Old English grammar

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THE STUDENTS' SERIES OF

HISTORICAL AND COMPARATIVE

GRAMMARS

EDITED BY JOSEPH WRIGHT

OLD ENGLISH
GRAMMAR

JOSEPH WRIGHT

PH.D., D.C.L., LlT.D., LITT.D.

FELLOW OF THE BRITISH ACADEMV

PROFESSOR OF COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGV IN THE

UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD

AND

ELIZABETH MARY WRIGHT

HENRY FROWDE

OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

LONDON, NEW YORK AND TORONTO

X908

\_Ali rights reserved]

OXFORD : HORACE HART
PRINTER TO THE UNIVERSITY

PREFACE

In writing this Grammar we have kept steadily in view
the class of students for whom the Series of Grammars
was originally planned. As it is not intended for
specialists, some details of more or less importance have
been intentionally omitted, but we venture to think that
the present volume contains all that the ordinary student
will require to know about the subject. The student who
thoroughly masters the book will not only have gained
a comprehensive knowledge of Old English, but will also
have acquired the elements of Comparative Germanic
grammar. But from our long experience as teachers of
the subject, we should strongly recommend the beginner
not to work through the phonology at the outset, but to
read Chapter I and sections 47-53, and then to learn
the paradigms, and at the same time to read some easy
texts such as are to be found in any of the Old English
Readers. This is undoubtedly the best plan in the end,
and will lead to the most satisfactory results. In fact, it is
in our opinion a sheer waste of time for a student to
attempt to study in detail the phonology of any language
before he has acquired a good working knowledge of its
vocabulary and inflexions.

In selecting examples to illustrate the sound-laws we
have tried as far as possible to give words which have
been preserved in Modern English. A comparison of the
Index to the Grammar with an Old English Dictionary
would show that we have thus included nearly all the
simple words which have been preserved in the modern
language. Our object in doing this was to enable the

vi Preface

student to lay a solid foundation for his further study of
historical English grammar, and to provide a basis for the
next volume of the Series, which will deal with Middle
English.

It was originally our intention to include in the present
volume some chapters on Syntax, but it was found that
the inclusion of these chapters would have rendered the
book too large for the Series. This omission of the
syntax cannot however be regarded as a serious draw-
back, because the volume dealing with historical English
syntax is already in active preparation, and will, it is
hoped, be ready for press this year.

Although this Grammar makes no pretence of being an
exhaustive work, yet it is by far the most complete
Grammar that has hitherto been written in our own
language, and the first to deal with the subject in a strictly
scientific manner. We gratefully acknowledge the help
we have derived from the learned articles and books by
that splendid band of German Anglisten which has done
so much to throw light upon the history and philology ot
our language in all its stages. On pp. xiii-xiv will be found
a select list of the books which we have found most useful,
but it is our pleasant duty to mention here our special
indebtedness to the works of Bulbring, Cosijn, and
Sievers.

In conclusion, we wish to express our sincere thanks to
the Controller of the University Press for his great kind-
ness in complying with our wishes in regard to special
type, and to the Press Reader for the excellent manner in
which he has read the proofs.

JOSEPH WRIGHT.

Oxford, ELIZABETH M. WRIGHT.

January, 1908.

CONTENTS

PAGES

INTRODUCTION 1-4

Classification of the Indo-Germanic languages, and
a few characteristics of the Germanic languages (§ i) ;
the periods of Old English (§ 2) ; the Old English
dialects (§ 3).

CHAPTER I

Orthography and Pronunciation 5-17

Vowels (§§ 4-6); consonants (§§ 7-8); accentuation
(§§9-15).

CHAPTER II

The Prim. Germanic Equivalents of the Indo-
Germanic Vowel-sounds 18-22

The Indo-Germanic vowel-system (§ 16). a (§ 17) ;
e (§ 18) ; i (§ 19) ; o (§ 20) ; u (§ 21) ; a (§ 22) ; a (§ 23) ;
e (§24); i(§ 25); o(§26); u(§27); ai(§28); ei(§29);
oi (§ 30) ; au (§ 31) ; eu (§ 32) ; ou (§ 33). The Indg.
vocalic nasals and liquids : m (§ 34) ; n (§ 35) ; r (§ 36) ;
1 (§ 37)-

CHAPTER III
The Prim. Germanic Vowel-system .... 23-28
Table of the Prim. Germanic vowel-system (§ 38).
The change of a to a (§ 40) ; the change of e to i, and
of i to i (§ 41) ; the change of i to e (§ 42) ; the change
of u to o, 5 (§ 43) ; the change of eu to iu (§ 44). The
vowel-system at the close of the Prim. Germanic period,
and table showing the normal development of the
vowels in the various Germanic languages (§ 45).

viii Contents

PAGES

CHAPTER IV

The OE. Development of the Prim. Germanic Vowels

OF Accented Syllables 28-70

Umlaut : i-umlaut (§ 47) ; u- and o/a-umlaut (§ 48).
Breaking (§ 49). Influence of nasals (§ 50). Influence
of initial palatal consonants (§ 51). Influence of w
(§ 52). The chronology of the sound-laws stated in
§§ 47-52 (§ 53). Short vowels : a (§§ 54-79) ; e
(§§ 80-95) ; i (§§ 96-105) ; o (§§ 106-10); u (§§ 111-16).
Long vowels : a (§§ 117-18) ; * (§§ 119-24) ; e (§ 125) ;
i (§§ 126-7) ; o (§§ 128-30) ; u (§§ 131-2). Diphthongs :
ai (§§ 133-4) ; au (§§ 135-6) ; eu (§ 137) ; iu (§ 138).
Vowel contraction (§§ 139-42). The lengthening of
short vowels (§§ 143-9). The shortening of long vowels
(§§ 15°-! )• Table of the OE. vowel-system (§ 152).

CHAPTER V

The Prim. Germanic Equivalents of the OE. Vowels

OF Accented Syllables 71-84

The short vowels : a (§ 153) ; a (o) (§ 154) ; se (§ 155) ;
e (§ 156); i (§ 157); o (§ 158); u (§ 159) ;_y (§ 160).
The long vowels : a (§ 161) ; ae (§ 162) ; e (§ 163) ;
i (§ 164) ; (§ 165) ; 5 (§ 166) ; y (§ 167). The short
diphthongs : ea (§ 168) ; eo (§ 169) ; ie, later i, y
(§ 170); io, later eo {§ 171). The long diphthongs:
ea (§ 172) ; eo (§ 173) ; ie, later I, y (§ 174) ; io, later eo
(§ 175)- The chief deviations of the other dialects from
West Saxon : a (§ 176) ; ae (§§ 177-80) ; e (§§ 181-3) ;
i (§ 184) ; o (§ 185) ; oe (§ 186) ; S (§ 187) ; e (§§ 188-91) ;
i (§§ 192-3) ; « (§ 194) ; ea (§§ 195-7) ; eo (§§ 198-
201) ; io (§§ 202-7) ; ea (§ 208) ; io (§§ 209-10).

CHAPTER VI
The OE. Development of the Prim. Germanic Vowels

OF Unaccented Syllables 84-95

The treatment of Indg. final consonants in prehistoric
OE. (§ 211). Vowels which were originally final or
became final in Prim. Germanic (§§ 212-17). Vowels

Contents ix

PAGES

which came to stand in final syllables in prehistoric OE.
(§ 218). Final vocalic nasals and liquids in prehistoric
OE. (§ 219). Svarabhakti vowels (§ 220). Vowels in
medial syllables (§§ 221-3).

CHAPTER VII
Ablaut (§§ 224-8) 96-100

CHAPTER VIII

The First Sound-shifting, Verner's Law, and other
Consonant Changes which took place in the Prim.

Germanic Language 100-121

Table of the Indo-Germanic consonant-system
(§ 229). The normal equivalents of the Indg. explosives
in Latin, Greek, and the Germanic languages (§ 230).
The first sound-shifting:— the tenues (§ 231); the
mediae (§ 232) ; the tenues aspiratae (§ 233) ; the
mediae aspiratae (§§ 234-5). The chronological order
of the first sound-shifting (§ 236). The twofold develop-
ment of the Indg. velars in the Germanic languages
(§ 237). Verner's law (§§ 238-9). Other consonant
changes (§§ 240-50). Table of Prim. Germanic conso-
nants (§ 251).

CHAPTER IX

Special West Germanic Modifications or the General
Germanic Consonant-system .... 122-125

Prim. Germanic z (§ 252). Prim. Germanic d (§ 253).
The doubling of consonants (§§ 254-6).

CHAPTER X

The OE. Development of the General Germanic

Consonant-system 125-159

OE. double consonants (§ 258). The simplification of
double consonants (§ 259). The doubling of consonants
in OE. (§ 260). The voicing of f, }>, s (§ 261). The
unvoicing of fc, g (§ 262). The semivowels : w (§§ 263-
7); J (§§ 268-75). The liquids : 1 (§§ 276-7) ; r (§§ 378-81).

X Contents

PAGES

The nasals : m (§§ 282-4) ; n (§§ 285-8) ; q (§§ 289-90).
The labials : p (§ 291) ; b (§§ 292-4) ; f (§§ 295-7). The
dentals : t (§ 298) ; d (§§ 299-300) ; )> (§§ 301-5). The
sibilant s (§§ 306-8). The gutturals: k (§§ 309-12);

g (§§ 313-24) ; h (§§ 325-9)-

CHAPTER XI

Nouns 160-199

Classification of nouns (§§ 330-2). Declension of
nouns : —

A. The strong declension : — Masculine a-stems
(§§ 334-41); neuter a-stems (§§ 342-50); masculine
ja-stems (§§ 351-4) ; neuterja-stems (§§ 355-8) ; mascu-
line wa-stems (§§ 359-60) ; neuter wa-stems (§§ 361-3).
Feminine o-stems (§§ 364-73); feminine j5-stems
(§§ 374-8) ; feminine wo-stems (§§ 379-81). Feminine
abstract nouns in -1 (§§ 382-3). Masculine i-stems
(§§385-8); feminine i-stems (§§389-91); neuter i-stems
(§§ 392-3)- Masculine u-stems (§§ 395-7); feminine
u-stems (§ 398) ; neuter u-stems (§ 399).

B. The weak declension : — Masculine n-stems
(§§400-2); feminine n-stems (§§403-5); neutern-stems
(§§ 406-7).

C. Minor declensions : — Monosyllabic consonant
stems (§§ 408-13). Stems in -}> (§ 414).. Stems in -r
(§ 415). Stems in -nd (§§ 416-18). Stems in -os, -es
(§§ 419-20).

CHAPTER XII

Adjectives 199-222

General remarks on the declension of adjectives
(§§ 421-2). The strong declension :— a-stems (§§ 424-
31) ; ja-stems (§§ 432-4) ; wa-stems (§§ 435-?)- i-stems
(§ 438). u-stems (§ 439). The weak declension (§ 440).
The declension of participles (§§ 441-2). The com-
parison of adjectives : — The comparative degree (§ 443) ;
the superlative degree (§ 444) ; irregular comparison
(§§ 445-6). Numerals :— Cardinal and ordinal (§§ 447-
52) ; other numerals (§§ 453"?)-

Contents xi

PAGES

CHAPTER XIII

Pronouns 222-233

General remarks on the pronouns (§ 458). Personal
pronouns (§§ 459-62). Reflexive pronouns (§ 463).
Possessive pronouns (§ 464). Demonstrative pronouns
(§§ 465-7). Relative pronouns (§ 468). Interrogative
pronouns (§§ 469-70). Indefinite pronouns (§ 471).

CHAPTER XIV

Verbs 233-279

The classification of verbs (§§ 472-4). The full con-
jugation of several strong verbs as models (§ 475).
The endings of strong verbs (§§ 476-83). General
remarks on the strong verbs (§§ 484-9). The classifica-
tion of strong verbs :— Class I (§§ 490-2); Class II
(§§ 493-6) ; Class III (§§ 497-502) ; Class IV (§§ 503-4) ;
Class V (§§ 505-7); Class VI (§§ 508-10); Class VII
(§§511-19). The classification of weak verbs :— Class I
(§§ 521-34); Class II (§§ 535-7); Class III (§ 538).
Minor groups : — Preterite-presents (§§ 539-46) ; verbs
in .mi (§§ 547-51).

CHAPTER XV

Adverbs (§§ 552-8) ; Prepositions (§ 559) ; Conjunctions
(§560) 279-287

CHAPTER XVI
Word-Formation ... ... 287-313

Simple and derivative nouns (§§ 562-3) ; noun and
adjectival prefixes (§§ 564-94) ; noun suffixes (§§ 595-
616) ; compound nouns (§§ 617-19). Simple and deriva-
tive adjectives (§§ 620-1) ; adjectival suffixes (§§ 622-
39); compound adjectives (§§ 640-1). Simple and
compound verbs (§§ 642-4); verbal prefixes (§§ 645-
56) ; verbal suffixes (§§ 657-9).

INDEX 314-351

SELECT LIST OF BOOKS USED

Bnigntann, Karl. Kurze vergleichende Grammatik der indo-
germanischen Sprachen. Strassburg, 1904.

Biilbring, Karl D. Altenglisches Elementarbuch (Lautlehre).
Heidelberg, 1902.

Cosijn, P. J. Altwestsachsische Grammatik. Haag, 1883-6.

Dieter, Ferdinand. Laut- und Formenlehre der altgermanischen
Dialekte. Leipzig, 1900.

Hall, John R. Clark. A concise Anglo-Saxon Dictionary for
the use of students. London, 1894.

Holthausen, Ferdinand. Altsachsisches Elementarbuch. Heidel-
berg, 1899.

Kalusa, Max. Historische Grammatik der englischen Sprache.
Erster Teil. Berlin-Schoneberg, 1906.

Kluge, Friedrich. Geschichte der englischen Sprache (Paul's
Grundriss der germanischen Philologie, vol. i, pp. 925-
1166, Strassburg, 1904).
Nominale Stammbildungslehre der altgermanischen Dia-
lekte. Halle, 1899.

Koch, Friedrich C. Die Satzlehre der englischen Sprache.
Cassel, 1878.

Mayhew, A. L. Synopsis of Old English Phonology. Oxford,
1891.

Noreen, Adolf. Altislandische und altnorwegische Grammatik
unter Beriicksichtigung des Urnordischen. Halle, 1903.
Abriss der urgermanischen Lautlehre. Strassburg, 1894.

Pogatscher, Alois. Znr Lautlehre der griechischen, lateinischen
und romanischen Lehnworter im AltengUschen. Strass-
burg. 1888.

xiv Select List of Books used

Sievers, Eduard. Angelsachsische Grammatik. Halle, 1898.

Streitberg, Wilhelm. Urgermanische Grammatik. Heidelberg,
1896.

Sweet, Henry. The Student's Dictionary of Anglo-Saxon.
Oxford, 1897.

Toller, T. Nortkcote. An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary, based on the
manuscript collections of the late Joseph Bosworth.
Oxford, 1882-1898.

Walde, Alois. Die germanischen Auslautgesetze. Halle, 1900.

Wright, Joseph. An Old High German Primer. Oxford, 1906.
A Primer of the Gothic Language. Oxford, 1899.
The English Dialect Grammar. Oxford, 1905.

ABBREVIATIONS

Dor.

= Doric

MHG.

= Middle High German

Fr.

= French

NE.

= New English

Germ.

= Germanic

NHG.

= New High German

Goth.

= Gothic

Nth.

= Northumbrian

Gr.

= Greek

OE.

= Old English

Horn.

= Homer

OHG.

= Old High German

Indg.

= Indo-Germanic

O.Icel.

= Old Icelandic

instr.

= instrumental

O.Ir.

= Old Irish

Ken.

= Kentish

OS.

= Old Saxon

Lat.

= Latin

Prim.

= Primitive

loc.

= locative

Skr.

= Sanskrit

ME.

= Middle English

WS.

= West Saxon

The asterisk * prefixed to a word denotes a theoretical form,
as OE. daeg, day, from Prim. Germanic *dagaz.

INTRODUCTION

§ 1. Old English is a member of the West Germanic
division of the Germanic (Teutonic) branch of the Indo-
Germanic family of languages. This great family of lan-
guages is usually divided into eight branches : —

I. Aryan, consisting of: (i) The Indian group, including
the language of the Vedas, classical Sanskrit, and the
Prakrit dialects. (2) The Iranian group, including (a) West
Iranian (Old Persian, the language of the Persian cuneiform
inscriptions, dating from about 520-350 b.c); (b) East
Iranian (Avesta — sometimes called Zend-Avesta, Zend,
and Old Bactrian — the language of the Avesta, the sacred
books of the Zoroastrians).

II. Armenian, the oldest monuments of which belong
to the fifth century a. d.

III. (jreek, with its numerous dialects.

IV. Albanian, the language of ancient Illyria. The
oldest monuments belong to the seventeenth century.

V. Italic, consisting of Latin and the Umbrian-Samnitic
dialects. From the popular form of Latin are descended
the Romance languages : Portuguese, Spanish, Catalanian,
Provenfal, French, Italian, Raetoromanic, Roumanian or
Wallachian.

VI. Keltic, consisting of: (i) Gaulish (known to us
by Keltic names and words quoted by Latin and Greek
authors, and inscriptions on coins ; (2) Britannic, including
Cymric or Welsh, Cornish, and Bas Breton or Armorican
(the oldest records of Cymric and Bas Breton date back
to the eighth or ninth century) ; (3) Gaelic, including Irish-

2 Introduction [§ i

Gaelic, Scotch-Gaelic, and Manx. The oldest monuments
are the old Gaelic ogam inscriptions which probably date
as far back as about 500 a. d.

VII. Baltic-Slavonic, consisting of: (i) The Baltic
division, embracing (a) Old Prussian, which became extinct
in the seventeenth century, {b) Lithuanian, {c) Lettic
(the oldest records of Lithuanian and Lettic belong to the
sixteenth century) ; (2) the Slavonic division, embracing :
(a) the South-Eastern group, including Russian (Great
Russian, White Russian, and Little Russian), Bulgarian,
and Illyrian (Servian, Croatian, Slovenian) ; {b) the Western
group, including Czech (Bohemian), Sorabian (Wendish),
Polish and Polabian.

VIII. Germanic, consisting of : —

(i) Gothic. Almost the only source of our knowledge
of the Gothic language is the fragments of the biblical
translation made in the fourth century by Ulfilas, the
Bishop of the West Goths.

(2) Old Norse (Scandinavian), which is sub-divided into
two groups : (a) East Norse, including Swedish, Gutnish,
and Danish ; (b) West Norse, including Norwegian, and
Icelandic.

The oldest records of this branch are the runic inscrip-
tions, some of which date as far back as the third or fourth
century.

(3) West Germanic, which is composed of : —

[a) High German, the oldest monuments of which belong
to about the middle of the eighth century.

[b) Low Franconian, called Old Low Franconian or Old
Dutch until about 1200.

[c) Low German, with records dating back to the ninth
century. Up to about 1200 it is generally called Old
Saxon.

{d) Frisian, the oldest records of which belong to the
fourteenth century.

§§ 2-3] Introduction 3

(e) English, the oldest records of which belong to about
the end of the seventh century.

Note,— I. A few of the chief characteristics of the Germanic
languages as compared with the other branches of the Indo-
Germanic languages are : the first sound-shifting or Grimm's
law (§§ 228-34) ; Verner's law (§ 238) ; the development of the
so-called weak declension of adjectives (§ 421) ; the develop-
ment of the preterite of weak verbs (§ 520) ; the use of the old
perfect as a preterite (§ 481).

2. The most characteristic differences between Gothic and
Old Norse on the one hand, and of West Germanic on the
other, are : the West Germanic gemination of consonants
(§§ 254-6) ; the loss of final z which arose from Indo-Germanic
s by Verner's law (§ 252) ; the West Germanic development
of prim. Germanic ww (§ 90), jj (§ 275) ; the form of the second
pers. sing. pret. indicative of strong verbs (§ 481). Gothic and
Old Norse preserved the old perfect ending, as Goth. Old
Norse namt, thou tookest, but OE. nome, OS. OHG. nami. In
the West Germanic languages the -t was only preserved in
the preterite-present verbs, as OE. wast, OS. west, OHG.
weist, thou knowest.

3. The most characteristic difference between High German
and the other Germanic languages is : the High German sound-
shifting (§ 230).

§ 2. The division of a language into fixed periods must
of necessity be more or less arbitrary. What are given
as the characteristics of one period have generally had
their beginnings in the previous period, and it is impossible
to say with perfect accuracy when one period begins and
another ends. For practical purposes Old English may
be conveniently divided into two periods : early OE. from
about 700 to 900 ; and late OE. from 900-1100.

§ 3. The oldest records of OE. exhibit clearly defined
dialectal peculiarities which have been treated in some
detail in the phonology, so that the student can easily
collect together for himself the chief characteristics of each
dialect. In this grammar early West Saxon is taken

B 2

4 Introduction [§ 3

as the standard for OE., and is treated in greater detail
than the other dialects. In using OE. poetry for gram-
matical purposes the student should remember that it was
for the most part originally written in the Anglian dialect,
but that it has come down to us chiefly in late West Saxon
copies which contain many Anglian forms. OE. is usually
divided into four dialects : (a) Northumbrian, embracing
the district between the Firth of Forth and the Humber.

(b) Mercian, between the Humber and the Thames.

(c) West Saxon, south of the Thames, except Kent and
Surrey, {d) Kentish, embracing Kent and Surrey.
Northumbrian and Mercian are often classed together
and called Anglian.

Note. — A detailed comparison of late OE. phonology with
that of the Modern dialects would doubtless show that the
dialects of Sussex and East Anglia were closely related to the
dialect of Kent in the OE. period. This is not the place for such
a comparison, so one example must suffice here. The change
of y to e (§ 132, Note) in late OE. is always regarded as a special
Kentish peculiarity, but the same sound change must also have
taken place in Sussex and East Anglia, where OE. y has
regularly become i (through the older stage e) in the Modern
dialects, as lis (OE. lys), lice ; mis (OE. mys), mice ; whereas
had y simply been unrounded to i in the late OE. period of
these dialects, the Modern forms would have been *lois and
*mois.

PHONOLOGY

CHAPTER I
ORTHOGRAPHY AND PRONUNCIATION

§ 4. OE. was written in the British modified form of the
Latin alphabet with the addition of ]j and ? (= w) from
the runic alphabet. Vowel length was mostly omitted in
writing, but in the case of long vowels it was sometimes
represented by doubling the vowel or by using the diacritic
sign ', as huus, hi^s, house. The sign , placed over
vowels, is used in this grammar to mark long vowels
and diphthongs. The account of the pronunciation given
below is only approximately accurate. It is impossible
to ascertain with perfect certainty the exact pronunciation
of any language in its oldest period.

A. The Vowels.

§ 5. The OE. vowel-system was represented by the
six elementary letters a, e, i, o, u, y, the ligatures se, oe,
and the digraphs ea, eo, io, and ie, the digraphs having
the value of diphthongs. See § 6. They all had both
a short and a long quantity.

a had the same sound as the a in NHG. ab, gast,
as dagas, days ; habban, to have ; hagol, hail ; hara, hare.
a before nasals was probably a low-back-wide vowel like
the a as pronounced in many Scotch dialects in such words
as ant, man. In OE. it was accordingly often written o
and may be pronounced like the o in NE. not, as band.

6 Phonology [§ s

bond, he bound ; lani, lond, land; lang, long, long ; mann,
monn, man ; nama, noma, name. See § 68.

a had the same sound as the a in NE. father, as an, one ;
ban, bone ; rap, rope ; twa, two ; cnawan, to know ;
mawan, to mow ; sawan, to sow.

ae had the same sound as the a in NE. hat, as daeg, day ;
fazier, father ; faestan, to fasten ; hssfde, he had ; maegden,
maiden.

Be had the same sound as the ai in NE. air, and the
6 in French p^re, as deed, deed; sjed, seed; wapen,
weapon; clsene, clean; heelan, to heal; ladan,' to lead;
sse, sea.

e had the same sound as the e in NE. west, end,
as etan, to eat; fell, skin; helpan, to help; segl, sail;
ende, end; here, army ; mete, meat; exen, oxen.

e had the same sound as the e in NHG. reh, as her,
here; cwen, queen; fedan, to feed; grene, green; te]j,
teeth.

i had the same sound as the i in NE. sit, as fisc,y?sA;
sittan, to sit ; fing, thing ; niman, to take.

i had the same sound as the i in NHG. ihn, and nearly
the same sound as the ee in NE. feed, as lif, life; min,
my ; tid, ttme ; f if, five ; sij)e, scythe.

o had the same sound as the o in NE. not, as col, coal ;
coren, chosen ; dohtor, daughter ; nosu, nose ; oxa, ox.
See a above.

5 had the same sound as the o in NHG. bote, as brojior,
brother ; growan, to grow ; modor, mother ; m5na, moon ;
s5na, soon ; gos, goose ; ojser, other ; Jiohte, he thought.

u had the same sound as the u in NE. put, as duru,
door; full, full; hunger, hunger; lufian, to love; guma,
man ; funor, thunder.

VL had the same sound as the u in NHG. gut, and nearly
the same sound as the oo in NE. food, as cu, cow ; hiis,
house ; sur, sour ; ut, out ; muf, mouth ; us, us.

§ 5] Orthography and Pronunciation 7

oe had the same sound as the o in NHG. gotter, as
dat. doehter, to a daughter; oele, oil; oexen, oxen.

de had the same sound as the o in NHG. schon, as
bdec, 6oo^s; Ai^vaSiipi), to judge; cwasn, queen.

y had the same sound as the ii in NHG. miitter, as
brycg, bridge; cjming, king; scyld, guilt; Jjyncan, to
seem.

y had the same sound as the ii in NHG. griin, as bryd,
bride ; mys, mice ; wyscan, to wish ; y]>, wave.

It is difficult to determine what was the precise pronun-
ciation of the a, e, o in the second element of diphthongs.
In these combinations they had the function of consonants
and may be pronounced as very short unstressed a, e, 6.
The first element of the diphthongs ea, ea was a very
open sound like the se in OE. faeder, and the a in NE. hat,
but the e in the diphthongs eo, eo was like the e in NE.
bed or like the close e in French ete. In the long diph-
thongs each of the elements was longer than in the short
diphthongs.

ea = ae + a, as eall, all; healdan, to hold; earm, arm ;
heard, hard; eahta., eight ; weaxan, to grow ; geat, gate.

ea = ffi + a, as dea}7, death ; heafod, head ; hleapan, to
leap; sXean, to slay ; gear, year; sceap, sheep; neah, near;
stria, straw.

eo = e+6, as meolcan, to milk; heorte, heart ; steorra,
star; svreostor, sister ; geolo, yellow.

eo = e + o, as ceosan, to choose ; deep, deep ; ])eof, thief;
seen, to see ; cneo, knee.

ie^i + e> as giest, guest; ieldra, older; ierfe, inheri-
tance ; hliehhan, to laugh ; giefan, to give ; hierde, shep-
herd ; sieh]), he sees ; cnieht, boy.

16 = i + e, as hieran, to hear ; geliefan, to believe ; hiehra,
higher; clesp, he chooses ; liehtan, to give light ; niewe, new.

io = i + 6, as liornian, to learn ; mioluc, miolc, milk ;
miox, manure.

8 Phonology [§§ 6-7

io = i + o, as liode, people ; Jjiostre, dark ; sion, io strain ;
]>ion, to thrive.

§ 8. From what has been said above we arrive at the
following OE. vowel-system : —

Short vowels a, ae, e, i, o, u, oe, y

Long „ a, se, e, i, 6, % 6s, y

Short diphthongs ea, eo, ie, io

Long „ ea, eo, ie, io

NoTE.^ae was often written ae, and § in the oldest records.
In the oldest period of the language there must have been two
short e-sounds, viz. e = Germanic e (§ 80), and e = the i-umlaut
of ae (§ 55), the latter probably being more open than the
former, but the two sounds seem to have fallen together at an
early date. Long i was sometimes written ig finally and occa-
sionally also medially, as big = bi, by ; hig = hi, they ; big-
spell = bispell, parable. The o in words like gos, goose (§ 61)
and mona, moon (§ 121) must originally have been an open o
like the a in NE. all, but it fell together with Germanic long
close 5 (§ 128) at an early period, oe and oe, always written oe
in OE. manuscripts, only occur in the Anglian dialect ; in WS.
and Ken. they were unrounded to e already in the oldest period
of these dialects (§ 129). The diphthongs ea, ea were some-
times written aeo in the oldest records, ie and le occur chiefly
in early WS.

A diphthong may be defined as the combination of a sonantal
with a consonantal vowel. It is called a falling or a rising
diphthong according as the stress is upon the first or the
second element. The OE. diphthongs were generally falling
diphthongs, but the diphthongs, which arose from the influence
of initial palatal c, g, and sc upon a following palatal vowel,
were originally rising diphthongs which at a later period be-
came falling diphthongs through the shifting of the stress from
the second to the first element of the diphthong. See § 51.

B. The Consonants.
§ 7. The OE. consonant-system was represented by the
following letters :— b, c, d, f, g, h, Ic, 1, m, n, p, r, s, t, ]>
(tS), *w, X.

§ 7] Orthography and Pronunciation 9

V (written u) and z ( = ts) were very rarely used except
occasionally in late loanwords, c, cc, nc, so ; g, ng ; and
h (except initially), hh were guttural or palatal according
to the sound-law stated in § 309. On the vocalic liquids
and nasals in OE. see § 219.

Of the above letters b, d, m, n, p, t had the same sound-
values as in Modern English. The remaining consonants
require special attention.

c. Guttural c, sometimes written k in the oldest records,
was pronounced nearly like the c in NE. could. Palatal
c (often written ce before a following guttural vowel) was
pronounced nearly like the k in NE. kid. In the OE.
runic alphabet the two k-sounds had separate characters.
Some scholars assume that palatal c and sc were pro-
nounced like the ch and sh in NE. church; ship, fish.
Examples of guttural c are : bucca, he-goat ; celan, to cool ;
ca&o,knee; sprecan, to speak ; cyssan, to ktss ; boc, book;
weorc, work ; drincan, to drink ; ))ancian, to thank ; and
of palatal c : ceosan, to choose ; cinn, chin ; ciese, cheese ;
bee, books ; crycc, crutch ; bene, bench; })enc(e)an, to think ;
ofse: seeal, shall; sceap, sheep; scoh, shoe; wascan, to
wash ; fise, fish.

f. Initially, finally, and medially before voiceless con-
sonants, also when doubled, f was a voiceless spirant like
the f in NE. fit, shaft, as fxAer, father ; fbi,foot; ceaf,
chaff; hrof, roof; geaf, he gave; seeaft, shaft; pyffan,
to puff. Medially between voiced sounds it was a voiced
spirant (often written b in the oldest records) like the
V in NE. vine, five, as giefan, to give; hafajj, he has;
seofon, seven ; wulfas, wolves ; hraefn, raven ; lifde, he
lived.

g was used to represent several different sounds : («) a
guttural and a palatal explosive ; (b) a guttural and a pala-
tal spirant which had separate characters in the OE. runic
alphabet. The palatal explosive and the palatal spirant

lo Phonology [§ 7

were often written ge before a following guttural vowel
with e to indicate the palatal nature of the g.

Before guttural vowels initial g was pronounced like the
g in NE. good, but in the oldest OE. like the g in NHG.
sagen (§ 314), as gast, spirit; god, God; gold, gold.
Before palatal vowels initial g was a palatal spirant nearly
like the j in NHG. jahr and the y in NE. ye, you, as geaf,
he gave ; giefan, to gtve ; giest, yeast ; geoc, yoke.

Medial gg was always a guttural explosive like the g in
NE. good, as dogga, dog; frogga., frog ; stagga, stag.
Medial and final eg was a palatal explosive nearly like the
g in NE. get, as lecg(e)an, to lay; secg(e)an, to say;
brycg, bridge ; vpecg, wedge. The g in medial and final
ng was a guttural or a palatal explosive, the former being
nearly like the g in NE. longer, as sungon, they sang;
hungor, hunger ; lang, long ; and the latter nearly like the
g in NE. finger, as lengra, longer ; streng, string ; ]>ing,
thing.

Medial intervocalic g was a guttural or a palatal spirant,
the former being nearly like the g in NHG. sagen, as
boga, bow ; fugol, bird ; lagu, law ; and the latter nearly
like the g in NHG. siegen, as bieg(e)an, to bend; fseger,
/air; hyge, mind.

Note. — i. Some scholars assume that palatal eg and ng
were pronounced d2 and ndz where dz = the j in NE. just.

2. 5 is generally used for g in OE. manuscripts and printed
texts, and often also in grammars. In this grammarg is only used
to represent the prim. Germanic voiced spirant (§ 229, Note 5).

h. Initial h (except in the combination hw) was an
aspirate like the h in NE. hand, as habban, to have;
heard, hard; has, house; hlud, loud. Initial hw was pro-
nounced xw like the wh in many Scotch dialects, as hwa,
who ? ; hwaete, wheat. In all other positions h, including
hh, was a guttural or a palatal spirant, the former being
like the ch in NHG. nacht, noch, as d.o)D\,ox, daughter;

§ r] Orthography and Pronunciation 1 1

eahta, eight; tiohhian, to think, consider; sulh, plough;
feorh, life ; dah, dough ; troh, trough ; and the latter like
thech in NHG. nicht, ich, as fiyht, flight ; sieh]>, he sees;
neah, near; hliehhan, to laugh. In the oldest records
final h was sometimes written ch, as elch = eolh, elk ;
salch = sealh, willow.

k was sometimes used to express the guttural c (see
above), as kynn, race, generation ; kyning, king; kneo,
knee. See § 319.

1. In Northumbrian and the greater portion of the
Mercian district, 1 was pronounced like the 1 in NHG. and
in standard NE., but in West Saxon, Kentish, and parts of
the southern portion of Mercia, it was a reverted sound
formed by the under surface of the tip of the tongue being
turned to the hard palate which imparted to the sound
a kind of guttural quality. This explains why breaking
(§§ 49, 63) took place in WS. and Ken. before 1 + con-
sonant, but not in Anglian. The reverted 1 is still pre-
served in the dialects of the southern and south-western
counties. Examples are: \xAa.n, to lead ; folc, folk; fugol,
bird; eall, all; healdan, to hold; meolcan, to milk.

r was trilled in all positions as in Modern Scotch, as
ridan, to ride; duru, door; word, word; fssder, father.
In West Saxon, Kentish, and parts of the southern portion
of Mercia, it was reverted like 1 (see above), which accounts
for breaking taking place before r-(- consonant more regu-
larly in WS. and Ken. than in Anglian, as earm, arm ;
heard, hard; eorfe, earth ; liornian, to learn.

s. Initially, finally, medially before voiceless consonants,
and when doubled, s was a voiceless spirant like the s in
NE.sit, assealt,sa/i^; sunu,5o«; standan, /o s/a«<^; sweos-
tor, sister; hus, house; is, ice; cyssan, to kiss. Medially
between voiced sounds, it was a voiced spirant like the s in
NE. rise, as bosm, bosom ; ceosan, to choose ; nosu, nose ;
osle, ousel.

12 Phonology [§ 8

)). Initially, medially when doubled, and finally )j was
a voiceless spirant like the th in NE. thin, as |)encan, to
think ; Jieof, thief ; moJ)]je, moth ; hee]>, bath ; muj>, mouth.
Medially between voiced sounds, it was a voiced spirant
like the th in NE. then, as bajjian, to bathe; bro})or, brother '>
eorJ)e, earth ; ieejim., fathom.

Initial ]> was written th until about 900 in imitation of
Latin. Afterwards it was written t5, and p (borrowed from
the runic alphabet). And the voiced spirant was often written
d in imitation of the contemporary Latin pronunciation.

w does not occur in OE. manuscripts, but was repre-
sented by uu, u until about the year 900, later by P borrowed
from the runic alphabet. It had the same sound-value
as the w in NE. wet, as vraeter, water; sweltan, to die;
wlanc, proud ; sawol, soul.

X was pronounced like the x in NE. six, as rlxian, to
rule ; siex, six ; weaxan, to grow ; axian, to ask,

§ 8. From what has been said above we arrive at the
following OE. consonant-system : —

Labial.

Explo- ( Voiceless p, pp

sives I Voiced b, bb
Spi- I Voiceless f, ff

rants ' Voiced f
Nasals m, mm

Liquids 1, U ; r, rr

Semi-vowel w

To these must be added the aspirate h, and x. The
double consonants were pronounced long as in Modern
Italian and Swedish, thus habban = hab-ban, to have ;
swimman = swim-man, to swim, see §§ 258-9. From the
above table it will be seen that the OE. alphabet was very
defective, insomuch as each of the letters c, f, g, h, n, s,
and J> was used to represent two or more sounds.

Inter-
dental.

Dental.

Gut-
tural.

Palatal.

t,tt

c, cc

C, CO

d, dd

g. gg

g. eg

hy?

s, ss

h, hh

h,hh

\>

s

g

g

n, nn

n

n

§9] Accentuation 13

Stress (Accent).

§ 9. All the Indo-Germanic languages have partly pitch
(musical) and partly stress accent, but one or other of the
two systems of accentuation always predominates in each
language, thus in Sanskrit and Old Greek the accent was
predominantly pitch, whereas in the oldest periods of
the Italic dialects, and the Keltic and Germanic languages,
the accent was predominantly stress. This difference in
the system of accentuation is clearly seen in Old Greek
and the old Germanic languages by the preservation of
the vowels of unaccented syllables in the former and the
weakening or loss of them in the latter. In the early
period of the parent Indg. language, the stress accent must
have been more predominant than the pitch accent,
because it is only upon this assumption that we are able to
account for the origin of the vowels t, fi, a (§ 16, Note i),
the liquid and nasal sonants (§§ 34-7), and the loss of
vowel often accompanied by a loss of syllable, as in Greek
gen. ira-Tp-6s beside ace. ira-T^p-o ; ir^T-o)iai beside e-irr-ifiTii' ;
Gothic gen. pi. aiihs-ne beside ace. *aiihsa-ns. It is now
a generally accepted theory that at a later period of the
parent language the system of accentuation became pre-
dominantly pitch, which was preserved in Sanskrit and
Old Greek, but which must have become predominantly
stress again in prim. Germanic some time prior to the
operation of Verner's law (§ 238).

The quality of the accent in the parent language was
partly ' broken ' (acute) and partly ' slurred ' (circumflex).
This distinction in the quality of the accent was preserved
in prim. Germanic in final syllables containing a long
vowel, as is seen by the difference in the development of
the final long vowels in historic times according as they
originally had the ' broken ' or ' slurred ' accent (§ 217).

In the parent language the chief accent of a word did

14 Phonology

lO

not always fall upon the same syllable of a word, but was
free or movable as in Sanskrit and Greek, cp. e. g. Gr. nom.
TTOTiip, father, voc. irdrcp, ace. iraWpo ; Skr. emi, / go, pi.
imds, we go. This free accent was still preserved in prim.
Germanic at the time when Verner's law operated,
whereby the voiceless spirants became voiced when the
vowel immediately preceding them did not bear the chief
accent of the word (§ 238). At a later period of the prim.
Germanic language, the chief accent of a word became
confined to the root- or stem-syllable. This confining of
the chief accent to the root-syllable was the cause of the
great weakening — and eventual loss — which the vowels
underwent in unaccented syllables in the prehistoric period
of the individual Germanic languages (§§ 212-7). And
the extent to which the weakening of unaccented syllables
has been carried in some of the Modern Germanic dialects
is well illustrated by such sentences as, as et it m93n,
/ shall have it in the morning ; ast a dunt if id kud, I should
have done it if I had been able (West Yorks.).

§ 10. The rule for the accentuation of uncompounded
words is the same in Old English as in the oldest period of
the other Germanic languages, viz. the chief stress fell
upon the stem-syllable and always remained there even
when suffixes and inflexional endings followed it, as
beran, fo bear; dagas, rfaj's. '^^Vin^, greeting; halnes,
salvation; hEeriht, hairy; handlung, handling; mistig,
misty, hleapettan, to leap; ierringa, angrily; leofosta,
dearest, heafodu, heads ; Isenere, lender; sealfian, to
anoint; wundrode, he wondered. berende, bearing;
cyningas, kings; grimettan, to rage, gsedeling, com-
panion ; heofonisc, heofonlic, heavenly, sejjele, noble ;
hetele, hostile; macode, he made; nerede, he saved.
se]>elingas, nobleman; fultumian, to help; huntigestre,
huntress; mafelode, he spoke. The position of the
secondary stress in trisyllabic and polysyllabic words

§ ri] Accentuation 15

fluctuated in OE., and with the present state of our know-
ledge of the subject it is impossible to formulate any hard
and fast rules concerning it.

In compound words it is necessary to distinguish be-
tween compounds whose second element is a noun or an
adjective, and those whose second element is a verb. In the
former case the first element had the chief accent in the
parent Indg. language ; in the latter case the first element
had or had not the chief accent according to the position
of the verb in the sentence. But already in prim. Germanic
the second element of compound verbs nearly always had
the chief accent ; a change which was mostly brought about
by the compound and simple verb existing side by side.
This accounts for the difference in the accentuation of such
pairs as dndgiet, intelligence : ongletan, to understand;
dndsaca, adversary : onsdcan, to deny ; bigang, practice :
begdngan, to practise ; 6r})anc, device : aj)6ncan, to devise ;
u]7genge, fugitive : o]>gdngan, to escape ; wi])ersaca, op-
ponent : wi}>s4can, to oppose.

§ 11. As has been stated above, compound words, whose
second element is a noun or an adjective, had originally
the chief stress on the first syllable. This simple rule
was preserved in OE., as acbeam, oak-tree; aeftergield,
additional payment; brydguma, bridegroom; comhus,
granary; dea}>stede, death-place; feowergield, fourfold
payment; freomeeg, free kinsman; geardagas, days of
yore; godbearn, godchild; larhiis, school, aefterboren,
posthumous ; sej^elcund, of noble origin ; arfaest, virtuous ;
bryneha.t, burning hot ; gearowyrdig, eloquent ; isengrsg,
iron-grey; modwlanc, proud; wordsnotor, eloquent.
Nouns like aliefednes, permission, onfdngennes, reception,
ongietennes, understanding, onginn, beginning, &c., are no
exception to the rule, because such nouns were formed
direct from the corresponding verbs : pp. aliefed, on-
fdngen, ongieten, inf. onginnan.

1 6 Phonology [§§ 12-14

§ 12. Already in the oldest period of the language many
nouns and adjectives were formed from verbs containing
an inseparable particle, and accordingly had the chief
stress on the second element, as bebod, command ; beby-
rignes, burying ; bedelfing, digging round ; begang beside
bigeng, practice ; behat, promise ; behefe, suitable ; belaf,
remainder ; belimp, occurrence ; forbod, prohibition ; for-
gietol, forgetful ; forhsefednes, temperance ; forlor, for-
lorennes, destruction ; but f6rwyrd, ruin. In like manner
the prefix ge- was already unaccented in the oldest period of
the language — probably partly also in prim. Germanic —
and therefore words compounded with it had the chief
stress on the second element, as gebann, decree ; gebed,
prayer; gebr6))or, brethren; gef eoht, fght; gefera, com-
panion ; gesceaft, creation ; ge])eaht, counsel, thought ;
gewider, bad weather, storm ; ge-ds]>ele, congenial ; gecoren,
chosen; gecynde, innate, natural; gedefe, befitting; gelic,
alike; gemsene, common; gemyndig, mindful; gesund,
healthy ; gefyrn, long ago.

§ 13. In compound nouns the chief secondary stress was
upon that syllable of the second element which would have
the chief stress if it were used alone, as brydgiima, bride-
groom; feowergield, fourfold payment; g^arowyrdig,
eloquent. For further examples, see above. But compounds
which were no longer felt as such did not have a strong
secondary stress upon the second element, as eorod from
eoh+rad, troop of cavalry; hlaford from hiaf+weard,
lord ; weorud, werod from wer + rad, multitude, army.

§ 14. In the oldest period of the language, the compound
verbs had the chief stress upon the second or first element
according as the first element was inseparable or separable,
asbec^man, to become; hehealdan, to behold ; and similarly
gebseran, to behave; gehatan, to name; forbeodan, to for-
bid; forgiefan, to forgive; geondseon, to survey; geond-
jjencan, to consider; ojjberstan, to break away ; o}>feallaii,

§ 15] Accentuation 17

to fall off; toberstan, to burst asunder ; todselan, to divide.
setiewan, to exhibit; setniman, to deprive; and similarly
oferswijsan, to overcome ; oferweorpan, to overthrow ; un-
derberan, to support; undemiman, to comprehend; furh-
Jjyrelian, to pierce through ; ])urhwunian, to abide conti-
nuously; •wVpibn, to grasp at; wijjmetan, to compare;
ymbbindan, to bind round; ymbhweorfan, to revolve.
Verbs like dndswarian, to answer, Andwyrdan, to answer,
f<iltumlan, to support, orettan, to fight, are no exception
to the rule, because such verbs were formed direct from the
nouns : dndswaru, 4ndwyrde, fiiltum, oret. Examples of
separable verbs are : sfeftersprecan, to c/a«m ; sfefterfolgian,
to pursue; bistandan, to support; hilibban, to live by; and
similarly eftcierran, to turn back; eftflowan, to flow back ;
foregangan, to precede ; foresceavrian, to/oresee ; uprseran,
to raise up; upiernan, to run up; inctunan, to come in}
midwunian, to live together; ongeanfealdan, to Jold
back ; todon, to put to ; iitdrifan, to drive out ; utflowan,
to flow out.

§ 15. In compound adverbs the first element had the
chief or secondary stress according as it was the more or
less important element of the compound, as eal(l)mffist,
almost; 6alneg from ealne + wag, always; ealswa, quite
so; but onweg, away; togsfedere, together; ])Eerinne,
therein.

1 8 Phonology [§ i6

CHAPTER II

THE PRIMITIVE GERMANIC EQUIVALENTS
OF THE INDO-GERMANIC VOWEL-SOUNDS

§ 16. The parent Indo-Germanic language had the
following vowel-system : —

Short vowels a, e, i, o, u, s

Long „ a, e, i, 6, u

Short diphthongs ai, ei, oi, au, eu, ou
Long „ ai, ei, 6i, au, eu, 6u

Short vocalic 1, m, n, r

Note. — i. The short vowels i, u, a, the long vowels i, ii, and
vocalic 1, m, n, r occurred originally only in syllables which did
not bear the principal accent of the word.

The short vowels i, u, and vocalic 1, m, n, r arose from the
loss of e in the strong forms ei, eu, el, em, en, er, which was
caused by the principal accent having been shifted to some
other syllable in the word.

a, the quality of which cannot be precisely defined, arose
from the weakening of an original a, e, or 5, caused by the loss
of accent. It is generally pronounced like the final vowel in
German Gabe.

1 and ii were contractions of weak diphthongs which arose
from the strong forms eia, ai, ei, oi ; eua, au, eu, ou through
the loss of accent. The e in eis, eua had disappeared before
the contraction took place. See § 9.

2. The long diphthongs ai, ei, &c., were of rare occurrence
in the parent language, and their history in the prehistoric
period of the various branches of the Indo-Germanic languages,
except when final, is still somewhat obscure. In stem-syllables
they were generally either shortened to ai, ei, &c., or the second
element (i, u) disappeared. In final syllables they were gener-
ally shortened to ai, ei, &c. In this book no further account
will be taken of the Indg. long diphthongs in stem-syllables.

§§ I7-2I] Indo-Germantc Vowel-System 19

For their treatment in final syllables in Primitive Germanic,
see § 217.

3. Upon theoretical grounds it is generally assumed that the
parent language contained long vocalic 1, m, n, r. But their
history in the various Indg. language's is still uncertain. In
any case they were of very rare occurrence, and are therefore
left out of consideration in this book.

§ 17. a (Lat. a, Gr. a) remained, as Lat. ager, Gr. dypds,
Goth, akrs, O.Icel. akr, OS. akkar, OHG. ackar, OE.
sicer, field, acre; Gr. a\s, Lat. gen. salis, Goth. O.Icel.
OS. salt, OHG. salz, OE. sealt {§ 64), salt; Lat. aqua,
Goth, ahra, OS. OHG. aha, OE. ea from *eahu, older
*ahu (§ 70), water, river.

§ 18. e (Lat. e, Gr. c) remained, as Lat. fero, Gr. 4)^po),
I hear, O.Icel. bera, OS. OHG. OE. beran, to bear; Lat.
edo, Gr. ISofiat, I eat, O.Icel. eta, OHG. e^^^an, OS. OE.
etan, to eat; Lat. pellis, Gr. irfl^Xa, OS. OHG. fel, OE.
fell, skin, hide,

§ 19. i (Lat. i, Gr. i) remained, as Gr. Horn. ftSjici',
Goth, witum, O.Icel. vitum, OS. witun, OHG. wi??um,
OE. witon, we know, cp. Lat. videre, to see ; Lat. piscis,
Goth, fisks, O.Icel. fiskr, OS. fisk, OHG. OE. fisc,>sA;
Lat. vidua (adj. fern.), bereft of, deprived of, Goth, widuwo,
OS. widowa, OHG. wituwa, OE. widewe, widow.

§ 20. o (Lat. o, Gr. o) became a in stem-syllables, as Lat.
octo, Gr. 6kt(4, Goth, ahtdu, OS. OHG. ahto, OE. eahta
(§ 68), eight; Lat. hostis, stranger, enemy, Goth, gasts,
OS. OHG. gast, OE. giest (§ 73), guest; Lat. quod, Goth,
lua, O.Icel. hvat, OS. hwat, OHG. hwa?,OE. hwset, what.

§ 21. u (Lat. u, Gr. u) remained, as Gr. ku^^s (gen. sing.),
Goth, hunds, O.Icel. hundr, OHG. hunt, OS. OE. hund,
dog, hound; Gr. Bupa, OS. duri, OHG. turi, OE. duru,
door ; Skr. bu-budhimd, we watched, Gr. ir^-irucrrai, he has
inquired, Goth, budum, O.Icel. bu8um, OS. budun, OHG.
butum, OE. budon, we announced, offered,

c 2

20 Phonology [§§ 22-7

§ 22. 9 became a in all the Indo-Germanic languages,
except in the Aryan branch, where it became i, as Lat.
pater, Gr. TraTrjp, O.Ir. athir, Goth, fadar, O.Icel. fa8ir,
OS. fader, OHG. fater, OE. faeder, father, Skr. pitdr-
(from "^siir-), father; Lat. status, Gr. irraros, Skr. sthitis,
standing, Goth. sta>s, O.Icel. sta6r, OS. stad, OHG. stat,
OE. stede, prim. Germanic *sta.diz,piace.

§ 23. a (Lat. a, Gr. Doric a, Attic, Ionic 1)) became 6, as
Lat. mater, Gr. Dor. ^l■a.rf^p, O.Icel. m68ir, OS. m5dar,
OHG. muoter, OE. modor, mother; Gr. Dor. <|)pa-n)p,
member of a clan, Lat. frater, Goth. br6)jar, O.Icel.
bro6ir, OS. brothar, OHG. bruoder, OE. hrb^or, brother;
Lat. fagus, beech, Gr. Dor. i|>oy(5s, a kind of oak, Goth, boka,
letter of the alphabet, O.Icel. OS. bok, book, OE. boc-treow,
beech-tree.

§ 24. e (Lat. e, Gr. i\) remained, but it is generally written
se(= Goth, e, O.Icel. OS, OHG. a, OE. a) in works on
Germanic philology, as Lat. edimus, Goth, etum, O.Icel.
atum, OS. atun, OHG. a?um, OE. ^ton, we ate; Lat.
mensis, Gr. ^■f\v, month, Goth, mena, O.Icel. mane, OS.
OHG. mano, OE. mona (§ 121), moon ; Goth, ga-dejis,
O.Icel. da3, OS. dad, OHG. tat, OE. dad, deed, related
to Gr. Bii-au, / shall place.

§ 25. i (Lat. i, Gr. i) remained, as Lat. su-inus (adj.),
belonging to a pig, Goth, swein, O.Icel. svin, OS. OHG.
OE. swin, swine, pig; Lat. simus, OS. sin, OHG. sim,
OE. si-en, we may be.

§ 26. o (Lat. 6, Gr. u) remained, as Gr. irXwros, swimming,
Goth, flodus, O.Icel. flo8, OHG. fluot, OS. OE. flod,
flood, tide, cp. Lat. plorare, to weep aloud; Gr. Dor. ir^is,
Goth, fotus, O.Icel. fotr, OHG. fuo?, OS. OE. fdt,foot;
Goth, doms, O.Icel. domr, OHG. tuom, OS. OE. dom,
judgment, sentence, related to Gr. Oujios, heap.

§ 27. u (Lat. u, Gr. u) remained, as Lat. mus, Gr. jiOs,
O.Icel. OHG. OE. mus, mouse; Lat. sus, Gr. us, OHG.

§§28-32] Indo-Germanic Vowel-System 21

OE. su, sow, pig; Goth, fuls, OJcel. full, OHG. OE.
ful, foul, related to Lat. puteo, / smell bad, Gr. irueu,
I make to rot.

§ 28. ai (Lat. ae (e), Gr. ot, Goth. 4i, O.Icel. ei, OS. e,
OHG. ei (e), OE. a) remained, as Lat. aedes, sanctuary,
ovlgmsXly fire-place, hearth, Gr. a'&w,Iburn, OHG. eit, OE.
SiA, funeral pile, ignis, rogus; Lat. aes, Goth, diz, O.Icel.
eir, OHG. er, OE. ar, brass, metal, money; Lat. caed5,
/ hew, cut down, Goth, skdidan, OS. skedan, skedan,
OHG. sceidan, OE. scadan, sceadan (§ 133, Note 2),
to divide, sever.

§ 29. ei (Lat. I (older ei), Gr. ci) became i, as Gr. <rT£i'xu,
/ go, Goth, steigan (ei = i), O.Icel. stiga, OS. OHG.
OE. stigan, to ascend; Gr. Xcittu, / leave, Goth, leihran,
OS. OHG. lihan, OE. leon from *Uohan, older *lihan
(§ 127), to lend; Lat. dico, I say, tell, Gr. SeiKi-iifii, / show,
Goth, ga-teihan, to tell, declare, OS. af-tihan, to deny,
OHG. zihan, OE. teon, to accuse (§ 127).

§ 30. oi (O.Lat. oi (later u), Gr. oi) became ai (cp. § 20),
as Gr. otSe, Goth. wAit, O.Icel. veit, OS. wet, OHG.
wei?, OE. wat, he knows; O.Lat. oinos, later iinus, Goth.
dins, O.Icel. einn, OS. en, OHG. ein, OE. an, one, cp. Gr.
oii-Ti, the one on dice ; Gr. irc'-iroiOe, he trusts, Goth, bdi];,
O.Icel. beiS, OS. bed, OHG. beit, OE. bad, he waited for.

§ 31. au (Lat. au, Gr. au, Goth, du, O.Icel. au, OS. o,
OHG. ou(6), OE. ea) remained, as Lat. auris, Goth, duso,
OS. OHG. ora, OE. eare, ear; Lat. auge5, Gr. avi&va,
I increase, Goth, dukan, O.Icel. auka, OS. okian, OHG.
ouhhdn, OE. eaciau, to add, increase.

§ 32. eu (Lat. ou (later ii), Gr. eu, Goth, iu, O.Icel. jo
(jii), OS. OHG. io, OE. eo) remained, as Gr. y^ia, I give a
taste of, Goth, kiusan, O.Icel. kjosa, OS. OHG. kiosan,
OE. ceosan, to test, choose ; Gr. t7€u6o(i,oi, / inquire, Goth.
ana-biudan, to order, command, O.Icel. bj66a, OS. biodan,
OHG. biotan, OE. beodan, to offer; Lat. douco (daco),

2 2 Phonology [§§ 33-7

/ lead, Goth, tiuhan, OS. tiohan, OHG. ziohan, OE.
teon (§ 139), to lead, draw. See § 44.

§ 33. ou (Lat. ou (later u), Or. ou) became au (cp. § 20),
as prim. Indg. "^roudhos, Goth. r4u)js, O.Icel. rau9r, OS.
rod, OHG. rot, OE. read, red, cp. Lat. rufus, red; prim.
Indg. *bhe-bhoudhe, has waked, Goth, bdujj, O.Icel. bau5,
OS. bod, OHG. bot, OE. bead, has offered.

§ 34. m (Lat. em, Gr. u, a/x) became um, as Gr. dpio- (in
dfjuSSei', from some place or other), Goth, sums, O.Icel.
sumr, OS. OHG. OE. sum, some one; Gr. iKOL-rov, Lat.
centum (with n from m by assimilation, and similarly in
the Germanic languages), Goth. OE. OS. bund, OHG.
hunt, hundred, all from a prim, form *kmt6m.

§ 35. n (Lat. en, Gr. <*, av) became un, as Lat. com-
mentus (pp.), invented, devised, Gr. auTo-jiaros, acting of on^s
own will, Goth, ga-munds, OHG. gi-munt, OE. ge-mynd
(§ 112), remembrance, prim, form *mnt6s (pp.) from root
men-, think ; OS. wundar, OHG. wuntar, OE. wundor,
wonder, cp. Gr. d9p^u) from *fadpla, I gaze at.

§ 36. r (Lat. or, Gr. ap, po) became ur, ru, as OHG.
gi-turrum, OE. durron, we dare, cp. Gr. Oapo-u's (9pa<ru's),
bold, 6apaiiii, I am of good courage; dat. pi. Gr. Trarpdai,
Goth, fadrum, OHG. faterum, OE. fsed(e)rum, to fathers;
Lat. porca, the ridge between two furrows, OHG. furuh,
OE. furh, furrow.

§ 37. 1 (Lat. ol, Gr. aX, Xa) became ul, lu, as Goth, fulls,
O.Icel. fullr, OHG. vol, OS. OE. full, prim, form '^plnos,
full; Goth, wulfs, O.Icel. ulfr, OHG. wolf, OS. OE.wulf,
prim, form *wlqos, wolf.

Note. — If we summarize the vowel-changes which have been
stated in this chapter, it will be seen that the following vowel-
sounds fell together :— a, o, and a ; original u and the u which
arose from Indg. vocalic 1, m, n, r ; i and ei ; a and 5 ; ai and
oi : au and ou.

§§ 38-41] Primitive Germanic Vowel-System 23

CHAPTER III

THE PRIMITIVE GERMANIC VOWEL-SYSTEM

§ 38. From what has been said in §§ 17-37, we arrive at
the following vowel-system for the prim. Germanic lan-
guage :—

Short vowels a, e, i, u

Long „ ffi, e, i, 6, u

Diphthongs ai, au, eu

Note. — s was an open e- sound like OE. ae. e was a close
sound like the e in NHG. reh. The origin of this vowel has
not yet been satisfactorily explained. It is important to re-
member that it is never the equivalent of Indo-Germanic e
(§ 24) which appears as se in prim. Germanic. See §§ 119, 125.

§ 39. This system underwent several modifications
during the prim. Germanic period, i.e. before the parent
language became differentiated into the various separate
Germanic languages. The most important of these changes
were : —

§40. a-t-i)x became ax, as Goth. OS. OHG. fahan,
O.Icel. fa, OE. fon (§ 139), from *far)xa-nan, to catch,
seize, cp. Lat. pango, / fasten ; Goth. Jiahta, OS. thahta,
OHG. dahta, OE. Jjohte (inf. Jjencan), from older *]3ar)xta,
*J>ar|xto-. ^ thought, cp. O.Lat. tonge5, I know. Every
prim. Germanic a in accented syllables was of this origin.
Cp. § 23.

Note. — The a in the above and similar examples was still
a nasalized vowel in prim. Germanic, as is seen by its develop-
ment to 5 in OE. The I (§ 41) and ti (§ 43) were also nasalized
vowels in prim. Germanic.

§ 41. e became i under the following circumstances : —
I. Before a nasal -f- consonant, as Goth. OS. OE.

24 Phonology [§ 41

bindan, O.Icel. binda, OHG. bintan, to bind, cp. Lat.
of-fendimentum, chm-cloth, of-fendix, knot, band, Gr.
■nevBepoi, /ather-in-law; Lat. ventus, Goth, winds, O.Icel.
vindr, OHG, wint, OS. OE. wind, wind; Gr. ire'cTe,
Goth, fimf, O.Icel. fim(m), OHG. fimf, finf, OE. fif (§ 97),
five. This explains why OE. bindan, to bind, and helpan,
to help, belong to the same ablaut-series. See § 226.

This i became i under the same conditions as those
by which a became a (§ 40), as Goth. Jjeihan, OS. thihan,
OHG. dihan, OE. ]jeon (§ 127), from *})ir)xa-nan, older
*])er)xanan, to thrive; and similarly OHG. sihan, OE.
seon, to strain; OHG. fihala, OE. feci, file; OHG.
dihsala, OE. ]3ixl (]jisl), wagon-pole, shaft.

2. When followed by an i, i, or j in the next syllable, as
Goth. OS. OHG. ist, OE. is, from *isti, older *esti = Gr.
e'ffTi, is; OHG. irdin, earthen, beside erda, earth; Goth,
midjis, O.Icel. miSr, OS. middi, OHG. mitti, OE. midd,
Lat. medius, from an original form *medhjos, middle ; OS.
birid, OHG. birit, he bears, from an original form *bhereti,
through the intermediate stages *beredi, *beridi, *bfridi,
beside inf. beran; O.Icel. sitja, OS. sittian, OHG.
sizzen, OE. sittan, from an original form 'sedjonom,
to sit; and similarly O.Icel. liggja, OS. liggian, OHG.
liggen, OE. licgan, to lie down.

This sound-law accounts for the difference in the stem-
vowels of such pairs as OE. feld (OHG. feld), field:
gefilde (OHG. gifildi), a plain; fejjer, feather: fij>ere,
wing; weder (OHG. wetar), weather: gewider (OHG.
giwitiri), storm; heord (OHG. herta), herd: hierde
(OHG. hirti), shepherd; helpan, to help: hilpst, hilp)?
(OHG. hilfls, hilfit) ; beran, to bear : bir(e)st, bir(e)])
(OHG. biris, birit), and similarly in the second and third
person singular of the present indicative of many other
strong verbs ; pp. legen, seten : inf. licgan, to lie down,
sittan, to sit.

§§ 42-3] Primitive Germanic Vowel-System 25

3. In unaccented syllables, except in the combination
-er when not followed by an i in the next syllable, as OE,
fet, older fdet, from *fotiz, older *fotes, feet, cp. Lat.
pedes, Gr. irrfScs. Indg. e remained in unaccented sylla-
bles in the combination -er when not followed by an i in
the next syllable, as ace. OS. fader, OHG. fater, OE.
faeder, Gr. -iraTipa, father ; OE. hwaejaer, Gr. ircSrepos, which
of two.

§ 42. i, followed originally by an a, o, or e in the next
syllable, became e when not protected by a nasal -(-con-
sonant or an intervening i or j, as O.Icel. verr, OS. OHG.
OE. wer, Lat. vir, from an original form *wiros, tnan;
OHG. OE. nest, Lat. nidus, from an original form
*nizdos. In historic times, however, this law has a great
number of exceptions owing to the separate languages
having levelled out in various directions, as OE. spec
beside spic, bacon; OHG. lebara beside OE. lifer, Itver;
OHG. leccon beside OE. liccian, to lick; OHG. leben
beside OE. libban, to live ; OHG. quec beside OE. cwic,
quick, alive.

§ 43. u, followed originally by an a, 6, or e in the next
syllable, became o when not protected by a nasal -(-con-
sonant or an intervening i or j, as OS. dohter, OHG.
tohter, OE. dohtor, Gr. euydrrip, daughter; O.Icel. ok,
OHG. job, OE. geoc (§ 110), Gr. l^yiv, yoke; OHG. got,
OS. OE. god, from an original form *ghut6m,^orf; OHG.
OE. gold, gold, beside OHG. guldln, OE. gylden, golden ;
pp. OS. giholpan, OHG. giholfan, OE. geholpen, helped,
beside pp. OS. gibundan, OHG. gibuntan, OE. gebunden,
bound; pp. OS. gibodan, OHG. gibotan, OE. geboden,
offered, beside pret. pi. OS. budun, OHG. butum, OE.
budon, we offered. Every prim. Germanic o in accented
syllables was of this origin. Cp. § 20.

This sound-law accounts for the difference in the stem-
vowels of such pairs as OE. cnotta, knot: cnyttan from

26 Phonology [§§ 44-5

*knuttjan, to tie ; coss, a kiss : cyssan, to kiss ; corn,
corn: cyrnel, kernel; fox: fyxen, she-fox; god: gyden
(OHG. gutin), goddess; hold, gracious: hyldo (OHG.
huldi), grace, favour; pret. bohte, worhte: inf. bycgan,
to buy, wyrcan, to work.

u became u under the same conditions as those by which
a and i became a and i, as pret. third pers. singular Goth.
]5uhta, OS. thiihta, OHG. diihta, OE. J)uhte, beside
inf. Goth. })Ugkjan, OS. thunkian, OHG. dunken, OE.
J)yncan, to seem; Goth, uhtwo, OS. OHG. uhta, OE.
uhte, daybreak, dawn ; OHG. fuhti, OE. fuht, damp.

§ 44. The diphthong eu became iu when the next
syllable originally contained an i, i, or j, cp. § 41 (2), but
remained eu when the next syllable originally contained an
a, o, or e. The iu remained in OS. and OHG., but became
jii (y by i-umlaut) in O.Icel., and io, (le by i-umlaut)
in OE., as Goth, liuhtjan, OS. liuhtian, OHG. liuhten,
OE. liehtan, to give light: OE. leoht, a light; O.Icel.
dypt, OS. diupi, OHG. tiufi, OE. diepe, depth : OE. deep,
deep; OS. liudi, OHG. liuti, OE. liode, people; OS.
kiusid, OHG. kiusit, O.Icel. kys(s), OE. ciesjj, he
chooses : OE. ceosan, to choose. See § 138.

§ 45. From what has been said in §§ 40-4, it will be
seen that the prim. Germanic vowel-system had assumed
the following shape before the Germanic parent language
became differentiated into the various separate lan-
guages:—

Short vowels a, e, i, o, u
Long ,, a, Ee, e, i, 6, u

Diphthongs ai, au, eu, iu

The following table contains the normal development of
the above vowel-system in Goth. O.Icel. OS. OHG. and
OE. stem-syllables :—

§ 45] Primitive Germanic Vowel-System 27

P. Germ.

Goth.

O.Icel.

OS.

OHG.

OE.

a

a

a

a

a

se

e

i

e

e

e

e

i

i

i

i

i

i

u

u

u

u

u

u

u

(^

a

a

a

a

0)

Ee

e

a

a

a

^

e

e

e

e

ia, (ie)

e

i

ei

i

I

i

1

6

6

6

uo

6

u

u

ii

u

u

u

ai

ki

ei

e

ei

a

au

du

au

6

ou

ea

eu

iu

jo

eo, (io)

eo, (io)

eo

iu

iu

ju

iu

iu

io

Note. — The table does not include the sound-changes
which were caused by umlaut, the influence of neighbouring
consonants, &c. For details of this kind the student should
consult the grammars of the separate languages. But as we
shall have occasion to make use of many Gothic, OS. and OHG.

28 Phonology [§§ 46-7

forms in this grammar, the following points should be noted
here :—

1. Goth, i and u were broken to ai (= short open e) and
aii (= short open o) before r, h, and hr, as bairan, OE. beran,
to bear ; safhran, OHG. sehan, to see ; bairijj, OHG. birit, he
bears; salhrij', OHG. sihit, he sees; pp. baiirans, OE. boren,
borne; daiihtar, OE. dohtor, daughter; waUnns, OHG. wurm,
serpent, worm ; satihts, OHG. suht, sickness, Gothic ei was
a monophthong and was pronounced like the i in the other
Germanic languages. Germanic ai and au remained in Gothic,
but they are generally written &i and ^u in order to distinguish
them from the short vowels af and ati.

2. a was the only vowel which underwent i-umlaut in OS.
and OHG., as sing, gast, pi. gesti = Goth. ^astAs, guests; OS.
sendian, OHG. senten = Goth, sandjan, to send. When it is
necessary for phonological reasons to distinguish between this
e and Germanic e, the latter is written e in this book, as beran,
to bear.

3. Prim. Germanic ai became e in OHG. before r, w, and old
h, as er, before = Goth. Air, soon ; eht = Goth. Aihts, possession ;
gen. snewes, Goth. nom. sndiws, snow.

4. Prim. Germanic au became 5 in OHG. before the con-
sonants d, t, 5, s, n, r, 1, and old h, as tod = Goth. d&u]>us, death ;
kos = Goth, kdus, he chose ; hoh = Goth, h^uhs, high.

CHAPTER IV

THE OLD ENGLISH DEVELOPMENT OF THE
PRIM. GERMANIC VOWELS OF ACCENTED
SYLLABLES

§ 46. Before entering upon the history of the separate
Germanic vowels in OE. it will be well to state and illus-
trate here several phenomena which concern the OE.
vowels in general.

I. Umlaut.
§ 47. Umlaut is of two kinds : Palatal and Guttural.
Palatal umlaut, generally called i-umlaut, is the modification

§ 47] Umlaut 29

(palatalization) of an accented vowel through the influence
of an 1 or j which originally stood in the following syllable.
This process took place in prehistoric OE. and the! or j
had for the most part already disappeared in the oldest
OE. records. The i, which remained, mostly became e at
an early period (§ 215, Note), so that for the proper under-
standing of the forms which underwent i-umlaut it is
necessary to compare I hem with the corresponding forms
of some other Germanic language, especially with the
Gothic. The simple vowels and diphthongs which under-
went i-umlaut in OE. are : a(o), se, o, u ; a, 5, ii ; ea, io ; ea
and 10.

a(o) > e (but se in the oldest period), as bene from
*bar)kiz, bench ; ende, Goth, andeis, end; lengra, OHG.
lengiro, longer ; leng]j(u) from *lar)gij>u, length ; sendan,
Goth, sandjan, to send (§ 60).

ae > e, as bedd, Goth, badi, bed ; bet(e)ra, Goth, batiza,
better ; hebban, Goth, hafjan, to raise ; here, Goth, harjis,
army ; lecgan, Goth, lagjan, to lay (§ 55).

o > e (older ce), as dat. dehter from *dohtri, beside
nom. dohtor, daughter; ele, Lat. oleum, oil; exen, oxen,
beside oxa, ox (§ 107).

u > y, as bycgan, Goth, bugjan, to buy ; cyning, OHG.
kuning, king; cynn, Goth, ktini, race, generation ; gylden,
OHG. guldin, golden ; Jjyncan, Goth. ])Ugkjan, to seem

(§ 112).

a > s, as dslan, Goth, ddiljan, to divide ; Jenig, any ;
hselan, Goth, hdiljan, to heal; hxp, Goth. hdi]}i, heath
(§ 134); Isewan, Goth, lewjan, to betray (§ 120).

6 > e (older de), as bee from *bokiz, books; deman,
Goth, domjan, to judge; fet, OHG, fnoz^i, feet; secan,
Goth. s5kjan, to seek (§ 129). wenan, Goth, wenjan, td
hope ; cwen from *kw6ni-, older *kwaeniz, Goth, qens,
queen, wife (§ 122). ehtan from *ohtjan, to persecute ; fehj>,
he seizes, beside inf. fon (§ 118). est from *6sti-, older

30 Phonology [§ 48

*anstiz, Goih.a.n.%iB, favour; te)>, prim. Germanic *tanj)iz,
teeth (§ 62).

u > y, as mys from *musiz, mice ; brycst from *brukis,
thou enjoyest, bryc}) from *bruki]j, he enjoys, beside inf.
briican (§ 132). cy from *kti-iz, cows (§ 130). cyfian from
*ku))jan, older *kunj)jan, to make known; dystig, dusty

(§ 114).

ea > ie (later i, y), as fiellan from *fealljan, older
*falljan, to fell; ieldra, Goth, aljjiza, older (§ 65). ierfe,
Goth, arbi, inheritance; iermj)(u), OHG. armiAa., poverty
(§67). scieppan, Goth, skapjan, to crrafe(§73). hliehhan,
Goth, hlahjan, to laugh ; wiex]), OHG. wahsit, it grows

(§ 69).

io > ie (later i, y), as hierde, OHG. hirti, shepherd;
ierre, OHG. irri, angry; siehst, OHG. sihis, thou seest;
sieh]>, OHG. sihit, he sees; wiersa, OHG. wirsiro, worse

(§ 99).

ea > Ie (later i, y), as geliefan, Goth, galdubjan, to
believe; hiehsta, Goth, hduhista, highest; hieran, Goth,
hdusjan, to hear[^ 136). ciese, Lat. caseus, cheese ; niehsta
from *neahista, nearest (§ 123), stiele, Germanic stem-
form staxlja-, steel (§ 71). wielisc, prim. Germanic walxi-
sk.az, foreign (§ 64, Note i).

io > ie (later i, y), as ciesj) from *ldosi]j, older *kiusi}j,
he chooses; tieh}) from *tiohiJ>, he draws; liehtan, Goth,
liuhtjan, to give light (§ 138). liehtan from liohtjan, older
*lixtjan, to lighten, make easier; lieh]) from *liohiJ), OHG.
libit, he lends (§ 127). friend, prim. Germanic *frij6ndiz,
friends (§ 104).

§ 48. Guttural umlaut is the modification of an accented
vowel (a, e, i) through the influence of a primitive OE.
guttural vowel (u, o, a) in the next syllable, whereby a
guttural glide was developed after, the vowels a, e, i, which
then combined with them to form the diphthongs ea, eo, io.
As a rule umlaut only took place before a single consonant.

§ 49] Umlaut 31

When the vowel which caused umlaut was u, it is called
u-umlaut, and when o, or a, it is called o/a-umlaut.

u- and o/a-umlaut of a only took place in Mercian, as
featu, vats, heafuc, hawk, steapul, pillar, steaful, foun-
dation, beside fatu, hafoc, stapol, sta]}ol in the other
dialects, fearan, to go, feara]?, they go, feata, of vats,
beside faran, fara]>, fata in the other dialects. See § 78.

u-umlaut of e and i, and o/a-umlaut of i took place in
Ken. before all single consonants, in Anglian before all
single consonants except gutturals (c, g), but in WS. only
before labials and liquids, as eofor (OHG. ebur), boar;
heolostor from older helustr, hiding place ; heorut, hart.
meodu, mead (drink), eosol, donkey = WS. medu, esol.
Ken. breogo, prince = WS. and Anglian brego, see § 92.
mioluc, milk; cliopung, calling, siodu, custom, sionu,
sinew = WS. sidu, sinu. Ken. siocol, sickle, stiogol, stile
= WS. and Anglian sicol, stigol, see § 101. liofast, thou
livest. nioma(n), to take, nioma}>, they take, wiotan, to know
= WS. niman, nima]}, witan. Ken. stiocian from *sti-
kojan, to prick = WS. and Anglian stician, see §§ 92-3,
102.

o/a-umlaut of e did not take place in WS. In Ken. it
took place before all single consonants and in Anglian
before all single consonants except gutturals, as beoran, to
bear, eotan, to eat, feola, many = WS. beran, etan, fela.
Ken. weogas, ways, spreocan, to speak = WS. and Anglian
wegas, spreca(n), see § 93.

2. Breaking.

§ 49. Breaking is due to the influence of an 1, r, or h -l-
consonant, or single h, upon a preceding vowel (Germanic
a, e, i ; 3b, i) whereby a guttural glide was developed
between the vowel and the consonant, which then combined
with the vowel to form a diphthong. For the reason why
breaking took place before 1 and r + consonant more regu-

32 Phonology [§ 50

larly in WS. and Ken. than in Anglian, see § 7. In the
examples given below we shall confine ourselves chiefly to
WS.

a (ae) > ea, as ceald, Goth, kalds, cold; healdan, Goth,
haldan, to hold (§ 64) ; beam, Goth, barn, child ; heard,
Goth, hardus, hard (§ 66) ; eahta, Goth, ahtdu, eight ;
weaxan, Goth, wahsjan, to grow; seah, OHG. sah, he
saw (§ 68).

e > eo, as meolcan, OHG. melkan, to milk; sceolh,
OHG. scelh, wry, oblique (§ 84); eor])e, OHG. erda,
earth; heorte, OHG. herza, heart (§ 85); cneoht, OHG.
kneht, boy; seox, OHG. sehs, six; seoh, see thou (§ 86).

i > io (later eo), as liornian, leornian, from ' limojan, to
learn ; miox, meox, from *mihst, manure (§ 98).

Ee > ea in WS. before h, as neah, Goth, nehr, near;
near from *neahur, older *nsehur (§ 123).

i > io (later eo) in WS. before h and ht, as leoht, Goth,
leihts, adj. light; weoh, idol, Goth, weihs, holy (§ 127).

3. Influence of Nasals.

§ 50. a became a low-back-wide vowel, written a, o,
before nasals, as camb, comb, comb ; nama, noma, name ;
land, lond, land; lang, long, long (§ 59).

e > i before Germanic m (§ 81), and in early Latin loan-
words before nasal + consonant (§ 82), as niman, OHG.
neman, to take ; gimm, Lat. gemma, gem ; pinsian, Lat.
pensare, to weigh, ponder, consider.

o > u before nasals, as gtmia, OHG. gome, man; numen,
OHG. ginoman, taken; hunig, OHG. honag, honey;
Jiunor, OHG. donar, thunder (§ 109).

ffi > o before nasals (§ 121), as mona, Goth, mena, moon ;
nomon, Goth, nemun, they took.

Nasals disappeared before the voiceless spirants f, J7,
and s with lengthening of the preceding vowel, as fif,

§ 5i] Influence of initial Pal. Consonants 33

OHG. &vo.t,five; osle, OHG. amsala, ows^/ (§ 283); cujj,
Goth. kun))s, known ; g5s, OHG. gans, goose ; 6})er, Goth.
an}>ar, other (§ 286).

4. Influence of Initial Palatal Consonants.

§ 51. Between palatal c (§ 309), g (= Germanic 5, § 313),
g {= Germanic j, § 268), so (§ 312), and the following
palatal vowel, a glide was developed in prim. OE., which
combined with the vowel to form a rising diphthong, and
then at a later period the rising diphthong became a fall-
ing diphthong through the shifting of the stress from
the second to the first element of the diphthong. The
examples given below are chiefly WS. ; for the correspond-
ing forms in the other dialects, the student should consult
the paragraphs within brackets.

ae > ea (older ese), as ceaster, Lat. castra, city, fortress ;
ceaf, chaff; geaf, Goth, gaf, he gave; sceaft, OHG. scaft,
shaft ; sceal, Goth, skal, shall (§ 72).

e > ie (older ie), as cieres, Lat. cerasum, cherry-tree ;
giefan, OHG. geban, to give ; scieran, OHG. sceran, to
shear (§ 91). ciele from *keli, older *kaliz, cold ; giest from
*gest, older * ^a.st\z, guest ; scieppan from ♦skeppan, Goth.
skapjan, to create (§ 73).

se > ea (older eae), as ceace, prim. Germanic *kffik6n-,
jaw ; geafon, Goth, gebun, they gave ; gear, Goth, jer,
vear; sceap, Goth, *skep, sheep (§ 124).

Note.— In forms like g^ioc, geoc (OHG. job), yoke (§ 110) ;
giong, geong (OHG. jung), young (§ 116) ; geSmor (OHG.
jamar), sad (§ 122, Note), the io, eo, e5 may have been rising
diphthongs, but it is difficult to determine how far they were
diphthongs at all, and how far the i, e were merely inserted
to indicate the palatal nature of the g = Germanic j (§ 268).
It is highly probable that in forms like sceacan, to shake,
sceadu, shadow, beside scacan, scadu (§ 57, Note), sceolde,
OHG. scolta, should (§ HO), sceadan beside scadan, to divide

34 Phonology [§§ 52-3

(§ 133, Note 2), the e was merely inserted to indicate the palatal
nature of these (§ 312).

5. Influence of w.

§ 52. e and e (= Germanic se) were often rounded to
oe and 6e after w in Nth., as cuoeJ>a, WS. cwe}>an, to say
(§ 80, Note i); cucElla, WS. cwellan, to kill; tuoelf.WS.
twelf, twelve (§ 55, Note i). huder, where, wderon, were =
WS. hwser, wjeron (§ 119, Note 2).

e became eo before w + a following vowel, as gen.
cneowes, treowes, beside nom. cneo, knee, tree, tree
(§ 89); eowestre (cp. Goth, awistr), sheepfold; meowle
(Goth, mawilo), maiden (§ 77).

se became a before w, as blawan from *bleewan, to
blow ; cnawan, to know ; sawon, they saw (§ 120).

Initial weo> became wu- (rarely wo-) in late WS., as
swurd, sword, swuster, sister, worold, woruld, world,
beside older sweord (OHG. swert), sweostor (OHG.
swester), weorold (OHG. weralt), see § 94.

Initial wio- became wu- in WS. and Anglian, but
remained in Ken., as wudu, wood, beside Ken. wiodu
(§103).

§ 53. The following was the chronological order in which
the sound-laws stated in §§ 47-52 took place: (i) The
influence of nasals. (2) Breaking. (3) The influence of
initial palatal consonants. (4) i-umlaut. (5) u-, o/a-
umlaut. (6) Influence of w.

Note. — In the case of words where diphthongization by
preceding palatals and u-, o/a-umlaut concur, the latter has
the predominance, as geolo, yellow ; geoloca, yolk ; ceole (ace.
ceolan, § 403), throat. This does not however prove that
u, o/a-umlaut chronologically precedes diphthongization by
preceding palatals. Either geolo, &c., are not pure WS. forms
(see § 92) or else the ie became eo by umlaut, in which case
forms like giefu (§ 365) would have ie from the oblique cases.

§ S4l Short Vowels of Accented Syllables 35

A. The Short Vowels of Accented Syllables.

§ 54. Apart from the influence of neighbouring sounds
the normal development of Germanic a (= Goth. O.I eel.
OS. OHG. a) is ae in OE.

Examples in closed syllables are: daeg, Goth, dags,
O.Icel. dagr, OS. dag, OHG. tag, day; faet, Goth. Jiata,
O.Icel. Jjat, OS. that, OHG. da?, the ; and similarly baec,
back ; baej>, tath ; blaec, black ; braes, brass ; craeft, skt'll ;
dael, dale; aefter, after; aet (unstressed ot), at; faest, fast,
firm; fast, vat, vessel; glaed, glad; glaes, glass; graes
(gaers), grass ; haefde, he had ; hwael, whale ; hwaet, what ;
paejj, path ; saegde, he said \ smael, small ; staef, staff; in
the pret. sing, of strong verbs belonging to classes IV
(§ 503) and V (§ 505), as baer (Goth. O.Icel. OS. OHG.
bar), bore; braec, broke; cwae}), said; saet, sat; waes,
was. On forms like aeppel, apple, beside pi. appla, see
§57.

Examples in open syllables when followed by a palatal
vowel, or a vocalic nasal or liquid in the next syllable, are :
aecer (Goth, akrs), field, acre ; aecern, acorn ; faeder,
father; faeger (Goth. i&gTB), fair, beautiful; hlaedel, /arf/e ;
hraefen, hraefn, raven; hwaejjer, whether; msegen (Goth.
"msLgVi), power ; naegel, naegl (Goth. *nagls), «fl/7; waster,
water; faejiin (Goth. *fa])ms), embrace, fathom ; haegl, hail;
snaegl, snail; txgl, tail; waegn, wagon; sing. gen. daeges,
faetes, dat. dsege, faete, beside nom. daeg, day ; faet, vat.

Note. — i. se became e in Ken. and partly also in Mercian, as
deg, feder, fet, hefde, set, wes, weter = WS. dseg, faeder, &c.

2. ae became se by loss of g, as br%d, he brandished; msden,
maiden; ssede, he said; wsen, wagon, beside braegd, maegden
(§ 58), saegde, waegn.

3. a often occurs where we should expect se. In such cases
the a is due to levelling and new formations, as sing. gen. pa]7es,

D 2

36 Phdnology [§ 56

dat. pa^e, beside pae]>es, psefie, due to the plural forms pa])as,
pa]>a, pa}>uin (§ 336) ; fem. gen. dat. ace. singular sace, swa))e,
beside saece, sweejje, due to nom. singular sacu, strife, quarrel ;
swajju, track ; and plural saca, swa}»a, &c. (§ 366) ; masc. gen.
sing, glades, beside nom. glaed, glad, due to forms like dat. sing,
and plural gladum (§ 424) ; imperative of strong verbs be-
longing to class VI (§ 508), as far, sac, due to the influence of
the infinitive faran, to go, travel ; sacan, to quarrel ; and similarly
in the pp. faren ; grafen, dug ; hladen, loaded, beside graefen,
hlseden. On the analogy of such past participles was formed
slagen beside slsgen, slain.

§ 55. se became e by i-umlaut, as bedd, Goth, badi,
OHG. betti, bed; bet(e)ra, Goth, batiza, better; hebban,
Goth, hafjan, OS. heffian, to raise ; here, Goth, harjis,
OS. OHG.heri.arwy; lecgan.Goth. lagjan, OS. leggian,
to lay; and similarly bere, barley; bet from *batiz, better;
cwellan (wv.), to kill; ege, awe, fear ; elles, else ; hege,
hedge; hell (Goth, halja), hell; herian, to praise; hete,
hate; taeTe,lake; mete, meat, food ; nerian, to save ; nett,
net; secgan, to say ; sellan, to sell; settan, fo set; stede,
place; swerian, to swear; tellan, to count; twelf (Goth,
twalif), twelve ; webb, web ; weccan, to awake. But stsepe
beside stepe, step.

Note. — i. In Nth. e was often rounded to ce after w, as
cucella, to kill; tuoelf, twelve.

2. The regular forms of the second and third pers. singular
of the pres. indicative of strong verbs belonging to class VI
(§ 508) would have e, as in OHG. feris, thou goest; ferit, he
goes, but in OE. the a of the other forms of the present was
extended to th c second and third pers. singular, and then
a became as by i-umlaut, as faerest, faere]7.

3. It is difficult to account for the absence of umlaut in
laeccan, to seize ; pae]>];an, to traverse ; saecc, strife ; waecce,
vigil; and for gemaecca, mate ; hascc, gate, hatch ; maecg, man,
warrior ; stseppan, to step ; wraecca (OS. wrekkio), exile, beside
the umlauted forms gemecca, mecgj steppan, wrecca.

§§56-7] Short Vowels of Accented Syllables n

§ 58. Umlaut generally did not take place before Ger-
manic consonant combinations, as dwaescan, to extinguish ;
aesc from *askiz, ash-tree ; aespe, aspen ; faestan, to fasten ;
hsftan, to hold captive ; maestan, to fatten ; naeglan, to
nail; rsescan, to coruscate. But umlaut occurs in eft,
again; esne, servant; rest, rest; restan, to rest; and in
efnan, to perform ; stefnan, to regulate, beside aefnan,
staefnan.

§ 57. Germanic a remained in open syllables when
originally followed by a guttural vowel (a, o, u) in the
next syllable, as pi. nom. ace. dagas, gen. daga, dat.
dagum, beside sing. nom. daeg, day; gen. dseges, dat.
daege ; neut. nom. ace. plural ba]5U, baths ; bladu, leaves
fatu, vats, beside singular bae]?, blaed, faet; OE. Goth.
OS. OHG. faran, O.Icel. fara, to go, travel; nacod,
Goth. naqa])S, OHG. nackot, naked; and similarly alan,
to nourish; apa, ape; bacan, to bake; calan, to be cold;
cam, care; cradol, cradle; dragan, to draw; pres. subj.
fare (Goth, fardi), he may travel; gaderian from *5adu-
Tojan, to gather ; galan, to sing ; gnagan, to gnaw ; grafan,
to dig; hafoc, hawk; hafola, hafela, head; hagol, hail;
hagu, enclosure; hara, hare; hladan, to load; hraJ>or,
more quickly ; lagu, law ; latost, latest, slowest ; la}>a^, he
invites; la]7ode, he invited; maca)), he makes; maccde,
he made; magu, boy; nafula, nafela, navel; racu, narra-
tive; sacaxi, to quarrel ; ^slcvl, strife ; sadol, sarf<//i? ; stapol,
pillar ; stafelian from "stafulojan, to establish ; talu,
statement ; wadan, to go, wade, macian from *mak5jan,
to make ; and similarly in the inf. of other weak verbs
belonging to class II (§ 535), as ba]jian, to bathe; daglan,
to dawn; gladian, to be glad; hatian, to hate; la]>ian, to
invite.

It also remained in closed syllables before double con-
sonants (except hh), ec, and st, when the next syllable
originally contained a guttural vowel, as abbod (Lat. ace*

38 Phonology [§§ 58-9

abbatem), abbot; assa, donkey; catte (OHG. kazza),
cat; cassuc, sedge; gaffetung, scoffing; habban (§ 538),
to have; hassnc, coarse grass ; maffa, caul; mattoc, mat-
tock; sacc, sack; J>accian, to flap, pat; flasce (flaxe),
flask ; masc (max), net ; wascan (waxan), to wash ; brast'
lian, to crackle. But a few words have ae beside a, as
sesce, ash, cinders; aeppel, apple; hnaeppian, to doze
Iseppa, lappet, beside asce (axe), appla, apples, hnappian,
lappa.

Note.— sea- was often written scea- with e to denote the
palatal pronunciation of the sc, as sceacan, to shake ; sceadu,
shadow ; sceafan, to shave ; scealu, scale {balance) ; sceamu
(sceomu, § 69), shame, beside scacan, scadu, scafan, scalu,
scamu (scomu). See § 51, Note.

§ 58. a became ae when followed by an umlauted vowel
in the next syllable, as seces (aex) from *aky&i, older
*akusi-, axe; and similarly aejjele from*a]3ali (OS. adali),
noble; sejjeling from "apuling, nobleman; set-, to-gsedere
from *-gaduri, together; fsesten (OS. fastunnia, /asft'wg-),
fortress ; gsedeling (OS. gaduling), companion ; hselef from
*xaluj)i-, hero ; hserfest from *xarubist, harvest ; msegden
from *magadin (OHG. magatin), maiden. The ae in the
above examples is a kind of umlaut.

Note. — The a in the stem-syllable of the present participle
and gerund of strong verbs belonging to class VI (§ 508) is due
to the a of the infinitive, as farende for *faerende from *farandi,
farenne for *faBrenne from *farannjai.

§ 59. Germanic a was probably a mid-back-wide vowel
like the a in German Mann. In OE, it became a low-
back-wide vowel before nasals like the a in French pate,
and the a as pronounced in many Scotch dialects in such
words as ant, man, pass, which English people often mis-
take for o especially when lengthened. In the oldest OE.
it was nearly always written a, in the ninth century it was
mostly written o, and in late OE. mostly a again, but

§ 6o] Short Vowels of Accented Syllables 39

in some parts of Mercia it seems to have become o which
has been preserved in many of the Midland dialects down
to the present day. Examples are : gangan, gongan,
Goth, gaggan, O.Icel. ganga, OS. OHG. gangan, to go;
hana, bona, Goth, hana, O.Icel. hane, OS. OHG.
hano, cock; lang, long, Goth, laggs, O.Icel. langr, OS.
OHG. lang, long; nama, noma, Goth, namd, OS. OHG.
name, name; and similarly ancor (Lat. ancora), anchor;
hana., slayer ; brand, /irebrand ; camb, comb; camp, badle;
candel (Lat. candela), candle ; cann, he can ; fana, banner;
gandra, gander; gesamnian, to colled; hamor, hammer ;
hand, hand; lama, lame; lamb, lamb; land, land; manig
(Goth, manags), many ; mann, man ; ramm, ram ; span-
nan, to clasp, fasten ; standan, to stand ; Strang, strong ;
}>anc, thought; J)wang, thong; in the pret. singular of
many strong verbs of class III (§ 498), as begann, began ;
dranc, drank ; land, found; sang, sang ; swamm, swam ;
with metathesis of r in born from older bronn, brann
(Goth, brann), burned; orn from older ronn, rann (Goth.
rann), ran.

Note. — The a became o in unstressed adverbial and pro-
nominal forms, as hwonne, when ; on, on ; Jjonne, then ; masc.
ace. singular hwone, whom ; Jione, the.

§ 60. a (o) became e (but se in the oldest period) by
i-umlaut, as ende, Goth, andeis, O.Icel. ende, OS. endi,
OHG. enti, stem andja-, end; lengra, OS. lengira, OHG.
lengiro, longer; sendan, Goth, sandjan, OS. sendian,
to send; and similarly bene from *bar)kiz, bench ; cemban,
to comb ; cempa, warrior ; drencan, to give to drink ; ened,
duck ; enge, narrow ; englisc, English ; fremman, to per-
form ; henn, hen ; lengj), length ; menn, men ; mengan,
to mix ; mennisc, human ; nemnan, to name ; pening,
penny; strengra, stronger; ]>encan, to think; wendan, to
turn, bsernan (Goth, brannjan), to burn; sernan (Goth.

40 Phonology [§§ 61-4

rannjan), to run, gallop, with metathesis of r and preserva-
tion of the older stage of umlaut.

§ 61. Nasals disappeared before the voiceless spirants,
f, ^p, s, and the preceding a (o) became through the inter-
mediate stage of a long nasalized vowel (cp. § 40), as hos,
Goth. OHG. hansa, band, escort, multitude; ofer, Goth.
an])ar, second, other; softe, OHG. samfto, gently, softly ;
and similarly gos, goose; os-, god; osle (OHG. amsala),
blackbird; smbpe, smoothly ; sb]>,true; to]), tooth; Jjrostle,
thrush, throstle; wos, moisture.

§ 62. 6 became e (older oe) by i-umlaut, as est, Goth,
ansts, stem-form s.wsii; favour; nejjan, Goth. ana-nan])jan,
to venture on ; tej) from *tan])iz, teeth ; and similarly fejje,
walking, movement; ges, geese ; gese]>an, to testify, declare ;
sefte, soft ; smefe, smooth.

§ 63. a was broken to ea before 1, r, and h + consonant,
and before simple h. Forms without breaking often occur
in the oldest period of the language. Breaking did not
take place in Anglian before 1 -f consonant, and frequently
not before r -f- consonant. See 1, r (§ 7).

§64. I. Before 1 + consonant.

eall, Goth, alls, O.Icel. allr, OS. OHG. al, all; ceald,
Goth, kalds, O.Icel. kaldr, OS. kald, OHG. kalt, co«;
healdan, Goth. OS. haldan, O.Icel. halda, OHG. haltan,
to hold; and similarly cealc, chalk; cealf, calf; dealf,
he dug; eald, old; ealh, temple; fealdan, to fold; feallan,
to fall; gealga, gallows; healf, half; heall, hall; healp,
he helped ; heals, neck ; mealt, malt ; sealf, salve, ointment ;
sealfian, to anoint; sealh, willow; sealt, salt; tealde, he
told; wealdan, to wield; wealh, foreigner, Welshman;
weall, wall; weallan, to boil. Forms like bealu, bale,
evil; fealn, fallow ; sealu, dark, dusky, beside balu, falu,
salu, have the ea from the inflected stem-form, as gen.
bealwes, fealwes, sealwes (see § 265).

Note. — i. ea became ea by loss of h before a following

§§65-6] Short Vowels of Accented Syllables 41

vowel, as gen. singular seales, weales, nom. pi, sealas,
wealas, beside nom. singular sealh, wealh. ea became Te
by i-umlaut, as -wielisc, /or«^, Welsh.

2. a remained unbroken in late Latin loanwords, as albe
(Lat. alba), alb; alter (Lat. altare), altar; fals (Lat. falsus),
false ; palm (Lat. palma), palm-tree.

§ 65. ea became ie (later i, y) by i-umlaut, as fiellan
from *fealljan, older *falljan, to fell; fielst from *fealliE(t),
thou fattest ; fiel]> from *feallijj, he falls; ieldra (Goth.
al})iza), older ; ieldesta, oldest ; ieldu, old age ; mieltan
(wv.), to melt.

Note. — The corresponding vowel in Anglian is ae (also e), as
aeldra, eldra, seldu, faella(n), fella(n) ; and in Ken. e, as eldra,
eldu.

§ 66. 2. Before r + consonant.

beam, Goth. O.Icel. OS, OHG. barn, child; heard,
Goth, hardus, O.Icel. harSr, OS. hard, OHG. hsLrX,hard ;
and similarly beard, beard; bearg, pig; bearm, bosom;
cearf, he carved; dearr, / dare; earc (Lat. area), ark;
earm, arm; ea.Tta,poor; eart, thou art; fearh, boar, pig;
geard, yard; gearn, yarn; gearwian, to prepare; ge-
mearcian, to mark ; hearg, heathen temple ; hearm, harm ;
mearc, boundary; mearg, marrow; mearh, horse; pearroc,
park ; scearp, sharp ; swearm, swarm ; wearm, warm ;
wearp, he threw ; wear}>, he became. Forms like bearu,
grove; gearu, ready; mearu, tender; nearu, narrow;
seam, plot, device, have ea from the inflected stem-form,
as gen, bearwes, gearwes, mearwes, &c. (see § 265).

Note. — i. In Anglian ea became as (latere) before r + guttural,
as berg, ere, feerh (ferh), maerc (mere), &c.

2. a remained unbroken in late Latin loanwords, as carcern,
prison ; martyr, martyr.

3, ea became ea by loss of h before a following vowel, as
gen. singular feares, meares, nom. pi. fearas, mearas, beside
nom. singular fearh, mearh.

42 Phonology [§§*6-9

4. Forms like asm (Goth, razn), Aoms« ; pret. sing, arn (Goth,
rann), ran; barn (Goth, brann), burned; basrst (OHG. brast),
burst; gsers (Goth. %tB.s), grass ; haern, jyaf?, are due to a late
metathesis of the r.

§ 67. ea became ie (later i, y) by i-umlaut, as dieme,
OS. derni, OHG. tarni, secret; ierfe, Goth, arbi, OS.
OHG. erbi, inheritance ; and similarly cierran, to turn ;
gierd, rod, twig; gierwan from *gearwjan, to prepare;
ierming, pauper; iermjju (OHG. armida), poverty; wier-
man, to warm.

Note.— The corresponding vowel in the non-WS. dialects
is e, as derne, erfe, ermjju, &c.

§68.3. Before h + consonant (also x = hs) and simple h.

eahta, Goth, ahtdu, OS. OHG. ahto, eight ; seah, Goth,
sahr, OS. OHG. sah, he saw; weaxan, Goth, wahsjan,
O.Icel. vaxa, OS. OHG. wahsan, to grow; and similarly
ea.^, axle-tree; ea.7Ll, shoulder ; feaht, he fought; feax.hair;
fleax, Jlax ; gefeah, he rejoiced ; geneahhe, enough, often ;
hleahtor, laughter ; meaht (later miht), power, might ;
meaht, thou mayest; meahte, he might, could; neaht
(later niht), night; seax, knife; sleah (imperative), slay
thou; weax, wax.

Note. — 1. ea became ae in Anglian, as aehta, fsex, hlsehtor,
saeh, waex, &c.

2. It became e in late WS., as ehta, exl, fax, seh, sex, sleh,
wexan.

§ 69. ea became ie (later i, y) by i-umlaut, as hliehhan
(Goth, hlahjan), to laugh ; mieht (Goth, mahts, stem-form
mahti-), power, might ; miehtig, mighty ; nieht, night ;
sliehst (Goth, slahis), thou slayest; sliehj) (Goth, slahit),
he slays; slieht, stem-form slahti-, slaughter; wiexj>
(OHG. wahsit), it grows.

Note. — The corresponding vowel in Anglian is ae, as hlaeh-
ha(n), meeht, msehtig, &c.

§§70-5] Short Vowels of Accented Syllables 43

§ 70. ea became ea by loss of intervocalic h, as ea, Goth.
ahra, OS. OHG. aha, water, river ; slean from *sleahan,
Goth. OS. OHG. slahan, to slay, strike; and similarly
flean, to flay ; lea from *leahu, / blame ; lean, to blame ;
slea, I slay ; sleajj from *sleaha)j, they slay; })wean, to
wash; ear (Nth. sehher) from *eahur, older *ahur, OHG.
ahir, ear of corn ; tear (Nth. tsehher) from *teahur, older
*tahur, OHG. zahar, tear.

§ 71. ea became ie (later i, y) by i-umlaut, as stiele from
"stiehle, Germanic stem-form *staxlja-, steel.

§ 72. ae (older a) became ea (older esfe) after initial
palatal c, g, and so, as ceaf, chaff; ceafor, cockchafer;
ceaster (Lat. castra), city, fortress; forgeat (OS. forgat),
he forgot; gQSii{Go^h.gsi),hegave; geat(O.Icel. OS. gat),
gate, opening, hole; sceaft (OHG. scaft), shaft; sceal
(Goth, skal), I shall; sceatt(Goth. skatts), money, property.

Note.— I. Anglian has ae beside ea, and Ken. e (ae), as Anglian
casster (ceaster), gaet (geat), scael (sceal) = Ken. cester, get,
seel, e also occurs occasionally in Mercian.

2. Forms like ceald, cold; cealf, calf; geard, yard; gearn,
yarn; scealt, thou shalt; scearp, sharp, are due to breaking
(§§ 64, 66), which took place earlier than the influence of
palatals upon a following se. In both cases the ea became e in
late WS., as celf, gef, get, &c.

§ 73. ea became ie (later i, y) by i-umlaut, as ciefes
from *kabis6, concubine; ciele from *kaliz, cold; cietel
(Lat. catillus), kettle; giest(Goth. gasts, stem-form gasti-),
gwst ; scieppan (Goth, skapjan), to create.

Note. — The corresponding vowel in the non-WS. dialects is
e, as cefes, cele, gest, sceppan, &c.

§ 74. Germanic a generally remained before the w which
was regularly preserved in OE., as gen. dat. singular clawe
beside nom. clea, claw ; awul, awel, awl ; ))awian, to thaw.

§ 75. a + u (which arose from wu or vocalized w (§ 265))
became ea (cp. § 135), as clea from *kla(w)u, claw ; nom.

44 Phonology [§§ 76-80

ace. pi. neuter fea from * fa(w)u, few ; dat. feam from
*fa(w)um ; hrea from *hraw., raw ; strea from *straw-,
straw ; J>rea from *J)ra(w)u, threat.

§ 76. Prim. Germanic aww (= Goth, aggw) became
auw in West Germanic, which regularly became eaw in
OE. (cp. § 135), as deaw (Goth. *daggwa-, OHG. tou,
gen. tcuwes), dew ; gleaw (Goth, glaggwu-ba, diligently),
wise; heawan (Goth. *haggwan, OHG. houwan), to hew;
sceawian (Goth. *skaggw6n, OHG. scouwon), to examine,
view.

§ 77. a became e by i-umlaut, then at a later period the
e became eo before w, as ewe beside eowe, eowu (cp. Lat.
o\i%),ewe; eo^&G, flock, herd; eowestre(cp.Goth.awistr),
sheepfold ; meowle (Goth, mawilo), girl ; strewede beside
streowede (Goth, strawida), he strewed.

§ 78. In Mercian a became ea before single consonants
by u- and o/a-umlaut, as ealu, ale ; beadu, battle ; eafora,
son ; featu, vats ; heafuc, hawk ; heafola, head ; heaj)u,
war ; steapul, pillar ; Etea]>ul, foundation, fearan, to go,
travel; fearajj, they travel; gen. pi. feata, of vats; geata,
of gates; gleadian, to rejoice; hleadan, to load; leatian,
to be slow. For the corresponding non-Mercian forms, see
§ 57.

Note. — i. The ea became se before gutturals, as dsgas
(= WS. dagas), days ; draeca, dragon ; maegun, they can.

2. Umlaut rarely took place before double consonants, as
eappultun (WS. aeppeltun), orchard; hneappian (WS. hnap-
pian), to dose.

3. WS. ealu, and forms like eafora, heafoc, &c., which are
common in poetry, are all originally from the Mercian dialect.

§ 79. Final a was lengthened to a in monosyllables, as
hwa (Goth, hras), who ; swa (Goth, swa), so.

e

§ 80. Germanic e (= Goth, i, but ai before r, h, and hi,
O Icel. OS. OHG. e) often remained in OE., as OE. OS.

§§ 8i-3] Short Vowels of Accented Syllables 45

OHG.feld,y?e/rf; fejjer, OS. fethara, OHG.feA&ra., feather;
weg, Goth, wigs, O.lcel. vegr, OS. OHG. weg, way ; and
similarly bes(e)ma, besom ; cwene (Goth, qino, OHG.
quena), woman ; denu, valley ; ef(e)n, even ; fela, much ; fell,
skin; ie\.OT, fetter; helm, helmet; le})er, leather; nefa, nephew;
nest, nest; reg(e)n, rain; segl, sail; seldan, seldom;
senep, mustard; setl, seat; snegl, snail; snell, quick;
])egn, thane; weder, weather; wel (adv.), roe//; wer, man;
west, roes/ ; in the present of strong verbs belonging to
classes III (§ 499), IV, and V, as helpan, Goth, hilpan,
OS. helpan, OHG. helfan, to help ; and similarly belgan,
to swell with anger; hellan, to bellow; delian, to dig; meltan,
to melt; swellan, /o sroe//; sweltan, /o rf/e ; bera.n, to bear ;
brec&n, to break ; helan, to conceal ; stelan, to steal ; teran,
to tear ; cnedan, to knead ; cwefan, to say ; etan, to eat ;
fretan, to devour; lesan, to collect; metan, to measure;
Eprecan, to speak ; tredan, to tread ; wefan, to weave ;
wesan, to be.

Note.— I. In Nth. e was often rounded to oe after w, as cuoefia,
woel, wceg = WS. cwe}>an, wel, weg.

2. e became e by loss of g, as bredan, to brandish ; ren, rain ;
stredan, to strew ; )>en, thane, beside bregdan, regn, stregdan,
J>egn.

§ 81. e became i before Germanic m, as niman (OHG.
neman), to take ; rima, rim. This sound-change did not
take place when the m arose from f by assimilation
with n, as emn, even ; stemn, voice, beside older ef(e)n,
stefn.

§ 82. e became i before nasal + consonant in early Latin
loanwords, but remained in later loanwords, as gimm (Lat.
gemma), gem; mint (Lat. mentha), mint; pinsian (Lat.
pensare), to consider ; but tempi (Lat. templum), temple.

§ 83. e was broken to eo before Ic, Ih, before r and
h+ consonant, and before simple h. Breaking did not
take place in Anglian before Ic, Ih.

46 Phonology [§§ 84-6

§ 84. I. Before Ic, Ih.

aseolcan, to become languid; eolh (OHG. elaho), elk ;
meolcan (OHG. melkan), to milk; seolh (OHG. selah),
seal; sceolh (OHG. scelh, scelah), wry, oblique. But
Anglian elh, melca(n), selh, &c.

Note.— I. eo became eo by loss of h before a following vowel,
as feolan from *feolhan (= Goth, filhan, OHG. bi-felhan), to
hide ; gen. eoles, seoles, beside nom. eolh, seolh.

2. It is difficult to account for the breaking in heolfor, blood,
gore ; and seolf, self, beside the commoner form self.

§ 85. 2. Before r + consonant.

eorjie, Goth, airjja, OS. erda, OHG. erda, earth;
heorte, Goth, hairtd, OS. herta, OHG. herza, heart;
weorjian, Goth, wairfan, O.Icel. verSa, OS. werdan,
OHG. werdan, to become ; and similarly beorcan, to
bark; beorg, hill; beorgan, to shelter; beorht, bright;
ceorfan, to cut, carve; ceorl, churl; deorc, dark; dweorg,
dwarf; eorl, nobleman, earl; feorh, life ; teorr, far ; georn,
eager; heord, herd, flock ; heorlp, hearth ; steorf an, to die ;
steorra, star; sweord, sword; weorc, work; weorpan,
to throw ; weorj), worth.

Note.— I. Breaking is older than the metathesis of r in forms
like berstan (OHG. brestan), to burst; terse, fresh ; )>erscan,
to thrash.

2. The eo became e in Anglian before r + guttural, as
berga(n), berht, derc, dwerg, ferh, were = WS. beorgan,
beorht, &c.

3. The eo became ea in Nth., and io in Ken. (cp. § 137), as
Nth. earjje, hearte, stearra = Ken. iorjje, hiorte, stiorra =
WS. and Mercian eorjje, heorte, steorra.

4. eo became eo by loss of h before a following vowel, as gen.
feores, Jsweores, beside nom. feorh, life ; ))weorh, perverse,
across.

§ 86. 3. Before h + consonant (also x=hs) and simple h.
cneoht (OHG. kneht), boy; eoh, horse; feoh, cattle;

§§87-90] Short Vowels of Accented Syllables 47

feohtan (OHG. fehtan), to fight ; Peohtas, Picts ; pleoh,
danger; reoht (Goth, raihts, OS. OHG. reht), right;
seox (Goth, saihs, OS. OHG. sehs), six; imperative
sing, seoh, see thou. But already at an early period the
eo became ie (later i, rarely y) before hs and ht in WS.
and i in Ken., as cnieht, cniht ; ryht, riht ; siex, six.

Note.— eo became e in Anglian, as cneht, feh, fehta(n), reht,
sex = early WS. cneoht, feoh, &c.

§ 87. eo became eo (io) by loss of intervocalic h, as seon
(sion) from "seohan, older *sehan = Goth, saihran, OS.
OHG. sehan, to see ; sweor from 'sweohur, older
*swehur = OHG. swehur, father-in-law ; and similarly
gefeon, to rejoice ; gefeo from *gefeohu, / rejoice ; pleon,
to risk ; sec from *seohu, I see ; gen. singular fees, pleos,
beside nom. feoh, cattle ; pleoh, danger.

§ 88. Final ew became eu, and then eu became eo
at the same time as Germanic eu became eo (see § 137), as
sing. nom. cneo, Germanic stem-form *knewa-, knee ; tree,
tree ; ]jeo, slave, servant. See § 265.

§ 89. Antevocalic ew became eow, as sing. gen.
cneowes, treowes, feowes, dat. cneowe, treowe, J>eowe ;
]7eowian (Jriowian), to serve. Forms like nom. cneow,
treow, J)eow had the w from the inflected forms. And
conversely forms like gen. cnecwes, treowes, ])eowes
had eo from the uninflected forms.

§ 90. Prim. Germanic eww ( = Goth, iggw) became
euw in West Germanic, and then euw became eow in
OE., as treow (OS. treuwa, OHG. triuwa), trust, faith,
cp. Goth, triggwa, covenant.

Prim. Germanic ewwj became iowj through the inter-
mediate stages iwwj, iuwj, and then iowj became iew(e) in
WS. and iow(e), eow(e) in non-WS., as WS.getriewe, non-
WS. getriowe, getreowe (OHG. gitriuwi), prim. Ger-
manic *-trewwjaz, cp. Goth, triggws, true, faithful ; WS.

48 Phonology [§§ 91-2

getriewan, non-WS. getriowan, getreowan, prim. Ger-
manic *-trewwjan, to trust. And similarly West Germanic
iwwj (§ 254) from prim. Germanic ewj, as WS. hiew,
hiw, non-WS. hiow, heow, prim. Germanic stem-form
*xewja-, shape, colour; WS. niewe, niwe, non-WS.
niowe, neowe, prim. Germanic stem-form "newja-, new.

§ 91. e became ie (later i, y) after palatal c, g, and sc in
WS., but remained e in Anglian and Ken., as cieres,
cires (Lat. ace. cerasum), cherry-tree; forgietan (OS.
forgetan), to forget; giefan (O.Icel. gefa, OS. geban,
OHG. geban), to give; giefu, gift; gieldan, to yield;
giellan, to yell; gielpan, to boast; giest (cp. OHG. jesan,
to ferment), yeast; scield, shield; scieran (OHG. sceran),
to shear. But Anglian and Ken. gefa(n), gelda(n), ECeld, &c.

Note. — The above sound-change took place later than breaking,
cp. ceorfan, ceorl, georn, § 85.

§ 92. e became eo by u-umlaut in Ken. before all single
consonants, in Anglian before all single consonants except
gutturals (c, g), and in WS. before single labials and
liquids, as beofor, beaver; eofor (OHG. ebur), boar;
geoloca, yolk; geolo (OS. OHG. gelo, gen. gelwes),
yellow ; heofon, heaven ; heolor, scales, balance ; heolstor
from older helustr, hiding place ; heorut, hart ; meolu
(OHG. melo, gen. mel(a)wes), meal, flour; seofon, seven ;
smeoru, grease, fat ; teoru, tar ; weorod, troop. Non-
WS. eodor, enclosure; eosol, donkey; teotor, fetter; meodu,
mead (drink) ; meotod, creator = WS. edor, esol, fetor,
medu, mated. Ken. breogo, prince ; reogol (Lat. regula),
rule = WS. and Anglian brego, regol.

Note. — i. u-umlaut took place in WS. in the combination we,
as hweogol, wheel ; sweotol, plain, clear ; weotuma, dowry, and
probably also before two consonants in sweostor, sister.

2. The regular forms due to u-umlaut were often obliterated
in WS. by levelling, as melu, meal, flour, with mel- from the

§§93-6] Short Vowels of Accented Syllables 49

gen. melwes, dat. melwe ; pi. nom. speru, spears ; dat. sperum,
due to the forms of the singular, as spare, gen. spares, gen. pi.
spera; and similarly for many other forms.

§ 93. e became eo by o/a-umlaut in Ken. before all
single consonants, and in Anglian (but Nth. generally ea)
before all single consonants except gutturals (c, g), as
beoran, to bear; eotan, to eat; feola, many; meotan, to
measure; seoia, heart; steolati, to steal ; treodan, to tread ;
weofan, to weave = WS. beran, etan, fela, tnetan, sefa,
stelan, tredan, wefan. But Ken. weogas, ways ; spree-
can, to speak = WS. and Anglian wegas, sprecan. Nth.
beara, eata, treada = WS. beran, etan, tredan.

§ 94. The combination wee- which arose from breaking
(§§ 84-6), or from u-, o/a-umlaut (§§ 92-3), became wu-
(rarely wo-) in late WS., and wo- in late Nth., but remained
in Mercian and Ken., as late WS. swurd (later swyrd),
sword; swuster (later swyster), sister; swutol, plain,
clear; wurpan beside worpan, to throw; wurjj, worth,
price ; wur))an, to become ; but wore, work ; woruld.worold,
world. Late Nth. sword ; Vforj>, worth ; ■wor]>a., to become;
worold, world; wosa from older weosa = WS. wesan,
to be.

§ 95. Final e was lengthened to e in monosyllables,
as he, he; me, me; se (masc. nom. sing.), the; we, we;
]>e, relative particle (§ 468).

§ 96. Germanic i (= Goth. O.Icel. OS. OHG. i) generally
remained in OE., as biddan, Goth, bidjan, O.Icel. bi6ja,
OS. biddian, OHG. bitten, to pray, beg, entreat; fisc, Goth.
fisks, O.Icel. fiskr, OS. fisk, OHG. fisc, fish; witan,
Goth. OS. witan, O.Icel. vita, OHG. wi^^an, to know;
and similarly bit(t)er, bitter; blind, blind; bridd, young
bird; bringan, to bring; cild, child; cinn, chin; clif, cliff;
cribb, crib; cwide, saying; disc, dish; finger, finger;

50 Phonology [§§ 97-8

gefilde (sb.), plain ; gift, price of wife ; hider, hither ; hild,
battle, war; hinA (sh.), hind ; hlid, //a?; hTvag,ring; licgan,
to lie down; libban, to live; lifer, liver; lim, limb; list,
cunning; midd, middle; nift, niece; ni])er, downwards;
pic, //fc/j ; ribb, n'6 ; scilling, shilling ; scip, ship ; sibb,
relationship; sife, sieve; sige, victory ; sittan, to sit; smi}?,
smith; spinel, spindle ; twig, twigi^icce, thick ; "pider, thither;
J)ing, /A««^; ]>ridda, //j/ro?; wilde, w«7i!^; wind, wind; winter,
winter; in the second and third pers. sing. pres. indicative of
strong verbs belonging to classes III, IV, and V, as hilpest,
hilpe]), birest, birejj, itest, ite]>, beside inf. helpan, to help ;
beran, to bear ; etan, to eat ; in the pret. plural and pp. of
strong verbs belonging to class I, as biton, biten, ridon,
riden, stigon, stigen, beside inf bitan, to bite; ridan, to
ride ; stigan, to ascend ; in the inf. and present of strong
verbs belonging to class III, as bindan, to bind; drincan,
to drink; findan, to find; sincan, to sink; singan, to sing;
spinnan, to spin ; swimman, to swim.

Note. — i. i became i by loss of g, as bridel, bridle ; frinan,
ask ; li|>, he lies down ; rinan, to rain ; si}>e, scythe ; tile (Lat.
tegula), tile, beside brigdel, frignan, lige)>, sigjie, tigele.

2. i appears as e in the Latin loanwords, peru (Lat. pirum),
pear ; segn (Lat. signum), sign.

§ 97. i became i by loss of nasal before a voiceless
spirant, as fif, Goth. OHG. ^mi, five ; fifel, sea-monster;
gesijj (OHG. gisindo), companion; hrljjer (OHG. rind),
ox; lij>e (OHG. lindi), gentle; si]) (Goth. sinjjs), way; swi])
(Goth, swinjjs), strong. But in remained when it came
to stand before a voiceless spirant at a later period, as
pinsian from Lat. pensare, to weigh, consider; winster
beside winester (OHG. winister), left (hand).

§ 98. i was broken to io before r and h + consonant, and
simple h, but already in early WS. the io became eo and
thus fell together with the eo from e (§§ 85-6), as liornian,
leornian from *lirn6jan, to learn ; miox, meox from

§99] Short Vowels of Accented Syllables 51

'^mlhst, manure, cp. Goth, maihstus, dunghill; tiohhian,
teohhian from *tihh6jan, to arrange, think, consider;
twiogan, tweogan from *twixojan (§ 139), to doubt.

Note. — i. eo then became ie, later i, in WS. before h + con-
sonant, as stihtan, to arrange, regulate ; wriexl, wrixl, exchange.

2. In Anglian io became i before gutturals, as getihhian, to
arrange, think, consider.

3. In the two verbs corresponding to Goth, brinnan, to burn ;
and rinnan, io run, the metathesis of the r took place earlier
than breaking, whence Anglian biorna(n), beorna(n), iorna(n),
eonia(n). In WS. we have biernan (later birnan, byrnan),
iernan (later irnan, yrnan) for *bioman, *beornan, *iornan,
*eoman, with ie from the third pers. singular biern(e)J> (= Goth.
brinni]>), ieni(e)}> (= Goth. rinni]>). The new formation in WS.
was doubtless due to the fact that the two verbs were mostly
used impersonally, cp. the similar new formations in NHG.
ziemen, to beseem ; and wiegen, to weigh.

§ 99. io became ie (later i, y) by i-umlaut in WS.,
as afierran (OHG. arfirren), from *-firrjan, to remove;
bierce, birch; fiehst (OHG. fihtis), thou fightest; fieht,
he fights ; gebierhtan, to make bright ; gesieh]?, vision ;
gieman (OS, girnian), to desire; hierde (OHG. hirti),
shepherd; ierre (OS. OHG. irri), angry; rihtan, ryhtan
(OS. rihtian), to set straight; siehst (OHG. sihis), thou
seest; siehj) (OHG. sihit), he sees; smierwan (OHG.
smirwen), to anoint; wierresta, wiersta (OHG. wir-
sisto), worst; wiersa (OHG. wirsiro), worse; wierfe
(OHG. wirdi), worthy.

Note.— I. The i-umlaut of io generally did not take place in
the non-WS. dialects, hence we have io in Nth. and Ken., and
io (eo) in Mercian, as Nth. Ken. giorna(n), hiorde, iorre =
Mercian geornan, heorde, iorre, WS. gieman, hierde, ierre.
Forms like afirra(n), to remove; smirwan, to smear, are not
pure Anglian forms.

2. io became i in Anglian before a following guttural or
r + guttural, as birce, gebirhta(n), gesih]> ; mixen (mod, northern

£ 2

52 Phonology [§§ 100-2

dialects mixen), dunghill; rihtan ; wircan (OS. wirkian), to
work. The i then became i by loss of intervocalic h and con-
traction in Nth., as sis(t) from *sihis, WS. siehst, thou seest;
sTJ) from *sihi)), WS. sieh}), he sees.

3. io in the combination wio became u at an early period in
Anglian, and then u became y by i-umlaut, as wyrresta, worst ;
wyrsa, worse ; wyrsian, to worsen ; wyrjje, worthy.

§ 100. i became io by u-, o/a-umlaut In Ken. before all
single consonants, in Anglian before all single consonants
except gutturals (c, g), and in WS. before single labials and
liquids. But already at an early period (ninth century) the
io became eo in WS. and Mercian.

§ 101. I. u-umlaut.

Pret. cliopude, -ode, beside inf. clipian, to call; diopung,
calling; mioluc, miolc (later mile), milk; sioluc, silk;
siolufr, siolfor, silver; pret. tiolude, -ode, beside inf.
tilian, to aim at; tiolung, produce, labour. Anglian and
Ken. liomu, leomu, limbs; niojjor (WS. nijjor), lower;
siodu (WS. sidu), custom ; sionu (WS. sinu), sinew.
Ken. siocol, sickle ; stiogol, stile = WS. and Anglian
sicol, stigol. Forms like liomu, niojjor, which are occa-
sionally found in WS. prose, are not pure WS.

Note. — i. u-umlaut was mostly obliterated in WS. by levelling
and new formations, as plural clifu, cliffs ; scipu, ships (Anglian
cliofu, sciopu), due to levelling out the stem-forms of those
cases which had no u in the ending. Pret. plural drifun, -on,
they drove ; gripun, -on, they seized, due to preterites like biton,
they bit; stigon, they ascended, Pret. tilode beside tiolode, he
aimed at, formed direct from the inf. tilian. And conversely
forms like inf. cliopian (cleopian), tiolian (teolian), were
formed from the pret. cliopode, tiolode.

2. io became i in Anglian before 1 + guttural, as mile from
miolc, older mioluc, milk.

§ 102. 2. o/a-umlaut.

hiora, heora, their, of them ; liofast, thou livest. Anglian
and Ken. behionan, on this side of; glioda, kite, vulture;

§§ 103-6] Short Vowels of Accented Syllables 53

hionan, heonan, hence; nioina(n), to lake; niomajj, they
take ; piosan (WS. pisan), peas ; wiota, sage, wise man ;
wiotan, to know. Ken. stiocian, WS. and Anglian stician,
to prick.

Note. — Forms like behionan, wiotan, &c., which occasionally
occur in WS. prose, are not pure WS.

§ 103. The combination wio- which arose from breaking
(§ 98) or from u-, o/a-umlaut (§§ 101-2), generally became
wu- in WS. and Anglian, but remained in Ken., as
betwuh (betuh), between ; betwux (betux), betwixt ;
c(w)ucu, alive; c{w)udu, cud; wucu (Goth, wiko, OS.
wika), week; wudu (OS. widu, Ken. wiodu), wood;
wuduwe (Goth, widuwo, OS. widuwa), widow; wuht
(OS. OHG. wiht), creature, thing; wuton (uton), let us!
But before gutturals we have wi- in Anglian, as betwih,
betwix, cwic(u) ; cwician (WS. cwucian), to revive, bring
to life ; wicu, wiht.

§ 104. i or ij by contraction with a following guttural
vowel became io (eo), as bio, beo (OHG. bia, Germanic
stem-form *6ij6n-), bee ; diofol, deofol (Lat. diabolus),
devil; TionA, fQonA [Goth. ^ianAs), enemy, fiend ; frio, freo
from *frija-, /ree ; friond, freond (Goth. frij6nds),/nV«fl?;
hie, heo from *hi + u, she; fem. nom. sing, sio, seo from
*si + u, the ; nom. ace. neuter J)rio, free from *]jriju = Goth.
Jtrija, three.

§ 105. 10 (eo) became ie by i-umlaut, as plural fiend
from *fijandiz, enemies ; friend from Hvi^ondAz, friends.

§ 106. Germanic o, which arose from older u (§ 43),
generally remained in OE. as also in the other Germanic
languages except Gothic. In Gothic it became u which
was broken to o (written ati) before r, h, and hr. Examples
are : debtor, Goth, dadhtar, OS. dohtar, OHG. tohter,

54 Phonology [§ 107

daughter; folc, O.Icel. OS. OHG. fo\)s., folk ; hord, Goth,
huzd, OS. hord, OHG. hort, treasure; oxa, Goth, atihsa,
O. Icel. oxe, OHG. ohso, ox ; and similarly boda, messen-
ger; bodig, body; boga, bow; bohte, he bought; bold,
house; holt, bolt; horA., board; botm, bottom ; brop, broth;
cnotta, knot; cocc, cock; col, coal; colt, colt; corn, corn;
coss, kiss; dogga, dog; dor (OS. dor, OHG. tor), door,
gate; dropa, drop; tola, foal; folgian, to follow; forst,
frost; fox, fox; frogga., frog ; god, God; gold, gold; hlot,
lot; hof, enclosure ; hoi, hole; hold, loyal, gracious ; hopian,
to hope; horn, horn; hors, horse; loc, lock; lof, praise;
molde, earth; morgen, morning; morJ>, morjjor, murder;
norj), north; nosu, nose; ofen, oven; ofer, over; open,
open; smocc, smock ; storm, storm ; toll, toll; porn, thorn ;
J)orp, village; word, word; worhte, he worked; in the pp.
of strong verbs belonging to classes II (§ 493), III (§ 490),
and IV (§ 503), as boden, Goth, budans, O.Icel. boSenn,
OS. gibodan, OHG. gibotan, offered, commanded; and
similarly coren, chosen; froren, frozen; Eoden, cooked,
sodden ; togen, draimt ; fohten, fought ; holpen, helped ;
worden, become ; worpen, thrown ; boren, borne ; hrocen,
broken ; stolen, stolen ; toren, lorn.

Note. — o became by loss of consonant, as gen, holes
beside nom. holh, hole; broden beside brogden, brandis/ted,

woven.

§ 107. o became e (older oe) by i-umlaut. All native
words containing this umlaut are really new formations
due to levelling or analogy, because prim. Germanic u
(cp. § 43) did not become o in OE. when followed by an
i or j in the next syllable. Examples are : dat. sing.
dehter, to a daughter, from *dohtri with o levelled out
from the other cases, the regular form would be *dyhter
from older *duhtri ; efes (OHG. obasa) beside yfes, eaves,
cp. Goth, ubizwa, porch ; pi. nom. ace. exen, beside nom.

§§io8-ii] Short Vowels of Accented Syllables 55

sing, oxa, ox ; mergen (Goth, madrgins), beside morgen,
morning ; ele (Lat. oleum), oil.

§ 108. In a certain number of words o became u in OE.,
especially before and after labials, as bucc (OHG. boc),
buck; bucca, he-goat; fugol (OHG. fogal), bird, fowl; full
(OHG. fol),/«//; far]>or, further; fur]>uta, even ; lufian, to
love ; lufu, love ; murcnian, to murmur, grumble ; murnan,
to mourn; spura beside spora, spur; spurnan beside
spornan, to kick; ufan (OHG. obana, /row above), above;
ufer(r]a, upper, higher; ufor, higher; wulf (OHG. wolf),
wolf; wulle (OHG. woUa), wool; cnucian beside cnocian,
to knock ; scurf, scurf; turf, turf.

§ 109. o became u in OE. before nasals, as pp. cumen
(OHG. quoman), come; guma (OHG. gomo), man; hunig
(OHG. honag), honey; and similarly numen, taken; sou-
nian, to shun; sumor, summer; })unor, thunder; wunian,
to dwell. Also in early Latin loanwords, as munuc (Lat.
monachus), monk; munt (Lat. ace. montem), mountain;
nunne (Lat. nonna), nun ; pund (Lat. pondo), pound.

This u became y by i-umlaut, as mynster (Lat. mona-
sterium), minster, monastery; mynet (Lat. moneta), coin,
money.

§ 110. o may have become the rising diphthong 16 (e6)
after g = Germanic j (§ 263), and also occasionally after sc,
as gioc (geoc), OHG. joh, yoke; geon, yon, that; sceofl,
shovel; sceolde, should ; sceop, poet, singer ; sceort, short ;
sceoten (pp.), shot, beside scofl, scolde, scop, scort, scoten.
But see § 51, Note.

Note.— The e in the combination sceo- probably merely
indicated the palatal pronunciation of the sc-.

§ 111. Germanic u (§ 21) generally remained in OE. as
also in the other Germanic languages, as dumb, Goth.

56 Phonology [§ nz

dumbs, O.Icel. dumbr, OS. dumb, OHG. tumb, dumb;
hund, Goth, hunds, O.Icel. hundr, OS. huiid, OHG. hunt,
dog, hound; and similarly burg, city; duru, door; grund,
ground; hnutu, nut; hund, hundred; hungor, hunger;
lust, desire ; sugu, sow ; sulh, plough ; sunne, sun ; sunu,
son; tunge, tongue; tungol, star; J)urst, thirst; under,
under; wund, wound; wundor, wonder; in the prat,
plural of strong verbs belonging to classes II (§ 493) and
III (§ 497), as budon, Goth, budum, O.Icel. bu5um, OS.
budun, OHG. butum, we offered, commanded; and similarly
curon, chose; ^ugon, /lew; gruton, wept; tugon, drew;
bundon, Goth. O.Icel. bundum, OS. bundun, OHG.
buntum, we bound ; and similarly druncon, «/rfl«^ ; dulfon,
dug; fundon, found; fuhton, fought; hulpon, helped;
spunnon, spun; suncon, sank; sungon, sung; wurdon,
became; wurpon, threw; in the pp. of strong verbs be-
longing to class III, as bunden, bound; druncen,
drunk; fanien, found ; spunnen, spun; suncen, sunk;
sungen, sung.

Note.— u became o in the prefix or- (= Goth, us-, OHG. ur-,
out), as orsorg, without anxiety ; or]}anc, skill; orwene, despairing.
And in the Latin loanwords box (Lat. buxus), boxtree ; copor
(Lat. cuprum), copper.

§ 112. u became y by i-umlaut, as cyning, OS. OHG.
kuning, king; cynn, Goth, kuni, OS. OHG. kunni, race,
generation; ]3yncan, Goth, fugkjan, OS. thunkian, to
seem; and similarly blyscan, to blush; bryce, brittle;
brycg, bridge; bycgan (Goth, bugjan), to buy; byrd,
birth; clyppan, to embrace; cnjrttan, to bind; crycc,
crutch ; cyme, advent ; eyre, choice ; cyrnel, kernel ;
cyssan, to kiss; cyst, choice; drync, potion; dyppan, to
dip; iysig, foolish ; flyht, /light ; fyllan, to fill; fyrhtan,
to fear; iy^ea., vixen; gemynd, remembrance; gesynto,
health; gyden (OHG. gutin), goddess; gylden (OHG.
guldin), golden ; hrycg, back, ridge ; hycgan (Goth, hug-

§§ "3-15] Short Vowels of Accented Syllables 57

jan), to think; hyge, thought; hyldo, grace, favour; hyll,
hill; hyngran, to hunger; hype, hip; hyrdel, hurdle;
hyrnen, of horn; lyge, falsehood; mycel, much; my eg,
midge; myrj)ran, to murder; nytt, use; scyld, guilt;
scyldig, guilty; scyrtra, shorter; stycce, piece; synn,
sin; trymman, to make strong; Jjynne, thin; Jjyrstan, to
thirst; yfel, evil; ymb(e), about; yppan, to open; wyllen
(OHG. wuUin), woollen; wyxm., joy; wyrcan, to work;
wyrhta (OS. wurhtio), ivorkman ; wyrm from *wurmiz,
snake, dragon, worm ; wyrt, herb.

Also in early Latin loanwords, as cycene (late Lat.
coquina, cucina), kitchen ; cylen (Lat. culina), kiln ; mylen
(Lat. molina), mill; pyle (Lat. ace. pulvinum), pillow ; pytt
(Lat. ace. puteum), pit.

Note. — i. y became e in Ken. in the ninth century, as besig,
efel, gelden, senn = WS. bysig, busy, yfel, gylden, synn.

2. y was often unrounded to i in late WS. and Anglian,
especially before and after c, g, h, as cinn, cining, fliht, hricg,
hige, scildig, ]7mcan, &c.

§ 113. u became ti by loss of n before s and Jj, as cii])
(Goth. kun]7s), known, familiar; ciife (Goth, kunjja), he
could; dust (OHG. tunst, storm), dust; fds (OHG. funs),
ready, eager for; gu]> (OHG. gundia), war, battle; hiisl
(Goth, hunsl), Eucharist; mii}) (Goth. mun]>s), mouth; us
(Goth. OHG. uns), us; tiisc from *tunsk, tusk; sii}>
(OHG. sund), south.

§ 114. ii became y by i-umlaut, as cyj>an (Goth, gaswi-
kunfgan), to make known; dystig (OHG. tunstig, stormy),
dusty ; fysan from *funsjan, to send forth, hasten ; wyscan
from *wunskjan, OHG. wunsken, to wish ; yst (OHG.
unst), storm, tempest; y)j (OHG. undea), prim. Germanic
*unjij6, wave.

§ 115. u became ii by loss of h after 1, r, before a following
vowel, as gen. sing, fiire, pi. gen. fiira, dat. fiirum, beside

$8 Phonology [§§116-19

nom. sing, iurh., furrow; pi. gen. sula, dat. sulum, beside
nom. sing, sulfa, plough.

§ 116. u may have become the rising diphthong ili, later
\6 (e6), after g = Germanic j (§ 268), and also occasionally
after so, as giung, giong, geong, older iung (gung) = Goth,
juggs, OHG. jung, young; giogu]), geogujj, older iuguj)
(S^iSalp), youth ; inf. sceolan, s/ia//; pi. indicative sceolon,
beside sculan, sculon. The i-umlaut of which was ie
(later i, y), as giengra (OHG. jungiro), gingra, gyngra,
younger; giengesta (OHG.jungisto), gingesta, gyngesta,
youngest. But see § 51, Note.

Note.— The e in the combination sceo- probably merely
indicated the palatal pronunciation of the so-.

B. The Long Vowels of Accented Syllables.

§ 117. Germanic nasalized a, which arose from a accord-
ing to § 40, became 6 in OE., as brohte, Goth. OS. OHG.
brahta, / brought; fon from "fohan, Goth. OS. OHG.
fafaan, to grasp, seise; and similarly hofa, heel; hon, to
hang ; ofat, persecution ; tofa, tough ; J)o (Goth. J>ah6), clay ;
Jiohte, I thought; wofa, crooked, wry,

§ 118. 6 became e by i-umlaut, as ehtan (OS. afatian), to
persecute; fehj) (OS. fafaid), he seizes; hela from older
*hohila, heel.

§ 119. Germanic ae (Goth, e, OS. OHG. a) generally
remained in WS., but became e in Anglian and Ken., as
WS. deed, non-WS. ded, Goth. ga-de])s, OS. dad, OHG.
tat, deed; WS. seed, non-WS. sed, OS. sad, OHG. sat,
seed; WS. reedan, non-WS. redan, OS. radan, OHG.
ratan, to advise ; and similarly bser, bier ; blsedre, bladder ;
blsetan, to bleat ; brser, briar ; sefen, evening ; sel, eel ; ses.

§ i2o] Long Vowels of Accented Syllables 59

carrion; aepia, breath ; hxr, hair; Ixce, physician ; leetan,
to leave ; mseg, kinsman ; msel, meal-time ; Anglian mice
(OS. TDsikX), sword ; raxre, renowned ; nxdl, needle ; naedre,
snake ; rad, advice ; swaes, pleasant ; })aer, there ; wjeg,
wave ; wapen, weapon ; in the pret. plural of strong verbs
belonging to classes IV (§ 503) and V (§ 505), as baeron,
bore; cwxdon, said; 3eton,at^; atdblon, stole ; sseton, sat.

Note. — i. It is difficult to account for the a beside £ in a few
words, such as lacnian, to cure ; slapan, to sleep ; swar, heavy ;
tal, blame ; wat, wet, beside liecnian, sliepan, sw^r, tael, wiet.
In forms like wag beside wfeg, wave, the a is due to the stem-
form of the plural, see § 120 (2).

2. The e from older ee was often rounded to ge gfter w in Nth.,
as huder, where ; wclpen, weapon ; w^ron, they were = WS.
hwser, wsepen, wsron.

3. The a in early Latin loanwor4s had the same development
in OE. as Germanic se, as naep (Lat. napus), turnip ; street
(Lat. strata), street.

§ 120. Germanic se became a in OE. (r) before w, as
blawan (OHG. blaen), to blow; cnawan (OHG. knaen),
to know; cravsran (OHG. kraen), to croze; ; tnav>^an(OHG.
maen), to mow; sawan (OHG. saen), to sow ; sawon (OS.
sawun), they saw; tawiaii> to prepare; Jirawan, to twist;
wawan (OHG. waen), to blow.

This a became eb by i-umlaut, as Isewan from *lawjaH,
older *lEewjan = Goth. lewjan, to betray.

(2) In the combination seg followed by a guttural vowel
in the next syllable, as plural nom. magas, gen. maga,
dat. magum, beside nom. singular m£eg, kinsman; pret.
plural lagon, lay; }>agon, received; wagon, carried
(§§ 505, 507).

Note.— Forms like msgas ; wSgas, jy«t)M, were new forma-
tions from the singular mag, wseg. And Isegon, )>segon,
wsegon were due to the analogy of such preterites as bseroo,
stslon which regularly have k.

6o Phonology [§§ 12 1-5

§ 121. ffi became 6 before nasals, as mona, Goth, mena,
OS. OHG. mano, moon ; nomon, Goth, nemun, OS. OHG.
namun, they took ; and similarly brom, broom ; c(w)6mon,
they came; gedon, done; mona}), month; om, rust; Eona,
soon ; spon, chip ; woma, tumult.

Note. — The o may have become the rising diphthong eo
after g = Germanic j (§ 268), as geomor (OS. OHG. jamar),
sad; geomrian, to mourn. But see § 51, Note.

§ 122. 6 became e (older de) by i-umlaut, as wenan from
' wonjan = Goth, wenjan, OS. wanian, OHG. wanen, to
hope ; and similarly bremel, bramble ; cweman, to please ;
cwen, queen ; gecweme, agreeable ; wen, hope.

§ 123. In WS. ffi was broken to ea before h, as neah,
Goth, nehr, OS. OHG. nah, near; near from *neahur,
older *n8ehur, nearer. By i-umlaut ea became ie (later i, y),
as niehsta from *neahista, but Anglian nesta from *ne-
hista (OHG. nahisto), nearest.

§124. In WS. it became ea (older ea) through the inter-
mediate stage effi after palatal c, g, and sc, as gear, Goth.
jer, OS. OHG. jar, year; and similarly cesice, jaw; for-
geaton, they forgot ; gea, yes ; geafon, they gave ; sceap,
sheep ; scearon, they sheared, ea became ie by i-umlaut,
as ciese from "ceasi (Lat. caseus), cheese.

Note. — The e (§ 119), which arose from se, remained un-
influenced by palatals in the non-WS. dialects, as ger, gefon,
seep = WS. gear, geafon, sceap. This ea also became e in
late WS.

e

§ 125. Germanic e, which cannot be traced back phono-
logically to Indo-Germanic e (§ 38, Note), is of obscure
origin. In Gothic the two sounds fell together in e, but in
the other Germanic languages they were kept quite apart,
thus Indg. e = OE. ie (§ 119), Goth. e.O.Icel. OS. OHG. a,
but Germanic e = OE. Goth. O.Icel. OS. e, OHG. ia (ie).

Germanic e remained in OE., as cen (OHG. kian).

§§ 126-7] Long Vowels of Accented Syllables 6i

torch ; OE. Goth. O.Icel. OS. her, OHG. hiar, here ; OE.
med, OS. meda, OHG. rai&is., pay, reward; in the preterite
of the old redupUcated verbs {§§ 512-14), as OE. OS. het,
OHG. hia?, inf. OE. hatan, to call; and similarly preterite
feng, red, slip, beside inf fon, to seize ; reedan, to advise ;
sleepan, to sleep.

Note. — Latin e became i in early loanwords, as cipe, Lat.
cepa, OHtott ; pin (OHG. pina), Lat. poena, late Lat. pina,
torture; side (OHG. sTda), late Lat. seta, silk; but e remained
in later loanwords, as bete, Lat. beta, beetroot ; creda, creed,
Lat. credo, / believe.

§ 126. Germanic i generally remained in OE., as also in
the oldest periods of the other Germanic languages, as
OE. OS. OHG. sin, Goth, seins, his; OE. OS. OHG.
swin, Goth, swein, O.Icel. s.vm, pig, swine ; and similarly
hWpe, blithe; hwil, space of time ; hwit, white ; idel, empty;
ifig, ivy ; is, ice ; isen, iren, iron ; lif, hfe ; min, mine ; rice,
kingdom; rim, number; side, side; slim, slime; tid, tima,
time ; J)in, thine ; wid, wide ; wif, wife ; wis, wise ; in the
present of strong verbs belonging to class I (§ 490), as OE.
OS. bitan, Goth, beitan, O.Icel. bita, OHG. bi?an, to
bite; and similarly bidan, to remain; drifan, to drive;
glidan, to glide ; gripan, to seize ; lijian, to go ; ridan, to ride ;
scinan, to shine ; slidan, to slide ; smitan, to smite ; snljian,
to cut; stigan, to ascend; stridan, to stride; writan, to
write.

§ 127. i was broken to io before h and ht in WS. But
already at an early period the io mostly became eo
(= Anglian i), as betweoh, between, cp. Goth, tweihnii,
two each; leoht, Goth, leihts, OHG. lihti, adj. light;
weoh (Anglian wih), idol, Goth, weihs, OHG. wih, holy,
OS. wih, temple ; imperative singular leoh (Anglian lib),
Goth, leihr, OS. OHG. lih, lend thou; and similarly teoh.

62 Phonology [§§ 128-9

accuse ; Jieoh, thrive ; wreoh, cover. With loss of medial
h after breaking had taken place, as betweonum, between ;
feci (Anglian fil, OHG. fihala),//e ; infinitives lion, leon
(Goth.leilvan.OS. OHG.lihan)> to lend; and similarly sion,
seon, to strain ; Ipion, ]>eon, to thrive ; wrion, wreon, to cover.
The i-umlaut of this 10 (eo) is ie, as liehtan from *lioht-
jan, to lighten, make easier, Anglian gelihtan ; liehst from
*\l6iu.B{0}iG.'Gids),thou lendest ; lieh]j from *liohi)) (OHG.
libit), he lends.

5

§ 128. Germanic 6 (= Goth. O.Icel. OS. 6, OHG. uo)
generally remained in OE., as brojior, Goth. br6J)ar,
O.Icel. br66er, OS. broder, OHG. bruoder, brother; OE.
OS. fot, Goth, fotus, O.Icel. fotr, OHG. iMoz„foot; and
similarly blod, blood ; blowan, to bloom ; boo, book ; bosm,
bosom; broc, brook; brod, brood; col, cool; dom, judg-
ment, doom ; don, to do ; flod, flood ; flowan, to flow ;
fdda, food; gendg, enough; glof, glove; gl5m, gloom;
glow an, to glow ; god, good; grow an, to grow ; hoc, hook;
hod, hood; hot, hoof; hroc, rook; hrof, roof; hropan, to
shout; mdd, mood, mmd ; modor, mother; rSwan, to
row ; sohte, he sought ; sot, soot ; stol, stool ; in the pre-
terite of strong verbs belonging to class VI (§ 508), as OE.
Goth. O.Icel. OS. for, OHG. fuor, he went, travelled; and
similarly boo, baked; hof, raised; slog, struck, slew;
swor, swore.

Note. — The combination sco- was often written sceo> with e
to denote the palatal pronunciation of the sc-, as preterite
sceoc, shook ; sceop, created, beside scoc, scop ; sceSh beside
scoh, shoe.

§ 129. 6 became e (older 6e, preserved in Nth.) by i-
umlaut, as fet, OS. foti, OHG. fiio^i, from *f5tiz, older
ioiez, feet; secan, Goth, sokjan, OS. s5kian, to seek;
and similarly bee, books; betan, to improve; bledan, to

*

§§130-2] Long Vowels of Accented Syllables 63

bked ; brSper, dat. sing, of bropor, brother ; celan, to cool ;
deman, to judge ; drefan, to make turbid ; fedan, to feed;
(elan, to feel; gled, live coal; grene,green ; gretan, to greet;
hedan, to heed; meder, dat. sing, of modor, mother ; metan,
to meet ; sped, success ; swete, sweet ; wepan, to weep.

§ 130. Final wo became u in monosyllables, as cu, OS.
ko, OHG. kuo, cow, from an original ace. form *gom
(cp. Gr. Dor. ^S>v) = prim. Germanic *kw6n, older *kw6m ;
hu (OS. hwo), how ; tii (neut.) from *tw6, two. The neuter
bu for older *b6, both, is due to association with tii in the
combination bii tii, both, literally both two.

u became y by i-umlaut, as cy from older *kii.i, prim.
Germanic *kw5-iz, cows.

§ 131. Germanic ii generally remained in OE., as also
in the oldest periods of the other Germanic languages, as
OE. O.Icel. OS. OHG. hus, house, cp. Goth, gud-hiis,
temple; OE. O.Icel. OS. OHG. riim, Goth, rums, room;
}>iihte, Goth, yahia., OS. thuhta, OHG. diihta, it seemed,
inf. OE. Jjyncan, to seem ; and similarly brii, eyebrow ;
briican, to enjoy ; brun, brown ; btian, to dwell; biigan, to
bow down; clud, rock; clut, clout; tuL, foul; hlud, loud ;
hlutor, clear, pure ; liican, to close ; lus, louse ; mus, mouse;
nu, now; prvt, proud; nist,n<s^; scrud,garment;scvi{a,n,
to push ; sliipan, to glide ; siican, to suck ; sciir, shower ;
siipan, to sup, drink ; stir, sour ; tiin, enclosure ; triiwian
(pret. trude), to trust; uder, udder; iihte, early dawn; ut,
out ; J>iima, thumb ; Jnisend, thousand.

§ 132. u became y by i-umlaut, as bryd, from prim.
Germanic *t5riidiz, bride; mys, from prim. Germanic
*miisiz, mice ; ryman, Goth. *rumjan, OS. riimian, to
make room; and similarly fyr, fire; iyst, fist; hlydan,
to make a sound; hyd, hide; hydan, to hide, conceal; hyf,
hive ; lys, lice ; lytel, little ; ontynan, to open ; scrydan,

64 Phonology [§133

to dress; Jjymel, thumbstall ; in the second and third pers.
sing. pres. indicative of strong verbs which have ii in the
infinitive (§ 496), as brycst, brycj>, from older *briikis,
*brukij), inf. brucan, to enjoy.

Note. — y became e in Ken. in the ninth century, as Ken.
hef, mes, ontenan = WS. hyf, mys, ontynan.

C. The Diphthongs of Accented Syllables.

ai

§ 133. Germanic ai (= Goth, ki, O.Icel. ei, OS. e, OHG.
ei(e)) became a in OE., as an, Goth, dins, O.Icel. einn,
OS. en, OHG. ein, one; hal, Goth, hdils, O.Icel. heill,
OS. hel, OHG. heil, whole, sound, hale; hatan, Goth,
hditan, O.Icel. heita, OS. hetan, OHG. hei^an, to name,
call; and similarly ac, oak; ad, heap, funeral pile; agan,
to possess ; agen, own ; ar, oar ; ascian, to ask ; ator,
poison; op, oath; ba, both; ban, bone; bar, boar; bat,
boat; brad, broad; claj), cloth; da, doe; dag, dough;
gast, spirit; gat, goat; grapian, to grope; had, rank,
order; ham, home; hat, hot; hlaf, loaf; hlaford, lord;
hlaw, grave, mound ; hraw, corpse ; lar, lore, learning ;
nia]}m, treasure; ra (OHG. reho), roe; rad, raid; rap,
rope; sal, rope; sar, sore; sawol, soul; sla (OHG.
sleha), sloe ; snaw, snow ; stan, stone ; swapan, to sweep ;
ta (OHG. zeha), toe; tacen, token; twa, two; fas, those;
wa, woe ; wat, he knows ; in the pret. singular of strong
verbs belonging to class I (§ 490), as bad, Goth, bdi]),
O.Icel. bei5, OS. bad, OHG. bait, Ae awaited; and simi-
larly bat, bit ; lajj, went ; draf, drove ; lah, lent ; rad, rode ;
stag, ascended.

Note.— I. It is difficult to account for o beside a (Goth.
Aiw), ever; and similarly in the compounds 5-wiht, -wiiht, any-
thing', no-wiht, -wuht beside a-wiht, na-wiht.

§§134-6] Diphthongs of Accented Syllables 65

2. The combination sea- was often written scea- with e to
denote the palatal pronunciation of sc-, as sceadan, to divide ;
prct singular scean, shone, beside scadan, scan. See § 61,
Note.

§ 184, a became x (late Ken. e) by i-umlaut, as hse]?,
Goth. h&i])l, heath ; hselan, Goth, h^iljan, OS. helian, to
heal; se, Jew from *awi-, prim. Germanic *aiwiz, divme
law ; and similarly aeht, possession ; senig, any ; ser,
formerly, be/ore ; bleecan, to bleach ; bradan, to broaden ;
clsne, clean ; djel, part, portion ; dalan, to deal; drsefan,
to drive; &s£sc, /lesh; gxt, goats; hsbta.n, to heat ; hlseder,
/adder; hlsew, grave, mound; hrjew, corpse ; hwsete,
wheat; Isedan, to lead; Isfan, to leave; Isran, to teach;
Isestan, to follow; msnan, to mean; rscan, to reach;
rseran, to raise; ss, sea; sprsedan, to spread; stsnen,
of stone.

au

§136. Germanic au (= Goth, du, O.Icel. au, OS. 6,
OIIG. ou (o)) became ea in OE., as dea}>, Goth. ddu]>us,
O.Icel. dau8e, OS. dod, OHG. tod, death; cage, Goth.
dugo, O.Icel. auga, OS. oga, OHG. ouga, eye; read,
Goth. riuj)s, O.Icel. rau8r, OS. rod, OHG. rot, red; and
similarly beacen, beacon ; beag, ring, bracelet ; bean, bean ;
hveaA, bread ; cea.p, cheap ; ceapian, to buy; dead, dead;
deaf, deaf; dream, joy ; eac, also; eadig (Goth, dudags),
blessed; eare,ear; east, east; flea(ti), /lea ; geleaia, belie/ ;
great, great ; heafod, head ; heah, high ; heap, troop ;
Iileapan, to leap ; leac, leek ; leaf, lea/; lead, lead ; lean,
reward; sceaf, shea/; steap, steep ; stream, stream ;
teag, rope ; in the pret. singular of strong verbs belonging
to class II (§ 403), as ceas, Goth, kdus, O.Icel. kaus,
OS. OHG. kos, he chose, inf. OE. ceosan, to choose ; and
similarly bead, offered ; breac, enjoyed ; cleaf, cleft ; freas,
froze; geat, poured out; leag, lied; sceat, shot; teah, drew.

Note.— I. ea became i in late WS. before c, g, h, and after

66 Phonology [§§ 136-7

c, g, sc, as becen, lee, beg, ege, heh, teh ; cepian, ces, get, scef,
scet.

2. In Anglian it became se (later e) before c, g, h, as sec, Isec,
flseh, hseh, tseg, later ec, lee, fleh, heh, teg.

§ 136. ea became ie (= non-WS. e) by i-umlaut in the
oldest period of WS. ie then became i, y already in early
WS., as geliefan, early WS. gelifan, gelyfan, non-WS.
gelefan, Goth, galaubjan, OS. gilobian, to believe ; hieran,
early WS. hiran, hyran, non-WS. heran, Goth, hdusjan,
OS. horian, to hear ; nied, early WS. nid, nyd, non-WS.
ned, Goth. niu))s, prim. Germanic ''naudiz, need; and
similarly biecnan, to beckon; biegan (Goth. *bdugjan),
to bend; ciepan, to buy; drieman, to rejoice; driepan, to
let drop; iecan, to increase; iej)e, easy; gleman, to take
notice of; hiehra, higher; hiehsta (Goth, hduhista),
highest; hienan, to humiliate; niedan, to compel; sciete,
sheet ; sliefe, sleeve ; stiepel, steeple.

eu

§ 137. Germanic eu (= Goth, iu, O.Icel. j6(ju), OS. OHG.
eo (io)) became eo in OE. The eo remained in WS. and
Mercian, but was often written 10 in early WS. and
Mercian. In Nth. it mostly became ea which fell together
with the ea from Germanic au (§ 135). In Ken. it became
10 (also written ia), and thus fell together with 10 from
Germanic iu (§ 138). Examples are : deop, Goth, diups,
O.Icel. djtipr, OS. diop, OHG. tiof, deep; WS. and
Mercian leof, liof, Nth. leaf, Ken. liof, Goth, liufs, O.Icel.
Ijufr, OS. liof, OHG. liob, dear ; WS. and Mercian deer,
dior, Nth. dear, Ken. dior, deer; and similarly beod,
table ; beor, beer ; flees, /leece ; leoht, a light ; seoc, sick ;
steer, rudder ; feed, nation, race ; Jieef, thief; ]7eoh, thigh ;
in the present of strong verbs belonging to class II (§493),
as beodan, Goth, biudan, O.Icel. bjoSa, OS. biodan,

§138] Diphthongs of Accented Syllables 67

OHG. biotan, lo offer; ceosan, Goth, kiusan {to (est),
O.Icel. kjosa, OS. OHG. kiosan, to choose; and similarly
cleofan, to cleave ; creopan, to creep ; dreosan, to fall ;
fleogan, to fly ; freosan, to freeze ; geotan, to pour out ;
leogan, /o&; reocan, to smoke ; sceotan, to shoot ; seo))an,
to boil, cook ; teon (Goth, tiuhan), to draw, lead.

Note. — i. The old diphthong eu was occasionally preserved
in the oldest monuments, as steupfaedaer, later steopfaeder,
stepfather.

2. eo (ea) became e in Anglian before c, g, h, as reca(n), sec,
flega(n\ lega(n), leht = WS. reocan, seoc, &c.

iu

§ 138. The normal development of Germanic iu, which
arose from older eu when the next syllable contained an
i, i, or j (§ 44), is io in OE. (= Goth, iu, O.Icel. jii (y), OS.
OHG. iu). In WS. io generally became le (later i, y) by
i-umlaut. But when no umlaut took place, early WS. had
io beside eo, and later generally eo only. It is difficult to
account for the non-umlauted forms, unless we may suppose
that they are not pure WS. Examples are : ciesj>, Goth.
kiusi]>, O.Icel. kys(s), OS. kiusid, OHG. kiusit, he chooses,
tests, inf. OE. ceosan ; tieh]), Goth, tiuhi]?, OS. tiuhid,
OHG. ziuhitjAe draws, leads, inf. OE. teon; liehtan, Goth,
liuhtjan, OS. liuhtian, OHG. liuhten, to give light, diere
beside deore, OS. diuri, OHG. tiuri, dear, beloved ; dierling
beside deorling, darling; ge])iedan beside ge]>iodan, ge-
^eoAan, to join, associate; stieran (O.Icel. styra, OHG.
stiuren) beside steoran, to steer; J>iefJ>, fiestre (OS.
thiustri), beside feof]?, theft; Jjiostre, jjeostre, dark.
SQ^o&e,ge]>eoAe, language ; liode, leode (OS. liudi, OHG.
liuti), people ; and a few other words.

The i-umlaut of io did not take place in the other
dialects, so that we have in Nth. and Ken. io (also written
ia in the latter dialect), and in Mercian io beside eo (later

F 2

68 Phonology [§§139-41

mostly eo), as Nth, Ken. diore, liode, }>iostre, stiora(n),
but in Mercian 10 beside eo.

Note.— In Anglian 10 became i before c and h, as clean, older
*kioken from *kiukin, chicken ; lihta(n), ti}J from *tThiJ) = WS.
liehtan, tTeb]7.

Vowel Contraction.

§ 139. Vowel contraction took place in OE. when inter-
vocalic h, w, or j had disappeared.

A long vowel or a long diphthong absorbed a following
short vowel, as ra beside older raha, roe (§ 133) ; gen. sses
from *SEees older 'sawis (§ 134) beside nom. sse, sea;
Anglian nesta from *nehista beside WS. nlehsta, nearest
(§ 123) ; Anglian tij) from *tihi]), older *tiuxi}', he draws
(§ 138, Note) ; fon from *f6han, to seize, fo from *fohu, /
seise (§ 117) ; pi. scos from *sc6has, beside sing, scdh, shoe
{§ 128, Note); seen from *seo(h)an, to see; seo from
*seo{h)u, / see ; gen. fees from *feo(h)es, beside nom. feoh,
cattle {§ 87) ; slean from *slea(h)an, to slay, slea from
*slea{h)u, / slay ; ear from *ea(h)ur, ear of corn (§ 70) ;
near from *nea{h)ur, nearer (§ 123) ; lion, leon from
*lio(h)an, older *lihan, to lend, leo from *lio(h)u, //^««/
(§ 127); teon from *teo(h)an, to draw, lead; dat. pi. Jjrum
from *}jrti(h)um beside nom. sing. ])riih, trough.

§ 140. a + u (from older wu or vocalized w) became ea,
as clea from *cla(w)u, clan' ; strea from *straw-, straw
{§ 75).

e + u (from w) became eo, as cneo from *cnewa-, knee,
treo from *trewa-, tree (§ 88).

i or ij + guttural vowel became 10 (eo), as bio, beo from
*bij6n-, bee; fiond, feond, Goth, fijands, enemy; friend,
freond, Goth. frijonds,/n'e««/; nom. ace. neut. Jrio, )>reo,
from *J>ri(j)u = Goth. Jjrija, three (§ 104).

§ 141. i + i became i, as Nth. sis(t) from "sihis, /Ao« seest;
sijj from *sihij>, he sees (§ 329, 4).

§§ 142-7] The Lengthening of Short Vowels 69

§ 142. Long palatal vowels absorbed a following short
palatal vowel, as gsst from *5seis older *gais, thou goest ;
ga]) from *5aeiJ>, he goes ; dest from *dois, thou doest ; dej)
from *Abi\>, he does ; gen. drys from *drye3, beside nom.
dry, magician.

The Lengthening of Short Vowels.

§ 143. From our knowledge of M E. phonology it is clear
that short vowels must have been lengthened some time
during the OE. period before certain consonant combina-
tions, especially before a liquid or nasal + another voiced
consonant. But it is impossible to ascertain the date at
which these lengthenings took place, and whether they took
place in all the dialects at the same time.

§ 144. Final short vowels were lengthened in mono-
syllables, as hwa, who ?, swa, so (§ 79) ; he, he, me, me,
we, we (§ 95).

§ 145. There was a tendency to lengthen short vowels in
monosyllables ending in a single consonant, as wel (mod.
northern dial, wil from older wel) beside wel, well. 15f,
praise, weg, way, but in words of this kind the short vowel
was restored again through the influence of the inflected
forms, lofes, wages, &c.

§ 146. Short vowels were lengthened through the loss of
g before a following consonant, as mxden, maiden, ssede,
he said, beside older maegden, saegde (§ 54, Note 2) ;
bredan, to brandish, stredan, to strew, beside older breg-
dan, stregdan(§ 80, Note 2) ; bridel, bridle, tile, tile, beside
older brigdel, tigele (§ 96, Note i).

§ 147. By the loss of a nasal before a following voiceless
spirant, as 6J>er, Goth, anjjar, other, gos, OHG. gans,
goose, softe, OHG. samfto, softly (§ 61) ; swij), Goth.
swin]>s, strong, fif, Goth, fimf, five (§ 97) ; cu)), Goth.
kun]7s, known, us, Goth, uns, us (§ 113).

^d Phonology . '[§§148-52

§ 148. Short diphthongs were lengthened by the loss of
intervocalic h, as slean from *sleahan, Goth, slahan,
to strike, slay (§ 70) ; seon from *seohan, OHG. sehan,
to see (§ 87).

§ 149. By the loss of antevocalic h after 1 and r, as gen.
seales beside nom. sealh, sm/(§ 64, Note i) ; gen. meares
beside nom. mearh, horse (§ 66, Note 3) ; gen. eoles beside
nom. eolh, elk (§ 84, Note i); gen. feores beside nom.
feorh, life (§ 85, Note 4) ; gen. hdles beside nom. holh,
hole (§ 106, Note).

The Shortening of Long Vowels.

§ 150. Much uncertainty exists about the shortening of
long vowels. They were probably shortened before double
consonants some time during the OE. period, as bliss, /qy,
hlammsesse, Lammas, wimman, woman, beside older
hWps, hlafmsesse, wifman; blseddre, bladder, deoppra,
deeper, beside older blsedre, deopra, see § 260.

§ 151. In the first or second elements of compounds
which were no longer felt as such, as enlefan, prim. Ger-
manic *ainlib6n-, cp. Goth. dat. kinlihira, eleven ; siJ)J)an,
sio})J)an from si}) + ])an, since, eorod from eoh + rad, troop
of cavalry; werod from wer-\-raA, multitude, army. Ad-
jectives ending in -lie, as deadlic, deadly, see § 634.

§ 152. From what has been said in §§ 54-151 it will be
seen that the Germanic vowel-system (§ 45) assumed the
following shape in OE. : —

Short vowels
Long „
Short diphthongs
Long „

a, ae.

e, 1,

0, u, oe.

y

a> 3ej

e, i.

6, ii, de.

y

ea,

eo.

ie, io

ea,

eo.

ie, io

§§ '53-5] Prim. G. Equivalents of OE. Voivels 71

CHAPTER V

THE PRIM. GERMANIC EQUIVALENTS OF THE
OE. VOWELS OF ACCENTED SYLLABLES

A. The Short Vowels.

§ 153. a = (i) Germanic a in open syllables when origin-
ally followed by an a, o, Q in the next
syllable, as faran, to go ; nacod, naked ;
pi. dagas, days, gen. daga, dat. dagum
(§ 57); gen. clawe, of a claw ; ])awian
from *J)aw6jan, to thaw (§ 74).
= (2) Germanic a in closed syllables before
double consonants (except hh), sc, and
st, when the next syllable originally
contained a guttural vowel, as abbod,
abbot; catte, cat ; sacc, sack ; wascan,
to wash ; brastlian, to crackle (§ 57).

§ ] 54. a (o) = Germanic a before nasals, as lang, long,
long; lamb, lomb, lamb ; mann, monn,
man ; nama, noma, «aw^ (§ 59).

§ 155. ae = (i) Germanic a in closed syllables, as daeg,
day ; bser, he bore ; sset, he sat (§ 54).
= (2) Germanic a in open syllables when fol-
lowed by a palatal vowel or vocalic
nasal or liquid in the next syllable, as
xcer, Jield; fxAer,/ather ; gen. daeges,
0/ a day, dat. dsege; f8e}>m, embrace,
fathom; haegl, to7(§54).
= (3) Germanic a by semi-umlaut, as aejiele
from *a]jali, noble ; aej)eling from *a])ul-
ing, nobleman ; gsedeling from *gadu!-
ing, companion (§ 58).

72 Phonology [§§ 156-9

§ 156. e = (i) Germanic e, as beran, to bear ; cwene,

woman ; weg, way (§ 80).
= (2) i-umlaut of se, as bedd (Goth, badi), bed ;

here, army ; lecgan, to lay (§ 65).
= (3) i-umlaut of a (o), as ende, end ; bene,

bench ; sendan, to send (§ 60).
= (4) i-umlaut of o, as dat. dehter, beside nom.

dohtor, daughter; ele, oil; exen, oxen

(§ 107).
§ 157. i = (i) Germanic i, as biddan, to pray ; hire]?, /;e

bears ; bindan, to bind ; ridon, we rode ;

rid en, ridden (§ 96).
= (2) Germanic e before m, as niman (OHG.

neman), to take (§ 81).
= (3) Latin e before nasal + consonant in early

loanwords, as gimm (Lat. gemma,

gem ; pinsian (Lat. pensare), to weigh,

ponder (§ 82).
= (4) older 60 (ie) before hs and ht, as cniht,

boy ; six, stx (§ 86).
= (5) older ie, see § 170.
= (6) the unrounding of y before and after c,

g, h in late WS. and Anglian, as cinn,

race, generation ; cining, king ; ]>incan,

to seem ; mhi, flight (§ 112, Note 2).
§ 158. o = (i) Germanic o, as dohtor, daughter; coren,

chosen ; hord, treasure ; oxa, ox (§ 106).
= (2) a (o), see § 154.
§ 150. u = (i) Germanic u,as curon, they chose; dumb,

dumb; hund, dog; hunger, hunger

(§ 111).
= (2) Germanic o before or after labials, as bucc
(OHG. boc), buck ; full (OHG. fol),
full; fugol(OHG. fogal), 6/rrf; wulf
(OHG. wolf), imlf{^ 108).

§§ i6o-2] Prim. G. Equivalents o/OE. Vowels 73

= (3) Germanic o before nasals, as guma, man ;

hunig, honey ; funor, thunder (§ 109).
= (4) older eo in the combination weo-, as

swurd, sword ; swuster, sister (§ 94).
= (5) older io in the combination wio-, as

wucu, week ; wuduwe, widoiv (§ 103).
§ 160. y = (i) i-umlaut of u, as bycgan (Goth, bugjan),

to buy ; cyning, king ; gylden, golden ;

wyllen, woollen (§ 112).
= (2) older ie, see § 170.

B. The Long Vowels.

§ 161. a = (i) Germanic ai, as an, one ; bat, he bit ;
hal, whole ; hatan, to call (§ 133).
= (2) Germanic x before w,as blawan, to blow ;
cnawan, to know ; sawon, they saw
(§ 120).
= (3) Germanic x in the combination aeg fol-
lowed by a guttural vowel, as pi.
magas, beside sing. m»g, kinsman;
pret. lagon, they lay (§ 120).
= (4) lengthening of final a in monosyllables,
as hwa, who ? ; swa, so (§ 79).
§ 162. ffi = (i) Germanic se (non-WS. e), as bjeron, they
bore; cwadon, they said; dad, deed;
rffidan, to advise (§ 119).
= (2) i-umlaut of a = Germanic ai, as dielan,
to divide; hxlan, to heal; hjej), heath
(§ 184).
= (3) i-umlaut of a = Germanic ae before w, as
cnjewjj, he knows; Isewan, to betray
(§ 120).
= (4) OE. aeg, as mseden, maiden, ssede, he
said, beside maegden, saegde (§ 54,
Note 2).

74 Phonology [§§ 163-4

= (5) Latin a in early loanwords, as nsep (Lat.

napus), turnip; strset (Lat. strata),

street (§ 119, Note 3).
§163. e = (i) Germanic e, as her, here; med, pay,

reward (§ 125).
= (2) i-umlaut of Germanic 0, as bee, books ;

tet, feet; deman, to judge; secan, to

seek (§ 129).
= (3) i-umlaut of 6 = Germanic nasalized a,

as ehtan, to persecute; feh]>, he seizes

(§ 118).
= (4) i-umlaut of o = Germanic a before nasals,

as cwen, queen, wife; wenan, to hope

(§ 122).
= (5) i-umlaut of = Germanic am, an before

f, ]j, s, as sefte, soft; te}>, teeth ; ges,

geese (§ 62).
= (6) OE. eg, as bredan, to brandish, ren,

rain, beside bregdan, regn (§ 80,

Note 2).
= (7) lengthening of final e in monosyllables,

as he, he ; me, uie ; fe, thee (§ 95).
= (8) early WS. ea = Germanic au, before

c, g, h and after c, g, sc, as becen,

beacon; ege, eye; heh, high; cepian,

to buy; get, he poured out; scef, he

pushed (§ 135, Note i).
§ 164. i = (i) Germanic i, as bitan, to bite ; is, ice ;

min, mine ; ridan, to ride (§ 126).
= (2) Germanic im, in before f, ]j, as f if (Goth.

fimf), five; lijie, gentle; swijj, strong

(§ 97).
= (3) OE. ig, as bridel, bridle, sij)e, scytlte,

beside brigdel, sig])e (§ 96, Note i).
= (4) older ie, see § 174.

; 165^8] Prim. G. Equivalents 0/ OE. Vowels 75

5) Latin e (oe) in early loanwords, as cipe
(Lat. cepa), onion ; pin (Lat. poena,
late Lat. pena), torture (§ 125, Note).
§ 165. 6 = (i) Germanic 6,asboc,6oo^; hTb\ior, brother;
grdwan, to grow ; for, he went (§ 128).

2) Germanic nasalized a, as brohte, he
brought; fon from *f6han, older *fa-
ban, to seize ; J)6hte, he thought (§ 117).

3) Germanic se before nasals, as ra.bm.,tnoon ;
nomon, they took ; sona, soon (§ 121).

4) Germanic am, an before f, ]>, s, as softe,
softly ; gos, goose ; to]), tooth (§ 61).

5) from Germanic o by loss of h, as gen.

holes beside nom. holh, hole (§ 106,
Note).
§ 166. u = (i) Germanic ii, as hiis, house ; mils, mouse ;
scufa.n,to push ; J)usend,//(o«sfl««^(§131).

2) Germanic final wo, as cii, cow ; hii, how
{§ 130).

3) Germanic un before ]>, s, as cu]), known ;
miij), mouth ; us, us (§ 113).

4) Germanic u by loss of h, as gen. pi. sula

beside nom. sing, snlh, plough (§ 114).
§ 167. y = (i) i-umlaut of Germanic u, as bryd, bride ;
mys, mice ; brycj), he enjoys (§ 132).

2) i-umlaut of ii = Germanic un before Jj, s,
as cyjjan, to make known; yst, storm

(§ 114).

3) older ie, see § 174.

C. The Short Diphthongs.
§ 168. ea = (1) Germanic a by breaking, as eall, all,
ceald, cold (§ 64); heard, hard; wearj>,
he became (§ 66); eahta, eight; weaxan,
to grow ; seah, he saw (§ 68).

76 Phonology [§§ 169-71

= (2) older ae = Germanic a, after palatal c, g,

sc, as ceaster, city, fortress ; geaf, he

gave ; sceal, shall (§ 72).
§ 169. eo = (i) Germanic e by breaking, as meolcan,

to milk ; sceolh, wry, oblique (§ 84) ;

eorfe, earth; heorte, heart (§ 85);

cneoht, boy; feohtan, to fight (§ 86).
= (2) i-umlaut of Germanic a before w, as

eowestre, sheepfold; meowle, maiden

(§ 77).
= (3) Germanic antevocalic ew, as gen.

cneowes, treowes, beside nom. cneo,

knee, treo, tree (§ 88).
= (4) Germanic e by u-umlaut, as eofor, boar;

meolu, meal, flour ; seofon, seven (§ 92).
§ 170. ie (later i, y) = (i) i-umlaut of ea = Germanic a

by breaking, as fiellan, to fell; ieldra,

elder, older (§ 65) ; ierfe, inheritance ;

dierne, secret (§ 67) ; hliehhan, to

laugh ; sliehjj, he slays (§ 69).
= (2) i-umlaut of io = Germanic i by breaking,

as fiehst, thou fightest ; ierre, angry ;

sieh]>, he sees (§ 99).
= (3) Germaniceafterpalatalc,g,sc,as cieres,

cherry-tree ; giefan, to give ; scieran, to

shear (§ 91).
= (4) i-umlaut of ea, after palatal c, g, as ciele,

cold; giest, guest (§ 73).
§ 171. io (later eo) = (i) Germanic i by breaking, as

liornian, to learn ; miox, manure

(§ 98).
= (2) Germanic i by u-, o/a-umlaut, as clio-

pung, calling; mioluc, milk (§ 101);

liofast, thou livest (§ 102).

§§ 172-3] Prim. G. Equivalents ofOE. Vowels 77

D. The Long Diphthongs.

§ 172. ea = (i) Germanic au, as ceas, he chose ; deajj,
death; ea,ge,eye; heafod, head; read,
red (§ 135).

= (2) Germanic se after palatal c, g, so, as
ceace, jaw ; geafon, they gave ; gear,
year ; sceap, sheep (§ 124).

= (3) Germanic Je by brealcing before h, as
neah, near; near, older *neahur,
nearer (§ 123).

= {4) Germanic aw which became final in
prim. OE., as hrea, raiv; strea,
straw (§ 75).

= (5) from au after the loss of intervocalic w,
as clea from ''cla(w)u, claw; ])rea
from *J)ra(w)u, threat (§ 75).

= (6) Germanic aw in the combination eaw
= Germanic aww, as deaw (Goth.
*daggwa-), dew; heawan, to hew
(§ 76).

= (7) OE. ea, Germanic a, by loss of ante-
vocalic h after 1 and r, as gen. scales,
weales, beside nom. sealh, willow,
wealh, foreign (§ 64, Note i) ; gen.
feares, meares, beside nom. fearh,
pig, mearh, horse (§ 66, Note 3).

= (8) OE. ea, by loss of intervocalic h, as ea,
river; slean, to slay; tear, tear (§ 70).
§ 173. eo = (i) Germanic eu,as ceosan, to choose; deep,
deep ; leof, dear ; J)eof, thief (§ 137).

= (2) Germanic ew which became final in
prim. OE., as cneo, knee; tree, tree
(§ 88).

78 Phonology [§§ 174-5

= (3) Germanic ew in the combination eow
= Germanic eww, as treow, trust,
faith (§ 90),

= (4) OE. eo, Germanic e, by loss of ante-
vocalic h after 1 and r, as feolan, to
hide; gen. eoles, beside nom. eolh,
elk (§ 84, Note 1) ; gen. feores, beside
nom. feorh, life (§ 85, Note 4).

= (5) OE. eo by loss of intervocalic h, as
seen, to see ; sweor, father-in-law ;
gen. feos, beside nom. feoh, cattle
(§ 87).
§ 174. ie (later i, y) = (i) i-umlaut of ea, Germanic au,
as geliefan, to believe ; hieran, to
hear; hiehsta, /;<]g^Acs/ (§ 136).

= {2) i-umlaut of 10, Germanic iu, as cies]), he
chooses; dierling, darling; liehtan, to
give light ; tiehj), he draws, leads (§ 138),

= (3) i-umlaut of 10, Germanic i before h, ht
by breaking, as liehst, thou lendest;
liehtan, to lighten, make easier (§ 127).

= (4) i-umlaut of 10 (eo), Germanic ij + guttural
vowel, as fiend from *&^a.nAiz, fiends ;
friend from *frij6ndiz,/m«rfs (§ 105).

= (5) Germanic ew in the combination iew(e)
= Germanic ewwj, as getriewe, true,
faithful (§ 90).

= (6) Germanic evp in the combination iew(e)

= Germanic ewj, as niewe, new (§ 90).

§ 175. io (eo) = (i) Germanic iu, as geJ>iode, geJ>eode,

language; \ioAe,\GO&e, people ; ]>iostre,

Jieostre, dark (§ 138).

= (2) Germanic i or ij + guttural vowel, as
fiond, feond, Goth, fijands, fiend,
enemy ; friend, freond, Goth, frijonds,

^i1(>-%o] Prim. G. Equivalents of OE. Voivels 79

friend; neut. pi. Jirio, J>reo from *))riju,
Goth. ])rija, three (§ 104).
= (3) Germanic i by breaking before h and ht,
as J)ion, ])eon, OHG. dihan, to thrive; lioh,
leoh, OHG. lih, lend thou; betweoh, be-
tween ; leoht, OHG. lihti, adj. light (§ 127).

The Chief Deviations of the other Dialects
FROM West Saxon.

§176. a (Anglian) = WS. ea before 1 + consonant, as
cald, cold, fallan, to fall, haldan, to hold,
WS. ceald, feallan, healdan (§ 63).

§ 177. ae (Anglian) = (i) WS. ea before h and h + con-
sonant, as saeh, he saw, faex, hair, sehta,
eight, WS. seah, feax, eahta (§ 68, Note i).
= (2) WS. ie, i-umlaut of ea before h + con-
sonant, as hlaBhha(n), to laugh, msehtig,
mighty, WS. hliehhan, miehtig (§ 69,
Note).

§ 178. ae (later e) = (i) WS. ea before r-f guttural, as
berg, pig, ere, ark, fserh, ferh, boar, pig,
maerc, mere, boundary, WS. bearg, earc,
fearh, meare (§ 66, Note i).
= (2) WS. ie, i-umlaut of ea before 1 + con-
sonant, as %ldra, eldra, older, faella(n),
fella(D), to fell, WS. ieldra, fiellan (§ 65,
Note).

§ 179. ae beside ea (Anglian) = WS. ea after palatal
c, g, se, as eaester, city, fortress, gsst, gate,
scael, shall, beside eeaster, geat, sceal
(§ 72, Note i).

§ 180. ae (Mercian for older ea by o/a-umlaut) = WS. a
before gutturals, as draeca, dragon, daegas,
days, WS. draea, dagas,(§ 78, Note i).

8o Phonology [§§ 181-4

§ 181. e (Anglian and Ken.) = (1) WS. ie after palatal c,g,
sc, as gefa(n), to give, gelda(n), to pay, sceld,
shield, WS. giefan, gieldan, scield (§ 91).

= (2) WS. ie, i-umlaut of ea before r + con-
sonant, as derne, secret, erfe, inheritance,
WS. dierne, ierfe (§ 67, Note).

= (3) WS. ie, i-umlaut of ea, after palatal
c, g, sc, as cele, cold, gest, guest, sceppan,
to create, WS. ciele, giest, scieppan
(§ 73, Note).
§ 182. e (Anglian) = (i) WS. eo before Ic, Ih, aselh, elk,
melca(ii), to milk, WS. eolh, meolcan
(§ 84).

= (2) WS. eo before h, hs, ht, as feh, cattle,
sex, six, cneht, boy, early WS. feoh, seox,
cneoht (§ 86, Note).

= (3) WS. eo before r + guttural, as Aerc, dark,
were, work, dwerg, dwarf, ferh, life, WS.
deorc, weorc, dweorg.feorh (§ 85,Note2).
§ 183. e (Ken.) = (i) WS. ae, as deg, day, feder, father,
hefde, he had, WS. dseg, faeder, hsefde
(§ 54, Note i).

= (2) WS. ea after palatal c, g, sc, as cester,
city, fortress, get, gate, seel, shall, WS.
ceaster, geat, sceal (§ 72, Note i).

= (3) WS. y, i-umlaut of u, as besig, busy,
efel, evil, senn, sin, WS. bysig, yfel, synn
(§ 112, Note i).

= (4) WS. ie, i-umlaut of ea, as eldra, older,
eldu, old age, WS. ieldra, ieldu (§ 65,
Note).
§ 184. i (Anglian) = (i) WS. ie before a guttural or r-|-
guttural, as birce, birch, gebirhta(n), to
make bright, gesih)>, vision, WS. bierce,
gebierhtan, gesieh]? (§ 88, Note 2).

§§ i8s-9] Prim. G. Equivalents ofOE. Vowels 8i

= (2) WS. io (u-umlaut) before 1 + guttural, as

mile, milk, WS. mioluc, miolc (§ 101,

Note 2).
= (3) WS. io (eo) before gutturals, as getih-

hia(n),WS. tiohhian, teohhian, to arrange,

think, consider (§ 98, Note 2).
= (4) WS. u in the combination wu- before

gutturals, as betwih, between, cwic(u),

quick, alive, wicu, week, WS. betwuh,

c(w)ucu, wucu (§ 103).
§ 185. o (late Nth.) = late WS. u in the combination

wu., as sword, sword, worjia, to become,

late WS. swurd, wurfan (§ 94).
§ 186. oe (Nth.) = (i) WS. e, i-umlaut of o, as dat.

doehter, to a daughter, oele, oil, WS. dehter,

ele (§ 107).
= (2) WS. e after w, as cuoeJ>a, to say, woeg,

luay, WS. cwejjan, weg (§ 80, Note i) ;

cuoella, to kill, WS. cwellan (§ 55, Note i).
§ 187. ffi (Anglian) later e = WS. ea, Germanic au

before c, g, h, as sec, also, hieh, high, tseg,

rope, later ec, heh, teg, WS. eac, heah,

teag (§ 135, Note 2).
§ 188. e (Anglian and Ken.) = (i) WS. a, Germanic a,

as beron, they bore, ded, deed, seton, they

sat, slepan, to sleep, WS. bseron, dsd,

sseton, slsepon (§ 119).
= (2) WS. ea after palatal c, g, zc, as cece,
jaw, ger, year, gefon, they gave, seep,

sheep, WS. ceaee, gear, geafon, seeap

(§ 124, Note\
= (3) WS. ie, i-umlaut of ea, as gelefan, to

believe, heran, to hear, ned, need, WS.

geliefan, lueran, nied (§ 124).
§ 189. e (Anglian) = (i) WS. eo, Germanic eu, before

82 Phonology [§§ 190-4

c, g, h, as reca(n), to smoke, sec, sick,

flega(n), to fly, leht, light, WS. reocan,

seoc, fleogan, leoht (§ 137, Note 2).
= (2) WS. ie, i-umlaut of ea from older se by

breaking, as *nesta from nehista, WS.

niehsta, nearest, next (§ 123).
= (3) older 2e, see § 187.
§ 190. e (Ken.) = Anglian and WS. y, i-umlaut of u, as

hef, hive, mes, mice, ontenan, to open,

Anglian and WS. hyf, mys, ontynan

(§ 132, Note).
§ 191. e (late Ken.) = Anglian and WS. se, i-umlaut

of a, as clene, clean, helan, to heal, hetan,

to heat, Anglian and WS. clsene, hselan,

hjetan (§ 134).
§ 192. i (Anglian) = (i) WS. io (eo), Germanic i before h

and ht, as wih, idol, lih, lend thou, Jiht,

adj. light, WS. weoh, leoh, leoht (§ 127).
= (2) WS. ie, i-umlaut of 10 = Germanic iu,

before c and ht, as cicen, chicken, lihtan,

to give light, WS. ciecen, liehtan (§ 138,

Note).
= (3) WS. ie, i-umlaut of io, Germanic i, before

ht, as lihtan, to lighten, make easier (§ 127).
§ 193. i (Nth.) = WS. ieh, as sis(t) from *sihis, thou

seest, sij> from *sihi]), he sees, WS. siehst,

sieh]3 (§ 99, Note 2).
§ 194. de (Nth.) = (i) WS. e, i-umlaut of o ol whatever

origin, as bdec, books, fdet, feet, groene,

green, WS. bee, fet, grene (§ 129) ; goes,

WS. ges, geese (§ 62) ; foe]), WS. feh]), he

seises (§ 118).
= (3) WS. Je, Germanic ffi, after w, as huder,

ivhere, wderon, tltey were, WS. hwier,

wsron (§ 119, Note 2).

§§i9g-204] Prim. G. Equivalents of OE. Vowels 83

§ 195. ea (Anglian) beside ae, see § 179.

§ 196. ea (Nth.) = (i) WS. eo before r + consonant, as
ear])e, earth, hearte, heart, stearra, star,
WS. eor])e, heorte, steorra (§85, Note 3).
= (2) WS. e, Mercian eo by o/a-umlaut, beara,
eata, to eat, treada, to tread, WS. beran,
etan, tredan (§ 93).

§ 197. ea (Mercian) by u-, o/a-umlaut = WS. a, as
featu, vats, heafuc, hawk, fearan, to go,
WS. fatu, hafuc, faran (§ 78).

§ 198. eo (Mercian and Ken.) by u-umlaut = WS. e
(before all single consonants except labials
and liquids), as eodor, enclosure, eosol,
donkey, WS. edor, esol (§ 92).

§ 199. eo (Ken.) by u-umlaut = Anglian and WS. e
before gutturals, as breogo, prince, reogol,
rule, Anglian and WS. brego, regol
(§ 92).

§ 200. eo (Mercian and Ken.) by o/a-umlaut = WS. e,
as beoran, to bear, eotan, to eat, feola,
many, WS. beran, etan, fela (§ 93).

§ 201. eo (Mercian and Ken.) = late WS. u in the com-
bination wu, as sweord, sword, sweostor,
sister, late WS. swurd, swu3ter( § 94).

§ 202. io (Anglian and Ken.) by u-umlaut = WS. i
(before all single consonants except labials
and liquids), as liomu, limbs, nioj'or, lower,
siodu, custom, sionu, sinew, WS. limu,
ni]7or, sidu, sinu (§ 101).

§ 203. io (Anglian and Ken.) by o/a-umlaut = WS.
i, as nioman, to take, raom.a.^p, they take,
WS. niman, nima]? (§ 102).

§ 204. io (Nth. and Ken.) = WS. ie, i-umlaut of io, Ger-
manic i, as hiorde, shepherd, iorre, angry,
WS. hierde, ierre (§ 99, Note i).
G 2

§4 Phonology [§§205-11

§ 205. io (Ken.) = WS. eo by breaking before r + con-
sonant, as hiorte, heart, ior])e, earth, stiorra,
star, WS. heorte, eorJ>e, steorra (§ 85,
Note 3).

§ 203. io (Ken.) by o/a-umlaut = Anglian and WS. i
before gutturals, as stiocian, Anglian and
WS. stician, to prick (§ 102).

§ 207. io (Mercian) beside eo = WS. ie, i-umlaut of io,
as iorre, eorre, angry, hiorde, heorde,
shepherd, WS. ierre, hierde (§ 99, Note i).

§ 208. ea (Nth.) = Mercian and WS. eo, Germanic eu,
as deap, deep, dear, deer, leaf, dear, Mer-
cian and WS. deop, deor, leof (§ 137).

§ 209. io (Ken.) beside ia = (i) Mercian and WS. eo,
Germanic eu, as diop (diap), dior, Uof =
Mercian and WS. deop, deor, leof (§ 137).
= (2) WS. ie, i-umlaut of io, Germanic iu, as
diore (diare), dear, liohtan, to give light,
WS. diere, Uehtan (§ 138).

§ 210. io (Mercian) beside eo = WS. ie, i-umlaut of io,
as diore (deore), liohtan (leohtan), WS.
diere, liehtan (§ 138).

CHAPTER VI

THE OLD ENGLISH DEVELOPMENT OF THE
PRIMITIVE GERMANIC VOWELS OF UN-
ACCENTED SYLLABLES

§ 211. Before formulating the laws which govern the
treatment of the vowels in final syllables, it will be useful
to state here the laws relating to the treatment of final
consonants in prehistoric OE. : —

(i) Final -m became -n, and then it, as also Indg. final
■n, disappeared already in primitive Germanic. When

§2ii] Vowels of Unaccented Syllables 85

the vowel which thus became final was short, it had the
same further development as if it had been originally final,
as geoc, Goth, juk, Lat. jugum, Gr. Suyo", Indg. *jug6m,
yoke; ace. sing. OE. Goth, wulf, Lat. lupum, Gr. Xukoi/,
Indg. *wlqom, wolf; giest, Goth, gast, from *5astim,
guest, cp. Lat. turrim, tower ; fot, Goth, fotu, from *f6tun,
cp. Lat. pedem, Gr. iroSa (§ 34), foot; gen. pi. daga from
*da58n, older -Sin, of days, cp. Gr. Q^Siv, of gods ; fota, of
feet; and similarly in the gen. plural of the other vocalic
and consonantal stems ; pret. sing, nerede, Goth, nasida,
prim. Germanic "nazidon, older -6m, / saved; nom. sing,
of feminine and neuter n-stems, as tunge, Goth, tuggo,
tongue ; eage, Goth. 4ugo, eye, original ending -on.

(2) The Indg. final explosives disappeared in prim. Ger-
manic, except after a short accented vowel, as pres. subj.
bere, Goth, bairdi, from an original form 'bheroit,/«e may
bear; bSrun, Goth, berun, they bore, original ending -nt
with vocalic n (§ £5) ; mona, Goth, mena, from an original
form ''menot, moon ; but ])aet, that, the, Indg. *tod ; hwaet =
Lat. quod, what ; aet = Lat. ad, at.

(3) Final -z, which arose from Indg. -s by Verner's law
(§ 252), disappeared in the West Germanic languages, as
nom. sing, daeg, OS. dag, OHG. tag, beside Goth, dags,
O.Icel. dagr, day, all from a prim. Germanic form *dagaz,
day ; and similarly in the nom. sing, of masc. and feminine
i- and u-stems ; in the gen. singular of 6-, and consonantal
stems ; in the nom. and ace. plural of masc. and feminine
nouns ; in the dat. plural of all nouns, adjectives, and
pronouns; &c.

Note.— It is difficult to account for the -s in the nom. plural
of a-stems in OE. and OS., as dagas, OS. dagos, days, see § 334.

(4) Indg. final -r remained, as faeder, Goth, fadar, Lat.
pater, Gr. Trarrip, father ; modor, Lat. mater, Gr. Dor.
fidrrip, mother.

8 6 Phonology [§§212-14

§ 212. (i) a (=Indg. a and o), which was originally final
or became final in prim. Germanic through the loss of a
following consonant, disappeared in dissyllabic and poly-
syllabic forms already in primitive OE., as wat, Goth.
wdit, Gr. 0180, / know ; wast, Goth, wdist, Gr. oXaia, thou
knowest; pret. first pers. singular of strong verbs, as band,
I bound; bser, I bore, sset, I sat, prim. Germanic *banda,
*bara, *£;ata, from older *bhondha, *bhora, *soda ; nom.
sing, wulf from *wulfaz = Gr. Xu'kos, wolf; ace. wulf from
*'wulfan = Gr. Xu'koc; nom. ace. neut. geoc from *jukan
= Gr. iuyoi', Lat. jugum, yoke ; gen. sing, dseges from
"dagesa, older -o, of a day; beran from *beranan =
Indg. *bheronom, to bear; pp. boren from *burenaz,
borne; pp. genered from *-nazidaz, saved; cyning from
*kunii)gas, king.

§ 213. (2) Original final e disappeared in primitive OE.
without leaving any trace, but when the e was originally
followed by a consonant it became i in prim. Germanic, and
then underwent the same further development in OE. as
original i (see below), as wat, Goth, wdit = Gr. otSe, he
knoivs ; pret. third pers. singular of strong verbs, as band,
lie bound; bser, he bore ; sat, /«<? sat, prim. Germanic *bande,
*bare, *£ate, from older *bhondhe, *bhore, ''sode ; im-
perative ber from *bere = Gr. 4>^pe, bear thou ; nim from
*neme, take thou = Gr. I'e'ne, distribute thou ; voc. singular
wulf from *wulfe = Gr. Xukc, Lat. lupe, wolf; fif, Goth,
fimf = Gr. Tre'cTe, Indg. *^&x^qe, five ; mec, Goth, mik, cp.
Gr. iy-fye, me. But pi. nom. feet, fet from *fotiz older
■ez, cp. Gr. iroScs, Lat. ^eAes,feet ; guman from *gumaniz,
cp. Lat. homines, men ; hnyte from *xnutiz, nuts.

§ 214. {3) Final long vowels, inherited from prim. Ger-
manic, became shortened already in prim. OE. : —

•0 (= Indg. 6 and a) became u, as beru from *ber6 =
Gr. i))^pu, I bear; nom. singular glefu from *geb6, Indg.
*ghebha, gift, cp. Gr. x<*P"» land; nom. ace. neut. plural

§ 215] Vowels of Unaccented Syllables 87

geocu from *juk6, older *juka = O.Lat. juga, Indg.
*juga, j/o^es.

•i became -i, later -e, as pres. subj. third pers. singular
wile, he will = O.Lat. velit ; imper. second pers. singu-
lar nere, Goth, nasei, OHG. neri, from *nazi, older
*nazij(i), Indg. *nos^je, save thou.

§ 215. (4) Short u and i, which were originally final or
became final through the loss of a consonant, disappeared
in trisyllabic and polysyllabic forms. They, as well as the
u and i, which arose from the shortening of 6 and 1, dis-
appeared also in dissyllabic forms when the first syllable
was long, but remained when the first syllable was short.
The regular operation of this law was often disturbed by
analogical formations.

Regular forms were : nom. sing, giest = Goth, gasts,
from *gastiz, guest = Lat. hostis, stranger, enemy; ace.
giest = Goth, gast, from "gastin = Lat. *hostim ; dat.
sing, of consonantal stems, as fdet, fit (nom. fot, foot) from
*f5ti, cp. Gr. iroBi ; dat. plural of nouns, as dagum (nom.
daeg, day) from *dagomiz; giefum (nom. giefu, gift) from
*gefe6miz ; hier = Goth, hdusei, from *xauzi, hear thou ;
sec = Goth, sokei, seek thou ; bend = Goth, bandi, from
*Bandi, band ; in the second and third pers. singular and
third pers. plural of the pres. indicative, as prim. Germanic
*nimiz, thou takest ; *nimid, he takes ; *nemanct, they take,
from older "nemesi, *nemeti, *nemonti (on the OE. end-
ings of these forms, see § 476) ; sing. nom. hand = Goth.
handus, hand ; ace. hand = Goth, handu ; ace. singular of
consonantal stems, as f6t= Goth, fotu, ybo^; faeder from
*iaderun, father ; guman from *5umanun, man; nom. lar
from *laru, older *laiz6, lore, teaching ; neut. pi. word
from *wordu, older *wurd6, words ; nom. ace. pi. neuter
yfel from *u'bilu, older *utoilo, evil; nom. ace. singular
wini, wine (OHG. wini), from *winiz, *vi'm.in, friend ;
mere (OHG. meri), from *mari, lake ; nom. plural wine

88 Phonology [§§216-17

(OHG. wini), from *winlz, older -ijtijz, -ejes, friends ;
imperative sete from *sati, Indg. *sodeje, set thou ; pres.
subj. scyle from older "skuli, shall; sing. nom. sunu =
Goth, sunus, son ; ace. sunu = Goth, sunu ; feola (fela)
= Goth, filu, much ; neut. pi. fatu, from *fat6, vats ; beru
(beoru) from *ber6, f bear. Then after the analogy of
these and similar forms were made feoh for *feohu, money
= Goth, fafhu, OHG. fihu, Lat. pecu, cattle ; bindu, / bind,
helpu, I help, ceosu, / choose, for *bind, *help, *ceos.
The final -u from older -w (§ 265) also disappeared after
long stem-syllables, as gad, Goth, gdidw, want, lack;
a, Goth, ciiw, cwr ; hra, Goth, hrdiw, cor/>se ; but remained
after short stem-syllables, as bealu, evil, calamity, beam,
grove, beside gen. bealwes,bearwes.

Note. — Final i, which remained in the oldest period of the
language, regularly became e in the seventh century. And
final u became o at an early period, and then in late OE. a,
whence forms like nom. ace. sunu, suno, suna, son ; pi. fatu,
fato, fata, vats.

§ 216. In trisyllabic forms final -u, which arose from
prim. Germanic -o, disappeared after a long medial
syllable. It also disappeared when the stem and medial
syllable were short, but remained when the stem-syllable
was long and the medial syllable short, as leornung from
*lirnungu, learning ; byden from *budinu, older budino,
tub ; pi. reced from *rakidu, older ''rakido, halls, palaces ;
neut. pi. yfel from *ubilu, older ''ubilo, evil ; but fem. nom.
sing, haligu, holy, heafodu, heads, nietenu, animals.

§ 217. (5) The Indg. long diphthongs -ai.-oi, -6u became
shortened to -ai, -au in prim. Germanic, and then under-
went the same further changes as old -ai, -au, that is, they
became -se, -6 in West Germanic.

Later than the shortening mentioned in § 214 occurred
the shortening which was undergone in diss}'llabic and
polysyllabic words by the long vowel, after which an

§2i8] Vozvels of Unaccented Syllables 89

•n or -z had disappeared, and by the -eb and -6 from older
-ai and -au, which were either already final in prim. Ger-
manic, or had become so after the loss of -z. In this case
a distinction must be made according as the long vowel
originally had the ' slurred ' (circumflex) or ' broken '
(acute) accent (§ 9). -5 with the circumflex accent became
-e (older ae) after the loss of -z, but -a after the loss of -n.
•o with the acute accent became -e (older ae) after the loss
of -n. The -se and -6 from older -ai and -au became -e
(older ae) and -a. All these shortenings took place in pre-
historic Old English. Examples are : — gen. sing, and nom.
plural gefe (Anglian) from 'getSz = Goth. gib5s, nom.
sing. giefu(WS.), gift; gen. plural daga from *da58n, older
•5m, of days; fota from *f6t5n, of feet, cp. Gr. 9eui', of
gods ; and similarly in the gen. plural of other vocalic and
consonantal stems; nom. singular of masculine n-stems, as
guma from *5um5(n), man ; ace. singular giefe from
*5eb6n, older -brajgift, cp. Gr. x<apa.v, land; nom. singular
of feminine and neuter n-stems, as tunge from *tui]g6n =
Goth, tuggo, tongue ; cage from *au56n = Goth. dug5,
eye; nerede from *nazid5n, older -6m, T saved; fore,
before = Gr. iropai, near ; dat. sing, daege from *dagai, older
•6i, to a day, cp. Gr. locative oIkoi, at home, dat. Xuku, Io
a wolf; dat. sing, giefe = Goth, gibii, Indg. "ghebhai, to
a gift, cp. Gr. dat. x<^P? for 'x^P"'* ^o land; fem. dat. sing.
blindre from *blindizai, blind ; masc. nom. plural blinde =
Goth, blinddi, blind ; bere = Goth, bairdi, Gr. <|>e'pot, he
may bear; eahta = Goth, ahtdu, from an original form
■"cktou, eight ; e)))ia = Goth. af]));du, or ; gen. singular
suna = Goth, sundus, of a son.

§ 218. After the operation of the sound-laws described
in §§ 212-17, many vowels, which originally stood in medial
syllables, came to stand in final syllables in prehistoric
OE. These vowels underwent various changes.

I. Indg. o remained longer in unaccented syllables than

go Phonology [§218

in accented syllables in prim. Germanic. It became a
during the prim. Germanic period except (i) when followed
by an m which remained in historic times, and (2) when
the following syllable originally contained an u. In these
cases the o became u in OE., as dat. plural dagum beside
Goth, dagam, prim. Germanic *dagoniiz, to days; ace.
sing, brojjur (later -or, -ar), from *Br6])orun, brother =
Gr. <|>pdTopo (§ 34), member of a clan ; ace. pi. br6]>ur from
*broJ)Orunz. Prim. Germanic a remained before n, but
became e (older se) in other cases, as inf beran from
*Beranan, Indg. *bheronom, to bear; ace. sing, of masc.
and feminine n-stems, as guman, man; tungan, tongue,
from -anun, older -onm (with vocalic m) ; nom. plural
guman, tungan, from -aniz, older -ones ; but huneg older
hunaeg (OHG. honag), honey.

2. Indg. e remained in OE. when originally not followed
by a palatal vowel in the next syllable, as hwaejjer = Gr.
■n-oTcpos, whether, ivhtch of two; gen. sing, dseges from
*da§esa, older -o, of a day; pp. bunden from *bundenaz,
Indg. *bhndhenos, bound; oJ)er from *anj5eraz, other.
But when e was originally followed by a palatal vowel
it became i already in prim. Germanic, see below.

3. Prim. Germanic i remained in OE. before palatal
consonants, as englisc, English ; hefig, heavy ; usic, us.
It also remained in other cases in the oldest period of the
language, but became e in the seventh century (see § 215,
Note), as pp. genered from *-nazidaz, saved; nimes(t),
OHG. nimis, thou takest, Indg. *nemesi; nime]>, OHG.
nimit, he takes, Indg. *nemeti. The e in the second and
third pers. singular was mostly syncopated in WS. and
Ken., but generally remained in Anglian (see § 476).

4. Prim. Germanic u always remained before a following
m, but in other cases it became o already at an early
period, and in late OE. also a (see § 215, Note), as dat.
plural sunum, to sons; fotum, to feet, prim. Germanic

§ 219] Vowels of Unaccented Syllables 91

■umiz ; pret. pi. indicative bjerun, -on, they bore; neredun,
■on, they saved.

5. All long vowels underwent shortening already in
prehistoric Old English : —

Ee>e, as faeder, cp. Gr. ■Ttarl\p, father ; neredes (older
■daes) from *nazidffis, cp. Goth, nasides, thou didst save.

i > i, later e, except before palatal consonants, as gylden
(OHG. guldin) from "^ulfinaz ; msegden = OHG. maga-
tin, maiden; subj. pret. plural bseren=Goth. bereina,
OHG. barin, they might bear; but mihtig= Goth, mah-
teigs, OHG. mahtig, miglity; godlic, goodly, beside the
stressed form gelic, like.

6 > u, later o, a (cp. § 215, Note), but u always remained
before a following m, as huntojj, -ajj, from *xunt6])uz,
hunting; heardost, Aarafes/, \eofosi,dearest, prim. Germanic
superlative suffix -ost- ; sealfas(t) = Goth, salbds, thou
anointest ; sealfaj> = Goth, salboj), he anoints ; pret. sing.
sealfude, -ode, -ade = Goth, salboda, / anointed; pp.ge-
sealfud, -od, -ad = Goth. salbo]}s ; but always u in the dat.
pl.giefum =Goih.gihbm,to gifts; tungum = Goth.tugg6m,
to tongues. The combination -6j- was weakened to -i-
(through the intermediate stages -ej-, -ej-, -ij-), as in the inf.
of the second class of weak verbs : lufian, to love ; macian,
to make; sealfian, to anoint. The prim. OE. ending -oj)
from older -on]? (see § 61), -an]?, -anjii, Indg. -onti, was
regularly weakened to -a)), as bera}) = Gr. Dor. <|>^pot'Ti,
they bear.

u>u (later o, a). In this case the u arose in prim. OE.
from the loss of n before a voiceless spirant (§ 286).
Examples are: fracu)), .oJ), from *fiakun])az, wicked ■=
Goth, frakunjjs, despised; dugu}> from *du5un)). = OHG.
tugunt, valour, strength ; geoguj) from *jugunjj- = OHG.
jugunt, youth.

§ 219. If a nasal or a liquid, preceded by a mute con-
sonant, came to stand finally after the loss of a vowel

92 Phonology [§219

(§ 212), it became vocalic, and then a new vowel was
generated before it in prehistoric OE. just as was the case
in prehistoric OS. and OHG. The vowel thus generated
was generally e when the preceding vowel was palatal,
but o (u), later also e, when the preceding vowel was
guttural, as nom. efen from *eBnaz, cp. Goth, ibns, even ;
nom. ace. aecer from *akr, older *akraz, *akran, cp. Goth,
akrs, akr, field; nom. ace. fugul, -ol, from *fugl, older
*f05laz, *fo5lan, cp. Goth, fugls, fugl, bird, fowl; nom.
ace. maj)um from *mai]3m, older *maij)maz, *maij)man,
cp. Goth, miijjms, mai])m, gift. In the oldest period of
the language forms with and without the new vowel often
existed side by side. The new vowel occurred most fre-
quently before r. Vocalic 1 was common especially after
dentals, and vocalic m and n generally occurred after
a short syllable. The forms with vocalic 1, m, n, r in the
nom. ace. singular were due to levelling out the stem-form
of the inflected cases. Thus regular forms were: nom.
segel, sail ; ma])um, gift ; beacen, sign, beacon ; efen,
even; 3iCtr, field ; Ipnnor, thunder; gen. segles, ma}>mes,
beacnes, efnes, aecres, ))unres. Then from the latter
were formed new nominatives segl, majjm, beacn, efn ;
and from the former new genitives aeceres, })unores.
Examples are : aeppel, aepl, apple ; husul, husel, hiisl,
Eucharist, cp. Goth, hunsl, sacrifice ; nadl (Goth. nej)la),
needle; naegl, 7tail; setl (Goth, sitls), seat; tempel, tempi
(Lat. templum), temple ; tungul, -ol, -el, star, bosm,
bosom ; botm, bottom ; Eefm, breath ; ])rosm, smoke ;
wsestum, -em, waestm, growth, hrsefn, raven ; regn
(Goth, rign), rain ; stefn, voice ; tacen, tacn (Goth. tAikns),
token ; Jjegen, Jiegn, retainer ; waegn, wagon, atr, ator,
poison ; faeger (Goth, fagrs), fair, beautiful ; finger
(Goth, figgrs), /«jer ; hliitor (Goth. \Avl\.t^, pure, clear;
snotor, wise; winter (Goth, wintrus), winter; wundor,
wonder.

§§ 220-1] Vowels of Unaccented Syllables 93

§ 220. In OE., especially in the later period, a svara-
bhakti vowel was often developed between r or 1 + c, g, or
h; and between r, 1, d, or t + w. In the former case the
quality of the vowel thus developed regulated itself after
the quality of the stem-vowel. In the latter case it fluc-
tuated between u (o) and e, rarely a. The development of
a similar vowel in these consonant combinations also took
place in OS. and OHG. Examples are : nora. sing, burug,
buruh (OS. OHG. burug) beside burg, burh (OS. OHG.
burg), city ; but dat. sing, and nom. plural byrig beside
byrg ; byriga beside byrga, bail, surety ; fyligan beside
fylgan, to follow ; myrigjj beside myrg]?, mirth ; styric
beside styrc, calf, cp. modern northern dial, starak
beside stik; woruhte, worohte (OHG. worahta) beside
wofhte (OHG. vrorhta), lie ivorked. beadu, -o, battle,
gen. dat. beaduwe, -owe beside beadwe; bealu, evil,
gen. bealuwes, -owes beside bealwes ; bearu, grove,
bearuwes, -owes beside bearwes ; fraetuwe, -ewe beside
fraetwe, trappings ; gearu, ready, gen. gearuwes (OHG.
garawes), -owes, -ewes beside gearwes ; gearuwe
(OHG. garawa), -ewe beside gearwe (OHG. garwa),
yarrow; geolu, yellow, gen. geoluwes, -owes beside
geolwes ; melu,meolu, meal, flour, gen. meluwes (OHG.
melawes), -owes, -ewes beside melwes (OHG. melwes) ;
nearu, narrow, gen. nearuwes, -owes, -ewes beside
nearwes ; and similarly with several other words.

§ 221. Original short medial vowels in open syllables
regularly remained in trisyllabic forms when the stem-
syllable was short, as sejiele, noble; gen. sing, heofones,
metodes, nacodes, rodores, stapoles, wseteres, beside
nom. heofon, heaven ; metod, creator ; nacod, naked ;
roAoT, sky ; stapol, pillar ; waeter, water; gen. dat. sing.
idese beside nom. ides, woman ; pret. fremedest from
*framid£es, thou didst perform ; neredest from *nazidses,
thou didst save. On the syncope of i after prim. Germanic

94 Phonology [§223

short stems in the preterite and past participle of weak
verbs, see § 534.

They also remained in closed syllables irrespectively as
to whether the stem-syllable was long or short, as gen.
sing, cyninges, fsetelses, hengestes, westennes, beside
nom. cyning, king ; fsetels, tub ; hengest, stallion ; westen,
desert; fagettan, to change colour ; pres. participle nimende,
taking; superlatives ieldesta, o/(!/es^ ; lengesta., longest. It
is difficult to account for the syncope in hiehsta, highest;
and niehsta, nearest.

They also remained after consonant combinations, when
preceded by a closed stem-syllable, or a stem-syllable con-
taining a long diphthong or vowel, as pret. hyngrede, tim-
brede, dieglede, frefrede, beside inf. hyngran, to hunger,
timbran, to build, dieglan, to conceal, frefran, to comfort ;
dat. pi. syndrigum beside nom. sing, syndrig, separate.

They regularly disappeared in open syllables when the
stem-syllable was long, as gen, sing, diegles, angles,
halges, heafdes, 6])res, beside nom. diegol, secret; engel,
angel; halig, holy; heafod, head; oper, other; halgian, to
make holy; strengjju from *strar)5i)>o (OHG. strengida),
strength; ieldra (Goth, aljjiza), older; gen. dat. sing.
frofre, m6n])e, sawle, beside nom. frofor, consolation;
mona)j, month; sawol, soul; dseldest (Goth, ddilides),
thou didst divide ; hierdest (Goth, hdusides), thou heardest.

§ 222. Short medial guttural vowels, followed by a
guttural vowel in the next syllable, often became palatal
by dissimilation, as hafela, head, beside hafola; nafela,
navel, beside nafola; gaderian from *5adur6jan, to gather;
pi. nom. heofenas, gen. heofena, dat. heofenum, beside
sing. gen. heofones, dat. heofone, nom. heofon, heaven;
pi. nom. roderas, gen. rodera, dat. roderum, beside sing,
gen. rodores, dat. rodore, nom. r odor, firmament ; pi. nom.
stapelas, gen. stapela, dat. stapelum, beside sing. gen.
stapoles, dat. stapole, nom. stapol, pillar. The inter-

§ 223] Vowels of Unaccented Syllables 95

change between e and o in forms like sealfedon (OHG.
salbotun), they anomkd, beside sealfode (OHG. salbota),
he anointed, is probably due to the same cause.

§ 223. In prim. OE. polysyllabic forms the second
medial short vowel disappeared when it stood in an open
syllable, but remained when it stood in a closed syllable,
as ace. sing. masc. oferne from *an]jeran6(n), other; and
similarly %\xAne, glad; gbdne,good; haligne, holy ; &c. ;
dat. fern, singular ojjerre from *an]5erizai; and similarly
glaedre, g5dre, haligre; gen. plural ojjerra, prim. Ger-
manic *an))eraiz5(n), older -em ; and similarly godra,
haligra. But having a secondary accent in a closed
syllable, the vowel regularly remained, as nom. plural
gaedelingas, companions; dat. singular gaderunge, to an
assembly ; innemesta, inmost.

Note.— I. There are many exceptions to the above sound-
laws, which are due to analogical formations. Thus forms like
masc. and neut. gen. singular micles, dat. miclum, great ;
yfles, yflum, beside yfeles, yfelum, evil; gen. pi. glasira, glad,
were made on analogy with forms having a long stem-syllable.
And forms like gen. singular deofoles (nom. deofol, devil),
e)7eles (nom. e))el, native land), haliges, holy, beside older
deofles, e}>les, halges, were made on analogy with forms having
a short stem-syllable.

2. In late OE. syncope often took place after short stems,
and sometimes in closed syllables, as betra, better; circe,
church ; fsegnian, to rejoice, gadrian, to gather, beside older
betera, cirice, feegenian, gaderian; betsta, best; winstre,
left {hand), beside older betesta, winestre.

3. Original medial long vowels, which were shortened at an
early period, were syncopated in trisyllabic forms in OE., but
remained when the shortening took place at a later period, as
dat. singular mon]7e beside mona]} (Goth. meno)>s), month ;
but 15codest from '''lokodss, ihou didst look.

96 Phonology [§224

CHAPTER VII
ABLAUT (VOWEL GRADATION)

§ 224. By ablaut is meant the gradation of vowels both
in stem and suffix, which was caused by the primitive
Indo-Germanic system of accentuation. See § 9.

The vowels vary within certain series of related vowels,
called ablaut-series. In OE., to which this chapter will
be chiefly confined, there are six such series, which appear
most clearly in the stem-forms of strong verbs. Four
stem-forms are to be distinguished in an OE. strong verb
which has vowel gradation as the characteristic mark of
its different stems : — (i) The present stem, to which belong
all the forms of the present, (2) the stem of the first or
third person singular of the preterite indicative, (3) the
stem of the preterite plural, to which belong the second
pars. pret. singular, and the whole of the pret. subjunctive,
{4) the stem of the past participle.

By arranging the vowels according to these four stems
we arrive at the following system : —

iv.

i

o

u, o

o

e

Be (a)

Note.- i. The six series as given above represent the simple
vowels and diphthongs when uninfluenced by neighbouring
sounds. For the changes caused by umlaut and the influence
of consonants, see the phonology, especially §§ 47-52, and the
various classes of strong verbs, §§ 490-519.

2. On the difference in Series III between i and e, see § 41 ;
and between u and o, § 43.

1.

n.

ni.

I.

i

a

i

II.

eo

ea

u

III.

i,e

a

u

IV.

e

ae

Ee

V.

e

ae

EC

VI.

a

6

6

§ 2 25] Ablaut {Vowel Gradation) 97

3. Strong verbs belonging to Series II have le from older iu
(§ 138) in the second and third pers. singular of the pres.
indicative; and strong verbs belonging to Series III-V with e
in the infinitive have i in the second and third pers. singular
of the pres. indicative (§ 41).

§ 225. But although the series of vowels is seen most
clearly in the stem-forms of strong verbs, the learner must
not assume that ablaut occurs in strong verbs only. Every
syllable of every word of whatever part of speech contains
some form of ablaut. As for example the sonantal elements
in the following stem-syllables stand in ablaut relation to
each other : —

lijjan, to go, li]>end, sailor : lad, way, course : lida, sailor;
lar, learning: liornung (leornung), learning; snijjan, to
cut : snsd from "snadi-, morsel, slice : snide, incision ;
witega, prophet : v^at, he knows : witan, to know, ■wita,
wise man, gewit, intelligence.

beodan, to command, order: gebod, command, precept,
bydel from *budil, messenger; fieon, to flee: Reaia, flight :
flyht from *&uhti; flight ; neotan, to use: geneat, com-
panion : notu, use, nytt (Germanic stem-form 'nutja-),
useful; teon, to draw, lead: team, progeny: here-toga,
army leader, general.

bindan, to bind: bend from *bandi-, band; drincan, to
drink: drenc from *dranki-, drink: druncen, drunk;
sweltan, to die : swylt from *swulti-, death ; weorJ)an
from *wer])an, to become: wyrd from 'wurdi-,/afe.

beran, to bear : beer, bier : ge-byrd from *gi-burdi-, birth,
byre from *buri-, son ; cwelan, to die : cwalu, killing ;
stelan, to steal : stalu, theft : stulor, stealthy.

giefan, to give, giefa from *5eta, giver, gift from *5efti-,
price of wife: gafol, tribute; cwe]>an, to say: cwide, prim.
Germanic *kwedi-, speech ; sprecan, to speak : sprsec,
speech.

calan, to be cold: col, cool; faran, to go, travel, fierd

98 Phonology [§ 226

from *fardi-, army : for, Journey, gefera, prim. Germanic
*-f6rj8, companion ; stede from *stadi, place : stod, herd of
horses. See § 562.

Examples of ablaut relation in other than stem-syllables
are : —

Goth. nom. pi. anstei-s, favours : gen. sing, anstdi-s :
ace. pi. ansti-ns; Goth. nom. pi. sunju-s from an original
form *suneu-es, sons : gen. sing. sun4u-s : ace. pi. sunu-ns ;
Gr. ^ipo-fiiv, we bear : ^Ipi-re, ye bear = Goth, baira-m,
bairi-]),

§ 226. In this paragraph will be given the prim. Ger-
manic and Gothic equivalents of the above six ablaut-
series, with one or two illustrations from OE. For
further examples see the various classes of strong verbs,
§§ 490-510.

I.

Prim. Germ. i

ai

i

i

Gothic ei

ki

i

i

OE. bitan, to bite

bat

biton

biten

li)ian, to go

Wp

lidon

liden

Note.— Cp. the parallel Greek series ire

i6w : ir^iroi

i6a : ETriOoi/,

II.

Prim. Germ. eu

au

u

Gothic iu

kM

u

u

OE. beodan, to offer

bead

budon

boden

ceosan, to choose

ceas

curon

coren

Note. — Cp. the parallel Greek series e\€u'(9)(T0}iai (fut.) :
cl\i^Xou6a : t^XuSof.

III.

Prim. Germ.

e,i

a

u

u,

Gothic

i

a

u

u

OE.

helpan, to help

healp

hulpon

holpen

weorfan, to

wear])

wurdon

worden

become

bindan, to bind

band

bundon

bunden

S^SopKu :

ESpaKOf ;

s

o

e

u

baeron

boren

stolon

stolen

§2 27] Ablaut {Vowel Gradation) 99

Note.— I. To this series belong all strong verbs having
a medial nasal or liquid + consonant, and a few others in which
the vowel is followed by two consonants other than a nasal or
liquid + consonant.

2. On the forms healp, wear)) see § 66, and on weorjjan see
§85.

3. Cp. the parallel Greek series Se'pKOfiai ;
irEp,7r(iJ : 'rrE'n'op,<f>a.

IV.

Prim. Germ. e a

Gothic i a

OE. beran, to bear bser

stelan, to steal stael

Note.— I. To this series belong all strong verbs whose stems
end in a single liquid or nasal.

2. Cp. the parallel Greek series (aeVu : jioni : (xi-p.fu ; %ipu :
Sopci : SE-Sap-fiEi'os.

V.
Prim. Germ. e a a e

Gothic i a e i

OE. metan, to measure mset maeton meten
cwefan, to say cwae)> cwsedon cweden

Note. — i. To this class belong all strong verbs whose stems
end in a single consonant other than a liquid or a nasal.

2. Cp. the parallel Greek series tt^toiaoi : iroxfios : i-itT6\i.i\v ;
Tp^iru : T£-Tpoi|)a : Tpair^irOai,

VI.
Prim. Germ. a 5 6 a

Gothic a 60 a

OE. faran, to go for fdron faeren, faren

§ 227. Class VII of strong verbs embracing the old
reduplicated verbs (§§ 5U-19) has been omitted from the
ablaut-series, because the exact relation in which the vowel
of the present stands to that of the preterite has not yet

H 2

loo Phonology [§§228-9

been satisfactorily explained. The old phases of ablaut
have been preserved in the present and preterite of a few
Gothic verbs, as letan, to let, lailot, lailotum, letans;
saian, to sow, saiso, sai-so-um, saians.

§ 228. The ablaut-series as given in § 226 have for
practical reasons been limited to the phases of ablaut as
they appear in the various classes of strong verbs. From
an Indo-Germanic point of view, the series I-V belong to
one and the same series, generally called the e-series,
which underwent in primitive Germanic various modifica-
tions upon clearly defined lines. What is called the sixth
ablaut-series in the Germanic languages is really a mixture
of several original series, owing to several Indg. vowel-
sounds having fallen together in prim. Germanic ; thus the
a, which occurs in the present and past participle, corre-
sponds to three Indg. vowels, viz. a (§ 17), o (§ 20), and a
(§ 22) ; and the 5 in the preterite corresponds to Indg. a
(§ 23), and Indg. 6 (§ 26). For the phases of ablaut which
do not occur in the various parts of strong verbs ; and for
traces of ablaut-series other than those given above, the
student should consult Brugmann's Kurze vergleichende
Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen, pp. 138—50.

CHAPTER VIII

THE FIRST SOUND -SHIFTING, VERNER'S
LAW, AND OTHER CONSONANT CHANGES
WHICH TOOK PLACE IN THE PRIMITIVE
GERMANIC LANGUAGE

§ 229. The first sound-shifting, popularly called Grimm's
Law, refers to the changes which the Indo-Germanic
explosives underwent in the period of the Germanic primi-
tive community, i. e. before the Germanic parent language
became differentiated into the separate Germanic Ian-

§ 229] The First Sound-shifting loi

guages -.—Gothic, O. Norse, O. English, O. Frisian, O.
Saxon (= O. Low German), O.Low Franconian (O. Dutch),
and O. High German.

The Indo-Germanic parent language had the following
system of consonants : —

Labial. Dental. Palatal. Velar.
tenues p t k q

mediae b d g g

tenues aspiratae ph th kh qh

mediae aspiratae bh dh gh gh

voiceless s

2 f

si

Spirants \ . ,
■^ I voiced z j

Nasals m n n i)

Liquids 1, r

Semivowels w (u) j (i)

Note. — i. Explosives are consonants which are formed with
complete closure of the mouth passage, and may be pronounced
with or without voice, i. e. with or without the vocal cords
being set in action ; in the former case they are said to be
voiced (e.g. the mediae), and in the latter voiceless (e.g. the
tenues). The aspirates are pronounced like the simple tenues
and mediae followed by an h, like the Anglo-Irish pronunciation
of t in tell.

The palatal explosives are formed by the front or middle ol
the tongue and the roof of the mouth (hard palate), like g, k (c)
in English get, good, kid, could ; whereas the velars are
formed by the root of the tongue and the soft palate (velum).
The latter do not occur in English, but are common in Hebrew,
and are often heard in the Swiss pronunciation of German.
In the parent Indo-Germanic language there were two kinds of
velars, viz. pure velars and velars with Up rounding. The pure
velars fell together with the Indg. palatals in Germanic, Latin,
Greek, and Keltic, but were kept apart in the Aryan and
Baltic-Slavonic languages. The velars with lip rounding appear
in the Germanic languages partly with and partly without
labialization, see § 237. The palatal and velar nasals only

I02 Phonology [§ 230

occurred before their corresponding explosives, rik, fig ; qq,
rig, &c.

2. Spirants are consonants formed by the mouth passage
being narrowed at one spot in such a manner that the outgoing
breath gives rise to a frictional sound at the narrowed part.

z only occurred before voiced explosives, e. g. ''nizdos = Lat.
nidus, English nest ; *ozdos = Gr. o£os, Germ, ast, bough.

j was like the widely spread North German pronunciation of
j in ja, not exactly like the y in English yes, which is generally
pronounced without distinct friction, j occurred very rarely
in the prim. Indo-Germanic language. In the Germanic, as in
most other Indo-Germanic languages, the frictional element in
this sound became reduced, which caused it to pass into the
so-called semivowel.

3. The nasals and liquids had the functions both of vowels •
and consonants (§ 16).

4. The essential difference between the so-called semivowels
and full vowels is that the latter always bear the stress (accent)
of the syllable in which they occur, e. g. in English c6w, stdin
the first element of the diphthong is a vowel, the second a con-
sonant; but in words like French rwd (written roi), bjer
(written biere), the first element of the diphthong is a con-
sonant, the second a vowel. In consequence of this twofold
function, a diphthong may be defined as the combination of
a sonantal with a consonantal vowel. And it is called a falling
or rising diphthong according as the stress is upon the first or
second element. In this book the second element of diphthongs
is written i, u when the first element is the bearer of the stress,
thus &i, S.U, &c., but when the second element has the stress,
the first element is written j, w, thus jd, w4, &c.

5. In the writing down of prim. Germanic forms the signs
)> (=th in Engl, thin), d: (= th in Engl, then), 15 (=a bilabial
spirant, which may be pronounced like the v in Engl, vine),
g (= g often heard in German sagen), x (= NHG. ch and the
ch in Scotch loch).

§230. In the following tables of the normal equivalents
of the Indg. explosives in Latin, Greek, and the Germanic
languages, Table I contains the Indg. tenues p, t, k, the

§ 23°] The First Sound-shifting 103

mediae b, d, g and the pure velars q, g. Table II contains
the Indg. mediae aspiratae and the velars q, g with
labialization. The equivalents in the Germanic languages
do not contain the changes caused by Verner's Law, &c.
The East Franconian dialect is taken as the normal
for OHG.

The following points should be noticed : —

(i) The Indg. tenues p, t, k and the mediae b, d, g
generally remained unchanged in Latin and Greek.

(2) The pure velars (q, g) fell together with the palatals
k, g in Latin and Greek. They became x> k in prim.
Germanic, and thus fell together with the x> ^ from
Indg. k, g.

(3) The pure velar gh fell together with the original
palatal gh in Latin and Greek.

(4) The Indg. mediae aspiratae became in prehistoric
Latin and Greek tenues aspiratae, and thus fell together
with the original tenues aspiratae.

(5) The Indg. tenues aspiratae became voiceless spirants
in prim. Germanic, and thus fell together with the voiceless
spirants from the Indg. tenues. See § 233.

(6) In Latin Indg. q with labialization became qu,
rarely c. g with labialization became v (but gu after n,
and g when the labialized element had been lost, as
gravis = Gr. papu's, heavy).

Indg. ph, bh became f initially and b medially.

Indg. th, dh became f initially, b medially before and
after r, before 1 and after u (w), in other cases d.

Indg. kh, gh became h initially before and medially
between vowels; g before and after consonants, and f
before u (w).

Indg. qh, gh with labialization became f initially, v
medially except that after n it became gu.

(7) In Greek Indg. q, g with labialization became ir, p

I04 Phonology [§ 23°

before non-palatal vowels (except u) and before consonants
(except Indg. j) ; t, 8 before palatal vowels ; and k, y before
and after u.

Indg. ph, bh became <|> ; th, dh became 6 ; and kh, gh
became x-

Indg. qh, gh with labialization became <|> before non-
palatal vowels (except u) and before consonants (except
Indg. j) ; 6 before palatal vowels ; and x before and after u.

(8) When two consecutive syllables would begin with
aspirates, the first was de-aspirated in prehistoric times in
Sanskrit and Greek, as Skr. bindhanam, a binding, Goth.
OE. bindan, OHG. bintan, to bind; Skr. bodhati, he
learns, is awake, Gr. ireuBtTai, he asks, inquires, Goth, ana-
biudan, OE. beodan, to bid, OHG. biotan, to offer, root
bheudh- ; Gr. Kai-euXr), a swelling, OE. giind, OHG. gunt,
matter, pus; Gr. 6pii, hair, gen. Tpixos; i)ifi>,Ihave, fut. I|u.

(9) In OHG. the prim. Germanic explosives p, t became
the affricatae pf, tz (generally written zz, z), initially, as
also medially after consonants, and when doubled. But
prim. Germanic p, t, k became the double spirants ff, z,z,,
hh (also written ch) medially between vowels and finally
after vowels. The double spirants were simplified to
f, z> h when they became final or came to stand before
other consonants, and also generally medially when pre-
ceded by a long vowel or diphthong.

§ 230] The First Sound-shifting

TABLE I.

105

Indg.

Latin

Greek

P. Ger-
manic

Gothic

OE.

OHG.

P

P

■n

f

f

f

f

t

t

T

>

]>

>

d

k, q

c

K

X

h,X

h,X

h,X

b

b

P

P

P

P

pf,fif

d

d

8

t

t

t

z. %

g.g

g

Y

k

k

c

k, hh

TABLE II.

Indg.

Latin

Greek

p. Ger-
manic

Gothic

OE.

OHG.

q

qu, c

TT, T, K

XW, X

hr, h

hw, h

(h)w, h

g

v,gu,g

P,8,Y

kw, k

q,k

cw, c

qu ; k, hh
b

bh

f,b

+

b,b

b, b

b, b, (f)

dh

f,b, d

e

d, d

d, d
g'S

d

t

gh

h,g,f

X

g. 3

g.5

g

gh

f, V, gu

*, e, X

gw.g.w

S. w

g. S'W

g, w

io6 Phonology [§231

§ 231. The Indg. tenues p, t, k, q became in prim. Ger-
manic the voiceless spirants f, Jj, x» X (xw).

p > f. Lat. pes, Gr. iroiSs, OE. OS. fot, Goth, fotus,
O.Icel. fotr, OHG. fuo?,/oo<; Lat. piscis, OE. fisc, Goth,
fisks, O.Icel. fiskr, OS. OHG. fisk, >sA; Gr. irXuris,
floating, swimming, OE. OS. flod, Goth, flodus, O.Icel.
1165, OHG. fluot, yZoorf, tide; Lat. pecu, OE. feoh, Goth,
faihu, O.Icel. fe, OS. fehu, OHG. fihu, cattle ; Lat. nepos,
OE. nefa, O.Icel. nefe, OHG. nefo, nephew.

t > }>. Lat. tu, Gr. Doric tu, OE. O.Icel. OS. ))u, Goth.
]ju, OHG. du, thou; Lat. tres, Gr. rpeis, OE. OS. ]jri,
O.Icel. }jrir, OHG. dri, three; Lat. tenuis, OE. fynne,
O.Icel. funnr, OHG. dunni, thin ; O.Lat. tongere, to know,
OE, Jiencan, Goth. ]}agkjan, OS. Jjenkian, OHG. den-
chen, to think; Lat. frater, OE. brojjor, Goth, brojjar,
O.Icel. br66er, OS. brodar, OHG. bruoder, brother; Lat.
verto, I turn, OE. weorJ>an, Goth, wairfan, O.Icel.
verSa, OS. werdan, OHG. werdan, to become.

k > x- Lat. canis, Gr. kuui', OE. OS. hund, Goth,
hunds, O.Icel. hundr, OHG. hunt, hound, dog; Lat. cor
(gen. cordis), Gr. KapSid, OE. heorte, Goth, hairto, O.Icel.
hjarta, OS. herta, OHG. herza, heart; Lat. centum, Gr.
e-Karoi', OE. Goth. OS. hund, OHG. hunt, hundred; Lat.
pecu, OE. feoh, Goth, faihu, O.Icel. fe, OS. fehu, OHG.
fihu, cattle ; Lat. decem, Gr. S^ko, OE. tien from *teohuni-,
older *texuni- (cp. §§ 87, 447), Goth, taihun, OS. tehan,
OHG. zehan, ten ; Lat. diico, / lead, OE. teon from
*teohan, older *teuxan (§ 137), Goth, tiuhan, OS. tiohan,
OHG. ziohan, to draw, lead.

q > X (xw). Lat. ca^ib, I take, seize, OE. hebban, Goth,
liafjan, O.Icel. hefja, OS. hebbian, OHG. heffen, to raise ;
Lat. cano, / sing, OE. hana, hona, Goth, hana, O.Icel.
hane, OS. OHG. hano, cock, lit. singer; Lat. vinco (perf.
vici), I conquer, Goth, weihan, OHG. wihan, to fight.
Lat. quis, Gr. ris, OE. hwa, Goth, hras, OS. hwe, OHG.

§ 232] The First Sound-shifting 107

hwer, who ? ; Lat. linquo, Gr. Xei'ttu, I have, OE. lion, leon
from *liohan, older *Hxwan (see §§ 127, 246), OS. OHG.
lihan, to lend.

Note. — i. The Indg. tenues remained unshifted in the com-
bination s + tenuis.

sp. Lat. spuere, OE. OS. OHG. spiwan, Goth, speiwan, lo
vomit, spit; Lat. con-spicio, / look at, OHG. spehon, to spy.

St. Gr. (TTEixu, I go, Lat. vestigium, /oofefe/, OE. OS. OHG.
stigan, Goth, steigan, O.Icel. stiga, to ascend; Lat. hostis,
stranger, enemy, OE. giest, Goth, gasts, O.Icel. gestr, OS. OHG.
gast, guest.

sk. Gr. cTKia, shadow, OE. OS. OHG. soman, Goth, skeinan,
O.Icel. skina, to shine ; Lat. piscis, OE. fisc, Goth, fisks, O.Icel.
fiskr, OS. OHG. fisk,y5sA.

sq. Gr. 6uo-o-k6os, sacrificing priest, OE. sceawian, Goth.
*skaggw5n, OS. scauwon, OHG. scouwon, to look, view.

2. The t also remained unshifted in the Indg. combinations
pt, kt, qt.

pt>ft. Lat. neptis, OE. OHG. nift, niece, granddaughter;
Lat. captus, a taking, seising, OE. hseft, OHG. haft, one seised
or taken, a captive.

kt>xt. Lat. octo, Gr. oktio, OE. eahta, Goth, aht^u, OS.
OHG. ahto, eight ; Gr. 6-p£kt6s, stretched out, Lat. rectus, OE.
riht, Goth, raihts, OS. OHG. reht, right, straight.

qt>xt. Gen. sing. Lat. noctis, Gr. fUKTos, nom. OE. neaht,
niht, Goth, nahts, OS. OHG. naht, night.

§ 232. The Indg. mediae b, d, g, g became the tenues
p, t, k, k (kw).

b>p. Lithuanian dubds.OE. deop, Goth, diups, O.Icel.
djiipr, OS. diop, OHG. tiof, deep; Lithuanian trobk,
house, OE. J)orp, OS. thorp, OHG. dorf, village, Goth.
]>Si<ix-p, field ; O. Bulgarian slabu, slack, weak, OE. sleepan,
Goth, slepan, OS. slapan, OHG. slafan, to sleep, origin-
ally, to be slack, b was a rare sound in the parent language.

d>t. Lat. decern, Gr.8^Ka,0E.tien, Goth. talhun,0.1cel.
tio, OS. tehan, OHG. zehan, ten ; Lat. dens (gen. dentis),
OE. tojj, Goth. tun])us, OS. tand, OHG. zand, tooth ;

io8 ■ Phonology [§ 233

Lat. videre, to see, OE. Goth. OS. witan, O.Icel. vita,
OHG. wi^^an, to know ; Lat. edo, Gr. eSu, I eat, OE.
OS. etan, Goth, itan, O.Icel. eta, OHG. ei^z^axi, to eat ;
gen. Lat. pedis, Gr. ttoSos, nom. OE. OS. fot, Goth, fotus,
O.Icel. fotr, OHG. fuo2„foot.

g>k. Lat. genu, Gr. yo'''') OE. cneo, Goth, kniu,
O.Icel. kne, OS. OHG. knio, knee; Lat. gusto, / taste,
Gr. Y^"", I let taste, OE. ceosan, Goth, kiusan, O.Icel.
kjosa, OS. OHG. kiosan, to test, choose; Lat. ager, Gr.
dypos, OE. aecer, Goth, akrs, O.Icel. skr, field, acre; Lat.
ego, Gr. eyci, OE. ic, Goth. OS. ik, O.Icel. ek, OHG. ih, /.

g>k(kw). Lat. ge\u, frost, OE. ceald, Goth, kalds,
O.Icel. kaldr, OS. kald, OHG. kalt, cold; Lat. augere,
Goth. Aukan, O.Icel. auka, OS. okian, OHG. ouhhon,
to add, increase, OE. participial adj. eacen, great; Lat.
jugum,Gr. lay&v, OE. geoc, Goth, juk, OHG. ioh, yoke.

Gr. Boeotian ^avi, OE. cwene, Goth, qino, OS. quena,
woman, wife ; Gr. Pios from *giwos, life, Lat. vivos from
"gwiwos, OE. cwicu, Goth, qius, O.Icel. kvikr, OS.
quik, OHG. quec, quick, alive; Lat. veniofrom *gwemj6,
/ come, Gr. PaiVu from *Paji'u, older *|3a(i,j(i) = Indg. *gmj5,
I go, OE. OS. cuman, Goth, qiman, O.Icel. koma, OHG.
queman, to come.

§ 233. The Indg. tenues aspiratae became voiceless
spirants in prim. Germanic, and thus fell together with
and underwent all further changes in common with the
voiceless spirants which arose from the Indg. tenues
(§ 231), the latter having also passed through the inter-
mediate stage of tenues aspiratae before they became
spirants. The tenues aspiratae were, however, of so rare
occurrence in the prim. Indg. language that two or three
examples must suffice for the purposes of this book ; for
further examples and details, the learner should consult
Brugmann's Grundriss der vergleichenden Grammatik der
indogermanischen Sprachen, vol. I : — Skr. root sphal-, run

§§ 234-5] The First Sound-shifting 109

violently against, OE. feallan, O.Icel. falla, OS. OHG.
fallan, to fall; Gr. 6.-aKr\9r\s, unhurt, OE. sce))])an, Goth.
ska]>jan, OHG. skadon, to injure ; Gr. T^iXm, I split, OE.
scadan, Goth, skdidan, OHG. sceidan, to divide, separate;
Gr. <t)dX\iri, OE. hwael, O.Icel. hvalr, OHG. (h)wal, whale.

§ 234. The Indg. mediae aspiratae probably became first
of all the voiced spirants b, d, g, g("w). These sounds under-
went the following changes during the prim. Germanic
period : —X>, d initially, and tt, d, g medially after their corre-
sponding nasals, became the voiced explosives b, d, g, as

b. OE. OS. OHG. beran, Goth, bairan, O.Icel. bera,
to bear, Skr. bhdrami, Gr. <|>^pci>, Lat. fero, / bear; OE.
OS. bitan, Goth, beitan, O.Icel. bita, OHG. bi^j^an, to bite,
Skr. bhedami, Lat. findo, I cleave; OE. brdfor, Goth.
brojiar, O.Icel. broSer, OS. brodar, OHG. bruoder, Skr.
bhratar-, Lat. frater, brother, Gr. 4>paTTip, member of a clan.

OE. ymbe, OS. OHG. umbi, Gr. d(A<f>i, around; OE.
camb, comb, O.Icel. kambr, OHG. kamb, comb, Skr.
jdmbhas, tooth, Gr. YOf<.<t'os, bolt, nail, prim, form *gombhos.

d. OE. daeg, Goth, dags, O.Icel. dagr, OS. dag, OHG.
tag, day, Skr. ni-daghas, older *ni-dhaghds, hot season,
summer, Indg. form *dhoghos ; OE. dsed, OS. dad, OHG.
tat, deed, related to Gr. Ovj-au, / shall place, Skr. dhama,
law, dwelling-place, root dhe-, put, place ; OE. dohtor, Goth.
daiihtar, OS. dohter, OHG. tohter, Gr. OuytlTrip, daughter;
OE. duru, OS. duri, OHG. turi, Gr. Gu'pa, door.

OE. Goth. OS. bindan, O.Icel. binda, OHG. bintan, to
bind, Skr. bdndhanam, a binding, cp. irei'Sepos, father-in-law,
Lat. of-fendimentum, chin-cloth, root bhendh-.

g. OE. enge, Goth, aggwus, OS. OHG. engi, narrow,
cp. Lat. ango, Gr. Syxu, I press tight, rootaAgh-; OE.
lang, long, Goth, laggs, O.Icel. langr, OS. OHG. lang,
Lat. longus, long.

§ 235. b, d, 5 remained in other positions, and their
further development belongs to the history of the separate

no Phonology [§235

Germanic languages. In Goth, fe, d (written b, d) re-
mained medially after vowels, but became explosives (b, d)
after consonants. They became f, ]> finally after vowels
and before final -s. 5 remained medially between vowels,
and medially after vowels before voiced consonants, but
became x (written g) finally after vowels and before final -s.
It became g initially, and also medially after voiced con-
sonants. In O.Icel. t (written f) remained medially between
and finally after voiced sounds, but became f before voice-
less sounds, d (written 8) generally remained medially
and finally, g remained medially after vowels and liquids,
but became x and then disappeared finally. It became
g initially, d became d in all the West Germanic lan-
guages and then d became t in OHG. In OS. b (written
6, b) generally remained between voiced sounds. It be-
came f medially before 1 and n, and before voiceless
consonants, and also finally, g (written g) remained
initially and medially, but became x finally, although it
was generally written g. In OHG. b, g became b, g.
On the history of ft, g in OE. see §§ 293-4, 313-24.
Geminated bb, dd, gg, of whatever origin, became bb,
dd, gg in the prehistoric period of all the Germanic lan-
guages. Examples are : — Goth. *nibls, OS. nebal, OHG.
nebul, Lat. nebula, Gr. i'E<|>6'Xr), mist, cloud, cp. Skr. ndbhas,
Gr. i-eclios, cloud; OE. leof, Goth, liufs, O.Icel. Ijufr, OS.
liof, OHG. Hob, dear, original form *leubhos, cp. Skr.
Mbhyami, I feel a strong desire, Lat. lubet (libet), it pleases ;
OE. OS. uder, OHG. uter, Skr. udhar, Gr. ou0ap, udder;
OE. read, Goth rdufs, O.Icel. rauSr, OS. rod, OHG.
rot, prim, form *roudhos, cp. Skr. rudhirds, Gr. e-pu9p6s,
prim, form *rvi&htos,red; OE. Goth, guma, O.Icel. gume,
OS. OHG. gumo, Lat. homo, prim, stem-form ''ghomon-,
man ; OE. gos, O.Icel. gas, OHG. gans, Gr. xV> goose;
OE. OS. OHG. wegan, Goth, ga-wigan, O.Icel. vega, to
move, carry, Lat. veho, prim, form *wegh6, 1 carry ; OE.

§§ 236-7] The First Sound-shifting 1 1 1

giest, Goth, gasts, O.Icel. gestr, OS. OHG. gsst, guest,
Lat. Yio^\xs, stranger, enemy, prim, form *ghostis ; OE. OS.
OHG. stjgan, Goth, steigan, O.Icel. stiga, to ascend, Gr.
(TTcixo), prim, form *steigh6, / go, cp. Lat. vestigium,
footstep.

§ 236. Various theories have been propounded as to the
chronological order in which the Indg. tenues, tenues
aspiratae, mediae, and mediae aspiratae, were changed by
the first sound-shifting in prim. Germanic. But not one of
these theories is satisfactory. Only so much is certain
that at the time when the Indg. mediae became tenues, the
Indg. tenues must have been on the way to becoming
voiceless spirants, otherwise the two sets of sounds would
have fallen together,

§ 237. We have already seen (§ 230) that the parent
Indg. language contained two series of velars : (i) pure
velars which never had labialization. These velars fell
together with the palatals in the Germanic, Latin, Greek,
and Keltic languages, but were kept apart in the Aryan
and Baltic-Slavonic languages. (2) Velars with labializa-
tion. These velars appear in the Germanic languages
partly with and partly without labialization ; in the latter
case they fell together with prim. Germanic x. k. g which
arose from Indg. k, g, gh. The most commonly accepted
theory is that the Indg. labialized velars q, g, gh regularly
became x> k, g in prim. Germanic before Indg. u, o, o
(= Germanic a, § 20), and xw, kw, gw before Indg. e, 1,
a, a, a (= Germanic 6, § 28) ; and that then the law became
greatly obscured during the prim. Germanic period through
form-transference and levelling out in various directions, as
Goth, qam, OHG. quam, prim, form *goma, / came, for
Goth. OHG. *kam after the analogy of Goth, qima, OHG.
quimu, original form *gem6, / come ; Goth, iuas, who ?,
Indg. *qos for *has after the analogy of the gen. hris =
Indg. *qeso, &c.

112 Phonology [§238

Note.— In several words the Indg. velars, when preceded or
followed by a w or another labial in the same word, appear in
the Germanic languages as labials by assimilation. The most
important examples are :— OE. OS. wulf, Goth, wulfs, OHG.
wolf = Gr. XuKos, for *fXuKOs, prim, form *wlqos, cp. Skr. vfkas,
wolf; OE. feower (but fyjjer-fete, four-footed), Goth, fidwor,
OS. OHG. flor, prim, form *qetw6res, cp. Lithuanian keturi,
Lat. quattuor, Gr. TeWapes, Skr. catvaras, four ; OE. OS. f if,
Goth, fimf, OHG. fimf, finf, prim, form *pet)qe, cp. Skr. pAnca,
Gr. ireVTe, Lat. quinque (for *pmque),y?z;«; OE. weorpan, Goth,
wafrpan, O.Icel. verpa, OS. werpan, OHG. werfan, to throw,
cp. O. Bulgarian vriga, / throiv; OE. swapan, OHG. sweifan,
to swing, cp. Lithuanian swaikstti, / become dissy.

Verner's Law.

§ 238. After the completion of the first sound-shifting,
and while the principal accent was not yet confined to the
root-syllable, a uniform interchange took place between the
voiceless and voiced spirants, which may be thus stated : —

The medial or final spirants f, J-, x> xw, s regularly
became ft, ct, g, gw, z when the vowel next preceding
them did not, according to the original Indg. system of
accentuation, bear the principal accent of the word.

The 6, d, g, gw which thus arose from Indg. p, t, k, q
underwent in the Germanic languages all further changes
in common with the ft, d, g, gw from Indg. bh, dh, gh, gh.

Verner's law manifests itself most clearly in the various
parts of strong verbs, where the infinitive, present parti-
ciple, present tense, and preterite (properly perfect) singular
had the principal accent on the root-syllable, but the indi-
cative pret. plural, the pret. subjunctive (properly optative),
and past participle had the principal accent on the ending,
as prim. Germanic *wer])o > OE. weorjje, / become =
Skr. vdrta-mi, / turn ; pret. indie. 3. sing. *wdr]>i > OE.
wearj>, he became = Skr. va-vdrta, has turned ; pret.
I. pers. pi. *wurdumi > OE. *wurdum (wurdon is the
3. pers. pi. used for all persons) = Skr. va-vrtimd, we have

§239] Verner's Law 113

turned; past participle *wurdand- > OE. worden = Skr.
va-vrtan4- ; OS. birid, OHG. birit = Skr. bhdrati, he
bears ; Goth. 2. sing, indie, passive bafraza = Skr. bhdrase;
Goth. bafrand, OHG. berant= Skr. hh&ranti, they bear;
present participle OE. berende, Goth, bafrands, O.Icel.
berande, OS. berandi, OHG. beranti, Gr. gen. ^ipovm.
Or to take examples from noun-forms, &c., we have e. g.
Skr. pitdr-, Gr. iraWp- = prim. Germanic *fad6r-, OE,
fseder, Goth, fadar, O.Icel. faSer, OS. fader, OHG.
tater, father ; Gr. irXuris, floating, swimming, OE. OS.
flod, Goth, flodus, O.Icel. fl65, OHG. fluot, flood,
tide ; Skr. 9atdm, Gr. e-KaT<5i', Lat. centum = prim.
Germanic *xund6m, older *xumd6m, OE. Goth. OS.
hund, OHG. hunt, hundred; Indg. *swekuros, Goth,
swaihra, OHG. swehur, OE.sweor {^Z^Q), father-in-law,
beside Gr. cKupd, OE. sweger, OHG. swigar, mother-in-
law ; Gr. S^Ko, Goth, tafhun, OS. tehan, OHG. zehan,
ten, beside Gr. 8eK(£s, OE. OS. -tig, OHG. -zug, Goth. pi.
tigjus, decade; Skr. saptd, Gr. i.m&, OE. seofon, Goth.
sibun, OS. sibun, OHG. sibun, seven ; Gr. i-uis from *or)'u(T6s,
OE. snoru, OHG. snura, daughter-in-law; OHG. haso
beside OE, hara, hare ; Goth, duso beside OE. eare, ear.

The combinations sp, st, sk, ss, ft, fs, hs, and ht were
not subject to this law.

Note. — The prim. Germanic system of accentuation was like
that of Sanskrit, Greek, &c., i.e. the principal accent could fall
on any syllable ; it was not until a later period of the prim.
Germanic language that the principal accent was confined to
the root-syllable. See § 9.

§ 239. From what has been said above it follows that
the interchanging pairs of consonants due to Verner's law
were in prim. Germanic : f — b, J)— d, s — z, x — 5> x^ — gw.
They underwent various changes partly in prim, Germanic,
partly in West Germanic, and partly in Old English.
Already in prim, Germanic 5W became g before u, but

114 Phonology [§239

w in other cases (§ 241) ; and i]g became qg. In West
Germanic & became d (§ 253) ; z became r medially and
was dropped finally (§ 252) ; xw became x (§ 246). In OE.
the two sounds f — ft fell together in ft (written f) medially,
and in f finally, see §§ 293-4, 296 ; x disappeared between
vowels (§ 329), when preserved it was written h ; and f, s
became voiced between vowels, although the Jj, s were
preserved in writing. So that for OE. we have the
following interchanging pairs of consonants : —

J) — d s — r

h or loss ofh (= prim. Germ, x) — S (§ 320)

h or loss ofh (= prim. Germ, xw) — g, w (= prim.

Germ, gw)
h or loss of h (= prim. Germ. r)x> § 245) — ng.

}j — d. cwej>an, to say, lijjan, to go, snijjan, to cut; pret.
sing, cwaef, la}), sna]) ; pret. pi. cwsedon, lidon, snidon ;
pp. cweden, liden, sniden ; cwide, saying, proverb ; snide,
incision ; dea]>, death, beside dead, dead.

s — r. ceosan, to choose, dreosan, to fall, forleosan, to
lose; pret. sing, ceas, dreas, forleas; pret. pi. curon,
druron, forluron; pp. coren, droren, forloren; eyre,
choice; &.Tyve,fall; lyre, loss.

h — g. fleon (OHG. ftiohan), to flee, slean (Goth, sla-
han), to strike, slay, teon (Goth, tiuhan), to draw, lead;
pret. sing, fleah, teah ; pret. pi. flugon, slogon, tugon ;
pp. flogen, slsegen, togen ; slaga, homicide ; siege, stroke,
blow ; here-toga, leader of an army, duke.

h — g, w. seon (Goth, saihran), to see; pret. sing,
seah; pret. pi. WS. sawon, Anglian segon; pp. WS.
sewen, Anglian segen; sion, seon (Goth. *seiluan,
OHG. sihan), to strain ; pret. sing, sah ; pp. siwen, sigen ;
horh, dirt, gen. horwes. See Note i below.

h — ng. fon (Goth, fahan, prim. Germ. *far)xanan,
§ 245), to seize, hon (Goth, hahan, prim. Germ. *xaqxanan),

§ 24o] Other Consonant Changes 1 1 5

to hang ; pret. pi. fengon, hengon ; pp fangen, hangen ;
feng, grasp, booty ; hangian, to hang ; J)ion, feon (Goth.
]}eihan, prim. Germ. J)ir)xanan), to thrive ; pret. pi. Jjungon ;
pp. Jiungen; the usual pret. pi. ]3igon, pp. ]jigen, were
new formations, see § 492.

Note. — i. The results of the operation of Verner's law were
often disturbed in OE. through the influence of analogy and
levelling, e. g. the )>, s of the present and pret. singular were
extended to the pret. plural and pp. in abreoj^an, to fail;
taHpa.-a, to avoid; wrijjan, to twist; arisan, to arise; genesan,
to recover ; lesan, to collect ; pret. pi. abru)>on, mi)7on, wrijjon,
arisen, geneeson, Isson ; pp. abrojien, mij^en, wrif^en, arisen,
genesen, lesen. The g of the pret. plural was levelled out into
the singular in flog, he flayed; hlog, A« laughed; log, he blamed;
slog, he slew ; jjwog, he washed, see § 509. The nd of the pret.
plural and pp. was extended to the present and pret. singular
in findan, pret. sing. fand. The regular forms of this verb
would be *fi}>an (= Goth. fin]7an, OS. fi))an), to find; pret. sing.
*foJ> (see § 61), pret. pi. fundon, pp. funden. The WS.'pret. pi.
sawon, they saw, had its w from the pp. sewen, and conversely
the Anglian pp. segen, seen, had its g from the pret. plural
segon, see § 241.

2. Causative verbs had originally suffix accentuation, and
therefore also exhibit the change of consonants given above, as
weor))an, to become : a-wierdan, to destroy, injure, cp. Skr.
vartami, I turn : vartayami, / cause to turn ; li]>an, to go :
ladan, to lead; a-risan, to arise: rsran, to raise; genesan, to
recover : nerian, to save.

Other Consonant Changes.

§ 240. Most of the sound changes comprised under this
paragraph might have been disposed of in the paragraphs
dealing with the shifting of the Indg. mediae and mediae
aspiratae, but to prevent any possible misunderstanding or
confusion, it was thought advisable to reserve them for
a special paragraph.

The Indg. mediae and mediae aspiratae became tenues

I 2

ii6 Phonology [§240

before a suffixal t or s already in the pre-Germanic
period : —

bt ) . bs )

bht } P* bhs } P^

dht}" dhsl*^

^^ Ut ^^ Us

ght I ghs )

Examples are : Lat. nuptum, nupsi, beside nubere, to
marry; Skr. loc. pi. patsli, beside loc. sing, padl, on foot;
Lat. rexi, rectum, beside regere, to rule; Lat. vexi,
vectum, beside vehere, to carry, root wegh- ; Lat. lectus,
Gr. Xexos, bed, OE. licgan, Goth, ligan, to lie down ; Skr.
yukti-, Gr. ^euktos, Lat. junctus, yoked, root jeug-, cp.
Skr. yugdm, Gr. iuyiv, Lat. jugum, OE. geoc, Goth, juk,
yoke; Sue.

Then pt, kt, qt ; ps, ks, qs were shifted to ft, xt ; fs, xs
at the same time as the original Indg. tenues became voice-
less spirants (§ 231). And tt, ts became ss through the
intermediate stage of ]>t, ]>s respectively, ss then became
simplified to s after long syllables and before r, and then
between the s and r there was developed a t.

This explains the frequent interchange between p, 15 (b),
and f ; between k, g (g), and h (i. e. x); and between t, ]>,
d (d), and ss, s in forms which are etymologically related.

p, B (b)— f. OE. scieppan, Goth, skapjan, to create,
beside OE. ge-sceaft, OHG. gi-skaft, creature, Goth,
ga-skafts, creation; Goth, giban, OHG. geban, to give,
beside Goth, fra-gifts, a giving, espousal, OE. OHG. gift,
gift; OHG. weban, to weave, beside English weft.

k, 5 (g) — h. OE. wyrcan, Goth, waurkjan, OHG.
wurken, to work, beside pret. and pp. OE. worhte,worht,

§ 24o] other Consonant Changes 1 1 7

Goth, waurhta, waiirhts, OHG. worhta, giworht ; OE.
Jjyncan, Goth. ]}Ugkjan, OHG. dunken, beside pret. and
pp. OE. Jjuhte, J)uht, Goth. ])uhta, *])uhts, OHG. duhta,
giduht; OE. magon, Goth, "'magun, OHG. magun, they
may, can, beside pret. OE. meahta, Goth. OHG. mahta,
pp. Goth, mahts, cp. also OE. meaht, Goth, mahts, OHG.
maht, might, power; OE. bycgan, Goth, bugjan, to buy,
beside pret. and pp. OE. bohte, boht, Goth, badhta,
bauhts; OE. OHG. bringan, Goth, briggan, to bring,
pret. and pp. OE. brohte, broht, OHG. brahta, gibraht,
Goth, brahta, *brahts.

t, >, d (d)— ss, s. OE. Goth. OS. witan, O.Icel. vita,
beside pret. OE. wisse, Goth. OS. OHG. vdssa, O.Icel.
vissa, participial adj. OE. gewiss, O.Icel. viss, OS. wis(s),
OHG. giwis(s), sure, certain; OE. sittan, O.Icel. sitja,
OS. sittian, to sit, beside OE. O.Icel. OS. sess, seat; OE.
cwejjan, Goth, qijjan, to say, beside Goth, ga-qiss, consent;
Goth, ana-biudan, to command, beside ana-busns, com-
mandment, pre-Germanic -*bhutsni-, root bheudh-.

ss became s after long syllables and before r: OE.
hatan, Goth, hditan, to call, beside OE. hses from *haissi-,
command; OE. Goth. OS. witan, to know, beside OE. OS.
OHG. wis, wise, Goth, unweis, unknowing; OE. etan,
Goth, itan, to eat, beside OE. ses, OHG. as, carrion. OE.
fdstor, food, sustenance, cp. OE. fedan, Goth, fodjan, to
feed; Goih.^xxlp-hVbstreis, worshipper of God, OHG. bluo-
ster, sacrifice, cp. Goth, blotan, to worship.

Instead of ss (s) we often meet with st. In such cases
the st is due to the analogy of forms where t was quite
regular, e.g. regular forms were Goth, last, thou didst
gather, inf. lisan; Goth, sloht, thou didst strike, inf.
slahan ; OE. meaht, OHG. maht, thou canst, inf. magan ;
then after the analogy of such forms were made OE, wast
for *was, Goth, wdist for *wdis, OHG. welst for *wels,
thou knowest; OE, most for *m6s, thou art allowed; regular

ii8 Phonology [§§ ^41-3

forms were pret. sing. OE. worhte, Goth, waiirhta, OHG.
worhta, beside inf. OE. wyrcan, Goth, warirkjan, OHG.
wurken, to work ; then after the analogy of such forms
were made OE. wiste beside wisse, OHG. wista beside
wissa, I knew; OE. moste for *m6se (= OHG. muosa),
/ was allowed.

For purely practical purposes the above laws may be
thus formulated : — every labial + 1 became ft ; every guttural
+t became ht; and every dental + t became ss, s (st).

§ 241. Prim. Germanic gw, which arose from Indg. gh
(§ 237) and from Indg. q (§ 238) by Verner's law, became g
before u, in other cases it became w, as Goth, magus,
boy, beside mawi from *ma(g)wi, girl; pret. pi. Anglian
segon from *S8eg(w)un, they saw, beside pp. sevren from
''se(g)wen6s ; OE. sien (sion, seon, cp. § 138), Goth,
siuns, from *se(g)wnis, a seeing, face; OE. snaw (with
-wfrom the oblique cases), Goth, sn^iws, from *snai(g)waz,
prim, form *sn6ighos, snow; OE. OHG. sniwan for
*snigan, formed from the third pers. sing. OE. sniwe]?,
OHG. sniwit, it snows. See § 239, Note i, § 249,

§ 242. Assimilation : — nw- > -nn-, as OE. Goth. OHG.
rinnan from *rinwan, to run ; OE. cinn, Goth, kinnus,
OHG. kinni, from *genw-, Gr. -^ivvi, chin, cheek; Goth,
minniza, OS. minnira, OHG. minniro, from *minwiz6,
less, cp. Lat. minuo, Gr. |jiii'u'9a), I lessen; OE. fynne,
O.Icel. J)unnr, OHG. dunni, thin, cp. Skr. fem. tanvi, thin.

-md- > -nd-, as OE. Goth. OS. hund, OHG. hunt, prim,
form *kmt6m, hundred; OE. scamian, Goth, skaman,
OHG. seamen, to be ashamed, beside OE. scand, Goth,
skanda, OHG. scanta, shame, disgrace.

-In- > -11-, as OE. full, Goth, fulls, Lithuanian pUnas,
prim, form "plnos, /«<//; OE. wuUe, Goth. wuUa, OHG.
woUa, Lithuanian wUna, wool.

§ 243. Prim. Germanic tn, dn, gn = Indg. pn-, tn-, kn-,
qn- (by Verner's law), and bhn-, dhn-, ghn-, ghn-, became

§§244-5] Other Consonant Changes 119

bb, dd, 55 before the principal accent, then later bb, dd, gg ;
and in Hke manner Indg. bn', dn', gn-, gn- became bb,
dd, gg. And these mediae were shifted to pp, tt, kk at
the same time as the original Indg. mediae became tenues
(§ 232). These geminated consonants were simplified to
p, t, k after long syllables. Examples are : OE. hnaepp,
OHG. napf, from *xnabn- or xnabn-, basin, bowl; OE.
hoppian, O.Icel. hoppa, MHG. hopfen, from *xobn', to
hop; OE. OS. topp, O.Icel. toppr, from *tobn^ or tobn-,
top, summit; OE. heap, OS. hop, OHG. houf, from
*xaubn-; OE. cnotta, from *knodn^, beside OHG.
chnodo, chnoto, knot; OE. OS. hwit, Goth, hreits, from
*xwldni, white; OE. bucc, O.Icel. bokkr, OHG. boc
(gen. bockes), prim, form *bhugn6s, buck; OE. liccian,
OS. leccon, OHG. lecchon, from *le5n-, to lick; OE. locc,
O.Icel. lokkr, prim, form *lugn6s, lock; OE. smocc,
O.Icel. smokkr, from smogn-, smock; OE. 15cian, OS.
15kdn, from logn' or logn', to look.

§ 244. Indg. z + media became s + tenuis, as Goth, asts,
OHG. ast = Gr. ojos, from "ozdos, branch, twig; OE.
OHG. nest, Lat. nidus, from "ni-zdos, nest, related to
root sed", sit; OE. masc, OHG. masca, mesh, net, cp.
Lithuanian mezgii, / tie in knots.

Indg. z + media aspirata became z + voiced spirant, as
OE. meord, Goth, mizdo, pay, reward, cp. O. Bulgarian
mizda, Gr. (iiffflos, pay; OE. mearg, OHG. marg,
O. Bulgarian mozgu, marrow, root mezgh- ; OE. herd,
Goth, huzd, OHG. hort, hoard, treasure, root kuzdh-.

§ 245. Guttural n (q) disappeared before x> as Goth. OS.
OHG. fahan, OE. fon, from *far)xaiian, to seize; Goth.
OS. OHG. hahan, OE. hon, from *xar)xanan, to hang;
Goth. Jieihan, OS. thihan, OHG. dihan, OE. })ion, )jeon,
from *J)igxanan, to thrive; pret. OE. Jjohte, Goth. Jjahta,
OS. thahta, OHG. dahta, from *J)ar)xto-, / thought, beside
inf. OE. ]>encan. See §§ 40-1.

1 20 Phonology [§§ 246-9

§ 246. X became an aspirate (written h) initially before
vowels, as OE. Goth. OS. hund, OHG. hunt, from
*xundan, prim, form *kmt6m, hundred; OE. OS. hund,
Goth, hunds, O.Icel. hundr, OHG. hunt, from *xundaz,
dog, hound. Some scholars assume that it also became an
aspirate medially between vowels. Upon this assumption
it would be difficult to account for the breaking in OE., as
OE. slean, from *sleahan, older *slaxan., Goth, slahan,
to strike, slay ; OE. sweor, from *sweohur, older "sAvexur,
OHG. syyehur, father-in-law. See §§ 87, 329.

Medial and final xw became x in Old Norse and the
West Germanic languages, as OS. OHG. sehan, OE.
seon, O.Icel. sja, from *sex(w)an-, beside Goth, saihxan,
to see; OS. OHG. Uhan, OE. lion, leon, O.Icel. Ija, from
*lix(w)an-, beside Goth, leihran, to lend; OS. OHG. aha,
OE. ea from *eahu, beside Goth, ahra, water, river; OE.
seah, OS. OHG. sah, beside Goth, sahr, he saw; OE.
neah, OS. OHG. nah, beside Goth, nehr, near.

§ 247. The consonants, which arose from the Indg. final
explosives (t, d), were dropped in prim. Germanic, except
after a short accented vowel, as OE. OHG. here, Goth,
bairdi, from an original form *bheroit, he may bear. See
§2U.

§ 248. Original final -m became -n, and then it, as also
Indg. final -n, disappeared in dissyllabic and polysyllabic
words during the prim. Germanic period. For examples,
see § 211.

§ 249. w disappeared before u, as Goth, kai^us from
*kwuruz, Gr. Papu's, heavy; OE. aeces, OHG. ackus,
from *ak(w)usi., beside Goth, aqizi, axe; OE. nacod,
older *nakud, OHG. nackut, from ''nak(w)ud-, beside
Goth, naqajjs, naked; OE. sund, a swimming, from
*swumda-, beside inf. swimman ; OE. pp. sungen, beside
inf. swingan, to swing. In verbal forms the w was mostly
reintroduced in the pret. plural and pp. after the analogy

§§ 250-1] Other Consonant Changes 1 2 1

of forms which regularly had w, e. g. pret. pi. swummon,
swungon, swuUon, pp. swummen, swungen (beside
regular form sungen), swollen, beside inf. swimman, to
swim, swingan, to swing, swellan, to swell. For levelling
out in the opposite direction, cp. OE. OS. OHG. singan,
beside Goth, siggwan (regular form), to sing; OE. sin-
can, OS. OHG. sinkan, beside Goth, sigqan, to sink.
Cp. § 241.

§ 250. Initial and medial sr became str, as OE. stream,
O.Icel. straumr, OS. OHG. strom, stream, cp. Skr.
srdvati, it flows; pi. OE. eastron, OHG. ostarun, ^asfer,
cp. Skr. usra, dawn ; OE. sweostor, Goth, swistar, OHG.
swester, sister, with t from the weak stem-form, as in the
locative singular Goth, swistr = prim. Germanic *swesri
= Skr. dat. svdsre.

§ 251. The remaining Indg. consonants suffered no
further material changes which need be mentioned here.
Summing up the results of §§ 231-50, we arrive at the
following -system of consonants for the close of the prim.
Germanic period : —

Inter- Palatal and

Labial, dental. Dental. Guttural.
(voiceless p t k

S

Explosives | . , 5^

(voiced D d

spirants |voiceless ^ J « X

I voiced D a z

3

Nasals m

Liquids 1, r

Semivowels w j (palatal)

To these must be added the aspirate h.

122 Phonology [§252

CHAPTER IX

SPECIAL WEST GERMANIC MODIFICATIONS
OF THE GENERAL GERMANIC CONSO-
NANT-SYSTEM

§ 252. Prim. Germanic z, which arose from s (§ 238),
became r medially, and was dropped finally, as OE. mara,
OHG. mero = Goth, mdiza, greater; pp. OE. coren,
OHG. gikoran, beside inf. OE. ceosan, OHG. kiosan, to
choose; OE. herian,Goth. hazjan, /o^ra«s« ; and similarly
hieran, to hear, Iseran, to teach ; leornian from *lizn6jan-,
to learn ; nerian, to save ; OE. bet(e)ra, OS. betera,
OHG. be??iro, Goth, batiza, better; OE. OS. hord,
OHG. hort, Goth, huzd, hoard, treasure; OE. deor, OS.
dior, OHG. tior, Goth, dius (gen. diuzis), prim. Germanic
*deuzan, from an original form *dheus6m, deer, wild
animal; OE. daeg, OS. dag, OHG. tag = Goth, dags,
from *da5az, day; OE. giest, OS. OHG. gast=Goth.
gasts, from *7ja.%\.\z, guest; OE. OS. OHG. stinu = Goth,
sunus, from *sunuz, son ; pi. OE. giefa, OS. geba, OHG.
geba = Goth, gibos, from *geftoz, gifts ; OE. guman
= Goth, gumans, from ''gomaniz, cp. Lat. homines, men ;
OE. men(n) = Goth, mans, from *maniz, men; adv. OE.
OS. bet, O.Icel. betr, from *batiz, better; OE. OS. leng,
O.Icel. lengr, from *lai]giz, longer. The following OE.
pronouns are developed from original unstressed forms
where -s became -z and then disappeared, whereas in
OHG. the -z became -r in these words : ge, OS. gi, Goth,
jus, ye ; hwa, OS. hwe, OHG. hwer, Goth, tuas, who ? ;
dat. me, OS. mi, OHG. mir, Goth, mis, me; dat. J>e, OS.
thi, OHG. dir, Goth, fus, thee; we, OS. wi, OHG. wir,
Goth, weis, we. It is difBcult to account for the loss of

§§253-4] The Doubling of Consonants 123

the final consonant in the OE. adv. ma, Goth, mdis, from
*maisiz, more.

% 253. Prim. Germanic d (§§ 234, 238) became d, which
was shifted to t in OHG., as OE. beodan, OS. biodan,
OHG. biotan, to offer; OE. faeder, OS. fadar, OHG.
fsAer, father ; OE. modor, OS. modar, OHG. muoter,
mother; OE. healdan, OS. haldan, OHG. haltan, to hold;
pp. OE. worden, OS. wordan, OHG. wortan, beside inf.
OE. weor]3an, to become; OE. OS. god, OHG. got, God;
OE. OS. word, OHG. wort, word.

§ 254. All single consonants, except r, were doubled
after a short vowel before a following j. This j was mostly
retained in Old Saxon, but was generally dropped in OE.
and OHG. bj, dj, gj became bb, dd, gg (generally written
eg in OE.). Examples are: OE. hliehhan, OS. *hlahhian,
OHG. hlahhen = Goth, hlahjan, to laugh ; OE. lecgan,
OS. leggian, OHG. leggen = Goth, lagjan, to lay; OE.
settan, OS. settian, OHG. setzen = Goth, satjan, to set;
OE. scieppan, OS. skeppian, OHG. skephen = Goth.
skapjan, to create; and similarly OE. biddan, to pray;
fremman, to perform ; licgan, to lie down ; sce])]7an, to
injure ; sellan, to sell, give ; sittan, to sit ; swebban, to lull
to sleep ; fennan, to stretch ; Jiridda (Goth. )>ridja), third ;
hell (Goth, halja), hell; sibb (Goth, sibja), relationship;
gen. cynnes (Goth, kunjis), of a race, generation; and
similarly brycg, bridge; cribb, crib, stall; crycc, crutch;
henn, hen. But OE. OS. nerian, OHG. nerien = Goth.
nasjan, to save; OE. herian = Goth, hazjan, to praise.
For examples of West Germanic ww from wj, see § 90.

Note. — i. The j in the combination ji had disappeared before
the West Germanic doubling of consonants took place, e. g. in
the 2. and 3. pers. sing, of the pres. indicative, as OE. legest,
legefj, OS. legis, legid, OHG. legis, legit = Goth, lagjis, lagjijj,
beside inf. OE. lecgan, OS. leggian, OHG. leggen, Goth,
lagjan, to lay.

1 24 Phonology [§§ 255-6

2. The sing. nom. and ace. of neuter nouns like bedd (GotVi.
nom. badi, gen. badjis), bed, cynn (Goth, kuni), race, generation ;
nett (Goth, nati), net, had their double consonants from the
inflected forms, see § 274.

§ 265. p, t, k, and h (= x) were also doubled in West
Germanic before a following r or 1. The doubling regu-
larly took place in the inflected forms (as gen. OE. OS.
OHG. bittres, OE. sepples, OS. apples, OHG. aphles),
and was then generally transfelrred to the uninflected
forms by levelling, as OE. bitter (biter), OS. OHG.
bittar, cp. Goth, biitrs, bitter ; OE. hlfittor (hliitor), OS.
Iiluttar, OHG. hliittar, cp. Goth, hlutrs, clear, pure;
OHG. kupfar, beside OE. copor, Lat. cuprtun, copper;
OE. snottor (snotor), OS. OHG. snottar, cp. Goth,
snutrs, wise; OE. wseccer (wsecer, wacor), OHG.
wackar, watchful; OS. akkar, OHG. ackar, beside OE.
a^cer, cp. Goth. akrs,^e/i!^; OE. seppel (sepl), OS. appul,
OHG. aphul, cp. O.Icel. epli, apple; OS. luttil, OHG.
lutzil, beside OE. lytel, little. In some words double
forms arose through levelling out in different directions ;
thus regular forms were nom. sing, tear (= OHG. zahar)
from "teahur, older *taxur, tear, gen. *teahhres (Nth.
taehhres), nom. pi. *teahhras (Nth. taehhras). From
taehhres, taehhras, &c., was formed a new nom. sing,
taehher in Nth., whereas the other dialects generalized
tear, whence gen. sing, teares, nom. pi. tearas. In like
manner arose ear beside Nth. sehher, ear of corn ; geol
beside geohhol, Yule, Christmas. See §§ 219, 260.

§ 256. Doubling of consonants also regularly took place
before a following n in the weak declension of nouns, as
sing. nom. *knoto, knot, ace. *knotan(un), beside pi. gen.
*knotn6(n) > *knott6(n), dat. *knotnum- > *knottum-.
This interchange between the single and double consonants
gave rise to levelling in a twofold direction, so that one or
other of the forms was transferred to all cases ; thus in OE.

§§257-9] The OE. Consonants 125

the forms with double consonants were generalized in
words like bucca, he-goat; cnotta, knot; earwicga, earwig;
ebba, ebb ; frogga, frog ; lappa (laeppa), lappet ; scucca,
demon; stagga, stag; sugga, water wagtail; and the
forms with single consonant in words like boga, bow ;
cnafa beside OHG. knabo, knappo, boy, youth ; draca
(Lat. draco) beside OHG. trahho, traccho, dragon ;
dropa beside OHG. troffo, tropfo, drop; nama, name;
nefa, nephew ; wita, wise man.

CHAPTER X

THE OE. DEVELOPMENT OF THE GENERAL
GERMANIC CONSONANT-SYSTEM

§ 257. Before entering upon the history of the individual
consonants, it will be well to treat here several points
concerning the OE. consonants in general.

§ 258. In OE. as in the oldest period of the other
Germanic languages, intervocalic double consonants were
really long, and were pronounced long as in Modern
Italian and Swedish, thus OE. buc-ca, he-goat; set-tan,
to set ; and similarly cyssan, to kiss ; feallan, to fall ;
feorran, from afar; frogga, frog; hebban, to raise;
lecgan, to lay ; sce])J)an, to injure ; scieppan, to create ;
})ennan, to stretch ; swimman, to swim.

§ 259. OE. double consonants were simplified in pro-
nunciation, although they were very often retained in
writing, especially finally : —

I. Finally, as buc, buck, cos, kiss, eal, all, feor, far,
man, man, beside bucc, coss, eall, feorr, mann ; faesten,
fortress, gyden, goddess, ssewet, sowing, beside gen.
faestennes, gydenne, saewettes. eg was always preserved
in writing in order to show that it was an explosive and

1 26 Phonology [§ 260

not a spirant (cp. § 323), as brycg, bridge; mycg, midge;
secg, man. In this grammar the double consonants are
generally retained in writing, as cinn, chin ; full, full;
hyll, hill; pytt, pit; sceatt, treasure, money; synn, sin;
swamm, he swam.

2. Medially before other consonants, as ace. masc. sing.
ealne, gen. dat. fem. sing, ealre, all, beside eallne, eallre ;
pret. sing, afierde, cyste, fylde, ypte, beside inf. afierran,
to remove, cyssan, to kiss, fyllan, to fill, yppan, to reveal;
third pers. sing. pres. indie, fiel}), gielj), onginJ>, swim}>,
win]), beside inf feallan, to fall, giellan, to yell, onginnan,
to begin, swimman, to swim ; winnan, to fight.

3. Medially after consonants, as geomes from georn
+ nes, zeal; gesynto from "gesynttu, older *gisundi}>u,
health; Jiearlic from Jjearl + lic, severe; wiersa from
'wierssa, older *wiers(i)ra, worse ; wilder, wildeor from
wild + deor, wild beast; wyrtruma from wyrt + truma,
root-stump ; pret. sing, gewielde from "gewield-de, gyrde
from *gyrd-de, Iseste from *l8est-te, reste from *rest-te,
sende from *send-de, wende from *wend-de, beside inf.
gewieldan, to subdue, gyrdan, to gird, Isestan, to perform,
restan, to rest, sendan, to send, w^endan, to turn.

4. In late OE. in unstressed syllables, as bliccetan, to
glitter, liccetan, to pretend, feign, beside bliccettan, lie-
cettan; atelic, terrible, singalice, always, yfelic, bad,
beside atoUic, singallice, jrfellic ; forgiefenes, forgiveness,
forlorenes, destruction, beside forgiefennes, forlorennes ;
gen. sing, fsestenes, of a fortress, ssewetes, of a sowing,
beside faestennes, siewettes ; gen. pi. ojjera, other, snot-
(t)era, prudent, wise, beside ojierra, snot(t)erra ; faegera
beside tsegerra, fairer.

§ 260. Consonants were doubled during the OE. period
before a following r or 1, with shortening of a preceding
long vowel or diphthong, as aetgaeddre, together, blaeddre,
bladder, aeddre, vein, gegaddrode, he gathered, naeddre,

§§ 261-3] Semivowels 127

adder, beside older aBtgaed(e)re, blzedre, aedre, gegad(e)-
rode, nsedre ; comparative bettra, better, deoppra, deeper,
geliccra, more like, hwittra, whiter, riccra, more powerful,
yttra, outer, beside older bet(e)ra,deopra, gelicra, hwitra,
ricra, ytra. Gen. miccles beside older micles, nom.
micel, great. In words like attor, poison, foddor, food,
moddor, mother, taddor, progeny, beside older ator, fodor,
mddor, tudor, the doubling of the consonant went out
from the inflected forms, as gen. atres, nom. pi. modru,
which regularly became attres, moddru and from which
a new nom. attor, moddor was formed. On a similar
doubling of consonants in West Germanic, see § 255.

§ 261. The Germanic voiceless spirants, f, J>, s became
the voiced spirants ft, d, z medially between voiced sounds,
although the f, J), s were retained in writing, as cea.% Jaw ;
ofen, oven ; wulfas, wolves, § 296 ; aipas, oaths ; brojjor,
brother ; eorfe, earth, § 302 ; bosm, bosom ; nosu, nose ;
osle, ousel, § 307.

Note. — This voicing off, p, s only took place in simple words,
but not in compounds, such as aj^wean, to wash ; gefeoht,
battle ; gesendan, to send ; wynsum, pleasant.

§ 262. The Germanic voiced spirants h, g became the
voiceless spirants f (§ 294), x(§§ 320, Note, 323) before voice-
less sounds and finally, as geaf, OHG. gab, he gave ; healf,
OHG. halb, half; wif, OHG. wib, woman, wife; burh,
city, sorh, sorrow, dab, dough, beah, ring, bracelet, beside
gen. burge, sorge, dages, beages; stihst beside older
stigest, thou ascendest.

The Semivowels.

§ 263. Germanic w = the w in NE. wet (generally
written uu, u, (> in OE. manuscripts) remained initially
before vowels, and generally also initially before and after

128 Phonology [§264

consonants, as waes, Goth. OS. OHG. was, was ; OE,
OS. Goth, witan, OHG. wis^an, to know; and similarly
wadan, to go, wade ; wascan, to wash ; wSpen, weapon ;
weeron, were ; waeter, water ; wearm, warm ; weder,
weather ; wefan, to weave ; weorjjan, to become ; vrid,
wide; wilde, wild; windan, to wind; winter, winter;
■wolcen, cloud ; wundor, wonder ; -wyrcan, to work.

wlanc, proud; wlite, OS. wliti, form, beauty, Goth,
wlits, /ace, countenance; wlitig, beautiful; wracu, Goth,
wraka, revenge, persecution; wrajj, angry; ■writan, to
write.

cwen, Goth, qens, queen, wife ; cwefan, Goth. qi])an, to
say ; hwa, Goth, hras, wAo ?; hwsete, Goth. hrditeis, wheat;
dwellan, OHG. twellen, to tarry ; dweorg, OHG. twerg,
dwarf; Jjwean, Goth. Jjwahan, to wash ; ))weorh, Goth.
J)wairhs, angry, perverse ; sweltan, Goth, swiltan, to die ;
sweostor, Goth, swistar, sister; twa, Goth, twdi, too ;
twelf, Goth, twalif, twelve.

§ 264. Medial w generally remained before vowels, as
OE. OS. OHG. spiwan, Goth, speiwan, to vomit, spit; and
similarly awel, awl; gesew^en, seen; lawerce, /ar^ ; sawol,
Goth, sdiwala, soul ; sniw^an, to snow ; Jjawian from *)>a-
wojan, to thaw, see § 266. In verbs like blawan, OHG.
blaan beside blaian,/o blow; bl6wan,0HG. bluoan beside
bluoian, bluowen, to bloom; sawan, Goth, saian, OHG.
saan beside saian, sawen, to sow ; w^awan, Goth, waian,
OHG. waen beside waian, to blow [of the wind), it is diffi-
cult to determine how far the w was etymological and how
far it was originally merely a consonantal glide developed
between the long and the short vowel ; and similarly in
cnawan, to know; crawan, to crow; flowan, to flow;
growan, to grow ; hlowan, to low ; mawan, to mow ;
rowan, to row; frawan, to twist.

eowe, ewe ; eowestre, Goth, awistr, sheepfold ; hweo-
wol, wheel; meowle, Goth, mawilo, maiden; streowede,

§ 265] Semivowels 1 29

Goth, strawida, I strewed; peowiari, to serve. See
§§ 77, 89.

Gen. sing, bearwes, bealwes, cneowes, gearwes,
snawes, strawes, treowes, Jjeowes, beside nom. bearu,
grove, bealu, evil, calamity, cneo, knee, gearu, ready, sna,
snow, Btrea., straw, treo, tree, ^^o, servant ; gen. dat. sing.
Ijeswe, mjedwe, sceadwe, beside nom. Ises, pasture, msd,
meadow, sceadu, shade, shadow. See §§ 215, 266.

frsetwan, to adorn ; gearwe, completely ; gearwian, to
prepare ; nearwe, narrowly ; nierwan, to narrow ; sier-
wan, to devise ; smierwan, to anoint, smear ; spearwa,
Goth, sparwa, sparrow ; wealwian, to wallow ; wielwan,
to roll.

breowan, to brew, cp. O.Icel. pp. bruggenn, brewed;
ceo wan, OHG.kiuwan, to chew; getriewe, true, faithful ;
getriewan, to trust ; heawan, Goth. *haggwan, to hew ;
niewe, niwe, new ; sceawian, Goth. *skaggw6n, to
examine, view. See J§ 76, 90, 135.

§ 265. When w came to stand at the end of a word or
syllable, it became vocalized to u (later o). The u then
combined with a preceding short vowel to form a long
diphthong, but disappeared after long stems, long vowels,
and diphthongs, as nom. bealu (later bealo), evil, calamity,
bearu, grove, gearu, ready, mearu, tender, nearu, narrow,
searu, armour, beside gen. bealwes, bearwes, gearwes,
mearwes, nearwes, searwes ; masc. ace. sing, gearone
from *gearwne, ready. Nom. cneo, knee, strea, straw,
treo, tree, ^peo, servant, beside gen. cneowes, streawes,
treowes, f eowes. gad, Goth, gdidw, want, lack, a, o,
Goth. 4iw, ever ; hra, Goth, hrdiw, corpse ; hrea, raw ;
sna, Goth, sniiws, snow.

But the w was mostly reintroduced into the nom. sing,
from the inflected forms, especially after long vowels and
long diphthongs. Regular forms were : nom. cneo, sna,
strea, gen. cneowes, snawes, streawes, from the latter

130 Phonology [§ 266

of which was formed a new nom. cneow, snaw, streaw ;
and similarly hraw, corpse; hreaw, raw; treow, tree;
])eow, servant ; slaw, lasy ; stow, place ; beow, barley ;
deaw, dew; gleaw, wise; hiew, hiw, shape, colour;
hneaw, stingy ; hreow, repentance ; treow, faith. And
conversely from the new nom. was sometimes formed a
new gen., as cneowes, treowes, beside older cneowes,
treowes.

§ 266. w disappeared before u, and e (= older i), as
nom. clea from *cla(w)u, claw ; lees from *\^s{yv)\iL, pasture ;
m^ed from 'maed(w)u, meadow; sceadu from *ECad(w)u,
shade, shadow; )>rea from *])ra(w)u, threat, beside gen.
Iseswe, maedwe, sceadwe ; nom. ace. neut. fea from
*fa(w)u,/ew ; dat. feam from *fa(w)um, see § 140 ; dat. pi.
cneom from *cne('w)um, beside nom. sing, cneo, knee. And
similarly at a later period : betuh, between, cucu, quick,
alive, cudu, cud, uton, let us, beside older betwuh, cwucu,
cwudu, wuton.

cu from *k(w)u, older *kw6, cow ; hu from *h(w)u,
older *hw6, how ; neut. tu from *t(w)u, older *tw6, two.
See § 130.

ffi from *a(w)i-, older *aiwi- (Goth, diws), law ; hrse
from *hra(w)i-, older *hraiwi-, corpse ; sse from *sa(w)i.,
older *saiwi- (Goth, sdiws), sea ; giere]), prim. Germanic
*garwi]>, he prepares ; pret. gierede, prim. Germanic
*garwidse-, he prepared, beside inf. gierwan; and simi-
larly pret. nierede, sierede, smierede, wielede, beside
inf. nierwan, to narrow ; sierwan, to devise ; smierwan,
to anoint ; wielwan, to roll.

The w was often reintroduced after the analogy of forms
where w was regular, as nom. clawu, frawu (beside the
regular nom. clea, Irea), new formations from the gen.
and dat. clawe, ])rawe ; dat. pi. seewum beside ssm,
with w from the gen. pi. sffiwa, of seas ; pret. pi. reo'wun
beside reon, with w from rowan, to row; and similarly

§§267-9] Semivowels 131

greowun, -on, they grew; seowun, they sowed; &c. On
forms like pret. pi. swulton, they died ; swummon, they
swam, see § 249. gierwej), he prepares, pret. gierwede,
beside the regular forms gieref, gierede, with w from
gierwan; cnawjj for *cn£ej) from ''cna(w)i]j, he knows,
with w from the inf. cnawan.

§ 267. w often disappeared in the second element of
compounds ealneg, -ig, for ealne weg, always; fuUuht
from *full wuht, baptism ; hlaford from *hlaf weard,
lord; hwilende from *hwil wende, transitory; nauht
beside older na-wuht, naught. And in certain verbal
forms with the negative prefix, as naes = ne wass, was not;
nseron = ne wsron, were not; nat= ne wat, knows not;
nolde = ne wolde, would not; nyle = ne wile, will not;
nysse = ne wisse, he knew not ; nyton = ne witon,
tliey know not.

§ 268. Germanic j (= consonantal i) generally remained
initially in Gothic, OS. and OHG., but disappeared in
O.Icel. In OE, it had become a palatal spirant like the y
in NE. yet, yon already in the oldest period of the lan-
guage. It was usually written g, ge (also i, gi before
a following u). Examples are : gear, Goth, jer, OS.
OHG. jar, O.Icel. ar, year; gecc, iuc, Goth, juk, OHG.
joch, O.Icel, ok, yoke; geong, giong, giung, iung, Goth,
juggs, OS. OHG. jung, O.Icel. ungr, young ; and simi-
larly ge, gie, ye ; geo, gio, iu, formerly, of old ; geogoj),
giogo]7, iugo}>, youth; gedmor, sad, mournful; geond,
through, beyond; giest, _yeas/ ; ginsra, younger. See § 51.

§ 269. Germanic medial -ij- became -i- which combined
with a following guttural vowel to form a diphthong,
as bio, beo, Germanic stem-form *bij6n-, bee ; feond,
Goth, iijands, enemy ; freo from *frija-, free ; freond,

K 2

132 Phonology [§§270-2

Goth, frijonds, friend; nom. ace. neut. J>rio, Jireo, from
*j5riju = Goth. Jrija, three, see § 104.

§ 270. It is generally assumed that Germanic j remained
in OE. between vowels when the first element was a long
vowel or diphthong, but it is, however, more probable that
j regularly disappeared in this position and that at a later
period a consonantal glide (written g, ge) was developed
between the vowels, as was sometimes the case in OS. and
OHG., as ciegan from *kaujan, to call; frigea older
friegea = Goth, frduja, lord, master; dat. hiege, Anglian
hege = Goth, hduja, iege = Goth. *4ujii, beside nom.
hieg, hay, ieg, island; ])reagean from *])rau5jan, to
threaten ; and similarly feog(e)an, to hate ; freog(e)an,
to love. Cp. § 275.

Note. — Forms like nom. hieg, Goth, hawi, hay ; ieg, ig,
Goth. *awi, gen. *Aujos, had the final g from the inflected
forms, as gen. hieges, dat. hiege, gen. and dat. iege.

§ 271. Germanic medial j (written i, g ; ig, eg, also ige
before a) remained after r in the combination short vowel
+ r, as herian, hergan, herigan, heregan, herigean, Goth,
hazjan, to praise ; and similarly nerian, Goth, nasjan,
to save ; werian, Goth, wasjan, to clothe, wear ; gen. sing.
heries, herges, heriges, Goth, harjis, nom. pi. hergas,
herigas, herigeas, Goth, harjos, armies. The i, e in ig, eg
represent a vocalic glide which was developed between
the r and the j. And the e in ige merely indicates the
palatal nature of the preceding g.

§ 272. Germanic medial j disappeared after original
long closed syllables or syllables which became long by
the West Germanic gemination of consonants (§ 254),
as daelan, Goth, ddiljan, to divide ; deman, Goth, domjan,
to judge; fyllan, Goth, fulljan, to fill; geliefan, Goth,
galiubjan, to believe; hieran, Goth, hiusjan, to hear;
secan, Goth, sokjan, to seek, gierd from "geardju = Goth.

§§2 73-4] Semivowels 133

"gardja, rorf, twig; hildfrom *hildju = Goth. *hildja, war;
gen. rices from *rikjes, Goth, reikjis, of a kingdom.

biddan, Goth, bidjan, to pray ; hebban, Goth, hafjan,
to raise ; hliehhan, Goth, hlahjan, to laugh ; lecgan, Goth.
lagjan, to lay ; scieppan, Goth, skapjan, to create ; settan,
Goth, satjan, to set. Gen. sing, beddes, Goth, badjis,
of a bed; cynnes, Goth, kunjis, of a race, generation ;
willa, Goth, wilja, will; henn from *hennju, oldei
*xannj6 = Goth. *hanja, hen ; and similarly crycc, Goth.
*krukja, crutch; hell, Goth. hsUja, hell ; sibb, Goth, sibja^
relationship ; gen. helle, sibbe = Goth, haljos, sibjos.

Note. — j disappeared medially before i already in West
Germanic ; hence verbs, which have double consonants in the
inf by the West Germanic gemination of consonants, have only
a single consonant in the second and third pers. sing, of the
present indicative, as legest, lege}) = Goth, lagjis, lagji)>, beside
inf lecgan = Goth, lagjan, to lay.

§ 273. Germanic final -ojan became -ian through the
intermediate stages -ejan, ejan, -ijan, -ian, as locian from
*lok5jan, to look ; macian from *mak6jan, to make. The
g in forms like 16cig(e)an, macig(e)an is merely a conso-
nantal glide which was developed between the i and the a.

The Germanic ending -9(1) from Indg. -eje became
-i during the prim. Germanic period, then -i became
shortened -i (§ 214). This •! regularly disappeared in pre-
historic OE. after original long stems, but remained -i
(later e) after original short stems, as hier, Goth, hausei,
from *xauzi, hear thou ; sec, Goth, soke!, seek thou ; but
nere, Goth, nasei, save thou ; and similarly bide, pray
thou ; freme, perform thou ; lege, lay thou ; sete, set thou.

§ 274. When j came to stand finally after the loss of the
case endings -az, -an (= Indg. -os, •cm), it became vocal-
ized to -i which became -e at a later period, as hierde, OS.
hirdi, OHG. hirti, Goth, (ace.) hairdi, shepherd; and
similarly ende, end; here, army; laece, physician; rice,

■134 Phonology f§§ ^75-6

OS. rikl, OHG. rihhi, Goth, reiki, kingdom ; wite, OS.
witi, pum'shmenl. The regularly developed forms of hrycg,
back, secg, man, bedd, bed, cynn, race, generation, nett,
net, and of similar masculine and neuter nouns with double
consonants in the nom. and ace. singular, would be *hryge,
Goth, (ace.) *hrugi; *sege, Goth, (ace.) *sagi ; *bede,
Goth, badi; *cyne, Goth, kuni; *nete, Goth. nati. The
nom. and ace. sing, are new formations with double con-
sonants from the inflected stem-forms.

§ 275. Germanic jj became ddj in Goth, and gg(j) in
O.Icel. In OE. -ijj- became -i- through the intermediate
stage -ij- ; and -ajj- became -eb- through the intermediate
stages -aij-, -aj-. And then between the -i-, -se- and a
following vowel a consonantal glide (written g) was de-
veloped (cp. § 270), which was often levelled out into the
uninflected forms, as frigedseg, frigdaeg, Friday, beside
freo from *frio, older *frij6, OS. fri, woman ; eode from
*iode, older *ijo-dsB-, Goth, iddja, he went; gen. ages,
csege, wiege, beside nom. Sg (O.Icel. egg, OS. OHG. ei),
egg, cseg, key, waeg (Goth, waddjus, O.Icel. veggr), wall;
clffig, Goth, (fem.) *kladdja, OS. klei, clay.

The Liquids.

1

§ 276. Germanic 1 generally remained in OE. both
initially, medially, and finally, as lecgan, Goth, lagjan,
O.Icel. leggja, OS. leggian, OHG. leggen, to lay;
sliepan, Goth, slepan, OS. slapan, OHG. slafan, to sleep ;
OE. OS. OHG. stelan, Goth, stilan, O.Icel. stela, to
steal; OE. OS. helpan, Goth, hilpan, O.Icel. hjalpa,
OHG. helfan, to help ; sellan, Goth, saljan, O.Icel. selja,
OS. sellian, OHG. sellen, to give, sell; feallan, O.Icel.
falla, OS. OHG. fallan, to fall; sceal, Goth. O.Icel. OS.

§§277-8] Liquids 135

OHG. skal, shall; and similarly lamb, lamb; land, land;
lang, long; liedan, to lead; leof, dear; leornian, to learn ;
lif, life; lufu, love; lytel, little, ealu, ale; meolu, meal;
mioluc, milk ; talu, number, tale, blod, blood; clsene,
clean ; fleon, to flee ; glsed, ^/arf ; hlaford, lord ; wlonc,
proud, feldffleld; folc, folk ; folgian, to follow ; gold, gold;
helm, helmet ; meltan, to melt ; wealdan, to wield, govern.
stille, still, silent; tellan, to tell; willa, will fyllan, toflll;
gea.Ua., gall; weallan, to boil ; wuile, wool, col, coal ; col,
cool; fal, foul; iiigol, fowl, bird; smsel, slender; sadol,
saddle ; stael, he stole, hyll, hill eall, all ; fvdl, full.

On vocalic 1 as in aepl, apple ; nsdl, needle ; nsegl, nail;
segl, sail ; setl, seat, see § 219.

§ 277. si underwent metathesis in unstressed syllables,
as byrgels, OS. burgisli, tomb ; rjedels, OS. radislo,
MHG. raetsel, nrffl?/e; and similarly bridels,6n'rf/^; fsetels,
tub, vessel; gyrdels older gyrdisl, girdle ; riecels, incense.
Metathesis of I rarely took place in stem-syllables, as
Anglian bold, dwelling, seld, seat, spald, saliva, beside WS.
botl, setl, spatl.

§ 278. Germanic r generally remained in OE. both
initially, medially, and finally, as read, Goth, rdufs,
O.Icel. rau9r, OS. rod, OHG. rot, red; OE. OS. OHG.
bringan, Goth, briggan, to bring; here, Goth, harjis,
OS. OHG. heri, army; OE. OS. word, Goth, waurd,
OHG. wort, word; feorran, from afar, Goth, fairra, far
off; faeder, Goth. OS. fadar, O.Icel. faSir, OHG. fater,
father ; and similarly raedan, to advise ; rap, rope ; regn,
rain ; rice, kingdom ; ridan, to ride ; rim, number ; rodor,
sky ; rQm, room, creopan, to creep ; dream, mirth ; freo,
free; grene,green ; hrof, roof; stream, stream ; tree, tree ;
writan, to write, beran, to bear; cearu, care, sorrow;
duru, door ; faran, to go, travel bierce, birch ; burg, city ;

136 Phonology [§§279-81

earm, arm ; eorjie, earth ; feorh, life ; heard, hard ;
scearp, sharp ; spearwa, sparrow ; steorfan, to die ; ]Jorn,
thorn ; })urh, through ; weorc, work, afierran, to remove ;
steorra, s/ar. fyr,^re; hamor, Aawwer; va.b^oT, mother;
tear, tear; wer, man.

Note.— r disappeared in late OE. in specan, to speak, speec,
speech, beside older sprecan, spriec.

§ 270. West Germanic medial r from older z (§ 252)
remained in OE., as betra, Goth, batiza, better; herian,
Goth, hazjan, to praise ; hord, Goth, huzd, treasure ; and
similarly coren, chosen ; deor (Goth, dius, gen. diuzis),
deer, wild animal; eare, ear; hieran, to hear; ieldra,
elder ; Iseran, to teach ; leornian, to learn ; mara, larger ;
nerian, to save ; WEeron, they were, ierre, Goth, airzeis,
OS. OHG. irri, angry ; and similarly *durran, to dare ;
mierran, to hinder, mar ; )'yrre, dry, withered.

§ 280. Antevocalic r often became postvocalic by meta-
thesis when a short vowel was followed by n, nn, s, or s
+ consonant, as sern, Goth, razn, O.Icel. rann, house;
forsc, O.Icel. froskr, OHG. frosk, /rci§- ; forst, O.Icel.
OS. OHG. frost, frost; hors, O.Icel. OS. hross, OHG.
ros (gen. rosses), horse; iernan, Goth. OS. OHG. rinnan,
O.Icel. rinna, to run ; and similarly bsernan (wv.), biernan
(sv.), to burn ; baers, perch (a fish) ; berstan, to burst ;
cserse, cress ; fersc, fresh ; fierst, space of time ; gaers,
grass ; hsern, wave ; Jierscan, to thresh (corn) ; wserna
beside wraenna, wren.

§ 281. s or 1 + r became ss, 11 by assimilation, as Isssa
from *lEes(i)ra, smaller; fem. gen. dat. sing. Jisse (OHG.
desera, desero), from *J)isre, of this; gen. pl.])issa (OHG.
desero), from *J>isra ; gen. sing, usses from * iisres, q/
our ; dat. ussum from *usruni. sella beside selra, better.

§§282-5] Nasals i37

The Nasals.
m

§ 282. Germanic m generally remained in OE. both
initially, medially, and finally, as mona, Goth, mena,
O.Icel. mane, OS. OHG. mano, moon ; OE. Goth, guma,
O.Icel. gume, OS. gumo, OHG. gomo, man ; OE. OS.
dumb, Goth, dumbs, O.Icel. dumbr, OHG. tumb, dumb ;
OE. O.Icel. OS. OHG. rum, roow; and similarly macian,
to make ; mann, man ; mawan, to mow ; meltan, to melt ;
min, my ; modor, mother ; mujj, mouth, cuman, to come ;
uama, name ; niman, to take ; tima, time ; ])uma, thumb.
besma, besom ; climban, to climb ; gelimpan, to happen ;
la.mh, lamb, fremman from *iramian, to perform ; swim-
man, to swim, beam, tree ; brom, broom ; ham, home ;
helm, helmet; wyrm, snake, swamm, he swam.

On vocalic m as in xj^m, breath ; bosm, bosom ; botm,
bottom ; majim, treasure, see § 219.

§ 283. m disappeared in prehistoric OE. before f, s with
lengthening of the preceding vowel, as fif, Goth. OHG.
fimf, five; osle, OHG. amsala, ousel; softe, OHG.
samfto, softly ; sefte, soft. But m remained when it came
to stand before s at a later period, as grimsian from
*grimisian = OHG. grimmison, to rage; ]jrims beside
older trimes, trymesse (OHG. drimissa), a coin.

§ 284. Final -m, when an element of inflexion, became
-n in late OE,, as dat. pi. dagon, giefon, sunon beside
older dagum, giefum, sunum; dat. sing, and pi. godon
beside older godum, good.

n
§ 285. Germanic n generally remained in OE. both
initially, medially, and finally, as nama, Goth. nam5, OS.
OHG. name, name; OE. OS. OHG. sunu, Goth, sunus,
O.Icel. sunr, son; OE. Goth. OHG. spinnan, O.Icel.
spinna, to spin; ))ennan, OS. thennian, OHG. dennen,

138 Phonology [§§286-8

Goth. Jjanjan, O.I eel. ])enja, to stretch; and similarly
nacod, naked; nsedl, needle; nefa, nephew; nett, net.
clsne, clean ; grene, green ; mona, moon ; munuc, monk ;
wenan, to expect, bindan, to bind; blind, blind; cneo,
knee; freond, friend ; hand, hand; hnutu, nut; sendan,
to send; windan, to wind, spannan, to clasp ; sunne, sun ;
]jynn(e), thin, ban, bone ; cwen, queen ; heofon, heaven ;
mylen, mill ; stan, stone, cinn, chin ; henn, hen ; mann,
man ; synn, sin.

On vocalic n as in hrsefn, raven ; regn, rain ; tacn,
token, see § 219.

§ 286. n disappeared in prehistoric OE. before \, s with
lengthening of the preceding vowel, as cu]), Goth, kunjjs,
OHG. kund, known ; est, Goth, ansts, OHG. anst, stem-
form ansti-, favour ; o])er, Goth, anjiar, OHG. andar,
other; us, Goth. OHG. uns, us; and similarly cyj)an, to
make known ; diist, dust ; fus, ready ; gesi}?, companion ;
gbs, goose; hos (OHG. hansa), band, escort; taup, mouth;
si]>, journey ; toj), tooth ; wyscan, to wish ; yst, storm.
The long vowel became shortened in unstressed syllables,
as fracu]>, -o]?, Goth. frakun)>s, despised ; and similarly
dugu]>, strength, valour ; geogu]?, youth ; nimaj> from
*nimo)j, older *nemon])., they take, see § 218. But n re-
mained when it came to stand before s at a later period, as
claensian from *clEenisian, older *klainis6jan, to cleanse ;
minsian from *minnisian, to diminish; winster older
winester (OHG. winister), left, left hand; also in the
Latin loanword pinsian (Lat. pensare), to consider.

§ 287. n sometimes disappeared between consonants, as
elboga beside elnboga, elbow ; pret. nemde from *nemnde,
he named; saeterdajg beside saeterndaeg, Saturday.

§ 288. Final -n generally disappeared in verbal forms
before the pronouns we, wit ; ge, git, as binde we, let us
bind; binde ge, bind ye! ; bunde we?, did we bind?.
See § 477.

§ 289] Nasals 1 39

Final -n disappeared in Nth. in words of more than one
syllable. This law was fairly well preserved in the infini-
tive, the pres. and pret. pi. subjunctive, the weak declension
of nouns and adjectives, numerals, and adverbs, but in
strong nouns and adjectives including the pp. of strong
verbs, the. final -n was generally reintroduced into the nom.
singular from the inflected forms. It was also mostly
reintroduced into the indie, pret. plural through the in-
fluence of the (?)past participle which itself was a new
formation. Examples are : bera, to bear, gehera, to hear,
Isera, to teach, senda, to send = WS. beran, gehieran,
Isran, sendan; gihere, they may hear, sprece, they may
speak = WS. gehieren, sprecen ; bite, they might bite
= WS. biten ; gen. dat. ace. sing, fola, foal, heorta,
heart = WS. folan, hfeortan ; nom. ace. pi. galga = WS.
gealgan, gallows; seofo beside inflected form seofona,
seven ; befora, be/ore, binna, within, fearra, from afar,
nor])a, from the north, ■westa,/rom the west='WS. beforan,
binnan, feorran, nor]:an, westan ; but dryhten, lord,
heofon, heaven, hefen, heathen, arisen, arisen, genumen,
taken, with -n from the inflected forms ; berun, they bore,
cwdmun, they came, laeddun, they led.

§ 289. The Germanic guttural nasal g (written g in
Gothic, and n in the other Germanic languages) only
occurred medially before g and k (written c in OE.). It
disappeared in the combination qx already in prim. Ger-
manic (§ 245). In OE. it remained guttural or became
palatal according as the following g, c remained guttural or
became palatal, cp. § 309. Examples are : OE. OHG.
bringan, Goth, briggan, to bring ; drincan, Goth, drigkan,
OS. drinkan, OHG. trinkan, to drink; geong, Goth.
juggs, O.Icel. ungr, OS. OHG. iung.young ; and similarly
fmger, finger; gangan, to go ; hangian, to hang ; hunger.

I40 Phonology [§§290-1

hunger; lang, long; tunge, tongue; sincan, to sink;
singan, to sing; swincan, to labour; tungol, star, con-
stellation.

bene from *bar)kiz, bench ; lengra, OS. lengira, OHG.
lengiro, longer; Jjencan, Goth. )>agkjan, OS. thenkian,
OHG. denken, to think ; and similarly drencan, to give to
drink ; enge, narrow ; engel, angel ; englisc, English ; fine,
finch ; mengan, to mix ; sengan, to singe ; strengjj, prim.
Germanic strar)gi])6, strength ; ])yncan, to seem.

§ 290. The guttural q disappeared in an unstressed
syllable when preceded by n in a stressed syllable in the
course of the OE. period, as cynig, king, penig, penny,
beside older cyning, pening; hunig, O.Icel. hunang,
OHG. honang beside honag, honey.

The Labials.

P

§ 291. Germanic p from Indg. b (§ 232) was of rare
occurrence, especially initially. Most of the words begin-
ning with p in OE. are Latin or Greek loanwords, p
remained in OE. both initially, medially, and finally, as
pad (Goth, pdida), cloak ; pening, O.Icel. penningr, OHG.
pfenning, penny ; open, O.Icel. openn, OS. opan, OHG.
ofTan, open ; slsepan, Goth, slepan, OS. slapan, OHG.
slafan, to sleep; deop, Goth, diups, O.Icel. djupr, OS.
diop, OHG. tiof, deep ; and similarly psej), path ; yo\.t,pot ;
plegan, to play ; plilit, danger, plight ; plog, plough ; priit,
proud; spere, spear; sprecan, to speak, clyppan, to
embrace ; grapian, to grope ; staeppan, to step ; supan, to
drink ; swapan, to sweep ; wsepen, weapon ; wepan,
to weep. hea.rpe, harp ; helpun, to help ; w eorpan, to throw,
cast, heap, troop, heap ; rap, rope ; sceap, sheep ; scearp,
sharp ; scip, ship ; tip, up.

Examples of Lat. loanwords are : cuppe (late Lat. cuppa).

§§ Z92-3] Labials 141

cup ; pawa, pea (Lat. pavo), peacock ; peru (Lat. pirum),
pear; pic (Lat. ace. picem), pitch ; pinsian (Lat. pensare),
to weigh, consider; pise (Lat. pisum), pea; pund (Lat.
pondo), pound ; pyle (Lat. ace. pulvinum), pillow ; pytt
(Lat. ace. puteum), pit.

§ 202. We have already seen that prim. Germanic ft from
Indg. bh became b initially, and also medially after m
during the prim. Germanic period (§ 234); that prim.
Germanic tSj became bb in West Germanic (§ 254) ; and that
the further development of prim. Germanic b belonged to
the history of the separate Germanic languages (§ 235).
Germanic b, and West Germanic bb from bj (§ 254) and
bn in the weak declension of nouns (§ 256), remained in
OE., as OE. OS. OHG. beran, Goth, bafran, O.Icel.
bera, to bear; OE. OS. blind, Goth, blinds, O.Icel.
blindr, OHG. blint, blind; brecan, Goth, brikan, OHG.
brehhan, to break ; and similarly baec, back ; bae)), bath ;
ban, bone; beam, tree; beodan, to command; bindan, to
bind ; bitan, to bite ; blsec, black ; blawan, to blow ; blod,
blood; boc, book; bodig, body; brad, broad; bringan, to
bring ; brycg, bridge.

dumb, Goth, dumbs, O.Icel. dumbr, OHG. tumb,
dumb ; and similarly camb, comb ; climban, to climb ;
lamb, lamb; ymb(e), about, around; wamb, stomach.

bedd (Goth. gen. badjis), bed; sibb, Goth, sibja, OS.
sibbia, OHG. sibba, relationship, peace ; and similarly
cribb, crib ; habban, to have ; libban, to live ; nebb, beak ;
ribb, rib ; webb, web. ebba (§ 256), ebb.

§ 293. Germanic medial b remained in OE. between
voiced sounds. In the oldest period of the language it
was mostly written b, as giaban, to give ; libr, liver ; ober,
over. But owing to the fact that Germanic f became
b medially between voiced sounds, although the f was

143 Phonology [§§ 294-5

retained in writing (§ 206), the f also came to be used
regularly to represent Germanic 15 in OE. On the normal
development of 15 in the other Germanic languages, see
§230. Examples are: giefan, Goth, giban, O.Icel. gefa,
OS. geban, OHG. geban, to give; haefde, Goth, habaida,
OS. habda, habda, OHG. hahe\,a.,he had; sealfian, Goth.
OHG. salbon, OS. salfeon, to anoint ; seofon, Goth. OHG.
sibun, OS. si'bun, seven ; and similarly sefen, evening ;
heofor, beaver ; cnnfa., boy; delfan, to dig ; dnfan, to drive ;
hafast, thou hast; hafa]), he has; heafoc, hawk; heafod,
head ; hefig, heavy ; heofon, heaven ; hlaford, lord, master ;
hraefn, raveit ; Isfan, to leave ; lifde, he lived ; lifer, liver ;
lofian, to praise ; lufian, to love ; ofer, over ; scufan, to
push; siohxir, sGoXioT, silver; stefn, twire; steovtaxi, to die ;
wefan, to weave; yfel,evil; gen. wifes, OHG. wlbes, dat.
wife, OHG. wlbe, beside nom. wif, OHG. wib, woman.
Also in Lat. loanwords with b = late Lat. v, as deofol
(Lat. diabolus), devil; fefor (Lat. febris),/ever; taefl (Lat.
tabula), chess-board, die ; trifot (Lat. tributum), tribute.

Note. — fn, fm became mn, mm in late OE., as emn (Goth,
ibns), even ; stemn (Goth, stibna), voice, beside older ef(e)n,
stef(e)n ; wimman (pi. wlmmen) beside older wifmao, woman.

§ 294. Final b became the voiceless spirant f in OE.
Goth, and OS. and thus fell together with Germanic final f
(§ 295), as geaf, Goth. OS. gaf, OHG. gab, he gave;
healf, OS. half, OHG. halb, half; hlaf, Goth. ace. hldif,
OHG. hleib, loaf, bread; and similarly cealf, calf; deaf,
deaf; dealf, he dug; leaf, leaf; leof, dear; lif, life; lof,
praise; sceaf, he pushed; wif, wife, woman.

f

§ 295. Germanic f remained initially, medially before

voiceless consonants, and finally, as faeder, Goth, fadar,

O.Icel. fa8er, OS. fadar, OHG. iaier, father; OE. OS.

fif, Goth. OHG. fimf, five; OE. OS. fot, Goth, fotus,

§§ 296-8] Dentals 143

O.Icel. fotr, OHG. fuo?, foot ; gesceaft, Goth, gaskafts,
creation, OS. giskaft, destiny, OHG. giscaft, creature;
OE. O.Icel. OS. OHG. hof, court, dwelling ; OE. OS.
wulf, Goth. ace. wulf, OHG. wolf, wolf; and similarly
{seger, fair, beautiful; tsest, firm; faet, vessel, vat; fea,
few; {ea.lla.n,to/all; feld, /ield; ieohiaxi, to fight ; feower,
four; feper, feather ; findan, to find ; fLxsc, flesh; fleax,
flax ; fleogan, to fly ; foda, food ; folc, folk ; folgian, to
follow ; fram, from ; freo, free ; freond, friend ; freosan,
to freeze; fugol, bird; full, /«//; fyr, fire, aefter, after;
CTxft, skill; gift, marriage gift; offrian, fc offer; pyffan,
to puff; rsefsan, refsan, to reprove ; sceaft, shaft, pole.
ceaf, chaff; hof, he raised ; hrof, roof.

§ 296. Germanic medial f became ft (= the v in NE.
vat) between voiced sounds and thus fell together with
Germanic ft in this position (§ 293). In the oldest period
of the language the two Germanic sounds were mostly
kept apart, the former being written f, and the latter b.
Examples are: ceafl, OS. kafl, cp. MHG. kivel, jaw;
ofen, O.Icel. ofn, OHG. ofan, oven ; ceafor, OHG. kefar,
cockchafer; sceofl, Goth. *skufla, cp. OHG. scufala, sAow/ ;
sing. gen. wulfes, OHG. wolfes, dat. wulfe, OHG. wolfe,
beside nom. vrulf, OHG. virolf, wolf; and similarly in the
inflected forms of words like ceaf, chaff; hrof, roof.

§ 297. f] became bb through the intermediate stage ftj,
as hebban, Goth, hafjan, to raise.

The Dentals.
t

§ 298. Germanic t remained in OE. both initially,
medially, and finally, as t5}>, Goth. tun})us, OS. tand,
OHG. zan(d), tooth; tunge, Goth, tuggo, O.Icel. OS.
tunga, OHG. zunga, tongue; twa, Goth, twdi, two; OE.
OS. etan, Goth, itan, O.Icel. eta, OHG. e??an, to eat;

144 Phonology [§ 299

OE. Goth. OS. witan, O.Icel. vita, OHG. wi^^^an, to
know, settan, Goth, satjan, O.Icel. setja, OS. settian,
OHG. setzen, to set; snottor, Goth, snutrs, O.Icel.
snotr, OS. OHG. snottar, wise; sceatt, Goth, skatts,
O.Icel. skattr, money, tribute; neaht, Goth, nahts, OS.
OHG. naht, night; and similarly tacn, token ; tarn, tame;
tear, tear; tellan, to tell, count; tid, tima, time; timber,
timber; tol, tool; tredan, to tread; treo, tree; trog,
trough; turf, turf; twelf, twelve; twig, twig, bitan, to
bite; botm, bottom; feohtan, to fight; hatian, to hate;
hw^te,wheat ; raelta.11, to melt; metsm, to find, meet; restan,
to rest ; setl, seat ; swete, sweet ; waeter, water, cnotta,
knot ; hwettan, to whet, incite ; mattoc, mattock ; sittan,
to sit. tot, foot; gast, spirit; gylt, guilt; hwset, what;
hat, hot; hwlt, white ; pytt, pit ; strxt, street.

Note. — i. Medial and final st was sometimes written s}> in
early WS., as dtis]>, dust, faesp, fast, giefes];, thougivest, waesjim,
growth, wasjj, thou knowest, for dust, fsest, giefest, waestm,
wast.

2. Latin medial t became d in Low Latin, so that words
borrowed at an early period have t, but those borrowed at
a later period have d, as bete (Lat. beta), beetroot ; striet (Lat.
stT&tB.), street, road; butabbod(Lat. accabbatem), «Wo/; Iseden
(Lat. ace. latinum), Latin {language) ; side (Lat. seta), silk.

3. t often disappeared between consonants, as fsesnian, to
fasten, rihWce, justly, )>rTsnes, to/o&efss, beside fsestnian, rihtlice,
firistnes.

d

§ 299. Germanic d became d initially, and also medially
after n during the prim. Germanic period (§ 234). And d
in other positions became d in West Germanic (§ 253).
On the normal development of Germanic d in Goth, and
O.Icel., see § 230, d generally remained in OE. both
initially, medially, and finally, as dseg, Goth, dags, O.Icel.
dagr, OS. dag, OHG. tag, day ; dohtor, Goth, daiihtar,
O.Icel. dotter, OS. dohtar, OHG. tohter, daughter;

§ 3oo] Dentals 145

faeder, Goth, fadar, O.Icel. faSir, OS. fadar, OHG. fater,
father ; OE. Goth. OS. bindan,O.Icel.binda, OHG. bintan,
to bind; biddan, Goth, bidjan, O.Icel. bidja, OS. biddian,
OHG. bitten, to pray; OE. OS. blod, Goth, bio]), O Icel.
bl63, OHG. bluet, blood; ceald, Goth, kalds, O.Icel.
kaldr, OS. kald, OHG. kalt, cold; and similarly dag,
dough; dead, dead; deaf, deaf; dea]), death; deman,
to judge; deofol, devil ; deop, deep ; deorc, dark ; don, to
do ; dragan, to drag ; drifan, to drive ; drincan, to drink ;
dufan, to dive ; dumb, dumb ; duru, door ; dwellan, to lead
astray, bodig, body ; cwjedon, they said ; fodor, fodder,
food; healdan, to hold; hierde, he heard; hider, hither
Isedan, to lead; Isdde, he led; modor, mother; nsedre
adder; sadol, saddle; sendan, to send; slidan, to slide
}>ridda, third; weder, weather; pp. worden, become
wudu, OToorf. hryA, bride; dxd,deed; freonA, friend; pp
gemacod, made; god, God; god, good; hand, hand
heafod, head; heard, hard; hlud, loud; midd, middle
nacod, naked; read, red; word, word.

Note.— d disappeared between consonants, as pret. gyrde
from *gyrdde beside inf. gyrdan, to gird; sende from *sendde
(= Goth, sandida), beside inf sendan, to send; sellic beside
seldlic, strange, wonderful.

§ 300. d became t before and after voiceless consonants.
When two dentals thus came together, they became tt
which was simplified to t finally and after consonants.
And interconsonantal t generally disappeared before s.
Examples are : bletsian, older bldedsian from *bl6dis6jan,
to bless ; bitst beside bidest, thou prayest ; bint from
*bindj>, older binde]?, he binds ; bit, bitt from *bidj), older
hidep, he prays ; cyste from *cyssde, he kissed; gesynto
from *gesundi])U, health; grette from "gretde (= Goth.
*gr6tida), he greeted ; iecte, Goth. *4ukida, he increased ;
Istst beside Isdest, thou leadest. bin(t)st, older bindest.

146 Phonology [§§301-*

thou bindest; and similarly fin(t)st, thou fondest; giel(t)st,
thou yieldest; sten(t)st, thou standest; mils, mercy, mil-
sian, to pity, beside milts, miltsian. The d was often
restored from forms where it was regular, as findst:
findan ; milds, mildsian : milde, merciful.

§ 301. Germanic \> generally remained in OE. initially,
medially when doubled, and finally, as ]3encan, Goth.
]7agkjan, OS. thenkian, OHG. denken, to think; fusend,
Goth. ]7usundi, OHG. dusunt, thousand; scejj])an, Goth.
ska]7Jan, to injure; o)>J>e, e)>]5a, Goth, aijjjjdu, OS. eddo,
oddo, OHG. eddo, or; a>, Goth. ace. 4i>, OS. ed, OHG.
eid, oath; pret. wear}), Goth, war]), OS. ward, OHG.
ward, he became ; and similarly Jjancian, to thank ; ])eccan,
to cover; Jieof, thief; })ing, thing; Jjorn, thorn; Jjrsed,
thread; ^ring&n, to press ; ])iima, thumb; ])VinoT, thunder;
fwang, thong; ])yncan, to seem. iao]>pe, moth; sij)])an,
since, afterwards ; smiype, smithy, baej), bath ; bera]), they
bear; biref, he bears; bro]), broth; claj>, cloth; cvl]),
known; cwaeji, he said; deaf, death; hsele]), hero, man;
hie]), heath ; mona]), month ; mil]), mouth ; nor]), north ;
to]), too^A.

Note. — In late Nth. final ■]> appears as -s in the personal
endings of verbs, as bindes, he binds, bindas, they bind, beside
binde)), binda]>.

§ 302. Germanic medial ]) became d between voiced
sounds in OE., although the ]) was retained in writing.
In the oldest period of the language it was often written d.
Examples are : ba})ian, to bathe ; br6}>or, brother ; byrjjen,
burden ; eor])e, earth ; f8e]>m, embrace, fathom ; fe])er,
feather; h8e])en, heathen; mor])or, murder; 6})er, other;
weor])an, to become. Gen. a])es, bae])es, beside nom. a]),
oath, bae]), bath; inf. cwe])an, fo say, beside pret. sing.
cwae]).

§§303-<5] The Sibilant s 147

§ 303. Germanic medial Vp became Id in OE. The
Id then became extended to the final position by levelling.
Examples are : fealdan, Goth. fal])an, to fold; wilde,
Goth. wil])eis, wild ; wuldor, Goth, wuljjus, glory. Gen.
goldes (= Goth. *gulj)is), dat. golde (= Goth. gul}>a),
from which a new nom. gold for *gol]) (= Goth, gulj)) was
formed ; and similarly beald, bold ; eald, old ; feld, field ;
hold, gracious; weald, forest. But the Vp, which arose
from vowel syncope, remained, as ssl}>, OHG. salida,
happiness ; fielj) from older *fielle]), he falls.

§ 304. Germanic J)l generally remained in Anglian, but
became dl after long vowels in WS., as adl (Anglian a])l,
adl, aid), disease; njedl (Anglian ne])l, Goth, nejjla),
needle; wjedl (Anglian wej>l), poverty; vtrsdla, pauper;
widlian, to defile.

§ 305. ]j underwent assimilation with another dental
or s, and then tt was simplified to t finally and after con-
sonants, as bit(t) from *bidj>, and bitj), older bide]), he
awaits,hlte]>, he bites; bit(t) from bide)), /ie /rays; it(t)from
itej), he eats ; gesynto from *gesundi])u, health ; latteow
from *lad J)eow, leader; mitty from mid J)y, when,
while; ofennetto from *ofermodiJ)U, pride; ])3ette from
J)aBt J)e, that which ; cydde beside cy])de, he made known ;
but cwij) beside cwi])e}), he says, ciest from cies]), older
ciese]), he chooses; cwist, older cwij)est, thou sayest;
forllest, older forliese]), he loses ; wiext, older wiexe}),
it grows; hafastu = hafas + Jju, hast thou, bliss, bliss,
blissian, to rejoice, liss, favour, beside bli))S, bli})sian, lij)s.

The Sibilant s.

§ 306. Germanic s remained in OE. initially, medially
in combination with voiceless consonants, and finally, as
sse, Goth, sdiws, OS. OHG. sec, sea; sleepan, Goth,
slepan, OS. slapan, OHG. slafan, to sleep; OE. OS.

L 2

148 Phonology [§§307-9

OHG. sunu, Goth, sunus, O.Icel. sunr, son; gast, OS.
gest, OHG. geist, spirit; OE. Goth. O.Icel. OS. OHG.
hns, house; and similarly sadol, saafef/e ; saed, see</; sealt,
salt ; secan, to seek ; seon, to see ; sittan, to sit ; slidan, to
slide ; smsel, small, slender ; snaca, snake ; sona, soon ; sot,
soot; spearwa, sparrow; sprecan, to speak; standan, to
stand ; stream, stream ; su]>, south ; sweostor, sister.
assa, ass, donkey; cyssan, to kiss; restan, to rest;
J)yrstan, to thirst; ceas, he chose; gaers, grass; gos,
goose ; heals, neck ; hors, horse ; is, ice ; mus, mouse ;
wsBs, was.

For the Germanic combinations sk and hs, see §§ 312,
327.

Note. — s sometimes underwent metathesis with p, especially
in late OE. ; as aeps, aspen, cops, fetter, bond, wlips, lisping, wsesp,
wasp, beside aesp, cosp, wlisp, wseps (waefs).

§ 307. Germanic s became z between voiced sounds in
OE., but the s was retained in writing, as bosm, bosom;
ceosan, to choose ; grasian, to graze ; hsesl, hazel shrub ;
lesan, to collect ; nosu, nose ; osle, ousel ; wesole, wesle,
weasel ; wesan, to be, beside waes, was ; gen. buses, dat.
huse, beside nom. Ms, house.

§ 308. We have already seen that prim. Germanic z
from Indg. s became r medially and was dropped finally
in West Germanic (§ 252). Examples of medial r have
been given in § 279 ; and of the loss of final -z in § 252.

The Gutturals.

k

§ 309. Germanic k, generally written c in OE., remained
a guttural initially before consonants and before the guttural
vowels a, a, o, 6, u, u, and their umlauts Be (e), a, e, e (de),
y, y, but became a palatal before the palatal vowels, se,

§3io] Gutturals i49

a (e) = Germanic se, e (= Germanic e), e (= Germanic e) ;
ea, eo, io from Germanic a, e, i by breaking (§ 49), ea, eo,
io, i, i, and their umlauts e, ie {= i-umlaut of ea, io), ie
(= i-umlaut of ea, io), see § 47.

Germanic medial k and kk remained guttural when
originally followed by a guttural vowel, as bucca, he-goat ;
macian from *mak6jan, to make ; sacu, strife ; gecc, prim.
Germanic *i\ika.n,yoke ; but became palatal when originally
followed by an i or j, as bryce from *brukiz, breach ; secan
= Goth, sokjan, to seek ; Jieccan from *J>akjan, to cover.

The guttural and palatal c often existed side by side
in different forms of the same word, as pret. pi. curon,
pp. coren, beside inf. ceosan, to choose ; brecan, to break,
beside bricj) from *brikij), he breaks.

Some scholars assume that palatal c and nc became
!/(= ch in NE. chin), ntj in Mercian, WS. and Ken. in
the earliest period of the language, but this is an assump-
tion which cannot be proved. All that we know for certain
is that OE. had a guttural and a palatal k, that the former
was sometimes written k and the latter always c, and that
the two k-sounds had separate characters in the OE. runic
alphabet. Both the guttural and the palatal k were
generally written c in OE. When c was palatal it was
often written ce, ci medially before a following guttural
vowel, with e, i to indicate the palatal nature of the c, as
secean, to seek; ])eccean, to cover; )>encean, to think,
cp. § 319, Note.

§ 310. I. Guttural c.

celan from *k61jan, to cool; cemban from *kambjan,
to comb ; corn, Goth, kaiim, com ; cu]?, Goth. kun}>s,
known; cynn, Goth, kuni, race, generation; cneo, Goth,
kniu, knee ; and similarly camb, comb, comb ; cine, keen,
bold; cennan, to give birth ; ce^pan, to keep ; col, coo/; coss,
kiss ; cu, cow ; cuman, to come ; cyning, king ; cyssan,
to kiss; cyfan, to make known, clane, clean ; climb an, to

150 Phonology [§3"

climb ; cnotta, knot ; craeft, skill ; cwen, queen. Also in
Lat. loanwords, as candel (Lat. candela), candle; copor
(Lat. cuprum), copper; cycene (late Lat. coquina, cuclna),
kitchen ; and similarly camp, fight, battle ; cempa, warrior ;
coc, cook ; cuppe, cup.

secer, Goth, akrs, prim. Germanic *a'kTa.z, field ; nacod,
Goth. naqa])s, OHG. nakot, naked; wracu, Goth, wraka,
persecution ; and similarly bacan, to bake ; bucca, he-goat ;
draca, dragon ; ficol, cunning ; hnecca, neck ; sprecan, to
speak ; sticca, stick, macian from *mak6jan, to make ;
and similarly liccian, to lick ; locian, to look ; prician, to
prick, drincan, to drink ; Jiancian, to thank.

bucc, O.Icel. bokkr, Indg. *hh.Mgxi6%, buck ; blaec, prim.
Germanic *blakaz, black; geoc, Goth, juk, prim. Ger-
manic *jukan, yoke ; and similarly ac, oak ; baec, back ;
hoc, book; brocc, badger ; flocc, flock; folc, folk; mioluc,
milk ; seoc, sick ; weorc, work ; ))anc, thought.
§ 311. 2. Palatal c.

ceapian, Goth, kdupon, to trade, traffic ; ceosan, Goth,
kiusan, to choose; cinn, chin, Goth, kinnus, cheek; and
similarly ceaf, chaff; ceafor, cockchafer; cealc, chalk;
ceald, cold; cealf, calf; ceorfan, to carve, cut; ceorl,
churl, man ; ceowan, to chew ; cidan, to chide ; ciese,
cheese ; cierran, to turn ; cild, child ; cirice, church.

bee from *b6kiz, books ; labce, Goth, lekeis, physician ;
smiec from *smaukiz, smoke ; weccan, Goth, us-wakjan,
to arouse ; bene from *baqkiz, bench ; J)ene(e)an, Goth.
})agkjan, to think; and similarly biree, birch; crycc,
crutch; f&cce, flitch; mece, sword; mycel, great ; see(e)an,
to seek ; Etrece(e)an, to stretch ; styeee, piece ; taec(e)an, to
teach ; wicce, witch ; drenc(e)an, to submerge ; J)yne(e)an,
to seem ; stene, smell, odour.

Note. — i. cs was generally written x in OE., as aex beside
older sees, axe ; rlxian beside ricsian from *rikison, to rule.
2. OE. final c became palatal when preceded by i or I, as ic.

§§312-13] Gutturals 1 5 1

/; hwelc from *hwa-lik, which; lie, body; pic, pitch; swelc
from *swa-lik, such.

3. In Anglian final c became x (written h) in unstressed
words, as ah beside late WS. ac, but; lowih (iwih), jvox, usih,
us, beside WS. ecwic, iisic ; ih, /, meh, me, Jjeh, thee, beside
the stressed forms ic, mec, Jiec.

§ 312. In the oldest period of the language sc, like c
(§ 309), was guttural or palatal, but some time during the
OE. period the guttural sc became palatal, except in loan-
words. It was often written see, sci before a following
guttural vowel with e, i to indicate the palatal nature ot
the sc. There is no definite proof that sc became J(= the
sh in NE. ship, shape) in early OE. as is assumed by
some scholars. Examples are : sc(e)acan, to shake ; scand,
disgrace; sc(e)adu, shadow; sceaft, shaft; sceal, shall;
sceap, sheep ; scearp, sharp ; Ec(e)ort, short ; sceotan, to
shoot; tcield, shield ; scieppan, to create ; scieran, to shear ;
scilling, shilling ; scip, ship ; scoh, shoe ; scriid, dress,
garment; zculdor, shoulder ; i.cur, shower ; scyldig, guilty.
blyscan, to blush ; Jjerscan, to thresh ; wascan, to wash ;
Mvyscan, to wish, englisc, English ; G.sc, fsh; fi.de&c,Jlesh.
But scol (Lat. schola), school; scinn (O.Icel. skinn), skin.

Note. — Medial sc often underwent metathesis to cs (written
x), especially in late WS., as axe, ashes, axian, to ask, fixas,
fishes, waxan, to wash, beside asce, ascian (OHG. eiskon),
flscas, wascan.

g

§ 313. Germanic 5 became g after rj during the prim.
Germanic period (§ 234). 5J (§ 254) and gn (§ 256) became
gg in West Germanic. Germanic 5 remained a spirant in
all other positions in the oldest period of OE. On the
normal development of Germanic g in the other Germanic
languages, see § 230.

Germanic initial and medial g became differentiated in
prehistoric OE. into a guttural and a palatal voiced spirant

1 5 2 Phonology [§§314-16

under the same conditions as those by which Germanic k
became differentiated into a guttural and a palatal explo-
sive (§ 309).

§ 314. Initial guttural 5 remained in the oldest period of
the language, but had become the voiced explosive g before
the end of the OE. period. Initial palatal 5 (written g)
remained a spirant (= the y in NE. yet, yon) and fell
together with Germanic initial j (§ 268). This explains
why Germanic initial j was written g in OE.

§315. I. Guttural 5.

gast, OS. gest, OHG. geist, spirit; OE. OS. god, Goth.
g6]3s, O.Icel. g68r, OHG. guot, good; OE. OS. OHG.
gold, Goth, gul]), gold; OE. Goth, guma, O.Icel. gume,
OS. gumo, OHG. gomo, man ; graes, Goth. OS. OHG.
gras, ^ass; and similarly gad, ^o«rf ; ga.Aeri&n, to gather ;
galan, to sing; gamen, game, amusement; gar, spear,
javelin ; gat, goat ; pi. gatu, gates ; ges, geese ; god, God ;
gos, goose ; pret. pi. guton, they poured out ; pp. goten,
poured out; gn]>, war; gylden, golden, glxd, glad; glof,
glove; gnsett, gnat; grene, green; grunA, ground.

§ 316. 2. Palatal g.

geaf, Goth. O.Icel. OS. gaf, OHG. gab, he gave; gealga,
OS. OHG. galgo, gallows, Goth, galga, cross; geotan,
Goth, giutan, OS. giotan, OHG. gio^an, to pour out;
giefan, Goth, giban, O.Icel. gefa, OS. geftan, OHG.
geban, to give ; and similarly geafon, they gave ; geard,
courtyard; gearn, yarn; geat (NE. dial, yet), ^afe; geolu,
yellow; gewiss, certain; giefu, gift; gieldan, to repay,
yield ; giellan, to yell ; gielpan, to boast ; gieman, to take
notice of; gieman, to yearn for ; giest, guest ; gierwan, to
prepare ; gift, marriage gift.

Note.— The guttural and palatal g often existed side by side
in different forms of the same word, as pi. gatu beside sing.
geat ; pret. pi. guton, pp. goten, beside inf. geotan, pret. sing.
geat.

§§317-19] Gutturals 153

§ 317. The g in the combination qg remained guttural
or became palatal according as it was originally followed
by a guttural or a palatal vowel or j. It also remained
guttural before consonants.

1. Guttural qg : OE. OS. OHG. bringan, Goth, briggan,
to bring ; cyning from *kunir)gaz, Am^ ; lang from *lar)gaz,
long; tunge,Goth. tugg6,OS.tunga,OHG. zunga, tongue ;
and similarly englisc, English ; finger (Goth, figgrs), finger ;
bring, ring ; hunger, hunger ; £ingan, to sing ; springan,
to leap ; stingan, to sting ; Jjing, thing.

2. Palatal r)g, often written ge medially before guttural
vowels with e to denote the palatal nature of the g :

seng(e)an from *sar)gjan, to singe ; streng from *strar)-
giz, string ; and similarly fang, grasp ; gemeng(e)an, to
mix; lengra (OHG. lengiro), /o«^^r; stexig, pole.

§ 318. r)g became r)C before voiceless consonants, but
the g was generally restored through association with forms
where g was regular, as brincst, thou bringest, brine]),
he brings, beside bringst, bring]), with g restored from the
other forms of the verb ; strenc]) from *strangi])U, beside
Strang}), strength, with g restored from Strang, strong;
and similarly ancsum, narrow, lancten, spring, sprinc]),
he leaps, beside angsum, lengtan, spring]).

§ 319. West Germanic gg from prim. Germanic gn (§ 256)
remained guttural in OE. and was generally written gg, as
dogga, rfog-; enTv/izga,, earwig ; frogga, frog; stagga,
stag; sugga, water wagtail.

West Germanic gg from prim. Germanic 5J (§ 254) became
palatal gg in OE. and was generally written eg, also ege,
cgi, before a medial guttural vowel, as bryeg, Goth. *brug-
ja, bridge ; byeg(e)an, Goth, bugjan, to buy ; secg, Goth.
*sagjis, man ; laeg(e]an, Goth, lagjan, to lay ; and simi-
larly cycgal, dart; hrycg, back, ridge; licg(e)an, to lie
down ; mycg, midge ; seegan, to say ; wecg, wedge.

Note.— Some scholars assume that palatal gg and gg became

154 Phonology [§§320-1

nds^, dz (= the g in NE. gem) in Mercian, WS. and Ken. in
early OE., but there is no definite proof that this sound-change
took place in OE., cp. § 309.

§ 320. Medial 5 remained a guttural spirant before
original guttural vowels, but became a palatal spirant when
originally followed by a palatal vowel or j. It also became
palatal between OE. palatal vowels.

1. Guttural 5.

OE. Goth. OS. dragan, O.Icel. draga, OHG. tragan,
to draw ; cage, Goth, dugo, O.Icel. auga, OS. oga, OHG.
ouga, eye; OE. OS. OHG. stigan, Goth. steigan, O.Icel.
stiga, to ascend ; and similarly agan, to possess ; dagian
from *dagojan, to dawn ; dugu}), strength, virtue ; belgan,
to become angry ; beorgan, to protect, shelter ; boga, bow ;
bugan, to bow down ; fleogan, tojiy ; tleoge,/Iy ; folgian,
to follow ; fugol, bird, fowl ; lagu, law ; leogan, to lie ;
maga, stomach ; slogon, they slew ; sugu, sow ; swelgan,
to swallow ; pi. dagas, days ; wegas, ways.

2. Palatal 5, often written ge before a following guttural
vowel.

biegan from *bau5Jan, to bend; ege, Goth. agis,/«ar;
sige, Goth, sigis, victory ; weeg from *WEegiz, wave ; and
similarly byge, /rq^c ; eglan, to w?ofes/; hyge,mind; lyge,
falsehood; myrg(i)}3, mirth, fsegen, glad; fssger, fair ;
msgen, strength ; naegel, nail ; slaegen, slain ; taeg(e)l,
tail; gen. sing, dseges, weges.

Note. — ^g became h (= x) before voiceless consonants, but the
7 was often restored from forms where g was regular, as stihst,
thou ascendest, stihjj, he ascends, beside older stigest, stige));
and similarly fliehst, flTeh]>, beside inf. fleogan, to fly.

§ 321. 5 often disappeared after palatal vowels before a
following dental or consonantal n with lengthening of the
preceding vowel, as bredan, to brandish, bridels, bridle,
frlnan, to ask, lede, he laid, mseden, maiden, ongean

§§32 2-4] Gutturals 1 5 5

(ongen), against, rinan, to rain, ssde, he said, stredan, to
strew, ti}>ian, to grant, })enian, to serve, beside bregdan,
brigdels, frignan, legde, maegden, ongeagn, rignan,
saegde, stregdan, tig]>ian, }>egnian. Gen. renes beside
regnes, from which a new nom. ren beside regn, rain, was
formed ; and similarly ]3en, servant, wan, wagon, beside
J)egn, wsegn.

§ 322. Medial -igi-, -ige- were contracted to -i- as in
MHG., as gelire beside %e\igQre, fornication ; il beside
igil, hedgehog ; sVpe from *sigi]>e, scythe ; tile beside tigele,
tile; KJ) (MHG. lit) beside lige> (MHG. liget), he lies; list
beside ligest, thou liest.

§ 323. When Germanic g came to stand finally in OE.,
it is probable that it became a voiceless spirant (x) just as
in Goth. OS., and prehistoric O.Icel., but that the g (= 5)
was mostly restored again owing to the influence of the
inflected forms. After liquids and guttural vowels the
restoration of the g was merely orthographical, but
the further history of the sound in OE. shows that after
palatal vowels it was mostly restored in pronunciation as
well, because -h rarely occurs after palatal vowels, as in
sextih beside sextig, sixty ; weh beside weg, weigh thou.
The h (= x) seldom occurs in early OE., but is common in
late OE. especially after liquids and long vowels, as mearh,
marrow, bealh, he became angry, beside mearg, bealg;
and similarly beorh, hill; burh, city ; sorh, sorrow ;
swealh, he swallowed, dah, dough, ploh, plough, stah, he
ascended, beside dag, plog, stag; and similarly beah,
ring, bracelet; hoh, bough; fieah, he /lew ; genoh, enough ;
stlh, path ; troh beside trog, trough.

§ 324. Final 5 became palatal after palatal vowels, as
dseg, day ; mseg, may ; weg, way ; snig, any ; bodig, body ;
dysig, foolish ; halig, holy; hefig, heavy; manig, many.
Then at a later period (earliest in Ken.) g became i con-
sonant which combined with a preceding ae, e to form a

1 56 Phonology [§§ 32S-6

diphthong, as daei (Ken. dei), maei, wei, late WS. also
dsig, maeig, weig. And -ig became -i through the inter-
mediate stage -i, as sni, dysi, hefi, &c.

h

§ 325. Initial x had become an aspirate before vowels
already in prim. Germanic (§ 246). In OE. it also became
an aspirate initially before consonants except in the com-
bination xw. The spirant remained in the combination xw
and has been preserved in many Scotch dialects down to the
present day. Examples are : OE. Goth. O.Icel. OS. OHG.
hus, house; habban, Goth, haban, O.Icel. hafa, OHG.
haben, to have; and similarly hamor, hammer; hand,
hand ;h€i\a.n, to heal; heaio&, head; heard, hard; heotte,
heart ; hieran, to hear ; hold, gracious ; hunger, hunger.

hlaf, Goth, hldifs, OHG. hleib, loaf, bread; OE. OS.
OHG. hnigan, to bend down; OE. OS. OHG. bring,
O.Icel. hr'mgr, ring; and similarly hladan, /o load; hlea-
pan, to leap; hlid, lid; hlct, lot; hnutu, nut; hraefn,
raven ; breed, reed; hrimig, rimy.

hwa, Goth. Ivas, OS. hwe, OHG. hwer, who ; hwil,
Goth, hreila, O.Icel. hvil, OS. OHG. hwila, space of time;
and similarly hwsel, whale ; hwate, wheat ; hwaefer,
which of two ; hwelp, whelp ; hwit, white.

Note. — h often disappeared with ne and habban, as nabban,
not to have ; nsebbe, / have not ; naefde, / had not. It also
disappeared in the second element of compounds which were
no longer felt as such in OE., as beot from *bi-hat, boast;
freols from Hti-'iisi.Xs, freedom ; eofot from *ef-hat, debt; llcuma
beside older ITc-hama, body; onettan from *on-hatjan, to
hasten; oret (OHG. urhei^) from "or-hat, battle; wselreow
beside older wael-hreow, fierce, cruel.

§ 326. Medial x remained in OE. before voiceless con-
sonants, and when doubled. It was guttural or palatal ac-
cording as it was originally followed by a guttural or palatal
vowel or j, as brohte, Goth. OS. OHG. brahta, he brought;

§§ 327-9] Gutturals 1 5 7

dohtor, Goth, daiihtar, OS. dohtar, OHG. tohter,
daughter; eahta, Goth, aht&u, OS. OHG. ahto, eight;
and similarly bohte, he bought ; cnieht, cniht, boy ; feoh-
tan, to fight; hleahtor, laughter; leoht, a light; pret.
meahte, he might; reoht, rieht, ryht, right; sohte, he
sought; Jjohte, he thought; uhta, dawn, crohha, crock,
pot ; geneahhe, sufficiently ; pohha, pocket ; tiohhian, to
think, consider.

Dat. dehter from *dohtri, beside nom. dohtor, daughter;
flyht from *&ayiX\2, flight; hiehsta from *xauxist-, A^Aes/ ;
hliehhan, Goth, hlahjan, to laugh ; liehtan, Goth, liuht-
jan, to give light; siehst, OHG. sihis, thou seest; sieh]},
OHG. sihit, /;« sees; and similarly fehst, </!0« smes/; fehj),
he seizes ; niehsta, nearest ; tyht, training, habit.

§ 327. xs became ks (written x) in OE., as oxa, Goth,
atihsa, OS. OHG. ohso, ox; siex, Goth, safhs, OS.
OHG. sehs, six; weaxan, OS. OHG. wahsan, to grow ;
and similarly feax, hair ; fleax, flax ; fox, fox ; fyxen,
vixen ; miox, dung ; wrixlan, to exchange.

§ 328. Final x remained, as heah, OS. OHG. h.o)a.,high ;
neah, OS. OHG. nah, near; seah, OS. OHG. ssh, he
saw; sealh, OHG. salaha, willow; Jjurh, Goth. ]>airh,
OS. thurh, OHG. duruh, durh, through; and similarly
feoh, cattle, property ; ruh, rough ; scoh, shoe ; toh, tough ;
woh, perverse, bad; seoh, see thou ; sleah, slay thou ;
teoh, pull thou, eolh, elk; holh, hollow; seolh, seal;
sulh, plough ; vrealh,/oreigner. feorh, life ; Inrh, furrow ;
mearh, horse.

Note.— Such forms as late WS. hX&oh, colour, eoh,j/ew, freoh,
free, beside bleo, eo, freo, owe their final h to the analogy of
words like feoh, gen. fees.

§ 329. Medial x disappeared :

1. Before s + consonant, as fyst from *fuxstiz,^s< ; Nth.
Se(i)sta, sixth, beside WS. siexta, syxta which was a new

158 Phonology [§329

formation from the cardinal; sester (Lat. sextarius),
vessel, pitcher, jar ; ]jisl beside older ))ixl (OHG. dihsala),
wagon-pole ; waesma, waestm, growth, beside weaxan
(OHG. wahsan), to grow. But the x remained in xs when
it arose from vowel syncope, as siehst, thou seest; hiehsta
from *xauxist-, highest.

2. Between a vowel and a following liquid or nasal, as
betweonan, betweonum, between, cp. Goth, tv^reihndi, two
each; eorod from *eohrad, ^roq^ ; fiol, feol (OHG. fihala),
file; hela from *h6hila, heel; Isene (OS. lehni), transitory;
leoma, ray of light, cp. Goth. liuha]7, light; stiele from
*staxlja-,sfee/; })weal (Goth. Jjwahl), washing, bath ; masc.
ace. sing, wone beside nom. w5h, perverse, bad; ymest
(Goth, duhmists), highest; and similarly in compounds,
as healic, lofty, heanes, height, beside heah, high ;
nealiecan, to draw nigh, nealic, near, neavpest, nearness,
beside neah, near.

3. Between a liquid and a following vowel, as feolan
(Goth, filhan), to penetrate, hide ; ]>yrel from *})urxil, open-
ing, aperture; sing. gen. eoles, feares, feores, holes,
meares, seoles, weales, beside nom. eolh, elk, fearh, pig,
feorh, life, holh, hole, mearh, horse, seolh, seal, wealh,
foreigner.

4. Between vowels, as ea (OHG. aha), wafer, r/wr; earn
(OHG. oheim), uncle; ear (Nth. sehher, OHG. ahir), ear
of corn ; flean from *fleahan, older *flahan, to flay ; and
similarly lean, to blame; slean (Goth, slahan), to slay;
Jjwean (Goth. Jjv^ahan), to wash ; fleon (OHG. fiiohan),
to flee; fon (Goth, fahan), to seize; hon (Goth, hahan),
to hang; lion, leon (OHG. lihan), to lend; near from
*neahur, near; seen from *seohan, older *sehan (OHG.
sehan), to see ; sion, seen (OHG. sihan), to strain ; sla
beside older slahse (OHG. sleha), sloe ; sweor (OHG.
swehur), father-in-law ; ta beside older tahse (OHG. zeha),
toe; tear (Nth. tsehher, OHG. zahar), tear; ]>ion, }>eon

§329] Gutturals 159

(Goth. ]7eihan), to thrive; sing. gen. feos, pleos, beside
nom. feoh, cattle, property, pleoh, danger ; pi. nom. hea from
*heahe, beside sing, heah, high. In Anglian loss of h and
contraction took place earlier than the syncope of i(e), as
flijj from *fUhi]j, he flees, fde]5, he seizes, sis(t) from *sihis,
thou seest, si]) from *sihij), he sees, hesta from *hehista,
highest, nesta from *nehista, nearest, beside WS. flieh]),
feh]>, siehst, sieh];, hiehsta, niehsta.

ACCIDENCE

CHAPTER XI

NOUNS

§ 330. In OE. as in the oldest periods of the other
Germanic languages, nouns are divided into two great
classes, according as the stem originally ended in a vowel
or a consonant, cp. the similar division of nouns in Sanskrit,
Latin and Greek. Nouns whose stems originally ended in
a vowel belong to the vocalic or so-called strong declension.
Those whose stems originally ended in -n belong to the
weak declension. All other consonantal stems will be put
together under the general heading, ' Minor Declensions.'

§ 331. Owing to the loss of final short vowels, and con-
sonants, in prehistoric OE. (§§ 211-16), several different
kinds of stems regularly fell together in the nom. and ace.
singular, so that, from the point of view of OE., the nom.
and ace. singular end in consonants, and we are only able
to classify such stems either by starting out from prim.
Germanic, or from the plural, or from a comparison with
the other old Germanic languages ; thus the OE. nom. and
ace. singular of daeg, day; word, word ; dxl, pari; hand,
hand ; lamb, lamb, correspond to prim. Germanic *dagaz,
*dagan, older -os, -cm ; *wurdan, older -cm ; *dailiz,
*dailin, older -is, -im ; *xandu2 (Goth, handus), *xandun
(Goth, handu), older -us, -um; *lambaz, older -os (cp.
Lat. genus, gen. generis). The original distinction between
the nom. and ace. singular of masculine and feminine nouns
had disappeared in the oldest period of the English Ian-

§332] Nouns i6i

guage except in the 6- and the n-stems. And the original
distinction between the nom. and ace. plural of masculine
and feminine nouns had also disappeared, as nom. ace.
dagas, days, este, favours, suna, sons, but Goth. nom.
dagds, ansteis, sunjus ; ace. dagans, anstins, sununs ;
guman, men, prim. Germanic nom. *gumaniz, ace. *5uma-
nunz ; fet, feet, prim. Germanic nom. *f6tiz, ace. Goth,
fotuns. In like manner the original case endings of the
n-stems, with the exception of the nom. singular and the gen.
and dat. plural, had also disappeared in the oldest English, so
that the element which originally formed part of the stem
came to be regarded as a case ending (§§ 211-15), cp. the simi-
lar process in the plural of the neuter -os-stems (§§ 419-20).
Before attempting the OE. declensions from a philological
point of view, the student should master the chapter on the
vowels of unaccented syllables, because it is impossible to
restate in this chapter all the details dealt with there.

§ 332. OE. nouns have two numbers : singular and
plural ; three genders : masculine, feminine, and neuter,
as in the other old Germanic languages from which the
gender of nouns in OE. does not materially differ ; five
cases : Nominative, Accusative, Genitive, Dative, and In-
strumental. The dat. is generally used for the instr. in
OE., so that this case is omitted in the paradigms, see § 334,
Note. The vocative is like the nominative. The nom.
and ace. plural are always alike ; in those declensions
which would regularly have different forms for the nom.
and ace, the ace. disappeared and the nom. was used in its
stead. Traces of an old locative occur in what is called
the uninflected dat. singular of ham, home. In North-
umbrian both the declension and gender of nouns fluctuated
considerably as compared with the other OE. dialects.

l62

Accidence

[§§ 333-4

A. The Vocalic or Strong Declension.

I. The a-DECLENsioN.

§ 333. The a-declension comprises masculine and neuter
nouns only, and corresponds to the Latin and Greek o-
declension (Lat. masc. -us, neut. -um, Gr. -os, -ov), for
which reason it is sometimes called the o-declension. The
a-declension is divided into pure a-stems, ja-stems, and
wa-stems.

a. Pure

a-STEMS.

§334.

Masculine.

Sing.

Nom. Ace.

stan, stone

daeg, day

mearh, horse

Gen.

stanes

daeges

meares

Dat.

stane

dsege

meare

Plur.

Nom. Ace.

stanas

dagas

mearas

Gen.

stana

daga

meara

Dat.

stanum

dagum

mearum

Note. — The gen. sing, ended in -aes in the oldest period of
the language, and in late OE. occasionally in -as, -ys. The
oldest ending of the dat. sing, is -ae. The dat. sing, is generally
used for the instrumental, so that this case is omitted in the
paradigms. In the oldest period of the language the instru-
mental (originally a locative) ended in -i, later -y, and corre-
sponded to the Gr. loc. ending oiK-ei, at home, not to oik-oi which
would have become -a in OE. as in the dat. (§ 217). In late OE.
the dat. pi. ended in -un, -on, -an (§ 284).

The prim. Germanic forms of daeg were: Sing. nom.
*da5az, ace. '^dajan, gen. *da5esa or *dagasa (with pro-
nominal ending, § 465), dat. *da5ai, instr. *da5i ; Plural
nom. *da50z (cp. Goth, dagos), ace. ^daganz (cp. Goth,
dagans), gen. *da58n (cp. Gr. eeue, of gods), dat. *da5omiz.

§335] Nouns 163

From what has been said in chapter VI on the vowels of
unaccented syllables it will be seen that all the forms
of the singular and plural, except the nom. ace. pi., are
regularly developed from the corresponding prim. Ger-
manic forms. The pi. ending -as, OS. -os, -as, beside
OHG. -a, has never been satisfactorily explained. The
most probable explanation is that it represents the ending
of nouns which originally had the accent on the ending like
Skr. gharmds, heat = Or. Bepjiis, hot, and that this ending
then came to be used also for nouns which originally had
the accent on the stem. That some nouns had the accent
on the ending in prim. Germanic is proved by such words
as OE. ceosan, to choose, beside eyre from *kuz£s (§ 252),
choice, which at a later period shifted the accent and dropped
the final -s (? -z) after the analogy of nouns which originally
had the accent on the stem. Upon this supposition the
ending -as would regularly correspond to prim. Germanic
pi. nom. -OS or ace. -ins. In like manner is to be
explained the retention of the final -s in the second
pers. sing, of the present tense of strong verbs in the
West Germanic languages, cp. OE. nimes(t), OS. OHG.
nimis, beside Goth, nimis, thou takest (§ 476). The usual
explanation that -as corresponds to an early Aryan double
plural ending -asas from older -dses with -as from the
consonant stems, is not in accordance with our present
knowledge of the history of short vowels in final syllables
in the oldest period of the various Germanic languages.
An original ending -Sses would have become -or in OE.

§ 335. Like stan are declined by far the greater majority
of monosyllabic a-stems, as sel, eel; ad, funeral pile ; a]j,
oath; baest, bast; bar, boar; bat, boat; beag, ring,
bracelet ; beam, tree ; beard, beard ; bearm, bosom ; beod,
table; heorg, hill; h^orn, warrior; hog, bough; bolt, bolt;
horg, pledge; brx]>, odour; hraxiA, firebrand; hrbra, broom
(the plant) ; hue, stomach ; eamb, comb ; ceac, jug ; ceap,

M 2

164 Accidence [§§336-8

price; ceol, ship; ceorl, churl; clam (NE, dial, cloam),
mitd ; cla]), cloth ; clut, patch ; cniht, boy ; craeft, skill,
strength; cwealtn, death ; ddm,doom; dream, jqy, revelry ;
dweorg, dwarf; earm, arm ; earn, eagle ; eorl, nobleman ;
fisc, fish ; fleam, flight ; forsc, frog ; forst, frost ; fox,
fox; gang, going; gast, spirit; geac, cuckoo; geard,
yard ; gielp, boasting ; haeft, captive ; ham, /(ome ; healm,
haulm ; heals, neck ; helm, helmet ; hlsest, burden ; hlaf,
loaf; hof, Aoo/"; bream, cry, shout, uproar; hrim, rime;
bring, ring ; bund, dog ; hwelp, whelp ; last, footprint ;
msest, mast; mor, moor; muj), mouth; rap, ro/«; rum,
room ; sceaft, sAo/? ; seam, seam ; st51, stoo/ ; storm,
storm; stream, s/reaw ; torn, grief; ]>a.nc, thought ; Jjeof,
/A/e/"; forp, ])rop, farm, village ; weg, wajv ; wer, man ;
wulf, wolf.

See § 259 on nouns whose stems ended in double con-
sonants : bucc, buck ; cocc, cock ; codd, cod, husk ; coss,
kiss; cnoU, knoll; cropp, sprout; hnaepp, cup; hwamm,
corner; pott,/o/; sceatt, property, money ; sraocc, smock ;
swaTata,fungtts ; weall, wall.

§ 336. Like daeg are declined paejj, path ; staef, stafl";
hwsel, whale, see §§ 54, 57. mjeg, kinsman, pi. magas
(§ 120) beside mjegas with se from the singular.

§ 337. Lilce mearh are declined ealb, temple ; eolb, elk ;
fearh, pig, boar ; healh, corner ; sealh, willow ; seolh, seal
(animal) ; wealh, foreigner, see § 149. scoh, shoe, gen. scos,
dat. SCO, pi. scos, see § 139 ; and similarly sl5h (also fem.
and neik.), slough, mire ; eoh (also neut.), horse, gen. eos,
dat. eo. ' borh (also neut.), dirt, gen. horwes, dat. horwe,
beside bdres, bore ; pi. horwu (neut.) beside boras, see
§239.

§ 338. Sing.

Nom. Ace. C3ming, king engel, angel heofon, heaven
Gen. cyninges engles beofones

Dat. cyninge engle beofone

§§339-41] Nouns 165

Plur.

Nom. Ace.

cyningas

englas

heofenas

Gen.

cyninga

engla

heofena

Dat.

cyningum

englum

heofenum

The vowel in the medial syllable generally disappeared
in the inflected forms of dissyllabic words when tne first
syllable was long and the second short. It also generally
disappeared when the first syllable was short and the
second syllable ended in vocalic 1, m, n in West Germanic
(§ 219). On the retention or the loss of the medial vowel
in the inflected forms of dissyllabic words, see § 221.

§ 339. Like cyning are declined aecer, field; cocer,
quiver ; hserfest, autumn ; hengest, horse, bridels, bridle ;
fjetels, vessel, tub ; for other examples of nouns ending in
-els, see § 598. aejjeling, prince ; cnaepling, youth ; gsede-
ling, companion ; lytling, child ; for other examples of
nouns ending in -ling, see § 607.

§ 340. Like engel are declined »led, fire ; angel, fish-
hook ; a}>um, son-in-laiu ; bealdor, prince ; bietel, mallet ;
blostm, blossom ; bolster (also neut.), bolster ; bosm,
bosom ; bremel, bramble ; deofol, devil ; dryhten, lord ;
ealdor, prince ; &nger, finger ; hleahtor, laughter; majjum,
treasure ; morgen, morning ; ofer, shore ; Jjymel, thimble,
thumbstall ; waestm, growth.

botm, bottom ; ellen (also neut.), zeal, courage, strength ;
faejim, embrace ; fugol, bird, fowl ; h8eg(e)l, hagol, hail ;
of en, oven ; nsegl, nail ; reg(e)n, rain ; ]3eg(e)n, thane.

But nouns like bulluc, bullock ; cassuc, sedge ; lango]),
longing (for other examples of nouns ending in -oJj, -aj),
see § 595) ; mattuc, mattock ; pearroc, park, generally
retain the medial vowel.

§ 341. Like heofon are declined bydel, beadle ; cradol,
cradle; daroip, dart, spear ; eodor, enclosure ; eofor, boar;
hafoc, heafoc, hawk ; hamor, hammer ; heorot, stag, hart ;

1 66 Accidence [§§342-3

metod, Creator ; rodor, sky ; sadol, saddle ; stapol, pillar ;
]>unor, thunder. On the variation of the vowel in the
medial syllable, see § 222.

§342.

Neuter.

Sing.

Nom. Ace.

word, word

hof, dwelling

fast, vessel

Gen.

wordes

hofes

faetes

Dat.

worde

hofe

faete

Plur.

Nom. Ace.

word

hofu

fatu

Gen.

worda

hofa

fata

Dat.

wordum

hofum

fatum

The neuter j^stems had the same endings as the mascu-
line except in the nom. and ace. plural. The prim. Ger-
manic ending of the nom. ace. plural was -6 which became
•u and then regularly disappeared after long stem-syllables
(§ 215). In late OE. the long stems often had -u in the
plural after the analogy of the short stems.

§ 343. Like word are declined a large number of mono-
syllables with long stem, as ar, brass ; beel, funeral pile ;
ban, bone; beam, child; beor, beer; blod, blood; bold,
dwelling ; bord, board ; breost, breast ; corn, com ; deer,
wild animal ; dust, dust ; fam, foam ; fearn, fern ; feax,
hair ; fleax, flax ; folc, folk ; gear, year ; gearn, yarn ;
gield, payment; gold, gold; hord (also masc), treasure,
hoard ; horn, horn ; hors, horse ; hreod, reed ; hris, twig ;
hiis, house ; is, ice ; lam, clay ; land, land ; leaf, leaf;
lean, reward; leo]), song, poem ; lie, body; Mn,flax, linen ;
man, crime ; mod, mind, courage ; mor)j, murder ; neat,
ox ; nest, nest ; nij>, enmity ; sar, pain ; sceap, sheep ;
seax, knife; sweord, sword; tol, tool; j'ing, thing;

§§344-7] Nouns 167

weorc, work; weorjj, worth, price; wif, woman. And
similarly words with a prefix, as behat, promise ; gebeorc,
barking. See § 259 on nouns whose stems ended in double
consonants : fell, skin ; full, cup ; toll, tax, toll.

§ 344. Like hof are declined broc, affliction ; broj),
broth; z^2lI, chaff; col, coal; dor, door; geoc, yoke; god,
god (heathen); hoi, hole; loc, lock; lot, deceit; sol, mud;
spor, track. And similarly words with a prefix, as bebod,
gebod, command, geat (§ 72), gate, pi. gatu beside geatu
with ea from the singular.

Nouns which have e, i in the stem originally had
U-, o/a-umlaut in the plural, as gebeodu, prayers, gen.
gebeoda, dat. gebeodum ; and similarly geset, seat, dwell-
ing; gesprec, speaking, see § 48. cliofu, cliffs, gen.
cliofa, dat. cliofum; and similarly brim, sea; hlid, lid;
lim, limb ; scip, ship ; twig, twig ; geflit, strife ; gewrit,
writing, letter. fri]j (OHG. fridu), peace, and li)> (Goth.
li))us), limb, were originally masc. u-stems. See §§ 101-2.

§ 345. Like faet are declined bsec, back ; bae]), bath ;
blsec, ink ; blaed, leaf; brses, brass ; craet, cart ; dael, dale ;
txc, period of time, space ; (xr, journey ; {n3ed,fnaes, fringe ;
gsers from older *gr8es, grass; glses, glass ; graef, grave,
cave; haef, sea; saep, sap; tcraef, cave; E.wse]j, track;
traef, fe«/; J^aec, thatch, roof; waed, zeiafer, sra; wael,
slaughter. See §§ 54, 57.

§ 346. G.a.h, fraud, gen. flas, dat. fla; ])eoh, /A/^A, gen.
Jjeos, dat. J>eo, pi. Jjeo, gen. ]>eo, dat. feom ; pleoh, danger,
gen. pleos, dat. pleo, pi. pleo; holh, hollow, hole, gen.
holes, dat. hole, pi. holh, see § 148. feoh, cattle, originally
belonged to the u-declension (§ 399).

§ 347. Sing.

Nom. Ace. tungol, star waeter, water heafod, head

Gen. tungles waeteres heafdes

Dat. tungle waetere heafde

1 68 Accidence [§§348-5°

Plur.

Nom. Ace. tungol waeter heafodu

Gen. tungla waetera heafda

Dat. tunglum wseterum heafdum

Dissyllabic words which in West Germanic ended in
vocalic 1, n, r {§ 219) syncopated the medial vowel in the
gen. and dat. sing, and plural and lost the final -u in the
nom. and ace. plural when the stem-syllable was long. So
that the nom. ace. sing, and plural became alike just as in the
monosyllabic long stems. Original trisyllabic words (§ 223),
and also dissyllabic words which in West Germanic ended
in vocalic n, r, retained the medial vowel in the gen. and
dat. sing, and plural, but lost the final -u in the nom. and
ace. plural when the stem-syllable was short. Original
trisyllabic words syncopated the medial vowel in the gen.
and dat. sing, and plural, but retained the medial vowel and
the final -u in the nom. and ace. plural when the stem-
syllable was long. See §§ 216, 223.

Note,— In the later period of the language there was great
fluctuation in the formation of the plural and in the loss or
retention of the medial vowel, as nom. ace. plural tungla,
waEt(e)ru, heafdu beside older tungol, waster, hiafodu ; gen.
sing, waetres beside older waeteres.

§ 348. Like tungol are declined ator, poison ; beacen,
beacon ; cnosl, race, progeny ; facen, deceit ; iodoT, /odder ;
spatl, saliva ; tacen, token ; waepen, weapon ; wolcen,
cloud; vfvlAor, glory; -wandor, wonder.

§ 349. Like waeter are declined brsegen, brain ; gamen,
game, sport; leger, couch; maegen, strength; of&t, fruit ;
reced, house, hall; weder, weather; weorod, werod,
troop, pi. weredu (§ 222) beside werod. setl, seat, pi. setlu
beside setl.

§ 350. Like heafod are declined cliewen, cliwen, ball
of thread, clew ; meeden, msegden, maiden ; uleten, animal.

§§ 351-3] Nouns 169

b. ja-STEMS.

§861.

Masculine.

Sing.

Nom. Ace.

secg, man

ende, end

Gen.

secges

endes

Dat.

secge

ende

Plur.

Nom. Ace.

secg(e)as

endas

Gen.

secg(e)a

enda

Dat.

secg(i)um

endutn

It is necessary to distinguish between those stems which
were originally long and those which became long by
the West Germanic doubling of consonants (§ 254). The
j caused umlaut of the stem-vowel and then disappeared in
the inflected forms except after r (§§ 271-2).. When the j
came to stand finally after the loss of prim. Germanic -az,
•an it became vocalized to i which remained in the oldest
period of the language, and then later became e (§§ 215,
Note, 274), cp. here, army, ende, end, beside Goth. ace.
hari, andi. The OE. forms with double consonants in the
nom. and accusative singular are all new formations from
the inflected forms. The regular forms would be *sege,
man ; *dyne, noise = Goth. aec. *sagi, *duni.

§ 352. Like secg are declined bridd, young bird ; cnyll,
knell ; dyn(n), noise ; hlyn(n), loud sound ; hrycg, back,
ridge; hyll, hill; maecg (§ 55, Note 3), wfl« ; raycg, midge;
v^ecg, wedge. See § 259.

§ 353. The j (written i, g, ig ; also ige before a guttural
vowel, § 268) remained medially after r preceded by a
short vowel, as nom. ace. here, army ; gen. heries, herges,
heriges; dat. herie, herge, herige; pi. nom. ace. herias,
hergas, herigas, herigeas ; gen. heria, heriga, herigea ;
dat. herium, herigum. Forms without j also occur
occasionally, as gen. heres, dat. here, pi. heras.

17° Accidence [§§354-5

§ 354. Like ende are declined esne, servant; hierde,
shepherd) hwste, wheat; Isece, physician; raece, sword ;
and the nomina agentis, as bsecere, baker; biddere,
petitioner ; bocere, scribe ; ssedere, sower ; for further
examples see § 602.

§ 355. Neuter.
Sing.

Nom. Ace. cyn(n), race wite, punishment westen, desert

Gen. cynnes wites westennes

Dat. cynne wite westenne

Nom. Ace. cyn(n)

witu

westennu

Gen. cynna

wita

westenna

Dat. cynnum

witum

westennum

As in the masc. ja-stems it is necessary to distinguish
between those stems which were originally long and. those
which became long by the West Germanic doubling of
consonants (§ 254). The neuter ja-stems had the same
endings as the masculine except in the nom. ace. plural.
The nom. ace. plural ended in prim. Germanic in -j6 which
became -ju in prim. OE. The j regularly disappeared
after causing umlaut of the preceding vowel. And then
the -u being preceded by a long syllable also disappeared

215). The nom. ace. pi. of the originally short stems is
regularly developed from the prim. Germanic form, as
cyn(n) from *kunj6. But the -u in the originally long
stems and in words containing a suffix is not the preserva-
tion of the prim. OE. -u. Such nouns owe their final
■u to the analogy of the nom. ace. pi. of short a-stems
(§ 342). That forms like witu, westennu are new forma-
tions is proved by the simple fact that from a Germanic
point of view these nouns ought to have the same ending
in OE. as the nom. ace. singular of the j6-stems (§ 374).

§§356-8] Nouns 171

The OE. forms with double consonants in the nom. ace.
singular are all new formations from the inflected forms, as
cyn(n), bedd, nett for *cyne, *bede, *nete = Goth, kuni,
badi, nati, see § 274. On the final double consonants in
the nom. ace. singular, see § 259. In late OE. the double
consonants in words containing a suffix were generally
simplified in the inflected forms, and the medial vowel
was also occasionally syncopated, as gen. westenes, pi.
westenu, beside westnu.

§ 356. Like cyn(n) are declined bedd, bed; bill, sword;
denn, den ; flett, floor ; giedd, song ; nebb, beak ; nett,
net ; ribb, rib ; webb, web ; wedd, pledge ; wicg, horse ;
Witt, understanding.

§ 357. Like wite are declined serende, errand; fe])e,
walking, power of motion ; ierfe, inheritance ; ierre, anger ;
Tice, kingdom ; ryne, mystery ; stlele, steel ; wage, c«^;
nouns with the prefix ge-, as gefilde,//am ; gefylce, troop ;
getieme, yoke (of oxen), team ; getimbre, building ; ge-
mierce, boundary ; gewjede, dress, clothing ; gefiode,
gejieode, language, flicce, prim. Germanic *flikkja-,
flitch ; stycce, prim. Germanic *stukkja-, piece. See
§ 270, Note, on nouns like hieg (Goth, hawi), hay,
hiew, hiw (Goth, hiwi), shape, appearance, glig, gliw (Goth.
*gliwi), glee, gen. hieges, hiewes (hiowes), gliges, gliwes.

§ 358. Like westen are declined faEsten(n), /or/ress, cp.
§600 ; baernet(t), arson; meT-wei{t), narrowness; ssewet(t),
sowing; J)eowet(t), slavery; for further examples, see
§ 604. To this class probably also belong the diminutives
in -incel, which generally syncopate the e in the inflected
forms, as cofincel, little chamber, gen. cofincles; and
similarly hseftincel, slave ; hUsincel, little house ; scipincel,
little ship ; stilincel, small furrow ; for further examples,
see § 606. fijjere, wing.

172 Accidence [§§ 359-6©

Accidence

C. Wa-STEMS,

)59.

Masculine.

Sing,

Norn. Ace.

bearu, -o, grove

Gen.

bearwes

Dat.

bearwe

Plur.

Nom. Ace.

bearwas

Gen.

bearwa

Dat.

bearwum

]jeo, servant

]>eowes

]3eowe

feowas

J)eowa

feowum

In the inflected forms the mase. wa-stems have the
same endings as the pure a-stems. After the loss of prim.
Germanic -az, -an in the nom. and ace. singular, the w
being final became vocalized to -u which remained after
short vowels followed by a consonant, but with a preceding
short vowel it combined to form a diphthong (§§ 264-5) ;
thus prim. Germanic *barwaz, -an, *])ew^az, -an regularly
became bearu (later bearo), ]jeo. After a long vowel the
■u regularly disappeared, as in sna, snow, from *£naiwaz,
■an. At a later period the w in the inflected forms was
levelled out into the nom. ace. singular, whence Jjcoav,
snaw beside older J>eo, sna. And then from \>eo-w there
was often formed a new gen. J>eowes beside the regular
form J)eowes (§ 265). On forms like gen. bearuwes
beside bearwes, see § 220.

§ 360. Like J)eo, Jjeow are declined beaw, gadfly ;
deaw (also neut.), dew ; lareow from lad + }>eow, teacher ;
latteovp from lad + ]3eow, leader ; ]>eaw, custom ; briw
(Goth. *breiws), pottage, porridge; giw, geow, griffin,
vulture ; Iw, iow, eow, yew ; sliw (Goth. *sleiws), tench
{a fish).

§§ 36i-4l Nouns 173

^61.

Neuter.

Sing.

Nom. Ace.

bealu, .0, evil

cneo, knee

Gen.

bealwes

cneowes

Dat.

bealwe

cneowe

Plur.

Nom. Ace.

bealu, -o

cneo

Gen.

bealwa

cneowa

Dat.

bealwtim

cneowiim

The neuter wa-stems have the same endings as the
masculine except in the nom. aec. plural. What has been
said in § 359 about the history of the w also applies to the
neuters. It should be noted that the nom. aec. plural
bealu, cneo are from older *beal(w)u, *kne(w)u (§ 266),
whereas the nom. ace. sing, bealu, cneo, are from
older *bealw-, *knew. (§ 265). On the svarabhakti vowel
in the inflected forms like gen. bealuwes beside bealwes,
see § 220. Besides the regular nom. ace. pi. cneo, there
also occurs cneow with w from the inflected forms ; and
also cnSowu with -u from forms like bealu. In late OE.
the pi. also ended in -wa.

§ 362. Like bealu are declined c(w)udu, cud; teoru, tar;
meolvL, taelvi, meal, /lour ; searu, device ; smeom, /at.

§ 363. Like cneo, cneow are also declined ancleow
(orig. masc), ankle ; beow, barley ; gehlow, lowing, bellow-
ing ; gehreow, lamentation ; hleo(w), protection, covering ;
seaw (also mssc), juice ; strea(w), straw; treo(w), tree.

2. The o-declension.
§ 364. The o-declension contains feminine nouns only,
and corresponds to the Latin and Greek a-deelension, for
which reason it is sometimes called the a-declension. The
6-declension is divided into pure 6-stems, jo-stems, and
wO'Stems.

174

Accidence

[§:

a. P,URE 6-STEMS.

i. Sing.

Nom.

giefu, -o, gift

ar, honour

Ace.

giefe

are

Gen.

giefe

are

Dat.

giefe

are

Plur.

im. Ace.

giefe, -a

are, -a

Gen.

giefa, (-ena)

ara, (-na, -ena)

Dat.

giefum

arum

The prim. Germanic forms were : Sing. nom. *5eti6, ace.
*geb6n (cp. Gr. yapav), gen. *5eft5z (Goth, gibos), dat.
*gefeai ; Plur. nom. ace. *§ebo2 (Goth, gibos), gen. "gebSn
(Goth, gibo), dat. *get)6miz (Goth, gibom). The ace. gen.
and dat. sing, and the nom. aec. pi. regularly fell together
in -se in prehistoric OE. (§ 217). The -ae remained in the
oldest period of the language and then later regularly
became -e. In the nom. sing, the -6 became -u and then
regularly disappeared after long stem-syllables (§ 215). In
late OE. the gen. sing, often ended in -es after the analogy
of the masc. a-stems ; and sometimes the nom. of the short
stems was used for all eases of the singular. The regular
ending of the gen. pi. is -a, but in late OE. the gen. pi.
often ended in ■(e)na after the analogy of the n-stems
(§ 403). On the ending -um of the dat. plural, see § 218, 5.
It is difficult to account for the -a in the nom. ace. pi. in
WS. and Ken., and for the -a in the oblique eases of the
fem. nouns ending in -ung in these dialects. Seeing that
the gen. sing, and nom. pi. originally had the same ending
•oz and that both eases ended in -se in the oldest OE., the
•a in the nom. pi. cannot be a regular development from
older -ae. It is sometimes assumed that -a is the regular

§§ 366-8] Nouns 1 75

development of prim. Germanic -Sz in OE., and that what
is called the gen. sing, is morphologically the dat., but
against this assumption it should be pointed out that in the
oldest period of the language the gen. and dat. sing, and
nom. plural had all the same ending. Short stems with
a often have ae beside a in the ace. gen. and dat. sing, and
nom. ace. pi., as laepe, raece, beside lajie, race.

§ 366. Like giefu are declined caru, care ; coJju, disease ;
cwalu, violent death; daru, injury; denu, valley; faru,
journey ; hogu, solicitude ; la])U, invitation ; lufu (also weak),
love ; nafii, nave {of wheel) ; notu, use ; racu, account, nar-
rative ; rudu, redness ; sacu, strife ; sagu, saw ; sc(e)amu,
shame ; scinu, shin ; scolu, troop ; snoru, daughter-in-law ;
stalu, theft; swa])U, track; talu, tale, number; Jjracu,
violence, combat ; waru, people ; wracu, revenge ; &c.

§ 367. Like ar are declined a large number of nouns, as
aesp, aspen-tree; bad, pledge; bser, bier; beorc, birch-tree;
bot, advantage ; brod, brood ; eax, axis ; eaxl, shoulder ;
feol, file; gad, goad; glof, glove; heall, hall; heoTd, herd,
flock; hvril, space of time ; IS.A, way, journey ; IM, remnant;
lar, learning; leod, nation; lind, linden, shield; mearc,
boundary ; mid, meord, reward ; mund, hand ; rad, ride,
riding; reord, voice, language; rod, cross; run, secret;
scand, disgrace ; scofl, shovel ; sealf, ointment ; sorg,
sorrow ; stund, period of time, hour ; tang, tongs ; Jjearf,
need; J)eod, nation; }>rag, time, period; wamb, stomach;
weard, protection ; wund, wound ; &c. brii, eyebrow, has
nom. ace. pi. briia beside briiwa, gen. briina, dat. briium
beside bruwum.

§ 368. Sing.

Nom. firen, crime sawol, soul

Ace. firene sawle

Gen. firene sawle

Dat. firene sawle

176 Accidence [§§369-72

Plur,

Accidenc

e I

om. Ace.

firene, -a

sawle, -a

Gen.

firena

sawla

Dat.

iirenum

sawlutn

In originally trisyllabic words the final -u regularly dis-
appeared in the nom. sing, when the stem and the medial
syllable were short, but remained when the stem-syllable
was long and the medial syllable short (§ 216). Then after
the analogy of words like firen, the final -u was also
dropped in words like sawol. The medial vowel regularly
disappeared in the inflected forms after long stems, but
remained after short (§ 221). The nouns of this class do
not have the ending •(e)na in the gen. plural.

§ 369. Like firen are declined bisen, bisn, example;
byden, bushel; ciefes, concubine; feter, fetter; fejjer,
feather ; netel, nettle ; spinel, spindle ; stefn, voice ; but
egenu, chaff.

§ 370. Like sawol are declined adl, disease ; ceaster,
city, fortress ; frofor (also masc), consolation ; njedl, needle ;
wocor, increase, usuty.

§ 371. Nom. streng])U, .o, strength leornung, learning
Ace. Gen. Dat. strengfe leomunge, -a

The fem. abstract nouns ending in prim. Germanic -i))6
regularly syncopated the medial i (§ 221) and in the oldest
period of the language retained the final -u in the nom.
(§ 216). Then at a later period the -u (-o) was often dropped
after the analogy of words like ar (§ 367). At a still later
period the nom. with and without the final -o came to be
used for all eases. The abstract nouns in -ung regularly
syncopated the final -u in the nom. (§ 216).

§ 372. Like streng]>u, -o, streng]) are declined cy])]ju,
cy))(J)), native country ; fEeh])(u),/eMrf ; ges2elj)(u), prosperity ;

§§373-6] Nouns 177

hliew]j(u), s/(g//e;-; mxg]>{vi),/amiiy, kindred; ]>lef}p(u), tke/( ;
wr8e})J)(u), anger, wrath ; for further examples, see § 613.

§ 373. Like leomung are declined sefnung, evening ;
sering, dawn ; ge]}afung, consent ; leasung, falsehood ;
rihtung, direction ; swinsung, melody ; wenung, hope, ex-
pectation ; for further examples, see § 615.

b, jO-STEMS.

§ 374. Sing.

Nom.

hen(n), hen

gierd, rod

Ace.

henne

gierde

Gen.

henne

gierde

Dat.

henne

gierde

Plur.

Nom. Ace.

henne, -a

gierde, -a

Gen.

henna

gierda

Dat.

hennum

gierdum

It is necessary to distinguish between those stems which
were originally long and those which became long by the
West Germanic doubling of consonants (§ 264). The j
regularly disappeared after causing umlaut of the preceding
vowel, and then the -u in the nom. sing, being preceded by
a long stem also disappeared (§ 215), so that the endings of
the j6-stems are the same as the long 6-stems except that
the gen. pi. never has the ending •(e)na (§ 365). On the
final double consonants in the nom. singular, see § 259.

§375. Like hen(n) are declined h^xxa., wound ; brycg,
bridge; hyii, flagon ; crihh, crib; cry cc, crutch; ecg, edge;
hell, hell; nytt, use, profit; sciell, shell; secg, sword;
sibb, relationship ; slecg, sledge-hammer ; synn, sin ; syll,
sill, threshold ; wynn, joy. On hsecc, gate, hatch ; saecc,
strife, see § 55, Note 3.

§ 376. Like gierd are declined aex, axe; bend (also
masc. and neut.), 6a«rf ; bKJJS, bliss, 6/«ss ; \a\A,iioar, battle;
hind, doe ; lijis, liss, favour, kindness ; milts, mercy, kind-

178 Accidence [§§377-9

iiess ; nift, niece ; rest, rest ; sprffic, speech, language ;
wrsec, vengeance; wylf, she-wolf; y]>, wave. On the g in
caeg, key ; leg, island, see §§ 270, 272.
§ 377. Sing. Plur.

Norn, byrj)en(n), burden byrjienne, -a

Ace. byr})enne byrjjenne, -a

Gen. byr])enne byrjjenna

Dat. byrjjenne byrjjennum

In originally trisyllabic words the final -u in the nom.
singular also regularly disappeared after the medial
syllable which became long by the West Germanic
doubling of consonants (§§ 216, 254). The nouns ending
in •en{n) sometimes took -u again in the nom. sing, after
the analogy of the short o-stems. In late OE. the double
consonants were often simplified in the inflected forms.

§ 378. Like byr}3en(n) are declined candel (Lat. can-
dela), candle ; cneoris(s), generation ; haegtes(s), witch ;
biren, she-bear ; fyxen, she-fox ; gyden, goddess ; Jjj^ten,
female servant; wiergen, she-wolf; byrgen, tomb; for
further examples, see §599. c61nes(s), coolness; swift-
nes(s), swiftness ; Jirines(s), trinity ; for further examples,
see § 609. rEeden(n), arrangement, rule; husrffiden(n),
household ; for further examples, see § 610.

Note. — A few words simplified the double consonants at an
early period and then added -u in the nom. singular after the
analogy of the short o-stems, as hyrnetu beside byrnet, hornet;
ielfetu, swan,

c. wo-stems.
§ 379. Sing.

Nom. beadu, -o, battle mad, meadow
Ace. Gen. Dat. beadwe miedwe

Plur.
Nom. Ace. beadwe, -a mffidwe, -a

Gen. beadwa msedwa

Dat. beadwum msdwum

§§ 380-2] Nouns 1 79

In the nom. singular the prim. Germanic ending -wo
regularly became -wu (§ 214), then the w disappeared
before the -u (§ 266). The -u remained after consonants
preceded by an original short vowel, but disappeared after
consonants preceded by a long vowel (§ 215). When the -u
was preceded by a it combined with it to form a diphthong,
as clea from *cla(w)u, claw, ))rea from *J)ra(w)u, threat
(§ 75), pi. nom. ace. clea, dat. cleam from *cla(w)um ;
beside the regular nom. sing, forms clea, )>rea new
nominatives clawu, J)rawu were made from the stem-
form of the oblique cases. The final -u also regularly
disappeared after long vowels and diphthongs (§ 215), but
was restored again from the inflected forms already in the
oldest period of the language, as hreow, repentance ; stow,
place; treow (§ QO), faith, truth.

In the inflected forms the w6-stems had the same end-
ings as the 6-stems except that they never had the ending
•(e)na in the gen. plural. On the svarabhakti vowel in
forms like gen. beaduwe beside bead we, see § 220.

§ 380. Like beadu are declined sinu, sionu, siitew ;
sceadu, shadow; and the plurals frsetwe, ornaments;
geatwe, armaments, armour.

§ 381. Like msed are declined bl6d(es)lffis, blood-letting,
bleeding ; Ijes, pasture.

3. Feminine Abstract Nouns in -i.

§ 382. This declension comprises the fem. abstract
nouns formed from adjectives. The stem originally ended
in -in, and the nom. in -i, cp. Goth, mikilei, greatness,
diupei, depth, formed from mikils, great, diups, deep, gen.
mikileins, diupeins (weak declension). The -In, -i were
shortened to -in, -i in prehistoric OE. (§§ 211, 214), and
then the i caused umlaut of the stenj-vowel. But already
in the oldest period of the language this class of nouns was
remodelled on analogy with the short 6-stems (§ 365), so

N 2

i8o Accidence [§§383-5

that the nom. came to end in -u, later -o, and the oblique
cases of the singular in -e. At a later period the new
nominative came to be used for all forms of the singular
and for the nom. ace. plural. Few nouns belonging to
this class have a plural.

Sing. Plur.

Nom. stvengu, -o, strength strenge, -a ; -u, -o
Ace. strenge, -u, -o „

Gen. „ strenga

Dat. „ strengum

§ 383. Like strengu are declined bieldu, boldness ;
bierhtu, brightness ; engu, narrowness ; fyllu, fullness ;
hselu, health ; hsstu, heat ; hyldu, favour ; ieldu, age ;
menigu, mengu, multitude ; oferfierru, great distance ;
snytru, wisdom ; Jjiestni, darkness ; wlencu, wletic(e)o,
pride. See §§ 563, 614.

4. The i-DECLENSION.

§ 384. The i-declension comprises masculine, feminine
and neuter nouns, and corresponds to the Lat. and Gr.
i-declension (nom. masc. and fern. Lat. -is, Gr. -is, ace. -im,
■II'; neut. nom. ace, -e, -i).

a. Masculine.

386. Sing.

Nom. Ace.

•wine, friend

giest, guest

Gen.

wines

giestes

Dat.

wine

gieste

Plur.

Nom. Ace.

wine, -as

giestas

Gen.

wini(ge)a, wina

giesta

Dat.

winum

glestum

The prim. Germanic forms were : Sing. nom. *gastiz, ace.
*gastin, gen. *gastaiz (cp. Goth, anstdis), dat. *gastai (cp.

§386] Nouns i8i

Goth, anstdi), loc. *5asti from Indg. *ghostel ; Plur. nom.
"Sastiz older -ijiz (Goth, gasteis), ace. *gastinz (Goth,
gastins), gen. *gasti(j)on, dat. *gastimiz (Goth, gastim).
The endings -iz, -in of the nom. ace. sing, regularly
became -i in prehistoric OE. The -i caused umlaut of the
stem-vowel and then disappeared after long stems (§ 215),
but remained after short stems and later became -e (§ 215,
Note). The regular ending of the gen. sing, would be -e
(§ 217), the -es is from the a-stems. The dat. sing, ended
in -i (later -e) in the oldest OE. and corresponded to the
locative ending -i (§ 334, Note). The prim. Germanic nom.
pi. ending -iz regularly became -i, later -e, which remained
in the oldest period of the language. But already at an
early period the nom. pi. was re-formed after the analogy
of the masc. a-stems and then later the old ending -e was
only preserved in a few plurals, especially in names of
peoples, as Dene, Danes ; Engle, the English ; Mierce
(gen. Miercna), Mercians ; Nor]>hymbre, Northumbrians ;
Seaxe (gen. Seaxna), Saxons ; ielde, men ; ielfe, ehes ;
liode, leode, people. The ending -i(j)8n regularly became
-i(j)a which has only been preserved in a few words with
short stems, as Dem(ge)a, wini(ge)a. The ending -a is
from the gen. pi. of the a- and consonantal stems. The
dat. pi. would regularly have ended in -im, but it had -um
from the other classes of nouns. Apart from the few
words mentioned above, the long i-stems have the same
endings as the masc. a-stems and are only distinguishable
from them by the presence or absence of umlaut.

§ 386. Like wine are declined a large number of nouns,
as bile, beak ; bite, bife ; bryce, breach ; bryne, burning ;
byge, curve ; byre, son; ciele, cold; cyme, advent; eyre,
choice ; cwide, saying, speech ; dene, valley ; drepe, stroke,
blow; Ary re, fall; dyne, din ; fiyee.Jlight ; gripe, grasp ;
gryre, terror; gyte, pouring forth; hsele (orig, a cons,
stem, see § 414), man, hero ; hefe, weight ; hege, hedge ;

1 82 Accidence f§§ ,if?7-8

hrine, touch ; hryre,/a/l; hyge, mind; hype, hip ; hyse
(pi. hys(s)as), youth, son ; ile (pi. il(l)as), sok of the foot ;
iyge, falsehood ; lyre, loss ; mere (orig. neut.), lake, pool ;
mete (pi. mettas),/oofl?; myne, memory; ryge, rye; ryne,
course; scyfe, shove; scyte, shooting; sele, hall; sice,
sigh ; siege, stroke, blow ; slide, slip ; slite, slit ; snide,
incision ; stsepe, step ; stede, place ; stice, stitch ; stige,
ascent ; stride, stride ; swyle, swelling ; jjyle, orator ;
wlite, brightness, beauty, beorscipe, feast ; for further
examples, see § 611. bere (Goth. *baris), barley; ege
(Goth. agis),/£'ar; hete (Goth. hatis),/iafe; menQ, necklace ;
sige (Goth, sigis), victory, originally belonged to the neuter
•OS, -es-declension (§ 419). ele (Lat. oleum), oil, was also
originally neuter.

§ 387. Like giest are declined a large number of nouns,
as serist (also fern.), resurrection; aesc, ash-tree; blsd,
blast, breath ; blsst, blast ; brygd, brandishing ; byht,
bend ; byrst, loss ; cierm, clamour ; cierr, turn, change ;
dsel, part; drenc, drink; dynt, dint; ent, giant; feng,
grasp; &e\l,fall; &erst, period of time ; Byht,Jlight ; fyrs,
furse ; glslm, gleam ; gylt, guilt ; hliep, leap ; hlyst (also
fern.), sense of hearing; hwyrft, turning, circuit; hyht,
hope ; laest, track ; lee, sight, looking at; )ies, flame; list,
skill, cunning; lyft (also fem.), ««V-; maw, s«ag-«// ; pliht,
danger, peril ; ssel (also fem.), time ; scene, cup, draught ;
slieht, slaughter ; siaiec, smoke ; stenc, odour ; steng, pole ;
stiell, leap ; streng, string ; sweg, sound, noise ; swylt,
death ; tyht, training, instruction ; ]>yrs, giant; waeg, wave ;
wiell, spring ; wielm, boiling ; wrenc, trick, stratagem ;
wyrm, worm.

§ 388. sse, prim. Germanic *saiwiz, sea, gen. sees, dat.
sse, pi. nom. ace. sees, gen. *s8ewa, dat. sjem beside sjewum
(a new formation) ; also fem. gen. dat. sse beside ssewe ;
dry, magician, gen. drys, dat. dry, pi. nom. ace. dryas,
dat. dryum. On the contracted forms, see §§ 139, 142.

§§389-91] Nouns 183

b. Feminine.

§ 389. Sing. Plur.

Nom. Ace. cwen, queen cwene

Gen. cwene cwena

Dat. cwene cwenum

The masc. and fern, i-stems were originally declined
alike in the sing, and plural. The nom. pi. and the whole
of the sing, are regularly developed from the correspond-
ing prim. Germanic forms, as sing. *kwffiniz, *kwffinin,
*kw£naiz, *kwaenai, nom. pi. *kwsenlz. The gen. and
dat. pi. were new formations as in the masc. i-stems. In
early Nth. and then later also in WS. and Ken. the ace.
sing, often had -e after the analogy of the 6-stems ; and
in like manner the nom. ace. pi. often had -a already in
early OE.

§ 300. Like cwen are declined Jeht, property ; ansien,
face; ben, prayer; bene, bench; bryd, bride; cyf, tub;
cyst, choice ; dxd, deed; dryht, troop ; es.t, favour; fierd,
army; fyst, fst; gled, live coal; hses, command; hyd,
hide, skin ; hyf, hive ; hyrst, ornament ; meaht, miht,
might, power; nied, need; scyld, guilt; s^ped, success;
cyl, pillar ; tid, time ; Jjryjj, strength ; waed, garment ;
wen, hope, expectation ; vrist, sustenance, food ; wyrd, fate ;
wyrt, vegetable, herb ; yst, storm. dugu]j, strength,
geoguj), youth, ides, woman, which originally belonged
to this declension, went over into the 6-declension.

Note.— », prim. Germanic 'aiwiz, divine laiv, generally
remains uninflected in the sing, and in the nom. ace. plural,
but beside the gen. dat. sing, se there also exists aewe from
which a new nom. sew was formed.

§ 391. A certain number of nouns, which originally
belonged to the fem. i-declension, partly or entirely became
neuter and were then declined like cynn (§ 355) or hof
(§ 342) in the singular, and like hof in the plural. Such
nouns are : fulwiht, fuUuht, baptism ; grin, snare, noose ;

184 Accidence [§§3^2-3

oferhygd, pride ; wiht, wuht, thing, creature ; nouns with
the prefix ge-, as gebyrd, birth ; gecynd, nature, kind;
gehygd, mind ; gemynd, memory ; gesceafl, creation ; ge-
]}eaht, thought; gejjyld, patience; gewyrht, merit, desert;
pi. gedryhtu, elements; giftu, gifts. In late OE. other
fern, i-stems also sometimes took the neut. plural ending
■u (-o).

c. Neuter,

§ 392. Sing. Plur.

Nom. Ace. spere, spear speru, -o
Gen. speres spera

Dat. spere sperum

The neuter i-stems had originally the same endings
as the masculine except in the nom. ace. sing, and plural.
The nom. ace. sing, ended in -i which regularly disappeared
after long stems, but remained after short stems, and then
later became -e (§ 215, Note). The nom. ace. pi. ended in
•i which would regularly have become -i (§ 214), later -e,
after short stems, and disappeared after long stems. The
nom. ace. pi. ending -u (-0) was due to the influence of the
short neuter a-stems. The endings of the other cases are
of the same origin as those of the masc. short i-stems.
The regular form of the nom. ace. singular would be
*spire (§ 41) if spere originally belonged to the neuter
i-declension.

§ 393. Like spere are declined ofdaele, downward slope,
descent; oferslege, lintel; orlege, fate; sife, sieve. AH
these nouns probably belonged originally to the -os-, -es-
declension {§ 419).

A certain number of neuter nouns which originally
belonged partly to the neut. ja-stems, and partly to the
■OS-, -es-stems are declined like spere, except that the
stem-syllable being long the final -e disappeared in the nom.
ace. singular. Such nouns are: flxsc, Jlesh; Sies, fleece;
hiel, health ; hilt (also masc), M/; lsbn,loan; svreng, blow.

§§394-5] Nouns 185

gefeg, joining, joint ; gegrynd, plot of ground ; gehield,
watching, protection ; gehlyd, noise ; gehnsest, -ast, col-
lision ; genyht, sufficiency; geresp, blame; gewed, /«rv,
madness ; ge&winc, labour, affliction.

5. The u-declension.

§ 394. The u-declension comprises masculine, feminine
and neuter nouns, and corresponds to the Lat. and Gr.
u-declension (nom. masc. and fem. Lat. -us, Gr. -us, ace.
-um, -vv ; neut. nom. ace. -u, -u).

a. Masculine.

§ 395. Sing.

Nom. Ace.

sunu, -o, son

feld, ^eld

Gen.

suna

felda

Dat.

suna

felda

Plur.

Nom. Ace

suna

felda

Gen.

suna

felda

Dat.

sunum

feldum

The prim. Germanic forms were : Sing. nom. *sttnuz
(Goth, sunus), ace. *sunun (Goth, sunu), gen. *sunauz
(Goth, sun&us), dat. *suniwai (*sunwai), loc. *sunau
(Goth, sundu); Plur. nom. "suniwiz (Goth, sunjus), ace.
*sununz (Goth, sununs), gen. *suniwon (*sunwon), dat.
*sunumiz. The endings -uz, -un regularly became -u in
prehistoric OE., and then disappeared after long stems
(§§ 211, 215), but remained after short stems and later
became -o. -auz regularly became -a (§ 217). The OE.
dat. sing, is originally the locative. It is diflBcult to account
for the ending -a of the nom. plural, which cannot be
a normal development of prim. Germanic -iwiz = Indg.
-evres. The gen. pi. ending -a is from the a- and the
consonantal stems. The dat. pi. ending -um is from older
-umiz. At a later period the -u (-o) of the nom. ace. sing.

i86 Accidence [§§396-8

was often extended to the dat. sing, and nom. ace. pi.
in the short stems ; and likewise the -a of the gen. and
dat. sing, to the nom. ace. In late OE. the short stems
also often formed their gen, sing, and nom. ace. pi. after
the analogy of the masc. a-stems. Already at an early
period the long stems were often declined entirely like the
a-stems. Many nouns which originally belonged to this
class went over into the a-declension in prehistoric OE.
without leaving any trace of the u-declension, as ar (Goth,
dirus), messenger; deaj) (Goth, ddufus), death; feorh
(also n&xxt.), life ; fioA, flood; grund, ground ; lui.t, pleasure,
desire; Ecield, shield ; ]3orn, thorn; beofor, beaver; esol,
ass; hunger, hunger; &sco]>, flshing; hunto]), hunting ;
for further examples, see § 595.

§ 396. Like sunu are declined bregu, prince, ruler;
heoru, sword; lagu, sea, flood ; magu, sow, man; medu,
meodu, mead (gen. meda beside medwes) ; s idu, custom ;
spitu, spit ; wudu, wood.

§ 397. Like feld are declined eard, native country ; ford,
ford; gar (mostly in compounds), spear; had, rank, con-
dition (for compounds in -had, see § 605) ; hearg, temple ;
seajj, pit, spring ; weald, forest ; sumor, summer ; seppel
(gen. sBp(p)les, pi. ap(p)la beside sep(p)las, and neut.
ap(p)lu), apple ; winter (pi. neut. wintru beside winter),
winter.

b.

Feminine.

398. Sing.

Nom. Ace.

duru, ■

0, door

hand, hand

Gen.

dura

handa

Dat.

dura

handa

Plur.

Nom. Ace.

dura

handa

Gen.

dura

handa

Dat.

durum

handum

§§ 399-400] Nouns 187

The masculine and feminine u-stems were originally
declined alike. In the short stems the nom. ace. sing, was
also sometimes used for the dat. sing, and nom. ace. plural ;
and the gen. and dat. sing, often had -e after the analogy of
the short 6-stems. Beside the regular gen. and dat sing.
dura, there also occurs dyre, dyru with i-umlaut after the
analogy of the i-declension. In the long stems the nom.
ace. sing, was sometimes used for the gen. and dative.
To the short stems also belongs nosu, nose ; and to the long
stems : cweorn (also 6-declension), Goth, -qairnus, hand-
mill; flor (also masc), floor; and originally also cin(n)
(Goth, kinnus, Gr. yivvs), chin.

c. Neuter.
§ 399. The neuter u-stems had originally the same
endings as the masculine except in the nom. ace. sing, and
plural, the former of which ended in -u and the latter in -u.
Nth. feolu, -o, and the WS. isolated inflected form fela,
feola, much, many, are the only remnants of this declen-
sion in OE. feoh (Goth, faihu), cattle, went over into
the a-declension in prehistoric OE.

B. The Weak Declension (N-Stems).

§400.

Nom,

a. Masculine.

Sing.

Nom.

guma, man

frea, lord

Ace.

guman

frean

Gen.

guman

frean

Dat.

guman

frean

Plur.

. Ace.

guman

frean

Gen.

gtimena

freana

Dat.

gumum

frea(u)m

1 88 Accidence [§401

The prim. Germanic forms were: Sing. nom. *gum5,
ace. *5umanun, gen. *5Umenaz (Goth, gumins), dat.,
properly locative, *5umini (Goth, gumin) ; Plur. nom.
*5umaniz (Goth, gumans), ace. *5Umanunz, gen. *gumn5n
(cp. Goth, adhs-ne, OE. ox-na, of oxen) beside West Ger-
manic *gum6n5n (OHG. gomono, OS. gumono) with
-onon from the fem. nouns, dat. "gumunmiz beside West
Germanic *gum6(n)miz (OHG. gomom) with -o- from
the genitive. In OE. the nom. and ace. sing, and the
nom. pi. were regularly developed from the correspond-
ing prim. Germanic forms. The regular form of the gen.
and dat. sing, would be *gumen, *gymen, but OE. had
levelled out the -an of the ace. sing, before the period
of i-umlaut. The gen. pi. can be either from *5umanon
with a from the sing, and the nom. plural, or from West
Germanic *gum6n5n (§§ 217, 222). The dat. pi. was
formed direct from gum -t- -urn, the ending of the a-stems
and the other consonantal stems, or else it is from West
Germanic *gum6(n)miz. Beside the regular gen. pi.
ending -ena, the forms -ana, -ona sometimes occur. The
e in -ena was generally syncopated after long stems in
poetry and in the names of peoples. On the loss of final
•n in Nth., see § 288.

From a morphological point of view the n-stems should
be divided into -an, -jan, and -wan stems, but in OE.
as in the other Germanic languages all three classes were
declined alike. The -jan stems have i-umlaut in the stem-
syllable and also gemination of consonants when the stem
was originally short, as dema, judge, cyta, kite, becca,
pickaxe, brytta, distributor, prince, from prim. Germanic
*d6mjo, kutjo, *bakjo, *l5rutjo.

§ 401. Like guma are declined a large number of nouns,
as acumba, oakum ; Sra, strigil ; Eerendra, messenger ;
aglseca., monster ; anda, envy; andsaca, adversary; anga,
goad; apa, ape; assa, ass; bana, slayer; hena, suppliant ;

§ 402] Nouns 189

beorma, barm, yeast ; bera, bear ; bes(e)ma, besom ; bita,
bit, morsel; blanca, horse ; blostma, blossom ; boda, mes-
senger; boga, bow; boUa, bowl; broga, terror; bucca,
he-goat ; bylda, builder ; byrga, surety ; cleofa, cleft, cave ;
cnapa, boy; cnotta, knot; cofa, chamber; crabba, crab;
cruma., crumb ; cuma, guest, stranger ; dogga., dog; dora,
bumble-bee; dropa, drop; dwolma, chaos; eafora, son;
fana, banner ; Wpa., band of infantry ; fliema, fugitive ;
flota, sailor; fola, foal; freca, warrior; frogga, frog;
fruma, beginning; gara, corner; gealga, gallows; gealla,
gall; gefera., companion ; gehola, protector; gerefa., reeve ;
geruna, councillor; gesaca, adversary; ge])ofta, com-
panion; gewuna, custom; haca, hook; hafela, head;
hana, cock ; hara, hare ; hunta, hunter ; inca, grudge ;
leoma, ray of light ; lida, sailor ; loca, enclosure ; maga,
stomach ; mona, moon ; naca, boat ; nama, name ; nefa,
nephew; oga, terror; oretta, warrior; oxa (pi. oexen
exen, beside oxan, § 107), ox ; plega, play ; pohha, pouch,
bag; prica., prick, point; rima, rim; ry])]>a, mastiff ; sada,
cord, snare ; scanca, shank ; scajja, foe, enemy ; screawa,
shrew-mouse ; scucca, demon ; scu(w)a, shadow ; sefa,
mind, heart; slaga, slayer; snaca, snake; sopa, sup;
spa.ca, spoke of a wheel ; spearwa, sparrow ; staca, stake;
steia., stalk ; steorra, star; sv/eora, neck ; swica, deceiver ;
swima, giddiness ; telga, branch ; trega, grief, affliction ;
})earfa, pauper; Jjuma, thumb; wela, prosperity; wita,
sage, wise man ; wltega, prophet ; wrsecc(e)a (§ 55, Note 3),
exile; wyrhta, worker; and the pi. hiwan (gen. hina
beside hiwna), members of a household.

§ 402. Like frea are declined flea, flea ; gefa, foe ;
(ge)fea,/oy; leo, lion; ra, roe; tweo, doubt; wea, woe;
and the plural Sweon, Swedes, See § 139.

igo Accidence [§§403-4

b. Feminine.

13. Sing.

Nom.

tunge, tongue

beo, bee

Ace.

tungan

beon

Gen.

tungan

beon

Dat.

tungan

beon

Plur.

om. Ace.

tungan

beon

Gen.

tungena

beona

Dat.

tungum

beom

The feminine n-stems were originally declined like the
masculine, as in Latin, Greek and Sanskrit, but already in
the prehistoric period of the Germanic languages, they
became differentiated in some of the cases by partly
generalizing one or other of the forms, thus the nom. sing,
originally ended in -B or -on in both genders, the West
Germanic languages restricted -8 to the masculine and -on
to the feminine, but in Gothic the reverse took place. In
the fern. Goth. O.Icel. OS. and OHG. levelled out the
long vowel of the nom. into the oblique cases, whereas
OE. had the same forms as the masculine except in the
nom. sing, -e from prim. Germanic -on (§ 217). The
general remarks made in § 400 concerning the masculine
n-stems also apply to the feminine.

The fem. nouns with short stems began to form their
nom. sing, after the analogy of the short o-stems (§ 365)
already in early OE., as cinu, chink, spadu, spade, beside
cine, spade.

§ 404. Like tunge are declined sedre, artery, vein ;
eelmesse, alms; asce, inquiry; ampre, sorrel; ar(e)we,
arrow ; asse, she-ass ; asce, ash, cinders ; a])exe, lizard ;
beecestre (also masc), baker (for other examples con-
taining the suffix -estrcisee § 603) ; \i&ce, beech-tree; belle,

§§405-6] Nouns 191

beU) berige, berry; bieme, trumpet; bicce, bitch; binde,
head-band; bladre, bladder; blsese, blaze, firebrand, torch;
burne, stream, brook; byme, corslet; canne, can, cup;
ceace, cheek, jaw ; ceole, throat ; cirice, church ; clugge,
bell; crawe, crow; cuppe, cup; cuslyppe, -sloppe, cowslip ;
cwene, woman ; docce, dock {plant) ; duce, duck ; eorjje,
earth; fxcele, torch ; {a,])e,aunt; Gpele, fiddle ; &eoge, fiy;
fliete, cream ; folde, earth ; hacele, cloak ; hearpe, harp ;
heofone, heaven ; heorte (orig. neut.), heart ; hljefdige,
lady ; hruse, earth ; loppe, fiea ; mage, mage, kinswoman ;
meowle, maiden ; miere, mare ; modrige, maternal aunt ;
molde, earth ; more, parsnip ; mo])J>e, moth ; nsedre, snake ;
osle, ousel ; panne, pan ; pere, pear ; pipe, pipe ; pirige,
pear-tree ; pise, pea ; racente, chain ; seohhe, sieve ; side,
side; sly ppe, paste ; smippe, smithy ; sunne, sun; swealwe,
swallow ; swipe, scourge ; ])rote, throat ; Jiyrne, thornbush ;
vie, owl; waecce (§ 55, Note 3), vigil; wase, mud; wicce,
witch; wise, way, manner; wice, wuce, week; wuUe,
wool ; wuduwe, widow ; yce, toad, frog.

§ 405. Like beo are declined ceo, jackdaw, chough ; fla,
arrow ; seo, pupil of the eye ; sla, slab, sloe ; ta, toe ; }>o,
clay. See § 139.

c. Neuter.

406. Sing.

Plur.

Nom. Ace.

cage, eye

eagan

Gen.

iagan

eagena

Dat.

eagan

eagum

The neuter n-stems had originally the same endings as
the masculine and feminine except in the ace. sing, and the
noni. ace. plural. The nom. ace. sing, had -on which
regularly became -e in OE. {§ 217). The nom. ace. pi. had
•ona in the Indg. parent language. This was changed in
prim. Germanic into -ono with -6 from the neuter a-stems.
•ono regularly became -ona in Goth., as dugo, eye, nom.

192

Accidence

[§§ 407-10

ace. pi. dugona. The OE. ending -an was due to the
analogy of the masc. and fern, n-stems.

§ 407. Like cage are only declined eare, ear ; wange
(also with strong forms), cheek.

C. Minor Declensions.
I. Monosyllabic Consonant Stems.
a. Masculine,
§ 408. Sing. Plur.

Nom. Ace. ibtffoot fet

Gen. fotes fota

Dat. fet fotum

The prim. Germanic forms were : Sing. nom. fot for
older *fos(s) (Gr. Dor. ircis) with t from the inflected forms
(§ 240), and similarly toTp for older *tos(s), ace. *f6tun
(Goth, fotu), gen. *f6taz, dat., properly loc, *f6ti; Plur.
nom. *f6tiz, ace. *f6tunz (Goth, fotuns), gen. *fot5n, dat.
*fotumiz. The OE. correspond to the prim. Germanic
forms except in the gen. sing, which is a new formation
after the analogy of the a-stems. The regular form would
be *f6t.

§ 409. Like fot are declined t6J>, tooth ; man(n) (beside
manna, ace. mannan, n-declension), man ; and wifman,
wimman, woman.

§ 410.

b. Feminine.

Sing.

Nom. Ace.

boc, book

hnutu, nut

Gen.

bee; boee

hnute

Dat,

bee

hnyte

Plur.

Nom. Ace.

bee

hn3i;e

Gen.

boea

hnuta

Dat.

bdcum

hnutum

§§411-12] Nouns 193

The OE. forms of boc are regularly developed from
prim. Germanic : Sing. nom. "'tSoks, ace. *lJ6kun, gen.
*t)okaz, dat. *1Joki; Plur. nom. *t)6kiz, ace. *B6ktuiz,
gen. *t>ok8n, dat. *t)6kumiz. The gen. sing, boce was
a new formation after the analogy of the 6-stems, and bee
is the dat. used for the gen. The regular nom. sing, of
hnutu would be *hnuss (§ 240), hnutu (prim. Germ.
*xnutun) is the ace. used for the nominative. The gen.
sing, was formed after the analogy of the 6>stems ; the dat.
sing, and nom. pi. correspond to prim. Germanic *xnuti,
*xnutiz, the final -i (later -e) being retained after a short
stem (§ 215).

In nouns belonging to this class the stem- vowels a, 6,
u, u were regularly umlauted to se, e (Nth. de), y, y in the
dat. sing, and nom. ace. plural. In nearly all the nouns
belonging to this class, beside the gen. sing, with umlaut
there exists a form ending in -e without umlaut which was
made after the analogy of the 6-stems. In late OE. the
dat. sing, was often like the nominative.

§ 411. Like b5c are declined ac, oak ; broc, trousers ;
burg, ci(y (gen. dat. sing, and nom. ace. pi. byrig beside
byrg, § 220 ; also declined like cwen (§ 389), but without
i-umlaut); cu, cow (also gen. sing, cue, ciis; nom. ace. pi. cy,
cye> gen. cGa, ciina, cyna) ; dung, prison ; gat, goat ;
gbs, goose; grvt, coarse meal, groats ; las, louse; meol(u)c,
milk ; mils, mouse ; neaht, niht, night (also gen. dat. sing.
nihte ; adv. gen. nihtes, anes nihtes, at night, by night,
formed after the analogy of daeges); turf, turf; furh,
furrow (gen. sing, fure beside fyrh, pi. gen. fura, dat.
fiirum, § 115) ; sulh, plough (gen. sing, sules on analogy
with the a-stems, pi. gen. sula, dat. sulum) ; ]}ruh, trough
(dat. pi. Jirum, § 329) ; ^n\cA\., fringe,

§ 412. Like hnutu are declined hnitu, nit ; studu, stu]ju,
pillar.

194 Accidence [§§413-15

c. Neuter.
§ 413, The only remnant of this class is scriid, garment,
dat. scryd; gen. scrudes and late OE. dat. scrude were
formed after the analogy of the neuter a-stems, and also
the nom. ace. pi. scrud ; gen. pi. scriida, dat. scrudum,

2. Stems in •]).

§ 414. Of the nouns which originally belonged to this
declension only four have been preserved : masc. haelejj
(OHG. helid), hsele, hero, man, mona]? (Goth. men6J)s),
month ; fern. maeg(e)]> (Goth. maga]3s), maiden ; neut. ealu,
ale. haelej", hsele, monaj), and maBg(e)]) originally had the
same endings as the prim. Germanic forms of fot (§ 408)
and boc (§ 410). The J> was reintroduced into the nom.
sing, from the inflected forms. The old nom. ace. sing,
has been preserved in ealu. The gen. and dat. sing, of
haele]) and monajj were formed on analogy with the
a-declension ; and beside the nom. ace. pi. haelej), monaJ),
there also exist haele}>as, m6n(e)]3as. Those forms which
did not originally have umlaut were generalized in OE.
They are declined as follows :—

Sing.

Nom. Ace. hsele, haele]) m5na}> mseg(e)]> ealu

Gen. haelejjes m6n(e)J)es maBg(e)]) ealo}>

Dat. hselejje mon(e)J)e mseg(e))) ealo))

Plur.

Nom. Ace. hsele]> mona}) maeg(e)])

Gen. hsele]}a mon(e)}>a mseg(e)]}a eale]}a

Dat. hsele]}um mon(e)}>um m8eg(e)]>um

3. Stems in -r.

§ 415. To this class belong the nouns of relationship :
fasAer, father ; br6])or, brother; modor, mother; debtor,
daughter; sweostor, sister; and the collective plurals,

§415]

Nouns

195

gebrojjor, gebr5])ru, brethren; gesweostor, -tni, -tra,

sisters.

Sing.

Nom. Ace. faeder

brojjor

modor

Gen. faeder, -eres

brofor

modor

Dat. faeder

brejier

meder

Plur.

Nom. Ace. faederas

br6])or, -fru modor, -dru, -dra

Gen. faedera

brojjra

modra

Dat. faedenim

brojjrum

modrum

Sing.

Nom. Ace.

dohtor

swestor

Gen.

dohtor

sweostor

Dat.

dehter

sweostor

Plur.

Nom. Ace.

dohtor,

-tru, -tra

sweostor

Gen.

dohtra

sweostra

Dat.

dohtrum

sweostriim

The prim. Germanic forms of faeder were : Sing. nom.
*fader (Gr. ira-n^p), ace. 'faderun (Gr. irar^po), gen. *fadras
(Gr. TToxpos, Lat. patris), dat. *fadri (Gr. iroTpi); Plur. nom.
*faderiz (Gr. irar^pes), ace. *fadrunz (cp. Goth, brojjruns),
gen. *fadr5n (Gr. irorpui'), dat. *fadrumiz (cp. Goth,
brojjrum). The OE. nom. ace. and gen. sing, faeder is
normally developed from the corresponding prim. Ger-
manic forms. On the gen. faeder from *fadras, see § 219 ;
faederes was formed on analogy with the a-stems. The
prim. Germanic pi. forms (except the ace.) regularly became
*faeder, faedra, faedrum, the last two of which were common
in the oldest period of the language ; then later -er was
levelled out into the gen. and dat., and the nom. pi. *faBder
became faed(e)ras on analogy with the a-stems.

The prim. Germanic ease endings of br6]3or, modor,
dohtor, and sweostor were the same as those of faeder

o 2

196 Accidence [§416

except that brofor and sweostor having originally the
chief accent on the stem had -raz in the gen. singular.
The dat. forms *13r6]jri, *m6dri, *aoxtri (older *duxtri)
with o from the nom. ace. and gen., *swestri (older
*swistri) with e from the nom. ace. and gen., regularly
became brej>er, meder, dehter, sweostor (cp. § 219). In
late OE. the dat. meder, dehter were often used for the
gen. and vice versa. The gen. sing. *br6}>raz, *m6dras,
*doxtras, *swestraz, regularly became brofor, modor,
dohtor, sweostor (§ 210). The gen. and dat. pi. were
regularly developed from the corresponding prim. Germanic
forms. The nom. sing, and pi. were in prim. OE. *br6]jer,
*m6der, *doxter, *swestor, then -er became -or (older -ur)
through the influence of the guttural vowel in the stem
(cp. § 222), but the ending -er (rarely -ar) often occurs both in
early and late OE. sweostor had -or in prim. Germanic,
as nom. sing, '^swesor, Indg. *swesor, pi. *swesoriz, Indg.
*swesores ; the t was developed between the s and r in
the gen. sing. *swestraz, pi. *swestr8n, and then became
generalized (§ 240).

gebrojjor and gesweostor were originally neuter collec-
tive nouns and were declined like wite (§ 355), whence the
plural endings gebrojjru, gesweostru, -tra, which were
afterwards extended to the plural of modor and dohtor.

4. The Masculine Stems in -nd.

§416. Sing.

Nom. Ace.

freonA, friend

vpigend, warrior

Gen.

freondes

wigendes

Dat.

friend, freonde

wigende

Plur.

Nom. Ace.

friend, freond, -as

wigend, -e, -as

Gen.

freonda

wigendra

Dat.

freondum

wigendum

§§ 417-19] Nouns 197

The nouns of this declension are old present participles,
like Lat. ferens, bearing, gen. ferentis, and originally had
the same case endings as the other consonantal stems.
But in OE. as in the other Germanic languages they
underwent various new formations. The OE. present
participles had passed over into the ja-declension of ad-
jectives (§§ 433-4) in the oldest period of the language.

The nom. sing, was a new formation with d from the in-
flected forms, cp. Lat. ferens from *ferenss older *ferents
(§ 240). The gen. sing, freondes, wigendes, dat. freonde,
vrigende, nom. ace. pi. freondas, wigendas were formed
after the analogy of the masc. a-stems. The dat. friend with
umlaut is from *friondi older *frij6ndi ; and the nom. pi.
friend is also from *friondi older *frij6ndiz (Goth.frijonds).
The nom. and gen. pi. endings -e, -ra are adjectival (§ 424).

§ 417. Like freond are declined feond, enemy; teond,
accuser; the compound noun gdddond (pi. -dond, beside
•dend), benefactor; and the collective plurals gefiend,
enemies; geftiend, friends, which were originally neuter
collective nouns and declined like wite (§ 355).

§ 418. Like wigend are declined agend, owner; be-
swicend, deceiver; ehtend, persecutor; hjelend. Saviour;
helpend, helper; hettend, enemy; ner(i)gend, Saviour;
semend, arbitrator ; wealdend, rukr; for further examples,
see § 601.

5. Stems in -os, -es.

§ 419. This class of nouns corresponds to the Or,
neuters in -os, Lat. -us, as Gr. yivo^, race, gen. y^i'eos older
Y^i-coros, Lat. genus, gen. generis, pi. genera. A fairly
large number of nouns originally belonged to this class,
but owing to various levellings and new formations, of
which some took place in the prehistoric period of all the
Germanic languages, nearly all the nouns belonging here
went over into other declensions in OE. The prim. Ger-

*,

198 Accidence [§42°

manic forms of a word like lamb were : Sing. nom. ace.
*laml3az, gen. *lam'bezaz, "^lambiziz, dat. *lamtizi ; Plur.
nom. ace. *lamfe6z6, gen. *lamt)ezon, dat. *lambezumiz.
After the loss of the singular endings -az, -iz, -i, the follow-
ing changes took place : from the gen. and dat. sing, a new
nom. *lambiz beside lamb was formed. This accounts
for the preservation of the i in Gothic in such words
as hatis = OE. hete, hate, sigis = OE. sige, victory,
which would have been *hats and *sigs in Gothic, had
these words ended in -iz in prim. Germanic. The new
nom. ending -iz regularly became -i in OE., then it caused
umlaut in the stem-syllable and disappeared after long
stems, but remained after short stems and later became
•e, whence forms like nom. sing, lemb, gsst, hlsw, hete,
sige beside lamb, gast, hlaw. After medial -z- in the
gen. and dat. sing, had become r (§ 252) it was levelled out
into the nom. sing, in some nouns, as *d65r, *halr beside
*d65i, *hali, then later dogor, halor, older -ur, beside
ddeg (Nth.), hal. AH the nouns which underwent these
new formations passed into other declensions partly with
change of gender also. Thus, gast, gast, spirit, breath,
sigor, victory, went into the masc. a-declension ; hlsew,
hlaw, mound, hill, hrBe(w), hra(vir), also neut., corpse,
carrion, into the masc. wa-declension ; ddeg (Nth.), day, ge-
ban(n), summons, gefog, joining, joint, geheald, keeping,
custody, gehnast, conjlict, strife, gewealc, rolling, szel, hall,
dogor, day, eager, flood, tide, ear, ear of corn, halor,
salvation, health, hrijjer, hryfer, ox, salor, hall, stulor,
theft, pi. hseteru, clothes, into the neut. a-declension ; bere,
barley, Gge, fear, hete, hate, mene, necklace, sige, victory
into the masc. i-declension ; oferslege, lintel, orlege, fate,
sife, sieve, spere, spear, &sesc, jlesh, Sies, fleece, heel, health,
salvation, hilt, hilt, Isen, loan, sweng, blow, into the neuter
i-declension.

§ 420. The kw remaining nouns formed their gen. and

§ 42i] Adjectives 199

dat. sing, after the analogy of the neuter a-stems. The
cases of the plural were regularly developed from the
corresponding prim. Germanic forms.

Sing.

Nom. Ace.

lamb, lamb

cealf, calf

aeg. egg

Gen.

lambes

cealfes

ages

Dat.

lambe

cealfe

age

Plur.

Nom. Ace.

lambru

cealfru

segru

Gen.

lambra

cealfra

aegra

Dat.

lambrum

cealfrum

segrum

Beside lamb there also occurs lombor and sometimes
lemb ; in late OE. the pi. was lamb, lamba, lambum
after the analogy of the neuter a-stems. Beside the
Anglian sing, calf there also occurs caelf, celf with i-
umlaut.

Like lamb are declined cild (pi. cild beside cildru),
child; speld, splinter, torch ; pi. breadru, crumbs.

CHAPTER XII

ADJECTIVES.

A. The Declension of Adjectives.

§ 421. In the parent Indg. language nouns and adjectives
were declined alike without any distinction in endings, as
in Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit. What is called the un*
inflected form of adjectives in the Germanic languages
is a remnant of the time when nouns and adjectives were
declined alike. But already in Indo-Germanic the pro-
nominal adjectives had partlynominal andpartly pronominal
endings as in Sanskrit. In prim. Germanic the endings
of the pronominal adjectives were extended to all adjectives.

200 Accidence [§ 421

These remarks apply to what is called in the Germanic
languages the strong declension of adjectives.

The so-called weak declension of adjectives is a special
Germanic formation by means of the suffixes -en-, -on-,
which were originally used to form nomina agentis, and
attributive nouns, as Lat. edo (gen. eAbvii^, glutton, OE.
slaga, slayer, wyrhta, worker, gen. slagan, wyrhtan;
Lat. adjectives catus, sly, cunning, rufus, red, red-haired,
silus, pug-nosed, beside the proper names Cato (gen.
Catonis), lit. the sly one, Riifo, the red-haired man. Silo,
the pug-nosed man ; and similarly in OE. blsec, black, frod,
wise, old, halig, holy, beside the proper names Blaca,
Froda, Halga. In like manner Goth, blinds, OE. blind,
blind, beside Goth. OE. blinda, which originally meant,
the blind man ; Goth, ahma sa weiha, lit. ghost the holy
one. Such nouns came to be used attributively at an early
period, and then later as adjectives. And already in prim.
Germanic this weak declension became the rule when the
adjective followed the definite article, as WulfmEer se
geonga, Wulfmcerthe Young, OHG. Ludovirig ther snello,
Ludwig the Brave, cp. NHG. Karl der Grosse. At
a later period, but still in prim. Germanic, the two kinds
of adjectives — strong and weak — became differentiated in
use. When the one and when the other form was used in
OE. is a question of syntax. There were adjectival n-
stems in the parent Indg. language, but they did not have
vocalic stems beside them as is the case in the Germanic
languages, eall, all, genog, enough, manig, many, and
ojjer, second, were always declined according to the strong
declension. Nearly all other adjectives can be declined
according to either declension.

The strong form is used predicatively in the positive and
superlative degrees ; and when the adjective is used
attributively without any other defining word, as wses seo
feemne geong, the woman was young ; J>a menn sindon

§§ 42 2-3] Adjectives 201

g5de, the men are good; })us wseron J>a latestan fyr-
meste, thus were the last, first. In the vocative the weak
form exists beside the strong, as ])ii leofa dryhten, thou
dear Lord; })u riht cyning, thou just king.

The weak form is used after the definite article, and
after demonstrative and possessive pronouns, as se ofer-
m5da cyning, the proud king ; Jjaes eadigan wares, of the
blessed man ; ]jes ealda mann, this old man ; on Jjissum
andweardan daege, on this present day ; min leofa sunu,
my dear son ; J)urh Jjine aejjelan hand, through thy noble
hand. In poetry the weak form often occurs where in
prose the strong form would be used.

Note. — When the same adjective refers both to masc. and
fem. beings, it is put in the neut. plural, as Wit }>i]S baru ne
magon b5tu setsomne wesan, We {Adam and Eve) may not
both together be thus here naked; cp. Goth, wesun garaihta ba in
andwair]]ja gu]>s, O.Icel. Jjau v§ro retl^t TaS\pe fyr gu}>e, OHG.
siu warun rehtiu beidu fora gote, they [Zacharias and Elisabeth)
were both righteous before God.

§ 422. In OE. the adjectives are declined as strong
or weak. They have three genders, and the same cases
as nouns with the addition of an instrumental in the masc.
and neuter singular.

I. The Strong Declension.
§ 423. The endings of the strong declension are partly
nominal and partly pronominal, the latter are printed
in italics for glaed, glad, and blind, blind. The nominal
endings are those of the a-, 6-declensions. The strong
declension is divided into pure a-, o-stems, ja-, j6-stems,
and Awa-, w6-stems, like the corresponding nouns. The
original i- and u-stems passed over almost entirely into
this declension in prehistoric OE. In OE. the ja-, jo-
stems and the wa-, vro-stems only differed from the pure
a-, 6-stems in the masc. and fem, nom. singular and the
neut. nom. ace. singular.

202

*

Accidence

[§421

424.

a. Pure a-,

6-STEMS.

Sing.

Masc.

Neut.

Fern.

Norn.

glaed, glad

glaed

gladu, -0

Ace.

glx&ne

glaed

glade

Gen.

glades

glades

glaedre

Dat.

gladum

glad;^;^

glaedre

Instr.

glade

glade

Plur.

Nom. Ace.

glade

gladu, -o

glade, -a

Gen.

glsedra

glaedra

glsedra

Dat.

gladum

gladum

gladum

Sing.

Nom.

blind, blind

blind

blind

Ace.

blindwe

blind

blinde

Gen.

blindes

blindes

blindre

Dat.

hlindum

Window

blindre

Instr.

blinde

blinde

Plur.

Nom. Ace.

blindg

blind

blinde, -a

Gen.

blindra

blindra

blindra

Dat.

blindiim

blindum

blindum

The prim. Germanic forms of blind were : Masc. sing,
nom. *blindaz (Goth, blinds), ace. *blindan6n (Goth,
blindana), gen. *blindesa, -asa, dat. *blindomm6, -e
(Goth, blindamma), instr. (loc.) *blindai; plur. nom.
*blindai (Goth, blinddi), ace. *blindanz (Goth, blindans),
gen. *'blindaizon, dat. *blindomiz. Neut. nom. ace. sing.
*blindan (Goth, blind), nom. ace. pi. *blindo (Goth, blinda).
Fem. sing. nom. *blind6 (Goth, blinda), ace. *blind6n
(Goth, blinda), gen. *blindizoz (cp. Goth, fizos, 0/ the),
dat. *blindizai (cp. Goth. })izdi, to the) ; pi. nom. ace.
*blind6z (Goth, blindos), gen.*blindaizen,dat. *b!ind6miz.

§§425-6] Adjectives 203

On the syncope of the medial vowel in blindne, blindra,
blindre, see § 221 ; after the analogy of such forms it
was also dropped in adjectives with short stem-syllables.
In late OE. -era, -ere are common after both long and
short stem-syllables. The nom. ace. neut. pi. and nom.
sing. fem. go back to prim. Germanic *blind6, the -o
of which became -u (§ 214) and then disappeared after long
stems (§ 215), whence blind beside gladu. In late WS.
the masc. nom. ace. pi. form was generally used for the
neuter; and occasionally the -u of the short stems was
extended to the long. On the u in blindum, see § 218 ;
the -um became -un, -on-, -an in late OE. {§ 284). blindra
goes back to prim. OE. *blindaera, *blindera, with ae, e
from the masc. and neut. gen. singular. This form then
came to be used for the feminine also. The remaining
forms require no comment, as they are regularly developed
from the corresponding prim. Germanic forms.

§ 425. On the interchange between ae and a in the
declension of glaed, see § 54, Note 3. Like glsed are
declined the monosyllabic adjectives with short stems, as
baer, bare ; blsec, black ; hraed, quick ; hwaet, brisk, active ;
last, slow; smsel, tender, small; ssed, satiated; waer, wary,
cautious; Aol, foolish ; fram, active, bold ; free, bold; frum,
original, first ; gram, angry, fierce ; hoi, hollow ; hnot,
bald; iH, good, useful ; trum, firm, strong; wan, wanting,
deficient ; anlic, solitary (for other examples, see § 634) ;
angsum, troublesome (for other examples, see § 636).

§ 426. Like blind are declined the monosyllabic adjec-
tives with long stems, as beald, bold ; beorht, bright ; blac,
pale ; brun, brown ; brad, broad ; ceald, cold ; ciij), known,
familiar; dead, dead; deaf, deaf; deop, deep; deorc,
dark ; dumb, dumb ; eald, old ; earg, cowardly ; earm,
poor; iorht, featful, timid; frod, wise, old; {v.l,foul; fiis,
ready; gefog (geidh), joint; genog (genoh), enough ; geong,
young; georn, eager; gaea]>, niggardly ; god, good; graeg,

204 Accidence [§427

grey ; great, iarge ; hal, whole, sound ; har, hoary ; has,
hoarse ; healt, halt, lame ; hean, lowly, despised ; hold,
gracious; hror, active, brave; hwlt, white; lang, /o«^;
la)), hateful; \Qa.s, free front, faithless; leof, rf«a/"; ranc,
proud; read, red; riht, right, straight; r of, brave, strong ;
rot, ^/flfl?, cheerful; rum, roomy ; sar, sore ; scearp, sAar/ ;
scir, bright, shining; scort, short; seoc, s/c^; sb]>, true ;
steap, steep, lofty ; stearc, stij^; stij), stiff', rigid ; Strang,
strong; swift, swift; swij), strong; torht, bright; trag,
lazy, bad; ])earl, severe; wset, wet; wac, te;ea^; wealt,
unsteady ; Avearm, warm ; wid, w«Vfe ; wis, w/se ; wlanc,
proud; w^od, waaf; w^rsest, firm, strong; w^raj>, wroth,
angry; wund, wounded; fyrn (orig. i-stem), old, ancient;
col (orig. u-stem), cool; heard (orig. u-stem), hard. The
double consonants were simplified in the inflected forms
before other consonants (§ 259) in words like dunn, dun ;
eall, all; feorrr, far; full, full; gewiss, certain, sure;
grimm, grim ; snell, ready, active. For examples of adjec-
tives like aeJ)elcund,q/'«o6/eon^'«; anfeald, s/'«g/e ; arfaest,
virtuous ; arleas, impious, see Adjectival Suffixes, 5§ 623,
633.

§427.

Sing. Masc. Neut. Fem.

Nom. heah, high heah hea

Ace. hea(n)ne heah hea

Gen. heas heas hea(r)re

Dat. hea(u)m hea(u)m hea(r)re

Instr. hea hea

Plur.

Nom. Ace. hea hea hea

Gen. hea(r)ra hea(r)ra hea(r)ra

Dat. hea(u)m hea(u)m hea(u)m

heanne, hearra, hearre were due to the assimilation of
hn and hr ; and heane, heara, heare arose from the regu-

§§ 428-9]

Adjectives

205

lar loss of h before n, r (§ 329, 2). In heaum the u was
restored after the analogy of forms like gladum, blindum.
The instr., masc. and fem. nom. pi., and fern. ace. singular
hea was from older *heahe ; and the neut. nom. ace. pi.
and fem. nom. singular from older *heahu ; masc. and neut.
gen. sing, from *heahes. See § 139. Late OE. forms
like gen. heages, dat. heage, nom. pi. heage beside older
heas, hea(u)m, hea were formed after the analogy of such
words as gen. gefoges, gendges beside nom. gefdh, genoh
(§ 323).

§ 428. Like heah are declined fah, hostile ; flah, deceit-
ful; hreoh, rude, rough, wild; neah, nigh, near; rub,
rough ; sceoh, shy ; toh, tough ; woh, crooked, bad.
sceolh, awry, squinting ; ])weorh, cross, perverse, dropped
the h and lengthened the diphthong in the inflected forms, as
gen. sceoles, Jjweores, dat. sceolum, Jjweorum, cp. § 149.

§ 429.

Sing.

Masc.

Neut.

Fem.

Nom.

manig, many

manig

manig

Ace.

manigne

manig

manige

Gen.

maniges

maniges

manigra

Dat.

manigum

manigum

manigre

Instr.

manige

manige

Plur,

Nom. Ace.

manige

manig

manige, -a

Gen.

manigra

manigra

manigra

Dat.

manigtim

manigum

manigum

Sing.

Nom.

halig, holy

halig

haligu, -o

Ace.

haligne

halig

halge

Gen.

halges

halges

haligre

Dat.

halgutn

halgum

haligre

Instr.

halge

halge

i6

Accidence

[§§4

Plur.

Nom. Ace.

halge haligu, -o

halge, -a

Gen.

haligra haligra

haligra

Dat.

halgum halgutn

halgum

Original short medial vowels in open syllables regularly
remained in trisyllabic forms when the stem-syllable was
short. They also remained in closed syllables irrespec-
tively as to whether the stem-syllable was long or short.
But they disappeared when the stem-syllable was long.
See § 221. Final -u regularly disappeared after a long
medial syllable, and also when the stem and the medial
syllable were short, but remained when the stem-syllable
was long and the medial syllable short. See § 216. There
are many exceptions to the above rules due to analogical
formations, as yfles, haliges, halgu beside older yfeles,
halges, haligu, see § 223, Note i. In adjectives ending in
-en, -er, the combinations -enne (masc. ace. sing.), -erra
(gen. pi.), and -erre (fem. gen. dat. sing.) were often sim-
plified to -ene, -era, -ere especially in late OE. (§ 259, 4).

§ 430. Likemanig are declined the dissyllabic adjectives
with short stems, as atol, terrible, dire ; bedol, suppliant ;
brsesen, 0/ brass (for examples of other adjectives ending in
•en, see §625); ef en, even; etol, gluttonous ; iasgen, glad ;
fseger, /air ; flacor; flickering ; flugol, fleet, swift ; forod,
decayed; fracojj, vile, bad; hnitol, given to butting; micel
(see § 223, Note i), large, great ; nacod, naked; open, open ;
plegol, playful; recen, ready, prompt; sicor, sure;
svreoto\, plain, evident; yf el, evil; -wa.coT, vigilant; bysig,
busy (for other examples, see § 630) ; past participles, as
boren, borne ; coren, chosen ; legen, lain ; &c.

§ 431. Like halig are declined the dissyllabic adjectives
with long stems, as acol, timid, frightened; ffit(t)ren, poison-
ous (for examples of other adjectives ending in -en, see
§ 625) ; agen, own ; beogol, agreeing ; bit(t)er, bitter ;

432-3]

Adjectives

207

braegden, deceitful; cristen, christian; deagol, diegol,
secret; eacen, great, increased; earfoJ>, difficult; frettol,
greedy; geomor, sad; gylden, golden; hador, bright;
hsejien, heathen ; hliit(t)or, clear ; idel, vain ; lytel, little ;
ojjer (§ 223), second; snot(t)or, wise ; stffigel, steep ; blodig,
bleeding; crseftig, skilful; eadig, rich, happy (for other
examples, see § 630) ; cildisc, childish (for other examples
see § 632) ; past participles, as bunden, bound ; holpen,
helped, see § 442.

b, ja-, jO-STEMS.

§ 432. In the ja-, j6-stems it is necessary to distinguish
between those stems which were originally long and those
which became long by the West Germanic doubling of
consonants (§ 254). The latter class were declined in OE.
like the pure a-, o-stems ending in double consonants
(§ 426), such are : gesibb, akin, related; midd, middle ;
nytt, useful. The regular form of the nom. sing. masc.
and neut. of a word like midd would be *mide, see § 274.

§ 433.

Sing.

Masc.

Neut.

Fern.

Nom.

wilde, wild

wilde

wildu, -0

Ace.

wildne

wilde

wilde

Gen.

Wildes

Wildes

wildre

Dat.

wildum

wildum

wildre

Instr.

wilde

wilde

Plur.

Nom. Ace.

wilde

wildu, -0

wilde, -a

Gen.

wildra

wildra

wildra

Dat.

wildum

wildum

wildum

The only difference in declension between the original long
ja-, jo-stems and the long pure a-, 6-stems is in the masc.
nom. sing., neut. nom. ace. sing. and plural, and the fem. nom.
singular, wilde (masc. nom. sing.) is regularly developed

2o8 Accidence [§ 434

from prim. Germanic *wilj)jaz, and the neut. nom. ace. sing,
from *wil]>jan; wildu (fem. nom. sing, and neut. nom.
ace. plural) was formed on analogy with the short pure
a-stems (§ 424), the regular form would be *wild (see
§ 215). Double consonants were simplified before or after
other consonants (§ 259), as masc. ace. sing. J)ynne, thin,
ffficne, deceitful, ierne, angry, from *])ynnne, *fsecnne,
*ierrne; fem. gen. dat. sing, gifre, greedy, ierre from
*gifrre, *ierrre. When n, r came to stand between two
consonants the first of which was not a nasal or liquid,
they became vocalic and then developed an e before them,
as masc. ace. sing, giferne from *gifrne; fem. gen. dat.
sing, fsecenre from *f£ecnre. Nearly all the old long i-
and u-stems went over into this declension in prehistoric
OE.

§ 434. Like wilde are declined a large number of ad-
jectives, as seltffiVFe, entire ; 3e])ele, noble ; andfenge,
acceptable ; andrysne, terrible ; anliepe, single ; bli})e,
joyful; brerae, famous; bryce, useful ; cene, bold; clsene,
clean; cyme, comely, beautiful; cynde, natural; diere,
deore, dear; dierne, hidden; dryge, dry; ece, eternal;
egle, troublesome; este, gracious; faecne, deceitful; fSge,
fated; feowerfete,fourfooted; Side, level {of land) ; flede,
in flood; forjigenge, effective; frecne, dangerous, wicked;
fTem{e)de, foreign ; freo (§ 104), free ; gecnjewe, conscious
of; gecweme, pleasant; gedefe, becoming, ft; gefere,
accessible ; gehende, handy ; gemsene, common ; genseme,
acceptable ; gesiene, visible ; getenge, near to ; getriewe,
faithful; gifre, greedy ; grene, green; hlsbne, lean; hnaesce,
soft, tender; ierre, angry; le\e, easy; l^ne, temporary;
Isetrsede, deliberate; li])e, gentle; msre, famous; man-
}>w2ere, humane; taedeme, moderate ; m.e])e, tired ; milde,
mild ; myrge, merry ; niewe, niwe (§ 90), new ; ofersete,
gluttonous ; ofersprsece, loquacious ; ormaete, immeasur-
able; repe, fierce ; rice, powerful ; ripe, ripe; sane, slow;

§ 435] Adjectives 2o0

sammsele, agreed; sciene, beautiful; sefte, soft; slijje,
cruel, savage ; sme})e, smooth ; smylte, mild, serene ; stille,
still; strenge, strong; swete, sweet; swige, silent ; syfre,
pure ; })icce, thick ; fiestre, dark, gloomy ; Jjrifingre, three
fingers thick; friste, rash, daring; Jjriwintre, three years
old; J)ynne, thin; Jjyrre, withered; unhlere, horrible;
upgenge, fugitive; weste, waste, barren ; wierjie, worthy;
wraene, wanton. In like manner are declined the present
participles (§ 441). For examples of adjectives like aeppel-
bjere, apple-bearing; coppede, topped, polled; halwende,
healthful, see Adjectival Suffixes, §§ 624, 638.

C. wa-, WO-STEMS.

§435.

Sing. Masc. Neut. Fem.

Nom. gearu, -o, ready gearu, -o gearu, -o

Ace. gearone gearu, -o gearwe

Gen. gearwes gearwes gearore

Dat. gearwum gearwum gearore

Instr. gearwe gearwe

Plur.

Nom. Ace. gearwe gearu, -o gearwe, -a

Gen. gearora gearora gearora

Dat. gearwum gearwum gearwum

w became vocalized to u (later o) when final and before
consonants in prehistoric OE. (§265); whence masc. nom.
sing., neut. nom. ace. sing, gearu from *garw-az, -an.
The u had become o before consonants in the oldest
period of the language, as gearone, gearora. The fem.
nom. sing, and neut. nom. ace. pi. are from older *§arwu
with loss of w before the following u (§ 266). The dat.
gearwum for "gearum was a new formation made from
forms like gearwes, gearwe, where the w was regular.
On forms like gen. gearuwes, gearowes beside gearwes,
see § 220.

OE.CR. P

2io Accidence [§§43^-9

§ 436. Like gearu are declined basu, beasu, purple ;
calu, bald; cylu, spotted; fealu, fallow ; geolu, yellow ;
hasu, hea.su, grey, tawny; mearu, tender; nearu, narrow;
salu, sealu, dusky, dark.

§ 437. The adjectives which had a long vowel or long
diphthong in the stem reintroduced the w into the nomina-
tive from the inflected forms (§ 265) and then came to be
declined like pure long a-, 6-stems {§ 424), such are :
feawe,/ew ; gedeaw, dewy ; gehleow, sheltered ; geseavsr,
succulent ; gleaw, wise ; hneaw, stingy ; hrea'w, raw ; tavi,
quiet, calm ; slaw, slow ; ]jeow, servile.

d. i-STEMS.

§ 438. Of the adjectives which originally belonged to
this class, the long stems took final -i (later -e) from analogy
with the short stems and then both classes went over into
the ja-declension in prehistoric OE. The old short i-stems
are still recognizable by the fact that they do not have
double consonants in the stem-syllable. Examples are :
bryce, brittle; gemyne, remembering; swice, deceitful;
and of old long i-stems : bUJ>e (Goth, bleifs), joyful; bryce
(Goth, briiks), useful; clabne, clean ; gec-weme, pleasant ;
gedefe (Goth, gadofs), becoming, fit ; gemalne (Goth, ga-
mdins), common; gesiene (cp. Goth, anasiuns), visible;
grene, green; sciene, beautiful ; swete, sweet; &c.

e. U-STEMS.

§ 439. Of the adjectives which originally belonged to
this class only two have preserved traces of the old u-de-
clension, namely nom. sing, cwicu, c(w)ucu, alive, masc.
ace. sing, cucone, and nom. wlacu, warm, tepid. And
even these two adjectives generally have nom. cwic, wlaec
and are declined like short pure a-stems. All the other
adjectives passed over into the a-, ja-, or wa-declension in
prehistoric OE., as heard (Goth, hardus), hard; egle

§§ 44o-i] Adjectives 211

(Goth, aglus), troublesome ; hnesce, hnsesce (Goth, hnas-
qus), soft, tender; twelfwintre (Goth, twalibwintrus),
twelve years old; J>yrre (Goth. Jsarirsus), dry, withered;
gleaw (Goth, glaggwus), wise.

2. The Weak Declension.

§440.

Sing.

Masc.

Neut.

Fern.

Nom.

blinda, blmd

blinde

blinde

Ace.

blindan

blinde

blindan

Gen.

blindan

blindan

blindan

Dat.

blindan

blindan

blindan

Plur.

Nom. Ace. blindan blindan blindan

Gen. blindra, -ana blindra, -ena blindra, -ena

Dat. blindum blindum blindum

The weak declension of adjectives has the same endings
as the weak declension of nouns, except that the adjectives
generally have the strong ending -ra (§ 424) instead of
•(e)na in the gen. plural. Beside the regular dat. pi. end-
ing -um there also occurs at an early period -an which was
taken over from the nom. ace. plural. In trisyllabic ad-
jectives the medial vowel remained after short stems, but
disappeared after long stems, as wacora, wacore, vigilant,
beside halga, halge, holy (§ 221). On adjectives like hea,
high, gen. hean, see § 427. In like manner are declined
the ja- and wa-stems, as wilda, wilde, wild; gearvpa,
gearv^e, ready.

3.' The Declension of Participles.
§ 441. In the parent language the stem of the present par-
ticiple ended in -nt, as in Lat, ferent-, Gr. <t>^poi'T-, bearing.
The masc. and neut. were originally declined like consonant
stems (§ 416). The fem. nom. originally ended in -i which
was shortened to -i (§ 214) in prehistoric OE. (cp. Goth.

p 2

212 A ccidence [§§ 4 4 2-3

frijondi, fem./nV«(^). The -i of the feminine was extended
to the masculine and neuter, which was the cause of their
passing over into the ja-declension (§ 433). In OE. the pres.
participle was declined strong or weak like an ordinary
adjective. When used predicatively it often had the un-
inflected form for all genders in the nom. and accusative.

§ 442. The past participle, like the present, was declined
strong or weak like an ordinary adjective. When strong
it was declined like manig or halig (§ 429) according as the
stem-syllable was short or long ; and similarly when it was
declined weak (§ 440). When used predicatively it gener-
ally had the uninflected form for all genders. A small
number of past participles of strong verbs have i-umlaut
of the stem-vowel, because in prim. Germanic, beside the
ordinary ending -enaz = Indg. -enos, there also existed
•iniz = Indg. -enis, hence forms like segen beside agen,
own ; cymen beside cumen, come ; slegen beside slsegen,
slagen, slain ; tygen from *tuginiz beside togen from
*tugenaz, drawn.

B. The Comparison of Adjectives.
I. The Comparative Degree.

§ 443. The Indg. parent language had several suffixes
by means of which the comparative degree was formed.
But in the individual branches of the parent language, one
of the suffixes generally became more productive than the
rest, and in the course of time came to be the principal
one from which the comparative was. formed, the other
suffixes only being preserved in isolated forms. The only
Indg. comparative suffix which remained productive in
the Germanic languages is -is-, which became -iz- (= Goth.
>iz-, OHG. -ir-, OE. -r-) in prim. Germanic by Verner's law.
To this suffix was added in prim. Germanic, or probably
in the pre-Germanic period, the formative suffix -en-, -on-,

§443] Adjectives 213

as in Gr. ■i\%lav from *afa%ltr<av, gen. i^Siocos, = Goth, sutiza,
gen. sutizins, OHG. suo^iro, gen. suo^iren, (-in), OE.
swetra, sweeter, gen. swetran. This explains why the
comparative is declined weak in the oldest periods of the
Germanic languages. Beside the suffix -iz- there was also
in prim. Germanic a suffix -oz- (Goth, -oz-, OHG. -or-, OE.
-r-) which did not exist in Indo-Germanic. This suffix is a
special Germanic new formation, and arose from the com-
parative of adverbs whose positive originally ended in -o,
Indg. -ed (§ 554). And then at a later period it became
extended to adjectives.

In OE. polysyllabic adjectives formed with derivative
suffixes and compound adjectives had the Germanic suffix
•oz- ; ja-stems the suffix -iz- ; and uncompounded pure
a-stems mostly had -oz-. Prim. Germanic -izB (= Goth.
-iza, OHG. -iro) and -6z5 (= Goth, -oza, OHG. -oro) fell
together in -ra in OE., so that, except in the ja-stems, the
presence or absence of umlaut is the only indication as to
which of the two suffixes -ra goes back. Only a small
number of adjectives have umlaut in OE., of which the
most common are :

brad, broad breedra beside bradra

eald, old ieldra (Goth. al])iza)

feorr, far fierra

geong, young giengra, gingra

great, great grietra

heah, high hiehra, hierra beside heahra

lang, long lengra

sceort, short sciertra

Strang, strong strengra.

Examples without umlaut in the comparative degree are :
eadig, happy, ea.rm,poor, fsegen, glad, fseger, fair, gearu, -o,
ready, glaed, glad, grimm, grim, halig, holy, leof, dear,
neah, near, comparative eadigra, earmra, faegenra,

214 Accidence [§444

faegerra, gearora, glaedra, grimra, haligra, leofra,
neahra (nearra).

2. The Superlative Degree.

§ 444. The superlative, like the comparative degree,
was formed in the Indg. parent language by means of
several suffixes. But in the individual branches of the
parent language, one of the suffixes generally became
more productive than the rest, and in the course of time
came to be the principal one from which the superlative
degree was formed, the other suffixes only being preserved
in isolated forms. The only superlative suffix which re-
mained productive in the Germanic languages is -to- in
the combination •isto-, formed by adding the original
superlative suffix -to- to the comparative suffix -is-, as
in Sanskrit and Greek, as Gr. ■^Shttos = Goth, sutists,
OHG. suo^isto, OE. swetest(a), sweetest. The simple
superlative suffix -to- has been preserved in Gr., Lat., and
the Germanic languages in the formation of the ordinal
numerals, as Gr. Iktos, Lat. sextus, Goth, saihsta, OHG.
sehsto, OE. siexta, sixth. The Germanic suffix -ost- was
a new formation like -oz- in the comparative, -ost-, -ist-
regularly became -est-, -est- in OE., and the medial vowel
in the superlative being in a closed syllable remained
(§ 221). It is difficult to account for its early loss in
hiehst(a), highest, and niehst(a), nearest (see § 221). In
late OE. the medial vowel was often syncopated, as
lengsta, strengsta (§ 223, Note 2). On the interchange
of the medial vowel in forms like leofesta beside leofosta,
see § 222. The adjectives which had i-umlaut in the com-
parative generally had -est(a), but sometimes also -ost(a),
in the superlative, and those which did not have umlaut in
the comparative generally had •ost(a), rarely •ust(a), -ast(a),
as ieldest(a),flerrest(a), giengest(a), gingest(a), grletest(a).

§§ 445-6] A djedives 2 1 5

lengest(a), sciertest(a), strengest(a), but earmost(a),
fsegnost(a), gearwost(a), haligost(a), leofost(a), &c.

In Gothic the superlative had both the strong and the
weak declension, but in OE. it generally had only the
latter except in the nom. ace. neut. which had both forms
•est, -ost, beside -este, -oste.

3. Irregular Comparison.

§ 445. The following adjectives form their comparatives
and superlatives from a different root than the positive : —

god, good

bet(e)ra, bettra
selra, sella

bet(e)st, betsta

lytel, little

Isessa

Isst(a)

micel, great

mara

msest(a)

yfel, evil

wiersa

wierrest(a), wierst(a)

Note.— I. On the tt in bettra (Goth, batiza), see § 260.
bet(e)st = Goth, batists. sella with assimilation of Ir to 11
(§ 281). Isessa from *l8es(i)ra, prim. Germanic laisizo (§ 281) ;
Isst(a) rom *l»sist-. mara = Goth, maiza ; m«st(a) (Goth,
mdists) with se from analogy with lalst(a), Anglian mast(a).
wiersa (Goth, wairsiza) from *wiers(i)ra; wierrest(a), wierst(a)
from *wiersist-.

2. In a few words comparative and superlative adjectives
were formed from adverbs : ser, before, srra, former, earlier,
jerest(a), y?rs/; fyrest(a) from *ixais,t; first, related to fore,
before ; fur)>ra, higher, greater, related to for^p, forth.

§ 446. In a number of words the comparative was
formed from an adverb or preposition, with a superlative
in -um-, -uma (prim. Germanic -umo), cp. Lat. optimus,
best, summus, highest. The simple superlative suffix was
preserved in OE. forma (Goth, fruma), first, beside fore,
before; hindema, last, hindmost, beside hindan, behind;
and meduma, medema, midway in size, related to midd,
middle. But in prehistoric OE., as in Gothic, to -um- was
added the ordinary superlative suffix -ist- which gave rise

2l6

Accidence

[§447

to the double superlative suffix -umist-, as Goth, frumists,
first; hindumists, hindmost. In OE. -umist- became
-ymist- (§ 47), later -imest-, -emest-, -mest-, as

sefter, after

aefterra

aeftemest(a)

east, eastwards

easterra

eastmest(a)

fore, before

forma,
fyrmest(a)

inne, within

innerra

innemest(a)

Iset, late

Isetra

Isetemest(a)

midd, middle

medema,
midmest{a)

nio}>an, below

nijierra

ni(o)J)emest(a]

norjj, northwards

norjierra.

, nyr]3ra

nor})mest(a)

S1]J, /flfe

sifra

sl])emest(a)

su]j, southwards

sii]3erra, i

sy])erra

su]>mest(a)

ufan, a^oi'e

f uferra
1 yferra

f ufemest(a)
I yfemest(a)

ute, without

uterra
yterra

tit(e)mest(a)
yt(e)mest(a)

west, westwards

westerra

L

westmest(a)

C. Numerals.

I.

Cardinal and Ordinal.

§447.

j forma,
"I fyrmes

formest(a)

an, o«e

it(a), fyrest(a),

( sires

t(a)

twa, too

6))er, aefterra

}jrl, /^ree

fridda

feower,/oMr

feo(we)rJ)a

fif,>e

fifta

siex, six, six

siexta.

sixta

seofon, seven

seofoj)!

1

eahta, eight

eahtoj)

a

nigon, nine

nigo)ja

■447]

Adjectives

2t7

tien, ten

en(d)le(o)fan, eleven
twelf, twelve
Jjreotiene, thirteen
feo wertiene, fourteen
f iftiene, fifteen
siex-, sixtiene, sixteen
seofontiene, seventeen
eahtatiene, eighteen
nigontlene, nineteen
twentig, twenty
])ritig, thirty
feowertig, forty
nttig, fifty
siextig, sixty
hundseofontig, seventy
hundeahtatig, eighty
hundnigontig, ninety
hundteontig
hund, hundred
hundendleofantig, no
hund twelf tig, 120
tu hund, hundred, 200
J)reo hund, hundred, 300
]>usend, thousand

teojia

en(d)le(o)fta

twelfta

])reoteoJia

feowerteojja

fifteojia

siex-, sixteo})a

seofonteo}>a

eahtateo}>a

nigonteo)ia

twentigopa

]3ritigoJ)a

feowertigo])a

fiftigo))a

siextigojia

hundseofontigopa

hundeahtatigo]}a

hundnigontigo]}a

i , hundred hundteontigopa

hundendleofantigo]}a
hundtwelftigo])a

seox, later siex, six, syx (§ 88). seofon, nigon, tien
(later tyn) had their final -n from the inflected forms, as
*set)uni-, &c., or else they were formed, as in Goth. OS.
and OHG., from the ordinals in prim. OE. before the n
disappeared before J> (§ 286). nigon from older "nion
(= Goth. OHG. niun); *mon became dissyllabic and then
between the two vowels a consonantal glide was developed
(cp. § 270). tien, later tyn, probably from an older inflected
form *teoni-, cp. teo])a. endleofan (endlefan, enlefan)

2i8 Accidence [§447

from older *Eenlefan, *ainina + lifean-, with excrescent d
developed between the n and 1 and weak ending -an. twelf
= Goth, twalif. endleofan and twelf originally meant
something like (ten and) one left over, {ten and) two left over,
cp. Lithuanian venulika, eleven, dv^lika, twelve, &c., where
Goth, -lif and Lith. -lika are from *liq-, the weak form of
the Indg. root leiq-, to leave, and are ultimately related to
OE. lion (leon), Goth, leihran, to lend, Gr. Xeiiru, Lat.
linquo, / leave. The assimilation of *-lih to -lif first took
place in twalif because of the preceding labial (§ 237, Note),
and then, at a later period, the -lif was extended to *dinlif
(cp. dat. dinlibim) for older *Ainlih. 13 to 19 were formed
by the simple ordinals plus the inflected form -tiene, later
-tyne.

The decades 20 to 60 were formed in prim. Germanic
from the units 2 to 6 and the abstract noun *te5Und- =
Indg. *dekmt-, decade, whence the Goth, stem-form tigu-
which went over into the u-declension with a plural tigjus,
as nom. twAi tigjus, twenty, dat. twdim tigum. Prim.
Germanic *tegund' is a derivative of prim. Germanic
*texun. (= Indg. *d6km, Gr. 8^ko, Lat. decern, Goth,
taihun, OE. tien) with change of x to g by Verner's law
(§ 238) and the loss of the final consonants (§ 211). The
stem *tegu- regularly became -tig in OE. and OS., whence
OE. twentig from twegen + tig, lit. two decades, Jritig,
&c. with the following noun in the gen. case ; an and
twentig, twenty-one, twa and twentig, twenty-two, &c.
Many attempts have been made to explain the decades
70 to 120, but no satisfactory explanation of their morpho-
logy has ever yet been given. The decades could be used
both substantively and adjectively. When used as sub-
stantives their gen. ended in -es ; when used as adjectives
they were either uninflected or formed their gen. in -ra, -a,
and dat. in -um. Instead of hundseofontig, hundeahtatig,
&c., the shorter forms seofontig, eahtatig, were used when

§447] Adjectives 219

immediately preceded by hund = 100, as hund and seo-
fontig = 170, but hund and seofon and hundseofontig
= 177. At a later period the shorter forms became
generally used in all positions. Besides the form hund-
teontig, there were in OE. the two neuter nouns hund
(= Gr. k-Korcw, Lat. centum, Indg. kmt6m), and hundred,
•re}) (= O.Icel. hundra]}); the second element -red, -rej)
is related to Gothic rajijo, number. 200 to 900 were
generally expressed by the simple units and hund (also
sometimes hundred, hundteontig), as twa hund, fif
hund, &c. hund was usually uninflected, but occasionally
it had a dat. ending -e, -um. hundred had a pi. form
hundredu, when used absolutely. Jjusend was a neuter
noun and was often inflected as such.

The decades, and hund, hundred, and ]}usend, being
nouns, governed a following noun in the genitive case.

The forms for ' first ' are old superlatives of adverbs
(§§ 445, Note 2, 446). ofer (Goth. an])ar, cp. NE. every
other day) was always declined according to the strong
declension of adjectives (§ 429). Jjridda (Goth. ))ridja,
Gr. TpiTos) with weak stem-form from Indg. *tri- the weak
form of *trei-, three. All the other ordinals were formed
from the cardinals by means of the Indg. superlative
suffix -to- (§ 444), the t of which regularly remained
unshifled in fifta, siexta, endleofta, twelfta (§ 231, Notes).
In other positions the t became ]j by the first sound-
shifting (§ 231), then ]> became d by Verner's law (§ 238)
in those ordinals which did not originally have the chief
accent immediately before the J>, and later nd became nd
(§ 253), as Goth. *sibunda, niunda, tafhunda, from Indg.
*septnit6s, *neunt6s, *dekmt6s. The regular forms of
these would have been in OE. *seofonda, *nigonda,
*teonda, but OE. generalized those ordinal forms which
in prim. Germanic had the chief accent immediately before
the ]>, whence the OE. new formations seofojja, nigo})a,

2 20 Accidence [§§448-50

teoj'a from older *sebun])o, "nijunJjS, textinjjo. In the
decades the medial o may represent the older u in *tegu-
(see above). In compound ordinals the cardinal units
were generally used, as feower and iiii\%o\ia., fifty-fourth,
but sometimes the ordinal forms of the units were used
with the cardinal decades in the dative, as feo(we)r])a eac
fiftigum. hund, hundred, and J>iisend had no correspond-
ing ordinals. AH the ordinals, except o))er, were declined
according to the weak declension of adjectives.

§ 448. In OE. the cardinals i to 3 were declinable
in all cases and genders as in the other Germanic lan-
guages, an was declined according to the strong (§ 424)
or weak declension (§ 440) of adjectives. The strong masc.
ace. sing, is generally senne (shortened later to aenne,
enne) from prim. Germanic *ainin6n, beside the less
common form anne from ''ainanon. Strong pi. forms are
rare, but they occur occasionally, meaning each, all, every
one, anra gehwilc, each one. When declined weak it
means alone, solus.

§ 449. Masc.

Neut.

Fern.

Nom. Ace, twegen

tu, twa

twa

Gen. / tweg(e)a
I twegra

tweg(e)a

tweg(e)a

twegra

twegra

Dat. twEem, twam twsem, twam twsem, twam

The formation of twegen and of the genitive are
difficult to explain. tweg(e)a cannot correspond to Goth,
twaddje, prim. Germanic *twajjon, which would have
become *twEeg(e)a in OE., cp. § 275. twam from prim.
Germanic *twaimiz; twam was a new formation from
twa. tu from prim. Germanic *tw6 (§ 130) ; twa corre-
sponds to the Goth. masc. form twdi.

§ 450. Like twegen is also declined begen (shortened
later to beggen), bu (§ 130), ba (Goth. masc. bdi), both.

§§451-4] Adjectives 221

Also in the combination masc. and fern, ba twa, neut.
bu tu, often written in one word butii, both.

§451.

'

Masc.

Neut.

Fern.

Nom.

Ace.

Tprl, Jirie

)>rio, Jjreo

)>rio, ))reo

Gen.

Jiriora
})reora

Jjriora
]3reora

])riora
])reora

Dat.

Jjrim

)jrim

]>rim

J)ri (Goth. J)reis) from prim. Germanic *}>rijiz ; ])rie had
its e from the adjectives (§ 424). ]3riora was formed from
]jrio with the ending of the strong adjectives ; the regular
form would have been *J)ria from prim. Germanic *]>rij5n.
J)rim (Goth. J)rim) from *])rimiz ; beside ])rim there also
occurs J>rim (cp. § 146). Neut. J)no (Goth. Jrija) from
*]3riu older *]jrij6. Fem. Jjrio from *]jriu older *]5rijo.

§ 452. The cardinal numbers 4 to 19 generally remained
uninflected when they stood before a noun, whereas, if
they stood after a noun or were used as nouns, they were
declined according to the i-declension : nom. ace. masc.
and fem. -e, neut. -u (-0) ; gen. -a, dat. -um, as of fif
hlainra, from five loaves ; mid feawum brojirum, ]jset is,
seofonum o])J)e eahtum, with seven or eight brothers ; fifa
sum, one of five.

2. Other Numerals.

§ 453. In OE. the multiplicative numeral adjectives
were formed from the cardinals and the Germanic suffix
for fold, Goth. -fal]>s, OHG. -fait, OE. -feald (§ 628),
as anfeald, single, twie-, twifeald, twofold, Jrie-, Jirifeald,
threefold, feoweTieald, fourfold, &c., manigfeald, manifold,
which were declined as ordinary adjectives. The first
element of twifeald, ))rifeald was sometimes inflected,
as dat. twsmfealdum, ))rimfealdum.

§ 454. Of the old adverbial multiplicatives only three
occur : sene (rare in gen. form senes), once ; tuwa.twiwa,

2 2 2 A cadence [§§ 4 6 5-8

twywa, twice; ])riwa, Jjrywa, thrice. The remaining
multiplicatives, and often also once, twice, thrice, were
expressed by si]j, going, way, and the cardinals, as sne
sijja or on senne si)j, twaem si]}um (Goth, twdim sinjjam),
fif sijjum (Goth, fimf sinjiam), &c.

§ 455. For the first, second, third, SjC. time, were ex-
pressed by si)) and the ordinals, as forman si])e, ojjre
si})e, ]}riddan sij)e, fiftan sijie, &c.

§ 456. The distributive numerals were an-, snliepige,
one each ; be tweem or twsem and twEem, be })rim or
])rim and Jirim, feower and feower, ])usendum and
Jiusendum, &c. A remnant of the old distributive numeral
corresponding to Gothic tweihndi, two each, has been
preserved in the compound preposition betweonum,
between.

§ 457. OE. also had numerals like NHG. anderthalb,
dritt(e)halb, lit. (one and) the secondhalf, [two and) the third
half. This method of expressing numbers goes back
to the prim. Germanic period, and was originally common
in all the Germanic languages. Originally both elements
of the compound were inflected, but at a later period the
compound, when used before nouns, became uninflected
like other cardinal numerals, as 6])er healf hand daga,
150 days ; Jjridda healf, two and a half, fe6(we)r])a healf,
three and a half; cp. Gr. rpixoi' i^niToXai'Toi', two talents and
a half, lit. third half talent.

CHAPTER XIII

PRONOUNS

§ 458. The most difficult chapter in works on com-
parative grammar is the one dealing with the pronouns.
It is impossible to state with any degree of certainty how
many pronouns the parent Indg. language had and what

§458] Pronouns 223

forms they had assumed at the time it became differentiated
into the various branches which constitute the Indg. family
of languages. The difficulty is rendered still more com-
plicated by the fact that most of the pronouns, especially
the personal and demonstrative, must have had accented
and unaccented forms existing side by side in the parent
language itself; and that one or other of the forms became
generalized already in the prehistoric period of the in-
dividual branches of the parent language. And then at
a later period, but still in prehistoric times, there arose
new accented and unaccented forms side by side in the
individual branches, as e. g. in prim. Germanic ek, mek
beside ik, mik. The separate Germanic languages gene-
ralized one or other of these forms before the beginning
of the oldest literary monuments and then new accented
beside unaccented forms came into existence again. And
similarly during the historic periods of the different
languages. Thus, e. g. the OE. for I is ic, this became in
ME. ich accented form beside i unaccented form, ich then
disappeared in standard ME. (but it is still preserved
in one of the modern dialects of Somersetshire) and i came
to be used as the accented and unaccented form. At
a later period it became i when accented and remained
i when unaccented. The former has become NE. I, and
the latter has disappeared from the literary language, but
it is still preserved in many northern Engl, dialects, as i.
In these dialects i is regularly used in interrogative and
subordinate sentences; the ME. accented form i has
become ai and is only used in the dialects to express
special emphasis, and from it a new unaccented form a
has been developed which can only be used in making
direct assertions. Thus in one and the same dialect
(Windhill, Yorks.) we arrive at three forms : ai, a, i, which
are never mixed up syntactically by genuine native
dialect speakers. Something similar to what has happened

224

Accidence

[§§ 459-61

and still is happening in tlie modern dialects must also
have taken place in the prehistoric and historic periods of
all the Indg. languages ; hence in the prehistoric forms
of the pronouns given below, it must not be assumed that
they were the only ones existing in prim. Germanic.
They are merely given as the nearest ascertainable forms
from which the OE. forms were descended.

I. Personal.

§459.

First Person.

Sing.

Dual.

Plur.

Norn.

ic,/

wit

we

Ace.

mec, me

uncit, unc

tisic, lis

Gen.

min

uncer

iiser, iire

Dat.

me

unc

us

§ 460.

Second Person.

Nom.

J>u, thou

git

gS

Ace.

})ec, ^p%

incit, inc

eowic, eow, iow

Gen.

))in

incer

eower, iower

Dat.

>e

inc

eow, iow

§461.

Third Person.

Sing.

Masc.

Neut.

Fern.

Nom.

he, he

hit

hie, heo

Ace.

bine, hiene

hit

hie

Gen.

his

his

hiere, hire

Dat.

him

him

hiere, hire

Plur. all Genders.

Nom. Ace.

hie, hi

Gen.

hiera, hira.

heora

Dat.

him

§ 462] Pronouns 225

§ 462. In the parent language the nom. was rarely used
except to express emphasis (cp. Skr., Lat., and Gr.),
because it was sufficiently indicated by the personal
endings of the verb. Beside the accented form of each
case of the personal pronouns, there also existed one
or more unaccented forms just as in many modern dialects,
where we often find three or even four forms for the nom.
case of each pronoun. Most of the OE. forms of the per-
sonal pronouns represent prim. Germanic unaccented forms.

In forms marked with both long and short vowels, as in
me, fe, ge, &c., those with long vowels were the accented,
and those with short vowels were the unaccented forms,
see § 85. In the pronouns of the first and second persons
the gen. case sing, and pi. were formed from the stem-
forms of the possessive pronouns. The c in the ace. forms
mec, fee, usic, eowic, goes back to a prim. Germanic
emphatic particle, *ke = Indg. *ge, which is found in Gr.
pronominal forms like i^i^f- The ace. forms with c only
occur in the oldest records and in poetry, ie is the old
unaccented form, the accented form was preserved in O.Icel.
ek (cp. Lat. ego, Gr. eycS). The e in me, J>e may represent
Indg. e, cp. Gr. i\i.i(\i.{),-ri, but it is far more likely that me,
Jje are old datives used for the accusative. ])U (OHG. du)
beside J>u (OHG. du), NE. has preserved the old accented,
and NHG. the old unaccented form. Dat. me (Goth. mis,
OHG. mir), J)e (OHG. dir), prim. Germanic *mes, *]>es
beside unaccented *miz,*])iz, with -s, -z from the dat. plural ;
OE. me, }3e can represent either form, probably the latter,
cp. wl, gS.

wit (Goth. OS. wit), and git (OS. git) were unaccented
plurals with the addition of -t which is of obscure origin.
There are grave phonological difficulties against assuming
that the -t is related to the numeral for two. Ace. uncit,
incit were formed from une, inc with -it from the nomina-
tive, une, inc are old accusatives also used for the dative ;

OE.GR. Q

2 26 Accidence [§462

unc (Goth, ugk, OS. unc) from un {which occurs in the
ace. pi. us = Goth, uns = Indg. ns with vocalic n) + the
particle *ke = prim. Germanic *ur)ki ; inc (OS. ink, cp.
Goth, igq-is), prim. Germanic *ir|q- which is of unknown
origin.

we, prim. Germanic *wis (Goth, weis) beside the unac-
cented form *wiz (OHG. wir) ; *wiz became *wi in prim.
OE. and then later we, from which a new accented form
we was formed, ge for *gu (= Goth, jus, prim. Germanic
*jus beside *juz) with e from we. usic from older *unsek
(with e from mec) ; us (Goth. OHG. uns, Indg. ns with
vocalic n). eowic from older *iuwek (with e from fee) ;
dat. eow (OHG. iu, eu) from older *iuw, prim. Germanic
*iwwiz ; eow, iow is the old dat. also used for the
accusative.

The pronoun of the third person is originally a demon-
strative pronoun formed from the Indg. stem *ki-, this,
which occurs in Lat. hi-ce (later hie), this, ei>s, ei-ter, wt
this side. It has been preserved in Goth, in only a few
isolated phrases, as und hina dag, to this day ; himma
daga, on this day, to-day ; und hita nu, till now.

hi, prim. Germanic *xis beside unaccented *xiz; *xiz
became *xi in prim. OE. and then later he from which
a new accented he was formed ; hine (Goth, hina), prim.
Germanic *xinon, beside hiene with ie from hiere, hiera ;
his from *xi£a ; him from *ximi (orig. instrumental), hit (cp.
Goth.hita, where the t = Lat. -d in id, that), hio later heo,
formed from *hi + u with u from sic, seo (§ 465) ; hie later
hi, hy, from *hi + on ; gen. hire from "y^hz, dat. hire from
*xizai; hiere had ie from the gen. plural; cp. the prim.
Germanic endings of the fem. adjectives (§ 424) ; the ace.
form was often used for the nom. and vice versa, hi later
hy, from *xi, unaccented *xi, beside hie with e from the
adjectives (§ 424) ; hi was often written hig (see § 6, Note)
in late OE. The masc. form was used for all genders, but

§§ 463-4] Pronouns 227

sometimes the old fem. sing, heo was used instead of it;
hira from *xizon, beside hiora, heora, hiera with o/a-um-
laut (§ 102). him from *xiiniz, beside late WS. heom with
eo from the genitive. All the forms with i often had y in
late WS.

2. Reflexive.

§ 463. The reflexive pronoun originally referred to the
chief person of the sentence (generally the subject), irre-
spectively as to whether the subject was the first, second,
or third person singular or plural. This usage remained
in Sanskrit, but in the Germanic languages, the pronouns
of the first and second person came to be used reflexively
already in prim. Germanic, and then the original reflexive
pronoun became restricted to the third person. But the
prim.. Germanic reflexive pronoun of the third person *£.ek,
unaccented *sik (Goth, lik, OHG. sih) disappeared in
OE., and the old genitive (Goth, seina, OHG. sin) only
remained as a possessive pronoun. So that the personal
pronouns of the third person also came to be used reflex-
ively in OE. When the personal pronouns were used
reflexively self, self (declined strong and weak) was often
added to emphasize them.

3. Possessive.

§ 464. The possessive pronouns min, my, ]>m, thy, sin
(mostly used in poetry), his, her, its, are originally old
locatives, Indg. *mei, *tei, *sei with the addition of the
nominal suffix -no-, whence prim. Germanic masc. nom.
*mlnaz, *]nnaz, "sinaz ; fem. nom. *mln6, *})ino, *sin6,
which were declined in the sing, and plural, all genders,
like blind (§ 424) ; but instead of sin, the gen. of the
personal pronoun was often used as in Lat. eius, gen. pi.
eorum, earum. The remaining possessive pronouns were
formed from the personal pronouns by means of the Indg.

Q2

2 28 Accidence [§465

comparative suffix -ero-, prim. Germanic -era-, as uncer,
incer, user, eower, all of which were declined like halig
(§ 429). ure was declined like wilde {§ 433) except that
the fem. nom. sing, was ure not *uru. It is difficult to
account for the form ure. In the fem. gen. and dat. sing,
and gen. pi. urre, urra, the rr was often simplified to r.
In those cases which had syncope of the medial vowel, the
sr became ss (§ 281) in the declension ot user, and then
the ss was sometimes extended by analogy to the other
cases, as nom. sing, usser, masc. ace. sing, usserne beside
the regular forms user, userne.

4. Demonstrative.

§ 465. In the parent Indg. language the nom. sing. masc.
and fem. of the simple demonstrative was *so, *sa = Gr.
6, 1^, Goth, sa, so. All the other cases of the sing, and pi.
were formed from the stems te-, to-, toi- ; ta-, tai-, as ace.
sing. Gr. r&v, -rliv, Lat. is-tum, is-tam, Goth. Ipan-a, J)6;
nom. pi. Gr. toi, rai, Lat. is-ti, is-tae, Goth, ^pk\, J)6s.

Sing. Masc. Neut. Fem.

Nom. sS, the, that Jiaet sio, sec

Ace. Jjone Jjset fa

Gen. J)ses ])aes Jiaere

Dat. fjem, Jam ]>Eem, ])am Jjjere

Instr. ]jy, fon

Plur. all Genders.
Nom. Ace. Jja

Gen. J>ara, fisera
Dat. JJEem, Jiam

se was the unaccented form of prim. Germanic '^sa(Goth.
sa) to which a new accented form se was made (§ 144) ;
]jone (Goth. ))ana) the unaccented form of prim. Germanic
*J)an6n, beside late OE. fsene, fane; )>aes from prim,
Germanic *J)asa (§ 54), beside *J)esa (Anglian fes, Goth.

§4^6] Pronouns 229

]jis, OHG. des); ^xta from the prim. Germanic instru-
mental *]3aimi, beside ])am witli a from tiie plural Jja, })ara,
as in the dat. pi. fam. J)set (Goth. Jiata, Lat. is-tud,
Indg. *tod) ; fy, ]jon are difficult to explain satisfactorily ;
they were chiefly used before the comparative of adverbs
and as a factor in adverbial and conjunctional phrases like
the Goth, instrumental \e, as ])on ma, the more, cp. Gothic
ni pe haldis, none the more ; for \y, for Jjon, because, on
that account, sic, seo does not correspond to Goth, so,
but like OHG. siu, she, it was a new formation from the
prim. Germanic fem. pronoun *si (= Gr. i, Goth, si, OHG.
si), she ■'r the Germanic fem. ending -o; *si6 regularly
became sic, see through the intermediate stage of siu
which is found in the Anglian dialect. The reason why
the new formation took place was probably due to the fact
that the unaccented form of *si would have become sS in
OE. and thus have fallen together with the masc. nom.
sing., cp. OE. we, he from the prim. Germanic unaccented
forms *wiz, *xiz (§ 462) ; ace. ])a (prim. Germanic *]36n,
Goth. ))o, Gr. Dor. toc, Indg. *tam) is from the unaccented
form *\2l from which a new accented form Jia was formed ;
gen. Jijere from *j3aizjaz (cp. Skr. tdsyas, Indg. *t6sjls)
with ai from the gen. plural ; and similarly in the dat.
])Eere from *])aizjai (cp. Skr. tdsyai, Indg. *tesjai), beside
))are from *}jaizai. PI. nom. masc. ))a (= Goth. J)4i, Gr.
Tot) ; the old nom. was also used for the nom. and ace. all
genders ; gen. ]7ara from prim. Germanic *J>aiz5n, Indg.
*tois5m (cp. the Goth. gen. pi. of adjectives, as blindaize,
•6), beside Jisera with ae from ))Bem; Jj^m (Goth. )jdim)
from prim. Germanic *Jiaimiz, beside Jiam with a from the
genitive, which became Jian in late WS.

§ 466. The compound demonstrative pronoun fies, ]3is,
)iios (Jjeos), this, was originally formed from the simple
demonstrative + the deictic particle -se, -si which is probably
related to Goth, sdi, OHG. se, lo!, behold! Its earliest

230 Accidence [§4^6

usage was that of an emphatic demonstrative pronoun and
then later it came to be used also as a simple demonstrative
adjective in much the same way that this here, these here,
that there, them there (= those) are used in most Modern
English dialects. Originally only the first element was in-
flected as in OHG. masc. nom. sing, de-se, gen. des-se,
pi. de-se. At a later period the -se came to be inflected
also, as masc. gen. sing. OHG. des-ses = OE. J)is-ses. At
this stage the gen. ])is- (= Goth. J)is) became extended to
most of the other cases. And lastly the first element ceased to
be inflected and the second element took in most cases the
endings of the simple demonstrative. This compound de-
monstrative pronoun exists in all the Germanic languages
except Gothic. The nom. sing. \%%, \\o% (}}eos) were new
formations made from the oblique stem-form with ]> {§ 465).
The old nom. forms were preserved in the oldest Norse
inscriptions, as masc. sa-si, fem. su-si, neut. ]>at-si.

Neut. Fem.

J)is J)ios, feos

\\s ]}as

])is(s)es )>isse

J>is(s)um ]>isse
J>ys, >is

Plur. all Genders.
Nom. Ace. ]>as
Gen. ]3issa
Dat. J)is(s)um

J)es from older *]3e-se (= OHG. de-se) was the un-
accented form from which a new accented form )jes was
made. ]>ios from }jius (preserved in the Anglian dialect),
older *})iu -^ se (cp. sic, § 465). The fem. ace. sing., instr.,
and nom. pi. represent the simple demonstrative forms
-f -se which regularly became -s. The other cases
singular and plural generalized the \\%; the i of which

Sing.

Masc.

Nom.

JjSs

Ace.

J)isne

Gen.

)iis(s)es

Dat.

J>is(s)um

Instr.

§§467-8] Pronouns 231

later became y. ss was often simplified to s. In the dat.
sing, and pi. Anglian has ])ios{s]um, ]jeos(s)um with
u-umlaut {§ 101) beside J>is(s)um. Fem. gen. and dat. sing.
]>isse from older *])isre, gen. pi. Jjissa from older *})isra
(§ 281); in late OE. there also occur Jiissere, ]>issera with
•re, -ra from the simple demonstrative, beside ]3isre, pisra
with syncope of the medial vowel and simplification of the ss.

§ 437. ilea, same, which only occurs in combination
with the def. art., as si ilea, J»aet ilce, seo ilce, the same, is
always declined weak.

self, seolf, sylf, silf, self, was declined according to the
strong or weak declension of adjectives. In combination
with the def art., as se selfa, seolfa, it meant the selfsame.
See § 463.

5. Relative.

§ 468. A relative pronoun proper did not exist in prim.
Germanic. The separate Germanic languages expressed
it in various ways. In Goth, it was expressed by suffixing
the relative particle ei to the personal pronouns for the
first and second persons, and to the simple demonstrative
for the third person ; in O.Norse by the particles sem and
es (later er) in combination with the simple demonstrative ;
in OS. and OHG. generally by the simple demonstrative ;
and in OE. by the relative particle J>e alone or in com-
bination with the personal or the simple demonstrative
pronoun, as se mon-dryhten, se eow ])a ma])mas geaf,
the lord who gave you the treasures ; ])onne todeela]) hi his
feoh Jjaet to lafe bij), then they divide his property which is
left, ie hit eom, )je wi]> ])e sprece, it is I who speak with
thee ; idesa seenost ])e on woruld come, the fairest one of
ladies who came into the world; ge jje yfle synt, j>'e who are
evil, se fe bryd haefj}, se is brydguma, he who hath the
bride is the bridegroom ; gehyre, se ]>e earan haebbe, let
him hear who hath ears ; ])aet J)e aeenned is of flsesce,
))set is flsese, that which is born of the flesh isjlesh, we Jias

232 Accidence [§469

word spreca]?, Jie we in carceriie sitta]?, we who sit tn
prison speak these words ; saga hwset ic hatte, \& ic lond
reafige, say what I am called, I who lay waste the land;
Jiaet se mon ne wat, ])e him on foldan faegrost limpej),

the man to whom on earth the fairest happens knows not that.

6. Interrogative.

§ 469. The parent Indg. language had two stems from
which the interrogative pronoun was formed, viz. qo- and
qi- with labialized q (§ 237). The former occurs in Gr.
TTo-Tepos, which of two ?, Goth, hras, OE. hwa, who ?, from
an original form *qos ; Lat. quod, Goth, hra, O.Icel.
huat, OS. hwat, OHG. hwa?, OE. hwset, what?, from
an original form "^qod. And the latter occurs in Gr. tis,
Lat. quis, who ?, from an original form *qis ; Goth, hrileiks,
OE. hwilc, what sort of?

The OE. simple interrogative pronoun had no indepen-
dent form for the feminine, and was declined in the singular
only.

Masc. Neut.

Nom. hwa hwat

Ace. hwone hwaet

Gen. hwses hwses

Dat. hwEem, hwam hwsem, hwam

Instr. hwy, hwi

On the long vowel in hwa, see § 79. hwone (Goth.
hrana) from prim. Germanic *xwanon, is the old un-
accented form, beside this there rarely occurs the accented
form hwane, later hwsene. hwses from prim. Germanic
*xwasa beside Goth, hris from *xwesa. hwsem from
prim. Germanic *xwaimi (instrumental) beside hwam,
a new formation from hwa. Beside the instr. hwy, hwi
which are difficult to explain, there also occur hwon,
in such adverbial phrases as for hwon, to hwon, ivlty ?,
and hu (§ 130), how ?

§§470-2] Verbs 233

§ 470. hwaejier (Goth. h;a))ar), which of two ?, and
hwelc, hwilc (Goth, hiileiks), what sort of?, were declined
according to the strong declension of adjectives.

7. Indefinite.
§ 471. OE. had the following indefinite pronouns : —
aeghwa, each one, every one, from a, ewr+gi + hwa; and
similarly seghwaejjer, each of two, both ; seghwelc, seghwilc,
each one, every one. aelc, each, every ; eenig, any, nsenig,
not any one, no one ; sethwa, each ; ahwa, any one ;
ahwaejjer, ohwsejjer, awfier, owjier, one of two, nahwaejjer,
nohwaefer, nawfer, nowjjer, neither of two ; an, some
one, a certain one, in plur. each, every, all, nan, no one,
nan))ing, nothing; awiht, owiht, awuht, owuht, aht,
oht, anything ; nawiht, nowiht, nawuht, nowuht, naht,
noht, nothing ; gehwa, each one, every one ; gehwaBj)er,
each of two, both ; gehwilc, each, every one ; hwelchwugu,
any, some, some one ; hwsethwugu, somewhat, something ;
loc, loca + pronoun hwa, hwaejier, as 16c hwae])er faera
gebro))ra, whichever of the two brothers, bide me loce hwaes
J)u wille, ask me for whatever thou wilt; man, one; nat +
hwa, hwelc, some one I know not who, which ; samh'wilc,
some ; sum, some one ; swa . . . swa, as swa hwa
swa, whosoever, whoever, swa hwaet sw^a, whatsoever,
whatever, swa hwae))er swa, whichever of two, swa hwelc
swa, whichever ; swelc, swilc, such ; Jjyslic, J>uslic,
Jjyllic, fuUic, such.

CHAPTER XIV

VERBS

§ 472. In the parent Indg. language the verbs were
divided into two great classes : athematic and thematic.
In the athematic verbs the personal endings were added
to the bare root which had the strong grade form of

234 Accidence [§473

ablaut in the singular, but the weak grade in the dual and
plural. Thus for example the singular and plural of the
verbs for 'to be', and 'to go' were: *es-mi, *es-si, *es-ti,
*s.mes or *s-m6s, *s-t6, *s-enti; *ei-mi, *6i-si, *ei-ti,
*i-m6s or *i-m6s, *i-te, *j-6nti. Verbs of this class are
often called mi-verbs because the first person singular
ends in -mi. The Germanic languages have only pre-
served a few traces of the mi-conjugation (§ 547). Nearly
all the verbal forms, which originally belonged to this
class, passed over into the 6-conjugation in the prim.
Germanic period.

In the thematic verbs the stem-vowel, which could be
either of the strong or weak grade of ablaut, remained
unchanged throughout the present; in the former case
they are called imperfect presents (as ceosan, to choose ;
helpan, to help ; etan, to eat ; &c.), and in the latter case
aorist presents (as OE. lucan, to close ; murnan, to mourn ;
&c.). The present was formed by means of the thematic
vowels, e, o, which came between the root and the per-
sonal endings, thus the present singular and plural of
the verb for ' to bear ' was *bher6 (from *bher-o-a),
*bher-e-si, *bher.e-tl, *bher-o-mes, (-mos), *bher-e-te,
*bher-o-nti. Verbs of- this class are generally called
6-verbs because the first person singular ends in -5. The
old distinction between the mi- and the 6-conjugation was
fairly well preserved in Greek, as elfii, l am, Etjii, I go,
8i8(ijp,i, / give ; filvu, I remain, ireMu, / persuade ; rpiPw,
/ rub, Tu<t><i), / smoke.

§ 473. In treating the history of the verbal forms in
OE. it is advisable to start out partly from prim. Germanic
and partly from the oldest OE. The Indg. verbal system
underwent so many radical changes in prim. Germanic
that it would be -necessary to treat here in detail the verbal
system of the non-Germanic languages such as Sanskrit,
Greek, and Latin in order to account for all the changes.

§ 474] Verbs 235

In the Germanic languages the verbs are divided into
two great classes : — Strong and Weak. The strong verbs
form their preterite (originally perfect) and past participle
by means of ablaut (§ 224). The weak verbs form their
preterite by the addition of a syllable containing a dental
(Goth, -da, (.ta), OE. -de, -te), and their past participle by
means of a dental suffix (Goth. -)), (-t), OE. -d, (-t)).

Besides these two great classes of strong and weak
verbs, there are a few others which will be treated under
the general heading of Minor Groups.

The strong verbs were originally further sub-divided
into reduplicated and non-reduplicated verbs, as Goth,
haldan, to hold, letan, to let, preterite haihald, lail5t;
niman, to take, hilpan, to help, preterite nam, halp. In
OE. the reduplication almost entirely disappeared in the
prehistoric period of the language (§ 511). The non-redupli-
cated verbs are divided into six classes according to
the six ablaut-series (§ 226). The originally reduplicated
verbs are put together in this book and called class VII.

§ 474. The OE. verb has the following independent
forms : — one voice (active), two numbers, three persons,
two tenses (present and preterite), two complete moods
(indicative, and subjunctive, the latter originally the
optative), besides an imperative which is only used in
the present tense; two verbal nouns (present infinitive
and present participle), and one verbal adjective (the past
participle).

The simple future was generally expressed by the pre-
sent tense as in the oldest periods of the other Germanic
languages, but already in OE. the present forms of beon,
to be, sculan, shall, willan, will, with the infinitive began to
be used to express the future. In the oldest OE. the
perfect of transitive verbs was formed by means of the
forms of habban, to have, and the past participle, and that
of intransitive verbs by means ofwesan, to be, and the past

236 Accidence [§475

participle. At a later period habban came to be used
to form the perfect of intransitive verbs also. The only
trace of the old passive voice preserved in OE. is hatte
(Goth, hditada), is or was called, pi. hatton. Otherwise
the passive was expressed by the forms of been, vtresan,
to be, occasionally also weor]3an, to become, and the past
participle.

A. Strong Verbs.

§ 475. We are able to conjugate a strong verb in OE.
when we know the four stems, as seen (i) in the infinitive
or first pers. sing. pres. indicative, (2) first pers. sing. pret.
indicative, (3) first pers. pi. pret. indicative, (4) the past
participle. The pret. subjunctive and the second pers.
pret. indicative have the same stem-vowel as the pret.
pi. indicative. The conjugation of beran, to bear, helpan,
to help, bindan, to bind, ridan, to ride, ceosan, to choose,
weorpan, to throw, faran, to go, biddan, to pray, feallan,
to fall, teon, to draw, slean, to slay, fon, to seise, will serve
as models for all strong verbs, because in addition to verbal
endings, one or other of them illustrates such phenomena
as umlaut, the interchange between i and e in the pres.
indie, of verbs belonging to classes III, IV, and V, break-
ing, vowel contraction, vowel syncope, the simplification
of double consonants, Verner's law, and the consonant
changes in the second and third pers. sing, of the pres.
indicative.

Present.

Indicative.

Sing. I. bere

2. bir(e)st

3. bir(e)>
Plur. beraJ)

helpe
hilpst
hilpj)
helpa})

binde
bintst
bint
binda])

ride
ritst

rit{t)
rida])

§475]

Verbs

237

Subjunctive

'.

Sing.

bere

helpe

binde

ride

Plur.

beren

helpen
Imperative,

binden

rlden

Sing.

2.

ber

help

bind

rid

Plur.

2.

beraj)

helpa]>

Infinitive.

binda]>

rida])

beran

helpan

Participle.

bindan

ridan

berende

helpende

Preterite.
Indicative.

bindende

ridend*

Sing.

I.

baer

healp

band

rad

2.

baere

hulpe

bunde

ride

3-

baer

healp

band

rad

Plur.

bseron

hulpon

Subjunctive

bundon

ridon

Sing.

bare

hulpe

bunde

ride

Plur.

bffiren

hulpen

Participle.

bunden

riden

boren

holpen

Present.
Indicative.

bunden

riden

Sing.

I.

ceose

weorpe

fare

bidde

2.

ciest

wierpst

faBr{e)st

bitst

3-

ciest

wierp})

faBr(e)}>

bit(t)

Plur.

ceosa})

weorpa]j

fara))

bidda]>

238

Accidence
Subjunctive,

[§475

Sing.

ceose

weorpe fare

bidde

Plur.

ceosen

weorpen faren

Imperative.

bidden

Sing. 2.

ceos

weorp far

bide

Plur. 2.

ceosa])

weorpaj) fara])

Infinitive.

biddaj)

ceosan

weorpan faran
Participle.

biddan

ceosende

weorpende farende

Preterite.
Indicative.

biddende

Sing. I.

ceas

wearp for

bsed

2.

cure

wurpe fore

bsde

3-

ceas

wearp for

bsed

Plur.

curon

wurpon foron

Subjunctive.

bxdon

Sing.

cure

wurpe fore

bsede

Plur.

curen

wurpen foren
Participle.

bseden

coren

worpen faren

Present.
Indicative.

beden

Sing. I.

fealle

teo slea

fo

2.

fielst

tiehst sliehst

fehst

3-

fielf

tiehj) sliehjj

feh))

Plur,

fealla])

teo]) slea))

Subjunctive.

f6>

Sing.

fealle

teo slea

fo

Plur.

feallen

teon slean

fon

476]

Verbs

239

Imperative

Sing. 2.

feall

teoh

sleah

foh

Plur. 2.

feaUa>

teo>
Infinitive.

slea]>

f6]j

feallan

teon
Participle.

slean

fon

feallende

teonde

Preterite,
Indicative.

sleande

fonde

Sing. I.

feoU

teah

sloh, sldg

feng

2.

feolle

tuge

sloge

fenge

3-

feoU

teah

sloh, slog

feng

Plur.

feoUon

tugon

sl5gon -'

fengon

Sing.
Plur.

feolle
feoUen

feallen

Subjunctive.
tuge sloge

tugen slogen

Participle,
togen slsegen

fenge
fengen

fangen

The Endings of Strong Verbs.

§ 476. Pres. indicative : The Indg. and prim. Germanic
ending of the first pers. sing, was -o (cp. Lat. fero, Gr.
<|>^pu, Indg. *bh6r5, / bear) which became -u (later -o) in
prim. OE. (§ 214). The -u (-o) regularly remained after
short stems' and disappeared after long stems, as beru, -o
beside *help, *bind (§ 215), but already in prehistoric OE.
the verbs with long stems took -u again after the analogy
of those with short stems. The Anglian dialect mostly
preserved the -u (-o), but in early WS. and Ken. its place
was taken by -e from the pres. subjunctive.

240 Accidence [§476

The prim. Germanic forms ot the second pers. sing, of
beran and bindan were *birizi, *bindizi = Indg. *bheresi,
*bhendhesi, which would regularly have become *bire
(older *biri), *bind in OE. (§§ 211, 215), but already in
prehistoric OE. the second pers. sing, of strong verbs was
remodelled on the analogy of the first class of weak verbs
which did not have the chief accent on the stem in prim.
Germanic (§ 239, Note 2). The oldest OE. forms were
biris, bindis which regularly became later bires, bindes
(§ 215, Note). The ending -st arose partly from analogy
with the preterite-present forms wast, Jiearft, scealt, &c.
and partly from a false etymological division of the
pronoun from the verb to which it was often attached
enclitically, thus birisfu became biristu, from which birist
was extracted as the verbal form, cp. the similar process
in OHG. The ending -st occurs earliest in the contracted
verbs, tiehst, sliehst, &c.

The prim. Germanic forms of the third pers. sing, of
beran and bindan were *biridi (= OS. birid, OHG.
birit), *bindidi = Indg. *bh6reti, *bhendheti, which would
regularly have become *bired, older *birid, and *bind(d) in
OE., but already in prehistoric OE. the third pers. sing,
like the second was remodelled on analogy with the first
class of weak verbs. The oldest OE. forms were biri]?,
bindij), later bir(e)}j, bint (§ 300). The -e]) became -es in
late Nth.

In the second and third pers. sing, the -i- (-a-) was
regularly syncopated after long stems, as hilpst, hilp]j,
ritst, rit(t), tiehst, tlehj>, &c., and remained after short
stems, as birest, birej), faerest, fsere]?, &c. (§ 221), but
there are many exceptions to this rule, especially in WS.
and Ken., owing to new formations in both directions, as
bindest, binde]), hilpest, hilpejj, &c., and on the other
hand birst, bir}), faerst, fserj), &c. In Anglian the forms
without syncope were almost entirely generalized, but in

§476] Verbs 241

WS. and Ken. syncope was almost quite general, especially
after voiceless consonants and after d, f (= b), and g, but
as a rule not after a single liquid or a nasal.

The loss of -e- in the second and third pers. sing, gave
rise to various consonantal changes : Double consonants
were simplified before the personal endings (§ 259), as
fielst, fielj), spiiist, spin)*, beside inf. feallan, spinnan.

d became t before -st, as bintst, bitst, ritst, wieltst
beside wealdan, to wield, d and t+ ■]? became tt (common
in the older period), later t, as bint, bit(t), rit(t) ; birst,
it(t), beside inf. berstan, to burst, etan, to eat, see § 800.
Forms like bindest, bidst, wieldst ; bindej), bid(e)J), &c.
were new formations after the analogy of forms which
regularly had d.

After a long vowel, diphthong, or liquid, g became h
before -st, ■}> (§ 320, Note), as stihst, stihj), inf. stigan, to
ascend, fliehst, fliehj), inf. fleogan, to fly, swilhst, swilhji,
inf. swelgan, to swallow, but the g was often restored from
forms which regularly had g.

s, ss, st + -st, -]3 became •st(§§ 259, 305), as ciest ; cyst
beside inf. wv. cyssan, to kiss, birst beside birstest, birstejj
(new formations); x (= hs) + -st, •]3 became xt, as wiext
beside inf. weaxan, to grow. In verbs of this type the
second and third pers. singular regularly fell together.

]j disappeared before -st (§ 305), as cwist, wierst, beside
inf. cwe]jan, to say, weorfan, to become. Forms like
cwijjst, vpierjjst, snijjst (inf. snif>an, to cut), were new
formations after the analogy of the other forms of the
present. )> + ■]' became J), as cv?ij>, wierj).

The forms of the iirst and second pers. plural had
disappeared already in the oldest period of the language,
their place having been taken by the form of the third
person. The prim. Germanic forms of the third pers.
pi. of beran, bindan were *berandi, *biiidandi = Indg.
*bh6ronti, *bh6ndhonti, which would regularly have

242 Accidence [§§ 477-8

become in OE. *berand, *bindaiid = Goth, bairand,
bindand, but, as in the second and third pers. singular, the
third pers. pi. was remodelled on analogy with the first
class of weak verbs which regularly had -injji in prim.
Germanic. •kia\>i became -a]? in OE. through the inter-
mediate stages -anf, -on)j, -o]) (§ 218). -a]? became -as in
late Nth. This -s plural has been preserved in the Modern
northern dialects when the subject is not a simple personal
pronoun placed immediately before or after the verb.

§ 477. Pres. subjunctive : This tense is properly an old
optative. The original forms of the singular and plural
of beran were *bheroi-, *bh6rois, *bh6roit, *bheroim-,
*bheroite, *bh6roint. The final -t was regularly dropped
in prim. Germanic (§ 211) and the oi became ai during the
same period [\ 30). Then ai became a which was short-
ened to ae (§ 217). The se was preserved in the oldest
period of the language and afterwards became e. In OE.
the original forms of the singular regularly fell together in
bare. The old forms of the first and second pers. plural
disappeared and their place was taken by the third pers.
beren. Beside -en there also occurs in late WS. -an, and
also -un, -on taken over from the pret. pi. indicative. On
the loss of final -n in Nth., see § 288. The final -n also
disappeared in WS. and Ken. when a personal pronoun of
the first or second person came immediately after the verb,
as bere wS, wit, gl, git. Then bere wS, &c., came to be
used also for the indicative and imperative.

§ 478. Imperative : The original ending of the second
pers. sing, was -e which regularly disappeared without
leaving any trace of its former existence (§ 213), whence
OE. ber = Gr. ^ip^, Indg. *bhere. On the -e in bide
beside its absence in ber, bind, &c., see § 273. In OE. the
third pers. plural of the pres. indicative was used for the
second pers. plural. A form in -an, as beran, bindan, was
occasionally used in the oldest period of the language for

§§ 479-8 «] Verbs 243

the first pers. plural. This form was originally identical
with the first pers. pi. pres. indie, which disappeared
in OE. The first pers. pi. is generally expressed by the
pres. subjunctive, as beren, binden, &c.

§ 479. Pres. participle : In the parent language the stem
of the pres. participle ended in -nt, as in Lat. ferent-, Gr.
^ipovT, Indg. *bheront- = OE. berend-e, Goth, bairand-s.
The masc. and neut. were originally declined hke con-
sonant stems (§ 416). The fern. nom. sing, originally
ended in -i which was shortened to -i (§ 214) in prehistoric
OE., cp. Goth. fern. frij6ndi,/nie«rf. The -i of the feminine
was extended to the masc. and neut. which was the cause
of their passing over into the ja-declension (§ 433). See
§ 441. The oldest OE. ending is -sendi, -endi, later -ende.

§ 480. Infinitive : The inf. was originally a nomen
actionis, formed by means of various suffixes in the dif-
ferent Indg. languages. The suffix -ono-, to which was
added the nom. ace. neuter ending -m, became generalized
in prim. Germanic, thus the original form of beran was
*bheronom, the -onom of which regularly became -an
in OE. Goth. OS. and OHG. On the loss of the final -n
in Nth., see § 288. In prim. West Germanic the inf. was
inflected in the gen. and dat. like an ordinary noun of the
ja-declension (§ 355), gen. -ennes, dat. -enne. The in-
fleeted forms of the inf. are sometimes called the gerund.
The gen. disappeared in prehistoric OE. The dat. to
berenne generally became -anne through the influence of
the inf. ending -an. Beside -enne, -anne there also occur
in late OE. -ene, -ane, and -ende with d from the present
participle.

§ 481. Pret. indicative : The pret. indie, is morpho-
logically an old perfect, which already in prim. Germanic
was chiefly used to express the past tense. The original
endings of the perf. singular were -a, -tha, -e, cp. Gr. otSa,
oI<r6a, oi8e. The -a and -e regularly disappeared in pre-

R 2

244 Accidence [§ 482

historic OE. ($§ 212-13), whence OE. first and third pers.
singular baer, band, &c. The ending of the second pers.
singular would regularly have become ■)> (§ 233) in OE.
OS. O.Icel. and Goth., except after prim. Germanic s, f, h
where it regularly became t (§ 231, Notes), as in Goth.
last, thou didst gather, sloht, thou didst slay, ])arft (OE.
Jjcarfc), thou needest. This -t became generalized in prim.
Germanic, as Goth. O.Icel. namt, thou tookest. But in
the West Germanic languages the old ending was only
preserved in the preterite-present verbs, as OE. fearft,
thou needest, scealt, thou shalt, meaht, thou mayest, &c.
See § 539 ff. The third pers. plural ended in the parent
language in -nt (with vocalic n) which regularly became
•un in prim. Germanic (§§ 35, 211). -un remained in the
oldest OE. and then later became -on, and in late OE. -an
beside -on occurs, whence bseron, bundon, &c.

§ 482. Pret. subjunctive : The original endings were :
singular -jem, -jes, -jet, plural -im, -ite, -int, consisting
of the optative element -je-, (-i-) and the personal endings.
Already in prim. Germanic the -i- of the plural was levelled
out into the singular. The new sing, endings -im, -is, -it
would regularly have become -i (§§ 214, 218) in the oldest
OE. The -i would have caused umlaut in the stem-
syllable and then have disappeared after long stems and
have remained (later -e) after short stems. Regular forms
would have been *bjaid, *hylp, *fer, &c., but *cyre, *tyge,
&c. The pi. ending -int would regularly have become -in
(later -en) with umlaut in the stem-syllable, as *bynden,
*cyren, &c. But real old pret. subjunctive forms have
only been preserved in OE. in a few isolated instances
as in the preterite-presents, dyge, scyle, Jiyrfe. In OE.
the old endings of the pres. subjunctive came to be used
for the preterite some time before the operation of i-
umlaut. This accounts for the absence of umlaut in the
pret. subjunctive in OE., as bunde, bunden, &c. Already

§§ 483-4] Verbs 245

in early OE. the pret. subjunctive began to take the endings
of the pret. indicative. On the loss of the final -n in Nth.,
see § 288. The final -n also disappeared in WS. and
Ken. when a personal pronoun of the first or second
person came immediately after the verb, as bsere we, wit,
ge, git. Then later b»re we, &c., came to be used also
for the indicative.

§ 483. Past participle : The past participle was formed
in various ways in the parent language. In prim. Ger-
manic the suffix -eno-, -6no- became restricted to strong
verbs, and the suffix -tb- to weak verbs. In the strong
verbs OE. and O.Icel. generalized the form -eno-, and
Goth. OS. and OHG. the form -dno-. Beside the suffix
•6no-, -dno- there also existed in prim. Germanic -ini- =
Indg. -eni- which was preserved in a few OE. past parti-
ciples with umlaut in the stem-syllable, see § 442, Prim.
Germanic -^naz, -iniz = Indg. -6008, -enis regularly fell
together in -en in OE., but they were still kept apart
in the oldest period of the language, the former being
•aen (-en) and the latter -in.

General Remarks on the Strong Verbs.

§ 484. Present indicative : On the interchange between
i in the second and third pers. sing, and e in the other
forms of the present in verbs belonging to classes III, IV,
and V, as hilpst, hilp}) : helpan, to help ; bir(e)st, bir(e)Jj :
beran, to bear; cwist, cwij) : cwej>an, to say, see § 41.
i-umlaut took place in the second and third pers. sing,
of all verbs containing a vowel or diphthong capable of
being umlauted. On the i-umlaut in verbs of class VI, as
fsBr(e)st, fser(e)J), see § 55, Note 2. On the Anglian forms
of the second and third pers. sing, of verbs like ceosan,
teon, see § 138. The regular forms of the second and
third pers. sing, were oilen remodelled on analogy with

246 Accidence [§§ 485-7

the other forms of the present, especially in the Anglian
dialect, as help(e)st, help(e)]); fealst, fealj), feallest,
feallejj ; weorpest, weorpej), beside older hilpst, hilpf ;
fielst, fielf" ; wierpst, wierp]?.

On u- or o/a-umlaut of a, e in the first pers. sing., and
the pi. in the non-WS. dialects, see § 48. On the breaking
of Germanic a to ea, as in feallan, healp, wearp, and of e
to eo, as in weorpan, see § 49. On the vowel contraction
in the present of the contracted verbs, see § 139.

Strong verbs like biddan, to pray, hliehhan, to laugh,
licgan, to he down, sittan, to sit, had single medial con-
sonants in the second and third pers. sing., because the j,
which caused the doubling of the consonants in the other
forms of the present, had disappeared before the West
Germanic doubling of consonants took place, whence bitst,
bit(t) ; hliehst, hliehj) ; lig(e)st, lig(e)]) ; sitst, sit(t).

§ 485. Infinitive : On the o/a-umlaut in the non-WS.
dialects, see § 48.

§ 486. Pret. indicative : The West Germanic languages
only preserved the old pret. (originally perfect) of the
second pers. sing, in the preterite-present verbs (see §§ 481,
539). In all other strong verbs the OE. second pers. sing,
was formed direct from the pret. subjunctive, which
accounts for the absence of i-umlaut in the stem-syllable
and the preservation of the final -e after both short and
long stems, as ride, cure, &c., and bsere, hulpe, bunde,
&c. The regular forms would have been ride, *cyre, and
*bEer, *hylp, *bynd.

On the question ot u-umlaut in the plural of verbs
belonging to class I, see § 101.

§ 487. Pret. subjunctive : If the OE. pret. subjunctive
had been normally developed from the corresponding
prim. Germanic forms, it would have had i-umlaut in the
stem-syllable as in O. Icelandic. But this tense took the
endings of the pres. subjunctive in the prehistoric period

§§ 488-90] Verbs 247

of the language before the operation of i-umlaut. See
§482.

§488. Past Participle : The ending of the past participle
has already been explained in § 442. In prim. Germanic
the prefix *5i- was added to the past participle to impart to
it a perfective meaning. Verbs which were already per-
fective in meaning, such as bringan, to bring, cuman,
to come, findan, to find, niman, to take, weorjian, to become,
did not originally have it. But in OE. the simple past
participle generally had ge-, irrespectively as to whether
it was perfective or imperfective in meaning. On past
participles which have i-umlaut, see § 442.

§ 489. On the parts of strong verbs which exhibit
Verner's law in OE., see § 238.

The Classification of the Strong Verbs.
Class I.

§ 490. The verbs of this class belong to the first ablaut-
series (§ 226) and therefore have i in all forms of the
present, a in the first and third pers. sing, of the preterite,
and i in the preterite plural and past participle, thus :

bidan, to await bad bidon biden

Goth, beidan bdi]j bidun bidans

And similarly aetwitan, to blame, reproach ; acwinan,
to dwindle away ; behlidan, to cover ; belifan, to remain ;
bescitan, to befoul', besmltan, to pollute; bitan, to bite;
blican, to shine; cinan, to crack; clifan, to stick, adhere;
cnidan, to beat; drifan, to drive; dwinan, to dwindle;
flitan, to strive, quarrel; gewitan, to depart; ginan, to
yawn ; glidan, to glide ; gnldan, to rub together ; gripan,
to seise ; hnltan, to knock ; hrinan, to touch ; hwinan, to
whizz ; nipan, to grow dark ; ridan, to ride ; sican, to sigh ;
scinan (§ 133, Note 2), to shine ; scrifan, to prescribe ; slidan,
to slide; slitan, to slit; snlcan, to crawl; spiwan (§ 265),
to spew, spit; strlcan, to stroke ; &trldan, to stride ; swican,

248 Accidence [§§ 491-3

to cease from ; swlian, to sweep ; toslifan, to s//«/; fwlnan,
to grew soft ; ] witan, to hew ; wican, to yield, give way;
wlitan, to gaze ; wridan, to grow, flourish ; writan, to
write, stigan, to ascend, pret. sing, stag beside stah
(§ 323) ; and similarly hnigan, to incline ; migan, to make
water ; sigan, to sink.

§ 491. snijian, to cut sna]? snidon sniden
And similarly lijian, to go ; scrijjan, to go, proceed. See
§239. In arisan, to arise; gerisan, to befit; mi)ian, to
avoid; wrijian, to twist, the s, ]) of the present was ex-
tended to all forms of the verb.

§ 492. tion, teen, to accuse tah tigon tigen
tion, teon, from older *tiohan, *tihan {§ 127) ; on the g
in the pret. pi. and past participle, see §239. In the pres.
the eo from older io regularly fell together with the eo from
Germanic eu (§ 137) which was the cause of verbs of this
type often forming their preterite and past participle after
the analogy of class II (§495), as teah, tugon, togen ;
and similarly leon, to lend; seen, to strain ; feon, to thrive ;
wreon, to cover. Jseon from prim. Germanic *])ii^\a.n?iTi (§ 41)
originally belonged to class III ; the regular principal parts
in OE. would have been feon, *})6h (§ 40), ];ungon, })ungen,
all of which occur except *))6h. The regular past participles
of leon (Goth, leihran) and seon (prim. Germanic *slxwan-)
were *liwen, siwen with v? from prim. Germanic gw
(§ 241) ; ligen, sigen were formed on analogy with the other
verbs of this type.

Class II.

§ 493. The verbs of this class belong to the second
ablaut-series (§ 226) and therefore have eo in the present,
ea in the first and third pers. sing, of the preterite, u in the
pret. plural, and o in the past participle, thus :

beodan, to command bead budon boden

Goth, biudan biuj) budun budans

§§ 494-7] Verbs 249

And similarly a)ireotan, to Ure of; breotan, to break,
destroy ; cleofan, to cleave asunder ; creopan, to creep ;
dreopan, to drip; fleotan, to flow; geopan, to take to one-
self; gectan, to pour ; greotan, to weep ; hleotan, to cast
lots; leodan, to grow; neotan, to use, enjoy; reocan, to
smoke, reek ; reodan, to redden ; reotan, to weep ; sceotan,
to shoot ; smeocan, to smoke ; J;eotan, to howl, dreogan,
to endure, pret. sing, dreag beside dreah (§ 323) ; and simi-
larly fleogan, to fly ; leogan, to tell lies, breowan, to brew,
pret. sing, breaw (§ 265) ; and similarly ceowan, to chew ;
breowan, to repent of, rue.

§ 494. ceosan, to choose ceas curon coren

And similarly dreosan, to fall; forleosan, to lose;
freosan, to freeze; hreosan, to fall; seopan (sudon,
soden), to boil. See § 239. abreo))an, to perish, ruin,
extended the }j to all parts of the verb.
§ 495. teen, to draw teah tugon togen

teon (Goth, tiuban) from *teohan (§ 139) ; on the g in
the pret. plural and past participle, see § 239 ; and similarly
ileon, to flee.

§ 498. Here belong also the aorist presents with weak
grade vowel in all forms of the present (§ 472).
brucan, to use breac brucon brocen

And similarly dufan, to dive ; hrutan, to snore ; lucan,
to lock; liitan, to incline, botv down ; scufan, to push, shove;
sliipan, to slip ; sucan, to suck ; supan, to sup ; striidan,
to pillage ; ))iitan, to howl, biigan, to bend, pret. sing.
beag beside beah (§ 323) ; and similarly smugan, to creep ;
siigan, to suck.

Class III.

§ 497. The verbs of this class belong to the third ablaut-
series (§ 226), and include the strong verbs having a medial
nasal or liquid -(-consonant, and a few others in which the

250 Accidence [§§ 498-9

vowel is followed by two consonants other than a nasal
or liquid + consonant.

§ 498. Verbs with nasal + consonant had i in all forms
of the present, a, o (§ 59) in the first and third pers. sing, of
the preterite, and u in the preterite pi. and past participle,
thus:

bindan, to bind band (bond) bundon bunden
Goth, bindan band bundun bundans

And similarly acwincan, to vanish; climban, to climb;
clingan, to shrink ; crimman, to insert ; crincan, cringan,
to fall, succumb ; drincan, to drink ; gelimpan, to happen ;
grimman, to rage; grindan, to grind; hlimman, to
resound; hrindan, to push; linnan, to cease; onginnan,
to begin ; rinnan, to run, flow ; scrincan, scringan, to
shrink; sinnan, to meditate; slincan, to slink, creep;
spinnan, to spin ; springan, to leap ; stincan, to stink ;
stingan, to sting; findan, to swell; Jiringan, to throng,
press; Jjrintan, to swell; windan, to wind; winnan, to
toil, fight ; wringan, to wring. On sincan (Goth, sigqan),
to sink ; singan (Goth, siggwan), to sing ; swincan, to toil ;
swindan, to disappear ; swingan, to swing ; swimman,
to swim, see § 249. The regular principal parts of iindan
(Goth. fin])an) would have been fi|)an (§ 97), fb]> (§ 64),
fundon, funden (§ 239) ; the present, and the pret. sing,
fand were formed on analogy with verbs like bindan;
beside fand there occurs funde which is the second pers.
sing, also used for the first and third. On biernan (Goth.
brinnan), to burn, barn (Goth, brann), born (later beam),
burnon, burnen ; and iernan (Goth, rinnan, see above),
to run, am (Goth, rann), orn (later earn), urnon, urnen,
see § 98, Note 3.

§ 499. Verbs with 1 + cons. except Ic (§ 84) have e in the
present, ea (§ 64) in the first and third pers. sing, of the
preterite, u in the pret. plural, and o in the past participle
(§ 43), thus :

1 500-2]

Verbs

251

helpan, to help healp hulppn holpen
Goth, hilpan halp hulpun hulpans

And similarly belgan, to swell with anger; bellan, to
bellow ; beteldan, to cover ; delfan, to dig ; meltan, to melt ;
swelgan, to swallow; swellan, to swell; sweltan (§ 249),
to die. gieldan (§ 91), to yield, geald, guidon, golden;
and similarly giellan, to yell; gielpan, to boast.

§ 500. Verbs with Ic, r or h+ consonant have eo in the
present (§§ 83-6), ea in the first and third pers. sing, of the
preterite, u in the preterite plural, and o in the past parti-
ciple. On the verbs with the combination wee in the
present, see § 94.

weorpan, to throw wearp wurpon worpen

And similarly aseolcan, to languish ; beorcan, to bark ;
beorgan, to protect; ceorfan, to cut, carve; deorfan, to
labour; hweorfan, to turn, go; feohtan, to /ight ; meol-
can, late WS. also melcan, to milk ; sceorfan, to gnaw ;
sceorpan, to scrape ; steorfan, to die ; sweorfan, to rub ;
sweorcan, to become dark, weorjian, to become, wearj),
wurdon, worden (§ 239).

§ 501. feolan from *feolhan (§ 84, Note i), to enter,
penetrate, fealh (§ 64), fulgon (§ 239) beside the more
common form fselon made after the analogy of verbs of
class IV, folgen; pret. pi. and pp. also fulon from
*fulhon, folen from *folhen with h from the pres. *feolhan.

§502.

bregdan, to brandish

braegd

brugdon

brogden

stregdan, to strew

strsegd

strugdon

strogden

berstan, to burst

baerst

burston

borsten

))erscan, to thresh

faersc

])urscon

Jjorscen

frignan, to ask

fraegn

frugnon

frugnen

murnan, to mourn

meam

murnon

spurnan, to spurn

spearn

spurnon

spornen

252 Accidence [§S03

In bregdan and stregdan, beside the forms with g there
also occur forms with loss of g and lengthening of the pre-
ceding vowel, as bredan (§ 80, Note 2), brad (§ 54, Note 2),
brudon, broden (§ 106, Note), berstan (OHG. brestan)
and ];erscan (OHG. dreskan) have metathesis of r (§ 280),
hence the absence of breaking in the present and pret.
singular. The i in frignan is due to the influence of the gn ;
beside frignan there also occurs frinan ,§ 96, Note i) to
which a new pret. sing, fran was formed after the ana-
logy of verbs of class I ; the n belonged originally to the
present only, and the g to the pret. plural and past parti-
ciple ; the n and g were extended to all forms of the verb,
cp. Goth, fraihnan, frah, frehun for *fregun, fraihans
for *frigans ; the Goth, shows that the OE. verb originally
belonged to class V and that the principal parts would
regularly have been *freohnan(*freonan, § 329, 2), *freah,
*fragon (§ 120), *fregen ; beside the pret. pi. frugnon there
also occur frungon with metathesis of gn, and frunon with
loss of g; and beside the pp. frugnen there also occur
frunen with loss of g, and frognen. murnan and spurnan
(also spornan).are properly aorist presents {§ 472).

Class IV.

§ 503. The verbs of this class belong to the fourth
ablaut-series (§ 226), which includes the strong verbs whose
stems end in a single liquid or nasal. They have e in the
present, se in the first and third pers. sing, of the preterite,
se in the pret. plural, and o in the past participle, thus :

beran, to bear baer bseron boren
Goth, bairan bar berun baiirans

And similarly cwelan, to die; helan, to conceal; stelan, to
steal; teran, /o tear; Jiweran, fo stir, scieran (§ 91), to
shear, scear (§ 72), scearon (§ 124), scoren.

§§ 504-5] Verbs 253

§604.

cuman, to come c(w)6m c(w)omon cumen (cymen)

niman, to take nom n5mon numen

From the regular forms of the second and third pers.
sing. pres. indie. cym(e)st, cym(e)J), the y was often
extended to other forms of the pres., especially to the pres.
subjunctive as cyme beside cume; cuman is an aorist
present (§ 472) from older *kwoman with regular loss of
w before u (§§ 109, 268), after the analogy of which it was
often dropped in the preterite ; c(w)6m for *cwam, *cwom,
was a new formation from the plural where 6 was regular
(§121); cumen from older *kwomen; on cymen, see
§ 442. niman from older *neman (§ 81) ; nom was a new
formation from the plural which regularly had 6 (§ 121) ;
beside nom, nomon there also occur the new formations
nam, namon ; numen from older "nomen (§ 109).

Class V.

§ 505. The verbs of this class belong to the fifth ablaut-
series (§ 226), which includes the strong verbs whose stems
end in a single consonant other than a liquid or a nasal.
They have e in the present, se in the first and third pers.
sing, of the preterite, and e in the past participle, thus :

metan, to measure mset mston meten
Goth, mitan mat metun mitans

And similarly brecan (pp. brocen after the analogy of
class IV), to break; cnedan, to knead; drepan (pp. also
dropen after the analogy of class IV); screpan, to scrape ;
sprecan, late OE. specan, to speak ; swefan, to sleep ;
tredan, to tread; wefan, to weave; wegan (pret. pi. wsgon
beside wagon, see § 120), to carry ; wrecan, to avenge.
giefan (§ 91), to give, geaf (§ 72), geafon (§ 124), giefen ;
and similarly forgietan, to forget, etan, to eat, and fretan
(Goth, fra-itan, pret. sing, fret), to devour, had a in the

254 Accidence [§§506-8

pret. sing, already in prim. Germanic, cp. Goth, et, O.Icel.
OS. at, OHG. a:5 (§ 119). cwe])an, to say, cwse)j, cwsdon,
cweden ; wesan, to be, pret. pi. wjeron (§ 239). genesan,
to be saved, and lesan, to colled, gather, have extended the
s of the present and pret. sing, to all forms of the verb.

§ 506. seen (Goth, saihran) from *seohan (§ 87), to see,
seah (§ 68), sawon beside sJegon (§ 241), sewen (§ 241)
beside sawen with a difficult to account for, and Anglian
gesegen with g from the pret. plural ; and similarly gefeon,
to rejoice, gefeah, pret. pi. gefaegon; pleon, to risk, pret.
sing, pleah.

§ 507. To this class also belong biddan, to pray; licgan,
to lie down ; sittan, to sit, which originally had j in the
present (§ 254) : biddan (Goth, bidjan), bsed (Goth, ba])),
bsedon (Goth, bedun), beden (Goth, bidans). The pret.
pi. of licgan is lagon beside Isegon (§ 120). ]>icgan, to
receive, is a weak verb in WS. ; in poetry it has the strong
forms feah (]>ah), ]38Bgon, Jjegen. fricgan, to ask, inquire,
with strong pp. gefrigen, gefrugen (cp. § 502).

Class VI.

§ 508. The verbs of this class belong to the sixth ablaut-
series (§ 226), and have a in the present, 5 in the pret. sing,
and plural, and ae beside a in the past participle. There is
a good deal of fluctuation between ae and a in the past
participle, as fseren, grsefen, ssecen, slsegen beside faren,
grafen, sacen, slagen. The regular development of Ger-
manic a when followed by a palatal vowel in the next
syllable is ae (§ 54), so that forms with a like faren, &c., are
new formations with a from the present, see § 54, Note 3.
faran, to go for foron faeren, faren

Goth, faran for fdrun farans

And similarly alan, to grow ; bacan, to bake ; calan, to
be cold; galan, to sing; grafan, ^0 dig; hladan, to lade.

§§ 509-10]

Verbs

255

load ; sacan, to strive, quarrel ; wacan, to awake, be born ;
wadan, to go ; wascan, to wash, gnagan (pret. sing,
gnog beside gnoh, § 323), to gnaw ; and similarly dragan,
to draw, scacau, sceacan (§ 57, Note), to shake, scoc,
sceoc {§ 128, Note), scacen, sceacen ; and similarly scafan,
sceafan, to shave, scrape, standan (Goth, standan), to
stand, stod, stodon, standen, with n from the present,
spaiian, to allure, pret. spon beside speon which was
formed after the analogy of verbs of class VII.

§ 509.

slean, to strike slog, slob slogon slaegen, slagen

slean (Goth, slahan) from *sleahati (§ 70) ; slog with g
from the plural, beside sloh (§ 323), slogon (§ 239) ; beside
slsBgen, slagen there also occurs slegen with i-umlaut
(§ 442) ; and similarly flean, to flay ; lean, to blame ;
J)wean, to wash.

§ 510. To this class also belong hebban (Goth, hafjan),
to raise; hliehhan (Goth, hlahjan), to laugh; scej>]3an
(Goth. skaj>jan), to injure, cp. § 526 ; scieppan (Goth, ga-
skapjan), to create ; staeppan beside steppan (§ 55, Note 3),
to step, go ; swerian, to swear, which originally had j in the
present (§ 271).

hebban

hof

hofon

heefen, hafen

hliehhan

hlog, hloh

hl5gon

sce)5])an

sc5d

scodon

scieppan

scop

sc5pon

sceapen

staeppan

stop

stopon

staepen, stapen

swenan

swor

sworon sworen

hebban has also weak pret. and pp. in late WS. (hefde,
hefod) ; beside haefen there also occurs hefen (§ 442).
hlog with g from the plural beside hloh (§ 823). The
regular WS. form of sce]}}>an would be scie]7})an (§ 61).
On sceo- beside sco-, see § 128, Note. On sceapen, see

256 Accidence [§§511-14

§ 67, Note, sworen with o from analogy of verbs of
class IV as in OH G. gisworan.

Class VII.

§ 511. To this class belong those verbs which originally
had reduplicated preterites like Goth, haihald, lailot,
faiflok, haihdit, rairo]?, laildik, inf. haldan, to hold, letan,
to let, flokan, to complain, h4itan, to call, redan, to advise,
Idikan, to leap. Traces of the old reduplicated preterites
have been preserved in Anglian and in poetry, viz. heht
(also WS.), leolc, leort, ondreord, reord, beside inf. hatan,
lacan, Istan, ondreedan, rsedan, see below. This class
of verbs is divided into two sub-divisions according as the
preterite had e or eo. Much has been written about the
stem-vowel in the preterite of these verbs, but little or
nothing is really known of how it came about. It is
usually assumed to be due to the old reduplicated syllable
having undergone contraction with the stem-syllable, but
this assumption leaves many phonological difficulties unex-
plained. The preterite sing, and pi. have the same stem-
vowel.

SUB-DI VISION I.

§ 512. hatan, to call bet haten

And similarly lacan, to play ; scadan, sceadan (§ 133,
Note 2), to separate, pret. seed beside scead.

§ 513. Istan, to let, allow let laten

And similarly ondrjedan (WS. also weak pret. ondrEedde),
to dread, fear; raedan (pret. and pp. mostly weak in WS. :
rjedde, geraedd), to advise ; slapan (WS. also weak pret.
sljepte). blandan, to mix, pret. blend, pp. blanden.

§ 514. fon (§ 117), to seize feng (§ 239) fangen
And similarly hon, to hang.

§§ 515-20] Verbs 257

Sub-division 2.

§ 515. bannan, to summon beon(n) bannen

And similarly gangan, pret. also gleng, to go ; spatuian,
to join, clasp.

§ 516. fealdan (§ 64), to fold feold fealden

And similarly feallan, to fall; healdan, to hold; stealdan,
to possess; wealcan, to roll; wealdan, to rule; weallan,
to boil; weaxan (originally belonged to class VI), to grow.

§ 517. blawan, to blow bleow (§ 265) blawen

And similarly cnawan, to know ; crawan, to crow ;
mawan, to mow ; sawan, to sow ; swapan, to sweep ;
)>rawan, to turn, twist ; wawan, to blow.

§ 518. beatan, to beat beet beaten

And similarly ahneapan, to pluck off; heawan, to hew ;
hleapan, to leap.

§ 519. blotan, to sacrifice bleot bldten

And similarly blowan, to bloom, blossom; hropan, to
shout ; hwopan, to threaten ; flowan, to flow ; growan,
to grow ; hlowan, to low, bellow ; r5wan (pret. pi. reon
beside reowon, § 226), to row; spowan, to succeed;
wepan (Goth, wopjan), to weep. The pret. of fldcan, to
clap, strike ; swogan, to sound ; wrotan, to root up, do not
occur.

B. Weak Verbs.

§ 520. The weak verbs, which for the most part are
derivative or denominative, are divided in OE. into three
classes according as the infinitive ends in -an (Goth, -jan),
pret. -ede, -de, -te (Goth, -ida, -ta) ; -ian (Goth, -on) from
older -ojan (§ 273), pret. -ode (Goth, -oda) ; -an (Goth, -an),

258 Accidence [§521

pret. -de (Goth, -dida). The weak preterite is a special
Germanic formation, and many points connected with its
origin are still uncertain. Some scholars are inclined to
regard it as a periphrastic formation which was originally
confined to denominative verbs, and then at a later period
became extended to primary verbs as well. The OE.
endings -de, .des(t), -de, pi. -don (older -dun), would thus
represent an old aorist formed from the root dhe-, put,
place (Gr. ti-Sij-hi), which stands in ablaut relation to OE.
don, to do. The old preterite (perfect) of this verb has
been preserved in the preterite plural of Gothic weak
verbs, as hdusi-dedum {we heard), -deduj), -dedun. But it
is also probable that the dental in the OE. preterite stands
in close relationship to the dental in the past participle,
where the -d = prim. Germanic -dds = Gr. -Ti-s. Prim.
Germanic -don, -das, •dje(ji), pi. third pers. •dun(Ji) from
Indg. *-dhnt with vocalic n, regularly became -de, ■des(t),
•de, -don older -dun in OE. Three stems are to be
distinguished in the conjugation of a weak verb : the stem
of the present, preterite, and past participle, which mostly
agrees with that of the preterite.

Note.— Many points concerning the inflexion of weak verbs
in the oldest periods of the Germanic languages have never
been satisfactorily explained. For a summary and discussion
of the various explanations which have been suggested by
scholars, the student should consult : Brugmann's Kurze
vergleichende Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen ;
Streitberg's Urgermanische Grammatik ; and Kluge's Vorge-
schichte der altgermanischen Dialekte in Paul's Grundriss der
germanischen Philologie, vol. I.

Class I.
§ 521. In OE. the verbs of this class are divided into
two sub-divisions : [a) verbs which originally had a short
stem-syllable ; (b) polysyllabic verbs and those which

§§ 52 2-4] Verbs 259

originally had a long stem-syllable. Nearly all the verbs
belonging to this class are causative and denominative.
On the personal endings, see §§ 273, 476-83.

Sub-division (a).

§ 522. Formation of the present stem : The present
stem of verbs ending in a single consonant, except r,
became long (except in the second and third pers. sing,
pres. indicative, and second pers. sing, imperative) by the
West Germanic law of the doubling of consonants (§ 254).
The j had already disappeared in these persons before the
operation of the law, for which reason they had single
consonants in OE. (§ 254, Note).

§ 523. Formation of the pret. and past participle : The
j, which caused the doubling of the final consonants in
the present stems, never existed in the preterite or past
participle, so that these stems ended in single consonants.
The pret. generally had the ending -ede from prim. Ger-
manic -iddn, but verbs whose present stems ended in dd,
tt (= West Germanic dj, tj) had -de, -te on analogy with
the verbs which originally had long stems (§ 528). On
many verbs whose present stems ended in cc, 11 (= West
Germanic kj, Ij), see § 534.

The past participle generally ended in -ed from older -id,
prim. Germanic -id^s, as genered, gefremed. But in WS.
and Ken. the verbs whose stems ended in d, t had vowel
syncope and assimilation of consonants, as geset(t), masc.
ace. sing, gesetne, dat. gesettum, fem. gen. dat. sing.
gesetre, beside Anglian geseted, gesetedne, gesettum,
gesetedre; gehredd beside Anglian gehreded, rescued.
See § 300.

§ 524. The full conjugation of nerian (Goth, nasjan), to
save; fremman(Goth. *fraiiyan), /o^e>/or>«; settan(Goth.
satjan), to set, will serve as models for this class.

s 2

26o

Accidence

Present.
Indicative.

(§625

Sing.
Plur.

I.

2.

3-

nerie
neres(t)
nere])
neria]}

fremme
fremes(t)
freme]j
freinma]7

sette
setst
set(t)
setta])

Sing.
Plur.

nerie
nerien

Subjunctive.
fremme
fremmen

sette
setten

Sing.
Plur.

2.

2.

nere
neria])

Imperative,
freme
fremma})

Infinitive.

sete
setta})

nerian

fremman

settan

neriende

Participle,
fremmende

Preterite.
Indicative.

settende

Sing.
Plur.

I.
2.

3-

nerede
neredes(t)
nerede
neredon

fremede
fremedes(t)
fremede
fremedon

sette
settes(t)
sette
setton

Sing.
Plur.

nerede
nereden

Subjunctive.
fremede
fremeden

sette
setten

genered

Participle,
gefremed

geseted, geset(t)

§ 525. On forms like nergan, nerigan, nerigean, see
§ 271. Like nerian are conjugated amerian, to purify i

§§ 52*5-8] Verbs 261

andswerian, /o««sa'er; heriaa, to make bare ; bescierian,
to deprive; byrian, to pertain to, belong to; derian, to
injure; erian, to plough; ferian, to carry; gewerian,
to clothe; heriasi, to praise ; onhyriaa, to emulate ; scierian,
to allot ; snyrian, to hasten ; spyrian, to pursue ; styrian,
to stir ; werian, to defend.

In late WS. many of the verbs of this type went over
into class II owing to the ending of the infinitive being
the same in both classes.

§ 526. Like fremman are conjugated aswebban, to kill ;
clynnan, to sound; cnyssan, to knock; dynnan, to make
a noise ; gremman, to anger, provoke ; hlynnan, to roar ;
hrissan, to shake; sceJ)J)an (also sv. § 510), to injure;
swejjfan, to swathe; temman, to tame; trymman, to
strengthen; Jjennan, to stretch; ]3icgan (in poetry also
strong pret. ^peah, J>ah), to receive; wecgan, to agitate;
'wennan, to accustom ; ■wre]>J)an, to support.

In WS. and Ken. most of the verbs whose stems ended
in 1, m, n, s, }> were remodelled on analogy with verbs like
nerian with single consonant, as clynian, fremian, helian,
to conceal, sylian, to sully, swe]>ian, and then later often
went over into class II. On the pret. and past participle
of verbs ending in ]), see § 305.

§ 627. Like settan are conjugated atreddan, to search
out ; cnyttan, to bind, knit ; hreddan, to rescue, save ;
hwettan, to whet, incite; lettan, to hinder; spryttan, to
sprout ; and lecgan, to lay.

Sub-division (6).

§ 628. The preterite generally ended in -de from older
•ide, the i of which caused umlaut in the stem-syllable and
then disappeared (§ 221). The following points should be
noted in regard to the consonants : (i) Germanic double
consonants were simplified before -de, as fyllan (Goth.
ftdljan), to Jill, pret. fylde (§ 269), pp. gefylled; (2) > + d

262

Accidence

[§529

became dd in late WS., as cyjjan, to make known, pret.
cy})de, pp. gecy]jed, later cydde (§ 305), pp. gecyd(d) with
dd from the inflected forms ; (3) -de became -te after voice-
less consonants (§ 300), as cyssan, to kiss, pret. cyste,
pp. gecyssed ; gretan, to greet, pret. grette, pp. gegret(ed) ;
(4) the d in -de disappeared after consonant + d or t (5 229,
Note), as sendan, to send, pret. sende, pp. gesend(ed);
fsestan, to make fast, pret. fseste, pp. gefaest(ed). Verbs
which would regularly have vocalic 1, n, r in the pret.
generally have -ede, especially in the combination long
syllable + 1, n, r, as hyngran, to hunger, dieglan, to hide,
pret. hyngrede, dieglede (§ 221) ; but in the combination
short syllable + 1. n> r they generally had -de in the oldest
period of the language and then later -ede, as eglan, to
trouble, pret; eglde beside later eglede ; the verbs of this
type often went over into class II (cp. § 222).

§ 529. The full conjugation of deman (Goth, domjan),
to judge, drencan (Goth, dragkjan), to submerge, hyngran
(Goth, huggrjan), to hunger, and gierwan from *5earwjan,
to prepare, will serve as models for this class.

Present.

Indicative.

Sing. I.

deme

drence hyngre

gierwe

2.

dem(e)st

drenc(e)st hyngrest

gierest

3-

dem(e)]j

drenc(e))) hyngre}?

giere})

Plur.

dema]>

drenca}) hyngrajj

Subjunctive.

gierwajj

Sing.

deme

drence hyngre

gierwe

Plur.

demen

drencen hyngren
Imperative.

gierwen

Sing. 2.

dim

drenc hyngre

giere

Plur. 2.

demaj)

drencaj) h.yn%rst]>

gierwa]3

53°]

Verbs

263

Infinitive.
deman drencan hyiigran

gierwan

Sing.

Plur.

Sing.
Plur.

demende

T. demde

2. demdes(t)

3. demde
demdon

demde
demden

Participle,
drencende hjmgrende glerwende

Preterite.

Indicative,
drencte hyngrede gierede
drenctes(t) hyngredes(t) gieredes(t)
drencte hyngrede gierede
drencton hyngredon gieredon

Subjunctive,
drencte hyngrede gierede
drencten hyngreden giereden

Participle,
gedemed gedrenced gehyngred gegier(w)ed
§ 530. Like deman are conjugated a large number of
verbs, as selan, to set on fire ; aernan, to gallop, cause to
run; aSlegan, to put to flight ; aiiefan, to allow; awyrgan,
to strangle, kill; b»dan, to compel; baernan, to bum up,
cause to burn ; bensman, to deprive of; biegan, to bend ;
braldan, to broaden ; byrgan, to taste ; byrgan, to bury ;
celan, to cool; cemban, to comb; ciegan (§ 270), to call ;
cwielman, to kill ; daelan, to share ; diedan, to kill ; drjefan,
to drive out ; drefan, to stir up ; drygan, to dry ; eaj^medan,
to humble ; fedan, to feed ; fegan, to join ; feran, to go,
journey; tHerasm, to put to flight ; iylgan, to follow; fysan,
to hasten ; gefredan, to feel, perceive ; geliefan, to believe ;
ge]5iedan, to join together; gieman, to heed; giernan, to
desire, yearn for; glengan, to adorn ; hselan, to heal;
haeman, to marry; hienan, to humiliate, ill-use; hieran,
to hear ; hlydan, to make a noise ; hringan, to ring, sound ;
hydan, to hide ; laedan, to lead ; leefan, to leave ; lienan, to

264 Accidence [§ 530

lend ; Iseran, to teach ; lengan, to require ; liesan, to set
free ; msenan, to moan, complain ; msran, to proclaim ;
mengan, to mix ; nemnan (pret. nemde, pp. genem(n)ed),
to name; niedan, to compel; raran, to raise; ryman, to
make room ; ssgan, to lay low ; sselan, to bind with a rope ;
scrydan, to clothe; sengan, to singe; sprsedan, to spread;
sprengan, to burst ; stieran, to steer ; strienan, to acquire ;
swegan, to make a sound; tslan, to blame; tengan, to
hasten ; tynan, to enclose ; wedan, to rage ; wenan, to
expect ; wiernan, to refuse ; wregan, to accuse. The con-
tracted verbs hean (pret. heade, pp. head), to heighten,
raise; and similarly ryn, to roar; tyn, to teach; )>eon, ,
to perform, do ; ])yn (also in form J>ywan), topress. cy])an
(pret. cyjjde, later cydde), to make known ; and similarly
3.hy})aii, to destroy, lay waste ; cwijjan, to lament ; Isejian,
to hate, abuse ; ne\>a.n, to venture on ; oferswifan, to over-
come ; sejjan, to testify ; wrefan, to be angry, get angry.
fyllan (pret. fylde), to fill; and similarly afierran, to re-
move ; cennan, to bring forth ; cierran, to turn ; clyppan,
to embrace; cyssan (pret. cyste), to kiss; fiellan, to fell;
mierran, to mar; pyfFan, to puff; spillan, to destroy;
stillan, to still ; wemman, to defile, ieldan (pret. ielde),
to delay, sendan (pret. sende), to send, gyrdan (pret. gyrde),
to gird; and similarly behyldan, to flay; gewieldan, to
overpower ; gyldan, to gild ; onhieldan, to incline ; scildan,
to protect; spildan, to destroy; wieldan, to control, subdue;
bendan, to bind; blendan, to blind; lendan, to land, arrive ;
ontendan, to kindle ; pynAan, to shut up, confine ; scendan,
to put to shame ; wendan, to turn ; andwyrdan, to answer ;
awierdan, to destroy ; hierdan, to harden ; onbyrdan, to
inspire, tncite. faestan (pret. faeste), to make fast; and
similarly acraeftan, to devise, plan ; afyrhtan, to frighten ;
agyltan, to be guilty ; awestan, to lay waste ; efstan, to
hasten; ehtan, to pursue, persecute; fylstan, to help;
gedaeftan, to put in order ; gehlsestan, to load ; gehyrstan,

§§ 531-3] Verbs 265

to equip ; grimettan, to roar, rage (for other examples
of verbs in •ettan, see § 657) ; haeftan, to hold captive ;
hierstan, to roast ; hiertan, to hearten, encourage ; hlystan,
to listen ; hyhtan, to hope ; Isestan, to perform ; liehtan, to
give light; lystan, to please; msestan, to feed with mast;
myntan, to intend, think ; restan, to rest ; rihtan, to set
right ; scyrtan, to shorten ; tyhtan, to incite, allure ;
})yrstan, to thirst.

§ 531. Like drencan are conjugated acwencan, to
quench; adwsescan, to quench; astiepan, to bereave;
bsetan, to bridle ; benepan, to despoil ; betan, to atone for,
amend ; cepan, to keep ; ciepan, to buy ; cyspan, to bind,
fetter ; driepan, to let drop, moisten ; gewlencan, to make
proud; geswencan, to injure; gretan, to greet; hstan,
to heat ; hwierfan, to convert ; hwitan, to whiten ; hyspan,
to mock ; iecan (see § 534, Note 2), to increase ; llexan, to
shine; metan, to meet; nstan, to afflict; oflyrfan, to
stone ; of ]>ryscan, to beat down ; rssan, to rush ; retan,
to cheer ; scencan, to pour out ; scierpan, to sharpen ;
Ecrencan, to cause to tumble; sencan, to cause to sink;
spstan, to spit; swstan, to sweat; swencan, to vex,
afflict; tssan, to pull, tear; tostencan, to scatter;
yppan, to open, manifest; wstan, to wet; wierpan, to
recover; 'wyscan, to wish.

§ 532. Like hjoigran are conjugated biecnan, to make
a sign; dieglan, to conceal; forglendran, to devour; fre-
fran, to comfort; symblan, to feast; timbran, to build;
wrixlan, to change, exchange, efnan (pret. efnde, later
efnede, § 528), to level, perform; and similarly bytlan,
to build ; eglan, to trouble, afflict ; rsefnan, to perform ;
seglan, to sail; Jjrysman, to suffocate.

§ 533. gierest, giere]), gierede from older *gierwis,
*gierwi]), ''gierwide with regular loss of w (§ 266). At
a later period the verbs of this type mostly generalized the
forms with or without w, and often went over into class II

266 Accidence [§ 534

The verbs with a long diphthong or vowel in the stem
generally had w in all forms of the verb. Like gierwan
are conjugated hierwan, to despise, ill-treat; nierwan, to
constrain ; sierwan, to contrive, plot ; smierwan, to anotnt,
smear. Ijewan (pret. leewde), to betray; and similarly
forslffiwan, to delay, be slow; getriewan, to trust; hleo-
wan, hliewan, to shelter, warm ; iewan, to show, disclose.

siowan, seowan (Goth, siujan, OHG. siuwen) from
older *siuwjan (cp. § 138), to sew, pret. siowede, seowede
from older *siwide ; from the pret. was formed a new inf
si(o)wian after the analogy of class II, with preterite
siowode, seowode. spiowan, speswan from *spiuwjan
older *spiwwjan (§ 254), to spit, pret. spiowede, speo-
wede from *spiwide, beside spiode, speode, formed
direct from the present ; from the pret. spiowede was
formed a new inf. spi(o)wian after the analogy of class II.
streowan (Goth, straujan), to strew, pret. streowede
beside strewede (Goth, strawida), § 77, from which a new
inf. streowian, strewian was formed after the analogy of
class II, pret. streowode.

§ 534. A certain number of verbs belonging to class I
formed their preterite and past participle already in prim.
Germanic without the medial vowel -i-, as bycgan (Goth,
bugjan), to buy, pret. bohte (Goth, badhta), pp. geboht
(Goth, baiihts) ; Jsencan (Goth. Jjagkjan), to think, pret.
Jjohte (Goth. Jjahta, § 40), pp. gejjoht (Goth. ];ahts),
whence the absence of i-umlaut in the pret. and past
participle of verbs of this type. In addition to a few verbs
which had long stems originally, they embrace verbs
whose present stems end in cc, 11 from West Germanic kj
and Ij (§ 254). On the interchange between c and h, see
§ 240. At a later period the preterite and pp. of verbs
with -ecc- in the present were re-formed with e from the
present, as cweccan, cwehte, gecweht; and similarly
rsecan, tsecan, prim. Germanic "raikjan, *taikjan, genen

§5341

Verbs

267

ally had pret. riehte, tsehte with Je from the present,
beside the regular forms rahte, tahte. The verbs with 11
in the present often formed the pret. and pp. on analogy
with the verbs of sub-division (a) especially in late OE., as
dwelede, -ode, beside older dwealde. Beside sellan
there also occurs siellan (later syllan) from *sealljan
with ea borrowed from the pret. and pp. in prehistoric
OE. bringan, to bring, is the strong form (cp. § 498), the
regular weak form brengan is rare in OE.

bycgan, to buy

bohte

geboht

cweccan, to shake

cweahte

gecweaht

dreccan, to afflict

dreahte

gedreaht

leccan, to moisten

leahte

geleaht

reccan, to narrate

reahte

gereaht

streccan, to stretch

streahte

gestreaht

Jieccan, to cover

Reahte

ge]}eaht

weccan, to awake

weahte

geweaht

cwellan, to kill

cwealde

gecweald

dvrellan, to hinder

dwealde

gedweald

sellan, to sell

sealde

geseald

stellan, to place

stealde

gesteald

tellan, to count

tealde

geteald

rsecan, to reach

rsehte, rahte

geraeht

tsecan, to teach

tsehte, tahte

getseht, getaht

secan, to seek

sohte

ges5ht

bringan, to bring

brohte

gebroht

]7encan, to think

Jjohte

gej)6ht

Jjyncan, to seem ■

})uhte

ge]5uht

w^yrcan, to work

worhte

geworht

Note. — i. The presents reccan for *recan (pret. rohte),
to care for, reck; and laeccan for ^Ixcan (pret. Isehte, pp. gelsht),
to seise, are difficult to account for.

2. Especially in late OE. verbs with medial c, cc often formed
their pret. and pp. in -hte, -ht after the analogy of the above type
of verbs, but with the retention of i-umlaut, as bepeecan, to

268 Accidence [§ 535

deceive, bepEehte, bepseht, beside older bepsecte, bepsct ; and
similarly gewsecan, to weaken ; lecan, to increase ; nealscan,
to approach (for further examples of verbs with -Isecan, see
§ 658); oleccan, to /latter ; sycan, to suckle; Jjryccan, to press,
crush ; wleccan, to warm.

Class II.

§ 535. This class of verbs Is denominative and originally
belonged partly to the athematic and partly to the thematic
conjugation (§ 472). The first pers. singular of the former
ended in -ami and of the latter in -ajo. The a became 6
in the prim. Germanic period (§ 23). A large number
of the verbs which originally belonged to class III went
over into this class in prehistoric OE. On the verbs of
class I which went over into this class, see §§ 525-6, 533.

The full conjugation of sealfian, to anoint, will serve as
a model for the verbs of this class.

Imper.
sealfa
sealfia])

Present.

Sing. I.

Indie. Subj.
sealfie sealfie

2.

3-
Plur.

sealfas(t) „
sealfa}) „
sealfia]) sealfien

Infinitive.

sealfian

Participle,
sealfiende

Preterite.

Sing. I.

sealfode sealfode

2.

3-

sealfodes(t) „
sealfode „

Plur.

sealfodon sealfoden

Participle.
gesealfod

§ 53^] Ferbs 269

The corresponding prim. Germanic forms of the pres.
indicative were : *sal1J6j6, *sal1)dsi (Goth, salbos), *sal-
boja (Goth. salb5}>), pi. *salt)ojan]7i. In OE. -oj- regularly
became -i- (§ 273) which not being original did not cause
i-umlaut in the stem-syllable. The -i- was often written -ig-,
also -ige- before guttural vowels, as sealfige, sealfigan,
sealfigean, beside sealfie, sealfian, see § 278. On the
ending -e in the first pers. sing, of the present, see § 478.
The ending -a in the imperative second pers. sing, was
from sealfas(t) ; a form corresponding to Goth, salbo
would have become in OE. *sealf from older *sealbu
(§ 215). Inf. sealfian is from prim. Germanic "salbo-
janan.

The corresponding prim. Germanic forms of the pret.
indicative were *salbdddn (Goth, salbdda), *salb5dses
(Goth, salbodes), *salb5d£e()>) (Goth, salbdda), pi. *salbo-
dun(]>). The medial -o- was regularly shortened to -u- in
prehistoric OE, (§ 218) and then later became -o-, -a-, the
former of which is usual in WS. and the latter in Anglian
and Ken. On -e- beside -o-, -a-, see § 222. And similarly
in the past participle WS. -od, Anglian and Ken. -ad,
prim. Germanic -odaz.

§ 536. Like sealfian are conjugated a large number of
verbs, as acealdian, io become cold; arian, to honour;
ascian, to ask ; aswefecian, to eradicate ; bedecian, to beg ;
behofian, to have need of; bodian, to announce ; ceapian,
to buy ; ceorian, to complain ; costian, to try, prove ; cun-
nian, to try, test; dysigian, to be foolish; dwoUan, to err;
eahtian, to esteem, consider; eardian, to dwell, inhabit;
eamian, to earn; endian, to end; fseg(e)nian, to rejoice;
faestnian, to fasten ; fandian, to try, search out ; folgian, to
follow; fvXMaxi., to fulfil; {vm.dia,n, to strive after ; gearcian,
to prepare ; gearwian (§ 633), to prepare ; gedafenian, to
beseem ; gemldlian, to bridle, restrain ; gemyndgian, to re-
member; geomrian, to be sad, lament; gestrangian, to

270 Accidence [§537

make strong; grapian, to grope, feel; hafenian, to hold;
halgian, to hallow ; hangian, to hang; hatian,to hate ; hef(i)-
gian, to make heavy ; hergian (cp. § 525), to harry; lugian,
to hasten ; hnappian, to doze ; hopian, to hope ; hwearfian,
to wander; ieldcian, to delay; lacnian, to heal; langian, to
long for ; la]>ian, to invite ; leanian, to reward ; leasian,
to tell lies ; lician, to please ; locian, to look ; lofian, to praise ;
losian, to lose ; lufian, to love ; macian, to make ; manian,
to exhort; meldian, to announce ; m.et(e)gian, to measure ;
offrian, to offer; op(e)nian, to open; reafian, to plunder;
samnian, to collect, gather ; sargian, to cause pain ; sarian,
to grieve, be sad ; scamian, to he ashamed ; sceawian, to
look ; scyld(i)gian, to sin ; si])ian, to travel ; sorgian, to
sorrow, grieve ; sparian, to spare ; syngian, to sin ; tioh-
hian, teohhian, to think, consider ; }>accian, to stroke ;
Jiancian, to thank ; ]>olian, to suffer ; Jjrowian, to suffer ;
wacian, to be awake; wandTian, to wander ; war(e)nian,
to beware, take heed ; warian, to beware ; wealwian, to roll,
wallow ; welegian, to enrich ; weorJ)ian, to honour ; wer-
gian, to grow weary ; ■wilnian, to desire ; wincian, to wink ;
wisian, to guide ; -witgian, to prophesy ; witnian, to punish,
torment; wuldrian, to glorify; wundian, to wound; wun-
drian, to wonder; wunian, to dwell, bletsian, to bless;
bli])sian, blissian, to rejoice ; cl^nsian, to cleanse ; efesian,
io shear ; eg(e)sian, to frighten, terrify ; gitsian, to covet ;
grimsian, to rage ; hreowsian, to repent of, rue ; iersian,
to be angry; mjersian, to make famous; miltsian, to have
mercy ; ricsian, rixian, to rule, govern ; unrotsian, to be
sad; untreowsian, to defraud, deceive, see §659.

On the second and third pars. sing. pres. indie, impera-
tive sing., and pret. indicative of verbs like bifian, to
tremble; clifian, to adhere, cleave ; clipian, to ca//; ginian,
to yawn, gape ; hlinian, to lean, recline ; stician, to prick,
stab ; tilian, to strive after, labour, see §§ 101-2.

§ 537. tweogan, Anglian twiogan, from '^twixojan

§538] Ferbs 271

(§§ 08, 139), to doubt; pres. indie, tweoge, tweost, tvreop ;
pres. part, tweonde (poetical) beside tweogende ; pret.
indie, tweode, Anglian twiode, from *twiX6d5n; pp.
tweod. And similarly in WS. the following verbs which
originally belonged to elass III : feog(e)an, to hate; freo-
g(e)an, to love, make free ; smeag(e)an, to ponder, con-
sider ; })reag(e)an, to reprove, rebuke.

Class III.
§ 538. Most of the verbs belonging to this class were
originally primary verbs like Lat. habe-re, OHG. habe-n,
to have, and probably embraced two types of verbs : (i)
those which had -ej-, and (2) those which simply had -j- in
the present. In OE. as in the other Germanic languages
the two types became mixed, which gave rise to many new
formations. The -ej- like ■oj-(§273) in class II regularly
became -i- in OE., which is the reason why nearly all the
verbs of class III went over into class II in the prehistoric
period of the language, cp. hatian, Goth, hatan, OHG.
ha^^en, prim. Germanic *x^^^J^'^^'^> '" ^^'^' The pre-
terite and past participle were formed without a medial
vowel. The chief verbs are : habban, to have ; libban,
to live ; secgan, to say ; and hycgan, to think.

Present.
Indicative.
Sing. I. hsebbe libbe secge hycge

|hafas(t) li f ,,. |sagas(t) fhogas(t)
^- thaefst iiotas(t) 1^^^^^ thyg(e)st

|hafa> I saga}) rhoga})

3ihffif], ^^°^^^ Isag], ihyg(e)>

Plur. habba]) libbaj) secg(e)a]) hycg(e)a]5

Subjunctive.
Sing. haebbe libbe secge hycge

Plur. haebben libben secgen hycgen

272

Accidence

[§538

Imperative.
Sing. 2. hafa liofa saga, ssege hoga, hyge

Plur. 2. habba]> libbajj secg(e)a)) hycg(e)a]j

Infinitive.
habban libban secg(e)an hycg(e)an

Participle,
haebbende libbende secgende hycgende

Sing.

Plur.

Sing.
Plur.

hsefde
h3efdes(t)
hsefde
hsefdon

hsefde
hsefden

gehsefd

Preterite.

Indicative,
lifde

lifdes(t) ssegdes(t)
lifde ssegde

lifdon ssegdon

Subjunctive.
lifde ssegde

lifden ssegden

Participle,
gelifd gesaegd

hogde
hogdes(t)
hogde
hogdon

hogde
hogden

gehogod

The endings ■as(t), -aj) of the second and third pars. sing,
pres. indicative, and -a of the imperative sing., were from
verbs of class II; the endings corresponding to Goth.
■dis, -diji, -di would have become -68(1), -ej), -e in OE.
The regular form of haebbe would be *hebbe (OS. hebbiu)
from West Germanic *xabbj6, but the a of the second and
third pers. sing, was extended to the first and then a became
ae by i-umlaut, cp. § 55, Note 2. On the ae beside a in the
second and third pers. singular, see §§ 54, 57. hafas(t),
hafa]) are rare in pure WS., the usual forms are hsefst,
haef)> ; and similarly with saegst, saeg)) ; hyg(e)st, hyg(e))>.
habba]}, habban (West Germanic *xabbjanj)i, *xabbja-

§639] Verbs 273

nan, OS. hebbiad, hebbian) had the a in the stem-syllable
from hafas(t), hafa]?. On forms like naebbe from ne
haebbe, see § 325, Note.

libbe (OS. libbiu), libban (OS. libbian), from West Ger-
manic *libbj6, *libbjanan. Beside libban there was also
lifian, common in Anglian and Ken., which was inflected
like sealfian (§ 535) in the present. On the io in liofas(t)
and Uofa]), see § 102.

secge (OS. seggiu), secg(e)an (OS. seggian), from W es
Germanic *saggjo, *saggjanan. In the present the e as
in secge, secg(e)an was often extended to forms which
regularly had se, and vice versa. In late WS. the e was
extended to all forms of the present. On forms like pret.
saede beside ssegde, see § 54, Note 2.

On the y in hycg(e)an beside the o in hogde, see § 43.
In the pret. this verb was also inflected like class II,
hogode, &c. ; cp. also the past participle gehogod for
*gehogd.

Note. — Traces of the old inflexion of verbs which originally
belonged to class III are seen in such forms as bya (Nth.), to
dwell, fylg(e)an, to follow, onscynian (Anglian), to shun, waec-
cende, being awake, beside biian, folgian, onscunian, waciende ;
hettend, enemy, beside hatian, to hate ; pret. plaegde, triide,
beside plagode, he played, triiwian, to trust.

C. Minor Groups.

A. Preterite-Presents.

§ 530. These verbs were originally unreduplicated per-
fects, which acquired a present meaning like Gr. oI8a,
Latin novi, / know. In prim. Germanic a new weak
preterite, an infinitive, a pres. participle, and in some
verbs a strong past participle, were formed. They are
inflected in the present like the preterite of strong verbs,
except that the second pers. singular has the same stem-

2 74 Accidence [§§540-2

vowel as the first and third persons, and has preserved
the old ending -t (§ 481). The following verbs, many of
which are defective, belong to this class : —

§ 540. I. Ablaut-Series.

wat, / know, he knows, 2. sing, wast (§ 240), pi. witon
beside wiotun, wietun (§ 101), wuton (§ 103) ; subj. wite ;
imperative sing, wite, pi. witaj) with -a]) from the pres.
indie. 3. pers. pi. of other verbs (§ 476) ; inf. witan beside
wiotan, wietan (§ 102) ; pres. part, witende ; pret. wisse,
wiste {§ 240); pp. gewiten; participial adj. gewiss,
certain. On forms like nat beside ne wat, see § 267.

§ 641, II. Ablaut-Series.

deag (Anglian deg) beside later deah {§ 323), / avail, he
avails, pi. dugon; subj. dyge beside the more common
form duge (§ 482) ; inf. dugan, pres. part, dugende.

§ 542. III. Ablaut-Series.

an(n), on(n), I grant, pi. unnon; subj. unne; imperative
unne ; inf unnan ; pret. iij^e (§ 113) ; pp. geunnen.

can(n), con(n), / know, can, 2. sing, canst, const with
•st from forms like dearst, pi. cunnon; subj. cunne; inf.
ciinnan; pret. ciijie (Goth, kunjia); pp. -cunnen; parti-
cipial adj. ciij> (Goth, kunjjs), known.

Jiearf, / need, 2. sing. Jiearft, pi. Jjurfon; subj. Jjyrfe
beside the more common form furfe (§ 482) ; inf. })urfan ;
pres. part. ])earfende, needy ; pret. Jjorfte.

dear(r) (Goth, ga-dars), / dare, with rr from the plural,
2. sing, dearst, pi. durron (Goth, ga-datirsum) ; subj.
dyrre beside the more common form durre (§ 482) ; pret.
dorste (Goth, ga-dadrsta).

§§543-7] Ferds 275

§ 543. IV. Ablaut-Series.

sceal, [ shall, owe, 2. sing, scealt, pi. sculon beside
sceolon (§ 116); subj. scyle, later settle, sceole; inf.
sculan, sceolan ; pret. sceolde (§ 110).

man, mon, / think, 2. sing, manst, monst with -st from
forms like dearst, pi. munon ; subj. myne beside the more
common form mune (§ 482); imperative -mun beside
-myne, -mune ; inf. mtinan ; pres. part, munende ; pret.
munde (Goth, munda) ; pp. gemunen.

§ 544. V. Ablaut-Series.

maeg, /, he can, 2. sing, meaht later miht, pi. magon ;
subj. msege, pi. maegen ; inf magan ; pres. part, magende ;
pret. meahte, mehte (§ 68, Note 2), later mihte.

be-neah (Goth.bi-nah), ge-neah (Goth, ga-nah), it suffices,
pi. -nugon; subj. -nuge; pret. nohte.

§645. VI. Ablaut-Series.

mot, /, he may, 2. sing, most (§ 240), pi. mdton ; subj.
mote ; pret. m5ste (§ 240).

§ 546. The following verb probably belonged originally
to the seventh class of strong verbs (§ 512) : ag later ah
(§ 323), / have, 2. sing, ahst with -st from forms like
dearst, pi. agon ; subj. age; imperative age; inf. agan;
pret. ahte ; pp. agen, segen (§ 442), own.

B. Verbs in -mi.

§ 547. The first pers. sing. pres. indicative of the Indo-
Germanic verb ended either in -6 or -mi (cp. Greek verbs
in -u and -(ii, like <|>^pw, / bear, Ti6ij|xt, I place). See § 472.
To the verbs in -o belong all the regular Germanic verbs ;
of the verbs in -mi only scanty remains have been pre-
served; they are distinguished by the fact that the first

T 2

2 76

Accidence

[§548

pers. sing. pres. indicative ended in ■m.
following OE. verbs : —

Here belong the

§ 548. I. The Substantive Verb.

The full conjugation of this verb is made up out of
several distinct roots, viz. es-; er- (perfect stem-form or.);
bheu- (weak grade form bhv?-) ; and vres-. From es- and
or» were formed a pres. indicative and subjunctive ; from
bhw- a pres. indicative (also with future meaning), pres.
subjunctive, imperative, infinitive, and present participle ;
and from wes- an infinitive, present participle, imperative,
and a pret. indicative and subjunctive.

Present.
Indicative.
WS. Anglian.

1. eom eam, am

2. eart ear]), arj)

3. is is
(sint rsint, sind
lsindon,-un sindon, -un

earon, aron,
V -un

Subjunctive.

sie, si sie

sien, sin sien

Imperative.

Sing.

Plur.

Sing.
Plur.

Sing.
Plur.

bio, beo
bio]), beo])

Won, beon

bionde,
beonde

WS.

Anglian.

bio, beo

biom

bist

bis(t)

bi})

bi])

bio]),

bio])

beo])

bi(o)])on.

^ -un

bio, beo

bion, beon

wes

wesa})

Infinitive.

Participle.

wesan

wesende

§549] Verbs 277

Preterite.

Indie, waes, wsere, wses, pi. wseron (§ 505)
Subj. ware, pi. wseren

Pres. indicative : eom was the unaceented form of *eom
with eo from beo (ep. the opposite proeess in Anglian
biom) ; the regular form would have been *im = Goth.
im ; eart, ear}), ar]), and pi. earon, aron are old perfects
from the root er-, perfect stem-form or-, prim. Germanic
ar-, of which nothing further is known ; on the •]) in ear}),
ar}>, see § 481 ; is with loss of -t from older *ist = Goth,
ist, Lat. est; sind from prim. Germanic *sindi = Indg.
*senti (§ 472); sint was the unaccented form of sind;
sindon,-un, with the ending of the pret. pi. added on (§ 481) ;
beside sint, sindon there also occur in WS. sient, siendon.
bio later beo (cp. § 104), from *biju (cp. § 138), Indg.
*bhwij6, Lat. f 16 ; Anglian biom with m from eom ; bist
from older bis, Indg. *bhwisi, Lat. fis; bi]) from older
*bi})i, Indg. *bhwiti, Lat. fit ; Anglian bio}>on with u-umlaut
(§ 101) was a new formation from bi}) ; bio]) from *bijan})i.

Pres. subjunctive: sie, sien later si (OS. OHG. sx), sin
(OS. OHG. sin), beside sio, seo with io, eo from bio, beo.

549.

Sing.

Plur.

2.

The Verb don, to do.
Present.

I.

2.

3-

Indie.

dd

dest

de])

do])

Subj.
do

don
Infinitive don
Participle donde

Imper.
dd
do])

278 Accidence [§ 55°

Preterite.

Indic. Subj.

Sing. I. dyde dyde

2. dydes(t) „

3. dyde „
Plur. dydon dyden

Participle gedon

Anglian has the older form dom for the first pers. singu-
lar ; dest, Nth. diKs(t) ; de]?, Nth. ddejj, does, from *d6-is,
*do-iJ) (§ 47) ; d6J> from *d6-anj>i ; Anglian often has longer
forms in the present, as imper. doa, doa]}, inf d5a(n).
The y from older u in the pret. indic. and subj. is of
obscure origin ; in poetry there occurs the real old pret.
pi. indic. deedon, corresponding to OS. dadun, OHG.
tatun, Goth, -dedun which has only been preserved in the
pret. of weak verbs (§ 520). Pret. subj. dyde, dyden from
*dudl-, Mudin (§ 482) ; beside dyde there also occurs in
poetry dade, corresponding to OS. dadi, OHG. tati, and
Goth. -dedi. Beside the pp. -don there also occurs in
poetry -den, Nth. -dden (§ 442).

§ 550. 3. The Verb gan, to go.

Present.

Indic.

Subj. Imper.

Sing. I. ga.

ga

2. gsest

ga

3- &*>

„

Plur. ga>

gan ga])

Infinitive gan.

Past participle gegan.

est, gffijj, from older

*5a.is, '■ga-if (§ 47). The pret.

indic. and subjunctive were supplied by eode (§ 275) which
was inflected like the pret. of nerian (§ 524).

§§551-3] Adverbs 279

§ 651. 4. The Verb willan, will.

The present tense of this verb was originally an optative
(subjunctive) form of a verb in -mi, which already in prim.
Germanic came to be used indicatively. To this was
formed in OE. a new infinitive, present participle, and
weak preterite.

Present.
Indie. Subj. Infin.

Sing. I. wille wille, wile willan

2. wilt „

3, wile, wille „ Participle

willende
Plur. willajj willen

The pret. indie, and subjunctive wolde was inflected
like the pret. of nerian (§ 524). wilt was a new forma-
tion with -t from the preterite-present verbs, cp. OHG.
wili, Goth, wileis, Lat. veils ; wile, indie, and subj, =
Goth. OHG. wili, Lat. velit; willajj was a new formation
with the ordinary ending of the pres. indie. {§ 476), the
old form was preserved in Goth, wilein-a = Lat. velint.
The various forms of this verb often underwent contrac-
tion with the negative particle ne, as nille, nylle, nelle
(especially in late WS.), pret. nolde.

CHAPTER XV

ADVERBS, PREPOSITIONS, AND CON-
JUNCTIONS

I. Adverbs.

§ 552. We shall here chiefly deal with the formation of
adverbs from adjectives, and with the inflected forms
of nouns and adjectives used adverbially.

§ 553. The 'e, generally used to form adverbs from
adjectives, is originally a locative ending and is identical

2 So Accidence [§ 553

with the -e (= prim. Germanic -ai, § 217) in the, instru-
mental case of adjectives (§ 424). Examples are : deop :
deope, deeply ; nearu, -o (cp. § 485) : nearwe, narrowly,
closely; yfel: yf(e)le, wickedly; and similarly bit(e)re,
bitterly ; cafe, quickly, boldly ; cujie, clearly ; earge, badly ;
earme, wretchedly ; gearwe, completely ; georne, eagerly ;
grame, angrily ; hate, hotly ; heane, ignominiously ; hearde,
fiercely; hlude, loudly; holde, graciously, loyally; late,
slowly ; micle, much ; rihte, rightly ; scearpe, sharply ;
singale, always, continually ; smicere, elegantly ; snude,
quickly ; soj^e, truly ; strange, violently ; sweotole, clearly,
evidently ; swijje, exceedingly, very ; syndrige, separately ;
J)earle, severely ; ungemete, excessively ; wide, widely ;
wrajje, angrily.

When the adjective ends in -e (§ 434) the adverb and
adjective are alike in form, as ToWpe, joyful : bSpe, joyfully ;
and similarly breme, famously, gloriously ; clsene, fully,
entirely ; ece, eternally ; feecne, deceitfully ; frecne, dan-
gerously, fiercely ; gedefe, fitly ; gehende, at hand, near ;
milde, mercifully ; myrge, merrily ; swegle, clearly,
brightly ; Jiicce, thickly. A few adverbs, the corresponding
adjectives of which did not originally belong to the ja-
or i-declension, do not have umlaut in the stem-syllable, as
ange, anxiously, sm5]}e, smoothly, softe, gently, softly,
swote, sweetly, beside the adjectives enge, smejje, sefte,
swete.

In adverbs like crseftlice, skilfully ; doUice, foolishly ;
freondlice, kindly ; geiice, as, similarly ; \of&ce, gloriously ;
hetelice, violently, which were regularly formed from
adjectives ending in -lie (see § 634), the -lice came to
be regarded as an adverbial ending, and was then used
in forming adverbs from adjectives which did not end
in -lie, as eornostlice, earnestly; holdlfce, graciously;
hwsetlice, quickly ; Isetlice, slowly ; spedlice, prosperously ;
stearclice, vigorously, &c.

§§554-6] Adverbs 281

§ 554. The adverbial ending in the other Germanic lan-
guages, as Goth, -6, OS. OHG. -o, goes bacij to the Indg.
ablative ending -od which regularly became -a in OE. This
■a was preserved in a few adverbs ending in -inga (= Goth,
•iggo), -unga (= OS. ungo), -linga, -lunga (cp. §§ 607,
815), as dearnunga, -inga, secretly; eallunga, -inga, en-
tirely; z.nd. s{m{\dir\y esi^nnga., openly, publicly ; edniwunga,
anew ; fserunga, quickly, suddenly ; gegnunga, straight
forwards ; holunga, in vain, without cause ; sim(b)lunga,
always, continually ; unwenunga (Goth. unweniggS), un-
expectedly; wenunga, perhaps, by chance. ierringa,
angrily ; neadinga, niedinga, by force, against one's will ;
orsceattinga, gratuitously; stierninga, sternly, grund-
lunga, -linga, to the ground, completely; and similarly
midlunga, moderately ; neadlunga, by force, against one's
will.

§ 555. The comparative and superlative degrees of the
adverbs in -e generally, ended in -or (prim. Germanic -oz,
§ 443), and -est (prim. Germanic -ost-, § 444), as earme,
wretchedly, earmor, earmost ; hearde, fiercely, heardor,
heardost; holdlice, graciously, holdlicor, holdlicost;
strange, violently, stranger, strangest ; but seldan,
seldom, seld(n)or, seldost.

§ 556. A certain number of adverbs had originally -iz
(Goth, -is, -s) in the comparative and -ist (Goth, -ist, -st),
rarely -ost, in the superlative (cp. §§ 443-4), as ea]je,
easily, ie]) from *au])iz, eajjost; feorr, far, fierr from
*ferriz, fierrest; lange, long, leng from *langiz, lengest;
softe, softly, seft from 'samftiz ; tulge, strongly, firmly,
tylg from *tul5iz, tylgest ; sr from *airiz (Goth, diris),
earlier, formerly ; si)) from *si])iz (Goth. J)ana-seiJ)s,/Mr//!er,
more), later. The following form their comparative and
superlative from a different word than the positive : —
lyt, lytle, little, las from *laisiz, leest ; micle, much, ma
(Goth, m^is, Anghan mse), mast; wel, well, comp. bet

282 Accidence [§ 557

from *ftatiz, with loss of -e after the analogy of compara-
tives with long stems, beside sel from *s61iz, superl. betst,
selest; yf{e)le, badly, wretchedly, wiers, wyrs, from
*wirsiz (Goth, wairs, OHG. wirs), wierrest, wyrrest,
wyrst.

§ 557. A large number of OE, adverbs consist of the
various cases of nouns and adjectives used adverbially, as
ace. sing, ealne wag, ealneg, always; awiht, awuht,
at all, by any means; bsecling, back, behind, eal msest,
almost; call tela, quite well; east nor]), north-east; ea]),
easily ; fela, feola, very much ; full, perfectly, very ; fym,
formerly ; geador, together, jointly ; gefyrn, once, long ago,
formerly; genbg, enough, sufficiently; heah,/w]g'A; lythwon,
little; msst, mostly; samen, together; si}), late; sundor,
asunder, apart ; tela, teola, well, befittingly ; ungefym, not
long ago; untela, amiss; west, westward; west lang,
extending westwards. Compounds of -weard, as forweard,
continually, always ; hindanweard, hindwards, at the end ;
norjiweard, northward; su])weard, southward; upweard,
upwards ; toweard, towards, see § 637.

Gen. sing., as anstreces, continuously ; dseges, daily, by
day; gewealdes, willingly, intentionally; hu geares, at
what time of year ; hu gerades, how ; idaeges, on the same
day; innanboTdes, at home ; isipes, at that time; orceapes,
without payment ; or])ances, heedlessly; sa.mtinges, imme-
diately, forthwith; selfwilles, voluntarily; sundorllepes,
separately ; sunganges, moving with the sun ; ])ances,
gladly, voluntarily ; ungemetes, excessively, immeasurably ;
ungewealdes, involuntarily; un])ances, unwillingly;
wiUes, willingly ; the -es was sometimes extended to fem.
nouns, as endebyrdes, in an orderly manner; niedes, of
necessity, needs; nihtes, at night, by night, aghwaes,
altogether, in every way ; daeglanges, during a day ; elles,
otherwise, else ; ealles, entirely, wholly ; endemes, equally,
in like manner ; gehwaeferes, on all sides; neaXles, not at

§ 557] Adverbs 283

all, by no means; nihtlanges, all night long; simbles,
ever, always ; singales, always, ever ; s5Jies, truly, verily ;
sumes, somewhat, to some extent; ])aes, after; Jjweores,
athwart, transversely; ungewisses, unconsciously; ham-
weardes, homewards; norJ)weardes, northwards; nijier-
■weardes, downwards; tdweardes, towards. A preposi-
tion was sometimes prefixed to the genitive, as in-staepes,
instantly, at once ; to-sefenes, till evening ; to-emnes, along-
side, beside; to-geanes, towards, against; to-geflites, in
emulation ; to-gifes, freely, gratis ; to-middes, amidst,
among.

Gen. pL, as senge ]}inga, anyhow, in any way ; geara,
of yore, formerly ; hu meta, how, in what way; hu nyta,
wherefore ; nsnge, tiange J)inga, not at all ; ungeara, not
long ago, recently.

Dat. and instrumental sing., as bearhtme, instantly ;
elne, strongly, vigorously ; facne, exceedingly ; hludswege,
loudly ; niede, of need, necessarily ; neode, zealously, dili-
gently ; niwan stefne, anew, again ; recene, instantly,
at once ; tome, grievously ; wihte, at all. ealle, entirely ;
heo-dseg, to-day; hwene, somewhat, dseg-hwam, daily;
fur])um, even, indeed; gegnum, forwards, straight on;
leofwendum, ardently; ■<ftT^\)van., fiercely.

Dat. pL, as dseg-tidum, by day; fir(e)num, excessively,
very; geardagtun, fortnerly, in days of old; ge])yldum,
patiently ; hwil-tldum, at times, sometimes ; hwilum, some-
times ; of (e)stum, speedily, hastily ; searwum, skilfully ;
snyttrum, cunningly, wisely; spedum, speedily; stundum,
from time to time ; tidum, at times, occasionally ; ]>iagum,
powerfully, violently, purposely; J)rymmum, powerfully;
ungemetum, excessively ; unsnyttrum, foolishly ; iinsyn-
num, guiltlessly; unwearnum, irresistibly; unwiUum,
unwillingly ; wundrum, wonderfully ; wynnum, joyfully,
pleasantly; compounds with -mselum, as byr])enmaelum,
by loads; dselmslum, piecemeal; dropmselum, drop by

284

Accidence

[§558

drop ] flitmeelum, contentiously ; floccmxlum, in troops ;
fotmffilum, step by step ; heapmselum, in troops; hidmselum,
by hides ; limmielum, limb by limb ; nammslum, name by
name ; snadniffilum, bit by bit ; stundmselum, gradually ;
styccemjelum, piecemeal; sundormselum, singly ; ]jrag-
va.MvLva,from time to time ; })reatm2elum, in crowds ; worn-
mielum, in troops.

By nouns, &c. in conjunction with prepositions, as
aetforan, beforehand; aetgaedere, together; aethindan,
behind; aet-hwon, almost; aet-niehstan, at last; aet-rihte,
nearly, almost; aetsamne, together; be ungewyrhtum,
undeservedly ; for hwon, wherefore ; in-staepe, forthwith ;
in-stede, at once ; ofdune, down ; onbaec, backwards ; on-
baecling, behind ; onbutan, about ; onefn, close by ; onforan,
before, afore; on scipwisan, like a ship; onsundrum,
singly, separately; onweg, away; t6-daeg(e), to-day; to-
eacen, besides; to hwon, wherefore; to-morgen, to-morrow ;
tosatane, together ; tb-sopan, in truth, in sooth ; towissum,
with certainty ; underbaec, backwards ; underneofan,
underneath ; wi))aeftan, behind ; wijjforan, before ; wi)3-
innan, within ; wi])neoJ)an, beneath ; wijiiitan, outside of,
without.

§ 558. The following are the chief adverbs of place : —
Rest. Motion towards. Motion from.

feorr(an),/«r, afar

feorr

feorran

foran, fore, before

forjj

foran

her, here

hider

hionan

hindan, behind

hinder

hindan

hwaer, where

hwider

hwanon

inne, innan, within

in(n)

innan

neah, near

near

nean

niojjan, beneath

ni])er

nio}}an

far, there

])ider

Jjanan, Jjonan

uppe, up, above

UP(P)

uppan

Qte, utan, outside

ut

Qtan

§ 559] Prepositions 285

s5]), southwards, su}>an, from the south ; and similarly
east, eastan ; nor]), norjian ; west, westan ; aeftari,/row/
behind; ufan, from above; utane, from without; widan,
from far. seghwaer, aghwider, gehwar, everywhere, in
all directions ; ieghwanon, from all parts ; ahwaer, awer,
ower, anywhere ; ahwanon, from anywhere ; nahwser,
nawer, nower, nowhere ; welhwjer, welgehwser, gewel-
hwaer, nearly everywhere ; hider-geond, thither ; hidres
J)idres, hither and thither.

§ 559. 2. Prepositions.

(i) With the accusative : geond, throughout, during;
geondan, beyond; undemeo))an, underneath, below; wi])-
geondan, beyond; ymb, around, about, at; ymbutan,
around, about ; o]> (more rarely dat.), to, up to, as far as,
until; J)urh (more rarely dat. or gen.), through, during.

(2) With the genitive : andlang, andlanges, alongside.

(3) With the dative : aefter, behind, after, along, during,
through, according to, in consequence of ; ser, before; setforan,
before, in the presence of; bi (be), also with instr., by, along,
in ; bseftan, behind ; beheonan, on this side of ; beneofan,
beneath, below ; binnan, within, in, into ; eac, in addition to,
besides ; fram (from), also with instr., from, by ; gehende,
near; mid, also with instr., together with, among; neah
(also comp. near, superl. niehst), near; oi, from, away
from, out of; ongemang, onmang, among; oninnan, in,
within, into, among ; onufan, upon ; samod, together with,
at (of time) ; til, to ; to-emnes, alongside, on a level with ;
tdforan, before, in fnont of; tomiddes, in the midst of;
wij)aeftan, behind ; wi})foran, before ; wi])utan, outside,
without, except. The following also sometimes govern the
ace. : aet, at, by, in, on, upon ; beforan, before, in the presence
of; butan, outside, without, free from ; fore, before, in the
sight of; to (also occasionally gen. and instr.), to, into,
at, by ; wij)innan, within.

286 Accidence [§ 560

(4) With the accusative and dative : abutan, onbtitan,
around, about [of time); begeondan, beyond; behindan,
behind; betweonan, betweonum, between, among; be-
tweox, betweoh, bet(w)uh, betwih, betwix, between,
among ; bufan, above, away from ; for (also instr.), before,
in the sight of, during, for, on account of, instead of ; gemang,
among, into the midst of; in, in, into, on, among, during;
ofer, over, above, beyond, contrary to ; on (also instr.), on, in,
into, on to, to, among; ongean, ongeagn, ongegn, ongen,
opposite, in front of, against ; onuppan, on, upon ; togeanes,
togegnes, togenes, towards, against; under, under, beneath,
among ; uppan, on, above.

(5) With the genitive and dative : toweard, toweardes,
towards.

(6) With the accusative, genitive, and dative : innan,
within, in, into ; wij), against, towards, to, opposite, near.

§ 560. 3. Conjunctions.

(i) Co-ordinate: ac, but; and, and; aegjjer . . . and,
ffigjjer . . . ge, both . . . and ; eac, also ; eac swelc
(swylc), swelc eac, as also ; for Jjam (J>am), for fon, for ]>y,
Jjonne, therefore; ge, and; ge . . . ge, both . . . and;
hwse])(e)re, Jieah, swa feah, swa ])eah hwae]j(e)re, how-
ever; ne . . . ne, ne . . . ne eac, nahwaefer ne . . . ne,
neither . . . nor; o)>}je, or ; ojjfe . . . o])])e, either . . .or;
samod . . . and, both . . . and.

(2) Subordinate : sefter ]3aem(J)am) fe, a/"fer; sr]}am})e,
before ; butan, unless, unless that; for Jisem (fam) \>e, for J>on
Jie, for J>y Jie, because ; gelic and, as if; gif, if, whether ;
bwselper, whether ; hwsejjer Jje . . . ]>e, whether . . . or; mid
jjy J>e, mid J)am Jie, when, although ; nemne, nefne, nymfe,
unless, except ; tm Jie, now that ; o}), oJ> })set, o]> ])e, until,
until that; swa . . . swa, so ... as; swa swa . . .
ealswa, ]ust . . , as; swa s5na swa, as soon as ; swa
J>aBt, to )>on J)aet, so that; to ])on])e, in order that ; J)aes ])e.

§§ 561-2] Word-Formation 287

si]}]>an Ipe, after, since ; Jjset, ]>aette, thai, tn order that ; ])a,
J)a Jie, when ; ])§, hwile J)e, whilst, so long as ; ]7eah, al-
though ; Jjeah pe . . . swa ]7eah, hwse])(e)re, although
. . . yet; ]7enden, wAtZe ; }>onne, a;A^« ; ]>y, because ; ]>y
]>e, so that.

CHAPTER XVI

WORD-FORMATION

§ 561. By far the greater part of the word-forming ele-
ments, used in the parent language, were no longer felt as
such in the oldest period of the English language. In this
chapter we shall chiefly confine ourselves to those word-
forming elements which were felt as such in OE., such as
prefixes and suffixes.

Nouns.

§ 562. Nouns may be divided into simple, derivative,
and compound. Examples of simple nouns are : ac, oak ;
ban, botie; boc, book; burg, city; cag, key; cild, child;
dael, dale; deor, deer; ende, end; feld,Jield; folc, folk;
{6t,/oot; gold, gold; ha.m, home; hand, hand; ims, house;
land, land ; Urn, limb ; lie, body ; lof, praise ; mann, man ;
molde, mould ; mils, mouse ; nama, name ; nett, net ; oxa,
ox; pytt, pit; rum, room; sa, sea; scield, shield ; spare,
spear ; tima, time ; tree, tree ; feof, thief; ]>ing, thing ;
wegfWay; "vr en, hope; weorc, work; vrord, word; wyrm,
worm ; yj>, wave. Many simple nouns are related to the
various classes of strong verbs (§§ 490-619), as bite, cutting,
bite ; lad, way, course ; laf, remnant ; lida, sailor ; rad,
riding; ridda, rider; slide, slip; snsd, morsel, slice;
snide, incision ; ■wita, wise man.

boga, bow ; bryce, use ; eyre, choice ; f&oge, fly ; Acta,
sailor ; loc, lock ; lyre, loss ; notu, use ; sceat, region.

288 Word-Formation [§ 563

bend, band ; bryne, burning ; drenc, drink ; feoht, battle,
fight] gield, payment ; ryrxe, running, course ; stenc, odour;
steng, pole ; wyrd, fate.

baer, bier ; bryce, breaking ; byre, son ; cuma, gi^est ;
cvraXn, killing ; cyme, advent ; stalu, theft.

sprjec, speech ; wjeg, wave.

iaxM., journey; ibr, journey ; siege, blow.

gang, going ; heald, protection ; hliep, jump ; rsed,
counsel. See § 225.

§ 563. Derivative nouns are formed in a great variety of
ways : —

1. From adjectives, as bieldo, boldness; brsedo, breadth ;
cieldo, cold ; fyllo, fullness ; hEelo, health ; haeto, heat ;
hyldo, favour, grace ; ieldu, -o, old age ; lengo, length ;
menigo, crowd; snytru, wisdom ; strengo, strength. See
§§ 383, 614.

2. By means of various suffixes which were no longer
felt as such in OE., as bydel, messenger; fa.go\, bird;
gafol, tribute ; hagol, hail; nadl, needle ; nsegl, nail; segl,
sail ; setlj seat ; stajiol, foundation ; tungol, star, aejim,
breath ; botm, bottom ; ma))m, treasure ; wsestm, growth.
dryhten, /orrf; heof on, heaven ; laorgeti, morning ; )3egen,
thane; wapen, weapon, brojjor, brother; ixder, father ;
fmgQT, finger; fodor, food; hamor, hammer; sweostor,
sister; pvaior,. thunder; vf inter, winter.

3. From verbs by means of a dental suffix, as blsed,
blowing ; cyst, virtue, excellence ; dsed, deed ; fierd, army ;
Ayht, flight; gehyrd, birth ; genyht, sufficiency ; gesceaft,
creation ; gejjeaht, plan ; gift, prtce of a wife ; gled, live
coal ; haeft, captivity ; hyht, hope ; last, track ; meaht,
power; mablp, mowing ; sxd, seed; slieht, slaughter ; sped,
success ; weft, weft.

4. From verbs with inseparable particles, as bebod, com-
mand; beclysing,c«//; bedelG.ng, digging round ; begang,
practice; hehat, promise ; helM, remainder; belimp, occ«r-

§§ 5^4-9] IVord-Formation 289

rence ; begiemen, care, attention, forbod, prohibition ;
forhaefednes, temperance ; forlor, destruction ; forwyrd,
fate, destruction, gebann, decree, proclamation; gebed,
prayer ; gebl5t, sacrifice ; gebrec, clamour, noise ; gefeoht,
fight, battle, ofcyrf, cutting off; ofslegennes, destruction ;
ofsprsc, utterance.

5. By means of various prefixes. Some of the forms
given as prefixes below are in reality independent words
forming the first elements of compounds. They have been
included among the real prefixes for purely practical
purposes. It should be noted that the examples given
below include both nouns and adjectives : —

Prefixes.

§ 564. a-, Goth, diw, ever, as abremende, ever celebrat-
ing ; alibbende, everlasting ; awunigende, continual.

§ 565. ae-, privative prefix denoting without, like the a in
OHG. amaht, without power, as xfelle, without skin ;
sgilde, without compensation; aemen(ne), depopulated;
sm5d, out of heart, dismayed ; sewene, hopeless.

§ 666. aef-, stressed form of of-, off, as sefest, envy ;
aef))anc(a), grudge ; aefweard, absent.

§ 567. sefter-, after, as aeftergenga, successor; seftergield,
after-payment; xftertolgere, follower; sefterweard, follow-
ing ; aefterlean, recompense ; aefterieldo, old age ; aefterlic,
second.

§ 588. an-, stressed form of the preposition on, on, as
anfilte, anvil ; anginn, beginning ; ansien, countenance ;
anweald, authority, anhrncol, rugged; anforht, alarmed ;
ansund, entire, sound.

§ 569. and- (Goth, and-, OHG. ant-; Gr. dm, against,
Lat. ante, before), the stressed form of on- (§§ 59, Note, 654),
as andcwis(s), answer; andfenga, taker up, defender ; and-
giet, intelligence ; andsaca, adversary ; andswaru, answer ;
andweald, power ; andwlita, countenance ; andwyrde.

290 Word-Formation [§§ 570-4

answer. a.Ti.dfenge, acceptable ; anAgiGiol, intelligent; and-
lang, continuous ; andweard, present ; andwra]>, hostile.

§ 570. bi- (OHG. bi), the stressed form of the preposition
and adverb bl, by, of which the unstressed form is be- (§ 647),
SiS hlcvfide, proverb ; bifylce, neighbouring people ; bigeng,
practice; bigyrdel, girdle, purse; bileofa, sustenance; bi-
spell, example ; biwist, sustenance ; biword, proverb.

§ 571. ed- (Goth, id-, OHG. ita-, it-), back, again, re-, as
edcierr, return; edgield, repayment; edgift, restitution;
edgrowung, regrowing; edlean, reward; edroc, rumina-
tion; edwit (Goth, idweit), reproach, edgeong, growing
young again ; edniwe, renewed.

§ 572. fore- (Goth, faiira, OHG. fora), the stressed
form of the preposition and adverb fore, before, fore-, as
forebeacen, foretoken ; foreduru, vestibule ; foregisl, pre-
liminary hostage; forespreca, advocate; fore]3anc, fore-
thought, forehalig, very holy ; foremffire, illustrious.

§ 573. fram- (Goth. OHG. fram), the stressed form of
the preposition and adverb fram, from, as framcyme,
progeny; framlad, retreat; framsi)), departure, fram-
weard, turned from.

§ 574. ge- (Goth, ga-, OHG. ga-, gi-), originally a pre-
position meaning together, which already in prim. Ger-
manic was no longer used as an independent word. It was
especially used in forming collective nouns, but at a later
period it often had only an intensitive meaning or no special
meaning at all, as gebedda, consort; gebrSJjor, brethren;
gefera, companion; gefylce, army; gegaderung, gather-
ing; gehada, brother minister; gemaecca, mate; gemot,
meeting ; gesceaft, creation ; gesi]j, comrade ; gev^ider,
bad weather, gebyrd, birth, descent; geweorc, work;
gewita, witness; gewuna, custom, ge-asfele, congenial;
gecynde, innate, natural ; gedefe, befitting ; gelic, similar ;
gemyndig, mindful; gemaene, common; gesund, healthy,
sound.

§§57 s-8o] Word-Formation 2 9 1

§ 575. in-, the stressed form of the preposition in, in, as
inadl, internal disease ; inbiiend, inhabitant ; incniht, house-
servant; incofa, inner chamber; infaer, entrance; infaru,
invasion; inhere, home army ; insegl, seal, signet, injiicce,
very thick, coarse.

§ 576. mid- (Goth. mi]>, OS. mid, OHG. mit), the
stressed form of the preposition mid, with, as midspreca,
advocate; midwist, presence, society; midwunung, living
in company ; midwyrhta, co-operator.

§ 577. mis- (Goth, missa-, OHG. missa-, missi-), origin-
ally a participial adjective meaning lost, the same word as
OHG. missi, different, as misfadung, misconduct; mislar,
bad teaching; misrsed, misguidance, raishoren, mis-shapen
at birth ; mishworfen, perverted.

§ 578. ofer- (Goth, ufar, OHG. ubar, Gr. fiir^p, Skr.
updri), the stressed form of the preposition ofer, over, as
oferset, gluttony ; oferbrii, eyebrow ; oferdrenc, drunken-
ness ; oferhygd, pride ; ofermaegen, superior force ; ofer-
slop, surplice; oferspraec, loquacity; oferjiearf, extreme
need; oferweorc, tomb, oferliliid, overloud; ofermsete,
excessive ; ofermicel, over-much ; ofermodig, overbearing.

§ 579. on-, in late formations with the preposition on, on,
of which the real stressed form is an, see above. Examples
are: onbring, instigation; onbryce, inroad; onflEescnes,
incarnation; onstigend, rider; onsting, authority, on-
ae]3ele, natural to.

§ 580. or-, originally a preposition meaning out, pre-
served as an independent word in Goth, us, OHG. ur,
cp. also NHG. urteil beside erteilen. Examples are:
ordal, ordeal ; orsorg, without anxiety ; orjianc, skill,
intelligence; orweor]>, ignominy. orcea.s, free from com-
plaint; orcnawe, easily recognized; oreald, very old;
OTgiete, manifest ; orgilde, unpaid for ; orbleahtre, blame-
less ; OTtnaste, excessive ; ormod, despairing ; orsawle,
lifeless ; ortydre, barren ; orwene, despairmg.

u 2

292 Word-Formation [§§ 581-6

§ 581. sam-, related to the adverb Goth, samana, OHG.
saman, OE. samen, together, Or. preposition Sjia, together
with, as samhiwan, members of a family; samwist, living
together; samwradnes, union, combination; samheort,
unanimous ; sammiele, agreed; sam'winnende, contending
together.

§ 582. sam-, a prim. OE. shortening of *sami-, older
*SElmi- = OHG. samiv Lat. semi-, Gr. ■^fti-, half, the
unshortened form of which would have been somi- (§ 121),
as sa.vabxme&., half burnt ; saracvLCU, half dead ; samhal,
in bad health ; samgrene, half green ; samlsered, half-
taught ; samsoden, half-cooked ; samwis, dull, foolish.

§ 583. sin-(Goth.OHG.sin-),ewr,/if;^e<«a/,assindream,
everlasting joy ; sinhere, immense army ; sinhiwan, married
couple ; sinniht, eternal night ; sinscipe, marriage, wedlock ;
sinsorg, continual sorrow, sinceald, ever cold; sinfulle,
singrene, houseleek ; singrim, ever fierce.

§ 584. to-, the preposition to, to, as tocyme, approach,
arrival; tohlystend, listener; tdhyht, hope; to-iecnes,
increase ; tonama, surname ; tospriec, conversation ;
totyhting, instigation. tocumende, foreign, strange ;
tdheald, inclined, leaning; to-iernende, approaching; to-
•weard, facing, approaching.

§ 585. tv\ri- (OHG. zwi-, Lat. bi-, Gr. 8i- from *8fi.), two, as
tvfibill, two-edged axe ; twigilde, double payment ; twiweg,
place where two roads meet ; twibete, needing double com-
pensation ; twifeald, twofold ; twifere, accessible by two
ways ; twifete, two-footed ; twifingre, two fingers thick ;
twiheafode, two-headed; tv^i-hweole, two-wheeled; twi-
nihte, two days old; tw^irsede, irresolute; twisprjece,
double - tongued, false in speech ; twiwintre, of two
years.

§ 586. J)ri. (OHG. dri-, Lat. tri-, Gr. Spi-), three, as
Jjridseglic, lasting three days; Jiridaled, tripartite; ])ri-
feald, threefold; }>rifete, having three feet; friflere, three-

§§ 587-91] Word-Formation 293

storied; ]>ri\esiie, trefoil ; ]>rimhte, three days old ; J)rire])re,
having three banks of oars ; Jirisciete, triangular.

§ 587. ])urh-, the preposition J)urh, through, as J)urh-
beorht, very bright; furhbitter, very bitter; Jjurhfere,
penetrable; ^nrhhaM^, very holy ; ]>\iThscmendMc, splendid ;
furhscyldig, very guilty ; })urhspedig, very wealthy ; ]}urh-
wacol, sleepless.

§ 588. un. (Goth. OHG. un-, Lat, en-, Or. d-), a negative
particle, un-, sometimes used intensitively with the meaning
bad, evil, &c., as unar, dishonour; unbealo, innocence;
uncyst, vice; unfri]?, war; unhalo, sickness, uncraeft,
evil practice ; undsd, crime ; ungejjanc, evil thought ;
ungield, excessive tax; unlagu, evil law, injustice; unlar,
false doctrine; unswefn, bad dream; unwritere, careless
scribe, umepele, plebeian ; nnsigieien, unpaid ; unandgiet>
full, unintelligent; unbeald, timid; unclsene, unclean;
undeadlic, immortal; undeop, shallow; undierne, mani-
fest; utifsegeT, ugly ; nngeoTxie, reluctantly ; unleof, hated ;
unmsere, inglorious; unriht, wrong; unslaw, active;
unso}>, untrue ; unswete, sour ; unsynnig, innocent ;
ungewiss, uncertain.

§ 589. under-, same word as the preposition under,
under, as underburg, suburb; undercyning, viceroy;
underdiacon, sub-deacon ; underling, underling.

§ 590. up-, the preposition up, up, as upcyme, rising,
origin; upenAe, upper end; up&ering, upper Jloor ; upgang,
rising, sunrise ; upheofon, sky ; uplyft, upper air ; upstige,
ascent; upstigend, nVfer ; up-weg, way to heaven, upcund,
celestial; upheah, uphf ted ; uplendisc, rural, rvstic; upriht,
upright, erect.

§ 591. ut-, the preposition ut, out, as utcwealm, utter
destruction ; utdraf, expulsion ; utfser, exit ; utgang, exit ;
iitgefeoht, foreign war; utgemaere, extreme boundary;
uthere, foreign army ; utlagu, outlaw, iitlendisc, s/rrt«^«,
foreign ; iitlic, external, foreign.

294 Word-Formation [§§ 592-7

§ 592. wan-, the same word as the adjective Goth,
wans, OE. OHG. wan, wanting, lacking, deficient, as
wanhseljj, weakness ; wanhafa, poor person ; wanhoga,
thoughtless person; wanhygd, carelessness; wansped,
poverty, wansselig, unhappy; wanscrydd, poorly clad;
wanspedig, poor.

§ 593. wijier., the preposition Goth. wi]3ra, OHG.
wdar, OE. wVper, against, as ■wij)ercwide, contradiction;
wijierlean, requital; \vij)ersaca, adversary; w^i])ersaec,
opposition ; wijjertrod, retreat, ■wijjerrsede, adverse.

§ 594. ymb-, the preposition ymb (OHG. *umb, Gr,
d(i<|)i), around, and related to the adverb ymbe, OHG.
umbi, both from an older umb + bi, literally around by.
Examples are ymbfaer, circuit ; ymbgang, circumference ;
ymbhoga, consideration.

Suffixes.

§ 695. -a]?, -ojj (Goth. -o]5U-, OHG. -od, Lat. -atu-, Gr.
-r|Tij-), used in forming masc. abstract nouns from the
second class of weak verbs, as drohtaj), way of life;
drugojj, dryness, drought ; fisco]?, fishing ; fugelojj, fowl-
ing ; huntoj), hunting ; langoj), longing, desire ; sweolojj,
swoloj), heat, burning. Often extended to -noj) with n from
the verbal forms, as drohtnian, to pass life ; hseftnian, to take
captive; whence fiscnojj, fugelnojj; ssedno J), sowm^; &c.

§ 596. -bora, also used as an independent noun, one
who bears or sustains the charge of anything, a ruler, related
to beran, to bear, as Eescbora, spear-bearer; Cffigbora,
key-bearer; mundbora, protector; rsedbora, counsellor;
rodbora, cross-bearer; strselbora, archer; wjepenbora,
warrior ; wojjbora, poet ; wrohtbora, accuser.

§ 597. -dom (OHG. •tuom), also used as an independent
word, Goth, doms, OE. dom, judgment, OHG. tuom,
state, condition, as abbuddom, abbacy ; campdom, contest.

§§598-601] Word-Formation 295

war ; cynedom, kingdom ; ealdorddm, authority ; freo-
Abm., freedom ; hsefteddm, captivity; hlaforddom, lordship ;
Isecedom, medicine; lareowddm, office of teacher ; reccend-
Abva, rule, governance; s^nlcAbva., deceit ; ]>&o'wd.bva, service.

§ 598. -els from older -isl by metathesis (§ 277), West
Germanic 'islja' = OHG. -isli, used in forming masculine
nouns, as braedels, covering, carpet; bridels, bridle;
byrgels, tomb ; cnyttels, sinew ; fstels, tub ; gyrdels,
girdle ; hydels, hiding-place, cave ; mserels, moortng-rope ;
miercels, mark ; rsedels, riddle ; recels, incense ; smierels,
ointment ; sticels, goad ; wrigels, covering.

§ 599. -en (OHG. -in, ace. -inna), prim. Germanic -ini,
•injo- (West Germanic •innjo-, § 254), mostly used to form
the feminine from nouns denoting male beings ; also used
to form fem. abstract and concrete nouns, as fyxen, she-fox ;
gyden, goddess ; menen, female slave ; mynecen(n), nun ;
})eowen(n), servant ; })ignen, J)Inen, handmaid ; wiergen(n),
she-wolf giemen(n), care, responsibility ; heeften, custody ;
hengen, hanging ; Xy^en, falsehood ; scielden(n), protection ;
selen, sellen, gift ; streowen, bed ; tyhten(n), incitement ;
waecen, vigil, watching.

§ 600. -en (Goth, -ein, OHG. -In), West Germanic -in.
beside -innja-, used in forming neuter nouns often with
diminutive meaning, as cliewen, clywen, clew ; cycen,
chicken ; embren, bucket ; faesten, fortress ; filmen, film ;
gxten, Itttle goat, kid ; msegden, msden, maiden ; ticcen,
kid, westen(n), desert.

§ 601. -end (-nd), originally the ending of the present
participle of verbs (§ 441), used in forming nomina agentis,
as feond, enemy ; freond, friend ; galend, enchanter ;
hslend, Saviour; hettend, enemy; hlystend, listener;
Isstend, doer ; lljiend, sailor, traveller ; metend, measurer ;
reccend, ruler; ridend, rider; sceotend, warrior; sec-
^QViA., speaker; sellend, giver ;tab\end, reprover; wealdend,
ruler; wigend, warrior; wrecend, avenger.

296 Word-Formation [§§ 602-5

§ 802. -ere (Goth, -areis, OHG. -ari, Lat. -arius),
originally used to form nomina agentis from other nouns,
and then later from verbs also, as bsecere, baker; creopere,
cripple] costere, tempter; dresLiaere, musician ; drincere,
drinker ; etere, eater ; fugelere, fowler ; tolgere, follower ;
gitsere, miser ; godspellere, evangelist ; hearpere, harper ;
hordere, steward, treasurer; hwistlere, piper; laenere,
lender; leasere, hypocrite; leogere, liar; leornere, dis-
ciple, learner ; majjere, mower ; mangere, merchant, trader ;
reafere, robber ; reccere, ruler ; ssedere, sower ; sangere,
singer; scipere, sailor; seamere, tailor; sutere, shoe-
maker ; toUere, tax-gatherer ; writere, writer.

§ 603. -estre from older -istrse, prim. Germanic -istrjon-
beside -astrjon-, used in forming fern, nomina agentis from
verbs, also occasionally from nouns, as baecestre, baker;
c&m.-pes,ire, female novice ; fylgestre, follower ; hleapestre,
dancer; huntigestre, huntress; larestre, teacher; lop-
pestre, lobster; lufestre, lover; reedestre, reader; san-
gestre, songstress; seamestre, sempstress; taeppestre,
tavern-keeper ; webbestre, weaver ; v?itegestre, pro-
phetess.

§ 604. -et(t) (Goth, -iti, OHG. -izzi), prim. Germanic
-itja- beside -atja-, used in forming neut. verbal and
denominative abstract nouns, as bsernet, arson ; bealcet(t),
belchtng; emnet, plain; hiewet, cutting; nierwet(t),
narrowness ; rewet, rowing ; rymet, space, extent ; sffiwet,
sowing; sweofot, sleep; ]3eowet, -ot, slavery; })iccet(t),
thicket.

§ 605. -had (OHG. -heit), used to form masc. abstract
nouns from nouns and adjectives, also used as an in-
dependent word, Goth, hdidus, way, manner, OE. had,
OHG. heit, grade, rank. Examples are : abbudhad,
rank of an abbot ; camphad, warfare ; cildhad, childhood ;
cnihthad, boyhood ; fulwihthad, baptismal vow ; geogu})-
had, youth; healichad, loftiness; msegdenhad, maiden-

§§ 6o6-9] Word-Formation 297

hood ; msg]>had, relationship ; munuchad, monastic state ;
preosthad, priesthood ; ])eowhad, service ; werhad, man-
hood, male sex ; wifhad, womanhood.

§ 606. -incel (cp. OHG. -inklin), a neuter diminutive
suffix of uncertain origin, as cofincel, little chamber ; haeft-
incel, slave ; husincel, little house ; lijiincel, little joint ;
rapincel, cord, string; scipincel, little ship; stanincel,
little stone ; tunincel, small estate ; ])eo-siif incel, young slave ;
weargincel, butcher-bird.

§ 607. -ing (O.Icel. -ingr, OHG. -ing), used in forming
masc. concrete nouns, especially patronymics, as sejjeling,
son of a noble, prince ; cyning, king ; Ealdulfing, Scefing,
Scylding. biesting, first milk of a cow after calving;
casering, a coin ; scilling, shilling ; hsring, herring ;
hearding, hero, bold man ; hemming, shoe of hide ; ief ming,
poor wretch ; silfring, silver coin ; swertling, titlark. From
nouns like aejjeling beside the adj. aejjele, noble; and
lytling, child, beside lytel, little, was extracted the suffix
•ling which became common especially in forming nouns
denoting persons, as cnaepling, youth ; deotling, favourite,
darling; feorpling, fourth part, farthing ; fostorling, foster-
child; geongling, youth ; gesibUng, kinsman ; haeftling,
prisoner; hea.fodiing, equal, companion ; hyrling, hireling ;
ierjjling, ploughman ; niedling, slave, bondman ; rspling,
prisoner ; ))eowling, slave.

§ 608. -lac, used in forming neuter nouns. Also used
as an independent word, Goth, liiks, dance, O.Icel. leikr,
play, OHG. leih, play, song. The original meaning seems
to have been 'motion in general', but in OE. lac means
battle ; offering, sacrifice ; gift, present. Examples are :
sefenlac, evening sacrifice ; breowlac, brewing ; brydlac,
marriage gift ; feohtla.c, fighting ; rea^ac, robbery, booty;
sselac, gift or offering from the sea ; scinlac, magic ; wed-
lac, wedlock ; witelac, punishment ; wrohtlac, accusation.
§ 609. •nes(s), ■nis(s) (OHG. -nessi, -nissi), used in

2 gS Word-Formation [§§610-12

forming fem. abstract nouns from adjectives, as aejielnes,
nobility; biternes, bitterness ; blindnes, blindness ; celnes,
coolness ; cXxxoi&s, purity ; dreorignes, sadness ; eadignes,
prosperity; fBisXxiQs, firmness; gleavpnes, sagacity; grennes,
greenness; hsslnes, salvation ; heardnes, hardness ; idelnes,
idleness; lufsumnes, amiability; mildheortnes, mercy;
oferetolnes, gluttony; slaecnes, slackness; strangnes,
strength ; wseterseocnes, dropsy ; waernes, prudence ;
■wodnes, madness.

§ 810. -raden(n), used in forming fem. abstract nouns
denoting a state or condition. Also used as an independent
word, rEeden(n), state, condition, related to the verb geraedan,
to arrange, put in order. Examples are : geferraeden,
companionship ; geJ)eodr»den, fellowship ; hiwrseden,
family, household; hcldrseden, loyalty; husraeden, house-
hold; hyldrffiden, fidelity; msedrEeden, grass mown on
a meadow ; msegraeden, relationship ; man(n)raeden, allegi-
ance, homage ; teonrEeden, injury ; treowrEeden, fidelity ;
Jiingrseden, intercession ; witerseden, punishment.

§ 611. -scipe (related to Goth, skapjan, OE. scieppan,
to create), used in forming masc. abstract nouns, as beer-
scipe, feast; burgscipe, township; cafscipe, activity;
dryhtscipe, sovereignty; fracodscipe, vileness; feond-
scipe, hostility ; treondscipe,friendship ; geapscipe, deceit ;
geferscipe, companionship ; gemsenscipe, fellowship, com-
munion ; godscipe, goodness ; hajjenscipe, paganism ;
hlafordscipe, lordship; holdscipe, loyalty; hwsetscipe,
bravery; manscipe, humanity ; prutscipe, pride ; sinscipe,
wedlock ; tiinscipe, inhabitants of a village ; })eodscipe,
nation ; wserscipe, prudence.

§ 612. -stafas, the plural of staef, staff, stick, used to
form masc. abstract nouns, as arstafas, kindness; facen-
stafas, treachery ; hearmstafas, trouble, affliction ; sorg-
stafas, sorrow, affliction ; wrohtstafas, crime ; wyrd-
stafas, destiny.

§§613-15] Word-Formation 299

§ 613. -]30, •}), older •J)U (Goth. •i\ia., OHG. -ida, prim.
Germanic -ijio), used in forming fem. abstract nouns from
adjectives, as fyljj, filth ; hiehJ>(o), height ; hien})(o), hu-
miliation ; hliewj), covering, shelter ; hrief j3(o), scurfiness ;
ierm])(o), poverty ; ierg})(o), cowardice ; lajjjjo, hatred ;
leng)j(o), /(?«^;/! ; mar]3(o), /a»«^, ^/ory ; myr(i)g)), wiW/i ;
ssl]}, happiness ; sljew}), s/o^A ; strengJ)(o), strength ;
treowj), triewjj, fidelity; trymj), firmness; ]>ietp, theft;
wrEe]j})(o), wrath. On the t in words like gescentu, rf«-
grace; gesyntu, health; ofermettu, pride, see § 305. In
nouns formed from adjectives ending in -leas, the -}> became
-t after the s (§ 305), as larleast, -liest, ignorance ; lifleast,
death ; andgietleast./b//)' ; slsepleast, sleeplessness ; gieme-
liest, carelessness, negligence; hlafLeast, want of bread;
hygeleast, thoughtlessness.

§ 614. -u, -o, embracing fem. abstract nouns formed from
adjectives. In prim. Germanic the stem of this class
of nouns ended in -in, cp. Goth, managei, multitude, gen.
manageins. The OE. nouns have -u, -o from the o-
declension (§ 365), as menniscu, -o, humanity, human state ;
micelu, size ; vs^aestmbaro, fertility ; wlenco, pride. For
further examples, see § 563, 1.

§ 615. -ung, more rarely -ing (O.Icel. -ung, -ing ; OHG.
■ung, -unga), used in forming fem. abstract nouns, especially
from the second class of weak verbs (§§ 535-6), as abidung,
waiting ; ascung, interrogation ; biegung, curvature ; blac-
ung, pallor ; brocung, affliction ; ceapung, trading ; cost-
ung, temptation ; deorcung, twilight ; gemiltsung, pity ;
glomung, gloaming ; handlung, handling ; harung, hoari-
ness; hearpung, harping; langung, longing; leasung,
lying, leasing ; murcnung, murmuring ; nijjerung, humilia-
tion; scesivfung, contemplation ; scotung, shooting ; striid-
ung, robbery ; swigung, silence ; tacnung, signification ;
teojmng, tithing; Jiegnung, ministration; ])ingung, inter-
cession ; warnung, warning ; wiccung, witchcraft ; wun-

300 Word-Formation [§§616-17

ung, dwelling, aerning, riding, racing ; greting, greeting ;
ielding, delay ; rseding, reading ; wending, turning.

§ 616. -wist, used in forming fern, abstract nouns. Also
used as an independent word. Goth, wists, OHG. OE.
wist, being, existence, substance, the verbal abstract noun
of OE. wesan, to be. Examples are : htiswist, household;
losw^ist, perdition, loss ; midwist, presence ; neawist,
neighbourhood ; onw^ist, dwelling in a place ; samwist,
living together ; stedewist, steadiness, constancy.

Compound Nouns.

§ 617. In compound nouns formed by composition, the
second element is always a noun, but the first element
may be a noun, adjective, or a particle. The declension
and gender of compound nouns are determined by the
final element. Examples are :

acleaf, oak-leaf; afenmete, supper; aeppelwin, cider;
bffilfyr, funeral fire ; bancofa, body ; boccraeft, literature ;
borggielda, debtor; brojjorsunu, nephew; brydguma,
bridegroom ; campstede, battle-field ; cornhtis, granary ;
cQhierde, cow-herd; domdaeg, doomsday; earmbeag,
bracelet ; faederslaga, parricide ; feldhiis, tent ; fierdleoj),
war-song ; folctoga, general ; flsschama, body ; garbeam,
spear-shaft; godspell, gospel ; gupbana., banner ; hamstede,
homestead; handgeweorc, handiwork; larhus, school;
motMs, court-house; rimcraeft, arithmetic; sangbdc,
hymn-book; ssecyning, sea-king; scohnsegl, shoe-nail;
stsefcrseft, grammar; stanbrycg, stone-bridge; tungol-
craeft, astronomy; waeteradl, dropsy; weorcdaeg, work-
day ; wifman, woman ; woruldcaru, worldly care.

anhaga, recluse ; beorhtrodor, heaven ; blaecgimm, jet ;
bradbrim, ocean ; cw^icseht, live-stock ; dimhiis, prison ;
ealdormann, magistrate ; ealdspraec, tradition ; faeder(e)n-
mseg, paternal kinsman ; fecwergield, fourfold payment ;
freobearn, freeborn child; heahsynn, deadly sin; leas-

§§ 618-19] IVord-Formation 301

gielp, vainglory; middelniht, midnight; neahmEeg, near
relation ; rihthand, right hand ; sorglufu, sad love ; so]?-
word, true word; widsse, open sea; wbhgod, false god;
wansceaft, misfortune.

angbreost, asthma ; eftcyme, return ; ellorsi]?, departure,
death; geoscesdi, destiny; hiAercyvae, arrival ; nijjergang,
descent; samodsprsc, colloquy.

§ 618. The first element of a compound noun regularly
retained its final vowel, when it was a short i-, u-, or wa-
stem. The final vowel generally remained in ja-stems
whether the stem-syllable of the first element was long or
short. On the other hand it regularly disappeared in n-,
and short 6-stems. Examples are : berelaf, barley loaf;
cwidegiedd, song; elebeam, olive-tree; merewif, water-
witch; selegiest, hall-guest; winemjeg, kinsman, duru-
weard, door-keeper ; felawyrdnes, loquacity ; hagosteald,
bachelor; heoruword, fierce word; magorinc, warrior;
medudream, mead-joy ; wudubearo, grove, beadocraeft,
skill in war ; bealo)>anc, evil thought.

endelaf, last remnant ; hierdeboc, pastoral book ; ierfe-
weard, heir ; witestow, place of torment, cynerice, king-
dom ; herefolc, army.

bangSLT, deadly spear ; gumcynn, mankind ; frumbearn,
firstborn child; namboc, register; steorsceawere, astro-
nomer ; sweorban, neck bone, ciricboc, church-book ;
heortcojju, heart-disease ; moldgraef, grave ; nunmynster,
convent, nunnery ; sunbeam, sunbeam, earwicga, earwig.
cargast, sad spirit; giefstol, throne; luftacen, love token.

§ 619. Sometimes the first element of compounds appears
in its inflected form, as daegeseage, daisy; geacessure,
woodsorrel; hadesmann, member of a particular order;
steoresmann beside steormann, steersman; Tiwesdaeg,
Tuesday, hellebryne, hell-fire; hellewite, hell-torment;
hildestrengo, warlike strength ; r6dehengen(n), crucifixion,
mdnansfen, Sunday evening; m5nandseg beside mdndseg,

302 Word-Formation [§§ 620-3

Monday ; nunnanmynster beside nunmynster, nunnery ;
sunnandaeg, Sunday ; sunnanniht, Saturday evening.
ffigerfelma,_/?/w of an egg; segergeolu, jvo//fe of egg, beside
ffigsciell, egg-shell. Englaland, England; witenagemot,
parliament.

Adjectives.

§ 620. Adjectives, like nouns, may be conveniently
divided into three classes : simple, derivative, and com-
pound. Examples of simple adjectives are: beald, bold;
blaec, black ; ceald, cold ; deop, deep ; eald, old ; earm,
poor ; full, full ; geolu, yellow ; geong, young ; hal, whole,
sound; heard, hard; Iset, slow; lang, long; leof, dear;
mjere, famous ; niewe, new ; read, red ; scearp, sharp ;
smael, small ; Strang, strong ; trum, firm ; J>icce, thick ;
wac, weak ; wis, wise.

§ 621. Derivative adjectives often have the same in-
separable prefixes as nouns {§§ 564-94), as andfenge,
acceptable; ansund, entire, sound; edgeong, growing
young; gecynde, innate, natural; sammsle, agreed; un-
synnig, innocent.

Suffixes.

§ 622. -bjere (OHG. -bari, Lat. -fer in lucifer, light-
bearing ; originally a verbal adj. from beran, to bear), as
seppelbaere, apple-bearing ; atorbaere, poisonous ; cwealm-
bsere, deadly ; fejjerbsere, winged ; fyrbsere, fiery ; gram-
bsere, passionate ; halbsere, wholesome ; hornbsere, horned ;
leohtbeere, bright, splendid; lustbaere, desirable; mann-
bsere, producing men ; tungolbEere, starry ; waestmbare,
fruitful ; wigbeere, warlike.

§ 623. -cund (Goth, -kunds, OHG. -kunt, denoting kind,
sort, origin ; originally a participial adj., related to cennan,
to bring forth, beget), as sej^elcund, of noble origin ; deofol-
cund, diabolical; eorlcund, noble; eorfctind, earthly;

§§ 624-8] IVord-Formation 503

feoTTcaxiA., foreign ; gastcund, spiritual ; godcund, divine ;
hsoioncMndyheavenly; innancund, infernal, inward ; sawol-
cund, spiritual ; weoroldcund, worldly ; yfelcund, evil.

§ 624. -ede (OHG. -oti), denoting provided with, furnished
with, used in forming adjectives from nouns, as coppede,
topped, polled; healede, ruptured; hocede, shaped like a
hook; hoferede, humpbacked; hringed(e), furnished with
rings ; micelheafdede, big-headed ; sureagede, blear-eyed ;
Jjriheafdede, three-headed.

§ 625. -en (Goth, -ein, OHG. -in, prim. Germanic -inaz =
Lat. -inus), used in forming adjectives denoting the material
of which a thing is made, as sescen, made of ash-wood;
brsesen, of brass ; fellen, of skins ; flsescen, of flesh ; fyren,
fiery ; gseten, of goats ; gielpen, boastful ; gylden, golden ;
hseren, of hair ; hwseten, wheaten ; hwilen, transitory ;
hyrnen, made of horns; leaden, leaden; picen, of pitch;
rygen, of rye ; seolf ran, of silver ; siden, silken ; staenen,
stony, of stone ; sweflen, sulphurous ; treowen, wooden ;
tunglen, of the stars.

Note. — Forms like braesen, fellen, leaden, treowen, for
*bresen, *fillen, *lieden, *triewen, are new formations made
direct from the corresponding nouns, without umlaut.

§ 626. -erne (prim. Germanic -ronja-), used in forming
adjectives denoting direction, as easterne, east, eastern ;
ncrjierne, northern ; sujieme, southern ; westerne,
western.

\ 627. -faest, same word as the adj. faBst,/as^, fixed, firm,
as Eerendfaest, bound on an errand ; arfaest, virtuous ; bid-
faest, stationary ; blsedf aest, glorious ; eorjjfaest, fixed in the
earth; gieSxst, gtfted ; hogixst, prudent ; hnsfxst, having
a home ; hygefaest, wise ; maegenfaest, vigorous ; sigefaest,
victorious; stedefasst, steadfast ; treovfiaest, faithful.

§ 628. .feald (Goth. •fal]>s, OHG. -fait, related to fealdan,
to fold), used in forming adjectives from other adjectives,

304 Word-Formation [§§629-32

especially from numerals, as anfeald, smgle; felafeald,
manifold; hundfeald, hundredfold; manigfeald, manifold;
seofonfeald, sevenfold ; twSntigfeald, twentyfold.

§ 629. -full, sometimes weakened to -fol, same word as
the adj. full, full, used in forming adjectives, especially
from abstract nouns, as andgietfuU, intelligent ; bealofuU,
wicked ; bismerfull, disgraceful ; forhtfull, timorous ;
geleaffuU, believing ; geornfull, eager ; hyhtfuU, joyful ;
modfull, arrogant, proud; scyldfuU, guilty; )iancfull,
thoughtful ; wordfull, wordy ; wundorfuU, wonderful.

§ 630. -ig (Goth, -ag, -eig, OHG. -ag, -ig). The two
Germanic suffixes -ag, -ig, can only be distinguished in OE.
by the presence or absence of umlaut in the stem-syllable
of the derivative adjective. Examples are : ixAx'g, envious;
craeftig, strong ; cystig, bountiful ; deawig, dewy ; fyrstig,
frosty; gesselig, happy, prosperous; ge)>yldig, patient;
gredig, greedy; hungrig, hungry; modig, brave, bold;
ovd\.%, rusty ; scyldig, guilty ; stjenig beside stanig, sfo«y ;
Jiornig, thorny ; Jsurstig beside Jjyrstig, thirsty ; wordig,
wordy ; ystig, stormy.

§ 631. -iht (OHG. -aht(i), ■oht(i), NHG. -icht) has much
the same meaning or force as -ig, as cambiht, crested;
croppiht, bunchy ; finiht, finny ; hseriht, hairy ; hsfiht,
heathy ; hreodiht, reedy ; ifiht, covered with ivy ; sandiht,
sandy; stseniht beside staniht, stony; fomiht beside
Jjyrniht, thorny ; wudiht, wooded, forest-like.

§ 632. -isc (Goth, -isk, OHG. -isc, -isk), generally con-
noting the quality of the object denoted by the simplex, as
cerAisc, Kentish ; cildisc, childish ; demsc, Danish; eng-
lisc, English; entisc, of giants; eorlisc, noble; folcisc,
popular; heofordsc,' heavenly ; inlendisc, native ; mennisc,
human; scyi^sc, Scotch ; wielisc, foreign, Welsh.

Note.— I. Forms like eorlisc, folcisc for *ierlisc, *fylcisc, are
new formations made direct from the corresponding nouns,
without umlaut.

§§ 633-6] IVord-Formation 305

2. Adjectives of this kind are sometimes used as nouns, as
ledisc, property, hiwisc, family, household ; mennisc, mankind,
people.

§ 633. -leas (Goth. -Idus, OHG. -los). Also used as an
independent word Goth, l&as, empty; OE. leas, OHG. 16s,
devoid of. Examples are : arleas, impious, cruel ; banleas,
boneless ; beardleas, beardless ; carleas, careless ; cwide-
leas, speechless ; faederleas, fatherless ; giemeleas, heed-
less ; hamleas, homeless ; hrofleas, roofless ; maegenleas,
powerless; sacleas, innocent; sprsbcleas, speechless; toj)-
leas, toothless ; weor]jleas, worthless.

§634. -lie (Goth. Jeik, OHG. -lih,.lich). Also preserved
as an independent word in Goth, ga-leiks, OHG. gi-lich,
OE. ge-lic, /i'lte; originally the same word as Goth, leik,
OY.. lie, body. Examples are: ^nMc, unique ; z.n\ic, solitaty ;
cildlic, infantine ; cynelic, royal ; daeglic, daily ; deadlic,
deadly ; ealdlic, venerable ; forhtlic, afraid ; gea.T^c, yearly ;
gesinsciplic, co«/M^a/; heoiovXic, heavenly ; hetelic, Aosft'/? ;
\o&c, praiseworthy ; xaQToa^clic, human; taxrlic, famous ;
nytlic, useful; stowlic, local ; tidlic, temporary; wiflic,
womanly.

§ 635. -ol (Goth, -ul, OHG. -al), mostly used in forming
adjectives from verbal forms, as andgietol, intelligent;
beswicol, deceitful; etol, voracious ; hetol, hostile ; hlagol,
apt to laugh ; meagol, earnest, vigorous ; numol, capacious ;
nyttol, useful; reafol, rapacious; slapol, somnolent,
sleepy; sprecol, talkative; ]5ancol, thoughtful; wacol,
vigilant ; witol, wise.

§ 636. -sum (OHG. -sam ; Goth, -sam only preserved in
lustu-sams, longed for, much desired). Also used as an
independent word Goth, sama, same, OHG. sama, in like
manner, OE. swa same, similarly, -sum stands in ablaut-
relation to OHG. -sam. Examples are : angsum, trouble-
some ; ansum, whole ; fri})sum, pacific ; fremsum, bene-
ficial; gelea,fsam, credible, faithful; genyhtsnm, abundant ;

3o6 Word-Formation [§§ 637-40

gesibbsum, peaceable, friendly ; langsum, lasting, tedious ;
lufsum, amiable ; wilsum, pleasant ; wynsum, winsome.

§ 637. -weard (OHG. -wert.Goth. -wairjjs, originally a
verbal adjective and related to weorjjan, to become), used in
forming adjectives denoting position or direction, as aefter-
wea.Td,following ; andweard, present; for]>-Mvea.Td, inclined
forward ; heononweard, transitory, going hence ; hider-
weard, hitherward ; innanweard, inward, internal ; nor])(e)-
■weard, northward; ni))er'weard, downward; ongean-
weard, going towards ; toweard, toward, about to come.

§ 638. -wende, related to wendan, to turn, used in form-
ing adjectives from nouns and other adjectives, as hal-
wende, healthful, wholesome; hatwende, hot, burning;
hwilwende, transitory, temporary; la])wende, hateful,
hostile; leofwende, loving, friendly ; hifwende, amiable.

§ 630. Suffixes, which were no longer felt as such in OE.,
are omitted, e. g. the -od, -ol (-el), -en, -er (-or) in adjectives
like forod, broken, decayed; nacod, naked, acol, timid;
deagol, diegol, secret; idel, vain; lytel, little; sweotol,
plain, evident; yfel, evil, efen, even; tsegen,glad; open,
open, bitter, bitter; fseger, /a/r; sicor, sure; snottor,
wise; wacor, vigilant, watchful. On the suffixes in the
present and past participles, see §§ 520, 601.

Compound Adjectives.

§ 640. In compound adjectives formed by composition,
the second element is always an adjective or used as an
adjective, but the first element may be a noun, adjective,
verb, or particle. On the loss or retention of the final
vowel in the first element of compounds see § 618. Ex-
amples are : jehtspedig, wealthy ; aelfsciene, beautiful as a
fairy; hxc^liiol, slandering ; hea-doCTseftig, skilful in war ;
blbdread, blood-red ; hritaceald, sea-cold ; brunfag, brown-
coloured; brynehat, burning hot; cynegod, noble; dsed-

§641] Word-Formation 307

cene, bold in deeds ; deaj>fsege,y&/^rf to die ; deop]}ancol,
thoughtful; domgeorn, ambitious ; druncengeorn, drunken;
dunlendisc, /j?//)/ ; eallgbd, perfectly good ; ecgheard, hard
of edge ; efeneald, contemporary ; ellenrof, brave ; ellorfus,
ready to depart; tesstrxd, steadfast; telasynnig, very guilty ;
feohstrang, opulent; folcmffire, celebrated; frijjgeom,
pacific ; gaersgrene, grass-green ; gearojiancol, ready-
witted; healfcwic, half dead ; hetelpSLXicol, hostile ; limhal,
sound in limb; luftieme, loving, benevolent; modcearig,
anxious ; naincujj, celebrated ; rsedsnotor, wise ; seldcujj,
unfamiliar ; sigoreadig, victorious ; snahwit, snow-
white ; Jiancsnotor, wise ; widcuj), widely known. The
present and past participles often form the second element
of compounds, as eallwealdende, omnipotent; gleawhyc-
gende, thoughtful; healfslsepende, half asleep ; leoht-
berende, luminous; rihtwillende, well-meaning; sjed-
berende, seed-bearing ; teargeotende, tearful, aefterboren,
posthumous ; selfremede, foreign ; serboren, first-bom ;
cyneboren, of royal birth ; goldhroden, adorned with gold ;
h&aXfsod&a, half-cooked ; rihtgefremed, orthodox.

§ 641. In addition to the class of compound adjectives
given above, the parent language had a class, the second
element of which was originally a noun. Such compounds
are generally called bahuvrihi or possessive compounds,
as Lat. longipes, having a long foot, long-footed; Gr. Suajieri^s,
having an evil mind, hostile ; Goth, hrdinjahairts, having
a pure heart, pure-hearted. In OE. the most common ad-
jectives of this kind are those ending in -heort and -mod,
as clsenheort, pure in heart; gramheort, hostile-minded;
mildheort, ^e«& ; stesLtcheort, stout-hearted ; wulfheort,
savage; dreorigmod, sad; faestmod, constant; glaedmod,
cheerful; gTS.mva.oA, fierce; ierremod, angry; langmod,
patient ; micelmod, magnanimous ; strangmod, resolute ;
sarigmod, sarf; ^loacolnibA, thoughtful ; wraj>m6d, a^ra/A-
ful. Other examples are : brunecg, brown-edged ; gleaw-

X 2

3o8 Word-Formation [§§ 642-3

tQtWp, prudent ; gyldenfeax, golden-haired; stielecg, steel-
edged; yfelsprsece, evil-speaking.

Verbs.

§ 642. From a morphological point of view, all verbs
may be divided into two great classes : simple and com-
pound. Simple verbs are sub-divided into primary and
denominative verbs. To the former sub-division belong the
strong verbs and a certain number of weak verbs, and to
the latter the denominative verbs. The simple primary
verbs are here left out of further consideration, as their
formation belongs to the wider field of comparative gram-
mar. Compound verbs are of various kinds : (i) those
formed from simple verbs by means of separable or in-
separable particles, (2) those formed from nouns and
adjectives with verbal prefixes or suffixes. Separable
verbs call for no further comment, because they merely
consist of the juxtaposition of two independent words.

§ 643. Simple verbs are formed direct from nouns and
adjectives or from the corresponding strong verbs, as
Eerendian, to go on an errand; andswerian, to answer;
andwyrdan, to answer ; arian, to honour ; ba}>ian, to bathe ;
cwielman, to torture, kill ; cyssan, to kiss ; deman, to
judge ; fedan, to feed; flieman, to put to flight; gellefan,
to believe ; hiertan, to hearten, encourage ; laran, to teach ;
liehtan, to give light ; mengan, to mix ; nemnan, to name ;
reafian, to plunder; ryman, to make clear, enlarge; sselan,
to bind; scendan, to put to shame; scrydan, to clothe;
si]7ian, to travel; sorgian, to grieve; swjetan, to sweat;
tynan, to enclose.

brsedan, to broaden; celan, to cool; cyfan, to make
known; fxgma.n, to rejoice ; fnUian, to fulfil; fyUan, to fill ;
hselan, to heal; hlydan, to make a noise ; ieldan, to delay ;
leasian, to tell lies ; mseran, to proclaim ; nearwian, to
become narrow ; openian, to open ; scierpan, to sharpen.

§§ 644-7] Word-Formation 309

aeman, to cause to run ; bsernan, to burn ; biegan, to
bend; cwellan, to kill; drencan, to submerge; iiellan,
to fell; geswencan, to injure; gewieldan, to overpower;
Isdan, to lead; lecgan, to lay ; nerian, to save; rjeran, to
raise ; ssegan, to lay low ; sencan, to submerge ; sengan,
to singe ; settan, to set ; swebban, to lull to sleep.

§ 644. Compound verbs are formed from simple verbs,
nouns, and adjectives, by means of various prefixes. See
below.

Prefixes.

§ 645. From the list of prefixes given below are excluded
such words as set, ofer, furh, under, wij), wifer, and
ymb(e), which were separable or inseparable according
as they were stressed or unstressed.

§ 646. a- (OHG. ar-, ir-), the unstressed form of or-
{§ 580), as aberan, to remove; abeodan, to announce;
abidan, to abide; abitan, to devour; ablinnan, to cease;
aceorfan, to cut off; adon, to send away; adrifan, to
expel; afaran, to depart; agiefan, to repay; aheawan,
to hew off; alstan, to relinquish ; arisan, to arise ; ascufan,
to shove off; astigan, to climb.

acweUan, to destroy ; adrencan, to submerge ; afaestnian,
to confirm ; aflieman, to banish ; afrefran, to console ;
alsdan, to lead away ; aliehtan, to illuminate ; aiiesan, to
redeem ; alibban, to survive ; araeran, to rear, lift up.

§ 647. be- (OHG. bi-), the unstressed form of bi- (§570),
as bebrecan, to break off; bebugan, to encompass ; becling-
an, to enclose ; becuman, to become, happen ; becwejian,
to bequeath ; bedrincan, to drink in, absorb ; behealdan, to
behold; beheawan, to cut off; belicgan, to surround;
belimpan, to happen ; belucan, to lock up ; bemurnan, to
bewail; beneotan, to deprive ; besingan, to bewitch ; be-
slean, /o deprive of; be)>ringan, to surround; bewindan,
to bind round.

3IO Word-Formation [§§648-50

bebycgan, to sell ; bebyrgan, to bury ; befsestan, to make
fast ; beheafdian, to behead ; behelian, to cover over ;
belsewan, to betray; belendan, to deprive of land; be-
swjelan, to scorch ; befencan, to consider ; bewepan, to
bewail.

§ 648. ed-, re-, again (§ 571), as edgieldan, to repay,
edbyrdan, to regenerate; edhiertan, to encourage; edlscan,
to repeat; edliestan, to repeat; edstajjelian, to re-establish ;
edwierpan, to recover.

§ 649. for- (Goth, fair-, late OHG. and MHO. ver-).
The real unstressed form is fer-, corresponding to Goth,
fair- and German ver-, but already at an early period the
originally stressed form for- came to be used in place of
fer-. The old stressed form has been preserved in
fdrwyrd, destruction, beside forweorjjan, to perish. Ex-
amples are: forbeodan, to /or6?(/; forbrecan, to destroy;
forcwejian, to rebuke ; fordon, to destroy ; fordrifan, to
expel ; forfaran, to perish ; forfon, to seize, take away ;
forgan, to forgo ; forgiefan, to forgive ; forgieldan, to re-
pay; forlacan, to lead astray; forleosan, to lose ; formeltan,
to melt away ; forniman, to take away ; forraedan, to plot
against ; forscrifan, to proscribe ; forseon, to despise ;
forswerian, to swear falsely ; forweorjian, to perish.

forbryttan, to break in pieces ; forcierran, to turn aside ;
fordeelan, to deal out ; fordeman, to condemn ; forealdian,
to become old; forgieman, to neglect; forhabban, to restrain ;
forherigan, to ravage ; forhogian, to despise ; forlcedan, to
mislead ; forsendan, to banish ; forwyrcan, to do wrong.

§ 650. ful(l)- (OHG. foUe-), originally the adj. full, full,
used adverbially, as fullberstan, to break completely ; fuU-
brecan, to violate ; fuldon, to satisfy ; fulgan, to accomplish ;
fullgrowan, to grow to maturity ; full]jungen,/M/^ grown.

fulbetan, to make full amends ; fullendian, to complete ;
fuUfremman, to fulfil; fuUfyllan, to fulfil; fuUsestan, to
give aid; fultruwian, to confide in.

§§651-4] Word-Formation 311

§ 651. ge- (OHG. gi-, unstressed form of OHG. Goth, ga-),
originally a prep, meaning together (§ 574), as gebelgan, to
provoke; gebeodan, /o command; gebeorgan, to protect;
geberan, to brtng forth ; gebindan, to bind ; geceosan, to
choose ; gefaran, to go ; gefrignan, to learn by asking ;
gehatan, to promise ; gelimpan, to happen ; gerinnan, to
congeal; gestigan, to mount; gewinnan, to win.

ge-sernan, to gain by running; ge-agnian, to claim as
one's own; ge-ascian, to learn by asking; gebsedan, to
compel; gebseran, to behave; gebetan, to improve; ge-
hefigian, to make heavy ; gehycgan, to think ; geliefan, to
believe ; gemetan, to discover ; gersecan, to obtain ; gesec-
gan, to say, tell; gej^eodan, to join together.

§ 652. mis- (Goth, missa-, OHG. missa-, missi-, § 577),
as misbeodan, to ill-treat ; miscwejjan, to speak incorrectly ;
misfon, to make a mistake ; misfaran, logo astray; misdon,
to transgress.

misfadian, to arrange wrongly ; misferan, to go astray ;
misgieman, to neglect; misgretan, to insult; mishieran,
to disregard; mislaeran, to advise wrongly; misraecan, to
revile ; miswendan, to pervert.

§ 653. of-,the unstressed form of sef- (§ 566), as of beatan,
to beat to death ; ofgan, to exact ; ofgiefan, to give up ;
ofmunan, to call to mind ; ofsittan, to oppress ; ofslingan,
to stab to death ; ofswingan, to scourge to death ; ofteon,
to withdraw ; ofjjringan, to press upon.

ofascian, to find out by asking ; ofclipian, to obtain by
calling ; ofearmian, to have pity on ; offeran, to overtake ;
offiellan, to kill; ofsendan, to send for; ofsteppan, to
trample upon ; ofstician, to stab to death ; ofwundrian,
to be astonished.

§ 654. on- (OHG. int-), the unstressed form of and-
(§ 569), as onbindan, to unbind; onbeodan, to bid; on-
beran, to carry off; oncnawan, to perceive; onfealdan,
to unfold; onfindan, to discover; ongietan, to perceive;

312 Word-Formation [§§655-6

onlucan, to unlock ; onsigan, to sink ; onspannan, to un-
fasten; onwindan, to unwind; onwreon, to uncover;
onwri}>an, to uncover, onsselan, to untie ; onscrydan, to
undress ; ontynan, to unclose, open ; onwendan, to change.

§ 655. oy, from, away (Goth. unj>a- in un])aj>liuhan, to
escape), the unstressed form of uj)-, preserved in u])genge,
departing; VLpiasbte, immense. Examples are : oJ)Cwelan,
to die ; ojjberan, to carry away ; ojiberstan, to escape ;
o'pQ.eon, to /lee away ; o]>g)ida.n, to glide away ; oJ)hebban,
to exalt; oJ)iernan, to run away; o])swerian, to deny on
oath.

o]}f8Bstan, to inflict upon ; ojjhydan, to hide from ; o\-
Isedan, to lead away ; ojjstillan, to stop ; o))wendan, to
turn away.

§ 656. to- (OHG. zar-, zir-, MHG. zer-). The real
unstressed form is te-, ti-, corresponding to OHG. zar-,
zir-, but already at an early period the originally stressed
form to- came to be used in place of te-. The old stressed
form is preserved in OHG. zur- in compound nouns,
Goth, tus-, asunder, apart, and Gr. Bus-, hard, bad, ill, as in
SucTfiaOils, hard to learn. Examples are: toberstan, to
burst asunder; toblawan, to blow to pieces; tobrecan,
to break to pieces ; toceorfan, to cut in pieces ; tocleofan, to
cleave asunder ; tofeallan, to fall to pieces ; toflowan, to
flow apart ; tolucan, to pull asunder ; toniman, to separate ;
tosciifan, to push apart; tosittan, to be separated; to-
snijian, to cut up ; tostandan, to stand apart ; toweorpan,
to scatter.

tobrysan, to crush in pieces; tocnyssan, to shatter;
todffilan, to sunder; todrsefan, to disperse; toferan, to
separate ; tofiellan, to cause to fall asunder ; tdhaccian,
to hack to pieces ; torendan, to tear asunder ; totwseman,
to divide.

§§657-9] Word-Formation 313

Suffixes.

§ 657. -ettan (Goth, -atjan, OHG. -azzen, later -ezen),
used in forming intensitive verbs, as grimettan, to roar,
rage ; hleapettan, to leap up ; hoppettan, to leap, throb ;
leasettan, to feign, pretend ; Ij^ettan, to flatter ; licettan,
to flatter; sarettan, to lament; scofettan, to drive hither
and thither ; scrallettan, to sound loudly ; sicettan, to sigh ;
spornettan, to kick ; stammettan, to stammer ; sworettan,
to sigh, pant.

§ 658. -leecan, also used as an independent verb, Isecan,
to move quickly, spring, cp. § 608. Examples are : sefen-
Iscan, to become evening ; d3rrstlscan, to dare, presume ;
efenlscan, to imitate ; geanlscan, to unite, join ; loflsecan,
to praise ; nealsecan, to approach ; rihtlscan, to put right ;
sumorlffican, to draw on towards summer ; }>ristlaecan, to
embolden; winterlscan, to grow wintry.

§ 659. -(6)8130. From verbs like Goth, hatizdn, to hate,
beside hatis, hatred; OE. eg(e)sian, OHG. egis5n, to
terrify, beside Goth, agis, OHG. egiso, OE. egesa., fear,
was extracted the ending Goth. OHG. -ison, OE. •(e)sian,
which then came to be used in forming verbs from nouns
and adjectives which did not originally contain -is-, as
bletsian older bletsian, to bless; bli]7sian, blissian, to
rejoice ; clsnsian, to cleanse ; gitsian, to covet ; grimsian,
to rage ; hreowsian, to rue ; iersian, to rage, be angry ;
msrsian, to celebrate ; miltsian, to pity, have mercy on ;
ricsian, rixian, to rule.

INDEX

The numbers after a word refer to the paragraphs in the Grammar.

a 133, 265.
a- 564, 646.
abbod 57, 153, 298.
abbuddom 597.
abbudhad 605.
abeodan 646.
aberan 646.
abidan 646.
abidung 615.
abitan 646.
ablinnan 646.
abremende 564.
abreoJ)an 239, 494.
abutan 559.
ac (ah) 311, 560.
ac 133,310,411, 562.
acbeam 11.
acealdian 536.
aceorfan 646.
acleaf 617.
acol 431, 639.
acrasftan 530.
acumba 401.
acwellan 646.
acwencan 531.
acwinan 490.
acwincan 498.
ad 28, 133, 335.
adl 304, 370.
adon 646.
adrencan 646.
adrifan 646.
adwsescan 531.
ffi (Sw), 134, 266, 390.
as- 565.
sBcer 17, 54, 155, 219,

232, 255, 310. 339-
aecern 54.

aces(Kx),58,249, 311.
aedre 260, 404.
asf- 566.

gfelle 565.

ffifen 1 19, 293.

jefenlac 608.

Eefenlaecan 658.

ffifenmete 617.

Eefest 566.

asfnan 56.

Sfnung 373.

seftan 558.

asfter 54, 295, 446, 559,

560.
ffifter- 567.
aefterboren 11, 640.
sefterfolgere 567.
aefterfolgian 14.
seftergenga 567.
asftergield 11, 567.
Eefterieldo 567.
aefterlean 567.
aefterlic 567.
eefterra 446, 447.
asftersprecan 14.
cefterweard 567, 637.
aef|)anc 566.
aefweard 566.

Sg 27 S2 420-
segen (agen) 442, 546.
Kgerfelma 619.
Sgergeolu 619.
ffighwa 471.
aeghwSr 558.
EeghwEes 557.
ffighwa2):er 471.
aghwanon 558.
gghwelc (sghwilc),

471.
segh wider 558.
aegilde 565.
Sgsciell 619.
EEg))er 560.
aehher 70, 255, 329.

sht 134, 390.
jehtspedig 640.

aelii9. 335-

Slan 530.

aelc 471.

ffiled 340.

jelfremede 640.

aslfsciene 640.

aelmesse 404.

aeltawe 434.

jemenne 565.

ffiinod 565.

aene 454.

jenge ))inga 557.

gnig47, 134, 324>47i-

aenlic 634.

sppel (»pl), 54, 57,

219, 255, 276, 397.
aeppelbSre 434, 622.
asppeltun 78.
aeppelwin 617.

f r 134, 445. 556, 559-
asra 401.
grboren 640.
aerende 357.
aerendfaest 627.
Srendian 643.
Srendra 401.
aerest(a) 445, 447.
Sring 373.
grist 387.
asm 66, 280.
Eernan 60, 530, 643.
asrning 615.
jes 119, 240.
asc 56, 387.
asscbora 596.
aesce 57.
£sce 404.
Eescen 625.
assp 306, 367.

Index

315

aespe 56.
aetS4, 211, 559.
set- 645.

ffitforan 557, 559.
aetgaedere 58, 260, 557.
aethindan 557.
Eethwa 471.
aet-hwon 557.
aetlewan 14.
Eet-nlehstan 557.
stniman 14.
aet-rihte 557.
aetsamne 557.
£et(t)ren 431.
£twitan 490.
aebelcund 11, 426, 623.
aejiele 10, 58, 155, 221,

434, 607.
aej)eling 10, 58, 155,

339. 607.
a;))elnes 609.
£{1111119,219,282,563.
aw 134, 266, 390.
aewene 565.
aex3il, 376.
afaestnian 646.
afaran 646.
afierran 99, 259, 278,

530.
afirran 99.
afliegan 530.
aflieman 646.
afrefran 646.
afyrhtan 530.
agan 133, 320, 546.
agen 133. 43i-
agend 418.
agiefan 646.
aglaica 401.
agyltan 530.
aheawan 646.
ahneapan 518.
aht 471.
ahwa 471.
ahwser 558.
ahwasjier 471.
ahwanon 558.
ahyjjan 530.
alan 57, 508.

albe 64.

alSdan 646.

alstan 646.

alibban 646.

alibbende 564.

aliefan 530.

aliefednes 11.

aliehtan 646.

allesan 646.

alter 64.

amerian 525.

ampre 404.

an 579.

an- 568.

an 5, 30, 133, 161, 447,

471.
anbrucol 568.
ancleow 363.
ancor 59.
and 560.
and- 569, 654.
anda 401.
andcwis(s) 569.
andfenge 434, 569, 621.
andgiet 10, 569.
andgietfuU 629.
andgietleas 613.
andgietol 569, 635.
andig 630.
andlang 559, 569.
andlanges 559.
andrysne 434.
andsaca 10, 401, 569.
andswarian 14.
andswaru 14, 569.
andswerian 525, 643.
andweald 569.
andweard 569, 637.
andwlita 569.
andwra)> 569.
andwyrdan 14, 530,643.
andwyrde 14, 569.
anfeald 426, 453, 628.
anfilte 568.
anforht 568.
anga40l.
angbreost 617,
ange 553.
angel 340.

anginn 568.

angsum (ancsum) 318,

425, 636.
anhaga 617.
anllepe 434.
an-, Jenllepige, 456.
anlic 425, 634.
anslen 390, 568.
anstreces 557.
ansum 636.
ansund 568, 621.
anweald 568.
apa 57, 401.
ar (brass) 28, 343.
ar [oar) 133.
ar {messenger) 395.
ar {honour) 365, 367.
araran 646.
ar(e)vve 404.
arfest II, 426, 627.
arian 536, 643.
arisan 239, 288, 491,

646.
arleas 426, 633.
arstafas 612.
asce (axe) 57, 312, 404.
ascian 133, 312, 536.
ascufan 646.
ascung 615.
aseolcan 84, 500.
assa 57, 306, 401.
asse 404.
astiepan 531.
astlgan 646.
aswebban 526.
aswefecian 536.
atol 430.

atoUic (atelic) 259.
ator(atr) 133,219,260,

348-
atorbaere 622.
atreddan 527.
-a|) 595.
alj 133, 261, 301, 302,

335-
apencan 10.

>exe 404.
' (adl, aid) 304.
afreotan 493.

a)l I

3i6

Index

at)um 340.

awel (awul) 74, 264.

awer 558.

awestan 530.

awierdan 239, 530.

awiht (-wuht) 133, 471,

557-
aw))er47i.
awunigende 564.
awyrgan 530.
axian 7, 312.

ba 133, 450.

bacanS7, 128, 310, 508.

bad 367.

bffic 54, 292, 310, 345.

baecere 354, 602.

bacestre 404, 603.

bascling 557.

bsecslitol 640.

bffidan 530.

bseftan 559.

bffil 343.

bselfyr 617.

baer 425.

beer iig, 225,367,562

-bSre 622.

baernan 60, 280, 530,

643-
baemet(t) 358, 604.
basrs 280.
bsest 335.
bgtan 531.
bas)> 7, S4, 57, 292,

301, 302,345-
balu 64.
ban 5, 133, 285, 292,

343. 562.
bana 59, 401.
bancofa 617.
bangar 618.
banleas 633.
bannan 515.
bar 133, 335.
basu (beasu) 436.
bat 133, 335.
ba}>ian 7, 57, 302, 643.
be 559.
be- 570, 647.

beacen (beacn) 135,

163, 219, 348.
beadocraeft 618.
beadocraeftig 640.
beadu 78, 220, 379,

380.
beag 135, 323, 335.
beah 262.
bealcet(t) 604.
beald 303, 426, 620.
bealdor 340.
bealg 323.
bealofull 629.
bealo))anc 618.
bealu 64, 215, 220, 264,

265,361, 362.
beam 282, 292, 335.
bean 135.
beard 66, 335.
beardleas 633.
bearg 66, 178.
bearhtme 557.
bearm 66, 335.
beam 49, 66, 343.
bearu 66, 215, 220,

264, 265, 359.
beatan 518.
beaw 360.
bebod 12, 344, 563.
bebrecan 647.
bebugan 647.
bebycgan 647.
bebyrgan 647.
bebyrignes 12.
becca 400.
bece 404.
beclingan 647.
beclysing 563.
becuman 14, 647.
becwejjan 647.
bedd 47, 55, 156, 254,

272, 274, 292, 355,

356-
bedecian 536.
bedelfing 12, 563.
bedol 430.
bedrincan 647.
befsestan 647.
beforan 288, 559.

begang 12, 563.
begangan 10.
begen 450.
begeondan 559.
begiemen 563.
beginnan 59.
behat 12, 343, 563.
beheafdian 647.
behealdan 14, 647.
beheawan 647.
behefe 12.
behelian 647.
beheonan 559.
behindan 559.
behionan 102.
behlidan 490.
behofian 536.
behyldan 530.
belaf 12, 563.
belsewan 647.
belendan 647.
belgan 80, 320, 499.
belicgan 647.
bellfan 490.
belimp 12, 563.
belimpan 647.
bellan 80, 499.
belle 404.
belucan 647.
bemuman 647.
ben 390.
bena 401.
benjeman 530.
bene 7, 47, 60, 156,

289,311,390-

bend 225, 376, 562.

bendan 530.

beneotan 647.

beneojjan 559.

benn 375.

beo 403, 405.

beod 137, 335.

beodan, 21, 32, 33, 43,
106, III, 135, 137,
225, ?26, 230, 253,

292, 493-
beofor 92, 293, 395.
beogol 431.
beon 474, 548.

Index

317

beor 137, 343.

beorc 367.

beorcan 85, 500.

beorg 85, 323, 335.

beorgan 85, 320, 500.

beorht 85, 426.

beorhtrodor 617.

beorma 401.

beorn 335.

beornan (biornan) 59,
66, 98.

beorscipe 386, 611.

beot 325.

beow 265, 363.

bepjecan 534.

bera 401.

beran 10, 18, 41, 45, 48,
54. 80, 93, 96, io6,
119, 120, 155, 156,
157, 162, 188, 196,
200, 211, 212, 213,
214, 215, 217, 218,
219, 225, 226, 234,
238, 247, 278, 288,
292, 301, 475, 476,
477, 478, 480, 481,
482, 484, 486, 503-

bere 55, 386, 419.

berelaf 618.

berian 525.

beriepan 531.

berige 404.

berstan 66, 85, 280,
476, 502.

bescierian 525.

bescltan 490.

bes(e)ina 80, 382, 401.

besingan 647.

beslean 647.

besmitan 490.

beswaelan 647.

beswicend4i8.

beswicol 635.

bet 55, 252, 556.

betan 129, 53 J.

bete 125, 298.

beteldan 499.

bet(e)ra 47, 54, 223,
252, 260, 279, 445.

bet(e)st(a) 223, 445,

556.
bettra 445.
betuh 103, 266.
betux 103.
betweoh 559.
betweoh 127, 175.
betweox 103, 559.
betwih 103, 559.
betwix 103, 559.
betwuh 103, 184, 266,

559-
betwux 103.
betweonan 329.
betweonum 127, 329,

456, 559-
be),encan 647.
bejiringan 647.
be ungewyrhtum 557.
bewepan 647.
bewindan 647.
bi 6, 559, 570.
bi- 570, 647.
bicce 404.
bicwide 570.
bidan30, 126, 133, 305,

490.
biddan 96, 157, 254,

272, 273, 299, 300,

305, 475, 476, 478,

484, 507.
biddere 354.
bidfasst 627.
blecnan 136, 532.
bleg(e)an 7, 136, 320,

530, 643-
biegung6i5.
bieldu, -o 383, 563.
bieme 404.
bierce 99, 184, 278.
bierhtu 383.
bieman (birnan, byr-

nan) 98, 280, 498.
biesting 607.
bietel 340.
bifian 536.
bifylce 570.
bigang 10.
bigeng 12, 570.

bigyrdel 570.

bile 386.

bileofa 570.

bilibban 14.

bill 356.

bindan5,4i,43,96,iii,
157, 212, 213, 215,
218, 225, 226, 230,
234, 285, 288, 292,
299, 300, 301, 475,
476, 478, 481, 482,
498.

binde 404.

binnan 288, 559.

bio (beo) 104, 140, 269.

blon (beon) 548.

birce 311.

biren 378.

bisen (bisn) 369.

bismerfuU 629.

bispell 6, 570.

bistandan 14.

bita 401.

bitan 96, loi, 126, 133,
161, 164, 226, 234,
288, 292, 298, 305,
490.

bite 386, 562.

bit(e)re 553.

biternes 609.

bit(t)er 96, 255, 431,

639-
blwist 570.
biword 570.
blac 426.
Blaca 421.
blacung 615.
blffic 54, 292, 310, 345,

421, 425, 620.
blscan 134.
blascgimm 617.
bted 57, 345.
bijed 387, 563.
blEeddre 150.
bljedfasst 627.
blaedre 119, 150, 260,

404.
blaese 404.
blSst 387.

3i8

Index

blstan 119.
blanca 401.
blandan 513.
blawan 52, 120, 161,

264,292, 517.
bledan 129.
blendan (wt/.) 530.
bleo (bleoh) 328.
bletsian (bletsian) 300,

536, 659.
blican 490.
bliccettan 259.
blind 96, 217, 285, 292,

423, 424. 426, 440.
blindnes 609.
bliss 150.
blissian 536, 659.
blljie 126,434, 438, 553.
bli))S (bliss) 150, 305,

376.
bll))sian (blissian) 305,

536, 659-
bl5d 128, 276, 292, 299,

343-
bl6d(es)laes 381.
bl6dig43l.
blodread 640.
blostm 340.
blostma 401.
blotan 519.
blowan 128, 264, 519.
blyscan 1 12, 312.
boc 5, 7, 47, 128, 129,

163, 165, 194, 292,

310, 311, 410, 411,

562.
bSccraeft 617.
bocere 354.
boc-treow 23.
boda 106, 401.
bodian 536.
bodig 106, 292, 299,

324.
bog 323. 335-
boga 7, 106, 256, 320,

401, 562.
bold {adj^ 106.
bold {sb.) 277, 343.
bolla 401.

bolster 340.
bolt 106, 335,
-bora 596.
bord 106, 343.
boren 430.
borg 335.
borggielda 617.
bosm 7, 128, 219, 261,

282, 307, 340.
bot 367.
boll 277.
botm 106, 219, 282,

298, 340, 563-
box III.
brad 133, 292, 426,

443-
bradbrim 617.
brffidan 134, 530, 643.
braedels 598.
brjedo 563.
brffigden 431.
brasgen 349.
brser 119.
braes 54, 345.
brassen 430, 625.
brffif- 33S-
brand 59, 335.
brastlian 57, 153.
bread 135.
breadru 420.
brecan 54, 80, 106, 292,

309> 505-
bredan 80, 146,

163,

320.
bregdan 54, 80, 106,

146, 163, 321, 502.
bregu, -o 48, 92, 199,

396.
breme 434, 553.
bremel 122, 340.
breost 343.
breotan 493.
breowan 264, 493.
breowlac 608.
bridd 96, 352.
bridel 96, 146, 164.
bridels 277, 321, 339,

598.
brigdel 96, 146, 164.

brigdels 321.

brim 344.

brimceald 640.

bringan 96, 117, 165,
240, 278, 289, 292,
317, 318, 326, 488,
534-

briw 360.

broc 344.

broc 128, 411.

brocc 310.

brocung 615.

brod 128, 367.

broga 401.

brom 121, 282, 335.

bro)) 106, 301, 344.

brojjor 5, 7, 23, 128,
129, 165, 218, 231,
234, 261, 302, 415,

563.
brot)orsunu 617.
bru 131, 367'.
brucan 47, 131, 132,

13s, 167, 496.
brun 131, 426.
brunecg 641.
brQnfag 640.
bryce (adj^ 1 12.
bryce {sb.) 309, 386,

438, 562.
bryce 434, 438.
brycg 5, 7, 112, 254,

259, 292, 319, 375.
bryd 5, 132, 167, 299,

390-
brydguma 11, 13, 617.
brydlac 608.
brygd 387.
bryne 386, 562.
brynehat II, 640.
brytta 400.
bu 130, 450.
buan 131, 538.
buc 335.
bucc 108, 159, 243,

259, 310, 335-
bucca 7, 108, 256, 258,

309, 310, 401.
bufan 559.

Index

319

bugan 131, 320, 496.
buUuc 340.
bunden 431.
burg (burh) iii, 220,

262, 278, 323, 411,

562.
burgscipe 611.
bume 404.
butan 559.
butu 450.
bya 538.
bycgan 43, 47, 106,

112, 160, 240, 319,

326, 534.
bydel 225, 341, 563.
by den 216, 369.
byge 320, 386.
byht 387.
by Ida 401.
byrd 112.
byre 225, 386, 562.
byrga (byriga) 220, 401.
byrgan 530.
byrgels 277, 598-
byrgen 378.
byrian 525.
byme 404.
byrst 387.
byrj)en(n) 302, 377,

378.
byr|>enni£eluin 557.
bysig 183, 430.
bydan 532.
bytt 375.

cf g 27s, 376, 562.
caegbora 596.
caerse 280.
cafe 553.
cafscipe 611.
calan 57, 225, 508.
calu 436.
camb so, 59, 234, 292,

310, 335-
cambiht 631
camp 59, 310.
campdom 597.
camphad 605.
campstede 617.

candel 59, 310, 378.
cann 59.
canne 404.
carcern 66.
cargast 618.
carleas 633.
caru 57, 366.
casering 607.
cassuc 57, 340.
catte 57, 153.
ceac 335.
ceace 51, 124, 188,

404.
ceaf 7, 51, 72, 295,

296, 311. 344-
ceafl 261, 296.
ceafor 72, 296, 311.
cealc 64, 311.
ceald, 49, 64, 72, 168,

176, 232, 299, 311,

426, 620.
cealf 64, 72, 294, 311,

420.
ceap 13s, 335.
ceapian 135, 163, 311,

536.
ceapung 615.
cearu 278.
ceaster 51, 72, 168,

179, 183, 370-
celan 7, 129, 310, 530,

643-
celnes 609.
cemban 60, 310, 530.
cempa 60, 310.
cempestre 603.
cen 125.
cene 310, 434.
cennan 310, 530.
centisc 632.
ceo 405.
ceol 335.
ceole 53, 404.
ceorfan 66, 85, 91, 311,

500.
ceorian 536.
ceorl85, 91, 311, 335.
ceosan 5, 7, 32, 44, 47,

106, III, 135, 137,

138, 158, 159, 172,
173. 174, 215, 226,
232, 239, 252, 279,
305, 306, 307, 309,
311, 472, 475, 482,
484, 486, 494.

ceowan 264, 311, 493.

cepan 310, 531.

cicen 138.

cidan 311.

clecen 192.

ciefes 73, 369.

ciegan 270, 530.

cieldo 563.

ciele 51,73. 170, 181,
386.

clepan 136, 531.

cieres(cires) 51,91,170.

cierm 387.

cierr 387.

cierran67,3ll, 530.

clese7, 47, 124, 311.

cietel 73.

cild 96,311,420, 562.

cildhad 605.

cildisc 431,632.

cildlic 634.

cinau 490.

cinn 7, 96, 242, 259,

285,311. 398,403.
cipe 125, 164.
ciricboc 618.
cirice (circe) 223, 311,

404.
clSg 275.
eigne 5, 134, 191, 276,

285, 310, 434, 438,

553-
claenheort 641.
cliennes 609,
clSnsian 286, 536, 659.
clam 335.
claf> 133, 301, 335.
clawu 266, 379,
clea 74, 75, 140, 153,

172, 266, 379.
cleofa 401.

cleofan 135, 137, 493.
clfewen 350, 600.

320

Index

clif 96, loi, 344.
clifan 490.
clifian 536.
clitnban 282, 292, 310,

498.
clingan 498.
cliopian (cleopian) loi.
cliopung 48, loi, 171.
clipian loi, 536.
cliwen 350.
clud 131.
clugge 404.
clut 131, 335.
clynian 526.
clynnan 526.
clyppan 112, 291, 530.
clywen 600.
cnaspling 339, 607.
cnafa 256, 293.
cnapa 401.
cnawan 5, 52, 120, 161,

162, 264, 266, 517.
cnedan 80, 505.
cneo (cneow) 5, 7, 52,

88, 89, 140, 169, 173,

232, 264, 265, 266,

285, 310, 361, 363.
cneoht 49, 86, 169, 182.
cneoris(s) 378.
cnldan 490.
cnieht (cniht) 5, 86,

157, 326, 335-
cnihthad 605.
cnocian 108.
cnoU 335.
cnosl 348.
cnotta 43, 106, 243,

256, 298, 310, 401.
cnucian 108.
cnyll 352.
cnyssan 526.
cnyttan 43, 112, 527.
cnyttels 598.
coc 310.
cocc 106, 335 .
cocer 339.
codd 335.
cofa 401.
cofincel 358, 606.

col S, 106, 276, 344.
col 128, 225, 276, 310,

426.
c61nes(s) 378.
colt 106.

copor III, 255, 310.
coppede 434, 624.
cops 306.
coren 5, 430.
corn 43, 106, 310, 343.
cornhus 11, 617.
cosp 306.
coss 43, 106, 259, 310,

335-
costere 602.
costian 536.
costung 615.
co)ju 366.
crabba 401.
cradol 57, 341.
crseft 54, 295, 310, 335 ■
crsftig43i, 630.
crEeftlice 553.
craet 345.

crawan 120, 264, 517.
crawe 404.
creda 125.

creopan 137, 278, 493.
creopere 602.
cribb 96,254,292,375.
crimman 498.
crincan 498.
cringan 498.
cristen 431.
crohha 326.
cropp335.
croppiht 631.
cruma 401.
crycc 7, 112, 254, 272,

.311,375-
cu 5,47, 130,166,266,

310, 411.
cucu 266.
cudu 266.
cuhierde 617.
cuma 401, 562.
cuman 109, 121, 232,

282, 288, 310, 488,

504.

-cund, 623.
cunnan 113, 542.
cunnian 536.
cuppe 291, 310, 404.
cuslyppe (cusloppe)

404.
cu|) 50, 113, 147, 166,

286, 301, 310, 426.
cu))e 553.

cwalu 225, 366, 562.
cwealm 335.
cwealmbsere 622.
cweccan 534.
cwelan 225, 503.
cwellan ■ 52, 55, 186,

534, 643.
cweman, 122.
cwen 5, 47, 122, 163,

263, 285, 310, 389,

390.
cwene 80, 156, 232,

404.
cweorn 398.
cwe))an 52, 54, 80, 119,

162, 186, 225, 226,

239, 240, 263, 299,

301, 302, 305, 476,

484, 505-
cwicaeht 617.
cwician 103.
cwic(u) 42, 103, 232,

439-
cwide 96, 225, 239,

386.
cwidegiedd 618.
cwideleas 633.
cwielman 530, 643.
cwl))an 530.
cwucian 103.
c(w)ucu 103, 184, 266,

439-
c(w)udu 103, 266, 362.
cycen 600.
cycene 310.
cycgel 319.
cyf 390.
cylen 112.
cylu 436.
cyme 112, 386, 562.

Index

321

cyme 434.
cymen 442.
cynde 434.
cyneboren 640.
cynedotn 597.
cynegod 640.
cynelic 634.
cynence 618.
cynig 290.
cyning 5, 7,10,47,112,

157, 160, 212, 221,

290, 310. 317. 338.

339, 607.
cyn(n) 7,47, 112, 157,

254, 272, 274, 310,

355. 356.
eyre 112, 239, 334, 386,

562.
cymel 43, 112.
cyspan 531.
cyssan 7, 43, 112, 258,

259, 300, 306, 310,

476, 528, 530, 643.
cyst 112, 390, 563.
cystig 630.
cyta 400.
cyj)an 47, 114, 167,

286, 305, 310, 528,

530, 643-

cyj'K") 372.

da 133.

died S, 24, 119, 162,
188, 234, 299, 390,

_563.

daedcene 640.

dasg 5, 10, 54, 57, 78,
153. 155, 180, 183,
211, 212, 215, 217,
218, 234, 252, 284,
299, 320, 324, 331,
334, 336, 557-

daegeseage 619.

daeg-hwam 557.

daaglanges 557.

daeglic 634.

dasg-tldum 557.

dael, 54, 345, 562.

djel 134, 331. 387-

dalan 47, 134, 162,

221, 272, 530.
dSlniEelum 557.
dag 133, 299, 323.
dagian 57, 320.
dah 7, 262.
daro), 341.
daru 366.
dead 135, 239, 299,

426.
deadlic 151,634.
deaf 13s, 294, 299,

426.
deagol43i, 639.
deamunga, -inga 554.
dear(r) 66, 542.
dea)) 5, 13 s, 172, 239,

299. 301, 395-
dea)>fSge 640.
dea))stede 11.
deaw 76, 172, 265, 360.
deawig 630.
delfan64, 80, 111,293,

294, 499.
dema 400,
deman 5, 47, 129, 163,

272, 299, 529, 643.
Dene 385, 386.
denisc 633.
denn 356.
denu 80, 366.
deofol (diofol), 104,

223, 293, 299, 340.
deofolcund 623.
deop 5, 44, 137, ISO,

173, 208, 209, 232,

260, 291, 299, 426,

553. 620.
deope 553.
deop])ancol 640.
deor 137, 208, 209, 252,

279, 343, 562.
deorc 85, 182, 299, 426.
deorcung 615.
deore 138.
deorfan, 500.
deorling 138, 607.
derian 525.
diedan 530.

Y

dieglan 221, 528, 532.
diegol 221, 431, 639.
diepe 44.
diere (diore, deore) 138,

209, 210, 434.
dierling 174.
dierne 67, 170, 181,

434-
dimhus 617.
disc 96.
docce 404.
dceg 419.

dogga7, 106,319,401.
dogor 419.
dohtor 5, 7, 43, 45, 47,

106, 107, 156, 158,

186, 234, 299, 326,

415.
dol 425.
doUice 553.

dom 26, 128, 335, 597.
-dom 597.
domdasg 617.
domgeorn 640.
don 121, 128, 142, 299,

549-
dor 106, 344-
dora 401.
draca 78, 180, 256,

310-
drxfan 134, 530.
dragan 57, 299, 320,

508.
dream 135, 278, 335.
dreamere 602.
dreccan 534.
drefan 129, 530,
drenc 225, 387, 562.
drencan 60, 289, 311,

529, 643.
dreogan 493.
dreopan 493.
dreorigmod 641.
dreorigrnes 609.
dreosan 137, 239, 494.
drepan 505.
drepe 386.
drieman 136.
drTepan 136, 531.

322

Index

drifan loi, 126, 133,

293, 299. 490-
drincan 7, 59, 96, 1 11,

225, 289, 299, 310,

498.
drincere 602.
drohta]^ 595.
drohtnian 595.
dropa 106, 256, 401.
dropmSlum 557.
drugo)> 595.
druncen 225.
druncengeorn 640.
dry 142, 388.
drygan 530.
dryge 434.
dryht 390.

dryhten 288, 340, 563.
dryhtscipe 611.
drync 112.
dryre 239, 386.
duce 404.
dufan 299, 496.
dugan 482, 541.
duguj) 218, 286, 320,

39°-
dumb III, 159, 282,

292, 299, 426.
dung 411.
dunlendisc 640.
dunn 426.
*durran 279.
durron 36.
duru 5, 7, 21,111,234,

278, 299, 398.
duruweard 618.
dustil3, 286, 298, 343.
dwsescan 56.
dwellan 263, 299, 534-
dweorg 85, 182, 263,

335-
dwinan 490.
dwolian 536.
dwolma 401.
dyne 386.
dyn(n) 352.
dynnan 526.
dynt 387.
dyppan 112.

dyrstljecan 658.

ear

70, 139. 255, 329.

dysig 112,324.

419.

dysigian 536.

earc 66, 178.

dystig47, 1 14.

card 397.

eardian 536.

ea 17, 70, 172, 246,

eare 31, 135, 238, 279,

329-

407.

eac 13s, 187, SS9, 560.

earfo)>, 431.

eacen 232, 431.

earg 426.

eacian 31.

earge 553.

eadig 135, 431, 443-

earm(j*.)5, 7, 66,278,

eadignes 609.

335- , ,

eafora 78, 401.

earm (adj.) bb, 426,

eage 135, 163, 172,

443. 444, 620.

211, 217, 320, 406,

earmbeag 617.

407.

earme 553, 555.

eagor 419.

earn 335.

eahta 5,, 7, 20, 49, 68,

eamian 536.

168, 177, 217, 231,

eart {thou art) 66.

326, 447-

earwicga 256, 319,618.

eahtateoj)a 447.

east 135, 446, 558.

eahtatlene 447.

eastan 558.

eahtian 536.

easteme 626.

eahto|)a 447.

eastnorj) 557.

eald S, 47, 64, 65, 170,

eastron 250.

178, 183, 221, 279,

ea

^557.

303, 426, 443, 444>

ea

t>e 556.

620.

ea])inedan 530.

ealdlic 634.

eawunga 554.

ealdor 340.

eax 68, 367.

ealdordom 597.

eaxl 68, 367.

ealdormann 617.

ebba 256, 292.

ealdspraec 617.

ece 434. S53-

Ealdulfing 607.

ecg 375-

ealh 64, 337-

ecgheard 640.

call 5, 7, 64, 168,

ed- 571, 648.

259. 376, 421, 426,

edbyrdan 648.

557-

edcierr 571.

eallgod 640.

-ede 624.

eal( )mast 15, 557.

edgeong 571, 621.

call tela 557.

edgield 571.

eallunga, -inga 554.

edgieldan 648.

eallwealdende 640.

edgift 571.

ealneg (ealne wag) 15,

edgrowung 571.

267, 557-

edhiertan 648.

ealswa 15, 560.

edlascan 648.

ealu 78, 276, 414.

edleestan 648.

earn 329.

edlean 571.

eappultun 78.

ed

nlwe 571.

Index

323

edniwunga 554.
edor 92, 198.
edroc 571.
edstafielian 648.
edwierpan 648.
edwit 571.
ef(e)n (emn) 80,81,219,

293. 430, 639.
efeneald 640.
efenliecan 658.
efes 107.
efesian 536.
efnan 56, 532.
efstan 530.
eft 56.

eftcierran 14.
eftcyme 617.
eftflowan 14.
ege 55, 320, 386, 419.
egenu 369.
eg(e)sian 536, 659.
eglan 320, 528, 532.
egle 434, 439.
ehtan47, 118, 163, 530.
ebtend 418.
-el 639.

elboga (elnboga) 287.
ele5,47, 107, 156, 186,

386.
elebeam 618.
ellen 340.
ellenrof 640.
elles 55, 557.
ellorfus 640.
ellorsi)>6i7.
elne 557.
-els 598.
embren 600.
emn 81, 293.
emnet 604.

-en 599, 600, 625, 639.
-end 601.
ende 5, 47, 60, 156,

274, 351, 354. 562.
endebyrdes 557.
endelaf 618.
endemes 557.
endian 536.
en(d)le;o)fan 447.

en(d)le(o)fta 447.
ened 60.

enge6o, 234, 289, 553.
engel 221, 289, 338,

340-
Englaland 619.
Engle 385.
englisc 60, 218, 289,

312, 317, 632.
engu 383.
enlefan 151.
ent 387.
entisc 632.
eo (eoh) 328.
code 275.

eodor 92, 198, 341.
eofor 48, 92, 169, 341.
eofot 325.
eoh 86, 337.
eolh 7, 84, 149, 173,

182, 328, 329, 337.
com (earn) 548.
eorl 8s, 335.
eorlcund 623.
eorlisc 632.
eornan (ioman) 98.
eornostlfce 553.
eorod 13, 151,329.
eorbcund 623.
eorjie 7, 49, 85, 169,

196, 205, 261, 278,

302, 404.
eor))f£est 627.
eosol 92.
eow (fow, iw) 360, 460,

462.
eowde 77.

eower (lower) 460, 464.
eowestre 52, 77, 169,

264.
eowic (lowihjiwih) 31 1,

460, 462.
-er 639.
-ere 602.
erian 525.
-erne 626,
-(e)sian 659.
esne 56, 354.
esol 48, 92, 198, 395.
Y a

est 47, 62, 286, 331,

390-
este 434.
-estre 603.
etan 5, 18, 24, 48, 80,

93.96,119,196,200,

232, 240, 298, 305,

472, 476, 505-
etere 602.
etol 430, 635.
-ettan657.
ejiel 223.
ej>t)a 217, 301.
ewe (eowe, eowu) 77,

164.

facen 348.

facenstafas 612.

facne 557.

fee 345.

fecele 404.

fScne 433, 434, 553.

fasder 5, 7, 22, 36, 41,
54, 155. 183, 211,
215, 218, 238, 253,
278, 29s, 299, 415,
563.

feder(e)nmasg 617.

federleas 633.

federslaga 617.

fffige 434.

fegen 320, 430, 443,
444, 639.

feg(e)nian 223, 536,

643-
feger 7, 54, 259, 295,

320, 430, 443, 639.
feh)>(u) 372.
fer 345.
ferunga 554.
fest 54, 295, 298.
-fest 627.

festan 5, 56, 528, 5^0.
festen(n) 58, 259, 358,

6co.
festmad 641.
festnes 609.
faestnian 298, 536.
festrEed 640.

324

Index

feus, 54,78, > 97, 2 1 5.
_29S. 342, 345-
faetels 221, 277, 339,

598.
faej.m 7, 54, 155, 302,

340-

fagettan 221.

fah 428.

fals 64.

falu 64.

fam 343.

fana 59, 401.

fandian 536.

faran 48, 54, 55, 57,
58,78,128,153,165,
197, 225, 226, 278,

475. 476, 482, 484,

508.
faru 366, 562.
fa))e 404.
fea 75, 266, 295.
-feald 628.
fealdan 64, 303, 516,

628.
feallan 64,65, 176,233,

258, 259, 276, 295,

303, 475; 476, 484,

516.
fealu 64, 436.
fearh 66, 172, 178, 329,

337.
fearn 343.
feawe 437.

feax 68, 177, 327, 343-
fedan 5, 129, 240, 530,

643-
fefor 293.
fegan 530.
fela (feola) 48, 80, 93,

200,215,399,557.
felafeald 628.
felan 129.
felasynnig 640.
felawyrdnes 618.
feld 41, 80, 276, 295,

303. 395. 397, 562.
feldhus 617.
fell i, 18, 80, 343.
fellen 625.

feng239, 317, 387.
feog(e)an 270, 537.
feoh 86, 87, 139, 173,
182, 215, 231, 328,

329. 346, 399-
feohstrang 640.
feoht 562.
feohtan 68, 86, 99, 106,

III, 169, 170, 295,

298, 326, 500.
feohtlac 608.
feol (flol) 41, 127, 329,

367.
feolan 84, 173, 329,

501.
feond (fiond) 104, 105,

140, 174, 175, 269,

417, 601.
feondscipe 611.
feorh 7, 85, 149, 173,

182, 278, 328, 329,

395-
feorr 85, 259, 426, 443,

444, 556, 558.
feorran 258, 278, 288,

558.
feorrcund 623.
feorfiling 607.
feotor 92.

feower 237, 295, 447.
feowerfeald 453.
f eowerfete 434.
feowergield II, 13, 617.
feowerteo{>a 447.
feowertlene 447.
feowertig 447.
feowertigoj)a 447.
feo(we)rt>a 447.
fer- 649.
feran 530.
ferian 525.
fersc 85, 280.
fetor (feter) 80, 92, 369.
fe}>a 401.
fe )e 62, 357.
fej>er 41, 80, 295, 302,

369-
fe))erbEere 622.
ficol 310.

fiell 387.

fiellan 47, 65, 170, 178,

530, 643.
fierd 225, 390, 563.
fierdleof 617.
fierr 556.
fierst 280, 387.
fif 5, 41, 50, 97, 147.

213, 237, 283, 295,

447-
fifel 97.
f ifta 447.
flfteo^a 447.
fiftiene 447.
fiftig 447.
fiftigoJ>a 447.
filde 434.
filmen 600.
fine 289.
findan 59,96, 111,239,

295, 300, 488, 498.
finger 96, 2 19, 289, 317,

340, 563-
finiht 631.
firen 368, 369.
fir(e)num 557.
fisc S, 7, 19, 96, 231,

312, 335-
fiscnoj> 595.
fisco)> 395, 595.
fifiele 404.
fifere 41.
fla 405.
flacor 430.
flSsc 134, 295, 312,

_393, 419-
flasscen 625.
flffischama 617.
flah 346, 428.
flasce (fiaxe) 57.
flea 402.
flea(h) 135.
fleam 225, 335.
flean 70, 239, 329, 509.
fleax 68, 295, 327, 343.
flede 434.
fleogan ill, 137, 189,

295. 330, 323, 476,

493-

fleoge 320, 404, 562.
fleon 225, 239, 276,

329, 495-
fleos 137.
fleotan 493.
flett 356.
flicce3il, 357.
fliema 401.
flieman 530, 643.
flies 393, 419.
fliete 404.
flitan 490.
flitmaelum 557.
flocan 519.
flocc 310.
floccmSIum 557.
flod 26, 128, 231, 238,

395-
flor 398.
flota 401, 562.
flowan 128, 264, 519.
flugol 430.
flyge 386.
flyht (fliht)7, 112, 157,

225, 326, 387, 563.
fnasd 345.
fnaes 345.
foda 128, 295.
fodor 260, 299, 348,

563-
fola 106, 288, 401.
folc 7, 106, 276, 295,

310, 343, 562.
folcisc 632.
folcmiere 640.
folctoga6i7.
folde 404.
folgere 602.
folgian 106, 276, 295,

320, 536, 538.
fon 40, 47, 117, 118,

125, 139, 163, 165,

194, 239, 24s, 326,

329.47 s, 514-
for 559.
for- 649.
foran 558.
forbeodan 14, 649.
forbod 12, 563.

Index

forbrecan 649.
forbryttan 649.
forcierran 649.
forcwe)>an 649.
ford 397.
fordselan 649.
fordeman 649.
fordon 649.
fordrifan 649.
fore2i7,44S. 446, 558,

559, 572-
fore- 572.
forealdian 649.
forebeacen 572.
foreduru 572.
foregangan 14.
foregisl 572.
forehalig 572.
foremjere 572.
foresceawian 14.
forespreca 572.
forejianc 572.
forfaran 649.
forfon 649.
forgan 649.
forgiefan 14, 649.
forgiefennes 259.
forgieldan 649.
forgleman 649.
forgietan 72, 91, 124,

505.
forgietol 12.
forglendran 532.
forhabhan 649.
forhasfednes 12, 563.
forherigan 649.
forhogian 649.
forht 426.
forhtfuU 629.
forhtlic 634.
for hwon 557.
forlacan 649.
forljedan 649.
forleosan 239, 305, 494,

649.
forlor 12, 563.
forlorennes 12, 259.
forma 446, 447.
formeltan 649.

formest(a) 447.

forniman 649.

forod 430, 639.

forrasdan 649.

forsc 280, 335.

forscrlfan 649.

forsendan 649.

forseon 649.

forsljewan 533.

forst 106, 280, 335.

forswerian 649.

for|> 558.

for [jjein ()>am) 560.

for|)genge 434.

for f)on 560.

forjjweard 637.

for ])y 560.

forweard 557.

forweorjian 649.

forwyrcan 649.

forwyrd 12, 563, 649.

fostor 240.

fostorling 607.

fot 7, 26, 41, 47, 128,
129, 163, 194, 211,
213, 215, 217, 218,
231, 232, 295, 298,
33 L, 408, 409, 562.

fotmaelum 557.

fox 43, 106, 327, 335.

fracodscipe 611.

fracuji {-oY) 218, 286,

430-
fraetwan 264.
fraetwe 220, 380.
fram 295,425, 559,573.
fram- 573.
framcyme 573.
framlad 573.
framsi)> 573.
framweard 573.
frea 400, 402.
free 425.
freca 401.
frecne434, 553.
frefran 221, 532.
freni(e)de 434.
fremman 60, 221, 254,

273, 282, 524, 526.

326

fremsum 636.

freo (frio) 104, 269,

278, 295, 328, 434.
freo (sd.) 275.
freobearn 617.
freodom 597.
freog(e)an 270, 537.
freols 325.
freomffig ii.
freond (friond) 47, 104,

105, 140, 174, 175,

269, 285, 295, 299,

416, 417, 601.
freondllce 553.
freondscipe6ii.
freosan 106, 135, 137,

295, 494.
fretan 80, 505.
frettol43i.
fricgan 507.
frigea 270.
frlg(e)d»g 275.
frignan 96, 321, 502.
frlnan 96, 321.
fri). 344.
fri)>georn 640.
frij)sum 656.
frod 421, 426.
Froda 421.
frofor 221, 370.
frogga;, 106,256,258,

319, 401.
from 559.
frutn 425.
fruma 401.
frumbearn 61S.
fugelere 602.
fugelnoj) 595.
fugelo)5 595.
fiigol 7, 108, 159, 219

276, 295, 320, 340,

563.
fuht, 43.

ful27, 131, 276, 426.
fulbetan 650.
fuldon 650.
fulgan 650.
full (si.) 343.
full {adj.) 5, 37, 108,

Index

159, 242, 259, 276,

295. 426, 557, 620.
ful(l)- 650.
-full 629.
fulljestan 650.
fullberstan 650.
fuUbrecan 650.
fullendian 650.
fuUfremman 650.
fullfyllan 650.
fullgrowan 650.
fuUian 536, 643.
fulljjungen 650.
fuUuht 267, 391.
fultruwian 650.
fultum 14.
fultumian 10, 14.
fulwiht 391.
fulwihthad 605.
fundian 536.
furh36, IIS, 328, 411-
fur|)or 108.
fur|)ra 445.
fur|;um 108, 557.
fus 113,286, 426.
fylgan 220, 530.
fylg(e)an 538.
fylgestre 603.
fyllan 112, 259, 272,

276, 528, 530, 643.
fyllu, -o 383, 563.
fylstan 530.
m]> 613.
fyr 132, 278, 295.
fyrbSre 622.
fyren 625.
fyrest(a) 445, 447.
fyrhtan 112.
fyrmest(a) 446, 447.
fym 426, 557.
fyrs 387.
fyrstig 630.
fysan 114, 530.
fyst 132, 329, 390.
fyjier-fete 237.
fyxen 43, 112,327,378,

599-

gad (goad) 315, 367.

gad {want) 215, 265.
gad(e)rian 57.322,223,

315-
gaderung 223.
gaedeling 10, 58, 155,

223, 339.
gjers 66, 280, 306, 3-55.
gaersgrene 640.
gjest 419.
gjeten 6co, 625.
gaffetung 57.
gafol 225, 563.
galan 57, 315, 508.
galer.d 601.
gamen 315, 349-
gan 142, 550.
gandra 59.
gang 335, 562.
gangan 59> 289, 515.

gar 31 5> 397-

gara 401.

garbeam 617.

gast 7, 133, 298, 306,

315-335, 419-
gastcund 623.
gat 133, 134,315,411.
ge 560.

ge- 12, 574,651.
ge (ge, gle) 252, 268,

460, 462.
gea 124.
geac 335.
geacessure 619.
geador 557.
ge-asman 651.
ge-£efele 12, 574.
ge-agnian 651.
gealga 64, 288, 316,

401.
gealla 276, 401.
geanlScan 658.
geapscipe 611.
gear 5, 51, 124, 172,

188, 268, 343.
geara 557.
gearcian 536.
geard66, 72, 316, 335.
geardagas II.
geardagum 557.

Index

%i1

gearlic 634.
geam 66, 72, 343.
gearo|»ancol 640,
gearowyrdig 11, 13.
gearu 66, 220,264,265,

316, 435. 436, 440,

443, 444-
gear we 220, 264, 553.
gearwian 66, 264, 536.
ge-ascian 651.
geat5,72,78,i79, 183,

31S. 316, 344-
geatwe 380.
gebsedan 651.
geb£ran 14, 651.
geban(n) 12,419, 563.
gebed 12, 563.
gebedda 574.
gebelgan 651.
gebeodan 651.
gebeorc 343.
gebeorgan 651.
geberan 651.
gebetan 651.
gebierhtan 99, 184.
gebindan 651.
geblot 563.
gebod 225, 344.
gebrec 563.
gebr6j,or(gebr6)>ru) 12,

41 5. 574-
gebyrd 225, 391, 563,

574-
geceosan 651.
gecnsewe 434.
gecoren 12.
gecweme 122, 434, 438.
gecynd 391.
gecynde 12, 574, 621.
gedaeftan 530.
gedafenian 536.
gedeaw 437.
gedefe 12, 434, 438,

553> 574-
gedryhtu 391.
gefa 402.
gefaran 651.
gefea 402.
gefeg 393.

gefeoht 12, 563.
gefeon 68, 87, 506.
gefera 12, 225, 401,

574-
gefere 434.
geferraeden 610.
geferscipe 611.
gefiend 417.
gefilde 41, 96, 357.
geflit 344.
gefog (gefoh) 419,426,

427.
gefredan 530,
gefriend 417.
gefrignan 651.
gefylce 357, 574.
gefym 12, 557.
gegad(e)rian 260.
gegaderung 574.
gegnum 557.
gegnunga 554.
gegrynd 393.
gehada 574.
gehatan 14, 651.
geheald 419.
gehefigian 651.
gehende434, 553, 559.
gehield 393.
gehlasstan 530.
gehleow 437.
gehlow 363.
gehlyd 393.
gehnSst 393.
gehnast 419.
gehola 401.
gehreow 363.
gehwa 471.
gehwjer 558.
gehwaeber 471.
gehwasj«res 557.
gehwilc 471.
gehycgan 651.
gehygd 391.
gehyrstan 530.
geleafa 135.
geleafTuU 629.
geleafsum 636.
gellc 12, 218, 260, 560,
574. 634-

gellce 553.
gellefan5,47, 136, 174,

188, 272, 530, 643,

651.
geiigere (gelire) 322.
gelimpan 2S2, 498, 65 1,
gemascca 55, 574.
gemsene 12, 434, 438,

574.
gemalnscipe 611.
gemang 559.
gemearcian 66.
gemecca 55.
gemengan 317.
gemetan 651.
gemidlian 536.
gemierce 357.
gemiltsung 615.
gemot 574.
gemynd35, 112, 391.
gemyndgian 536.
gemyndig 12, 574.
gemyne 438.
genaeme 434.
geneahhe 68, 326.
geneat 225.
genesan 239, 505.
genog (genoh) 128,

323, 421, 426, 427,

557-
genyht 393, 563.
genyhtsum 636.
geo (glo, lu) 268.
geoc (gioc, iuc) 7, 43,

51, no, 211, 212,

214, 232, 240, 268,

309, 310, 334.
geoguj), -o)> (giogUj»,

-ob) 116, 218, 268,

286, 390.
geogu|>had 605.
geol 255.
geoloca 53, 92.
geolu, -o 5,53,92,220,

316, 436, 620.
geomor 51, 121, 368,

43I-.
geomrian 121, 536.

geon no.

328

Index

geond 268, 559.

geondan 559.

geondseon 14.

geond))encan 14.

geong (giong, giung)
51, 116, 268, 289,
426, 443, 444, 620.

geongling 607.

geopan 493.

geom 85, 91, 426.

geome 553.

geornes 259.

geomfuU 629.

geosceaft 617.

geotan 135, 137, 163,
315, 316, 493.

geow 360.

gerjecan 651.

gerjedan 610.

gerefa 401.

geresp 393.

gerinnan 651.

gensan 491.

geruna 401.

gesaca 401.

gesSlig 630.

gesslf>(u) 372.

gesamnian 59.

gesceaft 12, 240, 295,

391. 563. 574-
gescentu 613.
geseaw 437.
gesecgan 651.
geset 344.
gese))an 62.
gesibb 432.
gesibbsutn 636.
gesibling 607.
gesieh)) 99, 184.
geslene 434, 438.
gesinsciplic 634.
geslj) 97, 286, 574-
gesprec 344.
gestlgan 651.
gestrangian 536.
gesund 12, 574.
geswencan 531, 643.
gesweostor (gesweos-

tru, -a)4i5.

geswinc 393.
gesyntu, -o 112, 259,

300, 305, 613.
getenge 434.
getlene 357.
getimbre 357.
getriewan (getrlowan,

getreowan) 90, 264,

533- ,
getrlewe (getrlowe, ge-
treowe) 90, 174, 264,

434-
gejiafung 373.
gejjeaht 12, 391, 563.
gejjeodraeden 610.
getiledan 138, 530.
ge))iodan (gefeodan)

138,651.
ge))iode (ge})eode) 138,

175. 357-

ge}>ofta 401.

ge jyld 391.

gebyldig 630.

gepyldum 557.

gewScan 534.

gewSde 357.

gewealc 419.

gewealdes 557.

gewed 393.

geweorc 574.

gewerian 525.

gewjder 12, 41, 547.

gewieldan 259,530,643.

gewinnan 651.

gewiss 240, 316, 426.

gewit 225.

gewita 574.

gewltan 490.

gewlencan 531.

gewrit 344.

gewuna 401, 574.

gewyrht 391.

giedd 356.

giefa 225.

giefan 5, 7.51.72, 91.
124, 168, 170, 172,
181, 188, 225, 262,
293, 294, 298, 316,
505.

gieffaest 627.
giefstol 618.
giefugi, 214,215,217,

218, 252, 284, 316,

365, 366.
gield 343, 562.
gieldan 91, 181, 316,

499.
giellan 91, 259, 316,499-
gielp335.
gielpan 91, 316, 499,

625.
gieltan 300.
gleman 136, 316, 530.
glemeleas 633.
giemellest 613.
glemen(n) 599.
gierd 67, 272, 374, 376.
giernan 99, 316, 530.
gierwan 67, 266, 316,

529, 533-
giest (guest) S, 7, 20,

51.73.170.181,211,

215, 231, 235, 252,

316, 385, 387.
giest (yeast) 91, 268.
gifre 433, 434.
gift 96, 225, 240, 295,

316, 563-
giftu 391.
gimm 50, 82, 157.
ginan 490.
ginian 536.
giong (giung) 1 16.
git 460, 462.
gitsere 602.
gitsian 536, 659.
glw 360.
gladian 57, 78.
glasd 54, 223,276,315,

423. 424, 425, 443-
glaedmod 641.
glffim 387.
glass 54, 345.
gleaw 76, 265, 437,

439-
gleawferhj) 641.
gleawhycgende 640.
gleawnes 609.

Index

329

gled 129, 390, 563.

grennes 609.

haecc 55, 375.

glengan 530.

greotan in, 493.

haf 345-

glldan 126, 490.

gretan 129, 300, 528,

hasft23i, 335, 563.

gllg 357-

S3I-

haeftan 56, 530.

glioda 102.

greting 10, 615.

haeftedom 597.

gliw 357.

grimettan 10, 530,

hasften 599.

glof 128, 315, 367.

657.

hseftincel 358, 606.

glom iz8.

grimm 426, 443.

hffiftling 607.

glomung 615.

grimman 498.

haeftnian 595.

gl5wan 128.

grimsian283, 536,659.

hasg(e)l 54, 155, 340.

gnastt 315.

grin 391.

hasgtes(s) 378.

gnagan 57, 508.

grindan 498.

hsel 393, 419-

gneajj 426.

gripan loi, 126, 490.

halan 5, 47, 134, 162,

gnldan 490.

gripe 386.

191, 325, 53°. 643-

god 7, 43. 106, 253,

growan 5, 128, 165,

haele 386, 414.

299. 3 IS, 344.

264, 266, 519.

hjelend 418, 601.

god 128, 223, 284, 299,

grundiii, 315, 395-

haalet> 58, 301, 414.

3 IS, 426, 445.

grundlunga, -linga

hjelnes 10, 609.

godbeam Ii.

554-

halu, -0 383, 563.

godcund 623.

grut 411.

hasman 530.

goddond 417.

gryre 386.

hasr 119.

godlic 218.

guma 5, 50, 109, 159,

hjeren 625.

godscipe 611.

213, 215, 217, 218,

haerfest 58, 339.

godspell 617.

235, 252, 282, 315,

hiEriht 10, 631.

godspellere 602.

331, 400, 401.

hsering 607.

gold 7, 43, 106, 276,

gumcynn 618.

hasm 66, 280.

303, 3 IS, 343, S62.

gund 230.

hSs 240, 390.

goldhroden 640.

gub 113, 315.
gut,bana6i7.

hassl 307.

gos S, 6, 50, 61, 62,

hastan 134, 191, 531.

147, 163, i6S, 194,

gyden 43, 112,259,378,

haeteru4l9.

23s, 286, 306, 31 S,

599-

hjetu, -0 383, 563.

411.

gylden43,47, 112, 160,

hS

> 47, 134, 162, 301.

graef345-

218, 31S, 431, 530,

hS

>en 288, 302,431.

graeg 426.

625.

hg

'enscipe 611.

grais 54, 315.

gyldenfeax 641 .

hae

)iht 631.

grafan 54, 57, 508.

gylt 298, 387.

hafenian 536.

gram 425.

gyrdan 259, 299, 530.

hafola (hafela) 57, 78,

grambare 622.

gyrdels 277, 598.

222, 401.

grame 553.

gyte 386.

hafuc, -oc (heafuc, -oc)

gramheort 641.

48, 57, 78, 197, 293>

grammod 641.

habban 5, 7, 8, 54, 57,

341.

grapian 133, 291, 536.

183, 292, 293, 305,

hagol 5, 57, 340, 563.

grasian 307.

325, 474, 538.

hagosteald 618.

great I35, 426, 443,

haca 401.

hagu 57.

444.

hacele 404.

hal 133, 161, 426, 620.

gredig 630.

had 133, 397, 605.

halbaere 622.

gremman 526.

-had 605.

Halga 421.

grene 5, 129, 194, 278,

hadesmann 619.

halgian 221, 536.

285,315,434,438.

hador43i.

hal

g 216, 221, 223,

330

Index

324, 421, 429, 431,

440, 443. 444-
halor 419.
halwende 434, 638.
ham 133, 282, 335, 562.
hamleas 633.
hamor 39, 278, 325,

341, 563.
hamstede 617.
hamweardes 557.
hana 59, 231, 401.
hand 59, 215, 285,

299. 325. 331, 398,

562.
handgeweorc 617.
handlung 10, 615.
hangian 239, 289, 536.
har 426.

hara 5, 57, 238, 401.
harung 615.
has 426.
hassuc 57.
hasu (heasu) 436.
hat 133, 298.
hatan 125, 133, 161,

240, 474> 5". 512.
hate 553.
hatian 57, 298, 536,

538.
hatwende 638.
he (he) 95, 144, 163,

461, 462.
heafod 5, 10, 135, 172,

216, 221, 293, 299,

325, 347, 350-
heafodling 607.

heah 5, 47, 135, 136,
163, 174, 187, 221,
328, 329, 427, 428,

440,443,557-
heahsynn 617.
heald 562.
healdan 5, 7, 49, 176,

253, 299, 516.
healede 624.
healf 64, 262, 294.
healfcwic 640.
healfslsepende 640.
healfsoden 640.

healh 337

healic 329.

healichad 605.

heall 64, 367.

healtn 335.

heals 64, 306, 335.

healt 426.

hean 426, 530.

heane 553.

heanes 329.

heap 135, 243, 291.

heipmaelum 557.

heard 5, 7, 49, 66, 168,

218, 278, .299, 325,

426, 439, 620.
hearde 553, 555.
hearding 607.
heardnes 609.
hearg 66, 397.
hearm 66.
hearmstafas 612.
hearpe 291, 404.
hearpere 602.
hearpung 615.
hea}>u 78.
heawan 76, 172, 264,

518.
hebban 47, 55, 128,

231, 258, 272, 29^,

297, 510-

hedan 129.

hefe 386.

hefig 218, 293, 324.

hef(i)gian 536.

liege 55, 386.

hela 118, 329.

helan 80, 503.

helian 526.

hell 55, 254, 272, 375.

hellebryne 619.

hellewlte 619.

helm 80, 276, 282, 335.

helpan 5, 41, 43, 64,
80, 96, 106, 111,215,
226, 276, 291, 472,

475, 476, 482, 484,

486, 499.
helpend 418.
helustr 92.

hemming 607.
hengen 599.
hengest 221, 339.
henn 60, 254, 272, 285,

374-
heo (hlo) 104, 462.
heo-daeg 557.
heofon 92, 221, 222,

285, 288, 293, 338,

341, 563-
heofoncund 623.
heofone 404.
heofonisc 10, 632.
heofonlic 10, 634.
heolfor 84.
heolor 92.
heol(o)stor 48, 92.
heora 462.
heonan (hionan) 102,

558.
heononweard 637.
heora (hiora) 102.
heord 41, 85, 367.
-heort 641.
heortcoj)u 618.
heorte 5, 49, 85, 169,

196, 205, 231, 288,

325, 404-
heor^ 85.
heoru 396.

heorut, -0148, 92, 341.
heoru word 618.
heow (hiow) 90.
her 5, 125, 163, 558.
here 5, 47, 55, 156,

274. 278, 351, 353-
herefolc 618.
here-toga 225, 239.
hergian 536.
herian 55, 252, 254,

271, 525.
hete 55, 386, 419.
hetele 10.
hetelic 634.
hetelice 553.
hetefiancol 640.
hetol 635.

hettend 418, 538, 601.
hi (hi) 6, 461, 462.

hider 96, 299, 558.
hidercyme 617.
hidergeond 558.
hiderweard 637,
hidmxiutn 557.
hidres 558.
hie 461.
hieg 270, 357.
hiehst(a) 326, 329, 444.
hIeh)>(o) 613.
hienan 136, 530.
hIen))(o) 613.
hiera (hira, heora) 461.
hieran 5, 136, 174, 188,

215, 221, 252, 272,

273, 279, 288, 299,

325. 530.
hierdan 530.
hierde 5, 41, 47, 99,

204, 207, 274, 354.
hierdeboc 618.
hiere (hire) 461.
hierstan 530.
hiertan 530, 643.
hierwan 533.
hlew (hlw) 90, 265,

357-
hiewet 604.
higian 536.
hild 96, 272, 376.
hildestrengo 619.
hilt 393, 419.
him 461.
hind 96, 376.
hindan 446, 558.
hindanweard 557.
hindema 446.
hinder 558.
hine (hiene) 461, 462.
hio (heo) 461.
hiora (heora, hiera)

462.
hire (hiere) 462.
his 461, 462.
hit 461, 462.
hiw 357.
hlwan 401,
hiwisc 632.
hiwrsden 610.

Index

hladan 54, 57, 78, 325,

508.
hlsedel 54.
hlaeder 134.
hlSfdige 404.
hlsene 434.
hlaest 335.
hlsew 134, 419.
hlaf 133, 294, 32s, 335.
hlafleast 613.
hlafmsesse 150.
hlaford 13, 133, 267,

276, 293.
hlaforddom 597.
hlafordscipe 611.
hlagol 635.
hlammsesse 150.
hlaw 133, 419.
hleahtor 68, 326, 340.
hleapan 5, 135, 325,

518.
hleapestre 603.
hleapettan 10, 657.
hleotan 493.
hleo(w) 363.
hleowan 533.
hlid 96, 325, 344.
hliehhan 5, 7, 47, 69,

170, 177, 239, 254,

272, 326, 484, 510-
hliep 387, 562.
hlTewan 533.
hllew))(u) 372, 613.
hlimman 498.
hhnian 536.
hlot 106, 325.
hlowan 264, 519.
hlud 7, 131, 299.
hlude 553.
hludswege ^557.
hlutor (hl&ttor) 131,

219. 2SS. 431-
hlydan 132, 530, 643.
hlyn(n) 352.
hlynnan 526.
hlyst 387.
hlystan 530.
hlystend 601.
hnaepp 243, 335.

hnaeppian (hnappian)

57, 78, 536- ^
hnsesce (hnesce) 434,

439-
hneappian 78.
hneaw 265, 437.
hnecca 310.
hnigan 325, 490.
hnitan 490.
hnitol 430.
hnitu 412.
hnot 425.
hnutu III, 213, 285,

325, 410, 412.
hoc 128.
hocede 624.
hod 128.

hof 106, 29s, 342, 344.
hof 128, 335.
hoferede 624.
hogfasst 627.
hogu 366.
hoh 117.

hoi 106, 344, 425.
hold 43, 106, 303, 325,

426.
holde 553.
holdlice 553, 555.
holdraeden 610.
holdscipe 611.
holh 106, 149, 165, 328,

329, 346.
holpen 431.
hdlunga 554.
hon 117,239,245,329,

514.
hopian 106, 536.
hoppettan 657.
hoppian 243.
hord 106, 158, 244, 252,

279, 343-
hordere 602.
horh 239, 337.
horn 106, 343.
hornbsere 622.
hors 106, 280, 306,

343.
hos 61, 286.
hrie 266.

332

Index

hraed 425.

hra2f(e)n 7, 54, 219,

28s, 293, 325.
hrse(w) 134, 419.
hrajior 57.

hra(w) 133, 26s, 419.
hrea 75, 172.
hream 335.
hrea(w) 265, 437.
hreddan 523, 527.
hreod 325, 343.
hreodiht 631.
hreoh 428.
hreosan 494.
hreow 265, 379.
hreowan 493.
hreowsian 536, 659.
hriefj)(o) 613.
hrim 335.
hrimig 325.
hrlnan 490.
hrindan 498.
hrine 386.

bring 96, 317, 325, 335.
hringan 530.
hringed(e) 624.
hrls 343.

hrissan (hrisian) 526.
hri))er (hryjier) 97, 419.
hroc 128.
hrof 7, 128, 278, 29s,

296.
hrofleas 633.
hropan 128, 519.
hror 426.
hruse 404.
hrutan 496.
hrycg 112, 274, 319,

352.
hryre 386.
hu 130, 166, 266.
hu geares 557.
hu gerades 557.
hu meta 557.
hund (dog) 21, 159,

231, 246, 335.
hund {hundred) 34,

III, 231, 238, 242,

246, 447.

hundeahtatig 447.
hundeahtatigojia 447.
hundendleofantig 447.
hundendleofantigojia

447-
hundfeald 628.
hundnigontig 447.
hundnigontigoJ)a 447.
hundred 447.
hundseofontig 447.
hundseofontigoba 447.
hundteontig 447.
hundteontigo^a 447.
hundtwelftig 447.
hundtwelftigo|)a 447.
hunger J, 7, m, I59.

289, 317, 325. 395-
hungrig 630.
hunig, -eg 50, 109, 159,

218, 290.
hunta 401.
huntigestre 10, 603.
hunto). 218, 395, 595.
hu nyta 557.
bus 4, 5, 7, 131, 166,

306, 307, 325, 343,

562.
husfaest 626.
husincel 358, 606.
husul (husel, husl) 113,

219.
husrjeden(n) 378, 610.
huswist 616.
hwa 7, 79, 144, 161,

231, 252, 263, 32s,

469.
hw^lS4, 233, 325,336.
bwaer 52, 194, 558.
hwast 20, 54, 211, 298,

469.
hwast {adj.) 425.
hwsete 7, 134, 263, 298,

325, 354-
hwaeten 625.
hwasthwugu 471.
hwaetlice 553.
hwsetscipe 61 1,
bwaejjer 41, 45, 218,

325, 470, 560.

hwas))(e)re 560.
hwamm 335.
bwanon 558.
hwearfian 536.
bwelc 311, 470.
hwelchwugu 471.
hwelp 325. 335-
hwene 557.
hweogol 92.
hweorfan 500.
hweowol 264.
hwettan 298, 527.
hwider 558.
hwierfan 531.
hwll 126, 325, 367.
bwilc 469.
hwlle 560.
hwilen 625.
hwllende 267.
hwil-tldum 557.
hwllum 557.
hwllwende 638.
hwlnan 490.
hwistlere 602.
hwit 126, 243, 260, 298,

32s, 426.
hwltan 531.
hwone 59.
hwonne 59.
hwopan 519.
hwyrft 387.
hycgan 112, 338.
hyd 132, 390.
hydan 132, 530.
hydels 598.
hyf 132, 190, 390.
hyge 7, 112, 320, 386.
hygefaest 627.
hygeleast 613.
hybt 387, 563.
hyhtan 530.
hyhtfuU 629.
byldu, -o 43, 112, 383,

563.
byldrffiden 610.
hyU 112,259,276,352.
hyngran 112, 221, 528,

529.
hype 112, 386.

Index

333

hyrdel 112.
hyrling 607.
hymen 112, 625.
hymet(u) 378.
hyrst 390.
hyse 386.
hyspan 531.

ic 232, 311, 458, 459.

462.
Idaeges 557.
Idel 126, 431, 639.
idelnes 609.
ides 221, 390.
Tecan 136, 300, 531,

534.
ledisc 632.
leg 270, 376.
ieldan 530, 643.
ieldcian 536.
ielde 385.
ielding 615.
ieldu 65, 183, 383, 563.
ielfe 385.
ielfetu 378.
ierfe5,47,67, 170, 181,

357.
ierfeweard 618.
ierg|)(o) 613.
ierming 67, 607.
ierm))u, -(o) 47, 67,

613.
ieman (irnan, yrnan)

59, 66, 98, 280, 498.
ierre 47, 99, 170, 204,

207. 279, 357, 433,

434-
ierremod 641.
ierringa 10, 554.
iersian 536, 659.
ier{)ling 607.
let. 556.
lepe 136, 434.
lewan 533.
Ifig 126.
Ifiht 631.
-ig 630.
igil 322.
-iht 631.

il 322.

ile 386.

in 575.

in- 575.

inadl 575.

inbuend 575.

inc 460, 462.

inca 401.

-incel 606.

incer 460, 464.

incit 460.

incniht 575.

incofa 575.

incuman 14.

infasr 575.

infaru 575.

-ing 607, 615.

inhere 575.

inlendisc 632.

in(n) 558.

innan558, 559.

innancund 623.

innanweard 637.

inne 446, 458.

innemesta 223.

insegl 575.

in-staspe 557.

in-stede 557.

inj)icce 575.

Iren 126.

is 41.

Is 7, 126, 164, 3c6,

343-
-isc 632.
Isen 126.
isengrseg 11.
isijjes 557.
iugu]> 116.
iung 116.

-lac 608.
lacan 511, 512.
lacnian 1 19, 536.
lad 225, 367, 562.
-l£can, 658.
Ixccan 55.

Iffice 119,274,311,354.
l£cedom 597.
Ixcnian 119.

laedan 5, 7, 134) 239.
276, 288, 299, 300,

530, 643-
laeden 298.
Iffifan 134, 293, 530.
Ijen 393, 419.
lienan 530.
Ijene 329, 434.
laenere 10, 602.
laeppa 57.

Ijeran 134, 252, 279,
_288, 530, 643.
lasrestre 603.
Ijes {adv.) 556.
Isessa 280, 445.
l§3t(a) 387, 445.
Isestan 134, 259, 550.
Isestend 601.
laet 57, 425, 446, 620.
Isetan 119, 511, 513.
IsetlTce 553.
Isetraede 434.
I£|jan 530.
Ije{>|)0 613.
Iffiwan 47, 120, 162,

533.
laf 367, 562.
lagu 7, 57, 320, 396.
lam 343.
lama 59.
lamb 59, 154,276, 282,

292, 331. 419. 420.
land 5, so, 59, 276,

343. 562.
lang 5, 7, 47. 5°, 59. 60,

154, 221, 234, 276,

289, 317, 426, 443>

444, 620.
lange 556.
langian 536.
langmod 641.
langoj. 340, 595.
langsum 636.
langung 615.
lappa (teppa) 57, 256
lar 133, 215, 225, 367.
lareow 360.
lareowdom 597,
larhus 11, 617.

334

larleast, -liest 613.

last 335, 563.

late 553.

latian 98.

latteow 305, 360.

la)> 426.

lajiian 57, 536.

labu 365, 366.

lapwende 638.

lawerce 264.

leac 135.

lead 135.

leaden 625.

leaf 135, 294, 343.

lean (sd.) 135, 343.

lean (7;.) 70, 239, 329,

509.
leanian 536.
leas 426.
-leas 613, 633.
leasere 602.
leasettan 657.
leasgielp 617.
leasian 536, 643.
leasung 373, 61 5.
lee 387.
leccan 534.
lecgan 7, 47, 55, 156,

254, 259. 272, 273,

276, 319) 321, 527,

643-
legen 430.
leger 349.
lemb 419.
lendan 530.
leng 252, 556.
lengan 530.
lengo 563.

lengten (lencten) 318.
leng})(u), (-0) 47, 60,

613.
leo 402.
leod 367.
leodan 493.
leof 137, 173, 208, 209,

218, 235, 276, 294,

426, 443, 444, 620.
leofosta 10.
leofwende 638.

Index

leofwendum 557.
leogan 135, 137, 320,

493-
leogere 602.
leoht {s3.) 44, 137, 189,

326.
leoht (adj.) 49, 127,

175, 192.
leohtbffire 622.
leohtberende 640.
leoma 329, 401.
leoruere 602.
leomian (liornian) 5,

7, 49, 98, 170, 252,

276, 279.
leornung (liornung)

216, 225, 371, 373.
leo}> 343-

lesan 80, 239, 307, 505.
lettan 527.
lejier 80.
libban 7, 42, 48, 96,

102, 171, 292, 293,

538.
110311,343,562.
-lie 634.

liccian 42, 243, 310.
llcettan 259, 657.
licgan 41, 96, 120, 161,

240, 254, 319, 322,

484, 507.
lician 536.

licuma (Ilchama) 325.
lida 225, 401, 562.
lleg 387.
liehtan {io give light)

S, 44, 47, 138, 174,
192, 209, 210, 326,

53°, 643-
iTehtan (to make eastet^

47, 127, 174, 192-
liesan 530.
llexan 531.
llf 5, 126, 276, 294.
lifer 42, 96, 293.
lim 96, loi, 202, 344,

562.
limhal 640.
limmslum 557.

lin 343.

lind 367.

-ling 607.

linnan 498.

llode (leode) 5, 44, 138,

17s, 385.
lron(leon)29, 127, 133,

139. 174, i75> 192,
231, 246, 329, 492.

list 96, 387.

\\\ 344.

li))an 126, 133, 225, 226,
239, 491-

lijje 97, 164, 434-

ll|)end 225, 601.

li )incel 606.

lljjs (liss) 305, 376.

loc 106, 344, 562.

16c (loca) 471.

loca 401.

locc 243.

locian 223, 243, 273,

310. 536.
lof 106, 145, 294, 562.
lofian 293, 536.
loflscan 658.
loflic 634.
loflice 553.
loppe 404.
loppestre 603.
losian 536.
loswist 616.
lot 344.

lucan 131, 472, 496.
lufestre 603.
lufian 5, 108, 218, 293,

536. ^ ^
lufsum 636.
lufsumnes 609.
luftacen 618.
luftieme 640.
lufu 108, 276, 366.
lufwende 638.
1033,131,132,411.
lust ni, 395.
lustbaere 622.
lutan 496.
Iyffettan657.
lyft 387.

Index

335

lyge 112,320,386.

lygen 599.

lyre 239, 386, 562.

lystan 530.

lyt 556.

lytel 132, 25s, 276,

431, 445, 607, 639.
lythwon 557.
lytle 556.
lytling 339, 607.

ma 252, 556.
macian 10, 57, 218,
373, 282, 299, 309,

310, 536.
mae 556.

maecg (mecg) 55, 352.
mjed 264, 266, 379,

381.
msden 54, 146, 162,

321, 350, 600.
maedneden 610.
maeg (v.) 324.
malg 119, 120, 161,

336.
maegden 5, 54, 58, 146,

162, 218, 321, 350,

600.
mxgdenhad 605.
msge (mage) 404.
magen 54, 320, 349.
ma^genfsest 627.
maegenleas 633.
ma2g(e)Jj 414.
mJegrJeden 610.
mxg|>had 605.
mjeg|)(u) 372.
msl 119.
maenan 134, 530.
msran 530, 643.
maere 119, 434, 620.
mJerels 598.
mSrlic 634.
msersian 536, 659.
n)aerjj(o) 613.
maest 335.
mSst 556, SS7.
maest(a) 445.
maestan 56, 530.

mab 563.

maepere 602.

msew 387.

maflfa 57.

maga 320, 401.

magan 78, 240, 481,

544-
magorinc 618.
magu 57, 396.
man 343.
mangere 602.
manian 536.
manig 59, 324, 421,

429, 430.
manigreald 453, 628.
man(n) 5, 59, 60, 154,

259, 282, 285, 562.
manna 409.
mannbaere 622.
man(n)r£den 610.
manscipe 611.
man))wsere 434.
mara 252, 279, 445.
martyr 66.
masc (max) 57,243.
mattuc, -oc 57, 298,

340-'
ma])elian 10.
maj>um (ma))m) 133,

219, 282, 340, 563.
ma wan 5, 120, 264,

282, 517.
me (me) 95, 144, 163,

252, 459, 462.
meagol 635.
meaht (sb.) 68,240,390.
meaht {v.) 68, 563.
meahta 326.
meahte {v.) 68.
mealt 64.

mearc 66, 178, 367.
mearg 66, 244, 323.
mearh 66, 149, 172,

328, 329, 334, 337.
mearu 66, 436.
mec2i3, 311,459,462.
mece 119,311,354.
mecg 55.
med 125, 163, 367.

medeme 434.

medu (meodu) 48, 92,

396.
medudream 618.
meduma (medema)

446.
meldian 536.
meltan 80, 276, 282,

298, 499.
melu (meolu) 92, 169,

220, 276, 362.
mene 386, 419.
menen 599.
mengan 60, 289, 530,

643-
menigu, -o (mengu)

383,563.
raen(n) 252.
mennisc 60, 632.
mennisclic 634.
menniscu 614.
meolcan (melcan) 5,

7, 49, 84, 169, 182,

500.
meol(u)c 411.
meord 244, 367.
meotod 92.
meowle 52, 77, 169,

264, 404.
meox (miox) 5, 49, 98,

170, 327.
mere 55, 215, 386.
mere wif 618.
metan 80, 93, 226,

505.
metan 129, 298, 531.
mete 5, 55, 386.
met(e)gian 536.
metend 601.
metod 92, 221, 341.
mejie 434.
micel 223, 260, 430,

445-
micelheafdede 624.
micelmod 641.
micelu 614.
micle 553.
mid 559, 560, 576.
mid- 576.

336

Index

midd 41, 96, 299, 432,

446.
middelniht 617.
midlunga 554.
midspreca 576.
midwist 576, 616.
midwunian 14.
midwunung 576.
midwyrhta 576.
mieht (miht) {sb) 68,

69, 390.
miehtig (mihtig) 69,

177, 218.
mieltan 65.
Mierce 355.
miercels 598.
mlere 404.
mierran 279, 530.
migan 490.
milde 300, 434, 553.
mildheort 641.
mildheortnes 609.
milts (mils) 300, 376.
miltsian (milsian) 300,

536, 659.
min 5, 126, 164, 282,

459, 464.
minsian 286.
mint 82.
miol(u)c (mile) 5, 48,

loi, 171, 184, 276,

310.
mis- 577, 652.
misbeodan 652.
misboren 577.
miscwejjan 652.
misdon 652.
misfadian 652.
misfadung 5 TJ.
misfaran 652.
misferan '652.
misfon 652.
misgleman 652.
misgretan 652.
mishieran 652.
mishworfen 577.
mislEeran 652.
mislar 577.
misraecan 652. I

misrsd 577.
mistig 10.
miswendan 652.
mitty 305.
mi|)an 239, 491.
mod 128, 343.
-mod 641.
modcearig 640.
modfull 629.
modig 630.
modor 5, 23, 128, 129,

211, 253, 260, 278,

282, 299,415.
modrige 404.
modwlanc 11.
molde 106, 404, 562.
moldgrasf 618.
mona 5, 6, 24, 50, 121,

165, 211, 282, 285,

401.
monanSfen 619.
mon(an)da2g 619.
monaj) 121, 221, 223,

301, 414.
mor 335.
more 404.
morgen 106, 107, 340,

563-
mor}) 106, 343.
morjior 106, 302.
most, moste (z'.) 240.
mot 545.
mothus 617.
mo)>))e 7, 301, 404.
munan 543.
mund 367.
mundbora 596.
munt 109.
munuc 109, 285.
munuchad 605.
murcnian 108.
murcnung 615.
murnan 108, 472, 502.
mus 3, 5, 27, 47, 131,

132, 166, 167, 190,

306,411, 562.
muj) 5, 7, 113, 166,

282, 286, 301, 335.
mycel I12, 311.

mycg 112, 259, 319,

352-
mylen 112, 285.
myne 386.
mynecen(n) 599.
mynet 109.
mynster 109.
myntan 530.
myrge 434, 553.
myr(i)g|) 220, 320,

613.
myrj)ran 112.

naca 401.

nacod 57, 153, 221,

249, 285, 299, 310,

430, 639.
njedl 119, 219, 276,

28s. 304, 370, 563-
nSdre 119, 260, 299,

404.
n£eg(e)l 54, 219, 276,

320, 340, 563.
nseglan 56.
nsenge, nange Jjinga

557-
nSnig 471.
nSp 119, 162.
njetan 531,
nafu 366.

nafula (nafela) 57, 222.
naht 471.
nahwjer 558.
nahwae})er 471, 560.
nama 5, 50, 59, 154,

256, 282, 285, 401,

562.
namboc 618.
namcu]) 640.
nammSlum 557.
nan 471.
nanjiing 471.
nat 540.
nauht 267.
nawer 558.
nawiht (-wuht) 133,

471.
nawj>er 471.
-nd, 601.

Index

337

ne 560.

neadinga 554.

neadlunga 554.

neah s, 7, 47. 49, 123,
139, 172, 189, 221,
246, 328, 329, 428,

443,558,559-
neahmseg 617.
neaht58,23i, 298,411.
nealfecan 329, 534,658.
nealic 329.
nealles 557.
nean 558.
near 123, 329, 558,

559-
nearu 66, 220, 436,

"3- .
nearwe 264, 553.

nearwian 643.

neat 343.

neawist,-west 329,616.

nebb 292, 356.

nefa 80, 231, 256, 285,

401.

nefne 560.

nemnan 60, 287, 530,

643-

nemne 560.

neode 557.

neotan 225, 493.

nerian 10, 55, 211, 212,
214, 217, 218, 221,
239, 252, 254, 271,

273, 279, 527, 643-
neri(g)end 418.
-nes(s) 609.
nest 42, 80, 243, 343.
netel 369.
nett 55, 354, 274, 285,

355, 356, 562.
neban 62, 530.
nej)l 304.

nied 136, 188, 390.
niedan 136, 530.
niedes 557.
niedinga 554.
niedling 607.
nlehst(a) 123,326,329,

444, 559-

nieht 69.

nierwan 264, 266, 533.

nierwet(t) 358, 604.

nieten 216, 350.

niewe (niwe) 5, 90, 1 74,
264, 434, 620.

nift 96, 231, 376.

nigon 447.

nigonteo))a 447.

nigontlene 447.

nigo))a 447.

niht 68, 411.

nihtes 557.

nihtlanges 557.

niman i, 5, 48, 50, 8i,
102, 109, 121, 157,
165, 203, 213, 215,
218, 221, 282, 286,
288, 334, 488, 504.

nio))an 446, 558.

niowe (neowe) 90.

nipan 490.

-nis(s) 609.

nil' 343-

ni >er 96, 558.

ni ,ergang 617.

ni )erung 615.

ni >erweard 637.

ni lerweardes 557.

niJ)or loi, 202.

noht 471.

nohwasjier 471.

norj> 106, 301, 446,

558.
norban 288, 558.
nor ,eme 626.
nor )(e)weard 557, 637.
Nor))ymbre 385.
nosu 5, 7, loiS, 261,

307, 398-
notu 225, 366, 562.
-no). 595.
nower 558.
nowiht (-wuht) 1 33,

471.
n6w)«r 471.
nu 131.
numol 635.
nunmynster 618, 619.
z

nunnanmynster 619.

nunne 109.

nym)« 560.

nytlic 634.

nytt 112,225,375,432.

nyttol 635.

o 133-

-o 614.

-od 639.

of- 653.

ofascian 653.

ofbeatan 653.

ofclipian 653.

ofcyrf 563.

ofdsele 393.

ofdune 557.

ofearmian 653.

ofen 106, 261, 292, 340.

ofer 106, 293, 559, 578,

645.
ofer 340.
ofer-_578.
oferset 578.
oferaete 434.
oferbru 578.
oferdrenc 578.
oferetolnes 609.
oferfierru 383.
oferhlQd 578.
oferhygd 391, 578.
ofermasgen 578.
ofermjete 578.
ofermettu, -o 305, 613.
ofermicel 578.
ofermodig 578.
oferslege 393, 419.
oferslop 578.
ofersprffic 578.
oferspraece 434.
oferswr|>an 14, 530.
ofer)>earf 578.
oferweorc 578.
oferweorpan 14.
of (e) stum 557.
ofet 349.
offeran 653.
offiellan 653.
ofTrian 295, 556.

338

Index

ofgan 653.
ofgiefan 653.
ofmunan 653.
ofsendan 653.
ofsittan 653.
ofslaegennes 563.
ofslingan 653.
ofsprjec 563.
ofsteppan 653.
ofstician 653.
ofswingan 653.
ofteon 653.
oftyrfan 531.
of})ringan 653.
ofjiryscan 531.
ofwundrian 653.
oga 401.
oht 117, 471.
6hwae)Jer 471.
-ol 635, 639.
oleccan 534.
om 121.
omig 630.

on 59. 5S9> S68, 579-
on- 569, 579, 654.
onas|)ele 579.
onbaec 557.
onbascling 557.
onbeodan 654.
onberan 654.
onbindan 654.
onbring 579.
onbryce 579.
onbutan 557, 559.
onbyrdan 530.
oncnawan 654.
ondrsedan 511, 513.
onefn 557.
onettan 325.
onfangennes II.
onfealdan 654.
onfindan 654.
onflffiscnes 579.
onforan 557.
ongean(ongen, ongegn)

321. 559-
ongeanfealdan 14.
ongeanweard 637.
on{ge)mang 559.

ongietan 10, 654.
ongietennes n.
onginn 11.
onginnan 259, 498.
onhieldan 530.
onhyrian 525.
oninnan 559.
onlucan 654.
onsacan 10.
onsselan 654.
on scipwisan 557.
onscrydan 654.
onscunian 538.
onscynian 538.
onslgan 654.
onspannan 654.
onstlgend 579.
onsting 579.
onsundrum 557.
ontendan 530.
ontynan 132, 190, 654.
onufan 559.
onuppan 559.
onweg 15, 557.
onwendan 654.
onwindan 654.
onwist 616.
onwreon 654.
onwn))an 654.
open 106, 291, 430, 639.
op(e)nian 536, 643.
or- 580, 646.
-or 639.
orceapes 557.
orceas 580.
orcnawe 580.
ordal 580.
oreald 580.
oret 14, 325.
oretta 401.
orettan 14.
orgiete 580.
orgilde 580.
orleahtre 580.
orlege 393, 419.
ormste 434, 580.
ormod 580.
orsawle 580.
orsceattinga 554.

orsorg III, 580.
ortydre 580.
orjjanc 10, iii, 580.
orjiances 557.
orwene iii, 580.
orweorj) 580.
OS- 61.
osle 7, 50, 61, 261, 283,

307, 404.
o)> 559.
of.- 655.
-o)) 595.
oj)beran 655.
o )berstan 14, 655.
o jcwelan 655.
6))er5,5o,6i, 147,218,

221, 223, 259, 286,

302,421,431, 447.
o))faestan 655.
o >feallan 14.
ojfleon 655.
o jgangan 10.
o )glldan 655.
o )hebban 655.
o >hydan 655.
oiieman 655.
o )l£edan 655.
o)stillan 655.
o iswerian 655.
o )j)e 301, 560.
oJ>wendan 655.
ower 558.

owiht (-wuht) 133, 471.
6w])er 471.
oxa 5,47, 106,107,156,

158,327,401, 562.

pad 291.

p»l> 54, 291, 336.

p£el)|)an 55.

palm 64.

panne 404.

pawa (pea) 291.

pearroc 66, 340.

pening (penig) 60, 290,

291.
Peohtas 86.
pere (peru) 96, 291,

404.

Index

339

pic 96, 291,311.
picen 625.
pin 125, 164.
pinsian 50, 82, 97, 157,

286, 291.
piosan (pisan) 102.
pipe 404.
pirige 404.
pise 291, 404.
plega 401.
plegan 291.
plegian (plasgian, pla-

gian) 538.
plegol 430.
pleoh 87, 329, 346.
pleon 87, 506.
pliht 291, 387.
plog 291, 323.
pohha 326, 401.
pott 291, 335.
preosthad 605.
prica 401.
prician 310.
prut 131, 291.
prutscipe 611.
pund 109, 291.
pyffan 7, 295, 530.
pyle 112, 291.
pyndan 530.
pytt 112, 259,291,298,

562.

ra 133. 139, 402.
racente 404.
racu 57, 365, 366.
rad 133, 367, 562.
raecan 134, 534.
raed 119, 562.
rsdan 119, 125, 162,

378, Sii, 513.
raedbora 596.
rjedels 277, 598.
rEeden(n) 378.
-raeden(n) 610.
rSdestre 603.
raeding 615.
rjedsnotor 640.
raefnan 532.
rasfsan (refsan) 295.

ra;pling 607.

rSran 134, 239, 530,

_643-
rassan 531.
rasscan 56.
ramm 59.
ranc 426.
rap 5, 133, 278, 291,

335- ,
rapincel 006.
read 33, 135, 172, 235,

278, 299, 426, 620.
reafere 602.
reafian 536, 643.
reaflac 608.
reafol 635.
reccan 534.
reccend 601.
reccenddom 597.
reccere 602.
reced 216, 349.
recels 598.
recen 430.
recene!5S7.
reg(e)n (ren) 80, 163,

219, 278, 285, 321,

340-
regol (reogol) 92, 199.
reocan 137, 189, 493.
reodan 493.
reoht (rieht, ryht) 86,

326.
reord 367.
reotan 493.
rest 56, 376.
restan 56, 259, 298,

306, 530.
retan 531.
rej)e 434-
rewet 604.
ribb 96, 292, 356.
rice {adj.) 434.
ridan 7, 96, 126, 133,

157, 164, 278, 475,

476, 486, 490, 562.
ridend 601.
riecels 277.
rignan 321.
riht 86, 231, 426.
z 2

lihtan (ryhtan) 99, 530.
rihte 553.
rihtgefremed 640.
rihthand 617.
rihtlJecan 658.
rihtllce 298.
rihtung 373.
rihtwillende 640.
rim 126, 278.
rima 81, 401.
rlmcrasft6i7.
rinan 96.
rinnan 242, 498.
ripe 434.
rlxian (ricsian) 7,311,

S36, 659.
rod 367.
rodbora 596.
r6dehengen(n) 619.
rodor 221, 222, 278,

341.
rof 426.
rot 426.
row 437.
rowan 128, 264, 266,

519-
rudu 366.
ruh 328, 428.
rum 131,278,282,335,

426, 562.
run 367.
rust 131.
ryge 386.
rygen 625.
ryht 86.

ryman 132, 530, 643.
rymet 604.
ryn 530.
ryne 386, 562.
ryne 357.
ry)>})a 401.

sacan 54, 57, 508.
sacc 57, 153.
sacleas 633.
sacu 54, 57, 309, 366.
sada 401.

sadol 57, 276, 299, 306,
341-

340

Index

SK 5, 134, 139, 266,

306, 388, 562.
sascc 55, 375.
SEcyning 617.
saed 425.

sffid 5, 119, 306,563.
SEedberende 640.
s£de 321.
sffidere 354, 602.
ssdno)) 595.
saegan 530, 643.
sael 419.
ssel 387.
sdelac 608.
sjelan 530, 643.
sSlJ)303, 613.
ssene 434.
saep 345.
saeter(n)daeg 287.
saewet(t) 259, 358, 604.
sagu 366.
sal 133.
salor 419.

salu (sealu) 64, 436.
sam- 581, 582.
sambsemed 582.
samcucu 582.
samen 557.
samgrene 582.
samhal 582.
samheort 581.
samhiwan 581.
samhwilc47i.
samlJered 582.
samiriEele 434,581,621.
samnian 536.
samod 559, 560.
samodsprsec 617.
samrsednes 581.
samsoden 582.
samtinges 557.
sam-winnende 581.
satnwls 582.
samwist 581, 616.
sandiht 631.
sangboc6l7.
sangere 602.
sangestre 603.
sar 133, 343. 426.

sarettan 657.
sargian 536.
sarian 536.
sarigmdd64t.
sawan 5, 120,264, 266,

517-
sawol 7, 133, 221, 264,

368, 370.
sawolcund 623.
scacan 51, 57, 128, 508.
scadan 28,51,133,233,

512.
scadu 51, 57.
scafan 57, 508.
scalu 57.
scamian 242, 536.
scanca 401.
scand 242, 312, 367.
scajia 401.
sc(e)acan 51, 57, 312,

508.
sceadan5i, 133, 512.
sc(e)adu 51, 57, 264,

266, 312, 380.
sceaf 135.
sceafan 57, 508.
sceaft 7, 51, 72, 295,

312, 335-
sceal 312.
scealu 57.
sc(e)amu (sceomu) 57,

366.
sceaps,7,Si. 124,172,

188,291,312,343.
scearp 66, 72, 278, 291,

312, 426, 620.
scearpe 553.
sceat 562.
sceatt 72, 259, 298,

335-
sceawian 76, 231,264,

536.
sceawung 615.
Scefing 607.
scene 387.
scencan 531.
scendan 530, 643.
sceofl 1 10, 296.
sceoh 428.

sceolan 116.
sceolh 49, 84, 169, 428.
sceop no.
sceorfan 500.
sceorpan 500.
sc(e)ort no, 312, 443.
sceotan no, 135, 137,

312, 493-
sceotend 601.
sce)>t)an 233, 254, 258,

301, 510, 526.
scieldgi, 181,312, 395,

562.
scielden(n) 599.
sciell 375.
sciene 434, 438.
scieppan 47, 51, 73,

128, 181, 240, 254,

258, 272, 312, 510.
scieran 51, 91, 124,

170, 312, 503.
scierian 525.
scierpan 531, 643.
sciete 136.
scildan 530.
scilling 96, 312, 607.
scinan 126, 133, 231,

490.
sclnlac 608.
scinn 312.
scinu 366.
scip 96, loi, 291, 312,

344-
-scipe 611.
scipere 602.
scipincel 358, 606.
sclr 426.
scofettan 657.
scofl no, 367.
scoh (sceoh) 7, 128,

139. 312, 328, 337-
scohnsgl 617.
scol 312.
scolu 366.
scop no.
scort no, 426.
scotung 615.
scrasf 345.
scrallettan 657.

Index

341

screawa 401.
screncan 531.
screpan 505.
scrifan 490.
scrincan 498.
scringan 498.
scri)>an 491.
scrud 131, 312, 413.
scrydan 132, 530, 643.
scucca 356, 401.
scufan 131, 163, 166,

293, 294, 496.
sculan 7, 51, 72, no,

168, 179, 183, 215,

276, 474. 476, 481,

482, 543.
sculdor 312.
scunian 109.
scur 131, 312.
scurf 108.
scu(w)a 401.
scyfe 386.
scyld 5, 112, 390.
scyldfull 629.
scyldig (scildig) 1 1 2,

312, 630.
scyld(i)gian 536.
Scylding 607.
scyrtan 530.
scyrtra 112.
scyte 386.
scyttisc 632,

s?9S-
se 465.
sealf 64, 367,
sealfian 10, 64, 218,

222, 293, 535.
sealh 7, 64, 149. I72i

328, 337-
sealt 7, 17,64, 306.
sealu 64.
seam 335.
seamere 602.
seamestre 603.
searu 66, 362.
searwum 557.
sea)> 397.
seaw 363.
seax 68, 343.

Seaxe 385.

secan 47, 128, 129,

163, 21 s, 272, 273,

306, 309, 311, 326,

534-
secg 259, 274, 319.

351.352,375-
secg(e)an 7, 54, 55,

146, 162, 319, 321,

538.
secgend 601.
sefa 93, 401-
seft 556.
sefte 62, 163, 283, 434,

553-
seg(e)l S, 80, 219, 276,

563-
seglan 532.
segn 96.
sel 556.
seld 277.
seldan 80.
seldcu]) 640.
seldlic 299.
sele 386.
selegiest 618.
selen 599.
self (seolf) 84, 463.
selfwilles 557.
sella (selra) 445.
sellan 55, 254, 276,

534-
sellend 601.
sellic 299.
selra (sella) 281.
semend 418.
sencan 531, 643.
sendan 47,60, 156, 259,

285, 288, 299, 528,

530-
senep 80.
sengan 289, 317, 530,

643.
sec (slo) 104, 405, 465.
seoc 137, 189, 310,

426.
seofon 7, 92, 169, 238,

288, 293, 447-
seofonfeald 628.

seofonteo)ia 447.
seofontiene 447.
seofo)>a 447.
seohne 404.
seolfor (siolufr) loi,

293-

seolfren 625.

seolh 84, 328, 329, 337.

seon (slon) (to see) 5, 7,
47, 49. 52, 68, 86,
87, 120, 139, 141,
148, 161, 168, 170,

173, 177. 193, 239,
241, 246, 264, 306,
326, 328, 329, 506.

seo{>an 106, 137, 494.

seowan (slowan) 533.

seox 49, 86, 182.

sess 240.

sester 329.

setl 80, 219, 276, 277,

298, 319, 563-
settan 55, 215, 254,

258, 272, 273, 298,

523, 524, 643.
se^an 530.
sextig 323.
sibb 96, 254, 272, 292,

375-
slcan 490.
sice 386.
sicettan 657.
sicol 48, loi.
sicor 430, 639.
side (silk) 125, 298.
side (side) 126, 404.
siden 625.

sidu 48, loi, 202, 396.
siellan (syllan) 534.
slen 241.

sierwan 264, 266, 533.
siex (six) 7, 86, 157,

. 327, 447-
siexta (sixta) 329, 444,

447-
siex-, sixteoJ)a 447.
siex-, sixtlene 447.
siextig 447.
siextigojia 447.

342

Index

sife 96, 393, 419.

sigan 490.

sige 96, 320, 386, 419.

sigefaest 627.

sigpr 419.

sigoreadig 640.

sig};e (si})e) 96.

silfring 607.

simbles 557.

sim{b)lunga 554.

sin 126, 464.

sin- 583.

sincan 96, ill, 249,

289, 498.
sinceald 583.
sindream 583.
sinfuUe 583.
singale 553.
singales 557.
singal(l)ice 259.
singan 7, 59, 96, in,

249,289,317,498.
singrene 583. ^
singrim 583.
sinhere 583.
sinhiwan 583.
sinnan 498.
sinniht 583.
sinscipe 583, 61 1,
sinsorg 583.
sinu (sionu) 48, loi,

202, 380.
sioluc loi.
siolufr (siolfor) loi.
slon (seon) {to strain)

S>4i, 239, 329,492.
slowan (seowan) 533.
sittan 5, 41, 54, 96,

119, 155, 188, 212,

213, 240, 254, 298,

306, 484, 507.
si}> (sb.) 97, 286, 454,

455-
slt> {adv) 446, 556, 557.
sij)e (sigjie) 5, 96, 164,

322.
sij)ian 536, 643.
sij>j>an (sioJ>J)an) 151,

301, 560.

six 86.

sla(slah) 133,329,405.
slsecnes 609.
slSpan 119, 125, 188,
232, 276, 291, 306,

513-
slsepleast 613.
slffiw]) 613.
slaga 239, 401, 421.
slapan 119.
slapol 635.
slaw 265, 437.
slean 5, 54, 68, 69, 70,

128, 139, 148, 170,

172, 239, 246, 320,

328, 329, 475, 476,

509.
slecg 375.

siege 239, 386, 562.
slegen 442, 509.
slldan 126, 299, 306,

490.
slide 386, 562.
sliefe 136.
slieht 69, 387, 563.
slim 126.
slincan 498.
slitan 490.
slite 386.
slljje 434.
sllw 360.
sloh 337.
slupan 131, 496.
slyppe 404.
smasl 54, 276, 306,

425, 620.
smeag(e)an 537.
smeocan 493.
smeoru 92, 362.
smejie 62, 434, 553.
smicere 553.
smiec 311, 387.
smierels 598.
smierwan 99, 264, 266,

533-
smitan 126.
smij) 96.
smij)))e 301, 404.
smocc 106, 243, 335.

smojie 61, 553.
smugan 496.
smylte 434.
snaca 306, 401.
sn»d 225, 562.
snSdmJelum 557.
snaegl 54.
sna(w) 133, 241, 264,

265, 359-
snahwlt 640.
snegl 80.
snell 80, 426.
smcan 490.

snide 225 , 239, 386, 562.
snljian 126, 225, 239,

476, 491.
sniwan 241, 264.
snoru 238, 366.
snot(t)or 219, 255, 259,

298, 431, 639.
snude 553.
snyrian 525.
snytru 383, 563.
snyttrum 557.
softe 61, 147, 165, 283,

553. 556.
sol 344.
somi- 582.
sona 5, 121, 165, 306,

560.
sopa 401.
sorg 323, 367.
sorgian 536, 643.
sorglufu 617.
sorgstafas 612.
sorh 262.
sot 128, 306.
s6)> 61, 426.
s6)>e 553.
sobes 557.
sopword 617.
spaca 401.
spadu 303.
spffitan 531.
spald 277.
spanan 508.
spannan 59, 285, 515.
sparian 536.
spatl 277, 348.

Index

343

spearwa 264, 278, 306,

401.
spec (spic) 42.
specan 505.
sped J 29, 390, 563.
spedlTce 553.
spedum 557.
speld 420.
spare 92, 291, 392, 393,

419, 562.
spildan 530.
spillan 530.
spinel 96, 369.
spinnan 96, 1 11, 285,

476, 498-
spiowan (speowan) 533.
spi(o)wian 533.
spitu 396.

splwan 231, 264, 490.
spot! 121.
spor 344.
spora 108.
spoman 108.
spomettan 657.
spowan 519.
sprsec 225, 376, 362.
sprsecleas 633.
spreedan 134, 530.
sprecan 7, 48, 80, 93,

22s, 278, 288, 291,

306, 310, 505.
sprecol 635.
sprengan 530.
springan3i7,3i8,498.
spryttan 527.
spura 108.
spuman 108, 502,
spyrian 525.
staca 401.
staef 54, 336,612.
staefcrasft 617.
stsefnan 56.
stJegel 431.
stsenen 134, 625.
stSnig 630.
stseniht 631.
staepe 386.

staeppan 55,291, 510.
-stafas 612,

stagga 7, 256, 319.
stalu 225, 366, 562.
stammettan 658.
Stan 133, 285, 334.
stanbrycg 61 7.
standan 7, 59, 306, 508.
stanig 630.
staniht 631.
stanincel 606.
stapul, -ol 48, 57, 78,

221, 222, 341.
sta}ielian 57.
stajjul, -ol 48, 78, 563.
stealdan 516.
steap 135, 426.
stearc 426.
stearcheort 641.
stearclice 554.
stede 22, 55,225, 386.
stedefasst 267.
stedewist 616.
stef(e)n 81, 219, 293,

369-
stefnan 56.
stela 401.
stelan 80, 93, 106, 119,

120, 225, 226, 276,

503-
stellan 534.
stemn 81, 293.
stenc3ii, 387, 562.
steng3i7, 387, 562.
steopfaeder 137.
steor 137.
steoran 138.
steoresmann 619.
steorfan 85, 278, 293,

500.
steormann 619.
steorra 5, 85, 196, 205,

278,401.
steorsceawere 618.
stepe (stsepe) 55.
steppan 55.
sticca 310.
stice 386.
sticels 598.
stician 48, 102, 2c6,

536.

stiele 47, 71, 329, 357.

stlelecg 641.

stiell 387.

stiepel 136.

stieran 138, 530.

stieminga 554.

stig 323.

stlgan 29, 96, 1 01, 126,

133. 231, 235, 263,

320, 323, 476, 490.
stige 386.
stigol 48, loi.
stihtan 98.
stillan 530.
stille 276, 434.
stincan 498.
stingan3i7, 498.
stij) 426.
stod 225.
stol 128, 335.
storm 106, 335.
stow 265, 379.
stowlic 634.
strSlbora 596.
strSt 119, 162, 298.
Strang 59,60,318,426,

443> 444, 620.
strange 553, 555.
strangmod 641.
strangnes 609.
stream 135, 250, 278,

306, 335.
strea(w) 5, 75, 140,

172,264,265,363.
streccan 311, 534.
stregdan (stredan), 80,

146, 321, 502.
streng 7, 317, 387.
strenge 434.
strengu, -o 3S2, 383,

S63.
strengj>(u), (o) 221,

289, 318, 371, 372.

613.
streowan JJ, 533.
streowen 599.
strlcan 490.
strldan 126, 490.
stride 386.

344

Index

strlenan 530.

swaerii9.

striewan 264.

swaes iig.

strSdan 496.

swffitan 531,643.

strudung 615.

swffib 345.

swa nwa swa 471.

studu 412.

stulor 225, 419.

swa hwast swa 471.

stund 367.

swa hwae)>er swa 471.

stundmSlum 557.

swa hwelc swa 471.

stundum 557.

swamm 335.

stuj)u 412.

swapan 133, 237, 291,

stycce 112,311,357.

517.

styccemjelum 557.

swar 119.

styrc (styric) 220.

swa|>u 54, 366.

styrian 525.

swealwe 404.

su 27.

swearm 66.

sue an 131, 496.

swebban 254, 643.

sugan 496.

swefan 505.

sugga2S6, 319.

sweflen 625.

sugu III, 320.

sweg 387.

sulh, 7, III, 115, 166,

swegan 530.

328, 411.

swegle 553.

sulincel 358.

swelc (swilc, swylc)

sum 34, 471-

311,471,560.

-sum 636.

swelgan 320, 323, 476,

sumes 557.

499-

sumor 109, 397.

swellan 80, 249, 499.

sumorlEecan6s8.

sweltan 7, 80, 225, 263,

sunbeam 618.

266, 499.

sund 249.

swencan 531.

sundor 557.

sweng 393, 419.

sundorllepes 557.

sweofot 604.

sundormaslum 557.

sweolo), 595.

sunganges 557.

Sweon 402.

sunnandaeg 619.

sweor 87, 173, 238,

sunnanniht6l9.

246, 329-

sunne 11 1, 285,404.

sweora 401.

sunu 7, III, 215, 217,

sweorban 618.

218, 252, 284, 285,

sweorcan 500.

306, 331, 395, 396.

sweord (swurd) 52, 85,

supan 131, 291, 496.

94, 159, 343-

sur 5, 131.

sweorfan 500.

sureagede 624.

sweostor 5, 7, 52, 92,

sutere 602.

94, 250, 263, 306,

su

> 113,306,446,558.

41S, 563-

su

>an 558.

sweotol 92, 94, 430,

su

>erne 626.

639-

su

•weard 557.

sweotole 553.

swa 79,144,161, 471,

swerian 55, 128, 510.

560.

swertling 607.

swete 129, 298, 434,

438, 443, 444, 553-
swebian 526.
swepjian 526.
swica4oi.
swican 490.
swicdom 597.
swice 438.
swifan 490.
swift 426.
swiftnes(s) 378.
swige 434.
swigung 615.
swlma 401.
swimman 8, 59, 96,

249, 258, 259, 266,

282, 498.
swin 25, 126.
swincan 289, 489.
swindan 498.
swingan 249, 498.
swinsung 373.
swipe 404.

swl^ 97, 147, 164, 426.
swl))e 553.
swogan 519.
swoloj) 595.
sword 94.
sworettan 657.
swote 553.

swurd 52, 94, 185, 201.
swustor 52, 94, 159,

201.
swutol 94.
swyle 386.
swylt 225, 387.
swyrd 94.
swyster 94.
sycan 534.
syfre 434.
syl 390.
sylian 526.
syll 375.
symblan 532.
syndrig 221.
syndrige 553.
syngian 536.
synn 112, 183,259,285,

375-

Index

345

ta 133, 329i 405.
tac(e)n 133, 219, 283,

298,348.
tacnung6i5.
t£ecan3ii,S34.
tsfl 293.
taeg(e)l 54, 320.
tashher 70, 255, 329.
t£I 119.
t£lan 530.
tslend 601.
taeppestre 60^.
t£san 531.
tal 119.

talu 57, 276, 366.
tarn 298.
tang 367.
tawian 120.
te- 656.
teag 13s, 187.
team 225.
tear 70, 172, 255, 278,

298, 329.
teargeotende 640.
tela (teola) 557.
telga4oi.
tellan 55, 64, 276, 298,

534-
temman 520.
temp(e)l 82, 219.
tengan 530.
teolian (tiolian) loi.
teon 32,47, 106, III,

135, 137. 138, 139,
174, 225, 239, 328,
475, 476, 482, 484,
495-

teond4i7.

teonrsden 610.

teorii 92, 362.

teo}>a 447.

teo))ung 615.

teran 80, 106, 503.

ti- 656.

ticcen 6c30.

tid S, 126, 298, 390.

tidlic 634.

tldum 557.

tien 231, 232, 447.

-tig 238.

tigele 96, 146, 322.
tig)>ian 321.
til {adj.) 425.

M\ (Prep.) SS9'
tile 96, 146, 322.
tilian loi, 536.
tima 126, 282, 298,

562.
timber 298.
timbran 221, 532.
tiohhian (teohhian) 7,

98, 184, 326, 536.
tiolung 1 01.
Hon (teon) 29, 127,

492.
tl|>ian 321.
Tlwesdsg 619.
to 559, 584.
16-584, 656.
to-aefenes 557.
toberstan 14, 656.
toblawan 656.
tobrecan 656.
tobrysan 656.
toceorfan 656.
tocleofan 656.
tocnyssan 656.
tocumende 584.
tocyme 584.
t6-dag(e)557.
todslan 14, 656.
todon 14.
todraefan 656.
to-eacen 557.
to-emnes 557, 559.
tofeallan 656.
toferan 656.
tofiellan 656.
toflowan 656.
toforan 559.
togaedere 15, 58,
togeanes (-gegnes,

-genes) 557, 559.
to-geflites 557.
to-gifes 557.
toh 117, 328, 428.
tohaccian 656.
toheald 584.

tohlystend 584,
to hwon 557.
tohyht 584.
to-iecnes 584.
to-iemende 584.
tol 298, 343.
toll 106, 343.
toUere 602.
tolucan 656.
to-middes 557, 559.
to-morgen 557.
tonama 584.
toniman 656.
topp 243.
torendan 656.
torht 426.
torn 335.
tome 557.
tosamne 557.
toscufan 656.
tosittan 656.
toslifan 490.
tosnl))an 656.
td-s5))an 557.
tospraec 584.
t5standan 656.
tostencan 531.
totwjeman 656.
totyhting 584.
tot> 5, 47, 61, 62, 163,

165, 232, 286, 298,

301, 408, 409.
to^leas 633.
toweard (-weardes),

557, 559, 584. 637.
toweorpan 656.
to wissum 557.
traf 345.
trag 426.
tredan 80, 93, 196, 298,

505-
trega 401.
treo(w) [tree) 52,88,89,

169, 173, 264, 265,

278, 298, 363, 562.
treow (faith) c/o, 173,

265, 379-
treowen 625.
treowfaest 627.

346

Index

treowrSden 6io.
treowj) (triew))) 613.
trifot 293.

trimes (trymesse) 283.
trog (troh) 7, 298,

323-
trum 425, 620.
truwian 131, 538.
trymman 112, 526.
trym)) 613.
tu 130, 266, 449.
tfldor 260.
tulge 556.
tun 131.
tunge III, 211, 217,

218, 289, 298, 317,

403, 404.
tunglen 625.
tungol III, 219, 289,

347, 348, 563-
tungolbSre 622.
tungolcrseft 617.
tunincel 606.
tunscipe6ii.
turf 108, 298, 411.
tusc 113.
tuwa 454.
twa 5, 133, 263, 298,

447. 449-
twegen 449, 450.
twelf 52, 55, 263, 298,

447-
twelfta 447.
twelfwintre 439.
twentig 447.
twentigfeald 628.
twentigojia 447.
tweo 402.
tweogan (twiogan) 98,

537-
twi- 585.
twibete 585.
twibill 585.
twi(e)feald 453, 585.
twifere 585.
twifete 585.
twifingre 585.
twig 96, 298, 344-
twigilde 585.

twiheafode 585.
twihweole 585.
twinihte 585.
twirjede 585.
twisprjece 585.
twiwa 454.
twiweg 585.
twiwintre 585.
twywa 454.
tygen 442.
tyht 326, 387.
tyhtan 530.
tyhten(n) 599.
tylg 556.
tyn 530.
tynan 530, 643.

-}>6i3.
>a 560.

laccian 57, 536.
>anan 558.
lanc 59, 310, 335.
lances 557.
lancfuU 629.
lancian 7,301,310,536.
lancol 635.
lancolmod 641.
lancsnotor 640.
las 133.

lawian 74, 153, 264.
lasc 345.
)Sr 119, 558.
)»rinne 15.
i»s [adv.) 557, 560.
:cet 54, 211, 465, 560.
)«tte 305, 560.
)e (cj.) 560.
)§ (rel. pr.) 95, 468.
)e Ipers.pr.) 163, 252,

460, 462.
:eah 560.
:earf 367.
iearfa''40l.
learl 426.
learle 553.
)earlic 259.
jeaw 360.
lec 311, 460, 462.
leccan 301, 309, 534.

J;eg(e)n (Jien) 80, 2ig,

321, 340, 563.
legnian 321.
legnung 615.
lencan J, 7, 40, 60,

117, 165, 231, 245,

289, 301, 309, 311,

326, 534-
ienden 560.
:enian 321.
)ennan 254, 258, 285,

526.
leo 88, 89, 264.
:eod 137, 367.
leodscipe 611.
eof 5, 7, 137, 173,

301, 335, 562.
leof), 138.
eoh 137, 346.
eon {wv.) 530.
eotan 493.
)eo(w) 265, 359, 360,

437-
;eowd6m 597.
!eowen(n) 599.
:eowet(t) 358, 604.
:eowhad 605.
)eowian (l)iowian) 89,

264.
:eowinceI 606.
ieowling 607.
lerscan 85, 280, 312,

502.
)es 466.

)icce96, 434, 553,620.
>iccet(t) 604.
licgan X20, 507, 526.
)ider 96, 558.
lidres 558.

>lefj)(u) 138, 372, 613.
ilestre (]>iostre, Jieostre)

5, 138, 175, 434-
iiestru 383.
lignen 599.
Jin 126, 460, 464.
rindan 498.
unen 599.
>ing S> 96, 301, 317,

343, 562.

Index

347

lingraden 6lo.
)ingum 557,615.
)ion ({.eon) 5, 41, 127,

175. 239. 24s, 329.

492. 530-
>Ios (beos) 466.
>is 406.

)isl ())ixl)4l,329.
)6 117, 405.
-J10613.
>olian 536.
>onan 558.
>one 59.
lonne 59, 560.
)om 106, 278, 301,

395-
lomig 630.
•omiht 631.
lorp 106, 232, 335.
'racu 366.
>raed 301.
irag 367.
)ragniseluin 557.
irawan 120, 264, 517.
irawu 266, 379.
>rea 75, 172, 266, 379.
>reag(e)an 270, 537.
>reatmSluni 557.
>reoteojja 447.
ireotiene 447.
>ri (|>rie) 231, 447,451.
>ri- 586.
)ridaeglic 586.
>rid£eled 586.
iridda 96, 254, 299,

447-
)ri(e)feald 453, 586.
)rifete 586.
irifingre 434.
iriflere 586.
■riheafdede 624.
>rileafe 586.
irims 283.
irines(s) 378.
iringan 301, 498.
irinihte 586.
irintan 498.
irio ())reo) 104, 140,
175, 269.

>rire))re 586.
•risclete 586.
iriste_434.
iristtecan 658.
irlstnes 298.
irltig 447.
)rItigo}>a 447.
iriwa 454.
)riwintre 434.

TOP 335-
irosm 219.
)r6stle 61.
irote 404.
)r6wian 536.
>ruh 139, 411.
>ryccan 534.
irymmum 557.
jrysman 532.

>ry)> 390-
)rywa 454.
)u 231, 460, 462.
-t>u 613.
buUic 471.
fuma 131, 282, 301,

401.
))unor 5, 50, 109, 159,

219, 301, 341, 563-
})urfan 476, 481, 482,

542.
\mh 278, 328, 559, 587,

645.
burh- 587.
burhbeorht 587.
t>urhbitter 587.
burhfere 587.
furhhalig 587.
Jjurhscinende 587.
burhscyldig 587.
}>urhspedig 587.
)iurh))yrelian 14.
jjurhwacol 587.
burhwunian 14.
burst III.
jjurstig 630.

tusend 131, 166, 301.
uslic 471.
butan 496.
bwang 59, 301.
))weal 329.

})wean 70, 239, 263,

329, 509-
)weores 557.
jweorh 85, 263, 428.
)weran 503.
>winan 490.
)wltan 490.
)y 560.
jyften 378.
)yle 386.
)yllic 471.
lymel 132, 340.
lyn 530.
)yncan 5, 43, 47, 1 12,

131. 157, 240, 289,

301,311, 534.
))ynne 1 1 2, 231, 242,

285, 433. 434-
iyrel 329.
)yme 404.
>yrniht 631.
>yrre 279, 434, 439.
>yrs 387.

lyrstan 112, 306, 530.
>yrstig 630.
lyslic 471.
lywan 530.

-u 614.

uder 131, 235.
ufan 108, 446, 558.
ufer(r)a 108.
ufor 108.
uhta 326.
uhte 43, 131.
ule 404.
un- 588.
unaefele 588.
unagiefen 588.
unandgietfull 588.
unar 588.
unbeald 588.
unbealo 588.
unc 459, 462.
uncer 459, 464.
uncit 459.
unclsene 588.
uncraeft 588.
uncyst 588.

348

Index

und£d 588.
undeadlic 588.
undeop 588.
under in, 559, 589,

645.
under- 589.
underbasc 557.
underberan 14.
underburg 589.
undercyning 589.
underdiacon 589.
underling 589.
underneo])an 557, 559.
underniman 14.
undierne 588.
unfeeger 588.
unfrif 588.
-ung 615.
ungeara 557.
ungefym 557.
ungemete 553.
ungemetes 557.
ungemetum 557.
ungeorne 588.
ungej)anc 588.
ungewealdes 557.
ungewiss 588.
ungewisses 557.
ungield 588.
unhSlo 588.
unhiere 434.
unlagu 588.
unlar 588.
iinleof 588.
unmsere 588.
unnan 542.
unriht 588.
unrStsian 536.
unslaw 588.
unsnyttrum 557.
unsofi 588.
unsynnig 588, 621.
unsynnum 557.
unswefn 588.
unswete 588.
untela 557. .
untreowsian 536.
unjiances 557.
unwearnum 557.

unwenunga 554.
unwillum 557.
unwrltere 588.
up 291, 590.
up- 590.
upcund 590.
upcyme 590.
upende 590.
upflering 590.
upgang 590.
upheah 590.
upheofon 590.
upiernan 14.
uplendisc 590.
uplyft'590.
up(p) 558.
uppan 558, 559.
uppe 558.
uprgran 14.
upriht 590.
upstige 590.
upstigend 590.
upweard 557.
upweg 590.
Qre 459, 464.
035,113,147,166,281,

286, 459, 462.
user 459, 464.
usic 218, 311, 459,

462.
ut 5, 131, 260, 558,

591.
ut- 591.
utane 558.
utcwealm 591.
utdrjef 591.
utdrlfan 14.
ute 446, 558.
utfasr 591.
utflowan 14.
utgang 591.
utgefeoht 591.
utgemsre 591.
uthere 591.
utiagu 591.
utlendisc 591.
utlic 591.
uton 103, 266.
u))- 655.

ubgenge 10, 434, 655.
upmaste 655.

wa 133.

wac 426, 620.

wacan 508.

wacian 536.

waciende 538.

wacol 635.

wacor 430, 639.

wadan 57, 263, 508.

waecce 55, 404.

waacc(e)a 401.

wseccende 538.

wa2c(c)er (wacor) 225.

wascen 599.

wffid 345.

wasd 390.

wsedl 304.

wEedla 304.

waeg (wall) 275.

wseg {wave) 119, 320,

387, 562.
wasge 357. _
waegen (wsen) 54, 219,

321.
wEel 345.
waslreow (waelhreow)

325-
waspen 5,119,263,291,

348, 563-
waapenbora 596.
wseps (waafs) 306.
wasr 425.

wasma (wrsnna) 280.
wsemes 609.
waerscipe 611.
waesma 329.
WcGsp 306.

wasstmbgre 614, 622.
wcEstum, -em, -m 219,

298, 329, 340, 563.
wffit 119,426.
wsetan 531.
waeter 7, 54, 221, 263,

298, 347, 349-
wseteradl 617.
waeterseocnes 609.
wag 119.

Index

340

wamb 292, 367.
wan 425.
wan- 592.
wandrian 536.
wange 407.
wanhselji 592.
wanhafa 592.
wanhoga 592.
wanhygd 592.
wansaelig 592.
wansceaft 617.
wanscrydd 592.
wansped 592.
wanspedig 592.
war(e)nian 536.
warian 536.
wamung 615.
warn 366.
wascan (waxan) 7, 57,

153, 263, 3i2, 508.
wase 404.
wat 119.

wawan 120, 264, 517.
wg9S,i44, 252,459,462.
wea 402.
wealcan 516.
weald 303, 397.
wealdan 64, 276, 476,

516.
wealdend 418, 601.
wealh 64, 172, 328,

329, 337-
weall 64, 335.
weallan 64,276, 516.
weak 426.
wealwian 264, 536.
weard 367.
-weard 637.
weargincel 606.
wearm 66, 263, 426.
weax 68.
weaxan 5, 7, 47, 49, 68,

69, 168, 305, 327,

329, 476, 516.
webb 55, 292, 356.
webbestre 603.
weccan55, 3", 534-
wecg 7, 319, 352.
wecgan 526.

wedan 530.

wedd 356,

weder 41, 80, 263, 299,

349-
wedlac 608.
wefan 80, 93, 263, 293,

SOS-
weft 563.
weg 48, 80, 93, 145,

156, 186, 320, 323,

324, 335. 562.
wegan 120, 235, 505.
wel(wel) 80, 145, 556.
wela 401.
welegian 536.
wel(ge)hwaer 558.
wemman 530.
wen 122, 390, 562.
wenan 47, 122, 163,

285, 530.
wendan 60, 259, 530,

638.
-wende 638.
wending 615.
wennan 526.
wenung 373.
wenunga 554.
weoh 49, 127, 192.
weorc 7, 85, 94, 182,

278, 310, 343, S62.
weorcdaeg 617.
weorold 52.
weoroldcund 623.
weorpan 66, 85, 94,

106, III, 237, 291,

475. 484. 500-

weorj) 85, 94, 343.

weorjian 66, 85, 94,
106, III, 168, 225,
226, 231, 238, 239,
253, 263, 299, 301,
302, 474, 476, 488,
500, 637.

weor)>ian 536.

weorfleas 633.

weorud (werod) 13, 92,

349-
weotuma 92.

wepan 129, 291, 519.

wer 42, 80, 278, 335.
wergian 536,
werhad 605.
werian 271, 525.
werod 151, 349.
wesan 52, 54, 80, 94,

194, 263, 267, 279,

306, 307, 474, 505,

548, 616.
wesole (wesle) 307.
west 80, 446, 557, 558.
westan 288, 558.
weste 434.
westen(n) 221, 335,

358, 600.
westerne 626.
westlang 557.
we))l 304.
wlcan 490.
wicce 311, 404.
wiccung 615.
wice 404.
wicg 356.
wicu 103.
wid 126, 263, 426.
widan 558.
wldcu). 640.
wide 553.
widewe 19.
widlian 304.
wIdsEe6i7.
wieldan 530.
wielisc 47, 64, 632.
wiell 387.
wielm 387.
wielwan 264, 266.
wiergen{n) 378, 599.
wierman67, 530.
wierpan 531.
wierrest(a) 99, 445,

556.
wiers 556.

wiersa47,99,259,445.
wierst(a) 445.
wierjie 99, 434.
wif 126, 262,293, 294,

343.
wifhad 605.
wiflic 634.

35P

Index

wifraan (wTmman) 150,

393, 409, 617.
wigbjere 622.
wlgend 416, 418, 601.
wiht 103, 391.
wihte 557.
wilde 96, 263, 303,433,

434, 440-
wilder, -deor 259.
willa 272, 276.
willan2I4, 474, 551.
willes 557.
wilnian 536.
wilsum 636.
wimman 1 50, 409.
wincian 536.
wind 41, 96.
windan 263, 285, 498.
wine 215, 385, 386.
winemSg 618.
win(e)stre 97, 223.
winnan 259, 498.
winster 97, 286.
winter 96, 219, 263,

397, 563-
winterljecan 658.
wiodu 52.
wiota 102.
wiotan (wietan) 102,

540.
WIS 126, 240, 426,

620.
wise 404.
wisian 536.
wist 390.
-wist 616.
wit 459, 462.
wita 102, 225, 256, 401,

562.
witan I, 19, 30, 48, 96,

102, 133, 212, 213,

225, 232, 240, 263,

267, 298, 476, 540-
wlte 274, 355, 357-
witega 225, 401.
witegestre 603.
wltelac 608.
witenagemot 619.
wlterieden 610.

witestow 618.
witgian 536.
witnian 536.
witol 635.
witt 356.

wi)" 559, 645-
wi])8eftan 557, 559.
wi))er 593, 645.
wi|)er- 593.
wij>ercwide 593.
wiferlean 593.
wiberrffide 593.
wipersaca 10, 593.
wibersaec 593.
wipertrod 593.
wi}>fon 14.
wifforan 557, 559.
wibgeondan 559.
wipinnan 557, 559.
wijimetan 14.
wi))neoJ)an 557.
wi))sacan 10.
wi|)utan 557, 559.
wlacu (wlaec) 439.
wlanc 7, 263, 426.
wleccan 534.
wlencu, -o 383, 614.
wlips (wlisp) 306.
wlltan 490.
wlite 263, 386.
wlitig 263.
wloh 411.
wocor 370.
wod 426.
wodnes 609.
woh 117, 328, 329,

438.
wohgod 617.
woken 263, 348.
woma 121.
wore 94.
word 7, 106, 215, 253,

278, 299, 331, 342,

562.
wordfuU 629.
wordig 630.
wordsnotor 11.
wommslum 557.
worold (woruld) 52, 94.

worpan 94.
woruldcaru 617.
worj) 94.
wos 61.
wo))bora 596.
wracu 263, 310, 366.
wrjec 376.
wrascca 55.
wrjene 434.
wrsnna 280.
wrSst 426.
wrafKu), (-0) 372,

613
wra]> 263, 426.
wraj)e 553.
wra>m6d 641.
wraium 557.
wrecan 505.
wrecca 55.
wrecend 601.
wregan 530.
wrenc 387.
wreban 530.
wrept)an 526.
wridan 490.
wriexl (wrixl) 98.
wrigels 598.
wringan 498.
wrion (wreon) 127, 492.
writan 126, 263, 278,

490.
writere 602.
wrl))an 239, 491.
wrixlan 327, 532.
wrohtbora 596.
wrohtlac 608.
wrohtstafas 612.
wrotan 519.
wuce 404.
wucu (wiocu) 103, 159,

184.
wudiht 631.
wudu 52, 103, 299,

396.
wudubearo 618.
wuduwe 103, 159, 404.
wuht 103, 391.
wuldor 303, 348.
wuldrian 536.

wulf 7, 37, io8, 159,
211, 312, 213, 237,
261, 295, 296, 335.

wulfheort 641.

WulfmJer 421.

wuUe 108, 242, 276,
404.

wund III, 367, 426.

wundian 536.

wundor 35, iii, 219,
263, 348.

wundorfuU 629.

wundrian 10, 536.

wundrum 557.

wunian 109, 536.

wunung 615.

wurpan 94.

wur^ 94.

wurfian 94, 185.

wuton 103, 266.

wylf 376.

wyllen 112, 160.

Index

wynn 112, 375.
wynnum 557.
wynsum 636.
wyrcan 43, 106, 112,

220, 240, 263, 534.
wyrd 225, 390, 562.
wyrdstafas 612.
wyrest (wyrst) 556.
wyrhta 112, 401, 421.
wyrtn 112, 282, 387,

562.
wyrs 556.
wyrt 112, 390.
wyrtruma 259.
wyscan 5,114, 286, 312,

531-

yce 404.

yfel 112, 183, 215, 216,
223, 293, 430, 445,

553. 639-
yfelcund 623.

yf(e)le 553, 556.
yfel(l)ic 259.
yfelspralce 641.
yferra 446.
yfes 107.
ymb 559, 594.
ymb- 594.
ymbbindan 14.
ymb(e) 112, 234, 292,

594. 645-
ymbfser 594.
ymbgang 594.
ymbhoga 594.
ymbhweorfan 14.
ymbutan 559.
ymest 329.
yppan 112, 259, 531.
yst 114, 167, 286,

390-
ystig 630.
ytera 446.

y)" 5, ii4i 376, 562.

OXFORD : HORACE HART
PRINTER TO THE UNIVERSITY