
cost  of  living  has,  however,  led  to  changes  in  the  wages  of  the  staff.  With 
regard  to  State  railways,  such  alterations  came  into  operation  at  the  beginning 
of  1907;  and  changes  in  the  rates  of  wages  have  gradually  been  introduced  on 
the  private  railways  during  the  last  few  years.  A  signalman  or  porter  on  the 
State  railways  at  present  enjoys  (including  336  kroner,  the  estimated  value  of 
rooms  and  fuel  in  Stockholm,  120  kroner  for  clothing,  and  60  kroner  for  special 
expenses  in  certain  localities)  not  less  than  1  386,  and  not  more  than  1  656 
kronor  per  annum.  A  line-man  gets,  including  the  same  privileges,  at  least 
1  158  kronor  and  not  more  than  1  458  kronor  per  annum.  From  these  wages, 
however,  are  deducted  the  obligatory  payments  towards  pensions.  The  system 
of  self-help,  in  the  form  of  Savings-  and  benefit  funds,  Life  Insurance  Unions, 
and  such  like  institutions  has  become  extremely  popular  amongst  railway  em- 
ployees throughout  the  entire  kingdom;  and  in  connection  with  these,  mention 
should  be  made  of  the  Pension  institutions  established,  which  —  with  the  object 
partly  of  affording  relief  for  the  members  themselves  in  old  age,  partly  as  a 
means  of  support  for  those  they  may  leave  behind  them  —  are  supported  by 
the  Public  Treasury,  in  the  case  of  the  State  railways;  and  in  the  case  of  the 
private  railways,  by  the  lines  interested.  The  pensions  of  the  employees  of  the 
State  railways  are,  nowadays,  paid  direct  by  the  Treasury. 


Station  in  the  Provinces  (Gnesta). 


No  railway  purely  strategical  lines,  have  hitherto  been  built  in  Sweden, 
but  the  project  for  every  proposed  new  line  must  be  scrutinized  beforehand 
by  the  General  Staff,  which  has  to  see  that  military  claims  are  duly  con- 
sidered. The  control  of  the  work  for  the  iise  of  railways  for  military  pur- 
poses belongs,  in  the  first  place,  to  the  chief  of  the  General  Staff  acting 
through  a  special  department  for  communications,  in  which  department  care- 


STEAM   RAILWAY-FERRY   SERVICE. 

Railway  Traffic  in  Stveden. 


613 


Z800 


Z600 


ZWO 


ZZOO 


zooo 


1600 


TWO 


7ZOO 


7000 


800 


WO 


1 

1 
1 

/ 

1 
1 

1 

) 

y 

1 

/ 
/ 

j 

/ 
1 

/ 

' 

1 

y 

f 

/ 

/ 
/ 

/ 

.--.' 

y 

^ 

— ' 

?=— =■ 

^^/ 

1(2 

Year  jses       70  75  SO  SS  SO  95  1900         OS  10.17. 


Ton-kilometer 


Passenger-kilometer 


ful  plans  for  making  use  of  the  railwaj's  in  the  mobilization,  strategical 
deployment,  and  concentration  of  the  troops  are  elaborated.  At  the  field- 
manoeuvres  of  more  or  less  importance,  virhich  take  place  annually,  the 
railways  and  their  staffs  have  proved  quite  equal  to  the  military  require- 
ments. 


Steam  Railway-Ferry  Service. 

At  present,  the  Swedish  State  railways  are  connected  with  the  continent 
by  means  of  tihree  steam-ferries.  ,  Two  of  these  maintain  the  traffic  across 
the  Sound  from  Halsingborg  to  Helsingor,  and  between  Malmo  and  Copen- 
hagen, while  the  third  connects  Tralleborg  with  Sassnitz,  on  the  island  of 
Rtigen.     The  route  Hdlsingborfj — Helsingor  was   opened  in   1892.     The 


614 


X.      INTERNAL    COMMUNICATIONS. 


traffic  on  this  route,  which  is  of  lesser  proportions  than  that  on  the  other 
two,  is  maintained  exclusively  by  Danish  ferrysteamers,  so  that  it  must 
be  considered  as  a  foreign  means  of  communication. 

The  traffic  by  the  steam  railway-ferry  Malmo — Copenhagen,  which 
was  opened  in  October,  1895,  was  at  first  kept  up  by  Danish  vessels  alone. 
Since  August,  1900,  however,  a  Swedish  ferry-steamer,  the  Malmo,  runs 
alternately  with  the  Danish  boat. 


The  Steam  Ferry-boat,  "Drottning  Victoria".    {Sassnitz — Trallehorg.) 

The  steam-ferry-boat  "Malmo"  was  built  at  Kockum's  Mechanical  Workshop, 
Malmo.  It  is  82  meters  long,  and  16  meters  beam,  and  has  a  draught  of  3"2 
meters.  It  is  of  1  514  tons  displacement,  and  the  engines  develop  1  850  h.  p, 
the  maximum  speed  being  nearly  14  knots.  The  greatest  number  of  passengers 
the  vessel  is  allowed  to  carry  is  850. 

By  this  route  there  were  conveyed  during  1913  a  total  of  68  907  passengers 
to  or  from  Sweden;  the  total  number  of  trips  was  3  334,  of  which  the  Swedish 
vessel  made  1  704.  There,  were  exported  191  803  tons  of  freight  from  Swe- 
den, and  43  166  were  imported  by  this  route. 

The  steam-ferry  route  Trallehorg — Sassnitz,  Sweden's  most  important 
and  quickest  means  of  communication  with  the  continent,  was  established 
as  the  result  of  an  agreement  made  between  Sweden  and  Prussia,  on  No- 
vember 15,  1907,  and  was  opened  eighteen  months  later,  on  July  7,  1909. 
The  traffic  on  this  line  is  managed  in  accordance  with  an  agreement  be- 
tween the  Swedish  State  Railways  Board  and  the  Prussian  Railways 
Board  in  Stettin,  whereby  each  of  these  authorities  engaged  themselves 
to  convey  passengers  and  carriages  once  a  day  regularly  in  each  direction, 
and,  in  addition  to  this,  to  take  turns  in  carrying  out  all  necessary  tran- 
sport. Two  Swedish  and  two  German  steam-ferries  run  daily  over  the 
route,  which  is  107  km  long. 

On  the  part  of  Sweden,  the  traffic  is  kept  up  by  the  steam-ferry  boats,  "Ko- 
nung  Gustav  V",  which  has  a  draught  of  3  062  tons  gross,  and  "Drottning 
Victoria",  of  3  074  tons  gross.  The  greatest  number  of  passengers  that  each 
boat  may  carry  is   1  800. 


STEAM   RAILWAY-FERRY   SERVICE.  615 

Both  the  Swedish  and  the  German  vessels  have  been  built  in  accordance  with 
the  plans  drawn  by  W.  Hok,  a  Swedish  engineer,  and  resemble  each  other  in 
all  essentials.  The  Swedish  boats  were  constructed,  "Konung  Gustav  V"  at 
Lindholmen's  Mechanical  Works,  Gothenburg,  and  "Drottning  Victoria"  at  Swan, 
Hunter  &  Richardson's  dockyard,  at  Newcastle-on-Tyne.  "Konung  Gustav  V" 
was  built  almost  entirely  of  Swedish  steel  from  the  Avesta  ironworks,  while 
the  interior  fittings  are  almost  exclusively  of  Swedish  timber.  The  keel  of  this 
vessel  was  laid  on  August  19,  1908.  It  was  launched  on  Jime  19,  1909,  and 
was  delivered,  fully  equipped,  to  the  Swedish  State  on  March  4,  1910. 

The  Swedish  State  was  compelled  to  have  the  other  boat  built  at  a  foreign 
dockyard  on  account  of  the  short  time  allowed  by  the  above-menti9ned  agree- 
ment between  Sweden  and  Prussia  before  the  ferry  line  was  to  be  opened,  and, 
at  the  time,  the  home  dockyards  were  unable  to  do  more  than  to  undertake  to 
complete  the  one  vessel  within  the  stipulated  time. 

Each  of  the  Swedish  steam-ferry  boats  has  a  length  of  113  meters,  a  beam 
of  15  "6  meters  and  a  draught  of  5'o  meters.  The  engines  have  a  maximum 
indicated  power  of  5  000  h.  p.,  and  the  speed  is  17^/3  knots,  i.  e.,  the  vessels 
cover  the  distance  between  Tralleborg  and  Sassnitz  in  3  hrs,  15  min.,  exclusive 
of  the  time  needed  for  making  fast  in  the  harbours  and  receiving  and  discharging 
the  train,  etc. 

The  train-deck  permits  of  a  double  track  amidships,  with  a  total  free  track 
180  meters  in  length.  A  total  of  18  goods  waggons,  or  a  corresponding  number 
of  passenger  carriages  can  be  carried  on  each  steamer  on  every  journey.  The 
interior  fittings  of  the  vessels  are  exceedingly  comfortable  and  tasteful,  even  in 
the  parts  intended  for  the  3rd  class  passengers.  The  vessels  have  dining-rooms, 
smoking-rooms,  ladies  rooms,  bath-rooms,  and  cabins  for  100  passengers.  All  the 
bath-rooms  are  provided  with  hot  and  cold  water.  There  are  about  800  electric 
lamps  for  illuminating  purposes,  and  the  heating  and  ventilation  of  the  vessel 
is  effected  by  means  of  heated-air  apparatus. 

The  Tralleborg-Sassuitz  ferry-steamers  are  the  largest  in  Europe,  being  nearly 
three  times  as  large  as  the  Malmo  steam-ferry  boats,  and  more  than  twice  as 
large  as  the  Danish  ferry-boats  on  the  route  Gjedser — Warnemiinde.  In  contrast 
with  other  European  steam-ferry  boats,  the  railway  track  does  not  run  through 
the  whole  length  of  the  vessels,  so  that  the  boats  are  always  obliged  to  back 
into  the  harbour,  but  this  inconvenience  is  counterbalanced  by  their  being  better 
sea-boats  in  rough  weather.  The  lines  of  the  steamers  are  very  beautiful,  and 
they  are  excellent  sea-going  boats. 

On  the  steam-ferry  route  Tralleborg — Sassnitz  there  were  carried  du- 
ring 1913,  on  2  232  journeys  (the  Swedish  boats,  1 116  trips),  a  total  of 
96  802  passengers  to  or  from  Sweden,  and,  during  the  same  time,  there 
were  transported  51  866  tons  of  goods  from,  and  82  131  tons  to,  Sweden. 

On  the  ferry-line  Malmo — Copenhagen,  the  greater  part  of  the  freight- 
waggon  goods  from  Sweden  to  Denmark  consisted  of  timber  goods,  agri- 
cultural products,  undressed,  key-  and  dressed  stone,  iron  and  steel,  etc., 
while,  in  the  direction  from  Denmark  to  Sweden,  it  consisted  of  coal, 
strong  fodder,  grain,  etc.  On  the  Tralleborg-— Sassnitz  route,  the  chief 
freight-goods  consist  of  fish,  fodder,  wild  berries,  and  stone,  while  the 
corresponding  consignments  to  Sweden  chiefly  consist  of  oils,  machinery, 
tools  and  implements,  iron  and  steel,  chemicals,  and  chemico-technical 
preparations. 

Since    the   beginning  of  1912,  the  vessels  on  the  Tralleborg — Sassnitz 


616 


X.      INTERNAL   COMMUNICATIONS. 


route  have  been  provided  with  wireless-telegraphy  apparatus  on  the  Tele- 
funken  system,  with  a  wave-length  of  375  meters,  chiefly  for  the  trans- 
mission of  official  telegrams,  but  also  for  sending  private  communications. 
The  coast  stations  are  at  Tralleborg  and  Sassnitz  harbour,  while  the  ves- 
selstations  are  the  Swedish  and  the  German  boats.  There  were  despatched 
and  received  private  telegrams  during  1914,  from  the  wireless  station  at 
Tralleborg  50  messages  with  a  total  of  943  words,  while  the  steamer-sta- 
tions had  transmitted  during  the  same  period  1  040  telegrams  with  a  total 
of  11  568  words. 


Traffic  and  Finances. 

At  the  end  of  1913,  the  capital  invested  in  all  the  railways  running  in 
Sweden  was  estimated  in  round  figures  to  amount  to  a  total  of  about  1 100 
million  kroner,  which  is  equivalent  to  about  77  000  kronor  per  km.  This 
average  figure  is  lower  than  that  for  any  other  country  in  Europe.  On 
the  average  a  kilometer  of  European  railway  costs  something  like  320  000 
kronor,  or  quite  four  times  as  much  as  a  kilometer  of  Swedish  railway. 

The  cause  of  this  remarkably  low  cost  of  construction  in  Sweden  must,  in  the 
first  place,  be  sought  in  the  fact  that  almost  all  our  lines  are  still  single  ones, 
and,  generally,  as  being  calculated  for  a  less  heavy  traffic  than  the  great  main- 
lines abroad,  have  been  able  to  restrict  themselves  to  a  less  extensive  arrange- 
ment of  railway  stations  and  to  less  rolling  stock.  A  number  of  other  circum- 
stances also  contribute  to  the  low  cost  of  construction,  viz.,  that  the  requisite 
ground,  more  especially  on  the  long  stretches  across  Norrland,  has  often  been 
furnished  free  of  cost  by  the  County  Councils,  communes,  and  private  persons, 
and  that  the  construction  of  lines,  with  the  exception  of  the  above  mentioned 
costly  bridges,  has  been  carried  out  without  expensive  constructive  works. 

Table  128.    Income  and  Expenditure  of  the  Swedish  Hallways. 


Average  lenpth  during 
tlie  years 

Gross  receipts 

Expenditure 

iCilometersi 

Thousands  of  kronor 

Thousands  of 

kronor 

Annually 

State 

Private 

State 

Private 

State 

Private 

railways 

railways 

Total 

railways 

railways 

Total 

railways 

railways 

Total 

1866-70  .    . 

1047 

602 

1649 

6  051 

3  430 

9481 

3  592 

1721 

5313 

1871-75  .    . 

1299 

1080 

2379 

11585 

6  403 

17  988 

6  523 

3  396 

9919 

1876-80  .    . 

1698 

3  045 

4  743 

15  688 

13184 

28872 

10  498 

7  446 

17  944 

1881-85  .    . 

2  238 

4  096 

6324 

19  420 

18  650 

38070 

11753 

9  768 

21521 

1886-90  .    . 

2  513 

4  915 

7  428 

20  531 

21509 

42040 

14  082 

11305 

25387 

1891-95  .    . 

2  893 

5  752 

8645 

23  688 

29  217 

62905 

16  427 

16  057 

32484 

1896-00  .    . 

3  683 

6  575 

10258 

38354 

39  407 

77  761 

25  234 

21899 

47133 

1901—05  .    . 

4  038 

7  970 

12008 

49  996 

49  834 

99830 

37  228 

30  420 

67  648 

1906-10  .    . 

4  315 

8  944 

13  259 

64  902 

66  009 

130911 

52  519 

56  473 

108992 

1911  .... 

4  495 

9  400 

13895 

76  617 

74  407 

151024 

58  610 

60  442 

119052 

1912  .... 

4  560 

9  485 

14035 

83  204 

79  447 

162  (Mil 

62  909 

63  454 

126363] 

1913^^    .    .    . 

4  692 

9  570 

14262 

88  693 

85  222 

173915 

66  867 

73  881 

140  748 

'  Exclusive  of  some  smaller  lines,  for  whicli  traffic-returns  are  lacking, 
figures  for  the  private  lines. 


'  Provisional 


Table  129. 


TRAFFIC   AND   FINANCES. 

Net  Bevenue  of  the  Swedish  Railways. 


617 


Capital  paid  upl 

Net  reTCnue 

Net  revenue 

Annually 

Thousands  of  kronor 

Thousands  of  kronor 

in 

%  of  capital 

State 

Private 

State 

Private 

State 

Private 

railways 

railways 

Total 

railways 

railways 

Total 

railways 

railways 

Total 

i866-70  .    . 

82  320 

30  980 

113300 

2  469 

1709 

4168 

2-99 

5-52 

3-68 

1871-75  .    . 

119  096 

53  661 

172  757 

5  062 

3  007 

8069 

4-25 

5-60 

4-67 

1876-80  .    . 

171  001 

175 115 

:^>Il(i 

5190 

5  738 

10928 

3-04 

3-28 

3-16 

1881-85  .    . 

215  556 

232  407 

447  963 

7  667 

8  882 

16549 

3-56 

3-82 

3-69 

1886-90  .    . 

245 171 

256  413 

501684 

6  449 

10  204 

16653 

2-63 

3-98 

3-32 

1891-95  .    . 

274  622 

295  884 

570506 

7  261 

13160 

20421 

264 

4-4  5 

3-58 

1896-00 .  : 

329  967 

330  697 

660664 

13120 

17  508 

30628 

3-98 

5-29 

4-64 

1901—05  .    . 

411  416 

436  642 

848058 

12  905 

19  414 

32  319 

3-14 

4-45 

3-81 

!  1906-10  .    . 

480  885 

485  600 

965985 

12  382 

20  282 

32664 

2-58 

4-18 

3-38 

1911  .... 

529  036 

513  811 

1042  847 

18  007 

25  704 

43  711 

3-40 

500 

4-19 

i 1912  .... 

544  067 

518  734 

1068801 

20  295 

28  070 

48365 

3-73 

5-41 

4-55 

1913  .... 

563  851 

526  906 

1090  757 

21826 

29  565 

51391 

3-87 

5-61 

4-71 

'  Average  for  each  year  (iirithmetical  means  of  the  figures  for  the  beginning  and  end  of 
the  year)  according  to  book  value. 


At  the  end  of  1913,  the  cost  of  construction  of  the  State  railways  run- 
ning amounted  to  about  580  million  kronor  and  that  of  the  private  rail- 
ways to  about  580  million  kronor.  The  cost  of  the  former  per  km,  conse- 
quently, comes  to  about  122  000  kroner,  of  the  latter  to  about  59  000  kro- 
nor. The  normal  gauge  private  lines  separately  cost  about  72  000  kronor 
per  km  and  the  narrow-gauge  36  000  kronor. 

Data  with  regard  to  the  extent  of  the  traffic  on  the  Swedish  railways 
are  given  in  Tables  126  and  127,  and  with  regard  to  the  financial  result  in 
Tables  128  and  129. 

The  total  passenger  traffic  in  1913  amounted  to  129  700  passenger-kilo- 
meters per  km  of  railway;  on  the  State  railways  alone  to  218  800,  but  on  the 
private  lines  only  to  86  000.  Only  on  some  smaller  distances  is  the  European 
average  (420  000  passenger-kilometers  per  km  of  railway)  reached  or  exceeded, 
this  being  chiefly  due  to  the  sparse  population  of  Sweden,  but  partly  also 
to  the  competition  with  the  means  of  communication  by  water,  so  ample  in 
Sweden.  Every  inhabitant  of  Sweden  travelled  in  1911  on  an  average  295 
km,  by  rail;  the  corresponding  average  figure  for  Europe  is  310  km.  From 
this  point  of  view,  consequently,  the  passenger  traffic  in  Sweden  is  a  little 
below  the  average.  —  Of  the  total  number  of  passengers  in  1913  (apart  from 
the  transport   of   troops)  5-o  %  travelled  1st  or  2nd  class,  and  95-o  %,  3rd  class. 

The  Goods  traffic  in  1913  amounted  to  234  000  ton-kilometers  per  km  of 
rail;  on  the  State  lines  to  437  000  and  on  the  private  lines  to  135  000.  A 
number  of  private  railways  in  the  mining-districts,  however,  reach  more  than 
900  000  ton-kms  per  railway  km,  and  the  State  railway  called  the  "riksgrans- 
banan",  in  the  far  north  of  Sweden,  approaches  3-i  million  ton-kms  per  railway 
km,  which  represents  an  extraordinarily  heavy  traffic.  The  average  for  European 
railways  is  about  600  000.  —  Of  goods  carried  on  the  State  railways  in  1913, 
calculated    according   to    weight,    timber    formed  15-6  %,  ore  37-2  %,  coal   5-6  %, 


618  X.       INTERNAL   COMMUNICATIONS. 

atones  and  different  kinds  of  earth,  bricks,  and  asphalt  6 '9  '/«,  iron  and  steel 
5.8  %,  and  grain  3'4  %. 

Of  late  years,  the  goods  traffic  on  our  lines  has  greatly  increased,  as  appears 
from  the  accompanying  diagram.  The  ore  traffic,  especially,  has  increased  in 
Northern  and  Central  Sweden,  and  the  sugar-beet  traffic  in  the  south.  A  further 
considerable  increase  of  goods  traffic  is  expected  after  the  installation  (in  1914) 
of  electric  motor  power  on  the  State  line  Kiruna — Riksgransen,  in  the  north 
of  Sweden,  the  traffic  on  which,  from  the  very  beginning,  is  expected  to 
amount  to  about  one-quarter  of  the  entire  goods  traffic  on  all  the  railways 
previously  existing  in  the  country. 

The  financial  results  of  the  Swedish  railway  industry,  of  course,  varies  con- 
siderably for  different  lines,  but  has,  on  an  average,  during  the  last  few  years, 
proved  very  remunerative,  for  the  entire  network  of  railways.  In  1906  the 
Swedish  State  railways  yielded  a  net  profit  of  4'oo,  but  this  fell  in  1908  to 
1'39  '/,,  after  which  the  returns  rose  once  more.  In  1912,  the  net  profits  were 
3'73  %,  and,  in  1913,  3"87  %.  For  the  private  lines  the  net  profits  are  (1913) 
5'6i  %.  Such  a  high  average  is  reached  by  only  a  few  other  European  countries, 
the  European  average  being  about  4  %.  The  explanation  of  this  result,  so 
favourable  for  Sweden,  is  of  course,  firstly,  ,the  above-mentioned  cheap  cost  of 
construction,  added  to  which  also  come  the  comparatively  cheap  working-ex- 
penses,   which,  during  the  last  few  years,  however,  have  increased  considerably. 

As  to  railway  accidents,  we  have  complete  statistics  for  any  great  length  of 
time  only  from  the  State  lines.  During  the  period  1856 — 1905,  a  total  number 
of  8  passengers  have  been  killed  through  no  fault  of  their  own,  and  30  pas- 
sengers have  been  killed  through  their  own  fault.  Besides  this,  24  travellers 
have  been  injured  through  no  fault  of  their  own,  and  92  through  carelessness. 
32  passengers  have  consequently  been  killed  or  injured  through  no  fault  of  their 
own,  and,  altogether,  132  have  been  killed  or  injured.  Of  railway-men  2  073 
have  been  injured  by  accidents,  395  with  fatal  results.  As  to  other  people, 
797  have  been  injured,   571  of  whom  have  died. 

During  the  year  1911  there  were  killed  on  the  State  railways,  in  consequence 
of  their  own  carelessness,  a  total  of  3  passengers.  During  the  same  period, 
13  railway  officials  were  killed,  and  94  were  injured.  Altogether,  12  passengers 
were  injured  in  consequence  of  their  own  carelessness,  and  the  same  number 
from  causes  not  under  their  own  control.  On  an  average  for  the  years  1906 
— 10,  the  number  of  accidental  deaths  amounted  to  11  passengers,  120  railway 
officials,  and  39  persons  that  should  not  have  been  on  the  line,  or  a  total  of 
170,  which  is  somewhat  less  than  8  persons  per  one  million  train-kilometers. 

If  we  examine  the  statistics  for  the  private  railways,  the  latest  returns  for 
which  are  for  the  years  1911,  we  find  that  114  persons  met  with  accidents  on 
them  during  the  period  in  question.  10  passengers  were  killed  and  4  were 
injured.  13  railway  officials  were  killed  and  50  were  injured.  27  other  persons 
were  killed  and  10  injured. 

Per  million  train-kilometers,  therefore,  during  1911,  the  number  of  killed  on 
the  private  railways  was  1'63  and  the  total  number  of  injured  2'09. 

The  above  figures  for  the  net  profit  demonstrate  that  Swedish  railways 
produce  a  fairly  large  profit,  from  a  purely  business  point  of  view.  As 
regards  the  indirect  results  of  the  Swedish  railway  industry,  this  cannot 
be  easily  illustrated  by  exact  figures,  but  beyond  doubt  the  marked  deve- 
lopment of  the  national  resources  of  Sweden  during  the  last  few  decades 
is  closely  connected  with  the  building  and  extension  of  the  railways  of 
the  country,  which  have  also  powerfully  counteracted  the  economic  and 


ELECTRIFICATION    OF   THE    SWEDISH    RAILWAYS. 


619 


social  isolation  which  the  long  distances  have  always  tended  to  establish 
between  the  various  parts  of  this  vast  but  sparsely  populated  country. 

Electrification  of  the  Swedish  Railways. 

Sweden  suffers  from  an  almost  total  dearth  of  native  locomotive  fuel  of 
fully  satisfactory  quality,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  it  has  rich  resources  in 
its  waterfalls  and  peat-bogs.  The  question  of  the  utilization  of  the  water- 
falls, especially,  for  obtaining  motive-power  for  the  State  Railways  has, 
consequently,  been  under  consideration  for  a  considerable  number  of  years, 
and  since  it  has  now  proved  possible  to  transmit  electric  energy  over  great 
distances,  the  question  of  the  electrification  of  certain  sections  of  the  State 
railways,  where  a  lively  traffic  is  carried  on,  has  now  been  taken  up. 


/■9 


^\ 


The  Railway-  and  Transformer-station  at  Abisko  (Eiruna—Biksgrdnsen). 

On  the  basis  of  the  investigations  carried  out  during  the  years  1902 — 
09  by  the  State  Railways  Board,  partly  from  an  economic  point  of  view, 
and  partly  by  means  of  practical  experiments  on  one  or  two  short- distance 
sections  in  the  vicinity  of  Stockholm,  the  Riksdag  of  1910  resolved  to 
devote  an  amount  of  21  500  000  krohor  for  the  electrification  of  a  section 
of  the  railway,  about  100  km  in  length,  between  Kiruna-Riksgransen. 


620 


X.      INTERNAL    COMMUNICATIONS. 


The  reason  why  it  was  considered  that  this  section  of  line,  which  is 
situated  far  north  of  the  polar  circle  (at  68°  latitude  in  the  regions  of 
eternal  .snow,  almost  at  the  same  degree  of  latitude  as  Alaska),  should 
be  dealt  with  first  was,  partly,  that  at  the  period  in  question  this  section  of 
the  State  Railways  had  the  largest  regular  traffic  of  the  whole  of  the 
State  railway  system,  and  also  the  circumstance  that  it  would  be  necessary 
in  the  immediate  future  to  make  a  considerable  increase  in  the  trafficr 
powers  of  this  section,  in  consequence  of  the  growing  transport  of  ore, 
concerning  which  an  agreement  had  been  entered  into  between  the  Swedish 
State  and  the  Mining  Companies  concerned.  The  work,  both  as  regards 
the  installation  of  the  power-station  and  also  with  regard  to  all  the  other 
details  required  by  the  electrification  of  the  section  of  line  in  question,  is 
now  being  carried  out  and  it  is  expected  that  the  line  will  be  opened  for 
this  traffic  in  the  beginning  of  the  year  1915. 


Photo.  LuDviG  Wastfelt,  Porjus. 

The  Power-station  at  Porjus,  Lappland. 


The  electric  power  will  be  obtained  from  the  Porjus  waterfalls,  in  the  river 
Stora  Lule  alv.  These  falls  consist  of  four  separate  falls,  of  which  the  largest 
is  the  so-called  Routikartje,  which  consists  of  two  waterfalls  lying  one  imme- 
diatelj"-  below  the  other. 

The  engine-room  of  the  power-station  in  which,  for  the  electrification  of  the 
line,  there  are  being  mounted  turbines  of  together  50  000  h.  p.,  and  made  for 
a  tension  of  about  4  000  volts,  consists  of  a  chamber  blasted  into  a  hillside  and 


BLECTRIPICATIOX    OF   THE   SWEDISH    RAILWAYS. 


621 


lying  50  meters  below  the  surface.  The  feed-tunnel  for  the  mass  of  water  is 
600  meters  long,  and  the  discharge-tunnel,  1  200  meters  long,  both  of  them 
blasted  out  of  the  rock. 

The  line-transformers  which  are  placed  in  the  transformer-regulation  house  trans- 
form the  tension  up  to  80  000  volts.  In  four  transformer-stations,  arranged  at 
different  places  along  the  line,  the  tension  for  the  contract  wires  is  reduced  to 
16  000  volts.  The  transmission-wires  are  supported  on  3-legged  iron  pillars  about 
30  meters  high  and  at  200  meters  span. 

The  contact-wires,  which  are  also  suspended  on  iron-posts  and  have  a  width 
of  span  of  52 — 60  meters,  have  special  automatic  tension-devices,  tested  by  the 
Swedish  State  lines  in  order  to  obtain  a  constant  tension. 

The  locomotives  are  of  two  kinds,  viz.,  ore-train-  and  express  locomotives. 
The  ore-train  locomotives,  which  are  built  as  double  locomotives,  are  8-axled,  in 
consequence  of  the  axle-pressure  for  the  line  amounting  to  17'6  tons.  They 
weigh  140  tons,  develop  1  700  h.  p.  and  have  a  traction-power  of  15  tons.  The 
express-train  locomotives  are  intended  for  a  train-weight  of  200  tons  and  can 
attain  a  maximum  speed  of  100  km  per  hour.  Every  locomotive  of  the  first- 
named  class  can  cover  90  000  km  without  overhauling,  while  the  locomotives  of 
the  last-named  class  can  cover  100  000  km,  in  each  case  per  annum. 

The  electric  installations  for  the  line-section  Kiruna— Riksgransen  have  been 
carried  out  by  the  AUmanna  Svenska  Elektriska  A.-B.,  of  Vasteras  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  Siemens-Schuckert  Werke,  in  Berlin. 


Electric  Train ;  Hiilsinghorg — Saa—Mamlosa^Railicay. 


Among  the  private  railways,  there  was  for  a  long  sequence  of  5  ears  only 
one  on  which  electric  power  had  been  introduced.  This  was  the  Stockholm 
— ^Eoslagen  Eailway  Company,  which,  at  the  beginning  of  the  nineties, 
began  the  electrification  of  the  line-section  between  Stockholm  and  the 
borough  of  Stocksund  and  the  town  of  Djursholm.  The  power-station  is 
situated  at  Stocksund.  The  line-section  in  question,  with  its  branch-lines, 
is  16-0  km  long  and,  for  Swedish  conditions,  has  a  very  considerable  pas- 
senger-traffic. 

Ten  years  after  electric  motor-power  had  been  introduced  on  the  so- 
called  Djursholm  line,  was  constructed  the  Halsingborg — Eaa — Ramlosa 
railway,  which  was  provided  with  electric' motive-power.    This  line,  which 


622 


X.      INTERNAL    COMMUNICATIONS. 


is  intended  both  for  passenger-  and  goods-traffic,  is  about  7  km  long  and 
connects  the  town  of  Halsingborg  with  the  fishing-vUlage  of  E,aa  and  the 
watering-place  of  Ramlosa.  On  this  line,  too,  there  is  considerable  pas- 
senger-traffic, which,  in  the  years  immediately  succeeding  the  electrifica- 
tion of  the  line,  was  increased  by  50  %. 

The  electric  railways  between  Gothenburg  and  the  seaside-place  of 
Langedrag  (5  km),  and  that  at  Lidingon  (about  4  km),  are  to  be  considered 
more  as  continuations,  the  former  of  the  Gothenburg  tramway,  with  which 
it  is,  too,  to  be  altogether  united,  so  as  to  form  one  company,  and  the 
latter  of  the  Stockholm  tramway  system,  which  runs  its  trams  over  the 
line  in  question.  The  Stockholm — Saltsjon  (Saltsjobaden)  Railway  (15-3 
km)  is  electrificated  since  1912,  13. 

The  above  mentioned  lines  and  line-sections  have  been  built  for  service 
with  continuous  current.  As  we  mentioned  above,  however,  experiments 
with  good  results  have  been  made  on  the  State  Railways  with  the  employ- 
ment of  one-phase,  high-frequency,  alternating  current;  a  number  of  pri- 
vate lines  have  also  directed  their  attention  to  this  system.  Hitherto, 
however,  only  one  private  railway  has  introduced  electric  trains  with 
such  currents  as  the  motive-power,  viz.,  Mellersta  Ostergotland  Railway 
on  the  8  km  long  line-section,  Klockrike — Borensberg.  The  power  is 
supplied  from  the  Motala  Strom  Kraftaktiebolag's  station  at  Naas. 


Lake  Tome  trash,  in  Lappland. 


URBAN    COMMUNICATIONS. 


f)23 


2.     URBAN  COMMUNICATIONS. 

The  enormous  development  of  the  population,  administration,  and 
industries  of  the  large  towns  has  brought  about  a  corresponding  develop- 
ment in  their  means  of  internal  communication,  which  constitutes  one 
of  the  most  characteristic  features  of  the  present  day.  As  Sweden 
possesses  only  two  or  three  large  towns,  these  even  being  of  comparatively 
modest  dimensions,  there  has  not,  of  course,  been—much  opportunity  for 
rivalry  in  this  respect  with  the  cities  of  more  populous  countries,  but, 
in  proportion  to  the  population  and  traffic,  the  means  of  communica- 
tion existing  within  the  three  chief  towns  of  Sweden  are  fairly  well  deve- 
loped, while,  in  a  large  number  of  other  towns  of  the  second  rank,  the 
internal  communications  have  been  relatively  well  provided  for. 

First,  as  regards  the  railway  lines  running  into  the  towns,  it  is  only 
within  the  last  decade  or  two  that  this  means  of  communication  has 
been  employed  to  satisfy  the  demands  of  local  traffic.  It  has  been 
the  emigration  to  the  suburbs  and  the  so-called  "villa-communities" 
around  the  larger  centres  of  population  —  chiefly  Stockholm  —  which  has 
sprung  into  being  during  the  period  mentioned,  that  has  occasioned  the 
local  traffic,  a  traffic  which  has  developed  enormously  during  the  last  few 
years.  '  .. 

As  regards  Stockholm,  where,  from  many  co-operating  circumstances,  the 
growth  of  suburban  traffic  has  been  specially  rapid,  it  was  the  Stockholm — 
Vasteras — Bergslagen  Railway  that  first  commenced  the  traffic  in  question,  viz., 
by  the  line  between  Stockholm  and  Sundbyberg.  An  extensive  local  service 
afterwards  arose  both  on  the  State  Railways,  northwards  and  southwards,  and 
on  the  Stockholm — Roslagen  lines  to  the  north-east.  The  Stockholm — Saltsjon 
Railway,  which  was  built  in  consequence  of  the  rise  of  the  seaside  resort  of 
Saltsjobaden,  has  an  immense  traffic  nowadays.  The  two  lines  of  railway  last 
mentioned  —  of  wh^ch  the  suburban  traffic  of  the  first  has,  for  a  long  time 
back,  been  carried  on  by  means  of  electric  trains,  while  the  latter  has  been 
electrified  during  th'3  course  of  1913  —  have  had  the  number  of  their  pas- 
sengers considerably  increased  by  the  fact  that  the  centres  of  certain  branches 
of  sport,  winter-sport  especially,  are  the  two  places,  Djursholm  and  Saltsjobaden, 


Table  130.     Statistics  Concerning 

certain 

Suburban  Lines,  in  1912. 

Railway 

Constructed 
in 

Length 
km 

Cost  of  con- 
struction 

kr. 

Receipts 
1912 

kr. 

Expen- 
diture 

1912 

kr. 

No.  ol 

passengers 

1912 

Stockholm — Nynas    .... 
Stockholm — Djursholm.   .    . 
Stockholm— Saltsjon.   .    .    . 

Gothenburg — Saro 

Malmo— Limhamn     .... 
Halsingborg— Ra,a— Ramlosa 

1901 
1893 

1893 

1903-04 

1889 

1891  (1906) 

55-1 
16o 
15-3 
24m 
5-0 
8-6 

5  482  000 

3  795  000 
3  452  000 
1924  000 
924  000 
1  621  000 

556  000 
554  000 
578  000 
228  000 
198  000 
225  000 

359  000 

374  000 
457  000 
176  000 
135  000 
120  000 

461  000 

1913  000 

2  015  000 

635  000 

784  000 

526  000 

624 


X.       INTERNAL   COMMUNICATIONS. 


which  are  situated,  one  on  each  of  the  lines  in  question.  The  extent  of  the 
traffic  on  the  suburban  lines  during  1912  (the  latest  year  for  which  statistics 
are  available)  is  seen  from  Table  130.  The  local  traffic  on  main  railway  lines 
showed  the  following  number  of  passengers  in  1912: 

Stockholm-Sodertalje 2  710000 

— Vartan 7  000 

-Vasby 994  000 

>         — Staket  and  Riddersvik 4  207  000 


The  Katarina  Lift,  Stockholm. 


The  tramways  of  Stockholm,  which  embrace  two  systems,  viz.,  one  for  Soder- 
malm  —  the  south  of  Stockholm  —  and  another  for  the  other  parts  of  the 
city,  have  considerably  developed  during  the  last  few  years,  as  is  clearly  shown 
by  the  appended  table.  Both  systems  now  employ  electric  power.  The  northern 
system,  which  is  the  property  of  the  Stockholm  Nya  Sparvags  Aktiebolag,  not 
only  has  lines  within  the  town  but  has  also  a  branchline  outside,  viz.,  that 
running  via  Hagalund  and  Easunda,  out  to  Sundbyberg.  The  same  tramway- 
company  runs  trams  on  the  line  from  Kungsholmen  into  the  Bromma  district, 
which  is  the  property  of  the  city  of  Stockholm  and  is  intended  for  industrial 
establishments.     The    tramway-company    in    question    also    runs    its  cars  on  the 


URBAN   COMMUNICATIONS.  625 

Table  131.    Statistics  of  the  Tramway  Traffic  in  Sweden,  in  1912. 


Tramway 

Conatraoted 
In 

Length 

Cost  of  con- 
Btruction 

Receipts 
1913 

Car-kilo- 

metera 

1912 

No.  of  paa- 
sengera 

km 

kr. 

kr. 

kr. 

1912 

Stockholm  maniclpal  tram- 

way (Bromma)    .... 

1912 

1-8 

163  000 

27  000 

102  000 

421  000 

Stockholm  Northern  tram- 

ways      

1877  (1904) 

34-7 

17  280000 

5  318  000 

11 515  000 

58  843000 

Stockholm  Southern  tram- 

ways      

1886 

11-2 

538  000 

1006  000 

2  242  000 

10896  000 

Lidingo  tramways .... 

1907 

3-2 

'948000 

73  000 

189  000 

831000 

Southern  Suburban  line    . 

1911 

8-5 

380  000 

102  000 

270  000 

1  049  000 

Gothenburg  tramways  .    . 

1902 

32-4 

5 112  000 

2108  000 

6168  000 

24  004000 

MalmB  tramways   .... 

1906 

15-9 

2  562  000 

741  000 

2  262  000 

7  654  000 

Sundsvall  tramways     .    . 

1910 

7-1 

600000 

107  000 

330  000 

1076  000 

Norrkopiilg  tramways   .    . 

1904 

6-7 

497  000 

169  000 

751  000 

3  033  000 

Uppsala  tramways     .    .    . 

1906 

7-0 

254  000 

143  000 

520  000 

1  404  000 

Gavle     municipal     tram- 

ways      

1909 

5-5 

567  000 

118  000 

625  000 

1 136  000 

Halsingborg  tramways .    . 

1903 

5-4 

533  000 

137  000 

602  000 

1  511  000 

Jonkoping  tramways .   .    . 

1907 

3-8 

453  000 

122  000 

458000 

1215  000 

Karlskrona  tramways   .    . 

1910 

3-5 

269  000 

60000 

176  000 

575  000 

line    on    the    island    of    Lidingo,    which    is    the  property  of  the  Lidingo  Trafik 
Aktiebolag. 

The  Sodra  sparvagsaktiebolaget,  Southern  Tramways  in  addition  to  its  lines 
in  Sodermalm,  also  owns  and  works  a  line  from  SkanstuU,  past  the  Municipal 
Slaughterhouse,  to  the  Egna  Hem  ("Own  Homes")  Colony  at  Enskede,  another 
suburb  which  is  the  property  of  the  town. 

In  the  commune  of  Brannkyrka,  which  is  now  incorporated  with  the  capital, 
there  is  an  independent  tramway  line  which  starts  from  Liljeholmen  bridge  and 
ends  at  two  termini,  Midsommarkransen  and  Fridhem,  which  are  also  the  last 
stations  on  two  branch-lines. 

The  total  number  of  passengers  carried  during  1912  on  all  the  tramway  lines 
in  and  about  Stockholm  is  shown  by  Table  131. 

A  characteristic  feature  of  the  means  of  communication  within  Stockholm 
is  the  numerous  fleet  of  little  steamers  that,  for  many  decades,  have  kept  up 
a  lively  traffic  on  the  many  waterways  of  the  capital.  During  the  last  few 
years,  however,  the  competition  of  the  tramway  lines  has  checked  the  further 
development  of  these  boats.  In  1911  there  were  engaged  in  the  traffic  within 
Stockholm  and  its  immediate  neighbourhood  64  steam-boats  and  ferries,  each  of 
which,  on  an  average,  could  accommodate  123  passengers.  The  number  of  trips 
daily  is,  on  some  lines,  exceedingly  large,  and  the  total  number  of  passengers 
amounted  in  the  year  named  to  11  704  000.  In  addition  to  this,  there  is  the 
considerable  traffic  carried  on  by  passenger-steamers  to  the  little  centres  of 
population  on  the  islands  of  Lidingo  and  Varmdo,  to  Saltsjobaden,  and  to  a  large 
nimiber  of  places  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Malaren  and  the  Baltic;  the  number  of 
passengers  on  these  boats  can  be  estimated  at,  at  least,  2^/2  millions  per  year.  — 
The  hilly  character  of  Stockholm  has  led  to  the  introduction  of  a  peculiar  means 
of  communication  in  the  three  elevators  or  lifts  to  Sodermalm  (the  Katarina- 
and  Maria-lifts  and  the  lift  at  the  Soderberg  stairs)  which,  during  1911,  con- 
veyed altogether  2  202  000  persons.  There  is  also  the  Brunkeberg  tunnel,  a 
means  of  communication  imder  the  hUl  called  Brunkebergsasen  (formerly  ca. 
1  ^/s  million  foot-passengers  yearly;  now  sinking  on  account  of  new  streets  being 
opened  for  traffic;  1914  ca.  ^/a  million).  —  Since  the  extension  of  the  tramway 

40—133179.  Sweden.  II. 


626  X.      INTERNAL    COMMUNICATIONS. 

lines  outside  the  area  of  the  town  proper,  the  omnibus-traffic  that  once  existed 
has   almost  entirely  disappeared. 

Gothenburg,  the  second  city  of  Sweden,  has,  like  Stockholm,  during  the 
course  of  the  last  few  years,  obtained  good  local  communications.  Of  the 
railways  running  into  the  city,  it  is  chiefly  the  western  main-line  that  has 
any  considerable  suburban  traffic.  In  addition,  the  Saro  railway-line  —  which 
was  constructed  chiefly  for  the  convenience  of  the  citizens  of  Gothenburg  that 
go  to  the  local  seaside  places  during  the  summer  —  has  a  considerable  amount 
of  local  traffic,  as  may  be  seen  by  Table  131  above.  The  tramway  traffic  has 
rapidly  attained  an  imexampled  development,  since  the  town,  some  years  ago, 
took  over  the  management  of  the  lines,  which  had  hitherto  been  in  the  hands 
of  an  English  company.  The  length  of  the  lines  and  the  extent  of  the  traffic 
is  shown  by  the  appended  Table.  In  this  town,  too,  the  tramway  lines  have 
been  carried  beyond  the  municipal  boundaries,  to  Kviberg  (a  military  centre)  and 
Molndal,  and  also  to  Langedrag,  a  seaside-  and  sporting-resort.  There  is 
also  a  good  service  of  ferry  communications  between  the  banks  of  the  river  Gota 
alv,  which  flows  through  the  city. 

Ualmb  had  horse-trams  at  a  comparatively  early  date  but,  in  1906  the  system 
were  electrified,  and  the  lines  very  considerably  extended.  With  one  exception, 
the  lines  lie  within  the  municipal  boundaries,  and  only  one  line,  running 
southwards,  viz.  that  to  the  Fridhem  district  near  Limhamn,  lies  outside  the  town. 
To  the  last-named  place,  which  in  future  (1915)  will  be  incorpoi:ated  with 
Malmo,  there  runs  a  suburban  railway  (Malmo^Limhamn  Railway),  which,  in 
proportion  to  its  length,  has  the  largest  passenger-traffic  in  the  whole  of  Sweden. 
Other  railway  lines  running  into  Malmo,  the  State  lines  especially,  enjoy  an 
extensive  local  traffic,  for,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  these  railways,  there  lie 
several  large  suburban  communities,  the  chief  of  which  is  the  manufacturing 
centre  of  Arlov. 

There  are  also  tramway  lines  in  the  following  Swedish  towns:  Oavle,  Hdlsing- 
borg,  Jonhoping,  Karlshrona,  Norrhbping,  Sundsvall,  and  Uppsala,  some  of  the 
lines  being  carried  to  the  larger  centres  of  population  lying  near  the  towns 
mentioned.  The  length  of  the  lines  and  the  extent  of  the  traffic  are  shown 
by  Table  131. 


3.     COUNTRY  ROADS, 

At  the  end  of  1912,  Sweden  .had  62  526  kilometers  of  country  roads 

or,  on  an  average,  15-2  km  per  hundred  square  kilometers  of  its  area.  In 
the  six  most  northerly  lans,  there  were,  however,  only  about  5-5  kilometers 
of  country  road  per  hundred  squar.e  kilometers,  whereas  in  the  middle  and 
southern  parts  of  the  country,  the  corresponding  figure  amounted  to  34-3 
kilometers.  For  the  Lan  of  Malmohus,  the  proportion  rises  to  66-2  kilo- 
meters of  country  road  per  hundred  square  kilometers,  but,  in  the  Lan  of 
Vasterbotten,  is  no  more  than  5-0,  and  in  that  of  Norrbotten  only  2-7. 

In  a  thinly  populated  country  with  a  configuration  so  broken  as  that  of  Sweden, 
the  construction  of  roads  between  the  farms  and  village  commimities,  and  the 
keeping  of  these  roads  in  repair,  has  always  been  a  heavy  burden  on  the  people. 
For  this  reason,  it  was  not  possible  in  the  earliest  times  and  during  the  whole  of 


COUNTEY   ROADS.  627 

the  Middle  Ages  to  get  anything  but  a  small  number  of  roads  constructed  that 
were  practicable  for  vehicles.  The  "Eriksgata"^  i.  e.,  the  road  used  by  the  newly 
elected  king  when  making  his  progress  to  receive  the  homage  of  his  people, 
formed  a  circuit  through  the  central  parts  of  the  kingdom,  running  round  Lakes 
Vattern  and  Hjalmaren  and  the  western  part  of  Lake  Malaren.  But  even  this  road 
was  in  old  times  certainly  nothing  but  a  bridle-path.  From  various  points 
of  that  "Eriksgata",  roads  branched  off  towards  the  surrounding  parts  of  the 
country,  e.  g.,  one  south-eastwards  to  Kalmar,  one  south-westwards  to  Halmstad,  a 
westerly  one  to  the  estuary  of  the  Gota  alv,  a  north-westerly  one  to  Kopparberget 
in  Dalarne,  and  a  north-easterly  one  to  the  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia.  Li 
the  time  of  Gustavus  Vasa,  it  was  decreed  by  the  Riksdag  of  Vasteras  (1544) 
that  all  public  roads  should  be  cleared  by  the  help  of  the  common  people  and 
at  their  expense,  "so  that  all  the  roads  might  be  passable  without  any  risk, 
both  from  Ny-Lodose  (now  the  Gamlestad  of  Gothenburg)  towards  Kalmar  and 
thence  to  Stockholm,  this  should  likewise  be  done  with  all  the  other  roads  neces- 
sary"; further,  that  the  peasantry  of  Northern  Vastergotland  should  "clear  the 
Tiveden  forest  (between  the  provinces  of  Vastergotland  and  Narke),  so  that 
people  might  easily  pass  along  it  with  vehicles".  Li  spite  of  this,  it  is  rather 
unlikely  that  a  road  passable  by  carts  was  really  constructed  across  the  Tiveden. 
Far  into  the  16th  century,  assemblies  of  importance  were  almost  exclusively 
held  in  towns  that  could  be  reached  by  boat.  According  to  a  descripton  still 
extant,  written  by  a  German  traveller  about  his  journey  from  Halsingborg,  via 
Jonkoping  and  Norrkoping,  to  Stockholm,  in  1586,  the  way  was  in  winter-time 
generally  laid  across  frozen  lakes  and  level  country,  whereas  in  summer  the 
route  by  water  was  preferred,  "for",  he  says,  "because  of  the  deep  roads  and 
the  marshy  lands  it  is  difficult  to  make  one's  way  on  horseback". 

But,  from  time  to  time,  arrangements  were  made  to  improve  the  roads.  In 
1664,  it  was  enacted  that  all  thoroughfares  between  towns,  parishes,  and  the 
courts  of  assizes  should  be  improved,  in  some  places  they  were  to  be  altered, 
levelled,  and  straightened.  With  this  object,  the  roads  were  divided  into 
various  sections  to  be  kept  "well  cleared  and  in  good  repair",  by  the  peasantry ; 
at  the  same  time  an  ordinance  was  issued  concerning  the  survey  of  the  roads  and 
the  erection  of  mile-posts.  Nevertheless,  at  the  end  of  the  18th  century  there 
existed  but  few  carriage  roads  except  the  highroads,  and,  on  the  whole,  it  was 
not  till  the  19th  century  that  the  roads  of  Sweden  were  put  into  a  condition 
comparable  with  their  present  good  state.  In  Skane,  S.  0.  von  Troil,  Governor 
of  Malmo  (1851 — 74),  made  himself  famous  for  his  successful  efforts  for  the 
improvement  of  the  roads. 

Since  1840,  the  State  has,  to  a  steadUy  increasing  extent,  made  grants  towards 
keeping  the  roads  in  a  good  condition.  In  the  year  mentioned,  grants  to  the 
amount  of  75  000  kroner  were  made  "for  the  layiug  out  of  new  roads,  or  else 
for  the  improvement  and  reconstruction  of  hilly  and  less  satisfactory  roads" ;  more- 
over, the  people  in  the  neighbourhood  of  such  roads  were  enjoiued  to  contribute 
towards  the  costs  of  construction,  as  well  as  to  undertake  their  future  mainten- 
ance. The  State  grant  has  ever  since  constantly  been  on  the  increase,  so 
that  in  1915  an  amount  of  3  million  kroner  is  to  be  allotted  to  the  purpose. 
By  those  means  some  19  250  km  of  road  has  been  constructed  or  improved 
between  1841—1913. 

The  construction  of  new  roads  has  of  late  chiefly  been  carried  on  in 
the  north  of  Sweden.  During  1841 — 1913,  State  grants  of  36-16  million 
kroner  have  been  made  towards  the  construction  of  new  high-roads  and  the 
repaiir  of  old  ones;  the  total  calculated  cost  of  these  roads  amounts  to  54-82 


628  X.      INTERNAL   COMMUNICATIONS. 

t 

million,  kroner.  Out  of  the  State  grant,  more  than  4-5  million  kronor  have 
fallen  to  each  of  the  lans  of  Norrbotten  and  Vasterbotten.  Of  late  years, 
the  share  of  Norrland  has  still  further  increased,  so  that  for  1909 — 13 
an  amount  of  2  950  000  kronor  fell  to  the  four  northernmost  lans  out  of 
a  total  of  7  200  000  kronor.  —  In  several  lans  the  County  Councils  also 
make  grants  towards  the  construction  and  improvement  of  the  roads. 

Conformably  to  old  legal  enactments,  the  roads  were  divided  into  four  kinds : 
high-roads,  which,  had  to  be  6  meters  wide,  church-roads  and  mill-roads,  which 
should  be  3'6  m  wide,  and  market-roads.  In  the  16th  century,  there  was 
also  a  difference  made  between  court-  or  hundred-roads  —  joining  two  hundreds 
and  their  courts  of  assizes  —  and  parish-roads,  comprising  the  former  church-  and 
mill-roads;  less  important  were  the  village-roads,  which  had  to  be  kept  in  good 
repair  by  the  respective  villages.  During  later  times,  the  public  roads  were  classi- 
fied into  high-roads  or  king's  highways,  himdred-roads  and  parish-roads.  The 
law  of  1891  concerning  roads,  which  has  been  in  force  since  1895,  makes  no 
other  difference  than  between  high-roads  and  village-roads.  1912,  there  were 
19  049  kilometers  of  high-roads  and  43  477  kilometers  of  village-roads,  to  which 
may  be  added  the  800  kilometers  of  town  streets,  which  are  considered  as 
forming  part  of  the  net  of  roads  in  the  Kingdom. 

The  task  of  keeping  the  roads  in  repair  has,  in  Sweden,  ever  since  olden 
times  fallen  on  the  land,  i.  e.,  on  all  those  persons  who  owned  and  cul- 
tivated the  ground,  and  so  the  burden  was,  at  quite  an  early  date,  dis- 
tributed upon  the  farms.  Only  the  construction  and  repair  of  large  bridges 
was  made  the  joint  business  of  one  or  more  hundreds. 

Many  runic  stones  from  the  time  of  the  Vikings  commemorate  men  who 
had  built  roads  or  bridges.  And  the  fact  that  the  Church  —  though,  in  general, 
she  had  her  land  exempted  from  contributions  as  far  as  possible  —  constantly 
took  part  in  the  repair  of  the  roads  that  ran  by  or  through  her'  estates,  bears 
witness  to  this  work  being  considered  as  highly  important  for  civilization  and 
for  the  interests  of  the  Church,  and  also  to  the  fact  of  its  being  too  heavy  a 
burden  to  be  borne  by  the  assessed  land  alone.  The  expedient,  resorted  to  in  many 
places  abroad,  of  finding  means  for  the  repair  of  the  roads  by  levying  a  fee 
from  the  way-farers,  has  been  practised  in  Sweden  only  to  a  small  extent,  and 
then  chiefly  at  large  bridges,  for  the  construction  of  which  the  communes 
or  the  hundreds  had  been  obliged  to  raise  a  loan  repayable  over  a  long  amorti- 
zation period. 

For  many  centuries,  the  repair  of  roads  has  been  incumbent  only  on  the 
assessed  land,  i.  e.,  on  the  farm-owners,  but  with  the  exemption  of  certain 
farms,  works,  mills,  taxed  outlying  grounds,  and  the  country  parsonages 
of  town  clergymen;  the  properties  with  special  privileges  (Saterier)  in 
Bohuslan,  Halland,  Skane,  and  Blekinge  —  provinces  ceded  by  Denmark 
to  Sweden  in  1658  —  were  also  dispensed  from  road-service.  Previous 
to  1895,  the  hundreds  had  to  keep  up  the  highroads  and  hundred-roads; 
each  parish  kept  its  parish-roads;  and  each  town,  the  roads  vsdthin  its  own 
boundaries.  After  many  complaints  about  this  burden,  the  road-service 
was  finally  placed  on  other  taxable  objects  than  landed  estates  by  the 
Law  about  Boads,  of  1891.    Since  1895,  a  certain  tax  has  been  levied  on 


COUNTKY   ROADS.  629 

each  "vdgfyrk",  and,  since  1906,  one  such  "fyrk"  (taxation-unit)  is  levied 
on  landed  estate  (common  woods  excepted)  for  each  100  kronor  of  the 
assessed  value,  on  common  woods  for  each  150  kronor  of  the  assessed  value, 
on  other  real  property,  for  each  200  kronor  of  the  assessed  value,  and 
on  income  of  capital  or  work,  for  each  30  kronor  of  the  assessable  share. 
Small  parcels  of  land,  and  the  income  from  State  tenement  lands  are,  how- 
ever, exempt  from  sharing  the  burden  of  road-service. 

The  keeping  of  the  roads  in  repair  is  performed  in  kind  by  those  who  possess 
landed  estate,  with  the  exception  of  common  woods,  and  all  the  roads  of  each 
road-service  district  are  divided  among  them  according  to  the  assessed  value  of 
their  farms.  The  road-service  district  generally  corresponds  to  the  hundred.  Of 
the  amount  required  for  maintaining  the  roads  of  the  whole  district,  the  State 
contributes  ^20,  while  the  remaining  ^'/ao  are  distributed  between  all  the  "vagfyrks" 
(see  above)  of  the  district  and  paid  in  money  into  the  road-fund  by  those  who 
have  not  already  paid  their  road-tax  in  kind.  With  these  supplies  the  road-fund 
must  pay  the  cost  of  the  non-divided  roads,  bridges  and  ferries,  the  winter  upkeep 
(snow-ploughing),  administration,  road-  and  bridge  constructions,  and  more  cas- 
ual expenses.  If  the  money  does  not  suffice,  additional  sums  must  be  levied  in 
money  on  all  the  "vagfyrks".  If,  again,  a  siuplus  remains,  this  can  be  used  for 
a  thorough  repair  of  the  roads,  or,  if  this  be  not  required,  for  an  alleviation  of 
the  road-service  (abatement  of  the  taxes  for  the  following  year).  The  State  also 
shares  the  cost  of  (the  first)  partition  of  roads,  or  their  "gradation"  (valuation)  and 
distribution  among  those  having  to  do  road-service  in  kind,  which  is  carried  out  in 
the  same  way  as  the  division  of  lands  During  the  last  few  years,  the  State  has 
made  grants  to  those  road-service  districts  that  are  heavily  burdened.  In  1913,  this 
grant  amounted  to  150  000  kronor.  Other  duties  connected  with  the  administration 
of  roads  devolve  on  a  Board  of  Roads,  chosen  by  the  roadkeepers  of  each  district, 
and  are  controlled  by  an  annual  road-survey,  carried  out  by  the  officials  bound  to 
keep  order  in  the  country  districts,  with  the  assistance  of  two  jurats  (namndeman). 

In  1912,  the  kingdom  was  divided  into  370  road-service  districts.  The  cost 
of  upkeep  for  the  "divided"  roads  was  then  estimated  at  7  550  000  kronor,  or 
on  an  average,  12'07  kronor  per  road-meter.  The  expenses  of  the  non-divided, 
roads,  bridges,  and  ferries  came  to  1  545  000  kronor;  of  the  winter  upkeep, 
1253  000  kronor;  of  administrative  expenses,  286  000  kronor;  of  road-  and 
bridge  constructions,  2  423  000  kronor,  and  of  other  items,  645  000  kronor, 
or  a  total  of  13  702  000  kronor.  Of  this  sum,  11  080  000  kronor  fell  on  the 
different  road-service  districts,  the  rest  being  paid  by  the  State. 

During  the  last  few  years,  however,  vigorous  appeals  have  been  made  to 
the  State  to  undertake  the  entire  charge  of  the  road-service,  and  numerous 
motions  have  been  brought  forward  in  the  Riksdag  to  this  effect. 

The  towns  must  keep  their  roads  in  repair  themselves  and  by  their  own  au- 
thorities superintend  those  who  have  to  maintain  the  road-service  (land-owners,  con- 
tractors, or  hired  workmen).  The  upkeep  of  village  roads  depends  on  the 
agreements  made  between  those  who  use  them,  and  disputes  are,  as  a  rule, 
settled  at  the  courts  of  justice,  on  equitable  grounds. 

The  character  of  the  country  roads  in  Sweden  has  improved  considerably  during 
the  last  few  years,  and  in  general,  they  may  be  considered  as  satisfactory, 
excepting  in  some  districts,  especially  in  the  north  of  Sweden.  With  the 
arrival  of  the  motor-car,  there  has  grown  up  during  the  last  few  years  an 
increased  need  of  improved  country-roads,  and  a  "Road  Association"  is  just 
now  being  formed  (1914),  the  object  of  which  is  to  work  for  the  development 
and  improvement  of  the  roads  in  question. 


630  X.      INTERNAL   COMMUNICATIONS. 

On  the  high-roads,  there  exists  a  regular  posting  system,  so  that  travel- 
lers can  be  sure  of  getting  a  horse  and  carriage  against  fares  fixed  by 
law.  The  total  number  of  posting  stations  amounted  at  the  end  of  1910 
to  1  512,  the  average  distance  between  them  being  about  25  kilometers. 
On  an  average,  a  conveyance  with  one  horse  costs  18  ore  per  kilometer, 
but  the  cost  varies  considerable  at  different  stations.  An  institution  that, 
since  far  distant  times,  has  been  connected  with  posting  is  that  of  country 
inns. 

In  the  earliest  times,  nearly  every  traveller  drove  his  own  horse  and  tried  to  get 
night-quarters  with  the  clergymen  or  the  peasants;  and  time-honoured  hospitality, 
was  wUlingly  granted  —  with  or  without  payment  —  to  wayfarers.  But 
with  the  rising  power  of  the  gentry  and  the  clergy,  their  claims  on  the 
generosity  of  the  peasantry  also  grew,  and,  as  early  as  in  the  13th  century, 
taking  by  violence  from  the  peasant  what  he  did  not  give  voluntarily  (so-called 
forced  quarters)  had  become  so  common  a  custom  that  legislation  had  to 
interfere.  By  an  ordinance  issued  at  Alsno  about  1280,  king  Magnus  Ladulas 
forbade  the  taking  of  forced  quarters,  and  it  was  enacted  that  in  every  village 
there  should  be  an  innkeeper  or  farm-steward,  who,  against  reasonable  payment 
and  under  strict  responsibility,  was  bound  to  provide  wayfarers  with  what  they 
required.  Among  those  who  travelled  on  State  business  it  became  more  and 
more  customary  during  the  Kalmar  Union  (1389 — 1523)  to  enjoy  food  and 
lodgings  gratuitously,  and  king  Gustavus  Vasa  (1523 — 60)  sanctioned  by  law 
the  transport  for  the  Crown,  i.  e.,  the  duty  of  the  peasants  to  convey  gratuit- 
ously, the  royal  family  and  members  of  the  Court  (king's  post),  troops  and 
military  munitions  (transport  for  the  Crown,  proper),  and  prisoners  (prison  post). 
Modifications  in  the  duty  of  transport  for  the  Crown  were  often  proposed,  but 
it  was  not  until  1689  that  payment  was  stipulated  for  all  kiads  of  transport 
for  the  Crown,  with  th*  exception  of  prison  post,  which  continued  to  be 
carried  on  gratuitously  until  1734. 

During  all  this  time,  the  institution  of  country-inns  had  been  dealt  with  by 
several  ordinances.  In  1561,  a  tax  was  imposed  for  the  establishment  of 
country  inns,  where  horses  had  to  be  kept  in  readiness  to  be  hired  against  a 
fixed  rate  of  payment  by  those  travellers  who  were  not  entitled  to  be  conveyed 
by  Crown  post.  In  1584,  it  was  enacted  that  the  country  Constables  should 
also  be  innkeepers;  a  scale  of  payment  was  drawn  up  for  victuals,  fodder,  etc., 
and  the  innkeeper  was  granted  exemption  from  taxes  on  his  farm.  In  1593, 
a  fixed  rate  of  posting  charges  was  for  the  first  time  prescribed  for  all  travellers. 
During  the  17th  century,  the  establishment  of  country  inns  at  distances  of,  at 
most,  2  Swedish  miles  (about  12  Eng.  miles)  from  each  other,  was  encouraged 
by  granting  several  privileges  and  advantages  to  the  owners;  e.  g.,  assistance  from 
the  hundred  in  building  the  house,  grants  of  parcels  of  land  out  of  the  common- 
lands,  exemption  from  taxes,  and  the  monopoly  within  a  certain  district  of  sel- 
ling beer,  wine,  and  spirits. 

According  to  the  inn-regulations  of  1734,  the  governor  of  the  Ian  had  to 
decide  where  inns  should  exist,  and  the  farms  were  bound  to  undertake  their 
upkeep,  etc.,  in  return  for  privileges  fixed  by  law  (innkeepers'  privileges).  But 
at  the  same  time  the  duty  of  iteeping'  a  relay  of  post-horses  continued  to  be 
a  considerable  burden.  As  early  as  1633,  Crown-tenants  and  farmers  that 
lived  at  some  distance  from  the  high-roads  were  enjoined  to  have  horses  in 
readiness  at  the  disposal  of  the  innkeepers  (constables)  for  4  days  at  a  time 
(tenants  of  the  nobility  only  for  2  days).  As  soon  as  these  horses  were 
taken,    notice    was    given    for    as    many    more    as    were    needed  to  be  sent  by 


COUNTRY  ROADS. 


631 


the  people  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  inn  (so-called  reserve  post).  In  1727, 
an  endeavour  was  made  to  get  the  uneven  distribution  of  this  burden  equalized 
by  agreements  entered  into  at  the  assizes  by  means  of  so-called  "post-relays", 
which  had  to  divide  the  duties  within  their  districts  according  to  settled  principles. 
In  general,  the  posting  charges  were,  no  doubt,  too  small  a  remuneration  for  the 
trouble  of  keeping  post-horses,  for  which  reason  the  discontent  and  complaints  never 
ceased.  At  last,  in  1810,  the  work  was  let  by  contract  when  possible;  horses  were 
to  be  held  in  readiness  against  a  higher  rate  of  payment  and  with  the  aid 
of  a  public  grant.  As  a  rule,  the  innkeeper  himself,  or  a  peasant  living  in  the 
near  vicinity  of  the  inn,  became  the  contractor;  but  when  the  number  of  horses 
he  had  undertaken  to  keep  had  been  taken,  the  obligation  of  the  farm-owners 
to  provide  reserve  horses  when  wanted  was  once  more  enforced. 

By  the  Statute  of  1878  on  posting,  the  land  has  been  nearly  entirely 
relieved  from  the  above-mentioned  "burden".  The  hire  per  mile  is  fixed 
for  each  Ian  by  the  Government  on  the  proposal  o£  the  Governor  and  the 
County  Council,  but  if,  at  the  auction,  the  lowest  amount  for  which 
a  solvent  contractor  will  undertake  to  keep  post-horses  prove  to  exceed 
the  hire,  the  State  pays  half  (in  certain  cases  somewhat  more)  and  the 
Countj'  Council  grants  the  rest,  which  latter  contribution  is  laid  not 
only  on  the  landed  property  that  formerly  had  to  bear  the  posting 
burden  alone,  but  also  on  other  property  or  income.  However,  by  lower- 
ing, or  refusing  to  grant,  the  contract  contribution  demanded,  when  it  is 
thought  too  high,  the  County  Council  can  compel  a  return  to  the  old 
system  of  reserve  post.  Further,  the  law  in  question  annulled  a  great 
many  dispensations  from  the  duty  of  assisting  in  the  maintenance  of  the 
posting  service  that  had  been  granted  to  several  kinds  of  farms,  benefices, 
and  official  posts.  Nevertheless,  the  obligation  still  partly  remains  of 
transport  for  the  Crovsra  against  a  stipulated  payment,  differing  in  times 
of  war  from  that  given  in  times  of  peace,  and  varying  also  for  different 
kinds  of  farms.  However,  nowadays  this  burden  is  imposed  only  excep- 
tionally, as  the  very  numerous  railway  lines  of  Sweden  render  less  and 
less  the  necessits^  of  posting,  both  for  private  people  and  still  more  for 
military  purposes.  —  Of  the  decrease  in  public  posting,  the  figures  below 
hear  witness;  they  show  the  annual  number  of  post-horses  sent  out  during 
the  quinquennial  periods,  1856 — 1910: 


1856—60  .    ; 948  000 

1861—65 621309 

1866—70 416  245 

1871-75 585  084 

1876-80 379  234 

1881—85 255  853 


1886—90 204 134 

1891-96 232280 

1896—00 316  212 

1901—05 359015 

1906—10 403  409 


During  the  last  period,  the  number  has  increased  again.  The  cause 
of  the  decrease  is,  in  several  places,  probably  the  high  posting  rates,  in 
consequence  of  which  it  sometimes  proves  cheaper  to  hire  private  con- 
veyances. 

Of  the  1  512  posting-stations  that  existed  in  1910,  the  posting  was  carried 
out  at  1  376,   or  91-o  %  of  the  whole,  by  being  let  to  contractors.   In  1880  the 


(332  X.      INTERNAL   COMMUNICATIONS. 

corresponding  proportion  was  only  79"4  %,  a  figure  that  has  been  rising  steadily 
ever  since.  Of  the  posting-stations  fixed  by  contract,  1 179,  or  8B"7  %  of  them, 
received  a  grant  (see  above).  On  the  whole,  these  figures  too,  are  on 
the  increase.  The  total  amount  of  these  grants  during  the  period  1881 — 85 
came  to  about  450  000  kroner;  between  1886 — 90,  to  about  410  000  kronor; 
1891 — 95,  to  about  370  000  kronor;  between  1896—1900,  to  about  360  000 
kronor  and,  during  the  period  1901^05,  to  about  400  000  kronor  annually.  — 
The  maximum  posting-charges  are:  in  the  Lan  of  Goteborg  och  Bohus,  2'30  kro- 
ner per  10  kilometers;  in  the  Lans  of  Sodermanland  and  Kalmar,  2'20  kronor; 
in  four  Lans,  2'oo  kronor;  in  two  Lans,  I'so  kronor,  in  two  Lans,  I'so  kronor, 
and  in  the  other  Lans,  either  1"70  or  1'60  kronor.  Li  the  case  of  non-contracted 
postal-stations,  the  posting-charges  were,  as  a  rule,  1"12  kronor  per  10  kilometers. 
The  average  charge  for  all  the  posting-stations  in  the  kingdom  was  1"75  kronor 
per  10  kilometers.  —  Of  the  1  512  posting-stations,  885  were  country  inns.  — 
Of  all  the  posting-stations  existing  in  1905,  there  were  92  in  the  towns  and 
1  460  in  the  country  districts;  of  the  last-mentioned  stations,  861  were  situated 
on  high-roads  and  599  on  village-roads. 


4.    POST  SERVICE. 

In  Sweden,  as  in  other  cultured  states,  the  origin  of  the  postal  ser- 
vice is  to  be  found  in  the  desire  of  the  Grovernment  to  have  its  import- 
ant business  and  commands  sent  throughout  the  country  by  means  of 
specially  appointed  letter-carriers.  During  the  reigns  of  the  first  Vasa 
kings,  various  edicts  were  issued  dealing  with  such  masters.  For  example, 
a  proclamation  of  the  year  1556  ordains  that  free  posting  shall  be  granted 
to  all  those  persons  who  were  occupied  on  the  business  of  King  and  country, 
and  in  1563  an  order  was  issued  that,  for  the  conveyance  of  the  King's 
letter-carriers,  there  should  be  employed  so-called  "utgard-",  or  military- 
service  horses,  i.  e.,  such  horses  as,  in  times  of  war,  were  to  be  provided  as 
an  equivalent  for  a  fully  equipped  soldier.  These  and  similar  regulations 
were  intended  for  the  more  or  less  occasional  conveyance  of  the  Govern- 
ment post,  and  the  letter-carriers  in  question  might  not,  as  a  rule,  be 
employed  by  private  individuals.  In  1620  was  established  on  behalf  of 
the  King's  governors  "a  certain  ordinary  post"  for  the  conveyance  of 
letters  between  the  governors'  residences  and  the  Court.  For  this  purpose 
were  to  be  employed  suitable  young  farmhands  who  were  to  enjoy  a  fixed 
wage,  clothes,  and  free  victuals,  the  latter  to  be  provided  by  the  King's 
subjects.  In  order  to  establish  identity,  each  such  carrier  was  provided 
with  a  kind  of  service-badge,  the  so-called  post-arms,  an  arrangement  which 
had,  however,  been  in  use  as  early  as  the  16th  century.  From  1620,  the 
year  mentioned  above,  we  find  the  first  mention  of  a  post  which  could  be 
emploj'ed  by  the  general  public  on  payment  of  a  special  fee.  This  post,  which 
was  intended  for  the  conveyance  of  letters  to  and  from  abroad,  ran  from 
Stockholm — -Markaryd   (on  the  borders  of  Halland,  which  then  belonged 


POST   SERVICE.  633 

to  Denmark)  —  Halsingor  to  Hamburg  and  was  convej^ed  by  a  mounted 
messenger.  But  it  can  by  no  means  be  said  that  there  hade  been  created 
an  official  Swedish  postal  service  with  the  establishment  of  this  post. 
Such  a  service  was  not  established  until  Axel  Oxenstierna,  the  Swedish 
Chancellor  some  few  years  later,  who  was  greatly  interested  in  the  matter, 
took  the  business  in  hand  and,  after  various  difficulties  had  been  overcome, 
succeeded  in  getting  the  Regency  acting  for  Queen  Christina  to  issue  on 
February  20,  1636,  an  edict  respecting  "Post-Badhen"  (Post-service), 
whereby  certain  farms  adjacent  to  the  public  highways,  in  consideration 
of  being  relieved  from  a  number  of  public  burdens,  and,  at  a  later  date, 
also  of  receiving  a  certain  fee  from  the  postal  revenjaes,  were  assigned  the 
task  of  attending  to  the  conveyance  of  the  public  post. 

At  a  distance  of  every  two  or  three  Swedish  miles  there  was  thus  appointed 
a  "post-farmer"  who  was  obliged  for  this  service  to  have  two  post-boys,  and  who, 
either  personally  or  by  means  of  these  latter  servants,  had  to  convey  the  post  to 
the  next  post-farmer.  During  the  first  few  years  of  this  public  postal-service,  foot- 
messengers  exclusively  were  employed.  As  early  as  1645,  however,  mounted 
messengers  are  mentioned,  the  mail-cart  service  coming  into  use  later  on.  The 
post  was  conveyed  once  a  week  between  Stockholm  and  the  southern,  western, 
and  northern  parts  of  the  country.  In  1645  a  postal  service  was  established 
along  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  too,  and  via  Tomea  to  Finland.  By  degrees,  sea- 
post  connections  with  Gottland,  the  Baltic  provinces,  and  abroad  were  established, 
by  means  of  placing  post-yachts  on  various  lines.  From  1662,  we  find  a  number 
of  the  more  important  mails  of  the  country  increased  to  bi-weekly  ones.  It 
was  not  till  1810  that  the  mail-service  between  Stockholm  and  Gothenburg  was 
extended  to  four  trips  per  week,  and  fifty  years  later  the  point  was  finally 
reached  —  partly  by  the  employment  of  railway  facilities  —  of  being  able  to 
arrange  a  daily  despatch  of  mails  between  the  capital  and  the  second  city  of  the 
Kingdom.  The  number  of  post-offices  amounted  during  the  first  few  years  to 
no  more  than  29,  but  by  1668  had  increased  to  18.  —  At  first  the  postage  was 
always  the  same  for  all  distances  ■ —  2  ore  silver  (corresponding  to  about  16 '6  ore 
of  the  present  Swedish  currency)  —  but  it  was  soon  graduated. 

Even  if  the  Swedish  postal  service,  in  conformity  with  its  origin,  was  from 
the  very  first  considered  as  a  branch  of  the  public  service,  it  was  not  before 
the  year  167Y  that  this  view  was  fully  established,  the  State  from  that  time 
taking  over  in  perpetuity  the  direction  of  the  service  and  receiving  all  the 
revenues  from  the  business.  Before  this  date,  the  service  had  been  in  part 
leased  or  hired  out  to  private  individuals,  but  it  seems,  however,  as  if  it  had 
the  whole  time  been  under  the  superintendence  of  the  Chancery,  which  issued 
the  necessary  directions  to  the  head  of  the  service,  who,  in  official  documents, 
is  sometimes  called  Post  Master,  sometimes  General  State  Post  Master  or  Post 
Director.  From  1697,  the  immediate  management  of  the  service  was  placed  in 
the  hands  of  the  office  of  a  Cbief  Post-Director,  although  the  Chancery  did 
not  relinquish  its  supreme  control. 

Remarkably  enough,  the  postal  institution  was  greatly  favoured  and  protected 
during  the  reign  of  Charles  XII.  In  1704  were  issued,  from  the  military  camp 
at  Yaroslav,  instructions  to  the  Post  Office  service,  which  were  only  superseded 
159  years  later  by  the  Instructions  for  the  present  Post  Office  Board.  The 
"Instructions  for  Postmasters",  issued  in  1707,  which  were  in  many  respects  of 
merit,  have  also,  in  certain  of  their  chief  features,  remained  in  force  until  our 
own    times.      During    the    last  years  of  the  reign  of  Charles  XII,  a  royal  ordi- 


634  X.      INTERNAL   COMMUNICATIONS. 

nance  was  issued,  by  which  the  postal  service  was  united  with  the  service  for 
conveying  passengers,  the  inns  thus  becomiug  postal-stages.  Six  different  kinds 
of  mail-services  were  established,'  viz.,  a  permanent  post,  parcel  post,  driver  post, 
running  post,  mounted  post,  and  extra  post.  The  great  plan  for  the  development 
of  the  postal  service  intended  by  the  royal  ordinance  mentioned  —  which  was,  ia 
many  respects,  in  advance  of  its  time  —  was  never  carried  out,  for,  after  the 
King's  death,  it  was  determined  that  matters  should  remain  as  they  were  before. 
Then  followed  a  fairly  long  period  of  stagnation  in  the  development  of  the 
Swedish  Post  Office. 

When  the  Chancery  came  to  an  end  in  1801  the  chief  Post  Director  obtained 
a  more  independent  position  with  regard  to  the  management  of  the  service. 
In  1809,  the  superintendence  was  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  Chancery  Board, 
established  in  the  same  year.  When  this  Board  was  dissolved  in  1833,  the  office 
was  placed  in  the  charge  of  the  Finance-  and  Trade  Office  of  the  Government 
Chancery.  In  connection  with  the  departmental  reform  of  1840,  the  service 
was  placed  under  the  Finance  Department,  and  in  1900  it  was  transferred  to  the 
Home  Department.  In  1849,  the  titles  of  "Generalpoststyrelsen"  and  "General- 
postdirektoren"  had  been  introduced  as  the  designations  of  the  Board  of  the 
service  and  the  head  of  the  service.  As  regards  the  inner  development  of  the 
postal  service  during  the  19th  century,  mention  must  first  be  made  of  the  intro- 
duction, in  1820,  of  a  special  postage-rate  for  newspapers^  which,  however,  in 
1824  was  replaced  by  a  fixed  duty,  according  to  the  size  of  the  paper:  to  control 
the  payment  of  this  duty,  a  special  revenue  stamp  was  introduced,  with  which 
every  copy  of  a  newspaper  had  to  be  marked.  In  1822,  there  has  to  be  noted 
the  building  of  the  mail-steamer,  the  "Constitution"  ■ —  the  first  mail-steamer 
ever  heard  of  —  which  ran  between  Ystad  and  Stralsund.  In  1830,  a  regulation 
was  issued  that  either  contract-post  or  inn-post  should  be  employed,  instead 
of  the  farmer-post,  for  the  conveyance  of  the  mails  on  several  new  postal  lines 
established  at  that  time.  In  the  same  year,  the  rates  of  inland  postage  were 
thoroughly  revised,  the  basis  for  the  new  rate  being,  not  as  before,  the  number 
of  post-offices  a  letter  had  to  pass,  but  the  distance  between  the  place  of  posting 
and  the  destination;  by  this  means,  a  complete  zone-tariff  was  instituted, 
with  eleven  different  rates  of  postage.  In  1849,  regulations  were  issued  for  the 
conveyance  by  post  also  of  articles  with  declared  value.  July  1,  1855,  is  a  red- 
letter  day  in  the  annals  of  the  Swedish  Post  Office,  for  on  that  day  was  introduced 
the  uniform  inland  postage  for  letters  of  a  certain  weight,  without  respect  to 
distance.  Simultaneously  with  this,  there  was  also  introduced  the  use  of  postage- 
stamps  and  of  fixed  letter-boxes.  At  the  same  time,  the  Riksdag  gave  permission 
to  apply  the  possible  future  surplus  from  the  income  of  the  Post  Office  to  the 
extension  and  improvement  of  the  service.  After  1868,  however,  the  surplus 
earned  by  the  Post  Office  was  made  over  to  the  Exchequer,  to  be  disposed  of 
by  the  Public  Treasury.  At  the  beginning  of  1861  were  established  in  the 
country  districts  the  so-called  postal  stations,  i.  e.,  post-offices  vri.th  limited  powers 
and  subordinate  to  a  head  post-office  (postkontor).  As  early  as  1859,  the  new 
means  of  communications,  the  railways,  were  first  employed  by  the  post-office, 
a  postal  service  being  arranged  on  the  lines  Arboga — Orebro  -and  Toreboda — 
Gothenburg.  It  was  not  before  1863,  however,  that  a  more  complete  railway 
postal-service  began;  post  offices  ,were  then  opened  at  every  railway  station, 
while  head  postal-car  offices  were  established  on  the  western  and  southern  main 


'  Until  1685,  the  Post  Office  had  not  only  to  convey,  but  also  to  compile  the  "Ordinary 
Postal  News".  After  that  date,  exemption  from  postage  was  granted  to  the  official  papers, 
and,  a  little  later  on,  to  some  few  other  privileged  papers,  too.  It  was  not  till  1820  that 
the  Post  Office,  to  any  great  degree,  took  over  the  distribntion  of  newspapers,  at  special 
postage-rates. 


POST   SERVICE. 


635 


railway  lines.  In  1866,  money  orders,  and  the  system  of  forwarding  article^ 
"Cash  on  Delivery"  (to  be  collected  on  delivery)  came  into  use,  while  inland 
book-post  came  into  existence  in  1864,  after  book-post  with  abroad  had  long 
been  in  operation. 


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A.  W.  Roos. 


The  period  (1867 — 89),  during  which  the  Swedish  Post  was  under  the  direc- 
tion of  A.  W.  Boos,  was  one  of  great  importance.  Among  notable  improvements 
made  under  his  administration,  the  following  may  be  mentioned:  In  1869,  the 
postage  for  letters  to  Norway  and  Denmark  was  reduced  to  the  same  amount  as 
for  inland  correspondence;  in  1870,  all  the  post-farms  still  in  existence  were 
freed  from  the  obligation  of  conveying  the  general  mails;  in  1872,  for  the  stamp- 
duty  for  newspapers  was  substituted  a  post-charge  based  on  the  subscription  rates; 
in  the  same  year,  stamped  envelopes  and  post-cards  were  introdu(!ed,  and  the 
insurance  system  was  reorganized;  in  1872  and  1881,  general  regulations  were 
issued  regarding  the  conditions  on  which  the  Post  Office  undertook  to  convey 
letters,  etc.;  in  1873,  the  franking  privilege  which  had  been  granted  to  certain 
authorities  and  officials  was  withdrawn;  in  the  last-named  year,  too,  "letter- 
carrying  for  the  Crown",   an  obligation  imposed  upon  certain  farms  to  transport 


636  X.      INTERNAL   COMMUNICATIONS. 

official  letters,  came  to  an  end,  a  great  number  of  new  postal  lines  and  post- 
offices  being  gradually  established  to  replace  this  method  of  letter-carrying;  in 
1877  steps  began  to  be  taken  to  facilitate,  by  means  of  rural  postmen,  the 
transmission  and  delivery  of  letters  in  country  districts;  and  in  1882,  the 
delivery  fee  to  postmen  was  abolished.  It  was  during  this  period,  too,  (in 
1875)  that  there  was  formed  the  Universal  Postal  Union,  which  has  been  of 
such  exceediag  great  importance  for  the  development  of  the  international  postal 
service,  and  by  means  of  which  the  obstacles  in  the  way  this  means  of  com- 
munication were  gradually  removed. 

Of  the  development  of  the  Swedish  post-office  during  the  two  decades  that 
closed  the  19th  and  began  the  20th  centuries,  it  may  be  said  that,  on  the 
whole,  it  kept  pace  with  the  rapid  progress  made  by  Sweden  in  the  fields  of 
commerce  and  industry.  By  taking  part  in  the  periodical  congresses  of  the 
Universal  Postal  Union,  and  by  its  continuous  co-operation  with  the  permanent 
office  of  this  Union,  at  Berne,  the  Central  Postal  Administration  has  stood  in 
unbroken  connection  with  the  work  of  reform  in  the  postal  service  which  is 
now  in  progress  over  the  entire  world,  and  has,  by  this  means,  gained  impulses 
to  improvements  to  which  the  consent  of  the  Government  has  been  obtained, 
as  far  as  regards  the  Swedish  postal  system.  A  brief  mention  will  be  made 
of  the  most  important  of  these  improvements.  By  means  of  successive  reduc- 
tions (1896  and  1905)  in  the  postage  for  parcels  sent  by  inland  post,  an  essen- 
tial increase  of  this  branch  of  business  has  been  made  possible,  and  by  this 
means  the  postal  service  has,  to  a  certain  degree,  supplemented  the  work  of 
the  railways,  especially  in  those  parts  of  the  country  at  a  some  great  distance 
from  railway  communication.  The  money-order-  and  the  C.  O.  D.  businesses, 
both  of  which  are  in  process  of  vigorous  development,  have  been  facilitated  and 
extended  by  measures  taken  at  different  periods,  the  poundage-rates  for  smaller 
amounts,  up  to  5  kroner,  having  been  adjusted,  and  the  maximum  amounts  of 
postal  orders  and  C.  0.  D.  maximums  having  been  increased,  in  addition  to  which, 
the  powers  of  the  post-offices  and  of  the  letter-carriers  in  rural  districts  to  deal 
with  such  business  have  been  considerably  increased.  From  and  including  the 
month  of  October,  1909,  the  weight  of  letters  with  the  minimum  postal  charge 
was  increased  from  15  grammes  to  20  —  a  long-wished,  for,  and  by  no  means 
unimportant,  reform.  From  the  year  1909,  inclusive,  there  has  been  employed, 
in  conformity  with  the  custom  abroad,  a  card  of  identity,  to  be  employed  to 
show  the  identity  of  the  persons  who  wish  to  have  handed  ever  to  them  letters 
or  parcels  containing  valuables,  and  postal  money  orders.*'^  From  and  including 
the  November  of  the  year  mentioned,  the  public  are  able  to  have  their 
receipted  bills,  bills  of  lading,  current  bills  of  promise,  drafts,  etc.  cashed 
within  the  Kingdom  through  the  post-office,  against  payment  of  a  small  fee. 
A  long  time  before  this  date  a  similar  money-collecting  business  with  abroad 
had  been  in  existence.  Mention  should  also  be  made  of  the  reorganization 
of  the  newspaper-delivery  business  of  the  Post  Office,  which  took  place  in  1904 
and  has  been  employed  since  the  beginning  of  1905.  The  conditions  for  sub- 
scription to  the  newspaper  through  the  post-office  were  then  altered  in  such  a 
way  that  the  postal  fees  were  divided  into  a  requisition-fee  and  a  delivery-fee, 
the  latter  based  partly  on  the  periodicity  of  any  particular  journal,  and  partly 
on  the  calculated  total  weight  of  the  year's  issues.  The  spread  of  the  news- 
papers and  journals  for  which  the  subscription  was  paid  by  the  customer  direct 
to  the  publishers,  was  facilitated  by  the  Post-Office  allowing  them  to  be  sent 
in  the  so-called  publisher's  wrappers  at  a  very  low  postal  fee.  In  .connection 
with  these  reforms,  it  was  determined  that  a  running  newspaper-register  should 
be  kept  by  the  Post  Office  Board,  in  which  there  are  entered  printed  periodicals 
both  of  older  and  of  newer  date,  which  have  to  be  removed  from  the  list  in  the 


POST   SERVICE. 


637 


event  of  their  ceasing  to  appear;  there  are  also  entered  in  the  list  the  changes 
that  have  occurred  as  regards  the  publisher  and  place  of  publication,  the  number 
of  the  editions,  etc.  This  register,  which  at  present  fills  six  folio-volumes, 
embraces  1  800  various  printed  publications  and,  even  now,  forms  a  basis  for 
the  history  of  the  Swedish  periodical  press  during  the  last  few  decades.  Finally, 
may  be  mentioned  the  numerous  regulations  and  instructions  issued  by  the  Post 
Office  Board  during  the  period  in  question,  in  which  are  summarized  and  supple- 
mented older  and  newer  regulations  concerning  the  various  branches  of  the 
postal  service,  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  about  stability  and  uniformity  in  the 
service.  This  work  of  codification  gave  rise  1912  in  the  "Postal  regulation  for 
head  post-offices  and  post  coupes"  which  embraces  instructions  for  the  treatment 
of  the  letters  etc.,  transmitted,  the  newspaper  department,  the  monetary  accounts, 
the  stock  taking,  and  statistics. 


Central  Post  Office,  Stockholm. 


The  Swedish  Post  Office  of  our  days  is  considered,  on  the  vyhole,  to 
have  reached  a  very  high  standpoint,  both  in  technical  and  administrative 
respects.  Its  development  during  the  last  few  decades  is  shown  statistically 
by  Tables  132—134. 

The  length  of  postal  lines,  with  regular  highroad  or  railway  service, 
was  estimated,  during  the  final  years  of  last  century  at  39  636  km,  viz., 
the  highroad  lines  at  29  059  km,  and  the  railway  lines  at  10  577  km.  To 
this  may  further  be  added  the  steamer  lines,  whose  length  it  is  more  diffi- 
cult to  calculate,  but  which  was  estimated,  in  1899,  at  18  552  km.     With 


638  X.      INTERNAL    COMMUNICATIONS. 

Table  132.  Postal  Service.    Revenue  and  Expenditure. 


Thousands  of  kilometers  covered  by 

Revenue  and  expendit 

ure 

the 

[nails 

kroner 

Annually 

On  high- 

By rail- 

roads 

way 

By  water 

Total 

Revenue 

Expenditure 

Surplus 

1871—75  .     . 

6  286 

3  973 

■3  222  687 

3  256  257 

(-)33  570 

1876-80  .   . 

6  858 

7  710 

4  319 

18  887 

4  725  803 

4  737  061 

(-)  11 358 

1881-85.    . 

6  131 

10  221 

5  364 

21716 

5  825  174 

5167  060 

658 114 

1886—90  .    . 

6  764 

13  206 

6  444 

26  414 

6  666  773 

6  427  723 

229  050 

1891-95  .    . 

7184 

16  045 

7  243 

30472 

8  013  648 

7  457  183 

556  465 

1896-00  .    . 

7  831 

19  543 

6  859 

34  233 

10  411164 

9  470  849 

940  315 

1901—0.)  .    . 

9  847 

24136 

6  561 

40  544 

15  336  962 

13  855  343 

1  481 619 

1906-10  .    . 

11928 

27  688 

6  930 

46  546 

19  965  403 

18  301555 

1  663  848 

1912  .... 

13117 

28  765 

6  877 

48  759 

24  664  894 

1  20  917  042 

3  747  852 

1913  .... 

13  269 

29  190 

7UU0 

49459 

25  707 141 

>  21  474  095 

4  233  046 

^  This  does  not  include  the  costs  of  capital-increase. 

this  addition,  tlie  total  length  of  postal  lines  amounted,  in  the  year  named, 
to  58  188  km,  a  figure  which,  by  the  way,  very  nearly  coincides  with  the 
total  length  of  all  the  roads  of  the  kingdom.  Since  the  above  date, 
the  calculated  length  of  the  postal  lines  has  probably  been  doubled.  In 
1913  it  amounted  to  108  810  km  of  which  46  155  km  are  on  country- 
roads,  14  316  km  on  the  railways,  and  48  339  km  on  the  waterways.  It 
must  be  noticed,  however,  fiiai  the  apparent  considerable  increase  by  the 
last-named  figures  depends,  almost  exclusively,  on  the  foreign  lines  with 
their  very  limited  postal-traffic  (see  below).  —  The  number  of  kilometers 
covered  by  the  mails  is  shown  by  Table  132.  As  is  shown  there,  nowadays 
;not  less  than  59  %  of  the  total  number  of  postal  carriage  kilometers  falls 
to  the  railways;  27  %  to  the  country-road  postal  service;  and  14  %  to  the 
water  postal  transport. 

The  fixed  post  offices,  which,  as  late  as  1815,  numbered  only  109,  and 
in  1861,  248,  increased  exceedingly  in  number  during  the  years  1874  and 
1875  (cf.  the  historical  review  above),  as  in  these  two  years  they  rose 
from  576  to  1  844.  Apart  from  a  temporary  fall  at  the  close  of  the  "se- 
venties", the  result  of  a  considerable  number  of  post  offices  being  then 
closed  in  consequence  of  their  functions  being  performed  by  postal  distri- 
bution by  means  of  the  rural  postal  distribution  established  in  1877,  the 
number  of  the  fixed  post  offices  has  been  grovsdng  steadily  in  number.  At 
the  close  of  1913,  there  were  in  the  country  3  381  fixed  post-offices,  of 
which  245  were  head  post-offices  and  3  136  postal  stations.  In  1877  there 
were,  besides,  in  activity  on  the  railway  lines  329  travelling  post-offices 
(post  coupes),  of  which  47  (corresponding  to  the  old  "postal-coupe  offices") 
were  managed  by  postal  clerks  and  not  less  than  282  (corresponding  to  the 
old  "postillion  coupes")  by  subordinate  officials.  In  1899,  the  number 
of  ambulatory  post  offices  of  the  former  kind  amounted  to  107,  and  of  the 
latter  kind  121.  The  modified  proportion  has  its  explanation  in  the  endea- 
vour to  diminish  more  and  more  the  number  of  over-qualified  officials 


POST   SERVICE. 


639 


employed  in  the  work  of  the  post  office.  —  On  the  steamer  postal  lines  the 
public  were  served,  during  the  sailing  season  of  1913,  by  155  steamboat 
post-offices,  intended,  as  a  rule,  only  for  the  transmission  of  ordinary  let- 
ters, post-cards  and  book-post  packets,  besides  which,  on  the  steam  ferry- 
boat that  run  between  Tralleborg  and  Sassnitz,  there  were  opened  special 
sea  post-offices. 

Of  the  3  381  fixed  post-offices  existing  in  1913,  there  were  702  in  the  five 
northern  lans,  321  in  the  lans  of  Kopparberg  and  Varmland,  554  in  the  remaining 
districts  of  Svealand,  1  400  in  Gotaland,  Skane  excluded,  this  last-named 
province  having  404.  Thus,  per  thousand  square  km,  there  existed  in  these  five 
divisions  of  the  country,  2-7,  6-5,  15-4,  17-2,  and  35-8  fixed  postal  establishments 
respectively.  These  relative  figures  are,  of  course,  highest  for  the  Lan  of 
Malmohus  (48),  and  lovrest  for  those  of  Norrbotten  and  Vasterbotten  (I-?). 
The  average  for  the  whole  Kingdom  was  7'6. 

The  considerable  increase  of  late  years  in  the  number  of  fixed  post-offices 
within  the  Kingdom  has,  naturally,  brought  about  successive  reductions  of  the 
size  of  the  district  which  on  an  average  is  served  by  each  such  post-office  and 
also  of  the  number  of  inhabitants  per  fixed  post-office.  For  example,  while,  for 
the  quinquennial  period  1866 — 70,  it  was  calculated  that  the  average  district  of 
each  post-office,  measured  in  square  kilometers,  was  961'34  and,  in  number  of 
persons,  9  140;  these  figures  in  1913  have  fallen  to  129-83  and  1  668.  These 
figures  clearly  illustrate  to  some  extent  the  increased  demands  made  by  the 
public  on  the  Post  Office.  At  the  close  of  1913,  of  the  2  376  country  communes 
of  Sweden,  1  797,  or  75-6  %,  had  one  or  more  fixed  post-offices  within  their  limits. 

The  development  of  postal  traffic,  with  regard  to  the  total  number  of 
letters  and  parcels,  etc.,  dealt  with,  is  shown  by  Table  133.  For  the 
quinquennial  periods  1876 — 1910,  the  average  number  of  postal  com- 
■municutions   per  head    of    the  average   population    amounted  on    an    ave- 


Tablb  133.     Number  of  Letters,  etc.  sent  by  the  Tost.    In  millions. 


Sent  by  letter-post 

"  News- 

Total 
number  of 

4 

Uninsured,  liable 

bo  postal 

Par- 

Money- 

papers  and 

Annually 

charges 

Uninsured 

Insured 

cels* 

orders 

(number 

letters, 

Lettersi 

Post- 
cardsi 

Book- 
posti 

copies) 

1876-80  .    . 

31-00 

0-71 

2-40 

0-37 

0-51 

0-34 

0-18 

22-83 

58-34 

1881-85.    . 

41-28 

2-98 

4-44 

0.61 

0-73 

0-39 

0-41 

Sl'-OB 

81-87 

1886—90  .    . 

51-79 

5-n 

5-41 

1-11 

1-04 

0-51 

0-62 

48-09 

11368 

1891-95  .    . 

60-80 

6-60 

S-.-iS 

2-06 

1-42 

0-60 

1-19 

70-05 

15125 

1896-00  .    . 

77-07 

9-77 

13-17 

3-85 

1-70 

0-98 

2-3. ■■. 

126-02 

234  91 

1901—05  .    .. 

101-21 

41.07 

20-78 

5-67 

2-12 

1-65 

3-91 

170-60 

347-01 

1906-10.    . 

127-71 

40-78 

37-03 

6-41 

3-43 

3-80 

6-64 

174-35 

400-15 

1912.    .    .    . 

153-16 

41-21 

56-29 

5-40 

3-92 

5-89 

10-02 

203-89 

479-78 

1913  .... 

155-52 

41-11 

58-.'58 

5-43 

4-01 

6-26 

10-84 

208-46 

490-01 

Rem.  As  regards  the  uninsured  letter-post  communications  and  numbered  copies  of 
neiyspapers  and  magazines,  the  numbers  given  are  the  result  of  a  calculation,  made  in 
accordance  with  a  certain  method,  -while,  on  the  other  hand,  insured  letters,  parcels,  and 
money  orders  are  given  in  their  actual  numbers. 


*  Inclusive  of  registered  communications  with  C.  0.  D.  charges.  —  '  Chiefly  official  postal 
communications.  —  '  Incl.  C.  0.  D.  —  *  Inclusive  of  uninsured  and  insured  parcels  C.  0.  D. 


640  X.      INTERNAL    COMMUNICATIONS. 

rage  to  9,  16,  22,  29,  43,  62,  and  68  annually.  In  1913  the  figure 
had  increased  to  82.  For  the  period  1876 — 80,  the  average  numher 
of  letters,  etc.,  transmitted  by  post  in  the  whole  of  Sweden  amounted 
to  only  9  per  head  of  the  population.  Thirty  years  later  this  figure 
had  risen  to  68,  and  now,  as  we  said  above,  to  82.  These  figures 
can  be  considered  as  specially  calculated  to  illustrate  the  immense  develop- 
ment of  the  postal  service  in  Sweden  during  the  last  few  decades.  Compar- 
ed with  the  rest  of  Europe,  postal  communication  in  Sweden,  in  propor- 
tion to  the  population  —  especially  if  respect  be  paid  to  the  original  and 
chief  object  of  the  postal  service,  viz.,  letters  —  are  above  the  average,  and 
are  really  surpassed  only  by  those  of  the  largest  industrial  and  commercial 
nations,  for  it  is  an  object  of  general  observation  that  it  is  a  greatly  deve- 
loped commercial  life  that  is  the  principal  factor  in  the  great  increase  of 
postal  communications.  —  In  the  city  of  Stockholm,  the  number  of  letters, 
etc.,  delivered  by  the  post  amounted  in  1913  to  about  353  per  head  of  the 
population,  against  an  average  of  50  for  the  period  1876 — 80.  With  re- 
gard to  these  figures,  it  must  be  remembered  that,  among  the  number  of 
postal  communications,  there  are  reckoned  also  the  newspapers  subscribed 
for  through  the  post,  which,  in  the  towns,  occupy  the  first  place  among  the 
various  classes  of  communications.  In  Stockholm,  for  example,  the  figures 
for  1913  were  calculated  to  be,  per  inhabitant,  207  newspapers  to  140 
letters,  4  parcels,  and  2  postal  money  orders. 

An  extraordinary  increase  is  shown,  especially  for  0.  0.  D.  communications 
(to  be  collected  on  delivery).  While,  during  the  period  1876 — 80,  these  com- 
munications amounted  to  only  0'04  millions  per  annum,  they  amounted  in  1913 
to  4'4  millions.  During  the  intervening  period,  consequently,  the  number  had 
become  more  than  100  times  greater.  Post-cards  and  money  orders  have  in- 
creased more  than  50-fold  since  1876.  The  number  of  post-cards  had  risen 
from  0'7  million  per  year  during  the  period  1876 — 80,  to  over  41  millions- 
during  1913,  and  the  number  of  the  money  orders  had,  during  the  same  time, 
increased  from  0'2  millions  to  nearly  11  millions.  The  increase  in  the  number 
of  parcels  conveyed  by  post  is  also  notable. 

As  regards  the  postal  service  with  foreign  countries  —  of  the  total  number 
of  communications  dealt  with  by  the  Post  Office,  these  for  or  from  abroad 
amount  to  about  one-tenth  —  the  postal  money-order  business,  especially,  shows 
figures  which  are  somewhat  interesting  in  one  or  two  respects.  Most  of  the 
money  orders  go  to  Denmark;  these,  in  1913  amounted  to  226  476,  to  a 
total  value  of  4  954  459  kroner.  This  corresponds,  as  regards  number,  to 
47'8  %  and,  as  regards  value,  to  30"6  %  of  all  the  postal  money  orders  from 
Sweden  to  abroad.  It  is  estimated  that,  of  all  the  money  orders  sent  to 
Denmark,  about  one-haK  are  sent  to  lottery-agents.  Of  the  postal  remittances 
to  Sweden,  the  greater  part  come  from  the  U.  S.  A.  In  1913,  for  example,  there 
came  from  that  country  202  686  postal  money  orders,  to  a  total  value  of 
14  002  677  kroner,  this  being,  with  regard  to  numbers  and  value,  48'3  and  54'7  % 
respectively  of  the  whole  number  of  the  postal  money  remittances  to  Sweden. 
During  the  whole  of  the  period  that  such  remittances  have  been  exchanged 
between  Sweden  and  the  U.  S.  A.,  i.  e.,  1885 — 1913,  the  amount  sent  to 
Sweden  amounts  to  a  net  total  of  120"79  million  kroner,  which,  of  course,  is  a 
very  considerable  sum.     But  it  must  not  ^6  forgotten  that  it  probably  does  not 


POST  SERVICE. 


641 


Table  134.     Letters^  etc.,  with  Stated  Value;  Postal  Money— Orders  and 
Newspaper- subscriptions .     Total  amounts. 


.11  y 


Stated  value 
of  insured  let- 
ters, etc., 
sent 

kroner 


Amount  of  postal- 
money  order 
values  paid  in 
(incl.  of  C.  0.  D. 
business) 

kroner 


Newspaper-sub- 
scription rates 
paid  I 

kroner 


kroner 


1871—75  . 
1876-80  . 
1881—85  . 
1886—90  . 
1891—95  . 
1896-00  . 
1901—05  . 
1906—10  , 


1912. 
1913. 


414  927  636 

600  574  206 

684790151 

807  663  169 

927  994  432 

1130  488  963 

1 176  094  620 

1414839  543 

1670  980303 

1687400  707 


2  584  026 

5  322  597 

11  697  945 

16  581  687 

27  336  840 

51 681 501 

107  709  533 

195  861  258 

346  342  865 
386  543 130 


871 991 
1 062  853 
1 172  104 
1414  820 
1 738  851 
2  303  439 

2  999  403 

3  482  625 

3  923  931 

4  010  258 


418383653 

606959656 

697  660200  I 

825659676  ! 

957  070123 

1184473903 

1286  803556 

1614183426 

2021247  099 
2  077  954096 


'  For   newspapers    and    magazines    (payments  received  by  the  Post  Office  for  publishers 
sccoant). 

equal  even  the  amount  paid  for  tickets  by  the  emigrants  that  have  left  the 
country  for  the  West;  that  it  certainly  does  not  equal  the  amount  of  ready 
money  taken  direct  out  of  the  country  by  the  emigrants  in  question,  not  coun- 
ting the  sums  that  the  young  men  and  women,  that  have  thus  left  the  country, 
have  cost  Sweden  for  their  bringing-up  and  education. 

In  Table  134  is  given  a  survey  of  the  stated  values  of  the  insured  letters, 
etc.,  the  amount  of  the  money  orders  paid  in  (inclusive  of  C.  0.  D.  business), 
as  well  as  of  the  paid  newspaper-subscription,  at  the  post-offices  of  the 
Kingdom  during  the  period  1871 — 1913.  Here  the  increase  is  greatest 
in  respect  to  the  amount  of  the  postal  money-orders,  which  during  the  pe- 
riod 1871 — 75,  amounted  on  an  average  to  2-6  million  kronor  per  annum, 
but  which,  in  1913,  came  to  more  than  386-5  million  kronor.  Each  of 
the  other  amounts  has  been  about  quadrupled  during  the  years  covered 
by  the  Table.  The  Table  shows  that  the  entire  amount  for  which  the 
Swedish  Post  Office  was  responsible  in  these  respects,  during  1913,  came 
to  the  very  respectable  sum  of  nearly  2  078  million  kronor. 

The  income  and  expenditure  of  the  Post  Office  during  the  period  that 
has  elapsed  from  1871  inclusive,  is  shown  by  Table  132.  As  may  be  seen, 
the  income  shows  a  surplus,  which,  during  the  last  few  years,  has  been  a 
very  considerable  one.  It  must  be  remarked,  however,  that,  for  the  period 
up  to  and  including  1910,  there  are  included  with  the  expenditure,  all 
the  costs  of  the  capital-increase.  In  most  other  countries,  too,  the  Post 
Office  business  usually  yields  a  surplus,  which,  in  the  case  of  Great 
Britain  and  Germany,  is  a  very  large  one.  Even  the  Postal  Department 
of  the  U.  S.  A.,  wbich  has  hitherto  laboured  under  a  chronic  deficit,  has 
lately  begun  to  yield  a  surplus. 

The  value  of  the  property  of  the  Post  Office  at  the  close  of  1913  was 
estimated  at  7  157  150  kronor,  this  sum  being  inclusive  of  the  value  of 

41 — 133179.  Sweden.  11. 


642  X.      INTERNAL   COMMUNICATIONS. 

the    Central    Post    Office    Building,    Vasagatan,  Stockholm,  which  was 
completed  in  1903. 

The  single  steamer  at  present  owned  ty  the  Post  Office,  the  "Oland", 
is  valued  at  125  000  kroner. 

As  regards  the  administration,  it  may  be  mentioned  that  a  revision,  to 
a  certain  degree,  of  the  central  alid  local  administration  of  the  Post  Office, 
has  been  carried  out  from  1910,  in  connection  with  the  adoption  of  a  re- 
vised scale  of  salaries  of  the  officials  of  the  Department.  As  early  as  1893, 
five  Postal  Inspectors  were  appointed,  as  intermediate  authorities  between 
the  Royal  Tost  Office  Board  and  the  post  masters.  From  the  year  1910, 
these  district  chiefs,  whose  number  was  then  increased  to  six,  and  who 
were  given  the  title  of  Postal  Directors,  have  had  their  positions  more 
firmly  established,  while  their  powers  have  been  not  a  little  increased. 
The  Kingdom,  consequently,  is  at  present  divided  into  six  postal  districts, 
entitled,  the  south,  west,  east,  Stockholm,  central,  and  north  district. 
For  the  time  being,  however,  Malmo  town  and  the  post  offices  and  postal 
lines  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Malmo  post  office  have  been  taken  from 
the  south  district  and  formed  into  a  separate  section.  The  postal  director 
is  the  representative  of  his  district  in  relation  to  the  public,  and  has  to 
attend  to  the  rigths  and  interests  of  the  Post  Office  in  that  district. 

The  members  of  the  Royal  Post  Office  Board  are  the  Postmaster 
General,  as  the  head  of  the  Post  Office,  and  four  Bureau  Chiefs.  In  1913, 
the  permanent  staff  under  the  Board  amounted  to  101  persons,  43  of 
whom  were  women-clerks.  In  receipt  of  fixed  salaries  there  are  also: 
1  assistant  for  the  postal  steamer,  6  men  clerks  and,  lastly,  21  women 
clerks  for  the  sorting  of  the  money  orders.  In  the  various  divisions  of  the 
Board,  there  were,  at  the  date  mentioned,  altogether  19  permanent  and  3 
extra  porters,  besides  1  engine-man  and  2  firemen. 

In  the  service  of  the  district-  and  local  administration  there  were,  in 
1913,  the  following  officials  belonging  to  the  higher  grades:  6  postal 
directors,  250  postmasters  (6  of  these  posts  were  not  yet  filled,  however), 
6  chief  controllers,  7  first  controllers,  and  52  controllers,  142  men-  and 
27  women  chief-clerks,  830  men-  and  260  women-clerks,  in  addition  to 
which  1  postal  director  at  Malmo  and  1  controller  were  placed  on  the 
provisional  budget.  Besides  this,  there  were,  at  the  close  of  1913,  453 
assistant  clerks,  197  of  whom  were  women,  and  100  so-called  temporarj' 
assistants,  88  of  whom  were  women.  The  number  of  permanent  post-office 
porters  and  mail-drivers  amounted  to  2  300,  the  extra  mail-drivers  680  and 
the  temporary  assistants  of  corresponding  grades  91. 

Among  the  post-office  staff  in  a  wider  meaning,  must  also  be  reckoned 
managers  of  postal  stations  to  a  total  of  3  136,  of  whom  450  were  women;  155 
managers  of  the  steamboat  post-offices;  2  097  rural  postmen;  35  so-called  box 
postmen  (whose  duty  it  is  to  manage  the  local  carriage  of  letters  under  certain 
simpler  forms  in  a  number  of  villa-towns  and  suburban  communities);  829 
postmen  on  highway-lines;  1  427  sellers  of  stamps,  320  of  whom  were  women, 
and,  finally,  11  persons  forming  the  crew  of  the  postal  steamer,  "Oland".     The 


TELEGRAPH    SERVICE.  643 

staff  above  mentioned  is,  as  a  rule,  appointed  under  agreement,  either  by  the 
Post  Office  Board  or,  to  a  great  extent,  by  the  various  postal  directors. 
Altogether  the  total  number  of  officials  belonging  to  the  district-  and  local- 
administrations,  apart  from  the  postmen  on  highway-lines  and  the  sellers  of 
stamps,  amounted  at  the  close  of  1913  to  10  634  of  whom  9  605  were  men 
and  1  028  were  women. 

In  order  to  obtain  an  appointment  as  an  assistant  clerk,  it  is  necessary  to  be 
between  the  ages  of  18  and  24,  both  inclusive,  and  to  have  a  course  of  training 
as  a  postal  pupil.  Admission  to  such  a  course  is  granted  only  to  those  who  have 
passed  their  matriculation  or  "realskole"  examination,  or  who  possess  a  full  final 
certificate  from  the  State  Normal  School  for  Girls  in  Stockholm,  or  from  any 
other  8-clas8  girls  secondary  school  whose  final  certificate  is  considered  as  showing 
qualifications  equal  to  those  required  for  the  "realskole"-examination.  The  course 
of  the  postal  pupils  lasts  21  months  and  embraces  trial  practical  post-office  work 
as  postal-pupU  probationer  during  the  period  August  16 — January  15,  a  theoretical 
course  at  the  educational  institute  of  the  post-office  in  Stockholm  during  the 
period  February  1 — May  15,  and  a  practical  pupils'-course  during  the  period 
June  1 — May  15.  The  final  examination  is  held  during  the  latter  half  of  the 
May  of  the  final  year  of  training. 


5.    TELEGRAPH  SERVICE. 

The  first  optical  or  signal  telegraph  (semaphore)  in  Sweden  was  erected 
in  1794.  In  the  autumn  of  that  year,  a  signal  telegraph,  constructed 
by  A.  N.  Edelcrants,  was  tried  between  Stockholm  and  the  Royal  Palace 
of  Drottningholm,  10  kilometers  distant. 

The  telegraph  erected  —  almost  simultaneously  with  that  of  Chappe  in 
France,  but  on  an  independent  system  —  proved  so  practical  that,  during  the 
following  years,  new  telegraph-lines  were  established  between  Stockholm  and 
various  important  points  at  the  sea-entranoe  to  the  capital,  as  well  as  at  sev- 
eral places  on  the  west  and  south  coasts  of  the  country.  The  constructions 
mentioned,  which  to  a  great  extent  were  brought  about  by  the  necessity,  during 
the  war  of  1808  and  1809,  for  a  quick  and  safe  signal-service,  fell  into  decay, 
however,  at  the  end  of  the  war.  It  was  only  in  1836  that  the  Government 
determined  on  their  re-establishment:  a  telegraph-corps  was  established,  under 
the  direction  of  the  chief  of  the  Topographical  Corps,  and  received  its  regula- 
tions in  1838. 

The  subsequent  development  of  the  signal  telegraph  was,  however,  of  very 
short  duration,  in  consequence  of  the  discovery  of  the  incomparably  greater 
capability  of  electricity  to  convey  communications  quickly  and  surely  over  great 
distances.  After  the  introduction  of  the  electric  telegraph,  the  signal  telegraph 
stations    were,  by  degrees,  done  away  with,  and  the  last  was  removed  in  1881. 

The  first  electric  wire  telegraph  in  Sweden  was  set  up  in  1853, 
between  Stockholm  and  Uppsala,  under  the  superintendence  of  Major- 
G-eneral  Carl  Akrell,  who  afterwards  became  the  first  Director- General 
of  the  Telegraph  Service.  During  the  two  following  years,  new 
lines  were  put  up  from  Uppsala,  via  Vasteras,  Orebro,  and  Vanersborg, 


644 


X.      INTERNAL    COMMUNICATIONS. 


to  Gothenburg;  from  Stockholm  along  the  coast  to  Malmo,  and  from  Malmo 
to  Gothenburg.  As  early  as  1854,  Sweden  was  placed  in  telegraphic 
communication  with  the  continent  by  a  submarine  cable  in  the  Sound. 

The  Swedish  telegraphs  received  a  more  stable  organization  in  1856, 
by  the  establishment  of  the  Royal  Telegraph  Service,  to  which  were 
entrusted  not  only  the  electric,  but  also  the  signal  telegraphs.  More 
Of  less  thorough  changes  have  been  made  from  time  to  time  in  this 
organization,  partly  in  consequence  of  an  increase  in  the  use  of  tele- 
graphic communication  (this  was  especially  the  case  after  the  reduction 
in  the  rates  for  telegrams  in  1889  and  1907),  and  partly  —  and  chiefly 
—  in  consequence  of  the  immense  development  of  the  telephone  system 
during  the  last  decade  of  the  19th  century  and  the  first  ten  years  of  the 
present  one. 

The  State  telegraph-^et  at  the  close  of  1913  embraced  30  470  km  over-head 
lines  and  cables,  carrying  both  telegraph-  and  telephone-wires.  The  length  of 
the  telegraph-wires  was  34  030  km,  in  addition  to  which,  4  647  km  of  tele- 
phone-wires were  employed  simultaneously  for  telephoning  and  telegraphing. 
Along  the  lines  of  railways  there  were  11  084  km  of  over-head  lines  and  29  487 
km  of  telegraph-wires  owned  by  the  railways  and  intended  principally  for  rail- 
way-service messages,  but  which,  as  a  rule,  are  mostly  employed  in  forwarding 
telegraphic  despatches  for  the  public.  The  total  length,,  consequently,  of  the 
telegraph-wires  of  Sweden,  amounted  to  63  517  km. 

The  independent  stations  of  the  Telegraph  Service  at  the  close  of  1913 
numbered  162,  of  which  4  had  day-  and  night-service;  116  had  all  day-service 
and  42  had  partial  day-service.  If  to  these  we  add  15  branch  telegraph-stations 
in  Stockholm  and  Gothenburg,  and  1  029  other  sub-offices  opened  by  the  Tele- 
graph Service,  so-called  telegraph-rooms  and  telegram  receiving-rooms  (situated 
for  the  most  part  on  private  premises)  which  receive  telegrams  from  the  public 
and  send  them  by  means  of  telephone  to  the  nearest  State  telegraph-office  — 
as  far  as  regards  the  telegraph-rooms,  these  stations  also  send  the  telegrams 
received  to  their  addressees  —  and  514  offices  at  the  State  Railway  stations  and 
1  266  at  the  stations  of  the  private  railways,  the  total  number  of  telegraph-offi- 
ces in  the  kingdom   amounts  to  2  986. 


Table  135.     Development  of  the  State  Telegraph  Network.'^ 


Tear 

Tele- 
graph- 
lines 

km 

No.  of  paid  telegrams 

Income 
from 
fees 

kr. 

Capital 
common  to 
Telegraph- 

and 
Telephone 
Services 

Return  in 
%  of  aver- 
age of 
capital 
disposable 
during 
year 

Inland 

Foreign 

Transit 

Total 

1860 

1870 
1880 
1890 
1900 
1910 
1912 
1913 

6  778 

14  515 
20  336 
22  884 
27  992 
32  220 
32  467 
34  030 

105  963 
365  975 
550841 
961 476 
1 252  848 

1  658  957 
1944  866 

2  053  647 

38  059 

177  275 

345  318 

603  517 

889  216 

1 368  401 

1584  013 

1 590  594 

15146 

47050 

90  261 

190  352 

364  2,n5 

872  841 

1 106  913 

1155038 

159168 
590800 
986420 
1755345 
2  506319 
3900199 
4635  792 
4  799279 

475  513 
749  748 
1 204  878 
1412  018 
1800  913 
2  265193 
2  606  472 
2  678  673 

2120856 

4393  294 

5  701 910 

5  574807 

25  696  750 

72  513  083 

82  500  709 

88218180 

3-51 

2-47 
0-87 
4-78 
9-55 
7-30 

8-4.'i 

7-69 

'  Railway  telegraph  lines  not  included. 


TELEGRAPH   SERVICE. 


645 


Every  State  telephone,  too,  is,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  a  telegraph-office,  as 
the  subscribers  have  the  right,  on  certain  conditions,  to  telephone  in  messages 
for  further  despatch  to  a  telegraph-office,  and  also  to  receive  per  telephone  from 
these  last-named  places  telegrams  that  may  have  arrived  there  for  the  said  sub- 
scribers. 

As  regards  the  apparatus  system  employed,  the  Telegraph  Service  has  con- 
sistently adopted  all  the  improvements  and  developments  made,  and  has  employed 
the  inventions  best  suited  to  the  conditions  existing  in  Sweden.  Many  such 
inventions  or  improvements  have  been  made  by  the  Service's  own  officials  and 
have  been  turned  to  practical  use.  The  system  which  is  most  employed  for  the 
telegraph-service  in  the  country  is  based  on  that  invented  by  the  American, 
Morse,  arranged  on  the  open-circuit  plan,  the  messages  being  received  partly 
by  tape  and  partly  by  ear.  In  connection  with  the  method  of  receiving  by  ear 
(by  "sounders"),  the  system  of  writing  out  the  message  by  typewriter  is  coming 
extensively  into  use. 


From  Creed  Section  of  State  Telegraph  Office,  Gothenburg. 


On  wires  with  a  heavy  traffic  there  is  employed  duplex-  (the  simultaneous 
despatch  of  two  telegrams,  one  in  each  direction)  or  quadruplex  (the  simul- 
taneous sending  of  four  messages,  two  in  each  direction)  telegraphing,  or  else  the 
automatic  Wheatstone-system.  Murray's  printing-telegraph  system  has  been  tried, 
and  since  1913,  the  Creed  printing  telegraph  has  been  in  use  on  all  of  the  most 
important  lines. 

For  the  railway  telegraph  wires  Morse-apparatus  are  chiefly  employed,  operated 
partly  on  the  open,  partly  on  the  closed,  circuit  plan,  a  small  number  of  so- 
called  needle   telegraph  apparatus  are  still  in  use,  however. 

Within  Stockholm,  since  1906,  there  has  existed  a  local  telegraph  network 
using  instruments  from  Siemens  &  Halske,  Berlin,  not  only  at  the  stations  of 
the  Telegraph  Service,  but  also  at  those  of  a  number  of  firms  possessing  exten- 


646  X.      INTERNAL   COMMUNICATIONS. 

sive  correspondence,  which  make  use  of  this  means  for  receiving  and  despatching 
telegrams  from  and  to  the  Central  telegraph  station. 

During  1913,  the  Telegraph  Service  opened  a  local  "news  ticker"  service  in 
Stockholm,  of  which  the  apparatus  was  also  supplied  by  Siemens  &  Halske,  the 
central  station  being  on  the  premises  of  the  Svenska  Telegram  byran  (Swedish 
Press  Agency).  The  subscribers  to  this  service  receive,  day  and  night,  news 
and  notices  which  are  type-printed  on  a  paper-tape  by  the  apparatus. 

The  inland  telegraph  rates,  which,  at  first,  were  in  proportion  to  the  length  of 
the  wire  or  the  distance  between  the  stations,  were  made  uniform,  from  the 
year  1865,  for  the  whole  kingdom,  and,  until  1889,  the  rate  was  1  krona 
for  telegrams,  of  20  words  with  an  additional  25  ore  for  every  additional  5 
words.  From  the  beginning  of  the"  year  last  mentioned,  the  rate  was  fixed  at 
5  ore  per  word,  with  a  minimum  rate  of  50  ore  per  telegram,  while,  from 
the  beginning  of  1907,  the  minimum  rate  was  lowered  to  25  ore  per  telegram. 
For  the  sake  of  comparison,  it  may  be  mentioned  that  the  existing  rate  fee  for  a 
5-word  telegram  is,  in  the  following  countries:  in  Sweden,  25  ore;  Denmark,  50 
ore;  Great  Britain,  6d;  France  50  centimes;  Norway  50  ore;  Switzerland,  45 
centimes;  Germany,  50  pfennig;  Austria  60  heller.  Special,  lower  fees  have 
been  fixed  in  Sweden  for  local  telegrams,  press-messages,  and  for  telegrams 
to  and  from  the  Telegraph  Service's  stations  on  Gottland,  during  the  period 
when  the  regular  postal  communications  with  this  island  are  interrupted  by 
storms,   etc. 

The  rates  for  telegrams  to  abroad,  which  depend  on  the  number  of  national 
telegraph  administrations  the  telegram  has  to  pass  and  on  the  fees  which  have 
to  be  paid  to  these  departments,  have,  during  the  course  of  time,  been  repeat- 
edly lowered,  especially  to  countries  with  which  Sweden  has  commercial  inter- 
course of  any  importance.  From  the  middle  of  1912,  there  has  existed  a  deferred 
telegram  service  with  half  rates  for  extra-European  messages  in  plain  language; 
agreements  have  been  made  with  a  large  number  of  countries  for  lowering  the 
charges  for  press-messages  to  half  rates.  A  night  letter-telegram  service,  with 
^6  of  full  rate  charges,  has  existed  since  the  beginning  of  1914,  between  Sweden 
and  Denmark. 

As  regards  the  transmission  of  telegrams,  it  may  be  mentioned  that,  during 
1913,  the  number  of  inland  telegrams  amounted  to  2  053  647;  of  foreign,  termi- 
nal telegrams  from  Sweden  to  abroad,  to  733  426,  and  to  Sweden  from  abroad, 
to  857  168;  transit  telegrams  to  1  155  038,  or,  together  4  799  279  paid  telegrams. 
The  number  of  paid  telegrams  which  passed  over  the  railway  telegraph  lines 
only  amounted  in  1913  to  94  685.  The  total  number  of  paid  telegrams  from 
or  to  Swedish  stations,  or  via  Sweden,  thus  amounted  to  4  893  964.  Of  the  total 
number  of  Sweden's  telegrams  to  or  from  abroad,  those  to  and  from  Germany 
amounted  to  28"8  '/o;  Great  Britain  24"5  '/,■,  Denmark  ll'e  %;  Norway  lO's  %; 
France  5'i  %;  Russia,  not  including  Finland,  4"6  %;  Finland  4'2  %;  the  Nether- 
lands 3"i  %;  Belgium  1'5  %;  other  European  countries  3'9  %  and  extra-European 
countries  2 '6  %.  The  number  of  free  telegrams  (official  and  meteorological  mes- 
sages) sent  over  the  State  telegraph  wires  was  294  374. 

The  total  of  the  telegram  fees  received  by  Sweden  for  the  telegrams  forwarded 
by  the  Telegraph  Service  amounted,  in  1913,  to  2  678  673  kroner;  the  total 
income  of  the  telegraph  net  (including  the  fees  for  the  registration  of  telegraphic 
addresses  to  an  amount  of  49  590  kroner;  rent  for  telegraph  wires,  amounting  to 
30  448  kroner,  etc.),  came  to  2  771  675  kroner.  As  the  working  expenses 
amounted  to  2  545  631  kroner,  there  was,  for  the  year  mentioned,  a  surplus  on 
the  income  of  the  Telegraph  Service  of  226  045  kronor,  or,  4"87  %  of  the 
average  capital  employed  during  the  year  for  the  telegraph  net,  which  amounted 
to  4  642  582  kronor. 


TELEGRAPH    SERVICE.  647 

Wireless  telegraphy  is  in  process  of  rapid  development  at  the  present 
time  in  Sweden.  In  1910,  was  opened  the  first  public  coast  station,  erec- 
ted by  the  naval  authorities  at  Karlskrona;  in  1911,  was  opened  the  sta- 
tion at  Gothenburg,  erected  in  common  by  the  Naval  and  Telegraph 
Service,  which  was  afterwards  taken  over  by  the  Telegraph  Service;  in 
1912,  was  opened  the  wireless  telegraph-station  at  Tralleborg  for  the 
State  Railwaj's,  which,  however,  is  only  used  for  the  transmission  and 
reception  of  messages  to  and  from  Sassnitz  and  the  steamtrain- ferries 
on  the  route  between  Tralleborg  and  Sassnitz,  and,  finally,  in  1914, 
a  station  at  "\^axholm  was  opened  for  public  service.  Thus,  exclusive  of 
a  number  of  stations  operated  by  the  Navy  or  erected  for  instructional 
purposes,  there  were,  at  the  close  of  1914,  a  total  of  four  coast  stations 
open  for  public  service.  The  number  of  shi-p stations,  which,  at  the  close 
of  1912,  was  42  had,  by  the  close  of  1914,  increased  to  63,  of  which 
number  26  were  on  mercantile  vessels  and  37  on  warships.  Of  the 
former,  there  are  stations  for  the  use  of  the  public  on  the  Thule  S/S  Go's 
steamers  "Saga"  and  "Thule",  running  between  Gothenburg  and  London, 
and  on  the  two  steam-ferries  running  between  Tralleborg  and  Sassnitz 
—  although  the  two  last-mentioned  stations  exchange  telegrams  only  with 
each  other,  and  with  the  coast-stations  at  the  two  towns  in  question. 
The  other  stations  on  mercantile  vessels  are  intended  principally  for  the 
convenience  of  the  shipping  companies  and  vessels  alone;  the  Naval  ship- 
stations  for  naval  correspondence  alone. 

The  coast-stations  are  arranged  on  the  Telefunken  system,  with  musical  spark 
(tonende  Funken),  a  system  on  the  elaboration  of  which  a  Swedish  engineer, 
R.  Rendahl,  has  expended  much  meritorious  labour.  The  normal  ranges  by  day 
of  each  of  these  stations  is  350  nautical  miles,  except  that  of  Tralleborg,  which 
is  about  250  nautical  miles.  The  wireless  system  of  the  ship  stations  on  trade 
vessels  is  the  Telefunken,  except  on  10  of  them,  where  the  Marconi  system 
is  in  use. 

The  fee  for  a  radio-telegram  is  made  up  of  the  ordinary  telegram  charge 
for  despatch  by  wire,  a  coast  charge,  which  falls  to  the  share  of  the 
coast  station,  and  a  ship  charge,  which  belongs  to  the  ship  station.  For 
the  Swedish  coast  stations,  the  coast  charge  is  10  ore  per  word,  with 
a  minimum  total  charge  of  1  kr.  per  telegram;  the  ship  charge  varies 
on  the  different  boats,  and  runs  from  10  ore  per  word  and  a  minimum  total 
charge  of  1  kr.,  to  30  ore  per  word  and  a  minimum  charge  of  3  kr.  per 
message. 

The  traffic-  and  income  figures  have,  of  course,  not  yet  become  of  any  great 
importance.      During    1913,    the    coast  stations    together  received  or  despatched 

3  193  paid  messages,  comprising  40  263  words,  the  coast  charges  for  which 
amounted  to  4  381'6o  kr.  During  the  first  seven  months  of  1914,  this  kind  of 
traffic  largely  increased,  but,  as,  for  well-known  reasons,  the  number  of  sea-going 
vessels  within  the  range  of  the  Swedish  coast  stations  during  the  latter  part  of 
the  year  was  greatly  diminished,  the  figures  for  1914  are  scarcely  higher  than 
those  for  1913.  The  ship  stations  on  board  Swedish  vessels  during  1913 
dispatched  altogether  2  872  paid  messages,  comprising  32  736  words,  and  received 

4  791  messages  comprising  8  651  words;  the  ship  charges  for  these  messages 
amounted  to  4  404'60  kr. 


648 


X.      INTERNAL   COMMUNICATIONS. 


The  Telegraph  Service,  under  whose  administration  lies  not  only  the 
care  of  the  ordinary  wire-telegraph  system,  and  that  of  the  plants  for 
wireless  telegraphy  which  is  not  under  the  management  of  the  Army  or 
Kaval  Departments  or  the  State  Eailways,  but  also,  and  above  all,  of  the 
State  Telephone  Service,  is  not  an  independent  Government  Department, 
but  was,  until  April  1,  1900,  under  the  Finance  D&partment,  and  since 
the  date  mentioned,  has  formed  a  branch  of  the  Civil  (Home)  Depart- 
ment. The  Royal  Telegraph  Board  consists  of  a  chief,  with  the  title  of 
Director-G-eneral,  with  the  sole  right  of  deciding  matters,  and  three 
bureau  chiefs  (one  for  the  administrative,  one  for  the  line-,  and  one  for 
the  traffic  sections).  When  certain  matters  are  under  discussion,  the 
Board  is  strenghened  by  two  special  commissioners.  Altogether,  the  staff 
of  the  Board  at  the  close  of  1914  numbers  60  established  and  21  un- 
established  officials,  inclusive,  since  1909,  of  an  officer  who-  has  been 
appointed  the  military  adviser  of  the  Board. 


photo.  Stendek,  Gothenburg. 

State   Telegraph  and  Telephone  Buildings,  Gothenburg. 


With  regard  to  traffic  and  finances,  and  with  respect  to  the  telegraph- 
and  telephone  services,  the  country  is  divided  into  four  traffic-districts, 
each  superintended  by  an  inspector;  for  the  erection  of  new  lines  and 
premises,  etc.,  and  the  maintenance  of  the  old  ones,  the  country  is  divided 
into  seven  line  districts,  each  with  a  line  director  as  its  head. 

The  traffic  staff,  which  includes  the  officials  of  the  four  traffic  district  bureaus 
and  the  whole  staff  of  officials  at  telegraph  and  telephone  stations,  according 
to  the  budget  for  1915,  amounts  to  4  inspectors  (superintendents),  2  telephone 
directors,    4    telegraph    directors,    70   men  managers,  15  controllers  (men  super- 


TELEPHONES.  649 

visors),  128  assistants  (male  telegraphists),  100  women  managers,  355  women 
telegraphists,  83  women  supervisors  at  the  telephone  exchanges,  890  long-distanec 
telephonists  and  93  other  regular  officials,  together  with  about  2  196  extra 
officials,  1  512  of  whom  were  local  telephonists.  Among  the  traffic  staff  may 
also  be  included  about  2  300  persons  who  hold  the  position  of  managers  or 
assistants  at  sub-exchanges. 

The  line  staff,  consists  of  the  1  line  directors  already  mentioned,  21  line- 
engineers,  414  other  established  and  26  extra  officials;  the  number  of  workmen 
employed  in  the   line  districts  during  1914  amounted,  on  an  average,  to  1  424. 

The  telegraph  workshops  which  were  established  in  Stockholm  in  1891  for 
the  manufacture  and  repair  of  telegraph-  and  telephone-accessories,  and  which 
were  removed,  in  1913,  to  Nynashamn,  are  under  a  director, who  is  assisted  by 
3  engineers  and  6  other  established  officials.  The  number  of  workmen  employed 
at  the  works  during  1914  was,  on  an  average,  477,  and  the  value  of  the  ma- 
terial turned  out  during  the  same  year  was  1  937  887"18  kroner. 


6.    TELEPHONES. 

If,  in  respect  to  the  telegraph-system  just  described,  Sweden  is  on  a 
level,  with,  other  countries,  both  as  regard  technics  and  traffic-arrange- 
ments, it  has  led  the  way,  as  far  as  the  telephone-service  is  concerned, 
during  a  long  part,  at  least,  of  the  period  of  the  development  of  the  tele- 
phone. (Not  only  has  Sweden  adopted  all  technical  improvements,  and 
introduced  original  devices  invented  in  the  country,  both  as  regards  the 
manufacture  of  the  apparatus,  the  fitting-up  of  the  offices,  and  the  con- 
struction of  lines  and  networks,  but  in  quantitative  respects,  too,  such  a 
pitch  of  development  has  been  reached  that,  in  proportion  to  its  popula- 
tion, Sweden  has  had  more  telephones  in  use  than  any  other  country  in 
the  world,  and,  even  at  present,  is  surpassed  in  this  respect  only  by  one 
country  in  Europe  —  Denmark  —  and  by  two  or  three  extra-European 
countries. 

The  telephone-service  in  Sweden  began  in  the  form  of  private  telephone  com- 
panies, of  which,  however,  the  greater  number  were  afterwards  persuaded  to  sell 
their  lines  to  the  State,  after  it  had  itself  begun  to  establish  a  telephone  service. 
The  largest  of  the  private  companies,  the  Stockholm  Telephone  Co.,  which 
consists  of  an  amalgamation  of  two  original  companies  —  the  Stockholm  Bell 
Telephone  Co.,  Ltd  and  the  Stockholm  General  Telephone  Co.,  Ltd  —  still 
survives,  however,  as  a  not  unimportant  rival  of  the  State  Telephones,  as  the 
proposal  that  the  State  should  buy  the  Company  in  question,  a  proposal  re- 
peatedly made,  has  come  to  nothing,  in  consequence  of  the  unwillingness  of  the 
Eiksdag  to  pay  the  amount  of  compensation  demanded. 

The  first  telephone  network  in  Sweden  was  constructed  in  1880,  by  the 
Stockholm  Bell  Telephone  Co.,  Ltd.  Almost  at  the  same  time,  there  were  set  up 
telephone  nets  in  Gothenburg  (1881),  Malmo,  and  Sundsvall,  and  some  other, 
smaller,  towns  (in  1881,  or  the  years  immediately  following).  In  order  to  facilitate 
communications  between  the  Government  departments,  another  network  was 
opened  in   Stockholm  in  1881,  by  the  State  Telegraph  Service,  which,  in  1882, 


650 


X.      INTERNAL   COMMUNICATIONS. 


set  up  telephones  in  Uddevalla  and  Harnosand,  besides  establishing  several  lines 
of  communication  between  telegraph  and  private  offices. 

Simultaneously  with  these  first  installations  and  during  the  period  immediately 
following,  private  telephone  associations  were  formed,  it  may  be  said,  at  every 
place  of  importance  in  the  country.  These  associations,  which  contributed 
greatly  to  the  development  of  the  Swedish  telephone  system,  were  formed,  as  a 
rule,  by  a  larger  or  smaller  number  of  persons  in  a  town  or  a  district,  which 
felt  a  need  of  telephonic  communication.  The  capital  necessary  for  the  com- 
mon exchange  was  contributed,  and  apparatus,  etc.,  were  bought  in  common, 
but  each  member  paid  for  what  he  used,  and,  as  a  rule,  each  one  erected  and 
paid  for  his  own  line.  The  management  was  carried  on,  often  free  of  expense 
by  a  committee  chosen  from  among  the  members  of  the  association,  and,  as 
each  individual  kept  his  line  in  repair,  the  annual  fees,  needed  only  for  the 
maintenance    of    the  exchange   and  the   telephone  service,  were  remarkably  low. 


From  State  Telephone  Exchange,  Malnio.    (Local  Section.) 

In  a  number  of  larger  towns,  however,  limited  companies,  operating  for 
profit,  undertook  the  setting  up,  etc.,  of  telephones.  That  the  fees  in  these 
cases  were  considerably  higher  was  a  matter  of  course,  so  much  the  more  as 
greater  demands  were  made  upon  these  erections  in  regard  to  technical  quality. 

The  connection  of  the  networks  at  various  places  came  about  when  the 
technical  improvements  by  degrees  rendered  conversations  over  greater  distances 
possible.  In  most  cases,  the  necessary  capital  was  obtained  by  subscription,  and 
no  fee  was  payable  for  conversation  even  between  different  districts. 

About  1890,  the  private  telepbone  plants  were  calculated  to  embrace 
a  length  of  40  000  km  of  line,  and  about  16  000  telepbones  in  use.     At 


TELEPHONES.  651 

Table  136.    Number  of  Telephones  in  use  in  various  Countries,  1913. 


Denmark  .  .  .  . 
Streden  .  .  .  . 
Norway  .  .  .  . 
Switzerland  .  . 
Germany  .  .  .  . 
Great  Britain .  . 
The  Netherlands 
Finland  .  .  .  . 
Belgiam  .  .  .  . 
France  


No.  of 

Per 

telephones 

1000 

lu  use 

inhab. 

118398 

42 

217  554 

39 

75  000 

31 

90 .073 

23 

1302  672 

19 

738  738 

16 

77195 

13 

35  200 

11 

58  640 

8 

293  195 

7 

Austria 

Hungary 

Rumania 

Italy 

Spain 

Russia  (Finland  etc.)  . 

Portugal 

Servia  

Greece 

Bulgaria 


No.  of 

Per 

telephones 

1000 

in  use 

inhab. 

161 230 

5 

75  738 

4 

21000 

3 

89166 

2 

34  000 

2 

282  481 

2 

8040 

1 

3  606 

1 

3  097 

1 

3  200 

0-7 

that  period,  the  State  began  to  devote  itself  to  the  telephone  business  with 
greater  energy.  At  the  close  of  1900,  the  State  telephone  system  had 
about  52  000  telephones  in  use;  the  Stockholm  telephone  companies,  27  000 
instruments;  and  other  private  companies,  possibly  about  5  000  —  the  last 
named  figure  being,  however,  uncertain.  The  total  number  of  teh^phones 
in  the  whole  of  Sweden  thus  amounted,  at  the  time  mentioned,  to  about 
84  000,  or  about  16  telephones  per  thousand  inhabitants;  the  average 
figure  for  Europe  at  the  same  time  was  probably  not  more  than  2  tele- 
phones per  thousand  inhabitants.  The  total  length  of  the  telephone 
lines  of  the  whole  of  Sweden  may  be  calculated  to  have  then  been  about 
160000  kilometers.  At  the  close  of  1913,  the  above  figures  had  increased 
as  follows:  the  State  telephone  net  possessed  159  252  telephones;  the 
Stockholm  Telephone  Co.,  73  577;  and  other  private  companies,  2  544,  or 
a  total  of  235  373  telephones  in  use,  which  is  equal  to  41-7  instruments 
per  1  000  inhabitants;  the  total  length  of  the  Swedish  telephone  lines  was 
500  397  km.  For  the  sake  of  comparison  with  the  rest  of  Europe,  some 
figures  (see  Table  136)  may  be  given  for  the  commencement  of  the  year 
1913. 

In  the  whole  of  Europe  there  were,  at  the  same  time,  about  3  695  400  tele- 
phones, corresponding  to  8  telephones  per  1  000  inhabitants;  in  the  whole  world 
the  total  number  of  telephones  was  about  13  570  900,  and  as  many  per  1  000 
inhabitants  as  in  Europe. 

A  comparison  between  the  chief  capitals  of  Europe,  as  regards  the  number  of 
telephones  in  use,  is  given  in  Table  137. 


Table  137.     Number  of  Telephones  in  use  in  various  Cities,  1913. 


Stockholm 

Copenhagen , 
Ohristiania  . 
Berlin  .  .  . 
London  .  . 
Paris     .    .    . 


Per 

No.  of 

1000 

telephones 

inhab. 

79  964 

228 

50  802 

84 

20  729 

86 

144543 

62 

244  320 

34 

95  033 

32 

Vienna  . 
Buda-Pest 
Brussels  . 
Petrograd 
Rome  .  . 
Madrid     . 


Per 

No.  of 

1000 

telephones 

inhab. 

56  747 

27 

24  567 

28 

21470 

26 

47  649 

28 

10  400 

20 

4  031 

7 

652 


X.      INTERNAL   COMMUNICATIONS. 


Among  cities  with  more  than  100  000  inhabitants,  there  is  not  one  in  Europe 
that  approaches  Stockholm;  in  the  U.  S.  A.,  on  the  other  hand,  there  are  three 
towns  that  have  relatively  more  telephones,  of  which  cities  Los  Angeles,  in 
California,  is  the  first,  having  264  telephones  per  1  000  inhabitants.  The  figu- 
res given  above  are  for  January  1,  1913;  at  the  close  of  1914,  Stockholm  had 
241  telephones  per  1  000  inhabitants. 

State  Telephones. 

As  we  have  mentioned  above,  the  State  had  set  up  telephone  networks, 
although  in  a  small  scale,  as  early  as  in  the  first  half  of  the  eighties. 
In  1883  and  1884,  the  State  bought  two  of  the  largest  systems  in 
the  extreme  south  of  Sweden,  and  these  became  the  starting-points  for 
fairly  large  telephone  networks  in  that  part  of  the  country.  In  order  to 
support  the  fishing  industry,  which  at  this  time  began  to  flourish  in 
"Western  Sweden,  the  State  (partly  with  aid  from  the  local  authorities), 
erected  extensive  telephone  communications  in  that  part  of  the  country, 
too. 

It  was,  however,  not  till  the  technical  problem  of  rendering  possible 
conversations  over  long  distances  was  solved  that  the  activity  of  the  State 
became  more  vigorous.  In  1889,  the  first  more  important  line  of  commu- 
nication, that  between  Stockholm  and  Gothenburg,  was  opened,  over 
a  distance  of  500  km,  and,  a/S  several  similar  long  lines  were  constructed 
by  the  State,  the  local  networks,  too,  came  into  its  possession,  partly  by 
purchase,  partly  by  new  erections,  not  only  along  the  chief  highways,  but 
also  in  more  remote  parts  of  the  country.  These  networks,  by  means  of 
lines  of  lesser  length,  were  brought  into  connection  with  the  trunk  lines 
between  the  large  centres,  and  by  this  means  the  State  telephone  net 
gradually  came  into  existence. 

Tab.  138  gives  a  general  survey  of  the  development  of  the  State  telephone 
network  from  1890  to  1913,  both  years  inclusive. 

As  regards  the  charges  paid  by  private  subscribers  for  telephone  connection, 
these,    in    most    places    in    Sweden,    amount  to  an  annual  fee  of  50  kroner,  in 


Table  138. 


Growth  of  the  State  Telephone  Network. 


Tear 

No.  of 
ex- 
chan- 
ges 

No.  of 
tele- 
phones 

Double 

telephone 

lines 

Km 

Single 
tele- 
phone 
lines 

Km 

Total 
telephone 

lines 

(circuit, 

not  wire 

length) 

Km 

Telephone  calls 

Beceipts 
Kr. 

Average 
subscrip- 
tions 
per 
appar- 
atus 

againi^t 
subscrip- 
tion! 

against 

special 

fee 

1890 

1895 
1900 
1905 
1910 
1911 
1912 
1913 

126 
559 
1077 
1380 
1932 
1983 
2  064 
2159 

4  947 

22  735 

51998 

81994 

128  410 

137  799 

148  372 

159  252 

4  656 
45  079 
105  466 
161928 
260  546 
282  780 
294  653 
325  439 

8123 

10  542 
6  520 
4  468 
2  905 
2  428 
2105 
2  092 

12  779 
.55621 
111986 
1G6396 
263451 
286  208 
296  758 
327  531 

8156  856 
47  000  000 
131  261  200 
224177  000 
318008  200 
287  954  500 
277  047  500 
302  182  400 

128  737 

1 555  638 

3  065  7001 

6  842 100' 

14  228  900' 

16  200  287 

18  381  940 

19  826  353 

440  258 
1 936  152 
3  988553 
7  030807 

12  016  695 

13  261785 
14574  354 
15  586  330 

87-99 
66-38 
54-96 
48-61 
48-66 
48-52 
48-44 
48-55 

Approximately. 


rOB 

1     800  km  to  1000  km    . 

.    1-00  Kr 

> 

1000     ».    1200     .      . 

.     1-25    » 

9 

1200     ..    1400     .      . 

.    1-50   > 

t 

1400     >.    1600    >     . 

.     1-75    . 

) 

1 600     >    and  above     .    . 

.    2-00   > 

STATE   TELEPHONES.  653 

addition  to  which  there  is  an  entrance  fee  also  of  50  kroner,  besides  a  fee  for 
the  use  of  any  specially-desired  type  of  instrument.  In  some  places,  however, 
the  fee  is  somewhat  higher,  but  there  it  is  usually  reduced  after  5  years' 
subscription.  In  other  places,  again,  there  is  in  force  a  system  of  lower 
annual  and  entrance  fees,  but  with  a  restriction  in  the  right  to  free  calls. 
In  towns  and  in  places  possessing  a  comparatively  large  number  of  subscribers, 
these  fees  cover  the  cost  of  erection  and  maintenance  of  the  subscriber's  line 
within  a  certain  district,  which  is  usually  the  district  within  the  town-limits,  or 
else  a  circular  area  of  two,  one,  or  half  a  kilometer's  radius  around  the  telephone 
exchange;  the  fee  also  includes  the  cost  of  the  exchange  service  for  the  subscri- 
ber's wire.  In  smaller  places,  however,  the  subscribers  themselves  usually  see 
to  the  erection  and  maintenance  of  the  lines  and  also  pay  either  themselves 
entirely,  or  with  the  help  of  a  contribution  from  the  Telegraph  Service,  the  cost 
of  the  exchange-service  for  their  lines.  No  annual  fee  is  paid  for  the  right  to 
calls  on  the  connecting  lines  between  the  offices  —  long  distance  wires  —  but  this 
right  may  be  made  use  of  by  every  subscriber  against  payment  of  rates  calcu- 
lated on  thp  actual  length  of  the  lines,  i.   e.,  for  a  distance: 

up  to  100  km 15  Ore 

from  100    .    to  250  km 30     > 

.     250    »     >   600    > 50     . 

.     600    .     .   800 75     . 

These  tolls  or  fees  are  for  a  three  minutes'  call.  For  each  new,  successive 
period  of  three  minutes,  or  part  thereof,  the  same  fee  is  paid  as  for  the  first 
period.  Express  calls  pay  double  rates,  and,  on  lines  where,  for  ordinary  calls,  no 
fee  is  paid,  15  ore  per  period  of  three  minutes.  Series  calls,  i.  e.,  calls  which 
recur  at  regular  intervals,  are  charged  for  as  express  calls,  with  an  exception  for 
press  series  calls,  for  which  the  ordinary  first  fee  is  paid.  Night  calls  can  be 
had  from  9  p.  m.  to  7  a.  m.,  against  reduced  rates,  which  are  1/2 — ^/b  of  the 
ordinary  fees;  at  certain  offices,  however,  these  fees  are  increased  by  extra 
charges  —  so-called  night  service  charges  —  which  have  to  be  paid  both  for 
local  and  long-distance  caUs.  A  charge  of  25  ore  is  made  for  sending  a 
messenger  to  call  a  non-subscriber  to  a  telephone.  There  is  an  extra  charge  of, 
usually,  10  ore  for  calls  made  from  a  public  call-office. 

At  present,  there  exists  long-distance  telephone  communication  between  places 
of  any  importance  in  the  Kingdom,  and  a  call  can  be  made  between  any  of 
the  offices  which  are  connected  with  the  network,  i.  e.,  calls  can  be  made 
over  a  distance  of  more  than  2  000  kilometers. 

In  technical  respects,  the  State  telephone  network  can  show  quite  a  wonderful 
course  of  development,  both  as  regards  the  growth  of  the  network,  the  exchange 
plant,  and  the  construction  of  the  apparatus.  The  Swedish  Telegraph  Service 
made  all  its  connections  —  those  of  the  subscribers',  inclusive  —  metallic, 
as  early  as  from  the  year  1889,  i.  e.,  at  an  earlier  date  than  in  the  case  of  any 
other  administration.  Since  the  beginning  of  the  nineties,  the  wires  of  the 
subscribers  in  every  place  where  there  is  a  large  number  of  subscribers  have 
been  placed  underground,  in  cables  lying  in  cement  tubes,  a  method  of  con- 
struction first  proposed  by  C.  A.  Hultman,  telephone  director  in  Stockholm, 
and  which  has  since  been  employed,  on  an  ever  increasing  scale,  for  almost  all 
the  telephone  networks  in  the  world.  From  the  very  first,  on  aU  the  over-head 
lines  of  any  length,  the  wires  have  been  put  up  according  to  a  system  framed 
on  scientific  principles,  designed  to  prevent  various  kinds  of  disturbances. 
Since  1908,  and  in  accordance  with  the  calculations  made  by  H.  Pleijel, 
the  consultative  Professor  attached  to  the  Telegraph  Service,  a  large  number  of 
the    long-distance    and    other   connective  lines  have  been  loaded,  i.  e.,  have,  by 


654  X.      INTERNAL   COMMONICATIONS. 

means  of  a  method  first  employed  by  Professor  Pupin,  been  artificially  given 
electric  characteristics  which  make  possible,  on  the  one  hand,  a  more  distinct  trans- 
mission of  speech  over  long  lines,  and,  on  the  other,  allow  of  the  employment  of  a 
cheaper  material  (wire  of  smaller  dimensions)  in  the  construction  of  such  lines.  The 
total  length  of  the  Telegraph  Service's  loaded  bare  wire-  and  cable  circuits  was, 
at  the  close  of  1913,  some  29  967"6  km.  On  the  whole,  it  may  be  said  that 
Sweden  possesses  one  of  the  best  constructed  long-distance  networks  in  the  world. 

A  practical  application  of  the  progress  made  in  telephone  technics  is  the 
so-called  phantom .  lines,  or  the  arrangement  that  three  conversations  are 
transmitted  simultaneously  on  two  lines.  As  a  result  of  the  calculations  and  in- 
ventions of  Professor  Pleijel,  the  devices  employed  for  this  purpose  in  the  State 
telephone  network  have  reached  an  exceedingly  high  degree  of  perfection, '  and, 
at  the  close  of  1913,  there  were  in  use  9  846, km  of  such  superposed  connections. 

It  is  two  officials  of  the  Telegraph  Service,  C.  E.  Egner,  C.  E.,  and  the 
principal  of  the  Service's  training  school,  G.  Holmstrom,  C.'  E.,  to  whom 
should  be  ascribed  the  honour  of  having  invented  the  first  practical  strong- 
current  telephone  for  use  on  long  lines.  By  its  means,  a  conversation  can, 
without  difficulty,  be  carried  on  over  unloaded  lines  of  ordinary  dimensions 
between  Stockholm  and  Paris.  The  patent  for  Sweden  has  been  bought  by  the 
Telegraph  Service,  and  a  fairly  large  number  of  instruments  is  already  in  use. 
Switch-boards  and  telephones  were,  at  the  beginning  of  the  State  Telephone 
Service's  existence,  for  a  long  sequence  of  years,  supplied  by  L.  M.  Ericsson's 
world-renowned  factory,  in  Stockholm.  Afterwards,  however,  the  workshops  of  the 
Telegraph  Service  gradually  began  to  provide,  on  an  ever  increasing  scale,  the 
telephones  that  were  needed,  and  the  establishment  in  question  has  also  designed 
and  executed  most  of  the  new  plants  and  carried  out  the  necessary  work  for  the 
maintenance  and  improvement  of  the  offices.  Since,  as  mentioned  above,  the 
Swedish  Telegraph  Service  was  among  the  first  administrations  that  realized  the 
necessity  of,  and  carried  out,  the  change  from  single  lines  to  double  ones, 
the  exchange  apparatus  necessary  for  the  new  line-system  had  to  be  invented 
and  constructed  within  the  country.  The  switch-board  system  employed  at  the 
central  and  sub-exchange  offices  are,  therefore,  as  a  rule  of  Swedish  manufacture. 
The  distribution  system  applied  in  Stockholm  and  Gothenburg,  which  has,  too, 
been  adopted  at  Hamburg  for  an  80  000  lines'  plant  was  the  invention  of  A. 
Aven,  telephone  controller.  The  central-battery  system,  introduced  at  a  number 
of  other  offices,  such  as  Malmo,  Norrkoping,  Halsingborg,  Jonkoping,  Gavle, 
etc.,  is  a  modification  of  the  world-renouned  system  invented  and  manufactured  by 
the  firm  of  L.  M.  Ericsson.  Essential  improvements  in  the  old  magneto  system, 
which  is  still  made  use  of  at  smaller  and  medium-sized  stations,  have  been  elabo- 
rated chiefly  by  A.  H.  Olsson,  line-engineer,  and  have  been  utilized  at  the 
stations  at  Hamosand,  Karlstad,  Kristianstad,  Vasteras,  Ostersund,  etc.  Auto- 
matic exchange-stations,  although  on  a  small  scale,  on  a  system  invented  by  G. 
A.  Betulander,  C.  E.,  engaged  at  the  workshops  of  the  Telegraph  Service,  have 
been  in  use  since  1903,  and  very  promising  experiments  for  larger  stations  have 
been  made  by  other  officials  of  the  Service.  A  central  exchange  for  3  000  sub- 
scribers, with  a  semi-automatic  system  on  an  American  model,  has  just  been 
opened  at  Landskrona. 

Chiefly  in  consequence  of  the  well  devised  and  well  executed  exchange  systems, 
but  also  as  a  result  of  systematic  selection,  exercise  and  superintendence  of  the 
staff,  the  rapidity  of  service  in  the  State  telephone  —  offices  has  reached  such  a 
degree  of  excellence  that  what,  in  many  other  coimtries,  is  merely  a  heart-felt 
wish,  is  in  Sweden  already  an  accomplished  fact.  Even  some  ten  years  ago, 
the  average  time  elapsing  between  the  subscriber's  making  a  call  and  his  obtaining 
a  response    from    the    attendant,  at  the  largest  exchanges  in  Sweden,  had  been 


STATE  TELEPHONES.  655 

reduced  to,  or  below,  5  seconds,  and  at  the  newer  stations,  such  as  those  at 
Malmo  and  Halsingborg,  statistics  show  an  average  wait  of  2"5  seconds,  and 
even  less,  for  such  reply. 

Finally,  some  figures  may  be  given  respecting  the  economic  results  of 
the  administration  of  the  Swedish  telephone  service.  The  means  vs^hich 
are  required  for  the  continued  development  of  the  State  telephone  system, 
were,  before  the  year  1911,  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  Board  of  the 
Telegraph  Service  chiefly  in  the  form  of  loans,  for  which  the  Telegraph 
has  paid  interest,  and  which  had  gradually  to  be  amortised  by  the  Service, 
and  this,  as  a  rule,  in  a  very  chort  period  (12  to  20  years).  From  and 
including  the  year  1911,  however,  public  grants  have  been  made  for  tte 
purpose  in  question,  these  amounting,  for  each  of  the  years  1912,  1913, 
and  1914  to  4  million  kr.  (the  grants  given  in  1913  and  1914  were,  to  a 
certain,  small  amount,  also  intended  for  telegraph  purposes);  for 
1915,  the  grant  amounts  to  4  650  000  kr.,  inclusive  of  50  000  kr.  for 
radio-telegraphic  (wireless)  purposes.  The  capital,  consisting  of  such 
supplies  together  with  the  Telegraph  Service's  own  profits,  which  had 
been  sunk  in  the  State  telephone  network  had,  at  the  close  of  1913, 
amounted  to  65  994  450  kr.,  42  971306  kr.  of  which  was  sunk  in  the 
local  networks,  and  23  023  144  kr.  in  the  long  distance  network.  If 
respect  be  paid  not  only  to  the  plant  investment,  but  also  to  the  whole  of 
the  capital  disposable  for  the  telephone  system,  this  latter  amount  during 
1913  came  to  67  335  639  kr.,  of  which  43  844  601  kr.  were  for  the  local 
net,  and  23  491038  kr.  for  the  long-distance  network.  Now,  as  the 
surplus  obtained  from  the  business,  i.  e.,  the  difference  between  the  receipts 
and  the  expenditure,  amounted,  for  tihe  local  network  to  2  576  782  kr.  and 
for  the  long-distance  net  to  2  576  782  kr.,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  local 
telephone  network  of  the  Telegraph  Service  yielded,  during  the  year,  a 
return  of  6  %,  and  the  long  distance  net  one  of  14  fo,  on  the  capital  available 
for  the  respective  branches  of  the  business.  The  surplus  yielded  by  the 
entire  telephone  system  amounted  to  8-8  %  of  the  capital  (in  1912  to 
9-6  %),  a  result  which,  if  we  take  into  consideration  the  low  terms  of 
subscription  and  charges  for  conversations,  and  the  very  extensive  right 
to  free  calls  possessed  by  subscribers  at  many  places,  must  be  considered 
as  very  satisfactory  indeed. 

In  the  figures  given  above  for  capital  investment  in  the  State  tele- 
graph and  telephone  system?  no  capital  invested  in  land  and  buildings 
is  included.  For  the  purpose  of  buying  sites  and  constructing  buildings, 
means  have  been  supplied  in  various  ways,  for  the  last  few  years  in  the 
form  of  grants,  amounting  for  1913  to  400  000,  and  for  1914  to  500  000 
kr.  At  the  end  of  1913,  the  prime  cost  value  of  assets  of  this  kind, 
belonging  to  the  Telegraph  Service,  amounted  to  9  696  940  kr.  The 
net  income  of  this  branch  of  the  business,  however,  only  amounted  to 
155  896  kr.,  or  1-6  %  of  the  average  capital,  the  reason  for  these  low 
figures  being    that  a  very  large  part  of  the  investment  during  1913  was 


656  X.      INTERNAL   COMMUNICATIONS. 

still  represented  by  sites,  recently  bought  and  not  yet  built  on,  or  build- 
ings, not  yet  ready  or  not  wholly  taken  into  use. 

Private  Telephone  Companies. 

Mention  has  already  been  made  (cf.  above)  of  the  origin  of  these  com- 
panies in  Sweden  and  how  the  greater  number  of  them  afterwards  passed 
into  the  possession  of  the  State.  It  now  remains  to  give  a  short  account 
of  the  largest  and  most  important  of  the  private  companies  still  existing, 
i.  e.,  those  in  Stockholm. 

The  private  telephone  lines  of  Stockholm  and  the  surrounding  district 
are  at  present  in  the  hands  of  the  Stockholm  Telephone  Company,  Ltd 
which,  on  January  1,  1908,  purchased  the  Swedish  telephone  lines  of 
the  two  then  existing  and  co-operating  telephone  companies  —  the  Stock- 
holm General  Telephone  Company,  Ltd  and  the  Stockholm  Bell  Tele- 
phone Company,  Ltd. 

The  Bell  Company  was  established  in  1880,  chiefly  with  American  capital,  and 
at  first,  employed  only  American  material.  Its  charges,  however,  were  so  high 
(160  kroner  for  "the  city  within  the  bridges";  240 — 280  kronor  in  the  rest  of 
Stockholm)  that  the  general  public  could  not  make  any  great  use  of  this  new  means 
of  communication.  Representations  were  therefore  made  urging  a  lowering  of  the 
tariff  and,  when  no  attention  was  paid  to  this  demand,  there  was  formed  in 
1883,  on  the  initiative  of  H.  T.  Cedergren,  C.  E.,  —  whose  services  in  con- 
nection with  the  development  of  the  telephone-system  of  Sweden  are  deserving 
of  the  very  greatest  praise  —  the  Stockholm  General  Telephone  Company 
whose  object  was  stated  to  be  "to  establish  and  carry  on  telephone-commu- 
nication within  Stockholm  and  with  other  districts,  on  terms  as  low  as  the 
security  of  the  financial  position  of  the  company  would  permit".  The  tariff 
of  the  new  company  for  subscribers  having  sole  right  to  a  wire  was  fixed  at 
100  kronor  for  the  whole  of  Stockholm,  but  other,  lower  rates  of  subscrip- 
tion were  soon  introduced.  Both  the  companies  mentioned  continued  to 
exist  and  extend  their  operations  until  the  year  1885,  when  Stockholm  pos- 
sessed, not  only  relatively  but  also  absolutely,  the  greatest  number  of  telephone- 
subscribers  of  any  city  in  the  world.  After  the  date  mentioned,  the  number 
of  subscribers  to  the  Bell  Company  diminished  more  and  more,  and,  at  the 
close  of  the  "eighties",  the  majority  of  its  shares  were  purchased  by  the  General 
Company,  and,  in  1892,  the  wires  of  the  Bell  Company  were  reserved  for 
the  home-telephone  service  alone. 

The  General  Telephone  Company  grew  rapidly,  not  only  within  the  capital 
but  also  in  the  country  districts  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  Stock- 
holm. In  addition  to  this,  a  telephone  service  was  established  at  Soder- 
hamn  and  Jonkoping,  and  long-distance  lines  connected  the  capital  with  Norr- 
koping.  The  Company  also  entertained  the  idea  of  erecting  long-distance  lines 
to  Gothenburg  in  order  to  place  the  lines  of  private  telephone  companies 
there  in  connection  with  Stockholm,  but  the  application  for  the  concession, 
which  was  made  in  1888,  was  refused  by  the  Government.  The  steadily  in- 
creasing difficulties  that  were  raised  against  the  work  of  the  Company  in  Stock- 
holm soon  made  it  desirable  for  a  definite  agreement  to  be  made  regarding 
the  territory  within  which  the  Company  shoidd  enjoy  an  indisputed  right  to  carry 
on  its  business.  Consequently,  after  negotiations  with  the  Board  of  the  State 
Telegraphs,    an    agreement    was    drawn    up    which,    later    on,    was  approved  by 


PRIVATE    TELEPHOHE    COMPANIES.  657 

the  Government,  and,  in  accordance  with  which,  the  Company  was  granted  the 
right  to  retain  all  its  existing  telephone  wires  within  a  district  extending  to  70 
km  in  every  direction  from  Stortorget  (the  centre  of  Stockholm),  and  to  erect 
new  lines  within  this  territory.  The  condition  on  which  this  agreement  was 
drawn  up  was  that  the  Company  should,  at  the  same  time,  sell  to  the  Tele- 
graph  Service  all  its  lines  outside  the  above-mentioned  district. 

By  an  agreement  made  with  the  Board  of  the  State  Telegraphs,  there  was 
established  in  1891  co-operation  between  the  lines  of  the  State  Telephones 
and  those  of  the  private  companies,  whereby  all  subseribers  in  the  capital 
enjoyed  the  use  of  extensive  local  lines  and  of  extensive  telephone-connections 
with  provincial  districts.    This  co-operation  came  to  an  end  in  1903. 

In  1902  and  1906,  proposals  were  made  by  the  State  Telegraph  and  Tele- 
phone Departments  to  purchase  the  telephone  lines  of  the  General  Company 
but,  on  each  occasion,  the  Bill  was  thrown  out  by  the  Riksdag.  Neither 
did  a  proposal  made  in  1904,  to  divide  the  field  of  operations  between  the 
State  Telephones  and  the  General  Company,  gain  the  approval  of  the  Riksdag, 
so  that  it  has  not  been  found  possible  to  find  any  solution  of  the  co-operation 
problem.  Since  the  cessation  of  co-operation,  however,  the  lines  of  the  private 
company  have  increased  at  a  constantly  increasing  rate. 


In  1899,  it  came  to  the  knowledge  of  the  General  Telephone  Company  that 
the  Russian  State  intended  to  issue  invitations  for  an  international  competition 
iBBpecting  telephone-concessions  in  the  five  Russian  cities  of  Petrograd,  Moscow, 
Riga,  and  Odessa.  After  an  investigation  made  by  Mr  Cedergren  at  these  places 
had  shown  that  there  was  a  great  field  of  work  for  the  telephone-traffic  in 
Russia,  there  were  established  two  Swedish  telephone  companies:  the  Swedish- 
Danish-Russian  Telephone  Company,  Ltd,  and  the  Cedergren  Telephone  Com- 
pany, Ltd,  in  both  of  which  the  General  Telephone  Company  was  the  prin- 
cipal shareholder,  and  which  sent  in  tenders  for  the  proposed  Russian  plants. 
The  result  was  that  the  Swedish-Danish-Russian  Telephone  Company  obtained 
the  concession  in  Moscow  and  the  Cedergren  Telephone  Company  that  in 
Warsaw.  New  and  first-class  telephone  plants  have  since  been  established  in 
these  cities  and  have  obtained  large  numbers  of  subscribers.  Before  the  Swe- 
dish Companies  began  their  work  in  Russia,  the  American  Bell  Company  had 
enjoyed  telephone-concessions  in  these  cities,  but,  after  having  been  founded 
20  years,  the  number  of  its  subscribers  was  not  more  than  3  058  in  Moscow, 
and  2  331  in  Warsaw.  On  January  1,  1913,  i.  e.,  after  12  years  of  activity,  the 
number  of  subscribers  to  the  Swedish-Russian  Companies'  lines  was  43  347 
and  28  935  respectively. 

In  combination  with  L.  M.  Ericsson  &  Co.,  the  General  Telephone  Com- 
pany has  also  established  a  telephone  service  in  the  city  of  Mexico  and  its 
suburbs.     On    January   1,   1913,   this  combined  company  had  9  202  subscribers. 

In  proportion  as  the  business  of  the  General  Telephone  Company  increased  there 
arose  a  growing  difficulty  in  obtaining  a  clear  view  of  the  working  of  the  various 
divisions  and,  especially,  in  distinguishing  the  economic  results  of  the  Stockholm 
lines  from  the  other  business  of  the  Company.  On  January  1,  1908,  was  formed 
the  Stockholm  Telephone  Company,  Ltd,  which,  as  was  mentioned  above,  took 
over  the  lines  of  the  General  Telephone  Company  and  of  the  Bell  Telephone 
Company  in  Stockholm  and  the  surrounding  districts.  The  General  Telephone 
Company  is  the  principal  shareholder  in  the  Stockholm  Telephone  Company. 

During  the  whole  of  their  existence  the  private  telephone  companies 
of  Stockholm  have  endeavoured  to  extend  the  use  of  the  telephone  amongr 

A2— 133179.  Sweden.  II. 


658 


X.      INTERNAL   COMMUNICATIONS. 


PRIVATE   TELEPHONE   COMPANIES.  659 

an  ever-increasing  number  o£  classes  of  society  and  to  render  their  lines 
and  the  service  first-class.  The  first  object  has  been  achieved  by  the  intro- 
duction of  low  tariffs,  suited  for  those  whose  use  of  the  telephone  is 
limited;  the  second  by  continually  improving  the  construction  of  the 
instruments  and  by  adopting  new  inventions  when  these  have  proved 
suitable  for  the  purpose.  For  example,  the  General  Telephone  Company 
began  to  use  the  multiple  board  as  ea,rly  as  the  spring  of  1884,  being 
probably  -the  first  company  in  Europe  to  do  so;  it  employed  metallic 
circuit  lines  in  a  country  town  as  early  as  1888  and,  during  the  years  1892 
_ — 93,  duplicated  the  whole  of  its  great  Stockholm  system  of  wires.  In  1895, 
the  Company  began  to  lay  down  underground  cables  in  the  streets  of  the 
capital,  and  after  the  Stockholm  Telephone  Company  had  taken  over  the 
business,  the  entire  sj'^stem  of  lines  in  Stockholm  was  transformed  in  order 
to  allow  of  the  introduction  of  the  central  battery  system.  All  the  lines 
leading  to  subscribers'  apparatus  have  thus  been  isolated  in  cables;  new 
apparatuses  have  been  erected  and  new  sub-stations  for  the  service  of  home- 
telephones  arranged,  in  premises  purchased  by  the  Company.  The  last  step 
in  this  work  of  transformation  consisted  of  the  reconstruction  of  the  chief 
station  in  Malmskillnadsgatan,  where  a  system  for  automatic  distribution, 
constructed  by  the  Company,  is  to  be  introduced. 

The  Company's  system  of  country  lines  has  also  in  part  been  trans- 
formed and,  especially,  labour  has  been  expended  on  removing  the  large 
aereal  lines  and  substituting  underground  cables,  which  are  constructed 
according,  to  the  system  of  Pupin,  the  American  (cf.  State  Telephones). 
The  longest  countrycables  thus  constructed  lie  between  Stockholm  and 
Mariefred  and  have  a  length  of  70  km. 

The  tariffs  of  the  Stockholm  Telephone  Company  are:  within  Stockholm,  for 
telephones  with  an  unlimited  number  of  calls,  100,  80  and  60  kroner,  and  for 
telephones  with  a  limited  number  of  calls,  46,  36,  and  20  kronor.  The  last- 
named  subscription,  which  was  introduced  after  the  transformation  of  the  net 
to  a  central  battery  service,  allows  of  an  unlimited  number  of  free  calls  to  the 
100  kronor  apparatuses,  the  number  of  which  on  January  1,  1914,  amounted  to 
more  than  10  000.  For  every  call  to  any  other  apparatus  than  these  there  is  a  fee  of 
5  ore.  In  the  provincial  towns  around  Stockholm,  the  subscription  tariffs  are,  50,  36, 
and  25  kronor,  while,  in  the  rural  districts,  they  are  65  and  44  kronor.  The 
development  of  especially  the  cheaper  telephones  has  been  exceedingly  great 
during  the  last  few  years.  On  January  1,  1914,  the  number  of  subscribers 
amoimted  to   73  577.     The  increase  during  1913  was   5  414. 

The  total  length  of  the  lines  of  the  Stockholm  net  of  telephones  was  127  306 
km,  and  of  those  in  the  country-districts,  38  033.  At  the  same  date  (the 
beginning  of  1914),  the  number  of  stations  in  Stockholm  was  7,  and  in  the 
country  172.  On  January  1,  1914  there  were  in  the  service  of  the  Company 
1  654  persons,  142  of  whom  were  officials,  940  operators,  537  foremen  and, 
workmen,  35  collectors  and  errand-boys. 

The  value  of  the  telephone  lines  and  other  erections  of  the  co-operating 
telephone  companies  in  Sweden  and  Eussia  amounted,  on  January  1,  1914, 
to  87  million  kronor,  the  total  number  of  subscribers'  apparatuses  being 
155  377. 


660 


X.      INTERNAL   COMMUNICATIONS. 


Local  Station  {Ostermalm)  of  the  Stockholm  Telephone  Co. 


Finally,  on  page  651,  fig^ures  are  given  from  which  the  reader  may  draw 
a  comparison  between  the  development  of  the  telephone  system  in  Sweden 
and  some  other  countries.  In  proportion  to  the  population,  Stockholm  has 
more  telephone  apparatuses  than  any  other  city,  viz.  228  per  1  000  inha- 
bitants (1913).  At  the  end  of  1914  the  proportion  is  still  more  striking, 
viz. :  241  per  1  000  inhabitants. 


xr. 
BANKING,  CREDIT,  AND  INSURANCE. 


1.    COINAGE. 

Since  1873  Sweden  has  had  a  gold  standard,  and  gold  is  thus  the  sole 
measure  of  values.  The  monetary  unit  is  10  kronor  in  gold,  and  the 
reckoning  unit  is  1  krona,  which  is  divided  into  100  ore.  Out  of  1  kilo- 
gram of  fine  gold  are  coined  248  10-kronor  coins,  and  a  lO-kronor  piece 
thus  contains  4-032258  grams  of  fine  gold.  The  token  coins  are  made  of 
silver  and  bronze. 

The  gold  coins  are  the  30,  the  10  and  the  S  kronor  pieces.  Gold  coins 
are  made  of  an  alloy  containing  900  "/o"  of  gold  and  100  "/oo  of  copper.  A 
20-kronor  piece  should  thus  contain  8'064516  grams  of  gold,  and  "weigh  8'9606 
grams,  and  the  other  coins  in  the  same  ratio. 

The  token  coins  of  silver  are  the  2  kronor  piece,  the  1  krona,  and  the  50, 
35,  and  10  ore  pieces.  The  alloy  of  which  silver  coins  are  made  varies  in  its 
percentage  of  silver  for  the  different  coins.  In  the  3  kronor  piece  and  the 
1  krona  it  contains  800  "/oo  of  silver  and  200  "joo  of  copper,  in  the  50  and 
25  ore  pieces  it  contains  600  "/oo  of  silver  and  400  "/oo  of  copper  and  in  the 
10  ore  piece  it  contains  400  "/oo  of  silver  and  600  "/oo  of  copper.  Out  of 
600  grams  of  fine  silver  are  coined  100  kronor  in  3  kronor,  1  krona,  and 
50  ore  pieces,  and  about  103  kronor  in  25  and  10  ore  pieces.  The  various 
coins  should  thus  weigh  15,  7'5,  5,  3'42  and  1'45  grams,  and  contain  12,  6,  3, 
1"452  and  0"58  grams  of  fine  silver,  respectively. 

The  token  coins  ■  of  bronze  are  the  5,  2,  and  1  ore  pieces.  The  alloy  of 
which  bronze  coins  are  made  contains  95  ^  of  copper,  4  ^  of  tin,  and  1  ^  of 
zinc.     The  coins  should  weigh  8,  4,   and  3  grams  respectively. 

Coins  are  minted  at  the  Royal  Mint,  Kungliga  Myntet,  at  Stockholm.  As  it  is, 
of  course,  impossible  to  give  the  coins  exactly  the  above  weights  and  percentages, 
the  Coinage  Act  allows  of  certain  remedies  (remedier)  or  limits  of  deviation 
above  or  below  the  standard  weights  and  percentages.  The  extent  of  these 
deviations  will  be  seen  from  the  appended  tabular  conspectus  of  the  Swedish 
coinage. 

Token  coins  are  struck  only  for  the  account  of  the  Public  Treasury,  the  five 
kronor  pieces  for  both  the  Public  Treasury  and  the  Bank  of  Sweden  {RUcshanken), 


662  XI.       BANKING,    OPBDIT,    AND   INSURANCE. 

and  the  20  and  10  kronor  pieces  for  anyone  who,  subject  to  certain  conditions, 
takes  gold  to  the  Mint  to  be  converted  into  coin. 

In  order  to  be  accepted  for  coinage,  the  total  bulk  of  gold  must  contain  over 
900  "/''"  of  gold,  must  not  contain  any  other  metal  except  copper,  and  must 
not  be  so  brittle  as  not  to  allow  of  its  being  rendered  malleable  by  melting  in 
a  crucible.  If  the  value  of  the  gold  is  up  to  half  a  million  kronor,  the  Mint 
is  obliged  to  coin  it  as  soon  as  practicable.  If  the  value  is  lower,  the  Master 
of  the  Mint  may  either  accept  it  for  coinage,  meet  it  in  cash  after  deducting 
the  cost  of  coinage,  or  refuse  to  accept  it.  Gold  to  a  value  of  less  than  500 
kronor  is  not  accepted.  Gold  may  also  be  taken  to  the  Mint  for  the  account 
of  the  Riksbank,  without  obligation  to  state  the  purpose. 

The  charge  made  by  the  Mint  for  coining  20  kronor  pieces  is  ■'A  %  of  the  total 
value  of  the  gold  presented,  and  for  coining  10  kronor  pieces  ^/s  %  of  the  total 
value  of  the  gold  presented;  besides  which  there  accrue  certain  fees  for  the  re- 
melting  and  malleableizing  of  the  gold,  when  this  may  be  necessary.  For  the 
conversion  of  gold  into  5-kronor  pieces,  the  Riksbank  pays  ■'/a  %  of  the  total 
value  of  the  gold. 

Gold  coins  are  legal  tender  to  unlimited  amounts.  The  token  coins  are 
unlimited  legal  tender  only  to  the  Public  Treasury.  Otherwise  no  one 
is  obliged  to  accept  in  payment  more  than  20  kronor  in  2  and  1  krona 
pieces,  more  than  5  kronor  in  smaller  silver  coins,  and  more  than  1  krona 
in  bronze  token  coins. 

The  20  and  10  kronor  pieces  cease  to  be  legal  tender  to  the  Public  Trea- 
sury when  they  have  lost  bj'^  ordinary  wear  and  tear  more  than  2  %  of 
their  gross  weight.  They  cease  to  be  legal  tender  to  all  others  when 
they  have  lost  more  than  0-5  %  of  their  gross  weight.  The  5  kronor  piece 
ceases  to  be  legal  tender  to  the  Public  Treasury  when  it  is  so  worn  that  it 
can  no  longer  be  distinguished  as  a  Swedish  coin.  The  5  kronor  piece 
ceases  to  be  legal  tender  to  all  others,  when  it  has  lost  more  than  0-6  % 
of  its  gross  weight.  If  a  gold  coin  has  been  injured,  it  is  no  longer  legal 
tender  to  anybody  whatever. 

The  token  coins  cease  to  be  legal  tender  to  the  Public  Treasury,  when 
they  are  so  worn  that  they  can  no  longer  be  distinguished  as  Swedish 
coins.  They  cease  to  be  legal  tender  to  all  others  when  the  stamp  has 
become  indistinct.  Coins  which  have  been  injured  are  no  longer  legal 
tender;  but,  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  Master  of  the  Mint  in  each  se- 
parate case,  they  may  be  taken  by  the  Mint  at  their  face  value. 

At  all  offices  of  the  Riksbank  anyone  is  entitled  to  have  any  amount 
of  token  coins,  provided  the  amount  be  divisible  by  10,  exchanged  for 
gold  coins  or  Riksbank  notes.  Moreover  any  one  is  entitled  to  have  any 
amount  of  such  worn  coin  as  is  legal  tender  to  the  Public  Treasury,  ex- 
changed for  an  equal  amount  of  current  coin.  The  Riksbank,  in  its  turn, 
is  entitled  to  have  that  coin  exchanged  by  the  Mint  for  gold  coin  or  Riks- 
bank notes. 

A§  regards  the  dissemination  of  token  coins,  anyone  is  entitled,  on  sen- 
ding in  equivalent  value  to  the  Mint,  to  have  silver  coin,  within  cer- 
tain limits  as  to  amount,  forwarded  post-free  to  any  post  office,  or  first- 


COINAGE. 


663 


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t)64  XI.      BANKING,    CREDIT,    AND    INSURANCE. 

class   sub-office.     Moreover,   in   all   offices  of  the   Riksbank   anyone  is 
entitled  to  have  gold  coin  or  Riksbank  notes  exchanged  for  small  coin. 

In  1873  Sweden  and  Denmark  concluded  between  them  a  Coinage 
Treaty,  which  jSTorway  joined  two  years  later.  In  accordance  with  the 
terms  of  this  Treaty,  all  three  countries  have  the  same  coinage  system, 
with  essentially  the  same  regulations. 

The  coinage  of  each  country  is  legal  tender  in  the  two  other  countries.  Each 
country  is  obliged  to  accept  from  the  Public  Treasury  of  the  other  countries  such 
coins  bearing  the  stamp  of  that  country  as  are  legal  tender  only  to  the  Public 
Treasury.  Likewise,  each  country  shall  accept  from  the  Public  Treasury  of  the 
other  countries  and  exchange  for  gold  coins  any  amount,  divisible  by  10  kroner, 
of  token  coins  which  bear  the  stamp  of  that  country.  —  No  limit  is  set,  as 
regards  amount,  to  the  right  to  issue  coins,  either  in  the  Treaty  or  in  the  Swe- 
dish Coinage  Act. 

The  Treaty  shall  cease  to  be  in  force  a  year  after  due  notice  has  been  given 
by  one  of  the  parties,  with  the  proviso  that  the  regulations  above  referred  to 
with  regard  to  the  obligation  to  exchange  worn  coins  and  token  coins  shall  be 
in  force  two  years  after  the  Treaty  has  been  abrogated. 

The  amounts  in  kroner  of  the  Scandinavian  coins  which  were  issued  up  to 
1913  inclusive,  in  accordance  with  the  stipulations  of  the  Coinage  Treaty,  are 
exhibited  by  the  following  conspectus: 

Gold  Coins: 

20-kroiior  10-kronor  5-kronor  Total 

Sweden    up  to  »Via 71474  500  11762  090  2146  505  85383099 

Norway     >     »    ""/o   .    .    ■  .    .    .    21428  560  1214  660  —  22643120 

Denmark  .     .    »'/!   .    .    .    .    .    .    73  909  040  13  832  650 —  87  741 690 

Total  166  812100  26  809  300  2146  505  195  767  905 

Only  44  035  kroner  were  called  in  by  the  Mints. 

Silver  Coins: 

2-kronor       1-kronor        50  ore  25  ore  10  ore  Total  Called 

in 

Sweden  .  .  7  062  964  15  882  567  3  452  713   6  650  452   4  563  223  37  611  919  1 466  855 

Norway.  .  3  922  834   4  676  995  3  213133   2  004  670   3107188  16924  820  2  465  877 

Denmark  .11477  070   6  225  388 —   4  858106   3  655  706  26216270  1663  539 

Total  22462  868  26  784950  6  665  846  13  513228  11326117  80  753009  5596271 

Bronze  Coins: 

Total  Called  in 

Sweden 2  842  723  53  247 

Norway 1160  350  7172 

Denmark 2  110  160 31  899 

Total  G 113  233  92  318 

The  amoimt  of  Scandinavian  gold  coin  held  by  the  Riksbank  on  the  31  De- 
cember 1913  was  55  957  745  kroner,  and  the  amount  of  such  gold  coin  held 
by  all  others  banking  companies  together  was    207  170  kroner. 


Hall-marking  of  Gold,  Silver  and  Pewter  Wares. 

Legal  regulations  as  to  the  finess  required  in  gold,  silver,  and  pewter 
intended  to  be  wrought  into  wares  have  existed  from  a  very  early  date  in 
Sweden.    The  oldest  Goldsmiths'  Decree  known  dates  from  the  year  1529. 


HALL-MARKING   OF   SOLD,   SILVER   AND   PEWTER  WARES.  665 

At  first  the  hall-marking  of  these  wares  was  superintended  mainly  by  the 
Goldsmiths'  and  Pewterers'  Guilds  themselves.  The  Riksguardien,  as  the 
Government  official  was  called  who  exercised  a  general  superintendence 
over  the  making  of  gold  and  silver  wares,  had  duties  essentially  of  a  fiscal 
nature,  and,  as  a  rule,  only  intervened  when  there  was  a  suspicion  of 
embezzlement.  The  Hall  Marks  Act  of  7  Dec.  1752  placed  the  actual 
fabrication  of  these  wares  under  State  control.  These  matters  were  at 
first  managed  by  KontroUverket,  or  the  Assay  Office,  at  Stockholm, 
established  in  the  following  year.  In  1910  they  passed  over  to  Mynt-  och 
justeringsverhet  or  the  Royal  Mint  and  Assay  Office  (shortly  called 
below  Royal  Mint).  The  Act  of  1752,  with  certain  amendments  and 
appendices  was  in  force  until  1912.  In  that  year  a  new  Act  was  passed 
as  to  the  hall-marking  of  gold  and  silver  wares.  That  Act  entirely 
abolished  the  hall-marking  of  pewter  wares. 

As  regards  alloys,  the  legal  minimum  for  gold  wares  is  760  "/oo,  and  for 
silver  wares  830  "/oo.  In  the  case  of  gold  three  different  qualities  are  hall- 
marked: 23  carat  gold  (standard  mark:  23  k)  with  975  "/<")  of  gold;  20  carat 
gold  (standard  mark:  20  k)  with  840  "/oo  of  gold,  and  18  carat  gold  (standard 
mark:  18  k)  with  760  "/oo  of  gold.  As  to  silver,  only  one  quality  is  hall- 
marked, namely  830  "/oo,  without  a  standard  mark.  As  in  the  case  of  coinage 
(see  above),  certaia  remedies  or  deviations  from  the  above  standard  qualities 
are  allowed  for,  namely  5  "/oo  for  gold  wares  and  8  "/oo  for  silver  wares.  Further, 
soldered  wares  may  contaiu  only  so  much  solder  that  the  gold,  supposing  the 
ware  to  be  melted,  shall  not  fall  more  than  10  "/"o  below  the  standard,  and  the 
silver  not  more  than  16  "/oo  below  the  standard.  Gold  or  silver  wares  may 
not  be  combined  with  other  metals  which  might  easily  be  taken  for  gold  or 
silver. 

When  gold  and  silver  wares  are  submitted  to  be  hall-marked,  they  must  be 
stamped  with  (1)  the  maker's  mark  (2)  the  mark  of  the  place  of  manufacture 
(3)  the  date  mark  (from  1759  onwards).  Gold  wares  must  also  have  the  standard 
mark. 

The  hall-mark  for  gold  wares  is  three  crowns  in  a  heart-shaped  shield  for 
Swedish  wares,  and  three  crowns  in  an  oval  shield  for  foreign  wares.  Silver 
wares  have  a  similar  haU-mark,  followed  by  an  S.  At  the  capital  these  hall- 
marks are  affixed,  after  due  examination,  by  the  Boyal  Mint.  In  the  provinces 
haU-marks  are  affixed  by  an  official,  on  the  faith  of  the  maker's  statements  as 
to  quality.  Samples  are  then  taken  of  the  wares,  and  these  samples  are  sent 
in  to  the  Royal  Mint  for  examination.  If  the  maker  has  made  a  false  declara- 
tion   as    to    the    quality    of  his  wares,  he  renders  himself  liable  to  prosecution. 

The  fee  charged  for  hall-marking  is  5  ore  per  gram  of  gold,  and  3'33  kroner 
per  kilogram  of  silver.  Gold  wares  weighing  under  1  gram,  and  silver  wares 
weighing  under  5  grams,  are  exempt  both  from  hallmarking  and  the  fee.  The 
maker,  however,  is  liable  to  be  prosecuted,  if  it  be  detected  that  his  wares  fall 
below  the  minimum  standards. 

Gold  and  silver  wares  which  fall  below  the  minimum  standards  with  reme- 
dies are  not  allowed  to  be  imported  into  Sweden.  Hence  all  gold  and  silver 
wares  which  come  from  abroad  have  to  be  sent  up  to  the  Royal  Mint  and  Assay 
Office  for  examination.  If  they  are  up  to  the  required  standards,  they  are  hall- 
marked, and  the  fee  charged  is  the  same  as  for  Swedish  wares.  They  also  pay 
an  additional  fee  for  every  test  which  has  to  be  made.  Wares  which  fall  below 
the  required  standards  have  to  be  re-exported.     The  import  of  foreign  gold  and 


666  XI.      BANKING,    CREDIT,    AND   INSURANCE. 

silver  wares  seems  to  have  been  prohibited  until  1826.  They  were  first  hall- 
marked in  1832.1 

The  Table  on  page  462  shows  the  quantities  of  gold,  sUver,  and  pewter  wares 
hall-marked  since  the  introduction  of  official  hall-marking  in  1754. 

As  to  trade  in  gold  and  silver  wares,  only  such  wares  as  conform  to  the 
required  standards  may  be  offered  for  sale.  Exemptions  from  this  rule  are  con- 
ceded only  in  special  cases. 


2.    BANKING. 

Historical  Sketch. 

The  Biksbank  in  Ancient  Times.  The  first  bank  in  Sweden,  Palm- 
struch's  Bank,  obtained  its  charter  in  1656.  It  consisted  of  two  depart- 
ments, the  deposit  or  current  account  bank,  and  the  lending  or  loan 
bank.  The  deposit  bank  was  prohibited  from  lending  money  deposited 
or  crediting  anyone  for  amounts  which  had  not  been  deposited.  The 
lending  bank  was  for  loans  on  corporeal  securities,  such  as  real  propertj^, 
certain  kinds  of  commodities,  and  other  objects  of  value;  it  also  received 
deposits  at  interest.     In  1661  the  bank  began  to  issue  notes. 

The  Palmstruch  Bank  was  mismanaged  and  before  long  found  itself  un- 
able to  meet  its  engagements.  It  proved  impossible  for  it  to  stave  off  bank- 
ruptcy, notwithstanding  that  the  State  came  to  its  relief,  inter  alia  by 
declaring  its  notes  to  be  legal  tender  and  guaranteeing  their  being  met 
in  cash.  In  1668,  in  place  of  the  Palmstruch  Bank,  a  State  Bank  was 
founded.  At  that  time  it  was  designated  "Rikets  Stdnders  Bank",  that 
is,  the  "Estates  of  the  Realm  Bank",  but  it  is  now  known  as  Sveriges 
Biksbank,  the  Bank  of  Sweden.  It  was  to  be  governed  by  the  Estates 
of  the  Realm  solely,  the  Government  being  excluded  from  all  participa- 
tion in  its  management.  Its  business  was  to  be  the  same  in  kind  and  be 
prosecuted  on  the  same  lines  as  that  of  the  Palmstruch  Bank,  but  subject 
to  an  express  prohibition  against  the  issue  of  notes.  In  1701,  however, 
the  right  of  note-issue  was  accorded  to  the  Riksbank. 

At  the  outset  the  number  of  notes  in  circulation  was  very  small  but  later  on, 
when  the  Bank  had  obtained  the  right  to  issue  notes  for  small  values,  it  began, 
with  the  laudable  intention  to  encourage  industry,  to  transact  its  lending  business 
in  far  too  generous  a  spirit,  the  consequence  being  that  the  issue  of  notes  was 
swelled  beyond  the  bounds  of  prudence  and  the  Bank  in  1745  was  obliged  to 
suspend  payment  of  its  notes.  In  conjunction  with  the  coinage  reforms  of  1776, 
whereby  copper  was  ousted  from  its  place  of  primacy  and  sUver  alone  became  the 
standard  metal,  the  Bank  once  more  resumed  payment  of  its  notes  at  about 
half  their  face  value,  that  being  the  degree  of  depreciation  they  had  experienced. 

It  was  not  long,  however,  before  the  Bank  monetary  machinery  was  again  out 
of  gear.     When  the  State,  owing  to  the  war  with  Russia  in  1788 — 1789,  found 


^    In    1832    even   gold   and  silver  wares  which  fell  below  the  above  standards  were  per- 
mitted to  be  imported:  they  were  stamped  with  a  special  hall-mark. 


HISTORICAL   SKETCH. 


667 


The  Buildings  of  the  Bank  of  Sweden,  Stockholm,  with  the  Riksdag 

background. 


at  the 


itself  obliged  to  raise  new  loans,  the  Estates  of  the  Realm  undertook  to  be 
responsible  for  the  management  of  the  National  Debt,  establishing  a  special 
board  of  commissioners  under  their  own  supervision  to  administer  it,  viz.  Biks- 
galdskontoret  or  the  National  Debt  Board.  In  order  to  procure  the  money 
required  by  the  State,  this  Office  was  authorized  among  other  duties  to  issue 
notes  and  to  carry  on  a  certain  kind  of  banking  business.  However  its  notes, 
the  "riksdaler  rihsgdlds"  as  they  were  called,  soon  depreciated  in  value,  whereas 
the  notes  of  the  Bank,  the  "riksdaler  banco",  retained  their  value  unimpaired. 
In  1802  it  was  resolved  that  the  Bank  should  redeem  the  Riksgaldskontoret 
notes  with  its  own  at  the  then  average  exchange  value  of  the  former  (i.  e.  at 
two-thirds  'of  their  nominal  value,  one  Riksdaler  Banco  being  thus  equal  to  one 
and  a  half  Riksdaler  Riksgalds).  Partly  in  consequence  of  this  measure  and 
partly  owing  to  a  loan  to  the  .Government  during  the  war  of  1808 — 1809,  the 
financial  position  of  the  Bank  became  so  much  impaired  that  in  1810  it  was 
actually  compelled  to  stop  redeeming  its  own  notes,  which  in  consequence  fell 
considerably  in  value.  After  years  of  negotiations  the  authorities  finally  suc- 
ceeded in  1830  in  putting  the  monetary  affairs  of  the  country  into  order  by  a 
so-termed  "realization".  It  was  then  resolved  that  the  Bank  should  resume  the 
redemption  of  its  own  notes  in  silver,  though  at  only  three-eighths  of  their 
nominal  value,  which  corresponded  pretty  closely  to  the  exchange  value  of  the 
notes.  Towards  the  close  of  the  year  1834  this  resolution  was  carried  into 
effect.  Since  that  time  the  Riksbank  notes  have  continued  to  be  convertible 
into  cash  (temporary  interruption  in  1914  on  account  of  the  war). 

The    lending    business  of  the  Bank  consisted  originally,  as  has  been  stated. 


668 


XI.      BANKING,    CREDIT,    AND   INSURANCE. 


in  loans  on  mortgages  and  "Lombard  loans",  i.  e.  loans  on  commodities.  The 
former  passed  by  a  gradual  transition  into  long  period  loans.  Loans  against 
merely  personal  security  did  not,  properly  speaking,  occur  until  after  1802, 
when  the  National  Debt  Board  had  given  up  its  banking  business  above  referred 
to.  For  the  last-named  loan  transactions  a  special  institution  in  close  contact 
with  the  Bank  was  established,  viz.  the  Riksdiskonten,  or.  State  Discount  Bank, 
which  at  first  was  a  combination  of  the  Bank  and  certain  private  shareholders; 
in  1816,  however,  the  latter  were  excluded.  Since  1830  the  banking  business  of 
the  Bank  has  gradually  been  transformed  into  closer  conformity  with  sound 
banking  principles.  Thus,  in  1846  the  Bank  began  to  discount  bills,  in  1864 
the  "Riksdiskonten"  was  abolished,  its  business  being  taken  over  by  the  Bank 
itself,  and  in  the  same  year  the  Bank  ceased  making  loans  on  mortgages  for  long 
periods,  that  business  being  transferred  to  the  Allmdnna  Hypoteksbanken,  the 
General  Mortgage  Bank. 


The  Interior  of  the  Bank  of  Sweden,  Stockholm. 


The  Origin  of  the  "Enskilda"  Banks.  At  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury and  at  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  there  were  established  in  Stock- 
holm a  series  of  dishontoinrdttningar  or  discounting  establishments,  one 
following  on  after  the  other,  as  they  successively  came  to  grief  after  en- 
joying but  a  brief  spell  of  existence.  In  some  of  these  institutions  the  capital 
was  subscribed  in  part  by  private  persons  in  part  by  the  State,  in  others 
by-  the  State  alone.  Similar  establishments  were  also  opened  in  some  of 
the  larger  towns  with  private  capital,  but  with  aid  from  the  Riksbank. 


HISTORICAL   SKETCH.  669 

However,  one  of  these  provincial  institutions  was  soon  obliged  to  suspend 
payment,  and  the  others  were  before  long  forced  to  put  up  their  shutters, 
as  they  failed  to  win  the  confidence  of  the  public. 

On  January  14  1824  a  Royal  Ordinance  was  issued  authorizing  the 
creation  of  "Enskilda"  or  discount  banks.  However,  it  was  not  until  after 
the  finances  of  the  country  had  been  reestablished  on  a  satisfactory  footing 
by  the  "realization"  (see  above)  of  1830  that  the  facilities  thus  made 
available  for  the  foundation  of  "Eniskilda"  banks  were  actually  made  use 
of.  Under  the  Ordinance  the  sanction  of  the  Government  was  required 
for  the  establishment  of  an  ''enskild"  bank,  and  the  stockholders  were 
jointly  and  severally  liable  for  the  engagements  of  the  Bank.  Although  the 
Ordinance  did  not  contain  any  regulations  vsdth  regard  to  powers  of  note 
issue,  the  banks  nevertheless  soon  began  to  issue  their  own  notes.  The 
conditions  to  be  complied  with  in  such  issue  were  afterwards  specified 
by  the  Royal  Ordinance  of  1846.  This  Ordinance  further  restricted  the 
business  of  the  banks,  inasmuch  as  it  prescribed  that  they  were  only  to  be 
allowed  to  carry  on  trade  in  gold  and  silver.  A  later  Ordinance  (1855) 
widened  this  limitation  to  include  domestic  and  foreign  bills  and  interest- 
bearing  securities.  An  atteinpt  to  supersede  the  note-issuing  banks  by 
other  banks  without  powers  of  note  issue  but  supported  by  the  Riksbank 

—  the  sotermed  Branch  Banks  —  did  not  turn  out  a  great  success.  The 
regulations  as  to  the  right  to  issue  notes  were  subsequently  amended  bj' 
the  Royal  Ordinances  of  1864  and  1874. 

Pursuant  to  the  Ordinance  of  1874  at  least  60  ^  of  the  subscribed  capital 
{grundfond  "foundation  capital")  of  the  Bank  was  to  be  invested  in  mortgages 
and  easily  realizable  interest-bearing  bonds,  and  these  "foundation  capital  securi- 
ties" (grundfondshypoteh)  were  to  be  deposited  in  public  custody  (allmdnt  forvar), 
whereupon    the    Bank    was   entitled  to  issue  notes  to  an  amount  equivalent  to : 

—  (1)  the  foundation  capital  and  the  reserve  fund,  in  so  far  as  these  were  in- 
vested in  "foundation  capital  securities"  deposited  in  public  custody,  (2)  such 
amount  of  the  Bank's  outstanding  claims  on  the  public  as  corresponded  to  half 
the  foundation  capital,  subject  to  the  condition  that  the  Bank  held  at  its  head 
office  gold  currency  up  to  10  "/<,  of  the  foundation  capital,  (3)  the  Bank's  other 
holding  of  gold  in  specie-  or  bullion  at  the  head  office.  —  The  downward  limit 
of  value  for  notes  was   5   kroner  (in  1879  raised  to  10  kronor). 

The  Ordinance  of  1874  remained  in  force  until  the  close  of  the  year 
1903,  when  it  was  superseded  by  the  Unlimited  Liability  Bank  Companies 
Act,  at  the  time  when  the  "Enskilda"  banks  were  deprived  of  their  right 
to  issue  notes.  The  Act  of  1903  was  in  its  turn  superseded  by  the  Banks 
Act  of  1911. 

That  the  "Enskilda"  banks  were  deprived  of  their  right  to  issue  notes 
was  not  due  to  dissatisfaction  with  their  management.  Out  of  the  total 
of  30  "Enskilda"  banks  that  have  been  founded,  only  one  has  ever  become 
insolvent,  and  even  in  its  case  it  was  not  necessary  to  make  any  calls  on 
the  unlimited  liability  stockholders.  Thus  the  notes  of  the  "Enskilda" 
banks  have  never  been  inconvertible. 


670  XI.      BANKING,    CREDIT,    AND   INSURANCE. 

The  Origin  of  the  Joint-Stock  Banks.  The  Jbmt-Stock  Companies  Act 
of  1848  brought  into  being  banks  with  limited  liability,  but  without  the 
right  to  issue  notes.  The  first  joint-stock  bank  was  opened  in  1863.  It 
was  not  till  1886  that  the  joint-stock  banks  were  brought  under  special 
legislation,  whereby  their  activity  was  subjected  to  legal  restrictions 
similar  to  those  in  force  respecting  the  "Enskilda"  banks.  The  Act  of 
1886  was  superseded  by  the  Joint-Stock  Banks  Act  of  1903,  which  Act 
in  its  turn  was  rescinded  by  the  Banks  Act  of  1911.  Altogether,  98- Joint- 
Stock  banks  have  been  established  in  Sweden;  63  of  these  are  still  in 
existence. 

The  Banks  Reform  of  1897.  The  value  to  the  Swedish  industrial  com- 
munity of  the  services  performed  by  the  "Enskilda"  note-issuing  banks 
were  indeed  generally  admitted :  they  were  useful  as  credit-providing  insti- 
tutions, more  especially  as  by  their  ramifying  network  of  branch  offices 
they  served  the  needs  of  a  great  many  and  even  quite  small  places,  thus 
greatly  facilitating  the  collection  and  utilizing  of  the  savings  of  the  public. 
Nevertheless,  as  the  nineteenth  century  drew  towards  its  close,  it  was  felt 
that  the  time  had  come  to  bestow  on  the  country  the  benefit  of  a  central 
bank  in  the  proper  sense,  enjoying  a  monopoly  as  regards  the  note  issue.  It 
was  generally  agreed  that  the  bank  which  was  to  be  invested  with  that 
monopoly  must  be  the  Eiksbank;  on  the  other  hand,  people  were  not  in 
accord  as  to  the  organization  best  adapted  to  fit  the  bank  for  its  special 
mission.  Two  Committees  (1881 — 83  and  1889 — 90)  brought  forward  pro- 
posals on  the  subject,  but  it  was  not  till  the  1897  Riksdag  that  the  measure 
of  reform  was  actually  carried  into  effect.  Pursuant  to  the  resolutions 
then  a-dopted,  the  Riksbank  was  still  to  have  the  Riksdag  at  its  back  and 
remain  subject  to  its  supervision,  private  stockholders  continuing  to  be  ex- 
cluded. Laws  affecting  the  Riksbank  were  to  be  enacted  by  King  and 
Riksdag  conjointly,  the  King  being  accorded  besides  some  influence  in 
the  constitution  of  its  governing  body.  The  Riksbank  was  to  exercise  the 
monopoly  of  note  issue  from  and  after  1904  (though,  as  a  matter  of  fact, 
the  note-issuing  rights  of  the  '"Enskilda"  banks  lapsed  on  August  1  1903). 


Present  Administration  and  Business  Activity  of  the  Biksbank. 

The  principal  stipulations  respecting  the  administration  and  business 
activity  of  the  Riksbank  are  to  be  found  in  part  in  the  Eundamental  Laws 
of  the  Realm,  in  part  in  an  Act  of  the  Riksdag  passed  May  12,  1897;  the 
latter  has  been  to  some  extent  modified  since  by  amending  clauses  being 
added,  the  last  dated  Aug.  31,  1914.  Consequently  those  principal  sti- 
pulations are  the  result  of  the  joint  legislative  work  of  the  Riksdag  and  the 
Government.  There  exist,  however,  supplementary  stipulations  respecting 
the  more  detailed  organization  of  the  Riksbank  over  which  the  Riksdag 
alone  exercises  control. 

The  Court  of  Directors  (Styrelsen)  consists  of  seven  members  who  bear 


PRESENT  ADMINISTRATION   AND   BUSINESS   ACTIVITY   OP   THE   RIKSBANK.      671 

the  title  BankofuUmELktige,  Riksbank  Commissioners.  One  of  their  number, 
the  Chairman,  is  nominated  by  the  King,  the  others  by  the  Riksdag  in 
accordance  with  the  recommendations  of  an  ad  hoc  selecting  committee. 
The  Court  of  Directors  elects  from  among  those  of  its  members  chosen  by 
the  Riksdag  three  Delegates  (Deputerade),  to  act  as  the  managing  directors 
of  the  Bank.  A  member  of  the  Bank  Court  is  not  permitted  to  be  on  the 
board  of  directors  of  any  other  bank  unless  it  be  a  savings-bank  or  the 
Post-Office  Savings-Bank. 

The  capital  of  the  Riksbank  is  fixed  at  50  million  kroner.  At  least 
10  per  cent  of  the  annual  profit  is  to  be  passed  to  the  reserve  fund,  until 
the  latter  has  become  equal  to  25  %  of  the  capital  (since  1909  the  reserve 
fund  has  been  12-5  million  kronor).  Otherwise  the  Riksdag  has  the  right 
of  disposal  of  the  annual  profit.  —  The  Riksbank's  note  issue  is  restricted 
in  the  following  manner:  it  is  allowed  to  issue  notes  to  the  extent  of: 
a)  double  the  amount  of  the  gold  held  by  the  Bank  (which  in  case  of  a  fall 
below  75  million  kronor  must  be  restored  to  that  minimum  as  soon  as  may 
be),  and  h)  125  million  kronor  beyond  that  amount.  To  this,  however,  the 
condition  is  attached,  that  the  notes  issued  beyond  the  amount  of  gold  held 
shall  be  backed  by:  (1)  readily  negotiable  Grovernment  Securities,  (2)  bonds 
issued'  by  the  General  Mortgage  Bank,  the  National  Town  Mortgage 
Bank  of  Sweden,  or  other  Swedish  bonds  quoted  on  foreign  Bourses, 
(3)  gold  deposited  at  some  place  abroad  or  in  process  of  conveyance 
therefrom,  (4)  bills  of  exchange  payable  within  or  without  the  country, 
(5)  a  credit  balance  at  some  bank  or  accepting-house  abroad  maturing 
within  six  months,  or  (6)  money  advanced  against  securities  or  bonds 
mentioned  in  (1)  and  (2)  above.  The  bank-notes,  which  on  presentation 
are  redeemable  in  gold  at  the  head  office  of  the  Riksbank,  are  legal 
tender  throughout  the  country.  Under  ordinary  conditions  the  five-kronof 
note  is  the  smallest  note  issued  by  the  Riksbank. 

Chiefly  to  enable  the  Riksbank  to  increase  its  covering  for  its  notes, 
the  Bank  is  entitled  to  avail  itself  of  foreign  credit  to  the  extent  deter- 
mined by  the  Riksdag  in  its  Bank  Regulations  (at  present  20  million 
kronor).  The  same  purpose  is  answered  by  the  provision  that  the  Bank 
shall  hold  readily  negotiable  foreign  assets  to  an  amount  at  least  equal  to 
the  reserve  fund. 

The  Banking  Business  of  the  Riksbank.  The  Riksbank  is  entitled  to 
buy  and  sell  gold  and  silver,  Swedish  bonds,  and  readily  negotiable  foreign 
government  securities  quoted  on  foreign  Bourses,  while  in  virtue  of  an- 
other agreement  it  is  authorized  to  take  over  Swedish  Government  bonds 
and  easily  negotiable  foreign  Government  securities  as  well  as  to  negotiate 
the  purchase  and  sale  of  Swedish  Government  bonds  and  the  bonds  issued 
by  the  General  Mortgage  Bank.  The  Riksbank  is  furthermore  em- 
powered to  discount,  or  buy  and  sell,  domestic  and  foreign  bills  with 
at  most  six  months  to  run;  to  make  loans  for  at  most  six  months  on  bonds, 
shares,   and  other  paper   securities  and  commodities;   to   make  loans  on 


672  XI.      BANKING,    CREDIT,    AND    INSURANCE. 

bonds,  shares  and  other  securities  for  an  unlimited  period  but  subject  to 
at  most  three  months'  notice;  to  open  cash  or  current  account  credits  for 
at  most  twelve  months  against  such  collateral  pledges  as  bonds,  shares, 
or  mortgages  or  against  the  security  of  guarantors.  The  maximum  amount, 
however,  that  the  bank  is  permitted  to  invest  in  this  last-mentioned  loan 
business  is  15  million  kronor. 

The  Riksbank  has  under  its  care  and  management  a  special  fund  (called 
the  avhetalningsldnefonden  or  instalment-redemption  loan  fund),  with  a 
capital  of  12-6  million  kronor,  from  which  it  makes  advances  to  be  paid 
back  by  instalments  on  such  collateral  pledges  as  bonds,  shares,  mortgages, 
or  on  the  security  of  guarantors. 

The  Riksbank  issues  bank  post  bills  (postvdxlar)  and  accepts  deposits 
both  on  deposit  and  on  cheque  account.  -  The  Riksbank  as  a  general  rule  is 
not  permitted  to  give  interest  on  deposits;  it  is  allowed,  however,  to  open  a 
current  account  at  interest  for  firms  that  discount  their  bills  at  the  Riks- 
bank and  do  not  engage  in  banking  business  themselves.  In  connection 
with  its  cheque  transactions  the  Riksbank  is  entitled  to  arrange  for  clearing, 
and  the  bank  has  availed  itself  of  this  right :  by  agreement  with  the  larger 
banks  in  Stockholm  a  clearing-house  system  has  been  established,  in  which 
all  the  banks  in  Sweden  directly  or  indirectly  participate.  —  The  Riksbank 
acts  as  a  depository  of  articles  of  value  for  safe  custody  and  of  securities 
etc.,  which  it  preserves  and  administers  on  behalf  of  their  owners.  It  is 
one  of  its  functions  to  do  duty  as  the  Government's  banker  free  of  charge; 
no  overdraft  is  allowed,  however,  on  any  of  the  varioais  Grovernment 
accounts,  except  in  the  case  of  the  'National  Debt  Board,  which  in  its 
administration  of  the  National  Debt  is  entitled  to  avail  itself  of  an  over- 
draft to  the  amount  of  1^/2  million  kronor. 

The  Riksbank  is  bound  by  law  to  have  at  least  one  branch  office  in 
each  Ian,  except  in  Stockholm  Ian,  thus  altogether  at  least  23  branch 
offices;  at  present  it  has  25. 

The  Riksbank  is  not  permitted  to  hold  other  real  property  than  its  own 
premises  (head  offices,  branch  offices,  paper  manufactory,  printing  works). 
—  A  weekly  return  of  the  Riksbank's  holding  of  gold,  silver  and  bullion, 
of  the  total  notes  in  circulation,  and  of  the  unutilized  power  of  note  issue 
is  to  be  published  in  the  Official  Gazette.  The  Riksbank  must  publish 
and  distribute  as  a  supplement  to  the  Official  Gazette  at  the  end  of  every 
month  an  account  of  its  assets  and  liabilities,  and  at  the  close  of  every 
year  a  complete  report  of  the  Riksbank's  position. 

Other  Banks. 

The  law  now  in  force  respecting  other  banks  than  the  Riksbank  is  con- 
tained in  the  Banks  Act  of  June  22  1911. 

Pursuant  to  this  Act,  banking  business  in  Sweden  may  only  be  carried  on  by 
1)    the  Riksbank,  2)  joint-stock  banks  3)  unlimited  liability  banking  companies, 


OTHER  BANKS. 


673 


Office-room  of  the  tNordiska  KredUhankem>  in  Stockholm. 


and  4)  private  persons  or  partnerships  (handelsbolag)  in  which  personal  names 
form  a  constituent  part  of  the  firm-name.  Banking  business  within  the  Act 
is  such  business  as  comprises  the  receivrag  of  deposits  from  the  general  public 
on  such  accounts  as  customarily  occur.  Thus  cooperative  societies  are  not 
banks,  if  the  receiving  of  deposits  that  they  carry  on  is  confiaed  to  the  members 
of  the  society.  The  term  bank  may  only  be  used  in  the  firm-name  by  1)  the 
Riksbank,  2)  the  joint-stock  banks,  3)  the  unlimited  liability  banking  companies, 
4)  underwriting  banks  (emissionsbank),^  5)  the  Post-Office  Savings-Bank  and 
other  savings-banks,  and  6)  the  Iron  Institute  (Jemkontoret)  and  the  Ge- 
neral Mortgage  Bank.  —  If  the  banking  company  in  question  is  considered 
likely  to  be  of  the  benefit  to  the  public,  and  if  its  articles  of  association 
are  in  accordance  with  the  law  of  the  land,  the  Government  grants  it  a 
charter  (oktroj)  for  ten  years.  (It  is  thus  open  to  the  Government  to  pro- 
hibit the  formation  of  either  a  limited  or  an  unlimited  liability  banking  com- 
pany, when  any  such  company  is  manifestly  not  for  the  benefit  of  the  pub- 
lic.) The  company's  capital  shall  be  at  least  a  million  kroner;  however,  if 
the  bank  has  manifestly  been  established  to  serve  the  needs  of  a  locality  with 
a  slender  business  turnover,  the  minimum  capital  may,  subject  to  the  sanction 
of  the  Government,  be  fixed,  at  half  the  above  amount.  The  firm-name  of  a 
joint-stock  bank  shall  indicate  the  fact  of  the  liability  of  the  shareholders  being 
hmited.     The  firm-name  of  unlimited  liability  banking  companies  whose  capital 

'  The  purpose  or  scope  of  this  type  of  bank,  which  was  created  (at  any  rate  on  japer) 
by  a  special  Act  of  1909,  is  to  assist  (by  the  underwriting  of  shares)  in  the  formation 
or     constitution  of  joint-stock  trading  companies. 

iB— 133179.  Sweden.  11. 


674  XI.      BANKING,   CREDIT,    AND   INSURANCE. 

is  not  less  than  a  million  kroner  shall  contain  the  words  "enskild  bank";  if  the 
capital  is  below  that  amount,  it  shall  contain  the  word  "folkbank"  (people's  bank). 
The  shareholders  in  limited  liability  banking  companies  must  be  of  Swedish 
nationality,  and  number  at  least  twenty.  An  unlimited  liability  banking  com- 
pany must  consist  of  at  least  thirty  principal  stockholders,  who  must  be  of 
Swedish  nationality,  and  the  principal  stockholders  are  liable  jointly  and  severally 
for  all  the  commitments  of  the  company.  (The  procedure  by  which  the  creditors 
of  the  company  can  enforce  this  liability  is  laid  down  in  the  Unlimited  Liability 
Banks  Bankruptcy  Act  of  the  Sept.  18  1903.)  Every  principal  stockholder 
shall  file  with  the  banking  company  a  signed  and  attested  document  stating 
the  amount  of  stock  he  holds.  A  stockholder  is  not  entitled  to  withdraw  from 
the  company  during  the  term  of  the  charter,  unless  he  obtain  the  company's 
express  consent.  The  principal  stockholders  may,  if  they  so  desire,  associate  with 
themselves  a  number  of  limited  liability  stockholders  (hommanditlottdgare)  — 
whose  holdings  may  amount  to  half  the  original  subscribed  capital;  such  stock- 
holders are  not  liable  for  more  than  they  have  invested  or  engaged  to  iiiv«st  in 
the  company.  The  shares  in  joint-stock  banking  conjpanies  and  the  stock  in 
unlimited  banking  companies  shall  be  personal  and  inscribed.  (The  shajes  of 
certain  earlier  joint-stock  banking  companies  are  still  drawn  out  to  bearer.)  The 
board  of  directors  is  under  the  obligation  to  keep  a  share  or  stock,  transfer,  re- 
gister (oMiehoTc  or  lotthoTc),  in  which  aU  transfers  of  shares  and  stock  shall  be 
immediately  recorded.  This  transfer  register  shall  be  open  to  the  inspection  of 
the  public  during  banking  hours.  —  Out  of  the  annual  profit  at  least,  15  ^  shall 
be  appropriated  to  the  reserve  fund,  as  long  as  the  latter  does  not  amount  to 
50  ^  of  the  original  subscribed  capital.  —  As  regards  the  business  of  hanking  the 
following  enactments  are  in  force:  A  banking  company  is  only  entitled,  on  its 
own  account,  to  trade  in  gold,  domestic  and  foreign  coins,  bills,  cheques,  drafts, 
and  bonds.  (With  regard  to  the  right  of  certain  banks  to  deal  in  stocks  and 
shares,  see  below.)  A  banking  company  is  not  permitted  to  acquire  any  real 
property  except  for  its  own  premises.  However,  a  banking  company  is  permitted 
to  take  over  personal  or  real  property  to  cover  an  outstanding  claim,  if  other- 
wise loss  would  manifestly  be  incurred.  A  banking  company  is  not  permitted 
to  acquire  or  receive  as  a  security  its  own  shares,  and  an  imlimited  liability 
banking  company  is  not  permitted  to  acquire  or  receive  by  way  of  security  its 
ovm  stock  or  the  principal  stock  of  another  similar  banking  company.  A  banking 
company  whose  reserve  fund  exceeds  50  ?^  of  the  original  capital  is  entitled  to 
invest  any  surplus  beyond  that  figure  in  the  shares  of  an  underwriting  bank. 
Moreover^  if  the  original  capital  and  the  reserve  fund  of  the  banking  company  . 
amount  together  to  at  least  six  million  kroner,  the  banking  company  is  entitled 
to  hold  other  shares  up  to  half  the  amount  of  the  above-mentioned  surplus  for 
which  the  right  to  hold  shares  in.  an  underwriting  bank  has  not  been  utilized. 
—  The  amount  received  by  the  banking  company  in  the  form  of  deposits  shall 
not  exceed  five  times  the  amount  of  the  company's  own  funds,  besides  which 
the  banking  company  shall  iu  its  till  or  in  readily  negotiable  assets  show  a  cash 
reserve  to  the  extent  of  at  least  25  %  of  the  bank's  liabilities  at  call.  In  de- 
posits repayable  after  expiry  of  notice  the  certificate  issued  by  the  bank  shall 
be  drawn  out  to  a  definite  person  named  and  shall  contain  the  stipulation  that 
any  transfer  must  be  by  endorsement  to  a  definite  person  named.  On  a 
customer's  savings-bank  account  interest  is  only  payable  on  deposits  not  exceeding 
3  000  kroner.  A  banking  company  shall  not  engage  to  repay  deposits  on  a 
savings-bank  account  without  at  least  a  week's  notice;  moreover  every  deposit 
and  every  withdrawal  shall  be  entered  in  a  pass-book  to  be  supplied  by  the 
bank  to  the  holder  of  the  account. 

Bank  Inspection.     The    inspection   of    banks    devolves    upon    a    special   office 


OTHER  BANKS.  675 

designated  Banhinspehtionen,  the  Bank  Inspection  Board  instructions  for  the 
conduct  of  which  have  been  issued  by  the  Government.  The  inspection  is 
effected  firstly  by  monthly  reports,  drawn  up  in  accordance  with  a  prescribed 
form  and  lodged  with  the  Bank  Inspection  Board,  secondly  by  a  representative 
appointed  for  each  bank,  who  has  to  take  part  in  the  annual  auditing  and  at 
least  once  every  quarter  take  stock  of  the  cash  in  the  till  at  the  bank's  head 
office,  examine  whether  the  report  last  made  agrees  with  the  accounts,  and  in 
case  of  anything  being  found  wrong  at  once  report  the  matter  to  the  Bank  In- 
spection Board,  and  finally  by  personal  supervision  carried  out  by  one  of  the 
members  of  the  Board.  The  Board  is  entitled  to  convene  meetings  of  the  board 
of  directors  of  the  bank,  and  in  certain  cases  also  extraordinary  shareholders' 
meetings.  A  member  of  the  Board  is  entitled  to  be  present  at  the  sharehold- 
ers' meetings,  and  at  board  meetings  summoned  by  the  Bank  Inspection  Board, 
and  to  take  part  in  the  proceedings.  If  the  Board  finds  cause  to  assume  that 
10  %  of  the  original  capital  (apart  from  the  reserve  and  other  funds)  has 
dwindled  away  in  consequence  of  losses,  the  board  of  directors  will  be  under 
the  obligation,  when  called  upon  by  the  Bank  Inspection  Board  to  do  so,  im- 
mediately to  draw  up  a  balance-sheet  and  to  summon  the  auditors.  The  Bank 
Inspection  Board  is  empowered  to  veto  a  resolution  of  the  board  or  of  a  share- 
holders' meeting  which  infringes  the  law  or  the  company's  articles  of  association. 
In  the  case  of  grave  transgressions  of  the  Banks  Act  or  the  articles  of  associa- 
tion of  the  company,  it  is  open  to  the  Government  to  declare  the  charter  re- 
scinded. —  The  expenses  of  bank  inspection  are  at  the  charge  of  the  banks 
themselves,  each  bank  contributing  an  annual  fee  of  at  most  ^/loo  %  of  the 
aggregate  amount  of  the  bank's  funds  (at  present  the  contribution  is  fixed  at 
'/looo  %). 

The  above  account  of  Swedish  banking  legislation  will  have  made  it 
evident  that  the  object  it  has  had  in  view  has  been  to  ensure  the  stability 
of  the  banks  in  their  capacity  as  banks  of  deposit.  The  clause  in  the  1911 
Banks  Act,  according  under  certain  provisoes  the  right  to  banks  of  dealing 
in  stocks  and  shares  on  their  own  behalf,  is  as  a  matter  of  fact  of  little 
importance.  Out  of  the  banks  at  present  (October  1914)  existing,  number- 
ing 70  with  a  total  capital  of  upwards  of  660  mill,  kr.,  there  are 
only  20  that  fulfil  the  requirements  entitling  them  to  deal  in  stocks  and 
shares,  while  the  total  amount  set  apart  for  use  in  this  direction  is  only 
38  mill.  kr.  At  the  time  named  the  total  holding  of  stocks  and  shares 
in  the  banks'  own  possession  stood  entered  in  the  books  as  amounting  to 
13  mill.  kr.  in  value,  i.  e.  insignificant  sums  as  compared  with  the  advances 
that  the  banks  had  granted  to  their  customers  at  the  same  juncture,  the 
total  of  which  was  close  upon  2  400  mill.  kr.  Of  that  amount,  however, 
734  mUl.  kr.  consisted  of  advances  made  on  the  security  of  stocks  and 
shares.    Besides  the  banks  held  bonds  for  an  entered  value  of  225  mill.  kr. 

Though  the  Swedish  banks,  consequently,  by  buying  bonds  and  by 
making  advances  on  stocks  and  shares,  have  rendered  service  to  the  in- 
dustries of  the  country,  yet  they  have  not  been  in  a  position  to  help^  them 
as  effectively,  for  instance,  as  the  German  "Effektenbanken".  This  has 
moreover  been  recognized  as  a  drawback,  and  efforts  have  been  made  to 

remove  it. 

The  Underwriting  Banks  Act  of  1909,  above  referred  to,  was  designed  to 


676  XI.      BANKING,    CRBDIT,    AND    INSURANCE. 

facilitate  the  formation  of  banks  whose  functions  should  principally,  if 
not  exclusively,  consist  in  the  financing  of  industrial  undertakings.  No 
such  bank,  however,  has  been  started,  a  fact  that  is  probably  due  to  the 
very  rigorous  terms  prescribed  by  the  Act  respecting  these  banks,  more 
especially  the  item  that  only  banks  were  entitled  to  be  shareholders  in  an 
Underwriting  Bank.  The  difficulty  has  been  practically  obviated  by 
ordinary  companies  bedng  formed  to  finance  industrial  enterprises,  such 
companies  being  governed  of  course  by  the  laws  affecting  limited  liability 
companies.  Such  banks  as  are  entitled  to  possess  shares  can  then  become 
shareholders  in  any  such  company.  Among  the  companies  of  this  type 
the  best  known  are:  Svenska  Emissionsaktiebolaget,  Aktiebolaget  Provi- 
dentia,  Aktiebolaget  Svenska  Emission sinstitutet,  and  Finansaktiebolaget. 

The  principal  activity  of  the  banks  consists  in  making  advances  for  short 
periods  with  the  money  deposited  with  them  by  the  public.  The  different 
forms  of  deposit  business  are  as  follows:  a)  Deposit  Accounts,  under  two 
headings,  depositionsrakning  and  kapitalrakning,  the  difference  between 
which  is  only  of  a  formal  kind,  for  sums  that  are  to  be  repaid  at  a  given 
date  or  stated  notice;  b)  Accounts  Current  or  Cheque  Accounts,  for  money 
to  be  repaid  at  call;  and  c)  Savings-Bank  Accounts,  for  money  deposited 
on  conditions  which  are  practically  the  same  as  those  in  force  for  Savings- 
Banks. 

Advances  are  usually  made  in  one  of  the  three  following  ways:  a)  The 
discounting  of  bills;  b)  the  granting  of  loans  on  the  security  of  mortgages, 
debentures,  stocks,  and  shares,  etc.,  or  on  personal  guarantee;  c)  the  allow- 
ing of  overdrafts  or  cash  credits  on  similar  security.  Another  form  of 
account  is  the  running  account,  practically  a  combination  of  cheque 
account  and  cash  credit,  enabling  the  customer,  in  accordance  with 
agreement  and  on  security  lodged,  to  overdraw  his  account  at  the  bank  up 
to  a  stipulated  amount. 

The  various  articles  of  association  of  the  banking  companies,  which 
have  been  duly  authorized  by  the  Government,  embrace  a  prohibition 
for  the  several  banks  to  discount  bills  or  to  accord  loans  for  a  longer  space 
of  time  than  six  months,  or  to  grant  the  right  to  overdraw  an  account  for 
more  than  one  year.  Some  banks,  however,  are  also  entitled,  subject  to 
certain  restrictions,  to  grant  loans  repayable  by  instalments  for  at  most 
ten  years.  The  several  articles  of  association  likewise  contain  a  pro- 
hibition on  banks  igranting  credit  on  the  security  of  only  one  guarantor's 
name. 

The  banks  carry  on  besides  a  number  of  other  branches  of  activity. 
Thus,  they  issue  bank  post  bills  (generally  speaking  sight  drafts  drawn 
on  some  Stockholm  bank,  which  according  to  mutual  agreement  among 
the  banks  are  cashable  at  any  banking  establishment  throughout  the 
country);  they  also  issu£  letters  of  credit  to  travellers,  payable  at  any  of 
the  more  important  towns  on  the  continent,  undertake  the  collecting  of 
matured  bills,  dividend  wa.rrants,  drawn  bonds  etc.,  accept  securities  depo- 


OTHER   BANKS. 


677 


Table  140.     Summary    of   the   Financial  Position  of  Swedish  BanJcs  on 
October  31  1914  {in  millions  of  hronor). 


Assets    and   Liabilities 


The 
Riksbank 


Other  Banks 


Total 


Assets. 

Gold  and  Bullion 

Bills  etc.,  payable  at  sight 

Other  Legal  Tender 

Bank  Premises  and  Furniture 

Bonds  and  GoTernment  securities 

Shares 

Claims  on  Swedish  Banks 

>        >    Foreign  Banks 

Bills  payable  in  Sweden 

>  >        Abroad 

Outstanding  Loans 

Cash  Credits    and  Overdrawn  Current  Accounts 
Sundries 

Total 

Liabilities. 

Notes  in  Circulation 

Bank  Post  Bills  in  Circulation 

Current  Accounts ■  .    .    . 

Deposit  Accounts 

Deposits  on  Savings-Bank  Accounts 

Liabilities  to  Swedish  Banks 

>  >    Foreign  Banks 

Loans  Raised 

Sundries 

Original  Subscribed  Capital 

Other  Funds 

Total 

Note  Issue 

Unutilized|Note  Issue 


103'941 
1'719 
8-114 

30  044 


19-960 
117-782 
45-264 
40-6  U 
2-971 
69-627 


0-896 
37-162 
11-248 
66-333 

224-699 
16-851 
41-264 

104-244 

607-500 

23-949 

1265-555 

514-441 
82-383 


440-033 


284-030 

1-023 

58-381 


17-343 

7-966 
50-000 
21-300 


2  996-525 


39-138 

272-727 
1 149-605 
372-389 
143019 
88-032 
133-951 
141-174 
379-577 
276-913 


440-033 

332-882 

48-852 


2  996  525 


104-837 
38  881 
19362 
66-333 

254-743 
16-851 
41-264 

124-204 

725-282 

69213 

1306-166 

517-412 

152-010 


3436  558 


284-030 
40161 
331-108 
1 149-605 
372-389 
143-019 

105-375 
133951 

149-130 
429-677 
298-213 


3  436  668 


sited  for  safe  custody  and  administration,  and  carry  out  the  sale  and  pur- 
chase of  securities  on  commission  for  customers. 

Of  the  eminent  men  -who  have  furthered  the  development  of  banks  and 
banking  most  effectively  A.  0.  Wallenberg  (d.  1886)  is  indisputably  the 
foremost;  the  Stockholms  Enskilda  Bank  -was  his  creation.  Others  deserv- 
ing mention  are  Theodor  Mannheimer  (d.  1900),  Louis  Frcenhel  (d.  1911), 
K.  A.  Wallenberg  (at  present  Minister  for  Foreign  Affairs)  and  Marcus 
Wallenberg. 

Of  the  Swedish  banks  other  than  the  Riksbank  the  three  following 
possess  funds  amounting  to  upwards  of  50  million  kronor,  viz.  the  Shan- 
dinavisha  Kreditaktiebolaget,  93  million  kronor,  the  Stockholms  Handels- 
hank,  66  million  kronor,  and  the  Stochholms  Enskilda  Bank,  52  million 
kronor.  The  three  banks  mentioned  are  moreover  those  that  most  frequently 
participate  in  the  large  financial  transactions  that  are  from  time  to  time 
inaugurated,  latterly  often  in  conjunction  with  Aktiebolaget  Sveriges  Pri- 


678  Xr.      BANKING,    CREDIT,    AND    INSURANCE. 

vata  Centralbank,  a  banking  company  founded  in  1912  as  a  central  organ 
for  a  considerable  number  of  average-sized  provincial  banks. 


3.    MORTGAGE  INSTITUTIONS. 

The  mortgage  banks  in  Sweden  which  serve  the  purposes  of  agriculture 
have  been  already  dealt  with  in  a  separate  section  (pp.  135  foil.).  The  most 
important  of  the  other  banks  of  this  type  are  Konungariket  Sveriges  Stads- 
hypoteJcskassa  and  Stockholms  Inteckningsgarantiahtiebolag. 

Konungarikeis  Sveriges  Stadshypotehshassa,  The  National  Town  Mortgage  Bank 
of  Sweden,  is  managed  in  accordance  with  a  Royal  Ordinance  of  June  5  1909 
and  the  Regulations  issued  by  the  Government  on  January  18  1910.  Its 
capital,  which  has  been  handed  over  to  it  by  the  State  in  the  form  of  3^/si  % 
bonds,  amounts  to  30  million  kronor.  The  functions  of  the  bank  consist 
in  negotiating  requisite  loans  for  mortgage  societies  constituted  of  owners 
of  real  property  in  towns  and  communities  comparable  to  towns.  This  bank 
is  thus  to  the  town  mortgage  societies  what  the  General  Mortgage  Bank 
is  to  the  rural  mortgage  societies.  The  bank  is  administered  by  a  board  con- 
sisting of  five  members,  four  of  which  are  appointed  by  the  Government, 
and  one  by  the  National  Debt  Board.  The  administration  of  the  board  is  subject, 
to  the  inspection  of  three  auditors,  two  of  whom  are  nominated  by  the  Govern- 
ment and  one  by  the  National  Debt  Board.  The  Government  determines 
after  hearing  the  opinion  of  the  National  Debt  Board,  whether  the  board's  ad- 
ministration is  to  be  approved. 

Stockholms  Inteckningsgarantiaktiebolag,  the  Stockholm  Mortgage  Security 
Company  Ltd,  also  transacts  banking  business  and  is  therefore  included  among 
"other  banks"  in  Table  140.  The  original  object  for  which  the  Company 
was  formed  was  "to  guarantee  the  repayment  when  due  of  the  capital  sums, 
either  with  or  without  interest,  advanced  in  the  form  of  loans  on  promissory 
notes  secured  upon  real  estate  in  the  compass  of  the  City  of  Stockholm  and 
by  that  means  to  facilitate  the  procuring  of  loans  of  that  nature".  The  com- 
pany also  supplies  loans  for  building  purposes.  It  has  done  very  much  for  the 
organization  and  strengthening  of  credit  based  on  real  property  in  Stockholm. 
The  share  capital  is  15  mDlion  kronor,  and  the  aggregate  funds  amount  to  25 
million  kronor. 

Mortgage  Security  Companies  (Jnieckningsholag)  have  also  been  formed  at 
Gothenburg,  Gavle,  Malmo  (the  Skanska  Inteckningsaktiebolaget),  Halsingborg, 
and  Orebro. 

For  some  figures,  see  p.   139. 


4.    SAVINGS-BANKS  AND  SIMILAR  INSTITUTIONS. 

The  oldest  savings-bank,  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  term,  founded  in 
Sweden  is  the  Gothenburg  savings-bank,  which  was  opened  on  the  28 
October  1820.  The  city  of  Stockholm  Savings-Bank  was  established  in 
1821,  and  during  the  latter  twenties  of  the  nineteenth  century  similar  in- 


SAVINGS-BANKS   AND   SIMILAR  INSTITUTIONS.  679 

stitutions  were  set  up  in  most  of  the  provinces  of  Sweden,  though  in  the 
northernmost  provinces  not  till  the  close  of  the  forties  and  the  commen- 
cement of  the  fifties.  The  Province  in  which  the  savings-baaik  system 
first  won  extensive  dissemination  was  Malmohus  Lan,  where  as  early 
as  1850  fourteen  savings-banks  of  some  size  and  importance  had  been 
established. 

The  following  figures  exhibit  the  growth  of  the  savings-bank  system 
since  1860. 


Number  of 

Number  of 

Balance  of 

Average  Balance,  kr.: 

Year 

Savings- 

Depositors 

Depositor 

per 

per  Head 

Banks 

(pass-books) 

kr. 

Pass-book 

1860. 

.  149 

187  675 

27  291  937 

145 

7 

1870. 

.  234 

353  867 

57  301  804 

162 

14 

1880. 

.  340 

762  638 

146  071 708 

192 

32 

1890. 

.  378 

1 072  735 

275  039  102 

256 

57 

1900. 

.  388  . 

1 228  930 

437  391 160 

356 

85 

1905. 

.  415 

1374  632 

601 751 390 

438 

114 

1910. 

.  436 

1  560  317 

808  788  530 

518 

146 

1911  . 

.  438 

1  612  113 

857  007 143 

532 

154 

1912. 

.  438 

1  664  163 

904  235  925 

543 

161 

1913  . 

.  440 

1 717  694 

952  605  043 

555 

169 

Out  of  the  savings-banks  existing  in  1913,  reckoning  according  to  the 
situation  of  the  head  office,  112  belonged  to  the  towns  and  328  to  the 

country.  ■*!  j|'!j| 

The  Swedish  savings-banks  are  institutions  for  the  benefit  of  the  public,  but 
of  a  private  nature,  and  with  an  almost  unlimited  range  of  liberty  as  regards 
administration.  They  are  distinguished  in  this  respect  from  the  savings-banks 
of  other  countries:  from  those  of  Great  Britain  and  France,  which  are  obliged 
to  place  their  monies  under  the  custody  of  the  Government,  or  to  invest  them 
in  Government  papers;  from  those  of  Belgium,  whose  Caisse  generale  d'epargne 
et  de  retraite  is  a  Government  institution  (which  collects  deposits  partly  through 
the  post  offices,  and  is  thus  in  a  manner  a  post  office  savings-bank);  and 
from  those  of  the  German  states,  where  the  administration  of  the  savings-banks 
often  devolves  on  the  commune.  The  first  Swedish  Savings-Banks  Act,  that 
of  1875,  taboos  the  making  of  dividends  in  the  case  of  savings-banks.  The 
Act  now  in  force,  that  of  1892,  defines  a  savings-bank  as  a  monetary  institu- 
tion, which,  without  right  for  the  foim^der  or  his  assigns  to  derive  any  benefit 
from  the  business,  has  for  its  object  to  receive  money  from  the  public  at  simple 
and  compound  interest,  and  repay  it  on  due  notice  being  given.  Moreover,  it 
is  prescribed  that  no  other  financial  institution  may  carry  on  business  under  the 
designation  of  savings-bank,  without  special  authorization. 

Foundation  Capital  and  Reserve  Funds.  The  foundation  capital  and 
the  reserve  funds  of  the  Swedish  savings-banks  corresponded  during  the 
early  nineties,  according  to  an  average  computation,  to  approximately  9 
per  cent  of  the  balance  of  the  depositors,  but  after  1895  this  average 
dwindled  for  a  series  of  years  with  almost  steady  persistence.  After 
1906,  however,  the  average  has  remained  almost  stationary;  in  1913  it 
was  8-1  per  cent.  The  decrease  in  the  ratio  between  the  funds  and  the 
deposits  derives  its  explanation  from  the  rapid  growth  of  the  deposits, 


680  XI.      BANKING,    CREDIT,    AND   INSUEANOB. 

with  which  the  distribution  to  the  funds  was  unable  to  keep  even  pace.  — 
The  following  summary  shows  the  different  kinds  of  investments. 

1880  1890  1900  1910  1913 

Bonds,    outstanding   claims    on  communes 

and  the  like 16-04  ji  11-60  ^  16-48  ^  13-79  %  14-91  J4 

Outstanding  claims  on  private  persons: 

against  mortgages 42-70  >  51-54  >  51-37  >  56-11  >  57-21  > 

against  sureties 30-76  >  24-61  .  1798  >  1643  >  14-80  > 

Cash  and  other  accounts 10-50  >  12-25  >  14-17  >  1367  >  13-08  > 


It  -will -be  seen  from  the  above  summary  that  the  outstanding  claims 
backed  by  guarantor  have  been  relatively  decreasing,  whereas  investments 
in  mortgages  have  been  coming  into  more  and  more  extensive  use.  How- 
ever, the  loians  made  against  backers'  names  still  bulk  pretty  largely  in 
the  minor  savings-banks  located  mostly  in  the  country,  where  there  is  a 
personal  bond  between  the  bank  and  its  customers.  According  as  the  banks 
increase  in  size,  transactions  of  this  kind  are  been  -fco  figure  less  prominently 
and  the  money  which  the  public  has  entrusted  to  the  bank  will  be  invested 
preferably  in  mortgages  or  in  bonds.  In  1913  the  figures  worked  out  as 
follows: 


In  Savings-  Banks  where        Bonds, 
the  aggregate  Balance      communal 
of  Deposits  was  claims  etc. 


Claims  on  private  persons 
Mortgages  and 
Mortgages  Guarantors 

Securities 


against : 

Guarantors 
Securities 


Under         50  000  kr. 

0-29  % 

35-23 

50000—   100  000    » 

2-43   > 

37-15 

100  000—   250  000    » 

4-90   p 

38-59 

250  000-   500  000    . 

4-03   > 

38-89 

500000-1000  000    :. 

4-75    > 

41-52 

1000000-5  000  000    . 

9-68   > 

46-23 

Over  5000  000  kr.    .    . 

20-10  . 

55-30 

% 


2-68  'A 

8-85  » 

9-58  > 

7-74  > 

8-29  > 

9-19  > 

4-63  > 


5404 
43-23 
38-16 
38-76 
34-64 
20-67 
7-22 


% 


Cash 

and 

other 

Accounts 

7-76  % 

8-34  > 

8-77  > 

10-58  > 

10-90  > 

14-43  > 

12-75  . 


The  expenses  of  management  of  the  savings-banks  amounted  in  1913  on  an 
average  to  0-43  %,  in  ratio  to  deposits,  and  formed  1"09  %  of  the  total  amount 
of  money  passing  through  the  hands  of  the  bank. 

The  rate  of  interest  for  deposits  was  on  a  general  average  for  the  sa-rangs- 
banks  of  1913  4-49  %  (effective  interest  4-48  %),  though  with  great  fluctuations 
for  banks  of  different  size.  In  39  savings-banks  in  which  the  average  of  the 
deposited  capital  was  about  1  825  000  kroner,  the  interest  was  4  %,  in  311 
savings-banks  with  an  average  capital  of  about  2  560  000  kronor,  it  was 
4-'/2  %,  and  in  73  savings-banks,  in  which  the  capital  deposited  was  on  an 
average  814  000  kronor,  the  interest  was  5  %.  —  The  apparent  anomaly  that 
the  smaller  savings-banks,  in  spite  of  their  comparatively  heavy  working  expenses, 
can  afford  to  give  a  higher  interest  than  the  bigger  banks,  is  readily  accounted 
for  by  the  nature  of  their  loan  transactions.  It  has  been  explained  above  that 
it  is  especially  the  smaller  banks  that  carry  on  the  more  lucrative  business  of 
lending  to  customers  on  the  security  of  backers'  names. 

The  new  schedules  prescribed  for  savings-bank  returns  have  enriched  savings- 
banks  statistics  with  a  fresh  body  of  data.  Of  very  particular  interest  are  the 
data  relating  to  the  interest  charged  on  loans  to  customers.  In  1913  the  lowest, 
generally  adopted,  rate  of  interest  for  loans  against  mortgages  was  5  %.  In 
loans  granted  on  the  security  of  guarantors  the  rate  of  interest  was  higher,  as 
a  rule  by  a  half  or  one  per  cent. 


SAVINGS-BANKS   AND   SIMILAR   INSTITUTIONS. 


681 


In  1884  the  Post-Office  Savings-Bant  was  founded.  This  institu- 
tion, which  receives  deposits  and  makes  payment  (after  due  notice)  through 
the  Post  Office,  belongs  to  the  State,  which  has  entered  into  a  guaran- 
tee for  the  security  of  the  money  deposited  in  it.  The  administration  of 
the  Post-Office  Savings-Bank  is  in  the  hands  of  a  Board  composed  of  the 
Postmaster-General,  in  the  capacity  of  Chairman,  and  four  members:  not- 
ably one  Bureau  Chief  in  the  Post  Office  Board,  who  is  told  off  as  adviser 
in  savings-bank  matters,  one  member  nominated  by  the  King,  one  of  the 
Commissioners  (directors)  of  the  Bank  of  Sweden,  and  one  of  the  National 
Debt  Board.  —  The  progress  of  the  Post-Office  Savings-Bank  system  is 
exhibited  by  the  following  figures,  giving  the  averages  for  some  years: 


Number 

Nnmber  o 

Depositors' 

Average  J 

ialance,  kr.: 

Year 

of 
Offices 

Pass-books 

Balance, 
kronor 

per  Pasa- 
book 

per  Head  of 
pop. 

1884   . 

.    1575 

79  513 

827  641 

10-41 

0-18 

1890   . 

.    1942 

237  060 

13  016  554 

54-91 

2-72 

19U0   . 

.    2  652 

566  805 

56  461 391 

99-61 

10-99 

1910   . 

.    3  245 

557  337 

46  253411 

82-99 

8-37 

1911    . 

.    3  286 

565  759 

47186  406 

83-40 

9-42 

1912   . 

.    3  328 

569  534 

47  716  785 

83-78 

8-61 

1913   . 

.    3  360 

575  700 

48  075  655 

83-51 

8-53 

It  -will  be  seen  that  the  Post-Office  Savings-Bank  has  not  made  very 
rapid  progress.  Indeed,  during  the  last  decennium  there  has  been  a 
backward  ebb,  as  will  best  be  realized  by  comparing  the  withdrawals  and 
the  deposits.  In  1900  the  -withdrawals  were  as  much  as  140  %  of  the 
deposits;  the  difference  between  them  was  close  on  5^/2  million  kronor. 
In  1913  the  correspondiag  figures  were  109-00  fo,  and  somewhat  over  IV4 
million  kronor. 

In  Sweden  the  Post-Office  Savings-Bank  has  been  particularly  appre- 
ciated in  sparsely  populated  regions,  which,  but  for  its  existence,  would 
have  had  to  do  without  a  savings-bank.  But,  o-wing  to  the  advantages 
it  holds  out,  the  chief  of  which  is  its  ready  accessibility,  it  has  managed 
to  thrive  pretty  well  in  places  well  supplied  vdth  pri-vlate  savings-banks. 

As  regards  the  balance  per  pass-book,  it  is  interesting  to  compare  the 
Post-Office  Savings-Bank  -with  the  private  savings-banks.  Whereas  in 
the  private  savings-banks  the  average  value  of  a  pass-book  has  been 
gradually  rising,  the  development  in  the  case  of  the  Post-Office  Savings- 
Bank  has  gone  in  the  reverse  direction.  It  is  true  that  the  average 
value  of  these  pass-books  steadily  rose  from  1884,  when  it  was  10-41  kro- 
nor, up  to  1899,  when  it  was  107-69  kronor;  but  afterwards  it  sank  steadi- 
ly (except  for  the  years  1903 — 04),  down  to  1909,  when  it  was  81-73 
kronor.  In  recent  years  there  has  been  a  slight  rise.  —  The  chief  mission 
of  the  Post-Office  Savings-Bank  from  the  very  outset  was  to  form  an 
always  getatable  and  absolutely  safe  savings-bank  for  persons  of  small 
means,  and  particularly  for  the  rising  generation.  During  the  first 
years  of  its  existence,  however,  the  Post-Office  Savings-Bank  did 
not    make  any  tangible  progress  in  this  regard.     The  sale  of  savings- 


682  XI.      BANKING,    CREDIT,    AND   INSURANCE. 

bank  stamps  (sparmdrken)^  during  the  period  from  1888  to  1892  figured 
out  at  an  avierage  4  304  078,  but  during  the  quinquennial  period  from 
1898  to  1902  had  no  risen  to  more  than  to  4  653  073.  Since  then,  how- 
ever, there  has  been  a  fairly  large  rise;  during  the  years  from  1908  to 
1912  6  535  730  sparmdrken  were  sold. 

Out  of  the  pocket  money-boxes  (ficksparbossor)  kept  by  the  Post-Office 
for  sale  of  loan,  at  the  end  of  1912,  46  926  had  been  supplied  to  the 
public,  out  of  which  22  375  were  lent  and  24  551  sold. 

The  rate  of  interest  given  by  the  Post-Office  Savings-Bank  was  3'6  %  up  to 
the  end  of  1896,  was  then  reduced  to  3"3  %,  but  since  the  1st  Jtdy  1899  has 
again  been  raised  to  3"6  %.  The  rate  is  thus  lower  than  the  average  rate  of 
the  savings-banks  (4"36  %  in  1912),  and  considerably  lower  than  the  interest 
paid  by  the  smaller  savings-banks  to  their  depositors  —  an  inevitable  consequence 
of  the  stringent  regulations  to  which  the  Post-Office  Savings-Bank  had  to 
submit.  Prior  to  1902  the  Post-Office  Savings-Bank  was  not  permitted  to 
invest  its  monies  in  anything  but  Governmeat  bonds,  General  Mortgage  Bank 
bonds,  and  communal  bonds,  or  in  communal  loans  issued  on  the  security  of 
promissory  notes  (shuldebrev).  In  1902,  however,  the  Post-Office  Savings-Bank 
acquired  ■  the  right  to  lend,  at  most,  a  quarter  of  its  capital  against  promissory 
notes  on  the  security  of  mortgages.  As  to  expenses  of  management,  they  amounted 
in  1912  to  0"66  %  of  the  pass-book  balances,  and  were  thus  relatively  speaking, 
far  higher  than  those  of  the  private  savings-banks  (O'n  %  in  1912).  It  should, 
however,  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  average  per  pass-book  in  the  Post-Office 
Savings-Bank  was  only  83'48  kroner,  whereas  in  the  case  of  the  private  savings- 
banks,  it  was  543  kroner;  if  one  estimates  the  costs  in  ratio  to  the  sums 
passing  through  the  hands  of  the  banks,  they  are  1"12  %  for  the  Post-Office 
Savings-Bank,  but  I'lO  %  for  the  private  savings-banks. 

People's  Banks.  The  people's  banks  had  much  the  same  aims  as  the 
savings-banks.  By  the  Banks  Act  of  1903,  they  were  deprived  of  the 
right  to  bear  that  name  (after  1903  only  financial  institutions  for  which 
regulations  have  been  drawn,  up  by  Grovernment  are  entitled  to  the 
designation  "bank").  The  former  people's  banks  have  consequently  been 
rechristened  with  new  names  such  as  kreditbolag,  credit  company,  folk- 
kassa,  people's  fund,  sparkassa,  savings-fund,  and  the  like.  Savings- 
bank  operations  only  form  part  of  the  business  they  transact:  besides 
this,  they  also  discount  bills.  Unlike  the  savings-banks,  these  institu- 
tions do  not  solely  serve  the  public  benefit:  they  are  regular  business  un- 
dertakings, though  only  on  a  minor  scale,  giving  dividends,  and  looking 
to  the  advantage  of  their  shareholders.  An  Act  of  1903  had  provided 
for  the  due  supervision  of  these  institutions. 

In  1913  there  were  26  of  these  institutions,  all  of  them  being  in  the  coun- 
try. The  number  of  depositors  on  "savings-bank  account"  was  20  744, 
and  their  total  balance  at  the  close  of  the  year  9  193  683  kroner.    The  ave- 


'  In  order  to  provide  facilities  for  the  collection  of  petty  sums,  savings-bank  stamps 
{sparmdrken)  worth  10  ore  each  are  kept  for  sale  by  the  post  office,  by  rural  postmen, 
and  by  dealers.  These  are  affixed  to  a  cardboard  sheet,  which,  when  the  amount  totals  a 
krona,  can  be  handed  in  as  a  deposit  at  the  nearest  post  office. 


SAVINGS-BANKS   AND   SIMILAR  INSTITUTIONS.  683 

rage  value  of  a  balance  w^as  443-19  kronor,  that  is  112  kroner  lower  than 
the  value  of  a  savings-bank  book. 

In  the  middle  nineties  the  savings-banks  were  saddled  with  a  competitor 
in  the  savings-bank  business  transacted  by  the  joint-stock  banks.  The 
first  start  in  this  direction  was  made  in  1877,  but  it  was  not  until  1869 
that  the  movement  began  to  assume  momentum.  At  the  close  of  that 
year  the  deposits  —  not  counting  the  savings-bank  business  transacted  by 
the  people's  banks  —  amounted  only  to  9-1  million  kronor.  In  1897, 
when  the  unlimited  banks  began  to  arm  themselves  for  the  coming  aboli- 
tion of  private  note  issue,  some  of  them  also  opened  up  a  savings-bank 
account.  Thus,  the  number  of  banks  with  savings-bank  accounts  rose  in 
the  course  of  that  year  from  9  to  20,  and  the  deposits  on  savings-bank 
account  swelled  from  about  21^2  million  kronor  to  about  34  million  kro- 
nor. 9  years  afterwards,  that  is,  the  end  of  1908,  when  the  number  of 
banks  had  risen  to  84,  all  of  them  had  savings-bank  accounts,  the  de- 
posits had  swelled  to  251  million  kronor,  and  the  number  of  depositors' 
accounts  to  over  681  000.  The  progress  of  the  development  is  shovm  by 
the  following  figures: 

i-V^'  Number  of  Balance  of  Capital      Average  Sum  per 

the  Tears  Account-holders    '       Deposited,  kronor        Account^holder 

1900 183  226  90  680166  495 

1905 407  493  184  090100  452 

1906 476175  203  456  900  427 

1907 560  756  230  735  000  411 

1908 647  846  249  342  300  385 

1909 710  227  267  306  800  376 

1910 756  089  279  218  900  369 

1911 821448  303107  000  369 

1912 890020  331194100  372 

1913 955  002  351711100  368 

The  chief  cause  of  this  rapid  increase  of  the  capital  deposited  in  the 
banks  on  "savings-bank  account"  —  an  augmentation  which  has  greatly 
told  on  the  Post-Office  Savings-Bank,  the  larger  savings-banks,  and 
has  affected  the  current  accounts  of  the  banks  themselves  —  is  to  be 
ascribed  to  the  severe  competition  prevailing  between  the  many  new  joint- 
stock  banks  which  had  latterly  been  formed,  and  especially  in  1896.  Even 
the  older  joint-stock  banks  were  carried  along  in  the  sweep  of  this  move- 
ment. Its  outward  symptoms,  during  the  period  of  monetary  tightness 
which  afterwards  ensued,  were  the  high  rate  of  interest  and  the  other 
advantages  held  out  by  the  banks  to  depositors  on  savings-bank  account. 

The  Cooperative  Union.  Savings-bank  business  is  also  transacted  by 
the  Cooperative  Union  (Kooperativa  Forbundet)  since  the  end  of  1908. 
From  1912,  when  the  new  Banks  Act  came  into  force,  the  right  of  deposit 
was  restricted  to  organizations  connected  with  the  Union  and  to  their 
members.  In  other  respects,  the  regulations  affecting  the  savings-banks 
apply  as  a  whole  also  to  the  Cooperative  Union.  At  the  close  of  1914 
the  total  amount  balance  of  deposits  on  savings-bank  accounts  was  2  161  365 


684  XI.      BANKING,    CREDIT,    AND    INSURANCE. 

kronor,  distributed  over  10  978  pass-books.  The  average  balance  per  pass- 
book was  196-88  kroner. 

Also  a  number  of  those  smaller  cooperative  societies  which  are  in  Swe- 
den called  konsumtionsforeningar  have  savings-funds.  Their  balance  at 
the  end  of  1913  was  about  100  000  kroner. 

Aggregate  amount  of  deposits  on  savings-bank  account  on  the  31  De- 
cember 1913: 

In  private  savings-banks 952  605  043  kr. 

In  the  Post-OfBce  Savings-Banks 48075  655    > 

In  institutions  equivalent  to  savings-banks 9  193  683    > 

In  private  banks  and  joint-stock  banks 349  420  213    » 

In  the  Cooperative  Union  etc ■    .    ■    . 1 816  921    > 

Total     1 361  111  515  Kr. 

Deposited  the  same  time  in  the  banks  (inclusive  of  the  Bank  of  Sweden) : 

On  deposit  account 1 115  112  512  kr. 

On  drawing  (cheque)  or  current  Account  and  folio  Account        227  456  647    > 

It  will  be  seen  from  these  figures  that  the  amount  deposited  by  the 
public  on  savings-bank  account  is  about  as  large  as  the  total  amount  of 
their  other  deposits.  The  explanation  of  this  is  that  in  Sweden,  as  in  other 
countries,  savings-bank  business  comprises  —  besides  savings-bank  busi- 
ness in  the  strict  sence  of  the  term,  that  is,  the  saving  up  of  small  sum 
to  form  capital,  ■ — •  two  other  branches  of  business.  It  includes  also 
the  investment  of  capital  already  formed  (that  is,  what  is  generally  known 
as  deposit  account)  and  moreover  a  kind  of  domestic  petty  cash  business 
corresponding  to  the  drawing  account  of  business  life  proper  (and  in  a 
few  cases  real  drawing  account  business).  One  may  regard  as  in  the  light 
of  already  formed  capital  at  any  rate  a  number  of  the  balances  of  more 
than  2  000  kronor  in  the  savings-banks.  In  1913  balances  of  this  size 
aggregated  no  less  than  493  712  815  kronor,  or  54-6  %  of  the  total  ba- 
lance. For  domestic  petty  cash  accounts  the  Swedish  public  resorts  chiefly 
to  the  savings-bank  departments  of  the  banks,  and  not  so  much  to  the 
private  savings-banks,  which  are  tramelled  with  rather  onerous  regulations 
as  to  notice,  or  to  the  Post-Office  Savings-Bank.  This  is  brought  out  by 
the  ratio  of  the  withdrawals  to  the  balance,  being  in  1913  19-46  %  in 
the  private  savings-bank  and  31-2  %  in  the  Post-Office  Savings-Bank. 

In  order  to  obviate  the  savings-banks  being  used  for  investments  of  capital, 
most  of  the  savings-banks  have  made  regulations  whereby  a  certain  limit  is 
fixed  after  which  no  interest  is  paid  on  deposits,  this  limit  being  usually  2  000, 
3  000,  or  5  000  kronor.  But  in  some  eases  the  limit  is  as  high  as  10  000 
kronor,  or  even  extends  to  50  000  kronor,  especially  in  the  rich  southern  pro- 
■vinces.  In  the  case  of  the  Post-Office  Savings-Bank  the  limit  is  fixed  (since 
1891)  at  2  000  kronor,  and  since  1900  the  banks  have  been  prohibited  from 
receiving  higher  amounts  than  3  000  kronor  at  interest  on  "savings-bank"  or 
similar  accounts.  This  prohibition  appears  to  be  also  aimed  at  the  abuse  of 
depositing  on  savings-bank  account,  money  which  ought  to  have  been  deposited 
on    drawing    account.    • — •  To    prevent    savings-banks  being  used  as  "petty  cash" 


THE  INSURANCE   ACT.  685 

institutions  for  deposits  of  a  more  or  less  temporary  nature,  the  Savings-Banks 
Act  interposes  the  restriction  that  savings-banks  shall  not  engage  to  repay 
money  deposited,  except  after  due  notice  received  (it  being  open  however  to  the 
directors  to  concede  repayment  before  the  termination  of  the  term  of  notice, 
where  this  can  be  done  without  inconvenience).  The  same  provision,  with  the 
supplementary  regulation  that  the  term  of  notice  shall  be  at  least  a  week  (with 
similar  authorization  for  the  directors  to  allow  exceptions)  also  applies  since 
1900  to  the  savings-bank  accounts  of  the  ordinary  banks.  However,  it  appears 
to  be  still  the  general  practice  of  the  banks  to  repay  on  demand  money  de- 
posited on  savings-bank  account.  As  to  the  Post-Office  Savings-Bank,  its 
pass-books  can  be  used  for  deposits  and  withdrawals  in  any  post  office  in 
Sweden.  The  obvious  corrolary  is  that  money  deposited  in  the  Post-Of£Lce 
Savings-Bank  cannot  be  withdrawn  without  notice  and  without  an  order  from 
the  head  office  to  make  the  payment. 

As  to  the  aberrations  above  touched  upon  in  the  savings'  bank  system,  it 
may  be  said  that,  with  the  exception  of  actual  drawing  account  business,  they 
are  intrinsically  qiiite  legitimate  forms  of  savings-bank  business.  What  is  wrong 
is  the  absence  of  special  conditions  and  regulations  for  each  of  the  different 
branches  of  business.  But  this  defect  is  capable  of  being  remedied.  Though  it 
must  perhaps  be  admitted  that  the  deposit  account  is  better  fitted  than  the 
savings-bank  accoxint  for  the  investment  of  real  capital,  it  should  not  be  forgot- 
ten that  it  is  the  large  balances,  which  cost  less  to  manage,  that  make  it 
possible  for  the  savings-bank  busiaess  to  subsist  with  the  comparatively  high 
interest  they  at  present  give.  On  the  other  hand,  it  can  hardly  be  contested 
that  an  account  separate  from  the  current  accoimt,  for  withdrawals  at  call,  and 
intended  for  household  purposes,  would  prove  a  great  boon  especially  to  salaried 
persons,  small  tradesmen,  and  the  industrial  classes. 


5.    INSURANCE. 

Insurance  Legislation  in  Sweden  (except  as  regards  maritime  insurance, 
wMcIl  is  provided  for  in  Chapter  12  of  the  Maritime  Law  of  1891  common 
to  Sweden,  ISTorway  and  Denmark)  is  substantially  contained  in  the  In- 
surance Act  (Lag  om  forsdkringsrdrelse)  and  in  the  Act  relating  to  the 
Right  of  Alien  Insurance  Companies  to  transact  Insurance  Business  in 
Sweden,  both  of  which  Acts  were  issued  on  the  24th  July  1903. 

The  Insurance  Act. 

Insurance  business,  except  as  regards  insurance  institutions  established  by  the 
State,  shall  be  transacted  only  by  insurance  companies,  or  by  a  company  or 
society  the  constitution  of  which  provides  for  the  mutual  liability  of  the  share- 
holders (mutual  insurance  company). 

The  general  provisions  of  the  Companies  Acts  do  not  apply  to  iasurance  com- 
panies: The  Insurance  Act  contains  corresponding  regulations  regarding  the  for- 
mation and  registration  of  insurance  companies,  the  formulation  of  the  articles 
of  association  and  modifications  therein,  shareholders'  meetings,  and  the  general 
administration  of  the  company  and  auditing,  as  well  as  regards  bankruptcy  and 
winding    up.     As    the    regulations  in   question  are  different  for  joint-stock  com- 


686  XI.      BANKING,    CREDIT,    AND   INSUEANCE. 

panies,  and  other  companies,  this  part  of  the  law  consists  of  two  main  divisions 
with  parallel  regulations  for  the  two  different  kinds  of  insurance  companies. 

In  addition  to  this,  the  Act  contains  the  provisions  which  the  peculiar  cha- 
racter of  insurance  business,  and  particularly  life  insurance,  render  necessary. 
In  this  respect  the  nucleus  of  the  Insurance  Act  consists  of  the  regulations 
intended  to  ensure  that  the  insirrance  fund  shall  be  reserved  as  far  as  possible 
for  the  benefit  of  the  insured.  The  amount  of  the  premium  reserve,  the  essen- 
tial part  of  the  insurance  fund,  shall  thus  be  estimated  in  accordance  with  cer- 
tain principles  laid  down  by  Government.  The  insurance  fund  shall  be  invested 
in  certain  safe  securities,  which  shall  be  kept  under  lock  and  key  by  a  public 
official,  the  policy-holders  having  a  lien  on  them,  as  in  the  case  of  a  pledge 
actually  in  their  hands.  Moreover,  in  order  to  safeguard  the  interests  of  the 
insured,  the  Company  shall  appropriate  a  certain  amount  of  its  capital  to  a 
safety  fund,  which,  subject  to  penal  presecution,  shall  not  drop  below  a  certain 
percentage  of  the  insurance  fund. 

Furthermore,  a  Board  of  Insurance  Inspection  with  extensive  powers  has  been 
established  for  the  supervision  of  insurance  establishments  and  the  maintenance 
of  the  publicity  essential  for  the  benefit  of  the  public. 

Of  particular  importance  are  the  measures  adopted  for  the  inspection  of  insu- 
rance companies  in  the  event  of  their  being  wound  up  or  adjudged  bankrupt, 
—  in  which  cases  a  special  procedure  is  adopted  —  and  with  regard  to  the  vo- 
limitary  transference  of  the  life  insurance  policies.  In  both  these  cases  the  in- 
tention of  the  law  is  to  safeguard  to  the  greatest  possible  extent  the  rights  of 
individual  policy-holders  while  keeping  the  insurance  stock  on  the  basis  of  the 
insurance  fund. 

Alieii  Insurance  Companies  Act. 

If  an  alien  insurance  company  desires  to  carry  on  insurance  in  Sweden,  they 
shall  make  application  through  a  general  agent  possessing  certain  necessary  quali- 
fications, in  the  capacity  of  trustee:  further,  prior  to  starting  insurance  opera- 
tions, certain  documents,  powers  of  attorney,  certificates,  and  arguments  shall 
be  submitted  to  the  Board  of  Insurance  Inspection;  moreover,  proofs  shall  be 
furnished  that  the  Company  has  in  a  certain  prescribed  mode  deposited  with 
the  Riksbank  (the  Bank  of  Sweden)  an  amount  of  100  000  kroner  for  life,  fire 
and  maritime  insurance,  and  of  50  000  kroner  for  every  other  kind  of  insu- 
rance. After  the  examination  of  the  documents  submitted,  the  inspection  autho- 
rities will,  if  approved,  grant  the  concession  demanded.  The  business  will  then 
be  subject  to  the  control  of  the  board  of  inspectors  for  insurance  and  to  a  cer- 
tain degree  of  publicity,  besides  which  there  are  provisions  aiming  at  safeguard- 
ing the  rights  of  policy-holders,  in  case  the  Company  should  cease  to  carry  on 
business  in  Sweden. 

Both  Acts  contain  provisions  as  to  fines  for  various  kinds  of  infractions 
of  the  law.  The  need  of  a  modified  and  perfected  insurance  law  is  now  uni- 
versally admitted.  In  the  first  place,  since  the  issue  of  the  Act  1903,  there 
has  been  passed  a  new  Companies  Act  which  entails  corresponding  changes  in 
the  Insurance  Act;  and  in  the  second  place  modified  views  particularly  in  the 
sphere  of  life  insurance,  and  with  regard  to  the  estimation  of  the  insurance 
fund  and  the  safety  fund,  have  gradually  engendered  a  powerful  current  of 
opinion  in  favour  of  an  amended  law,  even  though  views  on  this  point  have 
not  yet  assumed  definitive  shape.  Some  essential  modifications  in  the  Act  of 
1903  were  made  by  the  Riksdag  in  1914.  The  most  important  change  in  the 
law  concerns  regulations  regarding  the  premium  reserve,  which  was  formerly 
computed    solely    on  the  basis  of  a  certain  death  rate  and  a  certain  rate  of  in- 


ALIEN   INSURANCE   COMPANIES   ACT.  687 

terest.     According   to  the  modified  law  an  estimate  of   expenditure  shall  also  be 
included  in    the  principles  for  the  computation  of  the  premium  reserve. 

Maritime  Insurance.  In  its  preamble,  the  Maritime  Law  of  1667 
expressly  mentions  among  the  "useful  discoveries"  that  have  rendered 
the  new  law  necessary,  "bottomries  and  insurances",  and  the  actual  text 
of  the  law  contains  an  insurance  section,  divided  into  eighteen  short 
chapters. 

When  that  Act  was  issued,  however,  Sweden  did  not  possess  any  insurance 
companies  of  native  origin,  with  the  possible  exception  of  a  few  stray  "private 
companies"  {enkla  bolag),  in  the  shape  of  more  or  less  permanent  associations 
of  private  maritime  insurers,  who  through  the  agency  of  ship-brokers  took  over 
maritime  risks.  Swedish  ship-owners  and  merchants  were  in  most  cases  obliged, 
for  maritime  insurance,  to  have  recourse  to  private  insurance  companies  of  a 
similar  kind  abroad  —  doubtless  mostly  in  the  Netherlands  and  in  the  Hansa 
cities  of  northern  Germany;  according  to  an  estimate  in  0.  v.  Dalin's  "Argus"  pu- 
blished in  1733,  the  maritime  insurance  premiums  dredged  the  country  annu- 
ally of  1  million  Dutch  guldens.  But  by  the  Royal  Ordinance  of  the  4th  July 
1739,  in  response  to  a  petition  presented  by  the  Estate  of  the  Burghers,  a  charter 
was  granted  and  "rules  of  association"  were  authorized  for  a  company  based  on 
voluntarily  subscribed  stocks  and  limited  liability,  designated  the  sjoassuranskoui- 
paniet,  the  Maritime  Assurance  Society;  it  began  its  operations  in  the  fol- 
lowing •  year,  and  was  thus  one  of  the  earliest  insurance  companies  in  Eiirope 
in  the  maritime  insurance  line.  The  second  Swedish  company  of  the  same  na- 
ture, the  Stockholms  Sjoasssurans  Sallshap,  the  Stockholm  Maritime  Assurance 
Society,  did  not  receive  its  charter  till  1816.  In  1844  was  formed  the  first 
large  mutual  insurance  company  in  this  line  of  insurance,  notably  the  Stockholms 
Sjoassuransforening,  the  Stockholm  Maritime  Insurance  Union,  which  however, 
like  the  two  companies  previously  mentioned,  has  now  passed  out  of   existence. 

The  very  considerable  development  that  native  insurance  business  has 
now  attained  in  Sweden  —  for  considerable  it  is  for  Swedish  conditions 
—  does  not  date  further  back  than  the  sixties  and  the  seventies,  when 
several  joint-stock  companies  based  on  entirely  modern  principles  were 
brought  into  being.  At  the  termination  of  1912  there  were  10  of  these 
companies  in  operation:  the  Gauthiod  (chartered  in  1863),  the  Stockholm 
Sjoforsakringsaktiebolag  (1867),  Agir  (1872),  Ocean  (1872),  Sveriges 
AUmiinna  Sjoforsakringsaktiebolag  (1872),  Vega  (1882),  Sjoassurans- 
kompaniet  (1889),  Oresund  (1890),  Hansa  (1905),  and  Nordisk  Yaoht- 
assurans  (1905).  In  the  same  year  30  mutual  Swedish  companies  were  in 
operation,  among  which  the  Sveriges  Angfartygsassuransforening,  the 
Swedish  Steamship  Insurance  Union,  is  the  most  considerable.  In 
Sweden  the  speculative  business  enterprises  play  a  far  more  important 
role  in  maritime  insurance  than  the  mutual  institutions,  which,  as  a  general 
rule,  is  also  the  case  abroad.  Besides  the  Swedish  institutions,  tbere  were 
operating  in  this  branch  of  insurance  in  Sweden  in  1912  also  9  foreign 
companies:  a  few  of  which  also  give  insurance  on  values.  The  business 
transacted  by  the  said  companies  in  1912  aggregated  the  following  amounts 
in  kroner: 


688  XI.      BANKING,    CREDIT,    AND   INSUEANCB. 

Companies  I-arances  taken       .        Gross  ^~-=  Compensations 

gross         reinsurance      premiims  j^gnrance  gross      reinsurers 
Swedish  joint-stock- 
companies  .   .   .   .  2116  081896  870  635  636   17  202  451  8  318  081   15  019  810    8164^162 
Swedish  mutual  com- 
panies    .    .    ■    .    .      174873  600     78  056158     7  077  636  2  753  558     5  091141    2  237  799 

Total  3  290  954  996   948  691694   24  280  090  11101639   20110  95110  401961 
foreign  companies  ■    ,    66  242193  203  487       112  993        102  780         62  975 

Total  2357197189  948691694  24483577  11214632  20  213  73110464936 

Registration  and  insurance  of  letters  and  other  postal  packets  is  the  only 
form  of  insurance  that  has  hitherto  been  transacted  by  the  State. 

Fire  Insurance.  The  regulations  of  the  Swedish  landsJcapslagar 
(Shire  Laws)  of  the  13th  and  14th  centuries,  which  obliged  the  inhabi- 
tants of  the  same  harad  (hundred)  to  mutual  support  in  the  event  of 
damage  by  fire  were  doubtless  founded  on  a  very  ancient  practice.  These 
regulations  were  afterwards,  with  certain  modifications,  iatroduced 
into  the  general  laws  affecting  the  whole  of  Sweden,  and  may  be  desig- 
nated as  legal  provisions  for  obligatory  mutual  fire  insurance;  especially 
since  it  had  been  enacted  in  "Huses  Ordningen"  of  1681  —  that  the 
amount  of  the  fire  indemnity  (brandstod)  should  be  determined  "accord- 
ing to  the  damage  that  had  accrued".  The  indemnity  prescribed  by  the 
law  applied,  however,  at  first  only  to  buildings;  from  the  end  of  the  six- 
ties of  the  seventeenth  century  it  was  extended  also  to  corn,  fodder  and 
cattle,  but  only  to  "what  was  required  thereof  for  the  needs  of  the  farm": 
it  did  not  apply  to  other  movables  and  household  utensils.  It  was  not 
till  the  nineteenth  century  that  the  compulsory  harad  fire  insurance  was 
transformed  into  small  mutual  fire  indemnity  companies  (brandstods- 
bolag)  based  on  voluntary  principles,  and  retaining  the  right  to  have  the 
indemnity  fees  collected  along  with  the  taxes  to  the  Crown.  But  as  early 
as  1688  was  formed  the  first  Swedish  fire  insurance  society,  intended  for 
persons  from  at  least  one  Ian  and  comprising  also  the  insurance  of  goods 
and  catties. 

The  first  fire  insurance  institution  in  Stockholm  —  the  Stockholms 
Stads  Brandforsdkringskontor  (the  City  of  Stockholm  Eire  Insurance 
Office),  a  kind  of  corporate  but  independent  mutual  society  —  had  its 
first  statutes  sanctioned  on  the  18th  March  1746.  The  oldest  fire  insu- 
rance joint  stock  company  in  Sweden  is  Skandia,  which  is  likewise  the 
oldest  of  the  Swedish  life  insurance  companies;  its  first  articles  of  associ- 
ation received  Government  sanction  on  the  12th  January  1855.  In  1912 
there  were  operating  besides  Skandia  two  Swedish  joint  stock  insurance 
companies,  notably  Svea  (Gothenburg:  since  1866)  and  Skdne  (since  1884), 
which  transact  both  fire  and  life  insurance  business,  one,  Fenix  (1889), 
which  carries  on  solely  Eire  Insurance,  two,  Norrland  (1890)  and  Victoria 
(1899),  which,  besides  fire  insurance  business,  transacts  also  burglary  and 
glass  insurance;  Norrland  also  transacts  travellers'  luggage  and  fidelity 


ALIEN    INSURANCE   COMPANIES   ACT. 


689 


guarantee  insurance,  and  Victoria  insurance  on  damage  by  water.  In  the 
same  year  15  mutual  companies  with  a  wider  radius  of  operations  than  one 
Ian  were  at  work,  of  which  7  embraced  the  whole  of  Sweden,  among  them 
the  Stadernas  Allmanna  Brandstodsbolag  (the  Cities'  General  Fire  Indem- 
nity Company),  and  Allmanna  Brandforsakringsverket  for  byggnader  a 
landet  (The  General  Fire  Insurance  Office  for  Buildings  in  the  Country),  6 
more  than  one  Idn,  among  them  the  Skanska  Brandforsakringsinrattningen 
(the  Scanian  Fire  Insurance  Institution),  2  only  the  City  of  Stockholm, 
notably  the  Stockholms  Stads  Brandforsakringskontor  (the  City  of  Stock- 
holm Fire  Insurance  Office)  established  1746,  and  the  Stockholms  Stads 
Brandstodsbolag  till  Forsakring  av  Losegendom  (the  City  of  Stockholm 
Fire  Indemnity  Company  for  the  Insurance  of  Movable  Property, 
established  1844).  There  were  23  Swedish  mutual  companies  each  em- 
bracing in  its  sphere  of  operations  one  Idn,  and  not  less  than  368  smaller 
mutual  companies.  To  this  fall  to  be  added  Swedish  general  agencies  for 
26  foreign  companies,  out  of  which  3  were  Danish,  1  Finnish,  6  German, 
1  Swiss,  12  English,  2  French,  and  1  Dutch.  All,  expect  the  German  and 
the  Swiss,  were  members  of  the  Swedish  Joint-stock  Companies  Tariff 
Union  (Svenska  Aktiebolagens  Tarifforening),  established  in  1874.  That 
Union  has  powers  to  pass  resolutions  binding  on  its  members  as  to  the 
amount  of  the  premiums  they  are  entitled  to  take  for  various  kinds  of 
risks,  and  with  regard  to  other  matters  where  it  is  essential  that  a,  uni- 
form procedure  should  be  adopted  by  all  the  companies  belonging  to  the 
Union.  '     ■ ,  *  i 

The  turnover  of  all  these  fire  insurance  institutions  in  the  course  of  the 
last  years  for  which  statements  have  been  published,^  is  shown,  reckoned 
in  millions  of  kronor,  by  the  following  summary: 

Compensations 
Companies 

Swedish  joint  stock  companies  . 
Large  Swedish  mutual  companies  . 

"County"  (Ian)  mutual  companies  .      

Small  mutual  companies 2"37 


Gross 
pre- 
miums 

.  26-61 
4-25 
2-28 


Pre- 
miums 
for  re- 
insurance 

11-54 
0-89 


gross 

16-74 
2-15 
1-49 
1-58 


by  re- 
insurers 

7-58 
0-68 


Insurances  held  at 
end  of  year 

re- 


gross 

7  850-21 
2  804-58 
2  442-29 
1  891-90 


insured 

3  460-04 
457-43 


Total  Swedish  companies     35-51        12-43      21-96  8-26      14  988-98        3  917-47 


iForeign  companies 305 


1-87 


2-53 


1-67 


823-30 


468-21 


Total  38-56 


4-30      24-49 


9-93      15812-28        4385-6 


The  gross  insurance  sum  thus  amounted  at  the  close  of  1912  to  15  812-28 
million  kronor.  It  should  be  noted,  however,  that  most  Swedish  joint  stock 
companies  also  carry  on  important  business  in  foreign  countries.  Thus  at 
the  termination  of  1912  these  foreign  insurances  represented  a  gross  value 
of  not   less   than   2  888  million  kronor,  out  of  which  812  million  kronor 

'  The  figures  refer,  as  regards  Swedish  joint  stock  companies  and  foreign  companies  to 
the  calendar  year  1912,  and  as  regards  Swedish  mutual  companies  as  a  rule  to  the  financial 
year  terminated  within  the  period  from  the  1st  July  1912  to  the  30th  June  1913. 

ii— 133179.  Sweden.  II. 


690 


XI.      BANKING,    CREDIT,    AND    INSURANCE. 


were  reinsured;  the  takings  in  the  form  of  premiums  for  these  insurances 
were  15-8  million  kroner,  and  the  compensations  paid  out  totalled  10-6 
million  kroner.  The  gross  value  of  the  Swedish  insurances  should  thus 
aggregate  over  12-9  milliards  of  kronor;  in  order  then  to  find  the  net 
amount  of  fire  insurance  for  Sweden,  one  must,  of  course,  deduct  from 
the  gross  total  the  amounts  reinsured  in  Swedish  companies  or  in  the 
Swedish  general  agencies  of  foreign  companies,  and  add  to  it  any  insu- 
rances ta.ken  direct  from  the  Company  abroad  and  not  reinsured  in  Swe- 
den. How  the  gross  insurance  sum  is  distributed  between  real  and  mov- 
able property  is  not  clearly  shown  by  the  figures. 

Life  insurance  —  at  any  rate  in  the  form  of  funeral  benefits  —  as  well 
as  several  other  kinds  of  personal  insurance,  was  practised  by  the  ancient 
guilds,  though  in  more  or  less  rudimentary  forms.  But  modern  life  insu- 
rance based  on  scientific  principles  was  first  introduced  into  Sweden 
by  the  Shandia  Fire  and  Life  Insurance  Company  (1855),  which 
was  next  succeeded  by  Svea  (1867).  The  first  Swedish  joint-stock- 
company  with  solely  life  insurance  (in  a  wide  sense:  life,  life  annuity,  and 
capital  insurance)  was  Nordstjernan  (1872).  Next  came  Thule  (1873), 
which  by  the  principles  on  which  it  was  constituted  afforded  a  transition 
to  the  mutual  companies,  Victoria  (1883)  and  Norrland  (1890);  Shane 
(1884)  also  transacts  fire  insurance  business,  while,  on  the  other  hand, 
Nordpolen  (1897)  is  only  a  life  insurance  company. 

Besides  this,  there  were  14  mutual  companies  (most  of  them  with  gua- 


Table  141 

■ 

The  Life  Insurance  Business  of  the 

Swedish  Companies. 

Compensations 
paidi 

Insurance 

Amount  of  life- 

Amount  of  life 

Premiumsi 

funds  at  end 

insurance  at  end 

insurance  per- 

Annually 

of  period 

of  period2 

head  of  pop. 

kronor 

kronor 

kronor 

kronor 

kronor 

1855 

33  833 

33  483 

1 382  300 

0-38 

1856—60  . 

233  820 

66  899 

552  508 

10  069  997 

2-61 

1861—65  . 

334  859 

121 115 

1  203  892 

12  531  002 

305 

1866-70  . 

595  743 

201  797 

2  244  220 

.  23  486  931 

5-63 

1871—75  . 

1  508  940 

369  559 

6  240  578 

58  948  152 

13-45 

1876—80  . 

2  559  708 

843  014 

12  224  764 

84  377  828 

18-48 

1881-85  . 

4  433  236 

1455  629 

23  768  849 

155  677  025 

33-24 

1886—90  . 

7  668  032 

2  432  461 

44  333 121 

259  860  821 

54-31 

1891-95  . 

10  829  806 

3  940  730 

73  567  205 

360  479  566 

73-28 

1896-00. 

15  875476 

5852  263 

118  231719 

598  855  440 

116-59 

1901—05  . 

22  627  589 

8  588  878 

180117  387 

883  306  873 

166-82 

1906-10. 

31140  224 

13  410  529 

268  700  458 

1  239  396  628 

224-45 

1911—12  . 

39  505  031 

16  582  338 

326  671  254 

1461050  841 

260-71 

1  The  figures  for  the  insurance  amounts  refer  only  to  actual  life  insurances ;  the  other 
figures,  on  the  other  hand  comprise  also  life  annuity  and  capital  insurances,  and  the  like. 
The  figures  up  to  1895,  inclusive,  show  net  amounts;  and  are  the  same  as  in  the  previous 
edition  of  this  -work.  The  figures  from  1896,  inclusive,  correspond  to  the  official  figures  in 
the  publication  "Meddelandcn  angiende  fSrsakringsvasendet  i  riket,  3",  and  sho-sr  net  amounts. 
—  'In  the  case  of  one  company  it  has  been  possible  to  reckon  these  net  amounts  only 
approximately  for  the  periods  from  1866  to  1885. 


ALIEN   INSURANCE   COMPANIES   ACT. 


691 


ranteed  capital,  -which  is  to  be  gradually  replaced  by  accumulated  pro- 
fits), namely 

The  AUmaniia  Lifforsakringsbolaget  (from  1887),  Balder  (1887),  Oden 
(1889),  Svenska  Lifforsakringsbolaget  (1891),  Svenska  Arbetarforsak- 
ringsbolaget  Valand  (1895),  Nordiska  Folkforsiikringsaktiebolaget  Union 
(1895;  at  the  beginning  of  1900  amalgamated  with  Valand),  Svecia  (1898), 
Lif-  och  sjukforsakringsaktiebolaget  Vasa  (1898),  AUmanna  Pensions- 
forsakringsbolaget  (1898),  Vanadis  (1899:  dissolved  in  1901)  and  Svenska 
Arbetarforsakringsanstalten  Trygg  (1899).  Then  came  Brage  (1900), 
Nornan  (1900,  the  latter  also  amalgamated  with  Valand),  Kronan  (1902; 
dissolved  in  1913),  Stockholm  (1906),  Kristna  Vanner  (1911)  and  Fram- 
tiden  (1911).  To  these  fall  to  be  added  21  agencies  for  foreign  compa- 
nies. The  business  transacted  by  the  companies  in  1912  and  the  balance 
at  the  close  of  the  year  is  shown  by  the  following  summary,  in  million  of 
kroner. 


Gross 
Companies                       pre- 
miums 

Swedish  joint-stock  companies  .    2669 
Swedish  mutual  companies    .    .    1964 

Pre- 
miums 
for  rein- 
surance 

5-07 
1-75 

Compensations 
paid 

bv  re- 
S'"^^     insurers 

13-72         1-64 
4-84        0-34 

Insuran- 
ce funds 
at  the 
end  of 
the  year 

228-88 
97-79 

Insurances  held 
at  the  end  of 

the  year 
gross          re- 
amount    insured 

862-92     155-61 
598-13       90-16 

Total  Swedish  companies    46-33 
Foreign  companies 1-65 

6-82 

18-56 
'0-80 

1-98 

326-27 

1 461-05 
50-47 

345-76 

Total  47-98 

6-82 

1936 

1-98 

326-27 

1  511-52 

245-76 

'■  The  figures  are  only  for  compensations  paid  at  death. 


The  life  insurances  held  at  the  close  of  1912  numbered  1  322  293,  out 
of  which  817  830  were  -with  the  Swedish  joint-stock  companies,  488  063 
with  the  mutual  companies,  and  16  400  with  foreign  companies.  To  this 
must  be  added  altogether  6  359  annuities,  to  a  total  annual  amount  of 
2  700  839  kronor,  and  1  019  capital  insurances,  aggregating  2  451  882 
kronor. 

The  funds  appropriated  to  dividends  and  bonuses  by  the  Swedish  com- 
panies during  the  same  year  amounted  to  3  373  508  kronor;  the  cash 
dividends  to  policy-holders  for  the  year  to  2  534  957  kronor. 

The  most  common  of  the  forms  of  life  insurance  are  ordinary  life  insurance,, 
with  the  payment  of  premiums  during  the  -whole  period  of  life  or  only  during 
certain  years,  and  endowment  insurance,  in  which  the  insurance  sum  is  paid 
at  a  certain  age  (as  a  rule  55  or  60),  or  previously  in  the  event  of  death.  Since 
the  early  nineties  children's  insurances  are  also  undertaken:  in  these  children's  in- 
surances the  actual  liability  of  the  insurance  company  does  not  come  into  effect 
until  the  age  of  15  has, been  attained,  although  the  payment  of  the  premiums 
begins  in  the  usual  manner  on  the  insurance  being  taken.  Among  other  forms 
of  insurance  may  be  mentioned  insurance  with  a  fixed  term  of  payment  (a  terme^ 
fixe),  widows'  pension  insurance,  survivors'  annuity  insurance,  equipment  insu-; 
ranees  of  divers  kinds,   short  term  insurance,  insurance  on  two  lives,  and  divers 


692 


XI.      BANKING,    CREDIT,    AND    INSURANCE. 


other  combinations.  Insurances  of  these  kinds  can  as  a  rule  be  obtained  with 
or  without  medical  examination.  In  the  latter  case  the  companies  safeguard 
themselves  against  the  risks  of  bad  selection  by  a  restriction  of  the  company's 
liability  during  a  certain  term  ("harens").  The  Swedish  term  for  insurance  of 
this  latter  kind  is  "Tcarensf'drsdlcring" . 

Vigorous  efforts  have  been  made  during  recent  years  to  extend  the  benefits 
of  insurance  to  the  lower  classes,  both  by  the  older  companies  in  which  the 
average  insurance  sum  per  policy-holder  has  in  consequence  shown  a  certain 
tendency  to  diminish,  and  also  by  certain  institutions  that  have  made  it  their 
special  business  to  grant  what  is  termed  "folhforsakring"  (industrial  insurance), 
modelled  on  similar  institutions  abroad. 

In  1906  was  formed  the  Bvenska  liffbrsakringsholagens  direhtdrsforening  (the 
Swedish  Life  Insurance  Companies  Directors'  Association),  which,  embracing 
as  it  now  does  practically  all  the  Swedish  life  insurance  companies,  forms  a 
rallying-point  for  deliberations  on  the  common  interests  of  the  companies. 

As  regards  the  extent  to  which  life  insurance  occurs,  whether  alone  or 
along  with  other  forms  of  personal  insurance,  in  numerous  funds  and  socie- 
ties of  divers  kinds,  large  and  small,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  section 
Social  Movements  (p.  I.  631). 

The  14  public  interest  and  capital  insurance  institutions  (rante-  och  kapi- 
ialfbrsakringsanstalter)  and  that  belonging  to  the  "Civil  Service"  (Civil- 
staten)  paid  out  in  1912  in  annuities  a  total  of  892  135  kroner,  in  accumu- 
lated capital  558  770  kroner,  and  in  inheritance  and  annuity  benefits 
669  627  kroner;  the  funds  administered  in  these  institutions  amounted  in 
Uie  same  year  to  64  362  727  kroner. 

Accident  Insurance  was  carried  on  in  Sweden,  as  in  other  Scandinavian 
countries,  prior  to  1881  only  by  foreign  companies,  and  on  quite  a  minor 
scale.  In  1881,  however,  the  Fylgia  Company  was  formed,  and  several 
other  accident  insurance  companies  were  successively  founded.  Besides 
Fylgia,  the  foUovsdng  joint-stock  companies  carried  on  accident  insurance 
in  Sweden  in  1911:  Skandinavien  (since  1886),  Norden  (1888),  HeimddU 


Table  142.    Business  transacted  by  the  Accidence  Insurance  Companies. 

Gross. 


Annually 

Average  per  annutQ, 
during  the  period,  of 

Number  of  persona  insured  at  the  end 
of  the  period 

Total 

premiums 

compen- 
sations paid 

privately 

collectively, 

irrespective 

of  the  Act 

of  1901 

legally 
insured 

1882-85 

1886-90 

1891-95 

1896-00 

1901-05 

1906-10 

1911 

1912 

1913 

229  857 
617  642 

1  086  093 
1508  594 

2  475  082 

3  638  715 

4  011996 
4  221  953 
4  257  837 

96  439 

331  979 

699  540 

931 473 

1444  806 

2  269  023 

2  469  277 
2  657  691 
2  806  841 

12  988 
38337 
37  067 
48  247 
46  920 
71666 

73  774 
77  869 
79  016 

3  718 
54138 
77  395 
133  655 
63  876 
86  361 

90141 
93  076 
92  696 

183  021 
158  661 

157  839 

157  244 

158  902 

16  706 
9247B 
114462 
181902 
293817 
315688 

321754 
328  189 
330614 

ALIEN   INSURANCE    COMPANIES   ACT.  693 

(1900),  Hansa  (1905),  and  the  mutual  companies  Bore  (1888),  Dalarna 
(1889)  and  Gothia  (1898).  In  addition  to  these,  a  number  of  foreign  com- 
panies carried  on  accident  insurance  in  Sweden  on  a  comparatively  small 
scale.  The  amount  of  the  business  done  by  the  Swedish  companies  since 
1881  is  shown  by  Table  142. 

In  the  year  1903  the  Workmen's  Compiensation  Act  of  the  5th  July  1901, 
providing  for  compensation  for  damage  in  case  of  accident,  entered  into 
force,  and  concurrently  the  Riksfdrsdkringsanstalten,  the  State  Insurance 
Office,  whose  function  is  to  take  over  the  liability  of  employers  under  the 
act,  began  its  operations. 

After  the  beginning  of  the  twentieth  century  the  accident  insurance 
companies  have  gradually  expanded  the  scope  of  their  activities,  so  as  to 
embrace  a  number  of  other  branches  of  insurance,  such  as,  for  instance, 
illness,  liability,  fidelity  guarantee,  burglary,  travellers'  luggage,  glass, 
and  damage  by  water  insurance. 

A  few  figures  (million  kronor)  are  subjoined  showing  the  business  done 
by  the  State  Insurance  Office  and  by  the  private  companies  in  1913: 

Compensations         Number  at  end  of 

paid  year  of 

p  Premiums  persons 

Insurance  institutions  •        ,        for  re-  by  .  ,         insured 

miums'    .  •'  insured  ,     ,, 

insurances  re-  under  the 

S™=^      insurers      P"^""^         Act  of 

1901 

The  State  Insurance  Office     .    .078  —  0  58  —  115120       114  822 

Swedisli  companies 3-92  0-38  1-95         O'lG  1!J3  279         60  324 

Swedish  mutual  companies  .    .    .1-33  0-05  0-83         O'OS  177  335         98  578 

Employers'  associations . . . 23  082         23  082 

Total  5-03  0-43  3-36         0-49  468  816       296  806 

Foreign  countries 0-68 ^ 225 . 24  148         11 102 

Total  5-71  3-61  492964       307  908 

'  The  figures,  as  regards  the  State  Insurance  Office,  give  the  net  premiums;  as  regards 
the  private  institutions,  their  tariif  premiums.  , 


As  to  the  other  branches  of  insurance  represented  in  Sweden,  it  is  proposed 
here  only  to  give  a  few  figures.  According  to  the  report  of  the  insurance  in- 
spector for  1912  there  were  engaged  in  cattle  insurance  732  mutual  companies 
and  societies,  among  which  12  embracing  the  whole  of  Sweden,  or  larger  or 
smaller  parts  thereof,  and  720  with  smaller  spheres  of  operations  as  for  in- 
stance, within  the  radius  of  a  Ian,  one  or  more  "harad"  districts,  one  or  more 
parishes. 

According  to  the  data  that  have  been  forthcoming  (not  quite  complete)  there 
were  insured  at  the  close  of  the  financial  year  1911  354  756  horses  and  390  725 
head  of  cattle  for  135  140  428  kronor  and  for  92  817  443  kronor  respectively, 
and  in  the  course  of  the  same  year  damage  had  been  compensated  in  the  case 
of  10  466  horses  and  2  920  head  of  cattle  at  2  925  055  and  326  657  kronor 
respectively. 

Damage  by  Hail  Insurance  was  granted  in  1912  by  one  damage  by  hail  in- 
surance society  embracing  the  whole  country,  namely  Allmanna  Hagelskadefor- 
sakrings    aktiebolaget,    mutual;    and     by   7  likewise  mutual  "County"  (Idn)  com- 


694  XI.      BANKING,    CREDIT,    AND   INSUKANCE. 

panies  (the  companies  belonging  to  the  lans  of  Uppsala,  Ostergotland,  Skane  and 
Halland,  Alvsborg,  Skaraborg,  Orebro  and  Vastmanland).  Besides  these,  the 
mutual  fire  insurance  societies  of  Kronoberg  Ian  and  of  the  rural  parishes  of 
Markaryd,  Hinneryd,  Tolg,  Virestad,  and  Vaxjo  also  granted  compensation  for 
damage  by  hail  occuring  to  crops  insured  against  fire  in  the  companies.  Out 
of  these  companies,  the  Allmanna  Hagelskadeforsakringsbolaget  had  in  the 
same  year  5  357  shareholders  with  an  aggregate  insurance  sum  of  20  912  740 
kroner,  and  the  7  Ian  companies  together  19  274  shareholders  and  54  084  271 
kroner  in  amount  of  liability;  thus  in  1912  24  631  properties  were  insured  against 
hail  to  an  aggregate  amount  of  74  917  Oil  kroner.  In  the  course  of  the  year 
821  cases  of  damage  by  hail  was  compensated  for  with  altogether  232  474  kro- 
ner, out  of  which  48  411  kroner  was  paid  by  the  Allmanna  Hagelskadeforsak- 
ringsbolaget. 

Burglary  Insurance  is  given  on  personal  movable  property,  goods,  machines,  in- 
ventories, and  money,  and  on  damage  to  buildings.  These  companies  that  give 
burglary  insurance  also  give  insurance  against  highway  robbery.  Insurance  of 
this  kind  was  carried  on  in  1912  by  11  Swedish  joint-stock  companies,  namely 
Securitas,  Skandinavien,  Hansa,  xTcrrland,  Freja,  Heimdall,  Victoria  (fire),  Fylgia, 
Norden,  Mercurius  and  Malmo,  besides  which  one  foreign  company  took  up  burglary 
insurance  in  Sweden. 

The  premiums  for  all  these  companies  amounted  in  1912  to  about  505  000 
kroner. 

Travellers'  Luggag'e  Insurance,  which  is  undertaken  by  the  majority  of  the 
companies  enumerated  above,  has  not  attained  any  great  amplitude,  as  many  of 
the  risks  coming  under  this  head  are  doubtless  covered  by  maritime  insurance 
companies. 

Glass  Insurance,  was  given  in  1912  by  12  insurance  companies.  Out  of  these 
10  were  Swedish,  notably  the  Goteborgs  fonsterforsakringssallskap  (the  Gothen- 
burg Window  Insurance  Company),  the  Svenska  Glasforsakringsaktiebolaget,  Se- 
curitas, Stella,  Skandinavien,  Hansa,  Fylgia,  Norrland,  Victoria  (fire)  and  Malmo 
and  2  foreign  companies.  All  these  companies  were  liable  at  the  termination 
of  1912  for  an  aggregate  insurance  sum  of  approximately  8  million  kroner,  as 
against  a  premium  revenue  of  about  185  000  kroner.  The  damages  in  this  year 
amounted  to  about  212  683  kroner  gross. 

Fidelity  Gruarantee  Insurance,  granted  principally  as  a  security  against  em- 
bezzlement by  collectors  of  taxes  and  debts  was  transacted  in  1912  by  the  three 
joint-stock  companies,  Hansa,  Norrland,  and  Securitas,  wich  at  the  end  of  the 
year  were  collectively  liable  for  9  992  246  kroner,  had  a  premium  revenue  of 
93  448   kroner,  and  paid  compensations  to  the  amount  of  82  103   kroner. 

Liability  Insurance,  by  which  is  meant  insurance  for  the  liability  for  damages, 
was  granted  in  1912  by  four  Swedish  joint-stock  companies,  Securitas,  Hansa, 
Heimdall  and  Skandinavien.  The  aggregate  insurance  stock  amounted  at  the 
close  of  the  year  1912  to  about  30  mill,  kr.,  the  premiums  to  52  275  kronor, 
and  the  compensations  for  damages  to  about  6  600  kronor.  Besides  there  are 
5  foreign  companies  wich  carry  on  this  business  in  Sweden. 

Damage  by  water  Insurance,  for  damage  by  water  in  the  strict  sense,  was 
granted  in  1912  by  the  six  Swedish  joint-stock  companies,  Securitas,  Norden, 
Freja,  Skandinavien,  Victoria  and  Malmo  and  one  foreign  company,  the  total 
amount  of  the  liability  for  all  these  companies  together  amounted  to  about  49 
million  kronor,  the  premiums  to  about  74  000  kronor,  and  compensations  for 
damage  to  about  11  500  kronor. 

In  the  sphere  of  Sickness  Insurance  there  were  operating  in  1912  a  number 
of  companies.  This  kind  of  insurance  has  during  the  last  decennium  under- 
gone   a    remarkable    development.     It    has    been    carried    on  principally  on  two 


ALIEN   INSURANCE   COMPANIES   ACT.  695 

main  lines:  sickness  insurance  subject  to  notice,  and  sickness  insurance  not 
subject  to  notice. 

Sickness  insurance  subject  to  notice,  mainly  in  combination  with  accident  in- 
surance was  granted  by  the  accident  insurance  companies,  Fylgia,  Skandinavien, 
Norden,  Heimdall,  Hansa,  Securitas,  and  Gothia,  as  well  as  by  a  couple  of 
foreign  companies. 

Sickness  insurance  not  subject  to  notice  was  granted  by  the  Eir  Sickness  Insu- 
rance Company.  '■  That  Company  undertook  on  its  own  account  sickness  insurance 
solely,  though,  in  addition  to  that,  sickness  insurance  combined  with  life  insurance 
in  any  one  of  the  following  companies:  Skandia,  Svea,  Thule,  Skane,  Allmanna 
Lifforsakringsbolaget,  Oden,  Brage,  or  De  Forenade. 

Combined  life  and  sickness  insurance  was  transacted  also  by  the  Svenska  Lif- 
forsakringsbolaget and  by  the  Lif-  and  Sjukforsakringsbolaget  Vasa. 

Besides  the  federations  named  above,  notably  the  Tarifforeningen  and 
the  Svenska  Lifforsakringsbolagens  Direktorsforening,  the  following  socie- 
ties are  engaged  in  promoting  the  development  of  Swedish  life  insurance 
business:  the  Forsakringsforeningen  (the  Insurance  Society)  since  1875, 
and  the  Svenska  Lifforsakringsbolagens  ofverlakareforening  (The  Swedish 
Life  Insurance  Companies'  Medical  Union)  and  the  Aktuarieforeningen 
(Society  of  Actuaries). 

The  Forsakringsforeningen  has  its  own  press  organ,  namely  the  "For- 
sakringsforeningens  Tidskrift",  which  has  been  issued  since  1878.  Otlier 
press  organs  in  the  insurance  branch  are  the  "G-jallarhornet"  and  the  "As- 


'  The    Valkyrian   Insurance  Company  on  the  1st  October  1912  started  sicknes  insurance 
business  on  essentially  the  same  lines  as  the  Eir  Sickness  Insurance  Company. 


XII. 

SYNOPSIS  OF  TRADE  AND  INDUSTRIAL 

LEGISLATION. 


Industry  and  trade,  which  from  ancient  times  had  been  confined  to 
the  cities,  and  hedged  in  with  oppressive  restrictions,  were  liberated  from 
their  trammels  in  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  by  the  abolition  of 
the  guild-system  (shrdvdsen),  which  took  place  in  1846.  The  principle 
of  the  liberty  of  trade  is  fully  recognized  in  the  Act  of  1864,  the  Act 
which  still  governs  trade  legislation. 

General  Trade  Legislation  Regulations. 

In  order  to  acquire  the  right  of  carrying  on  manufacturing  business, 
handicraft,  or  other  trade,  all  that  is  required  in  the  case  of  Swedish  sub- 
jects is  the  enjoyment  of  civil  rights  and  full  legal  majority:  no  certifi- 
cate of  professional  skill  or  any  other  qualifications  are  demanded.  Nor 
is  any  kind  of  special  license  required:  all  that  is  necessary  is  to  give 
due  notice  of  one's  intention  to  carry  on  a  trade. 

But  even  there  requirements  may  in  certain  cases  be  dispensed  vsdth. 
Industries  or  trades  in  which  the  sale  of  the  goods  made  is  not  contemp- 
lated, or  which  are  carried  on  vdthout  paid  assistants,  fall  beyond  the  pale 
of  the  rule.  Thus  anyone  is  then  and  there  at  liberty  to  make  articles  of 
household  use  and  moreover  to  carry  on  manufacture,  handicraft,  or  other 
trade  with  the  intent  to  sell  the  goods,  provided  that  the  trade  be  carried 
on  without  the  assistance  of  others  than  wife  and  children. 

Similarly  farmers  and  the  agricultural  population  generally  are  then 
and  there  at  liberty  to  pursue  any  kind  of  domestic  industry  (husflit)  with 
intent  to  sell  the  goods  made,  provided  that  they  do  so  without  the  as- 
sistance of  others  than  their  wives,  children,  and  servants. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  manufacture  or  handicraft  goes  beyond  lihe 
range  of  a  home  industry,  that  is,  if  it  is  carried  on  with  the  aid  of  other 


SPECIAL   REGULATIONS   FOE   CERTAIN   OCCUPATIONS.  697 

assistants  than  tliose  mentioned,  the  regulations  as  to  civil  rights,  legal 
majority,  (attested  hy  certificate),  and  notice  of  intention  to  carry  on  a 
business,  come  into  force  just  as  in  the  case  of  ordinary  trade.  In  cases 
where  the  business  to  be  is  conducted  in  the  name  of  a  firm,  the  firm 
name  has  also  to  be  registered.  Notice  is  filed  with  the  same  Authorities 
as  in  the  case  of  trade  in  the  strict  sense;  the  only  exception  being  that 
for  any  such  business  as  a  blast  furnace,  a  foundry,  a  forge,  iron  works, 
or  other  establishments  intended  for  the  utilization  or  refinement  of  the 
products  of  the  mineral  kingdom,  and  not  in  the  nature  of  a  handicraft, 
notice  shall  be  given  to  the  Board  of  Trade. 

The  business  of  a  manufacturer  or  trader  may  be  continued  on  behalf  of 
his  heirs  for  a  year  after  his  death. 

Obviously,  the  qualifications  which  the  law  does  exact  from  a  manu- 
facturer or  trader  are  exacted  in  the  interest  of  his  customers  or  of  his 
assistants:  the  object  of  the  registration  is  to  ensure  that  a  manufacturer 
or  trader  does  actually  possess  the  required  qualifications;  it  also  serves 
as  a  basis  for  taxation  and  statistical  returns.  Finally,  it  is  useful  for 
purposes  of  Government  supervision  especially  with  regard  to  the  mode 
in  which  assistants  are  employed. 

Special  Regulations  for  certain  Occupations. 

There  are  certain  occupations  which  are  subject  to  more  stringent  regulations, 
bottoming  in  the  solicitude  of  the  State  for  the  lives,  the  health,  and  the  pro- 
perty of  her  citizens,  or  proceeding  from  the  necessity  for  some  other  form  of 
Government  supervision. 

Thus  the  State  requires  that  anyone  desirous  of  running  a  factory  in  which 
chemical  processes  are  employed,  and  where  a  mistake  might  entail  danger  of 
fire  or  imperil  life  or  health,  shall  produce  evidence  of  his  possessing  the 
necessary  technical  shill.  No  one  is  entitled  to  run  a  factory  of  the  kind  com- 
templated,  without  showing  to  satisfaction  that  he  either  possesses  personally 
the  technical  skill  required,  or  that  he  has  engaged  a  manager  possessing  the 
said  skill.  A  certificate  to  this  effect  shall  be  annexed  to  the  notice  of  re- 
gistration. 

These  special  regulations  apply  principally  to  the  following  categories:  manu- 
facture or  refining  of  inflammable  oils  (Ordinance  of  1875);  manufacture  of 
explosives  (Ordinance  of  1897);  manufacture  oi  poisons  (Ordinance  of  1906); 
preparation  of  drugs  (Pharmacy  Ilegulations  of  1819,  with  supplementary  sta- 
tutes). 

Further  there  are  special  regulations  with  regard  to  the  manufacture  of 
margarine,  margarine  cheese,  as  well  as  artificial  lard  (Ordinance  of  1905);  the 
manufacture  of  brdnnvin  (spirits;  Ordinance  of  1907);  and  the  manufacture  of 
malt  liquors;  Ordinance  of  1907).  Whereas  the  manufacture  of  margarine  and 
the  like  is  supervised  in  order  to  prevent  adulteration,  the  manufacture  of 
hrannvin  is   supervised  for  purpose  of  the  excise  duty. 

In  certain  cases  there  are  special  regulations  as  to  the  erection  of  factory 
buildings.  The  Public  Health  Statute  of  1874  imposes  certain  restrictions  as  regards 
the  erection,  the  equipment,  and  the  running  of  certain  insanitary  factories  and 
other  such  establishments.  Printing  establishments  shall  be  erected  only  in  towns 
or  large  villages,  or  within  a  certain  radius  of  distance  from  them  (Press  Law). 


698  XII.      SYNOPSIS   OF   TRADE   AND    INDUSTRIAL   LEGISLATION. 

Certain  other  occupations  are  subjected  to  special  restrictions,  thus,  for  instance, 
chimney-sweeping  in  towns.  Then  again,  chauffeurs  and  motor-cab  owners 
require  certificates  of  competence  (Ordinance  of  1906). 

A  special  license  is  required  for  the  exhibition  of  hinematograph  films  both 
in  town  and  country,  and  all  films  have  to  pass  censure,  except  those  repre- 
senting events  of  the  day  (Ordinance  of  1911). 

A  special  license  is  required  for  keeping  a  registry  office  for  servants  (Ordi- 
nance of  1884),  or  an  emigrants  agency  (Ordinance  of  1893). 

The  relations  of  mamifacturers  or  traders  to  the  workmen  in  their 
employ  come  under  various  Acts;  thus,  for  instance  the  Liberty  of  Trade 
Ordinance,  the  Ordinance  of  1896  providing  for  measures  to  prevent 
necrosis  among  workmen  engaged  in  match  factories,  the  Sale  of  Lucifer 
(Phosphorus)  Matches  Ordinance  of  1900,  the  Protection  of  Workers  Act 
of  1912,  and  so  forth.  For  a  more  detailed  account  of  legislation  on  this 
subject  see  the  section  Legislation  for  the  Protection  of  Workers  (p.  I,  704). 


Companies. 

The  Swedish  Coftipanies  Acts  distinguish  between  three  different  kinds 
of  companies,  namely  handelsbolag ,  or  partnership,  enkelt  holag,  or  pri- 
vate company,  and  aldiebolag,  or  joint-stock  company. 

A  handelsbolag,  (literally:  trading  company)  or  partnership,  is  a  company 
formed  by  two  or  more  persons  for  the  purpose  of  any  kind  of  trade  in  which 
the  keeping  of  merchant's  books  is  obligatory  (Law  of  1895).  The  obligation 
to  keep  books  devolves  on  all  persons,  companies,  or  societies,  that  carry  on 
business,  wholesale  or  retail,  or  manufacture  goods  with  a  view  to  profit  (Or- 
•dinance  of  1855;  law  of  1895).  A  handelsbolag  is  at  Swedish  law  a  legal 
persona,  which  as  such,  can  acquire  rights,  incur  liabilities,  and  enter  into  legal 
proceedings.  The  rights  and  liabilities  of  the  partners  during  the  life  of  the  firm 
are  determined  by  contract.  Each  of  the  partners  is,  as  a  rule,  entitled  to  act 
on  behalf  of  the  firm.  Profit  and  loss  are  distributed  between  the  partners  pro 
rata.  If  certain  principles  have  been  agreed  upon  for  the  distribution  of  profit 
"solely  or  loss  solely,  they  shall  hold  good  in  the  distribution  both  of  profit  and 
of  loss.  Partner  is  not  liable,  at  the  instigation  of  his  co-partners,  to  advance 
■capital  beyond  the  amount  of  his  share.  Apart  from  agreement,  each  of  the 
partners  binds  the  firm.  The  members  of  a  handelsbolag  are  jointly  and  severally 
■liable  for  firm  debts.     (Law  of  1895.) 

Besides  the  ordinary  handelsbolag,  which  as  will  have  been  seen  corresponds 
approximately  to  a  partnership  in  England,  the  Swedish  law  recognizes  limited 
partnerships,  or  partnerships  in  commandite  (kommanditbolag).  What  constitutes 
a  kommanditbolag,  is  that  one  or  more  (not  all  together)  of  its  members  have 
reserved  themselves  the  right  of  not  being  liable  for  more  than  he  or  they  have 
invested,  or  have  engaged  to  invest,  in  the  company.  A  firm  of  this  kind  shall 
<;ontain  the  word  "kommanditbolag".  Unless  otherwise  agreed,  a  member  of 
a  kommanditbolag  (which  very  nearly  corresponds  to  a  "sleeping  partner  in 
England")  is  not  entitled  to  participate  in  the  management  of  the  business, 
and  his  acts  do  not  bind  the  firm.     (Law  of  1895.) 

Enkelt  bolag:,  (literally:  simple  company)  is  the  Swedish  term  for  what  in 
English  would  be  called  a  private  company.  Should  an  enhelt  bolag  be  regi- 
stered,   as    sometimes    happens,    it    is  deemed  to  be  a  handelsbolag.     An  enkelt 


COMPANIES.  699 

bolag   cannot,    as    a  legal  persona,  acquire  rights  or  incur  liabilities,  nOr  engage 
in  legal  proceedings. 

The  mutual  rights  and  liabilities  of  the  members  during  the  existence  of  the 
firm  are  determined  by  contract.  Apart  from  agreement,  a  member  of  the 
company  cannot  take  action  on  behalf  of  the  firm  without  the  express  consent 
of  the  other  members.  Profit  and  loss  are  distributed  in  the  same  manner  as 
in  the  case  of  a  handelsbolag .  Contracts  entered  into  in  the  name  of  the 
members  of  the  firm,  or  under  a  designation  jointly  covering  the  members  of 
the  firm,  do  not  affect  a  member  of  the  firm  who  has  not  taken  part  in  the 
contract.  Where  several  members  have  taken  part  in  the  contract,  their  rights 
and  liabilities  are  pro  rata,  unless  otherwise  agreed  in  entering  into  the  contract. 
Where,  in  entering  into  a  contract,  the  firm  has  been  so  styled  as  to  imply  a 
more  unlimited  liability,  the  members  with  whose  consent  the  firm  has 
been  so  styled  are  liable  jointly  and  severally.  If  an  enkelt  bolag  transact 
business  with  a  view  to  commercial  profit,  the  members  of  the  company  will 
in  like  manner  be  jointly  an  severally  liable.     (Law  of  1895.) 

An  ahtiebolag  is  almost  the  exact  equivalent  of  an  English  joint-stock  com- 
pnny.  In  an  aktiebolag  the  members  of  the  company  are  not  personally  liable 
for  the  engagements  of  the  firm.  In  former  times  a  company  of  this  kind  could 
not  be  formed  except  by  a  royal  charter.  The  first  Joint-Stock  Companies 
Act  was  that  of  1848.  This  Law  was  based  on  the  charter  principle :  the  powers 
and  mode  of  management  of  the  company  were  defined  by  charter.  The  Law 
of  1S95,  which  entered  into  force  two  years  later,  introduced  the  registration 
system,  under  which  persons  desirous  of  forming  a  company  are  obliged  to 
conform  to  certain  regulations.  It  is  the  business  of  the  registrar  to  see  that 
the  required  formalities  are  complied  with  before  registering  the  company.  The 
company  is  incorporated  as  a  joint-stock  company  as  soon  as  registration  has 
been  made.  The  Law  of  1895  was  supplemented  by  that  of  the  12  August  1910 
which  extends  the  former. 

The  joint-stock  company  system  has  been  largely  developed  in  Sweden.  Not 
only  big  enterprises,  but  a  number  of  smaller  undertakings  of  the  most  various 
kinds  are  jointstocked.  The  total  number  of  joint-stocks  companies  in  Sweden 
in  1908  was  4  919,  with  an  aggregate  capital  of  2  034  228  000  kroner.  The 
average  amount  of  the  share  capital  of  these  companies  was  413  000  kroner. 
The  following  are  the  principal  provisions  of  the  Law  of  1910.  The  funds 
invested  are  divided  into  shares  (aktier)  of  equal  size,  and  indivisible.  Where 
the  articles  of  association  allow  of  variation  in  the  amount  of  the  capital,  the 
minimum  capital  shall  not  be  less  than  a  third  of  the  maximum.  The  share 
capital,  or,  in  the  case  referred  to,  the  minimum  capital  shall  not  be  less  than 
5  000  kronor,  and  the  nominal  value  of  shares  shall,  as  a  matter  of  principle, 
not  be  less  than  50  kronor.  However,  where  the  share  capital  does  not  exceed 
50  000  kronor,  shares  may  be  issued  for  smaller  amounts,  though  in  no  case 
less  than  10  kronor.  Shares  shall  be  personal,  but  in  certain  cases  Government 
may  authorize  the  issu-e  of  shares  to  bearer. 

Persons  desirous  of  forming  a  joint-stock  company  shall  subscribe  a  memo- 
randum of  association  (stiftelseurkund),  stating  the  general  objects  of  the  com- 
pany. The  memorandum  of  association  is  signed  by  the  promoters  of  the 
company,  who  shall  be  at  least  five  in  number  and  all  of  them  Swedish  sub- 
jects domiciled  in  Sweden.  The  memorandum  shall  be  published  in  the  official 
Swedish  gazette '^  and  also  in  one  of  the  local  papers  of  the  place  where  the  Com- 
pany is  to  have  its  registered  office,  two  copies  of  the  memorandum,  and  one  copy 
of  papers  in  which  it  has  been  inserted  shall  then  be  lodged  with  the  proper  authorities 


The  "Post  och  Inrikes  Tidningar". 


700  XII.      SYNOPSIS   OF   TRADE   AND   INDUSTRIAL   LEGISLATION. 

(the  Governors  of  the  lans).  The  next  step  in  the  procedure  is  to  draw  up 
a  subscription  list  for  shareholders.  A  constitutent  general  meeting  shall  be  held 
within  a  year  from  the  filing  of  the  memorandum  with  the  authorities.  The 
law  contains  special  regulations  providing  for  cases  in  which  a  promoter  of  the 
company  or  another  is  to  receive  indemnification  for  the  formation  of  the  com- 
pany; cases  which  a  promoter  or  another  is  to  be  empowered  to  pay  his  shares 
in  some  other  form  than  money;  similar  cases  in  which  the  company  is  to  be 
authorized  to  receive  property,  or  in  which  one  of  its  members  is  granted  special 
privileges  or  rights.  The  constitutent  general  meeting  resolves  on  the  formation 
of  the  company,  passes  the  articles  of  association  (bolagsordning),  and  elects 
the  board  ■  of  directors.  When  this  procedure  has  been  duly  gone  through,  the 
company  is  registrable,  provided  that  at  least  half  the  share  capital  have  been 
paid  up. 

It  is  incumbent  on  the  board  of  directors  to  keep  a  transfer  register  (aMiebok), 
which  must  be  accessible  to  public  inspection.  The  accounts  of  the  company 
shall  be  brought  before  the  shareholders  once  a  year,  at  the  ordinary  general 
meeting,  to  which  the  board  of  directors  shall  submit  a  report,  accompanied  by 
a  balance  sheet  and  a  profit  and  loss  account.  These  documents  shall  be  filed  with 
the  Registration  authority  within  a  month  after  the  balance  sheet  has  been  passed, 
and  shall  be  kept  open  for  public  inspection.  A  company  is  represented  by  a 
board  of  directors,  consisting  of  one  or  more  Swedish  subjects  resident  in  Sweden. 
In  special  cases  Government  may  grant  that  the  board  of  directors  shall  consist 
in  part,  but  not  as  to  more  than  a  third,  of  the  subjects  of  another  country, 
or  of  Swedish  subjects  resident  abroad. 

The  ordinary  rule  is  that  the  firm  of  the  company  is  signed  by  the  members 
of  the  board,  one  or  more  severally,  or  several  jointly.  The  board  of  directors, 
however,  can  empower  a  person  outside  the  board  to  sign  the  firm,  if  the 
articles  of  association  so  allow,  or  if  the  general  meeting  has  authorized  this 
exception  from  the  rule. 

The  law  also  provides  for  the  protection  of  the  rights  of  minorities;  for  in- 
stance, in  some  cases,  a  minority  is  authorized  to  refuse  discharge,  to  pass  a  vote  of 
censure  against  the  directors,  and  so  forth. 

There  are  separate  enactments  for  railway  companies  (Law  of  1911),  for 
insurance  companies  (Law  of  1903),  for  banking  companies,  (Law  of  1911), 
and  for  certain  joint-stock  companies  that  carry  on  loan  business  (Law  of  1911). 
All  companies  under  these  heads  require  to  have  their  articles  of  association 
sanctioned  by  Government  (see  the  Section  dealing  with  Banking,  Credit  and 
Insurance). 

The  formation  of  societies  tends  steadily  to  increase  in  Sweden.  The  Law  of 
1911  relating  to  societies  formed  for  economic  purposes  (ehonomiska  foreningar) 
has  placed  legislation  on  this  subject  on  a  modern  footing.  The  societies 
covered  by  the  Law  are  coperative  societies,  dairy  associations,  societies  for  pro- 
viding suitable  dwellings  for  the  working  classes  (bostadsfbreningar),  and  so  forth. 
Societies  formed  for  economic  purposes,  which  carry  on  business  for  commercial 
profit  shall  not  give  credit  to  others  than  members  of  the  society.  This  restric- 
tion, however,  does  not  apply  to  societies  whose  sales  to  the  general  public 
consist  principally  of  products  of  the  labour  of  the  members  or  of  the  society, 
nor  societies  formed  with  the  object  of  purchasing  and  selling  goods  intended 
for  agricultural  purposes.  Societies  with  economic  objects  shall  be  registered 
in  order  to  be  incorporated  as  societies.  The  number  of  members  shall  not  be 
less  than  five;  not  only  individual  persons,  but  companies,  societies,  corporations, 
or  other  communities  or  institutions,  may  be  members.  A  society  is  represented 
by  a  board  of  directors,  consisting  of  one  or  more  Swedish  subjects  resident  in 
the  country,  unless  an  exception  from  the  rule  has  been  authorized  by  Govern- 


RBGISTRATIONS   OF   FIRMS.  701 

ment.  There  are  two  kinds  of  "economic  societies",  namely,  those  in  which  the 
members  are  not  liable  for  the  engagements  of  the  firm  (in  Swedish:  forening 
"utan  personlig  ansvarighet",  abbreviated  "u.  p.  a"),  and  those  in  which  the 
members  are  liable  for  a  limited  amount  (forening  "med  begrdnsad  personlig 
ansvarighet",  abbreviated,  "m.   b.  p.   a.").     Cf.   also  p.  I,   695. 

As  to  other  kinds  of  societies,  such  as  societies  with  ideal  aims,  and  societies 
formed  by  those  belonging  to  the  same  profession  or  trade  for  mutual  benefit 
but  with  other  aims  than  the  "economic  societies",  they  are  not  at  present 
covered  by  legislation.  The  regulations  which  do  apply  to  them  in  the  Liberty 
of  Trade  Ordinance  (.Naringsfrihetsforordning  §§  13  and  14)  are  now  obsolete. 
(Cf.  p.  I,  647.) 

Registrations  of  Firms. 

The  Swedish,  law  requires  that  the  names  of  firms  shall  be  registered. 
The  register  of  firms,  which  is  called  handelsregister,  is  kept  at  Stockholm 
by  the  Overstdthdllaredmbetet,  the  Office  of  the  High  Grovernor,  in  other 
towns  by  Magistraten,  the  Magistracy,  and  in  the  country  by  Konungens 
befallningshavande,  the  Governor  of  the  Lan. 

All  those,  whether  private  persons  or  companies  who  desire  to  carry  on 
trade  or  business,  for  which  keeping  of  merchant's  books  is  compulsory,  are 
obliged  to  have  their  firm  entered  in  the  handelsregister.  The  following  cate- 
gories, however,  are  exempt  from  this  rule:  shipowners  and  shipping  companies, 
who  are  subject  to  special  regulations  with  regard  to  the  registrations  of  their 
ships;  joint-stock  companies,  and  the  various  kind  of  banking  companies  which 
are  filed  in  the  central  register  of  joint-stock  companies;  societies  formed  with 
economic  objects,  which,  if  they  have  to  be  registered  at  all,  are  filed  in  the 
local  register  of  societies.  Private  companies  may,  in  certain  cases,  be  registered 
in    the    handelsregister,    and  are  then  deemed  to  be  handelsbolag  (partnerships). 

Personal  firms  shall  contain  the  surname  of  the  proprietor,  with  or  without 
the  Christian  name,  and  the  firm  name  shall  not  contain  anything  which  indi- 
cates that  the  firm  is  owned  by  a  company  or  a  society. 

The  firm  of  a  handelsbolag  (partnership)  shall,  where  the  names  of  all  the 
members  of  the  company  are  not  contained  in  the  firm,  contain  the  name  of 
one  of  them,  with  some  addition  indicating  that  there  are  several  members. 

Notice  of  registration  shall  be  made  in  writing  prior  to  businesss  being  com- 
menced.    (Laws  of  1887  and  1895,  Ordinance  of  1887.) 

The  register  of  joint-companies  (aktiebolagsregister)  is  kept  by  the  Patents  and 
Registration  Office,  and  all  joint-stock  companies  are  obliged  to  file  their  firms  in 
this  register.  Joint-stock  companies  whose  articles  of  association  must  be  sub- 
mitted for  Government  sanction  (banking,  insurance,  railway  companies,  etc.,) 
are  registered  as  soon  the  required  sanction  has  been  obtained.  Other  com- 
panies are  filed  in  the  register  immediately  after  the  articles  of  association  have 
been  passed.  Alterations  in  the  constitution  of  the  company  shall  be  immediately 
submitted  for  registration.  (Laws  of  1903,  1910,  1911,  Ordinances  of  1903, 
1911.) 

The  ■  register  of  societies  (foreningsregister)  is  kept  by  the  Governor  of  the 
Lan.     (Law  of  1911,  and  Ordinance  of  1911.) 

The  statements  entered  in  the  register  shall  be  published  in  the  official 
gazette.  The  Patents  Office  issues  annually  a  serial  publication  containing  matter 
compiled  from  the  register.     (Ordinance  of  1911.) 

The  proprietor  of  a  firm  entered  in  the  handelsregister  may  empower  another 
to  act  on  his  behalf  and  sign  his  firm  by  procuration;  in  this  case  the  procura- 


702  xir.    SYNOPSIS  of  trade  and  industrial  legislation. 

tion  is  registrable.  Written  procuration  iniplies  that  the  procurator  is  authorized 
to  represent  his  principal  before  court  of  law  or  other  authority,  and  to  come 
to  terms  on  his  behalf.  However,  a  procurator  is  not  entitled  to  transfer  away 
the  real  property  of  his  principal  or  to  permit  it  to  be  mortgages.  Procuration 
conferring  more  limited  powers  than  the  above  is  not  registrable. 

Aliens. 

As  regards  the  right  of  aliens  to  carry  on  trade  in  Sweden,  a  certain 
amount  of  information  may  be  culled  from  the  above  account.  It  is  now 
proposed  to  gather  up  the  law  on  the  subject  into  a  brief  summarJ^  The 
general  rule  is  that  the  right  of  aliens  to  carry  on  trade,  industry,  handi- 
craft,, or  other  occupation  with  a  view  to  commercial  profit,  is  subject  to 
the  sanction  of  Grovernment. 

The  procedure  is  as  follows:  An  application  is  lodged  with  Konungens  Be- 
fallningshavande,  the  Governor  of  the  Lan,  accompanied  by  a  certificate 
showing  that  the  applicant  is  myndig,  that  is,  of  age  and  not  under  wardship, 
and  that  he  possesses  god  frejd,  a  good  character  (this  certificate  is  issued  by 
the  priest  of  the  district  in  which  one  resides).  Besides  this,  there  must  be  a 
borgen,  a  guarantor's  signature,  or  other  security,  for  the  due  payment  of  rates 
and  taxes  during  three  years.  The  application  must  state  the  town  or  place  in 
which  the  business  is  to  be  carried  on.  The  Governor  of  the  Lan,  having 
received  these  papers,  may  find  it  necessary  to  make  further  inquiries  about 
the  applicant  and  to  demand  explanations  on  certain  points.  He  then  forwards 
all  the  documents  with  his  own  comments  to  the  State  Department  of  Finance. 

When  the  intention  is  to  carry  on  any  such  business  as  a  blast  furnace,  a 
foundry,  a  forge,  an  iron  works,  or  other  establishment  intended  for  the  utili- 
zation of  refinement  of  the  products  of  the  mineral  kingdom,  and  not  in  the 
nature  of  a  handicraft,  notice  shall  be  given  not  to  the  Governor  of  the  Lan, 
but  to  Kommerskollegium,  the  Board  of  Trade  (see  above). 

The  license  to  carry  on  trade  or  other  occupation  for  commercial  profit  in- 
cludes the  right  to  transport  goods  between  places  in  Sweden  and  to  and  from 
places  abroad.  But  the  license  does  not  include  the  right  of  peddling 
(gdrdfarihandel),  nor  of  assisting  in  peddling.  Nor  does  the  license  include  the 
right  of  selling-off  stock  {realisation),  nor  of  assisting  therein,  without  a  special 
license  from  Government.  The  procedure  is  the  same  as  in  the  case  of  an 
application  for  trading  rights.  On  the  other  hand,  no  license  is  needed  for 
an  alien  to  hold  a  share  in  a  ship  Qreda  i  skepp)  but  his  share  must  not 
extend  to  more  than  a  third  of  the  tonnage  of  the  vessel,  and  he  shall  not  be 
the  principal  owner. 

Not  is  a  special  license  required  for  an  alien  to  ship  on  board  a  Swedish 
vessel,  subject,  however,  to  the  proviso,  that  in  shipping  on  board  a  vessel  in 
Sweden  itself,  the  crew  shall  not  consist  more  than  as  to  one  fourth  of 
aliens.  The  master  or  mate  shall  not  be  an  alien.  During  the  herring  season 
in  Bohuslan,  an  alien  who  is  desirous  of  purchasing  fish  for  exportation,  need 
only  give,  notice  to  that  effect  to  the  Idnsstyrelse  (lan  government),  or  to 
the  kronobetjdnt  (country  police  officer),  or  to  the  magistrat  (the  Magistracy). 
Thi§! ,  does'.* not  however  involve  the  right  to  cure  fish,  except  so  far  as  that 
may  he  necessary  for  the  preservation  of  the  fish  in  transit. 

An  alien  requires  a  Government  license  in  order  to  become  a  member  of  the 
board .  I  lOf  I  §,  (.(Swedish  joint-stock  company  or  a  registered  society.  An  alien  may 
not    be.  a.. i share-holder    in    a    joint-stock    banking    company  or  in  an  unlimited 


WEIGHTS   AND    MEASURES.  70S 

(soUdarish)  banking  company.  There  are  moreover  certain  railway  companies 
whose    articles    of  association  do  not  permit  a  foreigner  to  own  shares  in  them. 

Aliens  are  not  entitled  to  give  public  entertainments  or  to  take  part  in  them 
without  a  license,  for  which  application  must  be  made  to  the  police  authorities. 
License  is  not  granted  for  more  than  three  months  at  a  time.  An  indispen- 
sable condition  for  getting  a  license  of  this  kind  renewed  is  that  the  fee  on 
account  of  the  previous  license  shall  have  been  paid. 

There  is  nothing  to  prevent  a  foreigner  acting  as  a  procurator  for  a  joint- 
stock  company  or  a  registered  society. 

The  right  for  the  vessels  of  alien  nations  to  carry  on  cargo  trade  in  Sweden 
is  a  matter  of  treaty. 

It  has  been  stated  above  that  in  certain  cases  the  Swedish  law  requires  a 
foreigner  to  furnish  security  for  the  due  payment  of  his  rates  and  taxes,  for 
three  years.  When  the  three  years  period  has  expired,  he  will  be  obliged  to 
have  the  security  renewed  for  another  period  of  three  years,  if  he  wishes  to 
continue  in  the  enjoyment  of  his  license.  The  new  security  is,  as  before,  lodged 
with  the  Governor  of  the  Lan. 

During  the  days  of  the  Union  with  Norway,  Norwegian  subjects  were  in 
important  particulars,  placed  on  the  same  footing  as  Swedish  subjects.  With 
the  Dissolution  of  the  Union  in  1905,  these  privileges  ceased  to  exist.  However, 
the  new  regulations  did  not  have  retroactive  effect,  so  that  Norwegians  who 
had  already  acquired  property,  trading  rights,  or  other  privileges  in  Sweden,  are 
still  allowed  to  continue  in  the  enjoyment  of  those  rights. 


Weights  and  Measures. 

The  motley  ancient  Swedish  system  of  weights  and  measures,  for  the 
reform  of  which  a  variety  of  proposals  had  been  brought  on  the  carpet 
ever  since  the  days  of  Gustavus  III,  was  reformed  and  unified  in  1885, 
in  strict  accordance  with  the  decimal  system.  However,  the  new  measures 
which  had  scarcely  come  into  complete  operation  before  they  were 
superseded  by  the  adoption  of  the  metrical  system,  which  the  Riksdag- 
of  1876  carried  through. 

The  metrical  system  became  obligatory  from  1889.  However  it  has  been 
adopted  for  medical  purposes  as  early  as  1869,  and  in  the  Post  Office  as  early 
as  1873.  The  metrical  system  was  used  in  the  Customs  and  in  the  State 
Railways  in  1881. 

The  present  law  as  to  weights  and  measures  is  the  Ordinance  of  1885.  For 
commercial  purposes  no  other  instruments  shall  be  used  for  measuring  or 
weighing  but  those  that  have  been  tested  (justerade)  in  Sweden.  For  the 
purpose  of  testing  weights  and  measures,  Sweden  is  divided  into  53  justerings- 
distriU,  or  inspection  districts,  each  superintended  by  an  official  called  justerings- 
kontroUor,  assisted  by  subordinates  called  justerare.  The  supervisory  board  is 
the  Boyal  Mint  and  Assay  Office,  which  has  the  sole  right  of  testing  instru- 
ments of  precision. 

Sweden  sends  a  deputy  to  the  International  Bureau  of  'Weights  and  Measures^ 
founded  in  1875,  which  has  its  headquarters  at  Paris.  The  object  of  that  in- 
stitution is  to  furnish  States  who  have  adopted  the  metrical  system  with  stan- 
dard weights  and  measures,  and  to  determine  certain  technical  details  in  order 
to  attain  perfect  uniformity. 


704  XII.      SYNOPSIS    OF   TRADE    AND   INDUSTRIAL   LEGISLATION. 

Private  Organizations. 

Ill  certain  departments  connected  with  this  matter  attempts  have  been  made 
to  supply,  by  means  of  private  organizations,  vi'hat  is  lacking  in  the  provisions 
secured  by  legislation.  Of  great  importance  in  this  respect  are  the  Merchants' 
Associations  and  the  Swedish  Advocates'   Union. 

The  Merchants'  Associations,  of  which  the  most  important  are  the  Stockholm 
Merchants'  Association  (founded  in  1858)  and  the  Gothenburg  Merchants'  Associ- 
ation (founded  in  1857),  are  associations  of  wholesale  merchants  in  the  different 
places^  formed  with  the  object  of  protecting  the  members'  interests  in  the  matter 
of  insolvent  clients  and  of  preventing  or  reducing  the  losses  inseparable  from 
the  credit-system  which  prevails  in  the  wholesale  trade.  With  this  purpose  in 
view,  the  associations  have  organized  a  corps  of  reliable  legal  representatives  in 
different  places  in  the  country,  whose  duties  are  partly  to  collect  and  communi- 
cate information  about  the  traders  in  their  respective  districts,  partly  to  enforce 
payment  of  debts  and  to  conduct  legal  proceedings.  The  legal  representatives 
are  remunerated  according  to  a  fixed  scale.  In  the  case  of  a  trader  in  a  parti- 
cular district  suspending  payment  or  being  made  bankrupt,  the  legal  representative 
for  that  district  is  gerierally  entrusted  with  the  duty  of  winding  up  the  estate 
of  the  debtor.  A  list  of  the  legal  representatives  of  the  association  is  generally 
inserted  in  a  periodically  published  calendar  (e.  g.  The  Commercial  Calendar  of 
Sweden).  In  1907  the  activities  of  the  merchants'  associations  were  considerably 
extented  by  the  institution  by  the  Stockholm,  Gothenburg,  and  Malmo  associations 
of  so-called  Composition-  and  BanTcruptcy  departments.  Within  these  departments, 
bureaus  have  been  set  up,  which,  partly,  by  means  of  their  officials,  directly 
wind  up  the  estate  in  the  event  of  a  trader  in  -whom  the  members  of  the 
association  are  interested  compounding  with  his  creditors  or  being  adjudged 
bankrupt,  and  partly  examine  and  control  the  estate  by  means  of  inspectors. 
The  departments  co-operate  with  each  other,  but  each  one  has  a  special  district 
within  which  its  activities  are  exercised.  The  composition  and  bankruptcy  depart- 
ments have  proved   to  be  of  great  service  for  wholesale  trade.     (Cf.  p.  I,   324.) 

The  Swedish  Advocates'  Union  was  formed  in  the  year  1887  and  is  an  asso- 
ciation of  the  country's  professional  advocates.  The  union  has  a  governing  body 
in  .Stockholm,  which  conducts  the  affairs  of  the  union,  examines  applications 
for  membership,  exercises  disciplinary  authority  over  the  members  of  the  union, 
and  adjudicates  in  the  case  of  disputes  arising  between  advocates  and  their  clients 
as  to  the  remuneration  for  services  rendered.  The  members  of  the  union  bind 
themselves  to  accept  without  appeal  the  awards  made,  when  a  client  calls  for 
such  adjudication.  At  the  end  of  the  year  1914  and  the  beginning  of  the  year 
1915,  the  number  of  members  amounted  to  220,  residing  in  42  places;  of  these 
members,  101  were  in  Stockholm,  28  in  Gothenburg,  and  13  in  Malmo.  For  the 
guidance  of  the  public  in  the  choice  of  a  legal  representative,  the  union  publishes 
an  annual  list  of  its  members,  which  is  included  in  the  Swedish  State  Calendar. 
(Cf.  p.  I,  318). 

Patents. 

In  Sweden,  as  in  several  other  countries,  the  origin  of  the  patent  system 
can  be  traced  to  the  privileges,  called  privilegia  exclusiva,  which  the 
Government  in  earlier  times  granted  by  way  of  reward  and  encouragement 
to  a  person  who  had  either  made  some  invention  himself  which  could  be 
advantageously  employed  in  home  manufacture,  or  had  started  some  kind 
of  trade  which    had  hitherto  not  been  carried  on  in  Sweden. 


PATENTS.  705 

At  the  Riksdag  of  1809,  a  Bill  was  introduced  for  a  better  ordering  of  the 
system  by  which  privileges  for  inventions  were  conferred,  and  on  April  28,  1819, 
what  was  virtually  the  first  Patents  Law  in  Sweden  was  passed,  although  the 
Law  still  spoke  of  "privilegia  exdusiva".  For  many  reasons,  the  chief  of  which, 
perhaps,  was  the  preliminary  examination  required  by  the  Act  as  to  the  novelty 
and  utility  of  the  invention,  this  Ordinance  soon  aroused  much  dissatisfaction, 
and,  after  repeated  representations  from  the  Riksdag,  a  new  Ordinance  was 
promulgated  on  Dec.  13,  1834,  in  which  the  word  "privilege"  was  exchanged 
for  the  modern  term  "patent".  Under  this  Ordinance  patents  were  to  be  con- 
ferred without  a  preliminary  examination  as  to  novelty.  The  Swedish  Patents 
Ordinance  of  1819,  as  well  as  that  of  1834,  contained  a  clause  to  the  effect 
that,  if  no  objection  had  been  entered  against  a  patent  within  a  certain  time 
after  it  had  been  granted,  of  patents,  could  not  be  contested.  This  enactment, 
which  is  also  found  in  the  German  Patents  Act  of  1891,  was  excluded  from  the 
next  Swedish  Patents  Act,  issued  on  August  19,  1856. 

As  industrial  activity  in  Sweden  rapidly  developed  in  the  late  sixties  and  early 
seventies  of  the  last  century,  and  inventors  began  to  a  greater  extent  to  resort 
to  the  protection  of  patents  the  defects  of  the  patents  law  of  1856  became  more 
clearly  apparent,  and  the  demands  on  the  part  of  industrial  interest  for  a  more 
effectual  and  more  modern  patent  system  grew  increasingly  insistent.  After 
thorough  preliminary  investigations,  proposals  were  at  last  drafted,  which  were 
accepted  l^y  the  Riksdag  of  18S4,  and  received  the  Royal  Assent  on  May  16,  of 
the  same  year.  This  statute,  which  came  into  force  on  January  1,  1885,  is  the 
present  Patents  Act.  It  has  since  been  amended  in  certain  particulars  so  as  to 
render  the  protection  afforded  by  patents  more  effectual,  and  to  facilitate  the 
obtaining  and  maintenance  of  patents. 

Patents  are  granted  in  Sweden  for  new  inventions  of  industrial  products  or 
special  methods  for  their  production.  If  the  invention  relates  to  foods  or  drugs, 
protection  cannot  be  obtained  for  the  article  itself,  but  only  for  a  special  pro- 
cess for  manufacturing  the  same.  Inventions  which  are  contrary  to  law  or  mo- 
ralitj'  are,  however,  excluded  from  protection.  Xone  but  the  inventor  or  his 
assignee  are  entitled  to   a  patent. 

Before  a  patent  can  be  granted,  the  novelty  of  the  invention  is  examined 
into  by  the  Boyal  Patents  and  Registration  Office,  the  documents  of  app- 
lication being  kept  accessible  for  inspection  by  the  public  for  two  months, 
and  it  being  open  to  any  one  during  that  time  to  oppose  the  grant  of  the 
patent. 

The  duration  of  a  patent  in  Sweden  is  15  years,  reckoned  from  the  date  of 
application.  As  in  most  other  countries,  annual  fees  have  to  be  paid  on  penalty 
of  the  patent  becoming  invalid.  In  Sweden,  however,  these  fees  are  very  mo- 
derate. 20  kroner  are  paid  on  filing  the  application,  and  afterwards  25  kroner 
a  year  up  to  and  inclusive  of  the  fifth  following  year,  50  kroner  for  each 
of  the  five  years  next  succeeding,  and  finally  75  kroner  for  each  of  the 
remaining  five  years.  Thus,  the  total  sum  required  for  maintaining  the  patent 
rights  for  the  whole  term  of  the  patent  amounts  to  745  kroner.  To  be  per- 
fectly accurate,  however,  there  is  in  addition  to  this  a  stamp  fee  of  10  kroner 
for  the  letters  patent.  The  Patents  Law  of  Sweden  does  not  allow  of  any  re- 
duction of  or  dispensation  from  these  fees. 

The  patentee  is  under  obligation  to  work  his  invention  in  Sweden  to  an  extent 
conformable  to  conditions  prevailing  in  that  country.  If  he  neglects  so  to  do, 
any  person  desirous  of  obtaining  permission  to  work  the  invention  in  despite 
of  the  patent  may  bring  an  action  against  the  patentee  before  the  City  Court  of 
Stockholm,  but  not  until  the  expiration  of  three  years  from  the  granting  of  the 
patent.     If  the    Court  is  satisfied  as  to  the  justice  of  his  claim,  it  gTants  such 

ib— 133179.   Sweden.  11. 


706  XII.      SYNOPSIS   OF   TRADE   AND   INDUSTRIAL    LEGISLATION. 

Table  143.     Patent  Applications  filed  in  Sweden  during  1885 — 1913. 


Classes  o£  industry 


The  inventor 
domiciled 


Total 


Classes  of  industry 


The  inventor 
domiciled 


Swe- 
den 


Total 


Refrigerating  devices  . 
Baking  industry  .  .  . 
Clothing  industry  .    .    . 

Illumination 

Bleaching,  dying,  calen- 
dering (of  textile  pro- 
ducts)     

Blowing   machines   and 

ventilators 

Bookbinding  and  books 

Brush    and    paintbrush 

manufacture    .... 

Fuel 

Fireplace  devices  .  .  . 
Electrotechuics  .... 
Explosives    and    match 

industry 

Fats  and  mineral  oils  . 
Plaiting  and  knitting  . 

Photography 

Colours  and  dyes,  varni- 
shes and  other  paints 
Articles  of  Food     .    .    . 
Tanning  and  currying  . 

Gas  making 

Casting    and    moulding 

(of  metals) 

Glass  industry  .... 
Mining      and      mining 

structures    

Manures 

Travelling  utensils    .    . 
Hat  manufacture   .    .    . 
Hygienics  and  sick  nur- 
sing   

Building  industries    .    . 
Instruments  and  measu- 
ring apparatus   .    .    . 
Iron    and    steel   manu- 
facture       

Railways  and  Tramways 
Chemical  apparatus  and 

processes  

Controlling  and  regist- 
ring  devices  .... 
Haberdashery  .... 
Milling  industry  .  .  . 
Agriculture,  forestry,  and 

gardening     

Clay,  brick  and  tile, 
cement  and  stone  in- 
dustries     

Lifting  devices  .... 
Locks,  bolts,  fittings  . 
Ore    concentration    and 

refining 

Machine  Parts  .... 
Sundry  materials  .  .  . 
Metal  work,  chemical   . 


101 
184 
183 
495 


281 

41 
156 

80 

331 

291 

1067 

151 

112 

52 

■    69 

126 

3.S9 

43 

215 

95 
59 

87 

90 

149 

45 

292 
476 

616 

204 
465 

362 

187 
288 
182 

2S49 


334 
179 

641 

165 

1222 

73 

29 


115 
102 
230 

719 


378 

136 
98 

75 

268 

562 

2  735 

427 

229 

81 

197 

202 
580 
131 
453 

196 
205 

115 
93 

116 
32 

446 
478 

704 


293 
951 

497 
1416 

1240 

1602 

265 
232 
239 

452 
620 
421 

1083 

3932 

670 
137 
304 

lOOi 
316 
945 

204 

1036 

299 

133 

369 

2258 
372 
162 

216  Metal  work,  mechanical 
Metal    wire   and  metal- 
sheet  manufacture 
Metallurgy  and  smelting 

Motors 

Musical  instruments  .    . 
Furniture  and  domestic 

utensils 

Paper  articles  and  paper 
work     ....... 

Paper    and   wood   pulp 
manufacture    .... 

Presses 

Pumps 

Regulators     for     power 

engines 

Rope  making 

Life  saving  and  salvage 
Saddlery,   carriages,  bi- 
cycles    

Salesmanship 

Harness     and    carriage 

gear 

Signalling 

Ship-building  and  navi- 
gation    

Firearms,    armour,  am- 
munition   

Boot    and    shoe   manu- 
facture   

Writing     and     drawing 

materials 

Cutting  tools 

Slaughtering    and  meat 

curing 

Grinding  and  polishing 
Sugar  industry  .... 
Spinning  and  carding  . 
Sports  and  athletics 
Spinning  fibres  and  their 

treatment 

Sewing  machines  .    .    . 

Devices    for  tapping  or 

bottling  and  retailing 

liquids 

Tobacco  industry  .    .    . 
Drying  apparatus  .    .    . 

Transport 

Printing   and  stamping 
Wood    working  and  re- 
fining     

Heating  devices  .... 
Waic'.!  making   .... 

Water  works 

Water  closets  and  drai- 
nage   

Water  and  wind  motors 

Tools 

Textile  industry  .  .  . 


412 
1214 


659 

177 
254 

155 

599 

853 

3802 

578 
341 
133 


919 
174 

668 

291 
264 

202 
183 

265 

77 

738 
954 

1320 


661 

15 
379 
694 
212 

1892 

121 

242 

30 

199 

56 
11 

167 

825 
232 

201 
177 

404 

394 

233 

262 
106 

45 
93 
60 
45 
355 

18 
64 


406 
25 

228 
412 
187 

862 

828 

80 

40 

139 

160 

204 

82 


1112 

58 
717 
709 
131 

795 

234 

650j 

691 

197' 

63i 

251 

183; 

10461 
255,' 

78i 

2231 

1 

616j 

1 191,' 

565 


1773 

73 

1096 

14 

343 

2  687 

355 


396 

119 

36 

350 

1871 
487 

279 

400 

1020 
1585 

798 


142 

404 

68 

174 

56 

101 

98 

191 

233 

293 

141 

186 

284 

639 

77 

95 

181 

245 

537 

943 

166 

191 

193 

421 

360 

772 

632 

819 

603 

1465 

527 

1355 

80 

160 

88 

128 

140 

279 

138 

298 

1«8 

372 

218 

300 

TRADE-MARKS.  707 

Table  143  (cont.)    Patent  Applications  filed  in  Sweden  during  1885—1913. 


Classes  of  industry 

The  inventor 
domiciled 

Total 

Classes  of  industry 

The  inventor 
domiciled 

Total 

in 

Sweden 

abroad 

in 
Sweden 

abroad 

Construction   of   Roads 
Steam  engines    .... 
Steam  boilers      .... 

198 
331 

238 

181 
512 

482 

379 
843 
710 

Brewing    and    distilling 
Total 

87 

255 

342 

26095 

32666 

58  761 

concession,  with  such  restrictions  and  conditions  and  against  such  compensation 
as  it  deems  to  be  fair  and  reasonable. 

Thus,  under  this  enactment,  which  was  embodied  in  the  Act  of  May  9,  1902, 
the  patentee  does  not  actually  lose  his  patent  by  neglecting  to  work  it,  as  was 
formerly  the  case  in  Sweden,  and  is  still  so  in  most  other  countries,  but  merely 
exposes  himself  to  the  risk  of  a  compulsory  license  (tvangslicens)  being  ordered 
by  the  Court. 

Legislation  in  Sweden  has  thus  solved,  and,  as  experience  seems  to  show, 
happily  solved  the  difficult  question  how,  without  prejudice  to  the  interests  of 
home  industries,  to  enforce  obligation  of  working  a  patent  in  such  a  manner 
that  the  obligation  shall  not  be  unnecessarily  onerous  to  the  patentee  to  fulfil, 
nor  yet  shall  render  the  validity  of  the  patent  precarious. 

When  an  action  for  a  compulsory  license  is  brought  before  the  City  Court 
of  Stockholm,  three  experts  on  industrial  questions  besides  the  qualified  number 
of  judges  shall  sit  and  have  a  vote  in  the  Court,  these  experts  annually  being 
nominated  by  the  patent  authorities. 

We  see  here  the  germ  of  a  special  court  for  actions  relating  to  industrial 
rights  of  property. 

The  Table  143  gives  a  summary  of  the  number  of  patent  applications 
filed  at  the  Patents-Office,  distributed  over  the  various  classes  of  indu- 
stries. 

It  may  be  well  to  mention  that  Swedish  legislation  relating  to  com- 
mercial and  industrial  rights  of  property  as  a  whole,  that  is  not  merely  to 
patents  but  also  to  trade-marks,  patterns,  and  models,  is  at  present  in 
process  of  revision  by  a  Committee  specially  appointed  by  the  Grovern- 
ment.  This  Committee  has  also  drafted  a  proposal  for  a  reorganization 
of  the  Royal  Patents  and  Eegistration  Office,  which  reorganization  was  ift 
the  main  accepted  in  the  present  year  by  the  Government  and  Riksdag  and 
will  come  into  force  at  the  beginning  of  the  year  1915. 

Another  question  which  is  the  subject  of  investigation  by  the  same 
Committee  is  that  of  what  legislative  measures  can  be  adopted  to  obviate 
"unfair  competition"  (illo^al  konkurrens)  and  to  prevent  the  false  de- 
scription of  goods. 

Trade-Marks. 

After  the  gradual  abolition  of  most  of  the  ancient  Guild  statutes  or  ordinances 
relating  to  manufactures  and  crafts,  and  containing  numerous  provisions  as  to 
stamps  and  marks  to  be  affixed  to  goods,  manufacturers  and  tradesmen  were 
allowed,    by  the  Eoyal  Proclamation  of  June  13,  1862,  at  their  option,  to  affix 


708  XII.      SYNOPSIS   OF   TRADE    AND    INDUSTRIAL   LEGISLATION. 

their  own  stamps  or  marks  to  their  goods,  and  to  advertize  publicly  the  appearance 
and  nature  of  those  stamps  or  marks.  However,  the  protection  which  a  trades- 
man could  expect  for  his  trade-mark,  on  the  ground  of  the  Royal  Proclaniation 
of  1862  and  of  certain  clauses  in  the  Criminal  Law,  was  very  precarious,  and  ac- 
cording as  trade  expanded  and  the  sphere  of  commercial  operations  was  extended, 
the  drawbacks  of  the  inadequate  protection  afforded  by  trade-marks  made  them- 
selves more  and  more  acutely  felt.  To  remedy  these  defects,  a  committee  was 
appointed  by  the  Government  to  draft  new  proposals  for  securing  more  effectual 
protection  to  trade-marks,  but  these  proposEils  did  not  lead  to  any  result,  as  in 
the  meantime  events  had  taken  another  turn.  The  fact  was  that,  on  the 
initiative  of  the  Swedish  Riksdag,  the  three  Scandinavian  kingdoms,  Sweden, 
Norway,  and  Denmark,  had  entered  into  joint  legislatory  action,  which  had 
resulted  in  uniform  bills-of-exchange  laws  being  enacted  for  the  three  countries. 
It  was  now  found  desirable  to  pursue  the  same  policy  also  with  respect  to  trade- 
marks legislation,  and,  accordingly,  a  joint  committee  was  appointed,  which  drew 
up  proposals,  uniform  in  all  essential  points,  for  trade-marks  legislation  for  the 
three  countries.  After  some  slight  amendments,  the  Swedish  proposals  were 
accepted  by  the  Riksdag  of  1884  and  came  into  force  on  Jan.  1,  1885.  This 
act,  as  amended  by  subsequent  acts  of  March  5,  1897,  June  16,  1905,  and 
August  7,  1914,  is  still  in  force. 

The  right  of  property  in  a  trade-mark,  at  Swedish  law,  is  acquired  by  the 
registration  of  the  mark.  Everyone  carrying  on  within  the  Kingdom  manu- 
facturing business,  handicraft,  agriculture,  mining,  trade,  or  any  other  form  of 
commercial  occupation,  is  entitled  to  acquire  by  registration  the  exclusive  right 
to  the  use  of  a  special  trade-mark,  to  serve  as  a  distinctive  mark  of  his  goods, 
in  the  open  market.  The  registration  need  not  be  restricted  to  certain  classes 
of  goods.  Trade-marks  are  non-registrable,  in  which  the  name  of  another  person 
or  another  firm  than  that  of  the  applicant,  or  the  name  of  another  person's  real 
property  is  inserted,  or  which,  unauthorized,  contain  public  arms  or  stamps,  or 
representations  which  might  give  rise  to  offence  or  which  exactly  immitate  other 
marks  already  registered,  or  which  so  closely  resemble  such  marks,  though  diffe- 
rent in  certain  particulars,  as  to  be  calculated  to  deceive.  A  trade-mark  is  non- 
registrable  which  consists  only  of  numerals,  letters,  or  words  which  are  not  so 
distinguished  by  their  peculiar  form  or  shape  that  they  can  be  considered  a  di- 
stinctive mark.  However,  if  the  word  may  be  deemed  to  be  a  specially  invented 
name  for  certain  classes  of  goods  and  to  have  no  reference  to  the  origin  of  the 
articles  in  question,  or  their  nature,  use,  quantity,  or  price,  it  is  registrable  as 
a  trade-mark. 

The  registration  fee  is  40  kroner  and  the  duration  10  years,  renewable  from 
time  to  time  for  a  period  of  ten  years  on  payment  of  a  renewal  fee  of  10  kroner. 

A  foreign  manufacturer  is  entitled  to  register  and  protect  his  trade-mark 
only  insofar  as  he  belongs  to  a  foreign  country  which  has  entered  into  a  special 
convention  with  Sweden  in  this  regard.  He  is  obliged,  as  in  the  case  of  a 
patent,  to  have  resident  within  the  country  an  agent  authorized  to  accept  respon- 
sibility on  his  behalf  in  all  matters  relating  to  his  trade-mark,  which,  however, 
will  not  be  protected  to  a  greater  extent,  or  for  a  longer  term,  than  in  the 
foreign  country  in  question. 

Gold  and  silver  wares  must  bear  the  official  stamp  —  three  crowns.  Moreover, 
the  article  must  be  furnished  with  the  name  of  the  manufacturer,  the  place 
of  manufacture,  and  the  date,  before  the  hall-mark  can  be  affixed.  The  super- 
vision of  hall-marking  is  vested  in  the  Royal  Mint,  with  which,  since  the  year 
1910,  has  been  incorporated  the  Royal  Assay  Office,  established  as  early  as 
1753.     For  further  information  see  pp  462,  664. 

In    Sweden,  the  stamping  of  iron  and  steel  goods  is  also  compulsory.     Every 


DESIGNS   AND   MODELS.  709 

works  for  the  blowing  of  pig  iron  or  works  for  the  preparation  of  pig  iron  as 
wrought  iron  or  steel,  or  for  the  preparation  of  steel,  or  for  any  other  coarse 
iron  manufacture,  must  have  a  registered  stamp  as  prescribed  by  the  Trade-Marks 
Act,  with  which  its  products  are  to  be  marked,  and  penalties  are  fixed  for 
omission  to  stamp  iron  or  steel  goods,  as  well  as  for  the  use  of  marks  belonging 
to  other  iron  works. 


Designs  and  Models. 

The  same  committee  whose  preparatory  investigations  form  the  foundation  of 
the  present  patents  and  trade-marks  acts,  was  also  commissioned  by  Government 
to  draft  a  Bill  for  measures  to  secure  adequate  protection  against  the  repro- 
duction of  designs  and  models.  Whereas  the  question  of  new  legislation  for 
patents  and  trade-marks  was  satisfactorily  settled  as  early  as  1884,  models  and 
designs  have,  chiefly  owing  to  the  stout  opposition  of  textile  manufacturers, 
remained  without  legal  protection  down  to  Jan.  1,  1900,  and  the  protection 
now  afforded  relates  only  to  one  branch  of  industry  —  the  metal  industry. 
That  industry  had  repeatedly  made  urgent  applications  for  the  protection  of 
designs  and  it  was  impossible  to  doubt  its  earnestness  in  the  matter. 

The  Swedish  law  relating  to  designs  applies  only  to  so  called  ornamental 
designs  and  ornamental  models  and  is  based  on  the  principle  of  a  precedent 
examination  as  to  novelty.  The  parties  entitled  to  protection  are  inventors  of 
designs  or  their  assigns,  and  registration  is  granted  both  to  Swedes  and  foreigners, 
irrespective  of  whether  Swedes  can  claim  a  corresponding  advantage  abroad.  If 
the  applicant  is  not  resident  in  the  country,  he  must  have  a  representative 
residing  in  the  country  authorized  to  accept  responsibility  on  his  behalf  in  all 
matters  relating  to  his  rights  to  protection.  The  duration  is  five  years  from 
the  filing  of  the  application,  and  the  law  does  not  make  mention  of  any  exten- 
sion of  the  term.  The  fee  for  registration  is  10  kroner,  paid  once  and  for  all. 
The  registration  is  public,  and  the  general  nature  of  the  design  must  be  stated 
in  the  application,  which  must  also  be  accompanied  by  three  copies  of  a  repre- 
sentation of  the  design  or  model. 


XIIT. 


SWEDEN 
IN    FOREIGN   LITERATURE 


A  Short  Bibliographical  List  of  Books,  mostly  of  recent  date,  concerning  Sweden 
and  written  principally  in  English,  French,  or  German.  State  papers,  official 
congress  proceedings  and  consular  reports  not  being  entered,  with  few  exceptions, 
nor  articles  of  cyclopsedias  and  essays  of  periodicals.  Also  the  very  confined 
space  has  made  necessary  the  omission  of  more  than  one  work  perhaps  as  valu- 
able as  other  ones  mentioned  here.  —  As  to  Swedish  books  on  the  same  matter 
refer  to  Svenskt  boklexikon  1830 — 1865,  utarb.  av  Hj.  LiNNSTROM.  1 — 3 
Stockholm  1883—84;  Svensk  bokkatalog.  1  (1866-1875)— 6  (1906-1910). 
Stockholm  1878 — 1913;  other  bibliographical  sources  see  Almquist,  J.  A.,  Sve- 
riges  bibliografiska  litteratur.     1  —  3.     Stockholm  1904 — 1912. 

At  last  it  ought  to  be  mentioned  that  this  bibliographical  list  is  based  chiefly 
upon  the  collections  of  the  Royal  National  Library  in  Stockholm. 


Index. 


General  Handbooks. 

Country  and  People. 

Geography. 

Travels. 

The  Swedish  People. 

Archseology.  —  History.  —  Demography  besides  Language;  Dictionaries. 
—  National  Characteristics  including  Customs  and  Manner  of  Living. 

Constitution  and  Administration. 

Constitution.  —  State  Administration,  including  Official  Statistics,  State 
Finances,  Consular  Office,  Prison  System.  —  Municipal  Administra- 
tion. —  Law.  —  Eeligion  and  Church. 

Education  and  Mental  Culture. 

Education.  —  Sloyd.  —  Swedish  Gymnastics.  —  Sport.  —  Public 
Collections  and  Institutions  for  Science  and  Art.  —  History  of 
Literature.   —  The  Fine  Arts.  —  Music.  —  Science. 

Social    Movements,    including    Labour    Questions,    Women's  Eights,  Tem- 
perance Movement,  Hygiene,   etc. 

Economy. 

A  General  Survey. 

Agriculture  and  Cattle-Br ceding. 

Mining  Industry  and  Metal  Production. 

Manufacturing  Industries. 

Commerce,  including  Shipping. 

Credit  Establishments. 


714  Xlir.      SWEDEN   IN   FOREIGN   LITERATURE. 


General  Handbooks. 

Sweden,  its  People  and  its  Industry.   Historical  and  statistical  handbook  ed.  by 

Oustav  Sundbdrg.     Stockholm  1904.     XI,  1141  pp.  8vo. 
La  Suede,  son  peuple  et  son  Industrie.     Expose  historique  et  statistique,  publ. 

par    ordre    du  gouvemement,  red.  par  Oustav  Sundbdrg.     Stockholm  1900. 

IX,   437  +  528,  XX  pp.  Bvo. 
Schweden.     Historisch-statistisches  Handbuch,  im  Auftrage  der  Kgl.  Regierung 

herausg.  von  J.   Guinchard.     2.  Aufl.,  deutsche  Ausg.  T.   1 — 2.    Stockholm 
■     1913.     XXIII,  850  +  XI,  807  pp.  8vo. 

Country  and  People. 

Geography. 

Sweden  ed.  by  The  Swedish  Touring  Club.  With  17  maps  and  7  plans.  2d  rev. 

ed.     London  1906.     LXIV,  238  pp.  8vo. 

The  Swed.  Touring  Club's  Guides.    7. 
Schweden,  Reisehandbuch    mit   staatlicher  Unterstiitzung  herausg.  vom  Schwe- 

dischen   Touristenverein.  Mit  36  Kart.  u.  Planen.   2:e,  durchaus  neu  bearb. 

Aufl.    pWEit    Nachtrage    u.    Berichtigungen.    1906].     Stockholm  1900.     VIII, 

416  +  VIII  pp.  8vo. 

Svenska  turistforenlngens  resehandbiicker.    6. 
Sweden.     A  Short  Handbook  on  Sweden's  History,  Industries,  Social  Systems, 

Sport,  Art,  Scenery,  etc.  Ed.  by  The  Swedish  Tourist  Traffic  Society.  Stock- 
holm 1906.     178  pp.,  10  pL,  1  map  8vo. 
Schweden.     Ein     kurzer    Fiihrer    durch    Schwedens    Geschichte,     Wirtschafts- 

gebiete,    soziale    Verhaltnisse,    Unterrichtswesen,    Sport,   Kunst,   Natur  etc. 

Hrsg.    von    Verein  zur  Forderung  des  Fremdenverkehrs.     Stockholm  1906. 

163  pp.,  10  pi.,  1  map  8vo. 
B^DEKER,    K.,    Norway,    Sweden,   and  Denmark.      Handbook  for  Travellers.  62 

maps,    42    plans.   [With    Sketch  of  Grammar.]  10th  ed.  Leipzig  1912.     LX, 

478  +  38  pp.  8vo. 

—  Suede    et  Norvege,  routes  a  travers  le  Danemark.     Manuel  du  voyageur.  44 

cartes,    26    plans.      [Avec    Petit    manuel  de  conversation.]  4  ed.  Leipzig  & 

Paris  1911.     LII,   535  +  44  pp.   8vo. 
- —  Schweden,    Norwegen    nebst    den    Reiserouten  durch  Danemark.     Handbuch 

fiir    Reisende.    62  Karten,  42  Planen.  [Mit  Sprachlehre.]  12.  Aufl.  Leipzig 

1911.     LXVIII,  516  +  40  pp.  8vo. 
Strindberg,    a.,    Schwedische    Natur.    3.    Aufl.     Berlin    &    Leipzig   o.  J.  110 

pp.,  1  pi.  8vo. 
Laurin,    C,    Sweden  through  the  Artist's  Eye.  [Englished  by  Orenville  Grove.] 

Stockholm   1911.      62  pp.   4to. 

—  La  Suede  vue  par  ses  peintres.     [Trad,  par  F.  Schulthess.]  Stockholm   1911. 

64  pp.  4to. 

—  Schweden    im    Augfe    des    Kiinstlers.     [Ubers.    von    H.    Buergel  Ooodwin\. 
Stockholm  1911.  64  pp.  4to. 


TRAVELS.      ARCHEOLOGY.  715 

Maury,  L.,  Stockholm  et  Upsal.  Ulustr.  de  128  gravures.  Paris  1913.  148  pp.  8vo. 

Les  villea  d'art  celibres. 
Kerp,  H.,  Landeskunde  von  Skandinavien  (Schweden,  Norwegen  und  Danemark). 

11  Abbild.,  1  Kart.     Leipzig  1904.     138  pp.  8vo. 

Sammlung  Goachen. 
HOGBOM,    A.   Q.,  Fennoskandia  (Skandinavien  und  Finland).     Heidelberg  1913. 

197  pp.,  1  pi.  8vo. 

Handbttch  der  regionalen  Geologie,  hiBg.  von  G.  Steinmann  &  0.  Wilckens.  Bd  4:  Abt.  3. 
Sveriges    geologiska    undersokning.     Maps    and    Memoirs    on    Swedish    Geology. 

A    catalogue,    publ.    by    the  Geological   Survey  of  Sweden.  Stockholm 

1910.     132  pp.,  2  maps   8vo. 

Travels. 

Bertolini,  G.,  L'anima  del  Nord.  Studi  e  viaggi  attraverso  Norvegia,  Svezia  e 
Danimarca.  Milano  1908.  XVI,  442  pp.   8vo. 

—  Die  Seele  des  Nordens.  Studien  und  Reisen  durch  Norwegen,  Schweden 
und  Danemark.  tjbertr.  von  A.  Mac  Lean.  Mit  20  Abb.  Berlin  1910. 
XII,  335  pp.  8vo. 

Du  Chaillu,  p.,  The  Land  of  the  Long  Night.  Illustr.  London  1900.  XVIII, 
266  pp.,   24  pi.   8vo. 

—  The  Land  of  the  Midnight  Sun :  summer  and  winter  journeys  through  Sweden. 
With  descriptions  of  the  inner  life  of  the  people.  Vol.  1 — 2.  London 
18"81.     8vo. 

—  Le  pays  du  soleil  de  minuit.  Voyages  d'ete  en  Suede,  en  Norvege,  en  La 
ponie  et  dans  la  Finlande  septentrionale.  Paris  1882.  IV,  503  pp.,  1  pi. 
8vo. 

—  Im  Lande  der  Mitternachts-Sonne.      Sommer-  und  Winterreisen.     Frei  iibers. 

von  A.  Helms.     Bd  1—2.     Leipzig  1882.     8vo. 
Marmier,    X.,     Lettres    sur   le  Nord.     Danemark — Suede — Norvege — Laponie — 

Spitzberg.     6  ed.     Paris  1890.     X,  479  pp.  8vo. 
Thomas,  W.  jun.,  Sweden  and  the  Swedes.    Illustr.    Chicago  &  New  York  1893. 

749  pp.,  1  map   8vo. 

-X- 

Laserlof,  S.,  The  Wonderful  Adventures  of  Nils.  From  the  Swedish.  Transl.  by 
V.    S.  Eoivard.     Illustr.  [1—2].     London  &  New  York  1908—11.  8vo. 
2.]  Further  adventures  of  Nils.  1911. 

—  Le  merveilleux  voyage  de  Nils  Holgersson  a  travers  la  Suede.  Trad,  par 
T.  Hammar.     Preface  de  L.  Maury.     Paris  1912.     XVII,  408  pp.   8vo. 

—  Wunderbare  Reise  des  kleinen  Nils  Holgersson  mit  den  Wildgiinsen.  Ubers. 
von  P.  Klaiber.     Volksausg.     Bd  1  —  2.     Miinchen  [1913].   8vo. 

The  Swedish  People. 
Archaeology. 

Nilsson,  S.,  The  Primitive  Inhabitants  of  Scandinavia.  An  essay  on  compara- 
tive ethnography.  3d  ed.,  rev.  by  the  author.  Ed.  and  with  an  introduc- 
tion by  J.  Luhhock.     London  1868.     LXXIX,   272  pp.,  XVI  pi.  8vo. 

—  Les  habitants  primitifs  de  la  Scandinavie.  Essai  d'ethnographie  comparee, 
materiaux  pour  servir  a  I'histoire  du  developpement  de  I'homme.  P.  1.  Pans 
1868.  XXIir,  323  pp.,  XVII  pi.  8vo. 

1.  L'age  de  ]a  pierre.     Trad,  [par  J.  H.  Kramer']. 

—  Das  Steinalter  oder  die  Ureinwohner  des  scandinavischen  Nordens.  Em 
Versuch  in  der  comparativen  Ethnographic  iibers.  von  J.  Mestorf.  Ham- 
burg  1868.     XXVII,   190  pp.,  XVI  pi.   8vo. 


716  XIII.      SWEDEN    m   FOREIGN   LITERATURE. 

NiLSSON,  S.,  Die  Ureinwohner  des  scandinavischen  Nordens.    Ein  Versuch  in  der 

comparativen  Ethnographie.    Ubers.  [von  J.  Mestorf].    2.,  mit  2  Nachtr.  verm. 

Ausg.    1  +  Nachtrag  1—2.  Hamburg  1865 — 66.  175  pp.,  5  pi.  +  128  pp.  8vo. 

1.  Das  Bronzealter.     1866. 
MONTELIUS,   0.,  The  Civilisation  of  Sweden  in  Heathen  Times.  Transl.  by  F.  H. 

Woods.     With    map  &  205  ill.     London  1888.     XVI,  214  pp.,  1   map    8vo. 

—  Les  temps  prehistoriques  en  Suede  et  dans  les  autres  pays  scandinaves. 
Ouvrage  trad,  par  S.  Reinach.     Paris  1895.     VI,    352  pp.,  XX  pi.,  1  map  8vo. 

—  Kulturgeschichte  Schwedens  von  den  altesten  Zeiten  bis  zum  11.  Jahrhun- 
dert  nach  Christus.     Mit  540  Abb.     Leipzig  1906.  336  pp.  8vo. 

HiLDEBRAND,  H.,  Das  heidnische  Zeitalter  in  Schweden.  Eine  archesologisch- 
historische  Studie.  Ubers.  von  J.  Mestorf.  Mit  44  Holzschnitten.  Hamburg 
873.     Xll,  228  pp.,  1  map  8vo. 

—  The  Industrial  Arts  of  Scandinavia  in  the  Pagan  Time.  With  woodcuts. 
London  1883.     VIII,  150  pp.  8vo. 

South  Kensington  Mnseam  Art  Handbooks. 
WiMMER,  L.,  Die  Runenschrift.     Vom   Verf.  urngearb.  und  verm.  Ausg.     Ubers. 
von  F.  Holthausen.     Berlin  1887.     XXIV,  392  pp.,  3  pi.  8vo. 

History. 

Bain,  R.  N.,  Scandinavia.     A  political  history  of  Denmark,  Norway  and  Sweden 

from  1513  to   1900.     Cambridge  1905.     VII,  460  pp.,   5   maps  8vo. 

Cambridge  Historical  Series. 
Stepansson,    J.,  Sweden  and  Denmark   with  Chapters  on  Finland  and  Iceland. 

London  1914.  Svo. 

The  Story  of  the  Nations. 
Frtxell,    a..    The  History    of  Sweden.     Transl.    [by  A.  von  Schoultz].     Ed.   by 

M.  Howitt.     Vol.  1  —  2.     London   1844.  Svo. 

—  Erzahlungen  aus  der  schwedischen  Geschichte.  Ubers.  von  T.  Homberg. 
Th.   1—2.     Stockholm   &  Leipzig  1843.  8vo. 

Gbijer,  E.   G.,  The  History  of  the  Swedes.  Transl.    by  J.  H.  Turner.  Portion  1. 
London  n.  d.     XVI,   348  pp.   8vo. 
1.     From  the  earliest  period  to  the  accession  of  Charles  x. 

—  Histoire  de  Suede.  Trad,  par  J.  F.  de  Lundblad.  Paris  1839.  538  pp., 
1   map    Svo. 

Collection  d'histoires  completes  de  tons  les  Etats  europeena. 

—  Geschichte  Schwedens.     Aus  der  schwedischen  Handschrift  des  Verf.  iibers. 
von  S.  P.  Leffler.     Bd  1—3   [—1654].     Hamburg  1832—36.   Svo. 
Geschichte    der    europ.    Staaten    hrsg.    von    A.  H.  L.  Heeren  k  F.  A.   Ukert.     Lief. 

7:  2,  9:  2.  12:  1.     (Bd  4—6.  Carlson,  F.  F.,  Geschichte  Schwedens.  Bd4— 6.  1856— 
87.    Bd  7.     Stavenow,  L.   V.  A.,  Geschichte  Schwedens  1718—1772.     1908.) 
Carlson,  F.  F.,  Geschichte  Schwedens.     Aus  der  schwedischen  Handschrift  des 
Verf.    iibers.    von  J.  E.  Petersen.     Bd  4—6  [1654—1706].     Gotha  1855^ 
87.  Svo. 

Geschichte   der   europ.    Staaten,   hrsg.    von  A.  H.  L.  Heeren  u.  F.  A.   Ukert.    Lief. 
29:  1,    36:  1,  48:   1.     (Bd    1—3.     Geijer,  E.  G.,  Geschichte  Schwedens.  1882—36. 
Bd  7.     Stavenow,  L.   V.  A.,  Geschichie  Schwedens  1718—1772.     1908.) 
Stavenow,  L.,  Geschichte  Schwedens  1718 — 1772.     Deutsch  von  C.  Koch.     7:er 
Bd  der    Gesamtgeschichte   Schwedens.     Gotha  1908.     XX,  443  pp.    Svo. 
Allgem.    Staatengeschichte.     Hrsg.    von  J{.    Lamprecht.     Abt.  1:  Werk  8.     (Bd  1 — 3. 
Geijer,   E.    G.,  Geschichte  Schwedens.     1832—36.    Bd  4-6.   Carlson  F.  F.,  Ge- 
schichte Schwedens.    1855—87.) 
Wittmann,  p.,  Kurzer  Abriss  der  schwedischen  Geschichte.     Breslau,  1896.    VI, 

96  pp.  Svo. 
Hbidenstam,  V.  von,  Die  Schweden  und  ihre  Hauptlinge.    Ein  Buch  fiir  Junge 
und  Alte.     Ubers.  von  P.  Klaiber.     Th.  [1-]  2.     Miinchen  1909—11.     8vo. 


DEMOaHAPHY   BESIDES   LANGUAGE.      DICTIONARIES.  717 

KlECHHOFF,  Seemacht  in  der   Ostsee.     Bd  [1-]  2.     Kiel  1907—08.  8vo. 

1.     17.  und  18.  Jahrhundert.     Mit  4  Kart.  u.  18  Pliinen.     2.     19.  Jahrhundert.    Nebst 
einem  Anhang  iiber  die  Vorgeschichte  der  Oatsee.     Mit  6  Kart.   u.  10  Planen. 
THOMSEN,    v.,   The  Relations  between  Ancient  Russia  and  Scandinavia  and  the 

Origin  of  the  Russian  state.     Three  lectures  1876.    Oxford  &  London  1877. 

VI,   150  pp.   8vo. 
AENE,  T.  J.,  La   Suede  et  I'Orient.  Etudes   archeologiques  sur  les  relations  de  la 

Suede  et  de   I'Orient  pendant  I'age  des  vikings.     Upsal  1914.     243  pp.,   1 

map   8vo. 

Archives  d'etudes  orientales,  publ.  par  J.  A.  Lundell.     Vol.  8. 
Johnson,    A.,   The  Swedish  Settlements  on  the  Delaware,  their  history  1638 — 

1664    with,  an    account   of  the  South,  the  New  Sweden  and  the  American 

Companies.     Vol.  1 — 2.     New  York  1911.   8vo. 
EdIiIN,  N.,   Sweden  for  Peace.    The  Programme  of  Sweden  in  the  Union  Crisis. 

Upsala,  Stockholm,   London  1905.     40  pp.  8vo. 

—  La    Suede    veut  la  paix.     Le  programme  de  la  Suede  dans  la  crise  scandi- 
nave.     Upsala,   Stockholm,  Paris  1905.     37  pp.    8vo. 

—  Schwedens  Friedensprogramm  und  die  skandinavische  Krise.     Upsala,  Stock- 
holm, Halle  a.   Saale  1905.     46  pp.   8vo. 

NORDLUND,  K.     The  Swedish-Norwegian  Union  Crisis.  A  history  with  documents. 
Upsala,   Stockholm,    London  1905.     107  pp.   8vo. 

—  La   crise   suede-norvegienne.     Historique  et  documents.     Upsala,   Stockholm, 
Paris  1905.   94  pp.   8vo. 

—  Die  schwedisch-norwegische  Krise  in  ihrer  Entwickelung  aktenmassig  darge- 
stellt.     Upsala,   Stockholm,  Halle  a.   Saale  1905.     VI,  115  pp.   8vo. 

Steveni,  W.  B.,  The  Scandinavian  Question.     With  a  map.     London  1905.    152 

pp.   8vo. 
Jordan,  L.,  La  separation  de  la  Suede  et  de  la  Norvege.     [These.]     Paris  1906. 

165  pp.   8vo. 
MOHN,    A.,    La    Suede  et  la  revolution  norvegienne.     Une  page  d'histoire  de  la 

civilisation.     Paris  &  Geneve   [1906].     150  pp.   8vo. 
See  also  sections  concerLing  Sweden  in  universal  histories  such  as  The  Camhridge  Modern 
History.     1—13,    atlas.     Cambridge  1902—12;  Histoire  generale  du  4e  si^cle  a  nos 
jours.     Publ.    sous    la    direction    de  E.  Lavisse  et  A.  Rambaud.     1 — 12.     Paris  [1893 — ] 
1901;   Weltgeschichte,  herausg.  von  I.  von  Phigk-Hartung .    [1—6.]    Berlin  1908—10. 

Demography  besides  Language.     Dictionaries. 

SUNDBARO,    G.,    Bevolkerungsstatistik    Schwedens    1750 — 1900.     Einige  Haupt- 

resultate.     Stockholm  1907.     170  pp.   8vo. 

14.  internationaler  Kongress  fiir  Hygiene  und  Demographie.    Berlin,  Sept.  1907. 
TaHLBBCK,    Der  Adel  Schwedens  (und  Finlands).     Eine  demographische  Studie. 

Jena  1903.     VIII,   361  pp.   8vo. 
NOREBN,    A.,    Geschichte    der    nordischen    Spraohen    besonders   in  altnordischer 

Zeit.      3.  vollst.  umgearb.  Aufl.     Strassburg   1913.     VII,   239  pp.   8vo. 

Grundriss  d.  german.  Philologie  hrsg.  von  Hermann  Paul.    3:e  Aufl.     Bd  4. 
WenstroM,    0.,    &    LiNDGREN,    J.,  Engelsk-svensk  ordbok.     [A  English-Swedish 

Dictionary.]     2:a  stereotyp.  uppl.   Stockholm   1905.     1758-1-50  pp.   8vo. 
Wenstrom,    O.    &    Haelock,    W.,    Svensk-engelsk   ordbok.     Skolupplaga.  —  A 

Swedish-English  Dictionary.   Stereot.  uppl.,   3:e  tryckn.   Stockholm   1912.  VI, 

880  pp.   8vo. 
SCHULTHESS,  P.  F.,  Fransk-svensk  ordbok.     [Vooabulaire  frauQais-suedois.]     Skol- 

uppl.     Stereot.  uppl.,  3:e  tryckn.  Stockholm  1906.    XXXIII,  740  pp.  8vo. 

—  Svensk-fransk     ordbok.     [Vocabulaire     suedois-frangais.]     2:a    stereot.     uppl. 
Stockholm   1900.     1737  +  43  pp.  8vo. 

Hoppe    0.,  Tysk-svensk  ordbok-    [Deutsch-schwedisohes  Worterbuch.]  3:e  stereot. 
uppl.,   3:0  tryckn.     Stockholm   1^10.     VI,  796  pp.  8vo. 


718  XIII.      SWEDEN   IN    FOREIGN   LITBRATUEB. 

Adbrbach,  C,  Svensk-tysk  ordbok.  [Schwedisch-deutsches  Worterbuch.]    Stereot. 

uppl.  Stockholm  1907 — .  8vo. 
Lerche,    F.,    Rysk-svensk    ordbok.     [Russko-svedskij    slovar.]     Halsingfors  1896. 

Ill,  954  pp.  Bvo. 
Mandelstam,    J.,    &    IgelstrSm,    a.,    Svensk-rysk  ordbok.     Enligt   uppdrag  av 

kejserliga    senaten    for  Finland  utarb.     Svedsko-russkij    slovar.     Halsingfors 

1905.     Ill,   1106  pp.    4to. 


National  Characteristics  including  Customs  and  Manner  of  Living. 

Hbidenstam,  0.  G.  VON,   Swedish  Life  in  Town   and   Country.  London  [1904]. 

Vin,  205  pp.,  24  pi.  Bvo. 
Lloyd,  L.,  Peasant  Life  in  Sweden.     lUustr.     London  1870.   X,   479  pp.,  8  pi. 

Bvo. 
Bellessort,  a.,  La  Suede.     Paris  1911.     VII,  412  pp.   Bvo. 
BernARDINI-SjOSTEDT,    L.,    Pages     suedoises.     Essais    sur    la    psychologie    d'un 

peuple  et  d'une  terre.     Paris  1908.     436   pp.,  15  pi.  Bvo. 
Coussange,  J.  DB  [Pseud.]^  La  Scaudinavie.     Le  nationalisme  scandinave.    Paris 

1914.     344  pp.  8vo. 
Gandolphe,    M.,    La    vie  et  I'art  des  Scandinaves.     Aveo  une  lettre  de  Gaston 

Paris.     Paris  1899.     VIII,  308  pp.  8vo. 
Niemann,    W.,   Das  Nordlandbuch.     Eine  Einfiihrung  in  die  gesamte  nordische 

Natur  und  Kultur.     Berlin  1909.     XVI,  251  pp.,  63  pi.  Bvo. 
TOLSTOJ,  L.  L.,  Sovremennaja  Svecija  v  pismach-ocerkach  i  illjustracijach.    Moskva 

1900.     VI,  290  pp.  Bvo. 
TURI,    J.,    Das    Buoh  des  Lappen  Johan  Turi.     Erzahlung  von  dem  Leben  der 

Lappen.     Herausg.  von  E.  Demant.  Frankfurt  am  Main  1912.  XX,  262  pp., 

2  pi.   Bvo. 

Constitution  and  Administration. 
Constitution. 

Lois    fondamentales   de  Suede  et  de  Norvege  suivies  de  I'acte  d'union  entre 

les  deux  royaumes.     Traduction.     Stockholm  1B67.  162  pp.  Bvo. 
Recueil    des  traites,    conventions    et    autres   actes  diplomatiques  de  la  Suede 

entierement  ou  partiellement  en  vigueur  le  1  Janvier  1910.     Publ.  par  Carl 

Sandgren.  [Avec  Suppl.]   1910  et  1911.    Stockholm  1910—13.  XX,   1038  + 

V,  278  pp.  Bvo. 
Berencreutz,    F.    A.   G.,  Precis  du  droit  con'Stitutionnel  du  royaume  de  Suede 

precede  d'un  apergu  general  du  pays  et  de  la  population.    Stockholm  1886. 

90  pp.   Bvo. 
Fahlbeck,    p..    La  constitution  suedoise  et  le  parlementarisme  moderns.     Paris 

1905.     vni,  349  pp.  Bvo. 
—     Die  Regierungsform  Schwedens.     Berlin  1911.     XXIX,  319  pp.  Bvo. 
ASCHEHOUG,    T.  H.,  Das  Staatsrecht  der  vereinigten  Konigreiche  Schweden  und 

Norwegen.     Freiburg  i.  B.  1886.     XII,  20B  pp.  Bvo. 

Handbuch  des  offentlichea  Rechts  der  Gegenwart  in  Monographien.     Bd  4:  Halbbd  2: 
Abth.  2. 
Dtmsa,   L.,  Gosudarstvennoe  pravo  Svecij.  T.  1.  S.-Peterburg  1901.  XV,  404  pp. 

Bvo. 

1.  Cast'  istorioeskaja, 
PiLLONS,  R.,  L'union  scandinave.    Critique  historique  et  politique,  suivie  du  texte 

de    I'aote    de    l'union.     Avant-propos    de    A.    Leroy-Beaulieu.      Paris  1899. 

118  pp.  8vo. 


STATE   ADMINISTRATION,    OFFICIAL   STATISTICS,    STATE   FINANCES,    ETC.        71& 

ED]fiN,  N.,  Die  schwedisch-norwegische  Union  unci  der  Kieler  Friede.  Eine  histo- 
risch-staatsrechtliche  Untersuchung.  Autor.  deutsche  Ausg.  Mit  einer  Vorbe- 
merkung    von  F.  Arnheim.     Leipzig  1895.     XII,  155  pp.   8vo. 

State  Administration,  including  Official  Statistics,  State  Finances, 
Consular  Office,  Prison  System. 

Sveriges    offioiella    statistik    [Statistique    ojEficielle  de  la  Suede.     Avec  de& 

resumes  —  I'Annuaire  aussi  les  en-tetes  —  en  frangaisl.     Stockholm  ri851-l 

1910—.     In  fol.  &  8vo. 

(As  to  the  different  series,  see  the  special  article  on  Official  Statistics,  p.  I,  219  in  this 
Work, 

Arbetsstatistik  utg.  av  K.  Kommerskollegii  avdelning  for  arbetsstatistik  [Sta- 
tistique du  travail  de  I'Administration  du  Commerce].  Stockholm  1899 
—1913.  8vo. 

NB.  Les  series  suivantes  avec  des  tables  des  matifires  et  des  resumes  en  fraufais.  A-  5 
Le  contrat  collectif  en  Su6de.  1—3.  1910—11.  A:  10.  La  duree  dn  travail  dans 
I'industrie  et  dans  les  metiers  manuels.  1911.  B.  Caisses  de  secoars  mntuels  en 
cas  de  maladie  enregistrees.  Operations  en  [1901-]  1910.  [1905-]  1913.  C.  Acci- 
dents da  travail  en  [1906-]  1909.  [1908-]  1913.  D.  Prix  des  denrees  menag^res 
et  des  loyers  [1904-07-]  1908-09.  [1909-]  1912.  E.  Graves  survenues  en  [1903- 
07-]  1910.  [1909-]  1911.  F.  Les  contrats  colleetifs  conclus  en  [1908-1  1910.  [1911-1 
1912.  H.  Le  chomage  en  Sufede  [1908-09-]  1910.  [1910-]  1911.  L.  Los  conditions 
des  ouvriers  de  I'agricultnre  1910.  1911.  L 'Intervention  des  conciliateurs  oiTiciels 
[1907-08-]  1911.  [1910-]  1912. 
(This  publication  is  continued  as  Socialstatistik,  ed  by  the  Koyal  Social  Board  and 
forming  part  of  Sveriges  officiella  statistik,  see  p.  I,  223  foil.) 

Annuaire  statistique  de  la  Suede.     Publ.  par  le  Bureau  central  de  statistique. 

Statistisk  arsbok.     Annee  1   (1914).     Stockholm  1914.     8vo. 
WiCKSELL,  K.,  Finanztheoretische  Untersuchungen  nebst  Darstellung  und  Kritik 

des  Steuerwesens  Schwedens.     Jena  1896.     XIV,  352  pp.  8vo. 
Berendts,  E.,  Gosudarstvennoe  chozjajstvo  Svecii.     Cast'  1.    S.-Peterburg  1890. 

IX,  861  pp.  8vo. 

1.     Istorija  gosudarstvennago  chozjajstva  Svecii  do  1809  g. 
Sweden.     Customs  ordinance  of  June  9,  1911.     (In  force  from  1st  Decem- 

cer,  1911)      Brussels  1912.      6th  ed.  120  pp.  8vo. 

Bulletin  international  des  douanes.     1911 — 12.     Nr.  93. 
Suede.     Ordonnance    douaniere    du  9  juin  1911.     (En  vigueur  a  partir  du 

1  decembre  1911).     Bruxelles  1912.     6  ed.  115  pp.  8vo. 

Bulletin  international  des  douanes.     1911 — 12.     Ease.  93. 
Schweden.     Zolltarif    vom    9.   Juni   1911.     (Seit  dem  1.  December  1911  in 

Kraft),  -f  Nachtrag  1—3.  ■  Briissel  1912—13.     6.  Ausg.  119  pp.  8vo. 

Bulletin  international  des  douanes.     Jahrg.  1911 — 12.     H.  93. 
Zoll-    und    handelsrechtliche    Bestimmungen   des  Auslandes.  Herausg.  im 

Reichsamt  des  Innern.    Heft  5.     Schweden.     Berlin  1909.     IV,  150   pp.    8vo. 
Consular  Statute  Book  of  Sweden.     Stockholm  1910.     296  pp.  8vo. 
Royal    Ordinance    concerning    the    Consular    Service  of  Sweden  given  at  the 

palace    of    Stockholm    September  24,   1906   and  general  instructions  for  the 

performance  of  the  consular  office.     Stockholm  1909.     388  pp.  8vo. 
Ordonnance  royale  concernant  le  service  consulaire  suedois  donnee  au  chateau 

de    Stockholm,    le    24    septembre    1906    et  instruction  generale  relative  au 

service  consulaire.     Stockholm    1910.     390  pp.   8vo. 
Konsularische  Gesetzsammlung  Schwedens.    Stockholm  1910.  Ill,  301    pp. 

8vo. 
Konigl.    Verordnung  betreffend  das  Konsularwesen  Schwedens  gegeben  Stock- 
holm   im   Schloss  den   24   September  1906,  und  allgemeine  Instruktion  fiir 

die  Amtsausiibung  der  Konsuln.     Stockholm  1910.     392  pp.  8vo. 


720  XIII.      SWEDEN   IN   FOREIGN   LITERATURE. 

WiESELQREN,  P.  S.,  Le  systeme  penitentiaire  suedois,  son  developpement  et  ses 
progres.      2:e   ed.     Stockholm   1900.     88   pp.,   6  pi.   8vo. 

—  Die  Entwickelung  des  Gefangniswesens  in  Schweden.  Ubersicht.  Stock- 
holm 1900.     93  pp.,  6  pi.  8vo. 

Municipal  Administration   of  Stockholm. 

Statistique    de    la    ville    de    Stockholm   [En-tetes  et  resumes  en  suedois  et  en 

frangais].     Ser.   1—14.     Stockholm  1868—.     4to. 

1.  Annuaire  statistique  de  la  ville  de  Stockholm.  1868 — .  2.  Administration  mani- 
cipale.  1868—.  3.  Hygiene.  1869,  70,  78—.  4.  Assistance  publique.  1872—. 
6.  Constructions  et  habitations.  1868 — .  6.  Bulletin  mensnel  de  statistique. 
1906 — .  7.  Bulletin  hebdomadaire  de  la  statistique  sanitaire.  1876 — .  8.  Service 
d'incendie  et  d'ambulance.  1876 — .  9.  Placement  1905/06 — •.  10.  Enqnetes 
speciales:  Budgets  de  menage  1907 — 08;  Journee  normale  de  travail  aux  bureaux 
municipaux  1906;  Chomage  1909,  1910;  Retraite  des  vicillards  1910;  Celcul  des 
frais  de  I'Assistance  publique  1912;  Habitations  a  bon  marche  1912;  Brannkyrka 
1914.  11.  Commerce  et  navigation.  1901 — .  12.  Fabrrques  et  metiers.  1901 — . 
13.  Nettoyage  ainsi  que  resume  statistique  dn  mouvement.  1909 — .  14.  Elec- 
tions.   E^sume  ststatistique.     1910—. 

Law^. 

Les    codes    suedois    de    1734    (civil,  penal,  commercial)  suivis  des  lois  poste- 
rieures    promulguees    juqu'a   ce   jour.     Trad,    du    suedois,  annotes  et  prece- 
des d'une  introduction  par  Baoul  de  La  Grasserie.    Paris  1895.  CLV,  527  pp. 
8vo. 
Collection  de  codes  strangers.  11. 

The  Maritime  Law   of  Sweden  of  ^Vs  1891.    Stockholm  1893.    173,  2  pp.  8vo. 

Suede.     Code  maritime  du   12  Juin  1891.     Stockholm  1892.     142,  2  pp.  8vo. 

Beauchet,  L.,  fitude  sur  les  sources  du  droit  suedois  jusqu'au  XV  siecle:  [1 — 2]. 
Nouvelle  revue  historique  de  droit  franpais  et  etranger.  14  (1890):  pp.  720 — 786;  15 
(1891):  pp.  217—277. 

Lehr,    E.,    Elements    de    droit    civil    scandinave    (Danemark,    Norvege,  Suede). 
.    Aveo  la  collaboration  de  JH.  Eschelsson.     Paris   1901.     XV,  416  pp.   8vo. 

Synnestvedt,  M.,  Le  droit  international  prive  de  la  Scandinavie.  Paris  1904. 
XIV,  331   pp.  8vo. 

Amira,  K.  v.,  Nordgermanisches  Obligation enrecht.    Bd  1.     Leipzig  1882.  XIII, 
778  pp.  8vo. 
1.     Altschwedisches  Obligationonrecht. 

AstrQm,  a.,  tjber  das  Wasserrecht  in  Nord-  und  Mittel-Europa.  Eine  syste- 
matische  Darstellung  vom  Gesichtspunkte  des  schwedischen  Grundeigen- 
tumsrechts.     Leipzig   1905.     V,  310  pp.  8vo. 

See    also    international  codes  such  as  The  Commercial  Laws  of  the  World  (Die  Han- 

delsgesetze  dea  Erdballs).    Loudon  [1906]—;  The  Patent  Laws  of  all  Nations  (Die  Pa- 

tentgesetze  aller  VSiker).     Berlin  [1905]—. 

Religion  and  Church. 

Herrmann,     P.,    Nordische    Mythologie    in    gemeinverstandlicher    Darstellung. 

Leipzig  1903.     XII,   634  pp.  8vo. 
Rydberg,  v.,  Teutonic  Mythology.  Author,  transl.  from  the  Swedish  by  Rasmus 

B.  Anderson.     London  1889.     XII,  706  pp.  8vo. 
Wordsworth,    J.,    bishop    op    Salisbury,    The    National    Church   of  Sweden. 

London  &  Milwaukee.     1911.     XIX,  459  pp.  8vo. 

The  Hale  Lectures.  1910. 
Williams,  G.  M.,  The  Church  of  Sweden  and    the  Anglican  Communion.  Mil- 
waukee &  London  1910.     113 -f  4  pp.   8vo. 

Kepr.  from:  The  Living  Church.  1910. 

Suppl.:  Swedish  Ordination  Forms  before  1571. 


EDUCATION.      SLOYD.      SWEDISH   GYMNASTICS.      SPORT.  721 

Anjou,  L.  a.,  The  History  of  the  Reformation  in  Sweden.  Transl.  from  the  Swe- 
dish by  H.  M.  Mason.     New  York  1859.     X,  668  pp.  8vo. 

Martin,  J.,  Gustave  Vasa  et  la  reforms  en  Suede.  Essai  historique.  Paris 
1906.     XXX,  512,  IV  pp.  8vo. 

Flavigny,  C.  DE,  Saints  Brigitte  de  Suede,  sa  vis,  ses  revelations  et  son 
oeuvre.  3  ed.,  rev.  et  augm.  Paris  &  Poitiers  1910.  XIII,  775,  2  pp.,  1 
pi.  Svo. 

Hyde,    J.,    A   Bibliography  of  the  Works  of  Emanuel  Swedenborg,   original  and 
translated.     London   1906.     XVI,  742  pp.  4to. 
Appendix  4:  Biographies  of  Swedenborg. 

Education  and  Mental  Culture. 
Education.     Sloyd. 

Erdberg,    R.    v.,    Das  freie  Volksbildungswessn  in  Schweden.     Eindriicks  und 
Anregungen    von    dsr    dritten  Informationsreise  der  Zentralstslle  fiir  Volks- 
wohlfahrt.     Bsrlin  1910.     84  pp.   Svo. 
Zentralstelle    fiir  Volkswohlfalirt. 

Salomon,  0.,  The  Theory  of  Educational  Sloyd.  Author,  ed.  of  the  lectures  of 
O — S — .  Rev.  and  ed.  by  an  inspector  of  schools.  2nd  end.  London  n.  d. 
XI,   150  pp.,   1  pi.   8vo. 

—  The  Teacher's  Hand-Book  of  slojd  as  practised  and  tought  at  Naas,  contain- 
ing explanations  and  details  of  each  sxerciss.  Transl.  and  adapted  for 
English  teachers  by  M.  R.  ^Yalker  and  VCilUam  Nelson.  2nd  ed.,  rev.  and 
enlarged.     London   1894.     IX,  270  pp.   8vo. 

Salomon,  0.,  Institution  d'August  Abrahamson:  Naas.  Description  faite  a 
I'occasion  de  I'Exposition  universelle  a  Paris  1900.  Goteborg  1900.  32  pp. 
8vo. 

Johansson,  A.,  Naassr  Modellserisn.  Methodische  Anweisungen  zur  Ausfiihrung 
der  Modelle  fiir  Lshrer  und  zum  Selbstgebrauch  zusammengestellt.  LTbertr. 
von  A.  Heidengren.     Stockholm  1895.      71  pp.   Svo. 

Swedish  Gymnastics. 

Posse,  N.,  The  Swedish  System  of  Educational  Gymnastics.    Boston  1S90.    275 

pp.   Svo. 
LefeBURE,    L'education   physique  en  Suede.     Nouv.   ed.     Bruxelles,  Paris  190S. 

XXII,   284  pp.,   8  pi.   Svo. 
ToRNGREN,  L.  M.,  Lehrbuoh  der  schwedischen  Gymnastik.     Autor.     tjbers.  von 

O.  A.  Schairer.    2.  verb.  Aufl.     Esslingen  a.  N.  1914.    XII,  579  pp.  Svo. 

Sport. 

Schweden.     Internationale    Sportausstellung,    Berlin    1907.      Stockholm    1907. 

105  pp.  4to. 
The    fifth    Olympiad.     The    official    report    of    Olympic  games  of  Stockholm 

1912.     Issued    by    the    Swedish    Olympic    Committee,    ed.  by  E.  Bergvall. 

Transl.    by   Edw.   Adams-Ray.     Stockholm   1913.     XXXI,  1117  pp.,  305  pi. 

Svo. 
5  Olympiaden  av  C.  Cederstrom,  G.  DraJce,  E.  Fieh.     Red.  S.  Hermelin,  Erik 

Peterson.     5    Olympiad.     Olympic    Games    Stockholm    1912.      Transl.  into 

English   by  T.  Husen.     5.  Olympiads.     Olympischs  Spiele  Stockholm  1912 

Deutsch  von  G.   Sterzel.     5  Olympiade.     Jsux  olympiquss  Stockholm  1912. 

Trad,  par  B.  Harel.     Goteborg  1912.     525  pp.  4to. 

iQ— 133179.  Su-eden.  JI. 


722  XIII.      SWEDEN    IN   FOREIGN   LITERATURE. 

The  Olympic    Games    Stockholm  1912.     Ed.    by    J.  E.  Sullivan.     New  York 

1912.     249  pp.  8vo. 

Spalding's  jRed  covenseries  of  athletic  handbooks.    Nio  17  E. 
DiEM,  C,  Die  Olympischen  Spiele  1912.  2:e  Aufl.  Neukolln  1912.  204  pp.  8vo. 

Public   Collections  and  Institutions  for  Science  and  Art. 

Das  Nordische    Museum    in    Stockholm.       Stimmen    aus    der    Fremde.      Als 

Beilage:    Fiihrer    durch    die   Sammlungen  des  Museums.     Stockholm  1888. 

122  pp.   Svo. 
Les  Prix  Nobel  1901 — .     Stockholm  1904—.  Svo. 
Fried,    A.,    Die    Nobelstiftung.     Ihre    Einrichtungen    und    ihre  Bestimmungen. 

Leipzig  1906.     32  pp.  Svo. 

Sozialer  Fortschritt.     N:r  69—70. 
See    also   descriptive  catalogues  —  in  English,  French,  or  German  —  of  the  respective  pu- 
blic collections  and  institutions. 

History  of  Literature. 

Horn,  W.,  History  of  the  Literature  of  the  Scandinavian  North  from  the  most 

ancient  times  to  the  present.     Transl.  by  B.  Anderson.    With  a  bibliography 

of    the    important  books  in  the  English  language  relating  to  the  Scandina- 
vian countries,  prepared    by  T.  Solherg.     Chicago  1884.     IX,   507  pp.     Svo. 
—     Geschichte    der    Literatur    des    Skandinavischen    Nordens   von   den  altesten 

Zeiten   bis    auf    die  Gegenwart.     Leipzig  [1879,]   1880.     VIII,  404  pp.   Svo. 
BbrnardinI-Sjostedt,  L.,  La  litterature   scandinave.    Paris   1894.    282   pp.  Svo. 

Bellman,  Tegner,  V.  Rydberg,  Snoilsky,  Strindberg. 
Cruppi,  L.,  Femmes  ecrivains  d'aujourd'hui.     1.  Suede.     Paris  [1912].  487   pp. 

Svo. 
Schweitzer,  Ph.,   Geschichte  der  skandinavischen  Litteratur  von  ihren  Anfangen 

bis  auf  die  neueste  Zeit.     Th.   1 — 3.     Leipzig  [1886—89].    Svo. 

Geschichte  der  Weltlitt.  in  Einzeldarstellnngen.    S:  1 — 3. 

1.  Geschichte  der  altskandinavischen  Litteratur  von  den  altesten  Zeiten  bis  zur  Refor- 
mation.    2.    Geschichte    der    skand.   Litt.   von  der  Reformation  bis  auf  die  skandi- 
navische  Renaissance.     3.  Geschichte  der  skand.  Litt.  im  19.  Jahrh. 
NiEDNBR,    F.,    Carl    Michael  Bellman,  der  schwedische  Anakreon.     Mit  Bildnis. 

Berlin  1905.     VIII,   398  pp.   Svo. 
Brandes,    G.,    Moderne    Geister.     Literarische   Bildnisse  aus  dem  19.  Jahrhun- 

dert.     2:e    Aufl.     Frankfurt  a/M    1887.     Svo. 

S.  285—368.     Esaias  Tegner. 
LiND    AP    Hageby,    L.,    August  Strindberg,  the    Spirit  of  Revolt.     Studies  and 

Impressions.     London  1913.     370  pp.,   16  pi.   Svo. 
ESSWBIN,    H.,    August    Strindberg    im    Lichte  seines  Lebens  und  seiner  Werke. 

3.  Aufl.     Miinchen  &  Leipzig  1909.     212  pp.,   28  pi.   Svo. 
Levertin,    O.,    Selma  Lagerlof.     Berechtigte  Ubers.  von  Francis  Maro.     Berlin 

1904.     79  pp.,  16  pi.   Svo. 

Die   Iiiteratur.     Sammlung  iUustr.     Einzeldarstellnngen.     Hrsg.  von    Georg  Brandes. 
Bd  7. 

The  Fine  Arts. 

E.00SVAL,    J.,    Die   Karchen  Gotlands.     Ein  Beitrag  zur  mittelalterlichen  Kunst- 

geschichte  Schwedens.     Stockholm   1911.      231  pp.,   142  pi.   Svo. 
Upmark,  G.,  Die  Architektur  der  Renaissance  in  Schweden  1530 — 1760.     100 

Tafeln  mit  Text.     Dresden  [1897—1900].     VIII,  132  pp.,   100  pi.  Fol. 
Ausvvahl    von  schwedischer  Architektur  der  Gegenwart.     Von  schwedischen 

Arohitekten  hrsg.    zur  international  en  Architekturausstellung  in  Wien  1908. 

Stockholm  1908.     V,   95  pp.    Svo. 


MUSIC.      SCIENCE,       SOCIAL   MOVEMENTS.  723 

Lespinasse,  p.,  L'art  franQais  et  la  Suede  de  1637  a  1816.  Essais  de  contri- 
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248   pp.   8vo. 

Coll.  de  la  Soc.  de  I'histoire  de  l'art  francais. 
Peasant  Art   in  Sweden,  Lapland  and  Iceland  ed.  by  Charles  Holme.    London 

1910.    Li-l:o. 

The  Studio.     Autumn  number  1910. 
Lembekger,    E.,    Die  Bildnis-Miniatur  in  Skandinavien.     1.    Schweden.    Berlin 

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GrANBEUG,   O.,  Inventaire  general  des  tresors  d'art,  peintures  et  sculptures,  prin- 

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Stockholm  1911—13.  4to. 
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,  74  pp.  4to. 
Delteil,  L.,  Anders   Zorn.     Paris  1909.    4to. 

Delteil,  L.,  Le  peintre-graveur  illustre.     T.  4. 
Servaes,    F.  T.  H.,    Anders  Zorn.     Mit  93  Abb.  und  12  Buntbl.     Bielefeld  & 

Leipzig  1910.     103  pp.,  12  pi.  8vo. 

K-iinstler-Monographien  hrsg.  von  H.  Knachfuss.  102. 

Music. 

Niemann,  W.,  Die  Musik  Skandinaviens.  Ein  Fiihrer  durch  die  Volks-  und 
Kunstmusik  von  Danemark,  Norwegen,  Schweden  und  Finnland  bis  zur 
*  Gegenwart.     Mit  6  Portraits.     Leipzig  1906.     XI,   155  pp.   Svo. 

SOUBIES,  A.,  Histoire  de  la  musique.  llltats  Scandinaves.  19  siecle.  Dane- 
mark  et  Suede.     Paris  1901.     80  pp.  8vo. 

Holland,  H.  S.,  &  Rockstro,  W.  S.,  Memoir  of  Madame  Jenny  Lind-Gold- 
schmidt,  her  early  art-life  and  dramatic  career  1820 — 1851.  Vol.  1 — 2. 
London  1891.     Svo. 

Science. 

SWBDENBORG,    E.,   Opera  qusedam  aut  inedita  aut  obsoleta  de  rebus  naturalibus. 

Nunc    edita    sub    auspiciis    Regise  Academise    Scientiarum    SuecicEe.     1 — 3. 

HolmisB  [Stockholm]  1907—11.      Svo. 

1.    Geologica    et    epistolae.     Prsefatus    est    (?.  Retzius,  introductionem  adjunxit  A.  G. 
Nathorst,    ed.    A.    H.    Stroh.    1907.      2.     Cosmologica.      Introductionem    adjunxit 
S.  Arrhenius.    1908.     3.  Miscellanea  de  rebus  naturalibus.    1911. 
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herausg.  von  der  Konigl.   schwedischen  Akademie  der  Wissenschaften  anlass- 

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Svo. 
Berzelius,    J.    J.,    Selbstbiographische    Aufzeichnungen.     Herausg.    von    H.   0. 

Soderbaum.     IsTach   der  wortlichen  Ubers.  von  E.   Wohler  bearb.  von  0.   W. 

A.  Kahlbaum.     Leipzig  1903.    XIV,   120  pp.   Svo. 

Monographien  aus  der  Chemie  herausg.  von  G.  W.  A.  Kahlbaum.     H.  7. 


Social  Movements, 

including  Labour  Questions,  Women's  Bights,  Temperance 
Movement,  etc. 

Albrecht,  H.,  Bodenpolitik  und  Wohnungsfiirsorge  in  Schweden.     Berlin  1910. 

72  pp.  Svo. 

Zentralstelle  fiir  Volkswohlfahrt,  von  der  3.    Informationsreise  der  Zentralstelle.    Auh: 
Konkordia. 


724  XIII.      SWEDEN   IN   FOREIGN   LITERATURE. 

Les  lock-out  et  la  greve  generale  en  Suede  en  1909.  Rapport  presente  par 
rOffice  du  travail  a  rAdministration  Royale  de  I'lndustrie  et  du  Com- 
merce.    Stockholm   1912.     186  pp.    8vo. 

Die  Aussperrungen  und  der  Gross-streik  in  Schweden  1909.  Bericht  der 
Abteilung  fiir  Arbeitsstatistik  des  konigl.  Kommerzkollegiums.  Stockholm 
1912.     206  pp.  Svo. 

National  Council  of  Women  of  Sweden.  Quinquennial  report  June  1904 — 
June  1909.  Report  June  1909— -June  1911.  Stockholm  1909,  1911.  32  +  28 
pp.  8vo. 

WlKMARK,  E.,  Die  Frauenfrage.  Eine  okonomisch-soziologische  Untersuchung 
unter  spezieller  Beriicksichtigung  des  schwedischen  Biirgertums.  Halle  a. 
S.  1905.     VIII,   203  pp.  Svo. 

Mannstrom,  C.  0.,  Bilder  und  Blatter  aus  der  Geschichte  der  schwedischen 
Niichternheitsbewegung.  Im  Auftrage  der  Schwedischen  Gesellschaft  fiir 
Niichternheit    und  Volkserziehung.     Berlin  1913.     XII,  224  pp.,  1  pi.  Svo. 

RUBBNSON,  S.,  Das  Gothenburger  System  und  seine  Anwendung  in  Stockholm 
nebst  geschichtlioher  tJbersicht  iiber  die  Branntweinsgesetzgebung  in  Schwe- 
den.    tjbers.  von  E.  A.  Meyer.     Stockholm  1907.     XIV,  281  pp.  Svo. 

WiESELGREN,  P.  S.,  A  Contribution  to  the  History  of  the  Development  &f  the 
Gothenburg  System.     Stockholm  1907.     110  pp.   Svo. 

—  Zur  Entwicklungsgeschichte  des  Gothenburger  Systems.  Stockholm  1907. 
119  pp.    Svo. 

HiRSCH,  A.  M.,  Swedish  Poor  Laws  and  Charities.  A  Publication  dedicated  to 
the  International  Congress,  Copenhagen  1910  by  the  Swedish  Poor  Law 
Reform  Association  (Svenska  fattigvardsforbundet).  Stockholm  1910.  56 
pp.  Svo. 

Rapmund,  0.,  &  Herrmann,  Das  offentliche  Gesundheitswesen  in  Schweden. 
Sonder-Abdr.  a.  d.  Vierteljahrsschr.  fiir  gerichtl.  Med.  u.  offentl.  Sanitats- 
wesen.     Berlin.     3  Folge:  37  (1908),  Suppl.-H.,  S.  46—118. 

The  Struggle  against  Tuberculosis  in  Sweden  1908.  [A  Publication  ded.  to 
the  International  Tuberculosis  Congress  in  Washington].  Ed.  by  Sture 
Carlsson.     Stockholm  1908.     200  pp.  Svo. 

Bulletin  de  la  Ligue  nationale  suedoise  centre  la  tuberculose.  Red.: 
Sture  Carlsson.     N-.o  special  [1 — 4].     Stockholm  1906 — 12.    Svo. 

1905.     La  lutte  contra  la  tuberculose  en  Suede.    Ouvrage  publie  aux  frais  du 
Gouvernement    Suedois,  red.  par   8.    E.  Henschen.     Upsala  1905.     282  pp. 
12  pi.  4to. 
Oavrage  dedie  au  Congrfis  international  de  la  tnberculose  a  Paris  1905. 

Schweden.  An  die  XI  intemationale  Tuberkulosekonferenz,  Berlin  1913,  von 
Svenska  nationalforeningen  mot  tuberkulos.  Hrsg. :  Sture  Carlsson.  Stock- 
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Industries. 

A  General  Survey. 

Key,  H.,  La  vie  economique  de  la  Suede.     Paris  1913.     166  pp.  Svo. 
Wegweiser   durch  die  Wirtschaftsverhaltnisse  von  Schweden.     Berlin  1914. 

46  pp.  Svo. 

Volkawirtschaftliche  Eeisefiilirer,  hrsg.  vom  Handelsvertragsverein.     Bd  6. 
Frahnb,    C,    Das    Wirtschaftsleben  Schwedens.     Ein  Uberblick  aiif  statistische 

Grundlage  unter  besondere  Beriicksichtigung  der  deutsch -schwedischen  Wirt- 

schaftsbeziehungen.     [Diss.]     Berlin  1914.      166  pp.,   1   map.   Svo. 


AGRICULTURE   AND   CATTLE-BREEDING,  ETC.                                   725 

Die  Wasserkriifte  Schwedens  und  deren  Ausnutzung.  Berarb.  in  der  Konigl. 

Wasserialldirektion,   Stockholm.     Stockholm   1910.  68  pp.,   1  pi.    4to. 
Kungl.  Vattenfallsstyrelsen.     Meddelanden.     N:r  2. 


Agriculture  and  Cattle-Breeding. 

Flach,    W.,    Juhlin-Dannfelt,    H.,    &    Sundbarg,    G.,  Sveriges  jordbruk  vid 
1900-talets    borjan.     Statistiskt    kartverk.     L' agriculture    en  Suede  au  com- 
mencement du  20eme  siecle.     Goteborg  1909.     263  pp.,   89  maps.     Fol. 
(Index  en  fran^als.     VocalDulaire  fran^ais.) 

Juhlin-Dannfelt,  H.,  Aper?u  sur  les  institutions  agricoles  de  la  Suede,  a  la 
demande  du  comite  executif  de  I'Academie  Royale  d' Agriculture.  Stock- 
holm 1910.     78  pp.  Svo. 

Feilitzen,  Hj.  von,  Der  schwedische  Moorkulturverein  und  seine  Tatigkeit.  Jon- 
koping  1904.     38  pp.,   6  pi.  Svo. 

PUDOR,  H.,  Das  landwirtschaftliche  Genossenschaftswesen  im  Auslande.  Bd  1. 
Das  landwirtschaftliche  Genossenschaftswesen  in  den  skandinavischen  Lan- 
dern.     Leipzig  1904.     VIII,   153  pp.   8vo. 

Fuhrer     der    wissenschaftlichen    Excursionen    der    2.   Agrogeologenkonferenz 
herausg.    unter    Mitwirkung    von    Qunnar  Andersson,  Hj.   von  Feilitzen,  H. 
Hesselman,  Alb.   Vesterberg.   Mit  4  Kart.  Stockholm  1910.  176  pp.  Svo. 
2.  Internationale  Agrogeologenkonferenz.     Stockholm  1910. 

Inhalt:  Verbreitung,  Drsprang,  Eigenachaften  und  Anwendnng  der  mittelschwedischen 
Boden. 

ElCHARDSEN,  A.,  Die  schwedische  Rinderzueht.  Berlin  1910.  VI,  150  pp.,  ix 
Taf.   Svo. 

LUNDBLAD,  iST.,  L'industrie  laitiere  en  Suede.  Stockholm  1911.  44  pp.  Svo. 
5:e  Congres  International  de  Laiterie,  Stockholm  1911. 


Mining  Industry  and  Metal  Production. 

The  Iron  Ore  Resources  of  the  World.  An  inquiry  made  upon  the  initia- 
tive of  the  11  International  Geological  Congress,  Stockholm  1910.  Vol. 
1 — 2,  atlas.     Stockholm  1910.     4to  &  fol. 

NiCOU,  P.,  £tude  sur  les  minerals  de  fer  scandinaves.  Laponie  suedoise.  Gran- 
gesberg.  Gisements  de  minerals  pauvres.  Paris  1911.  286  pp.,  6  pi.  Svo. 
Annales  des  mines  1911:  livr.  Fevrier,  Mars  &  Avril. 

Johansson,    H.,    Die    eisenerzfiihrende   Formation  in  der  Gegend  von  Granges- 
berg.     Stockholm   1910.     IV,  172  pp.,   8  pi.    Svo. 
Geol.  foren.  i  Stockholm  forhandl.     Bd  32:  H.  2. 

Dahlerus,  C.  G.,  Expose  de  l'industrie  miniere  et  metallurgique  de  la  Suede. 
Public  aux  frais  du  »Jarnkontoret».    Stockholm  1905.    157    pp.,    2  maps  4to. 

Stora  Kopparbergs  Bergslags  aktiebolag.  Mines  and  Works  in  Sweden. 
Stockholm  1907.     12  pp.,  23  pi.    Svo. 


Manufacturing  Industries. 

Sveriges  fabrikskalender.  Schwedische  Fabrikanten-Adressbuch — Directory  of 
Swedish  Manufacturers — Catalogue  des  manufactures  de  la  Suede — 
Annuario  delle  Industrie  svedese — Catalogo  de  las  industrias  svecas-Ruotsin 
tehdaskalenteri — Svedskij  fabricnyj  kalendaf.  2:a  ed.  1910 — 1911.  Stock- 
holm 1910.      552  pp.   Svo. 

Schwedisches  Industriebuch,  herausg.  zum  Baltischen  Ingenieur-Kongress, 
Malmo  1914.     Goteborg  1914.     312  pp.  4to. 


726  XIII.      SWEDEN    IN   FOREIGN   LITERATURE. 

ASKERGREN,  Th.  A.,  Handbok  for  nordisk  travaruindustri.  The  Timber  Trade's 
Handbook  for  Sweden,  Norway,  Finland. and  Russia.  Stockholm  1913.  XII, 
783  pp.  8vo. 

Paper  and  Pulp-makers  Directory  of  Sweden,  Norway,  Denmark,  Finland. 
Ed.  H.  Bruseivitz.    2nd  English  ed.    Goteborg  1913.    242    pp.,  1  map  8vo. 

Wasteras.  Allmanna  svenska  elektriska  aktiebolaget.  General  Electric  Mfg 
.  .     C:o    of    Sweden,    Westeras  1883—1908.     Goteborg  1909.     165  pp.    4to. 

Aktiebolaget  Separator.  —  Separator  Company  Ltd.  1883 — 1908.  Transl.  Stock- 
holm 1908.     66  pp.    4to. 

Aktiebolaget  Separator.  25  annees  de  la  Societe  ano'nyme  des  ecremeuses 
Separator.     1883—1908.     Trad.     Stockholm  1908.     73  pp.    4to. 

Aktiebolaget  Separatorl883— 1908.  Deutsche  Textiibers.  Stockholm  1908. 
78  pp.  4to. 

Svenska  Aktiebolaget  Gasaccumulator.  Beschreibung  iiber  das  AGA-Sy- 
stem.     Stockholm  1914.     80  pp.  8vo. 

Church,  W.  C,  The  life  of  John  Ericsson.     Vol.  1—2.     London  1890.  8vo. 

Henning,  E,.,  Alfred  Nobel,  der  Erfinder  des  Dynamits  und  Griinder  der  No- 
belstiftung.  Eine  biographische  Skizze.  Mit  13  Abb.  Stuttgart  [1912]. 
51  pp.  4to. 

Commerce,  including  Sinipping. 

London,  Swedish  Chamber  of  Commerce.  Year  book.  1907 — .  London 
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—  Svenska    handelskammaren.     Journal    publ.  monthly.      C.    A.    Lowenadler,  L. 

Zettersten.     Anglo-Swedish  trade  journal.     Vol.   1  (Nov.  1908-Dec.  1909)—. 
London.    8vo. 
New    York,    Swedish    Chamber    of    Commerce.     Annual    Report   1907 — . 
New  York.     8vo. 

—  Bulletin.     Vol.    1    (1907)—.     New  York.     4to. 

Sj'dney,  Swedish  Chamber  of  Commerce  for  Australasia  and  South 
Sea  Islands.     Annual    Report  for  the  year  1913.     Sydney  1914.     8vo. 

—  Bulletin.     Vol.  1   (1914).     Sydney.      8vo. 

Sveriges  handelskalender.  Schwedischer  Handels-  und  Industriekatalog.  Swe- 
dish Business  Directory.  Annuaire  du  commerce  et  de  I'industrie  de 
la  Suede.     Arg.   36.     1915.     Stockholm   1914.     4to. 

Svensk  industri-  och  exportkalender  utg.  af  John  Hammar.  [Swedish  Trade 
Index  publ.  by  the  General  Export  Association  of  Sweden.  —  Schwedischer 
Industrie-  und  Exportkatalog.  —  Annuaire  de  I'industrie  et  de  I'exportation 
de  Suede.  —  Anuario  de  la  industria  y  exportacion  de  Sueeia.  —  Svedskij 
eksportnyj  i  promyslennyj  kalendaf.]  6  uppl.  1915 — 1916.  Stockholm 
1915.     735  pp.,  8  pi.     8vo. 

FaHLBECK,  p.  E.,  Die  Handelspolitik  Schwedens  und  Norwegens  [in  den  letzten 
Jahrzehnten].     [Leipzig  1892].     8vo. 
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SODERBBRG,  G.,  Die  Handelsbeziehungen  zwischen  Schweden  und  Deutschland. 
Inaug.-Diss.     Leipzig  1906.     180  pp.   8vo. 

HOLLENBACH,    F.    M.,    Schweden,    seine    wirtschaftliche   Entwickelung  und  sein 
Handel  mit  Deutschland.     Berlin  1910.      62  pp.   8vo. 
Komite  zur  Vorboreitung  des  deutsch-scliwedisclien  Handelsvertragg. 

Hitchcock,  F.  H.,  Our  Trade  with  Scandinavia  1890— 1900.    Washington  1901. 
124  pp.   8vo. 
tJ.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.     Section  of  foreign  markets.     Bulletin  N;o  32. 

Cheminais,  G.,  L' exposition  de  Stockholm  en  1897.  fitudes  et  impressions  sur 
I'industrie  et  le  commerce  de  la  Suede.  Les  rapports  commerciaux  avec  la 
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CREDIT    ESTABLISHMENTS.  727 

Skandinavisk  sjofartskalender  1906 — 1007.  Scandinavian  Shipping  Di- 
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Code  List  containing  the  names  etc.  of  Swedish  ships  to  which  signal  letters 
of  the  commercial  code  of  signals  have  been  allotted.  [186T — ]1906.  Stock- 
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Sveriges    skeppslista.     Utg.    af    Kungl.  Kommerskollegii  fartygsregistreringsafdel- 
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(Swedish  and  English  text). 

Credit  Establishments. 

Flux,    A.    W.,    The  Swedish  Banking   System.     Washington  1910.     248  pp.,  1 
map   8vo. 
National  Monetary  Commission.    Senate  documents.     Vol.  30.     1910. 


INDEX. 

(I  =  First  Part;     II  =  Second  Part). 
Xote.     See  as  a  rule,  the  several  head  words. 


Abelin,  Hj.     I,  580. 

Abisko.    I,  777,  II,  619. 

Abrahamson,  August.     I,  362. 

Abramson,  E.     I,  594. 

Academies  and  Learned  Socie- 
ties.    I,  461. 

Accident    insurance.      I,    722, 

.     II,  692. 

Accumulators.     II,  479. 

Acetylene  gas.     II,  429. 

Acharius.  E.     I,  586. 

Acke,  J.  A.  G.    I,  525. 

AckumulatoraktiebolagetJung- 
ner,  Svenska.    II,  479. 

af  Acrel,  Olof.     I,  573,  580. 

Acta  Mathematica.  I,  415, 
610. 

Adams-Bay,  E.     I,  xxiv. 

Adde,  G.    I,  xiv,  xix. 

Adelborg,  Maria.     II,  499. 

— ,  Ottilia.     II,  499. 

Adelcrantz,  C.  F.     I,  502. 

Adelskold,  K,  Fr.     I,  594. 

Adelsward,  Theodor.     I,  780. 

Adler,  V.     II.  503, 

Adlersparre,  S.    I,  737,  II,  499. 

Adlerz,  G.     I,  598. 

Administration,  municipal,  of 
Stockholm,  bibliography.  II, 
720. 

— ,    State.     I,  211. 

. — ,  — ,  bibliography.    II,  719. 

Adolphus  Frederick.     I,  100. 

Adventists.     I,  335. 

Advocates'  Union.     II,  704. 

Aesthetics.     I,  559. 

Afzelius,  I.     I,  539. 

V.  Afzelius,  P.    I,  578. 

AGA  light.    II,  430,  455,  581. 

Agardh,  J.  G.    I,  588. 

— ,  J.  >I.     I,  615. 

— ,  K.  A.  I,  386,  563,  566, 
570,  587,  589. 

Agrell,  Alfhild. .  I,  496. 

— ,  Johan.     I,  526. 

— ,  K.  M.    I,  545. 


Agricultural  bookkeeping.  II, 
157. 

—  credit  establishments.  II, 
135. 

—  education.     II,  125. 

—  Experiments,  Central  Estab- 
lishment for.  I,  594,  595, 
II,  147. 

—  instruction.     II,  88. 

—  legislation.     II,  157. 

—  meetings.     II,  156. 

—  products,  imports,  and  ex- 
ports.    II,  30. 

—  schools.     II,  126. 

—  science.     I,  590. 

—  societies.  I,  244,  245,  II, 
80,  142. 

Agriculture.     II,  14,  35. 

— ,  Academy  of.      I,  462,  II, 

80,  122. 
— ,  bibliographv.     II,  725. 
— ,  Board  of.    "l,  618,  II,  122. 
— ,  Department    of.     II,   122, 

124. 
Ahlberg,  A.  W.     I,  549. 
Ahlgren,  Ernst.     I,  496. 
Ahlenius,  K.     I,  630. 
Ahlmann,  31.  E.     I,  537. 
Ahlstrom,  A.     I,  xix,  II,  x. 
— ,  E.     I,  581. 
— ,  G.     I,  582. 
Akrell,  Carl.     II,  643. 
Ala  Saw-mill.    II,  199. 
Albrecht,  H.     II,  723. 
Albrekt    of   Mecklenburg.     I, 

89. 
Alby  Carbide  "Works.    II,  332, 

430,  432,  475,  476. 

—  nya  kloratfabriks  aktie- 
bolag  (Chlorate  Factory).  II, 
433,  478. 

Alden,  G.  A.    I,  xiii,  xiv,  xix. 
Alder,  speckled.     I,  14. 
Alexanderson,  N.     I,  539. 
Alfven,  Hugo.    I,  529,  532. 
Algonkian  groups.     I,  50. 


Alin,  0.    I,  552. 

AlingsSs  Factories.     II,  371. 

Alkali.     II,  477. 

Allen,  E.  P.     I,  xxiv, 

Allmanna       brandforsakrings- 

verket  for  byggnader  S.  lan- 

det.     II,  689. 
Allmanna   svenska    elektriska 

aktiebolaget.     II,   458,  464, 
1     465,  726. 

j  Alloys,    manufacture    of.      II, 
I      305. 

Almedal,  Linen-mill.     II,  375. 
Almen,  A.  T.     I,  576,  II,  355. 
— ,  T.     I,  539. 
Almes^kra  series.     I,  50. 
Almgren,   K.  A.,    Silk   Manu- 
factory.    II,  377. 
— ,  0.    I,  XV,  XIX. 
Almkvist,  H.  N.     I,  549. 
Almlof,  B.     I,  535. 
— ,  K.     I,  535. 
— ,  X.  V.     I,  535. 
Almquist,  E.    I,  578. 
— ,  H.    I,  553. 
— ,  J.  A.    I,  595,  11,  711. 
— ,  K.  J.  L.    I,  492,  561. 
— ,  S.  0.  I.    I,  564. 
— ,  V.    I,  XIII,  XIX. 
Almqvist,  Sven.     II,  450. 
Almstrom,  H.     I,  XIX,  II,  ix. 
Alnarp      Agricultural      High 

School.     II,  119,  126. 
Alpine  region.     I,  60. 
AlTutz,  S.    I,  544,  576. 
Alstromer,  Jonas.     I,  100,  590. 

11,   80,   125,  315,  316,  357, 

360. 
Alvar[en].     I,  72. 
Ambrosiani,  S.     I,  558. 
Ambrosius,    J.    M.      I,    xiii, 

XIX. 

Ameen,  G.     I,  505. 
— ,  L.    I,  XIV,  XIX,  779. 
V.  Amira,  K.     II,  720. 
Ammoniac-gunpowder.  II,  436. 


730 


INDEX. 


Ammonite.     I,  55. 
Amykos-aseptine.     II,  438. 
Anatomy.     I,  572. 
Ancylns  Lake.     I,  58. 
Anderberg,  A.     I,  505. 
Andersen,  Anton.     I,  529. 
Anderson,  A.     I,  581. 
Andersson,  Charles.     I,  628. 
— ,  Gunnar.     1,  xii,  xvii,  xix, 

589,  590,  602,  630,   II,  vii. 
-,  J.  G.    I,  601,  626,  628. 
— ,  Jonas,     of     Hackenas.     I, 

378. 
— ,  K.    II,  508. 
— ,  L.  &.    I,  598. 
— ,  Ola,   of  Nordana.     I,  378, 
— ,  Theofil.    I,  XVI,  XVIII,  xix, 

570,  595. 
Andersson's,    Atjorn,     Mecha- 
nical Works.     II,  458. 
Andrese,  Laurentius.     I,  327. 
Andree,  Elfrida.     I,  529. 
— ,  S.  A.    I,  620,  625,  626. 
Andree  System.     I,  743. 
Andren,  Vict.     II,  503. 
Angelin,  N.  P.     I,  597,  599. 
Angered-Strandberg,  Hilma.   I, 

496. 
Aniline  colours.     II,  887. 
Animals.     II,  10. 
— ,  protection  of.     I,  779. 
Anjeskutan.     I,  8. 
Anjou,  L.  A.    I,  537,  II,  731. 
Ankarcrona,  &.     I,  523. 
Ankarsrum.     II,  45B,  459. 
Annerstedt,  C.     I,  553. 
Anrep-Nordin,    Elisabeth.      I, 

XIII,  XIX,  370. 
Ansgarius,   missionary.     1, 85, 

325. 
Anthropology  and  Geography, 

Society  for.  I,  464. 
— ,  physical.  I,  582. 
Anundsjo.     II,  32. 
Apotekarnes  mineralvattenfab- 

rik.     II,  355. 
Apothecaries'  shops.     I,  273. 
Appelberg,  0.     I,  622. 
Appellof,  A.    I,  597. 
Arable  land.     II,  14. 
Arbetarforbnndet,  Svenska.    I, 

645. 
Arbetares   Centralorganisation, 

Sveriges.     I,  645. 
Arbetsgivareforbundet,  Centra- 
la.     I,  646, 
.rbetsgivarefi 

ska.    I,  646. 
Arbetsstugor.     I,  364. 
Arbitration  and  Peace  Society, 

Swedish   I,  780. 
Arboga  Mechanical  "Works.   II, 

457   458. 
Arborelius,  0.     I,  522. 
Arbra  kabelfabrik.     II,  420. 
Archaean  system.     I,  48. 
Archeology.     I,  558. 


Archaeology,  bibliography.    II, 

Architecture.     I,  498. 
Archives.     I,  471. 
Area,  of  Sweden.     I,  1,  2, 
— ,  of  the  lans.     I,  2,  107. 
Arehn,  Gerhard.     II,  458. 
— ,  Nils.    I,  585. 
Arenander,  E.  0.     I,  594. 
Arenins,  0.     I,  617. 
Areschoug,   F.  V.  K.     I,  588, 

589. 
— ,  J.  E.    I,  588. 
Arfwedson,  J.  A.     I,  608. 
Argillander,    A.     I,  366, 
Arlberg,  Fritz.     I,  529,  531. 
Arlof    Mechanical   Works  and 

Wagon  Factory.     II,  451. 
Armaturfabrik.     II,  449. 
Armoury,  Royal.     I,  473. 
Arms,  national  coats  of.    1, 188. 
Army.     I,  247. 
Arnberg,  J.  W.     I,  567. 
Arne,  T.  J.  II,  717. 
Arnell,  H.  W.     I,  588. 
Arnoldson,  K.  0.     I,  531. 
— ,  K.  P.     I,  468,  780,  781. 
— ,  Sigrid,   I,  531. 
Arosenins,  E.     I,  xii,  xix,  570, 

II,  vill. 
— ,  Ivar,  I,  526. 
Arrack,  consumption.     II,  348. 
— ,  import.     II,  517. 
Arrhenius,  Joh.  I,  592,  II,  126. 
— ,  S.     I,  467,  604,  609,  620. 
Art,  history  of.     I,  557. 
— ,  industrial.     II,  497. 
—   museums.     I,  472. 
Artedi,  P.     I,  595. 
Artillery  Museum.     I,  478. 
Arts,  fine.     I,  498. 
Arvedson,  J.     I,  431,  483. 
Arvika  Works.     II,  458. 
Aschehoug,  T.  H.     II,  718. 
Ash.     I,  14. 
Ask,  K.  J.     I,  580. 
Askergren,  G.     II,  216. 
— ,  Th.  A.     II,  726. 
Askesta   Steam  Saw-mill.     II, 

199. 
Aspen.     I,  14. 

Asproth,  J.     I,  XII,  XVIII,  xix. 
Asser,  T.  M.  C.     I,  468. 
Associations,    see   the    several 

head  words. 
Astronomy.     I,  614. 
Asylums  for  the  homeless.     I, 

769. 
Athletic  badge.     I,  458. 
Athletics  and  Sport.     I,  449. 
Atlas    Mechanical  Works.     II, 

446,  447,  457,  458. 
Atterberg,  Albert.    I,  593. 
Atterbom,    P.    D.    A.     I,   490, 

540,  556,  561, 
Attorney-General.     I,  196,  218. 
Auerbach,  C.    II,  718. 


Augustana  College.     I,  408. 

—  Synod.     I,  386,  668 

Aulen,  G.     I,  587. 

Aulin,  Tor.     I,  529,  582. 

— ,  Valborg.     I,  529. 

Aurelius,  E.    I,  587. 

Aurivillius,  C.     I,   545. 

— ,  Chr.     I,  598. 

— ,  E.    I,  544. 

— ,  K.  V.  S.     I,  598,  622,  629. 

Avbetalningsl5,nefonden  of  the 

Riksbank.     II,  672. 
Aven,  A.     II,  654. 
Axell,  S.     I,  590. 


Baazius,  J.     I,  587. 

Bachmanson,  Anders.     I,  566. 

Backlund,  J.  0.     I,  616. 

Backman,  G.     I,  584. 

— ,  L.    I,  576.  ■ 

Bacon,    exports,   and    imports. 

II,  523. 
Baeckstrom,  0.     I,  535. 
Baedeker,  K.     II,  714. 
Bselter,  Sven.     I,  586. 
V.  Baeyer,  A.     I,  467. 
Bagge,  Jakob.    I,  96. 
— ,  J.  S.    II,  398. 
Bain,  R.  N.     II,  716. 
Bajer,  F.     I,  468. 
Bakeries.     II,  358. 
Balck,  V.  G,    I,  XIV,  xvii,  xix 

459. 
Ballads,  national.     I,  88,  487. 
Ball  Bearing  Factory.    II,  450, 

452. 
Ballistite.     II,  486. 
Baltic,  Aktiebolaget.     II,  120. 
Baltiska     travaruaktiebolaget. 

II,   196. 
Baner,  Johan.     I,  99. 
Bang,  Ivar.     I,  577. 
Bank  Inspection.     II,  674. 
—   of  Sweden,    see  Riksbank, 

Sveriges. 
Banking.     II,  17. 
— ,  bibliography.     II,  727. 
— ,  historical  sketch.    II,  666. 
Bankruptcy.     I,   324. 
Banks,  >enskildaJ.     II,  668. 
— ,  joint-stock.     II,  683. 
Baptists.     I,  385. 
Barber  surgeons.     I,  279. 
Bark  &  Warburg.     II,  201.    , 
Barley,  crops.     II,  50. 
— ,  cultivation.     II,  58,  62, 
— ,  imports  and  exports.  II,  68. 
— ,  prices.     II,  65. 
Barnekows,  S.,  teknisk-kemis- 

ka  laboratorium.     II,  121. 
Barthel,  J.  G.  Chr.     I,  594. 
Basalt.     I,  55. 
Basket-factories.     II,  408. 
Basket-making.     II,  495. 
Bastholmen  Slip-dock.    II,  447. 
Battens,  prices.     II,  215. 


INDEX. 


rsi 


Bear.    II,  221. 
Beaucliet, .  L.     II,  720. 
Beck,  Dav.    I,  51B. 
Beckman,  A.  F.    I,  537. 
— ,  Aiel,     II,  502. 
— ,  Bror.     I,  B29. 
— ,  K.  F.  N.    I,  547,  548. 
Beckmann,  F.  A.     II,  351. 
Becquerel,  H.  A.     I,  467. 
Bedsteads,  iron.     II,  459. 
Beechwood.     I,  68. 
Beech  Forest  Region.     I,  69. 
Bee-keeping.     II,  105. 
Beer,  consumption.     I,  171. 
Beernaert,  A.  II.  F.     I,  468. 
Beet-sugar,    manufacture.     II, 

339. 
Behring,  E.  A.     I,  467. 

Belemuites.     I,  55. 

Bellessort,  A.     II,  718. 

Bellite.     II,  436. 

Bellman,  K.  11.  I,  100,  488, 
489,  526,  II,  722. 

Bell  Telephone  Co.,  Ltd,  Stock- 
holm.    II,  649,  656. 

Benckert,  Elis.     II,  501. 

Bendixson,  I.     I,  612. 

Bendtz  Brothers'  Language  and 
Commercial  Institute.  II, 
544. 

Bendz,  H.    I,  578. 

Benedicks,  C.     I,  605. 

Benevolence,  private.     I,  297. 

Bengtsfors.     II,  433,  477. 

Bengtsson,  S.     I,  598. 

Benzelius,  E.,  the  Younger. 
I,  220,  536,  537,  568. 

Benedictsson,  Viktoria.    I,  496. 

Berch,  Anders.     I,  566. 

-,  K.  R.     I,  555. 

Berencreutz,  F.  A.  G.,  (A). 
I,  XIX,  II,  X,  718. 

Berendts,  E.     II,  719. 

Berg,  B.     I,  497. 

— ,  Erik  Anton,  Factory.  II, 
459. 

— ,  Fridtjuv.     I,  564,  565. 

— ,  Fr.  j.     II,  463. 

— ,  F.  T.    I,  568,  579,  580. 

— ,  Hjalmar.     I,  565. 

— ,  J.  V.     I,  XV,  XIX,  581. 

— ,  Natanael.     I,  529,  530. 

— ,  R.  F.     II,  412. 

— ,  R.  G:son.     I,  548,  557. 

Berga  Retreat.     I,  769. 

Bergelin,  J.  Th.     I,  592. 

Bergendal,  D,     I,.  598. 

Berger,  A.     I,  612. 

Bergfalk,  P.  E.     I.  539,  566. 

Berggren,  J.     I,  545. 

— ,  S.    I,  588,  589. 

Bergh,  Edvard.     I,  521. 

— ,  Richard.    I,  525,  559,  562. 

— ,  S.    I,  552. 

Bergholmen  Saw-mill.    II,  201. 

Bergius,  B.    I,  586. 

— ,  P.  J.    I,  586. 


Bergklint,  Olof.     I,  560. 

Berglund,  E.     I,  608. 

Bergman,  C.     I,  378. 

— ,  C.  G.     I,  539. 

— ,  H.     II,  503. 

— ,  T.  0. ..  I,  100,  599,  605. 

Bergman-Osterberg,     Mrs.      I, 

430. 
Bergqvist,  B,  J:son.     I,  565. 
Bergs  bolag.     II,  371. 
Bergshandteringens  vanner.  II, 

312. 
Bergshogskolan.     II,  312. 
Bergsjo  Saw-mill.     II,   199. 
Bergskollegium.     II,  311. 
Bergslagen.     I,  49,  II,  4. 
Bergsten,    C.  G,     I,     xir,  xiv, 

XIX,  505. 
— ,  N.     I,  570. 
"Vv     I   559 

Be'rgstrand,  C.  E.     I,  593. 

— ,  0.     I,  616. 

Bergstrom,  A.     I,  523. 

— ,  E.     I,  XIX,  II,  Tii. 

— ,  G.     I,  505. 

Bergsund   Mechanical   Works. 

II,  446,  457. 
Bergvik  Saw-mill.     II,  199. 
Bergo,  Carl.     I,   752. 
Berlin,  N.  J.     I,  577,  608. 
Bernardini-Sjostedt,  L.  11,718, 

722. 
Bernstrom,  J.     II,  445. 
Bersbo  Mines.     II,  255. 
Bertolini,  G.     II,  715. 
Berwald,  Franz.     1,  528,  530. 
— ,  Joh.  Fredr.     I,  530. 
Berzelius,    J.   J.     I,  386,  576, 

591,  607,  II,  723. 
Bessemer   converter,     II,   299. 

—  furnace.     II,  294. 

—  iron  works.     II,  297. 

—  process.    II,  291. 

—  steel,  output.    II,  294,  296, 
298. 

Betulander,  G.  A.    II,  504, 654. 
Bevillning.     I,  236. 
Biberg,  N.  F.     I,  541. 
Bibliograflska  litteratur,  Sveri- 

ges.     II,  711. 
Bicalcic   phosphate.     II,    479. 
Bifurcations.     I,  23. 
Bilberg,  J.     I.  540,  624. 
Billbergs  pianofabrik.    II,  462. 
Billesholm.     II,  255. 
Billing,  E.     I,  537. 
Billingen.     I,  14. 
Billingsfors     aktiebolag.      II, 

478. 
Biograph    censorship.     I,  757. 
Biological    Museum.      1,    474, 

-  475. 

Birch..   I,  10,  14. 

—  Forest  Region.     I,  63. 
Birger  Jarl.     I,  89. 
Birger,  S.  G.     I,  589. 
Birgitta,  see  St.  Bridget. 


Births.     I,  134. 
— ,  illegitimate.     I,  159. 
— ,  living.     I,  109,  113. 
— ,  surplus.     1,  109,  112,  113. 
Bjerknes,  K.  A.     I,  614. 
— ,  V.  F.  K.    I,  614,  619. 
Bjurstedt,  E.     I,  XVIII. 
Bjuv.     II,  255. 
Bjiirka-Saby.     I,  682. 
Bjorck,  Oscar.     I,  524. 
Bjorklund,  G.     I,  568,  781. 
Bjorkman,  E.     I,  548. 
Bjorknas  Saw-mill.     II,  197. 
Bjorlin,  G.     I,  553, 
Bjorling,  C.  G.  E.     I,  xiii,  XIX, 

539. 
— ,  E.  G.     I,  610. 
— ,  J.  S.     II,  X. 
— ,  K.  F.  E.     I,  611. 
Bjornsholmen    Saw-mill.      II, 

197. 
Bjornson,  Bjornstjerne.  I,  467. 
Bjornstjerna,  M,  F.     I,  566. 
Bjornstahl,  J.  J.     I,  545. 
Bladh,  P.  J.     I,  590. 
Bladin,  J.  A.     I,  608. 
Blanche,  A.     I,  493. 
Blanck,  E.  A.     I,  557. 
Blankaholm.     II,  201. 
Blast  furnace,  electric.    II,  283, 

284. 
—  furnaces.     II,  276,  277. 
Blasting  gelatine.     II,  436. 
Bleauhing  liquor.     II,  477. 
Blind,  Association  for.    1,  370. 
— ■  Deaf-mutes,   School    Home 

for.     I,  371. 
— ,  Institute  for.     I,  369. 
— ,  Schools  for  the.     I,  368. 
— ,  Union  for  the  Welfare  of. 

I,  370. 
Blister  steel.     II,  291. 
Blix,  Magnus.     I,  576. 
Block,  H.  G.     I,  612. 
Blom,  F.     I,  503. 
Blomberg,  David.     II,  502. 
Blommer,  N.  J.     I,  519. 
Blomquist,  K.     I,  xiv,  xix. 
Blomstrand,  K.  V.     I,  608. 
Blotsven,  king.     I,  87. 
Blue  Ribbon  Union.     I,  745. 
Blnmenthal,    M,     I,  xvi,  xix. 
Board  of,  see  the  several  head 

words. 
Bobbin  lace-work.     II,  495. 
Boberg,  Anna.     II,  500. 
— ,  Ferdinand.    I,  504,  II,  500, 

502,  503. 
Bodman,  G,     I,  620. 
Boethius,  D.     I,  540. 
— ,  S.     I,  553. 
Bofors   Iron    Works.     II,  454, 

456   459. 
Bogie-car.  '  11,  603,  605. 
Boheman,  K.  H.     I,  597. 
Bohlin,  Karl.     I,  xv,  xix,  616. 
— ,  Knut  (K.).    I,  588. 


732 


INDEX. 


Bohm,  E.    I,  594. 

Boije,  F.     I,  557. 

— ,  K.  G.    I,  591. 

Boivies  kakelfabriksaktiebolag. 

II,  420. 
Bokkatalog,   Svensk.     II,  711. 
Boklexikon,  Svenskt.    II,  711. 
Boklund,  J.     I,  521. 
Boktryckareforeningen,    Sven- 

ska.    I,  485. 
BoUn.  P.     I,  594. 
Bolinder,  C.  G.     II,  447. 
— ,  Jean.    II,  447. 

—  Mechanical  Works.    I,  681, 
II,  447,  448,  457,  458. 

Bollsta.     II,  197. 

Bolting  cloth.     II,  496. 

Boman,  E.     I,  629. 

Bona  Reformatory.  I,  376,  377. 

Bonde,  Carl  Carlsson.    I,  780. 

— ,  Knut.     I,  566. 

Bonded  warehouse.     II,  531. 

Bondeson,  A.     I,  497. 

Bone  meal.     II,  433. 

Bondg^rd,  see  Peasant  farms. 

Bonthron,  Alice.     I,  xiv,  xix. 

Book-hinders'  School.     I,  760. 

Bookbinding,  artistic.     It,  503. 

Borelius,  Hilma.     I,  557. 

— ,  J.     I,  581. 

— ,  J.  J.     I,  540. 

Borg,  P.  A.    I,  366,  368. 

Borgholm.     I,  282,  443,  502. 

Borg's,    Elsa,    Rescue    Home. 

I,  769. 

Borgs    soner,    C.    0.,    factory. 

II,  366. 

Borgstr5m,  Hilda.     I,  535. 
Borkhult.    II,  394. 
Boras.     I,  123. 

—  kladningstygfabrik,   Aktie- 
bolaget.     II,  367. 

—  Technical  Weaving  School. 
II,  360. 

—  vaveriaktiebolag.     II,   371. 
Bosse,  H.    I,  535. 
Bostrom,  H.     I,  xix. 

— ,  K.  J.    I,  329,  540,  541. 
Botany.     I,  584. 
Botvid,  missionary.     I,  88. 
Bouchardon,  J.  Ph.     I,  509. 
Boundaries.     I.  1,  2. 
Boundary-rivers.     I,  23. 
Bourdon,  Sebastian.     I,  515. 
Boxholm  Works.     I,  682. 
Boy,  Willem.     I,  508. 
Brachycephals.     I,  148. 
Brahe,  Per.     I,  590. 
— ,  Tycho.    I,  45,  441,  617. 
Brambeck,  E.     I,  512. 
Brandes,  G.     II,  72-i. 
Brandt,  G.     I,  605. 
— ,  Ture.     I,  431,  433. 
Brand.y,  imports.     II,  517. 
Branting,  Agnes.     II,  499. 
— ,  Hjalmar.     I,  208. 
— ,  Lars  Gabriel.     I,  427. 


Brate,  E.     I,  548. 
Bratt,  I.     I,  743. 
Braun,  F,     I,  467. 
Brauner,  Jan.     I,  591. 
V.  Breda,  K.  E.     I,  519. 
Bredman,  J.     I,  616. 
Breeding  animals,  auctions.  11, 
87. 

—  centres.     II,  88. 

—  societies.    II,  87. 
Breeding-stock  Board.     II,  81. 

—  fund.     II,  81. 

Bremer,  Eredrika.    I,  493,  735. 
Brenner.  E.     I,  555. 
Breweries.     II,  351. 

—  apparatus.    II,  458. 
Brick.    II,  6,  414. 
Brick-yards.     II,  458. 
Bridget,  St.    I,  90,  326,  486, 

536. 
Brinell,  J.  A.     II,  504. 
Bring,  E.  G.     I,  537. 
— ,  E.  S.     I,  610. 
Briquettes,   iron,    output.     II, 

272. 
Brising,  H.     I,  559. 
Brisman,    Sven.     I,    xix,  567, 

II,  X. 
Brock,  Fritz.     I,  567. 
Broden,  T.     I,  611. 
de  Broen,  A.     I,  534. 
Brokers.     II,  512. 
Broling.     II,  440. 
Broman,  A.     I,  430. 
-,  I.     I,  575. 
V.  Bromell,  M.     I,  598. 
Broocman,  K.  U.     I,  563. 
Browallius,  J.     I,  562. 
Brulin,  H.     I,  xiii,  xix. 
Brunius,  A.     I,  559. 
— ,  K.  G.     I,  557. 
— ,  Pauline.     I,  535. 
Brunkeberg,  battle.     I,  93. 
Brunkebergs-3,sen.     I,  15. 
Brusewitz,  H.     II,  726. 
Bruzelius,  N.  G.     I,  584. 
— ,  R.    I,  579. 

Brannfors   Saw-mill.     II,  197. 
Brannudden  Factory.    II,  458. 
Brannvin,  consumption.  1, 171. 
Buchner,  E.     I,  467. 
Bucht,  G.     I,  611. 
Buck   wheat,  cultivation.     II, 

65. 
Budget,  State.     I,  232. 
Bugge-Wicksell,  Anna.    I,  xvi, 

XIX. 

Bnhre,  B.     I,  xvi,  xix. 
Bulls,  number  of.     II,  89. 
Bure  Saw-mill.     II,  197. 
Bureau    International   Perma- 
nent de  la  Paix.     I,  468. 
Bureus,  A.    I,  624,  629. 
— ,  J.    I,  544,  553. 
Burman,  E.     I,  617. 
-,  E.  0.    I,  542. 
Burmeistet,  G.     1,  526. 


Burstrom,  H.     I,  570. 

Butter,  consumption.     I,   172. 

— ,  exports  by  destination.  II, 
117., 

— ,  imports  and  exports.  II, 
109,  110. 

— ,  manufacture.     II,  113. 

— ,  prices.     11.  111. 

Butter  and  margarine  imports 
and  exports.     II,  30. 

Butter-testing.     II,  119. 

By  One's  Own  Work  (Asso- 
ciation).    I,  763. 

Bystrom,  A.  H.     I,  xiii,  xviii, 

XIX. 

— ,  J.  N.    I,  511. 

B8,ngbro  Iron  Works.    II,  295. 

Bastad.     I,  441. 

Batskarsnas.     II,  196. 

Baath,  A.  U.     I,  496. 

Back,  Abraham.     I,  573. 

— ,  Knut.     I,  529. 

Backhammar.     II,  394. 

Backlund,  A.  V.    I,  611,  614. 

Backstrom,  H.    I,  602. 

Bohlmark's,  Arvid,  Lamp  Fac- 
tory.    II,  459. 

Borjeson,  J.     I,  512. 

Bortzell,  A.,  tryckeriaktiebolag. 
II,  482. 

Bottiger,  J.     I,  557. 

— ,  K.  W.     I,  492. 

Book,  Fredrik.     I,  657. 


Cabinet,  (statsradet).  I,  196, 
213. 

Cabinet-making.     II,  501. 

Cajal,  S.  Ramon  y.     I,  467. 

Calonius,  M.     I,  539. 

Cambrian  deposits.     I,  60. 

Canals  and  Waterways.  II, 
562. 

Candles.     II,  388. 

Canell's  Manufacturing  Works. 
II,  459. 

Cannon.     IT,  459. 

Capercailzie.     II,  222. 

Capital  and  Income,  distribu- 
tion of.     I,  156. 

Capsules,  metal.     II,  459. 

Carbide.     II,  475. 

Carbolic  acid.    II,  387. 

Carbon  electrodes.     II,  479. 

Carbonic  acid.     II,  438. 

Carducci,  G.    I,  468. 

Carlander,  0.     I,  374. 

Carlbeck,  Emanuella.     I,  372. 

Carlgren,  0.     I,  697. 

Carlheim-Gyllenskold,  V.  I, 
605,  620. 

Carlson,  Ernst.     I,  562,  565. 

— ,  F.  F.  I,  341,  552,  563, 
II,  716. 

— ,  Oscar.    II,  432,  433,  478. 

Carlsson,  A.     I,  611. 

— ,  Sture.     II,  724.     . 


INDEX. 


733 


Carlsund,  0.  E.     II,  441,  448, 

504. 
Carnegie  &  Co.,  brewery.  I,  681. 
Carolina  Eediviva.     I,  413. 
Carrel,  A.    I,  467. 
Cartographical       Commission, 

General.     I,  231. 
Cartography,   official.     I,  226. 
Casks.    II,  495. 
Cassel,  G.     II,  379. 
— ,  G.  E.    II,  478. 
— ,  Gustav.     I,  567. 

—  Donation.     I,  759. 
Catechetical  meetings.     I,  333. 
Catholics,  Greek.    I,  335. 

— ,  Roman.     I,  336. 
Cattle   races.    II,  80,  81,  82, 
83,  84,  85. 

—  rearing.     II,  79. 

— ,  bibliography.     II,  725. 

—  units.    II,   89,  90,  91,  92. 
Cavallin,  Kr.     I,  549. 
Cedergren,  H.  T.     II,  656. 

— ,  H.  T.,  Educational  Bequest. 

I,  470. 

— ,  Ida.     I,  470. 

- —   Telephone  Company,  Ltd. 

II,  657. 

Cederschiold,  J.  G.  Ch.    I,  548. 
— ,  P.  G.    I,  581. 
Cederstrom,  G.  0.     I,  98,  522, 

559. 
Celsius,  A.     I,  100,  598,  602, 

614,  615,  617. 
— ,  M.    I,  544. 

0.    I   545. 

—I  0.  the  Younger.     I,  537. 
Cement  and  Mortar.     II,  412. 
Cementforsaljningsaktiebola- 

get,  Svenska.     II,  413. 
Cement,  manufacture.     II,   6. 
Central    Bureau  of  Statistics, 

see  Statistics. 

—  Meteorological    Office,    see 
Meteorological. 

Centraltryckeriet.     II,  483. 
Centrator,  factory.     II,  458. 
Centrifugaktiebolaget,  Svenska. 

II,  120,  458. 
Ceramic  manufacture.     II,  502. 
Cereal   crops,  yearly  averages. 

II,  49. 
Cereals.     11,  52,  53,  516. 
— ,  consumption.     II,  56. 
— ,  cultivation.    II,  48,  56,  58. 
— ,  prices.     II,  65. 
Chalmers'    Polytechnical   Col- 
lege.    I,  420. 
Chamber-music,     Society     for. 

I,  532. 
Charcoal.    II,   217,   268,   269, 

271,  427. 
Charitable  foundations.    I,  730. 
Charity   Organization    Society 

(E.  V.  0.;.    I,  300,  762. 
Charles  IX.    1, 95,  96,  II,  313, 

484. 


Charles  X  Gnstavus.  I,  96,  99. 

—  XI.     I,  96, 97, 154,  II,  315, 
485,  508.  509. 

—  XII.    1, 96(  98,  249,  II,  485, 
510. 

—  XIII.     I,  102. 

—  XIV  Johan.    1, 102,  II,  510. 

—  XV.     I,  102. 
Charleston,  Sydney.     I,  xxiv. 
Charlier,    C.    V.    L.     I,    572, 

616. 
Chart  Office,  Nautical,    I,  228. 
Chanveau,  R.     I,  508. 
Cheese,    imports    and  exports. 

11,  110,  118. 
— ,  manufacture.     II,  110, 115. 
Chemical  analvsis  offices.     II, 

146. 

—  industry.     II,  6,  431. 
Cheminais,  G.     II,  726. 
Chemistry.     I,  605. 

— ,  medical.     I,  576. 
v.  Chemnitz,  B.  P.     I,  551. 
Chesnecopherus,  J.   I,  573,  584. 
Child-care  Society.     I,  762. 
Children,  care  of.     I,  751. 
— ,  protection  of.     I,  771. 
Children's  gardens.     I,  754. 

—  homes.     I,  299, 

—  isle.    I,  357. 

—  shelters.    I,  299. 
Chip-boxes.     II,  403. 
Chip-funnels.     11,  397. 
Chlorates.     II,  432,  478. 
Chocolate.     II,  345. 
Christian  II.     I,  92. 
Christian    student   movement. 

I,  335. 
Christina,   Queen.     I,  154,  II, 

485. 
Chromium.     II,  238. 
Church  and  Religion.     I,  325. 

,  bibliography.     II,  720. 

— ,  constitution.     I,  330. 

—  movement,  young  people's. 
I,  335. 

—  Pastoral  "Work,  Society  for 
Promotion  of.     I,  335. 

—  Voluntary  Work  Board.    I, 
335. 

Church,  "W.  C.     II,  736. 
Chydenius,  Anders.     I,  566. 
Cities,  population.     I,  120. 
City    Mission    Labour   Home. 

1,  769. 
Civil  law.     I,  307. 
Claeson,  K.     I,  542. 
Claesson,  Aris.     I,  508. 
Clason,  E.  K.  H.     I,  573,  584. 
— ,  I.  G.    I,  508,  604. 
— ,  S.    I,  553. 
Claussen,  Julia.     I,  532. 
Clay,  fireproof.     II,  6,  415. 
— ,  late  glacial.     I,  58. 
Clay-slate.     II,  410. 
Clearing  House.     11,  512. 
Clergymen.    I,  332. 


Cleve,  P.  T.    I,  608.  622. 
Climate.     I,  31,  II,  8. 
Clocks.    11,  459,  463. 
Clothing  industry.     II,  358. 
Coal.     II,  272. 
— ,  deposits.     I,  54. 

—  mines.     II,  255. 
— ,  occurrence.     II,  2. 

—  and     Coke,     consumption. 
11,  318. 

,  import.     II,  520. 

Coal-tar.     II,  429. 
Coast.     I,  13,  16,  19. 
Coast  artillery.     I,  265. 
Coastal  steamers.     II,  560. 
Coastguard  Service.     II,  534. 
Cobalt.    11,  238. 
Coeducational  schools.     I,  400. 
Coffee.    II,  616. 
— ,  consumption.     I,  171. 
— ■   substitutes.     II,  345. 
Coin  Cabinet,  Royal.     I,  473. 
Coinage.     II,  661. 
Coke  (cf.  Coal  and  coke).    II, 

272. 
Collective  agreements.     I,  656. 

—  bargaining.     I,  638. 
Colonial  wares.     II,  516. 
Columbus,  S.     I,  544. 
Comenius.     I,  99. 
Commerce.     II,  16,  507. 
— ,  bibliography.     II,  726. 

— ,  chambers  of.     II,  612,  613. 
— .  High  School   of.     II,  541, 

644. 
— ,  historical.     II,  507. 
Commercial  education.   II,  540. 

—  Council.     II,  612. 

—  gymnasiums.     II,  641. 

—  Knowledge,  Society  for  the 
Advancement  of.     II,  544. 

—  legislation.     II,  645. 

—  policy.     II,  534. 

—  returns.     I,  224,  II,  513. 
Committees    of   the    Riksdag. 

I,  204. 
Communal  authorities.    I,  287. 

—  Board.     I,  289. 

—  Meeting.     I,  287. 
Communes,  expenditure.  1, 290. 
— ,  finance.     I,  290. 

— ,  revenue.     I,  288. 

— ,  self-government  of.    I,  284. 

Communications,  internal.    II, 

694. 
— ,  urban.     II,  623. 
Companies  acts.     II,  698. 
Concert  Society.     I,  757. 

—  Union,    People's.      I,    532, 
757. 

Configuration  of  land.     I,  4. 
Coniferous   Forest  Region.     I, 

64,  76. 
Conscripts,    I,  249,  265. 
Constitution.     I,  189. 

—  acts.    I,  193,  195. 

— ,  bibliography.     II,  718. 


734 


INDEX. 


Consular  Service.   .11,512,719. 

,   bibliography.     II,  719, 

Consumption    of  food,  annual, 

per  head.     I,  171. 
Continuation  schools.     I,  343, 

365. 
Control  associations.     II,  88. 

—  Board,  Eoyal.     II,  342,  348. 
Conventicle  act.     I,  327. 
Convocation.    I,  198,  329,  331. 
Conwentz,  H.     I,  777. 

Cook,  J.    I,  586. 
Cooking  schools.     I,  761. 
Cooling  drinks.     II,  355. 
Cooperation,    agricultural.      I, 

701. 
Cooperative  societies.     I,  695. 

—  Union.  II,  683. 
Gooperies.  II,  402. 
Copper.     II,  238. 

—  Company.     11,  509. 

— ,  imports    and  exports.     II, 
307. 

—  manufacture.     II,  306,  308. 

—  ore,  deposits.     I,  49. 

—  — ,  mining.     II,  307. 

—  — ,  occurrence.     II,  6. 

—  vitriol,    manufacture.     II, 
306. 

Cork  factories.     II,  407. 
Costs  of   living.     I,  169,  692. 
Cotton  (and  Cotton-stuffs),  im- 
ports and  exports.     II,  369. 

—  industry.     II,  367. 

—  manufactories.     II,  368. 
Council  of  the  Realm.    1, 190. 
Counties,  cf.  Lans. 

— ,  self-government  of.   I,  301. 
Country  roads.     II,  626. 
County   Councils,  expenditure. 

I,  244,  245,  302. 
,  revenue  and  expenditure. 

I,  302. 
Couple-rotation     (agriculture). 

II,  47,  48. 

Court,  Borough.     I,  289,  317. 

— ,  Bistrict.     I,  316. 

— ,  High,  of  Justice.      I,  196, 

318. 
— ,    Supreme    Administrative. 

I,  196,  319. 
Courts  of  Appeal.     I,  317. 

Justice.    I,  315. 

de  Coussange,  J.  II,  718. 
Cows,  number  of  II,  89. 
Cow-testing,  assistants  in.     II, 

129. 
Creches.     I,  299,  762. 
Creed  and  Cnltus  of  the  Church. 

I,  334. 
Cremer,  "William.     I,  468. 
Creosote.    II,  387. 
Cretaceous  system.     I,  54. 
Creutz,  G.  F.     I,  lOD,  488. 
Criminal  law,     I,  312. 
Criminalists'  Society,  Swedish. 

I,  765. 


Criminality.     I,  168. 
Cripples,  institutions    for  the 

care  of.     I,  374. 
Crockery  works.     II,  420. 
Crofter  System.     I,  637. 
Crofter's  allotments.     II,  43. 
Cronhielm,  G.     I,  538. 
Cronstedt,  A.  F,     I,  598,  605. 
Cronstrand,  S.  A.     I,  615. 
Crop^,  rotation  of.     II,  47. 
Crown  Lands  Board.     II,  168. 

—  parks.     II,  170. 
Cruppi,  L.     II,  722. 

G.    S.    A.,    see    Social   Work, 

Central  Association  for. 
Cultivated  land.     II,  7,  14. 

—  — ,  distribution  of  the  area. 
II,  43—45. 

Cultivation    Loan    Fund.     II, 

140. 
Culture      movement      among 

young  people.     I,  758. 
Curie,  Marie.     I,  467. 

—  P.     I,  467. 
Curman,  C.     I,  580. 

— ,  S.    I,  XIV,  XVIII,  506,  558. 
Customs.     I,  239,  II,  628. 
— ,  bibliography.     II,  718. 

—  duties,   refunding   of.     II, 
532. 

— ,  Royal  Board  of.     II,  533. 

—  Service.    II,  533. 

—  stores.     II,  531. 

—  tariff  legislation.     II,  530. 

—  Training  School.     II,  534, 
Customs    and   Mode    of   Life. 

I,  167. 
Cyanamide,  Calcium.     II,  475. 
Cycles.     II,  457. 
Czapek,  Jos.     I,  632. 


Dahl,  engineer.  II,  394. 
Dahlander,  G.  R.  I,  604. 
Dahlberg,  B.  H.     I,  539. 

—  Erik.     I,  99,  517,  551. 
Dahlerus,  C.  G.     II,  725. 
Dahlgren.     II,  462. 

— ,  E.  W.  I,  XVIII,  629. 

— ,  F.  A.     I,  497. 

— ,  H.    I,  565. 

— ,  J.  A.    I,  146,  II,  604. 

Dahlgrens,  C.  AV.,  fabriksaktie- 

bolag.     II,  459. 
Dahlman,  K.     I,  691. 
Dahlquist,  0.     1,  649. 
Dahlqvist,  Iv.  G.     I,  535. 
Dahlstedt,  A.     I,  688. 
Dahlstrom,  Hj.     I,  xvi,  xix. 
Dairy  (dairies).     II,  112. 

—  associations.     II,  120. 

—  companies.    II,  107. 

—  Control    Association,    Swe- 
dish.    II,  120. 

— ,  co-operative.    II,  110,  112. 

—  exhibitions.     II,  119. 

—  experts.     II,  118._ 


Dairy  (dairies)  farming.  II,  14. 

—  industry.     II,  106. 

—  machines.     II,  468. 

—  schools.     II,  119. 
Dal  Saw-mill.     II,  197, 
Dala  sandstone.     II,  411. 
Dalarne.     I.  443,  446. 
Dalen,  G.    1.  467,  605,  II,  429, 

430,  453,  604,  581. 
— ,  J.  A.    I,  582. 
Dalin,  A.     I,  xiv,  xix. 
Dalkarlsberg.      II,    242,    257 

258. 
Dalman,  J.  V.     I,  596,  699. 
Dalsjofors.     II,  376. 
Dalsland  Canal.     II,  666,  568. 

—  series.     I,  60. 

Danelii,  B.  A.,  Donation  Fund. 
I,  679. 

Danielsson,  0.  A.     I,  549. 

Dannemora  Mine.  II,  242 
310. 

Danviken  Home.     I,  299. 

af  Darelli,  J.     I,  591. 

Dang,  H.  T.     I,  610. 

Davidson,  D.     I,  539,  567. 

Deaconesses  Institute  I,  300, 
335,  377. 

Deacons'  Establishment.  I,  336. 

Deaf-mutes,  number  of.  I, 
368. 

Deaf  and  Dumb,  schools  for. 
I,  366. 

Teachers  Society,  Swe- 
dish.    I,  368. 

Deaths.     I,  109,  113. 

Debt,  national.    I,  231,  240. 

—  Board,  National.     I,  198. 
De  Geer,  G.     I,  69,  602,  626. 
K.    I   596. 

— ,'  Louis.'    I,  197,  11,  316. 
— ,  S.    I,  630. 
Degeberg  College.     II,  125. 
Deland,  F.     I,  535. 
— ,  L.    I,  534. 
Delary  factory.     II,  394. 
Delin,  C.     I,  539. 
Dellwik,   C.  A.     II,  429. 
Delteil,  L.     II,  723. 
Demography.     I,  104. 
— ,  bibliography.     II,  717. 
Dente,  Jos.     I,  530. 
Dentists.     I,  278. 
Denudation,  chemical.     I,  23. 
Departments     Committee.      I, 
218. 

—  of  State.     I,  214. 
Depraved   children,   corrective 

institutions  for.     I,  375. 
Descartes.     I,  99. 
Designs  and  Models.     II,  709. 
Des  Marees,  George.     I,  517. 
Desprez,  J.  L.    I,  618. 
Destitute,    Home  for.     I,  752, 

769. 
Diabase.     I,  9,  II,  410. 
Diakonistyrelsen.     I,  336. 


INDEX. 


735 


Dickson,  Blaticlie.     I,  470. 
— ,  James.  F.     I,  383,  470. 
— ,  — ,  Memorial    Foundation. 

I.  470. 

— ,  Oscar.     1,  628, 

— ,  Robert.     I,  680. 

— ,  — ,  Fund.    I,  679,  680. 

Dictionaries.     II,  717. 

Diem,  C.     11,  722. 

Diesels  motorer,  Aktiebolaget. 

II,  451. 

Diet,  Swedish  (cf.  Riksdag)  I, 

153,  191. 
Dietrichson,  L.     I,  557. 
Difos  fat,  Aktiebolaget.  11,479. 
Dinner,  G.     I,  xviil,  610. 
Discharge-rivers.     I,  25. 
Dissousgas.     II,  430. 
Distilling  apparatus.    II,  458. 
Diving.     II,  581. 
Division,    administrative.       I, 

108. 
— ,  historical.     I,  3,  4. 
Divorces.     I,  161. 
Djurberg,  Daniel.     I,  629. 
Djurg4rden.     I,  779. 
Djursholm.     I,  690. 
Djurskyddsforeningarnas    cen- 

tralforbund,  Svenska.  I,  779. 
Docks.     II,  576. 
— ,  dry.     II,  574. 
Domestic  economy.  I,  354,  761. 

—  handicraft.     II,  372. 

—  industries.     II,  483,  491. 

—  work.  Schools  for.     I,  761. 
Domnarvet   Iron     "Works.     II, 

295,  453. 

—  Paper  Mills.     11,  405. 

—  Saw-mill.     II,  199. 
Domsjo  Saw-mill.     II,  197. 
Donation  funds.     I,  730. 
Drag's    Cloth   Mills.     II,  364, 

365,  366. 
Draining  grants.     II,  141. 
Dramatic  art.     I,  533. 
Drawback  warehouse.    II,  582. 
Dress.     I,  168. 
Drift-sand  districts.     I,  72. 
Drift  sand-dune.     I,  777. 
Droit  International,    Institute 

de.     I,  468. 
Drottningens    skyddshem.      I, 

769. 
Drottningholm   Castle.     I,  99. 
Dry  docks.     II,  574. 
Dratselkammare.     I,  289. 
Du  Chaillu,  P.     II,  715. 

—  Pny,  Jean.  I,  530. 
Ducommnn,  E.  I,  468. 
Dunant,  H.  I,  468. 
D'Uncker,  K.  I.  522. 
Duner,  N.  Kr.  t  616. 
Dusen,  P.  I,  589,  629. 
Diiben,  Grustav,  the  Elder.     I, 

526. 
V.    Diiben,    G.     I,    555,   573, 
584. 


Dyes  and  Paints.     II,  437. 

Dymsa,  L.     II,  718. 

Dynamite.     II,  436. 

Dwellings  (cf.  Housing  Prob- 
lem and  the  "Own  Home" 
Movement).     I,  172,  175. 

— ,  census.     I,  674. 

—  Committee.    I,  674. 

— ,     inspection     of.      I,     280, 

674. 
— ,  investigations  of.     I,  674. 

—  societies.     I,  677. 
Dybeck,  E.    I,  555-. 


Early    Closing    Act.     I,  708, 

714. 
Earthenware.     II,  414,  502. 
East  Asia  Company.     II,  558. 
East  India  Company.    II,  510. 
Ebonite.    II,  387. 
Echegaray,  J,     I,  467. 
Eck,    Motorfabriken.     II,  464. 
Ecklesiastikdepartementet.     I, 

337,  390. 
Economic     Map    Office.       I, 

227. 
Economical   development.     II, 

17. 
Eda  Glass  Work.     II,  423. 
Edelcrantz,    A.    N.      II,    317, 

643. 
Edelfelt,  A.     I,  494. 
Eden,  N.     I,  553,  II,  717,  719. 
Edfeldt,  H.     I,  542. 
Edged  tools.    II,  459. 
Edgren,  J.  G.     I,  580. 
Edin,  K.  A.     I,  xiii,  xv,  xix, 

571. 
Edling,  Dina.     I,  531. 
Edlund,  E.     I,  .604,  612,  617, 

619. 
Edsken  Iron  Works.     II,  293. 
Edstrom,  David.     I,  514. 
— ,  engineer.     II,  564. 
Education.     I,  337. 
— ,  bibliography.     II,  731. 
— ,  elementary.     I,  339. 
— ,  extension  of.     I,  757. 
— ,  higher.     I,  407. 
— ,  secondary.     I,  385. 
— ,  popular.     I,  378. 
Educational  sloyd.     I,  860. 
Eel-fishery.     II,  230. 
Eggertz,  C.  G.     I,  593. 
— ,  V.     I,  608. 
Egna  hem,  see  Own  Home. 
Egner,  C.  E.     II,  504,  654. 
Ehrenheim,  F.  V.     I,  619. 
Ehrenstrahl,    David    Klocker. 

I,  515. 
Ehrensvard,     Augustine.       II, 

499. 
— ,  K.  A.     I,  540,  560. 
Ehrlich,  P.     I,  467. 
Eichhorn,  Kr.     I,  557. 
Ek,  Selma.     I.  531. 


Ekdahl.  0.  Z.     I.  622. 
— ,  Stina.     I,  XVIII. 
Ekeberg,  A.  G.    I,  608. 
— ,  B.    I,  589. 
Ekehorn,  G.    I,  581. 
Ekelund,  V.     I,  496. 
Ekenberg,  M.     II,  116. 
af  Ekenstam,  0.  Th.     I,  xix, 

II,    VIII. 

Ekhoff,  E.     I.  558. 

Ekholm.    N.     I,  xii,  xv,  xix, 

618,  619,  620,  621,  626. 
Eklund,  E.     I.  562. 
p     J   537 

Ekman,  C.  D.'   II,  395,  504. 

— ,  F.  L.     I,  608,  621. 

— ,  G.    I,    622,  II,   288,  289, 

504. 
— ,  P.     I,  505. 
— ,  V.     I,  619. 
— ,  V.  W.  .  I,  614. 
Ekstrand,  A.  G.     I,  xvii,  xix, 

II,  viii,  IX,  609. 
Ekstrom,  G.     II,  346,  396. 
Ekstromer,  K.  J.     I,  580. 
Ekstromsberg.     II,  242. 
Ekwall,  E.     I,  548. 
Elbfas,  J.  H,     I,  515. 
Eldh,  C.  J.     I,  514. 
Elections,    communal,  number 

of  votes.     I,  286. 
Electoral  League,  General.     I, 

210. 
Electric    energy,  consumption. 

II,  471. 

—  motors.     II,  457. 

—  plants.     II,  467,  468,  469. 

—  power  industry.     II,  465. 
Electro-chemical  factories.   II.  . 

473. 

—  industry.     II,  472. 
Electro-technical  industry.  II, 

464. 
Elektriska    aktiebolaget,    Nya 
forenade.     II,  464. 

—  rorfabriken.     II,  465. 
Elektrokemiska     aktiebolaget. 

II,  477. 
Blektrometall,    Aktiebolaget. 

II,  303. 
Elementary  education.    I,  339. 

—  schools.     I,  340. 
Elevation  of  land.     I,  6. 
Elfstrand,  M.     I,  577. 
Elisson,  A.     II,  502. 
Elk.     I,  78. 

Elkan,  Sophie.     I,  496. 
Elmblad,  Johannes.     I,  531. 
Elmlund,  A.  V.  J.     I,  535. 
Elmquist.  H.    I,  xv,  xvii,  xix, 

570,  II,  508. 
Elvius,  Pehr.    I,  221,  568. 
Emigration.     I,  109,  141,  665. 
— ,    investigation   on.     I,  107, 

666. 
— ,     National     Association 

against.     I,  668. 


736 


INDEX. 


Emmaljunga  Peat  School.    II, 

427. 
Emmaus,  kvinnliga  sm^bruks- 

kolonien.     I,  769. 
Employers'     associations.      I, 

645. 
— ,  organization.     I,  642. 
Emund  Gammal,  King.    I,  85. 
Eneborg,  H.     I.  xvill. 
Eneman.  M.     I,  544,  624. 
Enestrom,    G.      I,    568,    572, 

612. 
Engelbrekt.     I,  90,  93,  153. 
Engines,  portaljle.     II,  457. 
Engstrom,  Albert.     I,  526. 
— ,  N.    I,  594,  595. 
Engstromer,    Th.     I,  xm,  xx, 

539. 
Enhorn,  Jurgen.     II,  376. 
Enhornings,     J.    A.,    travaru- 

aktiebolag.     II,  199. 
Enskede.     I,  182,  690. 
Enskifte.     II,  31. 
Enstrom,  A.     I,  xx,  11,  IX. 
Eolshall,  alkoholisthem.  I,  769. 
V.  Erdberg,  R.     II,  721. 
Erdmann,  A.     I,  546,  548. 
— ,   Axel.    I,   599,   600,   601 

602,  617. 
— ,  E.    I,  XII,  XV,  XX,  602. 
— ,  Nils.    I,  557. 
Eric  XIII.     I,  153. 
Eric  line  (dynasty).     I,  87. 

—  of  Pomerania.     I,  90. 

—  Segersall,  King.     I,  85. 
— ,  St.,  King.     I,  88. 
Ericson,    Nils,     II,    410,    565, 

596. 
— ,  Sigfrid.    I,  505. 
Ericsson,    John.     I,   146,  604, 

II,  321,  441,  504,  596,  726. 
— ,  L.  M.    II,  504. 
— ,  L.  M.,  &  Co.,  Aktiebolaget. 

II,  441,  459,  654. 
— ,  Sten.     II,  121. 
Ericsson's,  John,    mansoleum. 

II,  506. 
Eriksberg  Castle.     I,  177. 

—  Mechanical    Works.      I]* 
457   459. 

Eriksdal  Saw-mill.     II,  199. 
Erikson,  Sven.     II,  370. 
Eriksson,  Christian.     I,  513. 
— ,  Jak.    I,  588,  590,  594. 
Ernberg,  A.     I,  589. 
Erratic  blocks.     I,  58,  778. 
Eskers.     I,  15. 
Eskil,  missionary.     I,  88. 
Eskilstuna.     I,  123. 

—  industry.     II,  460. 

—  separator,  Aktiebolaget.    II, 
120. 

—  stMpressningsaktiebolag.  II, 
121,  452.  459. 

Essen-Moller,  G.  E.     I,  581. 
Esswein,  H.     II,  722. 
Estate-dismemberment.    II,  42. 


Estlander,  K.  G.     I,  557. 
d'Estonrnelles  de  Constant,  P. 

H.  B.     I,  468. 
Ethnography.     I,  555. 
Eucken,  R.     1,  468. 
Eugen,  Prince.     I,  525. 
Eugenics.     I,  774. 
V.  Euler-Chelpin,  H.     I,  610. 
Evangelic  Union,  National.    I. 

329,  335,  336. 
Evangeliska  fosterlandsstiftel- 

sen.    I,  329. 
Excelsior    (factory,    Brannnd- 

den).     II,  458. 
Exchequer.     I,  231. 
Excise.    I,  239. 
Executions.    I,  270,  323. 
Experimentalf altet.  II,  89, 147. 
Explosives.     II,  434. 
Export    Association,    General 

Swedish.    II,  513. 
Export  bursaries.     II,  511. 


Factories  and  Handicrafts.  II, 

488. 
Factory  laws.     I,  704. 
Pagerberg,  C.     I,  514. 
Pagerlin,  P.     I,  522. 
Fagersta  Iron  Works.    II,  455, 

459. 
Faggot,  Jakob.     I,  590,  II,  31. 
Fahlbeck,  P.     I,  xil,  xvii,  xx, 

567,   569,   II,   vn,  25,  717, 

718,  726. 
Fahlcrantz,  K.  J.     I,  519. 
Fahlgren,  Elisabet.     I,  534. 
Pahlman,  L.     I,  535. 
Fahlstedt,  I.     I,  511. 
Fahnehjelm,     Otto.      II,    412, 

504. 
Falk,  M.    I,  612. 
Pallstrom,  D.     I,  496. 
Falun.     I,  124,  447. 

—  Carriage  and  Machine  Fac- 
tory.    II,  451,  457,  458. 

—  Copper  Mine.     II,  5,  308, 
310. 

Fama,    Separatoraktiebolaget. 

11,  120. 
Fant,  F.     I,  xiv,  xx. 
Farmed  lands.     II,  44. 
Farmers,   National  Federation 

of  Swedish.     I,  700. 
Farmers'  Schools.     II,  127. 

—  Societies.    II,  155. 
Farms,     number    and    dimen- 
sions.    II,  41. 

Farm-lease  Law.     II,  163. 
Farmyard.     II,  93. 

—  products,  imports  and  ex- 
ports.    II,  93. 

Farriery  Schools.     II,  132. 
Fartygsbefalsforening,    Sve- 

riges.     II,  592. 
PattigvS,rdsf6rbundet,  Svenska 

I,  301. 


Fauna.     I,  74. 
Fearenside,  C.  S.     I,  xxiv. 
Fecundity,    matrimonial.      I, 

133. 
Fehr.'p.     I,  537. 
Fehrman,  D.     I,  511. 
v.   Feilitzen,    C.      I,    593,  II, 

152. 
— ,  C.  A.  Hj.    I,  XX,  593,  II, 

VIII,  725. 
— ,  H.    I,  550. 
Fellenius,  V.     I,  xx,  II,  x. 
Felspar.     II,  411. 
Fenix,  Insurance  Co.    II,  688. 
Fertilizers,    artificial.      II,    3, 

433. 
Filipstad.    I,  447. 
Finance,  Board  of.     I,  289. 
Finances,  State.     I,  231. 
— ,  — ,  bibliography.    II,  719. 

—  (see  further  the  several  head 
words). 

Finansstatistiska   utredningar. 

II,  25,  324. 
Fine  arts.     I,  498. 

,  bibliography.     II,  722. 

Pinnboda  Slip.     II,   446,  577. 

Finnmossen  Mines.     II,  242. 

Finns.     I,  106. 

Finsen,  N.  K,     I,  467. 

Fir.     I,  10. 

Fire  extinguishing  apparatus. 

II,  458. 

—  insurance.     II,  688. 
Fire-alarm  apparatus.   II,  459. 
Fire-places.     I,  178. 
Fireproof  clay.     II,  415. 
Fireworks.     II,  437. 

Firms,  registrations  of.  II,  701. 
Fischer,  E.     I,  467. 
Fischerstrom,  Joh.     I,  590. 
Fish.     II,  11. 

—  culture.     II,  232. 

— ,    imports  and  exports.     II, 

228. 
Fisheries.     II,  11,  123,  230. 
Fishery     administration.      II, 

234. 

—  legislation.     II,  233. 
Fishing.     II,  17,  225. 
Fishing-tackle,  manufacture  of. 

II,  496. 
Fish-oil.    II,  384. 
Pish-pickling     business.      II, 

358. 
Fiskeby  Paper-mill.    II,  405. 
Fjaestad,    Gustaf,    I,   525,   II, 

499. 
Flach^  Sigge.     II,  83. 
— ,    W.    I,  XVII,  XX,  595,  II, 

VII,  725. 
Flag,  Swedish.    I,  189. 
Flahult  Experimental  Farm. 

II,  152. 
de  Flavigny,  C.     II,  721. 
Flax,  imports  and  exports.  II. 

375. 


INDEX. 


737 


Fleet,  Swedish.    I,  261. 
Floating.     II,  205. 
Floating-ways.     II,  206. 
Flodakolonien.     I,  769. 
Floding,  P.  G.     I,  519. 
Flodqvist,  C.  "W.    II,  395. 
Flodstrom,  I.    I,  xx,  570,  693, 

II,  X,  25,  324. 
Flora.     I,  60. 
Floriculture,     II,  74. 
Florman,  A.  H.     I,  574. 
Flounders.     II,  230. 
Flour,    imports    and   exports. 

II,  30. 
—  mills.     II,  336. 
Flux,  A.  "W".     II,  727. 
Flvgare-Carlen,     Emilie.      I, 

493. 
Flyinge.     II,  97. 
Fia,sj6n.     I,  9. 
Fodder-crops.     II,  70. 
Fogelberg,  B.  E.     I,  511. 
Fogg,  Joseph.     I,  591. 
Foglavik  Glass  Work.   II,  425. 
Fogs.     I,  41. 

Folcker,  E.  G.     I,  xx,  II,  ix. 
Fole  Factory.     II,  457. 
Folkbildningsforbundet.       I, 

383. 
Folkhogskolor,    see    People's 

High  Schools. 
Folk-lore.     I,  555. 
Folkunga  House.     I,  88. 
Folkvisor,  cf.  Ballads,  national. 

I,  487. 

Food  and  Consumption,  Artic- 
les of.     II,  335. 
Foods.    I,  169. 
— ,  vegetable.     II,  8. 
Forensic  medicine.     I,  578. 
Forest(s).    I,  11,  II,  9,  15,  166. 

—  area.     II,  167,  169. 

—  belonging   to   towns.      II, 
174. 

— ,  common.     11,  173. 

—  Conservation  Boards.  I,  244, 

II,  184. 

fees.    II,  184. 

—  funds.     I,  290. 

—  industries.     II,  189. 

—  laws  regions.     II,  180. 

—  legislation.     II,  179. 

—  map.     I,  61. 

— ,  parish.     II,  173. 

—  plantations.     II,  177. 
— ,  private.     II,  175. 

— ,  produce.     II,  176. 
— ,  public.     II,  168. 

—  rivers.     I,  21,  25,  28. 

—  Service.     II,  185. 
— ,  State.     II,  168. 
Forestry.    II,  15,  166. 

—  Experimiental     Establish- 
ment, State.     II,  186. 

Service.     II,  186. 

— ,  Institute  of.     II,  187. 

—  instruction.     II,  187. 

iT— 133179.  Sweden.   II. 


Forging  hearths.     II,  287. 

Fornas    School    of  House-kee- 
ping.   I,  761. 

Foroni,  I.  G.  B.     I,  530. 

Fors  uUspinneri,  Aktiebolaget. 
II,  365. 

Forsbacka    Iron    Work.     II, 
295. 

Forsberg,  N.    I,  518,  522. 

—  Petrus.    II,  503. 
Forsell,  John.     I.  532. 

af  Forsell,  K.  G.  (K.)     I,  570, 

740. 
Forsgren  fund.     I,  469. 
— ,  Karl  Robert.     I,  469. 

—  &  Wilcken.     I,  469. 
Forskai,  P.    I,  100,  586,  596, 

624. 
Forsman,  M.     I,  578. 
Forssell,  G.     I,  582. 
— ,  H.    I,  552,  567,  568,  594. 
Forsslund,  K.  E.     I,  497. 
Forssner,  Gunnar.     I,  580. 

—  Hj.     I,  581. 

Fortuna  Saw-mill.     II,  196. 
Foundations.    1,465,468,730; 

see  further  the  several  head 

words. 
Founding,  artistic.     II,  503. 
Frsnkel,  L.     II,  677. 
Frahne,  C.     11,  724. 
Franck,  J.     I,  573,  584. 
Franzen,  F.  M.     I,  490. 
Fraser,  Daniel.     II,  448. 
Fredenberg,  K.     I,  xvii. 
Frederick  I.     I,  100. 
Fredholm,    E.    I.    (Ivar).     I, 

612,  613. 
Fredrek  p&  Rannsatt.     I,  497. 
Fredrika   Bremer   Society.     I, 

737. 
Fredrikson,  G.     I,  534,  535. 
Fredrikssons,     Carl,    traforad- 

lingsaktieholag.     II,  402. 
Free  harbour.     II,  532. 

—  stores.     II,  532. 
Free-baptists.     I,  335. 
Freemasons'    Orphanage.      1, 

752. 
Frestadius,  A.  W.     II,  446. 
Fridhem  Dwellings  -  Company 

I,  679. 
Fried,  A.  H.     I,  468. 
Friendly  Societies  Act.  I,  719. 
Fries,  B.     I.  596. 
— ,  Elias.     I,  587. 
— ,  Ellen.     I,  553. 
— ,  Karl.     I,  XVI,  xx. 
— ,  Rob.    I,  588,  589,  629. 
— ,  S.  A.    I,  537. 
-,  Th.  M.     I,  587—589. 
V.  Friesen,  Karl.     I,  565. 
— ,  0.    I,  xn,  XV,  XX,  547. 
Frisinnade  landsforeningen.  I, 

210. 
Fristad  Refuge  Home.     I,  769. 
Fristedt,  R.  P.     1,  577. 


Fritsla  Factory.     II,  371. 
From,  Per.     II,  457. 
Frontier-guard     Service.     II, 

534. 
Frost.     I,  89. 
Fruits.     11,  517. 
Fruit-trees.     II,  9. 
Frustuna  Mine.     II,  310. 
Frykholm,  Annie.     II,  499. 
Fryklof,  Harald.     I,  529. 
Fryxell,  Anders.     I,  401,  551, 

663,  II,  716. 
Frodin,  J.     I,  630. 
Eroding,  G.     I.  496. 
Frolen,  H.     I,  558. 
Frovifors  Mills.     II,  405. 
Fuels,  mineral.     II,  2. 
Fuhrken,  G.  E.     I,  xxiv. 
Fulufjallen.     I,  8. 
Funds.     I,  465,  468,  730;   see 

further    the     several    head 

words. 
Funkquist,  H,     I,    xviii,    xx, 

594,    II,  VII. 
Fur  Factories.     II,  383. 
Furniture  Factories.     II,  401. 
Furred  animals.     II,  10. 
Furuogrund     Saw-mills.     II, 

197. 
Fiirst,  C.  M.    I,  574,  584. 
Fylgia  Insurance  Company.  II, 

693. 
Fylken.     I,  190. 
Fahraeus,  R.     I,  553. 
Fabodar.     II,  71. 
Fare  Glass  Works.     II,  425. 
Farjenas  aktiebolag.     II,  201. 
Fogderier.     I,  216. 
Fonsterglasbrukens  aktiebolag, 

Forenade.     II,  425. 


Gabbro.     I,  9. 

Gadd,  A.    I,  590. 

Gagner,  Marie  Louise.    I,  565. 

Gahn,  Henrik.     II,  438. 

— ,  J.  G.     I,  606. 

Galena.     I,  49. 

Galoshes.     II,  387. 

Galt&sen.     I,  17. 

Galvanic  cells.     II,  479. 

Galvano-technics.     II,  479. 

Game.     II,  10. 

—  statutes.     II,  221. 

Gamlestadens    fabriker.      II, 
371. 

Gammelbo.     II,  31. 

Gandolphe,  M.     II,  718. 

Garden  colonies.     I,  755. 

Gardinfabriken,  Svenska.  II, 
371. 

Gas.     II,  428. 

Gasaccumulator,  Svenska  aktie- 
bolaget. II,  452,  455,  581, 
726. 

Gaufiin,  A.    I,  xiv,  xx,  559. 


738 


index; 


Gauthiod  Insurance  Co.  11, 
687. 

Gavelin,  A.     xviii  I,  602. 

Geete   K.  R.     I,  548. 

Geijer,  B.  G.  I,  328,  386,  491, 
527,  537,  541,  551,  552,  561. 
563,  II,  716. 

-s,  G.    II,  283. 

— ,  Gosta.    I,  529. 

— ,  K.  R.    I,  542. 

— ,  P.  A.    I,  550. 

af  Geijerstam,  G.     I,  496. 

Gelatine.     II,  386. 

Gellerstedt,  A.  T.     I,  496. 

— ,  N.  0.     I,  507. 

— ,  P.  E.     I.  579. 

Gellivare  malmfalt,  Aktietola- 
get.    II,  254. 

General  Cartographical  Com- 
mission.    I,  231. 

—  Staff,  Topographical  Sec- 
tion of  the.    I,  227. 

—  Telephone  Company,  Ltd, 
Stockholm.     II,  656. 

— ,  see  further  the  several  head 

words. 
Geography.     I,  622. 
— ,  hibliography.     II,  714. 
— ,  physical.     I,  1. 
Geological  Survey  of  Sweden. 

I   229 
Geology.'   I,  46,  598. 

—  and  Mineralogy.     I,  598. 
Gertz,  H.    I,  576. 
Gevarsfaktori,     Karl    Gustavs 

stads.     II,  461. 
Gezelius,  J.  G.     I,  562. 
Gilchrist.     II,  299. 
Gillberg,  J.    I,  519. 
Gisberg,  Sofia.     II,  499. 
Giobel,  Selma.     II,  499. 
Glacial  Epoch.    I,  13,  16,  56, 

57. 
Glaciers.     I,  9,  57. 
Glas,  0.    I,  579. 
Glassmanufacture.  11,421.502. 

—  works.     II,  422. 

Glava  Glass  Factory.    II,  423. 
Glove  factories.     II,  383. 
Glue,    II,  386. 
Glycerine.     II,  388. 
Gneisses.     I,  48. 
Goats.     II,  81. 
Gobat,  A.    I,  468. 
Gold.     II,  238. 

—  articles.     II,  462. 

— ,  hall-marking.     II,  664. 
— ,  imports    and  exports.     II, 
307. 

—  manufacture.     II,  306. 
— ,  production.     II,  310. 
Goldsmiths'  art.     II,  502. 
Golgi,  C.     I,  467. 

Good  Templars,  International 
Order  of.    I,  744. 

—  — ,  National  Order  of.  I, 
744. 


Gothenburg.     I,   121,  442,  II, 
508. 

—  Commercial  Institute.     II, 
540. 

—  harbour.     II,  575. 

—  Mechanical  Works,  cf.  Gota- 
verken.    II,  457,  459. 

—  Museum.     I,  472. 

—  Private    Commercial  Insti- 
tute.   II,  544. 

— ,  rents.     I,  173. 

— ,  Slottsskog  Park.     I,  123. 

—  System.     I,  742,  II.  724. 
Gotska  Sandon.     I,  777,    778. 
Gottland  and  Oland  Law.     II, 

183,  185. 

—  sandstone.     II,  410. 
Gowenii  Minne  Foundation.  I, 

679. 
Gowenins,  W.  C.    I,  679. 
Grabow,  Mathilda.     I,  531. 
Grafstrom,  Thyra.     II,  499. 
Graham  Brothers.     II,  465. 
Grain  crops.     11,  47, 
Grain,  ungrouud,  imports  and 

exports.     II,  30. 
Grain-ley  rotation.     II,  47. 
Granberg,  0.    I,  558,  559,  II, 

723. 
Granefors    Copper    and   Brass 

"Works.    II,  455. 
Graningeverkens     aktiebolag. 

II,  197. 
Granite  quarries.     II,  5. 
Granites.    I,  48,  49,  II,  410. 
Gransholm   Paper  Mills.      II, 

403. 
Grant   for   the    diminution  of 

frost.  General.     II,  141. 
Granqvist,    P.    G.    D.     I,  xv, 

XX,  605. 
Graphic  industries.     II,  480. 
Grauers,  H.     I,  614. 
Greenstones.     I,  48,  50, 
Grignard,  V.     I,  467. 
Grimberg.  C.     I,  553. 
Gripenhielm's,  Ducat.     II,  241. 
Gripenstedt.  J.  A.     I,  566. 
Grotius,  pugo.    I,  99,  538. 
Ground  Lease  Act.     I,  673. 
Grove,  Grenville.     I,  xxiv. 
Grubbe,    S.    I,  386,  541,  561. 
Grut,  Torben.     I,  505. 
Grycksbo     Paper    Mills.      II, 

403. 
Grytgol   Watch   Factory.     II, 

459. 
Grythyttehed  Quarry.   II,  410. 
Graberg  till  Hemsij,  J.   I,  570. 
Grangesberg    Mines.      I,    691, 

II,  242. 
Grangesberg — Oxelosund,  Tra- 

fikaktiebolaget  (Grangesberg 

Co.)    II,  254. 
Grondal,     Briquette    Furnace. 

II,  273. 
— ,  J.  G.    II,  504. 


Grondal,    Ore    Separator.     II, 

260. 
Gronfeldt,  S.     I,  xx,  II,  xi. 
Gronkvist   Mechanical  Works. 

II,  459. 
Gronlund-Jeppesen,  H.  P.    II, 

727. 
Gronwall,  A.     II,  282. 
Guardians,  Boards  of.     I,  293. 
Guilds.    II,  483,  487. 
Guinchard,  J.    I,  xi,  xvii,  xx, 

571,  II,  714. 
Gulbranson,  Ellen.     I,  531 
Guldsmedsaktiebolaget.      II, 

462,  479,  503. 
Gullberg,  Hj.    I,  570. 
Gullsp3.ng-Munkfors,      Kraft- 

aktiebolaget.     II,  467. 
GuUsp^ngs     kraftaktiebolag. 

II,  332. 
Gullstrand,  Allvar.  1, 467, 675, 

576,  582,  604,  614. 
Gnmselii    annonsbyr^,    S.      I, 

485. 
Gun-cotton.     II,  436. 
Gunpowder     and     Explosives 

industry.     II,  437. 
Gussander,  P.  U.     II,  106. 
Gustafson    &  Ljungqvist  Fac- 
tory.    II,  462. 
Gustavsberg.     I,  440. 

—  Factory.    II,  416.  502. 

—  Saw-mills.     II,  199. 

—  Soda-cellulose  Factories. 
II,  394. 

Gustavsbergs     fabriks    intres- 

senter,     Aktiebolaget.     II, 

417. 
Gustavus    Vasa.      I,    92,    94, 

153,  191,  212,  258,  326,  II, 

313,  484,  508. 

—  n  Adolphus.  I,  96,  212, 
248,  337,  550,  II,  313,  484, 
508. 

—  III.  I,  101,  154, 194,  489, 
II,  317,  486. 

—  IV  Adolphus.     I,  101,  195. 

—  V.    I,  102. 

Gylden,  J.  A.  H.     I,  616. 
Gyllenberg,    C.    E.      I,    xx. 

II,  X. 
Gyllenborg,    G.    F.      I,    488, 

560. 
Gyllenhaal,  L.     I,  597. 
Gyllenstierna,    Christina.      I, 

93. 
— ,  Johan.     I,  154. 
Gymnasiums.     I,  385. 
Gymnastic    Institute,  Central. 

I,  426. 
— Orthopedic  Institute.  I,  431, 

432. 

—  treatment  apparatus.  II, 
459. 

Gymnastics,  medical.     I,  431. 

— ,  Swedish.    I,  425. 

,  bibliography.     II,  721. 


INDEX. 


789 


G8,15n,  Prince  Charles'  Estab- 
lislmient  at.     I,  753. 

GaUivare  Mines.  I,  10,  448, 
II,  242,  244,  247,  of.  Gelli- 
vare. 

Gallo  Saw-mill.     11,  197. 

Gavle.    I,  123. 

—  porslinsfabriksaktiebolag. 
II,  418. 

—  sandstone.     II,  410. 

—  separator,  Aktiebolaget.  II, 
120. 

—  varv  och  verkstader.  II, 
577. 

Goransson,  G.  F,   II,  292,  454, 

504 
— ,  n!  J.    I,  537. 
Goransson's  Mecianical  "Works. 

II,  469. 
Gota   Canal.     I,  444,  II,  564, 

565. 
Gotaland.     I,  3,  4. 
Gotaverken.     II,  450,  577. 
Goteborg  cf.  Gothenburg. 
Goteborg    Mechanical    "Works. 

II,  450,  577. 
Gijteborgs  hogskola.    I,  415. 

—  kamgarnsspinneriaktiebo- 
lag.     II,  365. 

—  korkfabrik.     II,  407. 

—  kvinnohem.     I,  769. 

—  porslinsfabrik,  Aktiebola^ 
get.     II,  418. 

Gothe,  A.  G.     I,  557. 
— ,  E.  G.    I,  511. 
Gothlin,  G.  E.     I,  576. 
Gotiska     forbnndet.     I,    426, 
492, 


Haddbo.    II,  310. 

Hadorph,  J.     I,  544,  551,  553. 

Haeffner.     I,  530. 

V.  Haffner,  "W.     I,  594. 

Hagfors  Iron  "Works.     II,  295, 

332   455. 
Haglu'nd,  E.     I,  590,  593. 
-,  P.    I,  433,  582. 
— ,  R.    I,  526. 
Hagstrom,  G.     I,  505. 
— ,  K.  L.     I,  620. 
Hagstromer,  A.  J.     I,  573. 
— ,  J.  V.     I,  539. 
Hague  Conventions.     I,  320. 
Hahr,  A.     I,  558,  559. 
— ,  E.     I,  505. 
Hail.     I,  44. 
Hairdresser's    Association 

School.    I,  760. 
Halda     Watch    Factory.      II, 

459,  463. 
Hall,  P.  A.    I,  518. 
Hall    Farm    Reformatory.      I, 

376. 
Hallands§,s.     I,  18. 
Hallberg,  C.  G.     II,  462,  503. 


Halldin     &     Co.     Mechanical 

"Works.     II,  458. 
Halle,  Th.    I,  590. 
Halleberg.     I,  14. 
Hallen,  Andreas.     I,  529,  530, 

532. 
Hallenberg,  J.     I,  551. 
Hallenborg,  J.  Fr.     I,  594. 
Hallendorff,  C.     I,  553. 
Hailing,  E.     I,  xx,  II,  x. 
Hallman,  P.     I,  507i 
Hall-marking   of    gold,    silver 

and  pewter  wares.     II,  664. 
Hallsta  Saw-mills.     II,  197. 
Hallstahammar   Bolt  Factory. 

II,  304,  455. 
Hall-statute.     II,  485. 
Hallstrom,  E.     I,  497. 
— ,  Gunnar.     I,   526,  II,  499. 
— ,  Ivar.     I,  529,  530. 
Hallstroms,  Hadar,  knivfabriks 

aktiebolag.     II,  459. 
Halmstad,  I,  124. 

—  Mechanical  "Works.    II,  457. 
Halangen  Quarry.     II,  410. 
Hamberg,  A.     I,  43,  602,  619, 

620,  622,  626,  630. 
— ,  H.  E.    I,  43,  618,  619,  621. 
— ,  N.  P.    I,  576. 
Hammar,  J.  A.     I,  573. 
— ,  John.     II,  726. 
Hammarskjold,  A.     I,  553. 
— ,  Hj.     I,  XIII,  XIV,  XX,  539. 
— ,  L.     I,  556,  557,  561. 
Hammarstedt,  E.     I,  555. 
Hammarsten,  0.     I,  576,  609. 
Hammer,  B.  H.  K.     I,  565. 
— ,  H.     I,  532. 
Hammer-drill  machine.  II.  256. 
Hamnell,  T.     I,  xx,  II,  x. 
Hamra  Crown-lands.     I,  777. 
Handarbetets  vanner.     II,  497, 

499    501. 
Handicraft.'    II,  16,  483,   488. 

—  Organization    of    Sweden. 
II,  490,  491. 

Handol  Quarry.     II,  410. 
Hansa  Insurance  Co.     II,  687. 
Hanseatic  League.     II,  508. 
Hansen,  Emil  Chr.     II,  351. 
— ,  E.  Y.     I,  XX,    II,  vin,  x. 
Hansson,  Nils.    I,  xx,  594,  595, 

II,  vin. 
— ,  Ola.    I,  496,  562. 
Harbour-dues.     II,  589. 
Harbours.     II,  574. 
Harlock,    "W.  E.     I,  xxiv,  II, 

717. 
Harspr§,nget,  waterfall.    I,  448. 
Hartelius,  T.  J.     I,  433. 
Hartman,  C.  V.     I,  628. 
— ,  El.     I,  587. 
-,  K.  J.    I,  587. 
Hartman-Cederstrom,  Ellen.   I, 

535. 
Harvests  in  different  countries. 

II,  51. 


Hasebroeok.    I,  435. 
Hasselberg,  K.  B.     I,  604. 
-,  P.     I,  511,  512. 
Hasselqvist,  F.     I.  586,  624. 
Hasselrot,  B.     I,  539. 
Hat  factories.     II,  378. 
Hanptmann,  Gerhart.     I,  468. 
Hay-harvest,    dates    for    com- 
mencing.    II,  72. 
Hazelius,  Artur.     I,  475,  477, 

555,  II,  499. 
Hebbe,  Sigue.     I,  531. 
Heokscher,  Eli  F.     I,  xiii,  xv, 

xvii,  XX,  553,  567,  572. 
Hedberg,  E.     I,  523. 
— ,  F.    I,  xiv,  XX,  496. 
— ,  G.    II,  498,  503. 
— ,  T.    I,  496,  559. 
Hedelin,  J.  B.     I,  xx,  11,  vii. 
Hedenblad,  Ivar.     I,  529,  532. 
Hedenius,  P.     I,  578. 
Hedin,  Fund.     I,  464. 
— ,  S.  A.     I,  714, 
— ,  S.  G.    I,  576. 
— ,  Sven.     I,  620,  627,  628. 
Hedlinger,  J.  K:     I,  511. 
Hedlund,  H,     I,  505. 
— ,  J.     I,  588. 
Hedqvist,  Ivan.     I,  535. 
Hedraeus,  B.     I,  614. 
Hedren,  G.     I,  578, 
— ,  T.    I,  xiii,  XX. 
Hedstrom,  H.     I,  602. 
Hedvall,  Agda.     I,  366. 
Heifner  Steam  Sawmills.    II, 

199. 
V.  Heidenstam,  E.     I,  xill,  xx. 
— ,  0.  G,     II,  718. 
— ,  V.    I,  496,  562,  II,  716. 
Height  of  conscripts.     I,  151. 
Heimdal     Student-union.       I, 

384. 
Helagsfjallet.     I,  8. 
Hellberg,  M.     I,  759. 
Hellefors  Saw-mill.     II,  201. 
—  "Works.     II,  458. 
Hellner,  J.     I,  324. 
Hellqvist,  E.     I,  547,  548. 
— ,  K.  G.    I,  522. 
Hellstenius,  J.     I,  568. 
Hellstrom,  T.     I,  580. 
Hem  fijr  arbeterskor.     I,  681. 
Hemenway,  Mary.     I,  430. 
Hemp,    imports    and    exports. 

11,  375. 
Hemsio     kraftaktiebolag.      II, 

332,  466. 
Hemslojd,   Poreningen    for 

svensk.      II,  497. 
Henneberg,    Richard.     I,  529, 

530. 
Hennig,  A.     I,  595,  602,  622. 
V.  Hennigs,  GSsta.     I,  525, 
Henning,  E.     I,  588. 
— ,  R.     II,  726. 
Henschen,    S.    E,     I,  xv,  xx, 

579,  II,  724. 


740 


INDEX. 


Herd-books.    II,  87. 
Hermansson,  P.     I,  505. 
Hermelin,  S.  G.     1,  227,  599. 
Herner,  S.    I,  537. 
Heroult,  P.     II,  303. 
Heronlts    elektriska   st3,l,  Ak- 

tiebolaget.    II,  479. 
Herring,  imports  and  exports. 

II,  228,  523. 

—  oil.    II,  434. 

Herrlin,  P.  A.  S.    I,  544,  565. 

Herrmann,  P.     II,  720. 

Hesselbom,  Otto.     I,  525. 

Hesse-Lilienberg,  Davida.  I, 
532. 

Hesselman,  B.     I,  547,  548. 

— ,  H.  I,  XII,  XV,  XX,  589, 
590. 

— ,  K.  J.  E.    II,  452. 

Hessleholm  Foundry  and  Me- 
chanical Works.    II,  458. 

Heyman,  E.     I,  678. 

— ,  V.     I,  XX,  II,  VIII. 

Heyse,  Panl.    I,  468. 

Hides  and  Skins,  import.  II, 
381,  517. 

—  — ,  imports  and  exports. 
II,  381. 

— ,  raw,  imports  and  exports. 

II,  30. 
— ,  Skins,  and  Hair.     II,  380. 
Hierta,   Lars   J.     I,  469,  493, 

II,  388. 
— ,  Lars,    Memorial    Founda- 
tion.    I,  469, 
— ,  "Wilhelmina.     I,  469. 
Hierta-Retzius,  Anna.     I,  xiii, 

XXII,  364,  366. 
High   schools,  see  Education, 

higher,  and  the  several  head 

words. 
Eildebrand,  B.  E.    I,  553, 555, 

584. 
— ,  E.    I,   xiu,  XIV,  XX,  552, 

553. 
— ,  H.    I,  552,  553,  555,  558, 

584,  II,  716. 
— ,  K.    I,  XIV,  XX. 
Hildebrandsson,  H.  H.     I,  44, 

618—620. 
Hill,  K.  J.  D.    I,  610. 
Hillberg,  E.     I,  535. 
Hilldoff,  E.    I,  595. 
Hillestrom,  P.     I,  518. 
Hirsch,  A.  M.    II,  724. 
Hirsch-Panli,  Hanna.     I,  525. 
Hisinger,  V.     I,  599,  607. 
Hissmoforsen.     II,  332. 
Historical  Museums.     I,  472. 
History.     I,  82,  550. 
— ,  bibliography.     II,  716. 
Hitchcock,  F.  H.    II,  726. 
Hjelmquist,  Th.     I,  548. 
Hjortsberg,  Lars,    I,  533,  535. 
Hjortzberg,  Olle.     I,  526. 
Hjalmare  Canal.     II,  562. 
Hjalmaren.     I,  15. 


Hjarne,  H.     I,  553. 

— ,  Urban.     I,    573,  577,  580, 

598,  605,  617,  629. 
Hof,  S.    I,  545. 
van't  Hoff,  J.  H.    I,  467. 
Hoffvenius,  P.     I,  573,  578. 
Hofors  Iron  "Work.     II,  295. 
V.    Hofsten,   N.      I,    xii,   xx, 

598,  622. 
Holiday   and   Convalescent 

Homes.     I,  299. 
Holland,  H.  S.    II,  728. 
Hollenbach,  F.  M.     II,  726. 
HoUingworth,   A.,    &  Co.     II, 

121,  459. 
Holm,  G.     I,  597,  602. 
Holma  Linen-mill.     II,  375. 
Holmberg,    C,    Mechanical 

Works.    II,  121,  449,  458. 
— ,  Theodor.     I,  757. 
Holmbergsson,  j.     I,  539. 
Holme,  Charles.     11,  723. 
Holmen  Paper  Mills.     II,  405. 
Holmens  fabrik.     II,  371. 
Holmgren,  A.  E.     I,  598. 
— ,  E.    I,  574,  612. 
— ,  Frithiof.     I,  575. 
— ,  G.    I,  582. 
-,  Hj.    I,  610. 
— ,  Israel.     I,  580. 
— ,  K.  A.  V.     I,  604. 
— ,  N.    I,  597. 
Holmia    Dwellings    Company. 

I,  679. 
Holmquist,  Hj.     I,  537. 
— ,  P.  J.     I,  602. 
Holmqvist,  Filip,  Commercial 

Institute.    II,  544. 

v.     I   535. 

Holmstrom,  J.  G.     II,  504,  654. 
— ,  L.    I,   XX,  378,  594,  602, 

II,  vn,  126. 
— ,  0.    I,  537. 

Holmsund  Saw-mill.     II,  197. 

Hoist,  N.  0.     I,  602. 

Home  training  schools.    I,  299. 

van  der  Hoorn,  J.     I,  581. 

Hoppe,  0.     II,  717. 

Horn,  Arvid.     I,  101. 

— ,  G.     I,  99. 

— ,  Klas.    I,  96. 

— ,  W.     II,  722. 

Hornavan.     I,  9. 

Horse(s),  number  of.     II,  89. 

— ,  premiums  for.     II,  100. 

—  races.    II,  95,  96,  97,  98,  99. 

—  rakes.     II,  459. 
Horse-breeding.     I,  594,  II,  94. 
— ,  history.     II,  95. 

Horsts.     I,  14,  57. 
Horticulture.     II,  74. 
Hospitals.    I,  273,  276. 
Hotagen.     I,  9. 

House    Industry,    Society   for 
furthering.     I,  762. 

—  keeping.  Schools  of.   I,  761. 
Households.     I,  174. 


Housewifery,    Schools   for.     I, 

299. 
Housing  accomodation.    1, 173. 

—  bureaus,  official.     I,  675. 

—  enterprises,    philanthropic. 

I,  678. 

—  problem.    I,  671. 
Hovratter.     I,  317. 
Hovvid  Saw-mill.     II,  199. 
Hndiksvalls  travaruaktiebolag. 

II,  199. 

Hnlt,  C.  A,    II,  504. 
— ,  H.    I,  XIII,  XX. 
— ,  0.  W.    II,  504. 
Hultgren,  E.  0.     I,  576. 
Hultkrantz,  J.  V.    I,  xvi,  xx, 

573,  584. 
Hultman,  C.     I,  594. 
-,  C.  A.     II,  653. 
— ,  F.  V.    I,  610. 

I.      I    XX,   II,   X. 

Hulfs  Iron  Works.     II,  459. 
Humlegarden  Park.     II,  77. 
Hnndshogen.     I,  8. 
Hunneberg.     I,  14. 
Husforhor.     I,  333. 
HushS.llningssallskap,  see  Agri- 
cultural Societies. 
Huskvarna.     I,  691. 
— ■  Arms  Factory.     I,  682. 

—  Mechanical  Works.    II,  379, 
457—459. 

—  vapenfabriks    aktiebolag. 
II,  447. 

Huss,  G.    I,  XV,  XVI,  xvn,  xx, 
570. 

-,  Magnus,    I,  577,  578,  579. 

Hiilphers,  W.     I,  497. 

Hwasser,  Elise.     I,  535. 

— ,  Israel.     I,  578,  579. 

Hybo  Saw-mill.     II,  199. 

Hyde,  J.     II,  721. 

Hyden,  S.     II,  352. 

Hydrogen.     II,  479. 

Hydrografiska  byra,n,  of.  Hydro- 
graphical  Bureau.      II,  332. 

Hydrographical    Biological 
Commission.     I,  622. 

—  Bureau.     I,  622. 

—  Commission.     I,  622. 

—  investigations.  I,  621. 
Hydrography.  I,  20,  617. 
Hygiene.     I,  272. 

— ,  social,  Efforts  in.     I,  754. 
Hygienic  research.     I,  578. 
Hyllinge.     II,  255. 
Hylten-Cavallius,    G.    0.      I, 

555. 
Hyperites.     I,  50. 
Hypoteksforeningar.     II,    136. 
H3.kauson,  J.     I,  535. 
H^staholmen     Saw-mill.      II, 

199. 
Hagerstrom,  A.     I,  543. 
Hagg  (Haig),  A.  H.     I,  526. 
-,  Gustaf.    I,  529. 
— ,  J.  A.    I,  529. 


INDEX. 


741 


Hallan  Quarry.     II,  410, 
Hallekis  Cement  Factorv.    II, 

412. 
Hallsjon    Power   Station.     II, 

466. 
Hallstrom,  G.  G.     I,  603. 
— ,  K.  P.    I,  615. 
Halsingtorg.     I,  124. 

—  Mechanical  "Works.    II,  457. 
Harad.     I,  83. 
Haradsratt.    I,  316. 
Harjehogna.     I,  8. 
Harlanda,    Central  Prison.     I, 

269. 
Harnosands  8,ngsag.     II,  197. 
Hockert  J.     I,  521. 
Hoganas  Factory.     II,  415. 

—  Mines.     I,  682,  II,  255. 

—  Works.     II    502. 
Hoganas-Billesholms    aktie- 

bolag.     II,  415,  479. 
Hogbom,   A.    G.     I,    10,    602, 

630,  II,  715. 
— ,  B.  I,  626. 
Hogdahl,  T.  (Th.)    I,  xvi,  xx, 

779. 
Hogerpressens  forening.  I,  485. 
Hogqvist,  Emilie.     I,  535. 
Hoijer,  B.    I,  640,  560. 
Hojer,  N.    I,  553. 
— ,  T.    I,  XVII,  553. 
V.  Hopken,  A.  J.     I,  534. 
Horlin,  Isidor.     II,  502. 
Horningsholm    Saw-mill.      II, 

199. 

Ice  age.    I,  57. 

—  covering.     I,  41. 
— ,  inland.     I,  57. 

—  lakes.    I,  58. 

Ideal  associations.     I,  647. 
Idrott.     I,  449. 
Ifo  Cement  Factory.     II,  412. 
Igelstrom,  A.     II,  718. 
Iggesnnd  Iron  "Works.  II,  295, 

455. 
Ignell',  N.     I,  537. 
lire,  J.     I,  544. 
Illiteracy.     I,  147,  359. 
Immigration.     I,  141,  143. 
Imports    and    Exports,    total. 

II,  514. 
Income,  assessed,  derived  from 

business  or  trade.     II,  22. 

—  from  real  property,  capital 
and  work.     11,  20. 

Indalsalven.     I,  444,  447. 
India-rubber.     II,  387. 
Induction  furnace.     II,  304. 
Industrial  art.     II,  497. 
Industries.     II,  13. 
— ,  bibliography.     II,  724. 
— ,  manufacturing.    II,  313. 
— ,  production-value    pr    inh. 

II,  314. 
Industriforbund,  Sveriges.    II, 

323.  I 


Inebriates,    institutes    for.    I, 

769. 
Infants'    homes.     I,  299,  752. 
— ,  mortality.     II,  23. 
Infirmaries.     I,  299. 
Inge,  King.     I,  87. 
Ingers,  E.     I,  378. 
Ingjald,  King.     I,  84. 
Inland  ice.     I,  57. 

—  towns.     II,  539. 
Inmntning.     11,   262. 
Inns,  country.     II,  630. 
Institnt  de  Droit  International. 

I,  468. 
Instruments.     II,  462. 
Insulander,  E.     I,  595. 
Insurance.     II,  685. 
— ,  Accident.     I,  722,  II,  692, 

—  Act,  National.     I,  726. 

—  Committee,  Old  Age.  1, 158, 
726. 

—  Committees.  "Workmen's.   I, 
714,  725. 

— ,  Eire.     II,  688. 

— ,  Invalidity.     I,  725. 

— ,  Life.    II,  690. 

— ,  Maritime.     II,  687. 

— ,  Office,    State,  see  Riksfor- 

sakringsanstalten. 
— ,  Old  Age.     I,  725. 
— ,  Social.     I,  714. 
Intermediate  schools.     I,  343, 

399,  400. 
International    harvester.      II, 

459. 
Invalidity  Insurance.     I,  725. 
Inventors.     II,  504. 
Iron.     II,  237. 
— ,  imports    and  exports.     II, 

265. 

—  industry.     II,  263. 

—  Institute,  cf.  Jernkontoret. 

—  ore,  deposits.    1, 49,  II,  242. 
,  exports    I,  240,  II,  250, 

251,  253,  520. 
,  output.     II,  249,   251, 

264. 

resources.     II,  242. 

,  supplies.     II,  4,    249. 

—  pyrites.     II,  307. 
— ,  spongy.     II,  285. 

—  works.     11,  453. 

— ,  wrought,    imports  and  ex- 
ports.    II,  287. 
— ,  — ,  manufacture.  II,  286. 
Ironsmith's  work.     II,  503. 
Irvingites.    I,  335. 
Isotherms.     I,  36,  38. 


Jacobsson,  M.     I,  544. 
Jagenburg.  G.     II,  379. 
Janse,  0.     I,  558. 
Janson,  G.     I,  497. 
Jansson,  Eugen.     I,  525. 
Janzon,  J.  K.,     I,  559. 
Jentzer.    I.  430. 


Jernberg,  A.     I,  522. 
Jerndahl,  Aron.     I,  514. 
Jernkontoret.     IT,  311. 
Jernkontorets  forsoksverk.    II, 

283. 
Jews.    I,  336. 
Johan  III.     II,  484. 
Johannedal  Saw-mill.  II,  199. 
Johansson,  A.     II,  721. 
— ,  Aron.     I,  505. 
— ,  Claes  &  Co.    II,  371,  372. 
— ,  Cyrillus.     I,  505. 
— ,  H.    II,  725. 
-,  J.  E.     I,  161,576. 
— ,  Karl.     II,  502. 
— ,  K.  F.     I,  549. 
— ,  M.     I,  537. 
Johansson-Thor,  T.     I,  526. 
Johnson,  A.     II,  717. 
— ,  Axel  Axrson.     I,  vii. 
— ,  E.  G.     I,  580. 
— ,  Helge  Ax:son.     I,  vii. 

—  Line.     11,  555,  558. 
Joinery.     II,  401,  495. 
Jolin,  S.     I,  577. 
Jonsered  Factories.    I,  691,  II, 

375,  458. 
Jonsson,  J.  "V^.     I,  595. 
Jordan,  L.     II,  717. 
JordfBrmedlingsfonden.   I,  671. 
Josephson,  C.  D.     I,  581. 
— ,  E.     I,  505,  522. 
— ,  J.  A,    I,  527,  532. 
-,  0.    I,  614. 
Jotnian  group.     I,  50. 
Journalistforeningen,  Svenska. 

I,  485. 
Judicial  Organization.    I,  303. 

—  statistics.  I,  320. 
Juel,  0.  I,  588,  589. 
Juhlin  Dannfelt,  H.     I,  xviii. 

XX,  594,  595,  II,  vii,  725. 
Jungner,  E.  W.     II,  479,  505. 
Jungnerackumulatorn,  Nya 

aktiebolaget.     II,  465. 
Jungstedt,  A.     I,  523. 
— ,  Mathilda.     I,  531. 
Jurisprudence.     I,  537. 
Jury.     I,  317. 
Justice,  Administration  of.    I, 

320. 
— ,  High  Court  of     I,  196. 
Justitiekanslern.     I,  196,  218. 
Justitieombudsmannen.  1, 199, 

218. 
Jute.     II,  375. 

—  cloth  industry.     II,  373. 
Jutespinneri-  och  vaveriaktie- 

bolaget,  Skandinaviska.  II, 
375. 

Jutevaveriaktiebolaget,  Sven- 
ska.    II   375. 

Jaderholm,  A,     I,  578. 

Jaderin,  E.     I,  626. 

Jagareforbundet,  Svenska.  II, 
225. 

Jagerskiold,  L.    I,  598,  629. 


742 


INDEX. 


Jamtland.     I,  447. 
Jarnefelt,  Armas.     I,  530. 
Jarnsangsfabriken,    Skandina- 

viska.    II,  459. 
— ,  Svenska.     II,  459. 
JamverksfSreningen.     II,.  312. 
Jarstorp.     II,  36. 
Jarte,    0.     I,   xv,   xviil,  xx, 

XXIV,  II,  X. 
Jarved,  Saw-mill.     II,  197. 
Jonkoping.     I,  123,  443. 

—  Match-factories.  II,  398, 
401. 

—  Mechanical  Works.  II,  451, 
457,  458. 

Jiinkopings  och  Vulcans  tand- 
sticksfabriks  aktiebolag.  II, 
401. 

Jonsson,  B.     I,  589. 

Kakelugn.     I,  178. 
Kallenberg,  E.     I,  539. 
Kallhall  Foundry.     11,  447. 
Kallinge   Iron    and   Manufac- 
turing "Works.     11,458,459. 
Kallmora  Lead  Works.   II,  309. 
Kallsjon.     I,  9. 
Kallstenius,  G.     I,  523. 
Kalm,  P.     I,  100,  586,  624. 
Kalmar.     I.  443. 

—  Castle.     I,  91. 

—  Union.     I,  90. 

—  S,ngkvarn.     II,  337. 
Kamerlingh  Onnes,  H.   I,  467. 
Kammarkollegium.     I,  471. 
Kammarratten.     I,  217. 
Kaolin.     II,  6. 
Kapsylfabriken,    Aktiebolaget 

svenska.     II,  459. 

Karlfeldt,  E.  A.     I,  496. 

Karlin,  Gr,  J;son.     I,  555. 

Karlsborg,  Ammunition  Fac- 
tory.    II,  437. 

—  Saw-mill.     II,  196. 
Karlskrona.     I,  123,  443. 

—  galvaniseringsaktiebolag. 
II,  121. 

—  kakelfabrik.     II,  420. 

—  Lamp  Factory.     II,  459. 
Karlsson,  K.  H.     I,  552. 
Karlstad    Mechanical    Works. 

II,  451,  457,  458. 

—  Saw-mills.     II,  201. 
Karlsvik    Saw-mill.     II,    199. 
Karolinska  institutet.     I,  408, 

410,  414. 
Karpalund  Sugar  Factory.  II, 

342. 
Kaskasatj&kko.     I,  7,  8. 
Katarina  Lift.     II,  624. 
KatrinefoTS    Manufacturing 

Works.     II,  405,  459. 
Kaudern,  W,     I,  629. 
Kaveltorp  Lead  Work.  II.  309, 

310. 
Kebnekaise.     I,  7,  449. 
Keijser,  G.  J.     I,  544. 


Keillor,    Alexander.     II,    450. 

Kellgren,  J.  H.  I,  101,  489, 
540,  560. 

Kerp,  H.     II,  715. 

Key,  A.     I,  573,  578. 

— ,  Ellen.    I,  496,  562,  759. 

— ,  H.    II,  724. 

Keyser,  Peter.     I,  508. 

Key-lberg,  A.     I,  578. 

— ,  K.    I,  570. 

K.  F.  U.  K.,  cf.  Young  Wo- 
men's Christian  Association. 

I,  767. 

K.  P.  U.  M.,  cf.  Young  Men's 
Christian  Association.  1, 766. 

Kieselguhr.     II,  421. 

Kilafors  Saw-mill.     II,  199. 

Kilsbergen.     I,  777. 

Kinda    Canal.     II,  566. 

King,  title  of,     I,   188. 

Kinmanson,  G.     I,  535. 

Kinnekulle.    I,  14,  51,  53,  445. 

Kipling,  R.     I,  468. 

Kirchoff.    II,  717. 

Kiruna,     I,  448,  691. 

Kirunavara.  I,  10,  II,  4,  237, 
242. 

Kjellberg,  A.     I,  580. 

— ,  C.  M.     I,  568. 

— ,  J.     I,  161. 

— ,  J.  F.     I,  511. 

— ,  K.     I,  XIV,  XX. 

— ,  N.  G.    I,  580. 

Kjellberg-Frnmerie,  Agnes.  I, 
514. 

Kjellen,  E.     I,  553,  595. 

Kjellgren,    S.    E.    A.     I,  xxi, 

II,  IX. 

Kjellin,  F.  A.     II,  303,  505. 
Kjellman,  F.  R.     I,  588,  589. 
Kjerrulf,  G.     I,  xxi,  II,  vii. 
Klackberg  Mine.     II,  245 
Klagshamn    Cement    Factory. 

II,  412. 
Klampenborg  Saw-mill.  11,199. 
Klaralven.     I,  12. 
Klason,    P.     I,    xxi,    609,  II, 

IX,  396,  426. 
Kleen,  Emil  A.  G.     I,  433. 
— ,  R.     I,  539. 
Kleman,  P.     II,  292. 
Klemming,  G.  E.     I,  545. 
Kleva  Mine.     II,  255,  310. 
Klingenstierna,  S.  I,  602,610. 
Klippan  Paper  Mills.  II,  403. 
Klosterstrom      Foundry.       II, 

451. 
Knitting.     II,  495. 
V.    Knorring,  Sofia  Margareta. 

I,  493. 
Knutsson,  K.     I,  628. 
Kobb,  G.    I,  612,  614. 
Koch,  A.  J.  H.     I,  605. 
— ,  E.     I,  467. 
V.  Koch,   G.    H.    I,  XVI,  XXI, 

765,  771. 
— ,  H.    I,  612. 


Kocher,  Th.  I,  467. 
Kock,  Axel.  I,  547. 
Kockum     Mechanical    Works. 

II,  457,  458,  577,  614. 
Kockum,  P.  H.  II,  446. 
Kocknms   jarnverksaktiebolag. 

II,  121. 

—  mekaniska  verkstads  aktie- 
bolag.   II,  445. 

Kollberg,  0.     II,  293. 
Kolmodin,  A.     I,  537. 
Kolm8,rd  marble.     II,  411. 
KolmS,rden.     I,  14.  , 

Kolsva    Iron  Works.     II,  455. 
Kolthoff,  G.    I,  598,  626. 
Kommerskollegium,  cf.  Trade, 

Board  of.     II,  311. 
Konselisalen    (Royal    Palace). 

I,  191. 
Konstslojdutstallning,  S.  Gio- 

bel,  A.  B.  Svensk.    II,  499. 

Konungariket    Sveriges    stads- 
hypotekskassa.     II,  678. 

Kooperativa  forbnndet.  I,  697, 
698,  II,  683. 

Kopparbergs    och   Hofors  s3.g- 
verks  aktiebolag.     II,  199. 

Koppelbruk.     II,  47. 

Koppom's  Works.     II,  459. 

Koran,  G.     I,  578, 

Korsnas  sSgverksaktiebolag.  II, 
199. 

Kossei,  A.     I,  467. 

Kosta  Glass  Factory.   II,  421, 
424,  502. 

Kovalewski,     Sonja.     I,     612, 
614. 

V.  Kramer,  A.  R.     I,  548. 

v.  Krafft,  Dav.     I,  516. 

Krafft,  P.,  the  Elder.     I,  518. 

— ,  P.,  the  Younger.     I,  519. 

Kramfors    Saw-mill.     II,  197; 

Kraus,  J.  M.     I,  530. 

Krebs,  S.  F.     II,  360. 

Kreuger,  J.  H.     I,  617. 

— .  Nils.     I,  525. 

Kriminalistforeningen.     Sven- 
ska.    I,  770. 

Kristallglasbruken,   Aktiebola- 
get de  forenade.     ll,  425. 

Kristianstad  plain.     I,  19. 

Kristineberg,     Orphanage.      I, 
752. 

Kristinehamn  Mechanical 
Works.     II,  451,  457. 

—  Practical  School.     II,  543. 
Krok's    Commercial    Institute 

II,  544. 

Krokslatts    fabriker.     II,  371. 
Kronberg,  J.     I,  516,  522. 
Kronoberg  Park.     II,  75. 
Kronofogde.    I,  216. 
Kronprinsessan  Victorias  kust- 

sanatorium.     I,  754. 
Krontorp     Cellulose    Factory. 

II,  394. 
Kropp,  D.    II,  373. 


INDEX. 


743 


Kruse,  J.    I,  559. 
Kryger,  J.  F.     I,  566. 
Kubikenborg  Mill.     II,  199. 
KuUagerfabriken,      Aktiebola- 

get  svenska.     II,  450. 
Znllberg,  V.     II,  464. 
Kulle,  J.    II,  497,  499. 
— ,  Thora.    II,  497. 
KuUen.     I,  18,  441. 
Kunckel,  J.     I,  605. 
Kungsfors  Factory.    II,  371. 
Kungsadra.     II,  ^34,  334. 
Kuostertj  8,kko.     I,  8. 
Kuron,    Salvation    Army   Re- 
treat.    I,  769. 
K-Hstsanatoriet   Apelviken.     I, 

754. 
Kustsiukliiiset     4     Styrso.     I, 

754. 
Kylberg,  L.  H.    I,  594. 
Kylin,  H.     I,  588. 
Kyrkomote,     cf.    Convocation. 

I,  198. 
Kyrkorad.     I,  333. 
Kyrkostamma.     I,  333. 
Kailskar  Saw-mill.     II,  199. 
Koja  Saw-mill.     II,  197. 
Kolen.     I,  7. 
Koper,  C.    I,  559. 
Koping  Mechanical  "Works.    II, 

458. 
Kopingar.     I,  117. 
Kopmanholmeu  Saw-mill.    II, 

197. 
Korling,  Aug.     I,  529. 
Koster,  H.     I,  580. 

Labour  conditions.     I,  632. 

—  Conflicts  Act.     I,  654. 

—  contracts.     I,  G56. 

—  disputes.     I,  648. 

conciliation    and   arbi- 
tration.    I,  661. 
,  legislation.     I,  654. 

—  exchange.     I,  660. 

—  — ,  maritime.     II,  593. 

—  movement.     I,  155. 

—  Party,  Swedish  Social  De- 
mocratic.    I,  210. 

—  questions.     I,  632. 
,  bibliography.     II,  723. 

—  statistics.     I,  323. 
Labourers,     agricultural.      I, 

632. 
— ,  forest.    I,  637. 
Lace-making.     11,  499. 
Lachner,  Ignaz.     I,  630. 
Laestadianism.     I,  186,  329. 
Laestadius,  L.  L.    I,  186,  329. 
Lafontaine,  H.     I,  468. 
Lafrensen,  Nik.,  the  Younger. 

I,  518. 

Lagberg,  J.  0.     I,  680. 
Lagerberg,  T.    I,  690. 
Lagerbring,  S.     I,  661. 
Lagerbacks    fabriksaktiebolag. 

II,  459. 


Lagercrantz,  CO.    I,  549. 
Lagerheim,  G.     I,  588. 
Lagerhjelm,  P.    II,  440,  506. 
Lagerlof,  Selma,     I,  329,  447, 

468,     496,  -497,     II,    716, 

722. 
Lagerman,   A.     II,    398,   441, 

505. 
Lagerstedt,     Agnes.      I,     678, 

756. 
^-,   N.    G.   W.     I,  XV,  XVIII, 

XXI,  565. 
Lagerwall,  A.     I,  xiv,  xxi. 
Lagman.     I,  190. 
Laitaure.     I,  5. 
Lake(s).     I,  23,  80, 

—  vegetation.     I,  70. 
Lallerstedt,  Erik.     I,  505. 
Lamm,  Alfhild.     I,  xxi,  II,  x. 
— ,  C.    II,  436. 

— ,  Jacques.     II,  451. 

— ,  Martin.     I,  557. 

Lampa,  S.    I,  598 

Lampblack.     II,  437. 

Lamp  factories.     II,  459. 

Lancashire  hearth.     II,  289. 

Land    Purchase    Fund.       I, 
688, 

Landberg,  C.     I,  549. 

Landen-Josephson    Ore    Sepa- 
rator.    II,  260. 

Landergren,  E.     I,  676. 

Landin,  J.     I,  xxi,  II,  ix. 

Land-money.     II,  589. 

Land-reclaiming    Funds.       II, 
141. 

Landshovding.     I,  216. 

Landskamrerare,     I,  216, 

Landskap.     I,  3,  4,  190. 

Landskrona    New    Mechanical 
Works.     II,  468. 

—  Technical  irade-School.  II, 
543. 

Landssekreterare.     I,  216. 

Landsting,    see  County  Coun- 
cils, 

Landstorm,     I,  256. 

Land-surveying    Service.      I, 
226. 

Langas.     I,  9. 

Lange,  L.     I,  624. 

Langlois,  Charles.     I.  534. 

Language,  Swedish.    I,  105. 

Lanner,  Olga.     II,  503. 

Lannmark,  J.  K:son.     II,  352. 

Lantmannaforbundet,  Svenska. 
II,  155. 

Lantmannapartiet.     I,  207. 

Lantmanna-  och  borgarpartiet. 
I,  207. 

Lantmannens    riksforbund, 
Svenska.     II,  156. 

Lantmateriet.     I,  226. 

Lantmateristyrelsen.     I,  226. 

Lappland.     I,  448. 

Lappmark  Law  (Forestry).  II, 
180,  181,  185. 


Lapps.    I,  106,  182. 
L'Archeveque,  P.     I,  509. 
Lars    Hierta   Memorial  Foun- 
dation.    I,  364. 
Larson,    Alf.      I,   xvill,    xxi, 

II,   VIII,   IX, 

— ,  S.  M.     I,  521. 

Larsson,    Carl.     I,    403,    520, 

523,  525,  II,  499,  723. 
— ,    G.    Adolf.     I,    XII,    XVI, 

XVIII,   XXI. 

— ,  Hans.     I,  543,  562,  565. 
Lastage.     II,  589. 
Laurelius,  0.     I,  536. 
Laurent  E.     I,  759. 
Laurin,  Carl  G.     I,  xiv,  xvii, 

XXI,  558,  569,  II,  714. 
de    Laval,    G.     II,    108,   430, 

441,  445,  474,  505. 
de  Lavals  &ngturbin,  Aktiebo- 

laget.     II,  457. 
Laveran,  C.  L.  A.     I,  467. 
Law,  bibliography.     II,  720. 
— ,  civil.     I.  307. 

—  Council.     I,  196,  318. 
— ,  criminal.     I,  312. 

— ,  history.     I,  303. 

—  of  the  Vastgota  men.  I, 
303,  304, 

Lazarol.     II,  438. 

Lead,    II,  238,  472. 

— ,  imports  and  exports.  II, 
307. 

— ,  manufacture.     II,  306. 

Leander,  P.  A.     I,  549. 

— ,  P.  J.  H.     I,  542. 

Learned  Societies.     I,  464. 

Leasehold.     I,  676. 

Leather,  imports  and  exports. 
II,  381. 

Leche,  V.     I,  697. 

Lefebure.     II,  721. 

Leffler,  Anna  Charlotta.  I, 
496. 

— ,  J.  A.    I,  XXI,  II,  VIII. 

— ,  Johan.     I,  667. 

— ,  John.     II,  292. 

Legal  and  Judicial  Organiza- 
tion.    I,  303. 

Legislation.     I,  197. 

Leguminous  cereals,  cultiva- 
tion.    II.  58,  65. 

Lehr,  E.     II,  720. 

Leijonhufvud,     Sten     S.      I, 

XVIII. 

Lejdstrom,  Carl.     I,  532. 
Lemberger,  E.     II,  723, 
Lemke,  J.  F.     I,  517. 
Lenard,  Ph.     I,  467. 
Lennander,  K.  G.     I,  581. 
Lenngren,  Anna  Maria.  I,  101, 

490. 
Lenniug,  John.     II,  365. 
— ,  — ,  Weaving    School.     II, 

360. 
Lennmalm,  Fr.     I,  580. 
Lenstrom,  K..  J.     I,  667, 


744 


INDEX. 


af  Leopold,  K.  G.    1, 101, 490, 

540,  560. 
Leptite.     I,  48. 
Lerche,  P.    II,  718. 
Lerum  Spinning-mill.  II,  369. 
Lesiofors    Iron    Works.      II, 

455. 
Lespinasse,  P.     II,  733. 
Lessebo  Paper  Mills.     II,  403. 

—  Saw-mill.     II,  201. 

—  Sulphite  Mills.     II,  394. 
Letterstedt  Association.  1,468. 
— ,  J.    I,  468. 

Leufven,  G.    I,  595. 
Level-country  Region.     I,  77. 
Levertin,  A.    I,  xiii,  xiv,  xxi, 

435,  580. 
— ,  0.    I,  496,  556,  558,  559, 

II,  722, 
Leveaniemi  Mines.     II,  242. 
Lewenhanpt.     I,  99. 
— ,  Sten.     II,  394. 
Lewis,  Thomas.     II,  446. 
Liberal  Association,  National. 

I,  210. 

—  Party,  United.     I,  207. 
Liberala    samlingspartiet.      I, 

207. 
Libraries.    I,  481,  482,  483. 
— ,  ambulatory.     I,  384. 
— ,  people's.     I,  383. 
Library,    Eoyal   National.     I, 

472,  481,  482. 
Lioium,  Atelier.    II,  499. 
Lidbeck,  Anders.     I,  561. 
Liden,  E.     I,  549. 
Lidforss,  B.     I,  589,  590. 

—  V.  E.    I,  549. 
Lidholm,  H.  A.    II,  108. 
Lidingo  villastad.     1,  690. 
Lidkoping.     II,  116. 
Lidkopings  porslinsfabrik,  Ak- 

tiebolaget.    IL  418. 
Lidner,  B.     I,  490. 
V.  Liebig,  Jristus.    I,  592. 
Life  insurance.     II,  690. 

—  Saving  Service.     II,  577. 

stations.     II,  580. 

Lifeboat  stations.     II,  592. 
Lighthonse(s).     II,  577. 

— ,  dues.    11.  589. 
Lilienberg,  A.     I,  xvni. 
— ,  Albert.     I,  507. 
— ,  V.  E.    I,  622. 
Liljedahl  Glass  Factory.     II, 

423. 
Liljefors,    Bruno.     I,    78,    80, 

525,  II,  221,  222. 
— ,  Ruben.     I,  529. 
Liljegren,  J.  G.    I,  545. 
Liljeholm,  G,    I,  172. 
Liljeholmen    Stearine    Candle 

Factory.    11,  388. 
Liljeholmens  kabelfabriks  ak- 

tiebolag.    11,  465. 
Liljencrantz,  J.     II.  317,  486. 
Liljequist,  P.  E.     I,  643. 


Liljeqvist,  P.     II,  459. 
Llljewalch,  E.     II,  581, 
-,  0.    I,  629. 
LiUa  Edet.     II,  405,  458. 
Lillieblad,  G.  Peringer.    I,  544. 
Lilliehook,  K.  B.     I,  618. 
Lilljeborg,  V.    I,  597. 
Lilljekvist,  F.    I,  505. 
Lime.    I,  14,  II,  6,  420. 
— ,  chloride  of.     II,  477. 
Limestone.     I,    9,    48,   II,    6, 

410,  411. 
— ■  quarries.     II,  6 
Limhamn.     I,  691. 

—  Cement    Factory.    II,  412, 
413. 

Limmared  Glass  Factory.     II, 

421. 
Lind,  E.  H.     I,  548. 
— ,  G.    I,  XXI,  II,  vii. 
— ,  Jenny.     I,  530,  II,  723. 

—  af  Hageby.  L.     II,  722. 
Lindahl,  P,     I,  634. 
Lindberg,  A.     I,  612. 

— ,  Aug.    I,  635. 

— ,  Ch.  F.    I,  469. 

— ,  — ,  Foundation.     I,  469. 

— ,  C.  P.    II,  292. 

— ,  Erik.     I,  512. 

— ,  G.    I,  513. 

— ,  S.  0.    I,  688. 

—  System.     II,  581. 
Lindblad,  A.     II,  282. 
— ,  A,  F.    I,  627,  530. 
— ,  Otto.    I,  527. 
Lindblom,  A.     I,  558. 
Lindeberg,  A.     I,  535. 
— ,  K.  J.     I,  587. 
Lindegren,   Agi.     I,  507,  558, 

II,  503. 
— ,  Axel.    I,  507,  II,  501. 
— ,  Johan.     I,  529. 
Linderoth,  G.  W.    II,  459, 464. 
LinderBdsJsen.     I,  18. 
Lindgren,  G.     I,  607. 
-,  Hj.  0.     I,  574. 
— ,  J.     II,  717. 
Lindhagen,  Anna.     I,  755. 
-,  D.  G.    I,  615. 
Lindholmen  Mechanical  Works. 

II,  449,  450,  457,  677. 
Lindman,  A.     I,  523. 
— ,  Arvid.    I,  208. 
— ,  C.  A.  M.    I,  589,  629. 
— ,  K.  F.    I,  610. 
Lindqvist,  Herman.     I,  644. 
Lindroth,  Hj.     I,  547. 
Lindskog,  C.     I,  549. 
— ,  N.    I,  614. 
Lindstrom,  G.    I,  697,  599. 
— ,  P.  E.    I,   XIII,  XIV,  XVII, 

XXI,  566. 
Linen  factories.     II,  374. 

—  industry.     II,  373. 
Ling,  Hjalmar.     I,  427. 

— ,  Per   Henrik.     I,  425,  426, 
433,  492,  663. 


LingfjaUen.     I,  8. 
Linghed  Saw-mill.     II,  201. 
Linkoping.     I,  123,    327,  445, 

499. 
Linnarsson,  G.     I,  600. 
Linnaeus,  C.  (K.)    I,  ]00,  413, 

677,  578,  582,  584,  585,  590, 

695,   598,  624i  629,  II,  28, 

723. 
V.  Linne,  Karl,  see  Linnaeus. 
Linnstrom,  Hj.     II,  711. 
Linroth,  K,     I,  678. 
Lippman,  G.     I,  467. 
Literature.     I,  486. 
— ,  history  of.    I,  656. 
— ,  — ,  bibliography.     II,  722. 
Lithographic   establishments. 

II,  482. 

—  Printing-office   of  the  Ge- 
neral StaflF.    II,  482. 

Litografiska  tryckerier,  Aktie- 

bolaget  Sveriges.     II,  483. 
Litorina  Sea.     I,  59. 
Little  Ones'  Home.     I,  772. 
Littoral  rivers     I,  26,  28. 
Livelihood     and    Professional 

Training.  I,  769. 
Live-stock.  II,  79. 
— ,    imports  and  exports.     II, 

30. 
— ,  number  of.     II,  89. 
Ljung,  E.  W.    I,  694. 
LjungafoTS  Carbide  Factory.  11, 

428. 
Ljunga  Works.     II,  332,    475. 
Ljungberg,  E,  J.     II,  283. 
— ,  K.  E.  (C.  E.)  I,  566,  570. 
Ljnngberger,  G.     I,  611. 
Ljunggren,    C.   J.    F.     I,  xxi, 

II,  IX. 
— ,  G.    I,  566,  561. 

—  Works.    II,  467,  468. 
Ljungstrom,  B.     II,  506. 
Lloyd,  L.     11,  718. 
Lobster.     II,  230. 

Local     Government.    I,   216, 

284. 
Loccenius,  J.     I,  638. 
Lock-outs.     I,  648. 
Locomotives.     II,  457. 
Lomma   Cement  Factory.     II, 

6,  412. 
Loos,  Kornelius.     I,  624. 
Loostrom,  L.     I,  xiv,  xxi,  557. 
Loren,  V.  E.     i;  667. 
Lorentz,  H.  A.     I,  467. 
Lotsstyrelsen,     see     Pilotage 

Board. 
Lottefors  Saw-mill,     11,199. 
Loven,  J.  M.     I,  609. 
— ,  Kristian.     I,  673,  576. 
-,  S.    I,  597,  601,  626. 
Lowland  rivers.     I,  23, 
Ludvigsberg(B)     Mechanical 

Works.    II,  352,  451. 

—  verkstads    aktiebolag.     II, 
458. 


INDEX. 


745 


Lugavik  Saw-mill.     II,  197. 
Lugn8,s  Quarry.     II    411. 
Lulea.     I,  124. 
Lumber  Farms  Law  (Forestry). 

II,  163. 
Lunatic  asylums.     I,  378. 
Lund.     I,  123,  442. 

—  Cathedral.     I,  330. 

—  University.     I,  407. 
Lund,  K.  F.     II,  232. 
Lundberg,  G.     I,  517. 
— ,  Hj.     I,  XXIV. 

— ,  Lennart.     I,  529. 

T.    I   513. 

Lundblad,  N.  '  II,  725. 
Lundbohm,  Hj.     I,  602. 
Lundborg,  H.     I,  774. 
Lundabl,  N.     I,  xiv,  xxi. 
Lundal,  A.    I.  620. 
Lundeg&rdh,  H.     I,  589. 
Lundell,  J.  A,     I,  546,  555. 
Lundeqvist,  G.     I,  535. 
Lundgren,  B.     I,  600. 
— ,  Egron.     I,  520. 
— ,  F.     II,  505. 
-,  M.  F.     I,  548. 
— ,  E.    I,  XXI,  II,  X. 
Lundquist,  G.    I,  604,  614. 
Lundqvist,    Carl  Fredrik.      I, 

531. 
Lundstedt,   B.     I,   xiv,   xvn, 

XXI,  484,  485. 
— ,  H.    II,  503. 
Lundstrom,  A.  N.     I,  590. 
— ,  H.    I,  537. 
— ,  J.  E.    ir,  398,  400,  505. 
— ,  K.  E.    I,  610. 
— ,  K.  J.  V.    I,  549. 
Lundvik,  C.    II,  292,  293. 
Luossavara.     I,  10,  II,  242. 
Luossavaara-Kiirunavaara   Co. 

I,  240,  II,  254. 
Lutb    och    Rosens    elektriska 

aktiebolag.     II,  458,  464. 
Lux,  Aktiebolaget.     II,  459. 
Lyttkens,  Aug.     II,  148. 
— ,  I,  A.     I,  546. 
LS,ngban  Mines.     II,  255. 
Langbanshyttan.     II,  232,  261. 
L^ngnas  Mines.     II,  261. 
LSngror  Saw-mill.    II,  199. 
L8.ngshyttan   Iron  Work.     II, 

295. 
Laffler,  L.  F.    I,  547. 
Langman  Donation.     I,  468. 
— ,  E.  J.     I,  468. 
Lans.    I,  216. 
— ,  area.     I,  107. 
— ,  division  into.     I,  108. 
— ,  population.     I,  107,  111. 
Lansmansdistrikt.     I,  217. 
Lararinneseminariet,  Hogre.  I, 

402,  406. 
Lararinnornas  pensionsanstalt. 

I,  406. 

—  pensionsforening,   Svenska. 
I,  406. 


Larkataden.     I,  181. 
Laroverk,  hBgre  allmanna.     I, 

387,  388,  389. 
Laroverksoverstyrelsen.  I,  389. 
LBiling,  P.  I,  586,  624. 
Lofstedt,  H.  E.  H.    I,  549. 
LofstrBm,  S.  A.     I,  570. 
LSnborg,  S.     I,  629. 
Lonnberg,  Einar.     I,  xv,  xxi, 

597,  629,  777. 
LBvvik  Saw-mill.     II,  197. 
Lowegren,  M.  K.     I,  581. 


Macbine-knives.     II,  459. 
Machines,  imports  and  exports. 

II,  443,  523. 
Mackerel  fishery.     II,  229. 
Maclean,  R.     II,  31. 
Mseterlinck,  M.     I,  468. 
Magistracy.     I,  289. 
Magnetic  coarse-separators.  II, 

259,  260. 
Magni,  Johannes.     I,  550. 
— ,  Olaus.    I,  550,  623. 
Magnometer.     II,  262. 
Magnus  Ericsson.     I,  89. 

—  Laduias.     I,  90. 
Maimed  and  Disabled  in  Stock- 
holm, Association  in  aid  of. 

I,  374. 
Malgomaj.     I,  9. 
Mailing,  Mathilda.     I,  496. 
Malm,  Henning.     I,  532. 
Malmberget.     I,  691. 
Malme,  G.  A:son.   I,  588,  589, 

629. 
Malmgren,  G.  R.     I,  5S9. 
Malmquist,  A.  J.     I,  612. 
Malmsio,  J.  G.,  aktiebolag.  II, 

462. 
Malmsten,  K.  J.     I,  610. 
— ,  P.  H.     I,  579. 
Malmstrom,  B.  E.  I,  493,561. 
— ,  J.  A.     I,  522. 
-,  K.  G.    I,  552. 
Malmo.     I,  121,  442. 

—  dry  dock.     II,  573. 

—  Stone  "Works.     II,  410. 

—  stora  valskvarn.     II,  337. 

—  yllefabrik.     II,  365. 
Maltesholm    Cement    Factory. 

II,  412. 

Malt-liquors,  consumption.  II, 

355. 
— ,  production.     II,  351. 
— ,  sale.     II,  353. 

—  (cf.  Temperance.) 
Mandelstam,  J.     II,  718. 
Manganese  ore,  I,  49,  II,  238. 

,  mining.     II,  307. 

Manhem   Dwellings  Company. 

I,  679. 
Mannerfelt,  0.     I,  595. 
Mannheimer,  Th.     II,  677. 
Mannstrom,  0.  I,  xviii,  II,  724. 
Manor-houses.    I,  176,  II,  81. 


Manufacturing  industries.  II, 
313. 

,  bibliography.     II,  725. 

Map  Office,  Economic.  I,  227. 

Maple.    I,  14. 

Maps.    I,  440. 

Marble.     II,  6,  411. 

Marconi,  G.     I,  467. 

Marcus,  M.     I,  xvi,  xxi. 

Margaret,  Queen.     I,  90. 

Margarine    industry.     II,  338. 

Marieberg  Ammunition  Fac- 
tory.    II,  437. 

—  Pottery.     II,  416. 

—  Saw-mill.     II,  197. 
Marine    deposits.     I,    11,    13, 

14. 
Maritime    law,     bibliography. 
II,  720. 

—  legislation.    II,  585. 
Market  towns.     I,  117. 
Marling-process.     II,  46, 
Marma  Saw-mill.     II,  199. 
Marmier,  X.     II,  715. 
Marriages.  I,  109,  128,  129. 
Martin,  A.     I,  624. 

— ,  Elias.     I,  519. 

— ,  F.    I,  629. 

-,  J.    11,  721. 

— ,  J.  F.    I,  519. 

— ,  L.  C.    I,  XXIV. 

— ,  Roland.     I,  573. 

Maskinistforbundet,  Svenska. 
II,  592.  593. 

Masons  School  of  the  Buil- 
ders' Association.     I,  760. 

Masreliez,  L.  A.     I,  519. 

Match  factories.     II,  399,  401. 

—  industry.     II,  398. 

—  machines.     II,  458. 
Match-cord.     II,  437. 
Material-testing  Institute.    II, 

379. 
Mathematical  Physics.  I,  612. 
Mathematics.     I,  610. 
Maternity  benefit.     I,  718. 
Mattias.     I,  536. 
Maury,  L.     II,  715. 
May,  J.     I,  XVIII. 
Meadows,     II,  14. 
Meat,  consumption.     I,  171. 
— ,  production.     II,  8. 
Mebius,  C.     I,  605. 
Mechanical   industry.     II,  16. 

—  power.    II,  1. 

—  works.  II,  439. 
Mechanics.  I,  612. 
Medical  chemistry.     I,  576. 

—  journals.     I,  582. 

—  jurisprudence.     I,  578. 

—  officers,  provincial.    I,  274. 

—  sciences.     I,  572. 
Medicine,  forensic.     I,  578. 
— ,  internal.     I,  578. 
Medin,  0,    I,  580. 

V.  Meijtens,  Martin.     I,^  516. 
Meissner,  Aug.     I.  532. 


746 


INDEX. 


Mekanikus,   Aktiebolaget.     II, 

457,  458. 
Melander,  E.     I,  xviii. 
Melanderhjelm,  D.     I,  615. 
Melin,  H.   U.     I,  537. 
— ,  K.  A.    I.  496. 
V.  Melsted,  H.     I,  497. 
Mercantile  Marine.     II,  548. 
Pension   Fund.    I,  72a, 

II,  591. 
Merchants'     associations.      II, 

704. 
Mercury.     11,,  238. 
Merinos,  Aktiebolaget.  II,  367. 
Mertainen  Mines.     II,  242. 
Meslin.     II,  58. 
Messenius,  J.     I,  537,  550. 
Mesterton,  K.  B.     I,  580. 
Metal(s)  and  Machine  Industry. 

II,  438. 

—  Goods,  imports  and  exports. 
II,  443. 

— ,  imports    and   exports.    II, 

240. 
— ,  precious.     II,  5. 
— ,  production,     bibliography. 

II,    725. 

—  work,  exports.     II,  525. 
Metallurgical  industry.  II,  236. 
Metchnikoff,  E.     I,  467. 
Meteorological  Office,  Central. 

I,  45,  462,  618. 
Meteorology.     I,  617. 
Methodists.     I,  335. 
Meyer,  0.     II,  503. 
Meyerson,  Gerda.     I,  756. 
Mica.     I,  9. 
Mica-schist.     I,  48. 
Michaeli,  Louise.     I,  531. 
Michaelson,  J.     II,  388. 
Michelson,  A.  A.     I,  467. 
Midwives.    I,  273,  278. 
Military  Academy,   Eoyal.     I, 

463. 

—  statistics.     I,  147. 

—  Solicitor-General     of    the 
Riksdag.     I,  199. 

Militieombudsmannen.    I,  199. 
Milk,  consumption.     I,  172. 

—  dispensaries.     I,    299,  752. 

—  production.     II,  111. 

—  testing  associations.  II,  116. 
Mill  industry.     II,  337. 
Milles,  Carl.     I,  513. 
Mill-gearing.     II,  458. 

Mine  maps.     II,  262. 

—  Surveying.     II,  262. 
Mineral(s).     II,  4. 

— ,  exports.     II,  520. 
— ,  imports    and  exports.     II, 
240. 

—  oil.     II,  385. 

—  waters.  II,  355. 
Mineralogy.  I,  598. 
Mining.     II,  15. 

—  administration.     II,  311. 
— ,  bibliography.     II,  725. 


Mining,    general    survey.      II, 
236. 

—  instruction.     II,  312. 

— ,  iron  ore  resources.  II.  242. 

—  legislation.     II,  262. 

—  methods.     II,  256. 

—  practice.     II,  255. 
— ■  schools.     II,  312. 
Ministry,  see  Cabinet. 
Mission  in  China.  Swedish.  I, 

336. 
Missionary    Alliance,    Scandi- 
navian.    I,  336. 

—  Association,     Swedish.      I, 
329,  335,  336. 

—  societies.    I,  336. 

—  Sotiety,    Swedish.     I,  336. 
Mistral,  F.     I,  467. 
Mitscherlich.     II.  395. 
Mittag-Leffler,  6'.   I,  610,  611, 

612. 
Mjoberg,  E.    I,  629. 
— ,  J.    I,  548. 
Mo     och    Domsjo    aktiebolag. 

II,  197. 
Mo  Saw-mill.  II,  197, 198,  200. 
Moberg,  C.  A.     I,  549. 
— ,  Ellen.     I,  755. 
— ,  J.  Chr.     I,  602. 
— ,  Maria.     I,  755. 
Modig,  E.     I,  XXI,  II,  X. 
Mogenhetsexamen,  no.  of  »Pas- 

ses».     I,  395. 
Mohn,  A.     II,  717. 
Moissan,  H.     I,  467. 
Molin,  A.    I,  XVI,  xxr,  624. 
— ,  G.    I,  XXI,  II,  VIII. 
— ,  J.  A.  E.    I,  XVI,  XXI. 
— ,  J.  P.    I,  511. 
-,  P.     I,  496. 
Moll,  T.    I,  565. 
Mommsen,  Th.     I,  467. 
Mou  Saw-mill.     II,  199. 
Moneta,  E.  T.     I,  468. 
Monitor,    John  Ericsson's.     I, 

145. 
Montelius,  Agda.    I,  xiii,  xxi. 
— ,  Oscar.    I,   553,    554,  584, 

II,  716. 
Monten,  Lars.     II,  388,  389. 
Monvel.     I,  534. 
Moor  Culture  Association, 

Swedish.     I,  593,  II,  152. 
Moors.     I,  71. 
Moosberg,    R.     I,    xiil,    xviii, 

XXI. 

Mora  Factory.     II,  379. 

—  Saw-mill.     11,  201. 
Moraine  deposits.     I,    10,    11, 

58. 
Moral  Conditions.     I,  159. 

—  Culture,     National     Union 
for.     I,  757. 

Morales,  Olallo.      I,  529,  532. 
Moreseo,  Aktiebolaget.  II,  378. 
Morg§,rdshammar     Mechanical 
"Works.    II,  458   459. 


Mormons.     I,  335. 
Morsslng,  G.     I,  507. 
Mortality.     I,  136,  II,  24. 
— ,  infant.     II,  23, 
Mortensen,  Johan.     I,  557. 
Mortgage    Bank    of    Sweden. 
General.     II,  136. 

—  institutions.    II,  678. 

—  on  real  estate.     II,  139. 

—  societies.    II,  136. 
Mosander,  K.  G.    I,  576,  608. 
Moss-litter.    II,  15,  426. 
Motala.     I,  124. 

—  Mechanical  "Works.  II,  448, 
460,  451,  457. 

Motor  car.     II,  454. 

industry.     II,  452. 

Mountain-rivers.      I,     20,    24, 

27. 
Mowing  machines.     II,  458. 
Munck    af  Rosenschold,  E.  S. 

I,  579. 

Municipal  administration  of 
Stockholm,  bibliography.  II, 
720. 

Municipal  communities.  I. 
117,  285. 

—  congress.     I,  765. 

—  meeting.     I,  287. 
Municipalities.     I,  117,  285. 
Municipalsamhallen.      I,    117, 

285. 
Munkedal  Paper  Mill.  II,  405. 
Munkfors    Saw-mills.     I,  675, 

682,  II,  201. 
Munksjo.    II,  394,  405. 
Munksund  Saw-mill.    II,   197. 
Munktell,  J.     II,  403. 
— ,  Johan  Teofron.     II,  450. 
Munktell   Mechanical     "Works. 

II,  352,  450,  457,  458,  459. 
461. 

Munthe,  H.     I,  602,  630. 
Murbeck,  Sv.     I,  588,  589. 
Muren's,  Per,  Memorial.  I,  755. 
Murray,  A.     I,  573. 
Museums.     I,  472. 
— ,  travelling.     I,  758. 
Music.    I,  526. 
— ,  bibliography.     II,  723. 
— ,  Royal  Academy  of.  I,  464, 

532. 
— ,  —  Conservatoire     of.       I, 

464,  532. 
Musical   History,   Museum  of. 

I,  473. 

—  instruments  factories.  II, 
462. 

—  Society.     I,  532. 
Miiller,  Alex.     I,  593. 
— ,  E.    I,  574. 

— ,  J.  B.     I,  624. 
Miinter,  R.     I,  xviii. 
Muntzing,  A.     II,  395. 
Myntkabinettet.     I,  414. 
Myrberg,  0.  F.     I,  537. 
Myrstedt  &  Stern.     II,  502. 


INDEX. 


747 


Mansbo    Carbide    Work.     II, 

332,  430,  432,  474. 
M§,rtensson,  Beata.    II,  502. 
Malaren.     I,  15. 
MoUenborg,  Gust.,    goldsmith. 

II,  462,  503. 
Holier,  C.     I,  507. 
— ,  Dagmar.     I,  531. 
— ,  D.  U.  A.     I,  616. 
— ,  L.  M.    I,  580. 
V.  Moller,  P.     I,  594. 
Morner,  0.  T.     I,  576. 
— ,  K.  A.  H.     I,  577,  609. 


Nachmanson,  E.     I,  549. 

Nacka  Saw-mill.     II,  199. 

NsBsman,  E.  A.,  &  Co.  II, 
459. 

Nanneson,  L.  I,  xxi,  594, 
595,  II,  VIII,  157. 

Nathorst,  A.  G.  I,  589,  590, 
601,  602,  620,  626. 

— ,  Hj.     I,  592,  II,  126. 

J.    I   594. 

— .'  John'Teofil.     I,  591. 

National  Anti-Tuberculosis  As- 
sociation, Swedish.     I,  773. 

—  character.     I,  146. 

—  Debt  Board  (Riksgaldskon- 
toret),     I,  198,  231. 

—  Museum.     I,  472,  473. 

—  parks.     I,  775,  776. 

—  Party  of  the  First  Chamber. 
I,  208. 

—  wealth.    II,  24. 
Nationsforeningar.     I,  412. 
Natural    History,   National 

Museum  of.     I,  462,  474. 

—  resources.     II,  1. 

—  Scenery,  Swedish  Associa- 
tion for  Preserving.     1, 779. 

Nauckhoff,  V.     I,  594. 
Naumann,  J.  G.     I,  529. 
Nautanen  Mines.     II,  255. 
Nautical  Chart  Office.     I,  228. 
Nauticco  Meteorological  Office. 

I,  618. 
Navigation,    Committee    on 

Safety  of.     II,  591. 

—  schools.    II,  583. 
Navy.     I,  258. 
Nebel,  H.     I,  435. 
Nehrman,  D.     I,  539. 
Neikter,  Jakob  Eredrik.    I,  560. 
Nelson,  H.     I,  630. 

Neptun    Salvage    and    Diving 

Co.     II,  581. 
Nerman,  G.     I,  622. 
Netzel,  W.    I,  581. 
Neujd,  Herman.     I,  514. 
Neutral  areas.     I,  33.     • 
Newspapers.     I,  483. 
Nickel.    II,  238,  310. 
— ^   ore,  mining.     II,  307. 
— ,  production.     II,  310. 
Nicou,  P.     II,  725. 


Niedner,  F..    I[,  722. 
Niemann,  W.     11,  718,  723. 
Night-frosts.     I,  39,  II,  39. 

—  refuges.     I,  769. 
Nilson,  L.  Fr.     I,  593,  608. 
Nilsson,  Alb.     I,  589. 

— ,  Christina.    I,  530,  531. 

— ,  G.  A.    I,  507. 

-,  Hj.    I,  XXI,  590,  593,    II, 

vm. 
— ,  J.  A.     I,    XV,    XXI,    557, 

562. 
-,  N.  M.  P:son.     I,  549. 
— ,  Sven.     I,   553,    583,   596, 

599,  II.  715,  716. 
— ,  — ,  of  Everod.     I,  378. 
Nilsson-Ehle,   N.   H.     I,  590, 

593. 
Nipa.    I,  12. 
Nipfjallet.     I,  8. 
Nissen-Saloman,  Henriette.    I, 

531. 
Nitric  acid.     II,  477. 
Nitrogen.     II,  7. 
Nobel,   Alfred.     I,    465,   466, 

608,  781,  II,  436,  505,  726. 
— ,  Emanuel.     I,  465. 

—  Foundation.     I,  465. 

— ,  L.  I.    I,  465,  II,  385,  505. 

—  prizes.     I,  467. 

—  powder.     II,  436. 

— ,  R.  Hj.    I,  465,  II,  385. 
Nobility.     I,  153,  192. 
Nohrborg,  A.     I,  327,  536. 
Nonnen,  Edv.     I,  591,  II,  125. 
Norberg  Mines.     II,  242. 

M.     I    545. 

No'rdblom,'  J.  E.  I,  527. 
Nordenborg,  A.  II,  502. 
Nordencrantz,   A.     I,   566,  II, 

311. 
Nordenfeldt's,JI.,  Female  Trade 

School.     I,  760. 
Nordenflycht,  H.  Ch.     I,  488. 
Nordenskiold,    A.    E.     I,   601, 

620,  623,  625,  629,  775. 
— ,  Erland.    I,  628,  758. 
— ,  G.    I,  626,  628. 
— ,  G.  H.     I,  XXI,  II,  IX. 
Nordenskjold,  0.     I,  xv,  xxi, 

602,  620,  626,  628. 
Nordenson,  E.     I,  582. 
Nordensvan,    G.     I,    xv,    XXI, 

558   559. 
Norde'wall.     II,  440,  564. 
Nordfelt,  A.     I,  xiv,  xxi. 
Nordin,  Alice.     I,  514. 
— ,  F.     I,  XIII,  XXI. 
Nordingra.     II,  172. 
Nordisk  familjebok.     I,  339. 

—  Yachtassurans.     II,  687. 
Nordiska    Kompaniet,    Aktie- 

bolaget.    II,  499,  502, 

—  kreditbanken.     II,  673. 

—  metallverken.     II,  455. 
Nordling,  E.  V.     I,  539. 
Nordlund,  K.     II,  717. 


Nordpolen  Life  Insurance  Co. 

II,  690. 
Nordquist,   Conrad.     I,  530. 
Nordqvist,  0.     I,  xxi,  II,  viil. 
Nordstjernan  Life  Insurance  Co. 

II,  690. 
— ,  Rederiaktiebolaget.  II,  555, 

558. 
Nordstrom,  Karl.     I,  525. 
— ,  L.    I,  497. 
Noreen,    Adolf.     I,   546,    547, 

548,  II,  717. 
Noring,  Alexis.     I,  591,  II,  80. 
Norlind,  E.     I,  536. 
Normalskola,  Statens,  for  flic- 
ker.    I,  402. 
Norman,  F.  V.  L.  (Ludvig).   I, 

528,  530. 
Norrahammar  Works.     II,  459. 
NorrgSrd  Protective  Home.    I, 

376. 
Norrland.     I,  3,  4. 
draining  grants. 

—  Fire  Insurance  Co.  11,  688. 
690. 

—  Land-Reclaiming  Fund.  II, 
141. 

—  laws.     II,  163. 
Norrlands     skogsv^rdsforbnud. 

II,  176. 

Norrkoping.     I,  133. 

— -  Higher    Commercial    Insti- 
tute.    II,  544. 

—  Lithographic  Joint-stock 
Company.     II,  482. 

—  Saw-mills.     II,  201. 
Norrkopings    bomuUsvaveri- 

aktiebolag.     II,  371. 
Norrman,  Carl.     II,  450. 
— ,  Herman.     I,  525. 
Norrstrom.     I,  441. 
Norrsundet  Saw-mill.     II,  201. 
Norsborg  Park.    II,  76. 
Norstedt,  0.     I,  588. 
— ,  P.  A.  &  Soner,  Government 

Printing-office.     I,  viii,  II, 

481,  482. 
— ,  R.     I,  522. 
Norstrom,  V.     I,  543. 
Northern  Museum.    I,  475,  476. 
Notke,  Bernt.     I,  507. 
Numismatics.     I,  555. 
Nutritive  salts.     II,  6. 
Nya  forenade  elektriska  aktie- 

bolaget.     II,  458. 
Nyberg,  C.  R.     II,  505. 
Nyberg's,    C.    R.,    Mechanical 

Works.     II,  459. 
Nyblajus,  A.     I,  542. 
Nyblom,  C.  R.  (K.  R.).    I,  xiv, 

XXI,  556,  557,  559,  561. 
— ,  Helena.     I,  496. 
Nybom,  J.     I,  493. 
Nycander,  0.  J.  Th.     I,  594. 
Nydqvist  &  Holm  Works.    II, 

448,  449. 
Nykroppa  Iron  Works.  II,  295. 


748 


INDEX. 


Nyman,  E.     I,  629. 
Nyren,  M.     I,  616. 
Nystrom,  Anton.    I,  382. 
— ,  B.    I,  XV,  XXI,  570. 
— ,  E.    I,  594. 
Nas  Saw-mill.     II,  201. 
Naas  sloidlararseminarinm.    I, 
362, 

—  Spinning-mill.     II,  371. 

Oak.     I,  14. 

Oats,  crops.     II,  50. 

— ,  cultivation.    II,  58,  59,  63. 

— ,  imports    and  exports.     II, 

63. 
— ,  prices.     II,  65. 
Occupations.     II,  15. 
Ocean,  Insurance  Co.     II,  687. 
Oden,  S.     I,  xxi,  11,  ix. 
Odenius,  M.  V.     I,  578. 
Odhner   K.  T.    I,  552. 
— ,  T.    I,  598. 

Offenders,    juvenile,    reforma- 
tories for.     I,  376. 
Oil-cakes.    II,  384. 
Oils,  mineral.     II,  385. 
— ,  fatty.     II,  384. 
— ,  import.     II,  517. 
Oktorpsg8,rden.  ■  I,  174. 
Olai,  Ericus.     I,  550. 
Old  Age  Insurance.     I,  725. 
Committee.     I,  158, 

726. 
Oleic  acid.     II,  388. 
Oleum.     11,  432. 
Olin,  Elisabet.     I,  530,  534. 
Olivecrona,  S.  R.  D.  K.     1, 539. 
Oilman,  E.  A.     II,  446. 
Olof,  King.     I,  85. 
Olovstrom,  Svenska  stS,lpress- 

ningsaktiebolaget.     II,    121, 

452,  459. 
Olson,  E.     I,  547. 
Olsson   A.  H.    II,  654. 
— ,  0.    I,  614. 
— ,  Otto.    I,  529. 
Olympic  Games.     I,  451,  458, 

II,  721,  723. 
Omberg.     I,  14. 
Oncle  Adam.     I,  493. 
Onnes,  H.  Kamerlingh.  I,  467. 
Opera,  Eoyal.     I,  527. 
Orders  of  knighthood.     1, 189. 
Ordnance  Survev,  Swedish.    I, 

227. 
Ores.    I,  49,  II,  4. 
Ore-dressing  plant.     II,  261. 
Ormastorp     Coal    Mines.      II, 

255. 
Ornasstugan.     I,  92. 
Orrholmen  Saw-mill.     II,  201. 
Orup  Estate.     II,  125. 
Orvar  Odd.     I,  493. 
Osbeck,  P.    I.  624. 
Oscar  I.     I,  102,  II,  510. 

—  II.    I,  102,  628. 
,  Ironclad.     I,  260. 


Osckr,  Anna.     I,  532. 

— ,  Martin.     I,  532. 

Oseen,    C.    "W.      I,    xv,   xxii, 

611,  612,  613. 
Oskarshamn  Mechanical  Works. 

II,  457. 
Oskarshamns  kakelfabrik.    II, 

420. 
Ossiannilsson,  K.   G.     I,  497. 
Ostwald,  W.     I,  467. 
V.  Otter,  C.  G.     II,  505. 
—  system.     II,  581. 
Overton,  E.     I,  577. 
Owen,  Samuel.     II,  317,  446. 
Owl,  eagle.    I,  80. 
"Own    Home"    movement.     I, 

682. 

Fund.    I,  670,  687. 

Loans.     I,  670,  687,  II, 

145. 
Oxen,  number  of.     II,  89. 
Oxenstierna,  Axel.     I,  95,  96, 

164,  II,  315,  485,  508. 
Oxygen.     II,  479. 
Oyster  fishery.     II,  230. 


Painting.     I,  514. 

Paints.     II,  437. 

Paix,    Bureau    International 

Permanent  de  la.     I,  468. 
Palander,  L.     I,  626. 
Palm,  G.  V.     I,  520. 
Palmar,  V.  (K.  "W.).     I,  xxii, 

610,  II,  IX,  479. 
Palmcrantz,  H.     II,  441,  505. 
Palme,  B.  A.     I,  535. 
— ,  S.    I,  XXII,  II,  X. 
Palmroot,  J.     I,  544. 
Palmstedt,  E.     I,  502. 
Palmstrnch  Bank.   II,  135,  666. 
Paper  industry.     II,  403. 

—  making  machine.     II,  406. 

—  mills.    II,  403,  404. 
Parish.     I,  333. 

—  Work,    Yolnntary,    Union 
for.     I,  763. 

Parliament,     cf.    Riksdag,     I. 

197. 
Parties,  political.     I,  207. 
Pasch,  G.  E.    II,  398,  505. 
— ,  Lor.  the  Elder.     I,  617. 
— ,  — ,  the  Younger.     I,  518. 
Passy,  Fr.     I,  468. 
Pastures.     II,  71. 
Patents.     II,  704. 

—  and     Registration     Office, 
Royal.     II.  705. 

Pathology,     t,  578. 
Pauli,  Georg.     I,  524,  669. 
Paulinus,  Laurentius.     I,  327. 

—  Gothus,  L.    I,  536,  562. 
Pawlow,  I.  Petrowitj.     I,  467. 
Peace  Federation,  Swedish.   I, 

780. 

—  movement.     I,  780. 
Peasant  farms.     I,  632. 


Peasant   farm-houses.     II,  33^ 

34,  36,  37. 
Peat.     II,  2,  272. 

—  bogs.    I,  &9,  II,  153. 

—  Loan  Fund.     II,  427. 

—  machines.     II,  458. 

—  manufacture.     II,  425. 

—  mosses.    1, 10, 16,  59,  II,  2. 

—  officials.    II,  123. 
Pedagogics.    I,  562. 
Pegmatite.     I,  49. 
Pehrsson-Bendz,    0.      I,    378,. 

II,  132. 
Peljekaise.     I,  777. 
Pellorippe.     I,  8. 
Pensions    Board,  Royal,    see 

Pensionsstyxelsen. 
Pension  Funds.     I,  718,  721. 
Pensionsstyrelsen.  I,  726,734. 
People,  Swedish,  history.  I,  82. 
People's  Banks.     II,  682. 

—  High  Schools.     I,  378. 

—  Libraries.     I.  383. 

—  Palace,  Stockholm.    I,  644. 

—  Parks.     I,  755. 
Percussion  Caps.     II,  437. 
Peringskiold,    J.     I,  544,  551. 
Periodicals.     I,  485. 
Persberg  Mines.     II,  242. 
Persons,  M8,rten,  valskvarn.  II, 

337. 
Personne,  N.     I,  535. 
Persson-,  Hilma.     II,  502. 
— ,  N.     II,  433. 
— ,  P.    I,  549. 
Persson's,    Per,    Weaving  and 

Knitting    Machine   Factory. 

II.  441,  458. 
Peterson,  Ludv.     I,  507. 
— ,  V.    I,  602. 
Peterson-Berger,   Wilhelm.     I, 

629,  630. 
Petersson,    Ingemar.     I,   xxii. 

II,  x. 
— ,  0.  V.    I,  580. 
— ,  Valfrid.     I,  xxii,  II,  viii, 
Petrelli,  Ingeborg.     II,  499. 
Petren,  A,     I,  xiii   xxii. 
— ,  J.  G.     I,  XXII,  II,  viii. 
— ,  Karl.     I.  580. 
Petri,  Laurentius.    I,  327,  536. 
— ,  Olaus.      I,    96.    326,    487, 

636,  550. 
Petrini,  E.     I   562. 
— ,  H.    I.  613.    . 
Petroleum  engines.     II,  457. 

—  stoves,  portable.     II,  459. 
Petter  p3,  Myra.     II,  503. 
Pettersson,  G.  0.    II,  273. 
— ,  H.    I,  622. 
Pettersson-Norrie,Anna.  I,  535. 
Pettersson,    Otto,    (S.   0.).    I, 

609,  619,  621,  622,  630. 
Pfannenstill,  M.     I,  537. 
Phalen,  A.    I,  544. 
Pharmaceutical  Chemists' 

Shops.    I,  279. 


INDEX. 


749 


Pharmacology.     I,  577. 
Philharmonic  Society.    I,  532. 
Philology.     I,  544. 
Philosophy.     I,  540. 
Phototype  establishments.    II, 

482. 
Phragmen,    E.     I     203,    206, 

610,  612. 
Phyllite.     I,  48. 
Physical  Anthropology.  I,  582. 

—  Geography.     I,  1. 

—  Culture,     League     for.     I, 
756. 

Physicians.     I,  273. 

Physics.     I,  602. 

— ,  Mathematical.     I,  612. 

Physiology.     I,  575. 

Piehl,  K.    I,  549. 

Pietas  Society.     II,  499. 

Pig  iron,  imports  and  exports. 

II,  274. 

,  manufacture.     II,   274. 

,  —  by    electricity.     II, 

282. 

,  output.     II,   264,  275. 

,  preparation.     II,  277. 

,  production.     II,  274. 

,  world's  production.  II, 

275. 
Pigs,  breeding.     II,  82. 
— •  number  of.     II,  89. 

—  slaughter  houses,     II,  358. 
PiUons,  R.    II,  718. 

Pilo,  K.  G.    I,  518. 

Pilot  Service.    II,  577,  578. 

Pilotage  Board.     II,  577,  578. 

—  fees.     11.  589. 
Pilots.    II,  577. 
Pine.     I,  12. 

—  forest.     I,  64. 
Pira,  K.     I,  544. 

Pitch,    imports    and    exports. 
II,  218. 

—  and  Pitch- oil.     II,  387. 
Pit-props.     II,  315. 
Plantations,  public.     II,  78. 
Pleiiel,   H.  B.  M.    I,  614,  II, 

653. 
Plough  and  Harrow  Factories. 

11   459. 
Polhem,  Kristoffer,     I,  99,  II, 

379,  440,  505,  564. 
Political  Economy.     I,  565. 
Pomology.     II,  75. 
af  Pontin,  M.     I,  607. 
Poor-house,  Nacka.     I,  295. 

—  Law    Reform    Association, 
Swedish.    I,  301,  770. 

—  relief.     I    291. 

,  statistics.    I,  297. 

Popular  lectures.     I,  382. 
Population.     I,  1,  104. 

—  by  age.     I,  124. 

—  by  sex.     I,  127. 

— ,  civil  status.     I,  129. 

— ,  density,  I,  113. 

— ,  increase.    I,  109,  111. 


Population,  movement.     1, 109. 

— ,  occupations.     II,  15. 

— ,  of  liins.     I,  107. 

— ,  urban  and  rural.     I,  117. 

v.  Porat,  C.  0.     I,  598. 

Porjus  falls.     II,  330. 

— ,  Power-station.     II,  620. 

Phorphyries.     I,  48. 

Porphyry  Works,  Alvdalen.    I, 

48. 
Posse,  N.     II,  721. 
V.  Post,  Hampus.    I,  589,  593, 

602,  608. 
— ,  L.    I,  602. 

Post  Office,  Central.     II,  637. 
,  Savings-bank.     II,  681. 

—  Service.     II,   632, 
Postal  Museum.     I,  473. 
Potassium.     II,  6. 
Potatoes,  consumption.    1, 171. 
— ,  crops.    II,  66,  68. 

— ,  cultivation.     II,  67. 
Potstone.     II,  410. 
Pottery.     II,  416. 
Poultry-breeding.     11,  105. 
Precht,  B.     I,  508. 
Precious  metals.     II,  5 
Precipitation.     I,    41,   II,  38, 

40. 
Preserve  Factories.     II,  358. 
Pressbyr^n,  Svenska.   I,  485. 
Press,  Law  on  the  Liberty  of. 

I,  195. 

Primus,  Aktiebolaget.  II,  459. 
Printing-offices.     II,  480. 
Printing    office.    Central.     II, 

482. 
,  Government    (Norstedt 

&  Soner).     I,  viii,  II,   481, 

482. 

—  works.     II,  458. 
Prisoners.     I,  269, 
Prison  system.     I,  268. 

,  bibliography.     II,  719. 

Prisons   and   protection   asso- 
ciations.    I,  768. 

Privata  centralbank,  Aktiebo- 
laget Sveriges.     II,  677. 
Prize-competitions    for.  cattle. 

II,  83. 

— ,  for  pigs.    II,  87. 
— ,  for  sheep.     II,  86. 
Probation,  year  of.     I,  397. 
Professions.     II,  15. 
Professional    associations.      I, 

485. 
Projectiles.    II,  459. 
Proportional    representation 

system.     I,  206, 
Prosperin,  E.     I,  615. 
Prostitution.     I,  161. 
Protection  Society.     I,  768. 

—  of  Animals.     I,  779, 

—  of  Workers   Acts.     I,   706, 
708,  709. 

—  of   Workers,    International 
Association  for.     I,  765. 


Protective   Forests   Law.      II, 

183,  185. 
Protector  of  the  Realm.  1,191. 
Provinces.     I,  3,  4. 
Prov^r.     I,  397. 
Prudhomme,    R.  F.  A.  Sully. 

I,  467. 
Psilander,  Hj.     I,  549. 
Publicistklubben.     I,  485. 
Puddle  furnaces.     II,  287. 
Pudor,  H.     II,  725. 
Pudrette  factories.     II,  434. 
V,  Pnfendorff,  Samuel,     I,  99, 

638   551. 
Pumpseparator,    Aktiebolaget. 

II,  120,  458, 

Punch  manufactories.  II,  349. 
Purse  seine  fishing.    II,  226. 
P^hlmau Brothers'  Commercial 

Institute.     II,  543,  544. 
Partefjallen.     I,  7. 

Quarries  and  Stone-works.    II, 

409. 
Quartz.     II,  411. 
Quartzite.     I,  9,  48, 
Quarnstrom,  K,  G.     I,  511. 
Quaternary  Period.     I,  57. 
Queen's  Protection   Home.     I, 

769. 
Queen  Sophia   Foundation.    I, 

369. 
Quensel,  U.     I,  578. 

Rabbin,  J.     II,  125. 
Rabbit-breeding.     II,  104. 
Rabenius,  L.  G.     I,  566. 
Race,  Swedish.     II,  11. 
Radiator.     II,  114. 
Radium.     II,  6. 
Rahm,   Nils.     I,  xxii,    II,  ix, 

XI. 

Railway(s).     II,  594,  597. 

—  Board,  Royal.     II,  606, 

—  bridges.    II,  600,  601,  602. 

—  carriages.     II,  458. 

—  finances.     II,  616. 

—  sleepers.     II,  215. 

—  tariffs.     II,  609. 

—  traffic.    II,    609,  611,  613, 
616. 

—  Union.    II,  608. 
Ramlosa,   watering    place.     I, 

441. 
Ramon  y  Cajal,  S.     I,  467. 
Ramsay,  Ebba.     I,  372. 
— ,  William.     I,  467. 
Ramstedt,  V.     I,  xxii,  II,  vii. 
Ramstrom,  0.  M.     I,  573. 
Rancken,  D.     I,  433. 
Randel,  Andreas.     I,  529. 
Ranft,  A.     I,  535. 
Rangstrom,  'Ture.     I,  529. 
Ransvik.     I,  437. 
Raphael,  A.    I,  xxii,  567,  648, 

II,  IX, 


750 


INDEX. 


Rapids.     I,  23. 
fiapmund,  0.     II,  734. 
Rappe,  Signe.     I,  531. 
Rasmussen,  Y.     I,  507. 
Rayleigh,  J.  ~W.  S.     I,  467. 
Read  and  write,  ability  to.    I, 

147,  359. 
Real  property,  assessed  value 

of.     II,  18,  19. 
Realskola.    I,  387. 
Realskoleexamen.     I,  387,  394. 
— ,  no.  of  "passes".    I,  396. 
Record  Office,  National.  I,  471. 
Redareforening,  Sveriges.     II, 

592,  593. 
Reddle.     II,  438. 
Regeringsformen.     I,  195. 
Regeringsratten.     I,  196. 
Registers    of    Population.      I, 

333. 
Registry  of  women-workers  and 

employers.     I,  762. 
Regnell,    A.    F.    (Anders).     I, 

589,  628. 
Reiimyre    Glass    "Works.      II, 

421,  423,  502. 
Reindeer-breeding.     II,  101. 

—  number  of.     11,  89. 
Religion  and  Church.    I,  325. 

,  bibliography.     II,  720. 

Religious  life.     I,  334. 
Renault,  L.     I,  468. 
Rendahl,  R.     II,  647. 
Rennerfelt,  Ivar.     II,  304. 
Renstrom  Fund.     I,  468. 

— ,  Sven.     I,  468. 
Renting  Act.     I,  673. 
Rents.     I,  173. 
Representation,   proportional 

system.     I,  206. 
Rescue  homes  for  women.     I, 

769. 
Retzius,    Anders    (A.    J.).      I, 

573,  574,  577,  578,  683,  591, 

696. 
— ,  — ,  Medal  Fund.     I,  464. 
— ,  G.     I,  XIV,  XV,  XVII,  XXII, 

573,  583,  584,  598. 
Reuterdahl,  H.     I,  637. 
Reuterskiold,  C.  A.     I,  539. 
Revising    Judicial    Office.     I, 

318. 
Reymersholm    Spirit    Recti- 
fying Work.    II,  349. 
Rhffit-lias.     I,  54. 
Rhodin,  S.     I,  594. 
Rhyzelius,  A.  0.     I,  537. 
Ribbing   S.     I,  643,  580. 
Ribe,  K.  Fr.     I,  581. 
Richardsen,  A.     II,  725. 
Richert,  Ch.     I,  467. 

—  J.  G.    I,  539,  622. 

—  M.  B.    I,  547. 
Riddarhuset.     I,  95,  192. 
Riddarhyttan  Mines.     II,  342. 
Rifles  Factories.     II    459. 
Rietz,  J.  E.     I,  545. 


Riksbank,    Sveriges.     I,     198, 

II,  135,  666,  667,  668,  670. 
Riksdag.    I,  191,  197. 
— ,  composition.     I,  200,  205. 
— ,  Organic  Law  for.     I,  193, 

195. 
— ,  procedure.     I,  204. 
Riksdagsordningen.     I,  195. 
Riksforestlndare.     I,  191. 
Riksforsakringsanstalten.     I, 

733   II   693. 
Riksgalds'kontoret.    1, 198, 231. 
Riksstat.     I,  233. 
Ringvall,  A.     I,  535. 
Rinman,  E.  B.     I,  xv,  xxil. 
-,  L.     II,  300. 
— ,  S.    II,  505. 
Risberg,  B.     I,  548. 
Risingh,    Johan    Classon.      I, 

665. 
River  basins.     I,  30,  21,  22. 
Rivers,  discharge-.     I,  25. 
— ,  fauna.     I,  80. 
— ,  forest.    I,  21,  25,  28. 
— .  littoral.     I,  23,  28. 
— ,  lowland.     I,  33. 
— ,  mountain.     I,  30,  34,  37. 
— ,  variations  in  levels.   I,  36. 
Road  Service  Districts.    I,  244, 

245,  11,  629. 
Roads,  Country.     II,  626. 
Roberg,  L.    I,  573. 
Robertsfors  Saw-mill.    II,  197. 
Rock  drills.     II,  447. 
Rockstro,  "W.  S.     II,  723. 
Rodhe,  E.  M.    I,  537. 
Roman,  Johan  Helmich.  I,  526. 
Romdahl,  A.     I,  568,  659. 
Romeleklint.     I,  18. 
Romell,  L.    I,  588. 
Ronneby.     I,  443. 
Roos,  A.  W.     II,  635. 
Roosevelt,  Th.     I,  468. 
Roosval,  J.    I,   568,   559,  II, 

722. 
Root,  Elihn.     I,  468. 
Root-crops.    II,  53,  66,  67. 
Rosen,  L.     I,  622. 
— ,  N.    I,  XXII,  II,  VII. 
— ,  P.  G.    I,  615. 
V.  Rosen,  A.  E.     II,  594. 
— ,  E.    I,  628. 
— ,  G.    I,  622,  543,  633. 
Rosen-Rosenblad,    E.     I,  578. 
Rosenberg,  E.     I,  523. 
— ,  0.     I,  689. 
Rosenbund,  Benno.     II,  644. 
Rosenfeldt,  Hans.     I,  508. 
Rosenfors  Factory.     II,  459. 
Rosengren,  L.  Fr.     I,  594. 
Rosenius,  K.  0.  .  I,  329. 
Rosenquist    of  Akershult,    F. 

II,  351. 
V.    Rosenstein,    N.    Rosen.     I, 

578. 
Roslag  sandstone.     II,  410. 
Roslin,  Alex.     I,  517. 


Rosman,    H.      I,    xvii,    xxii, 

II,  X. 
Ross,  R.     I,  467. 
Rossander,  K.  J.     I,  680,  681. 
Rostius,  Kr.     I,  578. 
Rotator,  Aktiebolaget.   II,  120. 
Rothlieb,  Molly.     II,  499. 
Rottneros  Works.     II,  459. 
Royal  Palace.     I,   189,  191. 
Rubenson,  Albert.     I,  528. 
— ,  R.    I,  618,  619,  620. 
— ,  S.    II,  724. 
Ruckman,  Maria  Kristina.     I, 

534. 
Ruda  Mines.     II,  310. 
Rudbeck,  0.,  the  Elder.     I,  99, 

413,  488,  560,  563,  572,  573, 

578,  584,  595. 
— ,  — ,    the  Younger.     I,  584, 

596,  624,  629. 
Rudbeckius,  Johannes.    I,  327, 

536,  662,  673. 
p     J   573 

Rudberg,  F.     I,  603,  612. 

— ,  G.    I,  649. 

Rudelius  &  Boklund.     II,  121. 

Rudenschold,  T.     I,  340,  563. 

Rudin,  W.     I,  637. 

Rundvik  Saw-mill.     II,  197. 

Rune  mark.     II,  117. 

Runeberg,  J.  L.     I,  493. 

Runic  inscriptions.     I,  83. 

Runn  Saw-mills.     II,  201. 

Ruoutevare  Mines.     II,  342. 

Rural  husbandry.     II,  37. 

Rnrik.     I,  86. 

Rutherford,  E.     I,  467. 

Rydbeck,  0.     I,  568. 

Riidinger,  I.     I,  436. 

Rydberg,  C.     I,  594. 

— ,  G.     I,  522. 

— ,  G.    I,  550. 

— ,  J.  R.    I,  605. 

— ,  0.  S.    I,  653. 

— ,  Viktor.  I,  329,  494,  537, 
642,  657,  661,  II,  720. 

Rydboholm  Art  Weaving  Mills, 
Ltd.    II,  369,  370. 

—  Factory.     II,  373. 

Rydelius,  A.    I,  636,  540, 560. 

Rydin,  A.     I,  xvi,  xxii. 

— ,  H.  L.     I,  663. 

Rydqvist,  J.  E.     I,  545. 

— ,  K.  M.    I,  666. 

Rye,  crops.     II,  50. 

— ,  cultivation.     II,  57,  68,  60. 

— ,  imports  and  exports.  II, 
62. 

— ,  prices.     II,  65. 

Rylander  &  Rudolphs  fabriks- 
aktiebolag.     II,  479. 

Ryllshyttefaltet.     II,  310. 

RS,by  Rescue  Home.    I,  376. 

RMhusratt,  see  Court  Borough. 

R^dstuga,  AUman,  see  Muni- 
cipal Meeting. 

RJlamb.     I,  590. 


INDEX. 


751 


Eamen  Saw-mills.     II,  301. 

Raaf,  L.  F.    1,  555. 

RBhss,  C.  W.     I,  469. 

—  Fund.     I,  469. 

Rontgen,  "W.  C.     I,  467. 

Rorek.     I,  85. 

Rorstrand   Porcelain   Factory. 

I,    681,   II,    415,    416,  420, 

502. 
RBsio,  P.  J.     I,   594,  II    130. 


Sabatier,  P.     I,  467. 
Saddle  Trade.     II,  383. 
Saggat.     I,  9. 
Sahlin,  C.     I,  xvii,    xxii,  II, 

VHI. 

— ,  C.  Y.    I,  542. 
Sahlstedt,  A.    I,  546. 
Sahlstrom    Manufactory.     II, 

365,  376. 
Sailing-boats.     11,  560. 

—  vessels.     II,  549,  550. 
Sailors.     II,  590. 

—  Pension  Committee.  II,  592. 
Sala  Silver  Mines.     II,  309. 
Salander,  E.     I,  691. 
Salenius,    E.    G.  N.     II,  114, 

505. 

—  verkstader,     Aktiebolaget. 
II,  120. 

Salin,    B.     I,    xiv,  xxii,  554, 

565. 
— ,  M.     I,  581. 
Salmon  fishery,     II,  230,  231. 
Salmson,  H.     I,  522. 
Saloman,   G.     I,  559,  II,  370. 
Salomon,    0.     I,  361,  362,  II, 

721. 
Saltsjobaden.       I,    180,    446, 

690. 
Saltsjokvarn.     II,  337. 
Saltvik  Saw-mill.     II,  199. 
Salnbrine.     II,  438. 
Salvage.     II,  581. 

—  steamer.     II,  582. 
Salvation  Army.     I,  300,  335, 

769. 

—  — ,    Bureau  for  Providing 
Places.     I,  762. 

Samaritan  Home   in  Uppsala. 
I,  335. 

Sampson,  G.  P.     I,  xxiv. 

Samuelsson,  G.     I,  589. 

Sanctification  Alliance.  I,  386. 

Sandahl,  0.  T.     I,  577. 

Sandarne  Saw-mill.     II,  199. 

Sandberg,  J.  G.     I,  519. 

Sandback    Tile    Stove    Manu- 
factory.    II,  420. 

Sandell,  L.     I,  535. 

Sander,  Fr.     I,  557,  559. 

Sandgren,  Carl.     II,  718. 

Sandstone.     I,    9,    60,   II,    6, 
410. 

Sandstrom,    Anna.      I,    563, 
564. 


SandstrSm,  I.     I,  673. 
— ,  J.  W.    I,  614.  619,  622. 
Sandvik  Saw -mill.    II,  197. 
Sandviken  Iron  Works.  I,  682, 
II,  295,  454,  469. 

—  Saw-mill.     11,  197. 
Sando  Glass  Work.     11,  421. 

—  Saw-mill.     II,  197. 

Sans  Souci,  Kuranstalten.     I, 

769. 
Santesson,  C.  G.     I,  xv,  xxii, 

576,  577,  580. 
Sarekfjallen.     I,  7. 
Sarektj3,kko.     I,  8. 
Savage,  W.     I,  xxiv. 
Savings-banks.     II,  678. 
Saw  blades.     II,  469. 

—  mill(s).    II,  194,  196. 

industry.     II,  191. 

Saxbergsfaltet.     II,  310. 
Saxviken  Saw-mill.     II,  201. 
Scania- Vabis,  Aktiebolaget.  II, 

452,  454,  467. 
Scents.  II,  388. 
Schartau,     Frans,     Practical 

Commercial    Institute.      II, 

541. 
— ,  H.    I,  329. 
Schartauanism.     I,  329. 
Scheele,  K.  V.     I,  100,  606. 
von  Scheele,  F.     I,  xiii,  xxii, 

542,  566. 
Scheftel,  J.  H.    I,  517. 
Scheffer,  H.  T.     I,  605. 
— ,  Karl  Fredrik.     I,  566. 
Schefferus,    J.      I,    544,    550, 

566. 
Schenson,  E.     II,  379. 
Schist.     I,  9. 

Schlyter,  K.  J.     I,  539,  545. 
Scholander,  F.  V.     I,  503. 
School  bath.     I,  354. 

—  board.    I,  333,  341,  344. 

—  kitchens.     I,  353,  354. 

—  libraries,     I,  358. 
Schools,    see  the  several  head 

words. 
Schrevelius,  F.  G.  G.     I,  539. 
Schroder,  G.     I,  517. 
— ,  K.     I,  508. 
Schulthess,  P.  F.     II,  717. 
Schultz,  H.     I,  616. 
Schulzberg,  A.     I.  523. 
V.  Schulzenheim,  D.     I,  581. 
Schwartz,  Eugene.     I,  544. 
Schweback,  Bartold.     I,  532. 
Schweitzer,  Ph.     II,  722. 
V.  Schwerin,  F.  B.     I,  566, 
Schiick,  H.    I,  556. 
Schhtz,  G.     I,  436. 
Schonberg,  A.     I,  551. 
Schonherr,  K.  J.     I,  697. 
Schott,  H.    I,  595. 
Science.     I,  636. 
— ,  bibliography.    II,  723. 
Scientific     instruments.      II, 

463. 


Sculpture.     I,  507. 

Sea  vegetation.     I,  72. 

Seamen  Registry  and  Ship- 
ping Offices.    I,  723,  II,  591. 

Seamstresses'  Association.  I, 
763. 

Sea-side  sanatoria.     I,  764. 

Sebastine.     II,  436. 

Secondary  Education.  I,  385. 

—  Schools.     I,  385. 
Sederholm,    G.     I,    xxii,    II, 

VIII. 

See,  factory.     II,  459. 
Seed  Association,  Swedish.    I, 
693,  II,  160. 

—  Co.,  Ltd,  General  Swedish. 
II,  150. 

—  Control  Offices.  II,  146, 
148. 

Sefstrom,  N.  G.    I,  599,  608. 
Sehlstedt,  Eli  as.     I,  493. 
Selander,  E.     I,  578. 
— ,  N.  H.     I,  615, 

—  &  Soner.     II,  502. 
Sellen,  N.     I,  xiv,  xxii. 
Sellergren,  G.     I,  xxii,  II,  ix. 
Separator,    Aktiebolaget.      II, 

120,  121,  446,  468,  726. 

Separators.     II,  108. 

Seraphimer  Hospital.     I,  275. 

Sergei,  J.  T.     I,  101,  509. 

Seruauder,  R.  I,  xiv,  xxii, 
589,  602,  779. 

Serrander,  M.     II,  324. 

Servaes,  F.  T.  H,     II,  723. 

Servfjallet.     I,  8. 

Sewing  and  Knitting  Machi- 
nes.    II,  468. 

—  factories.     II,  378. 
Seve  Group.     I,  60. 
Sevenbom,  J.     I,  619. 

Shaft    head-houses.      II,    246, 

247. 
Shale-oils.     II,  3. 
Sheep,  number  of.     II,  89. 
Shingling  hammer.  II,  290. 
Shipping  and  Navigation.    II. 

547. 
— ,  bibliography.     II,  726. 

—  companies.     II,  651. 

—  dues.    II,    588. 

— ,  home.     II,  559,  561. 
Shires.     I,  3,  4. 
Shoe(s).    II,  382,  496. 

—  manufactories.     II,  382. 
Shooting.     II,  17,  220. 

—  legislation.     II,  220. 
Sickness    benefit  societies.     I, 

715. 
Sick-nurses.     I,  279. 
Sidenbladh,  E.     I,  570. 
-,  K.    I,  568. 

Siefert  &  Fornander.     II,  468. 
Siemens-Martin  converter.    II, 

300. 

iron  works.     II,  297. 

process.     II,  299. 


752 


INDEX. 


Sienkiewicz,  H.     I,  467. 
Sieurin,  E. 

—  process.     II,  372. 
Sieverts,    Max,    fabriks  aktie- 

bolag.    II,  465. 
Sigfrid,  missionary.     I,  88. 
Silfverstolpe,  K.     I,  552. 
Siljan  Saw-mills.     II,  201. 
Siljestrom,  P.  A.  I,  563,  604. 
Silk  industry.     II,  376. 
Silurian  deposits.     I,  50, 
Silver.     II,  5, 

—  and  lead.     II,  238. 

ore,  mining.     II,  307. 

production.     II,  309. 

—  articles.    II,  462. 

—  hall-marking.     II,  664. 

— ,   imports  and  exports.     II, 
307. 

—  manufacture.     II,  306. 

—  ore,  deposits.     I,  49. 
Simmons,  H.     I,  589. 
Simonssou,  K.     II,  352. 
— ,  N.  M.     II,  352. 
Siren,  0.     I,  558,  559. 
Sjalander,    V.     I,    xii,   xviii, 

XXII. 

Sjoassuranskompaniet.  II,  687. 

Sjoberg,  Axel.     I,  525. 

— ,  E.    I,  491. 

— ,  N.    I,  559. 

Sjogren,  A.     I,  600. 

— ,  Emil.    I,  528. 

— ,  H.    I,  549. 

— ,  Hj.    I,  602,  629. 

— ,  0.    I,  553. 

— ,  0.    I,  680. 

— ,  V.    I,  539. 

Sjokarteverket.     I,  228. 

Sjostedt,  Y.    I,  597,  629. 

Sjostrand,  E.    I,  xv,  xvi,  xxii, 

XXIV. 

Sjostrom,  A.     I,  594. 
— ,  Maja.     II,  499. 
Sjotorp  Quarry.     II,  411. 
Sjoo,  A.     II,  352. 
Skalka.     1,  9. 

Skandia   Eire   and  Life  Insu- 
rance Co.     II,  688,  690. 
Skandinaviska    kreditaktiebo- 

laget.    II,  677. 
Skansen.     I,    475,    478,    479, 

480. 
Skates.     II,  459. 
Skattkarrs    kakelfabrik.      II, 

420. 
Skilfingar  (dynasty).     I,  83. 
Skoglund.     II,  436. 
Skogman,  K.  D.     I,  566. 
— ,  Magna.     I,  582. 
Skogssallskapet.     II,  176. 
Skogsv^rdsforbund,  Norrlands. 

II,  176, 
SkogsvS,rdsforeningen,  Svenska. 

II,  176. 
Skogsv§,rdsatyrelser,  see  Forest 

Conservation  Boards. 


Skokloster.    I,  177. 
Skottsberg,  C.     I,  589,  628. 
Skromberga     Coal    Mine.     II, 

255. 
Skrubba  Protective  Home.     I, 

376. 
Skr8,mforsen  Power  Works.  II, 

332. 
Skultuna    Brass    Works.      II, 

121,  455. 
Skuorka.     I,  8. 

Skuthamn  Saw-mill.     II,  197. 
Skutskar  Saw-mill.     II,  199. 
Skyddsvarnet.     I,  768. 
Skytte,  J.     I,  562. 
Skanberg,  K.     I,  523. 
Sk8,ne,  Insurance  Co.    II,  688, 

690. 
Sk8,nska     brandforsakringsin- 

rattningen.     II,  689. 

—  cementaktiebolaget.      II, 
412,  413. 

—  cementgj  uteriet,    Aktiebo- 
laget.    II,  414. 

—  jutefabriks-aktiebolaget.  II, 
376. 

—  yllefabriken,  Aktiebolaget. 
II,  365. 

Skanninge,  synod  of.     I,  326. 
Skargard.     I,  13,  15,  59. 
SkSldberg,  S.    I,  581. 
Skfinviks  aktiebolag.    II,  197. 
Skovde  Mechanical  Works.  II. 

458. 
Slips  for  vessels.    II,  577. 
Slottsmollan   Cloth-mills.     II, 

364, 
Sloyd,  bibliography.     II,  721. 
— ,  educational.     I,  360. 
— ,  small.     II,  496. 

—  Training  College,  Naas.    I, 
362. 

Slojdforeningen,  Svenska.     II, 

503. 
Small-pox,    deaths     from.      I, 

274. 
Smedberg,  E.     I,  622. 
Smedman,  Gustaf.     II,  544. 
Smetana,  Er.     I,  532. 
Smith,  E.   A.     I,  xxii,  II,  x. 
Smith,  T.    I,  523. 
Smitt,  E.  A.    I,  597. 
Smabruk.     II,  42. 
Snoilsky,  K.     I.  495. 
Snow.     I,  40. 
Soaps.    II,  389. 
Social  Board,  cf.  Socialstyrel- 

sen.     I,  224,  732. 

—  classes.     I,  152. 

—  conditions.     I,  146. 

—  Council.     I,  225. 

—  Democratic     Clubs     for 
Young  People.     I,  758. 

Labour  Party,  Swedish. 

I,  210. 
Parliamentary  Group.  I, 

208. 


Social  hygiene.     I,  754. 

—  insurance.     I,  714. 

—  Magazine.     I,  765. 

—  movements.     I,  631. 
bibliography.    II,  723. 

—  politics.    I,  632. 

—  Returns.     I,  225. 

—  rescue  work.     I,  768. 

—  statistics.     I,  225. 

—  Work,  Central  Association 
for.     I,  763. 

Socialdemokratiska     arbetare- 
parti,  Sveriges.  .  I,  210. 

—  pressforeningen.     I,  485. 
Socialstyrelsen.     I,  224,  732. 
Societies,  see  the  several  head 

words. 

Sociology.    I,  567. 

Sohlman,  August.    I,  378,  557. 

Soil.    II,  35. 

— ,  composition.     II,  7. 

— ,  distribution.     II,  14. 

Solander,  D.     I,  624. 

•-,  E.    I,  605,  620. 

Solicitor-General  of  the  Riks- 
dag.   I,  199,  218. 

Solvik,  Kuranstalten.     I,  769. 

Sommarin,  E.     I,  567,  692. 

Sonden,  P.    I,  552. 

Sonfjallet.     I,  8. 

Soubies,  A.     II,  723. 

Southern    Company.     II,  509. 

Sowing  seed  question.   II,  149. 

Spades,    Shovels,    Hoes.     II, 
459. 

Sparfvenfeldt,  G.    I,  544. 

Sparreholm  Saw-mill.    II,  201. 

Sparrman,  A.     I,  586,  624. 

Spegel,  Hakvin.    I,  327. 

Spinning.     II,  494. 

—  mills,  production  value.   II, 
369. 

Spirits    consumption,   yearly 
per  inh.    I,  746,  747. 

— ,  legislation    regarding    the 
sale.     II,  348. 

—  production.     II,  345. 

—  sale  revenue.     II,  144. 

—  taxation.     II.  347. 

—  (cf.  Temperance.) 
Spole,  A.    I,  624. 

Spongy  iron,  manufacture.  II, 

285. 
Sport.     1,449. 
— ,  bibliography.     II,  721. 
Spruce.     I,  10.  , 

Sprangsviken    Saw-mill.      II, 

197. 
Spaxeryd  Mines.     II,  225. 
Staaff,  E.  S.     I,  550. 
— ,  Karl.     I,  208. 
StadsfuUmaktige,     cf.    Town 

Council.    I,  289. 
Stagnelius,  E.  J.  .  I,  491.   ' 
Stangenberg,  E.     I,  582. 
Staple   towns.    II,    508,   534, 

539,  556. 


INDEX. 


753 


Starback,    K.    ■  I     xvi,    xxil, 

777,  779. 
Starck-Lilienberg,  Hilda.     II, 

499. 
Statare.     I,  636. 
State  administration.     I,  211. 
,  bibliography,  II,  719. 

—  consultative    experts.     II, 
123. 

—  loans     I,  241. 

—  officials.     I,  217. 
Statistical    Preparatory    Com- 
mission.    I,  222. 

—  Returns.    I,  223. 
Statistics.    I,  568. 

— ,  Central  Bureau  of.    I,  222, 

224. 
— ,  communal.     I,  226. 
— ,  educational.     I,  225. 
— ,  judicial.    I,  225. 
— ,  labour.     I,  223. 
— ,  Municipal     Bureau     of, 

Stockholm.    I,  225,  693. 
— ,  official.    I,  219. 
— ,  — ,  bibliography.    II,  719. 
— ,  postal.    I,  225. 
— ,  railway.    I,  225. 
— ,  social.     I,  225. 
Statistik,    Sveriges    officiella. 

I,  223,  II,  719. 
Statistisk  tidskrift.    I,  223. 
Statistiska    meddelanden.      I, 

223. 
Statskonsulenter.     II,  123. 
Statskontoret.     I,  231. 
Statsminister.     I,  196. 
Statsreglering.     I,  233. 
Statsr§,det,  cf.  Cabinet.    1, 196. 
Stave,  E.    I,  537. 
Stavenow,   L.       I,    xv,   xxii, 

553,  II,  716. 
Steam  hammer.     II,  295. 

—  kitchens.    I,  769. 

—  railway-ferry   service.      II, 
613. 

Steam-engines.     II,  457. 
Steamships.     II,  457,  549. 
Stearine  candles.     II,  388. 
Steel,  crucible.    II,  302. 
— ,  exports.     II,  265. 
— ,  imports   and  exports.     II, 
266. 

—  industry.    II,  263. 

—  manufacture.     II,  291. 

—  plate,  pressed.    II,  459. 
Stefansson,  J.     II,  716. 
-Steffen,    G-.   F.     i,   xv,   xxii, 

567. 
— ,  E.    I,  XIV,  XXII,  557,  558. 
Stegeholms  snickerifabrik.   II, 
'     4Q2. 
Sten  Stnre,  the  Elder.     I,  93. 

,  the  Younger.    I,  92,  93. 

Stenbeck,  T.    I,  580. 
Stenberg,  B.    I,  523. 
— ,  S.    I,  577. 
-,  T.     I,  507.       ^ 

A8— 133179.  Sweden.  II. 


Stenbock,  Magnus.     I,  99. 
Stenborg,  Karl.     I,  530, 

p.    I   534. 

Stenfors  Works.     II,  459. 
Stenhammar,  E.     I,  507. 
Stenhammar,  Fredrika.  I,  531. 
— ,  Wilhelm.    I,  529,  530,  632. 
Stenholm  Factory.     II,  468. 
Stenkil,  King.     I,  86. 

—  line.     I,  86. 
Stenman,  Aug.  II,  459. 
— ,  F.  A.    11,  469. 
Stensborg  Saw-mills.    II,  196. 
Stephan     (Stephen).      I,    88, 

326. 
St.    Eric   Building   Company, 

I,  678. 

S:t  Eriks  lervarufabriker.    II, 

420. 
Steveni,  W.  B.    II,  717. 
Stiernhielm,    G,     I,    99,    487, 

488,  544. 
Stiernhook,  J.    I,  99,  538, 
V.  Stiernman,  A.  A.     I,  651. 
Stiernstedt,  A.  "W.     I,  556. 
Still-births.     I,  161. 
Stille,  A.    I,  277,  553,  II,  463, 

505. 
Stjernberg,  N.     I,  539. 
Stjerns  aktiebolag.     II,  477. 
Stjernstedt,  Marika.     I,  496. 
Stobaeus,  K.    I,  598. 
Stock  Exchange.     II,  512. 
Stocka  Saw-mill.     II,  199. 
Stockfangst.     II,  201. 
Stockholm.    I,  40,  94,  95,  119, 

121,  122,  162, 189,  197,  215, 

332,  341,  445,  506,  678,  II, 

508,  611,  623,  624,  637,  656, 

715. 
Stockholm  (s)  borgarskola.     II, 

543. 
— ,  costs  of  living.   I,  169. 
— ,  density  of  population.     I, 

172. 

—  enskilda  bank.    II,  677. 
— ,  government.     I,    217,  285, 

289,  290,  301. 

—  handelsbank.     II,  677. 

—  hogskolj.     I,  414. 

—  inteckningsgarantiaktiebo- 
lag.     II,  678. 

—  lock.     II,  664. 

—  rents.     I,  173. 

—  sjoforsakringsaktiebolag. 

II,  687. 

—  stads  brandforsakringskon- 
tor.     II.  688. 

—  —    brandstodsbolag.     II, 
689. 

—  superfosfatfabriks  aktiebo- 
lag.   II,  432,  476,  477,  478. 

—  System.    I,  743.   , 

—  Telephone  Company,  Ltd. 
II,  656,  658,  660. 

—  Workmen's  Home  Company. 
I,  678. 


Stockman,  David.     I,  532. 
Stokinet-factories.     II,  378. 
StoUbergsgruvan.     II,  310. 
Stolpe,  Hj.    I,  555,  629. 
Stomatol.     II,  438. 
Stone.     II,  6. 

—  industry.     II,  408. 

Stora    Kopparbergs    bergslags 

aktiebolag.    I,  682,  II,  199, 

453,  725. 
Stora   sjofallet.     I,    446,  448, 

777,  II,  326. 
Storavan.     I,  9. 
Storfors  Saw-mill.     II,  197. 
Storm-signalling   stations.     I, 

45. 
Storm-warnings.     I,  45. 
Storskifte.     II,  31. 
Storsylen.     I,  8. 
Storuman.     I,  9. 
Storvatteshogna.     I,  8. 
Stoves.    I,  178,  II,  459. 
Strand  Saw-mill,     II,  199. 
Strandberg,  K.  V.  A,    I,  493. 
Strandman,  Otto.     I,  514. 
V.  Stralenberg,  J.  F.  I,  624. 
Strehlenert,    E.    V.,    II,    379, 

605. 
Striberg,  Mines.     II,  242. 
Stridsberg,  E.     I,  612. 
Stridsberg  &  BiSrk  Works.  II, 

459. 
Strikes.     I,  648. 
Strindberg,  A.    I,  105,  495,  II, 

714,  722. 
Strinnholm,  A.  M.     I,  561. 
Strlpa  Mines.     II,  242. 
Strassa  Mines.     II,  242. 
Stromholm,  D.     I,  610. 
Stromman,    F.   0.,    &  Larsson 

Saw-mills.     II,  201. 
Stromnas  Saw-mill.    II,  197. 
Stroms  vattendal.     I,  9. 
Stromsbro  Factory.     II,  371. 
Stromsholm.     II,  97. 

—  Canal.     II,  564. 
Stromsnas  Paper-mill.  II,  405. 
Studentexamen.     I,  387,  393. 
— ,  no.  of  »Passesj.     I,  395. 
Students  and  Workers,  society. 

I,  759. 

—  at  universities.     I,  412. 
Studs.     II,  100. 

—  Board.    II,   100,  101,  124. 
Stuorevare.     I,  8. 

Sture  families.     I,  91. 
Stnrtzenbecker,  A.  F.    I,  546. 
Sturzen-Becker,  0.  P.     I,  493. 
Styffe,  K.  G.    I,  552. 
Styrsjon.     I,  443. 
Styrso,  Kustsjukhuset.  I,  754, 
Stai,  K.     I,  597. 
Staifors  Works.     II,  469. 
Sta-lhane,  0.     II,  282. 
Stack,  J.    I,  520. 
Stadernasallmannabrandstods- 
bolag.    II,  689. 


754 


INDEX. 


Stadjan.     I,  8. 
Stander.     I,  192. 
Submarine.     I,  263. 
Successionsordningen.     I,  195. 
Suffrage.    I,  206,  286. 
Sugar.     II,  516. 

—  beet.    II,  14,  69. 

— ,  consumption    per   head  of 
population.     I,  171. 

—  excise.     II,  340. 

—  factory  machines.    II,  458. 

—  refineries.     II,  344. 

—  tax.  II,  345. 
Suicides..  I,  162. 
Sulitelma.    I,  8,  57. 

Snlly   Prudhomme,    E.    F.  A. 

I,  467. 

Sulphite  boilers.    II,  396. 

—  spirits.     II,  346. 
Sulphur.     II,  3. 
Sulphuric  acid.    II,  431. 
Summer    courses.      I,     884, 

416. 
Sund  Saw-mill.     II,  199. 
Sundberg,  K.    I,  578. 
— ,  K.  G.    I,  535. 
Sundbarg,  F.    I,  xiv,  xxii. 
^,  G.    I,  vii,  X,  XII,  XV,  xxn, 

107,  167,  568,  571,  666,  II, 

viii,  714,  717,  725. 
Sunden,  K.  F.     I,  548. 
Snndevall,  F.  E.     I,  573. 
— ,  K.  J.    I,  545,  597. 
Snndstrom,  Harriet.     I,  525. 
Sundsvall.    I,  123. 

—  Commercial  Institute.     II, 
548. 

Sundsvall's  "Workmen's  Dwel- 
lings Company.     I,  681. 
Snnnerdahl,  Emil.     I,  470. 

—  Foundation    for   Boarding 
Schools.    I,  470,  760. 

— ,  Magna.     I,  470. 
Superfosfatfabriks    aktiebolag, 

Stockholms.     II,   475,   477, 

478. 
Superphosphate.    II,  483. 
Surahammar  Iron  Works.    II, 

455. 
Surgery.     I,  580. 
Surgical  instrument  works.  II, 

462. 
Surte  Glass  Factory.    II,  423. 
Surte-Liljedahl,   Aktiebolaget. 

II,  425. 

Survey  Board.     I,  226. 
Sntthoff,  Agnes.    II,  499. 
V.  Suttner,  Berta.     I,  468. 
Svalov  Establishment.  II,  150, 

151. 
Svanberg,  A.  F.     I,  603. 
— ,  G.    I,  616,  618. 
— ,  J.    I,  615. 
— ,  L.  F.    I,  608. 
Svano  Saw-mill.     II,  197. 
Svappavara  Mines.     I,  10,  II, 

242. 


Svartsjo  Penal  Workhouse.    I, 

269,  271. 
Svartvik  Saw-mill.     II,  199. 
Svea,  Insurance  Co.     II,  688, 

690. 
— ,  Stockholms  rederiaktiebo- 

lag.    II,  557. 
Svealand.    I,  3,  4. 
Sveaseparator,    Aktiebolaget. 

II,  120. 
Svedala  Mechanical  Works.  II, 

458. 
Svedberg,  Jesper.   I,  327,  544. 
— ,  T.    I,  610. 
Svedbom,  Wilhelm.     I,  529. 
Svedelius,  Nils.     I,  588. 
Svedlund,  P.     I,  523. 
Svedmark,  E.     I,xxii,  II,  is.. 
Svennberg,  T.     I.  535. 
Svenonius,    F.     I,    xii,    xxn, 

602. 
Svensen,  E.     I,  xil,  xxil,  553. 
Sveuska  kakelfabriken,  Aktie- 
bolaget.    II,  420. 

—  kristallglasbruken,   Aktie- 
bolaget de.     II,  425. 

—  metallverken,   Nya   aktie- 
bolaget.    II,  455. 

Sverige,  vessel.     I,  259,  261. 
Sveriges    allmanna   sjoforsak- 

ringsaktiebolag.     II,  687. 
Sverker  line  (dynasty).   I,  87. 
Svangsta     Manufacturing 

Works.     II,  459. 
Svardstrom,  Valborg.     I,  531. 
Swartz,  E.    I,  535. 
— ,  J.  D.    I,  517. 
— ,  J.  G.    II,  107,  505. 
— ,  — ,  kvarnverk.     11,  337. 
-,  0.    I,  586,  624. 
Sweden   in   foreign  literature. 

II,  711. 
Swedenborg,   E.    I,  828,  536, 

578,  598,  617,  II,  723. 
Swedenborgians.     I,  336. 
Swedish  Academy.     I,  461. 
Sweets.    II,  345. 
V.  Sydow,  Hj.    I,  646. 
Sydsvenska  kraftaktiebolaget. 

II,  332,  466.      . 
Sylarne.     I,  7. 
Sylven,  N.     I.  590. 
Sylvius,  Johan.     I.  517. 
Sylwan,  0.    I,  557. 
Synnestvedt,  M.    II.  720. 
Syrgasverken,     Nordiska.     11, 

479. 
Syrup  factories.    II,  351. 
Sagmyra  Works.     II,  310. 
Sades-vallbruk.     II,  47. 
Saffle  Canal.    U,  566. 
Satherberg,  H.     I,  433. 
Save,  K.    I,  545. 
Savenas  Saw-mill.    II,  197. 
Save3,ns  aktiebolag.     11,  201. 
Soderbaum,  H.  G.   I,  xv,  xxii, 

594,  610. 


Soderberg,    E.     I,    xiii,   xxii, 

570. 
— ,  G.    II,  726. 
-,  Hj.    I,  497. 
— ,  S.  M.    I,  548. 
Soderblom  Foundry,    II,  458. 
Soderblom,  Nathan.     I,  537. 
— ,  S.  A.     I,  XIV,  xxn. 
Soderhamn.     I,  128. 
Soderman,   August.     I,   528, 

530. 
Sodermark,  0.  J.    I,  519. 
Soderslatt.     I,  19. 
Sodertalie  Canal.  II,  665,  567, 

569. 
—  Works.    II,  451, 
Soderwall,  K.  F.     I,  548. 
Soderisen.     I,  18. 
Sorensen,  P.  M.     II,  468. 


Tabellverket.     I,  220. 
Taberg  Mines.     II,  242. 
Tables  Archive.     I,  220. 
— ■  — ■  Commission.     I,  221. 
Tagore,  Eabindranath.    I,  468. 
Talis  Qvalis.     I,  493. 
Tallberg,  A.     I,  526. 
Tamm,  F.  A.     I,  547. 
TannefoTS  Railway  Works.    II, 

451. 
Tanneries.     II,  380. 
Tar.  .  II,  886. 
■ — ,  imports   and  exports.     II, 

218. 

—  trading  companies.    II,  509. 
Taraval,  G.     I,  517. 
Tar-hollow.     II,  218. 

Tarn,  forest.     I,  71. 
Taxameters.     II,  459. 
Taxation,  incidence.     I,  246. 
— ,  per    head    of    population. 

I,  247.    . 
— ,  statistics  of.     II,  19. 
Taxes  (cf.    Finances    and  the 

several  head  words).  I,  236. 
— ,  revenue.    I,  246. 
Tea  consumption.     I,  171. 
Technical  Colleges.     I,  421. 

—  High    School,     Royal.      I, 
417. 

—  instruction.  I,  417. 
Tedin,  H.  I,  590,  593. 
Teetotal   Alliance   for   Young 

Students  of  Sweden.     I,  745. 
Tegner,  Elof.     I,  552. 
— ,  Esaias.    I,   105,  386,  491, 

661. 
— ,  — ,   the  Younger.    I,  548, 

549. 
TelegrambyrS,n,    Svenska.      I, 

485. 
Telegraph  apparatus.     II,  459. 

—  and   Telephone   Buildings, 
Gothenburg.     II,  648. 

—  Office,  Gothenburg.  II,  645. 

—  Service.    II,  643. 


INDEX. 


755 


Telegraphy,  wireless.    II,  647. 
Telephone(s).     II,  649. 

—  apparatus.     II,  459. 

—  companies,  private.   II,  656. 

—  exchange,  Malmo.    II,  650. 
— ,  State.     II,  652. 
Temperance  Courses.     I,  384. 

—  movement,    bibliography. 
II,  723. 

—  question.     I,  740. 
— •  societies.     I,  745. 
Temperature.    I,  32,  II,  8. 
Templars,  Order  of.     I,  744. 
Tenant   Legislation.     II,   160. 
Tengbom,  Ivar.     I,  505. 
Tengdahl,  K.  A.     I,  vii. 
Tertiary  Period.     I,  55. 
Tessin,  Nikodemus,  the  Elder. 

I.  502. 

— ,  — ,  the  Younger.  I,  502,  508. 
Textile  art.     II,  499. 

—  industry.     II,  358. 

— ,  machines    and    apparatus. 

II,  379. 

—  materials,  imports.  II,  517. 
Textiles,  imports.     II,  517. 
Thaer,  Albr.     II,  125. 
Thalen,  T.  E.    I,  604. 
Thalen's  magnometer.    II,  262. 
Tham,  K.  V.  A.     I,  629. 
Theel,  Hjalmar.     I,  597.    ' 
Thegerstrom,  R.     I,  524. 
Theology.     I,  536. 
Theorell,   A.    a.     I,    618,    II, 

463,  505. 
Thermfflnius    Mechanical 

Works.     II,  459. 
Thing  (Ting).     I,  86,  190. 
Thomas  phosphate.     II,  433. 
Thomas,  "W.,  junior.     II,  715. 
Thome,   L.    G.    I,   xxii,  594, 

II,  vn. 
Thomson,  V.     11,  717. 
Thomson,  J.  J.     I,  467. 

—  K.  G.    I,  596. 
Thomson-Thalen  vertical  power 

balance.     II,  362. 
Thorell,  T.     I,  597. 
Thor^n,  Th.     II,  503. 
Thorild,  T.    I,  101,  490,  540, 

560. 
Threshing-machines.     II,   459. 
Thule  Life  Insurance  Co.     II, 

690. 
Thnlin,  A.  G.     I,  431. 
— ,  C.  0.    I,  549. 
— ,  Einar  J:son.     I,  xil,  xvi, 

XXII. 

— ,  G.    I,  539. 

Thunberg,  K.  P.    I,  100,  586, 

596,  624. 
— ,  T.    I,  576. 
Thunderstorms.     I,  44. 
Thyren,  J.  C.  W.    I,  315. 377, 

539. 
Thornberg,  E.  H.    I,  xv,  xvni, 

XXIV. 


af  Tibell,  G.  V.    I,  227. 
Tiberg  inclination  balance.    II, 

262. 
Tidningsutgivareforeningen, 

Svenska.     I,  485. 
'Tide  Castle.     I,  177. 
Tigerstedt,  R.     I,  576. 
Tilas,  D.     I,  599. 
Tile(s),  facing.     II,  6. 

—  stoves.    II,  419. 
Tillage.     II,  14. 

Timber,  consumption.    II,  177. 

—  cutting.     II,  201. 

— ,  export.    II,  177,  211,  212, 

313,  214,  523. 
— ,  imports    and  exports.     II, 

193. 

—  prices.     II,  216. 

— ,  production-areas.     II,  182. 

—  sawing.     II,  209. 

—  ware  industry.     II,  390. 
Timberg,  A.  G.     I,  594. 
Tin  articles.     II,  462. 

—  boxes.    II,  459. 
Tir^n,  Johan.     I,  183,  448. 
Tiselius,  D.     I,  617. 
Tistad  Estate.     I,  682. 
Tiallmann,  N.     I,  544. 
Tjerneld,  J.     I,  xxn.  II,  xi. 
Tjoloholm  Estate.     I,  682. 
Tjaura.     I,  8. 

Tobacco  consumption.     1, 171. 

—  industry.     II,  356. 
Tollstadius,  Eric.     I,  327. 
Tolstoj,  L.  L.     II,  718. 
Tomtabacken.     I,  17. 
Tomtrattsinstitut.     I,  676. 
Topelius,  Z.    I,  494. 
Toppo  Falls.     II,  328. 
Torbiornsson,  T.     I,  550. 
Torelius,  Niels.     II,  201. 
Torell,  0.  M.    (Otto).     I,  596, 

600,  601,  602,  625,  II,  412. 
Torestorp  Experimental  Farm. 

II,  152. 
Torgils  Knutsson.     I,  90, 
Tornberg,  F.  W.    II,  459,  464. 
— ,  K.  J.    I,  549,  555. 
Torne  trask.     I,  9,   II,  622. 
Tornerhjelm,  R.     II,  106. 
Torp.     I,  634. 

—  Mechanical  Works.    II,  459. 
Torpedo  boat.     I,  362. 
Torpsjon.     I,  442. 

Torsell,  A.    I,  535. 

Torskog    Mechanical     Works. 

II,  457. 
Torsslow,  0.  U.     I,  535. 
— ,  S.  P.    I,  535. 
Torstensson,  Lennart.     I,  99. 
Torulf,  E.  T.    I,  507. 
Touring.     I,  436. 
Tourist   Association,  Swedish. 

I,  436. 

—  routes.     I,  441. 

—  Traffic  Society.     I,  438. 
Town  Council.     I,  289. 


Town  Planning  Act,  1, 180,673. 

art.     I,  180. 

^  —  Commission.     I,  180. 

Towns.     I,  178. 

Townships  Association,  Swed- 
ish.    I,  765. 

Toys.    II,  496. 

Trade  agreements.     I,  656. 

Trade,  aliens  right  to  carry  on. 
II,  703. 

— ,  Board  of  (cf.  Statistics). 
II,  511. 

— ,  inland.     II,  588. 

—  legislation.    II,  696. 

—  mark  for  butter.     II,  117. 

—  marks.     II,  707. 

—  schools.    I,  760. 

— ,  statistical  report  of.  II, 
513. 

—  Unions.     I,  642. 

—  with  different  countries. 
II,  524,  525. 

Traders,  number  of.     11,  538. 
Traffic  routes.     II,  595. 

—  Union,  Joint.     II,  607, 
Training  College  for  Cookery. 

I,  407. 

—  Colleges,  Private  for  Women 
Teachers.     I,  407. 

Train-oil.     II,  384. 

Tramps'    Home,  Bjorknas.     I, 

769. 
Tramway  traffic.     II,  685. 
Tranastrandsfjallen.     I,  8. 
Tranchell,  Th.     II,  450. 
Transit  warehouse.     II,  531. 
Transmission  cost.     II,  467. 
Trans-oceanic  lines.     II,    653. 
Transport.     II,  16. 
Transportarbetareforbundet, 

Svenska.     II,  693. 
Travelling  communications.    I, 

439. 

—  trade  bursaries.     II,  511. 
Travels,  bibliography.    II,  715. 
— ,  scientific.     I,  632. 

>Tre  kronor..  Mill.     II,  337. 
V.  Trenleben,  F.  A.     II,  581. 
Trias  System.     I,  53. 
Trik&fabriker,  Aktiebolaget 

Sveriges  forenade.     II,  367. 
Trivialskola.     I,  385. 
Troili,  U.     I,  519. 
TroUeholm  Castle.     I,  177, 
Trollhattan.     I,  442,  690. 

—  Foundry  and  Mechanical 
Works.    II,  448,  457. 

—  Power  Station.  II,  331, 
466,  468. 

— ,  Toppo  Falls.    II,  338. 
TroUhatte  Canal.     II,  564,  565, 

667. 
Trulson,  A.     I,  636, 
Trybom,  F.    I,  xxiii,  618,  633, 

II,  viii. 
Tryckfrihetsforordningen.     I, 

195. 


756 


INDEX. 


Trygger,  E.    1,-  208,  539. 

Trang  Saw-mill.     II,  197. 

Trangsviken    Saw-mills.     II, 
197. 

Tragardh,  I.     I,  698,  629. 

Tralleborg.     I,  124. 

Tralleborgs  3.ngkvarn.    II,  337. 

Tuberculosis.     I,  282. 

Tuberkulos,  Svenska  national- 
foreningen  mot.     I,  773. 

Tullberg,  0.  E.    I,  549. 

— ,  S.  A.  T.     I,  600. 

— ,  T.    I,  XII,  XXIII,  597. 

TuUgarn's  Foundery  and  Me- 
chanical Works.     II,  352. 

Tullgren,    H.  A.     I,  594,  598. 

Tumba  Paper  Mills.     II,  403. 

Tunaberg  Mines.     II,  355. 

Tunadal  Saw-mill.     II,  199. 

Tunafors  Factory.  II,  459,  460, 
461. 

Tungsten.     II,  238. 

Tuolluvara  Mines.     II,  242. 

Turbines.     II,  457. 

Turi,  Johan.     I,  555,  11,  718. 

Turisttraflkforbundet.     I,  438. 

Turpentine  and  Tnrpentine-oil. 
II,  387. 

Type-foundries.     II,  482. 

Tysksteten.     I,  8. 

Tannforsen.     I,  24,  445. 

Torefors  Saw-mills.     II,  197. 

V.  Torne,  N.     I,  591. 

Tornebohm,  A.  E.     I,  52,  600, 
601,  630. 

Tornell,  V.     II,  352. 

Torneman,  Axel.     I,  526. 

Torngren,  L.  M.     II,  721. 

Tornqvist,  L.    I,  602. 

Uddeholms  aktiebolag.  11,201. 
Dddevalla     tunnfabriks-     och 

travaruaktiebolag.     II,   402. 
af  Ugglas,  C.    I,  558. 
Ullberg,  P.  E.     I,  594. 
Ultuna  Agricultural  High 

School.    II,  125,  128. 
Ulwik  Saw-mill.     II,  197. 
Umbrella  ribs.     II,  459. 
Unemployment     problem.      I, 

663. 
Unger,  A.     I,  xxiii. 
Ungkarlshotell.     I,  681. 
Union,  Act  of.     I,  195. 
Universities.     I,  407. 
Upmark,  Aug.     I,  594. 
— ,  G.    I,  557,  II,  722. 
Uppling,  M.     I,  xxiii. 
Uppsala.     I,  123,  446,  II,  715. 

—  Cathedral.     I,  325. 
— ,  God  House.     I,  84 

—  kakelfabrik.     II,  420. 

—  School  for  Household  Eco- 
nomy.    I,  761. 

— ,  synod  of.     I,  327. 

—  University.     I,    407,    409, 
411,  413. 


Uppsala    University    Library. 

I,  413. 
—  angkvarn.     II,  337. 

■ a,sen.     I,  15. 

Uppsala-Ekeby  aktiebolag.  II, 

420,  502. 
Uppstrom,  A.    I,  548. 
Uthammar  granite.     II,  410. 
Uttini,  P.  A.     I,  530. 


Vacation  Colonies.     I,  356. 
Vaccination.     I,  281. 
Vadstena.     I,  '87,  445 

—  Castle.     I,  93. 
Vagrants,  Home  for.     I,  769. 
Valentin.    K.     I,   xiv,    xxiii, 

529,  532. 

de  la  Valle,  Jean.     I,  502. 

Valmansforbundet,  AUmanna. 
I,  210. 

Vanadislunden,  dwellings  com- 
pany.    I  679. 

Vandringsbibliotek,     I,  384. 

Vanneras,  K.  Y.  A.     I,  544. 

Vansbro  Saw-mill.     11,  201. 

Varenius,  0.     I,  539,  553. 

Vargon,  Paper  Mills.   II,  405. 

Varingians.     I,  85. 

Varnhem  Church.     I,  501. 

Varnish.     II,  390. 

Vattenfallsstyrelsen.  II,  332, 
333. 

Vattenkraftforeningen,  Sven- 
ska.    II,  332. 

Vaxholm.     I,  446. 

Vedevag  Works.     II,  459. 

Vedholms,  C.  A.,  mejerikarls- 
fabrik.     II,  459. 

Vega  Expedition.     I,  103. 

—  Fund.    I,  464. 

— ,  Insurance  Co.     II,  687. 
Vegetable  foods.     II,  8. 

—  growing.     II,  78. 
Velander,  J.  P.     I,    xii,    xiii, 

xxin. 
Venereal  diseases.     I,  161. 
Vennerstens,  J.  F.,  fabriksak- 

tiebolag.  II,  378. 
Verbruggen.  I,  508. 
Verdandi   Student   Union.     I, 

384. 

—  Order  of  Temperance.  I, 
744. 

Verelius,  0.     I,  544. 
Verkstadsforening,  Sveriges. 

I,  646. 
Vermbobl,  factory.     II,  394. 
Vessels,    Swedish,   in   foreign 

shipping.    II,  558. 
Vesterberg,  K.  A.     I,  610. 
Vestergren,    J.     I,    xxili,    II, 

IX. 

— ,  T.    I,  588. 
Vesterlund   K.  A.     I,  598. 
Vestry  Board.     I,  333. 

—  Meeting.     I,  333,  344. 


Veterinary  Bacteriological  In- 
stitute.    II,  133. 

—  High  School.     II,  133. 

—  service.    II.  132. 

—  siirgeons.    II,  133. 

—  system.     II,  88. 
Vetterlund,    F.     I,    xv,  xxiii, 

496,  557. 
Victoria    Life    Insurance    Co. 

n,  688,  690. 
Vieback  Protective  Home.     I, 

377. 
Vigilance  Association.    1, 757, 

770. 
Viking  age.     II,  547. 

—  ship.    I,  84. 

Vilan  Dairy  Company.  I 
703. 

—  Farmer's   School.     II,  126. 
— ,  People's    High  School.    I, 

379. 

Vilke,  A.    I,  XXIII,  II,  viii. 

Villa  suburbs.     I,  181. 

Vinegar  factories.     II,  350. 

Vinterviken  Explosives  Fac- 
tory.   II,  435,  436. 

Virbo  granite.     II,  410. 

Visby.  I,  86,  124,  443,  455, 
499,  II,  507. 

—  Cement  Factory.     II,    412. 
Vising,  J.     I,  550. 
Visingsij  series.     I,  53. 
Viskafors  Cotton,  Spinning-  and 

Weaving  Mills.     II,  371. 

—  Factories.    II,    371. 
Vivsta  varv.     II,  197. 
Voghera,  T.     I,  530. 
Vogler,  G.  J.     I,  530. 
Voims.jon.     I,  9. 
Volgsjon.     I,  9. 
Volunteer  shots.     I,  256,  257. 
Vulcan  Factory.     II,  401,  457. 
Vnlcanus    Ore  Separator.     II, 

260. 
V8,nevik  granite.     II,  410. 
Vanern.     I,  15. 
Vansterpressfiirening,  Sveriges. 

I,  485. 
Varmland.     I,  447. 
Vasteras.     I,  124. 
Vattern.    I,  15. 


van  der  Waals,  J.  D.    I,  467. 
Wachtmeister,  J.  F.     I,  595. 
Wackrill,  Ellen  G.     I,  xxiv. 
Wadstein,  E.    I,  547,  549. 
Wadstrom.     I,  101. 
Wages,  farm  labourers.  I,  636. 
— ,  summer.     I,  633,  635. 
— ,  workmen's.    I,  632. 
de  Wahl,  A.     I,  635. 
Wahlberg,  Alfred.     I,  522. 
— ,  J.  A.    I,  625. 

,  — ,  Medal  Funds.     I,  464. 

,  — ,  Memorial  Fund.  I,  464. 
— ,  P.  F.     I,  577. 


INDEX. 


757 


"Wahlentierg,  Anna.    I,  496. 
— ,  G.  I,  577,  586,  599,  624, 
"Wahlgren,   A.     I,   xviii,     II, 
vui. 

—  A.  N.  H.     I,  594. 
Walilman,  L.  I.  (Lars).  I,  505. 

II,  501. 
Wahlstrom,  Charlotte.   I,  525. 
— ,  Lydia.     I,  xvi,  xxiu. 
Wahlund,  C.  W.     I,  550. 
Walberg,  F.  G.  B.     I,  550. 
Waldan,  G.     I,  628. 
Waldenstrom,  P.  P.     I,  329. 
Wallach,  0.     I,  467. 
Wallander,    Alf.     I,    524,    II, 

499,  502. 
— ,  Gerda.     I,  524. 
Wallberg,  Fr.  B.     I,  507. 
Wallbergs  fabriksaktiebolag. 

II,  364,  365,  367. 
Wallen,  A.     I,  xii,  xv,  xxiii, 

622,  630. 
"Wallenberg,  A.  0.    II,  677. 
-,  K.  A.    II,  544,  677. 
— ,  M.    II,  677. 
■Wallengren,  Hans.     I,  596. 
Wallenius    I.  A.     I,  xxiii. 
Waller,  C.  E.     I,  xiii,  xxiii. 
Wallerius,  J.  G.     I,  591,  598, 

605,  II,  28. 

—  N.    I,  540. 
Wallgren,  Ake.     I,  532. 
Wallin,  J.  H.     II,  346,  396. 
— ,  J.    0.    I,    105,   329,   386, 

401,  490,  537. 
Wallis,  C.     I,  XV,  XXIII,  578. 
Wallner,  J.     I,  xviii. 
Wallonsmide.     II,  287. 
"Wallrotli,  K.  A.    I,  xxni,  II,  x. 
Warbnrg,  K.     I,  556,  558. 
"Warfvinge,  F.  "W.     I,  579. 
Wargentin,     P.     I,    100,    221, 

568,  569,  615. 
"Wassenius,  B.     I,  617. 
Watches.     11,  459,  462. 
Waterfall(s).  1,23,  II,  16.323. 
— ,  Board   of,  see  Vattenfalls- 

styrelsen. 

—  register.     II,  324. 

—  rights.    II,  333. 
Water-gas.     II,  428. 

—  power,    n,  3,  325. 
Watering-    and   Bathing   pla- 
ces.    I,  281. 

Waterways.     II,  569. 
Wawrinsky,  Edvard.    I,  750. 
— ,  R.    I,  578. 
Wealth,  National.     II,  24. 
Weaving-mills,  production 
value.    II,  369. 

—  schools.    II,  360. 
Wedholms     mejerikarlsfabrik. 

II,  121. 
Weibull,  K.  0.  M.     I,  609. 
— ,  M.     I,    xxm,    552,    593, 

595,  II   VIII. 
— ,  Messrs     11,  152. 


Weights     and     Measures.     II, 

703. 
Welander,  E.  V.    I,  580,  773. 
Welin,  A.     II,  505. 
— ,  G.     I,  XXIII,  II,  X. 
Wendt,  W.     II,  351. 
Wennerberg,   Gnnnar.     I,  527. 
— ,  —  (G:son).    II,   499,  502. 
Wenstrom,  G.    II,  379. 
— ,  Jonas.     II,   441,  464,  505, 
— ,  0.    11,  717. 

—  Ore     Separator.     II,     260. 
Werner,  A.     I,  467. 
Wertmiiller,  A.  U.     I,  518. 
Westberg,  A,     I,  578. 
Westermark,  F.     I,  581, 
Westin,  F.     I,  519. 
Westman,  A.  J.     II,  420. 

—  Carl.    I,  504,  II,  501. 

— ,  E.,  Roasting  Furnace.    II. 

278,  279. 
— ,  E.  W.    II,  505. 
— ,  J.    I,  620,  632. 
— ,  K.  B.    I,  XIII,  XIV,  xxin. 
— ,  K.  G.    I,  xin,  XVII,  xxni, 

539. 
Westrin,  Th.     I,  552. 
Westring,  N.     I,  598. 
Wetter,     F.     P:son.     I,     xiii, 

XXIII. 

Wetterbergh,  K.  A.     I,  493. 

Wettergren  &  Co.,  Mantle-fac- 
tory.    II,  378. 

Wetterlund,  K.  G.  I,  xxiii, 
II,  X. 

Wetterstrand,  0.  G.     I,  580. 

Wheat,   consumption.     I,  171. 

— ,  crops,     II,  60. 

— ,  cultivation.     II,  55,  58,  60. 

— ,  imports  and  exports.  II, 
60. 

— ,  prices.     II,  66. 

Whey-cheese.     II,  116. 

Whisky,  import.     II,  517. 

White  Admission  Home.  I,  769. 

Ribbon  Society.  I,  746. 

Whitlock,  Anna.     I,  740,  759. 

Wibelius,  0.     I,  xiv,  xxm. 

Wiberg,  M.     II,  505. 

Wiborgh,  J.  G.    II,  506. 

— ,  — ,  Flame  furnace.  II,  273. 

Wickenberg,  P.  G.     I,  521. 

Wickman,  G.     I,  507. 

— ,  0.  I.    I,  580. 

Wicksell,  K.  I,  639,  567,  II, 
719.  ' 

Wide,  A.    I,    XIV,  xxm,  433. 

— ,  S.  K.  A.    I,  549. 

Widen,  L.    I,  167,  570. 

Widen,  Johan.     I,  771. 

Widman,  0.     I,  609. 

Widmark,  J.     I,  581. 

Wieselgren,  H.     I,  563,  659. 

Wien,  W.     I,  467. 

— ,  0.    I,  XIV,  xxm. 

— ,  P.    I,  329,  740. 

— ,  P.  S.    II,  720,  724. 


Wigelius,  A.    I,  xvi,  xxm. 
Wiikander,   A.     I,   604,    620, 

621, 
Wikanders  korkfabrik,    Aktie- 

bolaget.     II,  407. 
Wiklund,  Adolf.    I,  529,  530. 
— ,  K.  B.     I,  xviu,  549. 
Wiklund's   Mechanical  Works. 

(W.,  verkstaders  aktiebolag). 

II,  352,  457,  458. 
Wikmark,  E.     II,  724. 
Wikner,  P.    I,  537,  642,  543. 
Wikstrom,   Anna,    School    for 

Blind  Women,     I,  369. 
Wilcke,  G.  D.     II,  446. 
— ,  J.  K.     I,  603. 
Wilhelmson,  Carl.     I,  525. 
Williams,  G.  M.     II,  720. 
Willman,  Anders.     I,  531. 
Wiman,  A.    I,  xv,  xxm,  611. 
— ,  C.     I,  598,  602. 
Wimarson,  N.     I,  563. 
Wimmer,  L.     II,  716. 
Winberg,   H.    L.    0.      I,    xv, 

XXIII,  596. 
Winborg   &    Co.,    Th.,    Spirit 

Vinegar  Factory.     II,  351. 
Wincrantz,    K.    F.     I,    xxm, 

II,  X. 
Winds.     I,  45. 

Wine(s)  consumption.     I,  171. 
— ■  factories.     II,  361. 

—  imports.     II,  517. 
Wingborg,  F.  A.  I,  xvi,  xxm. 
Winge,  Hanua.     II,  499. 

— ,  M.  E.     I,  522. 
Wingquist.     II,  441,  460. 
Winroth,  A.  0.     I,  539. 
Wirfin,  A.     I,  xvi,  xxm,  597. 
Wire-netting.     II,  496. 
Wirgin,  G.     I,  678. 
af  Wirs.en,  C.  D.     I,  495,  557. 
Wisen,  Th.     I,  648. 
Wising,  P.  J.     I,  579. 
Wissler,  Anders  and  Bess.  II, 

502. 
Wistrand,  A.  H.     I,  578. 

P.  G.    I   655. 

Wittei  h'.    i'  69o',  693. 
Wittmann,  P.     11,  716. 
Wittrock,  V.  B.     I,  588. 
Wohlin,    Nils.     I,    567,    571, 

594, 
Woman  question.     I,  734. 
Women   Workers,    Homes  for. 

I,  766. 

Women's   rights,  bibliography. 

II,  723. 

—  Night   Work  Act.     I,  708, 
713. 

—  Political   Franchise,    Asso- 
ciation for.     I,  759. 

Wood,  manufacture.      II,  196. 

—  oil.     II,  386. 

—  pulp  factories.     II,  392. 
industry.     II,  391. 

—  —  machines.     II,  458. 


758 


INDEX. 


Wood  pulp  production  and  ex- 
ports.    II,  396,  397. 

— ,  sawn  and  planed,  prices. 
II,  216. 

—  spirit.     II,  387. 

—  wares,  exports.  II,  192,  314. 

—  working.     II,  458. 
Wooden  shoes.     II,  403. 
Wool.    II,  30. 

— ,  imports  and  exports.  II, 
363. 

—  mannfactories,    II,  362. 
Woollen     cloths,  imports   and 

exports.     II,  363. 

—  industry.     II,  360. 
,   production  value.     II, 

363. 

—  yarn,  imports  and  exports. 
11,  363. 

Wordsworth,  J.    II,  720. 

Workers  engaged  in  Industry, 
Trade,  and  Transport.  I, 
638. 

■ —  Protection  Society.  I,  756. 

Working  Home,  North  Volun- 
tary.   I,  763. 

Workmen  in  public  service.  I, 
641. 

— ,  organization  of.     I,  642. 

Workmen's  colony.      I,  769. 

—  Compensation  Act.    I,  723. 

—  dwellings.    I,  675. 

Company.     I,  680. 

Fund.     I,  678. 

—  homes.     I,  672. 

—  institutes.    I,  382,  757. 

—  Insurance  Committee.  I, 
707,  714. 

^  wages.     I,  632. 
Workshops    for    children.     I, 

299,  364. 
Wrangel,  C.  G.    I,  594. 
— ,  E.     I,  557,  558,  562. 
— ,  F.  U.    I,  559. 
— ,  H.    I,  XIII,  xxiii. 
Wrede,  F.    I,  604. 
Wretliud,  E.  W.     I,  433. 
Wrought  Iron  Works.   II,  297. 
Wuchters,  Abr.     I,  515. 
Wulflf,  F.  A.    I,  546,  548. 

—  Th.    I,  589. 
Wnrmb.     II,  540. 
Wahlin,  K.     I,  559. 
— ,  Th.    I,  507. 
Wagner,  Elin.     I,  496. 
Wastberg,  K.     11,  499. 

Yeast.     II,  350. 
Yllefabrikerna,  Aktiebolaget 

de  forenade.     II,  364. 
Yngereds  kraftaktiebolag.     II, 

332,  467. 


Ynglinga  dynasty.     I,  84. 
Yoldia  arctica.     I,  58. 

—  Sea.     I,  13. 

Young  Men's  Christian  Asso- 
ciation.    I,  336,  766,  767. 

—  People's  Christian  Move- 
ment.    I,  758. 

Movement.     I,  758. 

—  Women's  Christian  Asso- 
ciation.   I,  335,  767. 

Ystad  Foundry  and  Mechani- 
cal Works.    II,  458. 

Ytterstfors  travaruaktiebolag. 
II,  197. 

Zachrison,  A.     I,  595. 

Zander,  C.  M.    I,  549. 

— ,  E.    I,  433. 

— ,  Gustaf  a.  G.  V.)    I,  431, 

433,  434,  II,  441,  506. 
Zander's   medico-mechanical 

system     of    gymnastics.     I, 

433. 
Zeeman,  P.     I,  467. 
Zeilou,  HT.     I,  613. 
v.  Zeipel,   H.     I,   xvi,   xviii, 

xxiir. 
Zellbell,  the  Younger.   I,  532. 
Zetterstedt,  J.  W.     I,  596. 
Zettersteen,  K.  V.     I,  549. 
Zettervall,  F.     I,  507. 
Zickerman,  Tage.     II,  502. 
Zinc.     II,  238,  472. 
— ■   blende,  deposits.     I,  49. 
— ,  imports    and  exports.     II, 

307. 
— ,  manufacture.     II,  306. 

—  ore,  mining.     II,  307. 

—  — ,  occurrence.     II,  5. 
— ,  production.     II,  310. 
Zoology.     I,  595. 

Zorn,    A.    I,   513,    521,    524, 

525,  II,  723. 
v.  Zweigbergk,  G.    I,  594. 

^berg,  L.  H.    I,  542. 
Abergsson,  G.  F.     I,  534. 
Aby  Country  Home.     I,  769. 
Ihlander,  T.     I,  535. 
Aker,  State    Powder  Factory. 

II,  436. 
Akerberg,  Erik.     I,  529. 
Akerblad,  J.  D.    I.  545. 
ikerblom,  F.    1, 618, 620,  622. 
Pj.     j  594 

Akerlind,  0.  H.     II,  420. 

Akerman,  J.     I,  581. 

— •  &  Lund  Organ  Works.    II, 

462. 
Alkasfjallen.     I,  7,  8. 
Alund,  0.    I,  378. 


Amark,  K.     I,  xviii,  xxiii,  II, 

.  vin. 

Ammeberg  Mines.     II,  5,  310. 

Angermanalven.     I,  447. 

Angfartygsassuransforening, 

Sveriges.     II,  687.  ' 
Angstrom,  A.  J.     I,  603,  604, 

612. 
— ,  K.    I,  604,  620. 
Areskutan.     I,  8. 
Isar.    I,  15,  58. 
Asbacka  Saw-mill.    II,  199. 
Asbrink,  G.    I,  xiv,  xxiii. 
Astorps  tunnfabrik.     II,  402. 
Astrand,  G.     I,  xnr,  xxiil. 
Astrom,  A.     II,   720. 
Atvidaberg  Factories.     I,  682, 

691,  II,  402. 


Adelfors  Mines.    II,  255,310. 
Agir,  Insurance  Co.     II,  687. 
Agostyckning.     II,  42. 
Alvdalen  Porphyry  Works.     I, 
48. 


Angson.     I,  777. 


Odmann,  Arvid.     I,  531. 
— ,  S.     I,  537. 
Odmansson,  E.  L.     I,  580. 
Ohrvall,    Hi.     I,     xv,    xxiii, 

576. 
Oland.     I,  17. 
Orebro.     I,  123. 
—  Paper  Mills.     II,  405. 
Oresund.     I,  441. 
-^,  Insurance  Co.     II,  687. 
Ornberg   &   Andersson,  Lamp 

Factory.     II,  459. 
Ornhjalm.  CI.     I,  537. 
Ortenblad,    Th.     I,   xxiii,  II. 

vm. 
Ostberg,  Caroline.    I,  531. 
— ,  Eagnar.  1,  xiv,  xxm,  504, 

II,  501, 
Ostbergs  kakelfabrik.   II,  420. 
Ostergren,  Hjalmar.     I,  597. 
— ,  0.    I,  548. 
Ostergotlands  maskinaffar.  II, 

121. 
Osterling,  A.     I,  496. 
Osterman,  Bernhard.     I,    524. 
— ,  Emil,     I,  524. 
Osterslatt.     I,  19. 
Ostlind  &  Almqvist,  Aktiebo- 
..  laget.    n,  462. 
Ostman,  Eagnar.     II,  502. 
Ostrand  Saw-mill.     II,  197. 
Oved  sandstone.     II,  4l0. 
Overstath&Uare.    I,  216. 
Overum  Works.     II,  458. 


Errata. 

Page  I,  10,  line  22  from  the  top.     Instead  of:  Loussavara,  read:  Luossavara. 
Page  I,  61,  map.     Instead  of:  Forest  Map,  read:  Forest  Map  {according  to  K.  Bohlin). 
Page  I,  378,  line  10  from  the  bottom.     Instead  of:  Pehrason-Bendtz,  read:  Pehrsson-Bendz. 
Page  I,  431,  line  20  from  the  bottom.     Instead  of:  Dr  J.  Arwedson's  Institute,  read:  Dr  J. 

Arvedson's  Institute. 
Page  I,  447,  line  12  from  the  top.     Instead  of:  John  Ericson's,  read:  John  Ericsson's. 
Page  I,  468,  line  7  from  the  top.     Instead  of:  Arnoldsson,  read:  Arnoldson. 
Page  I,  469,  line  5  and  foil,  from  the  bottom.     Instead  of:  Forsgren,  read:  Forsgrdn. 
Page  I,  506,  illustration.     Instead  of:  substructure,  read:  in  course  of  erection. 
Page  I,  552,  line  6  from  the  bottom.     Instead  of:  H.  Forsell,  read:  H.  Forssell. 
Page   I,    689,   line    14  and  15  from  the  top.     Instead  of:  A.  F.  Regnell  (1807—1908)  read: 

A.  F.  Regnell  (1807—84). 
Page  I,  612,  line  26  from  the  top.     Instead  of:  E.  Fredholm,  read:  E.  I.  Fredholm. 
Page  I,  626,  line  8  from  the  bottom.    Instead  of:  G.  NordenskjBld,  read:  G.  Nordenskiold. 
Page  I,  760,  line  1  from  the  bottom.    Instead  of:  Sunnerdal  Foundation,  read:  Sunnerdahl 

Foundation. 
Page  II,  31,  illustration.     Instead  of:  Westmanland,  read:   Vdstmanland. 
Page   II,    337,   line   7  from  the  bottom.     Instead  of:  J.  Gr.  Swarts'  kvarnverk,  read:  J.  G. 

Swartz'  kvarnverk. 
Page  II,  436,  line  18  from  the  top.     Instead  of:  gelantin,  read:  gelatine.