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ASIA

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THE GIFT OF

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CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY

3 1924 070 623 701

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Library

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http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924070623701

GAZETTEER

OP THE '

BOMBAY PRESIDENCY.

VOLUME XIX.

SATARA.

'^'^.'^%x'v^.N^.^.v^,'wv'ww^^^,%^'v^%N%vN'V^^.v^,^v^.^,■vw%^.%■^.

Under Crovernment Orders.

FEINTED AT THE

GOVERNMENT CENTRAL PRESS.

1886.

The names of contributors are given in the body of the book.
Special acknowledgments are due to Mr. J. W. P. Muir-Mackenzie,
C S. whose valuable contributions form the bulk of the Volume.

Much help was also received from Messrs. J. King, 0. S.
Collector, H. R. Cookoj C. S., Surgeon-Major W. McGonaghy, and
the Deputy Collectors Rdv Bahddur Baldji Gangadhar Sdthe and
Mr. E. T. Richardson.

JAMES M. CAMPBELL.
October 188^.

CONTENTS.

S A' T A' R A .

Chapter I.— Description- pagb

Position and Area ; Boundaries ; Sub-Divisions and States ;

Aspect 1-4

Hills ; Rivers ; Water j Geology 6-16

Seasons ; "Winds ; Clouds ; Climate ; Rainfall ; Heat ; Hail-
storms 17-27

Chapter II. —Production.

Minerals j Forests 28-35

Domestic Animals ; Wild Animals ; Snakes ; Fish ; Birds . . 36-42
Chapter III.— People.

Census Details ; Villages ; Houses ; Dress ; Communities ;

Movements 43-50

Hindus :

Brahmans ; Writers ; Traders 51-63

Husbandmen 64-78

Craftsmen 79-96

Musicians ; Servants ; Shepherds ; Fishers ; Labourers . . 97 - 107

Unsettled Tribes ; Depressed Classes 108-114

Beggars 115-123

MusALMANS ; Christians ; Parsis 124 - 147

Chapter IV.— .^iciilture.

Husbandmen ; Soil ; Arable Area ; Holdings ; Plough ; Stock ;

Field Tools 148-150

Water Works ; Wells 151-158

Manure ; Wood-ash Tillage ; Crops 159-167

Famines 168-177

Chapter V. — Capital-

Capitalists ; Banks ; Bills ; Currency ; Saving Classes ; Invest-
ments ; Moneylenders ; Interest ; Borrowers ; Agrarian
Riots ; Mortgages ; Wages ; Prices ; Weights and Measures. 178 - 193

Chapter VL — Trade.
Roads ; Passes ; Railways ; Tolls ; Bridges ; Travellers' Bun-
galows ; Rest-houses ; Ferries ; Post and Telegraph Offices . 194 - 213,
Trade Centres; Markets; Fairs; Shopkeepers; Peddlers;.

Carriers ; Imports ; Exports •, • • •214-219

ii CONTENTS.

CbAFTS : PAGE

Gold and Silver ; Copper and Brass ; Iron ; Stone ; Pottery ;
Wood; Cotton-weaving; Dyeing; Blankets; Leather . 220-223

Chapter VII. — History.

Early Hindus (b.c. 200- A.D. 1294) 224

MusALMANS (1294 - 1720) :
Delhi Governors (1318 - 1347) ; Bahmanis (1347 - 1489) ;
Adil Sh^is (1489-1686); AdU ShAhi Institutions;
MarAtha Chiefs; Shiy^ji (1627-1680); Afzul Khdn's
murder (1659); ShivAji's Institutions ; Sambhdji (1680-
1689); the Moghals (1686-1720); Rdjdram (1689-
1700) ; T^rdbdi's Regency (1700 - 1708) ; Shdiu (1708 -
1749); Bdldji Vishvan^th Peshwa (1714-1720); Impe-
rial Grants (1720) 225-262

Maeathas (1720 - 1848) :

Management (1720) ; Nizam independent (1720) ; Bdjirdv
Balkl Peshwa (1721 1740) ; Bdlaji BAjirav Peshwa
(1740 - 1761) ; Sh^hu's death (1749) ; Sd,tdra ceases (1750)
to be the Maratha Capital ; Rdmrdja (1749 - 1777) ;
M^dhavrav Peshwa (1761 - 1772) ; N^rayanrdv Peshwa
(1772 - 1773) ; ShdhuII. (1777 - 1810) jPratapsinh (1810-
1839) ; Trimbakji Denglia's insurrection (1817) ; Battle
of Kirkee (1817) ; Satara surrendered to the British
(1818); Mr. Elphinstone's Manifesto ; Prat^psinh restored;

Pratapsinh's Plots ; Shdhdji (1839 - 1848) 263-314

The British (1848 - 1884) :
Annexation (1849) ; the Mutinies (1857) 315-319

Chapter VIII. - The Land.

Acquisition; Changes; StaflF; Tenures; Alienated Land;

Alienated Villages ... 320 - 328

Fbrmer Surveys ; Former Rates ; Revenue Officers ; Revenue

Accounts ; Revenue System ; Collections ...... 329 - 342

British Management (1848-1851) ; Cesses (1851) ; Survey

(1853-1863); Survey Results (1854-1882); Season

Reports (1849-1883) , 343-389

Chapter IX. — Justice.

Justice under the PeshwAs (1749 - 1818), under Prat^psinh
(1818-1839), under Appa Saheb (1839-1848), and under
the British (1849- 1883) ; Civil Courts (1870 - 1883) ; Civil
Suits (1870-1882); Arbitration Courts; Registration;
Magistracy; Village Police; Criminal Classes; Police;
Offences ; Jails . . . . ^ 39O . 4.02

CONTENTS. iii

Chapter X. — Finance. paoe

Land Revenue ; Excise ; Assessed Taxes ; Balance Sheet ;
Local Funds ; Municipalities 403 - 408

Chapter XI. — Instruction.

Schools ; Stafi ; Cost ; Instruction ; Private Schools ; Progress
(1855 - 1883) ; Girls' Schools ; Readers and Writers ;
School Returns ; Town and ViUage Schools ; Libraries ;
Literary Societies ; Newspapers 409-415

Chapter XII. — Health.

Climate ; Hospitals ; Dispensaries ; Infirm People ; Vaccina-
tion ; Cattle Disease ; Births and Deaths 416-422

Chapter XIII. — Sub -Divisions.

Boundaries ; Area ; Aspect ; Climate ; Water ; Soil ; Stock ;

Holdings ; Crops ; People 423-446

Chapter XIV. - Places 447-616

States 617-624

Appendix A.

Botany 625-646

Appendix B.

Mah4baleshvar Plants 647 - 653

Appendix C

Camps 654-657

Appendix D.

Dasara Procession 658 - 660

Index 661-672

If ^

SATARA.

CHAPTEEI.

DESCRIPT.ION.

Sa'ta'ra, at tte western limit of tlie Deccan tableland, lies
between 16° 50' and 18° 10' north latitude and 73° 45' and 75° C
east longitude. It has an area of 4792 square miles, a population
in 1881 of l,062j350 or 221 to the square mUe, and a land rerenue
in 1882 of £231,199 (Rs. 23,11,990).

The district of Satdi-a includes part of the state of Satara which
lapsed to the British in 1848, together with the sub-division of
Tisgaon which was formerly in Belgaum. Sd.tara is bounded on the
north by the Nira river and the states of Bhor and Phaltan, and
beyond them by Poona ; on the east by Sholapur, the AtpMi sub-
division of the Pant Pratinidhi state, and the state of Jath ; on the
south by the lands of the Sangli branch of the Patvardhan family,
a few villages of Belgaum, the VArna river, and, beyond the Varna
river, by Kolhapur ; and on the west by the Sahyadris, and beyond
the Sahyddris by the Konkan districts of KoMba and Ratudgiri.

For administrative purposes Satara is distributed over eleven
sub-divisions. Of these seven, Wdi, Jdvli, Satara, Koregaon, Patan,
Kar^d, and Vdlva are in the west ; and four, Man, Khatav, Khandpur,
and Tdsgaon are in the east :

Sdtdra Administrative Details 1882-83.

VniLASBS.

Peopib.

Land

Government.

Alienated.

Total.

Villages.

Hamle

ts Villages.

Hamlets

SUB-

DiviaioN.

Area.

Revesce,
1882.

■ri

■4

■d

1881.

To the

Square

Mile.

i-i

■>1

Wii

390

127

88,610

227-20

19,656

J&vli

419

181

...

182

263

63,729

152-09

9702

Siit&ra ...

820

lOB

106

148

119,913

374-72

24,916

Koregaon ...

340

...

81,187

238-78

24,396

P&tan

431

115

170

143

117

206

112,414

260-82

16,600

Earid

391

102

10b

140,920

360-40

84,893

vaiva

S46

...

»»

139

169,408

310-84

44,133

M4n

626

: 72

62,111

88-37

8420

KhatAv ...

498

«7

74,027

148-26

16,464

KhS.n£Lpur,..

B09

...

80,327

167-81

16,632

T&Bgaon ...
Total ...

323

...

79,704

246-45

17,437

4792

955

876

392

326

960

396

1S66

1,062,360

221-69

231,199

Chapter I.
Description.

BonNDAP,IBS,

Sub-Divisions.

B 1282—1

[Bombay Gazetteer,

DISTRICTS.

Chapter I.
Description.

States.

Aspect,

In addition to the territories which form the Satara district, a large
area of land is under the supervision of the Collector as Political
Agent. This additional territory includes the Bhor state in the north-
west, Phaltan in the north, the Aundh state in the east, and DaflApur
and beyond it Jath in the extreme south-east. Of these territories
the lands of Bhor begin from the north-west comer of Sdtdra to the
north of the Mahadev hills. From the Mahddev hills, with a breadth
varying from thirty-five miles in the south to fifteen miles in the
north, Bhor stretches north-west over the rough Sahyd,dri lands in
south-west Poona and in east Kolaba, as far as within six miles of
the line of the Bhor pass in Poona and seven miles of Pen in
KoMba. Phaltan, on the north, adds a block of land to the north
of the MahAdev hills, which drains north to the Nira. Aundh is
partly scattered within the limits of the Man, Koregaon,
Khandpur, Kard,d,"and Tdsgaon sub-divisions, and partly forms a
considerable block of the Atpadi sub-division' to the north-east of
Khdndpur which drains north-east into. the Man. Daflapur adds
some lands in the south-east of Khanapur, and Jath adds beyond
Dafld,pur a long tract of country that stretches, east and then north
to the Mdn and Bhima about twenty miles south-east of Pandharpur.
The chief details of the Satd,ra states are :

Sdtdra States.

States.

Bhor

Phaltan ...
Aundh ...
Jath
DaflSpur ...

Title.

Pant Sachiv
Nimbaikar
Pant Pratinidhi
Deshmukh
Deshmukh

Total

Akea.

1491
397
447
884
99

3314

People, EEVENnE,
1881. 1882.

145,876
68,402
53,916
49,486
6007

318,687

£
43,369

18,500

19,849

16,825

1315

99,858

B^tara covers about a hundred miles from north to south, and
about eighty miles from east to west. Except a small area in the
north and north-east that drains into the Bhima, the district of
Sdtdra is the head of the valley of the Krishna river. Down the
centre, with a general slope to the south and south-east, along a
valley which slowly opens into a plain, the Krishna flows first to
the south and then to the east, passing across the whole district
from its north-west to its south-east comer. From the central
plain of the Krishna eight valleys branch to the hills. Six of them
on the right run west or north-west, flanked by spurs from the
Sahyddris, and two of them on the left run north, flanked by spurs
from the northern Mahadev range. In the west the district is
rugged and well watered ; in' the east it is flatter but parched and
barren. Between the two stretches the Krishna valley, which,
with the mouths of some of the side valleys, forma one of the
richest tracts in the Bombay Deccan. Except near Mahabaleshvar
and the Koyna valley in the west, little of the district is thickly
wooded. Even in the rains the Mahd,dev hills which lie across the
north of the district are scantily covered with green, and during
the hot months most of the country is parched and bare. Still,
even in the stoniest and barrenest parts, the eye is often relieved
by the green of watered crops and by groves of lofty trees. The

Deccan.]

SlTARA.

western, hills are remarkably bold with sharp outlines. The tops
of many are flat, raised on lofty black scarps which in the distance
look like fortress walls. The hills are layers of soft or amygdaloid
trap separated by flows of hard basalt and topped by iron-stone or
laterite.

The Sahyd,dri range in the extreme west, the Mahadev range
passing at right angles from the Sahyddris east across the north of
the district, and the spurs of the Sahyadris chiefly stretching east
and south-east and the south-running spurs of the Mahddev hills
divide Satdra into three belts, a western, a central, and an eastern.
The western or Sahyddri belt includes the western parts of Wd,i,
Javli, Satara, Pdtan, and Valva. It includes the narrow rugged and
steep crest of the Sahyadris and the neighbouring ten to fifteen
miles in the extreme west of the Koyna and Varna valleys. It
includes the bulk of the Sdtara forest land and is throughout hilly
and thickly wooded with evergreen trees. The Koyna and Varna
rise in the Sahyadris and run south-east till they join the Krishna.
On both sides of these rivers the hills rise steep from the river
banks, leaving little room for tillage. The line of hill top is
seldom broken into distinct summits and is generally bare as the
rock is too smooth and steep to give trees a foothold. On the hiU
slopes the vegetation is dense ; and in the valleys where the wash-
ings of the hills have gathered, the tree growth is luxuriant
forming high forests chiefly of jdmbhul Syzigium jambolanum,
anjan Memecylon tinctorium, pisa Actino daphne, jack Artocarpus
integrifolia, vad Ficus indica, mango Mangifera indica, and hirda
Terminalia chebula. Except Mahabaleshvar, Mdndhardev, and a
few others which end in large plateaus, the flat tops are not more
than fifty to 300 acres in area. The hills are crossed by many
footpaths and by two important cart roads with large traffic,
the FitzGerald pass in Jd,vli leading from Mahdbaleshvar to
Mahad in Kolaba and the Kumbhdrli pass leading by Karad and
Patau to Chiplun in Ratndgiri. Scattered over the hills, always close
to a spring or stream, on the flat tops, on side terraces, and in the
valley bottoms are small hamlets of rude ill-made huts whose timbers
are rough forest posts, whose walls are of wattle and daub, and whose
roofs are of thatch. Every spring is dammed and the sides of many
of the hills are cleverly terraced for the growth of rice and garden
crops. But the bulk of the soil is red iron-charged and poor, flt
only for ndchni vari and other coarse hill grains which on some of
the upper slopes are grown by coppice-cutting or JcumrL Except
a class of Musalmd,n iron-smelters called Dhavada who are now
labourers, most of the hill people are Mardthi Kunbis. In the hot
season the climate of the hills is cool and healthy ; in the damp chilly
rains the people sufier from fever and ague.

The central belt stretches from the eastern border of the Sahyd,dri
belt about thirty miles to the Vardhangad-Machindragad hills which
run from the Mahadev range south through the whole length of the
district nearly parallel to the Sahyadris. This central belt includes
the eastern parts of Wai, Jdvli, Sd,tara, Pdtan, and Valva and the
whole of Karad and Koregaon. It is a tract of rich well-watered
valleys nearly parallel to each other, stretching and widening to the

Chapter I.
Description.

Aspect.

Sahyddri Belt,

Central Belt.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

DISTRICTS.

Chapter I.

Description.

Aspect.
Central Belt,

Easlern Belt.

east and south-east, and separated, by sharp cut spu:f s which lie east
and south-east from the main line of the Sahyd,dris. The chief
valleys are beginning from the north, the Koregaon, Krishna,
Koyna, and Vdrna valleys. The Koregaon valley in the north of
the district is almost surrounded by hills, those on the west thinly
wooded, and those on the east bare. The Krishna and the Koyna
valleys are in the centre of the district. The Krishna valley, the
finest valley in the district, between the Kamalgad spur in the north
and the Vairdtgad spur in the south, passes from the great
Mahd,ba]eshvar plateau through Wai, Sdtara, Kardd, and Valva.
South of the Krishna valley the Koyna valley lies between the main
line of the Sahyadris on the west and the Bamnoli-Grerddategad spur
on the east. Like the Krishna valley it starts from the Maha-
baleshvar hills, and, after stretching south about forty miles through
Javli and Patan, turns east for forty miles further and opens into
the broad Krishna valley at Kardd. To the south of the Koyna
valley with the Bhairavgad-Kandur hills on the north, and the
Mahimatgad hills in Kolhapur on the south, the Varna valley,
gradually opening, passes east till, about sixteen miles south of
V^lva, it merges in the great Krishna plain. In the west the
beginnings of these valleys are little more than ravines hemmed in
by high steep hills. The soil is a bright barren iron clay, the small
hamlets are perched on knolls or set on high stream banks, the
people are poor, and most of the crops are grown with the help of
rah or wood ashes. Further east the flanking hills grow lower
rounder and barer. Patches and belts of valuable teak gradually
give way to tillage as the dales open into broad level valleys with
hdhhul-hingedi stream banks and lines of road shaded by lofty
trees. These broad valleys are the richest part of the district.
Near the centre of the valley, generally on the banks of the main
stream, sometimes two or three miles apart, are large and often
shady villages, peopled by careful and skilful husbandmen. Near
the villages, along both banks of the central river, the deep and
well watered black soil yields a succession of rich crops which keep
green till February. In the rains all is green, and the fields pass
to the foot of the hills and sometimes climb the lower slopes.
After October when the rain crops are reaped the outer fringe of
the valley lies barren and ba.re.

The eastern belt includes the four sub-divisions of Man, Khatav,
Kdhndpur, and Tdsgaon. Except in the extreme south near the
Krishna the eastern belt is barren. Much of Khatav and Kh^napur
in the centre is a waving plateau about 250 feet above the Krishna
valley. The plateau slopes east to the Yerla which crosses it on its
way south to the Krishna. Beyond the Yerla it rises gently and
again dips into the deeper valley of the Vita. East of the Vita the
country rises about a hundred feet and passes into the hills which lead
to ^ Mandesh, the country bordering on the M^n river including the
Man, Atpadi, and Sdngola sub-divisions. In the west of Khatdv
are a few scattered teak, and many of the slopes have thick patches of
scrub and coppice, chiefly haranj, hekti, and dhdvda. Though the soil
is poor millet and other dry-crops are grown over a large area. Man
is a hollow nearly surrounded by low hills. The low lands are full

Deccan.]

sAtaea.

of rock and tlie soil is poor. The Mil slopes, wtich are seamed
with, streams, are generally covered with scrub forest chiefly as in
Khatdv of karanj Pongamia glabra, and dhdvda Conocarpus latif olia.
Most of the tillage in Mdn is on the slopes and top of the plateau ;
the bulk of the low lands are waste. This Man country has for
long been and still is a pasture land for the cattle of the richer
valleys further to the west. In the south of this eastern belt,
beyond the central plateau of Khatav and Khand,pur, along the
coarse of theYerla, the lands of Tasgaon fall slowly to the Krishna.
In the north and east Tasgaon is barren and rocky, cut by lines
of low hills that strike out from the Khdndpur plateau. In the
south and west, near the meeting of the Terla and the Krishna, it
turns into a rich well wooded plain.

The Satdra district contains two main systems of hills ; the
Sahyddri range and its offshoots, and the Mahddev range and its
offshoots. The Sahyd,dri system includes the main range of the
Sahyd,dris which, through its entire length of sixty miles
from north to south, forms the western boundary of the district.
Within Sdtdra limits the main range of the Sahyadris, from
about eight miles north of Pratapgad passes south-west for about
twenty miles. The crest then turns to the east of south, and,
in an irregular line, continues to stretch south by east about forty
miles till it enters Kolhapur near Prachitgad about fifteen miles
south-west of Patan. In the sixty miles within Satdra limits the
crest of the Sahyd,dris is guarded by five forts. Prom the north
these are Pratapgad in the north-west of the district, Makarandgad
following the line of the hill crest about seven miles south of
Pratapgad, Jangli-Jaygad about thirty miles south of Makrandgad,
Bhairavgad about ten miles south of Jangli-Jaygad, and Prachitgad
about seven miles south of Bhairavgad. Within Sdtdra limits the
main line of the Sahyadris is crossed by eight passes. Beginning
from the north these are the Pitz Gerald or Ambinali pass in the
north-west of the district, about ten miles west of Mahdbleshvar ;
the F&v pass about three miles south-west of the Pitz Gerald pass ;
the Hatlot pass about six miles south of the Pdr pass ; the
Amboli pass, about ten miles south of the Hatlot pass ; the
North Tivra pass about ten miles south of the Amboli pass ; the
Kumbharli pass about fifteen miles south of the north Tivra pass ;
the Mala pass about eight miles south of the Kumbharli pass ; and
the South Tivra pass about six miles south of the Mala pass. Of
these eight passes the FitzGerald and the Kumbharli are fit for
carts, the Amboli, North Tivra, South Tivra, and Mala are bullock
tracks, and the rest are footpaths.

Five spurs pass east and south-east from the Sahyadris. Beginning
from the north these spurs may be named the Kamalgad, Vairdtgad,
Hatgegad-Arle, Bdmnoli-GherMategad, and Bhairavgad- Kandur ;
the two last are large ranges each with three minor spurs.
Kamalgad is a short spur which starts about five miles north _ of
Mahkbaleshvar and passes about ten miles east ending in the hill-
fort of Kamalgad. It forms the water parting between the Valki
on the left or north and the Krishna on the right or south. The

Chapter I.

Description.

Aspect.
Eastern Selt.

Hills.
r/ie Sahyddria,

[Bombay Gazetteer.

DISTRICTS.

Chapter I.
Description.

Hills.
The Sahyddi'is.

second is the Vairatgad spur up a brancli of which the Wdi-
Mahableshvar main road climbs. It leaves the Sahyadris close to
the village of Mahabaleshvar and stretches south-east about twenty-
miles ending a little beyond the hill-fort of Vairatgad. This spur
forms the water-parting between the Krishna on the left or north-
east and the Kudali a feeder of the Krishna on the right or south-
west. It has one fort Vaird,tgad about six miles south-east of
Wdi. The third or Hatgegad-A'rle spur starts hke the Vairatgad
spur from Mahabaleshvar village, and stretches south-east nearly
parallel to the Vairatgad range to the north of Medha about thirty
miles to Arle near the meeting of the Krishna and Vena. It
is the water-parting between 'the Kuddli feeder of the Krishna
on the left or north-east, and the Yenna or Vena on the right or
south-west. This spur has no hill fort. The fourth the Bamnoli-
Gherddategad is the chief of the Sahyddri spurs. It starts
from Malcolmpeth on the Mahd,baleshvar plateau and for a distance
of about forty miles runs south nearly parallel to the main line of
the Sahyddris. It forms the water-parting between the Vena a
feeder of the Krishna on the leffa or north-east and the Koyna
another feeder of the Krishna on the right or west. This long
range is as high and massive as the main crest of the Sahyddris.
Besides by several small passes it is crossed by a good bullock
track from Medha and Bdmnoli. In the extreme south is the
fortified peak of Gherddategad. From the eastern slopes of the
Bdmnoli-GherAdategad range three chief spurs stretch east and
south-east across the plain. The first of these, the Sdtd,ra spur,
starts at Kelghar about three miles north-east of B^mnoli and
about fifteen miles south-east of Malcolmpeth, and stretches about
fourteen miles to Satara, and, from Satdra, about twelve miles south-
east to Vdrna and Phatyd,pur near the meeting of the Urraodi and the
Krishna. It forms the water-parting between tbe Vena on the left
or north-east and the Urmodi on the right or south-west, both
feeders of the Krishna, Its only fortified hill is Satara about
the middle of the range. The second spur, which may be called the
Kelvali-Sondpur spur, is short scattered and of irregular shape.
It leaves the main range near Kelvdli about eight miles south of
Bdmnoh, and, with many short side shoots, stretches about twelve
miles south-east to Nagthdna. It forms the water-parting between
the Urmodi river on the left or north-east and the Td,rli also a feeder
ot the Krishna on the south-west. Its only fort is Saijangad or
Parli on an outlying branch to the north of the main spur. The
third or Jdlu-Vasantgad spur starts from the Bfimnoli-Gher^dategad
range about nine miles south of Kelvdli and with several offshoots
passes about twelve miles south to near Patau; about two miles
north-east of Patau it turns south-east, and stretches about fourteen
miles to Vasantgad about four miles north-west of the meeting of
.1, ^r^rT^^^^ K"s^^a at Karad. During its twelve miles
south the Jalu- Vasantgad spur forms the water-parting between
the TMi stream on the left or east and the Kera a feeder of the
Koyna on the right or west. In its fourteen miles to the south-east
the spur forms the water-parting between the Krishna and its
feeder the Mand on the left or north-east, and the Koyna on the

Deccan]

SATARA.

riglit or south-wesfc. The only fort on the spur is Vasantgad near
its extreme south-east end. In the extreme south of the district,
starting from the main line of the Sahyadris near Bhairavgad about
fourteen miles south-west of Pdtan, a great belt of hills stretches
south-east parallel to and a little north of the Varna about
thirty-six miles to near Kandur and Vadibhdgdi five miles south-west
of Shir^la, forming with the Vdrna the boundary between SAtdra
and Kolhdpur. From this range several spurs run north-east and
east, and fill the south-west corner of the district with hills. Of
these spurs there are three chief lines, Gunvantgad about five
miles south-west of Pdtan, the water-parting between the Koyna
on the left or north and the Morna on the right or south ;
the Kahir-Kirpa spur running east and separating the Morna on the
left or north from the Kole or Vdng river on the right or south j
and the Kdlgaon-Jakinvadi spur running north-east to near Kapil
about three miles south of Kardd and separating the Kole river
on the left or north-west from the Ndndgaon stream on the right or
south-east.

The second system of SatAra hills is the Mah^dev system. In
the north of the district the Mah^dev range starts about ten
miles north of Mahdbaleshvar and stretches east and south-east
across the whole breadth of the district. The course of the range for
the first thirty miles, to a little beyond the Khdmatki pass on the
S&tdra-Poona road, is east. About Vela, four miles east of the
Khdmatki pass, it turns south-east. Near Tadvala, twelve miles
south-east of Khdmatki, through two breaks in the range, the
Wdii-Phaltan'and the old Satara-Poona roads pass. Beyond Tadvala
the hills again stretch in an irregular line east to the extreme east
of the district at Kothia about twelve miles north-east of Dahivadj.
Though its south-running spurs have many forts, the main crest of
the Mahddev range has only three forts, Gherdkelanja in the north-
west about fourteen miles north-east of Mahabaleshvar, Tdthvada
about twenty miles north-west of Dahivadi, and Varugad in the
north-east about eleven miles north of Dahivadi. Besides many
small openings the Mahddev range is crossed by three important
passes, the Khdmatki pass on the Poona-Satdra road about
twenty-eight miles north of S^tdra, and the two breaks near
Tadvala, about twelve miles south-east of JShdmatki, through which
the Wai-Adarki and the old Sd,tdra-Poona roads run.

From the main range of the Mahddev hills three spurs stretch
south, the Ghandan-Vandan spur in the west which runs about half
across the district, and the Vardhangad-Machindragad and the
Mahimangad-Panhala spurs further east which stretch right across
the district. The Chandan-Vandan spur is the water parting between
the Krishna valley on the west and the Vdsna valley on the east.
The spur starts from the Mahadev hill at Hd,rli about a mile and a
half east of the Khdmatki pass and about twelve miles north-east of
Wdi. It stretches south about twelve miles to the twin forts of
Chandan and Vandan, and, from them, about ten miles further to
near the meeting of the Vasna and Krishna about three miles south-
east of Sangam-Mahuli. The Vardhangad-Machindragad spur begins

Chapter I-

Description,

Hills.
The Sahyadris

Tlie Mahddev.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

DISTRICTS.

Chapter I.
Description.

HltLS.

The Mahddev.

Wdi.

from Mol in Khatav about sixteen miles east of the starting point
of the Chandan-Vandan spur and passes south through the whole
length of the district about fifty miles to the Krishna near the town
of Kundal. It forms the water-parting between the Vdsna, Vangna,
and other direct feeders of the Krishna on the west and the streams
that drain into the Yerla a large tributary of the Krishna on the
east. The spur has three fortified hills Vardhangad in the north
about eight miles east of Koregaon, Sadd,shivgad near Kardd about
thirty miles south of Vardhangad, and Machindragad about twelve
miles south of Saddshivgad. The third or Mahimangad-Panhdla
spur begins from the Mahddev hills about nine miles east of the
starting point of the Vardhangad-Machindragad range and stretches
south-east to Khd,ndpur. At Khdndpur it splits in two, one
branch passing twenty miles south till it ends in the old Panhala
fort in the extreme south of the district, and the other stretching
south-east and leaving the district at Dhalgaon and beyond that
continuing about sixteen miles south-east to Bilur about five miles
south-west of Jath. It forms the water-parting between the valley
of the Terla, a tributary of the Krishna on the right or south-west,
and the valley of the Man a tributary of the Bhima on the left or
north-east. It has two fortified hills Mahimangad about ten miles
south of where the spur starts from the Mahadev hills, and Bhopalgad
about ten miles south-east of Khdnapur.

The tops both of the Sahyadris and of the Mahd,dev hills, especially
in the north-western sub-divisions of Wai, Jdvli, and Patau, look
like a succession of fortresses raised on a series of plateaus piled
one over the other, the whole surmounted by a wall of rock. The
top of Mahd,baleshvar, the highest point in the district, is about
4710 feet above the sea. Prom the high Deccan table-land on the
east the Sahyddris seem somewhat low and tame. But from the
western edge of their crest great forms stand out from the Konkan
with bold wild outlines and cliffs which in places have a sheer drop
of over 3000 feet. For about thirty miles after leaving the Sahyadris
the Mahadev hills keep a height of about 4000 feet above the sea and
about 2000 feet above the plaini The north face of the Mahddev
range falls sharply into the Nira valley, the distance from the crest
of the range to the river being not more than ten or twelve miles.
To the south the hills fall much more gently to the valley of the
Krishna.

Within Sdtara limits there are fifty-six notable hills and hill-
forts, fourteen in Wdi, four in Javli, seven in Sdtara, five in
Koregaon, five in Patau, four in Kardd, three in Valva, seven in
Mdn, four in Khatav, two in Khandpur, and one in Tdsgaon.

The names of the fourteen Wdi hills are, Bdleghar, Dhdmna, Harli,
Kamalgad, Kenjalgad, Mdndhardev, Pdnchgani, Pdndavgad, Pipli,
Sonjai, Vagdera, Vandan, Vairdtgad, and Teruli. Of these hills
Sonjai the lowest is 3287 feet and Teruli the highest is 45,31 feet
above the sea. One of them Pdnchgani is a health resort, and five
of them Kamalgad, Pandavgad, Vairdtgad, Vandan, and Kenjalgad
are hill forts. Kamalgad, 4511 feet above the sea, stands alone ten
miles west of Wdi, and has an ascent of about three miles. The

Deccan.]

SATARA.

sides are covered with shrubs and trees, and the top is flatj and is
about fifty acres in area. It has one approach by a rough flight
of stepsj and inside are a deep well, a reservoir, and a cave.
P£ndavgad, about 4177 feet above the sea and three miles north of
WAi, has an ascent of about a mile and a half, and is thinly covered
with scrub. Its flat top has an area of only thirty acres, surrounded
by an almost ruined wall with two gates. Inside, at a small ruined
temple of Pdndujai, a yearly fair or ydtra is held. On the side are
two or three water cisterns and a cave, and at the bottom of the hill
are two more caves called Pdndavkratya or the Pdndavs' work.
Vairatgad, 3939 feet above the sea and six miles south of Wdi, has
an ascent of about a mile. The top, which has an area of about
thirty acres, has two reservoirs, but neither temples nor caves. It
is surrounded by a wall with two gates, one of which is approached
by steps. Besides the main entrance there is a secret path or
chorvdt. Vandan, about 3841 feet above the sea and ten miles
sout-east of Wai, is a flat-topped hill with an area of about seventy
acres, and an ascent of a mile and a half. The top, which has five
small mosques and two reservoirs, is strengthened at the crests of
ravines with two gates. Kenjalgad, 4268 feet above the sea and
twelve miles west of Wai, is a flat-topped hill with an area of about
fifty acres and an ascent of about two miles. The top, which has
four reservoirs and one or two ruined temples, is surrounded by an
almost ruined wall with a gate approached by a flight of about a
hundred steps. The village of G-hera Kenjala on the top has about
100 people.

The four hills in Javli are Mahd,baleshvar, l\takrandgad, Pratdpgad,

and Vasota. Of these, Mahabaleshvar, 4710 feet above the sea, is a

health resort and the other three are hill forts. Makrandgad, about

4054 feet above the sea and eight miles south-west of Malcolmpeth

the Mahabaleshvar market, is commonly known as the Saddleback.

The top is small and uneven. A few Jangam shrine-servants and

husbandmen live on the top, which has a reservoir, a spring, and a

temple of Mallikarjun. Pratdpgad hill, as the crow flies is four or

five miles west of Malcolmpeth. It is 3543 feet above the sea and

stands alone with steep grass and scrub-covered sides, and is a

place of great natural strength. It can be climbed either from Vada

or Peth Par, but has only one gate. The top plateau which is about

half a mile long, is flat and is surrounded by an inner and an outer

line of walls each with one gate. The fort, which is said to have

been built by Shivdji, is still in fair repair. The citadel has an area

of 300 by 400 yards. About seventy people, chiefly pujdris or

shrine servants, live on the hill top which has some reservoirs and

two large temples, one dedicated to Bhavdni and the other to

Keddreshvar. The tomb of the Bijapur general Afzul Khan who

was slain by Shivaji in 1659, is still shown on the hill. Vdsota is a

flat-topped hill on the main range of the Sahyddris, about sixteen

miles south of Malcolmpeth. It is climbed by a steep footpath about

a mile and a half long with steps at the top. The top, which is

surrounded by a wall, contains the remains of a mansion, a small

temple, and two reservoir?.

B 1282-2

Chapter I
Description.

HlLI.3.

Wdi,

[Bombay Gazetteer,

DISTRICTS.

Chapter I.

Description.

Hills.

Sdtdra,

Koregaon.

Pdtan,

Kardd.

The seven hills in the S^td,ra sub-division are Sat^ra fort or
Ajimatara, Tavteshvar, Parli fort or Sajjangad, Petova, Ghdt^i,
Pateshvar, and Shulpdni, varying from 3000 to 4000 feet above the
sea. Sdtara and Parli are fortified. The Satdra hill, about 3307
feet above the sea and 1200 feet above the plain, stands immediately-
over the town of SAtdra. The hill is climbed by a path about one
mile long. The fort includes a flat hill-top about 1200 yards by
400. It is surrounded by a wall with an entrance in the north-
west, and a second blocked entrance in the south-east. The only
buildings on the top are two bungalows and a few . temples and
small reservoirs. Two low necks join it to the spur. The sides
are steep and bare with a little scrub, and, except at the main
gate, the top is surrounded by an unbroken wall of rock. The Parli
or Sajjan fort, about 3000 feet above the sea, stands alone about
seven miles south-west of Sd,tara. It is steep and may be climbed
by three footpaths, all of which lead to the same point of entrance.
The flat top, which is about 600 yards by 260, is surrounded by a
wall in fair order with an inner and an outer gate both bearing
inscriptions. The fort is famous for the footprints of Rdmdas Svami,
the teacher of Shivaji. The footprints are visited every Thursday
by numbers of pilgrims, and a great fair or ydtra is held in honour
of Bamdds Svami on the ninth of the dark half of Mdgh in January-
February. Besides the footprints, the top contains several temples,
two mosques with Persian inscriptions, five water reservoirs, and a
considerable population.

The five Koregaon hills, Harneshvar, Chavneshvar, Jaranda,
N^ndgiri, and Chandan, vary from 3S00 to 4000 feet above the
sea. Three are hill forts of little importance, N^ndgiri about twelve
miles north-east, Chandan about fifteen miles north, and Jaranda
about eight miles east of Satara. All are surrounded by walls each
with one entrance. Nandgiri has a plateau about 500 yards long and
30O broad, amd the top of Chandan is 1000 feet by SOO. These have
no special temples or buildings but have one or more reservoirs.
The slopes are bare and steep and are climbed by difiicult footpaths.

Of the fivePdtan hills, Chandli,Dategad,Gunvantgad, Bhairavgad,
and Jangli-Jaygad, all except the first are fortified. Chandli, about
six miles south of Pdtan, is of an irregular sugarloaf -shape and is half
cut from the rest of the ridge by a depression or pass. Except for
a few teak trees the hill sides are bare. Ddtegad is a flat-topped
eminence at the southern end of a range of hills in the west of Patau.
The sides are bare and rocky.- The ascent, which is some three miles
from Pdtan, though steep, is fairly easy. Gunvantgad or Morgiri, a
striking hill from many points on the Sahyddris, looks like a lion
crouching with its head to the south-east. The ascent is easy, not
more than half a mile from the village of Morgiri. The top has an
area of about 200 yards by fifty. The forts of Bhairavgad and Jangli-
Jaygad are both on spurs which jut into the Konkan from the edge
of the Sahyadris. Both are difficult of access, the path passing
through masses of trackless forest.

The four Kardd hills are, Agashiv, Pdl, Sadashivgad, and
Yaaantgad, of which the Sadashivgad and Vasantgad are fortified.

Deccan-]

SATARA.

AgasMv, standing about 1200 feet above the plain, has a pointed
top, and is a prominent object about four miles south-west of Karad.
The sides are steep and scantily covered with scrub. On the
south-east of the hill is a group of Buddhist caves. Pdl stands alone
about two miles south-east of the village of that name. It is round-
topped and rises about 1 000 feet from the plain. On the top is a
small temple. The sides are not steep and in many parts are
under tillage. Sad^shivgad, a hill fort built by Shivdji, stands about
three miles east of Kard,d. It is a round-topped hill at the western
end of a spur which juts from the eastern wall of the valley. The
sides are bare and rocky, easily climbed by a path about a
mile long. The top which is about 400 yards by 200 is surrounded
by a ruined wall. Vasantgad, about four miles north-west of
Kardd, a prominent object from both the Kardd-Satara and the
Kardd-Kubhdrli roads, is a place of great strength. A footpath
leads from Talbid to the east of the fort, and the old gun road
was from Khodshi about two miles to the south-east. On the top
are two gateways and some temples and other buildings.

Of the three VAlva hills, Mallikarjun, Prachitgad, and
Machindragad, the two last are fortified. Mallikarjun, about eight
miles south-east of Peth, has a fine Brahmanical cave temple.
Prachitgad is on a spur which stands out into the Konkan in the
extreme west of the Sahyddris. Machindragad, a solitary round-
topped hill in the north-east of the sub-division, is the southmost
of Shivdji's forts.

Of the seven Mdn hills, Vdrugad, Khokada, Shikhar-ShingnApur,
Tdthvada, Jire-Padhd,r, Kulakjdi, and Mahimangad, three, Varugad
Tdthvada and Mahimangad are fortified. Vdrugad, about ten miles
north-west of Dahivadi, rises cone-shaped from the main spur. From
the north the ascent is diflScult and about a mile long ; from the
south the plateau leads to the base of the cone and the ascent is
not more than 250 feet. Its grassy top which is about a mile
long by a mile broad, is fortified on the crests of the ravines by a
ruined wall with fire gateways. On the top stands the village of
Vdrugad with an old temple of Bahiroba and with five hamlets of
Knnbis, Ramoshis, and Mhars. Khokada, fifteen miles north-west
of Dahivadi, is flat-topped, rugged, and bare, and has one spring.
On the top is the village of Khokada mostly of Kunbi husbandmen
who raise crops of millet, Indian millet, wheat, and gram. Wolves
and panthers occasionally visit the hill. Shikhar-Shingndpur,
thirteen miles north-east of Dahivadi and 3049 feet above the sea
is flat-topped, rugged, and partly covered with grass and trees. On
the top are the village of Shingndpur, a temple of Mahiidev, and
a hamlet of husbandmen and shepherds. Tathvada, about twenty
miles north-west of Dahivadi, is rugged and partly covered with
shrubs and grass. The top, which is about a quarter of a mile long
and broad, is fortified along the crests of ravines by a partly ruined
wall with one gateway. On the top are a paved apartment, a
reservoir, and a well, but no temples or caves. Wolves and
panthers occasionally visit the hill. Jire-Padhdr, ten miles south-
east of Dahivadi and 3138 feet above the sea^ is flat-topped^^

Chapter I.

Description

Hills.
Karad,

Vdlva.

Mdn.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

DISTRICTS.

Chapter I-

Description-

Hills.
Man.

Khatdv.

Khdndpur.

RiVBES,

rugged, and covered with shrubs and grass. On the hill top are
two hamlets of Kunbis and shepherds. Kulakjai, eleven miles
Dorth-west of Dahivadi, is flat-topped, rugged, and covered with
ghrubs and grass. It has two springs, and the village of Kulakjai
and two hamlets of husbandmen and shepherds. The Tita, Bel,
and Vakjd,i passes go close by the hill. Mahimangad hill, 3219 feet
above the sea and five miles west of Dahivadi, is bare and flat-topped
with rocky sides. It has an easy ascent and is joined to a spur
of the Mahddev range. The top is grassy and about 900 feet long
from east to west and 600 feet broad from north to south. It is
partly fortified by a ruined wall with one gateway. It contains two
dry reservoirs and an old temple of Maruti.

Of the four KhatAv hills, Solaknath, Bhdpshah, Vardhangad, and
Bhushangad, two Vardhangad and Bhushangad are fortified. Solak-
nath, eighteen miles north of Vaduj, the source of the Yerla river,
rises 2000 to 2500 feet above the plain. The top is pointed, and the
sides are steep and bare, without trees or tillage. Bhapsha, four miles
south-west of Vaduj, is a pointed hill with steep bare sides. Vard-
hangad, 3502 feet aljove the sea and fourteen miles west of Vaduj,
is round-topped and easy of ascent, and is joined to a spur of the
Mahddev range. The top, which is about 300 yards long by 200
broad, is surrounded by a stone wall with one entrance. The wall
is entire towards the east and south and is ruined towards the
north and west. The Sdtdra-Pandharpur road passes by the south
of the hill which has a grassy top with four wells, four reservoirs,
and an old temple. The hill-sides are too bare to give cover to
wild animals. Bhushangad stands alone, eight miles south of Vaduj,
. steep, bare, and flat-topped. The top, which is about 200 yards
long by 200 yards broad, is surrounded by a ruined stone wall with
one entrance. The hill, which has a dry spring and no tillage
either on the top or the sides, has two old temples on the top/
one to a goddess and the other to Mdruti. The hill is not infested
by wild animals.

The two Khandpur hills are Eevd,giri and an unnamed hill.
Revdgiri four miles east of Vita rises 1500 to 2000 feet above the
plain. The Kardd-Bijapur road passes by the hill which is sloping
and bare or partly covered with shrubs. Crops are grown on the
flat hill-top. It was formerly infested by tigers and wolves. The
unnamed hill about fifteen miles west of Vita, is pointed and 1000
to 1500 feet above the plain. The hill is rugged, partly covered with
shrubs, and without tillage. The Kardd-Bijdpur road passes over it.
About ten miles east of Tdsgaon is Dandoba, a pointed hiU of easy
ascent and bare of trees.

Within Sdtara limits there are two river systems, the Bhima system
in a small part of the north and north-east and the Krishna system
throughout the rest of the district. Of the Bhima system there
are two branches the Nira and the Mdn. A narrow belt beyond the
Mahadev hills drains north into the Nira which flows east into
the Bhima and the north-east corner of the district beyond the
Mahimangad-Panhdla spur drains south-east along the Mdn which
afterwards flows east and north-east to join the Bhima, The total
area of the Bhima system, including part of Wdi and the whole of

Deccan.]

Si-TlRA.

Phaltan and Man, is probably about 1100 miles. Excluding about
400 miles of tbe Phaltan state, this leaves for the Krisbua system
4000 miles or about five-sixths of the district. The drainage system
of the Krishna includes, besides the drainage of the central stream
the drainage of six feeders from the right side the Kud^li, Yenna,
Urmodi, Tarli, Koyna, and Vdrna, and of two from the left side
the Vdsua and the Yerla.

The Krishna is one of the three great rivers of Southern India.
Like the Godavari and Kaveri it flows across almost the entire
breadth of the peninsula from west to east and falls into the Bay of
Bengal. In sanctity the Krishna is surpassed both by the Goddvari
and by the Kaveri. In length it is less than the Goddvari, but its
drainage area, including the drainage of its two great tributaries the
Bhima and Tungbhadra, is larger than that of either the Godavari or
of the KAveri. Its length is about 800 miles and its drainage area
is about 94,500 square miles. Of its 800 miles about 150 lie within
SAtara limits. The Krishna rises on the eastern brow of the
Mahabaleshvar plateau four miles west of the village of Jor in the
extreme west of W^i. The source of the river is about 4500 feet
above the sea in 18° 1' north latitude and 73° 41' east longitude. On
the pleateau of the Mahdbaleshrar hill near the source of the river
stands an ancient temple of Mahfidev. Inside of the temple is a small
reservoir into which a stream pours out of a stone cow-mouth. This
is the traditional source of the river which Hindus lovingly call Krish-
ndbdi the Lady Krishna. Numbers of pilgrims crowd to the spot which
is embowered in trees and flowering shrubs. Prom its source the
Krishna runs east for about fifteen miles till it reaches the town of Wdi.
From Wdi the course of the river is south. About ten miles from
Wdii it receives the Kudali from the right about two miles south
of Panchvad in South Wai. After meeting the Kudali, the river
continues to run south through the Satdra sub-division by Nimb
and Varuth, and after fifteen miles receives the Yenna on the right
near Mahuli about three miles east of Sdt^ra. As the meeting of
the Krishna and Yenna, Mdhuli is sacred. A fair is held five times
in the year, once in Kdrtih October -November, in Ohaitra March -
April, and in Ashdd June -July, and twice in Shrdvan July - August.
After meeting the Yenna the Krishna curves to the south-east
and separates Sdtdra from Koregaon for about ten miles till it
reaches the border of KarAd. In Koregaon, after a course of forty
miles, about a mile east of Mangalpur, the Krishna receives the Vdsna
from the left, and after a course of about fifty-five miles in the
extreme south of the Satdra sub-division, about two miles south-west
of Vanegaon, it receives the Urmodi from the right. In Kard,d the
river runs nearly south. It receives from the right two tributaries,
the Tarli near Umbraj after a course of about sixty-five miles
and the Koyna near Kard^d after a course of about seventy-five
miles. From Kardd the Krishna runs south-east by Vdlva and
Bhilavdi in Tasgaon. About six miles south of Bhilavdi it receives
the Yerla on the left after a course of 120 miles, and about three miles
south of Sangli in the extreme south of the district it receives the
Ydrna on the right after a course of 135 miles. After its meeting
with the Varna the Krishna continues to run south-east toward^

Chapter I.
Description

illVEBS,

Krishna.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

DISTRICTS.

Chapter I.
Description.

ElVEBS.

Krishna,

Kuddli.

Yenna,

Vrmodi.

Td/rli.

Belgaum. Withiu Sdtdra limits the Krishna is unfit for navigation.
The channel is too rocky and the stream too rapid to allow even of
small native craft. The banks are twenty to thirty feet high and
generally sloping earthy and broken. The river bed, though in
parts rocky, as a rule is sandy. In Wdi and Satara in the north-
west, except that melons are grown in its bed, the water of the
Krishna is little used for irrigation, except here and there by
hhudkis or pits sunk on deep river banks. In Kardd, Valva, and
Tasgaon in the south, crops of sugarcane, groundnut, chillies, and
wheat are raised by watering the soil from recently made canals.
During the fair season the Krishna is everywhere easily forded, but
during the rains there is a considerable body of water, and ferries
are worked at Mahuli three miles east of Satdra, at Dh^mner in
the south of Korgaon, at Umbrdj, Kar^d, and Karve in Karad, at
Bdhe and Boregaon in V^lva, and at Bhilavdi in TAsgaon. Within
Sd,tara limits the Krishna is bridged at Bhuinj on the Poona-Belgaum
road, at WAi on the Poona-FitzGerald road, and at Vaduth on the
old Poona road.

The Kuddli, a small feeder of the Krishna in the north, rises
near Kedamb in Jdvli, and after a south-easterly course of about
sixteen miles through Jdvli and Wai, flanked by the Vairatgad
range on the left or north and the Hatgegad-Arle range on the
right or south, joins the Krishna from the right about two miles
south of Panchvad in Wdi.

The Vena or Yenna, one of the Krishna's chief feeders, rises on
the Mahabaleshvar plateau and falls into the Yenna valley below
the Lingmalla bungalow and plantation, on the east point of the
Mahabaleshvar hills about three miles east of Malcolmpeth. It
passes along the valley between the Hatgegad-Arle range on the
left or north and the Satara range on the right or south, and, after
a south-easterly course of about forty miles through Javli and
Satdra, it flows into the Krishna at Mahuli about three miles east
of Sdtd,ra. In the hot season the stream stops and the water
stands in pools. It is crossed by no ferries. Besides a foot bridge
at Medha in Jdvli, it has four road bridges, one on the Poona-
Belgaum road at Yarya three miles north of Sdt^ra, two on the
Sdtdra-Malcolmpeth road at Kanhera eight miles and at Kelghar
twenty miles north-west of Satdra, and one on the old Poona road
at Vddha-Kheda three miles north-east of Sdtdra.

The Urmodi, a small feeder of the Krishna, rises near Kas in
Jdvli, It passes south-east along a valley flanked by the Satdra
range on the left or north and the Kalvdli-Sonapur range on the
right or south. After a south-easterly course of about twenty
miles, mostly through Satdra, it falls into the Krishna about two
miles south-west of Yanegaon in the extreme south of the Sdtara
sub-division. The banks of the Urmodi are high and steep. The
flow of water ceases in the hot season. There is no ferry, and
only one bridge on the Poona-Kolhdpur mail-road at Latna nine
miles south of Satdra.

The Td.rli, a small feeder of the Krishna, rises in the north-west
of Pdtan about ten miles above the village of Tdrli. It flows south-

Deccau]

sAtIea.

east along a valley flanked by the Kalvali-Sonapur range on the
left or nortli-east and tlie Jd,lu-Vasantgad range on the right or
south-west. After a south-easterly course of about t'^venty-two
miles through Pdtan and Kardd, it joins the Krishna from the right
at Umbraj in Kardd.

The Koynaj the largest of the Sdtara feeders of the Krishna, rises
on the west side of the Mahdbaleshvar plateau near Elphinstone
Point in 17° 58' north latitude and 73° 43' east longitude. Of its
course of eighty miles within Satdra limits, during the first forty
it runs nearly south, and during the next forty it runs nearly east.
During its forty miles to the south the Koyna flows along a beautiful
valley with the main line of the Sahy^dris on the right and on the
left the B^mnoli-Gherddategad branch of the Sahyddris which runs
parallel to the main line at an equal height. In Jdvli the river passes
by BAmnoli and T^mbi and receives the Solshi from the left about
three miles north of Bd,mnoli and the Kanddti from the right about
two miles south of Bdmnoli.- At Helvak iu Patan, after a course
of forty miles, the river suddenly turns east, and, after a further
course of forty miles, by the town of Patan where it receives the Kera
from the north, it falls into the Krishna at Karad. In the first forty
miles the Koyna is seldom more than 100 feet broad ; but in the last
forty miles the bed is 300 to 500 feet across. Especially in the
first forty miles the banks are broken and muddy and the bed is of
gravel. In the hot months the stream often ceases, but the water
stands in deep pools through the dryest years. During the rains it
fills from bank to bank, and small ferry boats work across it at
Sangvad and Yerdd in Patan.

The VArna in the south, separating Sdtdra and Kolhapur, rises
close to the western crest of the Sahyadris in the extreme north-
west of Vdlva. It runs south-east for about eighty miles by Charan,
Bildsi, and Dhudhgaon in Vdlva, and falls into the Krishna about
three miles south of S^ngli. Its banks are steep and broken, and,
in the southern twenty miles, it overflows its banks every rains.

The Vdsna, a small feeder of the Krishna, rises in the Mahadev
range near Solshi in the north of Koregaon. It flows south along a
valley flanked by the Chandan-Vandan range on the right or west
and by the Vardhangad-Machindragad range on the left or east. It
runs south for about twenty miles, and, from the left, falls into the
Krishna about a mile east of Mangalpur in Koregaon.

The Yerla, the largest of the left-hand or northern feeders of the
Krishna, rises in Solakn^th hill in the extreme north of Khatdv. It
flows along a valley flanked by the Vardhangad-Machindragad range
on the right or west, and by the Mahimangad-Panhala range on the
left or east. It runs south for about seventy-five miles through
Khatav, Khdn^pur, Tasgaon, and the lands of Sdngli. In KhatAv
it passes by L^lgun, Khatav, Vaduj, and Nimsod, in Khd,napur by
Danleshvar and Bhd.lvd,ni, in Tasgaon by Turchi and Ndgaon, and
in Sangli by Ndndre. At Dhanleshvar in Khdnpur it receives
the Ndndani from the right a stream about 300 feet wide. After a
south-westerly course of about seventy-five miles the Terla falls into
the Krishna within Sangli limits about six miles south of Bhilavdi.

Chapter I.
Description

ElVEES.

Koyna.

Vdrna.

Vdsna.

Yerla,

[Bombay 6azetteer>

DISTRICTS.

Chapter I.
Description.

RiVEKS.

Nira,

Mdnganga.

Water.

Geology.

At its meeting witli the Krishna, the Yerla is about 600 feet broad.
Its bed is sandy, and its banks are sloping earthy and muddy. The
stream holds water throughout the year and crops of sugarcane,
groundnut, wheat, potatoes, and onions are raised by hhudhis or
wells sunk near the banks.

Of the Bhima system of rivers the two chief S^t^ra representatives
are the Nira in the north and the Mdn in the north-east. The
Nira, which separates S^tara from Poona in the north, rises on
the Sahyadri range within the lands of the Pant Sachiv of Bhor.
Of a total length of 130 miles, about- sixty miles lie on the borders
of Poona to the north and of B^tara and Phaltan to the south.
From its source in Bhor the river runs east to the north of the
subdivision of WAi and the state of Phaltan. After leaving Phaltan,
it runs north of Mdlsiras in Sholapur and falls into the Bhima about
five miles east of Tambve in the extreme north-east of Mdlsiras.
Within the limits of the Bhor state the Nira is bridged on the
Poona-Kolhdpur mail road at Sirval in the north of Wdi.

The Mdnganga, a tributary of the Bhima, rises in the Tita hill in the
north-east of Man. Of a total length of about 100 miles, about forty
lie in Mdn within Sdtdra limits. In Mdn the river runs south-east by
Malvadi, Andhli, Dahivadi, and Mhasvad. Beyond Satara limits
the Mdnganga continues to run south-east through Atpadi, and from
Atpddi it turns north-east through Sdngola and Pandharpur in
Sholdpur, and falls into the Bhima at Sarkoli about ten miles
south-east of Pandharpur. During the rains within the Mdn
sub-division the water of the Manganga runs two to six feet deep.
In the fair season it is about two feet deep in some places and
almost dry in others. The bed is sandy and the banks earthy
and sloping. In some parts near the river banks crops of sugarcane,
groundnut, wheat, sweet potatoes, and onions are raised by pats or
fair-weather channels.

In the west water is fairly abundant. In the east, hot weather
after hot weather, want of water causes much suffering. The supply
comes partly from rivers and streams, partly from reservoirs, and
partly from wells which are numerous but in many cases run dry
during the hot season. In 1882 for the storage of water there
were 189 ponds and reservoirs, of which three were lakes of
considerable size. There were 23,810 wells, 17,411 of them with
and 6399 without steps. Besides three water supply works for the
towns of Satdra, Karad, and Islanipur, six water works are
completed, the Revari canal on the Vdsna, the Yerla canals on the
Yerla, the Gondoli canal on the Man, the Mdyni reservoir on the
Vang, the Chikhli canal on the Ndndui, and the Krishna canal on
the Krishna. A seventh work, a large reservoir at Mhasvad in the
Man sub-division is being built.*

The whole of Sdtara falls within the Deccan trap area. As in
other parts of the West Deccan the hills are layers of softer
amygdaloid trap separated by flows of hard basalt and capped by
laterite or iron clay.

1 Details of these water works are given in Agriculture under Irrigation,

Beccau]

SiTARA.

' The usual Indian division of the seasons into cold, hot, and
rainy is not suited to Satara. The year may be better divided
into five seasons, the rainy from about the tenth of June to
the end of September, a close sultry time from the end of
September to the middle of November, a cold time from the middle
of November to the end of January, a dry hot time in which
easterly winds prevail from the beginning of February to the end
of March, and the hot weather from the beginning of April to about
the tenth of June. The climate of the three and a half months of
the south-west rains, from the middle of June to the end of
September, as a rule is agreeable. The air is genial and soft with a
fresh westerly breeze. The rainfall varies greatly in different parts
of the district, the chief cause of difEerence being distance from the
Sahyddris. Rain falls in November and December in the early
months of the north-east monsoon, and rain, which is known as
mangoe showers, falls in May, and is important to the husbandman
enabling him to sow his earliest crops. From the close of the
south-west rains at the end of September to the middle of November
the atmosphere is close and sultry. Comparing this period with the
periods which go before and follow it, though the temperature is not
much higher, the air is more oppressive and the season more sickly.
The cold weather begins about the middle of November, and the
sudden change from the moist warm month of October to the cold
dry air of November often causes disease. About the middle of
November the mornings and evenings become cool and pleasant
and continue cool till the beginning of February. During these cool
months occasional showers greatly help the vegetables which grow
in abundance. The hilly parts are refreshed by heavy dews and
river fogs spread for several miles beyond their banks. Though
the most invigorating time of the year, the cold season is often
the most unhealthy. The thermometer begins to rise early in
February and as a rule with the increase of warmth sickness grows
less. During the hot months of April and May, the temperature is at
the highest and the atmosphere is close and dry. In the early part
of the day the air is still, not a breath blows, not a leaf is in motion.
Towards the afternoon a faint air sets in from the west which in an
hour or two freshens to a breeze. The west wind blows all night,
and in the early morning gives place to an east wind which
continues till nine or ten. The hot weather, though exhausting, is
not BO trying as in most parts of the Presidency. In a cool
house with the windows darkened and the doors shut at seven in
the morning and opened at five in the evening, the mean heat at two
in the afternoon was 85° and the mean daily variation 4°. The
temperature did not reach its maximum at two, but continued to
rise till five when it was 86'5°. On the doors being opened at
five the thermometer rose one degree. When kept all day in an open
veranda with a westerly exposure, the thermometer rose to 92'4 at
two and from that fell towards the evening.

Chapter I.
Descriptioa

Seasons.

1 Mr. A. Young in Transactions of the Bombay Medical and Phyaioal Society for
1838-39 page 211.

B 1282—3

[Bombay Gazetteer,

DISTRICTS.

Chapter I-
Description.

Winds,

Clouds.

Climati:,

During the south-west rains the prevailing winds are from the
north-west and south-west. While the winds blow from the south-west
on the Mahabaleshvar hills, at Sat^ra, owing to the inflaence of
the mountain ranges and the south-easterly lie of the valley,
their direction is north-west. About the beginning of September,
the wind veers to the east and keeps blowing from the east till
the end of September. During the close sultry period in October
and the first half of November the wind blows from the north-
east, but it is generally light and unrefreshing. In the cold season
from mid-November to early February westerly winds prevail.
During the hot dry period from February to March the westerly
winds and cold nights of the cold months cease and the evening
westerly breezes of the hot season have not begun. Dry east winds
prevail, and parch the skin and prevent perspiration almost as much
as intense cold. These winds are dangerous to all, and should
be avoided by all who are liable to liver disease. During the
early hot season the easterly morning wind in the after-part of
the day veers by the north to the west. In the later hot months,
the wind blows steadily from the west, beginning generally about
midday and blowing till a late hour. The nights and mornings are
calm and cool.

During the south-west rains, the sky is generally overcast with
cumuli or cumulo-strati clouds. At the setting in of the south-west
rain the clouds are dense and numerous, but as the rains advance
they grow partial and fleecy. From about the 20th of July till the
end of August, there is much sunshine, and as the cumuli are driven
overhead by the westerly breeze, the more stationary cirro-strati
may often be seen unmoved, high in the firmament. Towards the
middle of September dark masses again gather and continue to
hide the sun till the south-west rains end with the Elephanta
storms in October.^ During the close sultry period from mid-
September to mid-November fogs are few, but the sky is often
partially hid by fleecy cumuli. In the cold weather, from mid-
November to the end of January, the sky is generally clear with
occasional cumuli, and not unfrequently horizontal and oblique
cirri. The hot dry season from February to March has generally a
clear and unclouded sky. In March April and early in May the
sky is generally clear, about the middle of May it becomes overcast
and cumulo-strati clouds gather on the horizon.

2 During January and early February the air is cool and bracing,
but the east winds are unpleasantly dry and tighten the skin. Towards
the end of February the air grows perceptibly warmer, and, by the
middle of March, the hot weather has begun. About this time it
is usual to close doors and windows to keep out the hot wind which
begins to blow strongly from the west. The heat increases
gradually and is greatest about the middle of May. Then not
uncommonly storms burst and sensibly lessen the intense heat of

' These storms are called Elephantas because, according to Hindu astronomy, the
sun is then in the Nahekatra or guest-house of the Elephant constellation
" Trans. Bom. Med. and Phy. Soo. New Series, 1857-58, IV, 104-5.

Deccan]

sAtAra.

the two preceding montlis. If no storms come, the weather continues
sultry till the end of the first week of June. Even in the hottest
weather, after sunset the air soon cools and the nights are seldom
without an agreeable freshness from the sea breeze which does
not lull till the early morning. At the hottest time of the year at
six in the morning the mercury is seldom higher than 83°. At six
in the evening with the house closed the highest is about 86° and
88° with open doors. These cool nights prevent the heat from
being so trying as in other parts of the Presidency, where the
temperature is lower but damper and the nights are less fresh.
During the rains the climate is peculiarly soft and agreeable. No
great amount of rain falls in June, but the sky is thick with clouds
and there are occasional showers. The first ten days bring a
perceptible decrease of heat. The abatement of heat continues till
the beginning of July when the regular monsoon sets in occasionally
with violent storms of thunder and lightning. July is by far the
wettest month in the year ; August is often dry but light drizzling
intervals till December are not unusual. A heavy burst, often six
inches, of westerly rain nearly always happens in September. The
people do not regard this as part of the regular south-west monsoon ;
it is known as the fall of the MasH Nakshatra or the Elephant
Guest-house. This is one of the most important falls both for the
early and for the late crops. From the east or Madras monsoon,
heavy rain falls towards the end of September and in early October.
For about a month after the eastern rain ceases the air is generally
hot and close. November ushers in the cold weather which lasts
till the end of January. On the whole the Sdtd,ra seasons show
considerable uniformity. They are not subject to abrupt changes
or to extremes of heat or cold. Though its elevation, the
comparative absence of water, and the bare surrounding country
make the fair weather atmosphere rarefied dry and exciting, its
nearness to the coast makes these qualities less remarkable than at
other Deccan station^ of less altitude, but further inland. The
Satdra climate is a marked change from the moist and relaxing
Konkan. It is best suited to the nervous, the simply debilitated,
and the relaxed, to the dyspeptic, and those afEected with chronic
bronchitis. It is liable to aggravate or render more acute, fever
and head derangements by constricting the surface vessels and
forcing inwards an increased flow of blood. The increased flow
of blood congests and obstructs the organs which have been
weakened by disease or climate. These adverse conditions are
limited to the dry season, or at least are considerably modified
during the soft mild and damp south-west monsoon. The rains
seem specially suited to Europeans. While they last severe disorders
are unusual, the prevailing complaints being slight fevers and
chest and bowel complaints. Among the natives rheumatic and
neuralgic affections are common and obstinate; Europeans are
comparatively free from them. After the first burst of the south-west
monsoon, rain falls for the most part in moderate quantities and
in frequent light showers, which cool and freshen the air without;
as a rule preventing outdoor exercise.

Chapter I-
Description

Climatb.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

DISTEICTS.

Chapter I.
Pescription.

Rainfall.

The south-west monsoon on which the Sahyadri and central belts
mostly depend, begins about the middle of June and lasts till the
end of September. As a rule, the south-west rain does not pass more
than twenty miles east of SAtdra. The eastern belt, for the sowing
of its early crops, depends chiefly on irregular storms between
mid-May and mid-June, and, for the sowing of its late crops in
October and Norember, for rain from the north-east monsoon. Besides
in October and November some north-east rain occasionally falls
about Christmas and in March or April. As a rule, close to the
Sahyadris, and in the Sahyadri and central belts, the rainfall is
heaviest, and, in the eastern belt which is further from the Sahyadris,
the rainfall is lightest. At the same time the rainfall does not solely
depend on distance from the Sahyadris. Places about the same
distance from the Sahyadris show a great variety in rainfall, and in
some cases more distant stations have a better supply than stations
further to the west. Of Medha and Wai which are about the
same distance from the Sahyddris, during the twenty-three years
ending 1882-83, at Medha the highest recorded fall is 111 inches in
1882-83, and at Waiforty-nine inches in 1875-76. At Khandala which
is only twenty-five miles east of the Sahyddris, the lowest recorded
fall is eight inches in 1871-72, and at Dahivadi, the most distant
station from the Sahyadris, the lowest is nine inches in 1866-67.
Except at Malcolmpeth, Medha, Patan, and Sdtdra, the rainfall
averages less than forty inches. At Malcolmpeth, during the twenty-
three years ending 1882-83, the rainfall averaged 265 inches.

Except that for Khanddla, Patau, Shirdla, Dahivadi, and Td,sgaon
they are wanting for a few years, for the twenty -three years ending
1882-83 rain returns are available for nine stations in the Sahyadri
and central belts, and for five stations in the eastern belt. During
these twenty-three years the highest recorded fall is 373 inches at
Malcolmpeth in 1882-83 and the lowest is 7 inches at Vaduj in
1879-80 and at Td,sgaon in 1876-77 ; the total average fall of the
district varied from 72 inches in 1882-83 to 35 inches in 1871-72,
and averaged 4,5 inches during the ten years ending 1869-70
and 60 inches during the thirteen years ending 1882-83, In the
Sahyddri and central belts, beginning from the northern subdivisions,
at Wdi, which is about sixteen miles east of the Sahyddris and twenty
miles north of Satdra, during the ten years ending 1869-70 the
fall varied from 34 inches in 1861-62 to 20 inches in 1865-66 and
averaged 27 inches ; and during the thirteen years ending 1882-83
it varied from 49 inches in 1875-76 to 19 inches in 1871-72 and
averaged 38 inches. At Khanddla, which is about twenty-five miles
east of the Sahyadris and twenty-five miles north of Satara, during
i^«7 Jf.^1^''' T^"^^ 1869-70, the fall varied from 27 inches in
1867-68 to 1 D inches m 1868-69 and averaged 20 inches ; and during
the thirteen years ending 1882-83 it varied from 26 inches in 1870-71
to 8 inches m 1871-72 and averaged 11 inches. At Malcolmpeth,
the highest point of the Sahyddris 4710 feet above sea level
and about twenty-eight miles north-west of Satdra, during the

S/fif '. ^^i^^- If 9-TO' *1^« fall varied from 312 inches in
1861-62 to 156 .inches m 186^-70 and averaged 248 inches; and

Deccan]

SATARA.

during the thirteen years ending 1882-83 it varied from 373 inches
ia 1882-83 to 168 inches in 1877-78 and averaged 262 inches. At
Medha, which is about sixteen miles east of the Sahyddris and fourteen
miles north-east of Sdtara, during the ten years ending 1869-70,
the fall varied from 79 inches in 1861-62 to 53 inches in 1864-65
and averaged 64 inches ; and during the thirteen years ending
1882-83 it variedfrom 111 inches in 1882-83 to 48 inches in 1880-81
and averaged 72 inches. At Sdtdra, which is about twenty miles
east of the Sahyddris, during the ten years ending 1869-70, the fall
varied from 46 inches in 1861-62 to 29 inches in 1862-63 and
averaged 36 inches ; and during the thirteen years ending 1882-83
it varied from 58 inches in 1882-83 to 29 inches in 1 880-81 and
averaged 40 inches. At Koregaon, which is about thirty-two
miles east of the Sahyadris and twelve miles east of SAtara,
during the ten years ending 1869-70, the fall varied from 56
inches in 1861-62 to 18 inches in 1865-66 and averaged 27 inches;
and during the thirteen years ending 1882-83 it varied from 38
inches in 1874-75 to 20 inches in 1872-73 and 1876-77 and averaged
27 inches. At Patau, which is about fifteen miles east of the
Sahyadris and twenty-two miles south of Sd-tara, during the eight
years ending 1869-70, the fall varied from 85 inches in 1863-64 to
42 inches in 1867-68 and averaged 58 inches; and during the
thirteen years ending 1882-83 it varied from 102 inches in 1882-83
to 39 inches in 1880-81 and averaged 65 inches. At Karad, which is
about thirty miles east of the Sahyddris and thirty-two miles south of
Sdtdra, during the ten years ending 1869-70, the fall varied from
35 inches in 1860-61 and 1867-68 to 19 inches in 1864-65 and
averaged 27 inches ; and during the thirteen years ending 1 882-83
it varied from 60 inches in 1882-83 to 17 inches in 1871-72 and
averaged 27 inches. At Peth, which is about twenty-five miles east of
the Sahyddris and forty-two miles south of Sdtara, during the
ten years ending 1869-70, the fall varied from 27 inches in 1869-70
to 12 inches in 1862-63 and averaged 17 inches; and during the
thirteen years ending 1882-83 it varied from 41 inches in 1882-83
to 13 inches in 1876-77 and averaged 27 inches. At Shirala, which
is about twenty miles east of the Sahyddris and fifty miles south
of Sdtdra, during the four years ending 1869-70 the fall varied from
35 inches in 1867-68 to 24 inches in 1869-70 and averaged 29
inches ; and during the thirteen years ending 1882-83 it varied
from 57 inches in 1882-83 to 23 inches in 1871-72 and averaged 35
inches. In the eastern belt at Dahivadi, which is about fifty-five
miles east of the Sahyddris and forty miles east of Sdtara, during
the eight years ending 1869-70 the fall varied from 24 inches in
1862-63 to 9 inches in 1866-67 and averaged 16 inches ; and during
the thirteen years ending 1882-83 it varied from 33 inches in
1874-75 to 10 inches in 1876-77 and averaged 21 inches. At Vaduj,
which is about forty-five miles east of the Sahyadris and thirty
miles nearly east of Sdtdra, during the ten years ending 1869-70,
the fall varied from 24 inches in 1860-61 to 9 inches in 1866-67
and averaged 17 inches,' and dnring the thirteen years ending
1882-83 it varied from 36 inches in 1877-78 to 7 inches in 1879-80
and averaged 21 inches. At Vita, which is about fifty miles ea&t

Chapter I.

Description

Rainfall.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

Chapter I.

Description.

Rainfall.

DISTRICTS.

of the Sahyddris and forty-five miles south-east of S&tdra, during the
ten years ending 1869-70 the fall varied from 39 inches in 1862-63
to 1 1 inches in 1866-67 and averaged 21 inches ; and during the
thirteen years ending 1882-83 it varied from 34 inches in 1878-79
to 11 inches in 1876-77 and averaged 24 inches. And at Tdsgaon,
which is about fifty miles east of the Sahyddris and sixty south-
east of Satdra, during the eight years ending 1869-70 the fall
varied from 34 inches in 1862-63 to 13 inches in 1865-66 and
averaged 23 inches ; and during the thirteen years ending 1882-83
it varied from 47 inches in 1882-83 to 7 inches in 1876-77 and
averaged 26 inches. The details are :

Sdtdra District Rainfall, 1860-61-1882-83A

a a

•^'u

g«

f«m

§,

Miles.

In.

■WiX

Khandila ...

Malcolmpetli ...

247

312

240

278

258

266

280

214

240

166

248

Medha

SilUra

KoreKaon

P&tan

Kartd

Peth

ShirMa

Dahivadi

Vaduj

Vita

TaBgaon

Average ...

rsi

Til

-ri

>^.

g .

Stations.

j>.

■v

I-

•^

■§ 1

gf^

'-'

In.

W4i

.37

Khand&Ia ...

ir.

Malcolmpeth ...

257

189

263

275

299

340

243

168

265

27R

208

261

373

262

Medha

,59

103

■M

111

S&t4ra

»7

,68

Koregaon

.33

PStan

102

Kav&d

Peth

S.-i

■.19.

9,7

Shirila

Dahivadi

Vadnj

Vita

Tlsgaon

Average ...

_47

_68

For the twenty -four years ending 1883, monthly rain returns are
available for the city of Satdra. During these twenty-four years the
returns show four months when rain seldom falls, January February

' Besides these, rain returns for the station of S4td,ra are available for the nine years
ending 1860. During these nine years the fall varied from 56-88 inches in 1853 to
33-03 inches in 1855 and averaged 43-17 inches. The details are : In 1852 a fall of
SI- 13 inches, in 1853 of 56-88 inches, in 1854 of 46-3X inches, in 1855 of 33-03 inches,,
in 1856 of 35-70 inches, in 1857 of 47-22 inches, in 1858 of 34-08 inches, in 1859 of
41-04 inches, and in 1860 of 43-18 inches. Bombay Government Selections, New
Series, LXXVIII. 16-17.

Deccan.]

SATARA, 23

Marcli and December ; three montlis during which rain generally Chapter I.
falls, April May and November ; and five months of unfailing jj ~^t'on
rainfall, June July August September and October. Of the twenty- escrip i

four years, in five rain fell in January, in four in February, in six Rainfalt,.

in March, and in seven in December ; in eighteen in April, in twenty-
two in May, and in nineteen in November; and in all years in June
July August September and October. Oi the twelve months in the
year, February is the driest month with a fall varying from 1'21
inches in 1877 to zero for twenty years and averaging 0-09 of an
inch; March comes next with a fall varying from 1-07 inches in
1863 to zero for eighteen years and averaging O'lO of an inch;
December is third with a fall varying from 5'38 inches in 1872 to
zero for seventeen years and averaging 0'36 of an inch ; January
is fourth, with a fall varying from 8'02 inches in 1870 to zero for
nineteen years and averaging 0'40 of an inch ; April is fifth, with a
fall varying from 5'25 inches in 1865 to zero for six years and
averaging 0-67 of an inch ; November is sixth, with a fall varying
from 5'57 inches in 1864 to zero for five years and averaging 1*23
inches ; May is seventh, with a fall varying from 4*72 inches in 1865
to zero for two years and averaging 1"38 inches ; October is eighth,
with a fall varying from 9'55 inches in 1867 to 0"02 of an inch in
1876 and averaging 314 inches ; September is ninth, with a fall
varying from 17-17 inches in 1875 to 022 of an inch in 1865, and
averaging 4-34 inches ; August is tenth, with a fall varying from 19 36
inches in 1861 to 1'97 inches in 1880 and averaging 7'26 inches;
June is eleventh, with a fall varying from 17*85 inches in 1863 to 0"43
of an inch in 1881 and averaging 7"58 inches ; and July is the
wettest month, with a fall varying from 27'81 inches in 1882 to
4"53 inches in 1877 and averaging 1373 inches. In this order of
dry months January would come second instead of fourth, had it
not been for the exceptional fall of eight inches in 1871. The
goodness or badness of a year depends less on the fall for the whole
year than on its distribution during the rainy months. In 1880,
though the fall was the least recorded only twenty-nine inches,
the season was not one of famine, because the rain was evenly
distributed, 7^ inches in June, 6^ in July, two in August, and 4^ in
September and October. Similarly in 1871, though of the total fall
of forty inches about eight inches or one-fifth of the whole fell
in January, 1871 was not a famine year, because the remaining
thirty-two inches were fairly distributed, eight inches in June, ten
in July, eight in August, one in September, and three in October.
On the other hand, the year 1876 with a fall of thirty-one inches
was a famine year, because the rain was badly distributed, 3^ inches
fell in June, twenty-three in July, four in August, and almost none
in September and October. Of twenty-four years, for four the
yearly fall was more than fifty inches, fifty-eight in 1875, 57^ in
1882, 54^ in 1870, and 53J in 1861 ; for eleven years the fall was
between fifty and forty inches, and for nine years it was between
forty and twenty-nine inches. The details are : ^

^ The yearly rainfall given in this statement differs slightly from that given in the

[Bombay Gazetteer,

Chapter I-
Description.

Rainfall.

DISTEIOTS.

Sdtdra Oiiy Rainfall, 1860-1883.

Mouths.

January.

February.

March.

April.

May.

June.

July.

■g
a

1— 1

■g
a

1860

1861

1862

1863

«2

1864

1865

1866

1867

1868

1869

1870

1871

1872

187S

1874

1875

1876

1 ...

1877

1878

4.5

1879

1880

1881

1882

1883
Average ...

73 '

Months.

Total.

Year.

August.

September.

October.

November.

December.

■s

•s

1860

1861

1862

1863

1864

1865

1866

1867

...

1868

1869

1870

1871

1872

1873

1874

. 85

1675

1876

1877

1878

1879

1880

1881

1882

1883
Average ...

...

As^ regards the distribution of the rainfall, Mr. J. Gr. Moore, Col-
statement at page 22. As the monthly returns are supplied by the Civil Surgeon, the
yearly total given in this statement is probably more accurate. The difference may,
perhaps, be owing to one statement being returned for the calendar year beginning
from January, and the other for the official year beginning from April.

1 Information and Evidence collected by the Famine Commission, page 15.

Deccan]

satAra.

lector of Satd,ra, wrote in 1877 : A fall of thirty-two inches, if well
distributed between mid- May and January, is enough for the district ;
less than thirty-two inches damages the crops. Of these thirty-
two inches three should fall in May, nine in June, five in July,
five in August, five in September, four in October, none in
November, and one between December and January. The May rain
makes the grass spring and softens the soil so that the fields
can be made ready to receive the westerly moonsoon in June.
About five of the nine inches in June should fall between the 5th
and the 20th so as to enable the husbandmen to complete the
preparation of their fields and to sow bdjri in the east, early
jvdri and pulses in the centre, and rice and ndchni in the west.
The remaining four inches cause the seed to sprout and the
crops to grow. The five inches in July should fall about the middle
of the month, to enable bdjri to be sown in the centre of the district.
Rain in August and September is required for the proper growth
of the crops, and if an inch or two falls at the end of September,
with four inches at the beginning of October, the late or rabi crop
can be sown, and will flourish. The cold weather crops need an
inch in December or January, about Christmas or New Year's Day,
to help them on. If rain does not fall in May or Jane the grass crop
will probably fail in the centre and west of the district, and rice
will probably not be sown. If rain falls early in June and if there
is a long break, the rice and ndchni wither. If rain does not fall
in June or up to the twentieth of July, the kharif or rain crop will
not be sown. If good rain falls in June and none in July or August,
the A;/iari/" will be lost. If seasonable rain falls at the end of September
and the beginning of October, the rabi or cold weather crop will
thrive. If no rain falls in September and October, but a fall comes
early in November, the rabi crop will not be so good ; if no rain falls
in September October or November, the rabi crop will fail. The
worst results are caused by the failure of the easterly rain in May,
and by a scanty fall from the west in June and July.

During the five years ending 1881, the extreme greatest heat
varied from 104° in May 1881 to 76° in August 1879 ; the extreme
least heat from 76° in May 1878 to 66° in November and
December 1879 and in January 1880 ; the mean greatest heat
from 96° in April 1879 to 72° in August 1879 ; the mean
least heat from 79° in May 1881 to 60° in December 1879 and
in January 1880; the mean range from 21° in February 1880
to 1° in August 1879 ; and the mean temperature from 89° in
May 1879 to 68° in December 1879. Of the five years, in two
the month of the highest greatest heat was May, in 1881 with
104° and in 1877 with 100°; in two it was April and May,
in 1879 with 101° and in 1878 with 98°; and in one it was April
with 102° in 1880. In two years the month of the lowest greatest
heat was August, in 1878 with 82° and in 1879 with 76°, in one
it was October with 83° in 1877, in one August and September
with 80° in 1881, and in one July with 79° in 1880. Of the five
years, in three the month of the highest least heat was April, in
1877 with 74° and in 1879 and 1880 with 72°; and in two it was
May, in 1878 with 76° and in 1881 with 75°; of the five years in
-a 1282—4

Chapter I.
Description

Rainfall.

Heat.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

DISTRICTS.

Chapter I.
Description.

Heat.

one tlie moiitli of the lowest least heat was February with 58° in
1877, in one December and January with 57° in 1878, in one
November mth 57° in 1881, in one November and December with
56° in 1879, and in one January with 56° in 1880. Of the five
years, in three the month of the highest mean greatest heat was
April, in 1879 with 96°, in 1881 with 95°, and in 1878 with 9i°;
in one it was April and May with 95° in 1877 and in one it was
May with 95° in 1880 ; of the five years, in one the month of the
lowest mean greatest heat was October with 77° in 1877, in one
August and December with 76° in 1878, in one July with 74° in
1880, in one July September and November with 74° in 1881, and
in one August with 72° in 1879. Of the five years, in three the
month of the highest mean least heat was May, in 1881 with 79°
and in 1877 and 1878 with 78°, in one it was April and May with
78° in 1879 ; and in one it was March and May with 77° in 1880.
In three years the month of the lowest mean least heat was
December, in 1878 and 1881 with 61° and in 1879 with 60°; in
one it was February and November with 66° in 1877 ; and in one
it was January with 60° in 1880. Of the five years, in two the
month of the highest mean range was February, in 1880 with 21°
and in 1878 with 19°; in two it was March, in 1879 with 19° and
in 1881 with 18°; and in one it was April and November with 19°
in 1877, in two years the month of the lowest mean range was July
in 1880 with 3° and in 1881 with 2°; in two it was August, in
1878 with 3° and in 1879 with 1°; and in one it was July and
August with 6° in 1877. Of the five years, in three the month
of the highest mean temperature was May, in 1879 with 89°, in
1877 with 86-5°, and in 1880 with 86°; and in two it was April
and May, in 1881 with 86-5° and in 1878 with 85-5°; in two years
the month of the lowest mean temperature was December, in 1878
with 68"5°and in 1879 with 68°; in one it was October with 73° in
1877 ; in one January with 70° in 1880, and in one November and
December with 69° in 1881. The details are :

Sdtdra Thermometer

Readings,

1877-1881.

YEAR.

Jan.

Feb.

Mar.

April.

May.

June

July.

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Deo.

1877.

Highest

100

Rfi

Lowest

7.'!

7."!

Mean Highest ...

Mean Lowest

Mean Range

Mean Heat
1878.

75-5

82-6

85-6

86-5

80-5

76-5

Highest

Lowest

Mean Highest

76
61

Mean Lowest

7fi

7,'!

T>,

Mean Bange
Mean Heai

1879.

72-6

79-6

SB -6

85-5

74-5

76 -6

68-6

Highest

101

Lowest

Mean Highest ...

60
77

68
92

72
96

71
90

71
79

70
72

68
76

65
80

66
78

66
76

Mean Lowest

Mean Range

Mean Heat

69-6

76-5

82-5

74-6

76'6

71-6

Deccan.]

sItIka.

Sdtdra Thermometer Readings, ^577-^55/— continued.

Ykar.

1880,
Highest ...
Lowest
Mean Highest
Mean Lowest
Mean Range
Mean Heat

1881.
Highest ...
Lowest
Mean Highest
Mean Lowest
Mean Range
Mean Heat

Jan.

Feb.

Mar.

April.

May.

June.

July.

Aug.

Sep.

Oct.

Nov.

Deo.

102

6»

7»

74-6

76-5

72-5

72-6

76-6

73-6

104

76-S

86-5

86.5

72-5

77-6

Chapter I.
Description

Heat.

SAtara is occasionally visited ty hailstorms. Between four and
five in the evening of the 7th of April 1850, accompanied by a fierce
duststorm, a tremenduous fall of hail occurred at a village called
Kondval about six miles from Satdra. The hailstones were as
large as cocoanuts : houses fellj cattle were slain, and in the river
many large fish were killed. For several hours the hill sides near
the village were white as if after a fall of snow.^

' Transactions Bombay Geographical Society, IX. 195.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

Chapter II.

Production.

Minerals.
Iron.

CHAPTEE IL

PRODUCTION.^

- Neas the Sahyadris, in twenty villages of Javl!> thirty of
Pdtan^ and three of the Shirdla petty division of V^lva, iron ore
is found in the murum or crumbled trap below the laterite.^
Till within the last thirty years the iron ore was smelted by
a class of Musalmd,ns called Dhavads. In fixing where to dig
for ore the Dhavads looked first to the presence on the surface
of small lime nodules or pieces of hankar of the size of a masm
bean. The next best sign of ore was a heavy blackish-yellow
earth. When a spot was fixed for a mine, a round pit was dug
about four feet in diameter and six to ten feet deep. The
digging employed four Dhavads for three days. While digging,
the Dhavads cut small holes in the pit side, to serve as steps in
going up and down the pit. Under the soil the iron ore was
traced by digging towards parts where, in the first layer the earth
was mixed with small round stones, in the second layer with
reddish murum, in the third layer with whitish murum, and in
the fourth layer with yellowish murum. In the fifth layer, at
a depth of six to ten feet, the earth was generally sandy, and small
nodules of iron ore were found. As these layers did not always
lie one below the other the digging seldom passed straight down
like a well. After the pit was dug, the ore was taken out of it
in baskets with the help of ropes and the steps cut in the pit-
side. From the pit the ore was brought to the smelting place in
the form of nodules. Before they were smelted the iron nodules
were burnt in a kiln in the same way as lime nodules. They were
then moved from the kiln, and, with iron hammers, pounded to
pieces about the size of gram-peas. To smelt the powdered ore a
pit was dug about a foot in diameter and a foot and a half deep,
and round the pit was built a wall about two feet high made of

1 Most of this chapter is contributed by Mr. J, W. P. Muir-Mackenzie, C.S.

2 The twenty villages of Jivli are Ahir, Bhekavli, Deur, Gavdbosi, Indavli,
Jnngti, Kdrgaon, Kas, Kusavd6, Machutor, Mahdbaleshvar near the Tadil stream,
Malcolmpeth, Malusar, Mauji, Pdli, Pimpri, Rula, TAkdvli, VAsota, and Vela. Of
these villages, six, Bhekavli, Machutor, Mahdbaleshvar, Milloolmpeth, Malusar, and
Mauji, are on the Hahibaleshvar hills. The thirty villages of PAtan are Aval, Atoli,
Chapher, Dioholi, Dhokovle, Ghanbi, GhitmAtha, Gojigaon, Gokul, Kumbh^rli,
Humbarna, KaranjvAda, Karvat, Kasni, Kense, Kisrula, Kondhavla, Kusavdi,
Maneri, NAvji , Niknur, Palshi, PAnchgani, PAneri, Rasota, Eisvad, Sator, Shirsinga,
Tona, and Vatola. The three villages of Shirdla are Chandoli, Gava, and Kandhiva.

Deccan]

SAtARA. 29

powdered flint mixed with white earth. At the bottom of the wall Chapter II.
was a hole about a foot in diameter. Through this hole a tube, p ": — ..
nearly a foot long, and made of ground flint and clay, together ^° ""^ ^°^'

with two hand bellows was fixed in the wall, and the hole was Minerals.

closed. At the bottom of the furnace powdered charcoal or earth ^'^on.

was laid to collect the smelted ore. The furnace was filled with ten
parts of charcoal to one part of powdered ore, and heated till the
ore melted. The charcoal was of the wood of the anjan Memecylon
tinctorium,gfe/ieZaRandia dumetorum, jdmbhul Syzigiumjambolanum,
and umhar Picus glomerata, as these kinds of timber give strong
and lasting heat. When the iron was melted while still red-hot the
metal was taken out and hammered into a ball. Ffty to eighty
pounds of powdered ore yielded five or six pounds of iron. It
answered well for common field tools. Every part of the process was
carried out by the Dhavads. If dug and smelted by paid labour,
forty pounds of iron would cost the workers 10.s\ to 12s. (Es. 5 - 6),
and would fetch 15s. to 16s, (Rs. 7^-8). The Dhavads worked the
iron into axes, sickles, griddles, pans, and other tools and vessels,
most of which were bought in the Dhavads' villages by traders from
Wdi, Sdtd.ra, and Poona. The Dhavad iron workers, though Musal-
mdns in name, worship Hindu gods. They keep Musalman holidays
and at birth marriage and death follow Musalmdn customs. They
are strong and robust, speak a rough Mar^thi and Hindustani,
and eat most kinds of animal food, even the flesh of dead buffaloes
oxen and cows. Of late, partly from the want of fuel and partly
from the cheapness of imported iron, the Dhavads have given up
smelting. At present (1883) they live as labourers chiefly by road-
making and myrobalan-gathering. Some of them are active snake-
killers and often claim the monthly reward of £5 (Rs. 50) sanctioned
in the Satara and Jdvli treasuries at l^d. (1 a.) a snake.

Prom its nearness to the Sahyddris and the rocky nature of Stone.

much of its soil the district is well supplied with stone for building
and for road metal. The prevailing stone is trap in the plains and
laterite on the hills. The trap is dark in colour and weighs 180 to
185 pounds the cubic foot. It is a hard compact stone well suited for
niasonrypurposes, and, except whenithasbeen exposed to the weather,
is not generally difficult to work. Masons, as a rule, prefer freshly
quarried stones to stones which have been exposed to the air for
any length of time. The cost of blasting trap is 7s. to 8s.(Rs.3|-4)
the hundred cubic feet. Trap coursed masonry costs £1 12s. to
£3 10s. (Es.16-35) the hundred cubic feet, the more expensive sorts
being used almost solely for large bridges. Pacing stones cost 12s.
to 16s. (Rs. 6-8) the hundred, bond or through stones two and a
half feet long each of a cubic foot and a half, cost £1 (Rs. 10) the
hundred ; stones three feet long each of two cubic feet cost £1 8s.
(Rs. 14) the hundred; and corner stones cost £1 4s. to £1 8s.
(Rs.12-14) the hundred cubic feet. Chisel-dressed arch work of
trap costs about £8 (Rs. 80) the hundred cubic feet, arch facing
stones about £2 10s. (Rs. 25), and arch corner stones about £1 12s.
(Rs.l6). Trap rubble costs 4s. to7s. (Rs.2-3|)thehundredcubicfeet.
Laterite can be blasted at 3s. to 4s. (Rs. 1| - 2) the hundred cubic
feet. It is softer than trap and is easily worked with a tool like a half

[Bombay Gazetteer>

DISTRICTS.

Chapter II.
Production.

Minerals.
Stone.

Eoad Metal.

Sand,

Lime Stone.

Clay.

Salt,

pickaxe. Laterite hardens in the air and makes a good building stone,
but, as it is porous, if the walls are exposed to much wet, the outer
surface should be plastered. Laterite is use:5ul for small road drains,
but, as it soon wears, trap corner stones are generally required. Only
very hard laterite is used for large culverts. Almost all the
Mahabaleshvar and Pdnchgani houses are built of laterite as a very
good quality of this stone abounds on the hill top. Good laterite
masonry costs about £2 (Es. 20) the hundred cubic feet.

The metal used for making and mending roads is trap in the
plains costing about 9s. (Rs. 4^) the hundred cubic feet, and laterite
on the hills costing 3s. to 4s. (Rs. 1^-2) the hundred cubic feet.
Trap is the better material and alone wears well under heavy traffic.
Laterite binds well, and is good metal for roads with light traffic.
Besides trap and laterite, murum or crurtibled. trap is largely used
for roads. Murum is found overlying solid rock, sometimes on
the surface and sometimes at some depth under black soil. It is
either gray or reddish brown. The reddish brown is the better
variety. AVhen dug it comes away in flakes and large nodules and
makes a good fine-weather road surface. Murumed roads become
very heavy in wet weather and very dusty in dry weather.

Sand of good quality is found in the beds of all large streams on
the plains, the cost varying from Is. to 6s. (Rs.^-3) the hundred
cubic feet according to the distance it has to be carried. On the
hills where sand is not found ground laterite is used instead of sand.

Lime stone is found all over the district in the plains, especially
near Wdi. It is either nodular called kankar, or it occurs in seams
along river banks. Kankar, if properly burnt, makes good mortar,
but the river seams yield the best lime for building. As stronger
materials are abundant lime stone is not used as a road metal. As
it is seldom found on the hills, lime is sent from Wdi to the stations
of Mahabaleshvar and Panchgani. The lime nodules or kankar used
in the Tarli bridge when analysed were found to contain, out of
100 parts, 12-00 of clay, 0-40 of sand, 1-40 of oxide of iron, 8470
of carbonate of lime, and 1*50 of carbonate of magnesia. The lime
from seams used at the Varna bridge contained 14-60 parts of clay,
4 of sand, 2 of oxide of iron, 78 of carbonate of lime, and 1'40 of
carbonate of magnesia. The lime, which is supposed to have been
used in building the Pratapgad f ort contains 51-80 parts of lime, 3-13
of iron and alumina, 2-59 of silica, 2-26 of magnesia, 35'32 of carbonic
acid, 3-57 of sulphuric acid, and 133 of moisture.

Good clay for bricks and tiles is found in nearly all river banks.
Wai, Bavdhan, Mahuli, and Karad are known for their bricks and
tiles, the bricks costing 9s. to 14s. (Rs. 4^ - 7) the thousand, and the
tiles 7s. to 10s. (Rs. 3| - 5). Ridge tiles cost about 10s. (Rs. 5) the
hundred. Besides bricks and tiles, earthen vessels are made of the
local black soil mixed with sand.

Before 'the Jpassing of the salt act. Act VII of 1873, considerable
quantities of salt were produced in Man in the north-east of the
district, A whitish surface soil called karal was gathered into
heaps. Water was poured on the heaps till they were turned to
liquid mud, and the mud was drained through an opening into

Deccau.]

sAtIra.

pits dug close by. The liquid was boiled in a large caldron,
like those used for boiling sugarcane juice, until there remained
nothing but small crystals of salt, which the poorer classes used
and called mengemith. About forty pounds (20 shers) of the
liquid produced six or eight pounds (3 or 4 shers) of salt. The salt
was bitter and greatly inferior to sea salt. The manufacture still
continues in the states of Atpddi and Phaltan and a good deal is
imported into Mdn and sold at forty to sixty pounds (20 to 30 shers)
the rupee.

The^ Sdtara forests have an area of 662^ square miles or 13'8 per
cent of the whole district. Almost the whole area is hill land.
The forest lands are scattered over the whole district, and are
much broken by private and cultivated land. In the west the belt
of evergreen forest along the line of the Sahyddris is divided into
six forest ranges, Wai, Sdtara, Jd,vli, Mahdbaleshvar, Patau, and
Vdlva.^ These six forest ranges are fairly compact and have little
cultivated land. The seven eastern forest ranges, Khandd,la, Karad,
Khdnapur, Man, Khatav, Koregaon, and Tasgaon, are bare hills
with here and there a little scrub and teak. In the eastern ranges
the forest land is much mixed with private and cultivated tracts.

In 1872 the Siti,rsb forests were separated from the Poona forests
and made a distinct charge. Between 1872 and 1 878, besides one clerk
and two messengers costing £55 4s. (Rs. 552) a year for the office of
the assistant conservator, a staff of three foresters at a yearly cost of
£108 (Rs. 1080), and of twenty-four guards at a yearly cost of £225
12s. (Rs. 2256) was entertained and temporary hands were engaged
for broken periods. Since 1878 the staff has been (1883-84) raised
to twelve permanent foresters and twenty-four guards costing £633
12s. (Rs. 6336) a year. The permanent staff is supplemented by a
temporary establishment of 186 guards costing £1659 12s. (Rs. 16,596)
a year. The temporary establishment is kept throughout the year,
and, except that service in it does not count for pension, does not differ
from the permanent staff. Besides these establishments there are
two officers of whom one on £540 (Rs. 5400) a year is a district
forest officer with an office establishment of three clerks and three
messengers costing £88 16s. (Rs. 888) a year, and the other is an
assistant district forest officer with a temporary office establishment
of one clerk and two messengers costing £247 4s. (Rs. 2472) a
year. The office establishment of the forest settlement officer
includes two clerks, two surveyors, and four messengers, and costs
£352 8s. (Rs. 3524) a year. In 1883-84 the forest charges
amounted to £3521 12s. (Rs. 35,216).

The Satdra forest lands belong to three groups, the evergreen
Sahyd,dri forest lands, the slopes of the spurs that run east from the

Chapter II
Production.

Salt.

Forests.

Staff-,

Description,

' Except demarcation which ia contributed by Mr. J. W. P. Muir-Mackenzie, 0. S.,
the forest section has been compiled from materials supplied by Mr. H.
Mainwaring, District Forest Officer, and from the Annual Administration Reports.

2 The Mahibaleshvar forests within five miles from MAlcolmpeth, including the
reserves of fifty-six villages of JAvli and of nine villages of WAi, were under the
superintendent of Mahdbaleshvar till May 1878 and were then made over to the
SAtdra district forest officer. Gov. Res. 2784 of 30th May 1 878.

[Bombay Gazetteer,
32 DISTEICTS.

Chapter it- Sahyadris, and the bare or bust-sprinkled hills to the east of
Production. *^® Krishna. The evergreen forests of the Sahyadri range form
a belt along the west of the district six to fourteen miles broad.
Forests. These forests extend through the whole length of the district from

Description. g^^j, ^ ^j^g ^^^^^ to Kolhapur in the south. They stretch almost
withoub a break through the whole of this distance and are not
much broken by tillage. They contain many trees valuable both
for timber and as firewood. The chief of these are jdmhhul
Eugenia jambolanum, anjan Memecylon tinctorium, ain Tprminalia
glabra, umbar Ficus glomerata, kenjal Terminalia paniculata,
hirda Terminalia chebula, phanas Artocarpus integrifolia, ndna
Lagerstreemia parviflora, and bamboos. As they form the catchment
basin of the Krishna and several of its chief feeders, the
Vena, Urmodi, Tarli, Koyna, and Varna, it is important that
the slopes of these hills should be covered with wood. On
account of the difficulty of transport the Sahyadri forests yield
little revenue. The forest lands are crossed by two highways, the
Kard.d-Chiplun and the Mahdbleshvar-Mahad roads. Numerous
tracks also lead to the Konkan which are used by villagers and small
traders who bring up the produce of the Konkan on pack bullocks.
Of the second group of forest lands a considerable portion of the
slopes of the spurs which branch east from the Sahyadris is covered,
with teak mixed with brushwood. Teak is not common on the
lower slopes of the western sections of these spurs. It gradually
thins in the upper slopes and in all parts of the hill sides towards
the eastern ends of the spurs. These teak forests are much broken
by patches of cultivated land. The third group of forest lands, the
bare or bush-sprinkled hills to the east of the Krishna, includes
the south slopes of the Mahddev hills bordering the north of the
district, and the two ranges which run north and south parallel to
the Krishna and separated from one another by the valley of the
Yerla. The westerly sections of these hills have some scrub and in
places a few teak trees. Further east vegetation grows less, until,
in their eastern sections, many of these ranges are bare rocks.
That these rocks were once less bare of trees is shown by isolated
temple groves. These groves occasionally occur in spots specially
suited for trees, but they are also sometimes found in exposed open
hiir sides in no way differing in character or position from many
surrounding treeless tracts. It seems probable that much of the hill
sides was once wooded and that those patches alone remain which
were the dwellings of gods and therefore might not be cut.
In the east and north-east of the district both the Yerla aud the
Mdn and the streams which feed them run dry in the hot weather.
Since 1877-78 much tree seed has been sown broadcast in all the
ranges. The result in the west is fair. In the east, of the seedlings'
which sprang up many have failed to live through the hot weather.
In spite of these difiiculties partly from seedlings, but chiefly from
guarding the self-sown growth of underwood, greenness is slowly
spreading over many patches -of hill side.^

1 Administration Eeport of 1878-79 para 24,'and 1880-81 page 16.

Deccan.]

satAra.

Shortly before the annexation of Sdtdra (1847) it was brought to
the notice of Giovernment that the Sd,tdra mountain ranges were
peculiarly bare of trees. The conseryator Dr. Gibson remarked
that this barrenness was in a measure peculiar to the Sdtdra territory,
and that it was due to the carelessness of the Sdtd,ra chiefs. The
Peshwds had been strict in preserving trees and in British districts
the Peshwa's policy had, to some extent, been followed. Though
careless of forests the Sdtdra chiefs everywhere maintained the
royalty in teak, sandalwood, and blackwood. Here and there
special reserves known as kurans were kept chiefly near head-quarters
and in the teak-growing tracts. In the Sahyddris certain parts were
reserved for thick forest by order of the Maratha Government,
occasionally near forts apparently to make them less accessible and
sometimes for the shelter of villages from the storms of the south-
west monsoon. Almost every Sahyddri village had its sacred grove
and often other thick ' bits of forest reserved by the villagers
themselves. These last were usually in inaccessible situations where
wood-ash tillage was unprofitable and which were used as palm
nurseries and perhaps for fuel and building timber. Over the rest
of the hills wood-ash tillage had entirely cleared high forest. Prom
1860 to 1862, at the introduction of the survey settlement, the
opportunity was taken to set apart considerable forest reserves. In
all of these reserves grazing was allowed either free or on payment,
but it was specially stipulated that the numbers were set apart for the
growth of trees. As under the survey system the assessment was
calculated on the principle of continuous payment, the amount was
fixed at a very low rate generally ^d. to 4|d. (2-3 as.) the acre.
Wood-ash tillage requires long periods of fallow. The cultivators
therefore found it to their immediate interest to take all the land
they could get at the low rates and throw it up when the fallow
periods came round under the impression that their lands would
then be reserved and the reserves opened to them for cultivation
when the lands had recovered. When they found that the land
was not again offered to them the cultivators were in great trouble,
and to prevent distress it was found necessary to allot more land for
wood-ash tillage. Fresh grants were made between 1868 and 1872
by Messrs Spence and Wilson. In time these lands also became
exhausted, and in 1875 Messrs. Shuttleworth and Winter entered
upon a joint demarcation to consolidate the forest and provide lands
for wood-ash tillage. In 1878 a change was made in the forest
policy of Government. It was decided that the need for increased
forest conservancy was urgent to protect soil from being washed
away ; for the storage of water at the sources of great rivers ; and
on general considerations of climate and rainfall. It was decided
that wood-ash tillage should be restricted and the infliction of some
hardship on the agriculturists faced for these ends. After the
introduction of the Forest Act all waste land in the Sahyddris and
a considerable area in the plains was formally proclaimed reserved
forest. The area thus notified was 594,606 acres. It soon came to
light that much of this waste was unsuited for forest, and that to
keep it as forest would be injurious to cultivation without yielding
any corresponding advantage. A large area of wastt3 suitable for

B 1282—5

Chapter II
Production.

• POKESTS.

Demarcation.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

DISTRICTS.

Chapter II-

Produotion.

Forests.
Demarcation,

Timber Trade.

forest bat not proclaimed, remained in the east of the district.
In parts of the Sahyd,dris the hardship caused by the stricter
policy proved unbearable, while everywhere the enforcement of the
new forest Act was impossible as the people had hitherto been
allowed to take many kinds of forest produce without interference.
The result was that in 1880 an assistant collector was appointed to
determine the rights existing in proclaimed forest lands and to
recommend how claims not amounting to rights should be dealt
with. The final proposals of the demarcation and settlement officer
for all but three sub-divisions remain only for report, and the whole
work of forest demarcation and settlement, except the acquisition
of certain lands eventually to be included in forest, will be finished
by the end of May 1885. Besides settling forest rights the assistant
collector was directed to make a final demarcation of the forest
lands, where necessary to recommend the exclusion of lands already
proclaimed forest, and to consolidate forest blocks by exchange,
or, if exchange was not possible, by purchase. Regard was to be
had both to the interests of cultivation and of forest conservancy.
In the parts of the SahyMris where distress was found to prevail,
land was to be allotted for wood-ash tillage regulated on a fixed
system of most troublesome rotation. The demarcation of the
part of the wood-ash tract was completed in 1881, that of the rest
of the district was systematically begun in 1882, during the latter
half of which exchanges were negotiated all over the district. In
1883 the final demarcation line was fixed and sanctioned by
Government for the sub-divisions of Wdi, Satdra, and Jdvli. Of
148,964 acres proclaimed forest in 1879, 4242 acres were to be
excluded ; the forest area was to be increased by 11,283 acres part
available and part to be obtained by purchase or exchange, and the
final limit of the forest area of these three sub-divisions was put at
200,627 acres or 313^ square miles. Government at the same time
sanctioned the settlement of rights in the proclaimed reserves and
decided what privileges should be continued and under what
restrictions. The rights admitted included rights of way, and access
to springs, temples, and watercourses. The privileges allowed were
grazing and gathering dead wood, thorns, and other minor forest
products.

The chief timber trade is in teak rafters. The trade is small.
It is only to meet the demand for timber required for local
house building. When they have no other work a few cartmen
buy small quantities of timber and carry it for sale to the
different timber markets. The timber dealers are chiefly
Mar^thds, and a few are Musalman Bohor^s. The largest teak rafters
grown in the district are not above one or 1^ feet in diameter at the
base. All larger timber has to be imported. The average prices
obtained at the auction sales vary according to size from £1 to £4
(Rs. 10-40) the hundred rafters. There is always a demand for
firewood from the east of the district, but the forest lands are so
bare of trees that the demand cannot always be supplied. A fire-
wood store has been established at the hill station of Mahdbaleshvar
to supply residents and visitors. The price charged is 2s, 6d.

Deccan.]

Si.Ti.RA.

(Rs. li) the khandi of 784 pounds. At Mah^balealivar inferior
rafters known as raival, that is building timber other than teak,
fetch a fair price and are used in building and repairing the station
bungalows. Of minor forest produce the chief is the myrobalan
berry the fruit of the hirda or Terminalia chebula. Since 1879 the
myrobalan has become a source of profit to Government, This tree
is found in the evergreen Sahyadri forests. The fruit is gathered
by the villagers and brought by them to Government stores where
they are paid Is. 3|c?. to Is. 9d. (10^ - 14 as.) the hundredweight. It
is dried and sold by auction to merchants who export it largely to
Europe where it is used in tanning and dyeing. During the four
years ending 1882 about 1088 tons (3102 khandis) ofmyrobalans
were gathered at a cost of £2155 (Rs. 21,550), and sold at £4592
(Rs. 45,920), leaving a profit of £2437 (Rs. 24,370) .i In 1883 hardly
any myrobalans were gathered, as the crop was wholly destroyed
by locusts who eagerly devoured the hirda blossom.

The district has no special forest tribes. The villagers in the
Sahyadri forests are Kunbis, Dhangars, Mhd,rs, and Dhavads. The
first three live by wood-ash or humri tillage and by keeping cattle ;
the Dhavads live by labour. The day's wages given to villagers
employed in cutting timber vary from 3|cJ. to 4jc?. (2-3 as,). At
these rates teak rafters can be cut by the forest department at about
5s. to &s. (Rs. 2|-3) the hundred and firewood at Is. (8 as.) the Jchandi
of 784 pounds.

Exceptin 1872 and 1878 when receipts were unusually low, during
the thirteen years ending 1882-83, receipts have risen from £2261
(Rs. 22,610) in 1870-71 to £6010 (Rs. 60,100) in 1882-83, and charges
from £1055 (Rs. 10,550) in 1870-71 to £5276 (Rs. 52,760) in 1882-83.
For four years between 1878-79 and 1881-82 the forest department
worked at a loss on account of the large establishment which was
required to protect the forest lands and the small area which at present
yields saleable timber. Since the 1876-77 famine the demand for
timber has increased, the number of pieces of teak sold having risen
from 13,119 in 1878-79 to 32,619 in 1882-83. There is also a good
local demand for fuel. But in the present bare state of so much
of the forest lands many years must pass before any considerable
forest revenue can be expected. In 1882-83, in spite of the largo
establishment, the forest lands yielded a profit of £734 (Rs. 7340).
The details of forest receipts and charges during the thirteen years
ending 1882-83 are :

Chapter II.

Production

Forests,
Timber Trade,

Forest Tribes.

Finance.

' The detaila are :

Sitira Myrobulcms, 1879 -ISSi.

Yeae.

Produce.

Cost.

Sale.

Profit.

1879

1880

1881

1882

Total ..

Shandis

480

1066

711

865

890
696
468
601

864
1162
1105
1461

474
406
637
860

3102

2165

4592

2437

DISTRICTS.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

Chapter II.
Production.

Forests.

Finance.

Sdtdra Forests, 1870-71 - 1882-83.

Field Trees.

Domestic
Animals.

Oxen.

Oows and
Buffaloes.

Horses.

Year.

Re-
ceipts.

Charges

Reve-
nue.

Year.

Ee-

ceipta.

Charges

Reve-
nue.

Ks.

Eg.

Rg.

Rs.

1870-71

22,613

10,549

13,064

1877-78

34,460

18,963

-H5607

1871-72

23,658 10,431

18,227

1878-79

24,971

34,489

—9617

1872-73

11,868

11,166

632

1879-80

40,644

44,273

—3729

1873-74

33,884

13,630

20,254

1880-81

45,32a

48,652

—3387

1874-75

39,636

11,760

27,886

1881-82

49,944

63,787

—3848

1875-76

40,315

18,260

22,065

1882-83

60,105

62,760

-1-7345

1876-77...' ...

38,360

11,576

26,785

The cultivated parts of the district have but a thin sprinkling of
trees. Most large villages and towns have mangoe groves near
them, but the fields and hedges have few trees except occasional
teak and bdbhul near waste land. The only parts of the district
where timber has been encouraged and cared for are along the road-
sides, most of which are shaded by fine avenues of bdbhul mangoe
and fig.i

According to the Collector's 1882 stock returns the district
farm stock included 246,921 oxen, 152,640 cows, 115,311 buffaloes,
13,390 horses, 425,374 sheep and goats, 4394 asses, and a few pigs
and mules.

The Oxen, returned at 246,921, are of two breeds, the local and
the khilldri. The khilldri. hnWocks are said to come from the east.
Both breeds are used for field purposes. The khilldri, though the
larger and more muscular animal, is somewhat delicate and does not
live so long as the local bullock. A common khilldri bullock will sell
for £5 (Rs.50), in the cattle market of Mhasvad in Mdn good ones
sell for £10 (Rs.lOO), and in parts of the district a choice animal
fetches as much as £20 (Rs.200). The tiny quick-running Surat
bullocks are occasionally seen in light riding carts. Except a few
from the Bhima valley oxen are seldom imported.

There is no special breed of Cows or of Buffaloes. It is said
that Surat cows were imported a century ago. Cows and she-
buffaloes are used for their milk only, except when necessity compels
their use for field purposes. He-buffaloes and oxen are used for
draught. The price of a good cow varies from £2 to £4 (Rs. 20-40)
and of a good she-buffalo from £3 to £4 (Rs.30-40). The skins of
buffaloes, oxen, and cows are used by Chambhd,rs and Dhors for
making shoes, thongs, and water-bags. Buffalo meat is little
eaten by Musalmslns ; but Mhars and M^ngs, who have a right to
the carcasses of dead buffaloes, eat almost every part of them.
Large herds of buffaloes are often seen on the Sahyadris in charge
of a single boy or girl. They are driven at night into enclosures
hedged with rough posts generally five or six feet' high. In other
parts of the district the cows and buffaloes live either close to or
inside of their owner's house.

Few of the people own Horses. Except by chiefs and the
wealthier land proprietors the animals ridden by the people of the
district are seldom more than ponies. The valley of the M^

I A list of Sritdra forest trees is given in the Appendix,

Deocau]

satara.

used to be famous for its horses, but all interest in horse-breeding
has died out. In 1878 Government set apart three stud horses for
Sdtara but little use was made of them, fifty mares were served and
only six foals were produced. The Collector complained that the
mares brought were unfit for breeding and that the higher classes
were indifferent to horse-breeding. During the three years ending
1877-78 no chief or proprietor had made use of any of the Government
horses. In 1883 the results were a little better. Of thirty-nine
mares served ten were in foal. Up to 1878, to encourage horse-
breeding, horse shows Were held in February at Pingli about two
miles south of Dahivadi, and in December at Mhasvad fifteen miles
east of Dahivadi. The animals shown were unsatisfactory both in
number and quality and these shows have been (1883) discontinued.
A weekly cattle fair is held at Belavd.de in Kardd where a consider-
able number of horses and ponies are sold. A few animals are
brought from the Bhima valley ; none leave the district.

Sheep and Goats, returned at 425,347, are bred locally. Few
sheep or goats either come into the district or leave it. The price
of a sheep varies from about 2s. to 6s. (Rs. 1-3). They are chiefly
reared by the Dhangars in the east of the district. These with the
Sangars, a branch of the same caste, use the wool of their sheep in
weaving kamblis or coarse blankets, which is one of the largest
industries in the district. Sheep's milk is said to be drunk chiefly
by shepherds and seldom by husbandmen, who rarely take it
except as a cure for colds. Sir Bartle Frere, while Commissioner
in Satdra in 1849, introduced some sheep from KhAndesh, but
the cross breed was too delicate, was never popular, and has
died out. Goats are valued chiefly for their milk. One breed of
goat, found all over the district, yields long hair which Dhangars
work into country ropes. Surat goats are occasionally imported for
their milk. Sheep and goats are pastured almost solely by Dhan-
gars. During the rains they are kept in the east of the district
feeding on waste numbers or on grass lands. As the dry season
advances, the shepherds move west to the pastures on and near the
Sahyadris. Sheep manure is highly valued by the holders of rich
soil, who pay the owners of flocks either in money or grain to pen
their animals on particular fields. Sheep and goats are lawful food
to almost all Satara Hindus, except Brahmans, Sonars, Guravs,
and Sutd,rs. Some well-to-do Musalmdns and in rare cases Kuubis
eat mutton daily. As a rule meat is eaten only on such great days
as the Dasara in October and at marriages and other family fes-
tivities. Goats and sheep are occasionally offered to the gods. Sheep
skins and goat skins are used for making ropes, thongs, and shoes, and
goat skins for the sounding boards of various musical instruments,
and their intestines for string. The usual mode of guarding sheep
,and goats at night is by a hedge of thorns, or by a long net
stretched and supported by stakes driven into the ground, while
men and dogs watch against thieves and wild beasts.

Pigs are kept for eating by Vaddars and Kaikadis. Donkeys are
kept as pack animals by some Vd,nis and Kumbhdrs and also by
Vaddars. Mules are used sparingly as pack animals, and camels aro

Chapter II
Production

DOMBSTia

Animals.
Morses.

Sheep and
Qoats.

[Bombay Gazetteei",

DISTRICTS.

Chapter II.
Frodnction.

Wild Animals.

rarely seen. Dogs abound in every village and are used for herding
sheep. None are of good breed. Except Brahmans, almost all
classes rear hens. The eggs and more rarely the hens are sold in
the local markets. Ducks and pigeons are occasionally kept and
some Musalmans rear geese.

In the west near the Sahyddris chiefly in the Koyna valley and
the hills of the Mala pass are found the Tiger, Felis tigris, vdgh j the
Panther, Felis pardus, hihla vdgh; the Bear, Ursus labiatus, dsoal;
the Sdmbar, Rusa aristotelis, sdmbar ; the Spotted Deer, Axis
maculatus, chittal ; the Ribfaced or Barking Deer, Cervulus aurseus,
hhenhar ; the Hog Deer, Axis porcinus, fdra ; and the Bison, Gravseus
gaurus, gava. In the east are the Hyena, Hy^na striata, taraa ; the
Wolf, Oanis pallipes, Idndga ; the Fox, Vulpes bengalensis, khokad;
the Leopard, Felis jubata, chitta; the Antelope or Black Buck,Antelope
bezoartica, Mlvit; and the Chinkd.ra or Indian Gazelle, Grazelle
bennettii, mdlsand. Common to both east and west are the Hare,
Lepus nigricollis, sasa ; the Porcupine, Hystria lenoura, sd/ydl ; the
Monkey, Presbytis entellus, vdnar or md/cad ; the Hog, Sus indicus,
dukar ; and the Wild Cat, comprising the Civet, Viverra malaccensis,
javddimdnjar, and the Common Tree Cat, Paradoxurus musanga, ud.
Neither tigers nor panthers are so numerous as to do much damage,
though occasionally man-eating tigers appear, and, owing to their
exceeding cunning and the large forests of the Koyna valley, are
very difficult to destroy. Of late years bison have increased in the
forests on the Mala pass hills, but they seldom come north of Helvak
though they were formerly found in the neighbourhood of Mahdbal-
eshvar. A bull bison was shot on Mahabaleshvar in 1873. Sdmbar
have also increased in the Mala pass forests as the forest area is so
large that it is nearly impossible to drive them out. They have
almost ceased in the woodlands to the north of Helvdk as the villagers
of that tract have killed large numbers by netting. The nets are
laid in the sdmbar's runs and a line of men form, and, starting from
the nets, beat the forest away from the nets. The sdmbar, imagining
that they are being driven to people armed with guns, break through,
the line of beaters and rush into the nets where they are killed by
men hid near. Almost every village has these nets which are about
twelve feet high and twenty feet long. Though the people kill does
and fawns, the spread of reserved forests has been yearly increasing
the number of sdmbar. Bears are not numerous. They do no harm,
and, except when they have young ones or are suddenly surprised, are
never known to attack man. They feed on roots and berries and on
white ants. Wilddogs kill many spotted and small deer, and the people
say that they will hunt down and kill tigers. No case of a tiger
being killed by wild dogs is known to have occurred in Sd,tdra. In
the east the antelope or black buck used to be common ; but their
numbers of late have greatly decreased. The best ground for black
buck shooting is between PusesAvli in Khatdv and Kadegaon in
Khanapur. A good many of the people have guns, which, when
they are not using, they lend to Ramoshis and does and fawns
are killed indiscriminately. The shikdris or hunters too, take many
by nooses laid on the ground and also with the help of tame
bucks. They fasten nooses to the horns of the tame bucks and let

Deccan]

sItAra.

them go. The wild bucks in fighting with the tame ones, entangle
their horns in the nooses and are caught. The chinkdra or Indian
gazelle is found in small numbers in the hills about Mdn. Wolves
and hyenas are mostly found in the hills round Khand.pur,
and in the range between Phaltan and Khatav. Even there they
are scarce. Many licenses to keep guns have been granted for
their destruction, but neither wolves nor hyenas are often shot.
According to yearly returns of wild- animals, during the eight
years ending 1882, 294 persons were killed by wild animals, of
whom twenty -three were killed by tigers, twenty-eight by other
animals, and 243 by snakes ; the number of cattle killed by wild
animals was 661, of whom 589 were killed by tigers and leopards,
and seventy-two by other wild animals and snakes. During the
same eight years, of the wild animals killed for Governmeat rewards
thirty-four tigers were killed for £73 12s. (Rs. 736), ninety-three
leopards for £82 10s. (Rs. 825), and 164,826 snakes for £1027 12s.
(Rs. 10,276). The details of wild animals killed are : fl-fe tigers,
seven leopards, and 12,506 snakes in 1875 ; four tigers, four leopards,
and 9980 snakes in 1876 ; eight tigers, ten leopards, and 16,483
snakes in 1877 ; three tigers, eleven leopards, and 7535 snakes in
1878 ; two tigers, eleven leopards, and 15,645 snakes in 1879 ; one
tiger, thirteen leopards, and 43,724 snakes in 1880; five tigers,
twenty-one leopards, and 38,712 snakes in 1881 ; and six tigers,
sixteen leopards, and 20,241 snakes in 1882.

The list of snakes given in the Poena Statistical Account applies ,
to Sdt^ra.

The Vena, Krishna, Koyna, and Vdrna have large pools that
hold water throughout the year and are fairly stocked with fish.
Rivers Hke the Mdn and Yerla which dry during the hot weather
have no fish of any considerable size. The best, or at least the
most frequently eaten fish, are the maral, malya, tdmbat, sMngdda,
and vdmb. The chief fishing castes are the Bhois and Kolis, and
Kunbis and Muhammadans fish for their own use. No class of
men live solely on their earnings as fishermen. The eating offish is
not uncommon among Musalmdns and most low caste Hindus. Fish
are caught by poisoning the water with the juice of the milkbush,
by large nets which are floated in the stream, and by small hand-
nets whose meshes are not more than three-quarters to one-eighth
of an inch in circumference. • Other modes of fishing, which are
occasionally practised, are by turning the stream into a large
basket or some other open receptacle, by throwing a dam across a
stream, or by throwing up large quantities of water in which fish are
also thrown up, and lastly by placing large earthen pobs in the
water and closing them when the fish enter. Fish are nearly always
sold fresh, and from house to house ; few are sold in the markets.
In some places fish are preserved as sacred animals. In other
places people fish where they please, though there seems to be an
understanding that each village has a prior right to the fishing within
its own limits and from its own river banks.

The following notes on the birds of the district are contributed
by Mr. G.Vidal, C.S. as a supplement to Dr. Fairbank's Popular List
of the Birds found in the Mardtha country :

Chapter II.
Production.

Wild Animals .

Snakes.

Fish.

BiKDS.

[Bombay Gazetteer.

DISTRICTS.

Chapter II.
Production-

BlEDS.

Game Bikds. The common Sandgrouse, Pterocles exustus^ is plen-
tiful but P. fasciatus the Painted &rouse is rare. The abode of the
Sandgrouse is in the east, and its food consists in great part of the
seeds of the common thistle. The Painted Partridge, Prancolinus
pictus, is common in the south-east of the district, about Tasgaon
and Jath, and is generally found in sugai-cane. The common Gray
Partridge, Ortygornis pondicerianus, is also found. Neither Gray
Coturnix communis, nor Rain Qaail 0. coromandelica, are plentiful
in the district, and they scarcely repay pursuit in the cold weather.
In February and March after the rabi or late crops have been
reaped, they take to the rivers and find shelter in the tamarisk
bushes in the beds and on the banks of the larger streams. On tbe
Nira and parts of the Krishna fair bags may be obtained. Rain Quail
breed in September in the long grass of the meadows or Tcurans
round the city of Sd,td.ra ; Gray Quail are believed not to breed in the
district. Jungle Bush Quail, Perdicula asiatica, are common ia all
hills covered with scrub. The Indian Bustard, Eupodotis edwardsi,
is occasionally but rarely seen, and the Lesser Plorican, Sypheotides
auritus, is also extremely scarce. Of Plovers the Courier, Cursorius
coromandelicns, is very common in the eastern sub-divisions, while
Squatarola helvetica and Agialitis dubia the Gray and Indian Ringed
Plover are rare. The Stone Plover, CBdicnemus crepitans or indicus,
also known as the Bastard Florican, is common throughout the
district. The large Stone Plover, Scolopax recurvirostris, not no-
ticed in Dr. Pairbank's List, is found on the banks of the
Nira and probably of other large rivers in the cold months,
usually in parties of three. The Demoiselle Crane, Anthropoides
virgo, is the only common crane in the Satdra district. Prom
December to March they arefoundin vast flocksnearthe Nira,Krishna,
and Yerla rivers and on the large reservoir at M^yni. They are
wary birds, and difficult to approach except when feeding in the
early morning in kardai or safflower of which they are particularly
fond. The Phdnsi Pardhis, to whose devices most birds fall an easy
prey, are never able to entice the demoiselle crane into their nooses.
They generally roost sitting in a long single line on a bare plain close
to a river and guarded by sentinels on all sides. They seldom choose
the same spot two nights running. Occasionally they feed at nights,
especially during the early part of the cold weather when there are
many cultivators in the fields by day. Their fiight is remarkably
strong, and they always call loudly on the wing. There are very few
snipe grounds in the S^tara district though the Common Snipe,
Gallinago scolopacinus and the Jack Snipe, Gallinago gallinula, as
well as the Painted Snipe, Rhynchoea bengalensis, are occasionally
found. The best chance of a bag is near the Mayni, Pingli, and
Shingndpur reservoirs. The Bald Coot, Fulica atra, is found all over
the district. The Whitenecked Stork, Dissara episcopa, is very
common, and the Black Stork, Ciconia nigra, is found in the large
rivers in the cold season. Most of the herons and egrets mentioned
in Dr. Fairbank's List, except the Ashy Egret, Demi egretta
gularis, are found in the district. It is worthy of note that
Herodias garzetta, does not, as stated by Dr. Jerdon, lose its dorsal
train in the cold weather, although the Large Egret, Herodias torra

Deccan.]

SlTARA.

loses his. At the end of May the plume of the large egret is
splendid, a good specimen usually having forty or more long plumes.
The Cattle Egret, Bubulcus coromandus, and the Pond Heron, Ardeola
grayi, are handsome birds in their breeding plumage, the pond heron
witk its deep maroon train being completely transformed and
scarcely recognizable. Besides the above, the little Green Bittern
Butorides javanica, is common in all the Satdra rivers. The Chestnut
Bittern, A rdettacinnamomea, is much rarer. The Pelican Ibis Platalea
leucorodia, the Spoonbill Tantalus Leucocephalus, the White Ibis
Tbreskiornis melanocephalus, and the Wartyheaided Ibis, Iconotis
papillosus, are common in the larger Satdra rivers. The Shell Ibis,
Anastomus oscitans, is a rarer bird. The Glossy Ibis, Falcinellus
igneus omitted from Mr. Pairbank's List, is also frequently seen.
No geese visit the Satdra district. Of Ducks the Large Whistling Teal,
Dendrocygna major, is found on the Nira. The Ruddy Shieldrake,
Casarca rutila, also known as the Brdhmani Duck, M. sdraj, is common
on the Nira and Krishna. Of Ducks proper, the Shoveller Spatula
clypeata, the Gadwall Chaulelasmus streperus, the Widgeon Mareca
penelope, the Common Teal Querguedula crocca, and the Blue-
winged or Garganey Teal, Querquedula circia, are found scattered
throughout Sdtara in favourable localities.

Of birds other than game birds the following may be noticed. The
Scavenger Vulture, Neophron ginginianus, commonly called Pharao's
Chicken, is common in Satdra. A pair breed every year at Vita in
Kha.nd,pur producing a single egg. Of the Falcon class, the
Perigrine and Shahin Falcon, Falco perigrinus and perigrinator are
very rare; while the Redheaded Merlin or Turumti, Falco chiquera,
is fairly common all over Satdra. A nest with three young
cyesses has been found towards the end of February in a tamarind
tree overhanging the Krishna. The young birds were kept for
some time, but they were extremely vicious and wild and took the
first opportunity to escape. A Hawk Eagle, Spirsetus cirrhatus was
obtained in a large grove near Satara. Of the Harriers, the Pale
Harrier Circus mocrusus is the common variety. At Jath, a
hundred or more of these birds have been seen roosting together
on a bare plain. Haliastur indus, the Maroonbacked or Brdhmani
Kite is decidedly uncommon. Syrnium sinense or Bulaca ocellata,
the Mottled Wood Owl is the commonest of the large owls, and
Athene brama, the pingli, is the commonest of the Owlets. Bubo
bengalensis, the Rockhorned Owl, is also plentiful on all rivers.
The hatred of crows to this, as indeed to all owls, is remarkable.
A wounded owl may be followed for a mile or more, from tree to
tree, entirely by the angry clamour of pursuing crows. The
Hawk Owl, Ninox scutellatus, is not very uncommon along the
banks of the larger Satara stre^,ms. The Indian Roller, Coracias
indicus, does not leave the district till late in the hot season.
Several have been seen at the end of April. The Pied Kingfisher,
Ceryle rudis, M. machhimdr or disa, is the commonest species in
Satd,ra, and is a wonderfully familiar bird. It has been watched
frequently at Wai diving fearlessly at the bathing steps among and
within arm's reach of the bathers. Halcyon smyrnensis or fuscus,
the Whitecreste^ Kingfisher is common throughout the district.
E 1282—6

Chapter II
Production

Birds.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

Chapter II.
Production.

BlEDS.

DISTRICTS.

The Great Hornbillj Dichoceros cavatus, is occasionally seen in the
Koyna valley and in the west of the district, but not in the plains.
Satara people have an odd belief that the common Eoseringed
Paroquets, Palseornis torquatus, which build in holes in banyan or
pipal trees, are better talkers than those which build in mango
or any other trees. Of the Cuckoos the Koel, Bndynames orientalis
or honorata, is very common. The people say that it never alights
on the ground. They have an idea that its peculiar cry is a prayer for
rain to fill the leaves with water, probably because the koel's note is
much more frequent at the approach of the south-west rains than at
other times. Mr. Fairbank has omitted from his list of Honey-
suckers, Cinnyris zeylonica, the Amethyst-rumped Honeysucker
(Jerdon, 232), This bird is not uncommon in Satdra gardens.
A pair built their nest in September hanging to a slender twig of a
creeper in the porch of one of the houses. Of the Muscicapidse or
Flycatchers, Muscipeta paradisi, the Paradise Flycatcher is called
by hill Marathds hdnpahhree or the arrow bird and by Europeans
at Mahdbaleshvar the dhobi or washermen's bird. It is found
occasionally throughout the east of Sdtd,ra wherever there is
a grove of large trees. It is very wandering in its habits. Speci-
mens have been obtained in a state of transition from the chestnut
to the white plumage. The Redwhiskered Bnlbul, Otocompsa fasci-
caudata, replaces on the Sahyddris the common Madras Bulbul,
Pycnonotus hamorrhous, which is found only in the plains, iu the
same way as the Bluewinged Rosyheaded Parrakeets replace the
common Rosewinged species, Palfeornis torquatus. It is worthy of
note that birds of several allied species differ in the hills and in
the plains, and that the hill varieties are always brighter coloured
than the plain birds. Irena puella, the Fairy Blue Bird, has nob
been found in Satara. Oriolus kundu, the Indian Oriole, is found
throughout the west of the district. The Blackheaded Oriole is
rarely found to the east of the Sayhadri range though both species
appear equally distributed in the Koyna valley and in the western
Sahyadri belt. The Southern Yellow Tit, Machlolophus jerdoni, ig
found occasionally twenty miles or more east of the Sahyldris.

Deccan]

CHAPTER III.

PEOPLE.

AccoEDiNG to fcte 1881 census the population of the district was
lj062,350 or 212*98 to the square mile. Of these Hindus numbered
1,024,597 or 96-44 per cent ; Musalmd,DS 36,712 or 3-45 per cent ;
Christians 886 or 0-08 per cent j Pdrsis 99 ; Sikhs 29 ; Jews 21 ; and
Buddhists 6. The Buddhists were Chinese convicts now settled as
gardeners at Mahabaleshvar. The percentage of males on the total
population was 50-12 and of females 49-87. The corresponding
returns for 1872 were a total of 1,062^121 or 221-09 to the square
mile, of whom Hindus numbered 1,026,110 or 96-60 per cent;
Musalmans 35,034 or 3-29 per cent ; Christians 880 or O'OS per cent ;
Parsis 80; Sikhs 2 ; and Others 15. Compared with the 1872 returns
the 1881 returns show an increase of 229 or 0-02 per cent.

Of 1,062,350 the whole population 1,018,931 or 95-91 per cent
were born in the district. Of the 43,419 who were not bom in
the district, 14,934 were born in the Bombay Karnd,tak ; 9558 in
Kolhapur ; 4686 in Poona ; 4425 in the Konkan districts ; 3998
in Sholapur; 1137 in Gujarat; 760 in Bombay; 662 in the Rajput^na
States; 586 in the Nizditn's country; 445 in Ahmadnagar; 267 in
Goa, Din, and Daman; 215 in Madras ; 125inNasik; 90 in Khandesh ;
862 in other parts of India ; and 669 outside of India.

Of 1,062,350 the total population, 1,005,499 (503,127 males,
502,372 females) or 94-64 per cent spoke Mard,thi. Of the remain-
ing 56,851 persons, 34,891 or 3-28 per cent spoke Hindustani;
11,839 or 1*11 per cent spoke Kdnarese ; 4840 or 0-45 per cent spoke
Gujard.ti ; 3552 or 0"33 per cent spoke Telugu ; 926 or 0-08 per cent
spoke Marwdri; 396 or 0-03 per cent spoke English ; 350 or 0-03 per
cent spoke Portuguese-Konkani or Goanese ; 26 spoke Pashtu; 21
spoke Tamil ; 3 spoke Arabic ; 6 spoke Chinese ; 1 spoke French ;
and 1 spoke Sindhi. Except in Jath where the people speak both
Kdnarese and Marathi, and in Tdsgaon where the home-talk of
many people is Kd,narese, the language of the district is Marathi.
The only classes who are considered to speak correct or book
Mardthi are the Brdhmans, Prabhus, and Shenvis. Mar^th^s and
low caste people especially Mhars and Md,ngs use many technical
expressions and special words which are not known to those who
speak book Marathi. Gujaratis and M^rwdris use their own dialects
though many of them also speak incorrect Mardthi.

The following tabular statement gives the number of each religious
class according to sex at different ages, with, at each stage, the
percentage on the total population of the same sex and religion.

Chapter III.

People.

Census Details,
1872-1881.

Birth-place.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

DISTRICTS.

Chapter III.

People.

Census Details.
Age.

Marriage.

The columns referring to the total population omit religious distinc-
tions, but show the difference of sex :

Sdtdra Population hy Age, 1881.

Age in YEAEa.

Hindus,

MnSAlMA'HS.

Christians. 1

Is
11

II'

1
1

Uptol

13,938

2-71

13,684

2-65

610

2-76

476

2-60

1-66

3-16

lto4

60,807

9-89

62,607

10-29

1763

9-49

1927

10-66

6-48

15-49

6 to 9

78,694

16-30

72,522

14-18

2820

15-27

2681

14-13

7-47

10-91

10 to 14

69,871

13-61

53,888

10-54

2449

18-26

1986

10-88

6-64

8-09

16 to 19

36,78C

7-lii

34,019

6-65

1226

6-64

1098

6-01

7-64

10-21

20 to 24

84,671

6-76

41,102

8-04

1234

6-68

1396

7-64

119

19-76

8-09

26 to 29

45,162

8-79

47,963

9-38

1576

8-63

1646

9-01

121

20-09

12-67

30 to 34

. 42,64e

8-3C

47,612

9-29

1614

8-74

1679

9-19

8-30

10-56

35 to 39

32,45£

6-32

31,453

6-16

1216

6-68

Ills

6-12

7-64

6-33

40 to 49

50,627

9-84

60,454

9-86

1895

10-26

1809

9-90

9-13

8-09

50 to 64

22,708

4-42

26,691

6-02

869

4-70

1003

6-49

2-16

1-76

65 to 69

io,eo;

2-06

11,408

2-23

378

2-04

438

2-87

2-49

2-46

Above 60

24,608

4-79

29,031

6-67

917 1 4-96

1103

6-04

1-49

2-11

Total ..

613,363

611

234

18,467

18,256

284

AoE IN Years.

Pa'rsis.

Others.

Total.

^ i

c 1

-ea

£^ B

" a

gfc,

Z ti

gfel

;S;-

iS'

fig

iSg

Uptol

4-88

5-40

2-44

13-33

14,462

2-71

14,078

2-66

1 to 4

9-67

8-10

7-31

13-33

62,602

9-87

64,683

10-30

6 to 9

14,-61

8-10

4-87

6-6e

81,470

15-29

76,138

14-18

10 to 14

4-83

16-21

9-7S

72,367

13-68

65,903

10-65

15 to 19

6-46

4-87

. 2

13-33

38,068

7-14

35,148

6-63

20 to 24

8-06

16-21

17-07

20-00

36,036

6-76

42,630

8-02

26 -to 29

11-29

10-81

9-76

26-66

46,860

8-79

49,663

9-37

30 to 34

17-74

13-51

14-63

44,327

8-32

49,226

9-29

85 to 39

8-06

8-10

21-95

33,736

6-33

32,692

616

40 to 49 ...

8-22

2-44

6-66

52,480

9-86

62,287

9-86

50 to 54

6-45

8-10

23,594

4-43

26,702

5-04

56 to 69

1-61

2-70

11,001

2-06

11,849

2-23

Above 60

3-22

2-70

4'87

...

26,633

4-79

30,141

6-68

Total ...

37'

632,626

629,825

The following table shows the proportion of the people of the
district who are unmarried, married, and widowed :

Sdtdra Marriage Details, ISSl.

Unmarried ...
Married
Widowed ...

HINDUS.

Under Ten.

Ten to
Fourteen.

Fifteen to
Nineteen.

Twenty to
Twenty-nine.

Thirty and
Over.

Total.

Males.

Fe-
males.

Males.

Fe-
males,

Males.

Fe-
males.

Males.

Fe-
males.

Uales.

Fe-
males.

Males.

Fe-
males.

140,886

2330

123

123,211

15,068

434

69,361

10,102

408

14,847

37,306

1736

20,138

16,234

408

889

30,881

2249

13,314

64,405

2104

827
77,682
10,666

6603

167,297

20,760

878
103,610
91,061

239,202
260,368
23,793

140,662
264,647
106,035

MUSALMA'NS.

6000
76
7

4604

376

2186 904
263 1060
10 32

774
435

75?

971

674

2067

2723

236

846

6755

789

145
3946
8055

8979
8686
892

6811
9065
3379

Deccau]

SATARA.

Sdtdra Marriage Details, iSSi— continued.

Unmarried ...

Married

Widowed

Unmarried ...

Married

Widowed

CHRISTIANS.

Under Ten.

Ten to
Fourteen

Fifteen to
Nineteen.

Twenty to
Twenty-nine.

Thirty and
Over.

Total.

Males.

Fe-
males.

Males.

Fe-
males.

Males.

Fe-
males.

Males.

Fe-
males.

Males.

Fe-
males.

Males.

Fe-
males.

21
2

42
3
1

17
12

190

138
14

68
29

401

183

130
144
30

OTHERS.

4
2

3
3

1
16

According to occupation the 1881 census returns divide the
population into six classes :

I. — In Government Service, Learned Professions, Literature, and Arts,
18,469 or 1'73 per cent of the population.
II, — In House Service 6435 or 0-60 per cent.
III. — In Trade and Commerce 4349 or 0'40 per cent.
IV.— In Agriculture 374,950 or 35-29 per cent.

V. — In Crafts and Industries 55,009 or 6'11 per cent.
VI.— In Indefinite and Unproductive Occupations including Children, 593,138
or 55'83 per cent.

According to the 1881 censuSj twelve towns had more than 5000
and four of the twelve more than 10,1)00 people. Excluding these
twelve towns, which together numbered 115j68_8 or 9 "94 per cent of
the population, the 946,712 inhabitants of S^tara were distributed
over 1331 villages, giving an average of one village for every 3"74
square miles, and of 711'27 people to each village. Of the 1331
villages 110 had less than 100 people, 179 between 100 and 200, 410
between 200 and 500, 331 betyyeen 500 and 1000, 224 between 1000
and 2000, 49 between 2000 and 3000, and 28 between 3000 and 5000.

According to the 1881 census, of 174,406 houses, 151,173 were
occupied and 23,233 were empty. The total gave an average of
34"96 houses to the square mile, and the 151,173 occupied
houses an average of 7"02 inmates to each house. Though
all do not succeed every man is anxious to own a house. Sd.tara
houses may be arranged under two' divisions, immovable and
movable. The immovable houses may be divided into four
classes : Those with tiled roofs and walls of fire-baked bricks ;
those with tiled or thatched roofs and walls of sun-burnt bricks or
mud; those with thatched roofs and wattled or grass walls-; and those
with flat earth roofs and generally walls of unburnt brick. The
movable dwellings belong to the wandering tribes who carry them
with them. They are of two chief kinds small tents or pals either
of coarse cotton or of wool and small huts of bamboo or date matting.
The dwellers in tents and mat huts suffer much from the heat and
cold and still more from the rain. To escape the wet many of them stop
during the whole rains near some village and build small huts of
grass, leaves, and branches. First class houses are seldom found

Chapter III.

People.

Census Details,
Marriage.

Occupation,

Villages.

Houses,

[Bombay Gazetteer,

DISTRICTS.

Chapter III.
People.

Houses.

except in towns and large villages. A first class house consists of
one or two open squares surrounded by rooms or verandas and one
or two storeys high. Of the two open squares the first is where the
men live, and the back is set apart for women. The rooms in the *
inner square are used for sleeping, sitting, cooking, dining, and
as store-rooms. The rooms in the outer square are generally used
as sitting rooms. The front room in the ground floor and in the.
upper storey, if there is an upper storey, are used as guest halls.
In front of some houses is a veranda where servants wait and behind
are bathing rooms and cattle sheds. Buildings hke these are owned
only by indmddrs or holders of public grants, jdgirddrs or land
proprietors, and wealthy merchants. Almost all of them date from
the times of Maratha rule. Houses of the second class, with tiled
or thatched roofs and walls of fire-baked bricks, occur both in towns
and in villages. The house consists of a front veranda and a central
room with three or four other rooms, one of which is always set
apart for cooking. If there is room in the veranda, the owner of
the house makes it his oflBce and place of business. As a rule the
central room is used for dining and worshipping the house gods.
Houses of this class have generally a cattle-shed either in front or
behind them. Houses of the third class, with thatched roofs and
wattled walls, are found chiefly in villages and in the hilly parts of the
district inhabited by the poorer landholders and field labourers,
and by the depressed or impure casbes. The inside of a wattled hut
is generally divided into two or three spaces by bamboo matting or
by branches. Except when the number of the cattle is small and
part of the house can be given to them, the poorer husbandman's
cattle live in sheds or pens separate from the dwelling. The fourth
class of flat earth-roofed houses called dhdbis, are chiefly found in
the east of the district. Owing to the weight of the earth roof they
seldom have an upper storey.

The home of a well-to-do family is generally well stocked with
brass and copper vessels, wooden boxes and tools, and bedding. If
he is a high caste man he has silver drinking vessels and plates, articles
of worship, and a pdnsupdri or betel set including stands for attar
of roses and other fragrant oils. He generally uses the silver ware
on special occasions, such as marriage and other great days. For
daily use he has copper and brass vessels and plates enough to meet
his daily wants, he has also a set of big vessels enough to hold food
for about two hundred persons. The ordinary wooden furniture in
a rich Hindu house includes cots, boxes, and stools. Of late chairs
tables and cupboards have begun to be introduced. The elders
prefer carpets, cushions, and quilted cloths to chairs and tables
and metal pots to glassware. The furniture of a middle class family
is the same as that of a rich family but is only enough for the use of
the family. He may own a few spare dishes but not enough to lend
to others or to use in giving a caste feast. The houses of the poorer
landholders and field workers have few metal vessels, sometimes
none except a drinking waterpot and a ladle. They cook in clay
pots and use earthenware for all house purposes. The chief articles
in. the husbandman's house are his field tools. Besides tools the
house gear if put to sale would seldom fetch more than £1 (Rs.lO).

Deccau]

sAtAra.

The daily food in a ricli Hindu family includes rice, wheat, millet,
pulse, vegetables, clarified batter, pepper, salt, and oil, and, in
families to whom flesh-eating is lawful, fish, mutton, fowls, and eggs.
The special dishes prepared in rich families are wheat cakes or
puris, cakes stuffed with gram pulse and sugar called polis, gram
balls called kalis or hundis, wheat balls or churrnds, rice balls or
modaJcs, sweet rice or keshri hhdt, and curdled milk or shrikhand.
The every-day food of a middle class family includes millet or rice,
butter, pepper, salt, and oil. Their special dishes are nearly the
same as those of the rich but inferior in quality. Those to whom
they are lawful occasionally use fish and flesh. The daily food of the
lower classes includes millet, Indian millet, rdla Panicum italicum,
vegetables, pepper, and salt, and they occasionally use rice, fish, and
flesh. Rich and middle class families lay in a stock of the chief
grains at the harvest time of each grain. Those who drink liquor also
generally keep some in store. Dried fish comes from Goa, Vengurla,
and Hamai by Chiplun. The supply of salt is from Bombay or
Chiplun. Except in rich and middle class families who employ
cooks the cooking is generally done by the women of 'the family.
Even in well-to-do families the women of the house not only super-
intend the cooking but themselves prepare dishes which require
special skill or little labour.

The style of dress of almost all Sdtdra Hindus is much the same.
The differences are chiefly in material dae to difference in wealth.
A rich man's indoor dress includes a waistcloth and a shoulder-
cloth, when he goes out he adds a waistcoat, a coat, a turban or
headscarf, and shoes. K the home waistcloth is short, he puts
on a larger and costlier one with or without a silk border. His
wife's indoor and outdoor dress is a coloured robe and bodice, and
she is careful to rub her brow with redpowder. The festive dress
both of men and women is the same as their every-day dress only of
finer or richer material. Women in full dress, sometimes in addition
to the robe and bodice draw a shawl over the head. Widows, as a rule,
do not wear the bodice, or a robe of any colour but red or white. The
wearing of black is forbidden to widows. A boy in a rich family
before he is girt with the thread dresses in a coat, a cap, and a pair
of trousers. The wearing of caps is a fashion which has lately come
from Bombay. His show dress is a rich pair of trousers, a silk or
broadcloth coat, and a fine lace-bordered cap. After he is girt with
the sacred thread, a boy, like his father, dresses in a coat, waistcoat,
turban, and waistcloth. Up to three years old the dress of a rich
man's daughter is the same as her brother's dress. After three she
generally wears a bodice and petticoat and sometimes a robe. She
wears the petticoat till her marriage and then dresses like her mother.
Middle class men and women wear clothes of the same form as those
worn by the rich but of cheaper quality. Among labourers and
poor landholders the men wear a loincloth or a pair of short coarse
cotton breeches, a waistcoat of the same material, a wooUen blanket,
andalongnarrow headscarf. They sometimes put on trousers andlong
coats. On special occasions they wear a waistcloth, a white or colour-
ed waistcoat, and a turban, and a second shorter waistcloth wound
round the hips. The women dress in the robe and bodice. Maratha

Chapter III
People.

Houses.

Dress.

[Bombay Gazetteer,
48 DISTRICTS.

Chapter III. and Kunbi women differ from Brdhman and Vani women in not
People. passing the skirt of the robe back between the feet. They are

alsOj except on high days, mach less careful to rub their brows with.
Dress. redpowder. At home the children of the poor, both boys and girisi

wear no clothes till they are six or seven. After that a boy wears
a loincloth and a girl a piece of cloth wrapt round the waist.
After their marriage girls dress like their mothers and boys after
eleven or twelve like their fathers.

Communities. ^The internal constitution of all villages whether Government or

alienated is the same. Bach village has a headman called pdtil,
and in almost every case the oflSce is hereditary and is held by a
Mardtha or a Kunbi. In some hilly parts of the district Mhdr pdtils
are found, while in other parts the headmen are occasionally Gavlis,
Dhangars, KasArs, or Musalmdns. Under the Maratha government
the headman was responsible for the vUlage revenues, and, on pain
of being turned out of office, was frequently required to make
good any deficiency in the collections from his own pocket or as he
best could. He was also the head of the police. This system has
so far been preserved that the revenue is still paid to Government
through the headman, but he is no longer called on to make good
deficiencies caused by the default of other villagers. It was the
boast of Captain Grant Duff in the changes introduced in 1 822 into
the management) of the state that he kept in its vigour the police
influence of the pdtil, and Government have since continued the
pdtil both as revenue and as police head. In many villages the
hereditary right belongs to the heads of several branches of the same
family, who may serve either in turns or at the same time. If
the heads of more than one branch serve at the same time the
police and revenue duties are usually performed by different persons.
Under the old system, when the amount of each landholder's revenue
payment was settled by the village community, the influence of
the pdtil was more powerful than it is at present, and natives
acquainted with the district agree in stating that the constant inter-
ference of superior authority has further diminished the headman's
power. At the same time hereditary claims to serve are more
rigidly respected under the British than under the Maratha govern-
ment which often chose as ofliciator, the most powerful member of the
pdtil' s family whether he was the lineal head or not. The lands and
allowances were hardly less secure than at present. Village head-
men were formerly paid by assignments of land with or without a
small additional allowance. In Government villages they now pay
the full assessment on their land, and are paid on a fixed scale
proportioned to the revenue they collect. In their police capacity
pdtils have power to lock in the village office or chdvdi persons
committing petty assault or abuse within village limits," and in
some cases they are empowered to punish the committing of petty
nuisances. It is also the pdtil' s duty to hold inquests and aid in the
prevention and detection of crime. In civil disputes his power is
chiefly confined to influenee, but here and there civil functions have

' Mr, J. W. P. Muir-Mackeime, C. S.

Deccan-l

sAtara.

4>9

been revived by his appointment as village mundf under the Deccan
Agriculturists' Act. When rich he lends money on much the same
terms as other creditors. His hospitality and the amount of lead
he takes on social occasions vary greatly with his means and
character. In many villages, owing to his ignorance of letters, the
headman is almost wholly in the hands of the accountant.

Like the headman the village accountant or kulkarni is in almost
every case an hereditary officer, the right of service running in families
and the officiator being paid in the same way as among pdtils.
It is the accountant's duty to do all the writing work of the vil-
lage, and, as the headman can rarely read or write, the accountant is
as often as not the more powerful of the two. It is he or some
member of his family who usually does most of the petition writing
for the village, and in consequence most Jculkarnis have a richly
deserved bad name for stirring strife. It often happens that a
kulkarni has more than one village under his charge, and still
oftener that a family has the hereditary right to serve in a group
of villages and to depute different members to serve in rotation.
The chaugula or assistant headman acts as the pdtil's and accountant's
office-keeper. He has charge of the village office and of the writing
materials and usually carries the records when they are taken out
of the village. The other village servants are the village astrologer
or Joshi and the family priest or Bhat, the priest of the village god
or Gurav,the potter or Kumbhdr, the barber or Nhavi, the carpenter
or Sutar, the blacksmith or Lohdr, the tailor or Shimpi, the shoe-
maker or Chd,mbhd,r, the washerman or Parit, the tanner or Dhor,
the watchman or Rakhvalddr, the guide and messenger or Mhar,
and the sweeper or Mdng. Brdhmans are most often both astro-
logers and family priests and frequently belong to the kulkarni' s
family. Though they hold land both in return for acting as astro-
logers and as family priests they often do little as astrologers as those
duties are generally conducted by a few specialists. Still most village
Brdhmans can fix a lucky day for a marriage though they may
not be able to cast a nativity. The family priest conducts marriages
funerals and other family rites. He holds land from Govern-
ment at a reduced assessment and receives money and grain allow-
ances from the villagers. The patron god or guardian of the village
is generally served by an hereditary priest, who is usually not a
Brdhman but a Gurav. Other gods who have temples in the villages
are usually served by special Brdhman ministrants called pujdris.
The blacksmith, carpenter, tailor, shoemaker, tanner, and barber
work for the villagers, who generally reward their services by yearly
payments of grain. They also hold Government quit -rent land.
The watchmen are usually R^moshis or Mangs, who, though as often as
not professional thieves, are fairly trustworthy when on duty. Under
the Mardtha government the watchmen used to be obliged to make
good any stolen property which they failed to recover, and even now
the villagers sometimes manage to extort compensation from them.
They are paid partly in cash partly by rent-free lands and officiate
in turns. Though not always trustworthy they sometimes prove
valuable detectives. The MhAr acts as a guide to travellers and as
a Government messenger, and generally carries the revenue collec-
B 1282—7

Chapter III.
People-

Communities.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

Chapter III.
People-

GOMMTJIHTIES.

Movements.

DISTRICTS.

tions to the sub-divisional treasury with or without the escort of the
headman. He is also the general porter and boundary shower.
He has a right to the carcasses of dead cattle, though Mangs often
dispute the right to the skins. The Mhd,r holds Government land
at a quit-rent. Mangs generally act as scavengers and watchmen.
They are often strolling acrobats and are generally professional
thieves. Of special servants may be mentioned the Sonar or gold-
smith who also acts as assayer. He is seldom found except in large
villages when he sometimes holds the office of accountant. There
are also the Gosdvi or ascetic and the non-Brahman ministrant or
pujdri as mentioned above. The naikavdi or the hereditary village
surveyor is met with and his sei-vices are occasionally called for.
He was formerly an important servant when the assessment was
fixed by yearly appraisement.

In nearly all villages will be found Mardthd,s or Kunbis and Mhars,
and in a majority Mangs also ; Ramoshis are rarer. The other castes
are found in proportion to the size of the village. Such a thing as
an exclusively Brdhman village, is believed not to occur in the
district. The village grazing land is shared in common, and all
but the impure castes may use the village well.

The scanty records of the period before the beginning of British
rule furnish hardly any information regarding the movements of
the people. It is probable that large numbers emigrated during the
famine of 1792, which was occasioned by the scanty fall of rain and
the political troubles of the time. The famine of 1803-04 is ex-
pressly stated to have -been chiefly due to shoals of immigrants from
the Northern Deccan where the failure of the late rains of 1803
was more complete than in Satara. No fewer than 25,000 strangers
are said to have flocked into the town of Wdi. In the famine of
1 824 people are said to have emigrated both towards Ahmadnagar and
Kolhapur. In the recent severe famine of 1876-77 large numbers,
both of the Kunbi and of the lower castes, went to Bombay and to
the Berars. This movement was only the development, under a
passing emergency, of a custom which for years has existed in the
east of the district among the labouring classes, who rarely find
local work either in the hot weather or in the early rains. Since
the great development of trade and demand for labour in Bombay
this movement in many cases has become yearly.^ The hill men of
the west, whose means of existence are often at least as precarious
as in the east, to a smaller extent avail themselves of the Bombay
labour market. They are afraid of staying long from home and
generally prefer work close to their homes. In such cases, where the
emigrant owns land, some one always remains behind to look after
it, otherwise, as often as not, entire families move. Except earth
and stone workers of the Yadar tribe, religious beggars, and strol-

' The 1881 census shows that 108,243 people bom in SAtdra were in that year
found in different parts of the Bombay Presidency. The details are, Bombay City
45,404, Poona 22,232, ShoUpur 12,365, ThAna 6936, Belgaum 4403, BijApnr 3612,
KolAba 3077, Ratnigiri 2905, Ahmadnagar 2348, KhAndesh 1856, NAsik 1274, DhAr-
■w&T 633, Surat 349, Ahmad£|,bad 279, KAnara 189, Broach 165, Aden 107, Panch
Hah^s 59, and Kaira 50,.

Deccan.]

satAra.

ling jugglersj musicians, and acrobats, there are few wandering
tribes or travelling carriers in S^td,ra.

Bra'hmans^ include sixteen divisions witli a strengtli of 48,362
or 4'7 per cent of the Hindu population. The details are :
Sdtdra Brdhmans, 1881,

Division.

Malea.

Fcmalea.

Total.

■

Division.

Mftlea.

Females.

TotaJ,

Dushastha

DevrukMa

Dravids

Golaks

Gujaritia

Kanauja

Kanvs

Karh&d&a

Easta

17,663
88
68
490
126
89
23
1444
12

16,409

394

1393

34,061

172

133

874

135

164

2837

Konkanaaths ...

MavwAris

Palsh&s

Sav&shia
Shenvia
Telanga
Tirgula

Total ...

4211
45
31
91

455
53

162

4148
20
22
96

420
15

157

8369

187

875

319

48,362

25,030

23,332

Desh.asths are returned as numbering 34,061 and as found in
almost every village. The name probably means local or original
rather than Brdhmans of the Deccan plain as opposed to Brdhmans
of the hilly Konkan. Of their origin or of their arrival in the
country they have no tradition. They are divided into Rigvedis
and Tajurvedis who eat together but do not intermarry. There
are also two other subdivisions, the Mddhyandinsandthe Atharvans,;
the Madhyandins being the followers of a branch of the Yajurved
and the Atharvans of the Atharv, the fourth of the four Veds.
Atharvans are mostly found in the east of the district and Madhyan-
dins scattered all over the district. SiitAra Deshasths are rather
dark, but there is little difference in make or appearance between
them and other local Brahmans. They are neither hardworking nor
enterprising, rather dirty in their habits, idle, and untidy, but good-
tempered, hospitable, and generous. Almost all are hereditary,
priests or village accountants ; most of the rest are in the service of.
Government as clerks and schoolmasters. Several Brahmans of
hereditary priest or village accountant families trade in grain or
cloth or keep moneychanger's shops and more make their living
as cultivators. Like other Brdhmans they have the custom, when a
girl comes of age or is pregnant, of leading her through the streets,
in procession accompanied by women relations and friends and
music. In the month of Bhddrapad or August-September, for luck, ,
married women tie yellow threads round their necks. At the end of
every family rejoicing, a birth, a thread-girding, or a marriage, they
hire men to perform the gondhal dance. Their customs differ"
little from those of the Chitpdvan Brahmans given in the Poena
Statistical Account. They send their boys to school and are well off
enjoying quit-rent lands or indms and yearly grants or varsh'dsans
either from Government or from the chiefs.

Devrukha's, from the Ratndgiri village of Devrukh, are return-
ed as numbering 172 and as found over the whole district except in
Jdvli, Mdn, Tdsgaon, and Valva. Like Konkanaths or Ghitpdvans'

Cbaptet Iir,
People.

BRiHUANS.

Deshasths,

DemukMs,

1 A large share of the Hindu caste details is compiled from material supplied by
Rdv Bahadur BdUji GangMhar Sithe, District Deputy CoUector.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

DISTRICTS.

Chapter III.
People.

Bbahmai^s.

Drdvida.

Oolales.

they have come from the Konkan. They are somewhat darker than
Konkanasths, hardworking, and orderly. They speak Mardthij and,
except a few moneylenders and Government servants, are landhold-
ers. They send their boys to school and are well-to-do,

Dra'vid Bra'hraans are returned as numbering 133 and as
found in Sdtdra, Kardd, Patan^ and Tasgaon. They are said to have
come from the Tamil districts of Madras during the Peshwa's
supremacy (1 714-1818). They are divided into Ayangars and Kurkals,
and the names of their two chief family stocks are Vishvamitra
and Bhdiradvaj. Persons bearing the same family name eat together
but do not intermarry. The names in common use among men are
Gopdl, Ramchandra, Vyankatesh, and Apa^ and among women
Minakshij Parvati, and Lakshmi. They are rather dark-skinned and
shave the face including the moustache. Their women tattoo their
brows to the comers of their eyes. They speak Tamil at home and
Marathi abroad. They live in houses of the better sort one or two
storeys high with walls of brick or stone and tiled roofs. They keep
servants and own cattle. They are vegetarians and dress like
Mardtha Brahmans. Their women plait their hair into braids, use
false hair, and deck their heads with flowers. They wear the full
Mardtha robe and bodice, but give the bodice up as soon as they
become mothers. Their ornaments are the same as those worn by
Maratha Brdhmans. They are orderly, hardworking, hospitable,
and frugal They have a considerable knowledge of the Veds and
other Brdhmans consider them of pure descent. Their name is con-
nected with the temple of Yeoleshvar near Satdra, which is richly
endowed with donations by the Rdj^s of Satdra and is entirely
managed by Drdvid Brahmans. Besides living as begging Brahmans
or hhiksKuks they have taken to trade and husbandry. They are a
religious people and are Shaivs by faith. They worship the ordinary
Brdhmanic gods and goddesses. They go on pilgrimage to Benares
and Rameshvar, and their priests are their own Brdhmans. They
believe in witchcraft and spirit possession and consult oracles.
Their sacraments or sansMrs are nearly the same as those of
Deshasth Brdhmans. They send their boys to school and are in easy
circumstances.

Golaks, also called Govardhans, are returned as numbering
874 and as found over the whole district except in Pdtan, MAn and
Valva, They are divided into Rand and Kund Golaks, the Rands
being said to be the issue of a Brahman and a Brahman widow and
the Kunds the offspring of Brahman parents in adultery. They
hold a low place among Brdhmans, other Brdhmans neither eating
nor marrymg with them. They look and speak like Deshasths,
and do not diiier from Deshasths in house, food, or dress They
are hardworking, frugal, quiet, and orderly. They are husbandmen
moneychangers and lenders, astrologers and priests to Mardth^s
and other middle and low class Hindus. They worship the ordinary
Brdhmamc gods and goddesses and keep the usual Hindu fasts
and feasts. Their priests belong to their own caste, and they settle
social disputes at meetings of their castemen. They send their
boys to school and are a steady class.

Deccan.]

SATARA.

Gujara't Brdlimans are returned as numbering 135 and as found
over the whole district except in Jdvli, Mdn, and Khatav. They
are strict vegetarians and do not eat food cooked by Mardtha
Brdhmans, who in turn refuse to eat though they take water from
Gujarat Brdhmans. The men dress like Mardtha Brdhmans in the
waistcloth, coat, turban, shoulder clot h, and shoes. The women
wear the petticoat, the open-backed bodice, and the robe falling
from the hips without passing the skirt back between the feet.
They are thrifty, hardworking, and hospitable, and either beg and
ofliciate as priests at the houses of Gujarat Vanis or serve as writers.
They are not settled in the district but return to Gujarat when they
have put together some money. On the whole they are a steady
class and free from debt.

Kanaujs are returned as numbering 164 and as found over the
whole district except in Pdtan. They are strongly made people
and speak Hindustani. They are vegetarians and great eaters.
The men usually wear a waistcloth, a coat, a shouldercloth, a head-
scarf, and shoes, and the women a petticoat, robe, and backless
bodice. They plait their hair in braids which they draw back and
tie together at the back of the neck. They are clean, hardworking,
and honest, being trusted soldiers and messengers. They act as
priests to the local Pardeshi or Upper Indian castes. They are a
religious people always bathing before they dine. They believe in
witchcraft, sorcery, soothsaying, omens, and Ir^cky and unlucky
days, and consult oracles. They have a caste council and settle
social disputes at meetings of the castemen. They send their boys
to school and are a steady people.

Ka'nv Br^hmans are returned as numbering forty-two and as
found in S^tdra, Valva, Kardd, Wai, Kh^ndpur, and Koregaon.
They are dark and dirty. They are vegetarians and live and
dress like Deshasths. They are beggars, cooks, water-carriers,
and a few are in the service of Government. They are Yajurvedis,
worship all Br^hmanic gods and goddesses, keep the usual fasts and
festivals, and go on pilgrimage to Pandharpur, Tuljdpur, Benares,
and PrayAg or Allahabad. They believe in spirits and witches and
have the same manners and customs as Deshasths. They do not
allow widow marriage. They are bound together as a body and
settle social disputes at caste meetings. They send their boys to
school, and are a poor people.

Karha'da's are returned as numbering 2837 and as found over
the whole district. They apparently take their name from the town
of Kardd at the holy meeting of the Krishna and Koyna, and
probably represent one of the early Brdhman settlers who took
up his abode at this holy spot. According to the Sahyddri
Khand the Karhddds are descended from asses' or camels' bones
which a magician formed into a man and endowed with life. This
story is apparently an ill-natured play on the words har an ass and
had a bone. They are fair, intelligent, and short-tempered. They
are priests, pleaders, landholders, moneychangers, and Government
servants. Their manners and customs differ little from those of
the Deshasths with whom and the Konkanasths they eat, and

Chapter III.

People.

BrAhmans,
Oujardtis.

Kdnvs.

Karhddds.

[Bombay Gazetteer>

DISTRICTS.

Chapter Ill-
People.

BaIhmans.

Kdsts.

KonJcanastJts.

occasionally, but not generally, marry. Their household goddess is
Durgadevi to whom apparently they formerly offered human sacrifices.
The victim was generally a sti'anger, but the most pleasing victim
was said to be a son-in-law. The death was caused by cutting the
victim's throat or by poisoning him.^ They send their boys to school
and are well-to-do.

Ka'sts are returned as numbering eighteen and as found
in S^tdra and P^tan. They have no subdivisions, speak MaraTthi,
and look like Deshasth Brafhmans. They neither eat flesh nor
drink Uquor. They dress like Deshasths", and are hardworking,
quiet, and orderly. They are husbandmen, traders, and Govern-
ment servants. They call themselves Brd.hmans, but are not
allowed to join with Brdhmans in any ceremony. They are con-
sidered half-Mardthds and half-Brafhmans, and strict Deshasth
and Konkanasth Bi'ahmans hold their touch unclean. They are a
religions people, worship the usual Brahmanic gods and goddesses,
and believe in spirits and witchcraft. Their priests belong to their
own class, and they make pilgrimages to Benares, Pandharpur, and
TuljApur. They send their boys to school and are well-to-do.

KoukauastllS or Chitpavans are returned as numbering 8359 and
as found allover the district. As their name shows they have come to
Satara from the Konkan where their original seat seems to have been
Ohiplun or Chitdpolan, a form which seems the probable origin of
their other name ChitpAvan. According to the Sahyadri Khand the
Chitpavans are sprung from the shipwrecked bodies of foreigners .
which Parashurafm, the destroyer of the Kshatriyas, raised to life.
Probably most Konkanasths settled in the district during the sway
of the Konkanasth Peshwas (1714-1818). They are divided into
Rigvedis, Ashvalayans, and Apastambhs or Hiranyakeshis who dine
together and intermarry. They are fair with fine features, often gray
eyes, and generally delicate frames . They speak Marafthi and generally
live in substantial houses with mud or tiled roofs. The men wear
a waistcloth, turban,^ coat, waistcoat, shouldercloth, and shoes,
and the women the full Mardtha robe and bodice. Children of
both sexes go naked till they are five or six years old, and after
that a boy wears a loincloth, and a girl a gown. They are vege-
tarians and their staple food is rice, millet, pulse, vegetables, and'
butter. They are intelligent, enterprising, hardworking, even-
tempered, and hospitable, but exceedingly cunning and thrifty,
always living within their income. They live by priestcraft, the
law, and Government service. Some are moneylenders, shopkeep-
ers, and cultivators. They worship Jotiba, Khandoba, Mhasoba,
and Satvdi, but their chief deities are Shiv, Vishnu, Ganpati,
Vithoba, and Devi. According to the deities they hold in chief
estimation they are classed as Shaivs, Vaishnavs, Gdnpatyas, and
ShAkts. Konkanasths have generally goddesses or Devis as their
household deities and in their honour hold a yearly gfon<£/iai dance.
They keep all Hindu fasts and festivals, and in almost every family
is a priest called upadhya or purohit who officiates at their houses.
The Chitpavans are noticeable among Western India Brahmans for

' Sir John Malcolm, 1799 (Transactions Literary Society, Bombay (New Edition),
III. 93-95. Compare under the name Carwarrees the account by Sir James Mackin-
tosh (1811) Life, 11. 83.

Deccan.]

SATARA.

tte extent to which the younger men have given up their old beliefs
and passed under the influence of certain European ideas. They
send their boys to school and are in easy circumstances.^

Ma'rwa'r Brahmans are returned as numbering sixty-five and
as found in Jdvli, Sdtara, and T^sgaon. They speak Mdrwari.
The men wear the top-knot, moustache, whiskers, and beard.
They generally live in hired houses and are strict vegetarians, and
among vegetables refuse onions, garlic, radishes, carrots, and other
root plants. They do not eat or drink from Gujarat or Mard,tha
Brahmans. The men dress in a small tightly rolled Marwd,ri
turban, a long fine tight coat, a waistcloth, and shoes ; and the women
in a petticoat, an open-backed bodice, and a short upper robe which
they use as a veil. They are extremely grasping and thrifty, but
are quiet, orderly, and hospitable. They officiate as priests to their
countrymen, and beg. They are not settled in the district and return
to Md,rwar when they have made some money. They hold caste
councils, send their boys to school, and are a steady class.

Palsha's, said by their rivals the Konkanasths to be Palashin or
Flesh-eaters but apparently from Palsavli village in Kaly^n,^ are
returned as numbering fifty-three and as found in Khdndpur,
Koregaon, and Pdtan. They have no subdivisions and are generally
fair and middle-sized. Their home speech is Mardthi. Thoy are
hardworking, frugal, hospitable, and orderly, and earn their living
as priests, astrologers, physicians, and beggars. They are vegetarians
and live in middle class houses. The men dress like Deshastha
in a waistcloth, coat, waistcoat, turban, and shoes. The women
wear the full Maratha robe and bodice, and deck their heads with
flowers. They worship the usual Brd.hmanic gods and goddesses,
keep the regular fasts and feasts, and belong to the Vajasaneya
Md,dhyandin branch of the Yajurved. Their family priests belong to
their own caste and they go on pilgrimages to Benares, Pandharpur,
Praydg, and Oudh. They hold caste councils and settle social
disputes at meetings of castemen. They send their boys to school
and are a steady class.

Sava'sha's are returned as numbering 187 and as found in
S^tdra, Vdlva, T^sgaon, Koregaon, and Karad. The story of their
origin is that a Brdhman, who married a Chambhar girl and was
put out of caste, built a house with one hundred and twenty-five
rooms and asked 125 Brahmans to dine at his house, holding out to
each the promise of a handsome gift and secrecy. The guests one
by one came and were feasted each in a separate room. When
they had done their meal all met, and when the rest of the caste
heard of what had happened they were turned out. Their women
are generally handsome, and the men intelligent and hardworking.
They are moneylenders and changers. Their customs are like those
of other Brdhmans, and their religious head is Madhavacharya.
They send their boys to school and are well o&.

Chapter III
People.

BrAhmans.
Mdrwdris,

PaUJids.

Savdslids.

' A detailed account of Chitp^van BrAhmans is given in the Poona Statistical
Account.

- Details are given in the ThAna Statistical Account where reasons are shewn for
believing them to be of Gujardt origin.

[Bombay Gazetteer*

DISTRICTS.

Chapter III.

People-

Bbaemans.
Shenvis,

Tirguls.

Wbitees.

Shenvis are returned as nambering 875 and as found over the
■whole district except in Wai. They are considered to be one of
the five Gaud or northern sects of Brdhmans and to have come from
Northern India. They came to the district from the Konkan
during the time of the first three Mardtha kings (1664 - 1700) under
whom and the Peshw^s they held many important posts. They are
fair, of middle height^ orderly, intelligent, and hardworking. They
are husbandmen and Government servants. Their family gods are
Mangesh, Narsinh, and Shdnta Durga. The religious ceremonies
or Jculdharm in honour of Mangesh and Narsinh are held on the
Mondays of Shrdvan or July - August, and those in honour of Shanta
Durga on the fifth of the same month. On each of these occasions
a man and his wife are feasted and presented with money gifts or
dakshinds. Their other ceremonies are like those of Deshasth
Brdhmans. Their social disputes are settled ^at meetings of the
castemen, and intricate questions are referred to AtmanAnd Sarasvati
Svd,mi their high priest whose head-quarters are at Kavla in Goa.
They send their boys to school and are generally well ofE.

TelangS are returned as numbering sixty-eight and as found
over the whole district except in KMnd.pur, Man, PAtan, and
Tasgaon. They only occasionally visit the district, living either by
begging or by the sale of sacred threads. They are very dark and
have a name for cleverness and deep knowledge of the Veds.
Among themselves they speak Telugu, and with others an extremely
incorrect Marathi. They do not own houses, and are great eaters
especially of sour dishes. Both men and women dress like Maratha
Brdhmans. They are a religious people worshipping the usual
Br^hmanic gods and goddesses. They hold caste councils and settle
social disputes at meetings of their castemen and of Maratha
Brahmans. They send their boys to school and are a poor people.

Tirguls are returned as numbering 319 and as found over the
whole district except in Jdvli and MAn. They are said to be the
issue of a Shudra father and a Brahman mother. They are
considered low not only on account of their supposed origin, but
because they grow and deal in betel leaves in rearing which they
have to kill small insects. Other Brahmans do not eat or marry
with them. They keep all Brahman rites and ceremonies, and like
Brahmans wear the sacred thread. They are either Smarts or
Bhagvats, worship the usual Brdhmanic gods and goddesses, and
keep the ordinary Hindu fasts and festivals. They believe in witches
and spirits and consult oracles. They have a caste council and settle
social disputes at meetings of the castemen. They keep their boys
at school till they can read and write. They are generally poor.

Writers include two classes with a strength of 636. The
details are : Sdtdra Writers, 1881.

Division.

Males.

Females.

Total.

KSyasth Prabhus ...
ratine Prabhus ...

Total ...

188
44

162
162

340
196

232

686

Deccan]

SATARA.

Ka'yasth Prabhus are returned as numbering 340 and as
found over the whole district except in PAtan. They have no
subdivisions and look like Mardtha Br^hmans. They are generally
fair, middle-sized, and regular featured. The men keep the topknot
and moustache, but not the beard or whiskers, and the women wear
the hair tied in a knot behind the head and deck their heads with
flowers. Both men and women dress and speak like Mardtha Brah-
mans, and, unlike them, eat fish and flesh and drink liquor. They
are neat, clean, hardworking, faithful, and loyal. They are writers
and accountants and regard clerkship as their birthright. They
worship the usual Brdhmanic gods and goddesses, and observe all
their fasts and feasts. Their priests are Deshasth Br^hmans whom
they pay great respect. They settle social disputes at meetings of
the castemen, send their boys to school, and are a steady class.

Pa'ta'ne Prabhus are returned as numbering 196 and as found
in all subdivisions except Khandpur, Koregaon, Mdn, and Tasgaon.
They have lately come from their homes in Bombay and Thdna in
search of work, and are not residents but retiurn to their homes
to marry their children. They are clerks and writers in
Government service and are well-to-do. Their social and religious
customs are the same as those of the Thd.na Pd,tdne Prabhus, and
they do not differ from their Thdna brethren in look, food, dress, or
character.^

Traders include seven classes with a strength of 39,638 or 3'86
per cent of the Hindu population. The details are :

Sdt&ra Traders, 1881.

Dmsiou.

Males.

Females

Total.

Gujarat V&nia

106

179

Jains

7738

7116

14,863

Komtis

159

Ling&yat V5,nis

8711

8544

17,265

Mar4thaV&ni8

1616

1628

3243

M&rwar V&nis

182

275

TS,mboIis

Total ...

1344

1330

2674

19,784

18,864

38,638

Gujara't Va'nis are returned as numbering 179 and as found
over the whole district. They have castemen in the Konkan from
whom they choose brides and bridegrooms and few go to Gujarat to
perform a marriage. They are generally fair, and their home speech
is Gujarati. They are vegetarians, abstaining from fish flesh and
liquor. Except rich townsmen who live in two-storeyed brick-built
houses, they generally live in one-storeyed houses. They are clean,
even-tempered, hardworking, and less exacting and more popular
than Md,rwaris, but they are wanting in vigour and enterprise.
They are traders, grocers, moneylenders, grain and cloth dealers,
and sellers of butter, oil, and other miscellaneous articles. They
are all Valabhi Vaishnavs that is followers of Valabhach^rya.
Audich and other Gujarat Brahmans generally oflSciate at the

Chapter III.
People.

Writbes.
Kdyasth Prdblius,

Pdtdne Prabhus,

Tradbes.

Oujardt Vdnis.

1 Details are given in the Poona Statistical Account.

B 1282^8

[Bombay Gazetteer,

DISTRICTS.

Chapter III.
People.

Traders.

Jains,

Komtis.

houses of all Gujarat "Vanis. In their absence Konkanasth and
Deshasth Brahmans conduct their marriage, funeral, and other
ceremonies. They do not allow widow marriage and practise poly-
gamy, but not polyandry. Except unmarried children they burn their
dead. All their social disputes are settled at caste meetings by the
castemen. They send their boys to school, and are generally well-
to-do.

Jains,^ or followers of Jin the Victorious, also called Shrdvaks
that is hearers, are returned as numbering 14,853. They form an
important part of the population in KhdnApur, T^sgaon, Valva,
and other sub-divisions. They owe their influence to their landed
interest, their industrious habits, and their regard for every variety
of animal life. In appearance and dress Jains can scarcely be
known from Kunbi landholders, and except a few who speak Kanarese,
both at home and abroad they speak Marathi. They are the
hardest- working husbandmen in the district, making good use of
every advantage of soil or situation. Except the well-to-do who
employ labourers, the Jains, with the help of their women,
perform every part of field work. At the same time tillage is a
calling not recommended by their religion, as animal life con-
sciously or unconsciously must be destroyed. On this account
cultivating Jains formed a distinct class with a high priest of their
own, who lives at Nandin, a village four miles from Unkli in Tasgaon.
Though strict Jains disapprove of cultivators, they do not carry
their objections to the length of refusing to dine with them. The
Jains, being mostly tillers of the soil, do not take much interest in
sending their boys to school. They are a well-to-do class.

Komtis^ are returned as numbering 159 and as found in Satara>
Kardd, Javli, Khanapur, Pdtan, and Tasgaon. They are natives of
Telangan or the Telugu country, but they cannot tell when they
came to Sdtara. They have no history and no subdivisions.
Their surnames are XJtukhd,r, Keshavkhar, PoMvar, Chintalvar, and
Bachuvar. The names in common use among men are Poshatti,
Shivaya, Edmaya, Krishnaya, and Rajaya ; and among women Ganga,
Shivbdi, Bhagubd,i, and Jandbai. They are dark, middle-sized, and
spare, and their home-speech is Telagu. They own houses one or
two storeys high and keep them neat and clean. They are vegetarians
and their staple food is millet, rice, and vegetables. They are temperate
in eating, good cooks, and fond of sour and pungent dishes. They
drink a liquid preparation of hemp flowers, but not liquor, and
smoke tobacco, hemp, and opium. The men dress like Brdhmans
in a waistcloth, coat, turban, shouldercloth, and shoes, and the
women in a robe and bodice. The women wear false hair and tie their

' Jain details are given in the KolhApur Statistical Account.

' As inNAsik (Bombay Gazetteer, X"VI. 59) the word Komti is used in SAtAra of two
distinct classes, a class of shopkeepers and a tribe of wandering beggars and charm-
sellers. The application of the same name to two distinct classes suggests that the
name is a place or district name. It seems possible that Komti is a shortened form
of Komomethi, properly Kammamettl, from the district Kammammett in the
Nizim's country, Kamdthi like Komti is applied to more than one distinct class, and
it seems possible that like Komti K&m^thi comes from Kammammetti.

Deccau]

SATlRA.

hair in a knot at the back of the head. They wear glass bangles and
their ornaments are the same as those o£ Mardtha Brdhmaus. They
are a mild, honest, orderly, and hardworking people. Most of them
are grocers, dealing in spices, salt, grain, butter, oil, molasses, and
sugar. Their customs from birth to death are the same as those of
the Sholapur Komtis.^ They are bound together by a strong caste
feeling and settle social disputes at caste meetings. They send their
boys to school for a short time and are a poor people.

Linga'yat Va'nis^ are returned as numbering'17,255 and asfound
in all parts of the district, especially in Khdndpur, Tasgaon, and
Vdlva on the borders of the Kdnarese country. They are divided
into Panchams, Shilvants, Tilvants, and Tirules. Of these the
Panchams and Tirules eat together, though Panchams will not eat
from Tirules. Some Shilvants eat from none of the other
subdivisions. None of the four intermarry. They are dark and
middle-sized. The men wear the top-knot and moustache but not
the whiskers or beard. With some exceptions, both at home and
abroad, they speak Mar^thi. Except a few who live in large towns in
well built houses, they generally live in small one-storeyed dwellings.
They keep horses, cows, and buffaloes, and pay their servants 8s.
to 10s. (Rs. 4-5) a month as wages. They are moderate eaters, and
their staple food is rice, millet, pulse, and vegetables. They have a
a strong dislike to flesh, fish, and liquor, and cojisider all food
polluted even by the touch of a Brdhman. The men dress in a
waistcloth, turban, coat, and shoes, and the women in the full
Mardtha robe and bodice. Both men and women rub their brows
with white cowdung ashes or bhasm instead of with sandal and
redpowder, and tie a ling round their necks. The women tie the
hair in a knot at the back of the head, and do not use false hair or
deck their heads with flowers. They are generally even-tempered
and hospitable, entertaining any guest that happens to come to
their houses, especially if he is a LingAyat. They are a mercantile
people and follow various branches of trade. They deal in cloth,
grain, oil, butter, molasses, and sugar, and are moneylenders
husbandmen and labourers. As lenders they are less pushing than
Md,rwAris. Difference of profession is admitted to make a great
social difference, still it does not prevent them, from intermarrying
or dining together,. They worship all the Brahmanic gods and
goddesses, and keep the usual fasts and festivals. But their chief
god is Mahadev and they keep the fasts sacred to him with special
care. They hold that no true believer can be impure, and therefore
disregard the Brdhmanic rules of ceremonial impurity. A Jangam
or Lingdyat priest officiates at their houses, and both a Brdhman and
a Jangam attend their marriages. If a boy is born to a barren or to
a daughter-stricken couple or if a boy recovers from severe sickness
it is not unusual to devote him to serve in a Jangam monastery or
math. All Lingayats both men and women wear the ling. The
ling is put round the babe's neck on the fifth day after birth by a

Chapter III.
People.

Tbasebs.

Lingdyat Vdnia,

' Komti details are given in the SholApur Statistical Account.

" Lingdyat VAni details are given in the Sholapur Statistical Account,

[Bombay Gazetteer,

DISTRICTS.

Chapter III.

People.

Tbadees.
Lingdyat Vdnis.

Mardtha Vdnis.

Mdrvidr Vdnis,

Jangam who hands it to the mother, by whom it is kept till the child
is seven years old. The child then wears it with certain religious
rites one of which is a caste feast. Their marriage customs and
rites are the same as those of peasant Marafchds. They bury
their dead and in all cases a tomb is raised on the spot with an
inscription and a ling engraved on it. Many of them observe no
mourning on the occasion of a death, nor do the women sit by
themselves during their monthly sickness. The Lingayats are careful
to obey the orders of their spiritual heads who live in monasteries,
of which there are three within Satara limits, at Aundh, at Mahasuli
in Kar^d, and at Nimsod in Khat^v. Their social disputes are
settled by a meeting of the caste at which a Jangam presides and
a majority of votes carries the point. The boys learn to read and
write Mardthi and to cast accounts. They are a prosperous people.

Mara'tha Va'nis are returned as numbering 3243 and as found
over the whole district. The men are middle-sized, dark, and stout,
and the women are fair. Their home tongue is Marathi, and they
are traders, shopkeepers, and husbandmen. They eat fish and flesh
and drink liquor. The men dress like Br^hmans, in a waistcloth,
coat, shouldercloth, headscarf or turban, and shoes or sandals.
The women dress in the full Mardtha robe and bodice like Brdhman
women, drawing the skirt of the robe back between the feet. They
worship the usual Brahmanic gods and goddesses, keep the ordinary
fasts and feasts, and go on pilgrimages to Alandi, Benares,
Jejuri, Pandharpur, and Tuljdpur. Their priests are Deshasth
Brahmans to whom they pay great respect. They hold caste
councils, send their boys to school for a short time, and are a steady
class, making enough to maintain themselves and their families.

Ma'rwa'r Va'nis are returned as numbering 275 and as found
in ones and twos in every large village in the district. They speak
Marwari at home and incorrect Mardthi abroad. They keep their
houses clean, and paint the .walls with bright fantastic colours. The
men dress in a close fitting turban, a waistcloth, and coat, and the
women wear the open-backed bodice, a petticoat, and a short robe
drawn up from the petticoat band and falling like a veil over the
head and face. Above the elbow and on the wrists they wear gold
ornaments, but their chief oi-naments are ivory bracelets. Their
food is wheat, pulse, butter, oil, and sugar. They take much less
care of their persons than of their houses. Their women, except on
great occasions, are slovenly, but the men generally bathe daily.
The features of the men are more strongly marked and they are
sturdier and more active than Gujarat Vdnis. The men shave
the head leaving three patches of hair, a top-knot and a lock over
each ear. They have a bad name for hard and unfair dealing.
Besides lending money they deal in cloth, grain, pulse, oil, butter,
and various other articles. In religion they are either Vaishnavs
or Shravaks. The midwife who generally belongs to the Maratha
caste attends a lying-in woman for twelve days during which the
mother is held impure. The midwife bathes the mother and child
daily, and keeps cowdung cakes burning under the mother's cot.
On the fifth day the mother worships the goddess Ohhatti, and, on the

Deccan-]

Si.Ti.RA.

following morning, ties a gold&n image of Chliatti round the child's
neck. On the twelfth day the house is cowdunged, the clothes
of the mother and child are washed, and a few near women
relations are asked to dine. The mother, after worshipping the
planets, the sun, and the earth with flowers, becomes pure, and
is at liberty to mix with the house people. On the same day
an Upper Indian Brahman priest gives the child a name and is
paid 3d. (2 as.), and the women guests retire with a present of wet
gram or ghugris. They marry their girls before they are fifteen,
and hold a betrothal ceremony at which they present the girl
with a rupee and a silver finger ring, and fill her lap with rice, a
cocoanut, and betel leaves. After this the marriage may take place
at any time and is generally held within a year or two. If the
parents of the girl are poor the boy's father has to give the girFs
father money. They build no marriage altar, get no waterpota
from the potter's, plant no lucky post in the booth, and worship no
sprays of lucky trees as marriage guardians. The two chief heads
of expenditure in a Mdrwd,ri marriage are caste dinners and
ornaments. Except unweaned children they burn the dead, and
if the deceased has died on an unlucky day they carry on the
bier along with the deceased a dough human figure and burn it with
the body. They believe that if a figure is not burnt, some one of
the deceased's family will shortly die. The chief mourner does
not shave his moustache, neither does he carry the fire in his hands,
but it is taken by their caste barber in a copper vessel. After the
body is burnt the mourners bathe, return home, and purify them-
selves by drinking cow's urine. The family of the deceased observe
no mourning, and feast the caste on the twelfth day after death.
They hold caste councils and settle social disputes at caste meetings.
Their boys learn to read and write either at school or from their
fathers at home. As a class they are well-to-do.

Ta'mboliS, or Betel-sellersj are returned as numbering 2674
and as found over the whole district mostly in towns. They are
said to have come into the district from the Karndtak ten or twelve
generations ago. They -are divided into Lingdyat, Mardtha, and
Musalm^n Timbolis. The following particulars apply to the
Lingayat Tdmbolis. Their surnames are Dalve and Jeble. The names
in common use among men are Bhd,u, Hari, Krishna, Maruti, R^ma,
and Vithoba; and among women Bhagu, Ghimna, Gaja, Kusa,
Rakhmi, and Thaku. Their home speech is Mardthi and they look
like peasant Marathds. They live in neat and clean houses of the
poorer sort generally one storey high with walls of brick and tiled
roofs. Most of them keep cows and she-buffaloes, and almost
all of them have ponies for bringing home packets of betel
leaves from villages and gardens outside of the town. They
are moderate eaters, and their staple food is millet, vegetables,
pulse, and pungent and sour condiments. They do not eat fish or
flesh, neither do they drink liquor. Their holiday dish is gram
cakes or puranpoUs. The men dress in a short waistcloth or pancha,
a coat, waistcoat, headscarf or turban folded after the Gujardt Vdni
iashion^ shonldercloth, and shoes, and the women in a robe and bodice

Chapter III-

People.

Traders,
Mdrwdr Vdnis,

TdmboUs,

[Bombay Gazetteer,

DISTRICTS.

Chapter III.

People.

Tbadees.
Tdmholis .

worn like those of peasant Mardthas. The men wear gold earrings,
finger rings, and a silver waistchain, and the women the black glass
bead necklace with a gold button, glass bangles, and silver or bell-
metal toe-rings. They also wear gold and silver earrings and neck-
laces, and the well-to-do have rich clothes and ornaments for wear-
ing on special occasions. As a class they are orderly and thrifty.
They sell betel leaves, nuts, cement, tobacco, and the spices used
in chewing packets of betel leaves, as cardamoms, cloves, nut-
mace and nutmeg, catechu, musk, and saffron. They buy leaves at
thirty-six Aazjfe or packets, each havli containing five hundred leaves,
for £1 4s. to £1 10s. (Rs.12-16) and sell them retail making a profit
of 6s. to 8s. (Es. 3 -4) on every thirty-six A;ai;Zis. Their women do
not help them in their calling. Some are also husbandmen, and
others house servants and labourers. They are a religious people
devoted to the worship of Shiv. They worship all Hindu gods and
goddesses and keep the regular fasts and festivals. They make
pilgrimages to Jejuri and Pandharpur and believe Khandoba to
be an incarnation of Shiv. Their priests are Jangams, but both
Jangams and Brdhmans officiate at their ceremonies. They believe
in witchcraft and spirits and consult oracles, and, although they
think that the simple besmearing of the brow with ashes removes
impurity, they hold a mother impure for twelve days after child-
birth. For the first five days after childbirth the mother and child
are daily rubbed with oil and turmeric, and, in the morning of the
fifth day, the family Jangam ties a ling round the child's neck. In
the evening the midwife worships the goddess Satvlii in the mother's
room, and the mother and child bow before it. On the afternoon of
the twelfth day kinswomen, friends, and neighbours present the
child with caps and jackets, and putting it into a cradle give it a
name. The expenses for the first twelve days vary from 10s. to
£1 10s. (Rs. 5-15). Among them the boy's father has to look for
a wife for his son and if the girl's parents are poor the boy's
father has to give the girl's father £5 to £10 (Rs. 50-100).
The ceremony of betrothal or sdkharpuda is not necessary. When
betrothal is performed, both fathers exchange presents of clothes
and the girl's father in addition has to feast the caste. Their
marriage god is the branch of ajdmbhul tree which they tie to the
marriage hall along with a betelnut folded in a piece of yellow cloth.
They rub the girl with turmeric and send what is over with music
to the boy's. At the girl's, in addition to the marriage hall, they
raise aa earthen altar and place earthen pots which they bring from
the potter's, and, after marking them with red green and yellow
lines, set them round the altar. In the evening the boy is taken in
procession to the temple of the village Mdruti, followed by his
sister carrying a plate with a lighted dough lamp, a pot containing
cold water, covered with a cocoanut, rice, and a small wooden box
containing redpowder. From Mdruti's temple the boy goes to the
girl's and sits in the booth. In the booth the Brdhman priest
makes a square of wheat grains, and, on this, the boy and girl sit
facing each other. A piece of cloth is held between them and the
Brahman priest repeats marriage verses, and, at the end, throws

Deccan.]

SlTlEA.

rice over their heads. The cloth is pulled to one side, the other
guests throw grains of rice over their heads, and the boy and girl
are husband and wife. The boy and girl are taken before the
house godsj where they bow, and, after dining together from the
the same plate, are taken outside and seated in the booth. The Brdh-
man priest rubs their brows with redpowder, and sticks rice grains
over the powder, and kinsfolk and friends, waving copper and silver
coins round their heads, drop them into a dish laid in front. The
money waved is made over to the musicians. Presents of clothes
are exchanged, and, after a feast to the guests, the boy returns
home with his bride in procession accompanied by relations, friends,
neighbours, and music. A T^mboli's wedding costs £20 to £40
(Es. 200-400) of which 4s. to 6s. (Rs. 2-3) go to the Brahman
priest as his marriage fee. When a girl comes of age she is unclean
for five days, during which she is fed on sweet dishes. On the
morning of either the fifth or the seventh day she is bathed in
warm water and her mother presents her with a new green robe and
bodice and her husband with a new turban. The mother then fills
the girl's lap with five kinds of fruit, and, when the rest of the
household go to bed, she joins her husband. This costs £1 to £2
(Rs. 10-2Q). They bury their dead. If the deceased is a married
woman, she is dressed in a green robe and bodice, her head is
decked with flowers, her brow marked with redpowder, and either
her daughter or her daughter-in-law waves a lighted lamp before
her face. The chief mourner walks in front of the bier, while a
Jangam blows a conch shell beside him. On the way to the burial
ground the mourners halt, place a piece of bread on the spot,
rest the bier, and the bearers change places and go on. At the
burning ground they lower the body into the grave already dug by
Mhdrs, fill it, and after paying the Mhdrs Is. to 2s.6d. (Rs.^-1^),
bathe and return to the mourner's. On the third day the chief
mourner goes to the burying ground, sprinkles cowdung on the
grave, and lays a stone over it. Over this stone he sprinkles cow's
dung and urine, and, throwing turmeric and redpowder over it,
offers it rice mixed with curds. He goes to a short distance, and,
after a crow has touched the rice, bathes and returns home. On the
fifth day the family Jangam rubs ashes on the chief mourner's brow
and he becomes pure. On the sixth day the caste is given a feast,
and, on the tenth, rice balls or daspind are offered in the name of
the deceased and thrown into a stream or water. The Jangam and
Brahman priests are presented with money and the funeral cere-
monies are over. A Tamboli's funeral costs £1 10s. to £2 (Rs. 15-
20) . They are bound together by a strong caste feeling and settle
social disputes at meetings of the caste. The authority of caste
daily grows weaker. They send their boys to school and keep them
at school till they know to read and write a little and cast accounts.
As Musalmdns and Marathas have of late taken to betel leaf selling,
the Lingdyat Tambolis have suffered from the competition and are
not so well-to-do as they used to be.

Husbandmen include two classes' with a strength of 608,108 or
55 "44 per cent of the Hindu population. The details are :

Chapter III

People-

Teadeks.
Tdmbolis.

Husbandmen,

[Bombay Gazetteer,

DISTRICTS.

Chapter IIL
People.

Husbandmen.

Kunhis,

Sdtdra Husbandmen, 1881.

Division.

Males.

Females.

Total.

Eunbis

MSlis

Total ...

289,821
12,269

293,748
12,ii70

683,669
24,539

302,090

308,018

608,108

Kunbis are returned as numbering 583,569 and as found over
the whole district. They say that the founder of their caste was the
sage Kdshyap, and that they came into the district from Md,rw£r,
Jodhpur, and Udepur about thirty generations ago. They are said
to have sprung from ninety-six clans. Among their surnames are
Chavan, Gdikavad, Jddhav, Shinde, and Sirke. The names iu
common use among men are Govind, Parsu, Rdma, and Shidu, and
among women, Bhdgirthi, Ganga, Gojra, Eakhma, and Uma.
S^t^ra Kunbis are dark middle-sized and hardy, and their home
tongue is Mar^thi. Their practice of keeping cattle in their
houses generally makes them dirty. Their house goods include
field tools, metal and earthen vessels and pans, a grindstone, a
handmill, and a pestle and mortar. They are moderate eaters and
their staple food is millet, pulse, vegetables, frait, roots, spices, oil,
and butter, and, besides fish, fowls, eggs, sheep, and goats, they eat
the flesh of the wild Tiog, deer, and hare. Besides water they drink
milk, whey, and liquor, and smoke and chew tobacco. The men
dress in a waistcloth, jacket, shouldercloth, turban, and shoes, and
while working in the fields in a loincloth and blanket. The
women wear a robe and bodice, rub their brows with redpowder,
and do not deck their hair with flowers. They are hardworking,
temperate, hospitable, and among themselves honest and just. Most
of them are husbandmen, and they are helped in their work by their
women and children. They worship all BrAhmanic gods and god-
desses and keep the usual fasts and feasts. The chief KunbihoHdays
are the Hindu New Year's Day in April, Akshahritiya or the
Undying Third in May, Ndgpanchmi or the Cobra's Fifth in August,
Pola or Bullock Day in August- September, Dasara in September,
Dimdli in October-November, Ghampdshashthdin Deceniber, Scmkrdnt
on the 12th of January, the full-moon day of Mdgh or February-
March called Ravydchipunav, and Shimga or Eoli in March. Their
fast days are the four Mondays and Saturdays of Shrdvan or July-
August, Navrdtra the first nine days of Ashvin or September-October
the two Ekddashis or Elevenths of Ashddk or July- August, Ha/rtdliha
and RisTi Panchami in August-September, and Shivrdtra in February.
Besides on these days some fast on all Mondays Saturdays Sundays
and Tuesdays of the year. Their favourite gods are Bahiroba,
Mhaskoba, and Vdghoba, and their chief goddesses are Maridi,
Mukai, Satv^i, and Tukai whose images they have in their
houses. They greatly respect Brdhmans and call them to officiate
at their houses. Their religious teachers are Gosavis, whose
advice or updesh they take. They believe in spirits and witch-
craft, and stand in great awe of ghosts and evil spirits. For
her first confinement a young wife generally goes to her
parents' house. When she is delivered, the midwife, who

Deccan]

SATARA.

generally belongs to the motlier's family, sprinkles a little cold water
over the babe's stomacb, and cuts its navel cord. She puts the cord
in an earthen jar along with the after-birth, a little turmeric and
redpowder and rice, and buries it in a hole in the mother's room.
The mother and child are bathed in warm water and laid on the cot,
and, that they may not suffer from an attack of cold, a dish of live
charcoal is placed under the cot. The child is fed by sucking cotton
soaked in castor-oil and the mother is given assafcetida, butter,
and pepper. To strengthen them, after childbirth women are
also given sunthavda a tonic of dry ginger, gum, clarified butter,
dry dates, dry cocoa-kernel, and the roots of the saphet musli
Curculigo alba. For twelve days a lamp is kept burning near
the mother and child. The laps of the midwife and of some
married women are filled, and they are presented with turmeric
and redpowder and retire. A Brdhman astrologer is called who
refers to his almanac and finds out a name for the child, and
retires with a present of either grain or money. But the child is
not always called by the name chosen by the BrAhman. On the
second day, if the family is well-to-do and the child is a boy, neighbour
women and the wives of kinsmen and friends pour pots full of cold
water on the road in front of the house, and, on the twelfth day, are
treated to a feast, and presented with robes and bodices. On the
third day the mother begins to suckle the child. For four days
she is held impure, and, except the midwife, no one touches her. On
the fifth the mother and child are bathed, the house is cowdunged,
and all clothes are washed. On this day the mother eats nothing
but dry cocoa-kernel and dates. In the evening close to the mother's
head and feet two human pictures called Balirana are drawn with soot
or charcoal on the walls of the mother's room with their heads turned
in opposite directions. In a corner of the room is placed a grind-
stone and on it a silver image of Sat vai. worth a penny or two, made
by a local goldsmith. The midwife ties a red cotton cord or ndda
round it and lays before the image a lemon, a coil of thread, packets
of redpowder and turmeric, pomegranate flowers, frankincense,
camphor, five dates, five betelnuts, five halves of dry cocoa-kernel,
a copper coin, betel leaves, parsley seeds, orris root or vekhand, a
marking-nut, and a piece of black cord. By the side of the image
of Satvdi is laid the knife with which the navel cord was cut. In
the same way the bathing spot and the figures of Balirana are
worshipped. Some lay a sword by the side of Satvai and some
lay a pen, paper, and inkstand. Rice, varan or split pulse, vegetables,
unstuffed cakes ovpoUs, fried wheat cakes called iawoZas, and, at the
house of some, goat's flesh are laid before Satvai. Friends and
relations are asked to a feast, and stay up the whole night, seated on
small square blankets or chavdles, singing Idvnis or ballads. A lamp
of wheat flour, fed with oil or clarified butter, is kept burning
neaj" the image of Satvai. The child is not allowed to look at the
lamp, as if it does not see the lamp straight it is sure to get a
squint. On the sixth the offerings made to Satvdi are not removed,
and the mother and child are not bathed. The mother is fed with
the food cooked on the fifth day, as it is believed that after the
B 1282—9

Chapter III.

People.

Husbandmen.
Kunbis.

;; [BomT)ay Gazetteer,

DISTEICTS.

Chapter Ill-
People-

Husbandmen.
Kunbis.

SatY^i ceremony tlie mother's eating stale food does not give the
child stomach-ache. On the seventh day the midwife gathers the
offerings and the image of SatvAi in a cloth, and lays them near the,
bathing corner or mori. She bathes the child and rubs it with
oil, and bathes the mother but without rubbing her with oil. After
the bath the mother is given a little turmeric powder mixed with
oil and water and one or two half cocoa-kernels. She warms herself
with a chafing dish and is laid on the cot. On the eighth day the
mother is given complete rest. On the ninth day the ground of the
lying-in room is coated with cowdung, and the mother and child are
rubbed with a mixture of turmeric and oil, and bathed. The mother
is fed with ordinary food cooked in the house. On the tenth the
mother loses all impurity. She is bathed from head to foot and her
room is cleaned with cowdung. The child is bathed and laid in a
basket. On the eleventh the child is bathed and for some time is laid
in a basket. Rising early on the twelfth, the midwife cleans the room
moving the cot outside, bathes the child, and lays it in a basket. She
rubs the mother with fragrant ointments and bathes her and bringing
back the cot tells her to lie on it. Turmeric powder, redpowder, and
red sugar are laid before the bathing spot or mori and it is washed.
The mother takes her child and walks out of the house on a square
blanket or chavdle or on a sheet. She then goes outside of the
village to a hdbhul or other tree under which are five stones the
abode of the goddess Satvai. These she washes, lays flowers, powder
packets, and thread coils or ndda pudis before them, burns incense
and marks her brow with ashes taken from the incense-burner. She
bows to the goddess, saying ' The child is not mine but yours, kindly
keep it healthy.- Unwidowed women or savdshins are asked to a feast
of rice, split pulse, vegetables, and unstuffed cakes or poKs. If the
family lives in a town, this feast is held in front of the house. On
the thirteenth a wooden cradle is hung with a string six or seven feet
long fastened either to the right or left side. About four or five in
the evening five or six unwidowed women are given betel-leaves and
whole-boiled gram or wheat. A stone pin used in pounding relishes
or chatnis is washed, dressed in a child's cap and hood,- and a gold or
silver wire or sari is put round one of its ends. Under the cradle a
white sheet is laid and folded four times, and round the four sides a
square or chauh of wheat or rice is traced and a second sheet is spread
. over it. When all is ready the stone pin, which is called Gopya, is laid
in the cradle, and the mother is seated under the cradle on the white
sheet. After a short time Gopya is taken out of the cradle and the
child is dressed in a cap and a^hood or kunchi, and, to keep ofE the
evil eye, its eyelids, left cheek,' right hand, and left foot are touched
with coUyrium or lamp-black, and, while some of the women sing
Edm's cradle song, the child is laid in the cradle. Boiled gram or
wheat called ghugris are scattered along the side of the cradle, the
cradle is rocked by the unwidowed women, and the child is generally
given any name chosen by the Brahman astrologer or by the married
women guests if the astrologer's name does not suit their, fancy.
If a mother has lost several infants, she names the next child Dagad.
or Dhonda, that is stone apparently with the. object of cheating the

Kunbis.

Deccan]

SAtAeA. 67

evil spii'its into tlie idea that the child is not valued and is not Chapter III.

worth carrying off. If the baby cries much it is named after its PeoBle

father's father or mother^ as it is supposed that their spirit has

come into the child. After the child has been named the women Husbandmen.

kiss it and pray God to keep it in health. After naming the

child they hand the guests the ghugris or whole-boiled gram

and wheatj saying ' Take this gram and take our bdl or babe to

play.' Boys are married between fifteen and twenty-five and

girls before they come of age. As a rule the proposals of

marriage come from the boy's parents. Before accepting the offer

the boy's father makes a full inquiry regarding the surname, family,

and relations of the girl's father. When he is satisfied on these

points the boy's father goes with friends and kinsfolk to the girl's,

marks her brow with redpowder, touches her brow with a rupee,

and lays the rupee in her hands. The girl is given a small robe, a

bodice, and some ornaments, and her grandmother and her maternal

uncle's wife are presented with two robes worth 6s. or 6s. (Rs. ^^-3)

and called djichir or grandmother's robe and may Z«wc7mV or aunt's

robe. The girl's father asks the boy's father and his kinsfolk, and

his own friends and kinspeople, to a feast of cakes or jpolis either

stuffed or unstuffed. When the feast is over a Brd,hman is called to

fix the marriage day and is paid by both fathers. If the girl's father

is poor he takes £10 to £15 (Rs. 100 - 150) as her price ; if he is

rich he gives her £5 to £10 (Rs. 50-100) as her dowry. Before

the marriage, in 'front of both the boy's and the girl's houses, a

marriage porch is built and in the girl's marriage porch an earthen

altar or bahule is set. Supplies of clothes, grain, oil, and other

articles are also laid in. About a fortnight before the marriage the

bride and bridegroom are rubbed with turmeric powder. Three

or four unwidowed women grind this turmeric in a handmill to

whose handle in a yellow cloth are tied a betelnut and three or four

sprouted turmeric roots. In country parts except the headman

and other mdnJcaris or honourables, most of the men of the village

take part in the turmeric grinding, sitting four or five at a handmill.

They sing the women's corn-grinding songs. On the day when

the boy and girl are rubbed with turmeric, women bring to the

houses gram in a platter and in return are given small balls of

boiled wheat flour. During the two or three days after the boy has

been rubbed with turmeric friends and_ kinspeople ask him to dine,

and when he goes young girls sometimes go with him. If one of

the friends is wealthy, he calls the boy and all the members of the

boy's family to his house with musicians playing before them, feasts

them on cakes or poUs, and hangs flower garlands or munddvals

round the boy's head. If the hoiises of the bride and bridegroom

are in the same town or village the installing of their badge or

marriage guardian called devak is held on the marriage day. If

the. boy and girl live in different places the worship is held two

or three days before the marriage day. In installing the

inarriage guardian the first step is to worship the house gods.

After the house gods are worshipped a near kinsman of the boy's

father and his wife have the skirts of their garments tied together,

[Bombay Gazetteer)

DISTRICTS.

Chapter III.

People.

Husbandmen.
Kunbis.

and, under a waistclotli held over their heads by four persons,
go, preceded by musicians, to the village Mdruti. The husband
carries on his shoulder an axe or some other iron field tool and a rope
twelve to fifteen feet long, and his wife walks close behind him
carrying a platter with the family crest and an offering of food.
Behind the pair walk four or five unwidowed women each carrying
a brass water cup full of water. At Mdruti's temple the Gnrav or
ministrant has a supply of sprigs of five trees, the mango, the rui
Calitropis gigantea, the saundad Acacia suma, the Indian fig or vad,
and the jdmbhul Syzigium jambolana. The party bow before the god
and lay sandal, flowers, frankincense, and food before him and the
ministrant presents them with the five sprigs or pdnch pdlvis. On
their return to the house they tie the five sprigs to a pole in the
marriage porch and along with the sprigs tie a cake or poli and the
spiced gram relish called hesan which is eaten with bread. On this
day some ten to twenty friends and kinspeople are asked to a feast
of unstuffed cakes. They sit on square blankets and after a
service of betel withdraw. When the guests are gone the women
of the house sit on the bare ground and eat. When a marriage
party has to go to a distant village they travel in bullock carts with
music. On reaching the boundary of the girl's _ village or town,
water is fetched and poured on the boundary by a Koli of the place
who is given a cocoanut and occasionally a turban worth 2s. (Re. 1).
On entering the village, if he has not ridden the whole way, the
bridegroom mounts a horse and goes to the village Maruti with music
and halts there with his sisters or other young girls who are called
haravlis or groom's maids. In the village the girl's father has provided
a lodging or Jdnvasghar for the boy's party. In the evening from
Maruti's temple the bridegroom's brother or other near relation,
called the vardhdva or groom-sent, mounts a horse, and, with
friends and music, goes to the bride's. On reaching the bride's
her father asks him to dine, and, if he is rich, gives him a
turban. When the groom-sent has taken some food the bride's
father gives him, for the bridegroom, a tinsel chaplet, a turban,
a red chintz overcoat, a pair of waistcloths, a pair of shoes,
and a shoulder cloth. The harbinger mounts his horse and starts
for Maruti's temple with the bride's father and some of the bride's
kinsmen who carry four or five bodice-banners or dhvajas tied to
poles and held over his head, and followed by an unwidowed woman
or savdsMn with a cocoanut and betel leaves in a platter. As he goes
the bride's brother pelts him with onions. At Maruti's temple the
bride's father lays the platter with the dress before the bridegroom.
A Brdhman priest who is in attendance tells the bridegroom to
wash his eyes with water, loosens the brocaded end of the bride-
groom's turban, and winds it twice or thrice round the bridegroom's
neck. He sets up a betelnut Ganpati and tells the bridegroom
to wash it and lay sandal-powder and flowers before it. After
this the priest touches the new clothes with turmeric powder, marks
the bridegroom's brow with sandal-powder, and gives him the
clothes. If the bridegroom's old turban is of little value, it is
given to the barber who is to lead his horse ; if the turban is rich
the barber is given a cocoanut. Betel leaves are handed to all

Deccau.]

SATlEA. 69

present and money is given to the Brdhmans. The bridegroom's Chapter III.
left cheek is touched with lamp-black. He lays before Maniti two People,

betel leaves, a betelnut, and a copper coin and walks round him.
He carries a dagger or poniard with a lemon stuck on its point. Hcsbandmen,
Before starting for the bride's a cocoanut is broken to keep off evil Kunois.

influences. The village Mhdr stands before the bridegroom as if to
stop him and is given a white turban or shouldercloth worth 6d. to Is.
(4-8 as.). When he reaches the bride's house, a Mhd,r woman
comes with an iron lamp in a platter and waves it round his head
saying ' May all your pains and troubles vanish and the riches of
Bali be poured on you.' For this she is given a cheap bodice
cloth. Near the door of the bride's house the wife of her maternal
uncle waves round the bridegroom's head a lighted lamp of wheaten
flour with two wheat flour balls at its sides and is given a bodice
and a robe. This lamp-waving is called varovdlni or the
bridegroom-waving. The boy's party are seated on the marriage
porch and the bridegroom is made to stand near the earth altar in
the centre of which is placed a mango sprig stuck in a ball of mad
and at each corner a coloured earthen pot called vahi. The bride
is carried out of the house and set in front of the bridegroom facing
him. The priest and some begging Brdhmans come forward and
divide into two parties. A. cloth or antarpdt is held between the
bride and bridegroom so that they cannot see each other's faces.
They, touch finger tips with the cloth between them. The two
parties of Brahmans hand .the guests turmeric or red-coloured
rice or millet to throw on the heads of the bride and bride-
groom. The two parties of priests iu turn recite mangaldsthaks
or lucky verses at the end of each verse throwing some coloured
grains on the heads of the pair, and the guests like the Brdhmans
at the end of each verse throw coloured grains. When the
verses are over the Brahmans clap their hands, all the guests
clap their hands, and musicians raise a din of music. Shortly
after the maternal uncles of the bride and bridegroom sit on
stools with the bride and bridegroom on their knees and with their
faces turned to each other. The priest tells the bride and
bridegroom to fold their hands and touch finger tips 'while he winds
a yellow thread round their necks. This ceremony is called sutavne
or the thread-winding. While they are thus seated the girl-giving
or kanydddn is performed by the bride's maternal uncle, or in his
absence by her father. When he gives her away the uncle presents
the girl with copper vessels according to his means. The priest
muttering some verses cuts the yellow thread that was passed round
the pair's necks and tells them to sit on the altar or bahule. The
bride sits on the bridegroom's left. In front of the pair a burnt
offering is made called Idjdhom of clarified butter pieces of wood and
fried rice. A winnowing fan with rice, split pulse, wafer biscuits, fried
rice cakes, and vermicelli is laid before the bridegroom. The priest
suddenly puts his hand over one of the articles on the fan, and
asks the bridegroom to say what he has hid. If the bridegroom
guesses right the priest says that his patron has got an intelligent
son-in-law ; if he answers wrong he calls him a dull fellow. After
this a low stool covered with wheat flour and with lines drawn on

[Bombay Gazetteer,.

DISTEICTS.

Chapter III.

People.

Husbandmen.
Kunhis.

it is set before the bride and bridegroom and they are told to say
each other's name, money is given to the Br^hmanj and he retires.
On the same day, after the marriage is over, a party from the bride's
go to the village Mdruti, and, with the same rites as those described
in the case of the bridegroom's party, bring and tie in the marriage
porch the bride's father's devalc or marriage guardian. After the
bride's devak has been installed a party of the bride's kinswomen
go in procession to the bridegroom, with platters full of fried rice
cakes, and rice vermicelli or shevya. They are received with honour
and are given turmeric and redpowder. They empty their
platters and in return in one of them the bridegroom's kinswomen'
put Is. to £1 (Rs.^-lO) in cash. This food-gift to the bridegroom
is called rukhvat. Then some of the bride's near kinsmen with
music go to ask kinsmen to dine, and bring them home with
music, and in the same way the women of the bride's family bring
kinswomen. The relations are feasted on unstuffed cakes or ^Jofe,'
rice, split pulse, dlan or boiled rice flour seasoned with spices, and
fried rice cakes. Early next morning, with music and friends, the
bride and bridegroom seated on a horse, the bride in front, are taken
to a river or garden, and, after retiring, have their feet rubbed with
wet turmeric powder and oiled redpowder, and return with music^
About ten the boy and girl are bathed on low stools in the booth.
Round the bathing-place are set four or five tdmhyds or copper
drinking pots with a white thread passed round their necks. At'
the time of bathing the bridegroom is seated on a low stool and the
bride on another low stool or a large platter. While bathing they
fill their mouths with water and blow it over each other's faces.
The boy holds a betelnut in his hand and the girl using both her
hands tries to force it out ; then the girl holds the nut and the boy
tries to force it out with his left hand. If the boy fails the guests
jeer at him calling him bulga or impotent. When the bathing is
over the bridegroom tries to lift the bride by his left hand and set
her at his left side while the bride tries to prevent him lifting her
from the ground. These struggles greatly amuse the guests and
relations. The boy and girl are then dressed and their brows are
rubbed with redpowder and their bodies with turmeric. They are
given a dish of shevya, that is milk, clarified butter, rice vermicelli,
and raw sugar, and feed each other. After dinner they sit on the altar
in the booth. In the evening the bride's father gives a caste feast
and on one of the days the boy's father treats the caste to rice, split
pulse, vegetables, and unstuffed cakes or polis. On this day, or if this
is not a lucky day on the next; the bride's lap is filled. The priest
folds a waistcloth four times, covers it with rice or wheat grains,
and tells the bride and the bridegroom to sit on it. While the
priest chants verses the bridegroom fills the bride's lap with five
half cocoa-kernels, five dates, five sprouted turmeric roots, five
betelnuts, a quarter of a pound of rice, a comb, a small casket, and
a variously coloured cord. The bridegroom's father presents the

' The reasoij of the procession music and turmeric rubbing is to keep off spirits
which at such times are specially troublesome.

Deccan-I

satAra.

bride with - the richest robe he can afford and the guests present
the fathers of the bride and bridegroom with clothes or cash from
Is. (8 as.) upwards. These presents are called dher. After this the
twelve haluteddrs or village servants come in, and, according to
his means, the boy's father gives their wives bodicecloths or cash.
If he is rich he gives the headman or pdtil a turban. In the evening
the bride's and the bridegroom's skirts are tied together, aad they
walk to the bridegroom's house or lodging. After lamplight the
bridegroom's mother with a band of kinspeople walks towards the
bride's on cloths spread by the village washerman, and at the
same time the bride's mother starts with a band of friend^ to visit
the boy's mother. When the parties meet they stop ten or fifteen
paces from each other. A waistcloth is held in front of each
party and they begin throwing redpowder on one another. They
jest with one another showing in front of the cloth a ladle, a
rolling-pin, a dog, or a cat. While this is going on the bridegroom
and his mother pretend to be offended and leave the party. The
bride's father and mother follow tbem and appease them with
presents. Then the two parties move on to the bride's where the
bridegroom's mother is seated in the booth on a three-legged
stool. Bound her are arranged four or five metal drinking pots
or tdmbyds with a thread passed round their necks, and the boy
and girl are seated on her lap. The bride's father gives a robe to
the bridegroom's mother and the bridegroom's father gives a robe
to the bride's mother. This interchange of robes is called
potjhdkni or stomacher. While the bridegroom's mother is
seated on her stool the jhdl or handing ceremony is performed. A
bamboo basket or round metal dish, with a comb, a looking glass,
a casket, a rolling-pin, five sweet things, and five wheat flour
lamps is set on the bridegroom's mother's head, and four or five
women stand about her and sing the jhdl song which runs : ' The
bridegroom has reached the village boundary, I will worship the
boundary and win the bridegroom.' Meanwhile a kinsman of the
bridegroom's runs away withthe basket or dish to the bridegroom's
and is pursued and pelted with onions by the bride's people.
The bride's father mother and other near relations hold the bride
seated on their crossed hands and set her on her husband's lap
and then on the laps of his father mother and other near relations.
At the time .of handing her over the girl's relations with sobs
and tears say : ' Up to this she was ours, now she is yours.'
This ceremony is seldom over till the morning cock-crow, and,
after it is over, sometimes as late as five they sit to a feast.
When the feast is over the bride and bridegroom are led into the
god-house and bow before the images. As he bows the bi'idegroom
steals one of the gods and refuses to give it up till the bride's
father makes him a present. All then go to the bridegroom's.
In the evening the bridegroom's father gives betel leaves with
nuts to the guests and bids them goodbye. If the bridegroom
belongs to another village, the guests who belong to his village
accompany him home. When they reach the village the bride and
bridegroom are taken to the temple of the village MSruti. In the
evening about seven or eight the bride and bridegroom' are seated

Chapter III

People.

Husbandmen
Kunbis.

[Bombay Gazetteer,
72 DISTRICTS.

Chapter III. on a horse and led to la.ia house with a procession^ music, and if
People. tlisy can afford them fireworks. In the house a dish with coooanuts

saffron and betel leaves is waved round the image of Khandoba, a
usBANDMKN. ceromony which is called the lifting of Khandoba's tali or plate.
" " After the plate- waving comes the Jkenda ndchne or flag-dance when

one man sets the bride on his back and another sets the bride-
groom on his back and they dance. Sometimes the bride sits on
the bridegroom's back and a man dances with both on his back.
After the dance the bridegroom, holding the full box of a seed
drill in his hand, sprinkles grain on the ground and along with the
bride who carries resin in her hand goes to the god room. At the
door of the god room they find the boy's sister who refuses to let
them pass till they promise to give their first daughter in marriage
to her son. They agree though the promise is almost never kept,
and pass in, and laying a betelnut and a copper coin before them, bow
to the house gods. The girl is considered the goddess of wealth
and her brow is marked with redpowder. Some wheat with a piece
of gold in it is heaped between the bride and bridegroom, and they
are told to divide the heap. If the bride gets the gold in her half
she is applauded and it is taken as an omen that the rule in the
house will be hers. On the next or some other lucky day the bride
and bridegroom are bathed and the turmeric is taken off. If she can
afford it the boy's mother for a fortnight longer feeds them on
boiled rice and clarified butter.

When a girl comes of age her feet are rubbed with turmeric powder
moistened with water and her brow with redpowder with or without
oil ; and she is fed on varan or split pulse cooked in water with turmeric
powder, and salt, rice, vegetables, and unstuffed cakes ovjpoUs. If her
father-in-law is rich the girl is for four days seated in a gaily dressed
frame called a makhar probably from makhdlaya or a place of sacrifice.
On the fifth she and her husband are bathed and while they bathe
music is played. She is dressed in a green robe and a green
bodice, and her hands are adorned with fresh green glass
bangles. Her father, if rich enough, gives her husband a waistoloth
and turban and to his mother a robe and a bodice, and beds, a
carpet, a set of betel dishes, and a samai or metal lamp for her and her
husband's use. Some unwidowed women with relations are asked
to feast on cakes ov polls and the girl and" her husband are made to
feed each other from the same dish.

When a woman is pregnant for the first time, her food longings
are satisfied, and a special feast called dohalejevan or the
longing dinner is held in the fifth or in the seventh month of her
pregnancy. She is presented with a green robe and a green bodice, or
a bodiceonly if her husband is poor, and some ten or fifteen unwidowed
women are asked to dine with her. Lamps are placed by her side and
the feast is made as grand as the giver can afford. To guard against
the danger of miscarriage from violent movements or a sudden
fright, a pregnant woman is made to sit in a sailing boat and a
cart, is shown funeral processions, is made to cross the leather rope
attached to the bag in a bullock draw-well, and to cross the boun-
daries of a village or a town.

Deccan.]

satAra.

Wlien a Kunbi is at the point of death lie is lifted from liia
bed and laid on a blanket and his son rests the dying head on
his lap. After death the body is bathed in water heated on a
hearth set in front of the house. To carry the body a ladder-like
bier is made of two poles six or seven feet long with three or four
small cross pieces. Two new earthen pots, a large one for water
and a small one for fire, redpowder, betel leaves, and a cloth about
seven and a half feet long are brought from the market or village
cloth shop. Word is sent to the village Mhar who carries cowdung
cakes and firewood to the burning ground which is genei'ally on the
river bank. The body is washed with warm water on a plank placed
before the front door. Except the face the body is covered with
a new waistcloth and a cord is passed several times round the body
to secure the cloth firmly. Betel leaves and guldl or redpowder
are sprinkled over it, and a basil leaf is put in the mouth and
some rice, a copper coin, and the quarter of a cake are laid beside
the body. Four of the dead person's kinsmen bear the body,
and the son bathes and walks in front carrying the firepot on a
triangular frame fastened to a sling. Before setting out he is
warned not to look back. About half-way to the burning ground
at a place ealled the visdvydchi jdga or rest-place the party
stops and the bearers set the bier on the ground and change
places. They throw away the rice the copper coin and the quarter
of a cake which were laid on the bier beside the body and pick up a
stone which is usually called the life-stone or jiv-khada. When they
reach the burning ground they raise a pile of four layers of cowdung
cakes. They then take off the waistcloth, cut the thread tied round
the waist, and loosen the loincloth. The body is laid on the pyre
and is covered with other layers of cakes. When the mouth is
being covered the son pours a little water into it. The son sets
fire to the pyre, bathes, brings water iij. the large earthen pot, and
stands at the head of the pyre. Another person comes and with
a small stone makes a hole in the earthen pot. As the water spouts
from the pot, the son goes five times round the pyre and at the end
throws the pot on the ground at the head of the pyre, and calls
aloud beating his mouth with the back of bis hand. He then
goes and sits among the other men without touching them. After
a short time the sound made by the bursting of the skull is heard
and the chief mourner and others, at least the four bearers, bathe.
The stone with which the earthen pot was pierced is kept with
great care somewhere in the burning place. On their return to the
house of mourning the funeral party are given nimb leaves to eat ;
or they go to a temple and then to their houses. The mourners do
not cook but are fed on that day by a relation or a friend with food
prepared at his house.

In the evening after the funeral a lighted lamp is set on the spot
where the dead breathed his last. Flour is strewn round the lamp
and the lamp is covered with a basket. Next morning the basket
is moved and the flour is examined. If a human footprint appears
on the flour the dead person is believed to be re-born as a human
being; and if the footprint is that of a bird or beast, the spirit of
the person is believed to have entered that beast or bird.
B 1282—10

Chapter III

People.

Husbandmen.
Kunbis.

[Bombay Gazetteen ■

DISTRICTS.

Chapter III.
People.

HcrSBANDMEN.

Kunbis.

Next morning tlie son^ with some friends and relations, goes to
the burning ground with three small earthen pots with their
mouths covered with three small wheaten cakes and three pimpal
leaves. He places the small pots in a winnowing basket and
fills them with milk cow-urine and honey or sugar and lays
some cowdung in the basket. On reaching the rest-place the
son lays on the ground a cake with a little raw sugar. He goes
on to the burning ground and from the spot where the body was
burnt, he takes the ashes except one bone which he puts aside^
and throws them into the nearest river. If he is rich he gathers the
bones and afterwards takes them to a holy river. After removing
the ashes the son sprinkles the spot with cowdung and cowurine and
places the two pots with two cakes one where the head lay and the
other where the feet lay. When the ash-gathering or rakhsdvddhne
is over the son and the other mourners bathe and return home.
On the third day the bearers' shoulders are rubbed with oil, and they
are given dry cocoa-kernel to eat. On the tenth all the household
bathe and wash their clothes in the river ; and the son shaves his
moustache and bathes. While a Brahman repeats verses the son
washes with cow-urine, the life-stone or jiv-khada and the bone
he kept, prepares ten balls and three little banners made of three
ochre-coloured cloths each tied to a stick. The Brd,hman is given
some money, shoes, and sometimes even a cow, presents which are
supposed to help the dead on his way to heaven. After preparing
the offering balls the son sits at a distance that crows may come and
eat them. If a crow touches them soon after they have been laid
out, the dead is supposed to have died with no unfulfilled wish. If
crows do not touch the balls the son and his relations promise to
fulfil the dead person's wish, and, when the promise is given, the
crows are believed to fall on the offering and eat it. After this is:
over the son and the other mourners bathe and return home. On the-
thirteenth day the priest is given money and provisions, and a feast of
unstuffed cakes or polls, rice, and split pulse is given to friends and
relations in houour of the dead. Some food is put in a platter and the
platter is kept aside that crows may eat out of it. In the evening one-
of his near relations ties a small white turban round the son's
head and takes him with the other mourners and generally some
of the villagers to Maruti's temple where the son lays a copper
coin and a betelnut before the god. Every month a man is asked
to dine in the name of the dead, and, after five months and a half, a
feast of unstuffed cakes or folis is given to the near relations of the
dead. In the dark half of Bhddrapad or August-September the spirit
of the dead is worshipped on the day of the fortnight which corre-
sponds with the death day. When an unwidowed woman or savdshin
dies the body on the bier is sprinkled with redpowder, betel leaves,
and scented powders. Her forehead is rubbed with vermUion
and her body with oiled turmeric powder. Some turmeric powder is
taken from her body and rubbed on her husband. On her way to
the burning ground she is asked to look back, and allow her husband
to marry again.

When a death occurs in a family, the close relations of the same
family stock remain ceremonially impure or sutaki for ten days and.

Deccaul

SlTlRA.

distant relations of the same stock for three days. Though widow
marriage is allowed, a remarried woman is not allowed to perform
religious rites along with her husband, and her husband is not
allowed to make offerings to the dead. If a widower manias a maid
he is not prevented from making offerings. A remarried widow is
less honoured than other women. Kunbis are bound together by a
strong caste feeling and settle social disputes at their caste council
or 'panch. The guilty are fined and the fine money is used in good
works or in a caste dinner. Their guru or teacher has no voice in
social disputes. Some of them send their children to school keeping
their boys at school five or six years and their girls one or two.

Mara'tha's^ are found all over the district. The 1881 census
includes them under Kunbis from whom they do not form a
separate caste. Some Mardtha families may have a larger strain
of northern or Rajput blood than the Kunbis. But this is not
always the case. The distinction between Kunbis and Mardthas
is almost entirely social, the Mardtha as a rule being better off, and
preferring war or service as a constable or a messenger to husbandry.
The Satdra Marathds seem to have no historic or legendary evidence
as to when or from where they came into the district. Though some-
what fairer in colour and more refined in manners Mardthd,s as a class
cannot be distinguished from Kunbis with whom all eat and the
poorer marry.

All Mardthds have surnames some of them true or clan surnames,
others false surnames, that is divisions of clan surnames generally
called after places or callings. In most cases families who are
known by a place or calling surname know or can find out to what
clan surname they belong. The Mardtha clan surnames are
interesting as they include the names, and, in some cases, apparently
preserve the true or un-Sanskritised forms of the names, of many
of the early Deccan Hindu dynasties of whom all trace has passed
from the Deccan caste lists. Among these dynastic names are
Cholke perhaps the original form of Chalukya for long (560-1190)
the rulers of the Deccan and Karnatak ; Kadam which seems to be
the same as Kadamb the name of dynasties who at different times
ruled all the Karnatak, Kolhdpur, and Goa (500-1200); More who
probably represent the Mauryas a branch of the great North Indian
family who were ruling in the Konkan and Deccan in the sixth
century ; Salunke, which seems to belong to late comers perhaps
followers of the Solanki kings of Gujarat (943-1240); SheMr,
which seems to preserve the original name of the Silahd,r
family who ruled in the Konkan and West Deccan from about
850 to 1275 ; and Yddav whose most famous Deccan family was of
Devgiri or Daulatabad, who were in power, and, during much of
the time supreme, in the Deccan from about 1150 till the Musalman
conquest in 1294. As far aa is known the Devgiri Yadavs passed
from the south northwards, and it is possible they were not northerners
but southerners Kurabars or other shepherds, who, under Brdhman
influence, adopted the great northern shepherd name of Tadar.

Chapter III-

People.

Husbandmen'.
Kunbis.

MardtAds.

1 Details of the origin and history of the name Mardtha and a list of MarAtha sur-
names and marriage guardians or devaks are given in the Kolh^pur Statistical Account.

LBombay Gazetteer.

DISTRICTS.

Chapter III.
People.

Husbandmen.
Mardthds.

-The preservation of these old dynastic names suggests the hope that
an enquiry into the strength and distribution of these clans may
throw light on the strength of the northern element in the
Mardthd,s. This hope seems idle. Almost all the leading tribal
surnames Cholke, More, Povar, Sheldr, and Yddav are found besides
among Kunbis, who do not appreciably differ from Marathd,s in race,
among Dhangars, Kolis, Mdlis (who are Kunbis), Mhdrs, Md.iigs,
Edmoshis, and seTeral wandering tribes, as Belddrs, Bharadis,
Bhorpis, Ghisddis, and Kaikadis, classes which seem to be but
slightly connected. The existence of the same clan name in most
middle and low-class Deccan Hindus may be due to the fact that
these clans or tribes came into the Deccan as nations or
communities complete enough to spread a fresh layer of people
over the whole country. The case of the Vanjdris whose great
bands formerly included many classes of craftsmen and who
still have Lobars and Mhdrs among them shows that this is
not impossible. At the same time the evidence against sameness
of surname proving sameness of tribe or race is so strong as to
make such widespread immigrations improbable. The case of the
Uohld/S or slit-pockets of Poona, all of whom are either Gaikvdds or
JAdhavs, is an extreme proof that sameness of surname by no means
implies sameness of tribe or race. UchMs are recruited from all
except the impure classes. They are joined, besides by Marathas
and Kam^this, by Brahmans, Mi,rwAri Vanis, and Musalmans, and
all recruits, whatever their caste, are adopted either into the Gd.ikvdd
or into the Jadhav clan.i The evidence presented by the case of the
Uchlds is supported in a less extreme form by the general Deccan
practice of calling a chief's retainers by the chief's surname. Taken
together with the case of the Uchlas, who supply almost the last
living trace of the old system of recruiting the predatory tribes,
this practise seems to show that to have a northern surname is
no proof of a northern origin or even of a strain of northern blood.
The possession of northern surnames probably usually arose, like
the possession of the Norman names of Gordon and Campbell by
the Scotch Keltic highlanders, from the practice of followers taking
or being given the name of their chief.^

Except the deshmukhs or district officers, the heads of villages
and indmddrs or grant holders who live in good houses two
or more storeys high with walls of brick and tiled roofs, most
Marathas live in poor one-storeyed dwellings. The well-to-do
strictly enforce the women seclusion system called gosha that is
curtain or Mardth mola that is Maratha custom. It is uncertain
whether women seclusion was borrowed from the Musalmans or
is a remnant of the old Kshatriya rule of antaspur or inner apart-
ment. Marathas eat flesh and drink liquor and their boys are girt
with the sacred thread on or shortly before the marriage day.
Maratha women, as a rule, do not pass the skirt of their robe
back between the feet espoially on festive occasions. Except the

' Uclila details are given in the Poona Statistical Account.

^ In his own country a MarAtha chief's retainers where they are known may be
called by their own surnames. Among strangers retainers are called by their chief's
surname, Mr, Y, M, Kelkar, Assistant Commissioner S. D,

Deccaul

sItIra.

difference caused by tlieir practice of not allowing their women to
appear in public the Maratba family customs at birth, coming of
age, pregnancy, and death differ little from tliose described
under Kunbis. The marriage ceremonies of the two classes have
■feeveral notable points of difference. Among Mardthas marriage
preparations begin on a lucky day chosen by the village astrologer
or gram joshi and kinspeople are invited. A short time before the
marriage, the boy is girt with the sacred thread, and, except that
the Brahman repeats classical Sanskrit texts instead of Vedic
texts, the Mai-dtha thread-girding is the same as the Brdh-
man thread-girding.^ The first of the marriage ceremonies is
the turmeric rubbing which is performed with the same details
at the houses both of the boy and of the girl. Turmeric is mixed
sometimes with water and sometimes with milk and rubbed on the
girl by her female relations and what is over is sent with m.usic
to the boy's. At the boy's a married woman traces a quartz square
in the marriage hall, and in front of the square, sets a low wooden stool
on which the boy is seated. Five or more other married women
surround him and the Brdhman priest, places a waterpot in the
middle of the square, fills the waterpot with water, and drops
into it a copper coin and a betelnut. On the mouth of the pot is laid
a piece of cocoa-kernel and five betelnuts. The priest sets a betel-
nut Ganpati near the waterpot, lays sandal paste, flowers, vermilion,
burnt frankincense, and sweetmeats both before the waterpot Varun
and the betelnut Ganpati and prays them to be kindly. The married
women with a dish of turmeric, redpowder, and rice grains, rub
turmeric over the boy's body, mark his brow with redpowder, and
stick grains of rice on the powder. The boy is dressed and a
flower garland or munddval is tied round his head. He lays
a cocoanut before his family goddess or Jculdevi, bows before
her, and starts for the girl's home with the priest, kinsfolk, and
friends and musicians. When they reach the girl's village
boundary, or more often the temple of Maruti which is generally
close outside of the village, they stop and perform the simanti or
boundary ceremony. They are met by the girl's party at the
temple. With the help of his priest the girl's father lays sandal
flowers and sugar before the waterpot Varun and the betelnut
Ganpati and presents the boy with clothes and ornaments. Betel is
served to the boy's friends and kinspeople and the priests are dismiss-
ed with money presents. As the lucky moment draws near, a kins-
man of the girl, called the vardhdva or bride-sent, visits the boy's
.party and asks them to come, and they start for the girl's. The boy
is seated on horseback with a dagger in his right hand, before him
walk the musicians, and after him his friends and relations. On reach-
ing the girl's house the boy is taken to a ready-made place in the
marriage hall where the male guests take their seats, and is seated on
a low wooden stool near the marriage altar. The women go into the
house, remove their veils and take their seats on carpets in the women's
hall, apart from the marriage hall, where, except the old priests of both

Chapter III.
People.

HuSBANDMBir.

Mardthds.

1 At the ttread-girding of the late MahArAja of Kolhd,pur, thirty poor Brdhraau
boys were girt with the sacred thread at the state expense and by the same priests in
the same hall, the rites performed being nearly the same,

[Bombay Gazetteer.

DTSTEICTS.

Chapter III.

People.

Husbandmen.
Mardthds.

the boy atid tlie girl and occasionally the fathers of the couple, no male
members are admitted, not even the men servants except on business,
who stand at a distance and do not allow any male stranger to
come in. At a lucky moment, the girl, closely veiled from head to
foot* and helped by her women servants and friends, is made to
stand on a low stool before the boy face to face near the marriage
altar and a yellow sheet marked with the lucky cross or nandi is
held between them by the priests, who repeat verses and throw
yellow rice at the couple, crying Sdvdhdn or Beware. At the
lucky moment, the astrologer claps his hands and guns are fired ;
the priests draw aside the curtain, the musicians redouble their
noise, and the priests and the women guests throw yellow rice
over the pair.

Ashort time before theluckymoment, one of thepriests hands a little
yellow rice to the men guests in the hall, and when the pair are wedded
another priest gathers it from the men guests in a dish and pours
it over the heads of the pair. The girFs maternal uncle or some
other near male relation takes the girl's right hand and gives it to
the boy who clasps it fast in both his hands. The priest lays both
his hands over those of the boy and the girl and mutters verses.
The girl's father lays sandal, flowers, rice, burnt frankincense,
and sweetmeats before the betelnut Ganpati and the waterpot
Varun, and pours water from the waterpot over the clasped hands
of the boy and the girl, and this completes the girl-giving or
kanydddn. The boy lets the girl's hand go and the priest knots
together the hems of their clothes. The sacrificial fire is lit and fed
with clarified butter, sesame seed, cotton stalks, and palas or other
sacred wood. The couple leave their seats and perform the saptpadi
or seven steps by walking seven times from right to left round the
fire. They worship the family gods and the marriage is over. Next
day a feast is held at the girl's house. On the morning of the feast,
a few young or newly married pairs are asked to the girl's house and
play in the hall the usual games of betelnut hide and seek and of
turmeric-throwing. Goats and sheep are brought in, and each of
the pairs is made to show their skill with the sword. The bride-
groom and bride first chop off bhe heads of two goats and the other
pairs follow them, any one who with one blow cuts the goat's head
clean off being loudly applauded. On the morning of the day oa
which the boy is to leave for his parents' house with his wife,
the boy's mother performs the ceremony of seeing the girl's face or
sunmuhh. Accompanied by kinswomen and friends and the family
priest and music the boy's mother goes to the girl's bringing
bamboo baskets with sesame and gram balls, betelnuts, cocoakernels,
•dates, a robe and a bodice, ornaments including the lucky marriage
necklace or mangalsutra, and sweetmeats and fruit. At the girl's
the family priest worships the waterpot Varun and the betelnut
Ganpati, and the boy's mother dresses the girl in the clothes she
has brought, puts on the ornaments, ties the marriage string round
-her neck, and sweetens her mouth with sugar. Then comes the
basket or jhdl, that is the handing ceremony. A piecOj ofi^cloth
•is spread in a bamboo basket, and nine dates, nine pieces of
-cocoa-kernel, and nine lumps of turmeric, a handful of rice, and

Decoan]

SlTiRA.

cooked food are put in the basket, The priest worships the basket
and the boy and girl walk five times round it from right to left.
The basket is set on the heads of the nearest relations of the boy
and the girl and the ceremony is over. The boy, accompanied
by his relations and friends, starts with his wife for his father's
house and the marriage is over. Among the rich a marriage costs
£50 to £100 (Rs. 500 -1000), among the middle class £10 to £20
(Rs. 100-200), and among the poor £3 to £6 (Rs. 30-60). Except
infants and the very poor, Marathas burn the dead, and the chief
mourners are held impure for ten days. They worship the
usual Brdhmanic gods and goddesses, and their favourite deities are
Bhavdni, Khandoba, and Vithoba. In honour of Bhavd,ni eyery cere-
mony ends with a gondhal dance. They keep the regular Brahmanic
fasts and feasts. Social disputes are settled at caste meetings, and
breaches of caste rules are punished by a fine which generally takes
the form of a caste dinner. Some of them send their boys to school,
but as a class they are not well-to-do.

Mails, or Gardeners, are returned as numbering 24,539 and as
found over the whole district. They have no subdivisions. The
names in common use among men are Apa, Dhondi, Hari, Moru, and
Rama ; and among women Bhima, Koyna, Krishna, and Radha.
They look and speak like Mardtha Kunbis and do not differ from
them in house, food, or dress. The only distinguishing marks of
Md,li women are a red level line on the brow and a thick silver
neck ornament called sari. Md,lis are hardworking, good tempered,
hospitable, and thrifty. They are gardeners, husbandmen, and in
Government service, and their women help them both in tilling
and in selling fruit, flowers^ and vegetables. Like Mardthds they
keep the usual Brahmanic fasts and feasts. Their priests are
Deshasth Br^hmans who officiate at their houses. They have a
spiritual teacher or guru who lives at Mungi Paithan and visits them
once every two years. They make pilgrimages to Alandi, Jejuri,
Pandharpur, and TuljApur and believe in spirits and witchcraft.
Their customs are the same as those of peasant Mardth^s. They
allow widow marriage, and practise polygamy but not polyandry,
hold caste councils, send their boys to school, and as a class are
better oflP than Kunbis.

Craftsmen include twenty-three classes with a strength of
98,018 or 9'55 per cent of the Hindu population. The details are :

Sdtdra Craftsmen, 1881.

Division.

Males.

Females.

Total.

Division.

Males.

Females.

Total.

Beld&rs

. 397

318

716

Patharvats ...

191

Buruds

. 654

606

1060

Patvekars

146

ChambhSra ..

. 8270

7836

16,105

Eangaris

6hi9&dis

. 124

119

243

RAuls

119

203

Eani&ris

Sllis

1785

1683

3468

Ea,raDJkar9 ..

. 301

303

604

Sangars

1478

1359

2837

ES,8&r9

. 1638

1549

3085

Shimpls

4916

4749

9664

Koshtia

. 4438

- 4194

8682

Son3,rs

4196

4035

8231

Kumbli&rs

6334

6987

12,3il

Siitavs

6805

6238

11,048

Lohii's

2631

2662

6193

Telis

4849

, 4660

BJ99

Lon&ris

1082

1037

2119

Vadira

1197

1189

2383

OtarU

114

122

236

60,306

47,712

98,018

Chapter IIL
People.

Husbandmen,
Mwrdthda..

Mdlis.

Craptsmen.

[Bombay Gazetteer.

DISTRICTS.

Chapter III.

People.

Cbaitsmbn.
Belddrs.

Buruds,

Belda'rs, or Quarrymen, are retarned as numbering 715 and as
found over the wliole district. They have no history or tradition of
their arrival in the district or of any former home. They have no
subdivisions. Their surnames are Chavhduj Mohite, Povar^ Sdlunke,
and Sinde, and people bearing the same surname do not intermarry.
They are dark, dirty, and strong. They speak incorrect Mardthi
and live in poor houses. Their house goods include metal and
earthen vessels, blankets, and quilts all worth about £3 (Rs. 30).
Their staple food consists of millet, pulse, and vegetables, and they
eat fish and flesh and drink liquor. A family of five spends about
14s. (Rs. 7) on food a month and about the same amount on dress in
the year. They are stone-cutters, bricklayers, lime-makers, and water
carriers. They dig wells and ponds and also rear asses bullocks
and buffaloes. Their women do not help them in their work.
They worship the usual Brdhman and local gods and goddesses, and
their family deities are Bahiroba, Jottba of Ratndgiri, Khandoba
of Jejuri, and the cholera goddess Maridi. Their priests are
ordinary Deshasth Brdhmans, and their religious teachers or gurus
are Gosdvis. They observe the regular Hindu fasts and feasts and
go on pilgrimages to Jejuri, Pandharpur, and Tuljapur. They marry
their boys before they are twenty and their girls before they are
twelve. Their devak or wedding guardian is a mango or umbar
Ficus glomerata post fixed in the booth, to which are tied a piece
of cloth containing a little red rice, a packet of betelnut and leaves,
a turmeric root, and saundad leaves. The family washerwoman seats
theboy in a square and rubs him with turmeric powder. She hands
him a betel packet and asks him to bow before the house gods. A
mutton feast is held in the evening when relations and friends are
feasted. The boy is carried in procession to the girl's accompanied by
men and women relations and music, and followed by his sister with
a lighted dough lamp in her hands. When he reaches the girl's
house a lemon and a cocoanut are waved round his head and cast on
one side. The boy is bathed in warm water, dressed in new clothes,
and, sitting with his wife near the sacrificial fire feeds it with butter,
with the help of the priest. The priest then chants the marriage
verses and at the end throws rice grains over their heads and the
boy and girl are husband and wife. The hems of their garments
are knotted together and after they have bowed before the house
gods their garments are again untied. The boy and girl feed one
another, and their parents exchange presents of clothes and orna-
ments and the priest retires. A feast is held and the boy returns
in procession to his house with his wife. They allow widow marriage
practise polygamy and either bury or burn the dead. The Belddrs
are bound together by a strong caste feeling and settle social disputes
at mass meetings of the adult male members of the caste. They do
not send their boys to school and are badly off.

Buruds, or Bamboo Workers, are returned as numbering 1060
and as found over the whole district. They cannot tell when or why
they came into the district or why they are considered a degraded
class. They have no subdivisions and claim no relationship with
any other tribe. They are dirty and hardworking, but iiot so

Deccan]

sAtIra.

robust or strongly made as the Mh^rs and M^ngs. They rank
higher than them and their touch is held not so polluting. They
speak Marathi and generally live inside of the village in miserable
huts, and earn a living by making bamboo baskets, winnowing fans,
birds' cagesj children's cradles, and sieves. They dress like Mardthds
and their staple food is grain, salt, chillies, and oil. They give
dinners of meat, pulse cakes, and liquor on occasions of birth,
marriage, death, and readmission into caste. Their women cook
and they dine with their full dress on in plates which they bring
along with them. Sometimes the guests sit singing till daybreak.
A man earns 3d, to Is. (2 - 8 as.) and a woman 1 ^d. to 4^d. ( 1 - 3 as. ) a
day. Their monthly charges vary from 6d. to 4s. (Rs. i -2). When
they name their children they distribute to the guests molasses or
gul and betel packets and feast castewomen when a girl comes of age.
They marry their children between eight and twelve spending £3 to
£4 (Rs. 30-40) over the marriage, and their boys at twelve to
twenty-five spending £5 to £6 (Rs. 50 - 60). They practise polygamy
and allow widow marriage. They either bury or burn the dead
spending about £1 (Rs. 10) and feast their castefellows, when a
Jangam is asked to dine. Their favourite gods are Jotiba, Khandoba,
and Vithoba, and they also worship their ancestors. They have
images of their gods in their houses, they seldom turn ascetics, but
make pilgrimages to Pandharpur and Ratnagiri. Their priests
are ordinary Brdhmans whom they consult as to the child's name
and for a lucky day for a marriage, and pay l|c?. (1 a.) at a birth,
2s. (Re. 1) at a marriage, and 6d. (4 as.) at a death. The priest suffers
no degradation for associating with them and they observe the
usual Brdhmanic fasts and feasts. They have no headman and
employ an elder to settle social disputes. A Burud's shadow does
not now-a-days pollute a high caste man. The Buruds are sending
their boys to school. Some have succeeded in getting into Government
service, while others go to Poena and Bombay in search of work.
They are careful in money matters generally spending money in
food, clothes, ornaments, and building houses. They are a declining
race. Except in Satdra and other large towns where they are fairly
ofE, they are generally very poor.

Clia'lllbha'rs, or Leather Workers, are returned as numbering
16,105 and as found over the whole district. They have no tradition
of their arrival in the district or of any earlier home. They are
divided into local Kunbi Chambhars, Dhors, Mochis, and Pardeshi-
Chdmbh^rs who do not eat together or intermarry. Except that
their habits are extremely dirty there is nothing to mark them
from other low caste Hindus. Mochis and Pardeshis are found in
large towns and the Pardeshis as their name implies seem to
have come from Northern India. Local Kunbi Ghdmbh^rs consider
themselves and are held by others the highest class of leather workers.
The Mochis make shoes, boots, and other leather articles. The
village Ohambhdr in return for his services receives a contribution
in grain from every landholder. It is his duty every year to present
a pair of shoes to the village headman and the accountant or kulkarni.
In some places they hold state grant or indm and are found as cultiva-
tors. It is also their business to hold torches on the occasion of a
B 1282—11

Chapter III

People.

Cbaftsmbn.
Buruds,

Okcmblidra,

[Bombay Gazetteer,
82 DISTRICTS.

Chapter III. marriage afc tlie house of tlie pdtil and of other respectable villagers.
Feonle They mend the leather appKances used in husbandry and cobble shoes.

They live in poor huts outside of villages and their house gear consists
Ceaitsmbn. q£ earthen wooden and metal pots. Their clothes are waistcloths,

ChdmbMrs. -wooUen blankets, turbans, waistcoats, robes, and bodices. Their
daily food is grain, salt, chiUies, and oil. They eat flesh but
unlike Mhars not the flesh of dead cattle, and drink liquor. They
give dinners on occasions of births marriages and deaths when dishes
of mutton and pulse cakes are prepared. The food is generally
cooked by women and eaten by the men without taking off any of
their clothes, the guests bringing their own plates. Liquor is some-
times given and the guests sometimes sit singing the whole night.
Among them a man earns 3c?. to Is. (2-8 as.) and a woman l|d to
6|d (1 -4^ as.) a day. The monthly expenses of a poor man are about
8s. (Rs. 4) and those of a fairly well-to-do person £1 (Rs. 10).
When they name their children they distribute molasses or gul and
betel packets, and feast castewomen when a girl comes of age. At
the betrothal the parents of the boy present the girl with clothes
and ornaments. Boys in well-to-do families are married before
they are sixteen and girls before they are eight, but they generally
marry their girls between eight and sixteen and their boys between
sixteen and twenty-five or thirty. They present the boy and girl
and their parents with clothes, and feast relations and friends.
Their marriage ceremonies and rites are like those of Mhdrs. They
allow widow marriage and practise polygamy. A girl's wedding
costs £2 to £4 (Rs. 20-40) and a boy's£5 to £6 (Rs. 50-60). They
either bury or burn their dead, but a child under two is always
buried. When they bury the body is laid in the grave with the
turban and other clothes on, and the chief mourner, foUowed by
the others of the party, throws over the corpse a handful of earth
and closes the grave. When they burn, the chief mourner ^ets fire
to the pile, walks thrice round it with an earthen water jar on his
shoulders, in which a small hole has been pierced, dashes it on the
ground, and beats his mouth with the palm of his hand. The
funeral party bathe and return to the mourner's house and separate.
Next day the spot where the deceased was buried is levelled, or
if the body was burnt the ashes are thrown into water. On
the tenth day rice or wheat balls are prepared and some of
them are offered to the spirit of the deceased and thrown into
the water and others are left to the crows. The funeral expenses,
including a feast to relations and friends, do not exceed £1
(Rs. 10). Their favourite gods are Khandoba, Jotiba, and Vithoba,
whose images they have in their houses. They worship dead
ancestors and snakes, and go on pilgrimage to Alandi and
Pandharpur. They also worship Muhammadan saints, and have
no holymen or sddhus of their own. Their priests arp ordinary
Deshasth Brdhmans. They are paid IJd (1 a.) at a birth, Qd. to 2s.
(Re. f - 1) at a marriage, and Qd. (4 as.) at a death. The Brahman
who officiates does not suffer degradation for associating with them.,
They keep the usual Hindu fasts and feasts. They have no headman
and an old and intelligent member of the caste is always consulted
in social disputes. Adultery and eating with people of lower caste

Deccau.]

SlTlRA.

is punished with expulsion. A CMmbliar's shadow is not now-a-
days thought unbearable by the higher classes. Some send their
boys to school and have gained Government situations. Some goto
Poena and Bombay and other places in search of work. The
Mochis and Pardeshis are fairly off, but the Dhors and village
Chdmbhars do little more than earn a living.

Ghisa'dis, or Tinkers, are returned as numbering 24S, and as
found over the whole district except in Kh^napur, Mdn, and Vd,lva.
They have no tradition of their origin or of their arrival in the
district. They have no subdivisions and claim no relationship with
other tribes. Their surnames are Chavdn, Padvalkar, Povar, and
Sdlunke. They are dirty, extravagant and hardworking, and in
house, dress, and food resemble cultivating Marathds. They are
strong and robust and sharpen knives, clean sword blades, and make
sword sheaths and iron tools. They earn l^d. to Is. (1-8 as.) a day
and their monthly expenses vary from 8s. to £1 (Rs. 4-10). They
marry their girls between eight and twelve and their boys between
twelve and twenty-five. They spend £3 to £4 (Rs. 30-40) on a
girl's marriage and £5 to £6 (Rs. 50-60) on a boy's. They allow
widow marriage and polygamy. They bury their dead, spending
about £1 (Rs. 10). Their family god is Khandoba of Jejuri but
they worship all Brdhmanic and local gods and goddesses and
have images of their gods in their houses. They go on pilgrimage
to Jejuri, Pandharpur, and Tuljd-pur, and keep the usual Hindu
fasts and feasts. Their priests are the ordinary MarAfcha Brdhmans
whom they greatly respect. They pay their priests l^c^. (1 a.) at a
birth, 2s. (Re. 1) at a marriage, and 6d. (4 as.) at a death. One of
their elders settles their social disputes. Some of them send their
boys to school and a few have succeeded in gaining Grovernment
employment ; others go to Poena, Bombay, and other places in search
of work. They are a poor class and sunk in debts.

Kanja'ris, or Weaving Brushmakers, are returned as numbering
two but others seem to have been entered under some other head as
they are found in Satd,ra, Kardd, Khdndpur, Mdn, and TAsgaon.
They have no tradition of their origin or of their arrival in the
district, and have no connection with any other tribe. Their
surnames are Bhayd.s, Ghoyar, Mulaya, and Sankat ; and families
bearing the same surname do not intermarry. Their names are either
Hindu or Muhammadan, the men's Babaji, Bhau, Gulu, Hdji, and
Sultan ; and the women's Chuniya, Ganga, Punji, Multdni, and Juli.
They look like Mhars and Mangs, are dark and middle sized, and
the men wear short or long beards and moustaches. They speak
both Mardthi and Hindustd,ni and wander in gangs of twenty or
twenty-five. Like Kolhatis they change camp every fifteen days
and carry their goods on donkeys. They live in tents and except
earthen pots have no furniture. Their staple food is millet bread
and vegetables, but they eat fish and flesh, drink liquor, and
smoke hemp. The men dress in short trousers, a waistcoat, a
shouldercloth, a MarAtha turban, and shoes. The women wear the
Mardtha robe and bodice, tie the hair in a knot behind the head,
and do not deck their heads with flowers or use false hair. The men
gain their living by begging, and making ropes andweavera' brushes.

Chapter III.
People.

Cbaitsubn.

Ohisddis,

Kanjdris.

[Bombay Gazetteer.

DISTRICTS.

Chapter III.

People.

Ckaitsmen.
Kanjdrii.

and the women are beggars and thieves but not prostitutes. They are
notorious thieves and are always under the eye of the police. They
consider themselves higher than ChSmbhars, Dheds, Mangs, Mhdrs,
or Mnsalmdns, and say they do not eat from their hands. Their
gods are Thdkur and Ndl Sdheb, and they have no images in their
houses. They do not ask Brdhmans to officiate at their houses, have
no religious head^ and undertake no pilgrimages. For a woman's first
confinement they build a new hut, and the confined woman engages
no midwife, herself cuts the child's navel-cord and buries it in the
hut in a hole along with the after-birth. For five days the mother
and child bathe in hot water and in the evening of the fifth they name
the child and ; treat castemen to liquor worth 2s. (Re. 1). When
a marriage !« settled the boy's father gives the castemen 5s. (Rs. 2^)
and the girl's- father 3s. (Rs. I5), and it is spent in treating the
caste to liquor. They make marriage booths at both the boy's and
the girl's houses and tie bunches of mango leaves to a bamboo
post. In the evening they treat the castemen to a dinner of mutton
and pulse cakes. On the morning' of the marriage day, at their
homes, the boy and girl are rubbed with turmeric, and in the
evening the boy is seated on horseback and taken in procession to
the girl's. Here the boy and girl are made to stand side by side and
an elderly casteman throws unhusked rice on their heads and they
are husband and wife. The guests are given a dinner of rice and
curds and the day's proceedings are over. On the fifth day the
boy is seated on the shoulders of the girl's father and the girl on
those of the boy's father and they go round the booth five times.
A wheat bread and molasses dinner is given, and the two families
exchange clothes, the boy walks with his bride to her new home,
and the marriage ceremony is over. KanjAris allow widow marriage
and practise polygamy but know nothing of polyandry. The
married are burnt and the unmarried buried. After death hot
water is poured over the body and it is laid on a bier, covered with
a sheet and with redpowder. It is carried to the burning
ground and is either buried or burnt. They observe no mourning
except feasting the caste on the third and seventh day on rice and
pulse. They have a headman called Mukha who settles social
disputes at caste meetings. They do not send their boys to school
and are very poor.

Ka'ranjkars, or Fountain Makers, also called Dalsingars
and Jingars,, apparently Saddle-makers, are returned as
numbering 604 and as found all over the district except in Jdvli.
They say they came into the district from Bijapur during the
time of Aurangzeb, and that the founder of their caste was
Muktadev. The men are dark with regular features, and wear the
topknot and moustache, but neither the beard nor whiskers. The
women are good-looking, tie the hair in a knot behind the head, rub
redpowder on their brows, and deck their heads with flowers. Their
home speech is Marathi, they live in middle class houses, eat fish and
flesh, drink liquor, and dress like MarAtha Brdhmans. They are clean,
neat, orderly, hardworking and intelligent, and follow almost all
callings. They make lances, guns, swords, saddle-cloths, marriage
head ornaments, metal pots, and fans, bind books, lacquer bed-posts

Oeccan.]

sAtAra.

and walking sticks, and make and mend padlocks and watches.
They worship the usual Brdhmanic and local gods and goddesses
and their family gods are Ambab^i of Tulj^pur, Kdlubai of
Shdhpur in S^tAra, and Khandoba of Jejuri. Their priests are
Mar^tha Brahmans whom they greatly respect. On the fifth day after
the birth of a child they lay sandal, turmeric, vermilion, flowers,
burnt incense and sweetmeat before the goddess Satvai and offer
her cooked food. On the seventh they again worship the
goddess Satvdi and offer her wet gram. Their tenth and twelfth
day ceremonies are the same as those of Deshasth Brahmans.
They gird a boy with the sacred thread before he is ten. They
marry their girls before they are ten and their boys before they
are twenty-five. They burn their dead, hold caste councils, send
their boys -to school, and are a poor but steady class.

Ka'sa'rs, or Bangle Makers, are returned as numbering 3085 and
as found over the whole district. They are divided into Kdsdrs and
B^ngads who eat together and intermarry. They are fair, middle
sized, and thin. They speak Marathi and most of them live in houses
of the better sort, one or two storeys high, with brick walls and tiled
roofs. Their staple food is millet, rice, and vegetables, and they
deny that they eat fish or flesh or drink liquor. They also declare
they eat from the hands of no one but Brdhmans. They dress like
Brahmans except that some of them fold their turbans like
Mardthas. They are hardworking, thrifty, and orderly. They
make and sell brass and copper vessels and put glass bangles on
women's wrists. Some of them sell needles, thread, and
miscellaneous articles, small wooden and tin boxes, glass and wooden
beads, combs, dolls, and looking glasses. Others are moneylenders,
cultivators, and Government servants. They worship the usual local
and Brahmanic gods and goddesses, and observe the regular fasts and
festivals, and never dine without bowing before their house images.
Their priests are ordinary Maratha Brahmans whom they highly
respect. A woman goes to her father's for her first confinement.
The goddess Satvdi is worshipped on the fifth day after a birth
and her image is tied round the child's neck. The mother and
child are impure for ten days. On the twefth some elderly woman
names the child. Boys have their hair cut with scissors before they
are one year old, and are girt with the sacred thread before they
are eight. They marry their girls before they are ten and their boys
before they are twenty-five. They allow widow marriage, practise
polygamy, and except children who are buried burn the dead, and
mourn ten days. They settle social disputes at caste meetings
and readmit those who have been put out of caste on paying a fine,
which is spent in a caste feast. They send their boys to school
but take them away as soon as they have learnt to read and write
a little and a fair knowledge of arithmetic. Such of them as deal in
pots are gnerally well-to-do and live in houses of the better sort j
those who deal in bangles are poorer.

KoshtiS, or Weavers, are returned as numbering 8632 and as
found over the whole district. They are believed to have originally
come from Paithan and are divided into Mardtha Koshtis and

Chapter III
People.

Ckaftsmbn,
Kdranjkari.

Kdsdrs.

Koshtis.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

DISTRICTS.

Chapter III.
People.

Cbattsmeit-
Koehtis.

Kumbhdrs.

Lingdyat Kosttis who neither eat together nor intermarry. They are
dark, -middle-sized, and weak, and speak Mar^thi. Their houses are
poor, and, besides a couple of handlooms, their house goods include
some earthen and a few metal vessels. The Ling^yat Koshtis are
strict vegetarians, and the Maratha Koshtis eat fish and flesh and
drink liquor. Both classes dress like Maratha Kunbis. The
Lingdyats wear the ling but not openly, hiding it in their turbans
or waistcloth, or leaving it in some safe place in the house. The
ting is given them by Jangams who are their priests and are
worshipped by Koshtis on marriage occasions. They are sober
thrifty and hardworking. They are weavers, a few cultivators, and
others day-labourers, and are helped in their work by their women.
The Lingd,yat Koshtis worship Shiv only, while the Marithds worship
the usual local and Brdhman gods and goddesses and keep the
regular fasts and feasts. The priests of the Marathas are Brahmans
who conduct their marriages, while at the marriages of Lingayat
Koshtis both Brahmans and Jangams ofiSciate although the Jangams
only are their priests. The customs of the Mardthas are the same
of those of Maratha Kunbis. The Lingayats bury their dead and
observe no mourning, while the Mardthas burn their dead and they
hold mourners impure for ten days. They have no headman and
settle social disputes at caste meetings. Koshtis send their boys
to school till they can read and write a little Mard,thi. Their craft is
falling owing to the competition of machine-made cloth and the
Koshtis have taken to tillage and day labour. They are a falling
people.

Kumblia'rs, or Potters, are returned as numbering 12,321 and
as found over the whole district. They say the founder of their
caste was the sage Kumbh. They have no subdivisions. They look
like Cultivating Mar£th^s, and cannot be told from them except^for
their dirty njud-stained clothes. Their home tongue is Marathi and
they live in poor houses. Their staple food is millet, rice, and
v:egetables, and they occasionally eat fish and flesh and drink liquor
rather freely. They dress like cultivating Marathas and are' hard-
working, thrifty, hospitable, and orderly. They make tiles, bricks,
and earthen pots and figures of men and animals. Though their
appliances are most simple, they are expert in making neat and par-
tially ornamented articles. All the members of the family help in
the work. In villages the potters are included in the village staff
and provide the villagers with earthen pots for which they are paid
in grain at harvest time. In some villages they still hold land.
They worship the usual local and Brdmanic gods and goddesses and
their family deities are Mahadev of Singndpur and Jagadamba whose
shrine is in the old fort of Sdtara. They keep the regular Hindu
fasts and festivals and their priests are village Brdhmans whom
they greatly respect. Among them a girl's father has to look out
for a husband for his daughter. When one is found, a day before
the marriage the boy and girl are rubbed with^^turmeric at their
homes. The married women with music go to the waste lands and
bring mango, jdmhhul, and fig leaves and tie them to a post in the
booth. On the marriage day at both houses relations are feasted

Deccan,]

sAtIra.

on. mutton, and the boy is seated on a torse and taken in procession
to the girl's. On his way he alights at the village Mdruti's when five
men pelt him with balls of wheat flour. He bows before the god,
goes to the girl's house, and stands at the entrance of the booth. A
relative of the girl's comes out, waves a cocoanut round his
head, and dashes it on the ground. The boy alights, goes into the
booth, and bathes. The Brahman priest spreads half a pound of
rice in the booth and on the rice sets five betel packets. Over
each packet he places a copper, a piece of dry cocoa-kernel, and a
turmeric root. The boy and girl stand on each side of the square
facing each other and two near relations hold a cloth or nandicha-
shela between them with three turmeric streaks traced in the mid-
dle of it. Red rice grains are handed round among the guests and
the priest repeats the marriage verses, and at the end the guests
throw the rice grains over the boy's and girl's heads, and they are
husband and wife. The boy and girl now sit down and the girl's
father washes the boy's feet. The priest ties together the hems of
the boy's and girl's clothes and they are seated on the altar. Mar-
riage brow-horns or bashings are tied round their brows, and the
girl's father presents the boy with a metal waterpot, a cup, and a
dish. A Bhat generally of the Mardtha caste, recites verses and
at the end along with the guests throws rice grains over the boy's
and girl's heads. Presents of clothes are exchanged between the two
houses and a dinner by the girl's parents ends the day. Next day a
winnowing fan is filled with a couple of cocoanuts, a pound of rice,
fourteen dough lamps, and an equal number of wafer biscuits, betel-
nuts, turmeric roots, and pieces of cocoa -kernel, and twenty-five
betel leaves, and, while the priest repeats verses, the fan is laid
on the heads of the boy and girl and their near relatives. The
priest retires with his marriage fee of 2s. 6d. (Rs. Ij) and the
guests are treated to a dinner. The boy returns home with his
bride in a procession and a dinner is held. Next day the boy and girl
are bathed and while bathing splash one another with turmeric
water and rub each other with turmeric paste. Female guests also
throw turmeric water, powder, and water mixed with filth and mud.
A feast ends the marriage festivities. Except that they burn vdvding
or prickly pear under the mother's cot and give her kdtbol to
increase her milk their birth customs are the same as those of
the Mardithds. On the fifth day they worship the goddess Satvai and
kill a goat in her name. On the seventh they repeat the worship
but offer no goat. On the twelfth they cradle the child, name it,
slaughter a goat, and feast castemen. They either bury or burn the
dead, and, except that the daughter or daughter-in-law waves a
lighted lamp round the deceased's face at the time of laying the body
on the bier, their customs do not differ from those of Marathds. The
chief mourner does not get his moustache shaved and each member
of the funeral party lays five pebbles on the spot where they halt
while carrying the body to the burning ground. They have a head-
man called mhetrya who settles social disputes at caste meetings.
They do not send their boys to school and are poor.

Loha'rs, or Blacksmiths, are returned as numbering 5193 and
as found over the whole district. They say they came into the

Chapter Iliri

People.

Ckaftsmen.
Kumbkdra.

Lohdrs,

[Bombay Gazetteer)

DISTRICTS.

Chapter III.

People.

Craftsmen.
Lohdrs.

Londris.

Otdris.

district about ten generations ago but from where tbey cannot tell.
Their surnames are Jd,dhav, Kavre, Magdum, Nikam, and Povd,r,
and families bearing the same surname eat together but do not
intermarry. The names in common use among men are Bd,bAji,
Balya, Govindaj NirUj and Santa ; and among women Bhagu, Jana,
Koyni, and Lakshutni. They look like Kunbis, are dark, strong,
robust, and regular featured. They speak Mardthi and live in
■ middle class houses. Their staple food is millet and vegetables.
They occasionally eat fish and fiesh, and when they can afford it drink
to excess. Both men and women dress like Marathds, are hard-
working, and work as blacksmiths and repair field tools. They earn
6c?. to Is. {as. 4 - 8) a day. They worship the ordinary Brdhmanic
and local gods and goddesses and their family deities are Bhavdni,
Khandoba, and Vithoba. Their priests are the ordinary village
Brdhmans who officiate at their houses. They wear the sacred thread,
but perform no ceremony at the time of putting it on. Their
marriage customs are the same as those of Kunbis, and they pay
their priests ^s. to 4s. (Rs. 1-2) for conducting their marriages.
Except children they burn their dead and hold the deceased's family
unclean for ten days. They allow widow marriage, practise poly-
gamy, know nothing of polyandry, and believe in spirits and
witchcraft. They settle social disputes at caste meetings. They do
not send their boys to school and are scarcely able to maintain
themselves and their families.

Lona'ris, or Cement Makers, are returned as numbering 2119
and as found over the whole district except in Patau. They have
no subdivisions ; some of their surnames are Chavre, Dhd,ne, Gite,
Kdle, and Rangat ; and families bearing the same surname do not
intermarry. They do not differ from Mardthas in appearance,
speech, dwelling, food, or dress, and are dirty but hardworking.
They make cement, sell charcoal and firewood, and serve as day
labourers. They are helped in their work by their women and
children. Their priests are Deshasth Brahmans, and their family
deities are Ai Bhavani of Tuljdpur, Khandoba of Jejuri, and Brah-
mandth and Yallama of the Karn^tak. They worship the regular
local and Brdhmanic gods and goddesses, keep the usual fasts and
feasts, and in no way differ in religion from Kunbis. Except that
•at the time of marriage the boy and girl are made to stand in
bamboo baskets, their customs are the same as those of Marathd.s.
Lonaris are badly off hardly able to maintain themselves and their
families. They do not send their boys to school.

Ota'ris, or Casters, are returned as numbering 236 and as found
all over the district. They have no divisions, look like Marathia
and speak Marathi. They live in ordinary middle sized houses with
walls of brick and tiled roofs. Their staple food is millet and vege-
tables and occasionally rice, fish, mutton, and liquor. Both men
and women dress like Mardthas. They are hardworking, making
and selling brass pots, jingling bells, toe rings, and images of Hindu
gods and of animals. Their women help them in their calling. They
worship the usual local and Brahmanic gods and goddesses, and their
family deities are Ambabai of Aundh, Jotiba of Ratndgiri, Khandoba

Deccan.]

SATlRA.

of Jejuri, and Sidhoba of Mhasvad. Their priests are village
Brdhmans to wlioin they pay great respect. They keep the ordinary
fasts and festivals and make pilgrimages to Alandi, Benares, Jejuri,
Ndsik, Pandharpnr, and Tuljslpur. They believe in sorcery, witch-
craft, soothsaying, omens, and lucky and unlucky days, and consult
oracles. They are bound together as a body, and send their boys
to school. Their calling is well paid and they earn enough to keep
themselves and their families in comfort.

Pa'tharvats, or Stone Dressers, are returned as numbering 191
and as found over the whole district except in Kardd and Kore-
gaon. They have no divisions. They are dark and strong. They
speak Marathi and live in houses with brick walls and tiled roofs.
Their staple food is millet, pulse, and vegetables, and they eat fish
and flesh and drink liquor. Both men and women dress like Kunbis.
The women's ornaments are for the neck the gold-buttoned necklace
or mangalsutra worth 16s. (Rs. 8) and the vajratik worth £2
(Rs. 20), for the hands silver wristlets or g^ois worth £1 (Rs. 10), and
for the feet silver anklets or todds worth £5 to £10 (Rs.50-100) and
toe rings worth 16s. (Rs. 8). They are hardworking orderly and
hospitable. They are stone masons and make stone images of gods
animals and men. They make grindstones, rollers, and hand-
mills. Their women do not help them in their work. They wor-'
ship the usual local and Brdhmanic gods and goddesses, and keep
the regular fasts and festivals. Their family deities are Bhavdni
Khandoba and Vithoba, and their priests who conduct their
marriage and death ceremonies belong to their own caste. They
believe in sorcery, witchcraft, soothsaying, omens, and lucky and
unlucky days, and consult oracles. They marry their girls before
they are sixteen, and their boys before they are twenty-five. Among
them the boy's father has to look out for a wife for his son. When
he finds a fitting girl both the boy's and girl's fathers go to the
village astrologer who compares the horoscopes and approves of the
match if he thinks it will be lucky. If the girl's father is well-to-do, he
performs his daughter's marriage at his own expense. If he is unable
to bear the marriage charges, the boy's father pays him £4 to £5
(Rs. 40-50) as the price of the girl and persuades him to accept the
ofEer. When both fathers agree, on a lucky day the boy's father with
one or two friends visits the girl's house and presents her with a green
robe and bodice and sometimes with a pair of silver chains if his means
allow. The girl's father welcomes the guests and they are seated.
The girl is dressed in the suit of clothes presented to her by the
boy's father, and bows before him. The boy's father marks her
brow with vermilion and lays a cocoanut in her hands. She bows
before the house gods, guests, and elders, and a feast to the guests ends
the betrothal or mdgni. Betel is served to the guests and they leave.
Booths are raised before the houses of both the boy and girl and
the village astrologer or Joshi names a lucky day for the marriage.
A day or two before the marriage, an axe and five tree-leaves or
pdneh pdlvis, the leaves of the dmba Mangifera indica, the
vmbar Ficus glomerata, the saundad Prosopis spicegera, the jdmbhul
Syzigium jambolanum, and the rui Calotropis gigantea, are tied to
a booth-post called the first post or muhurtmedh, as the marriage
B 1282—12

Chapter III
People.,

Ceaftsmen.

Pdtharvafa.

[Bombay Gazetteer.

DISTRICTS.

Chapter III.

People.

Ckaftsmek.
Pdtharvats.

guardian or devak and worsliipped with the usual offerings of

tiarmeric paste, ricej, betel, and cooked food. The boy and girl each

at their homes, are seated on a low stool placed in a wheat square

marked by the priest, and rubbed with turmeric by a lucky married

girl who is named by the priest. They are then bathed and their

brows are hung with a network of flowers and the turmeric rubbing

ends with a feast called haldiche jevan or the turmeric feast to

friends and kinsfolk. Next morning sandal, flowers, and wheat

cakes are set before the family gods and the family-god worship or

devhdrya is complete. Invitations are sent to friends and relations.

The bridegroom is dressed in rich clothes and taken on horseback

to the bride's with music and friends. He halts on his way at the

temple of the village Md,ruti, bows to the god, lays before him a

copper and betel packet, again bows and asks his blessing. The

girFs people meet him at the temple and present him with a

turban or waistcloth. The bridegroom mounts his horse and rides

to the girl's with music and friends and kinsmen. When he

reaches the booth, a lemon and cocoanut are waved round his head

and thrown on one side. He is then allowed to dismount and

taken to a low stool set in a wheat square marked by the pries b. As

the lucky moment draws near, the bride comes out and stands facing

the bridegroom, the priests hold a curtain marked with the lucky

cross or nandi between them, and repeat marriage verses. The

astrologer tells the lucky moment, the priests remove the curtain,

the guests throw red rice over the couple's heads, and they are

husband and wife. The pair then walk into the house, bow before

the house gods, and are fed from the same dish of sweet food.

When the meal is over they are seated on the raised altar or bahule,

and their clothes are knotted together. Music plays and the priest

marks their brows with vermilion and sticks rice grains on it. The

other guests follow each waving a copper coin and throwing it in a

dish placed at the foot of the altar. At last the shens or grain-sticking

ceremony is over, the bridegroom's party are treated to a dinner,

and retire for the night. Next day the robe ceremony or sdda is

performed at the bride's, when their fathers-in-law present the

pair with suits of clothes and ornaments, and the couple go to

the bridegroom's house with music and friends. The marriage

guardians are bowed out and a feast and a return feast at the houses

of the bridegroom and the bride complete the ceremony. Pdtharvats

allow child and widow marriage, practise polygamy, and know

nothing of polyandry. At a widow marriage, the suitor gives the

widow a robe and bodice for herself and a turban and £2 10s.

(Rs. 25) in cash for her father. On a lucky night the priest

visits her house and conducts the ceremony about one hundred

yards outside of the house in the presence of five or six men friends

of the couple. The couple are seated on low stools in a wheat

square marked by the priest, their brows are marked with vermilion,

and rice grains are stuck on it, and they bow before the priest. The

widow puts on toerings or jodvis but she is not allowed to wear

the lucky necklace or mangalsutra. Married women are not allowed

to see her for three days, after which a feast to friends and relations

completes the ceremony. When a girl comes of age, she sits apart

Deccan.]

sItAra.

for three days, and on the fourth is bathed, and her lap filled with
rice and a cocoanut. On the seventh or tenth day, she is dressed
in a new robe and bodice, her brow is decked with flowers, and
rice cocoanut betel and fruit are laid in her lap. Friends and
kinsfolk are treated to a dinner and the age-coming ceremony is
over. Women as a rule go to their parents for their first confinement.
When a woman is brought to bed a midwife is called in. She digs
a bath-hole or nhdni in the lying-in room, cuts the child's navel-
cord, puts it in an earthen vessel, and buries it in the bath-hole.
The mother and child are daily bathed in warm water, rubbed with
turmeric and oil, and laid on a cot, under which a firepot is set
and sweet fennel or badishop and Ligasticum ajwsen or onva are
burnt in the firepot. On the fifth night an embossed gold or silver
image of Satvdiis laid on a lowstool in the lying-in room, andflowers,
turmeric paste, vermilion, cocoa-kernels, betel, burnt frankincense,
and cooked rice, pulse, and vegetables are set before the low stool.
The mother with the child in her arms bows before the goddess and
next day the image is tied round the child's neck. On the twelfth
the mother's impurity is over, the house is cowdunged and the
mother's clothes are washed, new bangles are put round her wrists
and she is dressed in a new robe and bodice. Women neighbours
and friends meet at the mother's, lay rice and a cocoanut in her lap,
present the child with a hood or kuncM, sing songs, and cradle and
name the child. The guests are treated to a dinner ; betel and boiled
gram are served to them, and they withdraw. They burn or bury
their dead and mourn ten days. The dead is bathed in warm
water, dressed in a white sheet, and laid on a bier. If the deceased
is a married woman she is dressed in a green robe and bodice.
A roll of betel and a piece of gold are put into the dead mouth, the
body istiedfast to the bier and covered with a white sheet, redpowder
and betel leaves are thrown over the bier, and some married girl
of the house, either a daughter or a daughter-in-law, waves lights
round the dead, and with a low bow withdraws. The corpse -bearers
tie a copper and a small cake to the hem of the shroud, lift the bier,
and follow the chief mourner who takes the lead carrying the firepot
hung from a string. On their way to the funeral ground, the
mourners halt, throw the copper coin and the bi'ead that were tied in
the shroud to one side of the road, change places, lift the bier, and
walk straight to some stream or river where they burn or bury the
dead according to the chief mourner's means. The chief mourner
has his head except the topknot and his face shaved. The funeral
rites are over and the mourners bathe and go home. On the third
day they gather the ashes of the dead and throw them into the
river or stream. The chief mourner washes the spot where the
dead was burned or buried with cowdung, sets a stone in the name
of the dead at the place, lays' sandal paste, flowers, vermilion, rice,
burnt frankincense, and food before the stone and withdraws a little
to see whether the crows touch the food. At last he bathes and
returns home, and a caste feast ends the ceremony. PAtharvats do
not ask Deshasth Brdhmans to their houses, but priests of their
own class conduct their ceremonies, and receive a pair of shoes
and 2s. (Re. 1) in cash at every death rite. When a woman dies in

Chapter III
People-

CEAFTSMElf.

Pdtharvats.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

DISTRICTS,

Chapter III.
People.

Craftsmen.

Patvekars.

Bangdris.

childbedj slie receives every mark of honour which a married woman
ought to have. While she is being carried to the funeral ground, a
man closely follows the corpse-bearers strewing the path with rata
Panicum italicum seed that the spirit of the dead may not return and
haunt the living. Pd.tharvats have a caste council and a headman
called Mhetre, and settle social disputes at caste meetings. Breaches
of social rules are punished with fines which take the form of
caste feasts. They send their boys to school but do not keep them
long at school or take to new pursuits. They are a steady class.

Patvekars, or Tassel Makers, are returned as numbering 146 and
as found only in Patau and S^tdra They say they came originally
from Gujarat about two hundred years ago in search of work. They
have no divisions. Their surnames are Kabdde, Kutare, Pov^r,
Shalgar, and Shiralkar. The names of their family stocks are
Bhdradvd,], Gautam, Kdshyap, and Naradik, and families of the same
surname and. stock cannot intermarry. The names of the men are
Bobasa, Lakshumansa, Maniksa, and Tukdrdmsa ; and of the V7omen
Bhdgirthi, Chandra, Koyna, and Yamuna. They look like high caste
Hindus, the men keeping the top-knot and moustache but not the
beard. Their home tongue is Gujardti, but with others they speak
Marathi. They live in houses of the better sort, one or two storeys
high, and own metal pots, cots, boxes, and bedding. They keep
servants and have cows, bullocks, ponies, and goats. Their staple
food is rice, pulse, and vegetables, and they are fond of sour and
pungent dishes. They say they eat mutton once a year on the Dasara
in September -October, and on no other occasion. They drink
liquor. The men dress in a waistcloth, a coat, a turban or a cap, and
a pair of shoes, and the women in a full Mardtha robe and bodice, and
mark their brows with redpowder. They do not wear false hair, and
their girls deck their heads with flowers. They are a hardworking,
simple, quiet, and hospitable people. They are silk workers, make and
dye silk threads for necklaces and jewelry and horse and palanquin
trappings, and go hawking them from village to village. They worship
all the usual local and Brahmanic gods and goddesses and their
chief family goddess is the Jagadamba of TuljApur to whom they
make vows. Their family priests are village Brahmans and
their religious teacher is a Brd,hman named Gopalnath. They allow
widow marriage, practise polygamy, and burn the dead. They
hold caste councils and settle social disputes at caste meetings.
They send their boys to school and are a steady people.

Ranga'ris, or Dyers, are returned as numbering thirty-five and
as found in Karad, Khanapur, Sdtdra, Td,sgaon, and Valva. They
have no divisions, speak Marathi, are fair and good-looking, clean
in their habits, sober, and hardworking. They do not differ from
Marathas in house, food, or dress. They prepare colours and print
and dye cloth, and their women help in their work. They allow
widow marriage and polygamy. Their family gods are Bahiroba,
Khandoba, and Vithoba, and their priests are ordinary Maratha
Brahmans. They hold caste councils. They send their boys to
school but keep them at school only for a short time. They are a
prosperous class.

Deccau.]

sAtAra.

Ha'ulS, or Tape Makers, are returned as numbering 203 and as
found over the whole district excepb in Jdvli, Koregaon, and Man.
They hare no divisions. Their surnames are Chaturbhuj, Gh^g,
Jadhav, Povar, and Sankpal, and persons bearing the same surname
do not intermarry. The names in common use among men are
Ambarindth, Kdshindth, Raghundth, and Bangnd,th j and among
women Bhd,gu, Granga, Koyna, and Rakhma. They are hardwork-
ing, frugal, and respectful. Begging is their hereditary calling,
but they weave strips of coarse cloth, tape, and sacking. They are
bound together by a strong caste-feeling, send their boys to school,
and are poor.-^

Sa'lis, or Weavers, are returned as numbering 3468 and as found over
the whole district. They say that according to their sacred books the
founder of their caste was Sumant who was born from the mouth of
ParmeshvarortheSupremeBeing. Oneday Parmeshvar asked Sumant
to give him a piece of cloth to wear. As Sumant had none, the
Almighty prayed to the minor gods who became instruments of weaving
and for this reason weaving tools have the names of gods and sages,
Salis are divided into Lingayat and MarAtha Sakul or Good-familied
Salis. The Marathas are dark, of middle stature and ordinary
strength, and their home tongue is Marathi. They live in
houses one or two storeys high with walls of brick and tiled roofs.
Their staple food is millet, but they eat fish and flesh and drink
liquor. Both men and women dress like Mard,thd,s and are patient
hardworking and orderly. Their hereditary calling is weaving and
dealing in cotton and woollen cloths such as waistcloths and
blankets. Their family gods are Bhavani of TuljApur, Khandoba
of Pali, and Mahddev of Singnapur. , Their priests are the ordinary
village Brdhmans, and their marriage and other customs and rites
do not differ from those of the Poona Sdlis.^ They have no head-
man and settle social disputes at caste meetings. They send their
boys to school for a short time. Their craft is falling and they are
in straitened circumstances.

Sangars, or Wool-weavers, are returned as numbering 2837 and
as found over the whole district. They have no divisions, speak
Mardthi, and look like Kunbis. They live in houses with walls of
brick and tiled roofs. Their houses contain nothing except a few
metal and clay pots, a couple of blankets, and a cot or two. They
eat fish and flesh and drink liquor. Their staple food is millet
vegetables and pulse. Both men and women dress like Mardthds.
They are hardworking, frugal, and hospitable but dirty. Their
hereditary calling is weaving and selling blankets. They worship
the usual local and Br^hmanic gods and goddesses, and their family
deities are Bhavani of Tuljdpur and Khandoba of Jejuri and PAli.
Their family priests are the ordinary village BrAhmans. They be-
lieve in spirits and witchcraft. Their religious teachers are Jangams
who officiate at their houses along with village Brdhmans. They
worship the goddess Satvai on the fifth day after childbirth and

Chapter III

People.

Crattsmen.
ffduls.

SdlU.

' Details of lUul customs are given in the Poona Statistical Account.
' Details of S^lis are given in the Poona Statistical Account.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

DISTRICTS.

Chapter III.
People.

Ckaftsmen.

Shimpis.

name the child on the twelfth. Among them a boy's father
has to look out for a wife for his son, and when one is
found, both the boy's and girl's fathers learn from the village
astrologer whether the stars favour the match. If the astrologer
says the stars favour the match, the boy's father presents the girl
with a new green robe and bodice, a rupee, and a cocoanut, and rubs
her brow with redpowder. A dinner to castemen is given at the
joint expense of both the fathers. From a day to three years after
comes the marriage. Booths are builfin front of both houses, and the
boy and girl are rubbed with turmeric at their houses. Their marriage
guardian or devah is the five-tree leaves or pdnch pdlvis, the mango,
umhar, saundad, jdmhhul, and rui. On the marriage day, while
on his way to the girl's, the boy goes to the village temple, lays his
dagger before the god, and swears that he may forsake his dagger
but never his wife. He lays a packet of betel before the god, and
taking back the dagger goes in procession to the girl's, and takes his
stand before the door of the booth. One of the girl's kinsmen
waves a lemon and a cocoanutv round the boy's head and the boy
dismounts and walks into the booth. The boyand girl are then bathed
and, dressing in new clothes, stand facing each other. Behind them
stand their maternal uncles with knives daggers or other weapons
in their hands ; the Brdhman priest repeats marriage verses, and,
at the end, along with the guests throws rice over the boy's
and girl's heads. The hems of their clothes are knotted together
and the boy and girl are taken before the house gods. While
bowing before the gods, the boy robs an image and hides it about
his person, and does not give it back until his mother-in-law gives
him a new waistcloth. The boy and girl dine in front of the house
gods, and go and take their seats on an earthen altar raised in a
corner of the booth. The brows of the couple are rubbed with red-
powder and turmeric on which rice grains are stuck and in the even-
ing proceedings end with a feast. A day or two after, the boy goes
back in procession to his house with his bride, musicians, and rela-
tives and friends, and, after a feast, the guests retire. When a girl
comes of age they seat her by herself for four days and on the fifth
fill her lap with fruit and present her with a new green robe and
bodice. Sangars allow widow marriage and polygamy. They either
bury or burn their dead, their funeral priests being Jangams. They
hold the family of the deceased impure for three days, and, on the
morning of the fourth, they sip cow's urine and are pure. They hold
caste councils, send their boys to school for a short time, and are a
poor class.

Shimpis, or Tailors, are returned as numbering 9664 and as found
over the whole district. They are divided into Jain Shimpis and
Namdev Shimpis. The Jain Shimpis get their name from their
religion and the Ndmdevs from the poet and saint NAmdev.^ The
Jain Shimpis are a small body found in Kardd, Tdsgaon, and Valva,

' Ndmdev, one of the oldest Mardtha poets, seems to have lived in the fourteenth
century. He belonged to the V^rkaii panth or day-keeping sect, and was a great
worshipper of Vithoba of Pandharpur. Details are given in the Ahmadnagar
Statistical Account.

Deccan]

SATARA.

who do not eat or marry with the Ndmdevs. The home tongue of the
Jains is Grujardti and of the Ndmdevs Mardthi. They are clean and
neat and their women are dark thin and regular-featured. The
men wear the topknot and moustache but neither whiskers nor the
beard. They live in houses with walls of brick and tiled roofs.
Nd,mdev Shimpis eat fish and flesh and drink liquor, but the Jains
are strict vegetarians. Both dress like Brd,hmans, the men in waist-
cloth, coat, turban, and shoes, and the women in the full Mardtha
robe and bodice. They are hardworking, sober, and hospitable.
They sew and sell cloth and lend money on interest. Their women
help them in sewing clothes and in some of the larger towns a few
have begun to make use of sewing machines. Their manners and
customs are the same as those of the Poona Jain and Ndmdev
Shimpis. Except children they burn their dead. The Jains wor-
ship Pdrasndth, and the Nd,mdevs worship the usual local and
Br^hmanic gods and goddesses and their priests are the ordinary
village Brahmans. Their chief god is Yithoba of Pandharpur and
they make periodical pilgrimages to his temple. They dine either
in silk or woollen waistcloths and settle social disputes at caste
meetings. They send their boys to school and are a well-to-do
class.

Sona'rs, or Goldsmiths, are returned as numbering 8231 and
as found in all towns and large villages. Some have come into
the district from Gujarat, the Bombay Karndtak, and Madras,
and others belong to the district. These divisions neither eat
together nor intermarry. There is nothing remarkable in their
appearance. The men wear the topknot and moustache and no
beard. The home tongue of the different Sondrs is the language of
their country, but with others all speak incorrect Marathi. They
have a slang language known to themselves only which they use in
presence of their customers. Most live in one-storeyed houses with
walls of brick and stone. They generally have no servants in their
houses but in their shops are helped by men of their own caste.
Their ordinary food is millet, rice, pulse, and vegetables, and when
they can afford them fish, flesh, and liquor. They take their meals
between ten and twelve in the morning and seven and ten in the
evening. With them as with other castes the opportunities for feasts
are holidays, marriages, and other family ceremonies, and the
arrival of important guests. On such occasions their chief dishes
are cakes or balls, and their feasts cost £2 10s. to £3 (Rs. 25 - 80)
the hundred guests. They dress like Mardtha Brdhmans and only
a few have a store of such rich clothes as silk robes and shawls.
They are neat, clean, hardworking, and skilful. They work in
gold and silver and also set gems and other precious stones. They
are proverbially dishonest. It is the general belief that gold or
silver passing through a goldsmith's hands not^ only loses weight
but becomes mixed with base metal. The men work from six to
twelve and again from two to eight. The women do nothing but
home work. Boys up to eight go to school, and after eight work
in their fathers' shops. Their tools cost them 12s. to £5 (Rs. 6 - 50)
and they earn 16s. to £2 (Rs, 8-20) a month. Many are taking to
other than their hereditary calling. Some are writers and others

Chapter IIP

People.

Ceaftsmhn.
Shimpin,

Sondrs.

[Bombay Gazetteer.

DISTEICTS.

Chapter III.

People.

Ckaetsmen.
Sonars,

SutrU's,

Tdia.

petty moneylenders, and moneycliangers. Their calling depends on
the prosperity of the people and since the 1876-77 famine, the Sit^ra.
goldsmiths have had less than their former amount of employment.
Even skilful workmen find it difficult to keep themselves in
comfort. They are either Shaivs or Vaishnavs and have images
of their gods in their houses. Their priests generally belong to
their own caste, but when a priest of their own caste is not
available they employ Deshasth or other Brahmans. Of late the
Sonars who term themselves Mukhmdsi Brahmans, or Brdhmans
sprung from the mouth of Brahma, have taken to commit to memory
the sacred verses used in religious ceremonies, but they know them
and pronounce them so badly that they do not openly repeat them
in presence of Brahmans. Their customs differ little from those of
Brahmans. They settle social disputes either at caste meetings or
by a reference to a council of caste elders. They send their boys to
school and are fairly off.

Suta'rs, or Carpenters, are returned as numbering 11,043 and as
found over the whole district. They have no divisions. They rank
with or higher than Kunbis and are fairer and cleaner than Kunbis
but less robust. In villages they repair field tools and are paid by
the villagers in grain at harvest time. As carpenters and wood-
carvers the town Sutdrs are good workers and are easily trained to
handle European tools. Their day's wages vary form Is. to 3s,
(Rs.^-1^). The women do not help the men in their work.
Their staple food is millet, pulse, and vegetables, and they do not
eat fish or flesh or drink liquor. The men wear the waistcloth and
coat, and the turban folded either in the Maratha or the Brahman
fashion. They gird their boys with the sacred thread, the ceremony
being performed by one of their own caste called guru or teacher.
They practise polygamy and forbid widow marriage. Except un-
weaned children whom they bury they burn their dead. Their family
deities are BhavAni, Khandoba, and Vithoba, and they keep the usual
Hindu fasts and festivals. Their priests are Mardtha Brahmans
whom they consult as to the lucky moment for naming and marrying
their children. They settle social disputes at caste meetings. They
send their boys to school but take them away after they have learnt
a little reading and writing. They are fairly off, especially town
carpenters.

Telis, or Oilmen, are returned as numbering 9499 and as found
over the whole district. They are divided into Lingdyat and Maratha
Telis who do not eat together or intermarry but do not differ much
from each other in work, dress, or customs. As a rule Telis are
dark well-built and robust, but dirty in their habits. They speak
Mardthi. They live in houses with walls of brick and tiled roofs
and own metal and earthen vessels. Their staple food is millet
pulse and vegetables. They dress like MarAthas, and are hard-
working, hospitable, quiet, and well-behaved. They press sesame,
dry cocoa-kernel, and sometimes hemp seed, and sell oil and oil-
cakes. The Lingdyats worship Mahadev only and their priests are
Jangams ; the Mardfchas worship all the usual local and Brdhmanic
gods and goddesses and keep the regular fasts and festivals,

Deccan]

Si.Ti.RA..

and employ as priests the ordinary village Brdhmans. Except
that the Lingayats hold no cloth or cuntarpdt between the bride
and bridegroom at the time of marriage, their marriages are the
same as those of Kunbis. Both Ling^yat and Mard,tha Telis hold a
girl impure for four days after she comes of age, and do not touch her
till she has bathed on the morning of the fifth day. Both practise
widow marriage and polygamy. Unlike the Mardthds they bury
their dead, and consider themselves impure for ten days. They settle
social disputes at caste meetings. They turn out any one proved to
have broken their social rules but let him back on paying a fine.
They do not -send their boys to school or take to new pursuits, but
are fairly off.

Vada'rs, or Earth Diggers, are returned as numbering 2388 and
as found over the whole district except in Javli. They are divided
into Mati or Earth and Dagad or S-tone Vaddrs, who eat together but
do not intermarry. Both Earth and Stone Vaddrs are dark, strong,
robust, and hardworking, but ignorant and given to drink. They
have no fixed dwellings and gather wherever they hear of work. The
Dagad or Stone Yadars who quarry and break stones, for building
are said to have been the great hill-fort builders. They also make
grind-stones. The Mati or Earth Vadars work in earth and dig
ponds and wells. Both classes live in rude huts of mats and sticks,
and eat almost anything, being notably fond of mice and rats.
When they have nothing else to eat, they go rat-hunting in the fields.
Their home tongue is Telugu^ but with others they speak a corrupt
Marathi. The men of both classes wear a loincloth, a waistcloth,
and a tattered turban, and the women the robe and bodice. Their
chief deities are Bhavdni and Khandoba, and they consult Brahmans
only for a name for their children and for a lucky day for their
weddings. They practise widow marriage and polygamy. They
have a caste council and settle social disputes at caste meetings.
They do not send their boys to school. Of late years VadArs of both
classes have found constant and highly paid employment at the
great Nira water works and on the new Deccan railways. At both
water and railway works Vaddrs have proved the most valuable
class of local workmen. They work by the piece, and both men
and women are surprisingly effective. Most of their earnings go in
drink.

Musicians include three classes with a strength of 11,909 or
ri6 per cent of the Hindu population. The details are :

8dtdra Musicians, 1881.

DiVISIOK.

Males.

Females

Total.

Ghadsia
Guravs
Hoiars

Total ...

309

4920

813

300

4779

788

609
9699
1601

6042

8867

11,909

Ghadsis, or Musicians, are returned as numbering 609 and as
found in large towns chiefly in the east of the district. They have no
tradition of their origin or of any former settlement, and are considered
B 1282—13

Chapter III.
People.

CEArTSMBtf.

TelU.

VadArs.

Musicians.

Ohadtii,

[Bombay Gazetteer'

DISTEICTS.

Chapter III.

People.

Musicians;
Ghadsis.

Chtravs.

the earliest people in the district. They have no subdivisions

and claim no relationship with any other tribe. They are darker

than Kunbis, middle sizedj and look more like Mdngs and other low

caste Hindus than Kunbis. The men wear the topknot, moustache,

and sometimes whiskers, but not the beard. They speak Mar^thi.

Their staple food is millet, salt, chillies, and oil, and their dinner

parties consist of meat, pulse cakes, and liquor. They eat without

taking off any of their clothes, and, after dinner, sit singing the

whole night. They dress like Marathas, are lazy, extravagant,

and fond of pleasure, and amuse their patrons with their songs and

music. They are renowned singers and players and perform at the

houses of Brd,hmans and other Hindus. Though their shadow

is not now thought to defile, high caste Hindus do not so freely ask

them to their houses as they ask Guravs. The hereditary calling

of all seems to have been music, but many have taken to agriculture,

day labour, and other means of subsistence. They paint their

bodies red and black and beg by acting as Bahurupis or men of

many faces or characters. As labourers men earn Sd. to Is. (2-8 as.)

a day and women 1| d. to 4 ^ci. (1 - 3 as.) . Their monthly expenses vary

from 8s. to £l(Rs. 4-10). They marry their girls between eight

and twelve and their boys between twelve and twenty-five. They

spend £3 to £4 (Rs. 30-40) on the marriage of a girl and £4 to £6

(Rs. 40-60) on the marriage of a boy. They allow their widows to

marry and the men practise polygamy. They either bury or burn

their dead spending about £1 (Rs. 10) on a funeral. They worship

all the usual local and Brahmanic gods and goddesses, chiefly

Bahiroba and Khandoba, and they keep all the regular fasts and

feasts. Their priests are ordinary Mar^tha Brahmans whom they

pay l\d. (1 a.) at a naming, 2s. (Re. 1) at a marriage, and 6d. (4 as.)

at a funeral. Child marriage, polygamy, and widow marriage are

allowed and practised ; polyandry is unknown. Their social and

religious customs are the same as Mar^tha-Kunbi customs. They

have a caste council and settle social disputes at caste meetings.

They send their boys to school and are a steady people.

Guravs, or Priests, are returned as numbering 9699 and as found
in ones and twos in towns and large villages. They have no tradi-
tion or memory of their arrival in the district or of any former settle-
ment. They have no divisions and speak Marathi. They generally
live in small one-storeyed houses close to the temple where they act
as ministrants. Their staple food is millet, rice, pulse, and
vegetables, and they say they neither eat fish nor flesh nor drink
liquor. They dress either like Mardtha BrAhmans or cultivating
Kunbis. They are musicians and attend to and clean the temples of
the village gods and have the hereditary right to the offerings made
to- them. They supply bel and tulsi leaves and flowers to the chief
villagers for the worship of their house gods. They make and sell
leaf cups and plates and play music on marriage and other occasions
at the houses of Brahmans and other villagers, except at the houses
of Mhars, Mangs, and other low caste people. A few hold small
grant or indm lands. They worship Maruti, Shiv, and other
village gods, keep the usual Hindu fasts and feasts, and make
pilgrimages. When a Gurav woman is brought to bed, a midwife is

Deccau]

Si.Ti.RA.

called iu and is paid 3d. (2 as.) if tbe child is a boy and half a
cocoanut if it is a girl. The midwife cuts the child's navel-cord^
bathes both the mother and the child with warm water rubbing
them with turmeric paste and oil, and lays them on a cot under
which a firepot is laid to guard against cold. The mother's
impurity lasts ten days. On the fifth night an embossed gold image
of Satvd.i is set on a low stool in the lying-in room and turmeric
paste, vermilion, five betel leaves and nuts, boiled gram or ghugris,
and sweetmeats are laid before the goddess. The mother bows
before the goddess with the child in her arms and asks her blessing.
Next day the embossed image is tied round the child's neck and the
child if a girl is named on the twelfth and if a boy on the thirteenth.
The house is cowdunged on the naming day and friends and kins-
people are asked to the house. The mother is dressed in a new
green robe and bodice, new bangles are put round her wrists, and
rice and a cocoanut are laid in her lap. Women neighbours and
friends present the mother with bodices and the child with hoods or
kunchis, and name and cradle the child, amidst cradle-songs or
poinds snng in honour of Ram or Krishna, ending with the chorus
' Sleep my darling sleep.'^ The guests are treated either to a dinner
or to betel and withdraw with handfuls of boiled gram or ghugris.
Guravs marry their boys between ten and twenty -five and their girls
before they come of age. Their marriages are preceded by
betrothals, when, on a lucky day named by the village astrologer, the
boy's father with a few of his friends visits the girl's house and
presents her with a green robe and bodice and a pair of silver chains
or sdnkhlis worth £2 10s. to £3 (Rs. 25-30). The guests are
welcomed to a seat on the veranda by the girl's father and such
of his friends as he has asked to the house. The girl puts on the new
clothes, the priest attends, and the boy's father marks the girl's
brow with vermilion. The girl then bows before the house gods, the
guests, and her elders, and the betrothal or mdgni ends with a feast
to the boy's father and his friends. The fathers go to the local
astrologer and he names the lucky day for the marriage. Booths
are raised before the boy's and girl's houses and invitations are
sent to friends and kinsfolk. At the house of each of the pair, an
umbar Ficus glomerata post is fixed in one of the corners of the
booth, molasses and betel are laid before the post, and a turmeric
root and betelnut are tied to it in a piece of yellow cloth. Two or
three days before .the marriage, the girl is rubbed with turmeric
at her house by five lucky married women named by the priest, who
take what remains of the turmeric to the boy with music and rub
him with it and bathe him in warm water, while musicians play and
the married women of the boy's house sing songs. A feast called
the turmeric feast or haldiche jevan completes the turmeric rubbing,
and the women of the girl's house return with presents of betel.
A raised altar is prepared in the girl's wedding booth and new
earthen vessels brought from the potter's are placed at its corners.
On the marriage day the bride goes with music and a band of friends

Chapter IIL

People.

Musicians.
€furava.

1 The MarAthi is : Jo jo, re nij bdla,jojc.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

100

DISTRICTS.

Chapter Ill-
People.

Musicians.
Ouravs.

to the village Maruti, bows before the god, and, laying before him
a betel packet and a copper, asks his blessing and returns home. The
bridegroom goes on horseback to the bride^s with music and friends,
and is welcomed at her house by the girl's father. As the lucky
moment draws near, the priest prepares a square spot, sets two
low stools in it, and makes the bridegroom and bride stand facing
each other on the stools ; a yellow sheet is held between the pair and
marriage verses are repeated by the priest who, at the lucky moment,
draws aside the curtain, throws red rice over the couple, while the
musicians raise a din of music. The hems of the pair's garments
are knotted together, and they walk into the. house, bow before the
house gods and elders, and are made to eat from the same dish.
Then the sdda or robe ceremony is performed, and the party of
the bridegroom and the caste people are treated to a dinner.
Lastly the bridegroom takes the bride to his house with music and
friends and feasts and return feasts at the houses of the boy
and girl end the ceremony. At every marriage the priest
receives a turban and 4s. to 6s. (Rs. 2-3) in cash and the whole
marriage expenses generally amount to £10 to £30 (Rs. 100 - 300).
Among Guravs child marriage and polygamy are allowed
and polyandry is unknown. A girl sits apart for three days on
coming of age, she is bathed on the fourth and her lap is filled
with rice and frait. A gaily decked wooden frame is made
and the girl is seated in it for the first sixteen days while the
musicians are asked to the house to play drums and pipes. Her
female friends and relations present the girl with sweet dishes and
clothes, and her father and father-in-law present her each with a robe
and bodice. The girFs father treats his son-in-law to a dinner and
presents him with clothes and bedding. The couple are seated
together on low wooden stools, the women neighbours meet at the
house, and lay rice and cocoanuts in the lap of the girl, and the
puberty ceremony is over. Guravs burn their dead and mourn ten
days. After death the body is seated leaning against a wall, water
is heated, and a bier is made. The dead is bathed in warm water,
shrouded in a clean white sheet, and laid on the bier. A pieod of
gold and a roll of betel leaves are put into the dead mouth, and
flowers, betel leaves, and redpowder are thrown over the body.
A married girl, generally the deceased's daughter or daughter-in-
law, waves a light about the face of the dead, four of the mourners
take up the bier, and the chief mourner heads them with the earthen
firepot in his hand, hung from a string. Before reaching the burning
ground they halt to rest, the bearers set down the bier, and each
picks five stones and instead lays a copper on the ground. The
bearers then change places, lift the bier, and, with the chief mourner
in front, walk to the burning ground. The pile is ready and
the dead is laid on it. The priest repeats texts and the chief
mourner places five wheat flour balls on the body, two on the face
two on the two arms and one on the chest, and lights the pile.
As soon as the skull bursts, the chief mourner fills an earthen pot,
and, carrying it on his shoulder, walks three times round the pile.
At the end of each turn another man walks with him and pierces
the pot with a stone called the lifestone or ashma so that the

Deccanl

SlTARA.

101

water gushes out. When three tarns are made and the pot is
thrice pierced, the chief mourner throws it over his back and beats
his month with his right palm. The priest is given 3d. (2 as.) and
the funeral party bathe and return home. The family of the dead
are impure for ten days and cleanse themselves by drinking water
brought from the priest's. On the third day the chief mourner
goes to the burning ground, gathers the ashes, and throws them
into some river or stream. He cowdnngs the burning place, sets the
lifestone on it, and lays before the stone sandal, vermilion, flowers,
turmeric, burnt frankincense, and cooked rice mixed with clarified
butter. The chief mourner has his face and head except the topknot
shaved and the caste people including the bearers are feasted
on the thirteenth if the dead has a son or on the twelfth if he has no
son. The priest conducts the death ceremony and receives clothes,
a pair of shoes, and 4s. to 6s. (Rs. 2-3) in cash. Guravs hold
that persons dying with their wishes unfulfilled become spirits and
haunt the living. They believe in witchcraft soothsaying "and evil
spirits. When a woman dies in childbed, while she is being taken
to the burning ground, nails are driven into the threshold, a lemon
charmed by a magician is buried under it and a man follows the
body strewing raZa- seeds, that the spirit may not come back and
trouble the people of the house. Guravs have a caste council and
settle social disputes at meetings of the elders, A few send their
boys to school, but they take to no new pursuits and are badly ofE.

Hola'rs, literally Field Men, are returned as numbering 1601
and as found over the whole district except in J^vli. They have no
story of their origin and no memory of any former settlement. Their
Kanaresename and its apparent derivation from hoi (K.) the ground
seem to show that they are one of the early local tribes. They
have no subdivisions and claim no relationship with any other
tribe. They are the same as Mhdrs with whom they eat and
marry. They speak Mardthi, and live in houses with mud walls
and tiled roofs. Their house goods include earthen, wooden,
and metal pots. Their staple food is millet, salt, chillies, and oil,
but they eat the flesh of almost all animals including the cow and
excluding the pig. Like Mhars they eat the flesh of cattle who are
found dead. In honour of birth, marriage, and death they give
dinners of meat, pulse cakes, and liquor. Their women cook, and
the guests dine oil plates which they bring with them and without
taking off any of their clothes. Liquor is sometimes served and
the guests sit singing the whole night. Their dress is the same
as that of Kunbis. They are a quiet and orderly people, are
excellent musicians and songsters, and play on pipes and drums.
They make shoes and bridles and as labourers the men earn 3d. to Is.
(2~8 as.) an4 the women l^d. to 4!^d (1-3 as.) a day. The monthly
expenses of a family of five vary from 8.9. to £1 (Rs. 4-10). Their
favourite gods are Jotiba, Khandoba, and Vithoba whose images
they keep in their houses. They worship their deceased ancestors
and make pilgrimages to Pandharpur and Ratndgiri in the South
Konkan. They have no ascetics among them. Their priests are the
ordinary village Brahmans who are. paid l|d (1 a.)at a birth 2s. (Re.l)
at a marriage, and 6d. (4 as.) at a death. The Brahman who

Chapter III.

People.

Musicians.
Guravs.

HolAri.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

102

DISTEICTS.

Chapter III.

People.

Musicians.
Holdrs.

Sbevants.

Nhdvis.

Parits.

conducts their ceremonies, standing outside of their houses does not
sufifer degradation for associating with them. They keep all the
usual Hindu fasts and feasts. When they name their children they
distribute molasses or gul, and when a girl comes of age they
distribute packets of betelnutand leaves among friends and kinsfolk,
and feast castewomen. They marry their girls between eight and
twelve, and their boys between twelve and twenty-five. A girl's
marriage costs £3 to £4 (Rs. 30-40) and a boy's £5 to £6 (Rs. 50-60).
They practise widow marriage and polygamy. They bury their
dead, spending about £1 (Rs. 10) on the funeral. They have no
headman and leave the settlement of disputes to some of their elders.
Adultery and eating with a low caste man are punished with loss
of caste, but the offender is let back on paying a fine which generally
takes the form of liquor. A HoMr's shadow is not now thought to
pollute the higher classes. A few send their boys to school and
are a miserable class.

Servants include two classes with a strength of 21,891 or 2'13
per cent of the Hindu population. The details are :

Sdtdra Servants, 1881.

Divisros.

Males.

Females.

Total.

NMvis

Pavits

Total ...

7077
3811

7174
3829

14,251
7640

10,888

11,003

21,891

Nha'vis, or Barbers, are returned as numbering 14,251 and as
found over the whole district. Playing on their name they say they
are born from Mah^dev's navel or ndbhi. Accordingto another account
they have sprung from a Brdhman father and a Kunbi woman who
was not his wife. They have no divisions and their surnames are
Gaikavddj Jadhav, Mohite, Povdr, and Shirke. They look like
Kunbis and their home tongue is Mardthi. They live in middle
class houses generally one-storeyed with walls of brick and tiled
roofs. Their staple food is millet, pulse, and vegetables, and they
eat fish and flesh, and drink liquor. Both men and women dress
like Kunbis. As a class they are intelligent, fond of gossip, and
proverbially cunning, as the proverb says The barber and the crow.^
They shave, hold torches at weddings and before great men, and
play the drum or chaughada and the clarion or sanai. In almost
every village a Nh^vi holds grant lands. As surgeons tbey bleed
both by cupping and applying leeches, and their women act as
midwives. Their family gods are Jotiba of Ratnagiri and Khandoba
of Jejuri. Their manners and customs are the same as those of
Kunbis. They are bound together by a strong caste feeling and
settle social disputes at caste meetings. They do not send their boys
to school and are a steady people.

Parits, or Washermen, are returned as numbering 7640 and as
found over the whole district. They are divided into Kdm^thi,
Kunbi, and Pardeshi Parits who neither eat together nor intermarry.

1 The MarAthi runs, Nhdvu ant Kdvu.

Deccan]

sAtAea.

103

KAmIthi Paeits say they came to tlie district from the Nizdm's
country more than two generations ago. They have no divisions
and their surnames are Alakonda, Angirvaru^ Bilkor, Kotgirvaru,
and Pipalgavvaru ; families bearing the same surname eat together
but do not intermarry. The names in ordinary use among men
are Balu, D^vUj Iraiya, Keddri, Lingu, Manhajij and R^maya ;
and among women Bhagamma, Ganga, Lingi, Narsamma^ Shiva^ and
Vyakamma. Their home speech is Telugu, but with others they
speak Mar^thi or Hindustani, A Kam^thi Parit is easily known
by his custom of wearing a gold earring in the left ear, and a
Kdmdthi washerwoman by her peculiar way of wearing the robe.
The robe in front is gathered into scanty puckers and is passed
back between the legs being drawn tightly over the shins and
tucked in at the waist behind. The upper end of the robe is passed
round the waist and is drawn over the breast and head. They are
dark and strong and live either in houses one storey high with tiled
roofs or in thatched huts. Their houses are well kept and contain
goods, along with the appliances of their callingj worth about £10
(Rs. 100). Their staple food is millet, split pulse, and vegetables.
They are also fond of fish and flesh and sometimes add these two
dishes to their daily food. The only sweet dish they know is the gram
cake ov puran poK and this they use on ceremonial occasions. They
ofEergoatsandcocksto their gods and feast on the flesh of the sacrificed
animals. They drink liquor. The men dress like Mar^th^s in a
waistcloth, coat, shouldercloth, Mar^tha turban and shoes, and
the women in the robe and bodice. The men's ornaments are earrings
worth 10s. to £1 (Rs.5-10), silver finger rings worth 4s. (Rs. 2),
and a silver waist girdle worth £3 (Rs. 30). The women's orna-
ments are a nosering worth £1 (Rs. 10), earrings worth £3
(Rs. 30), the lucky necklace or mangalsutra worth 6s. to 16s.
(Rs. 3 - 8), silver bracelets worth £1 (Rs. 10), and toerings of bell-
metal worth 6c?. (4 as.) Kdmathi Parits are neat, clean, hard-
working, thrifty, and orderly. They work as washermen and earn £1
10s. to £2 (Rs. 15-20) a month out of which they spend 10s. to 16s.
(Rs. 5-8) on charcoal soda and soap. The women and children help
the men in their work. They have two sets of gods, one including
Narsoba and Yallamma their family deities who are kept in a
wooden shrine, and the other including Atmasamma, Balamma,
Bangar, Maissamma, and Pochamma, who are placed in a niche
or devli in a wall in the house. Their priests are village
Brahmans. They are not particular about keeping fasts, only a few
fasting on the Ekddashis or lunar elevenths of each month. Their
religious head, a man of their own caste, lives at Haidarabad
and occasionally visits his disciples. An elderly woman of the
family acts as midwife and buries the navel-cord and after-birth
in a hole in the mother's room, over which the mother and
child are bathed regularly for twelve days and rubbed with turmeric
powder and oil. On the fifth day an image of the goddess Satvdi and
an earthen water jar are worshipped near the bathing pit, and five
pieces of dry cocoa-kernel, redpowder, turmeric, and betel and cooked
food are offered. The mother is held impure full eleven days.
On the twelfth all the house people are bathed, and their clothes

Chapter III

People.

Servants.
Parits.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

104

DISTRICTS.

Chapter ni.

People.

Sbkvants.
ParUs,

Shepherds,

washed, the house is cowdunged and cow's urine drunk. Near female
relations gather at the mother's house, cradle and name the child,
and the guests retire with presents of boiled wheat and gram. In
the evening castemen are treated to liquor. Except that they marry
their children sitting side by side on rice and that their maternal
uncles stand behind holding in their hands sickles or weeding hoes,
their marriages are the same as those of Kunbis. Their marriages
cost about £15 (Rs. 150). They allow widow marriage, the whole
expense, about £4 (Rs. 40), being paid by the widow's husband.
They bury their dead, mourn ten days, and spend £2 to £2 10s.
(Rs. 20-25) on the funeral. On the third day they level the spot
where the deceased was buried and mark it with a red stone. On the
twelfth the caste is given a dinner. Kdmathi Parits hold caste
councils, send their boys to school, and are better ofE than
Kunbi Parits.

KuKBi Paeits have no divisions, speak Mardthi, and differ in no
respect from Kunbis. They live in huts with thatched roofs and
their staple food is millet, pulse, and vegetables. They eat fish and
the flesh of goats, sheep, hare, deer, and fowls, and drink liquor,
The village washerman is generally a Kunbi and is locally known as
Parit. He washes for all the villagers except Mhars and Mdngs
and other impure castes, and the men are helped in their work by
their women. Besides by cleaning clothes, Parits sometimes earn
their living by labour. They are found in every village and are
paid in grain. Their favourite deities are Bahiroba, Bhavani, and
Khandoba, and they also worship deceased ancestors. Their
priests are the ordinary village Br^hmans and they keep the usual
Hindu fasts and feasts. Their customs are the same as Kunbi
customs, they either bury or burn their dead and allow widow
marriage. They settle social disputes at caste meetings. They do
not send their boys to school and are poor and in debt.

Of Paedeshi or Bdndele Dhobis one family is found in Satara in
the service of Europeans. They say they came from Upper India, but
in appearance and speech differ little from Mard,thas. The names
in common use among men are Krishna, Rama, Lakshuman,N^ri,yan,
and SakhAram ; and among women Janki, Lakshumi, Mohana,
Munya, and Rddha. In house, food, dress, and religion they differ
little from Maratha Kunbis. They are washermen and follow no
other calling. They marry their girls before they are sixteen or
e,ighteen and their boys before they are twenty-five. They burn
their dead, mourn ten days, hold caste councils, send their boys to
school, and like Maratha or Kunbi Parits are poor.

Shepherds and Cattle-keepers include two classes with a strength
of 41,866 or 4-08 per cent of the Hindu population. The details are :
Sdtdra Shepherds, 1881.

Division.

MaJes.

Females.

Total.

Dhangars

Gavlis

Total ...

20,824
170

20,723
149

41,547
319

20,994

20,872

41,866

Dhangars.

Dhangars, literally Cowmen, are returned as numbering 41,547
and as found chiefly in the S&vW. and PAtan hills and uplands. They

Deccau]

sAtAra.

105

have no tradition of their coming to the district and no memory
of any former settlement. They are darker than Kunbis, tall and
athletic. Many of Shivaji's infantry were Satdra Dhangars. Still
though good soldiers they are a quiet orderly tribe. Most of
them have their head-quarters in the east of the district, keep sheep
and deal in wool. In the fair months they travel long distances
westward to the hills many going on to the Konkan. They come
back before the end of the hot weather when most of them make
their way to the east, as, during the rains, the raw damp of the
western hills is fatal to sheep. During the fair season as they
graze over the country the landholders, for the sake of the 'manure,
often pay them to pen their flocks in the fields. They have dogs
of a better breed than the ordinary village dog. As a class
Dhangars are noted for their dirty slovenly habits. Though most of
those whose head-quarters are in the east and who keep their flocks
in the east during the rainy season are shepherds, cow and buffalo-
keeping Dhangars on the western hills are not uncommon. Cow-
keeping Dhangars chiefly earn their living by the sale of clarified
butter. Some among them also are husbandmen. Some settled
Dhangars are fairly ofE but as a class they are poor. Prom the time
their boys are five years of age they are generally employed in
watching the cattle. They eat flesh and drink liquor. Their
clothing is scanty, the men wearing a turban, a waistcloth, and a
blanket, together costing about 6s. (Rs. 3) a year. Their marriage
ceremonies and rites are nearly the same as those of Kunbis. Their
chief gods are Khandoba and Mhasoba ; Biroba is their tutelary
house god and his image is buried with the bodies of the well-to-do.
They do not worship their house gods daily, only on Saturdays and
Sundays. Social disputes are settled by the members of three
families : the GavandeSj Mdnes, and R^gjes. If one of them is not
at hand, he is sent for and the dispute stands over till he comes.
Breaches of caste rules are punished by making the offender give a
caste feast. The Dhangars never send their boys to school and take
to no new callings.

Gavlis, orCowkeepers, are returned as numberingS 19 and as found
over the whole district. They rank higher than Kunbis, and are
clean, orderly, shrewd, honest, and skilful in treating cattle diseases,
and in breeding cows and buffaloes. Their customs do not differ
from Kunbi customs and they keep the usual Hindu fasts and feasts.
They hold caste councils, send their boys to school, and are fairly off .^

Fishers include two classes with a strength of 7068 or 0*76 per
cent of the Hindu population. The details are :

Scitdra Fishers, 1881.

DiVISIOH.

Males.

Females.

Total.

Bhois

Kolis

Total ...

1043
2930

1035
2060

2078
4990

3973

3095

7068

Bhois, or Fishers, are returned as numbering 2078 and as found
over the whole district. They are dark, good-looking, sturdy, and

1 Details of Gavli customs are given in the Poona Statistical Account,
B 1282—14

Chapter III
People.

Shephbkds.

Oavlis,

Fishers,

Bhois.

[Sombay G^azetteer,

106

DISTRICTS.

Chapter III.
People.

FiSHEKS.

KoHs.

Laboubess.

hardworking. Most of them make their living by catching fish.
One o£ their chief former occupations was carrying palanquins and
litters, but, with the opening of roads, litters have nearly disappeared
and they have taken to agriculture, fishing, and labour. They now
profess to look down on palanquin carrying. They eat fish and
flesh and drink liquor. They rank below Kolis, but do not differ
from them in marriage and other customs. They hold caste
councils, do not send their boys to school, and are a poor people.^

Kolis, or Ferrymen, are returned as numbering 4990 and as found
in almost every village, especially in Jdvli, Pdtan, and parts of Wii.
All Satara Kolis are water-fillers or panhTiaris. They seem to be
different from the Poena and Ahmadnagar hill Kolis, the origin of
whose name is doubtful. Besides Panbharis, they are called Chumli
Kolis from wearing a twisted cloth on their head when they carry a
waterpot. They are said to associate and occasionally to eat with
Kunbis. In several of the chief hill forts, Sinhgad, Torna, and
Edjgad, men of this tribe formerly had the duty of guarding the
approaches to the fort. They are quiet people ranking among village
servants and get the 'grain in return for bringing water. Unlike the
Kolis of Khed and Junnar in Poena, they do not join in
gang robberies or become outlaws. They are the same as Mardtha
Kunbis to look at, but they do not generally eat in the same row
with Mardtha Kunbis and they marry among themselves only.
They make the cement which is eaten with betel and a few of them
catch fish. As a class they are a fine, good-looking, robust, and well
made people. They are now quiet, orderly, settled, and hardworking.
Besides fishing they work ferries along the Krishna and in the rainy
months show great daring in securing timber floated down when the
river is in flood. They grow melons in river beds with much skill
and are found in every village as water fillers or jodnbharis ; some
are husbandmen and others cement dealers. They generally live in
thatched huts, eat fish and flesh, and drink liquor. Their social and
religious customs are like those of Kunbis. They usually bury the
dead, and the chief mourner is held impure for ten days. Their
favourite gods are Biroba and Khandoba, and their priests are
Brdhmans whom they greatly respect. They hold caste councils,
and do "not send their boys to school. In some villages they hold
grant or inaTn lands in return for their services as water carriers.
As a class they are poor.

The bulk of the unskilled labour of the district is done by the
poorer Kunbis, Dhangars, Vaddrs, Rdmoshis, and Mhdrs. Besides
these, two small classes, who are chiefly labourers, Pardeshis and
Thdkurs have a strength of 1603. The details are :
Sdtdra Labourers, 1881.

Dnnsiqjf.

Males.

Females.

Total.

Pardeshis

Th&kurs

Total ...

617
207

673
206

1190
413

824

779

1603

1 Details of Koli customs are giveu in the f ooua and Ahmadnagar Statistical Accounts.

Deccau.]

sAtAra.

107

Pardeshis,^ or Outsiders that is Upper India Men, are returned
as numbering 1190 and as found over the whole district. They are
tall strong and well made, the. men wearing the topknot and
moustache and sometimes the. beard and whiskers. Their home
tongue is Hindustani, and they are sober thrifty and proud. They
are priests to their own people, watchmen, messengers, shopkeepers,
petty traders, and labourers. They own no dwellings, and their
staple food is wheat, butter, pulse, and vegetables. The men dress
in a short waistcloth, jacket, cap, and sometimes a turban folded
in Mard,tha fashion, and pointed shoes. They are Smarts, worship
the usual Brdhmanic deities and keep the regular fasts and feasts.
Few of them bring their families with them. As a class they are
T^ell-to-do.

Tha'kurs,^ or Chiefs, are returned as numberiug 413 and asfound
over the whole district except in Sdtdra sub-division. They say the
founder of their tribe was one Gangdram Bhat and have no tradition
of coming into the district or of any former settlement. Their
surnames are Chavdn, Gdikvd,d, More, Povar, and Sinde. The
men's names are Ganu, Lakshuman, Mahddu, and R^ma, and the
women's Bhima, Kondi, Lakshumi, and Rukhmi. Except that they
are darker skinned, in appearance, dwelling, food, and dress they
do not differ from Kunbis. Their home speech is Mardthi. They
are a quiet, hardworking, thrifty, and hospitable people, and are
husbandmen, labourers, and messengers. They rank below Kunbis,
and eat with them but not in the same row. They marry among
themselves. They are among the village stafif of baluteddrs or
servants. Among the Kunbis, when the father goes to see the boy
or girl before marriage, he takes the village Thdkur with him.
The Thdkur is also sometimes sent when the father does not
himself go. The Thdknr is used as a messenger and calls the
name of the giver at marriages when presents or dhei's are made,
and when the present is a turban helps the bridegroom to put it
on. On the thirteenth day after a death, when friends bring in the
mourning turban or duMiavta, the Thdkur helps the chief mourner
to put it on, and is given a copper and betelnut with four leaves. Their
family gods are Bahiroba and Khandoba, and their ceremonies
are conducted by their own castemen and not by Brdhmans.
On the fifth day after the birth of a child they worship the
goddess Satvd.i, and offer her redpowder, lampblack, cocoa-kernel,
betel, and millet bread, pulse, and vegetables. In the evening near
relations and castemen are feasted on bread and pulse sauce, and
on the following morning the goddess Satvdi, which is generally a

Chapter III

People.

Laboubbbs.
PardeahU.

Thdkur:

' Details of Pardeshi customs are given in the ShoUpur Statistical Account.

' The name Thdkur properly belongs to Gujardt Rajputs. In NAsik it is used of
three classes the writers who in Gujardt are known as Brahmakshatris, a class of
carpenters from Gujardt, and the hill tribe who are most numerous in Thdna and
KoUba, and are also found in Poona Ahmadnagar and Khindesh. The Ndsik use
oi the word Thdkur to two classes who claim a part Gujardt Rajput origin favours the
late Dr. J. Wilson's view that the Thdna hill Thdkura got their name becausa
they were at some time joined and led by Gujardt Rajput outlaws. As they are
closely connected with Bhdts these Sdtdra Thdkurs, who seem to have nothing to do
with any of their namesakes, have probably some Gnjdrdt strain.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

108

DISTRICTS.

Chapter Ill-
People.

Labottbebs.
Thdhurs.

UlfSBTTLED

Tribes.

KaiJcddis.

Rdmoahis.

round piece of silver, is tied round the child's neck. On the morning
of the twelfth day the house is cowdunged, the mother's clothes
are washed, and the child and its mother are bathed. The mother,
taking the child in her arms, sets five pebbles in front of her house
and worships them with turmeric and redpowder, lays betel and
molasses before them, and goes back into the house. A couple of
married women who are asked to dine, cradle and name the child,
and retire with presents of betel and boiled gram. Except that
their own caste people conduct their marriages and repeat the
marriage verses, theip marriages do not differ from those of Kunbis.
The five days after a girl comes of age is the only occasion on
which their monthly sickness is held to make women unclean.
Their marriages cost the boy's parents £10 (Rs. 100) and their
deaths £1 (Rs. 10). They allow their widows to marry and they
burn their dead. They have a caste council and settle social
disputes at caste meetings. A few among them send their boys to
school and as a class they are poor.

Unsettled Tribes include three classes with a strength of
20,000 or 1'95 per cent of the Hindu population. The details are :

Sdtdra Unsettled Tribes, 1881.

Division.

Males.

Females.

Total.

KaikSdig

B4moshis

Vanjaris

Total ...

4
9156
1036

8792
1010

17,348

2046

10,196

9804

20,000

Kaika'dis, or Basketmakers, are returned as numbering six.
They are a wandering tribe and earn their living by making baskets
of tur Cajanus indicus and cotton stalks and by roughening and
repairing grindstones. Their home speech is a corrupt Mardthi
and in look, food, dress, and customs they do not differ from the
Kaikddis of Ahmadnagar.^

Ka'lUOSllis,^ or Descendants of Ram, are returned as numbering
1 7,948 and as found over the whole district. They have no memory
of any former settlement and no story of their arrival in the district.
They have no subdivisions and claim no relation with any other tribe.
Their house goods include earthen wooden and metal vessels, and
their clothes are blankets, waistcloths, turbans, waistcoats, robes, and
bodices. Their staple food is Indian and spiked millet, salt, oil, and
chillies. They give dinners of meat, pulse cakes, and liquor in
honour of births marriages and deaths. Their women cook, and
the guests dine off plates which they bring with them. They do not
take off any part of their dress before dining. After dinner the
guests sit singing the whole night. When they name their
children they distribute molasses or qui and packets of betelnut

' Details of the Kaikddi customs are given in the Ahmadnagar Statistical Account,
" Details of the RAmoshi Risings in 1830 are given under Justice, and of K^moshi
customs in the Poona Statistical Account.

Deccan-I

SATARA.

109

and leaves and feast caste women. They marry their girls between
eight and twelve and their boys between twelve and twenty -five.
Among them widows marry and men practise polygamy. They
bury their dead. Their favourite gods are Jotiba, Khandoba, and
Vithoba, whose images they have in their houses. They worship
deceased ancestors and make pilgrimages to Jejuri, Pandharpur,
and Eatndgiri. They have no ascetics among them. Their priests
are village Deshasth Brdhmans whom they pay l^d. (la.) at a,
birth, 2s. (Re. 1) at a marriage, and Qd. (4 as.) at a death. The
Brd,hman suffers no degradation from conducting their ceremonies.
They keep the usual Brdhman fasts and feasts and their social
and religious customs are the same as those of the Rdmoshis of
Poena. They have a caste council and a headman called ndik or
leader. A few of them send their boys to school.

Vanja'ris, or Caravan Men, are returned as numbering 2046 and
as found over the whole district except in Javli, Koregaon, Pdtan,
and Wdi. They say they were once Lingdyats and tell the following
story of how they became followers of Khandoba. The founder of
their clan while travelling with his bullocks grew weary, took their loads
off his bullocks, and sat under a tree to rest. A Vdghya or devotee of
Khandoba passing by, advisedhim to keep that day, the sixth of Mdrga-
shirsh orNovember-December sacred toKhandoba. The Vanjdri, who
didnotwish to leave his own faith, sat silent. When he was rested he
put his hands on one of the loads, and found it so heavy that he could
not lift it. He asked the Vd,ghya how the load was so heavy. The
Vd,ghya said. Offer a sheep to Khandoba and the load will be lighter.
The Vanjdri offered a sheep, moved the load with ease, and became
a follower of Khandoba. The Sdtdra Vanjdris say they have no
subdivisions. They are dark, strong, hardworking, hospitable, and
orderly. Their, home speech is Mardthi. Their staple food is
millet, pulse, and vegetables. The men but not the women eat flesh
and at marriages flesh is forbidden even to men. Both men and
women dress like Kunbis. A considerable number of them are
husbandmen and some are village headmen. They are generally
well-to-do, and keep cattle and sheep, whose sale brings them good
profits. They do not shear their sheep as they say shearing is
Dhangar's work. The women, besides house work, help the men in
the fields. They worship the usual local and Brahmanic deities but
their house god is Khandoba. They hold the sixth of Mdrgashirsh
in November -December sacred to Khandoba, and on that day,
before eating, offer him new millet and onions. Their marriage
ceremonies do not differ from those of Kunbis. The well-to-do
marry their boys at twelve and their girls at six. They carry the
married dead to burial on a bier and the unmarried dead in a
cloth. Except the well-to-do who burn they bury their dead.
They settle social disputes at caste meetings. They do not send
their boys to school and are generally well-do-to.

Of Depressed or Impure Classes there are four with a strength
of 110,299 or 10-76 per cent of the Hindu population. The details
are :

Chapter IIH
People.

Unsettled
Tbibbs.

Edmoshis.

Var^drii.

Depressed
Classes.

[Bombay Oazetteer, .

110

DISTRICTS.

Chapter III.
People.

Defkessed

Classes.

Bhangis.

Sdtdra Dtpressid Classes, 1881.

DiVIBIOH.

Malea.

Females.

Total.

Bhangis

Dhors

M&iiga

Mh&rs

Total ...

. 847

10,610

43,381

788

10,309

44,294

1635

20,910

87,675

64,876

S3,423

110,299

Bhangis, or Nightsoil Men, are returned as numbering seventy
and as found in towns and large villages, except in Khandpur
Khatav and Man. They have no divisions. They look either like
Musalmdns or low class Hindus. The men wear the moustache
and beard and shave the head except the topknot. A Bhangi can
be known only by his basket which he carries on his head and hia
broom which he carries in his right hand. They speak both
Hindustd,ni and Mardthi. They live outside of towns in houses with
walls of mud and tiled or thatched roofs, or in straw huts. Their
dwellings are often dirty and their house goods include metal
and earthen vessels. Except a she-goat or two they keep no cattle.
When they return home from work in the morning, they bathe,
put on fresh clothes, worship their house gods, and dine after offering
food to the gods. Their staple food is millet bread, rice, vegetables,
and pulse, but they eat fish and flesh, drink liquor, smoke tobacco
and hemp, and eat opium. They make wheat cakes stuffed with
gram and molasses on Dasara in September-October and on Divdli
in October-November. On other holidays and festive occasions they
generally get sweetmeats and other dishes from their employers. The
men dress like Musalmans or Mar^thds, and the women wear the full
Maratha robe and bodice, rub their brows with redpowder, and tie
their hair in a knot behind the head. The men's ornaments are gold or
silver finger rings worth 4«. to £1 10s. (Rs. 2-15), and the women's
the lucky necklace or mangalsutra, a nose ring worth 10s, to 14s.
(Rs. 5-7), silver wristlets or gots worth about 16s. (Rs. 8), and bell-
metal toerings or jodvis worth 4|d (3 as.). Bhangis as a class are
strong and well made,' honest, orderly, and hardworking. They are
nightsoil men and scavengers and earn 10s. to £1 4s. (Rs. 5-12) a
month. They are either Hindus or MusalmAns and ai'e considered
the lowest class in the community. They are a showy people and
in the evening when their work is over dress in bright gay clothes.
They worship the usual local and Brdhmanic deities as well as
Musalm^n saints, and their family gods are Bahiroba, Devkd,i, Jandi,
Jotiba, and Narsoba, of whom they keep images in" their houses.
They believe in witchcraft soothsaying and evil spirits, allow child
and widow marriage, and practise polygamy. Their manners and
customs are the same as those of the Poena HaMlkhors.^ They bury
the dead and keep no mourning. They have a headman or mhetrya
who settles social disputes at caste meetings. They do not send
their boys to school, and are a steady people.

1 Details of HaUlkbor customs are given in the Poona Statistical Account.

Deccan.]

SiTARA.

Ill

Dhors, or Tanners, are returned as numbering 1635 and as found
over the whole district. They have no memory of coming into the
district or of any former settlement. They have no subdivisions
and claim no relationship with any other tribe. They look like
MardthAs and speak Mard,thi. They live in poor and dirty houses
and their house goods include metal, earthen, and wooden pots
and pans. Their staple food is millet, salt, oil, and chillies, and
they give dinners in honour of births marriages and deaths, 'when
dishes of meat and pulse cakes are prepared by their women. The
guests bring their own plates and take ofE none of their clothes
before eating. Liquor is sometimes served and the guests sit
singing songs the whole night. Both men and women dress like
Mard,thas, and their clothes are waistcloths, blankets, turbans,
waistcoats, robes, and bodices. Their hereditary calling is tanning
hides, and they also serve as day labourers. They worship the
usual local and Brahmanic gods and goddesses, and their favourite
gods are Jotiba, Khandoba, and Vithoba whose images they have
in their houses. They worship their deceased ancestors and
snakes, and make pilgrimages to Jejuri, Ratndgiri, and Pandharpur.
They have no ascetics or sddhus among them and their priests are
the ordinary village Brd,hmans who are paid l^d. (1 a.) at a birth,
2s. (Re. 1) at a marriage, and 6d. (4 as.) at a death. Their shadow
•is not now thought impure, and the Brdhman who conducts their
ceremonies suffers no social degradation. They keep all the usual
Hindu fasts and feasts. They worship the goddess Satvdi on the
fifth day after childbirth and distribute molasses when a child is
named. They give a feast to castewomen when a girl comes of age.
At the betrothal they present the girl with clothes and ornaments.
They marry their girls between eight and twelve and their boys
between twelve and twenty-five. They present the boy and girl
and their parents with clothes, and feast relations and friends.
Their widows marry and their men have more than one wife at the
same time. They bury their dead, spend less than £1 (Rs. 10) on
the funeral, and feast relations and friends. They have no head-
man, and ask an elder to settle caste disputes. Adultery or eating
with a man of lower caste is punished with loss of caste, but the
offender is allowed to come back on payment of a fine which .takes
the form of a caste feast. They do not send their boys to school and
are a poor people.^

Ma'ngS are returned as numbering 20,919 and as found over
the whole district. They cannot tell when or from where they
came into the district. They have no divisions. Their home speech
is Marathi, and they are dark, strong, and middle-sized. They live
outside of the village in dirty and wretched hovels and their house-
goods include earthenware wooden and metal pots, blankets, a
cot, and a couple of planks to serve as stools. Their staple food is
millet bread, vegetables, pulse, salt, chillies, and oil, and they eat the
flesh of goats, sheep, and pig, and dead cattle. Theyare excessively
fond of drink. They give mutton and pulse dinners in honour of

Chapter III
People-

Dbpebsseb

Classes,

Mors.

Details of Dhor customs are given in the Poena Statistical Account.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

112

DISTRICTS.

Chapter Ill-
People.

Depressed

Classes.

Mhdrs.

births, betrothals, marriages, deaths, and returns to caste. The food
is generally cooked by the women and eaten by the men guests
without taking off any articles of dress and each guest bringing
his dish with him. Liquor is sometimes supplied, and, after it is
drunk, the guests sit singing the whole night. The men dress like
Mardthas in a waistcloth, waistcoat, turban, and sandals or shoes;
and the women in the full Mardtha robe and bodice. They are hardy
passionate and revengeful. The Mhdrs and MAngs are hereditary
rivals each longing for the chance of ruining the other. The
Mangs are very useful and trustworthy village watchmen. They are
also scavengers, hangmen, inusicians, and songsters. They make
and sell brooms and baskets, and ropes of coir and leather. At the time
of naming their children they distribute molasses or gul and packets
of betel, and feast castewomen when a girl comes of age. At the
betrothal they present the girl with cl'othes and ornaments. They
marry their girls between eight and twelve, generally before they
come of age, and their boys between twelve and twenty-five. They
present the boy and girl and their parents with clothes, and feast
relations and castefellows. A lucky day for holding the marriage
is chosen by a holyman or sddhu of their own caste, and Brdhmans
conduct their marriages from a distance. The Mang priest or sddhu
has fifteen to twenty villages in his charge and has to keep going up
and down his parish. His presence is not necessary at the marriage
time. Widows marry and men have more than one wife at the same
time. They bury the dead spending up to £1 (Rs. 10) on the
funeral and in feasting relations and friends. They have a headman
or mehtar, whose presence is necessary at marriages and at
caste meetings. The usiial punishment which the caste inflicts on
an offender is a fine varying from £1 to £2 (Rs. 10-20). But
adultery and eating with a low caste man are punished with loss
of caste and the offender is admitted back on giving a caste feast.
Except a very few they do not send their boys to school and are a
poor people.

Mha'rs, or Village Messengers, are returned as numbering 87,675
and as found all over the district. Of all the lower classes the
Mhdrs are by far the strongest. They are divided into Mhars proper,
Murli Mhars, Gavsi Mhars, and Jogti Mhars. The Murli Mhdrs are
said to be the offspring of a Mhdr girl who was devoted to the service
of the god Khandoba; Gavsi Mhars are said to be the children of
Mhar parents born in adultery ; and Jogti Mhars are said to be the
descendants of bastard MhSrs who were devoted to the service of
the Karnatak goddess Tallamma. All the subdivisions eat together
but do not intermarry. If a Mhdr proper marries either with a
Murli or a Gavsi Mhdr he is put out of caste and is not allowed to
come back. A Gavsi Mhdr, who performs certain purifying rites,
is admitted by the Mhdrs into their caste and eats and marries with
them. In appearance the Mhdrs are well made, muscular, dark, and
hardy. Their home tongue is Mar^thi. Their houses have stone
and unburnt brick walls and thatched or tiled roofs. Their house
goods include earthen wooden and metal vessels, and they keep
cows, buffaloes, sheep, and dogs. Their staple food is millet bread.

Beccau]

SATArA. 113

salt, oilj chillies, vegetables, fish, and the Hesh of goats, sheep, fowls, Chapter III
and cattle, but not of the pig, and they smoke both tobacco and PeoBle.

hemp. They are extremely fond of drink. They are bad cooks
and have a special liking for pungent and sour dishes. They give OLAifs^K™

beef and pulse dinners in honour of births, marriages, deaths, and ,.j . .^ '

returns to caste. The food is generally cooked by the women.
The guests use plates which they bring with them and take off none
of their clothes before dining. Liquor is sometimes drunk and the
guests occasionally sit singing the whole night. The men dress in a
loincloth, waistcloth, waistcoat, Maratha turban, and sometimes 'a
blanket, and the women in a robe generally black, red, or mugi that
is orange coloured. Most men have a turban worth about
10s. (E.S. 5) and a good coat for festive occasions, and the women a
silk-bordered robe and bodice. The women do not wear false hair,
but tie their hair in a knot behind the head or plait it into a braid.
MhSrsasa classare hardworking, quiet, frugal, hospitable, a,nd honest,
but hot-tempered and dirty. In villages they serve as messengers,
carrying letters from the village to the sub-divisional head-quarters
and aid the headman or pdtil and the accountant or hulkarni in calling
meetings of villagers and performing other official duties. They are
also given presents for services they render as village servants and
are generally husbandmen and labourers. They remove dead cattle
from the village and eat their flesh giving the skin to the hereditary
or vatanddr village Mhdr. They bury the bodies of villagers or
strangers who have no relations or friends, dig graves, and carry
firewood to the burning ground receiving the grave clothes in return .
To perform their Government duties they every year choose a headman
called torn? and serve under his orders. This tardl is subordinate to
the mehtar, the general head of the Mhdrs. The Murli Mh^rs and
the Jogti Mhdrs are not included among village servants and live
by begging. A Mhdr's shadow is not now thought to defile and
they do not carry a jar round their necks to spit in. Except during
the rainy season the Mhdrs work all the year. Their busy season
is about DivdU in October -November and they rest on all holidays.
Gavsi Mhdrs worship the usual local and Brahmanic gods and
goddesses, especially Khandoba and Mahdlakshmi. The Murli
Mhdrs worship no god but Khandoba, and the Jogti Mhdrs worship
the goddess Yallamma. Many at stated times visit Pandharpur to
pay homage to Vithoba and Alandi to do honour to Jnydneshvar.
They have a religious teacher of their own class who wears a tulsi
bead necklace, and any one who wishes to ask his advice has to
present him with a waistcloth, a turban, and 8s. (Rs. 4) in cash.
They have a priest of their own caste called pandit or learned whom
they pay \^d. (1 a.) at a birth, 2s. (Re. 1) at a marriage, and \\d.
(1 o.) at a death. They keep Saturday Sunday and Tuesday and
the lunar elevenths in Ashddh or July - August and Shrdvan or
August - September as fast days. They believe in spirits, and hold
that persons dying of an accident or with unfulfilled wishes turn
into spirits and haunt the living. They enter men women children
and cattle, and leave only when what they ask for is given them.
They have no suCh distinction as outdoor and house spirits. Mhdrs
have no midwife, any old woman in the house helps the mother.
B 1282—15

[Bombay Gazetteer,
114 DISTRICTS.

Chapter III. The navel cord and after -birth are buried in a pit in the lying-in room
People. ^^^ the mother and child are bathed at the pit every day. On the third

day after the birth comes the tikondi or third day ceremony when five
^jSS^ married women are feasted. On the fifth day comes the pdnchvi or fifth
MMrs ' ^^y ceremony when a large earthen jar is set near the house door and

filled with water by as many elderly women as the child's father can
afford to feast. A silver or copper image of the goddess Satvdi is
placed in a winnowing fan and before it are laid turmeric and red-
powder and a cocoanut. The mother with her child in her arms makes
a low bow before it and a feast is held when rice and bread are served.
On the twelfth day the hdrsi or twelfth day ceremony is performed.
In the morning the house is cowdunged and the mother and child
are bathed. In the afternoon, when the female guests have come,
the child is laid in the cradle by its mother and named and the
mother's lap is filled with rice grains or pulse. Boiled pulse and
betel are handed round and the guests retire. At any time between
when the child is five years old and of age both on boys and on
girls the ear-blowing or Tcarnashrd/Dni is performed. The ear-
blowing generally takes place on the eleventh of a Hindu month.
After worshipping bis gods the Mhdr priest, if the child is a boy
takes him on his right thigh and if a girl on his left, and whispers a
verse or mantra in the right ear. The priest now becomes the
child's godfather. Mh^rs fix no limit of age for the marriage either
of their boys or of their girls. It depends on the parents' circum-
stances. If the parents are well-to-do the children are married at an
early age ; if the parents are poor the sons remain unmarried until they
are thirty and the daughters till they are sixteen. At the betrothal the
boy'^ parents present the girl with clothes and ornaments, put sugar
in her mouth, and a rupee on her brow. The boy is presented with
a turban and they retire after consulting the village priest or joshi
as to the lucky day for holding the marriage. They make marriage
halls and plant an unibar Ficus glomerata post, or muhurtmedh
to which they tie an axe or wheat bread and rub it with turmeric.
Friends and kinsfolk are treated to a dinner at the houses of both
the boy and the girl. Three or four days before the marriage comes
the turmeric rubbing when the boy is rubbed with turmeric, and the
boy's kinswomen with music take the rest to the girl's. The girl
is rubbed with turmeric and presented with a bodice, robe, and
ornaments. On the marriage day, a couple of hours before the
appointed time, the boy is dressed in new clothes and a marriage
ornament or hashing is tied to his brow. He is seated on a horse and
his sister if a child is seated behind him ; if she is a grown girl she
walks behind the horse with a waterpot in her hand covered with a
bunch of maingo leaves and a cocoanut. With them go his male
and female relations, friends, and music. He goes to the temple
of the village MAruti where he is received by the girl's parents and
a few near relations, and is presented with a new turban and such
otherclothes as the girl's father can afford whotakeshimand his friends
with him to his house. On the way near the house a cocoanut and
a piece of bread are waved round the boy's face and thrown away.
When he reaches the girl's, the boy and girl are made to stand
facing each other and a cloth is held between them while the priest

Deccan]

satAra.

115

repeats verses. At the lucky moment the cloth is pulled on one
side and the priest and guests throw rice grains over the pair's head
and clap their hands. The boy and girl put flower garlands round
one another's necks and the male guests are presented with betel
and the women with turmeric and saffron. The remaining parts
of their marriage ceremony, including feasts on both sides, differ
little from those of the Mardthas. They allow their widows to
marry, the ceremony always taking place at night and in a
lonely place. It begins by the widow worshipping two jars filled
with water. Both the village priest and a Pandit of their own
caste officiate. Her new husband presents the widow with a new
robe and after a short ceremony they are husband and wife.
They bury their dead, holding no ceremony over unmarried persons
and children under two. When a married man dies his body is
washed and the chief mourner pours a little water into his mouth.
The body is then rolled in a piece of cloth or blanket and carried
to the burial ground either on a bamboo bier or in a sling. A
grave is dug and the body is laid in it, and the chief mourner
throws a handful of earth over the body and the rest follow. Then
the grave is filled, the chief mourner walks thrice round it with an
earthen waterpot filled with water on his shoulders in which a hole
is pierced at each round and at the end of the three rounds dashes
the pot on the ground and cries aloud. The mourners then return to
their houses. The chief mourner and his family mourn ten days.
On the third day the grave is levelled, and on the twelfth and
thirteenth days, cakes and rice balls are offered to the spirit of the
dead. If a pure or a Gravsi Mhdr dines or commits adultery with a
Mang or a Bhangi, he is put out of caste and is not allowed back unless
he shows that he was ignorant of the caste of the person with whom
he associated. They are a poor people and though some of them
have the wish to send their boys to school, they cannot, as their
boys are not allowed to sit side by side with middle and upper class
Hindus,

Beggars include thirteen classes with a strength of 9485 or 0'92
per cent of the Hindu population. The details are :

Sdtdra Beggars, 1881.

Division.

Males

Fe-
males.

Total.

DiTISION.

Males.

Fe-
males.

Total.

Bh&ts

Bhuty&s

Chitrakathis ...

Gondhlis

Gop&ls

Goa&via

Jangams

Joshia

229

476

1462

1911

480

218

669

1196

1885

433

447

1036

2647

3796

918

Kolhitia

M&nbhavs

Tirmalie

UchUs

Vaidus

Vasudevs

Total ...

73
60
26
60
9
30

58
32
22
98

"21

131

148

4876

4610

9485

Bha'ts, or Bards, are returned as numbering 447 and as found
over the whole district except in Javli and Pdtan. They have no
divisions. The men wear the topknot, moustache, and whiskers, and
some let their beards grow. They speak both Hindustani and
Mardthi, and live in middle class houses, one or two storeys high with
walls of brick and stone and tiled roofs. They keep cattle but not
servants, and their house goods include metal and earthen pots and

Chapter III
People.

Depeessbd
Classes.

Mlidrs,

Beggars.

Bhdti.

[Bombay Gazetteer,
116 DISTRICTS.

Chapter III, pans. Their staple food is millet, rice, pulse^ and buttermilk. They

p ~jg eat fish and flesh, but they are not allowed to use liquor. The men

dress like Marathfe in a waistcloth, coat^ turban, and shoes ; and the

Begoaks. women in a petticoat and a bodice with a back. They pass a robe round

Bhdts. the waist over the petticoat and draw one end over the head. The

men's ornaments are an earring or bhikbdli and finger rings. The

women's ornaments are a gold nosering, the lucky necklace or

m,angalsutra, silver wristlets or gots, and bellmetal toe-rings or

jodvis together worth £3 to £4 (Rs.30-40). They are an intelligent

and good-looking class. They are thrifty, sober, and hospitable.

They have a minute knowledge of their patrons' family trees and

compose and repeat poems with much • spirit and gesture. The

Rdjas of Satara and many of the nobility had Bhats in their service,

who, since the fall of the chiefship have been forced to take to other

means of livelihood. They are beggars and day labourers and

barter old clothes for brass and copper pots which they buy from

coppersmiths. They worship all Hindu gods and goddesses and

keep the regular fasts and feasts. Their family gods are Balaji and

Krishna^ and their family priests are the village Brahmans. Their

religious head is an ascetic or hairdgi of the Vaishnav sect who

whispers a sacred verse into the candidate's ear at the time of the

initiation. Except the worship with redpowder and flowers

of a twig of the jujube or hor tree in the mother's room on

the fifth day after a birth, and the setting of a lighted lamp

before the twig and allowing it to burn the whole night,

they have no fifth day worship. On the twelfth day they feast

married women in some garden or grove near their house on pulse,

rice, and vegetables and return home. In the evening they fill the

mother's lap with grain, cradle the child, and name it singing songs.

The female guests retire with betel and boiled gram. The chief

points in which their marriage customs differ from those of Mard,thas

are: They have no marriage altar in the bride's booth, they

bring no clay jars from the potter's; the boy does not visit any

temple on his way to the girl's ; and they hold no cloth or

antarpdt between the boy and girl at the time of marrying them.

Unlike Marathas they drive a five or six feet long teakwood pole

into the ground in the centre of the booth, and after the couple

have walked seven times round the pole the marriage is over.

They burn their dead and mourn ten days. On the tenth the chief

mourner shaves his moustache, giving the priest 2s. to 4s. (Rs. 1-2).

On the twelfth the caste is given a dinner in honour of the dead.

They have a headman called chaudhari who settles all social disputes

at caste meetings. The old men among them are held in great

reverence and are appealed to in social disputes. They send their

boys to school, and excepting a few who hold grant lands are

generally badly off.

Bladyds. Bhutya's, Or Spiritmen, are returned as numbering fifty-eight and

as found only in Sdtd,ra. They have no subdivisions, and look
and speak like Mar^thds from whom they do not differ in house
food or dress. Except by their long and filthy begging coat and
necklaces of cowrie shells they ■cannot be known from Mard,thas.
-They are a quiet thrifty and orderly people, and their hereditary

Seccau ]

sAtara.

117

calling is begging from door to door in tte name of the goddess
Bhavdni. They worship all Kunbi gods and goddesses, and keep
the regular fasts and festivals. Their priests are village Brdhmans
and their spiritual heads are GosAvis. Their customs from birth
to death are the same as those of Kunbis. They settle social
disputes at caste meetings, send their boys to school, and though
poor are thrifty and free from debt.

Chitrakathis, or Picture Showmenj are returned as numbering
ninety-eight and as found only in Sditdra, Karad, and Tdsgaon.
They say they are from Tasgaon and came to the district about
seventy-five years ago as beggars. They claim to be Marathd,s
and are divided into Bagdis, Gondhlis, Joshis, and Vasudevs who
eat together and intermarry. They resemble Mar^thds in appearance,
speech, house, food, and dress, and are quiet hardworking and
hospitable. They show pictures of heroes and gods and repeat
stories from the Purans while showing them, and also sing and beg.
They worship all the Kunbi gods and goddesses, and keep their fasts
and festivals, and their family gods are Ambdbhavdni of Tuljapur,
Jotiba of Ratndgiri, Khandoba of Pali, and Lakshmi of Kolhapur.
Their priests are ordinary village Brahmans whom they greatly
respect, and their customs from birth to death are the same as those
of Kunbis. They have no headman and settle their social disputes
at caste meetings. A few of them send their boys to school. They
are a poor people.

Goudhlis, or Gondhal Dancers, are returned as numbering 1035
and as found over the whole district. They have no divisions and
in appearance, speech, house, food, and dress are the same as
Kunbis. They are worshippers of the goddess Ambabai in whose
honour they sing and dance. Mard,tha Hindus, after some joyful
event in the family such as a birth or a marriage, usually perform the
gondhal dance. When a gondhal is to be performed, the dancers
are feasted during the day, and dance at night. A high wooden
stool is set in the middle of a room and a handful or two of wheat
is laid on it. On the wheat is set a copper cup with betel leaves in
it, and, over the leaves, a half cocoa-kernel holding some rice, a
betelnut, and a copper coin. Near the stool is set an image of the
goddess AmbAbAi and a lighted lamp. In front of the stool stand
the three or four dancers with a drum, a one-stringed fiddle called
tuntune, two metal cups, and a Kghted torch. The head dancer
dresses in a long robe and garlands of cowrie shells and stands in
front of the others, lays sandal flowers and food before the lighted
torch and takes the torch up, dances with the torch in his hands for
a time, sings, and at intervals makes a fool of the torch-bearer.
The dance lasts about an honr, and, after waving a lighted lamp or
drti in front of the goddess and throwing copper and silver coins in
the plate holding the lamp the dance is over. The dancers are
paid Is. to 2|s. (Rs.^-lj) and are sometimes given a turban. In
religion and customs Gondhlis do not differ from Kunbis, hold caste
councils, send their boys to school, and are well-to-do,

Gopa'lS,^ or Cowherds, are returned as numbering seventeen, and

1 Details of Martitha ' GopAl customs are given in the Ahmadnagar Statistical
Account,

Chapter III
People.

Beggars.

Ohitrakathis.

Qondhlis.

Gopdls,

[Bombay Gazetteer,

118

DISTEIOTS.

Chapter III.
People.

Beggabs.

Gosdns.

Jangams.

as found only in Jdvli and Sat^ra. They singj dance, and wrestle.
They are wandering beggars and have no settled home. They
wander in small hands visiting sacred places. They keep moving
during the fair season and halt in the rains. They are poor.

Gosa'vis, or Passion Lords, are ' returned as numbering
2647 and as found over the whole district. They claim descent
from the sage Kapil but are recruited from all middle and upper
class Hindus. They are divided into Bair^gis, Davris, Kanphatyds,
and Menjogis, and, except that the men let the hair and
beard grow long or clean shave the head and face and wear,
red ochre jclothes, they look either like Kunbis or Mhdrs.
Their home tongue is Hindustani, and they eat from all Hindus
except the depressed or impure tribes. They claim to be
vegetarians, eating no flesh and drinking no liquor. But they eat
opium and smoke hemp. They rub themselves with ashes and
dress in ochre clothes. They beg from door to door and some sing
and play on a lyre while begging. Formerly Gosavis took service
as soldiers and had a good name for bravery and loyalty. In 1789
Mahadji Sindia enlisted large numbers of these people, formed
them into a distinct body, and placed them under the command of
Himat Bahadur who was both their captain and religious teacher.
Gosavis seem inclined to give up begging and take to husbandry
and to service as constables and messengers. Though they ought
to remain single, some of them marry. They bury their dead.
They worship all the Hindu gods and goddesses, but their chief god
is Mahddev. They travel from place to place, visiting sacred spots,
and seldom stay many days in one place. When a man wishes to
become a Gosdvi, he fasts the day before the initiation. Next morning
a barber shaves his whole head, bathes him, and smears his whole
body with ashes. His religious teacher or guru whispers a sacred
verse into his ears and gives him molasses to sweeten his mouth
and salt that he may prove true to his faith. He is clothed in a red
ochre dress and molasses are handed among guests, neighbours,
and acquaintances as a sign of joy. A feast is held and the new
disciple cooks and serves some dishes. After dinner the sacrificial
fire or bijhom is lit and the novicB is a complete Gosdvi. They are
bound together by a strong fellow-feeling and are poor.

Jangams, or Lingdyat Priests, are returned as numbering 3796
and as found over the whole district. They are the priests of
Lingay9,ts and worshippers of Shiv. Round their necks they
wear a copper or silver casket with an emblem of Shiv. Besides
acting as priests they go begging from vUlage to village and house
to house dressed in ochre clothes and carrying a conch shell or a
drum. When their head Jangam, who is called svdmi or lord, dies
he is succeeded by some of his numerous disciples. He lives in a
monastery in Kardd. He visits his followers once every four or five
years, fining and levying contributions. His disciples or agents also
go about gathering his dues or haks. Jangams eat no flesh. When
they dine they set the plate on a three-legged stool and eat the
whole food served without leaving a particle, and afterwards wash the
plate with water and drink the water. Jangams do not marry but are

Deccan.]

SATARA.

119

said to be allowed to visit certain prostitutes who are chosen by
the monastery. They bury their dead and raise a tomb over the
grave with an inscription and an emblem of Shiv.

Josllis, or Astrologers, are returned as numbering 918 and
found over the whole district. They do not differ from

Mardtha Kunbis in appearance, speech, house, food, or dress.
Their begging dress is a rather long white coat, waistcloth,
shouldercloth, shoes or sandals, and generally a loose white turban.
They are quiet, patient, and orderly. While telling fortunes, they
look on the lines of the palm, and speak in tones so serious, solemn,
and respectful that the listener is greatly impressed. They are astrolo-
gers, fortune tellers, and beggars, and go singing and beating a small
drum or huduk. They worship all Mardtha-Kunbi gods and god-
desses and keep the same fasts and feasts. They believe in witch-
craft and spirits. Their priests are village Brdhmans, and their
customs from birth to death are the same as those of Maratha-Kunbis.
They hold caste councils and are a poor people.

Kolha'tiS, or Tumblers, are returned as numbgring 131 and as
found over the whole district except in Kardd, Khatav, Koregaon,
and Man. They are a slight, active, and intelligent people with fair
skins, dark eyes, and short black hair. They speak a mixture of
Gujarati Mar^thi and Hindustani and have no home, moving from
place to place generally in gangs of twenty to twenty-five, carrying
small mat huts and cots on the back of donkeys or ponies or on their
own heads. They pass the rains in some dry part of the country.
They eat the flesh of almost every animal and are excessively fond
of drink. The men wear a waistcloth, waistcoat, and turban, and
draw a sheet or chddar over their body. They wear rings in their
ears and brass armlets. The women wear a robe and bodice and
the same ornaments as ordinary Mard,tha-Kunbis. Both men and
women are tumblers and beggars, and some of the women in addi-
tion are prostitutes. They steal and kidnap high caste girls to
bring them up as prostitutes and are under the eye of the police.
They also make and sell small buffalo horn pulleys, mattresses, combs,
and dolls. Any one working for hire is put out of caste, but is let
back again on paying a fine varying from a handful of betel leaves
to £1 (Rs. 10). They worship the usual local and Brdhmanic gods
andgoddesses, buttheir chief deities are Vir and the cholera goddess
Mari. They hold the cow sacred. Their priests are village BrAh-
mans, and they use charms and believe in witchcraft. They also
worship Musalmd.n saints. They feast the caste when a child is
born and at marriages walk in procession like other Hindus and
follow Hindu customs. They feast their castefellows on the
thirteenth day after a death. On coming of age, a Kolhdti girl is
called to choose between marriage and prostitution. If she chooses
marriage, she is closely looked after ; if she prefers to be a prostitute
her parents call a caste meeting, feast them, and declare that
their daughter is a prostitute. The children of unmarried girls
are considered outcaste, but they eat and live with their mothers and
are supported by them. They have a headman called ndik or leader
whose duty is to remain in camp and look after the welfare of the

Chapter Illl
People.

BEGQAR3.

Joshis.

Kolhdtis.

[Bombay Gazetteer
120 DISTEICTS.

Chapter III. community. All Kolhati women, wlietlier married or single, are

People, watched by the police. Thourgli poor they are a contented class.

' They do not send their boys to school and take to no new pursuits.

MdnbUv's. Ma'nbha'vs,! or Respectables, are returned as_ numbering eighty,

two and as found over the whole district except in Jdrli, Khd.nd,pur,
Khat^T, MAn, and Pdtan. They say that some five hundred years ago
the Manbhavs and the class called Gorjis formed one brotherhood.
At that time a certain dharmpardyan or ascetic had two disciples
named Divd,kar and Munindra. Munindra took to eating flesh and
Bhattdcharya a disciple of Divdikar quarrelled and separated ; a
part of the brotherhood followed Bhatt^ohdrya. He ordered his
followers to change their ochre or hhagva robes to black, and called
them mahdnubhdvs or men of high mind which use has worn to
Mdnbhavs. The sect of ManbhAvs includes a Bair^gi or religious
and celibate, and a married householding or Grharvasi division.^
Celibate Manbhd,vs are both monks and nuns. Married Mdnbhd,vs
are divided into those who do not keep caste distinctions, and
Bhole or nominal Manbhd,vs who accept the principles of the order
so far as they do not interfere with the rules of their caste. They
are recruited from all Hindus except the depressed classes. Among
religious or celibate Manbhavs the monks shave the whole head and
face not even allowing the moustache to grow, and the nuns also
have their heads shaved by a male barber. Their home tongue
is Marathi and they live either in monasteries or wander in bands
from place to place. They eat no flesh and drink no water in
presence of an idol. Both men and women wear black clothes.
The monk's dress is a short waistcloth a headscarf and a shoulder-
cloth, and the nun's a robe the end of which they do not pass back
between the feet and no bodice. The monks also do not pass the
end of their waistcloth back between the feet and both monks
and nuns wear earrings and necklaces of tulsi beads because the
plant is sacred to their god Krishna, The monks sometimes wear
silver armlets and finger rings. They are a quiet thrifty and orderly
people. To take no life is one of their chief rules. They are care-
ful to aivoid a place where a murder has been committed and will not
eat food for three days in any place where an accidental or a violent
death has happened. They generally wander in bands visiting sacred
places, receiving into their order grown men and women and children
devoted to the Manbhav life by their parents, making converts, and
begging. Of late many have given up begging and have settled as
traders and husbandmen. Their gods are Dattdtreya and Krishna
whose shrines are at Mdhur in the Nizdm's country. Though they
reject all Brahmanic and non-Brahmanic gods they keep images of
Dattatreya and Krishna in their monasteries and celebrate feasts
on the anniversaries of Dattatreya and Krishna. They have no
images of saints and their hatred for all other Brdhmanical goda
has made them unpopular among Brdhmans, though they are
respected by lower class Hindus. They profess not to believe in

' Contributed by Edo Bahadur N. G. DeshpAnde, Dist, Depy, Collr. Ahmadnagar.
" Details of M&ahh&v customs are given in the Ahmadnagar Statistical Account.

Deccan]

sAtaea.

121

ghosts or spirits. They say that the ailments which others suppose
to be caused by spirits they hold to be bodily sicknesses or
plagues sent by God to punish secret sins in this or in a former
life. Both men and women study the revered Bhagvat Gita or
Krishna scripture, and the learned among them whether men or
women are termed Pandits. These Pandits preach and expound
separately to the members who are of their own sex. They have
only one Mahant or pontiff whose seat is at Ridhpur in Ber^r,
and who is called the K^ranjkar Mahant. The reward which
stirs the best of them to strict holy living is the hope of a seat
near the throne of God. The sect is recruited from young children
who have been devoted by their parents, or have no one to care for
them, or have themselves renounced the world and entered the
monastery. The nuns either begin as children or late in life :
young women seldom join. The monks and the nuns never live
together, and the nuns never serve the monks however high their
position-may be. The nuns and the monks travel separately. If
a band of nuns meets a band of monks and travels with them they
put up at a great distance, generally in a separate village. The
women hold a separate service for themselves, visiting the temple
at noon, or other fixed hours, when no men are allowed to attend.
Women and men never hold a joint service. On her admission as a
sister a woman, whether she is a Brahman or a low caste woman by
birth, is a disciple and pupil of the nun who whispers the sacred verse
or guru mantra into her ear, and continues her follower so long
as the teacher lives. Not only the Mahant or head of the monastery
can impart the teacher's verse or guru mantra, any one who has leave
can teach it. The nuns call their religious teacher di guru or Mother
Teacher and the other nuns sisters. Their chief religious house is at
Ridhpur in Berd.r. The members bothof a monastery and of a nunnery
are divided into five grades. The five grades of Mdnbhav monks are
the head or mahant, the teacher or pandit, the manager or kdrbhdri
who provides the inmates with food, the food-server or pdlehar, and
the disciples or chelds. The five grades of Mdnbhdv nuns are, the
head or hidlcar di the teacher called either pandit or vamdeskar
di, the manager or kothi di, the young women's guardian or lasurhar
di, and the food divider or bhojan di. Mdnbhd,v nuns attend
the funerals both of monks and of nuns. At a monk's funeral they
walk far behind. At a nun's funeral men dig the grave and withdraw*
The body is carried to the grave by nuns seated in a palanquin
the monks walking at a distance behind. When they reach the grave
the nuns take the body out of the palanquin, strip it of its clothes
except a waistcloth, lay it in the grave, cover it with earth and walk
away. When the nuns retire the monks who followed at a distance
come and fill the grave. When a Mahant or head of a religioua
house dies his body is washed, it is seated on a raised seat,
and is worshipped by the monks. It is then tied to a palanquin
in a sitting position. The palanquin is carried by the disciples
on their shoulders to a place chosen for the occasion. As they
walk they ceaselessly repeat the names of Krishna and Dattatreya
from the moment of the death till the body is buried. Mdnbhdvs
do not use ordinary burial grounds. They choose a clean spot,
B 1282—16

Chapter III

People.

Beggars,
MdnWidvs,

[Bombay Gazetteer,

122

DISTRICTS.

Chapter HI. ^nd a grave is dug lengthwise, nortli and sauth, and spread
People. with salt. The body is taken out of the palanquin, stripped of its

Beggabs. clothes, and a loincloth of buff silk is tied round the loins, and it

Mdnbhdvs ^^ ^^^^ ^^ *^® grave with its head to the north and its feet to the

south. It is laid on its left side so as to face the east and a cocoanut
is broken on the head. A sash or shela, or other valuable cloth is
spread over the body, and salt is spread on the sash and earth.
After the earth has been spread on the salt each of the mourners lays
a cocoanut and a betel packet over it and the grave is filled and the
ground levelled so as to leave no trace of the burial. No tomb is
ever raised over a Mdnbhdv. For ten days after the death the
members of the religious house are fed. After the death of the
head of a monastery such of his disciples as have a narae for holy
conduct or learning offer themselves as candidates for the post.
They go to Paithan in the north-east of Ahmadnagar where they
have to pass an examination before learned Pandits, and whoever
the learned pronounce best qualified is taken to the Md,nbhdv
monastery in Paithan and is there seated on a raised seat, worship-s
ped, and declared Mahant. Coooanuts, betel, and sweetmeats
are handed round and, on the following day, a feast is held and dry
food is offered to such as do not eat from their hands. The newly
installed Mahant, before assuming his powers, visits the temple of
Pdnchaleshvar in the Nizdm's country, and, after worshipping
Dattdtreya, gives a feast to the Mdnbhdvs, dry food to such as do
not eat from his hands, and alms to beggars. The Mahant inquires
into and punishes offences committed bythe monks, and the Gurumother
inquires into and punishes offences committed by the nuns. When a
dispute arises which she cannot settle the Guru mother takes the
parties before the Mahant. The head nun or Gurumother keeps a strict
watch over the sisters and any monk or nun who commits adultery
is put out of the house. Any one who dislikes these strict rules
may marry and become a householder or Gharvdsi Mdnbhav.

Tirmalis. Tirmalis, or Bullock Showmen, are returned as numbering forty-

eight and as found in Khd,ndpur, Kardd, Koregaon, and Satdra,
They have no subdivisions and their home tongue is Telugu. They
are strong and well made and live in middle class houses. They eat
fish and flesh and drink a little liquor. They dress like Maratha
Kunbis, and are clean, neat, and orderly. Their hereditary calling
is begging, but some are petty traders, dealing in sacred threads,
rudrdksh and tulsi bead necklaces, metal boxes, and glass beads,
They worship all Maratha Kunbi gods and goddesses and keep the
regular fasts and festivals. Their priests are either Telang or Maratha
Brahmans, and they believe in witchcraft and spirits. They allow
child and widow marriage and polygamy but not polyandry. They
burn their dead and mourn ten days. They hold caste councils
and settle social disputes at caste meetings. They send their boys
to school until they learn to read and write, and are thrifty and
steady.

Uchlds. Uchla's, or Pickpockets literally Lifters, are returned as number-

ing 148 and as found in Karad, Koregaon, S^tara, and VAIya.
They have no divisions and their home speech is Telugu. They live

Deccan.]

Si-TARA.

128

either in ordinary middle class houses or in straw huts with thatched
roofs. Except a few metal and earthen vessels their houses contain
little furniture. Most of them keep cattle. They eat fish and flesh
and drink liquor. They are petty thieves and pickpockets and are
not helped ia their calling by their wires. They visit local fairs
to carry on their trade. Of late a few have taken to tillage
and day-labour. They wipe out the sin of theft by occasional
grants of bread to the poor. Their family deities are Ambabai
of Tuljapur in the Nizam's country, Bahiroba of Kar^d in Sdtara^,
Khandoba of Jejurij and Yallamma in the Karndtak. They have
a priest of their own caste whom they ask to conduct their
marriage and other ceremonies. They have a headman called ndilc
who settles their social disputes. A few of them send their boys to
school till they are twelve, and they are generally a steady class.^

Vaidu?, or Drug Hawkers, are returned as numbering nine
and as found only in KarJld. They appear to have come into the
district from the Karnitak, but when they came is not known.
They are dark, hardy, m.uscular, and robust, and are hospitable
orderly and hardworking, but extremely dirty and unsettled. The
men wear long moustaches and beards and shave the head. Their
home tongue is Telugu, but with others they speak a corrupt
Marathi. They generally camp outside of towns and villages in
cloth or mat tents which they carry on donkeys. When they go
drug-hawking, they sling across their shoulder a bamboo pole hung
with one or two bags containing healing roots, herbs, hides, and
poisons. They are ready to heal any disease from a cold to a fever,
giving some certain cure from the bag. They also beg and are
given both grain and cooked food. They eat almost any flesh that
comes to them including frogs, rats, and serpents. When nothing
special comes in their way their ordinary food is a pittance of bread
and vegetables. The men wear a tattered turban, a loincloth,
and occasionally a waistcloth. The women wear a robe and sometimes
a bodice. After childbirth the mother is held impure for nine days.
During this time she does not keep her room, but on the very day
the child is bom goes about as though nothing had happened.
Except for choosing a lucky day for the marriage of their children
they never ask the help of a Brdhman. They pay him five betel
packets and five coppers. When the boy and girl are married they
feast their caste with flesh and liquor. They bury their dead and
hold the mourners impure for three days. They allow child and
widow marriage and polygamy but not polyandry. Their chief
deities are Khandoba, Vyankoba, and Yallamma, but they worship
all other local and Br^hmanic gods. They fast on Tuesdays in
honour of Yallamma and on Saturdays in honour of Vyankoba.
They settle social disputes at caste meetings and refer difficult ques-
tions to their priest or guru, a Jangam whose head-quarters are
in the Karn^tak. The teacher gathers a three-yearly contribution

Chapter III
People.

Beoqabs.
Uchlds,

Vaidus,

' Details of Uchla customs are given iu the Foona Statistical Accouat.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

124

DISTRICTS.

Chapter III.
People.

Beggabs.
Ydsudevs.

MUSALMANS.

of 2s. 6(Z. (Rs. 1^) from each family. They do not send their boya
to school, and their calling and condition are steady.

Va'sudevs are returned as numbering fifty-one and a.s found in
Kbatdv, Satdra, Tdsgaon, Yai, and VAlva. They have no divisions
and lookj speak, eat, and dress like Mard,tha Kunbis. They are
wandering beggars going in small bands from place to place. Their
begging dress is a long hat or crown adorned with peacock
feathers, a long coat having numerous folds, and trousers.
They carry in their hands two metal cups and play upon a flute.
They are given grain, money, and old clothes. They worship all the
Maratha-Kunbi gods and goddesses, and their priests are village
Brahman s. Their family gods are Bahiroba, Khandoba, Mahadev,
and Vithoba. Their religious teachers are Grosavis and they believe
in witchcraft and spirits. Their customs are the same as those of
Mar atha- Kunbis, they hold caste councils, do not send their boys
to school or take to any new occupation, and are a falling people.

Musalma'ns are returned as numbering 36,712 or 3"45 per cent
of the population. They include thirty classes of whom nine
intermarry and form the main body of the regular Musalmdns, and
twenty-one form distinct communities. The classes who intermarry
and form the main body of Musalmdns may be arranged into two
groups, one including the four leading Musalmd,n classes of Moghals,
Pathdns, Shaikhs, and Syeds, the other including five classes Atars
or perfumers, KaMigars or tinsmiths^ Mah^wats or elephant-drivers,
Manyd,rs or bangle-sellers, and Nalbands or farriers. Of the twenty-
one separate communities who marry among themselves four are of
outside and seventeen are of local origin. The four of outside origin
are Bohoras and Mehmdns from Cutch and Gujardt, Mukris and
Gdikasabs from Maisur, the first three being traders and the fourth
craftsmen. Of the seventeen local classes two Bdgb^ns or fruiterers
and Tambolis or betel-sellers are shopkeepers j ten Dhavads or
iron-smelters, Dhondphodd,s or Takards stone-masons, Gavandis or
bricklayers, Jharas or dust-sifters, Bakar Kasdbs or mutton -butchers,
Momins or weavers, Patvegars or silk-tassel twisters, Pinjdris or
cotton-teasers, Rang^ris or dyers, and Sikalgars or armourers, are
craftsmen; three classes, Dhobis or washermen, Hajams or barbers,
Pakhd.lis or watermen are servants ; and two Nagarjis or kettle-
drum-beaters and Gdrudis or jugglers, are players.

Of the four leading classes Moghals, Pathans, Shaikhs, and Syeds,
the Moghals are a very small body and the other three include
large numbers and are found in all sub-divisions of the district.
Though in origin most of them are chiefly local Hindus who on
embracing IsMm took the name Shaikh or Pathd,n from the religions
or military leader under whom they were converted, almost all
claim and probably most of them have some strain of foreign or
Upper Indian blood. The chief foreign elements were the traders,
especially horse dealers, the religious leaders, and above all the
mercenary and military adventurers, who from the beginning of
Musalmdn power in India found their way to the courts of the
Deccan Hindu kings. After the conquest of the Deccan by
Ald,-ud-din Khilji (1294) and under the Bahmani (1347-1490), and

Deccan.]

SlTARA.

125

Bii^pur (1490-1686) kings, there were steady additions of foreign
immigrants. This continued probably on a greater scale under
Aurangzeb (1658-1707).

Except that the men wear the beard, the local converts differ
little in look from local Hindus and, except the Bohor^s and
Mehmans who speak Gujarati and Outchi at home, almost all Sdtdra
Musalmdns speak Hindustani with more or less mixture of Mardthi
words with themselves and Mardthi with others. Among the classes
of foreign origin, and to a less extent among the main body of
Musalmd,ns, the men have sharper and more marked features, fairer
skins, and lighter eyes than the corresponding Hindu classies. The
women show fewer traces of non-local origin and in many cases can
hardly be distinguished from Hindu women except that they do not
mark their brows with vermilion or pass the end of the robe back
between the feet. Some well-to-do Musalmdns in the town of
Sdtdra live in two-storeyed houses with stone and cement walls and
tiled roofs, and surrounded by a yard. The bulk of the Musalmd,h
houses, many of which have a front or back enclosure surrounded
by a stone wall four or five feet high, are like tile-roofed cottages
built with rough stone and mud and smeared with cowdung. The
rich houses have generally four or five rooms, the front room being
used as the ddlan or men's room with a few mats, carpets, and
cushions ; the middle rooms are allotted as bedrooms one of which
is a women's sitting-room and store-rooms, and the last room forms
the kitchen with a good store of metal vessels. The poor houses or
huts have two or three rooms with a cot or two, a few mats, some
quilts and coarse country blankets, and cooking and drinking
vessels, a few of metal and the rest of clay. Village houses are built
in much the same style as poor town houses, the front room being
the biggest, is used as a stable for cattle. As a rule the Sdtdra
Musalmdns keep no servants. The village houses have no wells
and the women fetch water from the village pond. Both town and
village Musalmdns own cattle and sheep and goats.

Town MQsalmd,ns take two meals a day, breakfast about nine on
millet or wheat bread, pulse, mutton, and vegetables, and supper at
seven or eight in the evening of boiled rice mutton and pulse if
well-to-do, and bread and pulse with pounded chillies or chatni if
poor. Village Musalmd,ns and some rich town Musalmd,ns have
three meals a day, the villagers taking a cold breakfast about
seven before going to their fields, a midday meal in the field, and
a supper on reaching home in the evening. The rich add to the -
usual two meals a cup of tea or milk with bread in the morning
immediately after rising. The staple food of villagers is millet
bread, pulse, and vegetables j a few rich villagers eat mutton daily
and almost all manage to get mutton on the Bakar Id festival.
Except a few fresh settlers as Bohords and Mehmans, who generally
eat beef, the bulk of the local Musalmdns prefer mutton to beef,
and some communities will on no occasion touch beef. Buffalo
beef is eschewed by all, and fowls, eggs, and fish are eaten without
any objection when they can afford them. The trading classes as
a rule use coffee and tea every day, and husbandmen drink milk
with bread every morning. The Sd,tdra Musalmdns drink both

Chapter III
People.

MusalmIns.

[Bombay Gazetteer^.

126

DISTRICTS.

Chapter III.
People.

MusalmIns,

European and country wineS) smoke hemp-floWer or ganja; drink
hemp-water or hhdng, and eat opium, tobacco smoking chewing and
snuffing being common among all classes. Their special dishes are
the same as those of PoOna and Ahmaduagar Musalmdns.

Except the members of the four leading classes and the Bohoraa
and Mehmdns who dress in loose trousers, a waistcoat, a shirt and a
Musalmdn-shaped turban, almost all S^tdra Musalmdn men dress in
Hindu style. The men wear indoors a headscarf, a waistcoat, and
a waist or loincloth ; out of doors on all occasions the rich and on
festive occasions the middle class and poor wear a twisted turban
or a loose Mardtha turban, a coat, a pair of trousers, and shoes.
Most husbandmen while indoors dress in a dirty napkin used as a
loincloth and on going out draw a course country blanket over their
shoulders. The daily dress of town Musalmdns is of cotton, but they
have a silk dress for special occasions. Indoors almost all the
women wear the long Mardtha robe and bodice. The chief
exceptions are the Bohora women who dress in a petticoat, a backless
bodice and a headscarf, and the Mehmdn women who wear a shirt
reaching to the knees and loose trousers. Except the Bohord,s who
wear a large cloak that covers the whole face and figure, they have
no special outdoor dress. About thirty per cent of the middle
class Musalmdns of Sdtdra keep the zendna or seclusion system, while
others appear in public with the same dress they wear at home.
Every married woman has a suit of silk presented by her husband
at the time of her marriage, which generally lasts during the whole
of her life. Almost all Musalm^n women begin married life with a
number of gold and silver ornaments in proportion to the means of
her husband and parents, who, as a rule, have to present their
daughters with a gold nosering, a set of gold earrings, and silver
finger rings. The husband has to pay his wife £12 14s. (Ra. 127.)
if not more at the time of marriage, which are generally spent on
ornaments. In a poor family these ornaments by degrees disappear
in meeting special ceremony charges and in helping the family in
times of difficulty.

As a class town Musalmdns are clean and neat, while villagers are
often dirty and untidy. Almost all local classes and the richer
classes of Bohord.s and Mehmans are steady and hardworking. The
upper classes are clean, polite, and generally sober and honest.
Bdgbdns or fruiterers, Gavandis or bricklayers, Kasd,bs or butchers,
Pinj£ris or cotton-cleansers, and Takdrds or masons are strong and
rough.

Most village Musalmd,ns are land proprietors or j'dgirddrs, and
husbandmen. Of town Musalmans many are soldiers, constables,
messengers, and servants ; a few are craftsmen and artisans ; and
some are moneylenders. Though hardworking and thrifty many
are given to drink and are badly off. Except Mehmdns and BohorAs,
who take contracts, deal in European goods, and are well-to-do and
rising classes, most Musalmdn craftsmen and artisans are badly ofi
on account of the competition of European and Bombay machine
made goods. They are often required to borrow to meet special
charges. Village Musalmdns, especially husbandmen, are thrifty.
Among the regular Musalmdns, especially among town traders,

Oeccan.]

sItIra.

127

soldiers, constables, messengers, and servants, the women add
nothing to the family income. On the other hand in many of the
special communities and among husbandmen, weavers, and other
craftsmen and petty shopkeepers, the women earn almost as much
as the men. Sameness in faith, worship, manners, and customs
bind Musalmans into one body. Except some famihes of Bohords-
who are Shias of the Ismaili branch and followers of the Mulla S^heb
of Surat, all Sdtara Musalmans belong to the Sunni sect of the
Hanafi school. They respect the same Kdzi, worship in the same
mosque, and bury in the same graveyard. Among the special or
local communities, the Bd,gbdns or fruiterers, Kasdbs or mutton
butchers, Dhondphodas or stone-masons, Gavandis or bricklayers,
Pinjdris or cotton-cleaners,, and Pakhd,lis or water-carriers have such
Hindu leanings that they do not associate with other Musalmd,nsy
almost never attend the mosque, eschew beef, keep Hindu feasts,
and openly worship and ofEer vows to Hindu gods. ■

Of the regular Musalmdns about twenty per cent teach their sons
to read the Kur^n. All of them are careful to circumcise their boya
and to have their marriage and death rites conducted by their Kdzi.
The initiation or bismilla and the sacrifice or ahika are often neglected,
owing partly to ignorance and partly to poverty. Though as a rule
they do not attend the mosque for daily prayers, almost all are
careful to be present at the special services on the Ramzdn and Bakar
Id feasts, and are careful to give alms and keep fasting during the
the whole month of Eamzdn. The well-to-do make special offerings
on the Bakar Id and pay the Kdzi his dues. Their religious oflBcers
are the Kdzi or Judge but now the marriage registrar, the Khatib or
preacher, the Mulla or priest, the Mujdvar or beadle, and the
Ndib or the Kazi's deputy.- Besides the religious ofiBcers certain
Pirjad^s or sons of saints hold a high position among them. They
are spiritual guides and have religious followers chiefly among
weavers and the classes who live by service. These Pirjad^s live
on estates granted to their ancestors by the Musalman rulers of the
Deccan. Carelessness and love of show have forced most of them to
part with their lands and they are now supported by their followers.
Except Bohoras all Musalmdns believe in saints or pirs, to whom they
pray for children or for health, and offer sacrifices and gifts. Most
craftsmen and almost all husbandmen believe in Khandoba, Mhasoba,
Maridi, and Satvai, Hindu deities to whom they make gifts and offer
vows, and whom they worship either privately or publicly. Mhasoba is
supposed to be the guardian deity of the field, and most husbandmen
offer him a fowl or goat every year either at the harvest gathering
or at the opening of the rains in June, when a new field year begins.
They worship Satvdi or Mother Sixth, who is supposed to register
the destiny of the child on the sixth night after birth, and Mari^i
or Mother Death to save them from cholera. No Satara Musalmdns
make pilgrimages to Mecca, but for amusement and to offer vows
most young women and men visit the fairs of local saints and some-

(Siapter III
People.

MusalmAns.

' Details of the duties of Kdzis and other religious office bearers are given in the
Fooua and ShoUpur Statistical Accounts.

[Bombay Gazetteer.

128

DISTRICTS.

Chapter III. times go a few days' journey to the neighbouring districts of Poona
People. Sholdpur and Kulbarga. As a rule Sd,tdra Musalmdns believe in

MusALMjLtfs. witchcraft and soothsaying, and allow and practise polygamy and
widow and child marriage.

After the birth of a child, the members of the family are
ceremonially unclean for forty days, during which the house images
of saints are not worshipped. When a woman is in labour a midwife
is sent for. The midwife delivers the woman, buries the navel-cord
and the after-birth in an earthen pot in a corner of the lying-in room
and bathes the mother in the same corner. If the child is a boy the
midwife is paid Is. 3d. (10 as.) and if the child is a girl 7^d. (5 as..).
On the fifth day the goddess Chhati or SatvAi is worshipped. A silver
human tooth and a small silver sickle are the objects of worship. The
tooth and the sickle are laid in a winnowing basket with a platter
containing the heart and head of a goat and boiled rice, and half a dry
cocoa-kernel, two betel leaves and a betelnut, and a marking-nut with
a needle through it. Before these things the mother burns incense
and bows. The ceremony is marked with a feast given to friends
and relations. In some families mutton is served at this feast while
in other families rice and split pulse sauce are served. On the twelfth
day the young mother takes her child to a distance from the house
and worships fi.ve stones under a tree with turmeric powder, vermilion,
scented powder, a piece of red string, and a betelnut and five
betel leaves. On the fortieth day the mother is bathed and dressed
in a new robe and bodice. When the woman bathes on the fortieth
day, she is made to rub her teeth with sticks of forty different kinds
of trees and forty pinches of tooth-powder. The woman is also
made to put on new glass bangles. Friends and relations are treated
to puldv that is a dish of rice and mutton cooked together, or to
banga that is rice SLui mutton cooked separately. In the evening
the child is dressed in a cap and a frock, and its hands and feet are
adorned with silver ornaments. The women gather near the'
cradle, put the child into it, and sing songs as they rock the cradle.
Before naming the child a piece of sandalwood is wrapped in a
handkerchief, waved about the cradle, and is passed from one
woman to another with the words. Take this moon and give the
sun. After the piece of wood has been several times passed
backwards and forwards, they lay it in the cradle by the side of
the child and name the child. The name of the child is chosen by
the Kd,zi according to the position of its birth stars.

Sunta or circumcision is performed at any time between a boy's
third and twelfth year, the younger age being always preferred. In
rich families the circumcision is marked with as much pomp and
show as a marriage. A booth is raised in the front of the house
with the muhurtmedh or first post driven into the ground on a lucky
moment ; and betelnuts, rice, and turmeric roots are tied in a yellow
cloth and fastened to the first pole. A water jar encircled with a red
thread bracelet or hankan passed round turmeric roots is also
tied up and the boy to be circumcised is rubbed with turmeric paste
for two days. On the second day female friends and relations are
asked to the Mydpari feast, in which five unwidowed women who
have not broken their fast are served with boiled rice, bread,

MUSALMANS.

Beccan.]

SAtARA. 129

vegetables, split pulse, curry, wafer biscuits, and pickles. As a Chapter III
rule none but unwidowed women are allowed to attend this People-

feast. On the third day the boy is bathed in warm water, dressed
in a new turban, a pair of drawers, a shouldercloth, and a jama or
long white robe reaching to the heels, and from head to foot he is
covered with a veil made of a network of flowers and called the
sultdni shera or king's chaplet. His arms and wrists also are covered
with flower garlands. He is made to sit on a horse and taken in
procession to a mosque to say the prayers. In the mosque the Kazi
teaches the boy the prayer, and, at the end of the prayer, the boy
and the Kd,zi embrace each other and the musicians attending the
procession begin to play on their instruments. They again set the boy
on the horse and return home with the same pomp and sit to a feast.
In the evening, after dinner, the barber who is to circumcise the
boy and who is called nabi that is Prophet, or khalipa that is Ruler,
comes. The boy is seated on a stool or chaurang covered with a red
cloth and usually with a red handkerchief. This stool is set on a
square piece of yellow cloth, with a square of lines of red rice or
wheat drawn by unwidowed women. A platter is laid before the
child and in it a burning lamp. Two persons, onS on each side, hold
the boy fast, and on both sides of the boy stand two persons holding
lighted wicks of cotton thread soaked in oil. As he circumcises the
child the barber calls out Din Din, that is religion. Unwidowed
women wave the platter with the light in it about the boy and lay
it down, and friends and relations wave copper or silver pieces each
about the boy and throw them into the platter. The boy is carried
and laid down on a cot and is fanned with wheaten unleavened
cakes by the women of the family. Next day the barber
washes the wound, turns up the skin by means of a wooden
instrument called ghodi, applies oil to the wound, and receives 2s. 6d.
(Rs. 14) from the father or other relation. Besides this he receives
a meal of undressed provisions and the money waved about the boy
by his friends and relations. The wound heals in ten to fifteen
days, and the expenses amount to £5 (Rs. 50) . In poor families
the ceremony is finished in a day at a cost of £1 to £1 4s. (Rs. 10-12).
Instead of going to a mosque the boy's father brings the Kd,zi to his
house, the barber circumcises the boy in the Ki,zi's presence, and the
ceremony ends with a feast to friends and relations.

Among Sd,td,ra Musalmd,ns offers of marriage come from the boy's
parents. The boy's father goes to see the girl, and if he finds her
to his taste, he tells her father so, who returns with him to see the
boy. If both the fathers are satisfied, they go to the Kdzi and
Mulana to see whether the birth stars of the boy and girl agree and
whether the marriage is likely to prove lucky. If they are satisfied
that it has a good chance of being lucky they return home and settle
what sum the boy's father is to pay the girl's father as the price of the
girl. This sum is spent by the girl's father in the marriage, and the
■ boy's father has to spend nothing. The cost generally ranges from
£10 to £30 (Rs. 100-300). When both parties are rich enough,
to bear the costs, no sum is paid by the boy's father to the girl'a
father. Girls of middle class families are generally married between

B 1282—17

[Bombay Gazetteer,

130

DISTRICTS.

Chapter IIL
People.

MusalmAns.

nine and thirteen to young men of twenty to twenty-two. Girls of
rich families are often obliged to remain unmarried till their fifteenth
or sixteenth year on account of the want of a suitable match. In
such cases grown-up girls are married to men of above twenty-five.
Of the four main classes Shaikhs and Syeds intermarry and Pathans
and Moghals keep separate. In the betrothal the bridegroom
sends to the bride presents of a silver sari or wire necklace^ chotis
or hanging hair ornaments with hollow silver knobs, todds or
silver chain foot ornaments, and a green robe and bodice. In
return the bride's parents, whom the bridegroom feasts on
sdkharbhdt, that is rice boiled and seasoned with sugar, give him a
turban, a silver ring, and a handkerchief. The betrothal day is fixed
as lucky by the Kdzi who is paid five copper coins, a betelnut, and
inolasses worth Id. (f a.). The marriage takes place six or eight
months after the betrothal. When the marriage day draws near a
booth is built in the front of the house ; and around it boiled rice
mixed with curds is thrown and a cocoanut. broken as an offering to
evil spirits, that they may not attack the bride and the bridegroom.
In a corner of the booth a mango branch with a betelnut, some
turmeric roots, and a little rice tied to it in a piece of yellow cloth,
is driven into the ground. It is called the muhurtmedh or lucky post,
and is planted in the ground at a lucky moment. At night the rajjaka,
in which songs in the praise of Alldh or God are sung to the music
of drums, is performed by women of the family, and in rich families
by Dombins or professional female singers and drummers. While the
singing and music go on gulgulds or small stuffed wheaten cakes and
rahims or boiled rice flour balls made with milk sugar and rosewater,
are heaped in the name of AlMh or God in two miniature pyramids,
one for the bride and the other for the bridegroom. Before these little
heaps a red cotton cord, flowers, and burnt incense are laid. After
a short time the heaps are broken and the cakes and balls are
handed to women. Next day, without his knowing it, a woman marks
the bridegroom's clothes with turmeric paste. This is called the
secret turmeric or chorhalad. Like Hindus, the Musalmans of
SatAra allow no widows to attend festal meetings, and are particular
about lucky days and persons. Thus the woman who puts on the
secret turmeric or chorhalad must have her husband alive, and her
name must be given out by the Kdzi after consulting his almanac.
In the evening the bride and bridegroom are rubbed with turmeric
paste, one after the other, as they are not allowed to see each other's
faces till they are married. In this ceremony both men and women
take part, and it is called the sdvhalad or public turmeric, as
opposed to the chorhalad or secret turmeric. When the bride and
bridegroom are being rubbed with turmeric paste, they are seated
on a chaurang or stool covered with yellow cloth and set on a square
of yellow cloth having a square of red rice or wheat, drawn by five
unwidowed women. The turmeric paste is first rubbed on the
bridegroom and then on the bride, care being taken that they
do not see each other's face. On the third day the feast of
biydpuri is given, which includes boiled rice, wheaten cakes, a sauce
of split pulse and three or four kinds of vegetables. The food is first
sei'ved in five small earthen dining plates to five unwidowed women.

Deccau]

sAtAea.

131

Before they sit to eat, they knot together the dress of the bride
and the bridegroom and in front of them burn incense in the name of
AMh or God, and the bride and bridegroom bow to Allah. On this
and on the next day while musicians play, friends and relations make
presents of clothes to the parents of the bride and bridegroom. On
the fourth day a feast of puldv that is rice cooked with mutton,
called the vardt or hometaking feast, is given to male guests. In
the evening the tel mendi or oil and henna Lawsonia inernus
ceremony takes place. In this the bridegroom is made to sit on a
stool having a pile of pitchers called telghadds or oil-jars on each
side, one of seven pitchers in the name of the bridegroom and the
other of nine pitchers in the name of the bride. On the top of each
of these piles are laid two suvdlis or raised wheaten cakes fried in
oil. The bridegroom's right wrist is encircled with a betelnnt
bracelet or kankan, a copper coin, a turmeric root, and a pinch of rice
tied in a piece of red cloth and the tooth-powder of the Chebulio
myrobalan, and iron filings is applied to his teeth. As he sits
on the stool five unwidowed women, one after another, wave round
him a millet stalk with wheat cakes and betel leaves dipped in oil and
tied to it by a red cotton cord. A canopy of a square piece of cloth
with twenty -five wheat cakes is held over his head by four persons
and the wheat cakes are equally divided among the four bearers.
The bridegroom is led into the house and his place is taken by the
bride who undergoes the same ceremony except that a necklace of
glass beads is tied round her neck and that her hands and fingers
are adorned with glass bangles and silver rings. This ceremony is
important, for when her husband dies a woman removes the neck-
lace and the glass bangles. After the ornaments are put on two half
cocoa-kernels tied together by a red cotton cord are dropped into the
laps of the bride and the bridegroom. The pair are then bathed
separately. At the time of bathing, their mothers hold the skirts of
their robes over the heads of their children and unwidowed women
from the oil jars pour water over them through the skirts. They are
dressed in the clothes presented to them by their fathers-in-law, and
their eyes are anointed with sulphuret of antimony. The bridegroom's
dress is much like that which he wore on the circumcision day, and as
he was then he is veiled from head to foot, with a network of flowers
called sultdnisherds or king's chaplets. His arms and neck are adorned
with garlands of flowers and his turban with a bouquet. He is then
at about four in the morning led on horseback to a mosque to say his
prayers. His sister walks behind his horse with a platter containing a
burning lamp made of dough and keeps throwing a fragrant unguent
or chiksa made of millet and turmeric and otlfer scent-giving drugs.
In the mosque the K^zi tells the bridegroom to recite his prayers
fi^e times, and at the end of the prayers the K^zi embraces the bride-
groom. The bridegroom is brought in procession into the marriage
booth and seated on the square in the booth. When the bridegroom
reaches the door of the booth a cocoanut and four lemons are waved
round him and thrown away as an offering to evil spirits. Meanwhile
the bride is bathed in the same way as the bridegroom, and her hair
is plaited into a braid by unwidowed women. She puts on shoes,
wears flower garlands, and is covered with a flower veil called sherds

Chapter IIP
People-

MrSALMi-NS.

[Bombay Gazetteer,
132 DISTRICTS.

Chapter III. or garlands. Her lap is filled with the suvdgpuda, that is a packet of
People. scented powders, and site is wrapped in a white sheet or chddar.

MusalmAns While the bride sits in the house, the bridegroom is tanght the

nikekhdni or duties of a husband. The chief of these are, that he
should not punish his wife without a fault, and that he should send
his wife to her parents whenever they send for her. Two agents or
vakils and two witnesses, one for the bride and the other for the
bridegroom, stand before the Kdzi and declare that they have agreed
to this marriage and are ready to bear evidence. The Kazi feeds the
bridegp:oom with five morsels of macaroni. By this time the bride
comes and sits, facing west, on a cot set in the booth in front of the
square on which the bridegroom is seated. A curtain is held between
them and a litte chiksa or millet ointment is thrown on their heads
as a sign that the nuptials are over. The Kdzi removes the curtain
and musicians play. The bride and bridegroom are made to sit
on the cot side by side and allowed to see each other's face for the
first time. As they sit the K^i takes a little sugar into his hand, puts
it on the bride's right shoulder and asks the bridegroom whether
he thinks sugar sweet or his wife sweet, who answers the Kuran is
the sweetest. The couple look at each other's faces in a looking glass
and each placing a hand on the other's back they bow five times to
the Almighty. The bride goes into the house and the bridegroom
stays in the booth till noon when the Dardt or home taking procession
starts. In this procession the bride sits in a carriage while the
bridegroom rides a horse and escorts his bride to his house
carrying her on his side to the front gate of the house. Here
he is met by his sisters and cousins who, before letting him in,
make him promise to give his daughters in marriage to their sons.
He consults his wife and she tells him to give them the promise.
He then sets his wife on the ground and they walk together into
the house. In the evening the bride and bridegroom, with some
men and women, go to the bride's father's house where they play with
the wedding bracelets or kankans. In this play the kanJcans of the
couple, with five betelnuts, five turmeric roots, five pomegranate
buds, and a silver ring are thrown into what is called sarvar water
which is made of a mixture of turmeric powder and lime. The bride
and bridegroom try to pick the ring and other things out of the
water, and force them from each other's hands. When the play is
over they are made to stand side by side, bathed and dressed, the
bridegroom being dressed in a lungi or coarse waistcloth. Friends
and relations are feasted on cakes or jpolis and dismissed, this feast
being the last of the marriage festivities. A S^td,ra Musalmfc may
have, at the same time, more than one wife ; but a woman cannot
have more than one husband. Divorce is allowed and practised.
It is not very uncommon to see a woman who has been divorced by
two or three husbands.

Among Sdtdra Musalmdns, as a rule, a widow marries a widower
or a person who has divorced his wife. A man who wishes to marry
a widow gives £1 to £1 10s. (Rs. 10 - 15) to the widow's parents,
a turban to her father, and a robe and a bodice to herself. Besides
this he puts glass bangles on her wrists and ties the lacha or glass-
bead necklace round her neck. In the evening the K^i tells

Deccan.]

SATARA.

133

him the duties of a husband and marries them, and receives 2s. 6d.
(Rs. li) as his fee. Unwidowed women are careful not to be
present at or even to overhear a widow marriage service ; and
after the marriage, the faces of the couple should not be seen till
they have bathed next morning. If the man is well-to-do he gives
a feast to his friends and relations, or else sends batdsds or sugar
packets to his friends.

When a girl comes of age she is held unclean for five or seven
days. During this time she is made to sjt by herself and is not
allowed to touch anything in the house. Every day she is rubbed
with turmeric paste and , oil and bathed in warm water ; and her
relations bring her presents of sweetmeats, macaroni, puffs,
and cakes. On the seventh day she and her husband are bathed
together in warm water and she is dressed in a green bodice and robe.
Her father presents her husband with a turban worth 16s. to
£1 (Rs.8-10), a shouldercloth worth 6s. to 12s. (Rs. 3-6), and
a seal ring or chhdp worth Is. (8 as.) and a handkerchief worth
Is. to 2s. (Re. i-1). Some flower garlands are tied round the
girl's neck and some are allowed to hang from her temples. Her
husband's turban is decked with a bouquet and her arms and wrists
are adorned with flower garlands. They are seated together, the
girl to the right of her husband, and their laps are filled by a lucky
woman chosen by the Kazi after consulting his book. Each of their
laps is filled with one cocoanut, five half cocoa-kernels, five betelnuts,
five dry dates, five turmeric roots, five lemons, five pomegranate
bads, five plantains, five polis or cakes fried in oil, and puffs or Icdn-
olds. All these are brought by the girl's parents. The husband
and wife go to bow to the household saints or firs, generally
RAjevaU and Ddwul Malik, and the guests are treated to a feast of
'polis or cakes. Each of the women who is asked to the lap-filling
brings a cocoanut, a bodicecloth, and flowers as presents to the
girl. The night is spent by the women in singing and beating
drums, and in rich families by listening to hired Dombins who are
paid 4s. to 6s. (Rs. 2-3) with dressed food for the night. Besides
the Dombins, some engage kettledrum-beaters and other musicians
to pass the night. In this ceremony a Musalmd,n spends from £2
to £6 (Rs. 20 - 60) according to his means.

In the sixth month of a woman's first pregnancy, her and her
husband's laps are filled in the same way as when she came of age.
On this occasion her mother brings five baskets filled with dhaval-
hutis or cakes made of five kinds of flour and seasoned with spices,
Italian millet cakes having sesame seed stuck in them, wheaten
cakes, millet cakes, and two kinds of gram flour cakes pdtvadis
and Idtiva/uadis, usal mug or split pulse seasoned with oil and spices,
and boiled rice mixed with curds. She also brings a turban for
the husband and a robe and bodice for her daughter. As a rule
friends kinspeople and the members of the family eat the dressed
food brought by the girl's mother.

Musalmdns bury all their dead. When a Musalmdn dies
some near relation with the Muldna goes to market and buys a
shroud seventy-five feet long for a man and ninety feet long for

Chapter Iiq
People.

MusalmAns.

[Bombay Gazetteer,
134 DISl'RICTS.

Chapter III. a woman and other things wanted for the funeral. These are rose-
People, water, scents, sulphuret of antimony, aloe-lights, frankincense, and
yellow earth ; and in addition, frankincense oil and a flower-net
MusalmIhs. ^jjgj^ ^.jjg ^jgg^^ jg g^ womau. The dead is washed first with water
boiled with hor and pomegranate leaves and then with soapnut
water, and laid on the back on a cot. The Muldna writes the creed.
There is no God but Allah and Muhammad is the prophet of AUdh
in aloe-powder on the chest and forehead of the dead and puts
pieces of camphor at all the joints of the dead body. The body is
then wrapped in the shroud and carried to the graveyard. As the
body is borne to the graveyard the funeral party, all of whom are
men, accompany the dead body calling Kalma-i-8hahadat, that is
I say that there is only One God, and recite verses from the
Kuran. Every now and then on the way the bearers are relieved and
when they reach the spot where the bier is kept, which is generally
at the idga or prayer place, they fall on their knees and pray to the
Almighty. From this the corpse is carried to the grave and buried.
As the grave is being filled all present go round the grave and throw
in handf Ills of earth. They close the grave and retiring f drty paces
fall on their knees and offer prayers to the Almighty for the dead.
These prayers are called khatmds. All then return to the house of
the deceased person, and offer khatmds or dead prayers on the spot
where the dead body was washed and return to their homes. On
the first day after the funeral the mourners are fed by their relations
and friends on food dressed at their own houses. Among the low
classes of Satdra Musalmdns, if a woman dies in childbed rdla
grains are thrown behind the body as it is borne to the burial-
ground. It is believed that a woman who dies in childbed always
becomes a ghost. She tries to return to her house, but stops to
pick up the grains and is so long delayed that she never reaches.
On the third day the mourners go to the burial ground, white-
wash the tomb, and lay flowers, sabja or basil Ocymum pilosum or
basilicum, and sweetmeats beside it. On the ninth, at a feast
called dasva, rice and mutton are served. On the twentieth is a
feast of wheat cakes and halva or almond sweetmeat. The cost of
the different funeral rites and feasts varies from £2 to £6
(Rs. 20-60). On the fortieth day they spend £1 to M
(Rs. 10-40) on a grand feast in which mutton is one of the main
dishes. On this day a garland of flowers is kept hanging from
the centre of the roof on a large platter filled with dressed food,
vegetables, kJvir that is rice boiled in milk with sugar, and the
heart of a goat ; and, at the four corners of the house, four platters
called khutas containing poKs or cakes stuffed with pounded gram-
pulse boiled with molasses, ghdris or cakes stuffed with gram-pulse
boiled with molasses, rot or cakes, kdnavlds or puffs, gulgulds or
wheaten stuffed caikes,khurphurds or balls of gram flour seasoned with
spices and fried in oil, wafer-biscuits, cucumbers, pomegranates,
guavas, plantains, and custard apples. The mourners and guests
burn incense before the central dish and offer prayers for the soul of
the dead. After the prayers all sit to eat and after dinner smoke
tobacco and return to their homes. As it is a funeral feast betel
leaves and nuts are not handed to the guests. In the evening is a

Deccan.]

sAtAra.

135

Kurd,n readiDg or manlud and the MuMna is paid 2s. 6d. (Rs. IJ)
for all his services during the funeral. About twenty per cent of
the Sdtara Musalmans, generally traders and servants, send their
boys to school where they are taught both vernacular and English.
The sons of husbandmen and craftsmen begin to help their parents
as soon as they are eight or ten. A few town Musalin^ns have
learnt English and some are employed as Government servants and
have risen to high positions in the police and army.

The great body of Musalm^ns who intermarry and differ little in
looks customs or dress, besides the four main classes Moghals,
Pathans, Shaikhs, and Syeds,i includes five special communities. Of
these two Atdrs or perfumers and Manydrs or bracelet-sellers are
traders ; two Kaldigars or tinsmiths and Nalbands or farriers are
craftsmen, and one Mahdwats or elephant -drivers are servants.

Ata'rs, or Perfumers, said to be the representative of Hindus
of the same name converted by A.urangzeb (1658-1707), are found
in small numbers only in towns. Their original name is Mahanultar
and they get their present name from dealing in scented oils
or attars. They are said to have come from Poena and Talegaon
during the time of the Mardtha kings at Sdtdra. In look speech
food and dress they resemble the regular Musalmdns and as a
class are clean, neat and tidy, hardworking, and thrifty. Their
women dress in the Maratha robe and bodice and appear in public
but do not help the men in their work. They have fixed shops
where they sell scented oils, abir powder, frankincense sticks, and
masdla or a mixture of aloewood sandalwood and dried rose
leaves. During the Muharram they sell coloured thread wreaths or
sdhelis which are worn both by Hindus and Musalm^ns as the signs
of mourning for the death of Hasan and Husain.^ These threads
are worn during the latter five of the ten days of the Muharram
and are thrown into water on the tenth. They cost \\d. to Zd.
(1-2 as.). Atars generally marry among themselves, but also give
their daughters to Shaikhs and Syeds. In social matters they form
a separate community under an elective headman and settle social
disputes according to the votes of the majority of members and
with the consent of the headman. They do not differ from the
main classes of Musalmdns in manners or customs, and are said to
be careful to say their prayers. They teach their children to read
the Knrdn and send them to school. They do not take to new
pursuits but say their calling has ceased to be well paid since the
introduction of English perfumes and that they are badly off.

Manya'rs, or Bangle Sellers, said to represent local Hindus of
mixed origin converted by Aurangzeb (1658 - 1707) are found in
small numbers only in towns. They speak Hindustani at home and

Chapter III.
People-

MusalmAns,

Special
Communities.

Atdrs.

Manydrs,

^ Details of Moghal, Pathdn, Shaikh, and Syed customs are given in the Poona
Statistical Account.

" Hasan and Husain the grandsons of the Prophet and sons of Ali the aon-iu-law of
Muhammad, were killed on the plain of Karbala in Southern Persia in H.61 a,d. 683.

[Bombay Qazetteen

136

DISTRICTS.

Chapter III.

People.

MfsalmAns.
Many&ra,

NdTbands.

Mar^tM abroad. Like other regular Musalmd.ns they are tall or
of middle height, dark or of olive colour, strong and well made,
the women being fairer and thinner than the men. The men wear ■
the beard full and dress in a waistcloth, a tight-fitting jacket, a coat,
and a Mardtha turban. The women wear a Maratha robe and
bodice, appear in public, and except the old, do not help the men in
their work. Both men and women are clean and neat in their habits,
orderly, honest, hardworking, and thrifty. They are bangle-sellera
and have fixed shops, and also hawk their goods about the streets
and attend weekly markets and fairs. They sell both China glass
and local glass bangles, and some of them are well-to-do. They
marry among themselves generally^ form a distinct body, and settle
social disputes according to the votes of the majority. Except that
they eschew beef and perform no initiation or hismilla and sacrifice
or akika, their social and religious customs are the same as those of
the regular Musalmans. They belong to the Hanafi school of the
Sunni sectj and are careful to say their prayers. They do not send
their boys to school or take to new pursuits, but their calling is well
paid and they are able to save.

Kala'igars, or Tinsmiths, calling themselves Shaikhs and found
scattered in small numbers over the district, are said to represent
Hindus of the same class converted byAurangzeb (1658-1707).
They call themselves Shaikhs and neither men nor women differ
from Shaikhs in look, dress, food, or in social and religious customs.,
They tin copper and brass vessels. As a class they are clean and
neat in their habits, but, though hardworking and thrifty, as their
work is not constant, few of them are well-to-do, and many have
moved to Poena and Bombay in search of work. They form a
separate community under an elective headman called chaudhari,
who, with the consent of the majority of the members fines any
one who breaks their caste rules. They keep no Hindu customs and
do not differ from regular Musalmans with whom they intermarry.
In religion they are Hanafi Sunnis, and many are religious and
careful to say their prayers. They teach their boys to read the
Kur^n and Mardthi. They take to no new pursuits, and are badly off.

Nalbauds, or Farriers, said to represent local converts of mixed
Hindu origin, are found in small numbers in S^td,ra and
Mahdbaleshvar. They call themselves Shaikhs and are like to
KaMigars or tinsmiths in look dress and customs. Their women
dress in a robe and bodice and do not appear in public or add to
the family income. As a class Ndlbands are clean and neat in
their habits, honest, and hardworking, but given to drink. They
shoe horses and bullocks, and earn 6d. to 2s. 6:^. (Es. i - 1^) a day.
They have a well managed union with an elective headman or pdtil,
marry with any regular Musalmdns, and do not differ from them in
social or religious customs. In faith, Sunnis of the Hanafi school, they
respect and obey the Kdzi and employ him to conduct their marriage
and death ceremonies. But they are careless about saying their
prayers, and give their boys no schooling. A few of them are
employed as messengers and servants, and as a class they are fairly
off.

Deccan]

SATARA.

137

Maha'watS, or Elephant Drivers, are found in small numbers in
Sdtdra and other large towns. They are said to represent local
converts of the Hindu class of the same name, and speak Hindustani
at home and Marathi abroad. They are tall or of middle height and
dark. The men shave the head, wear the beard full, and dress in a
turban, a tight-fitting jacket, and a pair of light trousers or a waist-
cloth. The women wear the Mar^tha robe and bodice and appear
in public, but add nothing to the family income. Both men and
women are clean in their habits, hardworking, thrifty, and sober.
Under British rule the demand for their services has fallen. They
have taken to new pursuits ; a few are husbandmen, some serve as
constables, and others as messengers and servants. They live from
hand to mouth, and have to borrow to meet special charges. They
have no special organisation and no headman, and marry with any
of the regular Musalmans. Most of the men and almost all the
women eschew beef and have a leaning to Hindu customs, keeping
Hindu feasts and worshipping Hindu gods. In religion they are
Sunnis of the Hanafi school, but few are religious or careful to say
their prayers. They respect and obey the Kdzi, and employ him to
conduct their marriage and death ceremonies and to settle social
disputes. They do not send their boys to school or take to new.
pursuits, and are a falling clasa .

The four outside separate communities who man-y among
themselves are ;

Boliora's, immigrants from G-ujaratand by descent partly Gujarat
Hindu converts and partly Arab and Persian immigrants, are Shias
of the Ismaili sect and are known from one of their former pontiffs
as Daudi Bohords. All are followers of the Mulla Sdheb of Surat.
Two or three families in S^tdra town and a few at Mahd.baleshvar
are said to have been in the district about forty years. They speak
Gujarati among themselves and Hindustani with others. The men
who are tall or middle-sized, thin, and brown or wheat-coloured, shave
the head clean, wear the beard full, and dress in a silk headscarf or
a white turban, a white coat, a shirt, a waistcoat, and a pair of
loose trousers. The women who are shorter, fairer, and thinner than
the men, are regular featured and dress in a chintz petticoat,
a headscarf, and a tight-fitting backless bodice with short sleeves.
Out of doors they put on a large black cloak which shrouds the
whole body from head to foot, except a small gauze opening for
the eyes. They seldom appear in public, and add nothing to the
family income. As a class Bohor^s are clean and neat in their
habits, hardworking, orderly and thrifty, and often well-to-do, and
able to save. They marry among themselves, but one Bohora in
SAt^ra has taken a wife from a poor Sunni family. Being a limited
number they mix and associate with the ordinary regular Musalmdns
in dinner parties and religious meetings and bury their dead in
the ordinary Sunni Musalman graveyard. Though they do not
obey the regular Kazi, they employ him to conduct the marriage
and death ceremonies. They perform the initiation or bismilla
and the sacrifice or aJcika ceremonies, and do not keep Hindu
feasts or offer vows to Hindu gods. Though Shi^s at heart they
B 1282—18

Chapter III

People.

MusalmAns.
Mdhdwate.

Outside
Communities.

Bohords.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

138

DISTEICTS.

Chapter III.
People.

MusalmAns.
Mehmans,

Mukris.

Odi Kasdbs,

do not openly profess their religion, for fear of displeasing the
Sunnis. They teach their boys Gujarati and Mardthi, and on the
whole are a rising class.

Mehma'ns, properly Momins or Believers, number three or four
families at S^tdra and a few at Mahdbaleshvar. Originally of Cutch
and Kdthifiwdr they seem to have cotne from Bombay and
Poona about thirty years ago, and are converts of the Lohana
caste. They speak Outchi at home and Hindustani abroad. In
look, food, dress, and customs they closely resemble their brethren
in Bombay and Poona. They are clean and neat in their habits,
orderly, hardworking, and thrifty, and have a good name among
traders. They deal in English furniture and piecegoods, and are a
well-to-do and a saving class. They form a separate community,
hut have no special organisation and no headman. They respect
and obey the Kizi, and their social and religious customs do not
differ from those of ordinary Musalmans. They are Sunnis of the
Hanafi. school, and are strictly religious and careful to say their
prayers. They teach their boys to read the Kurdn and Marathi, but
not English. They do not take to new pursuits, but their calling is
well paid and they are fairly off and lay by. On the whole they are
a pushing class.

Mukris,^ said to mean Deniersirom mttferaa to deny, are believed
to represent Hindus of the VanjAri or Laman caste converted by
Haidar Ali (1763-1782) at Maisur about the middle of the eighteenth
century. They are found in small numbers at Satdra and Mahd,-
baleshvar. They are said to have come from Maisur, first to Belgaum
and thence to Satdra, about fifty years ago, and were formerly a larger
class as of late years in consequence of disputes with local money-
lenders and traders, several of them have gone back to Belgaum and
Kolhapur. Some have given up moneylending and taken to service
and contracting. Their home tongue is Hindustani and they speak
Marathi abroad. In look, food, dress, and manners they are like the
Mukris of Sholapur, and as a class are clean and neat, hardworking
and orderly, but quarrelsome and not over-honest. They are grocers
and are corn and spice dealers, and are well-to-do and able to save*
They marry among themselves only and form a separate community
under an elective headman called chaudhari, who, with the consent
of the castemen settles caste disputes and punishes the breakers of
rules with fines and caste feasts. Their social and religious customs
are the same as the regular Musalman customs. Though in name
Sunnis of the Hanafi school they seldom say their prayers, but obey
the Kdzi and employ him to conduct their marriage and death
ceremonies. They teach their children to read Marathi and Urdu,
but not English. None of them has risen to any high position.

Gal KasallS, or Beef Butchers, probably immigrants from
Maisur, are found in small numbers in the Sdtara cantonment and
at Mahdbaleshvar. They are said to be descendants of Abyssinian
slaves andKd-buliPathans whomHaidar Ali employed to kill cows and

> The story of the supposed origin of the name Mukri is given in the ShoUpur
Statistical Account.

Deccan-]

satIra.

1319

buffaloes in Malsur, and who came to tlie Deccan with General
"Wellesley in 1803 and Sir Thomas Munro in 1818. They are found
only in military cantonments. They speak Hindustani among them-
selves and Mardthi with others. In look dress and manners they
are like the local regular Musalmdns. As a class they are dirty
and untidy in their habits, and though hardworking, hot-tempered
and quarrelsome, and much given to liquor. Some of them are well-
to-do and able to save, but most are badly off. They kill cows and
buffaloes and have fixed shops, and sometimes take beef to villages
■near Satdra and exchange it among the low caste Hindns for corn
or money. They marry among themselves and form a separate
community and have a well managed union under an elective head-
man called chaudhari. They belong to the Hanafi Sunni sect and
are not careful to say their prayers. They obey and respect the
Kdzi and employ him to conduct their marriage and death cere-
monies. Except that they do not perform the ceremonies of initiation
or bismilla and sacrifice or akiha, their social and religious customs
are the same as those of regular Musalmans. They give their
children no schooling and take to no new pursuits.

The seventeen local communities who form distinct bodies and
marry among themselves only are :

Ba'gba'ns, or Fruiterers, are found in considerable numbers in
towns and large villages. They say they are descended from a
Musalmdn mother and a Mardtha father, but according to others
they represent Kunbis converted by Aurangzeb (1658-1707). The
men add Shaikh to their names and in look, food, dress, and
manners do not differ from the regular Musalmdns. The women
dress in the Mardtha robe and bodice and can be known from Kunbi
women only by wearing silver bangles instead of glass bangles. They
are neat and clean in their habits, honest, hardwoi'king, orderly
and thrifty, and keep bullocks and ponies to carry home vegetables
and fruit from their gardens and villages to towns. They are
market gardeners, and are fairly off. Of late they have been giving
up their Hindu customs and becoming stricter Musalmans. About
twenty years ago they used to worship a metal pot or ghat in
honour of Tulja Bhavani on Dasara Day in September -October,
and the goddess Satvdi on the sixth night after childbirth, and to
hold the mother impure for twelve days. Now they perform the
chhalla ceremony on the fortieth day after childbirth only. Their
social and religious customs are the same as those of regular Musal-
mdns. They are Sunnis of the Hanafi school and regularly attend
the mosque, and fast during the Ramzdn and keep the feast of the
Bakar Id. They ask the Kazi to register their marriage, and obey
and respect him. They have a headman and a caste council who
settle caste disputes with the consent of the castemen. They do not
send their boys to school or take to new pursuits, but their calling
is well paid, and they earn enough to live on and are able to lay by.
Bakar Kasa'bs, or Mutton Butchers, are found in small numbers
over the whole district. They are said to represent Hindu Khatiks
converted by Tipu SuMn (1782-1799), and hence -they say they
add Sultdni to their names. They speak Hindustani among them-
selves and Mardthi with others. The men who are dark, strong.

Chapter III.
People.

MuSALuiNS.

&di Kasdbs.

Local
Conununities.

Bakar Kasdbs oi
Sultdni Khdtiks.

[Bombay Gazetteer.

140

DISTRICTS.

Chapter III.
People.

MUSALMANS.

Bahar Kasdbs or
SuMni Khdtiks.

Dhavads.

and well made, wear tlie beard full, shave the head, and dress in a
pair of drawers or a waistcloth, a shouldercloth, a shirt, a Mard,tha
turban, and a pair of shoes. The women, who are fairer than the
men and regular featured, dress in a robe and bodice, appear in
public, spin wool, and mind the house. As a class mutton butchers
are clean and neat, honest, hardworking, and thrifty, and many are
well-to-do and able to save. They have fixed shops and their work is
constant, but they say they have lately suffered from the competition
of Hindu Khdtiks. They eat from all, except NhAvis, Dhobis, Tdm-
bats, and Sond,rs and the impure castes of Hindus, and never associate
with ordinary Musalmdns. They eschew beef, keep all Hindu feasts,
and offer vows to Hindu gods. They marry among themselves and
form a separate community under an elective headman called pa**'*
who, with the consent of the majority of the castemen, settles their
social disputes. They are Hanafi Sunnis and are seldom careful to
say their prayers. Except circumcision they keep no Musalman
rites, though they obey and respect the Kdzi and employ him to
conduct their marriage and death ceremonies. They keep images of
their gods and of Musalman saints ov pirs in their house, and they
are the disciples or murids of the Pirjddds of Bijdpur and PAtan in
Sdtdra. They do not send their children to school and take to no new
pursuits, but their calling is well paid and they are a saving class.

Dhavads, or Iron-smelters, said to represent local Kolis converted
by Aurangzeb (1658-1707), are found in large numbers in the
Mahabaleshvar hills. Their home speech is a dialect of their own of
Hindustani and Marathi words, and out-of-doors they speak corrupt
Mardthi. The men are generally middle sized, dark, and sturdy,
with high cheek bones and small eyes, and shave the head, wear
the beard full, and dress in a dirty, carelessly wound white turban,
a tight-fitting jacket, and a pair of light trousers or a waistcloth.
The women, who are shorter and fairer than the men, dress in a
dirty and untidy Hindu 'robe like the Dombari women, passing
the skirt back between the feet and tucking the end of the robe
to the waistband leaving half the legs bare, and a tight-fitting
short-sleeved bodice cohering the back and tied in a knot in
front under the bosom. They appear in public and do as much work
as the men, bringing head-loads of fuel and grass from the forest.
Though hardworking, Dhavads, as a rule, are dishonest, wild-
tempered, and given to drink country liquor. They smelt the iron
which is found in laterite or iron clay hills. But partly from the
growing scarcity of fuel and partly from the cheapness of foreign
iron and hardware goods their iron smelting has nearly ceased.
They live by cutting and selling grass, gathering honey, and making
and selling iron nails, tongs, and frying pans. They live from
hand to mouth. They marry among themselves and form a
separate community, and have a well managed body under their
elective headman or ^atil who settles their social disputes with the
consent of the castemen and punishes the caste rule-breakers with
fines which generally take the form of caste feasts. Except that
they call themselves Hanafi Sunnis, circumcise their sons, and ask
the Kdzi to register their marriages, they have few Musalmdn customs.
They keep Hindu feasts, eschew be,ef^ and worship Hindu goda..

Deccan.]

~Si.Ti.RA.

141

They , say no Musalmdn prayers, and give their children no
schooling.

Dhobis, or "Washermen, said to represent local converts of the
Hindu class of the same name, are found in small numbers in the
town of Sd,tara and at Mahdbaleshvar. They speak Hindustani with
themselves and Mardthi with others. The men who are dark, thin,
middle sized, and well made, shave the head or cut the hair close,
wear the beard full and dress in a headscarf, a shirt, a Tvaistcoat,
and a waistcloth. The women are fairer and thinner than the men
and wear the Mardtha robe and bodice, appear in public, and do as
much work as the men. As a class they are clean and neat in their
habits, orderly, honest, and hardworking, but spending on drink
almost half of their earnings. They are employed both by Europeans
and natives and earn 16s. to £1 10s. (Es. 8-15) a month. They
marry among themselves and form a separate community with a
good organization under a headman or chaudhari, who, with the
consent of the castemen, settles caste disputes and punishes the
breakers of social rules with fines which generally take the form of
caste feasts. In religion they are Hanafi Sunnis and are very care-
less about saying their prayers. Except that they ask the Kazi to
register their marriage and to conduct their death, ceremonies they
keep no Musalman rites, observing Hindu feasts, eschewing beef,
and offering vows to Hindu gods. They do not give their children
any schooling or take to new pursuits, but their calling is well paid
and they are a steady class.

Dhoudplioda's, or Takard,s, Quarrymen and Stone Masons, are
said to represent Hindus of the same name converted by Aurangzeb
(1658-1707). They are found in small numbers in towns and
large villages. Their home tongue is Hindustani and they speak
Mardthi abroad. Except that they are not given to drink, in look
food dress and manners they are simliar to Dhavads. Some are
quarrymen and stone-masons and others are stone-dressers. Most
laaye moved to Bombay and Poena in search of work. Many are fairly
off and have made fortunes by taking stone contracts in Bombay.
The poorer, who are called Tak^rds, roughen grindstones. They
marry among themselves and have a well managed union under an
elective headman styled pdtil, who settles social disputes at caste
meetings. Breaches of social rules are punished with fines which
generally take the form of caste feasts. Except that they eschew
beef, worship Hindu gods, and keep Hindu feasts their customs are
said to be the same as those of regular Musalmdns. Except circum-
cision they keep no special Musalman rite and seldom attend the
mosque. They give their children no schooling" and are a rising

Gavaudis, or Bicklayers, said to represent local Hindus of
the same name converted by Aurangzeb (1658-1707) are found in
small numbers all over the district. Among themselves they speak
Hindustani and with others Mardthi. The men who are tall or
middle sized, thin and dark, shave the head, were the beard full, and
dress in a dirty and untidy large white or red Maratha turban, a
tight-fitting jacket, and a waistcloth ; the women who are fairer and
better featured than the men, wear a Mardtha robe and bodice.

Chapter III

People.

MusalmAns.
Dhobis.

Dhondphoddi.

Oavandh.

[Bombay Gazetteer.

142

DISTRICTS.

Chapter III.
People.

MJJ3AIMASS.

Oavandis.

Gdrudis or
Maddris,

ifajdms.

appear in public, and mind the house. As a class Gavandis are
dirty and untidy, hardworking, orderly, and thrifty. They are masons
and bricklayers and in search of work many have moved to Poena
and Bombay, and many have become day labourers earning 6d. to
9c?. (4-6 as.) a day. Their work is not constant, and they are often
badly ofE and in debt. They marry among themselves only, but
iave no special organisation and no head except the regular Kdzi who
settles their social disputes and registers their marriages. Except
that they eschew beef and keep Hindu feasts their religious and
social customs do not difFer from those of the regular Musalmdns.
They belong to the Hanafi. sect of Sunnis, but are seldom careful to
say their prayers. They do not give their children any schooling,
and some of them are employed as messengers and servants. As a
class the Satara Gavandis are poor.

Ga'rudis, or Madd,ris, a wandering class of jugglers who move
all over the district in bands of four or five families, represent local
converts, probably of the Kolhdti caste. Their head-quarters are at
Miraj about thirty-five miles east of Kolhdpur. Their ancestors are
said to have been converted by Mir Samsudin, commonly known as
Miran Shamna, who died about the middle of the fourteenth century,
and was buried at Miraj, his tomb being the scene of a yearly fair.
Among themselves they speak a coarse Hindustani and with others
a mixture of Marathi. As a class they are dark, sturdy, and middle
sized; the men either shave the head or cut the hair close, and wear
the beard full, and dress in a dirty carelessly folded and twisted
turban, a waistcloth, and tight-fitting trousers leaving half the legs
bare. The women, who are like the men in look, are dirty and
untidy, and dress in a coarse Mar^tha robe and bodice. They
appear in public and except by begging do :^t add to the family
income. They are a class of jugglers, tumblers, and snake-charmers,
neither sober nor honest, poorly clad, and ill-fed. If they fail to
maintain themselves by their performances they beg from door to
door and live from hand to mouth. They marry among themselves
only and form a separate community under an elective headman.
They settle social disputes at meetings of the castemenat the yearly
fair of their saint at Miraj. They keep no Musalmd,n customs and
do not obey or respect the regular Kazi except by employing him to
register their marriages. They are Musalmdns in name only and
never say their prayears. They do not send their boys to school or
take to new pursuits, and are a falling class.

Haja'ms, or Barbers, representatives of local converts of the
Hindu class of the same name, are found in small numbers in towns
and large villages. In look, food, dress, and manners, they closely
resemble Dhobis and speak Hindustani at home and a corrupt
Mardthi abroad. As a class though lazy and unthrifty, Hajams are
orderly and honest and live from hand to mouth. Their work is
constant and they earn Qd. (4 as.) a day. They marry among them-
selves only and form a separate community without a special
organisation or an elective headman. They refer their caste dis-
putes to the regular Kazi, who registers their marriages and conducts
their death ceremonies. Except circumcising their children and
employing the Kdzi at their marriages and deaths, they keep no

Deccan.l

sAtAra.

143

social or religious Masalman customs, and are seldom careful to
say their prayers. They call themselves Sunnis of the Hanafi school.
They do not give their children any schooling or take to new pur-
suits, and are a steady class.

Jha'ra's, or Dust Sifters, are found in small numbers over the
whole district. They are descended from Hindus, probably of the
Bdgban caste, who are said to have been converted by Aurangzeb
(1658-1707). They rank with Atdrs, Manyars, and Patvegars
whom they resemble in look food and dress, and with whom they
eat and marry. They buy the sweepings and ashes of goldsmiths'
shops and furnaces and sift out particles of gold and silver. They
also sift the ashes of dead Hindus for melted ornaments diving and
bringing up the mud when the ashes are thrown into water. They
sell these particles to money-changers and make 6d. to 2s. (Re. ^-1)
a day. When they do not get sufficient work at Satdra, they travel
to Belgaum, Gokdk, Kolhdpur, Ndsik, and ShoMpur, and buy dust
in the goldsmiths' shops, sift it in the river, and return home. As a
class they are clean and neat in their habits, and, though given to
drink, are hardworking and thrifty, and some of them are fairly off
and able to save. They form a separate body with a well managed
union under their headman called mehetra, and settle social disputes
in accordance with the votes of the castemen. They are Sunnis of
the Hanafi school in name, but are seldom religious or careful to
say their prayers. They respect and obey the regular Kdzi and
employ him to register their marriage and to conduct their death
ceremonies. They never give their boys any schooling and besides as
dust-sifters earn their living as messengers and servants.

Banga'ris, or Dyers, are found in towns and large villages. They
are said to represent converts from MArwar who came and settled in
the district about fifteen years ago. They have a subdivision called
Chipha. They speak Hindustani both at home and abroad, are
dark, strong, and well built, and can easily be known by their blue
hands. The men shave the head, wear the beard full, and dress
like other Musalmd,ns. The women are fairer than the men and
dress in the Upper Indian petticoat and bodice, and wear large
ivory bangles and wristlets, and a necklace of black glass beads.
They appear in public and help their husbands in preparing colours.
As a class Rang^ris are clean and neat, honest, hardworking, orderly,
and thrifty. They are hereditary dyers, and their work is brisk in
the fair season. Like mutton-butchers, they do not eat from the
hands of Hindu Dhobis, Sonars, TAmbats, and the depressed classes
and do not associate with regular MusalmSns, and eschew beef
and liquor. They are Sunnis of the Hanafi school, fast during
Bamzdn, and worship Muhammadan saints. Their customs, except
their marriage customs, are the same as those of regular Musalm£ns,
but they have no special organization and the regular Kdzi settles
their caste disputes. They marry among themselves, the boy as a
rule taking as wife his maternal uncle's daughter. At the betrothal
the boy presents the girl with a petticoat and a backless short-
sleeved bodice. The parents of both the boy and the girl consult
the regular Kazi and he names a lucky day for the marriage. The

Chapter III
People.

MtjsalmAns.

Jhdrd8.

Mdrwdr
Rangdria.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

144

DISTRICTS.

Chapter III,
People.

Mtjsalmans.

Mdrw6/r
Bangdris.

Momins.

Nagdrjis.

father of the girl receives no money from the boy's father, but
sometimes if he is poor the boy's father pays a sum of money to the
girl's father. Booths are raised before the houses of both with a
marriage post called muhurtmedh fixed in one of the corners of each.
Married women secretly rub some turmeric on the bridegroom's
clothes. Then comes the sdvhalad or public turmeric rubbing at
which the married women meet at the girl's house in the evening
where the boy is also asked, seat the boy on a low stool placed on a
square of wheat, sing Mdrwar songs, rub him with turmeric, and
deck his head with flower garlands. The girl is carried in by some
married woman on her hip and rubbed with turmeric, musicians
play, and the women are feasted at the girl's. This they call the
feast of biyapati, when the food is served in dishes and frankincense
is burnt in the name of God, the marriage clothes of the couple are
marked with sandal and placed before the dishes. Five women are
made to fast during the day and are told to eat first of all. They
are followed by the women of the house and the ceremony is over.
The women of the bride's house take vermicelli and sugared rice or
sdkharbhdt with music to the bridegroom's for his breakfast, and in
return receive from him 2s. (Re. 1) and a bodicecloth. On the next,
the god-humouring is performed and goats are killed, and friends
and relations treated to a dinner. Early next morning the bride-
groom is taken to the mosque and prays and the rest of the marriage
ceremony is the same as among other Musalmiins. The regular
Kdzi settles their caste disputes. They send their boys to school,
and are well-to-do.

Momins, probably represent converts of the Koshti caste, are
found in towns and large villages. They form a separate class and
do not marry with other Musalmans though in a -few cases they,
have married with Patvegar or tassel-maker families. They have no
objection to eat with any Musalman. A Momin woman differs from
other Musalmdn women of the district in not wearing any nose
ornament. They are weavers. The appliances of a Momin's loom are
a brush or Tcuncha worth 4s. to 10s. (Rs. 2-5) and bought of a Kanjari,
Jcdmbyds or rods laid flat between the alternate threads of the warp
to keep them from becoming entangled, turkdth or a cloth beam worth
Is. 3d. (10 as.), hatya or a shuttle beam used as a batten or lay worth
3s. (Rs. IJ), phani or the reed frame worth 3d to Is. 6d (2-12 as),
charha or the wheel worth 2s. (Re. 1), dhota or a shuttle worth 9d.
(6 as) bought of a Kolhd.ti, and tansal or uprights with rings worth,-
Is. 6cZ. (12 as.).. Their women help by twisting yam. They weave a
turban of unbleached yam 150 feet long in ten days, sell it for 9s,.
(Rs. 4J) and make 3s. (Rs.l|) as profit. They have suffered by the.,
competition of machine-made yarn and they have been reduced to
poverty. Some have left their craft and become servants and day
labourers. They keep all the Musalman customs.

Naga'rjis, or Kettle Drummers, representatives of local converts
of the Hindu class of the same name, are found in small numbers
in towns only. Their home-tongue is Hindustani and they speak
Mardthi abroad. They are dark, tall, or middle sized, regulars
featured, and well built. The men shave the head and wear the, beard?

Deccan.]

sAtAba.

145

full, and dress in a large twisted turban, a coat, a waistcoat, and a
waistcloth. The women, wlio are fairer and thinner than the men,
wear a Mardtha robe and bodice, appear in public, and add nothing
to the family earnings. Both men and women are clean and neat in
their habits. The men are kettledrum-beaters but since the fall of
the SditSra chiefs the demand for their work has been less and they
at present are asked to play during marriages at the houses of both
the Hindus and Musalmans, and on festive occasions at local temples
and the shrines of MusalmAn saints. Though hardworking many
are given to drink and are badly off, and some of them have taken
to tillage. They marry among themselves only and form a separate
community under an elective headman or chaudhari, who settles
caste disputes with the consent of the majority of the castemen, and
punishes the breakers of social rules with fines and caste feasts.
Though in name Sunnis of the Hanafi school they have strong Hindu
leanings, keeping Hindu feasts, eschewing beef, and worshipping
Hindu gods. They are seldom careful to say their prayers or to
perform the ceremonies of bisntilla or initiation and ' alcika or
sacrifice. They respect and obey the Kdzi and employ him to
register their marriages. They seldom send their boys to school.
Besides as kettle-drummers they work as messengers and servants
and are a steady class.

Pakhalis, or Water-carriers, representing local Hindu converts of
the same caste, are found in small numbers in S^tdra, Mahdbaleshvar,
and other large towns. Their home-tongue is Hindustd.ni and they
speak a corrupt Mardthi abroad. As a class they are middle sized,
dark, and thin ; the men shave the head or cut the hair close, wear
the beard full, and dress in a headscarf or a Mard.tha turban, a
tight-fitting jacket, and a pair of tight and short trousers, or a
waistcloth. The women are shorter and fairer than the men and
wear the Mar£tha robe and bodice, appear in public, and, except the
old who help in water-carrying, add nothing to the family income.
As a rule Pakhdlis are dirty and untidy in their habits, hardworking
and thrifty. They carry water in leathern bags on bullock-back
and supply water to Musalmd,ns, Christians, Pdrsis, and a few low
caste Hindus. Their monthly earnings vary from £1 to £1 \Qs.
(Es. 10-15) but they are given to drink and spend half their income
on liquor. They marry among themselves and form a separate
community under an elective headman called chaudhari who settles
social disputes with the consent of the majority of the caste and
punishes breaches of social rules by fines which generally take the
form of caste feasts. They call themselves Sunnis of the Hanafi
school but are seldom careful to say their prayers or perform the
ceremonies of initiation or hismilla and sacrifice or ahika. They
respect and obey the regular Kdzi and employ him to conduct their
marriage and death ceremonies. But they have strong Hindu
leanings, eschew beef, keep Hindu festivals especially the
Dasara in September - October, and offer vows to Hindu gods. On
Dasara Day they deck their bullocks with flowers, paint them yellow
and green, and parade them through the streets along with the
bullocks of the Hindus, preceded by music, and followed by a
B 1282—19

Chapter III '
People.

Musalmans.
Nagdrjis,

Pakhdlis.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

146"

DISTRICTS.

Chapter III.
People.

MUSALMANS.

Patvegars.

Pinjdris.

Sihalgars.

TdmbcUSt

crowd. TBey do not send their boys to school or take to new
pursuits. They are a poor class and generally in debt.

Patvegars, or Silk Tassel Twisters, are found in almost all
towns. They probably represent local converts of mixed Hindu
classes and rank with Atdrs, Momins, and Manyars with whom they
intermarry and whom they resemble in look, food, dress, and customs.
They ascribe their conversion to Aurangzeb (1658-1707) and twist
silk tassels and make silk waist threads or katdords and soft pads
or gddis for women's necklaces. They do not send their children'
to school or take to new pursuits, but their work is constant and
they are a steady class.

Pinja'ris, or Cotton Teasers, representatives of local converts of
the Hindu caste of the same name, are found only in towns. They
are Musalmans and eat with other Musalmdns, but marry among
themselves only. The men take the titles of Shaikh, Syed, and
PathAn after their names. The K^zi and Mulla officiate at their
marriages and they give 10s. to £1 (Rs. 5-10) to the caste as present
money. They have a headman called mehtar to whom in a marriage
ceremony the boy's father gives a turban. The mehtar inquires
into and settles their caste disputes. Most of them are carders of
cotton and wool, and a few are servants and day-labourers. They
stufi beds with cleaned cotton and make pack-saddles, quilted felt
to put under saddles, and different kinds of felt. They are aided
in their work by their women and children. The tools they use are
a Tcam&n or bow worth 6s. (Rs. 3), a dasta or pestle worth Is. (8 as.),
and catgut sold at 4s. (Rs. 2) for 150 feet. The kamdn or bow is a
somewhat square piece of plank having a pole with a hooked end
fastened to it. The catgut passes over the hooked end and is
fastened to the piece of plank. Thus the whole machine is something
like a bow. The dasta is a cylindrical piece of wood having both
its ends formed like knobs and a groove in the middle to handle it.
As the carder sits to clean cotton or wool he holds the kamdn, which
hangs down from the string of a bow attached to a peg in a wall
and pulls the catgut by an end of the dasta. Their goods do not
command sale, and their trade is on the decline.

Sikalgars, or Armourers, are found only in the town of S^tdra.
They eat with all Masalmdns, but marry with Manyd,rs, At^rs, and
Patvegars only. They furbish and polish weapons and tools and
make razors, kuives, pack needles, carpenters' tools, and all sorts of
cutlery. A few of them are engaged as servants. The large
importation of Europe?ni hardware has greatly interfered with their
calling. They call the K^zi and Mulla to officiate at their marriage,
and pay 5s. (Rs. 2^) to the K8,zi. They present a turban to their
headman or mehtar^ differing in value according to their means.
They ask other Musalmd,ns to marriage feasts and are asked by
them to similar feasts. Except this, their customs differ little from
those of other Musalmd,ns.

Ta'mbats, or Coppersmiths, probably representatives of converts
of the Hindu caste of the same name, are found in towns only. They
say that they are descended from one Muhammad Din. They eat

DeccanV]

sAtara.

147

witt all Musalmdns, but marry only -with At^rs, ManySrs, Pinjaris,
Patvegars, Sikalgars, and Hativdlas. They call the Kazi and Mulla
to con duct, their marriage and other ceremonies. They make brass
vessels. Non'e of them has a shop of his own for brass wares ; all
of them are paid 6s. (Rs. 3 a man) the quarter of brass sheet worked
into pots. Their capitalists are Kdsd,rs, for whom they make tats
or dining dishes with the rim slightly inclined outwards, pdteMs
or cylindrical copper or brass pots with slightly rounded bottoms,
tdmbyds or drinking pots of all fashions, pardts or large platters with
high rims slightly inclined outwards, and vdtis or cylindrical brass
cups with rounded bottoms. Their religion forbids their working in
copper. One Tambat is said to be able to make twenty-eight pounds
of brass into pots in twelve days. They sometimes smelt brass, the
alloy containing two parts of copper and one and a half parts of
pewter. To these metals half a pound of soda is added and the
whole mixture is put in an iron crucible. The crucible is put into
a pit covered with charcoal, and fire is set and blown into a white
heat. Nearly two hours are required for the alloy to form. Some
forty years ago they were well-to-do. Since then they are slowly
declining, on account of the large number of hands engaged in the
trade. They are poor and barely self-supporting.

Christians are returned as numbering 886 and as found chiefly
in Jdvli, Koregaon, Sd,tara, and Wai. Of the 886 Christians, 426
j^ere Europeans including Americans of the American mission and
Eurasians, and 460 Natives. Besides the civil officers a large
number of Europeans belong to the military service. The American
mission began work in the district in 1834 and has at present
(1884) 124 native converts connected with it. In 1834 Mrs. G^s^ves
of the American mission opened a girls school at Mahdbaleshvar.
Till 1849 when the Rev. William Wood of the American Mission
settled permanently at Sdtdra, the school was removed to Sdtara
every year during the rainy season. Since 1849 Sdtara has resident
missionaries. In food, drink, dress, calling, faith, and customs^-the
Sdtara Native Christians do not differ from the Ahmadnagar Native
Christians.

Pa'rsis are returned as numbering ninety-nine and as found in
Satdra and Jjlvli. They are emigrants from Bombay. Their
home speech is Gujardti. As shopkeepers, merchants, and contractora
they are well to do and prosperous.

Chapter III
People.

MUSALMAHS,

Tdmbats.

Christians.

PAesis.

[Bombay Gazetteer-,

Chapter IV.
Agriculture.

Hdsbandmen.

CHAPTER IV.

AGRICULTURE.

According^ to the 1881 census, agriculture supported about 744,000
people or 70 per cent o£ the population. The details are :
Sdtdra Agricultural Population, 1881.

Age.

Males.

Females.

Total.

Under Fifteen ...
Over Fifteen ...

Total ...

164,707
218,245

139,857
231,204

294,664
449,449

312,952

371,061

744,018

The bulk o£ the S^t^ra landholders are Mardtha Kunbis. But
the best class of husbandmen are the Jains o£ the south and south-
west of the district. In 1851 Mr. Ogilvy described the Satdra
Kunbis as hardworking skilful husbandmen, understanding the
rotation of crops, the value of manure, and the necessity of refreshing
the soil by fallows. The general opinion is less favourable to
the Satara Kunbi who is said to be wanting in enterprise and
averse from improvement. In the east of the district the land-
holders are said to be only moderately hardworking, and the richer
soils in the west are said to suffer from being cropped several years
in succession without ploughing. At the same time different parts
of the district show notable instances of skill and enterprise. In
parts of Khandd,la and Wdi bad conditions have been improved
with great success. By terracing slopes and damming ravines the very
rocks have been forced to yield a good return. The hill cultivator
is most acute in availing himself of every spring, and is an adept at
terracing the hill sides, and generally wherever means of irrigation
are available the cultivator shows industry and skill. Instead of
limiting his undertakings to eking out a bare subsistence he aims at
an increase of comfort and fortune. That there are no more signs of
enterprise is due to the want of capital and the despair of escaping
from the moneylender. The habit of disposing of their own produce
has lately increased among landholders, owing to the restricted credit
occasioned by the Agriculturists' Relief Act, which is believed to have
had the effect of quickening enterprise and the desire to improve.
The condition of the landholders varies considerably in different
parts of the district. It may be roughly stated that few east of

1 Except the details of crops and wator-works, and the account of famines, this
chapter is contributed by Mr. J. W. P, Muir-Mackenzie, C.S.

Deccau]

SATARA.

149

the Yerla river are in comfortable circumstances, and many are
frequently obliged to leave their homes in search of employment.
Few anywhere are clear of debt, but the western landholder has
probably better credit and less often borrows from neediness than the
eastern. The Kunbi landholder generally sells his produce to the
village dealer, to wandering buyers who frequent villages at harvest
time, or in the nearest market. A few export on their own account
chiefly to Poona and Ohiplun. Most of the local field produce is sent
away by merchants who have secured it either by purchase from the
growers in satisfaction of debts, or from moneylenders at wholesale
prices. During the idle season many husbandmen make use of
their own and their cattle's labour in cart-driving, while some
members of many families are engaged in carting the whole year
round. Cases of husbandmen giving up their calling and taking to
crafts or other industries are unknown in S^tara.

The soils of the district belong to three main classes, red in the
hills and black and light-coloured in the plains. The black or kdli
soil is generally found in belts lying along the banks of the leading
streams, the breadth of the belt varying with the size of the stream.
In the Krishna valley is found the broadest belt of this rich soil, which
yields the best garden and dry crops in the district. Under the name
of black is included the slightly lighter and less productive Jcdlvat
which is mixed with a small quantity of murum or crumbly trap.
The leading light coloured soils are the mdl ran or murum mdl a
hard rocky soil commonest at the bases of the more eastern hills.
The same soil, mixed with red at the foot of the Sahyddris, forms
one variety of the soil called tdmbad or red. Another soil known
as tambad is black soil mixed with red. Near the heads of the
streams which issue from the Sahyadris, the soil of the valleys is
red or tdmbdi and yields most of the rice grown in the district. On
the hill tops where the water cannot be sufficiently confined for
rice tillage this soil is used for Icumri or wood-ash tillage. There
is also the soil called chunkhadi which is a broken trap or murum
soU strongly charged with lime. Lime is also found in black soils
near river beds. The soil of the country at the foot of the
SahyAdris west of the Yei*la is generally good, and the soil of the
Krishna valley is especially rich. East of the Yerla, and in the
Khanddla petty division in the north-east, the land becomes poorer,
and the proportion of black soil becomes much smaller.

Of an area of 4792 square miles or 3,067,943 acres, 2,442,503 acres
or 79'.62 per cent are in 960 Government villages, and 625,440 acres
or 20-38 per cent are in 396 alienated villages. All the Government
lands have been surveyed, and of the lands in alienated villages
363,189 acres have been surveyed. According to the revenue survey,
of the 2,442,503 acres of Government land, 1,802,156 acres or
73-79 per cent are arable ; 141,291 acres or 5-79 per cent unarable ;
4956 acres or 0-20 per cent grass or kuran ; 387,715 acres or 15-87
per cent forest ; and 106,385 acres or 4-35 per cent village sites,
roads and river beds. Of the 1,802,156 acres of arable land in
Government villages 382,957 or 21-24 per cent are ahenated. Of

Chapter IV.
Agriculture

Husbandmen

Soil.

Ababi.e Abba.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

****Chapter IV.
Agriculture.

Holdings.

Plough,

Sto ok.

Field Tools.

150

DISTRICTS.

the whole arable area of 1,802,156 acres 1,378,659 acres or 76-50 per
cent were in 1882-83 held for tillage. Of this 43,462 acres or 3-15
per cent were garden land, 14,895 acres or I'OS per cent w6re rice
land, and 1,320,302 acres or 95*77 per cent were dry crop.

In 1882-83 the number of holdings, including alienated lands in
Government villages, was 120,158 with an average area of 14f^
acres. Of the whole number of holdings 46,353 were of not more
than five acres ; 25,628 were of five to ten acres ; 22,620 of ten to
twenty acres ; 11,601 of twenty to thirty acres ; 5584 of thirty to
forty acres ; 2946 of forty to fifty acres ; 3782 of fifty to a hundred
acres ; 1285 of 100 to 200 acres ; 221 of 200 to 300 acres ; 66 of 300
to 400 acres ; and 72 of over 400 acres. As regards the distribution
of these holdings the rule is the more fertile the subdivision and the
larger its area of watered land the smaller are the holdings. Thus in
1879-80 in Kardd, which is probably the most fertile sub-division of
the district, 81"34 per cent of the holdings were under twenty acres
and 31 '27 per cent were under five acres ; while in MixL, the poorest
sub-division, only six per cent were under five acres and 2 7" 25 per
cent under twenty acres. Again in Man 82'7 per cent of the holdings
were between fifty and 200 acres against 4*8 per cent in Kardd.
In the hUly sub-divisions of Wdi, Jdvli, Sdtara, Pditan, and Valva
the number of small holdings is larger. As, though entered in
one name, many of the large holdings are jointly occupied by large
families, it may be stated as approximately correct that ten or
fifteen acres of a fair dry crop holding in the rich western valleys
will support a holder with a family of three or four persons in
decent comfort, while in the barren east twenty to thirty acres are
required even for less easy and certain subsistence.

In the plains the black soil is generally so heavy as to make
ploughing impossible with less than four bullocks and in many
places as many as six pairs are required. To raise the full number
of bullocks poor landholders with small holdings borrow from each
other or hire. In jirdyat or dry crop soil a pair of oxen can plough
ten to twelve acres, in mdl or broken trap soil in the eastern
subdivisions a pair can plough twenty-five to thirty acres, and in the
hiUy soil five to thirty acres according to the steepness of the
field and the depth of the soil.

According to the Collector's yearly returns the 1882-83 field
stock included 55,724 ploughs of which 31,855 were for two
bullocks and 23,869 for four bullocks ; 18,275 carts of which 1241
were riding carts and 17,034 were load carts, 246,921 bullocks, 152,640
cows, 115,311 bufialoes of which 82,711 were females and 32,600
males, 13,390 horses mares and colts, 4394 donkeys, 425,374 sheep
and goats, 31 camels, and 5 elephants.

Of field tools the chief are the plough or ndngar, the seed drill
called pdbar or huri, the harrow or kulav, the weeder or holjpa, and
the mud harrow or cJiikhldche cmt. The plough is of two kinds,
the large or thorla ndngar and the ndngri or small hand plough.
A plough drawn by a pair of oxen costs about 2s. (Re. 1). The
seed drill has its teeth or phanis communicating with tubes or nalis

Deccau-I

sAtAra.

151

which end in a box called chdde. This box the sower keeps filling
with seed which passes through the tubes into the furrows made by
the teeth. According to the soil the seed drill is drawn by two to
eight bullocks and costs about 4s.' (Rs. 2). After the seed drill, to
cover the seed, the harrow or kulav is drawn. It is an iron blade or ^tis
fastened to two upright teeth fixed in a harrow frame and costing
about 2s. (Re. 1). When the crop is about a foot high, the weeder or
kolpa is used to clean the field of grass and weeds. The weeder
has a small harrow frame with two iron blades bent near
the middle at right angles, the upper part of each blade being
fixed into opposite sides of the frame at an acute angle to the
frame and at an obtuse angle to the ground, and the lower part
pointing inwards and horizontally towards the corresponding part
of the other blade. These two horizontal pieces pass through the
ground about a couple of inches deep and turn up the surface
on both sides of the crop. The mud harrow, costiug Is. to ls.-6d.
(8 - 12 as.), is used in rice fields in turning up the ground to
receive the seedlings when ready for planting. Of small field tools
the chief are the large and small hoes kudal and hudali, the
spade or pdvda, the axe or Jcurhdd, the pruning knives and
sickles or pdyla and koyti, the manure rake or ddtdle, the trowel
or khurpa, and the reaping sickle or vila. All cultivators have not
the plough and the seed-drill, but very few are without the smaller
field tools.

At present (1883) S^tdra has six works for watering land. These
are the Revari canal on the Vdsna, the Yerla canals on the Yerla,
the Gondoli canal on the M^n, the Mdyni reservoir on the Vang, the
Chikhli canal on the Ndndni, and the Krishna canal on the Krishna.
Of these six works the Revdri canal is an old work restored, and the
other five are new works. Of the six works the Krishna canal
which has its source in the SahyAdris, has an unfailing supply of
water, while the Revdri, Yerla, Gondoli, Mdyni, and Chikhli water
works chiefly depend on the local rainfall.

The Revdri Canal lies on the V^sna a feeder of the Krishna in
Koregaon. The VAsna rises in the Mahadev range which runs south-
east to the borders of the Satara district, forming the water-shed
between the Krishna and the Bhima valleys. The V^sna falls into the
Krishna ten miles south-east of Satara, andthehead works of the canal
lie about eleven miles above the meeting of the rivers. About 1781
the work was originally partially built by one Ndro Appdji, the
hereditary kulkarni or accountant of Padali, who was a distinguished
officer in the Peshwa's service. When Ndro died, the river work was
completed and the canal was unfinished. In 1849, , within a year
after the district came under the British Government, the work
was completed and the canal bi^ought into use. A want of slope in
the channel, and the excessive smallness of two tunnels which
prevented their being cleared, stopped the flow of water. After
the experience of one season the canal was abandoned. In 1863
the irrigation department undertook to restore the work. The
descendants of Naro Appdji gave up their claims on the work on
condition that they were allowed the free use of water for nine

Chapter VT.
Agriculture.

■ Field Tools.

Water Works.

Bevdri Canal.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

152

DISTRICTS.

Chapter IV.
Agriculture.

Water Woeks.
Sevdri.Oanal.

Yerla Canals.

acres of land. The massive masonry of the original river work was
in perfect repair, all that was wanted was to renewthe channel.
The canal is four miles long and has a head discharge of fifteen cubic
feet a second. It commands 6000 acres of which 5340 are
arable. A complete system of distributaries, some of which extend
to the Krishna valley, was constructed by the villagers. The
work came into use in 1865-66. In 1882-83, of 3624 arable acres
under command, 519 acres or 14"32 per cent in the lands of seven
Koregaon villages were watered. Of the 519 watered acres 160
were for kharif or early crops and 359 for rati or late crops.
The acre water rates were £1 16s. (Rs. 18) for the whole year, 8s.
(Rs. 4) for eight months, 4s. (Rs. 2) for four months, and 2s. (Re. 1)
for early dry crops. The chief crops watered weiejvdri 122 acres,
wheat 108 acres, groundnut 215 acres, and sugarcane thirty acres.
In 1882-83 along the line of the canal were 1574 trees, chiefly
bdbhul, mango, and jdmhhul. In 1882-83 the rainfall at Revari was
40"50 inches, and during the ten years ending 1882-83 it averaged
29-13 inches.

The Yerla Canals lie on the river Yerla which rises in the Mahadev
range immediately east of the Vasna, and joins the Krishna sixty
miles south-east of Sd,tdra. The head works of the canals, one on
each bank of the river, are on a rocky barrier sixty miles above the
meeting of the Krishna and the Yerla. The work was begun in 1867
and finished in 1868. It includes a masonry weir across the river,
538 feet long and sixteen feet high, with regulators at each end
forming the headworks of the two canals which are completely
bridged and regulated. The right bank canal is nine miles long
and the left bank canal 8i miles. Both canals have a head
discharge of forty-two cubic feet the second. The monsoon supply
in the river is trustworthy but irregular, and the dry weather
discharge generally falls very low. Dtoing 1876 the rabi or cold
weather supply totally failed. In November the river's discharge
was only 2 1 cubic feet a second, and water was stored at night and
ran down the canals during the day only. To supplement the
supply to the Yerla right and left bank canals, the storage' reservoir
at Nher was begun in 1876, chiefly as a famine relief work, and
completed in 1880-81 by ordinary labour. The reservoir lies at the
village of Nher on the Yerla river, twenty-two miles east of Satdra and
six miles above the headworks of the canals. The dam is 4820 feet
long and seventy-four feet in greatest height. The lake, when full,
contains 523 millions of cubic feet, the available capacity being 490
millions. The drainage area above the dam site is sixty square
miles and the reservoir is calculated to fill with a run-off of ~3'51
inches. After filling the reservoir on the right bank a waste weir
700 feet long and with a crest fourteen feet below the top of the
dam provides for the escape of flood w^ers. In 1882-83, of the 7159
net arable acres under command 749 acres or about ten per cent were
watered in the lands of nine villages of Khatdv. Of the 749
watered acres 403 were for kharif or early crops and 346 were for
rabi or late crops. The acre water rates were £1 16s. (Rs. 18) for
the whole year, 8s. (Rs. 4) for eight months, 4s, (Rs. 2) for four
months, and 2s. (Re. 1) for monsoon dry crops. The chief crops

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153

watered were jvdri fifty-five acres, wheat thirty-nine acres, Jchapla
or husked wheat fifty-three acres, groundnut 303 acres, peas thirty-
four acres, gram 126 acres, and sugarcane ninety- three acres. In
1882-83 the rainfall at Khadgun was 35'87 inches, and during the
ten years ending 1882-83 it averaged 27-58 inches. In 1882-83
7535 trees were growing along the canal chiefly bdbhul, mango,
jdmbhul, nirrib, and savdad.

The Gondoli Canal lies on the river MAn which rises in the
MahMev range, a mile and a half north of the village of Gondoli
and three miles south of the town of Dahivadi in Man. The canal
was begun as a relief work in 1867 and completed in 1872. The
headworks of the canal are on the site of an old ruined bdndhdra
or masonry weir built across a massive rocky barrier. The new
weir is of rubble masonry 325 feet long and twenty-four feet
high. The canal leading off" on the right bank is also entirely
new. The canal is eight miles in length and has one main branch,
two miles long, leading from the seventh mile. The canal has
a head discharge of ten cubic feet of water a second. The canal
near its head crosses two deep ravines on light wrought- iron
aqueducts. With this exception the masonry works are simple,
consisting of ordinary escapes. The head of the canal lies near
the source of the river, the drainage area being only sixty-eight
square miles. The supply of water is meagre, and even during
the monsoon is fitful and uncertain. To increase the water supply
the Pingli lake was chosen and surveyed in 1874-75 as a storage
lake. The Pingli lake lies three miles above the headworks of
the Gondoli canal on a small feeder of the Mdn. The work was
begun in October 1876 as a famine relief work and completed in
April 1878. The lake is formed by an earthen dam 5200 feet long
with a greatest height of fifty -four feet. The full supply level is
nine feet below the top of the dam, giving a greatest depth of
storage of forty-five feet. The outlet level is sixteen feet above
the bottom of the reservoir, and the available depth of storage is
twenty-nine feet. The escape of flood water, after the filling of
the lake, is provided for by a waste weir 750 feet long, partly dug
out and partly built, with a masonry wall on the right flank of
the dam. A greatest flood is calculated to rise three feet on this
weir that is to six feet below the top of the dam. The outlet is
an oval masonry culvert with masonry head wall connected with
the dam by a light wrought-iron bridge. Two sluices, each two feet
square are provided, closed by iron gates. The area of the catch-
ment basin of the lake is twenty square miles. The average rainfall
is estimated at 18'43 inches, and the average yearly supply of
water, taking the run-ofi" as one-fourth the rainfall, is estimated
at 214 millions of cubic feet. The available capacity of the lake
above the outlet level is 195 millions of cubic feet. The Pingli
lake was opened in 1878-79, and is to be joined to the Gondoli canal
by a canal three miles long and commanding an area of 1100 acres
between the Pingli lake and the Gondoli canal. At present
(1883-84) the Gondoli canal is supplied by getting water down
the main stream and picking it up near the Gondoli canal by a
small masonry weir and a connecting channel. In 1882-83, of the
B 1282—20

Chapter IV.
Agriculture.

Watbk Works, ,

Oondoli Canal.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

Chapter IV.
Agriculture.

Wateb Wobks.
GondoU Canal.

Mdyni Lake.

Chikhli Canal.

154

DISTEICTS.

3010 arable acres under command, 300 acres or ten per cent were
watered in eight villages of Mdn. Of the 300 watered acres 118
were for hharif or early crops and 182 for rahi or late crops. The
acre water rates were £1 16s. (Es. 18) for the whole year, 8s.
(Rs. 4) for eight months, 4s. (Rs. 2) for four months^ and 2s. (Re. 1)
for monsoon dry crops. The chief watered crops were hdjri twenty-
six acres, jvdri twenty-four acres, Ichwpla or husked wheat eighty-
six acres, groundnut thirty-eight acres, gram fifty-seven acres,
and sugarcane twenty-five acres. Inl 882-83 the rainfall at Gondoli
was 21 '99 inches, and during the ten years ending 1882-83 it
averaged 21"33 inches. In 1882-88 along the canal 2234 trees were
growing chiefly bdlhul and mmb.

The M4yni Lake is on the Vdng river a feeder of the Yerla. The
headwork of the canal lies about six miles above the meeting of
the Vang with the Yerla and forty-five miles south-east of
Satara. The work was begun in 1868 and opened in 1875-76.
When full the lake has an area of 380 acres and holds 190 millions
of cubic feet of water. It is formed by an earthen dam 2870
feet long and fifty-seven feet in greatest height, and has a ten-
mile long canal on the left bank. The catchment area of the
river above the dam is fifty-four square miles and the lake is
estimated to fill with a run-off of 1| inches from this area. The
escape of flood waters is provided for by a waste weir 600 feet long
on the left bank. The crest of the weir is thirteen feet below
the top of the dam. The level at which the canal takes off is
thirty-one feet below the crest of the waste weir. The head
discharge of the canal is thirty -three cubic feet a second. In
1882-83, of 4625 arable acres under command 742 acres or about
sixteen per cent were watered. Of the 742 watered acres 467 were
for Jcharif or early and 275 for rabi or late crops. The acre water
rates were £1 (Rs. 10) for the whole year, 8s. (Rs. 4) for eight
months, 4s. (Rs. 2) for four months, and 2s. (Re. 1) for rain crops.
The chief crops watered were j'vdri fifty- six acres, khapla or
husked wheat fifty-eight acres, groundnut 315 acres, gram eighty-
nine acres, and sugarcane seventy-five acres. In 1882-83 the rain-
fall at Mayni was 27'37 inches, and during the ten years ending
1882-83 it averaged 26-19 inches. In 1882-83 along the line of the
canal were 938 bdbhuls and casuarinas.

The Chikhli Canal lies on the right bank of the N^ndni, a feeder
of the Yerla. The Ndndni rises eight miles south of the head of
the Yerla canals, and joins the Yerla river twenty-eight miles above
the meeting of the Yerla and the Krishna. At the site of the canal
head works, six miles above the meeting of theNandniand the Yerla,
the Nd,ndni has a catchment area of 160 square miles. The canal
was partly made as a famine relief work in 1866-67 and was opened
in 1870. The weir which forms the head works of the canal is of
rubble masonry. It stands on the site of a disused temporary dam.
The canal, which is about six miles long, is completely bridged and
has a head discharge of fifteen cubic feet a second. In 1882-83, of
1478 arable acres under command 217 acres or 14-68 per cent
were watered in the lauds^.of four Khdndpur villages. Of the

Deccau]

satAra.

153

217 watered acres, 179 were for kharif or early crops and thirty-
eight for rahi or late crops. The acre water rates were £1 16s.
(Rs. 18) for the whole year, 8 s. (Rs. 4) for eight months, 4s.
(Rs. 2) for four months, and 2s. (Re. 1) for monsoon dry crops.
The chief crops watered were Ichapla and rdla each sixteen
acres, groundnut 132 acres, sugarcane eight acres, and chillies
twenty-two acres. In 1882-83 the rainfall at Chikhli was 38'38
inches, and during the ten years ending 1882-83 it a-peraged
25'03 inches. In 1882-83 along the line of the canal were 2524
trees chiefly bdbhuls and mangoes.

The Krishna Canal lies on the left bank of the Krishna, and
besides in certain villages of the Pant Pratinidhi and Sangli states,
waters land in the sub-divisions of KarM, Vdlva, and Tasgaon.
Almost the whole watered area lies between the canal and the river.
The headworks lie on the ELrishna opposite the village of Khodsi,
about two miles above the town of KarM at the meeting of the
Krishna with the Koyna. The total drainage area of the Krishna
at the site of the headworks is 1247 square miles. The supply
lasts throughout the year. Although it is abundant during the
rains it falls to a comparatively scanty stream during the hot
weather, and the discharge has been registered as low as twenty-
four cubic feet the second. To remedy this scanty supply a scheme
is under consideration proposing to make a storage lake on a feeder
of the Kjishna. The Krishna canal works were sanctioned in 1863
aud opened in 1868. They consist of a weir across the river at
Khodsi with a canal taken off on the left bank thirty -five miles
long, completely bridged and reflated. The weir is of rubble
masonry 1200 feet long and twenty-one feet in greatest height,
narrowing from nineteen feet at the base to eight feet at the crest.
The weir has a batter of one in six on the down stream side. A
small subsidiary weir below forms a pond to break the force of the
falling water. To store the water brought by slight freshes provi-
sion is made for raising a temporary earthen dam on the crest of
the weir. On the right bank is a wing wall with an embankment
above, and escapes are formed at both flanks to aid the closing of
the earthen dam. The weir is continued by a curved wall up
to the regulator which is thrown well back from the river bank.
In this wall are four scouring sluices, one of which lies close to the
regulator. The regulator is a simple block of masonry with
nine under-sluices having thirty-four feet of waterway. These
are closed by planks, working in grooves, and raised and lowered by
screws worked from the platform above. Their sills are fiLxed so that,
if necessary, the head of the canal may be deepened. The canal
is thirty -five miles long with a bottom width at head of eleven
feet and side slopes in soil of 1^ to one, and a bed fall of one foot
in the mile. Further down the size and slope of the canal slightly
changes. The bed fall remains one foot a mile for the first thirty
.miles and for the remaining three is increased to one foot and a
quarter. The bottom breadth remains at eleven feet for the first
fifteen miles, narrows to ten feet between the fifteenth and the
twentieth mile, to nine feet between the twentieth and twenty-fifth
mile, to eight feet between the twenty-fifth and thirtieth mile,

Chapter IV

Agriculture-

Water Wokks
Chilihli Canal.

Krishna Caiud.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

156

DISTRICTS.

Chapter IV.

Agriculture.

Watek Wokks,
..Krishna Canal.

Mhasvad Lake.

and to six feet between the thirtieth and thirty -third mile. Cross
drainage is secured by eleven aqueducts, forty-two culverts, and
twenty -three escapes, and communication is provided by fourteen
bridges and twelve paved crossings. The pavements of the cross-
ings, which at first were above the bed level and caused the canal
to sUt, were lowered in 1877. Except at the head there are no
masonry regulators. Before 1871 distributing channels were
made by the landholders, the supply being through earthenware
drain pipes laid under the embankment and closed by plugs and
mud. In 1872 a complete system of fifty-four distributing channels
was sanctioned at an estimated cost of £1231 (Rs. 12,310). With a
depth of four feet of water the canal was estimated to discharge
140 cubic feet a second with a velocity of 2-1, but using Bazin's
formula, the mean velocity at head would be only 1'53 feet and
the discharge 104 cubic feet the second. Besides watering land
this canal supplies the town of Karad with water by a six-inch
cast-iron pipe laid across the Krishna in the form of an inverted
syphon, and ending in a reservoir on the opposite bank. From this
reservoir the water is distributed through the town by earthen-
ware pipes with dipping wells at intervals. The cost of this work
■ was borne by the Kardd municipality, who also pay for water at
the rate for perennial crops, the yearly payment being about £22
(Rs. 220) on an estimated daily consumption of 66,000 gallons.
In 1882-88, of the 25,533 arable acres under command 3023 or
about eleven per cent were watered in the lands of thirty-one vil-
lages of Kardd, Vdlva, and Td,sgaon. Of the 3023 watered acres,
1498 were for kharif or early crops and 1525 for rabi or late crops.
The acre water rates were £1 1 6s. (Rs. 18) for the whole year, 8s.
(Rs. 4) for eight months, 4s. (Rs. 2) for four months, and 2s. (Re. 1)
for monsoon dry crops. The chief crops watered were rice 109
acres, jvdri eighty -six acres, Ichapla or husked wheat 174 acres,
groundnut 1327 acres, sugarcane 1050 acres, chillies eighty-two acres,
and tobacco forty-one acres. In 1882-83 the rainfall at Grond
village was 48'03 inches, and during the ten years ending 1882-83
it averaged 27"27 inches. In 1882-83 along the line of the canal
were 27,368 trees, chiefly bdbhul, mango, nimb, bamboo, sandal, and
hingan, and 7866 saplings, chiefly bdbhul, mango, jdmbhul, bamboo,
nimb, and Icaranj.

Besides these six works, all of which are in use, the Mhasvad
Lake is being built as a separate water work on the lower Man. The
Mhasvad lake scheme had been under investigation for several years,
but the work was not begun till the 1876 famine. It includes a
large lake on the river Mdnin the Mdn sub-division, with a high
level canal leading thirteen miles and commanding the area between
the Mdn and the Bhima, including flfty-six villages of Pandharpur
and Sdngola in ShoUpur with a total area of 252,402 acres or 394
square miles. The lake, which has a catchment area of 480 square
miles and a full supply depth of sixty-seven feet is formed by an
earthen dam 9000 feet long and with a greatest height of eighty
feet. The masonry waste weir for the escape of floods is 3000 feet
long. The lake covers an area of 4014 acres or six square miles
and can hold 2585 millions of cubic feet of water. The canal which

Deccan.]

SlTi-EA.

157

distributes the water is seventeen miles long and with numerous
branch canals, runs down the water-shed from the point at which
the high level canal passes through the water-shed. In an average
year the water-supply would suffice for an area of 30,000 acres. The
work may be said to protect an area of 90,000 acres one-third of
which may be watered every year.^ The country under command
of this canal stands in great need of water as its rainfall is very
uncertain. The estimated cost is £147,623 10s. (Es. 14,76,235) and
the total expenses to the end of 1882-83 are £73,648 (Ks. 7,36,480).

Besides at Kar^d where water is supplied from the Krishna canal,
two reservoirs, at SAtdra and Islampur, supply the towns with drink-
ing water. The works now in hand for improving the water-supply
of Sd,tdra town are a storage lake at Kas, and a canal to bring the
water of the lake into the old conduit at Yavteshvar about two
miles west of the town. The lake is on the Urmodi river about a
mile and a half from its source close to the village of Kas in Jdvli
and thirteen miles in a straight line west by north of Sdtdra. The
catchment area of the lake is only 2f square miles but as the
average yearly rainfall is 157 inches the supply is ample
and certain. The dam, which is of earth with a puddle
trench below, is 714 feet long and 56"41 feet at the highest point.
The width of the top is ten feet and it has a slope of three to one
on the water side and of two to one on the other side. The lake's
full supply level is 3671 "04 feet above mean sea level, and the
top of the dam is 15'9 feet higher. The water face of the dam is
pitched with stone, the thickness increasing gradually from six
inches at the bottom to nine inches at the top. When full the
lake covers 187 acres and holds 73,737,000 cubic feet of water. As
the contents of the lake above the level of the outlet sluice are
60,740,000 cubic feet and the loss by evaporation is estimated at
15,310,000 cubic feet, the available storage is 45,430,000 cubic feet.
The water is drawn from the lake by a regulating sluice, consisting
of a culvert through the dam, having a tower at one end and a dis-
charging basin at the other. The tower carries on its face a two
feet square sluice gate, which is raised and lowered by a capstan
worked at the top of the tower. The greatest discharge from
the sluice is eighty cubic feet the second. The waste weir, which
is sixty feet long, is cut out of the solid rock on the left bank of
the river. The highest flood level is 8'9 feet above the crest of
the weir. This is estimated to give a discharge of 5400 cubic
feet a second, equal to a run-off of three inches an hour
from the catchment area of the lake. The canal which is taken
off from the left bank of the river, is carried under the waste
weir channel which crosses it by an over-passage. The bed fall
of the canal is four feet a mile, and the ruling section is I5 feet
bottom width, side slopes 1 J to one, top of banks three feet wide
and three feet above canal bed, and depth of water 1^. In its
length of about 15^ miles the canal has over 200 cross drainage
works, including forty aqueducts, seventy- seven culverts, fifty
masonry over -passages, three inverted syphons, consisting of iron

Chapter IV.
Agriculture-

Water Works.

Sdldra,

1 Public Works Department Adminiatration Report of 1876-77,

[Bombay Gaietteer,

158.

DISTRICTS.

Chapter IV.

Agriculture-

Water Wokks.
Sdtdra.

Isldm2mr.

Wells.

pipes twelve to fif-teen inches in diameter for crossing large streams,
and three aqueducts or water-leads formed of an iron trough support-
ed on beams and masonry piers. At the end of the fourth mile the
canal is taken to a lower terrace, first running down a stream till
it is picked up by a masonry weir and discharged down a zigzag
masonry channel into an inlet chamber below. The total fall at
this place is 232 feet. In the sixth and ninth miles the canal
passes through three closed masonry channels 3| feet wide and
2| feet high of a length of .300 feet 600 feet and 325 feet. In
the ninth and tenth miles, where the hill side is exceedingly steep
and difficult, the canal for 3400 feet will be carried partly in embank-
ments supported by dry stone retaining walls and partly by an iron
trough supported by beams resting on masonry piers. The estimat-
ed cost of the whole works is £36,916 8s. (Rs. 3,69,164). Up to
1883-84 £10,354 6s. (Rs. 1,03,543) were spent on the lake and head
works and this part of the work is practically complete. The esti-
mated cost of the canal is £26,098 4s. (Rs. 2,60,982). Except about
three miles, the channel is nearly finished. Most of the masonry
drainage works are ready, but the special iron syphon pipes and iron
troughs and some of the closed channel remain to be done. The
work will be nearly finished before July 1884.

The IsMmpur Lake, which is a mile south of the town of
IsMmpur, is for the water-supply of Isldmpur in the Valva sub-
division. The works, which include a storage lake and a channel,
were begun as a famine relief work in 1876 and finished in 1879.
The lake, which is able to hold twenty-five millions of cubic feet
of water, is formed by an earthen dam 2892 feet long and thirty-
one feet in greatest height. The area of the catchment basin is 2^
square miles. The escape of floods is provided by a waste weir 200
feet long. The water is carried to the town along an open channel.
No distribution is provided, the main intention being to keep the
existing reservoir and wells in the town well supplied. The
estimated cost was £4388 10s. (Rs. 43,885) and the expenditure was
£6686 (Rs. 66,860). .

Besides these large water works, sub-divisional returns show 5990
wells with steps, 15,979 wells without steps, seventy -two paJcIca or
permanent and 2427 kachcha or temporary dams, 1992 dhekuris or
water-lifts, 157 ponds and reservoirs, seventeen canals, and 2314
streams and springs. The cost of building wells varies greatly in
difi'erent parts of the district. They are of every description from
holes sunk in the rock or soil to carefully built wells faced with
stone : comparatively few are lined with brick. In murum or broken
trap soils wells require little building for the subsoil is very hard
though it is easily pierced. The broken trap soil of the eastern sub-
divisions supplies a number of cheap wells which would be very
efiective but for the capricious rainfall. One season of good
rainfall gives these wells a two years' supply. Along the higher
valleys of the Sahyadris the villages often suffer severely from want
of water. The people lack capital to sink wells in the hard rock
and the water near the surface or in wells sunk in the softer- soils
runs off during the dry weather.

Deccan]

SATARA.

159

The best garden land producing sugarcane, turmeric, betel leaves,
vegetables, and fruits is constantly manured. The full acre allow-
ance of manure in these gardens is estimated at 4000 pounds a year ;
for ordinary garden land 1600 pounds are enough. Dry crop lands-
are generally enriched every fourth year with 1000 pounds of manure.
When both early and late crops are grown, they are grown in rotation ;
when only early crops are grown there is no rule. In kumri or
wood-ash tillage the ground is allowed to lie fallow for six seven
and even twelve years.^

In the Sahyddri villages there is much variety of soil. On the crest
of the SahyMris the soil is miserably poor and scanty and is washed
away by the yearly deluge of over two hundred inches. Nearer the
plains the land is richer and both rice lands and gardens are frequent.
Ordinary dry crop tillage is. rare as the prevailing system is wood-
ash or kumri. In wood-ash or kumri tillage, on the tops and
steepest slopes of the Sahyddris between March and May the brush-
wood with the branches twigs and sometimes the very trunks of the
larger trees are cut down and strewn over the ground. These and
the grass are set on fire and allowed to burn themselves out. Before
the rains begin in early June the surface is turned by a hoe, as the
plough can seldom be used, and the seed is sown broadcast in the
ashes which to a great extent serve both as soil and manure. After
one cutting and burning the land will bear cropping a second and in
some cases a third year. After two or three years' cropping the land
must lie fallow eight to twelve years. A similar system known
as the rdb system is practised on the lower slopes and in the valleys.
It is much the same as the practice in growing rice. A plot of land
called tarva or nursery is spread with leafy twigs, which are cut
and stacked between March and May. Over the twigs, when it is
available, is spread a layer of dung, then a layer of grass and straw,
and lastly some dry earth to prevent the materials below burning
too quickly. This whole is set fire to and left to burn generally in
late April and early May. In this bed the seed is sown on the first
fall of rain in early June. After the first heavy fall the rest of the
field is ploughed and in July when they are four to six inches high,
the seedlings are planted from the seed-bed into the field. Unlike
rice seedlings, the seedlings of rdgi, vari, and other poor hill
grains have not to be planted.- They are dropped at irregular
intervals over the field and left to take root. In this way land
may be cropped three or four years ; it then wants a four or five
years' rest. The best kumri lands can be cropped every second
year or in some places even every year. Between the fields which
can be cropped every year and the bare hill tops are lands of every
variety of soil. Only the coarsest crops are grown in these woodash
or kumri lands, ndchni or oidgli Eleusine corocana, sdva Panicum
miliaceum, kdtli a variety of ndohni, vari Panicum miliare, and
rdla Panicum italicum.

In 1881-82 of 13,78,669 acres held for tillage, 278,604 or 20-2
per cent were fallow or under grass. Of the remaining 1,100,055

Chapter IV.
AgricTilture

Mandrb.

Wood-Ash
Tillage,

Crops,

1 Evidence collected by the Famine Commission, 30^

[Bombay Gazetteer,

16ff

DISTRICTS.

Chapter IV.
Agriculture.

Ckops.

Bdjri.

Jvdri,

acres 36,955 were twice cropped. Ofthe 1,137,010 acres under tillage,
grain crops occupied 891,622 acres or 78-42 per cent, of which 389,636
were under spiked millet bdjri Penicillaria spicata, 321,305 under
Indian millet jvdri Sorghum vulgare, 45,057 under rdgi or ndchni
Eleusine corocana, 31,725 under wheat gahu Triticum sestivum,
23,739 under chenna sdva Panicum miliaceum, 1 8,984 under rice
bhdt Oryza sativa, 14,458 under Italian millet rdia or kdng
Panicum italicum, 9959 under maize mahha Zea mays, 1319
under haxle j jav Hordeum hexastichon, 67 under kodra or hariJc
Paspalum scrobiculatum, and 35,373 under other grains of which
details are not given. Pulses occupied 156,529 acres or 13'77 per
cent, of which 44,296 were under gram harbhara Cicer arietinum,
31,322 under tur Oajanus indicus, 27,514 under kulith or hwlthi
Dolichos biflorus, 9703 under udid Phaseolus radiatus, 3401
under mug Phaseolus mungo, 539 under peas vdtdna Pisum
sativum, 178 under masur Ervum lens, and 39,576 under other
pulses. Oilseeds occupied 43,865 , acres or 3'86 per cent, of which
1854 were under gingelly seed til Sesamum indicum, 860 under
linseed alshi Linum usitatissimum, and 41,151 under other
oilseeds. Fibres occupied 14,161 acres or 1'24 per cent, of which
10,591 were under cotton kd^pus Gossypium herbaceum, 2152 under
Bombay hemp san or tdg Crotalaria juncea, 985 under brown hemp
ambddi Hibiscus cannabinus, and 433 under other fibres. Miscel-
laneous crops occupied 30,833 acres or 2"71 per cent, of which 9151
were under chillies Tnirchi Capsicum frutescens, 8336 under sugar-
cane us Saccharum ofiicinarum, 6658 under tobacco tambdkhu
Nicotiana tabacum, 367 under hemp gdnja Cannabis sativa, 20 under
safflower kusumba or kardai Carthamus tinctorius, five under cofiee
Coffee arabica, and the remaining 6296 under various vegetables and
fruits.

The following are the chief details of the more important crops :

Spiked Millet, bdjri, Penicillaria spicata, with inl881-82a tillage area
of 389,636 acres, is a finer grain than jvdri and requires more careful
treatment and the help of water or manure. It is commonly grown
in shallow black or light gravelly soils. Itis sown in June or July and
harvested in October or early November. Other grains are often sown
with bdjri the usual proportions in a mixed crop being thirty-two
parts of bdjri to one of rdla, four of math, two of aTnbddi, one of til,
and four of tur. These crops ripen in the order named from mid-
October to mid-February. Bdjri is chiefly used as a bread grain,
though it is sometimes made into Idhi or parched millet. The stalks,
called sarmad, are given to cattle, but are considered inferior to
almost all other fodder unless trodden to pieces and mixed with chaff.
The green ears are parched and eaten under the name of limbur.
Two to 2| pounds of bdjri including the pulses which are generally
mixed with it are usually sown to the acre. The better the soil the
less the seed. The average acre yield of unwatered bdjri is about
300 pounds.

Indian Millet, jvdri. Sorghum vulgare, with in 1881-82 a tillage
area of 321,305 acres, is the staple grain of the desk or open country.
Jvdri is the only cereal whose straw is used as fodder in its natural

Deccan]

sAtaea.

IGl

state. In the moist west the stores of jvdri stalks are stacked and
thatched, in the dry east they are stowed in long grave-like ridges
and covered with clods of black soil. The straw of all other cereals
and of all pulses is trodden into pieces mixed with chaff, and stowed in
large baskets under the name of bhuskut. Five chief kinds of jvdri
are grown in Satara, dudhmogra, hdlbondi, shdlu, tdmbad, and
utavli or argadi. Of these Icdlbondi and utavli are early or kharif,
dudhmogra, shdlu, and tdmbad are late or rabi crops. Shdlu the
most esteemed variety is grown in black soils seldom with water
or manure. It is sown between mid-August and mid-October and
harvested between mid-January and mid-February. The grain is
white, the stalk is thin, three to five feet high, and has
much sweet juice. It is the chief staple of the richest Krishna
valley black soil. Its grain is considered the sweetest and best of
all the varieties. The stalk gives nourishing though rather coarse
fodder. Utavli or argadi is usually grown without water and
generally without manure in shallow black and light soils. It is
sown in June or July and is harvested in November. The stalk
grows sometimes ten feet high, and the head is small. Utavli is
also sown in watered land in April. If hot weather utavli is grown
for grain, it is called hundi and ripens in June or July ; if it
is grown for fodder it is called kadval, is sown broadcast and very
thick, and is cut before the head begins to show. Kdlbondi
that is black -husked, is grown without water or manure. It is sown
in June or July and harvested in November. The stem is six to
eight feet high and the head large. Dudhmogra or milky, is sown
mixed or in alternate furrows with shdlu from mid-August to mid-
October and harvested with it between mid-January and mid-
February. The grain is very full and milky and is much esteemed
when made into Idhi. The stalk is a poor fodder being straight
and hard: Its thin feathery head gives birds no foothold and saves
it from their attacks. The stem of the dark-husked dudhmogra is
sometimes used as a weaver's hand-rod. Tdmbad or red jvdri, is
generally grown in light soils without water or manure. It is sown
between early- August and early-October and is reaped in January.
The grain is hard and the stalk which is three or four feet high is
poor fodder. Besides these five kinds oi jvdri, the staple crop of
middle class soils in the southern Krishna and Yerla valleys is called
dukhri. It is very large grained a-nd coarse. In the black soil
of Valva and Tdsgaon it often grows as high as sixteen feet. It is
reaped in December or early January and is sometimes sown in
rotation with shdlu. Dukhri and shdl/w give coarse fodder. The
local names given to jvdri in its different stages are : the seed
Jondhala jvdri, the plant before the head forms kadval, the perfect
plant batuk, and the ripe stalk kadba. Jvd/ri plants growing with
bdjri and tur are also called kadval. Jvd/ri is chiefly in use as a
bread grain ; but is also eaten parched in Idhi. The unripe heads,
parched and called hurda, are a favourite food with the labouring
classes. Utavli and kdlbondi the early or kharif varieties require
eight to ten pounds of seed to the acre, the better the soil the less
the seed ; dudhmogra, shdlu, and tdmbad the late or rabi varieties
do not require more than four to five pounds of seed the acre.

E 1282—21

Chapter 17

Agriculture

Obops.
Jvdri,

[Bombay Gazetteer,

162

DISTRICTS.

Chapter IV.
Agriculture.

Cbops.
Magi,

Wheat.

Sdva,

Sice.

Rdgi or Ndchni, Eleusine corocana, with in 1881-82 a tillage area
of 45,057 acreSj is grown sometimes in wet lands by planting like
rice and sometimes both in marshy and high-lying lands is sown
by the drill. It-is sown in June and ripens in October or November.
It wants moisture but does not require either a deep or a rich soil.
The straw, broken and mixed with chaff, is used for fodder. The
green heads are parched and eaten, and like jvdri heads are called
hurda. The dry grain is used for bread. Though it is generally
believed that nachni is far less nutritive than hajri or jvdri, the hill
people assert that one nachni cake is worth three oi jvdri.

Wheat, gahu, Triticum sestiviim, with in 1881-82 a tillage area of
31,725 acres, is grown all over the district as a cold-weather crop
being sown in October and November and reaped in February and
March. It requires a moister climate than jvdri. It is generally
grown as a dry crop, but much watered wheat is also raised in all
parts of the district. Two kinds of wheat are grown, bahshi and
khapla. Bakshi which is usually watered and manured, is sown in
rich black soil in October or November and reaped in February or
March. It is the finest variety of wheat, but from its want of
hardiness is not much grown. The stem is longer, sometimes five
feet high, and the grain is larger than in other varieties, and the
beard when ripe is tipped with black. The straw when broken
and mixed with chaff is used as fodder. Khapla also called jod
or husked wheat, always watered and manured, is sown in good
black soil in November and is reaped in March. Its hardiness
makes this the favourite garden wheat. It is called Jchapla because
the grain cannot be separated from the husk without pounding.
The broken straw is given to cattle as fodder, Wheat is chiefly a
rich man's grain, as except on feast-days it is seldom eaten by the
poor because clarified butter is always taken with it. The flour is
much used in pastry and sweetmeats. From 2| to 3| pounds of
wheat are sown to the acre, the better the soil the less the seed.

Sdva^ Panicum miliaceum, with in 1881-82 a tillage area of 23,739
acres is grown without water or manure in light red soils and on
hill sides. The grain needs pounding to separate it from the husk.
It is mostly eaten boiled like rice and is seldom made into bread. The
straw is not used as fodder.

Eice, bhdt, Oryza sativa, with in 1881-82 a tillage area of 18,984
acres, is one of the chief products of Jdvli and Pdtan and parts of
S^t^ra and WAi. Many varieties of rice are grown. An inferior
variety is sown to a limited extent under irrigation. The better
kinds are sown in a bed manured with burnt cowdung or wood-
ashes. The seed is sown after the first rainfall in June, the field is
ploughed as soon as the earth is soaked, and in July the seedlings
are planted, and the crop is ready for cutting in October or Novem-
ber. The poorer sorts are generally sown broadcast, or by drill in
poor rice-fields or on high ground in June and ripen in September.
A poor rice known as dodlca is grown under irrigation chiefly
in the Wai, Jdvli, S^tdra, Pdtan^ Karad, and V^lva sub-divisions,
being sown in June and reaped in September. Rice requires'
pounding to separate the grain from the husk. The grain of the

Deccan.]

sAtAra.

163

better sorts is chiefly used by the richer classes and on marriage
and other festive occasions by the poor. It is chiefly eaten boiled ;
very little is made into bread. The straw when broken and mixed
with chafl" is used as fodder.

Italian Millet, rdla, Panicum italicura, in 1881-82 covered 14,458
acres. It is grown without water or manure in shallow black or light
soils, usually in the same field as hdjri. It is sown in June and
ripens in October. The grain is separated from the husk by pounding
and is boiled and eaten whole. The stalk is used as fodder and as
thatch.

Maize, TiiaJcka, Zea mays, in 1881-82 covered 9959 acres. It is
grown in black soil without water. It is sown in June and ripens
in August j as a watered crop it may be grown at any season. The
heads are usually eaten green and are known as bhutta. The ripe
grain is also made into Idhi and ground to flour for various purposes.
The stalk is a very coarse fodder.

Barley, sdtu or jav, Hordeum hexastichon, with in 1881-82 a
tillage area of 1319 acres, is grown in black soil. It is sown in
November and reaped in February. Barley is used chiefly in making
sdtuche-pith or barley-flour. For this the grain is parched, ground,
mixed with gram and wheat flour and flavoured with seeds. When
eaten it is usually moistened and rolled into little dough balls. The
grain also is used in certain religious ceremonies.

Gram, karhhara, Cicer arietinum, of several kinds and colours
with in 1881-82 a tillage area of 44,296 acres is much grown. It
is grown in good black soil usually without manure as a dry crop
and sometimes with manure and water. It is sown in November and
cut in February. The grain is eaten green as a vegetable and either
boiled or parched when it is called havla ; when ripe it is split
into ddl and eaten boiled or parched in a variety of ways ; the
ripe grain is given to horses, and the dry stalks are good fodder.

Pigeon Pea, tur, Cajanus indicus, with in 1881-82 a tillage area
of 31,322 acres, is grown generally in shallow and sometimes in
deep black soil. It is sown without water or manure in
alternate lines in the same field with early crops in June but is not
harvested till January or February. During the eight months it
is on the groimd, tur is said to flower and seed eight times, all the
pods remaining on the plant till harvest. It is a perennial plant but
is never allowed to stand in the field after the first year. Tur is one
of the most largely grown pulses in the district. The green pods are
eaten as a vegetable ; the ripe pulse is split and eaten in a variety of
ways, both parched and boiled ; the leaves and pod-shells are excellent
fodder. The stem is used for wattling house walls and roofs, and
for making baskets and brooms. Tur charcoal known as doll that is
ddl bush charcoal, has long been valued for making gunpowder.

Eulthi or Hulga, Dolichos biflorus, with in 1881-82 a tillage
area of 27,514 acres, is grown in shallow light soils without water or
manure. It is generally sown in June with hdjri in separate rows,
and ripens in November. The pulse is either split and eaten as ddl
or boiled whole, and is used in soups and porridge. It is given to
horses boiled. ' The leaves and stalk are good fodder.

Chapter IV
Agriculture

Ceops.
Sola.

Maize.

Barley.

Oram.

Tur.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

164

DISTRICTS.

Chapter IV.

Agriculture.

Ckops.
Udid,

Mug,

Peas,

Math,

GingeUy Seed.

Linseed,

Udid, Phaseolus radiatus, in 1881-82 covered 9703 acres. It is
grown like mug in rich soils when a second crop is to follow
without water or manure. It is frequently sown with hajri or
argadi in June and ripens in September. The ripe grain is black.
The ddl or split pulse of udid is the most esteemed of all pulses. It
is parched and ground to make spice balls, and is the chief element
in the wafer biscuits called pdpad. The green pods are occasionally-
used as a vegetable, and the stalks and leaves are good fodder.

Mug, Phaseolus mungo, in 1881-82 covered 3401 acres. It is
grown by itself without water or manure, in shallow black or
light stony soils, and often as a first crop on rich land in which the
hivad or double-crop system is to be followed. It is sown in June
and harvested in September. The green pods are eaten as a vegetable.
The ripe pulse is eaten boiled whole and split and used as ddl. It
is parched, ground to flour, and made into spice balls. It is also
made into porridge, and in times of scarcity into bread. The leaves
and stalks are good fodder. Mugi, a variety of mug, is sown in
June with bdjri or argadi and reaped in November. Mugi difl^ers
from mug by its tendency to creep, by taking longer to ripen, and
by having a small blackish pea instead of a dark-green pea.

Peas, vdtdna, Pisum sativum, with in 1 88 1-82 a tillage area of 539
acres, are grown in moist ground without manure or water. They
are sown in October or November and take four months and a half
to ripen. The seed is eaten green as a vegetable, and when ripe is
split into ddl and eaten in various ways. The leaves and stalks are
good fodder.

Matki or Math, Phaseolus aconitifolius, is grown in shallow
black or light stony soils without water or manure. It is almost
always sown mixed with bdjri in June and harvested in November.
The pulse is split and eaten as ddl in different ways. It is ground to
flour and used with the flour of other grains in making cakes; it is
also eaten parched or boiled whole with con'diments. The grain is
given to horses and cattle and the stalks are good fodder.

GingeUy Seed, til, Sesamum indicum, in 1881-82 covered 1854
acres. It is of two varieties, gora or white til also called havri, and
Icdla or black til. The two varieties are apparently the same except in
colour ; but from its pleasanter appearance in sweetmeats, the white
commands a higher price. It is sown in June and cut in November.
It is usually grown without water or manure with bdjri either mixed
or in separate furrows, and is often sown by itself on land that has
long lain fallow. The seed is eaten in various ways, in sweetmeats
or as a relish. The seeds yield an oil which in cookery is preferred
to all others, and the pend or seed cake from which oil has been
pressed is eaten by Kunbis with salt. The plant is not eaten by
cattle.

Linseed, javas or alshi, Linum usitatissimum, in ] 881-82 covered
860 acres. It is grown in rich black soil without water or manure.
It is sown in November and harvested in February. It is often
sown in grain or wheat fields in separate furrows or by itself as a
separate crop. The seed is eaten as a relish or chatni, and the oil is
used in cookery. The fibre of the plant is not used.

Deccan.]

satAra.

161;

Castor Seed, erandi, Ricinus communis^ is grown in black soil
without water or manure. It is sown either in June or November
and is harvested in November or February. It is sometimes grown
round other crops, and more often in patches by itself. It is not
much grown, and is more used as a lamp-oil than as a medicine.
The people extract the oil for home use by boiling the bruised bean
and skimming the oil as it rises to the surface. By this process four
pounds of the seed yield one pound of oil. The leaf is used as
an application for guineaworm, and the dried root as a febrifuge.
A large variety of the castor plant, probably Ricinus viridis, is grown
in gardens round other crops. Except that the stem and flower
of the large variety are green and those of the small variety are
red, the two plants do not differ from each other. Both varieties
are perennial and would grow to a considerable size if they were
allowed to remain on the ground for a second year.

Brown Hemp, amhadi, Hibiscus cannabinus, in 1881-82 covered
985 acres. It is usually grown without water or manure mixed with
hdjri in shallow black soils. It is sown in June and harvested in
December or January. The young leaves are eaten as a vegetable
and have an acid flavour. The seed is sometimes given to cattle,
and in times of scarcity is mixed in bread. It is chiefly used as
an oilseed, and is always mixed with linseed and kdrla or niger seed
before the oil is extracted. The bark yields a valuable fibre
which is separated from the stalk by soaking, and is made into ropes
and used for various field purposes.

Earthnut, hhuimug, Arachis hypogsea, is usually watered and
manured, though in favourable situations. If sown early in the
rains it will grow without water. It ripens in five months, but is
often dug in the fourth month and eaten raw or parched. The ripe
nut is sometimes eaten boiled with condiments, but is more
frequently used as an oil-seed.

Safflower, kardai, Oarthamus tinctorious, is largely grown in black
soil without water or manure. It is sown in October or November
and harvested in February or March. It is often grown with late
j'vdri or wheat, either mixed or in separate furrows and is sometimes
grown as a separate crop. The young leaves are eaten boiled as a
vegetable, and the oil is much esteemed for cookery. In the eastern
sub-divisions large flocks of the Demoiselle crane feed on safllower.

Niger Seed, kdrla or khurdsni, Verbesina sativa, is generally
grown in shallow black and light soils without water or manure. It
is sown in June and harvested in November. The seed is eaten as a
relish or chatni, but it is chiefly known for its oil, which is univer-
sally used by the poorer classes in cooking. The oil-cake is much
prized for milch cattle.

Cotton, Mpws, Gossypium herbaceum, in 1881-82 covered 10,591
acres. It is grown without water or manure in black soil. It is
sown in July and ceases bearing in March. Cotton is the hair or
wool that is attached to the seed, and is gathered from the growing
plants as the pods burst in three or four pickings. The seed
which is known as sarki is much prized as food for milch
cattle. The stems are used in inferior basket work, and

Chapter IV

Agriculture

Okops.
Castor Seed.

Amhddi,

Earlhnut.

Safflower.

Niger Seed.

Collon,

[Bombay Grazetteer,

Chapter IV.

Agriculture.

Crops,
Cotton.

Tobacco.

Sugarcane.

166

DISTRICTS.

cattle are grazed on the leaves and shoots after the cotton picking

IS over.

In 1848,1 at the suggestion of the Resident the late Sir Bartle
Frere, Mr. Vary was sent to Sdtdra to introduce New Orleans and
other varieties of cotton and to set up cotton gins. In 18-50-51,
about 60,000 pounds of New Orleans cotton seed were given to
husbandmen, and, with great exertions on the part of Mr. Vary,
about 3200 acres (4000 bighds) were planted with this seed.
Even for the local crop the season was unfavourable and the
foreign crop entirely failed. The rain was at first abundant and
the plants looked well until September, when, except in a few
places where they had been watered, they were destroyed by
drought. An experiment was also tried in various parts with
sugar-loaf cotton seed. It grew well until the middle of September,
when the plants were destroyed by drought. This species was
not considered so hardy aS the New Orleans. As the husbandmen
were discouraged by the experiments of 1850-51, the cultivation
of foreign cotton fell to about 1080 acres (1349 bighds) in 1851-52
and to about 300 acres (870 bighds) in 1852-53. It then ceased to
be grown. Attempts to introduce Broach cotton proved equally
unsuccessful. In 1850-51, along with New Orleans seed, Mr. Vary
distributed thirty-five saw gins among the husbandmen, but,
as the gins cleaned the cotton of too much dirt and lightened its
weight, the few husbandmen who used them in 1850-51, declined
to use them again in 1851-52.

Tobacco, tambdkhu, Nicotiana tabacum, with in 1881-82 a tillage
area of 6658 acres, is grown in rich light soils generally
with the help of manure and without water. It is sown in seed-
beds in August, planted during September, and cut in December,
The plant is not allowed to flower. As they appear all buds
and branch shoots are nipped off and only eight or ten leaves are
allowed to grow. For this reason Kunbis seldom grow tobacco
as they fear it will bring sickness on their children.^ The
cultivation is carried on by MhArs, Mdngs, and other low castes
who give half the gross produce to the owner of the land. In
preparing the leaf for market the cultivator spreads it in the
sun till it is thoroughly dry. The leaves are then sprinkled with
water, sometimes mixed with surad grass or cow's urine, and while
damp are tightly packed in a pit, or stacked under weights, and
covered for eight days during which fermentation sets in. When
taken from the pit or stack, the leaves are made into bundles and are
ready for market. Tobacco is smoked and chewed by all classes.

Sugarcane, us, Saccharum officinarum, with in 1881-82 a
tUlage area of 8336 acres, is one of the most paying of watered

' Cassel's Cotton in the Bombay Presidency, 84 - 86.

2 The same fear of tobacco growing prevails among the Dh&yrw&r Ling%at husbandmen
and the Gujardt Kanbis. The idea seems to be that the narcotic power of tobacco
is due to a spirit that lives in the plant, and that if any one destroys its home
the tobacco spirit grows angry and attacks the man or the children of the man who
made it homeless. This fear of the unhoused spirit seems to be the root of the Buddhist,
Jain, and LingAyat tenderness for life, Compare DhdrwAr Statistical Account, 277.

Deccan.]

sItAea.

167

crops. Very great care is taken in its growth, and it thrives
best in shallowish soil. Three kinds of sugarcane are grown, white
hhadya, striped hcmgdya, and black Icala or lambda. The ground
is ploughed from corner to corner seven or eight times. Weeds,
which are seldom found in watered land, are carefully picked out
as the ploughing goes on. The clods are broken and levelled,
and large quantifies of manure are spread over and mixed with
the earth either by hand or by a light rake called ddta. Furrows,
six inches deep and about 1^ feet apart, are cut by a deep plough,
divided into small beds, and watered. Sugarcane cuttings, about
a foot long and three or four inches apart, are dropped length-,
wise into the furrows, and pressed: by the foot well into the
ground. When planted in this way sugarcane is called pdvlya
us or foot-pressed cane. In growing the white or khadya cane,
the cuttings are laid in the furrows without dividing the land
into beds, and, after levelling the furrows by a beam harrow, the
plantation is freely watered. Sugarcane grown in this way is
called ndmgri/a us or ploughed cane. The ndngrya or ploughed
cane being deeper set stands a scanty supply of water better than
the pdvlya or foot-cane, and, if regularly watered, comes to greater
perfection. The cuttings are planted sometimes in January and
February, but more often in March, and begin to sprout after about
fifteen or twenty days. Before it is five feet high the crop is
twice or thrice weeded. No further cleaning is wanted as
weeds do not thrive under the shade of grown canes. Before the
rains set in, when the crop is not more than three feet high, except
the white variety which wants only about half as much water,
the cane requires a weekly watering, and, after the rains, a
watering once every twelve or fifteen days. The crop takes full
eleven months to ripen. The sugarcane mill consists of two hdbhul
rollers called husband and wife or navra navri, worked by two
or four bullocks. A cane pipe joins the mill to the boiling pan,
which is under the charge of the owner of the cane, or of some
other trustworthy person, as to choose the proper time to take the
pan off the fire requires much knowledge and care. As the fire must
be kept burning fiercely, hdbhul loppings are as much as possible
used for fuel. Two men are required to feed the furnace, two to
drive the bullocks and cut and supply the cane, one to feed the
rollers, and one to see that the juice pipe runs freely. The sugar-
mills are the evening resort of all the village. The white cane or
Tthadya is very hard and coarse for eating, but the crop requires less
labour and care than the other kinds of cane. It is found over
almost the whole district. The cane is usually pressed at night
between January and March. It employs a great number of hands.
At the time of pressing, the owners never refuse cane or juice to
any one, and crowds of beggars throng the fields. They even call
passers-by to take some of their sugarcane and juice, believing free-
handed gifts are rewarded by a plentiful outturn.

In^ the year 1860 an experiment was made in the cultivation of

Chapter IV

Agriculture

Crops.
Sugarcane.

'^ Journal Royal Asiatic Society, Vol, XIX.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

168

DISTRICTS.

Chapter IV.

Agriculture-

Crops.
Sugarcane,

Famines.
1396-1408.

WO.

15S0.
16S9-30.
1791-93.

'-H.

imphi Holchus saccharatus or Chinese sugarcane. This plant which
is grown in Europe as forage, has an advantage over the ordinary-
sugarcane in the very short interval required between the sowing
and ripening. In the case of imphi 100 days only are required. In
Satara, the result of the first experiment was so far satisfactory that
the crop reached a height of eight feet and was much appreciated
by cattle. Forty stalks made one pound of molasses. At present
(1884) no Chinese sugarcane is grown in the district.

Its uncertain and scanty rainfall makes eastern Sdtdra one of
the parts of the Bombay Presidency most liable to suffer from
failure of crops. The earliest record of famine is the famous Durga
Devi famine, which, beginning in 1396, is said to have lasted twelve
years and to have spread over all India south of the Narbada.
Whole districts were emptied of their people, and for upwards of
thirty years, a very scanty revenue was obtained from the territory
between the Godavari and the Krishna.^ The famine of 1460, which is
known as the famine of Ddmaji Pant, is remembered over the greater
part of the Deccan.^ In 1520, mainly owing to military disturbances,
the crops in the Deccan were destroyed and a famine followed.^
In 1629-30 severe famine raged throughout the Deccan. The rains
failed for two years causing a grievous loss of life.* According to
local tradition the famine of 1791-92 was the severest ever known.
It seems to have come after a series of bad years, when the evils
of scanty rainfall were aggravated by disturbance and war. The
early rains failed entirely in the Bombay -Karnd,tak, were scanty
in the Deccan and Gujardt, in Kd,thidwd,r and Marwdr, and were
deficient in the districts along the coast from Broach to Ratnd.giri.
In October rain fell abundantly, and the famine was ended by a good
harvest in the spring of 1792. In Satdra the rupee price of Indian
millet is said to have risen to six pounds (3 shers). The Native
Governments granted large remissions of revenue, the export of
grain was forbidden, and the sale price was fixed. Rice was brought
from Bengal to Bombay.^ In native opinion the famine of 1802-8
came next in severity to the 1791-92 famine. It was most felt in
Khandesh, Ahmadnagar, ShoMpur, Bijapur, and Dharwar ; but it
also pressed severely on Belgaum, Satara, Poona, Surat, and Cutch ;
elsewhere it was comparatively light. In 1802 rainfall was
scanty, but in Sdtara the harvest would have been good or fair,
but for the ravages of Jasvantrdo Holkar and his Pendharis who
destroyed the early crops as they were coming to maturity and
prevented the late crops being sown. This scarcity was followed
by the failure of the late rains in 1803. The local loss and scarcity
were increased by the inflow of starving people from the districts
of the North Deccan where the failure of rain was more complete
than in Satd,ra. The result was that the famine was almost as
severe in Satara as in the North Deccan. The pressure was greatest
in July and August 1804, and was so grievous that, according to

' Grant Duff's MarithAs, I. 59. ^ Ool. Etheridge's Report on Past Famines, 99,
3 Col. Etheridge's Report on Past Famines, 100. '' Elphiustone's Histoty, 507.
5 Colonel Etheridge's Keport on Past Famines, 55, 58, 96, 98, 122.

Dectian]

SlTi.RA.

169

tradition, men lived on human flesh. Corn is said to have been
sold at two pounds (I sher) the rupee. About 25,000 strangers are
said to have flocked into the town of Wdi in the hope of obtaining
relief from the liberality of the Pant Pratinidhi, Rdstia, and other
wealthy families and no fewer than 10,000 persons are said to have
died in the town of Wai alone. Abundance of water and plenty of
grass, for the early rains (June -August 1803) had been abundant,
did much to lighten the general distress.^ In 1824-25 a failure of
the early rains caused considerable and widespread scarcity. In
Sa,td,ra Indian millet prices rose to twelve poimds (6 shers) the
rupee. In 1862 a scanty fall of rain in the early part of the season
caused widespread scarcity. Grain prices were so high that grain
compensation was granted to all Government servants whose monthly
salaries were less than £20 (Rs. 200).^

The scanty and badly distributed rainfall of 1876, thirty-nine
compared with an average of fifty inches, led to failure of crops and
distress amounting to famine over about one-half of the district.*
The east and south-east suffered most. As rain held off the early
crops failed in Mfin, Khatdv, and the greater part of Khanapur and
Tdsgaon. In addition to this failure of the early rains, September
and October passed with only a few showers and but a small area
of late crops was sown. With high grain prices, millet at seventeen
instead of thirty -five pounds,* and no demand for field work, the
poorer classes fell into distress. The need for Government help began
about the beginning of October. The grain-dealers withheld their
stores and no grain was offered for sale. The distress and panic,
especially among the lower orders of townspeople, were so great that
the Collector ordered £856 (Rs. 8560) worth of jvdri from Bombay.
The arrival of the grain in November had the excellent effect of
showing the grain dealers that they could not at one bound force prices
to a famine level. As soon as the traders saw that Government
were ready to import grain, they opened their shops and began to
import on their own account. From December to March the pressure
of distress was lighter as large supplies came into the district. In
the hot months, with rising prices, the distress increased. The long
period of dry weather in July and August forced grain prices still
higher and caused much distress and suffering ; but the plentiful
and timely rainfall of September and October removed all cause
of anxiety. By the close of November the demand for special
Grovernment help had ceased.

The following details show, month by month, the various phases
through which distress passed and the measures taken to relieve it.
In September 1876 rain so completely held off that people could not
prepare their fields for the cold-weather crops. The early crops
failed in Man, Khatav, and the greater part of Khandpur and

Chapter IV
Agriculture

Famines,

1876-77.

" Colonel Etheridge's Report on Past Famines, 76, 80, 87, 97.

2 Colonel Etheridge's Report, 153.

^ The estimate was in area 2682 out of a total of 4792 square miles, and in popula-
tion 461,000 out of 1,062,350.

* Thirty-five pounds for millet or bdjri and thirty-nine pounds for Indian millet or
jvdri were the ordinary rupee prices.

B 1282—22

[Bombay Gazetteer)
170 DISTRICTS.

Chapter IT. Tasgaonj; elsewhere, except in Malcolmpeth where, about the
A^ri~nitTire middle of the month there were a few good showers, the crops were
■^"'^ " withering. In Khat^v, KMni.pwi:, and T^sgaon, fodder was scarce

Famines. ^^^ dear. At Satdra grain prices rapidly rose till about the end

1876-77. Qf ti^e month jvdri fetched eighteen pounds the rupee. With want

of field employment and such high grain prices, the loss caused by
the failure of the early crops began to deepen into distress. Early
in October there was a little rain at W^i, and on the 21st showers
fell at Koregaon, Tasgaon, and IsMmpur. The early crops continued
to wither, while throughout, the district, except the shdlu, the
cold- weather crops were either not sown, or where sown were dying.
Cattle were starving for want of fodder, and in Khatav and Man
^ere being sold at nominal prices or given away. In some places
the crops were cut down for fodder. Grain importations had not
begun and grain-dealers withheld their stores. Prices rose so high
that the Collector thought it necessary to order grain from Bombay.
Arrangements were also made with a Satdra merchant to import
grain for sale at a moderate profit. At T^gaon grain was so
difiicult to buy that the Collector sent fifty cartloads of jvdri from
S^tara. To help the import of grain the municipal dues in Satdra
and Tasgaon were suspended. Great commotion and clamour-
prevailed, especially among the Mhars, M^ngs, and Ramoshis in
Khatdv and Tdsgaon, and people began to leave the district.
Thefts were frequent, and, in Tasgaon, bands of the poorer classes
assembled and demanded work. In the Collector's opinion, had not
the arrival of Government grain forced the local dealers to bring
forward their stores, these meetings would have turned into grain
riots. To allay the disorder local funds works were opened, and, on
the 17th, Government placed a sum of £2500 (Rs. 25,000) at the
Collector's disposal for charitable relief. In November only a few
showers fell in Sdtd,ra, Patan, and Mdn. Where they had been sown
the late crops withered. In the south and east water was growing
scarce. In M4n the only supply was from holes dug in river beds.
Grass and straw were very scarce, and in places even sugarcane
was used for fodder. The grain ordered by the Collector arrived
from Bombay through Chiplun. Its presence had a favourable
effect and stimulated private imports of grain. To stimulate imports,
treasury orders on Bombay and other large towns were given to.
traders at par, and it was proposed to remit tolls on grain carts. The
rupee price oi jvdri rose from eighteen pounds at the beginning of the
month to sixteen pounds towards the close, and that of bdjri from
twenty to seventeen pounds. There was much movement among the
people, some leaving the district, others coming in large numbers from
Phaltan, Jath, Miraj, Sangli, and other neighbouring states. Still, as
most landholders had reaped some small harvest and did not seek
relief until their stock of grain was finished, the pressure on the
works was not great, the daily number of labourers rising from 1000
in the beginning of the month to 11,414 at the close. Of 4371, the
average daily number for the month, 4056 were able-bodied,
expected to do a full day's work and superintended by public works
officers, and 315 were aged or feeble, expected to do less than a full

Oeccan.]

. sItAra..

171

day's work and superintended by civil officers.^ Early in the month
meetings were held at S^t^ra and Tasgaon, and relief committees
were formed. On the 9th £200 (Rs. 2000), out of the Gdikwar's
grant of £1000 (Rs. 10,000), were placed at the Collector's disposal
to be spent on alms. About the end of the month cholera made its
appearance. December passed without rain and with no change in
crop prospects. Grain importations continued, and the rupee prices
fell for jvdri from eighteen pounds at the beginning of the month
to 20i pounds about the close, and for hcyri from seventeen to 19^
pounds. The scarcity of fodder was increasing, and people were
moving with their cattle to the Konkan. A mild form of cholera
continued prevalent. The numbers of the destitute increased on
public works from 4056 to 13,371, and on civil works from 315
to 2703.

In January 1877 no rain fell. Grain importations continued
and the supply was sufficient. Jvdri remained steady at twenty
pounds the rupee, and bdjri fell from 19^ to twenty pounds.
Small-pox broke out among the labourers at the Nher lake.
Otherwise public health was good, except at Tasgaon, where, about
the middle of the month, there was slight cholera. The numbers
on relief increased, on public works from 13,371 to 15,639, and on
civil works from 2703 to 3289. About the middle of February rain
fell in the western sub-divisions of Satara PAtan and Javli. The
grain supply continued sufficient. The rupee price of bdjri rose from
twenty to 18^ pounds and jvdri continued steady at twenty
pounds. Cholera was prevalent and was increasing. The numbers
on public works rose from 15,639 to 23,728 ; on civil works, incdn-
sequence of a reduction in pay in the civil works and of the
transfer of workmen to public works, they fell from 3289 to 178.*
During the month twenty -four persons were on charitable relief.
Early in March rain fell over most of the district. The grain
supply continued sufficient, the rupee price of jvdri rising from
twenty to 18^ pounds, and that of bdjri falling from 18| to nineteen.
Emigration to Bombay and the Konkan continued. Cholera was
prevalent and increasing. The numbers on relief rose, on public
works from 23,728 to 26,539, on civil works from 178 to 239,
and on charitable relief from twenty-four to 197. During April
some good showers, especially in the south and south-east,
improved the scanty water supply. The rupee price of both jvdri
and bdJ7-i rose from nineteen pounds at the beginning of the
month to seventeen pounds about the close. The hill villages of
Kardd and Pdtan suffered severely, the people living chiefly on
wild fruits and roots. The number of the destitute rose on public

Chapter IV

Agriculture

Famines.
1876-711.

' The original day's wages were, for a man Zd. (2 as.), for a woman 2Jd. (IJ as.),
and for a boy or girl IJd, (1 a.). About the middle of November a sliding scale was
introduced, providing that when prices rose over sixteen pounds the rupee, the money
rate should vary with the price of grain, and that a man should always receive the
price of one pound of grain in addition to one anna.

2 The new rates were, for a man the price of one pound of grain and ^d. (i ct.)
instead of l\d. (1 a.); for a woman the price of one pound and %d. (J a.) instead of
|d. ( Ja.) ; and for a boy or girl the price of half a pound of grain and |d (J a.).

[Bombay Gazetteer,

172

DISTRICTS.

Chapter IV.

Agriculture.

Faminbs.
1876-77.

works from 26,539 to 32,122, on civil works from 239 to 514, and
on charitable relief from 197 to 645. The mortality from cholera
continued heavy. Late in May good rain fell in Sdtdra, Jdvli,
"Wai, and Vdlva, and showers in Man and Tdsgaon. Emigrants
were slowly returning. Among the hill people in the KhandAla
petty division of Wdi there was great distress, but many had left
their homes and found employment on the Nira canal in the
Poona district. In ELhanapur, the Mhars and Kamoshis were in
great want, and grain was distributed to them at their homes.^
The supply of grain continued sufficient, but rupee prices
rose, for jvd/ri from seventeen to 15J pounds and for bajri
from seventeen to 16| pounds. The scarcity of fodder was press-
ing hard, and the mortality among cattle was increasing. For
the benefit of the infirm poor ten additional relief houses were
established. Cholera continued prevalent and the mortality was
heavy. The numbers of the destitute considerably increased, on
public works from 32,122 to 42,731, on civil works from 514 to
1564, and on charitable relief from 645 to 1833. About the second
week in June the eastern storms began. In Tasgaon on two
consecutive days about six inches fell in torrents. At V^lva and
other places the western rains had steadily set in by the 22nd of
June. During the month an average of lO'Sl inches fell. Emi-
grants were coming back, and about the middle of the month
large numbers began leaving the relief works to return to their
fields. The sowing of the early crops was begun and was rapidly
progressing, and in places the young crops had begun to show.
The supply of grain continued good, but rupee prices .for hajri
and jvari rose from 15^ and fifteen pounds at the beginning
of the month to fourteen pounds towards the close. The people
largely supplemented their food with green vegetables, which had
now become plentiful, and in Vdlva mango, jack, and other
fruits could be had in abundance. In Pdtan and Vdlva, the young
grass was high enough to afford grazing for cattle and was finding
its way to the markets. The numbers on relief fell, on public works
from 47,849 at the beginning of the month to 41,046 about the
close, and on civil works from 2560 to 1400.^ The mortality from
cholera continued heavy. During July there was a fair rainfall in
the west, but only a few light showers in the east. Crop prospects
continued good, but in places more rain was badly wanted.
Emigrants were still returning. Cart-rates from Tdsgaon to Poona
and back rose from ordinary rates of £1 12s. to £3 10s. (Rs. 16-
35), and grain traffic in carts from Chiplun was stopped. This,
joined to the break in the monsoon, raised grain prices, for jvari
from fourteen to lOf pounds and for hdjri from 14^tollJ pounds
the rupee ; on the 22nd, at Tdsgaon, grain was sold at seven pounds
the rupee. These high prices caused less distress than might have
been expected, as vegetables could be had in abundance and were

1 In June the Collector put a stop to this mode of relief, as it was opposed to the
spirit of Government orders.

= For June the average daily number of the destitute was, on public works 46,317,
on civil works 2214, and on charitable relief 37S8.

Deccan]

sAtAra.

173

freely eaten, but, partly from the want of salt, caused much
disease, especially dysentery. Green grass was coming to market
and fodder was much cheaper. The mortality from cholera
continued heavy. The numbers on relief fell, on public works
from 46,317 to 28,632, on civil works from 2214 to 806, and on
charitable relief from 3768 to 3051. In August there was an
average fall of 7*37 inches. Except udid, mug, and rdla, which
in parts were much damaged by the scanty fall of the previous
month, the crops were generally in good order but in the east
required more rain. The supply of grain continued fair. Eupee
prices both for bdjri and jvdri remained steady at eleven pounds.
Cholera continued prevalent but was decreasing. The numbers on
relief works fell considerably, on public works from 28,632 to 19,517,
and on civU works from 806 to 524 ; on charitable relief they rose
from 3051 to 5345. In September there was a good and heavy
fall of rain, averaging 1053 inches. Except in parts of Mdn, Wdi,
and Jdvli the crops were everywhere good. In KarM in some
places the maize, vari, sdva, and rdla were harvested and grain
was coming to market. Cart traffic to Chiplan, which had been
stopped, was again opened. Rupee prices fell, for bdjri from
twelve pounds at the beginning of the month to nineteen pounds
about the close, and for jvdri from 11 J to 17i pounds. The
condition of the people considerably improved. Cholera continued
to decrease. The numbers on relief fell, on public works from 19,517
to 16,601 and on civil works from 524 to 494; on charitable relief
they rose from 5345 to 10,342. In October an average of 6'91
inches of rain fell. The sowing of the cold- weather crops was in
progress, but it was kept back by the heavy rain, which also in
some places injured the ripe early crops. Grain prices fell, iov jvdri
from nineteen pounds at the beginning of the month to twenty
pounds about the close, and for hdjri from 21^ to twenty-four
pounds. The numbers on relief fell, on public works from 16,601
to 9718, on civil works from 494 to 113, and on charitable relief
from 10,342 to 7113. Early in the month (6th) all civil agency
works were closed. A mild type of cholera continued prevalent.
In November there were a few showers in Sdtdra, Patau, Valva,
and Tasgaon. The harvesting , of the early crops was nearly
finished and rahi sowing was almost complete. During the month
grain prices averaged 23| pounds for jvdri and for hdjri 29^ pounds
the rupee. The numbers on public works fell from 2755 about
the beginning of the month to 469 at the end, when the works were
closed. The numbers on charitable relief fell from 1073 at the
beginning of the month to 134 on the 24th. In the last week no
one was charitably relieved. In December a few showers greatly
benefited the cold- weather crops. Grain continued to grow cheaper,
jvd/ri falling to thirty-one and bdjri to thirty-two pounds. No one
took advantage of the Government offer of charitable relief.

The following statement of millet prices and numbers receiving
relief shows that during the first three months of 1877 grain kept
pretty steady at nineteen pounds the rupee, or nearly twice the
ordinary rates ; that its price rose rapidly in April May June and
July, till it reached Hi pounds in August, and that it then quickly

Chapter IV.

Agricnltare

Famines.
1876-77.

[Bombay Gazetteer, ,

174

DISTEICTS.

Chapter IV.

Agriculture.

Famiites.
1876-77,

Famine Census,

Cost.

Relief Houses.

fell to 29^ pounds in November. As early as December 1876, the
numbers on relief works reached 16,074. From that they rose
steadily to 48,531 in June, and then falling to 29,438 in July owing
to the large demand for field labour, continued to decrease till
November, when the works were closed. The numbers on charit-
able relief rose steadily from 24 in February to 3768 in June.
They then fell to 3051 in July, and, after rising to 10,342 in
September, fell to 328 in November :

8(Udra Famine, 1876-77.

Month.

Aterahe Dailt Numbers.

AVBRAaE

Rain-
fall.

On Relief Works.

On Gra-
tuitous
Belief.

Prices.

Civil
Agency.

Public
Works.

Total.

Bdjri.

Jvdri.

1876.

November ...
December ...

1877.
January
February
March
AprU
May
June
July
August
September ...
October
November ...

Total

Average

Total Cost E«.

316
2703

3289
178
239
B14
1664
2214
806
624
494
113

4066
13,371

15,639
23,728
26,539
32,122
42,731
46,317
28,632
19,517
16,601
9718
1128

4371
16,074

18,928
23,906
26,778
32,636
44,296
48,631
29,438
20,041
17,095
9831
1128

'" 24

197

646

1833

S768

3061

5345

10,342

7113

328

19i

19J

19=

16i

14
23.
29f

20
20i
19|
171
16

14
19"
23}

•07

•28

•04

•37

•74

10^81

6-89

7-37

10^53

6^91

■73

12,96S

280,099

293,062

32,646

43 ^72

1079

21,646

22,642

3264

10,76,281

V ^

1,81]

106,091
.-•

,372

A special census taken on the 19th of May 1877, when famine
pressure was general and severe, showed that of 46,235 labourers,
44,344 on public and 1891 on civil works, 18,316 belonged to the
sub-divisions where the works were carried on ; 13,998 belonged to
difierent sub-divisions of the same district ; 6702 were from other
districts; and 7219 from neighbouring states. As regards their
occupation, 3062 were manufacturers or craftsmen, 24,611 were
holders or under-holders of land, and 18,562 were labourers.

The total cost of the famine was estimated at £118,137 4s.
(Rs. 11,81,372) of which £107,528 2s. (Rs. 10,76,281) were spent
on public and civil works, and £10,609 2s. (Rs. 1,06,091) on chari-
table relief.

Of twenty relief -houses or camps opened in the district between
November 1876 and November 1877, five were on the irrigation
works at the Pingli, Nher, IslAmpur, and Mhasvad reservoirs and
on the Krishna canal extension. Of the twenty relief -houses, one
was started in November 1876 and the rest during 1877, three in
February, one in March, ten in May, four in June, and one in
September. Except at the Pingli, Nher, Isldmpur, and Mhasvad
reservoirs where small huts were raised at Government expense, the
buildings used for the relief houses were generally dharmshdlds or

Deccan.J

SATARA.

175

rest-houses, chdvdis or village offices, and temples. The following are
the dates at which the twenty relief houses were opened and closed :
the relief -house at Tasgaon was opened on the 16th of November

1876 and was closed on the 1st of November 1877; at a cost of
£1623 14s. (Rs. 16,237) it relieved a monthly average of ninety-four
men, sixty women, and eighty children. The relief -house at Pingli
reservoir in Mdn was opened in February 1877 and closed on
the 31st of October ; at a cost of £2881 4s. (Rs. 28,812) it relieved
358,760 persons in all or a monthly average of 39,862. The relief-
house at the Nher reservoir in Khatdv was opened in February

1877 and closed on the 23rd of October; at a cost of £599 4s.
(Rs. 5992) it relieved 95,138 persons in all or a monthly average of
10,571. The relief-house at the Isl^mpur reservoir in Yilva, was
opened in February 1877 and closed on the 30th of September ; at
a cost of £159 2s. (Rs. 1591) it relieved 17,472 persons in all or
a monthly average of 2184. The relief-house at the Mhasvad
reservoir in Mdn was opened in March 1877 and closed on the 30th
of November; at a total cost of £2159 (Rs. 21,590) it relieved
232,964 persons in all or a monthly average of 25,885. The relief-
house at Peth in Valva was opened on the 14th May 1877 and
closed on the 30th of June ; at a total cost of £34 16s. (Rs. 348) it
relieved a monthly average of 214 men, 208 women, and 165
children. The relief -house at Medha in Javli was opened on the
15th of May 1877 and closed on the 11th of July ; at a cost of
£35 10s. (Rs. 355) it relieved a monthly average of 900 men, 1150
women, and 1230 children. The relief-house at Koregaon was
opened on the 18th of May 1877 and closed on the 2nd of June ;
at a cost of £14 4s. (Rs. 142) it relieved 1620 persons or a monthly
average of 810. The relief -house at Sdtdra was opened from private
funds on the 18th of May 1877 and closed in November ; at a cost
of £562 8s. (Rs. 5624) it relieved 67,770 persons or a monthly
average of 11,295. The relief -house at Kadegaon in Khan^pur was
opened on the 19th of May 1877 and closed on the 29th of June;
at a cost of £14 (Rs. 140) it relieved a monthly average of 157
men, 270 women, and 125 children. The relief -house at Vita in
KhAnd,purwas opened on the 20th of May 1877 and closed on the
30th of October ; at a cost of £336 (Rs. 3360) it relieved a monthly
average of 600 men, 800 women, and 840 children. The relief-
house at Klianapur was opened on the 22nd of May 1877 and
closed on the 1st of November ; at a cost of £117 12s. (Rs. 1176)
it relieved a monthly average of 190 men, 225 women, and 176
children. The relief-house at Khandala in Wai was opened on the
26th of May 1877 and closed on the 1st of July ; at a cost of £17
Ss. (Rs. 174) it relieved a monthly average of 565 men, 468
women, and 464 children. The relief-house at PAtan was opened
on the 28th of May 1877 and closed on the 30th of June ; at a
total cost of £61 2s. (Rs. 611) it relieved a monthly average of 2125
men, 2969 women, and 4506 children. The relief-house at Wdi
was opened on the 30th of May 1877 and closed on the 1st of
July ; at a total cost of £10 (Rs. 100) it relieved a monthly average
of 463 men, 718 women, and 1218 children. The relief-house at
Helv^k in Patan was opened on the 1st of June 1877 and was

Chapter IV

Agriculture

Famines.

1876-77.

Belief Houses,

[Bombay Gazetteer

176

DISTRICTS.

Chapter IV.

Agriciiltnre.

Famines.

1876-77.

Relief Houses,

Relief Staff.

Qrain.

Mnigration,

closed on the 16th of the same month ; at a cost of £5 18s. (Rs. 59)
it relieved a monthly average of forty-two men, thirty-one women,
and five children. The relief -house at Vaduj in KJiatdv was opened
on the 11th of June 1877 and closed on the 11th of November ; at
a cost of £243 6s. (Rs. 2433) it relieved a monthly average of 363
men, 504 women, and 752 children. The relief -house at Mayni in
Khatav was opened on the 18th of June 1877 and closed on the
25th of June ; at a cost of £7 16s. (Rs. 78) it relieved 1057 persons
or a monthly average of 204 men, 615 women, and 238 children.
The relief -house at the Krishna canal extension was opened in June
1877 and closed on the 30th of September; at a cost of £4 18s.
(Rs. 49) it relieved 595 persons or a monthly average of 148. The
relief -house at Kardd was opened on the 7th of September 1877
and closed on the 7th of November; at a cost of £26 14s. (Rs. 267)
it relieved a monthly average of 297 men, 584 women, and 707
children. Besides the cost on these relief-houses. Government spent
about £2386 (Rs. 23,860) in village charity.

To superintend relief works four mdmlatd^rs were employed to
the end of October 1877, one in Mdn from the 10th of January
1877, one in Khan^pur from the 17th of January, one in Tdsgaon
from the 31st of January, and one in Khatdv from the 14th of May.
Besides these four m^mlatddrs, during the various periods of the
famine, the relief staff included five European officers, Mr. East
the first assistant collector, Mr. Muir- Mackenzie an assistant
collector. Major Bartholomew the district police superintendent,
Mr. Mainwaring the district forest officer, and Mr. Adams an
assistant superintendent in the Ratnagiri revenue survey. In
addition to these relief officers, sixty circle inspectors were employed
on village inspection in 1877 from the 10th of May to the 30th of
June. Large relief camps on the works at the Pingli, Nher,
IsMmpur, and Mhasvad reservoirs, and the Krishna canal extension
were superintended by a staff of public works officers.

Some municipalities sold grain at fixed rates to the poor, a mode
of charity which was much appreciated. It is a part of outdoor
relief, and if well supervised has no effect on trade or on prices. The
abuses to be guarded against are simply those which are always
present when either grain or money are distributed without a test
of alleged poverty. Grain sold at or below cost price meets the case
of those who are not paupers, are much straitened, but yet so long
as they can earn anything in their usual way or have any means
left will not go to work. For the same reason loans of grain to
respectable people willing to maintain their dependents are safe and
are valuable. During the fair season grain came in large quantities
into S^t^a from Bombay by sea to Chiplun and from Chiplun to
KarAd by the Kumbhdrli pass road ; during the rains it chiefly came
by rail to Poona, and from Poona in carts to Sdtdra along the Poona-
Belgaum road. In the east grain also came by rail to Sholapur, and
from Sholapur in carts to Sdtara.

A great number of people from the Mdn, Khatav, Khdndpur, and
Tasgaon sub-divisions left the district in the early days of distress.
Some of them went north and north-east to Bombay, ^er^r, and

Deccan- ]

SATARA.

177

Khd,ndesh, and others went south-west to the Konkan. The people who
left the district were those in charge of cattle who usually had some
meansj and field labourers and small landholders who had no stock
of grain and no credit. Of these three classes the labourers were the
most numerous. The small landholders took with them their pair
of bullocks and a cow or two, and left nothing behind but an empty-
house and a barricaded door. Some of them went to the Konkan
and the rest to the Berd,rs. Many, especially of those who went to
the BerArs, are believed to have found openings and settled. Of the
labouring classes the better-off left first and found work in distant
parts ; others went to the public works and remained there pretty
steadily ; others wandered to the Sahyd,dris whence later on they
wandered back in much distress ; and others, especially the women,
hung about the villages living on next to nothing and dying in
thousands on the first fall of rain.

The chief difficulties in dealing with the famine were the obstinacy
of some who would not leave their villages for the works and the
vagrancy of others who persisted in wandering instead of working.
These difficulties were met by careful village inspection and gentle
pressure in the case of the stay-at-homes, and by watchful supervision
by officers of all grades in the case of the vagrants.

In the eastern sub-divisions, according to the agricultural returns,
the number of cattle fell from 994,272 in 1876-77 to 776,393 in
] 877-78, that is a loss of 218,879. In 1877-78 the actual number
of offences reported was 5912 against 4064 in 1876-77. Serious
crime, such as murder, dacoity, and robbery seems to have been more
prevalent, and the number of thefts was considerably more than
double what it was in 1876-77. In 1878 the tillage area fell short
of that in 1876 by about 18,400 acres. Of about £165,740
(Rs. 15,57,400), the realizable land revenue for the year 1876-77,
£130,267 (Rs. 13,02,670) were collected in 1876-77, £582 (Rs. 5820)
remitted, and the rest was collected in subsequent years.

Chapter IV.

Agriculture.

Famines.

1876-77.

Emigration,

Difficulties,

Remdti.

B 1282-23

[Bombay Gazetteer,

Chapter V.
Capital.

Capitausts.

Eaites.

Bills,

CHAPTER V.

CAPITAL'.

Under the head capitalists and traders, the 1878 Licence Tax
papers showed 19,823 persons assessed on yearly incomes of more
than £10. Of these 9887 had from £10 to £15 (Rs. 100-Es. 150),
4033 from £15 to £25 (Rs. 150-Es.250), 2316 from £25 to £35
(Rs.250-Rs. 350), 1051 from £35 to £50 (Rs. 350-Rs.500), 958
from £50 to £75 (Rs. 500- Rs. 750), 560 from £75 to £100 (Rs. 750-
Rs. 1000), 327 from £100 to £125 (Rs. 1000 - Rs. 1250), 151 from
£125 to £150 (Rs. 1250-Es. 1500), 176 from £150 to £200 (Rs. 1500-
Rs. 2000), 121 from '£200 to £300 (Rs. 2000 - Rs. 3000), 105 from
£300 to £400 (Rs. 3000 -Rs. 4000), 46 from £400 to £500 (Rs.4000-
Es. 5000), 49 from £500 to £750 (Rs. 5000-Rs. 7500), 19 from £750
to £1000 (Rs. 7500 -Rs. 10,000), and 24 over £1000 (Rs. 10,000).
Since 1879, incomes under £50 (Es. 500) have been exempted from
the License Tax. In 1881-82, of 2661 assessed on yearly incomes
of £50 (Es. 500) and more, 1149 had from £50 to £75 (Es. 500-
Es. 750), 456 from £75 to £100 (Es. 750 -Es. 1000), 343 from £100
to £125 (Es. 1000 - Es. 1250), 161 from £125 to £150 (Es. 1250-
Es. 1500), 167 from £150 to £200 (Es. 1500 -Es. 2000), 154 from
£200 to £300 (Es. 2000-Es. 3000), 91 from £300 to £400 (Es. 3000-
Es. 4000), 51 from £400 to £500 (Es. 40o0 - Rs. 5000), 48 from
£500 to £750 (Rs. 5000-Rs. 7500), 15 from £750 to £1000 (Rs. 7500-
Es. 10,000), and 26 from £1000 (Es. 10,000) and upwards.

There are no regular bankers in the district. Deposits used to be
made with certain bankers or sdvkdrs of high reputation, who are
said to have given interest up to three per cent a year.

Bills of exchange and letters of credit or hhaldvanpatras are of
two kinds payable at sight or darshani and payable after a fixed
period or mudatichi. The discount charged on an exchange bill or
hundi not payable at sight varies from one to two per cent a month.
Hundis of long periods are drawn almost solely in mercantile trans-
actions by the consignor on the consignee, the period varying with
the time calculated for the clearance of the stock by the consignee.
Bombay hundis are generally issued at eleven days' sight and at a
discount of one-half to three-quarters per cent. The largest bills
cashed in the district vary from £300 to £700 (Es. 3000 - Es. 7000).
The few firms which cash these bills have capitals of over £10,000
(Es. 1,00,000).

1 Contributed by Mr. J, W. P. Muir-Mackenzie, O.S.

Deccau.]

sAtIra.

179

The only coins in common circulation are the Imperial rupee and
parts of the rupee. Formerly both the chdndor rupee valued at 92-6
per cent and lihe ankushi valued at ninety-seven per cent of the
Imperial rupee were in circulation. They still often appear in rural
hoards and in the hands of moneylenders.

Scarcely any class can be termed the reverse of frugal. It may
be said that twenty to thirty per cent of all classes are fairly endowed
with a desire to save. Of the remainder the larger portion of land-
holders spend beyond their means, while the Mdrwar, Gujai"5.t, and
Lingayat V^nis and trading Brdhmans almost to a man put by
money every year. Few of any class can be said to accumulate
wealth. Almost all savings are squandered over family and religious
celebrations. It is said that the larger bankers or sdvkdrs and the
higher grades of Govemment native officials, after deducting all
ordinary and extraordinary expenses, save about one-third of their
net profits and emoluments.

The district has few large trading firms. The leading firms are
almost entirely for the export of field produce or the local sale of
grain. Few, except the higher native officials, invest their savings
in joint stock companies, Government securities, or state Savings
Bank. At the same time the amounts invested in Government
securities and Savings Banks show a steady increase. In 1870-71
the Savings Bank deposits amounted to £2016 (Rs. 20,160), in
1875-76 to £3595 (Rs. 35,950), and in 1882-83 to £6628 (Rs. 66,280).
In 1870-71 the interest paid to holders of Government securities
amounted to £135 (Rs. 1850), in 1875-76 to £133 (Rs. 1330), and in
1882-83 to £281 (Rs. 2810). Traders use their increased capital to
extend their business. They seldom start any new form of invest-
ment.

No great amount of capital is invested in house property.
As a trader saves, he attempts to secure for his shop a better
position and more warehousing room. Houses are rarely bought
with a view to securing a return from tenants. This form of
investment is confined to the few Parsis and Bohords who own the
bungalows rented by the Europeans at the head-quarters station.
Occasionally a wealthy person enlarges or adorns his house for
purposes of comfort or display and the possession of a mansion or
vdda is reckoned a mark of wealth and importance. Considerable
holders of Government or private land especially seem to consider it
a point of honour to have a large house in every village in which
they own land whether they live there or not.

Land is perhaps the favourite investment with all classes possessed
of a substantial surplus, the exclusively trading classes alone
excepted. Even among traders all who are natives of the district
are glad to own land. But they will wait till good land is available
before investing in it, and will sink in it only surplus profits not
diverting any portion of their capital from their trade. The social
status conferred by the possession of land has often much to do
with the investment, though when watered land, especially sugar-
cane land, can be had on favourable terms by squeezing a debtor
the produce is looked to. The difficulty under which the trader lies

Chapter V.
Capital.

cctbkbncy.

Saving Classbs.

Investmbnm,

Houses,

Land.

tBombay fiazetteer.

180

DISTRICTS.

Chapter V.

Capital.

Land.

Obnaments.

HOABBS.

ia that he always has to sublet, and is almost certain to be cheated
by his tenant. When the tenant is a debtor the trader cheats
him back and in the end matters square themselves to the trader's
advantage. Professional classes have a marked fondness for land
investment. Few successful pleaders, Government servants, or
even priests, religious mendicants, and the like will be found who
do not own some land. The fondness for land investment has
undoubtedly increased under British ;rule. The causes are the
increased price of field produce, the diminution of risk from
plunder and war, the decline of other investments as in native
industries and in advances to chiefs for thfe support of their
retinues and armies, the reduction in the share of the produce
taken by the state, and above all the stability of tenure. Before the
introduction of British rule it was with great difficulty that a
stranger could acquire the advantages of the mirds tenure. Now
every one can have it, and it is this which induces the professional
classes to invest their profits in land. The state demand is certainly
reduced. Wherever the state demand was really fixed as in the
hamdl or fully assessed lands the rate undoubtedly was enormously
higher than that now exacted, so high that it seldom could be
levied in full. There were lands outside of the hamdl. But these
were appropriated by the privileged few to whom the village officers
or rent farmers chose to give them. The nominal rate on all land
was also subject to numberless enhancements and exactions, by every
grade of official from the Government itself down to the village
headman. No materials are available from which to frame an
accurate estimate of the present sale value of land. In some cases
an acre of garden land is said to have fetched as much as £100
{Rs. 1000) and dry-crop land as much as £30 (Rs. 300). The
actual price is rarely made public. Landholders hardly ever part
with their land exge^t under the pressure of debt. Of late years
the moneylending classes have shown a great and a growing desire
to take possession of their debtors' lands and secure for themselves
the large margin of profit between the Government rental and the
actual produce of the land. It is roughly estimated that, though it
is not entered in their names in the Government books, about one-
third of the arable land has virtually passed into moneylenders'
hands. It is doubtful how far this transfer of land has gone, but it
is beyond doubt that more land passes in this than in any other way.
For some years before the 1876 famine nearly the whole arable area
of the district was held for tillage. During and after the famine a
considerable area of arable land was thrown, up. Most of it has
again been taken either by Government for forests or by landholders
for tillage.

Ornaments are a universal form of, investment. Their security,
the ease with which money can be raised on them, and the slight
loss with _ which they can be turned to cash, make ornaments the
favourite investment of the poor and middle classes.

The old form of hoarding by burying cash in an earthen pot or
building it into a wall, though less common than in the old unsafe
times, contiaues to an unknown but probably to a large extent. A

Deccan.]

satIra.

181

man, who as one of the destitute received relief during the 1876
famine, shortly after the close of the famine charged his wife with
digging up and purloining his hoard of several hundred rupees.^

Of all forms of investment moneylending is the commonest.
Moneylending is practised in. different degrees by members of almost
every class. Sutdrs- and Lohdrs, even Mhdrs, Ohd,mbhSrs, and Vaddars
lend money. Perhaps Shimpis and Kd,sd.rs are the two castes which
have the largest proportion of unprofessional moneylenders. The
leading professional motffeylenders are Br^hmans, Gujarat V^nis,
MdrwarVanis, Jains, Ling^yats, Mar^thd,s, and Musalmdns. Few live
solely by moneylending. The Brdhmans are husbandmen, land
proprietors, traders, and, to a small extent, pensioned Government
servants and pleaders. A few of them have large capital and com-
bine moneylending with trade as their chief calling. In Karad
some BrShman families are hereditary moneylenders, and draw their
profits from moneylending alone. Gujardt, Ling^yat, and Mdrwar
Vd,ni moneylenders are mostly traders and in some cases landholders.
They deal in cloth, groceries, and grain, and have shops both in
villages and towns. In Sd,td,ra the Gujardt Vd,nis deal chiefly in
clarified butter and oil. The Mar^tha and Kunbi moneylenders are
almost all landholders and seldom extend their dealings beyond
their villages. A very small portion of them draw part of their income
from trade. Some Musalmdn moneylenders are village shopkeepers.
Of all moneylenders the Mdrwdr Vdni has the worst name and is
harshest and most unscrupulous in his dealings with his debtor.
As a rule Marwar Vdnis are not permanently settled in the district.
Most of them keep up relations with their native country, and with-
draw to their native village when they grow old or when they have
laid by enough to rest on. A new comer from M^rwdr generally
begins by serving as the gumdsta or agent of one of his countrymen.
When he has saved enough from his wages to set up business for
himself he opens a new shop in his own name, or he enters into
partnership with other Marwdri traders, or if his capital is very
small, he trades for a time as a peddler. For trading purposes
Mdrwaris generally combine to form a firm of two or three and
seldom of more than five partners. They have great confidence in
each other's honesty. A Marwdri often lives in his own country
and carries on business at a distance through agents or partners.
Few cases occur in which a Md,rwAri, however unscrupulous in his
dealings with other men, is false to his employer or partner. Next
to Mdrwari moneylenders come Gujardt Vanis and local Brahmans.
Gujardt Ydnis called Gujars are generally settled in the district,
and very few retire to their native country even after accumulating
large sums of money. Though they generally charge the same
rates of interest as Mdrwdris, the Gujars are less unscrupulous and
harsh than the MArwdris in enforcing payment of debts. Among
local Brdhman moneylenders of the Deshasth, Golak, Karhdda,
Kokanasth, and Tirgul subdivisions, the Deshasths and Golaka
are the leading moneylenders. The remaining classes Jams, Lmgd-

Chapter V.
Capital.

MONBYLENDBBS.

1 Mr. A. Shewan, C.S.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

182

DISTRICTS.

Chapter V.
Capital.

Moneylenders.

yats, Mardthds, and Musalmans are much kindlier creditors and
seldom ruin their debtors. Except Mdrwdr and Gujarat Vdnis, the
larger moneylenders and landholders to a certain extent from a
regard to their good name and from kindly feeling treat their debtors
with a certain amount of leniency. A notable exception to this is
where a cultivator sees a chance of profitably adding to his own land
by pressing a debtor. Few creditors are then harder or more un-
scrupulous. The smaller lenders cannot afford much kindliness and
treat their debtors with considerable strictness.

Professibnal moneylenders may be roughly airranged under three
chief classes large, middle, and small. The first or the substantial
banker or sdvkdr carries on a considerable business in bills or
hundis and is careful to make advances only to persons of substance
and on good security. The large landholders are often hopelessly
in debt to large moneylenders. The lenders are generally careful
to keep their debtors' heads just above water, in some cases from
good feeling, but in most because the process is more profitable than
foreclosure. Most of the bankers' dealings are with other money-
lenders. In days of better credit they are said to have had larger
direct dealiugs with non-moneylending classes. They relied for
punctual payment on the justice of their claims and the honesty of
their debtors. Such pressure as was required was applied by
private bailiffs who sat dharna or fasting at the door of the debtor,
and compelled payment through the terrors of religion, by annoy-
ance, and sometimes by force. Siace the introduction of civil courts
these processes have ceased. Lenders of this class often remit
part of a claim rather than face the odium and expense of a civil suit.
They are the better able to forego part of their claims because their
debtors are generally well enough off to pay a large percentage of
the debt. This class of lenders advance large sums on mortgage to
the holders of rent-free or quit-rent land, especially to district and
village hereditary officers. Many of these families owe debts several
generations old, the lender resting content with periodical payments.
Few of the better class of these borrowers have complained till of
late the law preventing the alienation of hereditary service lands
without the sanction of Government has been rigidly enforced.
First class lending and trading firms keep the journal or kird, the
ledger or khatdvni and four bill books, an advice book of bills
drawn by the firm, a register of the firm's acceptances in favour of
third parties, a register of bills in favour of the firm, and a rough
memorandum book.

The second or middle class of lenders form the greater portion of
the most respectable lenders of the present day. They are those
who with no great capital lend money in smaller sums and at higher
rates than the first class but still carefully and on good security and
who are glad to avoid the courts. This class in most cases keep the
day book and ledger and have a capital of £1000 to £3000
(Rs. 10,000 -Es. 30,000).

The third class of small lenders have little or no capital. They
borrow from wealthy firms and lend small sums to poor borrowers
at extremely high rates. Lenders of this class keep the most meagre

Deccan.J

sAtAra.

183

accounts. Their transactions are on mortgage, personal security,
and pawn. All of tlieir agreements are on the hardest terms as the
security is generally doubtful and debtor and creditor are little
removed from one another in neediness and dishonesty. The best
of this class keep at least the accounts termed pathani or tipane or
rough memorandum book and khatdvni _or ledger. When they
intend to show their accounts in court they make their debtors
sign each entry to avoid disputes. This seldom occurs as the
accounts are too unsystematic and untrustworthy to be used in
judicial inquiries. The lowest lenders of this class and the host
of unprofessional lenders keep no record of their transactions except
the bonds which are employed on almost every occasion. The
debtor is rarely furnished with a receipt. The refusal to give
receipts has been made penal. But the lender easily evades the
law as he is rarely tendered more than part payment. If the
debtor demands a receipt, the lender declines to take anything
short of the whole amount due and threatens if the debtor presses
for a receipt to take legal proceedings to enforce the whole debt.
Thus the debtor is forced either to go without his receipt or to renew
his bond on ruinous terms. In private or part private villages
it frequently happens that the proprietor or indmddr manages the
moneylending of the village and has all his tenants in his hands.
In Government villages one or other of the village officers sometimes
holds a similar position, the headman on a large and the accountant
on a small scale. Village office-bearers, as a rule, exact nearly as hard
terms as professional lenders. They differ from professional lenders
in much more rarely taking their debtors into court.

In fixing the terms of a loan every circumstance in the case has its
weight. The urgency of the occasion and the condition and credit of
the borrower make a vast difference on the rates charged. Two suc-
cessive loans from the same capitalist often vary largely in their
terms. Attempts to fix rates of interest for the different classes
of loans are therefore necessarily little more than rough estimates.
According to the returns received, on easily convertible movable
property and on good landed security large sums may be borrowed
at six to twelve per cent a year. For smaller sums and in ordinary
pawn transactions the rate ranges to eighteen per cent. In transac-
tions on personal security a well-to-do borrower may raise a loan
as cheaply as nine per cent. On the other hand hardly any limit can
be set to what a destitute borrower may have to pay. On unsecured
debts a husbandman of scanty credit has generally to pay twenty-
four to 37^ or even forty per cent. The rates of interest paid by
husbandmen of good or fair credit are now (1883) the same as they
were before the famine of 1876-77. Twenty years ago lenders used
to deduct from the sums mentioned in the bonds two to five per cent
as manoti or premium, or as nazrdna that is gift. This practice has
almost ceased though in some cases it may secretly continue.
Oases of the entry of nominal rates of interest in bonds are
rare. When they do occur they are little more than provisions
to guard the lender against the borrower's failure to act up to

Chapter V.
Capital.

MONKTfLENDEKS.

Inteeest.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

Chapter V.
Capital.

Inteeest.

BORROWEBS.

184

DISTEICTS.

the terms of the agreement.^ Mortgages are sometimes charged
more heavily than personal bonds. If the borrower can be easily
duped or if there is any suspicion of other debts, he will not only be
charged a ruinous rate of interest but will be made to mortgage his
crops instead of interest and to promise possession to the mortgagee
on the first failure of an instalment. At the same time the mortgagor
continues to be responsible for the Government assessm^ent and to
pay it will have to borrow still farther. It is usual to set off interest
against the prpfi.ts of the mortgaged property.

Stipendiary Government servants as a class are not large borrowers,
still some, mostly of the lower grades, are deep in debt, often of
ancestral obligation. District and village hereditary officers are
nearly always in debt. In many cases most of their land has been
mortgaged for two or three generations. • Debt rarely forces
village headmen and village clerks to resign their offices.
Under former rulers few held office except moneyed men ; if a
man fell into difficulties some rich member of the family generally
took his place. Under the British the hereditary right has been
strictly respected. But it is only when it is notorious, that a man's
indigence is brought to light and his dismissal enforced. The
bulk of the local traders are poor, and have to borrow to renew
their stock. Traders whose dealings are on a large scale are
almost always also large meneylenders. The stock of a small Vdni
or village shopkeeper amounts to £50 (Es. 500) and upwards.
The terms on which a man of this class raises money to renew his
stock are generally strict and the rates of interest high. Middle-
class traders renew their stock by pawning ornaments as security
and paying ten to eighteen per cent interest a year. As the
ornaments are redeemed when the stock is disposed of, the same
ornaments may be pledged again and again, any profit being
invested in the purchase of more jewels. The stock is not often
pledged in advance. When a trader pawns no movable property
the money is generally lent on his personal security. The craftsmen
of the district are not prosperous. They seldom have capital
enough to buy the new material in which they work. Either
the person who gives the job supplies the material, or money
is borrowed to buy the material, or the material is obtained from
the trader at high credit rates. In borrowing to meet marriage
and other family expenses craftsmen have generally nothing but
personal security to offer and have frequently to pay twenty to
thirty per cent or even higher. The country mechanic is frequently
an hereditary village servant and lives on dues in land or in kind
which are paid him for doing the rough work required by house-
holders and husbandmen who supply the materials. He generally
owns land which he tills himself and he differs little in position from
a cultivator. Masters generally advance their servants money on
easy terms, often free of interest stopping part of their wages~ for
payment. If a master fails to help him a servant has generally
resort to the worst class of lenders.

1 To illustrate the extent to which the manoii that is the premium or bonus ayatem
formerly prevailed, Mr. GuMbd^s, the sub-judge of Vita, cites a case in which a bond
executed m 1859 acknowledged the receipt of £12 (Rs, 120) though only £6 (Rs. 60)
were actually paid, '

Deccan]

sAtAra.

185

Of all borrowers, except the labouring classes, husbandmen are
the worst off. Husbandmen may be roughly divided into four
classes, ten per cent with good credit, twenty-five with fair credit,
forty with scanty credit, and twenty-five with little or no credit.
The ten per cent of first class husbandmen are well off, and except
occasionally to meet extraordinary expenses of marriages and land
improvement, they are generally in no want of money. They have
good credit, and can borrow up to £50 (Rs. 500) on personal
security. To raise loans of more than £50 (Rs. 500) they require
to mortgage land, houses, or other immovable property, and the
sums lent on mortgage are about three-quarters of the value of the
mortgaged property. First class husbandmen also occasionally
lend small sums to the poorer husbandmen of their own village.
The twenty-five per cent of second class husbandmen are fairly off.
They are generally in need of no loans either for food or seed, but
they often borrow to pay the Grovernment assessment and to meet the
extraordinary expenses of marriages and other family events. They
have fair credit, and can borrow up to £10 (Rs. 100) on personal
security. To raise loans of more than £10 (Rs. 100), they require
to mortgage land or houses, and the sums lent on mortgage are
one-half to three-quarters of the value of the mortgaged property.
The forty per cent of third class husbandmen are well ofE for a few
months after harvest. During the rest of the year their condition
is indifferent, and they have to borrow for food as well as to pay
the Government assessment and to meet the extraordinary expenses
of marriages and other family events. In poor seasons their
condition is generally miserable. Their credit is scanty, and they
cannot raise cash loans without mortgaging land, houses, or cattle.
On personal security grain advances are made for food and seed on
condition that the advance is paid back at harvest time with an
addition or vddha of one-fourth to one-half of the quantity advanced.
The twenty-five per cent of the fourth class are badly off during the
greater part of the year. Besides tilling small plots of land they
work as field labourers. They have generally little or no credit,
and Hve from hand to mouth. As a rule husbandmen do not raise
loans in cash to buy seed for sowing. As the quantity of seed
required is comparatively small, the first three classes or seventy-five
per cent of husbandmen generally hold enough seed to sow the
early or kharif crop. Husbandmen sometimes need seed to sow
the cold weather or rahi crops, and for this they borrow seed in
advance on condition that the advance is paid back at harvest time
together with one-fourth to one-half of the quantity advanced.

Especially in outlying villages few moneylenders do not also lend
grain. Most villages have a shopkeeper who combines money-
lending with dealing in cloth and grain, as well as in spices,
condiments, sugar, and other edible comforts. Of the purchases of
spices and other condiments a credit account is kept which is settled
not oftener than once or twice a year. Prom time to time bonds
are passed for the amount supposed to be owing, which is often
enormously in excess of the amount really due. The customer keeps
no account and the shopkeeper takes a corresponding advantage.
This arrangement between shopkeepers and customers is less
B 1282—24

Chapter V.
Capital-

Borrowers,

[Bombay Gaietteef ,

186

DISTRICTS.

Chapter V.
Capital.

BOBKOWEBS.

eommon in towns than in the rural parts. The system on which
grain is usually advanced is known as the vddhi-didhi that is the
one and a half increase. Grain advances last only from the beginning
of the south-west rains in June to the early harvest in October or
November. Formerly bonds were not taken for grain _ advances.
At present a bond is passed in which the quantity of grain lent and
the quantity to be repaid are stated at arbitrary prices more or less
corresponding to the market rate. The bond is passed as a cash
advance to avoid the higher stamp rates which attach to a grain or
other transfer in kind. By a mutual understanding the payment is
always made in grain. The increase or vddha is generally twenty-
five to fifty per cent and sometimes but rarely as much as seventy-five
or 100 per cent. This system sometimes presses hard on indigent
cultivators as the creditor is careful to take his share of the crop as
soon as the harvest is reaped. At the same time it encourages the
storage of grain by dealers a practice of the highest usefulness in
times of scarcity.

It is the general opinion in the district that, however much the
district may have increased in trade wealth and resources since it
came under British rule in 1848, the indebtedness of the landholding
classes is not less but greater than it then was. Under the rule of
the Satdra chiefs land was not liable to sale for debt. The lender
had no wish to get the debtor's land ; his object was to recover the
interest due on the sums advanced. The lenders were fewer in
number and men of higher position and of more forbearance than
the present lenders. As the means of recovering debt were
uncertain care was taken not to make advances without security.
Soon after the transfer of the district (1848) the reduction of the
state demand which accompanied the introduction of the revenue
settlement, a reduction which roughly varied from twenty to thirty
and was often as much as fifty per cent, increased the landholders'
credit. Their credit was further enhanced by the free powers
of disposing of land in mortgage or by sale which were secured
to the holders of land under the provisions of the Survey Act
I. of 1865. At the same time the landholder's credit was
swollen by the abnormal cheapness of money and the high prices of
field produce which ruled between 1862 and 1865 the years of
the American war. The landholders borrowed recklessly. The
enhanced value of the land as a security induced the lenders to
encourage the landholders to borrow and introduced a new and
lower class of lenders. At the same time the provisions of the Civil
Procedure Code which was passed in 1877 had increased the ease
with which a lender could recover his debts, and the Limitation Act
of 1869, though it was passed in the interest of the debtors with the
object of relieving them from the burden of old and ancestral debt,
was turned by the lenders to their own profit. The debtor at the
end of the three years' limitation was forced either to give up land
or to sign a fresh bond in which a debt was acknowledged composed
of the amount originally borrowed together with compound interest
up to the date of renewal. The soreness caused by the working of
the Limitation Act was intensified by the decrease in the value of
land which accompanied the fall of produce prices in 1873 and 1874.
Creditors seeing the value of their security declining pressed their

Deccan.]

Si-TlRA.

187

debtors and caused the exasperation which resulted in the agrarian
crimes of 1873-74.

In 1873-74 the second assistant collector noticed the following
cases of agrarian crime.^ In the village of Chincha in T^sgaon six
men who had a long-standing grudge against a Gujarat Vdni money-
lender entered his house at midnight, murdered him with axes, and
severely wounded his aged father, his younger brother, and his sister.
Four of the men were hanged and one was transported for life. At
Hingangaron in Khandpur four men, whose whole property had been
sold by a Gujardt Vdni creditor, attacked their persecutor and cut off
his ears and the stump of his nose which had escaped on a former
occasion. At Visapur in Tdsgaon one Appa Rdvji owed money on a
bond to Hirdchand Gujar. Hir^chand threatened to sell Appa Kavji's
land, but promised he would not sell it if Appa Edvji got one Appa
Mali to go bail for him. Appa Mdli accordingly passed a bond of
£20 (Rs. 200) to the Gujar, giving his house and land as security.
The agreement was that Appa EAvji should at the same time in
consideration of this and other debts pass Appa Mali a bond of £40
(Rs. 400) giving his land as security. This bond was never forth-
coming. A'ppa Mali was put off time after time. Meanwhile the
Gujar enforced Appa Mali's bond for £20 (Rs. 200), After all due
proceedings in the civil court Appa Mdli's lands and house were
seized and his land was given to Appa Rdvji to cultivate. Appa
Mali despairing of redress waylaid Hirachand Gujar and murdered
him in open daylight iu the presence of several witnesses. He
confessed every thing and courted the fullest inquiry into his money
transactions. Appa Mdli was hanged.

The agrarian riots of 1875 were not so common in Sd.tara as in
Poona and Ahmadnagar. Only one instance came before the Riots
Commission.^ On the tenth of September 1875 a riot took place
in the village of Kokrud on the north bank of the Varna, some
few miles west of Shirala, a country town about sixty miles south
of Sat^ra. Kokrud contained 150 to 200 houses. The riot was
against the moneylender of the village, Ndna Gujar, whose
dealings extended over many of the surroimdingvillages. In Kokrud
alone 108 persons owed Ndna Gujar £995 18s. (Rs. 9959) besides
grain and in Chincholi some thirty persons had given him bonds to
the extent of £190 3s. (Rs. 1901 J). One of the ringleaders stated
that the immediate cause of the outbreak was two attachments which
had shortly before been executed by Ndna on the houses and property
of two of the villagers. He was also stated to have harassed the people
generally. The result was a combination of all castes and professions.
About a hundred villagers, who all appeared to be residents of
Kokrud, met about nine at night in the temple of Mariamma on the
skirts of the village, and from it proceeded to the Gujar's house.
The house which was attacked contained the shop. It adjoined but
was separate from the Gujar's dwelling house. Bahiru Mang took
command and divided the rioters into bands. One band of seven
or eight were set to break into the shop from the front, and a.

Chapter V.

Capital.

Agrarian
Riots,
1874.

1875.

1 Deooan Riots Commission, Appendix A. 40-41.

2 Deccan Riots Commission, Appendix C. 10-12,

[Bombay Gazetteer,

188

DISTRICTS.

Chapter V.

Capital.

aceaiuan
Riots,
1S75.

Land
mobtoage.

attack and liad
sleep with them,
village ofBcers.
windows. The

second band was posted near the back door. The rest were stationed
at the various approaches to prevent interference by keeping up a
fire of stones. Two Gujar men and three women were in the house
at the time of the attack. They were warned of the intended

taken the precaution to get the revenue pdtil to
This was the only assistance given them by the

The hpuse was broken into.by the front door and
Gujars retreated into an inner room, from which
the back door opened into the yard. The mob tore up the account
books and piled them on the floor. Oil was poured on the heap,
torches were brought, the heap was lighted, and the house fired.
With the help of the pdtil the Gujars escaped to the next house
and from it to a neighbour's dwelling. The house and shop were
burnt with a loss of cloth and grain estimated by the Gujar at
£700 (Rs. 7000). Thirty-six persons were arrested besides five
whom the police sent up as witnesses. Of the accused twenty-four
wereKunbis including members of the two families of village headmen,
one was a Chambhar, one a Mhd,r, six were Mangs, one a Sutdr, one
a Gurav or priest, one a Nhdvi or barber, one a Beldd,r or quarry-
man, four were Khumbhdrs or potters, and one was an Attdr or
Musalmd,n scent-hawker. Most of the accused admitted their share
in the riot. One of the leaders a Sdli or weaver madea full confession,
while Bahiru Mang and others deuied all knowledge of the conspiracy.
News of the riots in the Poena and Nagar districts had no doub.fc
reached all parts of the country, but there was no evidence to
show that the riot was originated by outsiders from other parts of
the Deccan. On the report of the Deccan Riots Commission Sdtara
was included in the area to which the Deccan Agriculturists' Relief
Act (Act XVII of 1879) has been applied.^ Under the provisions of
this Act no land can be sold in execution of a decree unless specifically
pledged, the registration of all lands has been made compulsory, and
every transaction has to be investigated independently of the bond.
The courts have power to relieve the debtor by decreeing payments
by instalments, while arbitration is encouraged by the system of
village munsifs and conciliators. The most striking result of the
Act has been the extraordinary check to litigation, while the rapid
recovery of the district from the loss caused by the 1876-77 famine
and the ease with which the revenue has been realised during the
four years ending 1882 seem to show that the landholder's power
of borrowing has not been unduly curtailed.

Since the 1876-77 famine, except in the eastern sub-divisions of
M4n Khatdv and Kh£nd,pur, little land has fallen out of tillage.
Though it continues in the former holder's name much land has lately
passed from husbandmen to non-cultivating moneylenders, either
under civil court decrees or by mortgage. Until the introduction
of the Deccan Agriculturists' Relief Act land was frequently sold
under simple money decrees. In such cases the hardship is to some
extent softened by the fact that the creditor has often for want of a
tenant to let the land to the former holder. The bargain as to the share

1 Details of the working of the Act are given in the Poona Statistical Account,

Deccau]

sAtAra.

189

left to the tenant is often hard enough on paper, but it is said that
the holder's special knowledge helps him to evade the severity of
the terms. Since the passing of the Deccan Agriculturists' Eelief
Act in 1879j part of the land mortgaged has been redeemed. Land
is mortgaged either with or without possession. In mortgages
without possession part of the produce is paid to the moneylender
as interest till the mortgage is redeemed. In mortgages with
possession the Mardtha or Lingdyat moneylender generally
himself tills the land ; while the Brahman or Gujardt and Marwar
VAni moneylender, as a rule, allows the mortgagor to till the land
as tenant, generally on condition that the tenant pays the landlord
half to three-fifths of the produce and that the landlord pays the
Government assessment. In some cases in which the possession of
land has been transferred to them, especially to husbandmen, the new
holders have invested money in the land and taken steps to improve it.

Especially in the south and south-east among the Jains, labour
mortgage prevails to a limited extent among small landholders and
poor labourers. When pressed for money either for marriages or for
the payment of debts men of this class occasionally pledge their
services to professional moneylenders or to large and well-to-do
husbandmen. The mortgaged services are generally valued at 3s. to
4s. (Rs. IJ - 2) a month j a labourer has to serve five years to work
off a loan of £10 (Rs. 100). The labourer receives the money in
advance. In return he is bound to give his whole time to his master
and has scarcely any leisure during which to make private earnings.
The master undertakes to feed the servant and to provide him
with a turban, a coarse blanket or hdmbli, a waistcloth or dhotar,
and one pair of shoes a year. Unless he takes his meals at the
creditor's, the servant generally receives from his master a monthly
allowance of forty-eight to sixty-four pounds (6-8 pdylis) of
grain and a small quantity of condiments. The engagement does not
provide for any charges for lodging or for marriage or other
incidental expenses. Though they are not entered in the engagement
a small reward for occasional good service and a present of a turban
or a waistcloth are given to the servant on marriages or other
social ceremonies in the creditor's family. Though the bondsman's
services are entirely at the disposal of the master, the master can-
not hand him to another person except for a time and for emergent
reasons, and with the debtor's consent. Nor does the master's right
extend to the bondsman's wife and children even though they are
born during the term of their father's service. In cases of sickness,
old age, inability to serve, or death, the servant's wife and children
give their services to the master to work off the unliquidated portion
of his loan. The master cannot inflict corporal punishment on
the servant. The course generally adopted to enforce a bondsman's
service is to warn him whenever he is found to be remiss or
negligent in his duty, and to deduct the number of blank or
unsatisfactory days from the period of the service. Servants generally
manage to work to their masters' satisfaction. "When higher rates
of wages attract him elsewhere, the servant arranges to repay the
balance of the debt in cash and then leaves his master's service. If
he leaves without making any agreement the taint of broken

Chapter V.
Capital-

Land
Mortgage.

Service
Mortgage.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

190

DISTEICTS.

Chapter V. f^jtij^ haunts him wherever he goes and makes it difficult for him

Capital. to find employment. In most cases the servant is faithful to his

Sbbvice engagement and will stand tempting offers of increased wages.

MoBTSAGB. Except under special circumstances the mortgage of labour does not pass

from father to son. The system of domestic slavery or hereditary
service which was a marked feature of society under the rule of the
Sdtara chiefs, has almost entirely passed away. In some of the
higher Maratha and Brahman families there are still male and
female servants who are attached to the household and some of
whom generally accompany a daughter of the house to her
husband's home.

Wages. About thirty years ago (1853) the wages were very low, about

two-thirds of the present wages. The present (1883) rates are for
a carpenter Is. |d (85 as.), for a blacksmith 8d. (.5^ as.), for a
bricklayer 7kd. (4| as.), for a mason 9^d, (6^ as.), and for an
unskilled workman 2^d. to 4^d (1^-3 as.). Women are paid
two-thirds and children, when they earn anything, one-half of a
man's wages. Labourers are paid either in kind or in cash, daily
weekly or fortnightly according to circumstances. Of late the
tendency has been to change from wages in kind to wages in cash.''
Field work lasts nearly nine months in the year, from June to
February. Between March and May field labourers are generally
idle. Some support themselves on their savings if they have any
and some live on money or grain borrowed from moneylenders on
condition of paying it back during the next working season.
Labourers employed at sugarcane mills are paid specially high rates,
a skilled labourer earning 9d. to Is. (6-8 as.), and a common labourer
6d. (4 as.) a day. They are allowed to eat as much molasses or gul
as they please, and also each to take home a small quantity of
molasses and one sugarcane. Labourers are in rare cases employed
by weavers and oilmen to work for them and are paid 6d. (4 as.) and
i^d. (3 as.) a day with no extra allowance. There are no steam
factories in the district. Women employed in spinning cotton are
paid B^d. (2| as.) a day. They work from eight in the morning to
five in the evening with one hour's rest at noon, The local unskilled
labourers are chiefly Mhdrs, Md,ng8, Rdmoshis, and others. Good
caste Hindus have no objection to employ these labourers out of
doors. Landholders do not consider their servants as members of
their families. They seldom feed them, clothe them, or help them
to bear the expense of marriage or other domestic ceremonies. The
labouring classes find more constant and better paid employment
than formerly. Those who are not given to liquor generally save
enough to be able to enjoy specially good food and to wear specially
good clothes on holidays.

Prices. Yearly price details, which are little more than estimates, are

available for the forty-three years ending 1882. During these
forty-three years the rupee price of Indian millet, which is the
staple grain of the district, varied from seventeen pounds in 1879

1 In Jdvli, field workers are sometimes paid only lid, (IJ as.) a day and one daily
meal.

Deccan.]

SlTlEA.

191

to ninety-tkree in 1842 and averaged fifty-four pounds. Of the
forty-three years, in three the price was below eighty pounds the
rupee, ninety-three in 1842, eighty-five in 1850, and eighty-one in
1856; in five it was between eighty and seventy pounds, seventy-
seven in 1843 and seventy-four in 1851, 1852, 1853, and 1854; in
thirteen it was between seventy and sixty, seventy in 1855, sixty-
seven in 1864, sixty-six in 1859 1865 and 1869, sixty-five in 1845,
sixty-three in 1849, sixty-two in 1860, 1861, 1862 and 1863, and
sixty-one in 1844 and 1848 ; in nine it was between sixty and fifty,
sixty in 1858, fifty-eight in 1840 and 1841, fifty-seven in 1857 and
1866, fifty-three in 1867 1868 and 1870, and fifty-one in 1882 ; in
three it was between fifty and forty, forty-nine in 1881, forty-five
in 1847, and forty-four in 1846 ; in seven it was between thirty and
twenty, thirty in 1871 and 1877, twenty-eight in 1872, twenty-six
in 1873, twenty-three in 1880, twenty-two in 1875, and twenty-one
m 1878 ; and in three it was between twenty and fifteen, twenty in
1874, nineteen in 1876, and seventeen in 1879. Till 1865, except in
1840, 1841, 1846, 1847, and 1857, the price was below sixty pounds
the rupee. Since 1865, except in 1869, the price has been above
sixty pounds. The forty-three years may be divided into six
periods. Except in 1842 when the price was ninety-three pounds,
and in 1846 and 1847 when the prices were forty-four and forty-
five pounds respectively, in the first period of ten years ending 1849
the price varied from seventy-seven in 1843 to fifty-eight in 1840
and 1841 and averaged sixty- two pounds. In the second period of
seven years ending 1856, the price varied from eighty-five in 1850
to seventy in 1855, and- averaged seventy-six pounds. In the third
period of nine years ending 1865, the price varied from sixty-seven
in 1864 to fifty-seven in 1857 and averaged sixty-three pounds. In
the fourth periodof five years ending 1 870, theprice variedfrom sixty-
six in 1869 to fifty-three in 1867 1868 and 1870 and averaged fifty-six
pounds. In the fifth period of ten years ending 1880, the price varied
from thirty in 1 871 and 1877 to seventeen in 1879 and averaged twenty-
fourponnds. In the sixth period of two years 1881 and 1882 tbe prices
wereforty-ninepoundsfor 1881 andfifty-onefor 1882. The details are 4
Sdtdra Grain Prices in Pounds for the Rupee, 1840-1883.

First Period.

Second Period.

Proddce.

r-!

.>;

r-i

i-i

Inflian Millet ...

Wheat

Rice

■ii

•62

■31

Produce.

Third Period.

Fourth Period.

I-t

66
48
43

63
42
43

Indian Millet

Wheat

Eioe

67
63
34

60
68
37

66
63
37

62
63

62
63
43

62
53
43

62
61
40

67
51
40

66
61
40

67
63
40

63
63
43

■

Chapter V.
Capital.

Prices.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

Chapter V.
Capital.

Prices.

Weights,

Mbasukes.

192

DISTRICTS.

Sdtdra Grain Prices in Pounds for the Rupee, IS40- ?S52— continued.

Proddob.

Fifth Peeiod.

Sixth
Period.

■*
5

o5
oo

Indian Millet

Wheat

Bice

30
26
19

28
24
17

26
28
17

22
19
18

19
19
17

30
15
17

21
17
18

17
11
16

23
18
16

26
21

61
24
22

The table used in weighing precious stones, diamonds, rubies,
emeralds, and pearls is four grains of wheat or sixteen grains of rice
one rata, and twenty-four rattis one tdk. These weights are square or
round and are made of flint. The table for weighing gold and silver
is eight gunjds one mdsa, twelve nidsas one tola, twenty-four tolas
one sher, and forty shers one man. The gunja is the seed of the
Abrus precatorius. The mdsa and tola are either square, round, or
cylindrical, and are made of crystal, glass, broken chinaware,
lead, brass, or bellmetal. For the tola the Imperial rupee is
generally used, which weighs- 11^ mdsds. Iron, zinc, brass, lead, tin,
and other cheaper metals, and cotton are weighed by the table, two
ardha-chhatdks one chhatdk, two chhatdks one adpdv, two adpdvs
one pdv, two pdvs one achher, two achhers one sher, thirteen shers one
man, and twenty mans one khandi. The ardha chhatdk weighs about
two and a half and the sher about seventy-six Imperial rupees. Spices,
sugar, molasses, alkali, coffee, and other drugs are weighed by this
table, two savdsers one adeshri, two adeshris onepdsri, two pdsris one
dhada, four dhadds one man, and twenty mans one khandi. The
savdsher weighs thirty Imperial rupees.

Rice and other grains and salt are generally sold by measures
and rarely by weight. The table is two nilvds one kolva, two kolvds
one chipta, two chiptds one mdpta, two mdptds one sher, two shers one
adeshri, two adeshris one pdyli, sixteen pdylis one man,- and twenty
m,ans one khandi. These measures are shaped like an hourglass, are
made of wood, iron, copper, or brass, and have a Government stamp
pressed on them. The nilva of grain weighs about 6^ and the adeshri
about 208 Imperial rupees. Milk, clarified buttter, and oil are sold
either by weights or measures. The weights are the same as those
used in selling copper and sugar. The measures are, two pdvshers
one achher, and two achhers one sher. The pdvsher weighs twenty
Imperial rupees. The measures are either maps made of copper
and brass, or lotas made of earthenware. In the eastern sub-divisions
of Man, Khatav, Khand,pur, and Tasgaon oil is measured by the ladle
or pali, and a set of small metal bowls or lotds which serve as a
quarter, a half, and a one sher measure. Perfumed oils and powder
are weighed by the weights used in weighing gold and silver. The
length measures in use are the gaj and vdr made of iron, brass, copper,
or wood. Theg-ayisaboutthirty-five inches, andis divided into twenty
four tasus of a little less than an inch and a half each. The vdr is about
one tasu longer than the gaj. Except silk waistcloths or pitdmbars,
brocade shouldercloths or dupetds, and other costly articles which
are sold by weight, cloth and piece-goods are sold by the length.

Deccan]

sAtAra.

193

Bamboo matting or tattyds and coarse matting used in protecting
walls from rain are sold by the surface. The surface measures are
either the English foot and yard, or the Native cubits or hdts and
spans or vits. The hdt is the length from the elbow-joint to the
end of the middle finger. All masonry work, walls of brick or
stone, foundations, plinths, and platforms, are measured by cubic
foot. Timber is measured by the cubit or by the gaj. In such
earthwork as digging reservoirs and ponds, the unit of measurement
is called chavkadi. The cubic contents of a chavkadi which is ten
hdts long, ten hdts broad, and one hdt deep, are one hundred cubic
hdts. Earth-works such as mounds of earth, roads, and canal
embankments, as also rough-hewn stones and road metal, which
are spread and piled in heaps on the ground and used for
metalling roads, are measured by the cubic foot. Chips of stones
sand and metal are sold by a measure called the Jchandi. Before
the introduction of the revenue survey in 1853, the bigha was used
as a land measure. 5-| hdts or 8J feet made one kdthi, twenty
hdthis one fdnd, and twenty pdnds one bigha. Since the introduction
of the revenue survey, except in a few unsurveyed alienated
villages, the bigha measure has given place to the English acre.

Chapter V.
Capital-

Measttbbs.

B 1282-25

[Bombay Gazetteer,

CHAPTER VL

T R A D E .^

Chapter VI. jjj ^-^^ ^g^yg ^f ^j^g Mardthds there were two principal routes above

Trade. tlie Sahyddris. One the Poona-Kollidpur and Karnatak route

KoADS. ^^^ ^y *^s little Bor pass in Poona, the S^lpa pass at the

north-east of Koregaon, the Nhdvi pass south-east of Koregaon^ and
then either by the line of the present S^tara-Td,sgaon road through
Tdsgaon and Miraj, or by Tdrgaon and Masur to Karad. Satdra
lay slightly off the road to the south-west from the village of Deur.
Even as far back as the days of Shivdji the SAlpa pass is said to
have been made practicable for wheel traffic and the old line is still
pointed out. It is very steep according to modern notions. The
other main line was that east to Pandharpnr by the Kaldhon
pass. Prom the earliest times the Mala, North and South Tivra, and
Varandha passes were used for pack bullocks to and from the Konkan.
While at Shingnapur in Mdn and Diksal in Khatdv there were paths
communicating with the Phaltan plain.

Ports nearly always marked the old passes. Vdsota and Shdhd,gad
were near the North Tivra pass ; Bhairavgad between the Kumbh^rli
and Mala passes ; Mahimandangad near the Amboli pass ; Prachitgad
near the South Tivra pass ; Pratdpgad near the Jdvli pass ; Kenjalgad
and Kamalgad near the W^i passes. Tdthvdda and Varugad com-
manded routes into the Phaltan country. A very ancient pilgrim
route marked by rest-houses at the principal villages is the
Eatnd,giri-Pandharpur route, which passed on the South Tivra pass,
thence either by Yelgaon to Karad, Surli, and Mayni or by Ashta
TAsgaon and Yita into the Atp^di sub-division now part of the Pant
Pratinidhi's possessions.

In^ 1826 ten routes or lines of traffic ran through the S^tara district.
Of these ten lines, two went north and south from Poona to Belgaum,
two went north-east from Satd,ra to Sirur in Poona and Ahmadnagar,
two went east from Satara to Sholapur, two went south-west from
Karad, one to Rdj^pur and the other to Malvan in Ilatnd,giri, and two
went west to Ddpoli in Ratnagiri. Of the two lines which ran south
from Poona to Belgaum through Sdt^ra, one line, about 241 miles long,
went by the Bor pass through Koregaon, and the other line, about
213 miles long, crossed the Nira near Shirval at thirty miles south

1 Compiled from materials supplied by Mr. J. W. P. Muir-Maokenzie C.«S.,
Mr. C. Brereton C. E. executive engineer, and Kao Bahddur BdUji Gangddhar SAthe.

2 Clunes' Itinerary, 31-37, 44-46, 64-68.

Deccaul

sAtAra.

195

of Poona and thirty-four miles north of S^t^fa, and passed by the
Khdmatki pass through iSdtlira, Kar^d,and IsMmpur. The KhSmatki
pass, also called the Khand^la or Harali pass, was thirty-six miles
south of Poona and twenty-eight miles north of S^tdra, and was a
good road for cattle. Of the two lines which ran north-east from
S^tdra, one went eighty-seven miles to Sirur in Poona, and the
other went 120 miles to Ahmadnagar. For thirty-four miles from
SAtdra to Shirval both these lines followed the Poona-Belgaum line
by the Khamatki pass. Of the two lines which went east from
Silt5.ra to Sholdpur by Pandharpur, one line, about 131 miles long,
went by Triputi, Vishdpur, Khatgun, and Pingli, and south of this,
the other line, about 148 miles long, went by Rahimatpur,
PusesSvli, M^yni, and the Kaldhon pass. The Kaldhon pass, though
fit for carts, had a bad ascent. Of the two lines which ran south-
west from Kardd one line, about 117 miles long, went by the Ankusra
or Anaskura pass to Rdjapur, and the other line, about 119 miles
long, went by Kolhdpur and the Phonda pass to Malvan. Of the 117
miles by the Ankusra pass only thirty-three miles from Kardd to
Malkdpur were fit for carts. Though it was much used by Vanjiiris,
the Ankusra pass road had neither rest-houses nor temples. Of
the 119 miles by the Phonda pass the seventy-five miles from Kardd
to the pass were fit for carts, the two miles through the pass were fit
for pack bullocks, and the rest was fairly good through thin forest.
The Phonda pass, one of the easiest routes between the Konkan
and the Deccan, was better than the Ankusra pass. Of the two
lines which went west to Ddpoli in Ratnagiri, one line from
Sholdpur, about 222 miles long, followed the S^tdra-Shol^pur line
by the Kaldhon pass to Pusesdvli in Khatdv at 116 miles from
SholJipur. From Puses5,vli this line turned south-west by
Malhdrpeth, Pdtan, and the Kumbharli pass. The road from
Pusesdvli to the Kumbhdrli pass and beyond through Ratnagiri
was generally bad and rocky. The other line to Dapoli, about sixty-
seven miles long, went west from S^tSra by the Amboli pass. For
thirty-three miles from Sdt^ra to Valvan near the pass the road
was fair, the five miles through the pass though passable were
difficult to cattle, and the rest through Ratndgiri was extremely bad.
The Amboli pass was steep towards the top and had a circuitous
descent.

Before! 1840 cart traffic was almost unknown. The first made
road was from Poona to Sdtdra by the Sdlpa pass'. In 1841 the
whole of this road was made fit for carts. In 1848, except along
the old Poona and Sat^ra-Mahabalpshvar made roads, the traffic
went by pack bullocks. The road from Poona to Belgaum and
Dhdrwdr which then ran by the present Nhdvi-Deur and Sdtdra-
Tasgaon line, and the road from Sdtara to Kolhapur which then
ran by Masur, Karad, and Kasegaon to the Vd,rna, were both partly
passable to carts. During the fair season the route from Satara to
Poona by the Khdmatki pass was chosen by bullock drivers and

Caiapter VI.
Trade.

EOADS.

1 Road details for 1848 and 1849 are chiefly taken from the late Sir Bartle Frere's,
Annual Reports.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

196

DISTRICTS.

Chapter VI.
Trade.

EOADS.

horsemen, but the old Poona road by the Sdlpa pass seems to have
been that chiefly used by carts. In 1 848, a monthly average of
about 3000 carts, including those coming from Pandharpur by
Phaltan, went by the Sdlpa pass.^ In 1849, Sir Bartle Frere, then
Commissioner of Sdtdra, noticed that the direct distance from the
sea of the chief Sdtdra marts varied from thirty -five to sixty miles,
while that of the marts in other Deccan districts and Khd,ndesh
varied from fifty to 125 miles. In spite of this nearnesss by cart roads
the coast was 140 to 200 miles from Sdtara and only seventy to
180 miles from the other districts. This was due to the Sahyddri
barrier between SditAra and the coast. At this time the Sahyddri
passes within Sdtara limits were, at the best, fit only for laden cattle,
and even these cattle tracks lay fifteen to thirty miles apart. Under
British rule three leading SAtara passes have been made fit for wheels
across the Sahyddris. In 1857, the opening of the Varandha pass
put Wdi within sixty miles of Mahdd by cart road; in 1864 the
opening of the Kumbhdrli pass put Karad within sixty miles of
Chiplun; and in 1876 the opening of the FitzGerald pass placed
Wdii and Satd,ra within fifty miles of Mahad. At present these
three passes form the chief outlets to the coast.^ With regard to
the comparative efficiency of packs and carts as means of transport.
Sir Bartle Prere calculated that carts saved two-fifths in cost and
one-third in time.

^ In 1848, in the present district of SAtAra, excluding Tisgaon, the number of carts
was 8119, of which 2397 had wooden wheels with tires, 5603 had stone wheels, and
119 had wheels of solid wood. Of these, carts with wooden wheels were alone used
for traffic, as the stone wheel carts drawn by twelve bullockg travelled only two-
thirds of the pace of the carta with wooden wheels and tires drawn by three bullocks.
The stone wheel carts have now (1883) mostly given place to carts with wooden
wheels, spokes, and tires. In 1848 the number of bullocks and cows was 444,512
against 296, 902 in 1 87 8. The greater number in 1 848 is probably due partly to the large
bullock traffic and partly to the large area of waste land. In 1849 between the 1st of
January and the 30th of June, 144,664 bullocks that is a daily average of about
1000 went by the Kumbh^li pass.

^ The following statement shows the traffic by these passes between December
1877 and June 1878. As this traffic belongs to Kolhdpur, Miraj, SAngli, Phaltan, and
Pandharpur, as well as to Sdtitra, the statement does not show the district imports
and exports, but the general usefulness of these passes. Besides by these pass roads
bullocks find their way to the coast by the North Tivra, South Tivra, and Mala

Sdtdra Saliyddri Pass Traffic, December 1877 to June 1878.

Pabs.

Caets.

Animais.

Loaded.

Empty.

Total.

Loaded.

Un-
loaded.

Grain.

other-
wise.

■21

KumbMrli

Varandlia

FitzGerald

Total ...

65,846

798

3630

16,046
3626
1639

826
226
68

71,717
4649
6127

810S

1033

13,844

1001
1679
2535

5216

60,173

20,111

1109

81,393

22,985

Kiimbh£lrli

Varandha

FitzGerald

Total ...

■" 1

26i296
2377
1926

28,937
1746
2044

56,233
4124
3970

4138

411

7282

6376
1614
6186

30,699

32,727

63,327

11,831

12,176

Deccan]

Si.Ti.RA.

197

At present few districts are so well provided with roads as
the Sd,td,ra district. During the four rainy months from June to
September, as the ports of Chiplun and MahSd are closed, little
traffic is carried over any of the roads except the Poona-Belgaum
road. At present (1883) the district has fifty-one lines of road
running over 956 miles. Of these 206| miles are metalled, 166
miles mummed that is laid with crumbly trap, 193f bridged, and
120 partly bridged and drained. Of these, seven lines running over
372 1 miles are maintained out of Provincial revenues, and are under
the charge of the public works department. The remaining forty-
four lines running over 583J miles are maintained from local funds.
Of the forty-four local fund lines three are first class lines running
over 89 J miles, thirteen are second class lines running over 204
miles, and twenty-eight are third class lines running over 290
miles. The first and second class lines are under the charge of the
public works department and the third class lines which are mere
fair weather tracks, are under the charge of the revenue department.
The yearly ordinary charges which have been sanctioned for five years
are £15 (Rs. 150) the mile for first class lines, £5 (Rs. 50) for second
class lines, and £3 (Rs. 30) for third class lines. Of the total fifty-
one lines thirteen are most important. Of these four lines, the
Poona-Belgaum, Sdtd,ra-Lonand or Old Poona, Sdt^ra-T^sgaon, and
Kardd-Tdsgaon roads run north and south, and the remaining nine
lines Varandha-Dharmapuri, Surul-Mahdbaleshvar and FitzGerald
Pass, W^i-Adarki, S^tira-Mahdbaleshvar, Satdra-Pandharpur,
Malhiirpeth-Pandharpur, Karad-Ndgaj, Karad-Kumbh^rli and Peth-
Sdngli roads run east and west. Of the four lines which run north
and south, the Poona-Belgaum mail road is the chief line of traffic in
the district. It is metalled and bridged throughout and runs in
the district for 101 miles from the Shirval bridge on the Nira in
the north to Kanegaon on the Varna in the south. Of these 101 miles
99i lie within district limits and 1^ miles within Kolhdpur limits.
The road passes by the Khdmatki pass through the Wdi, S^tdra,
KarSd, and Vdlva sub-divisions by the towns of' Sdtdra, Umbraj,
Kardd, Kasegaon, Nerla, Peth, and Kameri. It is passable by carts
throughout the year. The road is bridged on the Nira near Shirval
at thirty miles from Poona, on the Krishna near Bhuinj at fifty-six
miles, on the Vena near Varya at sixty-seven miles,on theUrmodi near
LStna at seventy-nine miles, on the Tdrli near Umbraj at ninety-one
miles, on the Koyna near Kardd at 101 miles, and on the Vdma near
Kanegaon at 129 miles. It has six travellers' bungalows, two at
Shirval in Wdi, one at S^tdra, two at Atit and Kardd in Karad, and
one at Nerla in Valva, and four district officers' bungalows at
Umbraj and Karad in Kardd and at Kasegaon and Kanegaon
in Vdlva. This road is crossed by almost all the important roads
of the district as feeders. Through the greater part of its course
this road is well shaded by road-side trees, chiefly Idbhuls in
the black soil and figs, tamarinds, and mangoes in other
parts. The S^tara-Lonand or Old Poona road, about thirty-
four miles long, has been a local fund road since 1863-64 and is
now in the first class. It leaves the Poona district at the Nira
and runs south-west by the Sd,lpa pass through part of Khanddla,

Chapter Vl-
Trade.

Roads.

HOADS,

[Bombay Gazetteer,
198 DISTRICTS.

Chapter VI. Phaltan, Koregaon, and S^fcdra. At Lonand in Wdi this road is
Trade. crossed by the MahSd-Pandharpur road, at Tadvala in Koregaon

by the WSi-Adarki road, and at Satara it merges into the Poona
Belgaum road. It is mummed, that is laid with crumbly trap, and
is bridged throaghout except at the Vdsna on the fourteenth . mile
north-east of Satara and at one or two other small streams. This
road is shaded by magnificent avenues of tamarind and fig trees.
Most of the bridging was done after 1818 by the first Rdja of
Bdtara. It has a travellers' bungalow at Deur in Koregaon. The
road is passable by carts during the fair season, and with difliculty
during the rains. Many carts still prefer this road to the Poona-
Belgaum metalled road. The Sdtdra-Tdsgaon second class
local fund road sixty-four miles long runs south-east through
the Sd,tdra, Koregaon, Khat^v, and Khdndpur sub-divisions
by Eahimatpur, Pusesdvli, Kadepur, and Vangi, and joins the
Karad-Tasgaon road near Turchi about five miles north of Tasgaon.
Except for the first eight miles -between Satdra and Chinchner, the
road is not bridged and at Dhamner in Koregaon the Krishna is
crossed by a ferry during the rains. On the borders of Koregaon
and Khatav the road crosses the Nhdvi hill-pass over which a new
line with easy gradients has lately been finished to Pusesavli.
Four miles north of Pusesdvli a branch road leads three miles east
to Aundh, the residence of the Pant Pratinidhi. At thirty
miles south-east of Satara and three miles south of Pusesd,vli it
crosses the Malharpeth-Pandharpur road and at thirty-nine miles
south-east of SAtdra and about three miles east of Kadegaon in
Kh^napur it crosses the Kar^d-N&gaj road. The road is fit for carts
during the fair season. The traffic on -this road is chiefly north of
Pusesavli through Eahimatpur with Sdtdra. In the fair season it is
not inconsiderable and consists chiefly of local produce. At Pusesdvli
it has a district bungalow. The Kardd-Tdsgaon first class local fund
road 354 miles long runs south-east through parts of Kardd,Vdlva, and
Tdsgaon by Shenavli, Tdk^ri, and Kundal. It is murumed, that is laid
with crumbly trap, and is passable by carts during the fair season.
At K^rve, about three miles south of KarSid, the road crosses the
Krishna and at about five miles west of Tdsgaon it crosses the
Yerla. Both these rivers are un bridged. For about seven miles
between Serch and Kundal the road borders the Krishna canal.
This road carries heavy cart traffic, and has lately been much
improved by building culverts and road drains. It is fit for carts
throughout the year, but the surface is by no means equal to the
heavy traffic which passes over it from March to the middle of May.
Of the nine lines which run east and west, the Varandha-DhaTmapuri
second class Provincialroad runs eighty-seven miles fromDharmapuri
on the border of ShoMpur and Phaltan to Varandha at the foot of
the Sahyddris and from Varandha to Mahdd. The road passes ia the
north through Phaltan, Wdi, and Bhor. At Lonand on the border
of Wdi and Phaltan it crosses the old Poona road and at Shirval it
crosses the Poona-Belgaum road. From Lonand to Shirval the road
is more or less murumed and the Pant Sachiv has lately been
draining and mumming the portion between Shirval and Bhor.
For eleven miles from Varandha at the foot to Hirdoshi at the

Deccan.]

sAtAra.

199

top of the Sahyddris the road is bridged, drained, and metalled.
From Hirdoshi the road runs west to the port of Mahd,d. The
Varandha-Dharmapuri road is passable to carts daring the fair
season. The Surul-FitzGerald pass road leaves the Poona-
Belgaum road at forty-eight miles from Poena in Wi,i, and runs by
Wdi and Malcolmpeth to Mahi,d in Koldba. Of the total sixty -one
miles from Sural to Mahdd forty-six are within Sd,tdra limits.
It is a first class Provincial road, and is metalled and bridged
throughout within district limits. About two miles west of Wdi
the road passes by the Pasarni pass and about two miles west of
Malcolmpeth by the FitzGerald pass. It is fit for carts throughout
the year, and has three travellers^ bungalows at Pdnchgani, Wdi,
and Vdda near the FitzGerald pass. The W^i-Adarki pass road
ia a second class local fund road, about twenty-two miles long. It
runs from the Phaltan state to Wdi by the A'darki pass and the
Shirgaon gorge, and meets the Surul-FitzGerald pass road at Wdi.
Since the 1876 famine the road has been much improved by
easing the gradients at the Shirgaon gorge or khind and building
revetment walls and drains. It is fit for carts at all seasons.
The S^tara-Malcolmpeth first class Provincial road, about thirty-
three miles long, leaves the Poona-Belgaum road two miles north of
Sat^ra and runs by Medha and the Kelghar pass. The eleven
miles from Kelghar to Mahdbaleshvar and the two miles along
which its course lies on the Poona-Belgaum mail road are metalled j
the rest of the road is murumed. The rivers and larger streams
are bridged and the smaller streams are crossed by road dams.
The road is fit for carts at all seasons. The SdtSra-Pandharpur
road sixty-four miles long is a second class local fund road, but is
being gradually brought into the first class. It runs due east
through the Sat^ra, Koregaon, Khat^v, and M^n subdivisions. Of
the Krishna, Vasna, Yerla, and M^n, which this road crosses, the
Vasna alone is bridged and the Krishna has a flying bridge at
Mdhuli about three miles east of Satdra. Besides these bridges the
road has a few culverts and road dams at intervals. It crosses two
small hill passes of easy gradients, the Vardhangad pass at eighteen
miles and the Mahimangad pass at thirty-three miles east of Satdra.
The road is fit for carts, in parts at all seasons and in parts only
during the fair season. The Malharpeth-Pandharpur road, about
fifty-four miles of which lie within the district, is a second class
local fund road. This road starts at Malhdrpeth about eight miles
east of P^tan on the Kar^d-Kumbh^rli pass road, and runs to
Pandharpur through parts of P^tan, Kardd, Kh^napur, Khatav,
Atp^di, and Mdn by the towns of Umbraj, Masur, Mdyni, Kaldhon,
and Diganchi. For eight miles between Malhdrpeth and Umbraj
the road is murumed and bridged, and at all seasons carries heavy
traffic. At Umbraj during the rains the Krishna is crossed by a
flying bridge and during the fair weather by a heavy sandy crossing.
For the remaining forty-six miles from Umbraj the road is a fair
weather track, crossing the Ndndni at twenty-five miles from
Malh^rpeth, the Yerla at about thirty-five miles, and the M^n at
about seventy miles near Diganchi. This road passes over the Ural
gorge or Tchind in Patan and over the Sh&mgaon gorge on the

Chapter VI.
Trade.

Roads.

[Bombay Gazetteer,
200 DISTRICTS.

Chapter VI. borders of KarAd and Khan^pur. Between Uiiibraj and Mayni the
Trade> ^o^<^ ^^s a few culverts and road dams at intervals. The Karad-

N^gaj second class Provincial road, of which fifty-nine miles lie
within the district, runs to Ndgaj through Kardd and Khandpur by.
the towns of Karad, Kadegaon, Vita, and Khdnapur,. and from
Nagaj to Bij^pur through the Miraj and Jath states. This road
passes over the Sadashivgad pass in KarM and crosses the Krishna
at Kardd, the Nandni at Amrapur twelve miles from Karad, the
Yerla at Hanmant-vddi nineteen miles, and the Agrdni at
Sultdngad forty miles. These rivers are unbridged, but some of
the smaller streams have road dams. During the 1876-77 famine
the road was much improved, and during the fair season is
passable to carts.. The Kardd-Kumbh^rli pass road, a first class
Provincial road, runs through Kardd and Pdtan by the KumbhMi
pass to Ohiplun in Ratndgiri. Of the total length of fifty-eight
miles from Kardd to Chiplun, forty-six miles are kept in repair by the
executive engineer of Sdtdra ; of this thirty-nine lie within Sdtd,ra
limits and seven within RatnAgiri limits. This road is metalled
and bridged throughout and passable to carts throughout the year.
It carries to the coast all the exports from the south, south-east,
and east of the district. The Peth-Sdngli road, about twenty miles
long, is a first class local fund road. Of the total twenty miles fifteen
are murumed and bridged, and the remaining five miles are being
completed. This road joins Peth on the Poona-Belgaum road to
the SAngli state, feeds the KarM-Kumbhd,rli pass road, and at all
seasons carries considerable traflBc.

Besides these thirteen chief lines five notable third class local
fund lines are passable to carts during the fair season. Of these
the Tdsgaon-Mogrdla road, about forty-five miles long, runs south
fromPhaltan to Td,sgaon by the Mogrdla pass in Mdn through the
sub-divisions of Mdn, Khat^v, Khdndpur, and TAsgaon. The chief
towns on this road are Pingli in.Md.n, Mdyni in Khatdv, Vita in
Khdndpur, and Td.sgaon. At Pingli the road crosses the Sd.tdra-
Pandharpur road, at Mdyni the Malh^rpeth-Pandharpur road, and
at Vita the Karid-Ndgaj road. The PusesAvli-Shingnapur road,
about thirty-four miles long, runs from Pnsesdvli on the Sd,tdra-
Tdsgaon road through Khatdv and Mdn by the sub-divisional towns
of Vaduj and Dahivadi. The Nh^vi-Deur road, about twenty-four
miles long, runs south through Koregaon from Deur on the old
Poona road to Khdvi on the Sd,tdra-Tdsgaon road, and joins the old
Poona road with the SAtdra-Tdsgaon road through Koregaon. The
Tdsgaor-IsMmpur road, about twenty-four miles long, runs by
Bhilavdi to IsMmpur on the Peth-Sdngli road. And the Vdrna
valley road, about thirty-sis miles long, runs westward along the
Vdma from Peth to the Mala pass, by the towns of Shirdla, BiMsi,
and Oharan.

Besides these, there are two notable bullock tracks. One the
Valvan-Pd,nchvad runs twenty-one miles from Valvan on the top of
the Ambola pass to Medha by BAmnoli and twelve miles further to
Panchvad by the Kudal gorge which is passable to carts. It joins
the Koyna, Yenna, and KudAl valleys with the Krishna valley, and
brings a great deal of traffic from the Konkan by the Ambola pass

Decca.n.1

SATlRA.

201

This track is yearly repaired so far as Alevd.di on the Panchvad side of
the Kuddl gorge^ and it is contemplated to make it passable for carts
from Alevadi to Pdnchvad where it meets the Poona-Belgaum road.
The other, tke Sdtd,ra-P^tan track about twenty-one miles long,
runs over two difficult hill passes for seven miles between Vajroshi
and Pdtan. At Pdtan this track meets the Kardd- Chiplun road
by the KumbMrli pass and saves a round of sixteen miles by tlie
Poona-Belgaum road.

The Sahyddris and their offshoots are crossed by thirteen made
passes. Of these five, th.e Khi.iiiatki on the Mah^dev range and
the Varandha, Pasarni, FitzGerald, and Kumbhdrli on the Sahyddri
range are the most important. The KhAm^tei pass, crossed by
the Poona-Belgaum metalled road, begins on the Mahddev range
near the village of Khajid^la in Wi^i at forty miles from Poena, runs
up the hill for four miles, and runs down for about two miles to the
village of Vela at forty-six miles. The pass was begun in 1856 and
completed in 1859 at a cost of £9916 (Rs. 99,160). On tie top of
the pass is a toll bar which was sold for £800 (Rs. 8000) for 1882-83.
Almost all traffic which before the making of tbis pass went by
the old Poona road, now goes througb the Khdmatki pass. The
Vaeandha pass in the Sahyddris, which is crossed by the ShoMpur-
Mahdd or Varandha-Dharmapuri road, begins at the village of
Hirdoshi in Bhor at seventy-six road miles from Dharmapuri, runs
up the hill for two miles, and enters the Konkan by a descent of
about nine miles near the village of M^njri at eighty-seven road
miles from Dharmapuri. The pass was begun in 1851 and
completed in 1857 at a cost of £11,106 (Rs. 1,11,060). For about
a mile the pass runs over a narrow and precipitous spur almost all
in rock-cutting. On ~one side of the pass the precipice is 200 to
300 feet high and the other side is a sheer descent of 600 to 800
feet. This is one of the most peculiar and striking lines of road on
the whole length of the Sahyddri range. The pass has two toll
bars at Hirdoshi and Varandha. For the year 1882-83 the Hirdoshi
toll bar was sold for £150 (Rs. 1500) and the Varandha toll bar for
£160 (Rs. 1600). The Pasarni pass in the Sahyadris crossed by the
Surul or Poona- Mahdbaleshvar metalled road, begins in Wdi on the
Vairditgad spur of the Sahyd,dris at tifty-six miles from Poona and
runs up the hill for about six miles. The pass was begun
in 1850 and completed in 1863 at a cost of £16,910 (Rs. 1,69,100).
In 1872-73 it was improved at a further cost of about £9000
(Rs. 90,000). On the top of the pass at the village of Dhandegad
there is a toll bar which was sold for £241 10s. (Rs. 2415) in
1882-83. This is the main route for passengers from Poona to
Mahdbaleshvar, and it is crossed by a considerable goods traffic from
6d,tdra to Mahad. The Ambenala or FitzGerald pass road in the
Sahyd.dris crossed by the Sdtara-Mahdbaleshvar and the Surul-
Mahd,baleshvar roads to Mahdd runs about twenty miles from
the top of the Mah^baleshvar hills to the village of Kapde
at the foot of the Sahyadris in the Konkan. The pass was begun
in 1871 and completed in 1876 at a cost of £44,452 (Rs. 4,44,520).
The FitzGerald pass has been lined with considerable care, and
appears to be the best and cheapest route available. The ascent
B 1282—26

Chapter VI.
Trade.

Passes.

Passes,

[Bombay Gazetteer,
202 DISTRICTS.

Chapter VI. is so gradual that ponies have been trotted from the V^da
Trade. bungalow at the foot of Prat^pgad to Mahdbaleshvar without

drawing rein. The district traffic to the port of MahAd is pretty equally
divided between the Varandha and FitzGerald passes. At the village
of Ambenala half-way down the pass there is a good travellers'
bungalow and a toll bar wbich in 1881-82 sold for £41^ (Es.410).
The KcMBHAELi passj in the Sahy^dris, crossed by the Karad-Ohiplun
road, begins on the Sahyadri main range at the village of Dhankal
at thirty-seven miles from Karad and twenty-one miles from
Chiplun, runs up for two miles to the village of Khempse on the
top of the pass, and runs down for seven miles to the village of
Pophli at the foot of the Sahyddris in Eatnagiri. The pass has
steep gradients and sharp curves. It was begun in 1 855 and
finished in 1864 at a cost of £30,589 (Rs. 3,05,890). The traffic
over this pass is the heaviest pass traffic in the district. At the
village of Dhanbal at the foot of the Sahyddris in P^tan there is a
toll bar which in 1883-83 fetched £1650 (Rs. 16,500).

Besides these chief made passes, each sub-division except Tasgaon
has several smaller passes and gorges called khinds. Beginning
from the north in the western and central belts, Wai has nine
gorges. Of these three the Harli, V^hagaon, and Ganesh are on the
Chandan-Vandan spur of the Mahddev range between Wai and
Koregaon ; one the Gdda is in the Khand^la petty division, and
five the Anvad, Kanheri, Korsal, Mandap, and Tayghdt are in the
Wai mamlatddr's division. The Haeli, a mere footpath with little
traffic, is about eighteen miles east of WAi and joins the village of
Harli in W^i with the village of Solshi in Koregaon. A little south
of Harli, the Vahagaon gorge joins the village of Vahdgaon in Wd,i
■with the village of Randulabad in Koregaon. It is not fit for carts.
A little south of Vahagaon, the Ganesh, a footpath with little traffic,
joins the village of Kholavdi in Wd.i with the village of Banvd,di
in Koregaon. The GtAda, on the hills between Khandala and Bhor,
gives a short cut from Bhor to the Poona-Belgaum road at Khandd,la
and leads by the Harli gorge to Koregaon. Up the gorge lie the
village of Mirja of the Bhor state and the village of Atit of the
Khandala petty division and down the pass lie the villagesof Kanhavdi
and Utravliof the Bhor state. In 1882 the track over the gorge, which
had been very difficult, was widened and improved at a cost of about
£60 (Rs. 600) by one Mainai More of Mirjachivadi of the Bhor
state. Laden animals now cross with ease and empty carts avail
themselves of the short cut. The pathway is about ten feet broad
and is roughly built with dry stones and covered with murum or
crumbly trap. It has no toll. The value of the yearly in and out traffic
is roughly estimated at about £3000 (Rs. 30,000), chiefly in grain,
tobacco, salt, oil, clarified butter, cocoa-kernels, spices, groundnuts,'
vegetables, dried fish, and native shoes. Formerly the traffic over this
gorge was much greater ; now the SholApur-Mahdd road by Bhor
draws most of the heavy traffic. The Anvad gorge, about six miles
north of Wai on the M^ndhardev hills, gives a short cut from Bhor
to Wai. Across this gorge tracks with good gradients were
formerly made, leading from Ving and Shirval in the north to Wai
and Abhepuri in the south. These- tracks are now seldom repaired)

Deccan.]

sAtara.

203

but they are still passable though bad in places. Though largely used'
before the making of the present good roads, the tracks now carry
little traffic. On the crest of the gorge are a rest-house or dharm-
shdla and three reservoirs built by Tdi Saheb Sachiv, the great-
grandmother of the present chief of Bho'r. The rest-house is kept
in good repair and has a garden of fruits and flowers. Of the three
reservoirs one is used by Brdhmans, the second by non-Brdhman
Hindus, and the third by Musalmans. The water is good and
plentiful and is brought by an under-ground masonry channel from
'a spring about three-quarters of a mile to the west. The Kanheei
gorge, on the hills between Khand^la and Wdi, is a cattle track of
little importance and leads from Kanheri in the. north to Loh^ra
and Bopardi in the south. The Koeal gorge on the hills between
W^i and Bhor is about ten miles north-west of Wai and leads from
Asra in Wdi to Titeghar in Bhor. During the rains the track
across the gorge is impassable but in the fair season it is largely
used by pack bullocks, chiefly carrying rice, gram, and grain-
About twenty years ago the track was made by the public works
department, but has now fallen into disrepair. The Mandap gorge,
on the spur dividing the Krishna from the Kadal valleys, is a short
cut from Vi^jvadi in the north to Mhusva in the south. It is a
pack-bullock track and is rarely used. The Tatghat is the old way
from Ghikli to Bhilar and other villages on the Pauchgani and
Mahabaleshvar plateau. Being steep and out of repair, it is little
used. Laden cattle can pass with much difficulty. The track was
formerly much used and bears marks of having been built and
protected. It was chiefly used as the track for Mahdbaleshvar and
was improved by General Phayre. This and the Anvad pass are
often talked of as Phayre's roads.

Jdvli, which is much covered with hills, has numerous small passes
and gorges. Pew of them can be used by carts and not many of them-
by laden cattle. The eight most important are the Bamnoli, the
Gogva, the Kandat, the Kudal, the Mor, the North Tivra, the Par,
and the Radtodi. The Bamnoli road over the spur dividing the-
Yenna and Koyna rivers runs from Medha in the north to Bamnoli
in the south. It joins the Koyna with the Yenna valleys and gives
passage to the Konkan produce which is brought into the Koyna
valley along numerous small gorges. The road runs about 4000
feet above sea level and is passable by pack bullocks for about eight
months during the fair season. The gradient, though not bad, is too
severe for carts and the path is hardly wide enough. It has lately been
much improved and is yearly repaired from local funds. The G-ogva
road, also across the spur dividing the Koyna valley from the Yenna
valley, runs from Medha to the village of Gogva on the Solshi which is
a feeder of the Koyna and at Mahabaleshvar is known as the Blue
Valley river. It is a fair bridle path with little traffic and severe
gradients. The KandIt road which is a continuation of the Bamnoli
road in the west is a fair bridle path. It winds for about fourteen
miles along the Kanddt valley, a feeder of the Koyna, and dis-
appears over the main Sahyddri range into the Konkan. The
KudAl road, over the spur dividing the Yenna valley from the
Kud^I valley, is about fifteen miles west of Sd,tara and eighteeu

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miles east of Malcolmpeth. Kudal lies about six miles nortt-east of
tlie gorge and Medha about a mile to tbe south. From Medha the
road zigzags about two miles up the gorge, with a good gradient
and comes down the Kuddl side by a fair gradient. It ]Oins the
Yenna valley with the KiidSl valley. From Kuddl the track runs
east by a short cut to the Poona-Belgaum mail road, and from Medha
it runs west to Bdmnoli in the Koyna valley by the B^mnoli road,
and from Bamnoli further west into the Konkan by the Kdndat
gorge. From Medha to Kud^l it is easily passable by laden carts,
but from Kud^l to the Poona-Belgaum road the cart track is difficult
and bad. The value of the yearly in and out traffic across the gorge
is -estimated at about £2000 (Rs. 20,000), chiefly in grain, molasses,
vegetables, and a small quantity of salt and dried fish. The road has
no toll and is yearly repaired from local funds. Though the roadway
has lately been much improved, better made roads carry off most of the
heavier traffic. The Moe track is another short cut from the Yenna
valley to KudSl and the Poona-Belgaum mail road. It is a steep
and rugged track, fit only for pack bullocks and foot passengers.
It has little traffic and is not repaired. The North Tivea road over
the main Sahyddri range lies about ten miles south of the K^nd^t
and twenty-five miles west of Sat^ra. Though a mere pack-bullock
track, the North Tivra carries a considerable traffic, chiefly grain,
molasses, tobacco, chillies, and oil from Sd,tara to Ratnagiri, and rice,
cocoanuts, spices, dates, and salt from Ratnagiri to S^td,ra. Most of
this traffic finds its way direct to Sditara by Kargaon and Parli
over the Bdmnoli-Dategad spur by a path formerly well known
as the Usurla pass, and part goes north and north-east by Bamnoli
and Medha to the Kuddl gorge. The value of the yearly traffic is
estimated at about £1 800 (Rs. 18,000). The track is in many parts
rough and steep and is not repaired. It has no toll. The PIe and
Radtodi passes, about two miles south of the FitzGerald pass on
the main Sahyddri range, are two parts of the track which leads
from Malcolmpeth to the Konkan by Pethpar. Of this track the
Pdr is the lower part and the Radtodi the upper part. It has been
superseded by the excellent FitzG-erald pass road, and is now rarely
used. It was formerly improved at a considerable cost, but it has
now fallen into disrepair. It was always too steep for carts.

Satdra has two gorges, the Bogda and the Rdnzan. The
BoGDA lies close to the city of Sdtara in the south between the
old Sdtdra fort and Yavteshvar. It is a short cut froin the city to
the Poona-Belgaum road in the south and also joins the city with
the important village of Parli in the west and from Parli with the
North Tivra pass on the main Sahyadri range. The road across this
gorge runs through a tunnel about 1 00 yards long. The tunnel was
first designed in memory of Shdhji of Sdtdra (1839 - 1848) and
was afterwards in 1855 much improved by the Bombay Government
at a cost of £2900 (Rs. 29,000). The passage through the tunnel is
in excellent order. The road for about a mile between the north
end of the gorge and the city is repaired by the Sdtdra municipality
and for about three miles between the south end of the gorge and
the Poona-Belgaum road it is repaired from local funds. Though
carts occasionally find their way to Parli, the seven miles to Parli

Deccan.]

sAtIra.

205

are safe only for laden cattle. TBe yearly in and out traffic is
estimated at about £7500 (Es. 75^000). A toll in the gorge
yields an average yearly revenue of about £100 (Rs. 1000). The
RAnzan gorge, on the spur of the Mahddev range which separates
Wd,i and S^t^ra from Koregaon, joins the village of Malgaon in
S^tara with the village of Ambdvda in Koregaon. It has little traflSo
and is not often used by carts though they can pass across the gorge.

Besides the Harli, VahagaoUj Ganesh, and Rdnzan, which run
into Koregaon from Wai and Satara in the west, Koregaon has
five gorges in the east, on the chief spur of the Mahadev range
which separates the central from the eastern belts of the district.
Beginning from the north the five gorges are the Reda, Ganesh,
N^gnathvddi, NhSvi, and Arvi. The Reda, about sixteen miles east
of S^tdra and fifteen miles north of Rahimatpur, is a mere foot-
path with little traffic, and joins the village of Bhadla in Koregaon
with the village of Aljapur in Phaltan. The Ganesh about six
miles south of the Reda, joins the villages of Rui and NhAvikhurd
in Koregaon with the village of Ner in Khatav. It is a little
used cart track. The Ni-GNlTHviDi, within a mile south of the
Ganesh, joins the village of BorjaivMi in Koregaon with Ldlgun
in .Khatav. It is a mere footpath with little traffic. The
NhIvi about ten miles south of the Nagnathv^di, joins the village
of Nhavi-Budruk in Koregaon with the village of Vadi in Khatav.
It is passable by carts, but has little traffic. This gorge is close to
the Nhavi made pass across the SatSra-Tlisgaon road. The Aevi,
about two rniles south of the Nhavi, is a mere footpath, joining the
village of Arvi in Koregaon with the village of Karla in the
Khdndpur sub-division belonging to the Akalkot state.

In Pdtan two tracks run over small hill passes and gorges. Of
these the Sli.tara-P5,tan track runs by the village of Saduvdighapur,
about a mile north of Patau, on the spur which divides the Tdrli
from the Kera. The track is passable by pack bullocks and foot
passengers and is yearly repaired from local funds. The yearly in
and out traffic is estimated at about £500 (Rs. 5000) chiefly in
betelnuts, cocoanuts, coriander, dates, groundnut, molasses, oil,
turmeric, and salt. There is no toll. The hill track which runs
west to Sangameshvar in Ratndgiri by the Mala pass on the main
Sahy^dri range, is about fifteen miles long from DhenevAdi and
eight miles from Morgiri. The track is fit for pack bullocks and
carries a considerable traffic, chiefly in chillies, groundnut,
myrobalans, oil, and tobacco from Pdtan to Sangameshvar, and in
betelnuts, cocoa-kernels, and dates from Ratndgiri to Satara.

In Kardd the only hill track runs by N^ndldpur in Karad to Aria
in Valva. It begins at NandMpur about four miles south of Kar^d
and runs by the villages of Kila,, Nandgaon, Ond, Undala, Gavda,
Lalgun, Ghogaon, and Yelgaon. At Yelgaon the track divides into
two branches, one running to Aria by Yellapur and Kasegaon, and
the other by Panchgani. Fi-om Aria in Vdlva it runs into Ratndgiri
by the Kundi and South Tivra passes. The track is fit for carts and
pack bullocks within Kar5,d limits. The yearly in and out traffic is
estimated at about £1000 (Rs. 10,000) chiefly in wheat, gram, and
_^'i;ar'i from Kardd to Ratnagiri, and betelnuts, cocoanuts, rice, and
salt from Ratnagiri to Karad. In Vdlva the Shikala-DevhIea hill

Chapter VI-
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[Bombay Gazetteer,
206. DISTRICTS.

Chapter VI. track, about twenty-seven miles long from Shirdla, runs along tlie
Trade. Vdrna river. From DevMra this track leads into Ratnagiri by the

Kundi and South Tivra passes. For about fifteen miles from Shirdla
the track is fit for carts, and for the rest of its length it is fit for
pack-bullocks aad foot passengers. The yearly in and out traffic is
estimated at about £3000 ' (Rs. 30,000) chiefly in wheat, gram,
groundnuts, molasses, and tobacco from Vd,lva and betelnuts, cocoa-
nuts, sugar, and salt from Ratnagiri into Valva. The track has been
much improved from local funds.

In the eastern belt beginning from the north, M^n has twenty
small passes and gorges or Ichinds. Of these six are passable by
carts, thirteen by pack-bullocks, and one by foot passengers.^
Besides the Ganesh, N^gnathvadi and Nhavi between Khatav and
Koregaon, and the Kukudv^d-Virli between Khatdv and Md,n,
Khatav has five gorges within Klat^v limits, two of them fit for
carts and three for foot-passengers.^ Khd,napur has twenty-nine
gorges, eighteen of them in the group of the Khd,n^pur hills and
eleven in the group of the Kurla hills.^ The Tdsgaon sub-division,
being mostly plain, has no notable gorges or khinds,

1 The six cart tracks are wholly in the M^ sub-division. They are the Bhavdni
between Shingnipnr and Pimpri, the Dahivadi-Nidhal between Shindi and
Mahimangad, the KAtarkhatd,v-Mhasvad between Naravna and DhAmni, the Kothla
between Thadda and Shingndpur and Kothla, the Mhasvad- Varkuta-MalvAdi between
Palsavda and Var"kuta-Malv4di, and the Tilsgaon-MogrAla between Pingli-Budrak
and Pingli-Khurd. Of the thirteen pack-bullock tracks eleven are within MSn
limits and two between M4n and Khatav and MAu and AtpAdi, The eleven within
M^n limits are the Dahivadi-Nidhal between Shindi and Mahjmangad, the Gondavla-
Kaldhon between Naravna and Vadjil, the Gondavla-Tondla between Vdghmodydchi-
Vddi andKeraksal, the Malv4di-E4j4pur between MalvAdi and RijApur, theMalvAdi-
Vardhangad between MalvAdi and Vardhangad, theMhasvad-Injab^v between Khadkl
and Bhalvadi, the Mogr41a-Girvi between Mogr^la and Girvi, the Pimpri-Dhdmni
between Pimpri and DMmni,the Sitibii between KnlakjAi and Vdghoshri, theTondla
between Tondla and Dhumalv4di, and the Virli-Kaldhon between Virli and Kaldhon..
The other two are the J^jnbhulni-ShenvAdibetween JKalin in M^n and Litnbuda in
AtpAdi, and the Kiikudv4d- Virli between Valai in M4n and Pachvad in Kha,t&v.
The one footpath is the Narvana KukudvAd between Vadjal and Kirkol.

" The two cart tracks are JAygaon about two miles from Aundh and PingaljAi about
five miles west of Vaduj between Tadavla and Pingli. The J^ygaon has little traffic,
but the Pingalj^i is crossed by the Tdsgaon-MogrAla road and carries from KhatAv to
Dahivadi and Pandharpur grain, chillies, ^ and other field produce to the value of £200
(Rs. 2000). The three footpaths are the Tadul-Khatval between the villages of
Tadul and Khatval, the Pedgaon between the villages of Pedgaon and VAdi, and the.
Umbarmal between the villages of Umbarmal and Vetna.

2 The eighteen about the Khdnipur hills are Bdlsingi between BalvAdi and Valvan,
the BAnur between B^nur and Pachegaon, the Bhivghit betwefen Hi vra and Karagani,
the Chinch between Pachegaon and Kole-Karangi, the Dargoba between Ghoti-
Budruk and Para, the Devi between Devi and Bhikvadi-Budruk, the Dhord,lvAdi
between Kh^ndpur and Lengra, the Hogaldara between Ghoti-Budruk and Padli, the
Kacharvidi between Ghoti-Kiurd and Paid, the Kurli between Kurli and Vita, the
Menganva,di Ijetween BalvAdi and Chinchali, the NAgoba between Khdn^pur and
Morba, the Palsi between Banur and Palsi, the RAmgh^t between Kararga and Net-
Karangi, the Revangaon between Revangaon and Lingra, the ShindevMi between
Balvidi and Bhud, the Tukmdli between Balvddi and Kharsundi, and the VAsamba
between Renavi and V^samba. Of these eighteen gorges the RAmgh^t alone is mostly
passable by carts and the rest are used by pack bullocks and foot passengers- The
eleven gorges about the Kurla hills are the Dh4kai between Shelgaon and Kurla, the.
Ganesh between Chinchni and Olith, the Hanmant between Tadli and Machindragad,
the Rival between Shelgaon and Kival, the Nerli between Nerli and Tembu, the
Pirachi between Asad andRetra-HarnAksha.the Samudreshvar between DevrAshtra and
Tapari, the Shenavli between Sonkira and Shenavli, the Vadgaon between Sausal'
and Vadgaon, the VAghdara between Jadsar and Shirasgaon, and Vdgheri between
Shelgaon and Nerviv^di, None of these gorges are passable by carts.

Deccau.]

sItIra.

207

Of the three systems of railways, the East Deccan or Hotgi-
Gadag, the South Deccan or Beldri-Marmagaon, and the West
Deccan or Poena- Londa which are being introduced into the South-
ern Mardtha and Kdnarese districts of Bombay, the "West Deccan
or Poona-Londa by Miraj and Belgaum will directly affect SAt^ra.
The beginning of the Poona-Londa railways was sanctioned in
December 1883. Of 2 75 miles, the total length from Poena to Londa,
about forty-seven run south-east from Poona through the Poena
district, 101 miles through the S^t^ra district, twenty-one miles
through the Sdngli and Miraj states between Sdtdra and Belgaum,
and 106 miles through the Belgaum district. The 101 miles within
Sdtara limits pass south and south-east along almost the whole
centre of the district through parts of Wd-i and Phaltan, the
whole of Koregaon and Karad, and parts of Vdlva and Td.sgaon.
The line enters S^tara at the Nira about forty-seven miles from
Poona and leaves SAtara at the Terla about 148 miles from Poena.
In the Satara section of 101 miles ten third class stations are
proposed, that is an average of one station for every ten miles of
line. The ten stations will be Lonand at 52^ miles from Poona,
SAlpa 68 miles, Vatar 68^ miles, Padli 77 J miles, Koregaon
84 miles, Rahimatpur 91| miles, Masur 104f miles, Kardd
Road 113^ miles, Machundragad 125 miles, and Kundal within
state limits at 135 miles.^ At Sdlpa at fifty-eight miles the line wiU
run through the Sdlpa tunnel, which though difficult is not
more than 500 feet long and is estimated to cost £11,400
(Rs. 1,14,000). At Padli at 77i miles the line enters the rich and
fertile valley of the Krishna, and for the remaining seventy-one
miles of the Satdra section it continues to run close to the Krishna,
being never more than four miles from it. Consequently for about
ninety-eight miles the line on the whole slowly falls from Padli till
it crosses the Krishna in Belgaum at about 1 75 miles. To avoid the
heavy outlay which would have been incurred by running the line
along the western or right side of the Krishna, which would have
necessitated the bridging of the Krishna and almost all its chief
tributaries the Kudali, Vena, TJrmodi, Tdrlij Koyna, and Vdrna, the
Sd.tdra section will run along the eastern or left side of the Krishna,
and the district head-quarter station of Sd,tdra and the large town of
Karad will consequently lie at some distance from the line. For the
city of Satara the nearest station will be Koregaon at eighty-four
miles from Poona and twelve miles east of Satd,ra j and for the town
of Kardd the nearest station will be KarM Road at 113| miles from
Poona and four miles east of Karad. The line will have a ruling
gradient of one in 100 and no curve with a smaller radius than
600 feet. The only large bridge on this section will be over the
Terla at 148 miles from Poona, with five spans of 100 feet girders
and an estimated cost of £1 6,700 (Rs. 1,67,000). Excellent stone
and lime are available on the section. The average cost of the
line between Poona and Belgaum is estimated at about £9463
(Rs. 94,630) a mile, or a total expenditure within Satara limits of
about £955,763 (Rs. 95,57,630). The Poona-Londa line was begun in
January 1884andisexpectedtobefinishedinl889. Beyond the district

1 The position of one or two of the stations is not'yet_finally fixed.

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Chapter VI.
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Tolls.

within Sdngli and Miraj limits, tke eleven miles of line from the Yerla
in the extreme south of the S£tara section to Miraj will have two stations
at Nandreh south of the Yerla at 148 miles and at Miraj at 159 miles,
and a bridge across the Tasgaon river at 154 miles with three spans
of 100 feet girders and an estimated cost of £10,000 (Rs. 1,00,000).
Of the thirty toll bars seventeen are on Provincial and thirteen
on local fund roads. Of the seventeen Provincial tolls six are on the
Poona-Belgaum road at the Khdmatki pass in Wai, at the Nimb and
Kodoli gorges with a subsidiary bar at the Sat^ra tunnel in Sdtdra,
at Vdhdgaon and the Koyna bridge in Kardd, and at the Vdrna
bridge near Kanegaon in V^lva with a subsidiary bar at Kdmeri ;
two are on the Sholapur-Mahad road at the Varandha pass at Hirdoshi
and Varandha ; two are on the Surul-PitzGerald pass road at the
Pasarni pass in Wdi and at Kapde at the foot of the PitzGerald pass ;
two are on the Satara-Mah^baleshvar road near the Yenna bridge
at Ankla in Satara and at Kelgad in Javli ; three on the Kar^d-
Chiplun road at the Kesha gorge at Sakurdi in Karad, at the
Kera bridge in Patau and at the Kumbharli pass at the foot of
the Sahy^dris ; and two are on the Karad-Bijdpur road by N^gaj
at the Surli gorge on the borders of Kar^d and Kh^napur and at
the Kh^nd,pur gorge. Of the thirteen local fund tolls two are
on the old Poena road at the Yenna bridge in Sdtdra and at
the Sdlpa pa^ss on the , borders of Koregaon and Phaltan ; one is
on the Wai-Adarki pass road at the Shirgaon gorge on the borders
of Wai and Koregaon ; four are on the Sat^ra-Pandharpur road
at the Triputi gorge in Koregaon, at Vardhangad on the borders
of Koregaon and Man, and at the Gondevla gorge and Dhuldev
in Md,n ; one is on the Satdra-T^sgaon road at the NhAvi pass
on the borders, of Koregaon and Khatav; three are on the
Malharpeth-Pandharpur road at the Ural gorge in Patan, at
the Shamgaon gorge on the borders of KarAd and Khdnapur,
and at the Taras gorge near the village of Kaldhon in Khatav ;
one is on the Karad-Tdsgaon road at Tdkdri in Vdlva where the
Krishna canal crosses the road ; and one is on the Peth-SAngli road
at the Gotkhind in V^lva. The tolls charged are for every four-
wheeled carriage Is. (8 as.), for every two-wheeled carriage drawn
by one animal 3d (2 as.), for every two-wheeled cart or carriage &d.
(4 as.) if drawn by two animals and laden and Qd. (2 as.) if unladen,
Qd. (6 as.) if drawn by four animals and laden and 4|i. (3 as.) if
unladen, 2s. (Re. 1) if drawn by eight animals or more and laden
and Is. (8 as.) if unladen, 2s. (Re. 1) for every elephant. Id. (^ a.)
for every camel, horse, pony, mule, buffalo, or bullock whether
laden or unladen, ^d. [\ a.) for every ass laden or unladen, ^d. ( j-V a.)
for every sheep, goat, or pig, 6a!. (4 as.) for every palanquin
or other litter carried by four or more bearers, and 3d (2 as.)
for every small litter carried by less than four bearers. Except
at the Koyna bridge at Karad where \\d. (1 a.) is charged for
every cart laden or unladen and at the SAlpa pass on the old Poena
road and at the Triputi gorge, Vardhangad, the G-ondavla gorge
and Dhuldev on the Sd,td,ra-Pandharpur road, where ^d. (2 as.)
instead of M. (4 as.) are charged, for every two-wheeled cart if
drawn by two animals and laden, and \\d. (1 a) instead of 8c?. (2 as.)

Deocanl

sAtAea.

209

if unladen, these fees are generally charged at almost all the tolls.
In 1881-82 the tolls realized £11,910 (Rs. 1,19,100), of which £10,264
(Rs. 1,02,640) were for Provincial tolls and £1646 (Rs. 16,460) for
local fund tolls.

Of the sixteen chief bridges seven are on the Poona-Belgaum
road, across the Nira, Krishna, Yenna, Urmodi, Tarli, Koyna,
and Vdrna. At thirty miles from Poena near Shirval the Nira
is crossed on the Poona-Belgaum road by an iron lattice girder
bridge resting on masonry piers. It has eight spans of sixty feet
each with a total length between abutments of 501 feet. The
roadway is twenty-one feet wide and 46^ feet above the river
bed. The bridge was built in 1872 at a cost of £13,296 (Rs. 1,32,960).
At fifty-six miles from Poona at Bhuinj the Krishna is crossed
on the Poona-Belgaum road by a masonry bridge. It has nine
segmental arches, each of thirty feet span, with a total length
of 310 feet. The roadway is twenty feet wide and twenty-eight
feet above the river bed. The bridge was built in 1864 at a cost
of £3635 (Rs. 36,350). At Varya sixty-seven miles from Poona
the Tenna is crossed on the Poona-Belgaum road by a masonry
bridge. It has eight segmental arches each of thirty feet span with
a total length of 275 feet. The roadway is twenty feet wide and
twenty-one feet above the river bed. The bridge was built in
1864 at a cost of £3642 (Rs. 36,420). At seventy-nine miles from
Poona near Latna the Urmodi is crossed on the Poona-Belgaum
road by a masonry bridge. It has three elliptical arches each of
sixty feet span, and two semicircular arches each of fifteen feet
span, with a total length of 259 feet. The roadway is 20f feet
wide and thirty-three feet above the river bed. The bridge was
built in 1865 at a cost of £3924 (Rs. 39,240). At ninety-one miles
at Umbraj the Td,rli is crossed on the Poona-Belgaum road by a
masonry bridge. It has four segmental arches each of forty feet
span with a total length of 178 feet. The roadway is twenty feet
wide and fifty-three feet above the river bed. The bridge was
built in 1877 at a cost of £11,489 (Rs. 1,14,890). At 101 miles
from Poona at Karad the Koyna is crossed on the Poona-Belgaum
road by a bridge partly of masonry and partly of iron. It has
eight spans with a total length of 709 feet. Of the eight spans
four in the south are masonry arches each fifty-four feet span, and
the remaining four, over the deepest part of the river, consist of
iron girders each 108 feet span and resting on massive masonry
piers. The roadway is 21| feet wide and 80| feet above the
river bed. The bridge was built in 1872 at a cost of £48,594
(Rs. 4,85,940). Owing to the nature of the subsoil of the river
bed great difiSculty was experienced in getting foundations for
some of the piers of this bridge. At Kanegaon, 129 miles
from Poona, the Vdrna is crossed on the Poona-Belgaum road
by a masonry bridge. It has eight segmental arches, each
sixty feet span, with a total length of 577 feet. The roadway
is twenty feet wide and 30^ feet above the river bed. The
bridge was begun in 1876 and completed in 1883 at a cost of £26,661
(Rs. 2,66,610). Besides by the Bhuinj bridge on the Poona-Belgaum
road the Krishna is crossed by two masonry bridges, at Wai

B 1282—27

Chapter VI.
Trade.

Beidges.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

210

J3ISTEICTS.

Chapter VI.
Trade.

Bkidoes.

fifty-four miles from Poona on the Surul-FitzGerald pass road,
and at Vaduth six miles north-east of Sdtara on the old Poona road.
The W^i bridge has eight segmental arches each of thirty feet span
with a total length of 266 feet. The roadway is twenty feet wide
and thirty-sis feet above the river bed. The bridge was built in
1871 at a cost of £3931 (Es. 39,310). The Vaduth bridge has nine
arches each of fifteen feet span, one arch of seventy-four feet span,
and one small water-way of six by seven feet. The total length is
. 398 feet. The roadway is 27^ feet wide and thirty-five feet above
the riverbed. The bridge was built in 1845. Besides by the Varya
bridge on the Poona-Belgaum road the Yenna is crossed by
three masonry bridges, two on the Satdra-Malcolmpeth road at
Kanhera eight miles and at Kelghar twenty miles north-west of
Sd,ta,ra, and one on the old Poona road at Vd,dha-Kheda three miles
north-east of Sd,tAra. The Kanhera bridge has eight segmental
arches each of thirty-feet span with a total length of 268 feet.
The roadway is twenty feet wide and 26| feet above the river bed.
The bridge was built in 1872 at a cost of £3948 (Es. 39,480). The
Kelghar bridge has one arch of sixty feet span with a total length
of sixty feet. The roadway is twenty feet wide and twenty-five
feet above the river bed. The bridge was built in 1852 at a cost of
£588 (Es. 6880). The Vadha-Kheda bridge has five arches each of
thirty feet span, one arch of ten feet span, and two small water-
ways of six by seven feet. The total length is 322 feet. The road-
way is twenty-seven feet wide and twenty-five feet above the river
bed. The bridge was built in 1845 by Shahjithe Sdt^ra chief.^ Besides
by the Kardd bridge on the Poona-Belgaum road, the Koyna is
crossed by two masonry bridges at Hdroshi in Jdvli eighty-three
miles from Poona on the Surul-FitzGerald pass road, and at
Helvak in Pdtan thirty-three miles from Karad on the Kardid-
Kumbhdrli pass road. The Haroshi bridge has three thirty
feet arches with a total length of ninety-nine feet. The roadway
is 18^ feet wide and 20| feet above the river bed. The bridge
was built in 1875 at a cost of £885 (Es. 8860). The
Helvak bridge has five elliptical arches each of sixty feet span
and two semicircular land arches each of twenty feet span,
with a total length of 424 feet. The roadway is l8^ feet
wide and 46 i feet above the river bed. The bridge was built
in 1864 at a cost of £4249 (Es. 42,490). Besides these bridges on
the chief rivers, the Kera tributary of the Koyna is crossed by a
masonry bridge at Patan twenty-one miles west of Kardd on the
Kardd-Kumbharli pass road. It has three elliptical arches each of
sixty feet span with a total length of 196 feet, and the roadway is 18^
feet wide and thirty-five feet ^bove the river bed. The bridge was
built in 1863 at a cost of £2316 (Es. 23,160). The Vdsna is crossed
by a masonry bridge at Lhdsurna eleven miles east of Satdra on the
Satara-Pandharpur road. It has five arches each of forty feet span

1 The VAdha-Kheda bridge bears an inscription of Shdhji's in English and Mar^thi
In the 1853 flood this inscription; which was on the parapet wall of the bridse was
carried away. It was replaced by a freah tablet in a safer part of the bridge '

DeccanJ

SlTlEA,

211

with a total length of 240 feet. The roadway is twenty feet wide
and thirty feet above the river bed. The bridge was built in 1881
at a cost of £4910 (Rs. 49,100).

There are eleven travellers' bungalows, fourteen district oflSoers'
bungalows, and 297 rest-houses. Of the eleven travellers' bungalows
six are on the Poona-Belgaum road, two at Sbirval in, Wai, one at
Sdtdra, two at Atit and Karad in Karad, and one at Nerla in Vdlva j
two are on the Surul-Mahdbaleshvar road at Pd,nchgani and Wai
in Wai ; one is on the Sdtara-Mahdbleshvar road at Medha in Jd.vli ;
one is on the Fitz Gerald pass road at Ambenala near Prat^pgad;
and one on the old Poona road at Deur in Koregaon. Bach of these
bungalows has three rooms each with accommodation and furniture
for one traveller. Of the two bungalows at Shirval the new bungalow,
which is about 81 j: feet long and 34| feet . broad, has, besides
three rooms, a cook house, a sweeper's house, and stables j and the
old bungalow, which is about fifty-nine feet long and forty-two feet
broad, has a cook house and stables. The Sdtara bungalow, which
is about 65i feet long and 30^ feet broad, has a cook room,
a peon's room, bath-rooms, and stables. The Atit bungalow,
which is about sixty-eight feet long and 32 J feet broad, has a
cook room, a peon's room, a sweeper's room, and stables. The Karad
bungalow, which is about fifty-one feet long and twenty-three feet
broad, has a cook room, a messman's room, and stables. The Nerla
bungalow, which is about fifty-onef eet long and twenty -three feet
broad, has a cook room and a peon's room. The Panchgani
bungalow, which is about sixty-four feet long and 33^ feet broad,
has a cook house, servant's and messman's rooms, and stables. The
Wdi bungalow, which is about 6O5 feet long and 60| feet broad,
has a cook house, a messman's room, a peon's room, and stables.
The Medha bungalow, which is about 634 feet long and 29 ^ feet
broad, has a cook room, a peon's room, a sweeper's hut, and stables.
The Ambenala bungalow, which is about 62 4 feet long and 46^
feet broad, has a cook house, a servant's house, a gardener's house,
and stables. The Deur bungalow, which is about sixty-five feet
long and forty-six feet broad, has a cook room, a store room,
bath-rooms, and stables. Except the Ambenala bungalow which has
a corrugated iron roof and a stone floor, all these bungalows have
tiled roofs and murumed floors. The walls are generally built of
stone lime and brick and sometimes of lime and brick and of
brick and mud. Each traveller occupying a separate room has to
pay a fee of 2s. (Re. 1) for one day and one night and of Is. (8 as.)
for one day between sunrise and sunset. The travellers' bungalows
are departmentally managed and repaired from the general revenues,
except the Deur bungalow which is repaired from local funds.
The bungalows have an establishment of a peon and a sweeper,
and some have a messman. The messman gets 16s. to £1 (Rs. 8-10)
a month, the peon 8s. to 16s. (Rs. 4 - 8), and the sweeper 8s. to 15s.
(Rs. 4-7i). The peon looks after the building and furniture, and
helps travellers in getting provisions.

Of the fourteen district officers' bungalows four at Karad and
Umbrai in Karad, at Kanegaon on the Varna bridge in Valva, and at

Chapter VI.
Trade.

Travellers'
Bungalows.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

212

DISTRIOl'S.

Chapter VI.

Trade.

Tkavkllers'
Bungalows,

Rest Houses.

Ferkies.

Helvak in Patau "belong to the executive engineer for roads and
bridges J six at Siddpur iu KarM, at Tdkari in Valva^ at Mayni and
Khatgan in KhatAv, and at Edievd,di and Gondavla in Mdn, belong
to tbe executive engineer for irrigation ; and four at Sap in Koregaon,
at Pusesavli in Khatav, at Vangi in Kbandpur, and at Kase^aon in
V^lva, belong to the Collector. The four bungalows belonging to
the executive engineer for roads and bridges have stone brick and
mud walls, thatched roofs, and mv/rumed floors. All have cook
houses attached and some have stables. All are looked after by a
Kuli labourer who is paid a daily wage of 3d. to 4|(^. (2-3 as.).
Of the six bungalows belonging to the executive engineer for
irrigation, two at Siddpur and Mdyni are second class and the
remaining four are first class buildings. All are looked after by
peons who receive a monthly salary of 14s. to £1 (Rs. 7 - 10). The
four Collectors' bungalows have stone brick and lime walls and tiled
roofs and except the Sap bungalow all have cook houses and stables.
All are looked after by peons who are paid 8s. (Rs. 4) a month.

Of 297 rest-houses or dharmshdlds, which, besides village temples
and chdvdis, are used by native travellers, eighteen are in Wdi, six
in Javli, twenty -two in Sdtdra, twenty-eight in Koregaon, eleven in
Pd,tan, forty -four in Kardd, thirty-four in VAlva, forty-eight in Mdn,
thirty-five in Khatav, twenty-nine in Khdndpur, and twenty-two in
Tdsgaon. Of these forty-five have been built by private means
and the rest from local funds. Of the 297 rest-houses three have
corrugated iron roofs, 193 have tiled roofs, ninety-nine have mud
roofs, and two have thatched roofs. Except a few which were built
of stone and lime, most rest-houses are built of stone and
brick and of inferior wood. Of the 297 rest-houses fifteen can
accommodate ten travellers, ten fifteen travellers, forty-three
twenty travellers, forty-seven twenty-five travellers, thirty-six
thirty travellers, twelve forty travellers, sixty-four fifty travellers,,
twenty-two fifty to seventy-five travellers, thirty-one seventy-five to
100 travellers, six 100 to 125 travellers, one 125 to 150 travellers,
three 1 50 to 200 travellers, and seven 200 to 300 travellers. In the
rest-houses travellers are allowed free quarters.

Of the twelve ferries which ply during the rains, that is from the
middle of June to the end of November, eight are across the Krishna
at Mahuli in Sdtara, at Dhamner in Koregaon, at Umbraj Kar^d and
Kdrve in Kardd, at Barhe and Borgaon in Vdlva, and at Bhilavdi in
Tdsgaonj two are across the Koyna at Sangvad and Terad in Pdtan;
and two are across the Varna at Shegaon and Tdmbi in Valva. Most
of the ferry boats have been built by the public works department.
Of the twelve ferries four at Mahuli, Dhamner, TJmbraj, and Bhilavdi
across the Krishna are iron pontoons and the remaining eight are
wooden boats. These ferry boats are generally thirty -four feet long
fourteen broad and three and a half deep. They are generally
worked by a crew of six men, Mardthds by caste, and carry at a trip
forty to fifty passengers or four bullock or pony carts. For every
trip each passenger pays f d {\ a.) and each cart Is. (8 as ) In
1882-83 the ferries were farmed for £208 (Rs. 2080).

Deccau.]

sAtAra.

213

S^tAra forms part of the Deccan postal division. Of tlie sixty-one
post offices one is a disbursing office, thirty-one are sub-officeSj and
twenty-nine are village offices. The disbursing office is at Sdtdra in
charge of a postmaster who draws a yearly salary of £120 (Rs. 1200)
rising to £168 (Rs. 1680). Of the thirty-one sub-offices which
are in charge of sub-postmasters drawing a yearly salary of £18
to £84 (Rs. 180 - 840), twenty-six at Ashta, Dahivadi, Islampur,
Kard,d, Khanddla-Bavda, Khatav, Koregaon, Mahdbaleshvar, Masur,
Mdyni, Medha, Mhasvad, Nerla, Panchgani, Pdtan, Rahimatpur,
Rajev^di, Sdtara, Shirdla, Shirval, Surul, Tasgaon, Umbraj, Vaduj,
Vita, and Wai are within British limits j and five at Aundh, Bhor,
Jath, Phaltan, and Virvddi are within limits of the Satd,ra agency. Of
the twenty -nine village offices which are in charge of schoolmasters
receiving yearly allowances of £1 4». to £6 (Rs.12-60), twenty-five
at Atit, Bdvdhan, Bhikdr-T£sgaon, Bhilavdi, Bhuinj, Chaphal,
Chdregaon, Dh^vadshi, Girvi, Kadegaon, K^la, Kameri, Karva,
Kdsegaon, Khanapur, Kshetra-Mahuli, Limbgova, Marul, Ndgaj, Pal,
Pusesdvli, Shenavli, Tarala, Vadgaon-Karad, and Vd.lva are within
British limits; and four at Atpd.di, Diganchi, Kurla, and Taradgaon
are within limits of the Satara agency. In towns and villages which
have post offices, letters are delivered by thirty-six postmen, of whom
ten draw yearly salaries of £12 (Rs. 120) and the remaining twenty-six
of £9 12s. (Rs. 96). In small villages without post offices letters are
delivered by forty-six village postmen drawing yearly salaries of £10
16s. to £12 (Rs. 108-120). At all the village offices money orders
are issued, and at the disbursing office and all the sub-offices both
money orders are issued and savings banked. Mails to and from
Bombay are carried by the Great Indian Peninsula Railway between
Bombay and Poena; the mails between Poena and Satd,ra are
carried in pony carts or tdnga ddks which run from Poena to Hubli
through Satdra, Kolhapur, Belgaum, and Dhdrwar. During the
hot season when the Bombay Government stops at Mahabaleshvar,
letters are carried in pony carts between Surul on the Poona-
Belgaum road and Mahdbaleshvar. The post offices are supervised
by the superintendent of post offices, Deccan division, who has a
yearly salary of £240 (Rs. 2400). The superintendent is assisted
in Sdtara by an inspector who draws £120 (Rs. 1200) a year and
whose head-quarters are at Satdra.

There are two third class Government telegraph offices at Sd,td,ra
and Mahdbaleshvar.

Except Kardd which has three, each of the other ten sub-divisions
has one chief trade centre. Of the thirteen trade centres one is in
Wai at Wai, one in Jdvli at Malcolmpeth, one in Sd,td,ra at Sd,td,ra,
one in Koregaon at Rahimatpur, one in Patau at P4tan, three in
Kard,d at Kard,d Chdregaon and Umbraj, one in VAlva at IsMmpur,
one in Man at Mhasvad, one in Khatav at Pusesavli, one in
Khdndpur at Vita, and one in Tasgaon at Tasgaon. Wdi in Wdi,
on the Krishna, contains about 150 well-to-do traders, mostly
BrAhmans, MArwdr and Gujardt Vdnis, Mard,tha Kunbis, SAlis,
Koshtis, Telis, Kas^rs, and Musalmdns. Of these traders, the
Brdhmans and Gujarat Vdnis are generally moneylenders. Except
that the Mardtha Kunbis and Gujardt Vanis buy from the growers

Chapter VI^
Trade.

Post Ofjicbs.

Telegraph,

Tbade Centres.

Wdk

[Bombay Gazetteer,

214

DISTRICTS.

Chapter VI.
Trade.

Trade Cbntbbs,

Malcolmpeth.

Sdtdra.

Sahimatpur.

PAtan,

on cash payment raw sugar or gul, rice, turmeric, earthnuts and
coriander seed and export them mostly in bullock carts to the port
of Mahad and to Pooua, the chief trade consists in importing articles
and selling them on cash payment in the town and neighbouring
villages. From Bombay and Poena, Marwar Vdnis import Bombay
and English piecegoods and twist ; from Ohiplun, the V^nis import
salt betelnuts dates and groceries ; from Poona and Satd,ra, the
Kdsars import copper and brass pots ; from Nair or Malcolmpeth,
the Musalmdns import potatoes and vegetables; and from Bavdhdn
and Surul-Kavtha the Sdlis and Koshtis import small quantities of
women's robes or lugdis. Besides importing women's robes from
Bavdhan and Surul-Kavtha, the Salis and Koshtis prepare women's
robes, waistcloths, bodicecloths or Mans, and other hand-made
goods from the twist which they buy from Marwar Vdnis and sell
them to consumers in their houses. Of late, in consequence of the
opening of good roads, the growers have begun to take their
produce to the port of Mah^d and sell them to the Mahad traders
instead of passing them through the hands of the W^i traders.
Malcolmpeth in Javli, the trade centre of the favourite health resort
of Mahdbaleshvar, has independent and well-to-do traders, mostly
M^rwdr and Gujarat Vanis, Parsis, Christians, and Musalmans,
During the fair season, especially in April and May and again
in October and November, Malcolmpeth is the centre of
much traffic and trade. The traders bring rice from the neighbouring
villages, and sugar, salt, cocoanuts, groceries, spirits and wines
from Mahdd, Poona, and Bombay. Excellent potatoes are grown
on the hill. Satdra in Satara contains about 500 independent traders
chiefly Brahmans, Mdrwar Gujarat and Lingayat VAnis, Telis,
Tdmbolis, Kdsars, Bohoras, and Pdrsis. Salt, piecegoods, metals,
stationery, groceries, rock-oil, and silk are brought from Poona
Chiplun and Mahdd and sold wholesale or retail on cash payment.
Coarse sugar, earthnuts, chillies, and turmeric are bought from the
growers by Brahmans and local and Mdrwd,r Vanis and sent to
Poona, Chiplun, and Mahad. Of late years there has been little
change in the amount or character of the Sdtara trade. Rahimatpur
in Koregaon contains about 155 independent and well-to-do traders.
They are chiefly Brahmans, Mdrwar and Gujardt VAnis, Shimpis,
Sangars, Maratha Kunbis, Jains, Koshtis, Kasars, and Musalmdns. Of-
these traders the Brahmans are generally moneylenders. Bombay and
English piecegoods, twist, and silk are brought by the Mdrw^r Vdnis
from Poona and Bombay^ The ViCnis, Jains, and Maratha Kunbis
buy from the growers raw molasses, turmeric, earthnuts, and
coriander seed, send them in bullock carts to the ports of Chiplun
Eajdpurand Mahdd, and bring from those ports salt, cocoanuts, dates,
and spices. All of these articles are sold on cash payment. The
Musalmdns, Sangars, and Koshtis buy twist from the Mdrw^r Vdnis
which the Musalmdns weave into turbans and the Sangars and Koshtis
into waistcloths, .women's robes or lugdis, cotton sheets or pdsodis,
and other hand-made piecegoods. These articles are partly sold in
the town, and the rest are taken to Satara and Chiplun where they
are sold to local traders. Pdtan, at the meeting of the Koyna and
Kera on the Kard,d-Chiplun road, has about twenty traders, mostly

fieccan.]

SATIEA.

215

BrShmans, VdniSj and Shimpis. Eice goes from Pdtan and T^rla to
EarSd and Chiplun, and from CMplun are brought salt cocoanuts
and groceries. Kardd, at the meeting of the Krishna and the
Koyna on the Poona-Belgaum road, has about 400 traders,
mostly BrShmans, Mdrwdr Gujarat and Lingd,yat Vdnis, Talis,
Sangars, Koshtis, Shimpis, and Musalm&ns, Of these traders
the Brdhmans are generally moneylenders. The Marwar Ydnis
bring piecegoods from N^gpur, Sholdpur, and Terddl, and
women's robes or lugdis from Bavadhan and Eabkavi. The Vanis
and Telis buy from the growers for cash and send to Ghiplun
raw sugar or gul, turmeric, chillies, earthnuts, tobacco, and oil,
and in exchange bring salt, cocoanuts, dates, spices, and groceries.
These imported articles are sold in the town and neighbouring
villages. The Salis and Musalmans bring twist from Bombay which
they weave into turbans, waistcloths, and other hand-made piecegoods.
The Kosbtis weave •pdsodis or cotton sheets. These hand-made
piecegoods are sold to the people on the spot. Ghd,regaon, in Kardd
on the river Mand on the Malharpeth-Pandharpur road, has
Gujarat Vdni and Teh traders. Since the opening of the Kumbh^rli
pass on the Karad-Chiplun road the Chdregaon traders have
prospered. They buy from the growers for cash, sesame,
earthnut, safflower, and other oil seeds which they press into oil
and send in large quantities to Ghiplun in exchange for salt and
groceries. Umbraj, in Kardd at the meeting of the Krishna Tdrli
and M^nd on the Poona-Belgaum road, has about twenty-five traders,
mostly Brdhmans, Gujarat and Lingdyat Vdnis, and Shimpis. Of
these traders the Brdhmans are generally moneylenders. The V^nis
buy cbillies earthnuts and rice from the growers of Pd,tan, Tarla,
and Morgiri, and send them either to Sangli, Miraj, or Chiplun, and
bring salt, dates, and groceries in exchange from Chiplun. The
Shimpis buy women's robes or lugdis and bodicecloths or khans at
Pdl and Tarla. These imported articles are sold on cash payment
in the town and neighbouring villages. IsMmpur or Urun in Valva
Las about thirty traders mostly Brahmans, MarwAr" Gujarat and
Ling^yat Vd,nis, and Mardtha Kunbis. The traders send to Ghiplun
large quantities of tobacco and raw sugar or gul, and in exchange
bring salt, dates, betelnuts, groceries, spices, English and country
piecegoods, and metals which they sell at IsMmpur and the
neighbouring villages. Besides IsMmpur, the large village of
Shirdla in Vdlva is famous for its brass lamps or saniais which the
Kdslirs send to S^tara, ShoMpur, and Poona. Mhasvad in Mdn,
on the M^n river on the S^tara-Pandharpur road, has about
sixty independent traders, mostly Brdhmans, Gujarat and Lingdyat
Vdnis, Shimpis, Jains, and Sangars. Of these traders the
Brahmans and Gujarat Vd.nis are generally moneylenders. Bombay
and English piecegoods are brought in large quantities by Gujarat
Vanis and Shimpis from Bombay and Poona. The Vanis and
Jains buy from the growers millet or hdjri, raw sugar or gul, khwpla
or wheat, and earthnuts, and send them in cartloads to Shold,pur
and Pandharpnr in the east, and Satara Mah^d and Chiplun in
tbe west, and from Chiplun bring salt, cocoanuts, and spices. The
Sangars buy sheep's wool twist from the Dhangars, and weave it

Chapter VI.

Trade.

Trade Centres.
Kardd,

Chdregaon.

Umhraj.

Isldmpur^

Mhasvad,

[Bombay Gazetteer,

Chapter VI.
Trade.

I'rade Centres.

Vita.

Tdsgaon.

Mabkets,

216

DISTRICTS,

into blankets or JcambUs, and send them to Chiplunj Mah^d, Sat^ra,
Pandharpur^ and Sholapur. Pusesdvli in Khatav has about 120
independent traders, mostly Brdhmans, Gujardt and local Vanis,
Talis, Koshtis, Sahs, Sangars, Kasars, and Musalm^ns. Of these
traders, the Brahmans and Gujarat Vdnis are generally moneylenders.
Bombay and English piecegoods and twist are brought by the
Shimpis and Gujardt Yanis from Bombay and Poena. The twist
is bought by Sllis who weave it into cotton sheets or pdsodis.
Sesame safflower and earthnuts are largely bought by the Telis
from the growers and pressed into oil which is sent to Sat^ra, Mahdd,
and Chiplun. The Vanis buy from the growers raw sugar or gul,
garlic, and earthnuts, and send them to BarSmati, Sholapur, Mahdd,
and Chiplun, and from Chiplun bring salt, cocoanuts, and groceries.
Vita in Khanapur has about 150 traders, mostly Brahmans, Marwar
and local Vdnis, Shimpis, Telis, Kdsars, Sangars, Tambats, Salis,
and Musalmans. Of these traders, the Brd.hmans and Mdrwar
Vd,nis are generally moneylenders. English and Bombay piece-
goods and twist are brought by Marwar Vanis and Shimpis from
Bombay and Poena. The twist is bought by Momin Musalmans
who weave it into turbans, and by Sangars and Sd,lis who weave
it into cotton sheets or pdsodis, which are sold both at Vita and
Kadegaon. From the growers, Mdrwar and local Vdnis buy raw
sugar or gul, and the Vanis and Telis buy sesame earth-
nut safflower and other oil seeds, press them into oil, and send
them largely to Chiplun and in exchange bring salt, betelnuts,
dates, and groceries. The Khdnapur village of Lingra grows
gdnja or smoking hemp, enough to meet the demand of the whole
district of Satara. Tdsgaon has about 150 traders, with capitals
varying from £10 to £10,0i)0 (Rs. 100 - Rs. 1,00,000), mostly
Brdhmans, Mdrwdr Gujarat and Lingayat VAnis, Mardtha Kunbis,
Jains, Telis, and Musalmdns. The traders buy from the growers
cotton, tobacco, raw sugar or gul, and earthnuts, and send them
to Sd,td,ra, Sholdpur, Poena, and Chiplun, and from Chiplun bring
in exchange salt, piecegoods, dates, silks, sugar, metals, and spices,
which are sold to the people for cash. As there are no steam presses,
cotton, which is the chief article of export, is loosely packed and
loses much in quantity and quality.

Thirty-four weekly and half-weekly markets are held, twelve on
Mondays, three on Tuesdays, four on Wednesdays, six on Thursdays,
two ' on Fridays, five on Saturdays, and two on Sundays, in twenty-
three villages and towns. One is in Wai at Wai on Mondays and
Tuesdays } two in Javli, at Medha on Mondays and at Maloolmpeth
on every day in the week during the fair season ; two in Satdra,
at Satara on Mondays Thursdays and Saturdays, and at Parli on
Mondays ; two in Koregaon, at Rahimatpur on Thursdays and
Fridays, and at Kumta on Mondays ; four in Patau, at Pdtan on
Mondays, at T^ria on Saturdays, at Morgiri on Thursdays, and
at Dhembevddi on Tuesdays ; five in Kardd, at Kardd on Sundays
and Thursdays, at Vadgaon on Mondays, at Umbraj on Mondays,
at Chdregaon on Saturdays, and at Belvade on Wednesdays ; two
in Vdlva, at IsMmpur on Saturdays and at Shirdla on Mondays ;
one in Tdsgaon, at Tdsgaon on Mondays and Thursdays ; one in

Deccan.

sAtAea.

217

KMndpur at Vita on Mondays j one in Khatdv at Puses^vli on
Wednesdays ; and two in Manj at Dahivadi on Mondays and at
Mhasvad on Wednesdays. These markets are distributing rather
than collecting centres. Except at Belvade and Blur where cows,
oxen, buffaloes, ponies, sheep, and other animals are brought for
sale, the articles sold at these markets are brass copper and iron
vessels, millet, wheat, gram, pulses, cotton, oilseeds, oil, earthnuts,
chillies, turmeric, raw sugar, tobacco, English and country piece-
goods, twists, turbans, waistcloths, women's robes or lugdis, fruit,
and vegetables. Besides peddlers and hawkers who set up booths
on the market days and sometimes husbandmen offering their
field produce, grain, pulse, raw sugar, fruit, and vegetables,
the sellers are shopkeepers and traders generally belonging to the
market town. Except where fruit and vegetables are brought early
in the morning, these markets fill about two in the afternoon
and go on till six. Barter is almost unknown ; all sales are by cash,
payments. Of late years there has been little change in the numbers
who attend the markets.

Fairs, lasting one to thirty days, with an attendance of 500 to 50,000
people and with a trade worth £12 to £3000 (Rs.l20- Rs.30,000),
are held at eighteen places, two in W^J, two in Javli, one in Satitra,
two in Koregaon, two in Karad, two in P^tan, two in Yilva,, one in
Tdsgaon, one in Khdnapur, one in Khatdv, and two in M^n. Of
these eighteen fairs, two are attended by 50,000, two by 20,000, one
by 15,000, eight by 5000 to 8000, and five by 500 to 4000 people.
The details are :

Sdtdra Fair Details,

Place.

Month.

Days.

Sales.

People.

Place.

Month.

Days.

Sales.

People.

Wdi.

Pdtan.

Ozardi
Miindhardev..,

April
January ...

15
1

25
60

3000
3000

Banapuri ...
Terad

April
April

S
30

200
200

8000
7000

JAvli.

Vdlva.

Morni
KudSJ

March ...
April

70
180

7000
4000

Shirala
Peth

April
February ...

600
100

20,000
6000

Sdtdra.
Parli

February ...

6000

Tdsgaon.
Akalkhop ...
Ehdnd^ur.

February...

160

. 600O

Xoregaon.

Eenavi

February ...

600

Kahimatpur...
Padali

December...
April

30
30

60
36

8000
2000

Khatdv.
Ehatgrun

March

100

16,000

S:ardcl.

Mdn.

P4I

January ...

800

60,000

Shingn&pur...

AprU

1600

60,000

Kole

February ...

SOOO

Mhasvad

November ..

3000

20,000

These fairs differ little from the weekly markets, except that
they are attended by unusually large numbers. They are chiefly
distributing centres. The sellers are generally sliopkeepers and
traders of the town and neighbouring places, mostly M^rw^r
Gujarat and Lingdyat V^nis, Halv^is, Tdmbats, Kdsdrs, Stimpis,
SdUs, KosMis, Sangars, Attars, and Musalmdns. Except at
Mhasvad wbere the chief trade consists in selling cows, bulls,
buffaloes, ponies, and sheep by Maratha Kunbis, Mhdrs, Hangs, and
Musalmdns, the articles sold at these fairs are : By the Vdnis, dates,
B 1282—28

Chapter VL
Trade.

Markets,

FAiRa.

[Bombay Gazetteer)

218

DISTRICTS.

Chapter VI.
Trade.

Pairs.

Shofkeepebs.

Peddleks.

Cabsiejcs.

Imports.

cocoanuts, betelnuts, raw sugar, sugar, spices and groceries j by
the Mdrwdr Vdnis, Salis, Shimpis and Kosbtis, English and country
piecegoOds, women's robes, cotton sheets, waistcloths and bodice'
cloths ; by the T^mbats copper and brass pots ; by the Kdsdrs copper
and brass pots and glass bangles; by the Halvais, sweetmeats,
parched rice, and pulse j by the Attars, perfumes and fragrant
essences ; and by the Sangars, blankets, coarse cloth or padam-,
sacking, and felt or humus. The buyers are almost all consumers
who buy for immediate use.

Shopkeepers are found in almost all villages except in the smallest.
Village shopkeepers are generally Gujarat or Lingdyat V^nis. They
deal in all kinds of grain, salt, oil, sugar, raw sugar, spices, and
groceries, and buy their stock at the nearest trade centre. The
shopkeeper is generally a distributer, except that being often a
moneylender he generally supplies his stock of grain from the
husbandmen to whom he has advanced money. Except landholders
who, having their own stock of grain, buy only sugar, spices,
groceries and oil, most of the villagers depend upon the shopkeeper
for almost all their supplies. A few buy on cash payment, but
most of the villagers have an account with the shopkeeper.
Barter is almost unknown.

Below the village shopkeepers are the peddlers and hawkers who
are generally Mdrwdr and local Vanis, Telis, K^sdrs, and Shimpis.
These men travel from village to village during the six or eight
months of the fair season. Spices, groceries, pearls, looking glasses^
locks, and other articles are sold by the MArwdr and local Vanis, who
generally go about with a pony ; glass bangles, copper and brass pots
are sold by Kdsdrs who travel with a bullock or a packman ; cloth by
Shimpis who generally themselves carry the pack ; and oil by Telis.
Except the Telis who generally, and the Mdrwdris who rarely,
sell their articles to husbandmen in exchange for grain, almost all
these peddlers and hawkers sell on cash payment.

The liamdus, a wandering tribe and the professional carriers of
the district, used to carry on pack-bullocks to the coast and to
Poona and lother Centres, cotton, molasses, chillies, tobacco, and
other articles of export, and bring salt, grain, spices, and groceries.
Since the opening of the cart roads to the Konkan by the
Kumbhdrli pass in 1864 and the FitzGerald pass in 1876, these
'Lamdns have almost disappea;r«d, and exports are carried to Chiplun
and Mahad by traders in hired, and by husbandmen in their own
bullock carts. The Hedes, a class of VanjAris, buy cows, bulls, and
other live-stock at Jath, Bijd,pur, and BaMghd,t, and sell them in
the fair season from village to village for cash.

Of Imports the chief articles are : Of building materials, Malabdr
timber is imported from Poona Bombay and Chiplun by Gujardt
and lo6al VSnis, Maratha Kunbis, and sometimes also directly
by rich house-builders. Timber generally passes through three
hands and is used by house-builders carpenters and turners for
making beaims, girders, planks, doors, shelves, wheels, and chairs.
Kdthya or cocoa fibre rope is brought by Gujardt and local Vdnis from
Chiplun, Mah^d, Poona, and Bombay, and passes through three

Oeccan.]

sAtIea.

219

Ijands. Iron bars, sheets, hinges, and screws are brought frora
Bombay Poona and Chiplun by Gujarat and local Vanis, Maratha;
Kunbis and MusalmanSj and pass through three hands. Iron bars
are made into cart tires, axes, and hatches. As the demand for
iron has increased and as the Dhavads of Jdvli and Pd,tan have
ceased to smelt iron the import of iron has of late increased.
Glass-panes used for windows, looking glasses, and lanterns are
brought from Poona and Bombay by Bohor^s and bought by the'
public works department and the rich. Of house furniture, copper
brass and iron sheets are brought from Poona and Bombay by Gujarat
Vdais and Musalmdns, from whom the local Tdmbats and K^sdrs
buy and make them into cooking and water pots tapelis, ghdgars,
pdtelis, ghangdls, frying-pans, and other vessels. Besides the raw metal
sheets, Sondrs, Tdmbats, KdsArs, and Telis bring from Ndsik, Poona,,
Miraj, and Sangli ready made cooking pots, gadves or jugs, fulpdtras-
or cups with' a thick rim, peles or cups on a stand, dishes or
tahaks, and attarddnis and guldbddnis or rose-vessels, excellent
articles but costly and therefore not in much demand. Carpets,
watches, clocks, paintings, chandeliers, and hanging lamps are
brought from Bombay and Poona by Bohords and Marwd,r Vdnis
for the use of the rich and well-to-do. Of food drink and
drugs, salt, cocoanuts, dates, groceries, and spices are brought
by local and GujarAt Vanis from Bombay, Poona, Chiplun, and
Mahdd. Drugs are chiefly imported by Government dispensaries
at the expense of local funds. Of tools and appliances, the Bohor^s
import hammers, anvils, saws, files, razors, knives, scissors, augers,
adzes, and chisels from Bombay and Poona. Of articles of dress
including ornaments and toys, English and Bombay piecegoods,
twist, shawls, silk waistcloths and robes are brought from Bombay
and Poona by Mdrwdr and Gujardt Vdnis, Brahmans, and Musalmdns.
Twist is bought by Sdlis and Koshtis who weave it into hand-made
piecegoods. Pearls are brought by Panjdbis and Marw^r and
Gujarat Vanis from Poona and Bombay, and sold to the rich.
K^taris bring from Gokdk wooden toys, cleverly coloured represen-
tations of vegetables and fruit. These toys are bought by the
rich and well-to-do to be laid before the goddess Gauri on a day
sacred to her in Ghaitra or March -April. Gold and silver are
brought by M^rwdr Vdnis and sold to the rich to make ornaments for-
their women and children.

The chief Exports are molasses, grain, earthnuts, turmeric, chillies,,
cotton, timber, and cloth. Since the opening of bridged and well made
roads molasses, the chief export of the district, has of late come into
increasing demand, and the cultivation of sugarcane has greatly spread.
Millet, wheat, chillies, turmeric, and tobacco are sent to Bombay by
Chiplun, chiefly from Satdra, Kardd, and Vdlva, by the local and
Gujar Vdnis who get these articles from the Kunbi husbandmen
either in payment of debts or on cash payment. Cotton is sent
from Valva and Td,sgaon in bullock carts to Chiplun by Bhdtids
and Gujardt Vanis who buy unginned cotton from the husbandmen,
have it cleared by hand-machines, and pack it in bales, each weigh-
ing about 250 pounds (10 mans). As there is less local demand
owing to the growing import of European and Bombay pieeegqode

Qhapter 71.
Trade.

Imports.

Exports.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

220

DISTRICTS.

Chapter VI.

Crafts.

Gold and
Silver

Copper aitd
Bkass.

Ibon.

tbe growing of cotton has lately fallen off. Teak is sent from
Jdvli and Pd,tan to Chiplun and other parts by timber-dealers, who
buy at departmental sales and fell yearly a certain number of teak
trees mostly in Government forests. Coarse cloth, cotton sheets or
f&sodis, and blankets are chiefly sent to other districts.

The chief Satd,ra crafts are the making of gold and silver
ornaments, copper and brass pots and iron tools, stone-cutting,
pottery, carpentry, cotton- weaving, dyeing, blanket-weaving,
tanning, and shoe-making. Gold and silver workers or Sondrs are
found in almost all towns and large villages. Besides working
in gold and silver, a few Sonars in Satara, Tasgaon, and other
large towns are well known for their skill in stone-setting. Except
a few who out of their savings buy gold and silver in small
quantities and keep a small stock of ornaments for sale in their
shops and sometimes at fairs, goldsmiths are not, as a rule, men
of capital. People who want ornaments generally buy their gold and
silver and give it to the Sonars to work into ornaments, paying
them Is. 65. to 2s. (Re. | - 1) the tola for gold. A. few Sond,ra
who have a large number of customers employ workmen. The
tools used for heating melting and hammering the metal are the
blow-pipe, iron tongs for turning the coals, a hammer, an anvil,
and the draw-plates called gdvi and jambhdchi patti for making
gold wire and thread. Sonars make gold and silver bangles,
armlets, wristlets, necklaces, rings, nose-riags, and anklets, and
articles for holding betelnuts betel leaves and other dishes.
Sondrs work from morning to evening and keep twelve holidays
-during the year. Their work is steady throughout the year and is
brisk during the marriage season. The women and children do not
help the men in their work. Sond,rs earn £5 to £100 (Rs. 50-1000)
a year. They are a fairly well-to-do class and have no trade
organization.

Tambats and K£sdrs or copper and brass smiths are found in
almost all towns. Copper and brass pot-making is one of the chief
local industries. The metal is brought from Bombay and Poena in
sheets and cut into pieces of a suitable size, Except a few men of
capital, coppersmiths generally borrow money and invest it in
their craft. Of the brassware of the district the best known articles
are the brass lamps which are made at Shirdla in VAlva. The
articles are sold in shops and at fairs, and are also sent to Bombay
and Poena. Coppersmiths also tin copper and brass pots at ^d. to
IJcZ. a to I a.) the pot. They make a stock of vessels during the
rains, and during the fair season move from place to place with them.
They work from morning to evening and keep all important Hinda
holidays. Their women help in blowing the bellows and tinning
pots, Their average yearly earnings are £5 to £50 (Rs. 50 - 500) . In
ordinary years they are fairly off. They have no trade organiza-
tion.

Blacksmiths or Lohd,rs, chiefly Hindus and a few Musalmans, are
found in almost all towns and large villages. The husbandmen are
the Lobars' chief customers. They generally have capital enough
to lay in the small store of iron they require to meet the wants of

Deccan.]

sItIea.

221

their craffc. They seldom hare workmen under them. The
blacksmiths, who make and repair cooking vessels and field tools,
have enough work throughout the year. During the rains they
make nails, pans, and buckets. Their busiest time is at the close of
the fair season when the husbandmen are most in want of field tools.
Lohdrs work ten to twelve hours a day. Musalman Lobars keep
the usual Musalmd.n holidays and Hindu Lohd,rs keep the chief
Hindu holidays. Their women help in blowing the bellows and in
the lighter parts of the work. Their yearly earnings vary from £6
to £15 (Rs.60- 150). Besides the Lohdrs, Ghisddis or tinkers are a
class of wandering iron-workers. They are less skilful, but much
cheaper workmen than the Lohdrs. Except during the rains when
they settle at one place, they move from village to village buying
old iron and making and selling new articles.

' Stonecutters called Pdtharvats or Belddrs, Hindus and a few
Musalmdns, work wherever they find employment. They are paid
14s. to 16s. (Rs. 7-8) a month, to hew and shape stones for house
building. If public works or other special demand for masons
arises the strength of the local Belddrs is increased by wandering
families from other parts of the country. Except during the rains
when they are generally idle, stonecutters have constant and well-
paid employment. The want of work during the rains, and the
fact that their women add nothing to the family earnings keep them
poor. Another class of stone masons are the Gavandis. The Gavandi
does finer work than the Beld^r, and often acts as an architect for
houses and wells. Some are so highly esteemed for their designing
faculties that they are sent for all over the district.

Pottery is made in all towns and large villages. The workers
are Kumbhllrs who are one of the twelve balutds or village servants.
The clay of which tiles, bricks, earthen pots, and human and animal
figures are made, is dug either from fields, from river beds, or from
old village sites. It is mixed with stable refuse and is trodden by
men for five or six hours. The kneaded clay is then formed into
balls and turned on a wheel into pots of various shapes. The pots
are laid in the sun, and when slightly dry are taken and gently
hammered with a small flat piece of-wood. The pots are then burnt
in a kiln. When the ashes have cooled the pots are taken out
of the kiln and sold in market towns and at the potters' houses
at prices varying from ^d. to Is. (i-8 as.). Khumbhiirs require
little capital. They generally work from morning to evening
throughout the year except when rain stops them. They keep the
leading Hindu holidays, and are greatly helped by their women.
Of late years their craft has undergone little change.

Sutd,rs or carpenters, either Hindus or Musalmans, are found in
almost all towns and large villages. The carpenters are chiefly
employed from morning to evening in making the woodwork ot houses
and in making carts and other field tools. They are supplied with
the raw material, chiefly hdbhul and jdmbhul wood which grow all
over the district, and teak which is found m Javli, Satdra, Patan,
and VAlva. Their work is steady in large towns but dull m villages.
They keep all important holidays. Their yearly earnings vary

Chapter Vr
Crafts.

Ibon.

Stonb,

Pottery.

Wood.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

222

DISTRICTS.

Chapter VI.
Crafts.

Cotton Weaving.

Dtbing,

Blankets.

from £7 10*. to £12 (Rs. 75-120), Of late years their craft tas
undergone little change.

Cotton Weaving is carried on in almost all towns and large villages
by Khatrisj Koshtis, and Salis among Hindus, and by Momins
among Musalmdns. The cotton yarn for the rougher cloth is
brought by Mdrwaris from TAsgaon, Jathj and Athni ; the finer yarn
for women's robes or lugdis generally comes from Bombay. A
few have capital and employ labourers^ but most borrow money
from Gujars and Mdrwaris to buy the yarn and pay for it by the
articles they weave. Khatris, Koshtis, and Salis weave the coarse
cloth, waistoloths, women's robes, and cotton sheets which are worn
by all classes, and Momins weave the cheap turbans which are
worn by the poorer Kunbis. Though the weavers have work
throughout the year, their earnings hardly support them, so keen
is the competition of steam-made Bombay and English piecegoods.
The weavers work from morning to evening, taking about two
hours' rest at noon. They keep twelve holidays in the year. They
are helped by their women in the lighter parts of their work, and
earn £6 to £15 (Rs. 60 - 150) a year.

Dyers or Rangdris, both Hindus and Masalmdns, are found in
Sa,td,ra, Kar^d, Tasgaon, WAi, Rahimatpur, and other large towns.
The craft is important as almost all classes of the people wear dyed
head-dresses. The chief colours are scarlet, crimson, and blue. Scarlet
or kusumba is made from mixing turmeric with pdpadkhdr or
soda lime and the powder of dried kardai or safflower. All the
articles required for making scarlet are found in the district. The
crimson is made from crimson powder brought from Europe. Dyers
do not require much capital. Their work, varies with the general
prosperity of the people. In ordinary years it is briskest during
the wedding season and about the Dasara and Divah holidays in
September -October. They work six to eight hours a day. The
Hindu workers keep the usual Hindu holidays and the Musalm|,n
workers the usual Musalmdn holidays. Their women help them
in drying the dyed clothes. They earn little more than a
maintenance.

Blanket Weavers or Sangars are found all over the district-
Blanket weaving is of most importance to the poor as it supjilies
cheap and warm clothing. The Sangars are poor and have no
capital. To buy wool from the Dhangars they have to borrow.
The whole work of blanket-weaving is done by the Sangar's family
without employing outside labour. The wool which is brought in
bundles from the Dhangars is first soaked in tamarind-stone water,
dried in the open air, and combed. After a second soaking drying
and combing, the thread is fit to be taken to the loom. The tools
used in weaving the blankets are the ydv a piece of wood with a
pointed end about three feet long and six inches round ; the otkul
a long piece of wood about four feet long and one inch broad ; and
the niri a long piece of wood with an indented side. The Sangars
have steady work throughout the year, and are busiest in October
and November when the sheep are shorn. They work eight to ten
hours a day and keep twelve holidays. Their women help them in

Oeccan.]

sAtara.

223

soaking and drying the thread and in almost all other parts of the
work except weaving. Sangars, who earn £5 to £20 (Rs. 50 - 200)
a yeaPj sell their blankets mostly to the lower classes at home, in
markets and at fairs, at prices varying from Is. 6d. to 6s. (Rs. f - 3)
the blanket. They are a poor class.

Of the two branches of leather-working tanning was formerly
carried on by Dhors and shoe-making by Chambhars. Of late as
the price of tanned leather has greatly risen, Chambhars have also
taken to tanning. Dhors and Chambhd.rs are found in almost all
towns and large villages. The Dhors, who flay the dead bodies
of animals, dry and tan the hides and sell them to Chd,mbhd,rs or
hide-dealers. In making shoes, water-backets, and water-bags,
an employment to which they have only lately taken, Dhors show
less skill than Chambhars. ChdmbhSrs buy the hides from the
Dhors and tan them at home. The tanning is done by steeping the
hide two or three days in water, by washing it, and soaking it in
lime water for nearly fifteen days. The hide is taken out and the
hair scraped with the rando or iron knife. It is soaked in a liquid
mixture of hirda or myrobalan and hdbhul bark, and is then fit
for use. The articles made by Dhors and ChSimbars are shoes,
water-buckets, water-bags, leather thongs and ropes, and chaplds
or sandals. These are sold in all markets and fairs, a pair of shoes
fetching Is. 3d. to 4s. (Rs.f - 2). Leather working requires little
capital, and labour is seldom employed. The Dhors and Chdmbhars
have steady employment throughout the year, except during the
rains when work is dull. They work eight to ten hours a day and
keep the leading Hindu holidays. Their women help in sewing
silk borders to shoes and in other light work. Dhors and Chdmbh^rs
earn £7 10s. to £10 (Rs. 75 - 100) a year. In ordinary years they are
fairly ofE. Besides Dhors and Chdmbhars, Mochis make English
boots and shoes in Satara, Kardd, and other large towns.

Chapter VI
Crafts.

Leather.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

B.c.200-A,D.1294.

CHAPTER VII.

H ISTORY.

Chapter VII. Three inscriptions of about 200 B.C., recording gifts of pillars by

History. Karad pilgrims at the Bharhut Stupa near Jabalpur in the Central

Provinces, show that Kardd or as the inscriptions call it Karahakada
about fifteen miles south-east of Sd,tdra, is probably the oldest place
in the Satara district.^ That the place named is the Satara Kardd
is confirmed by a group of sixty-three early Buddhist caves about
three miles south-west of Karad one of which has an inscription of
about the first century after Christ.^ Caves also at Shirval in the
extreme north-west of the district and at the holy town of Wdi in
JAvli show that they were old Buddhist settlements.^

From very early times trade routes must have passed by the
Varandha and Kumbh^rli passes to the Konkan seaports of Mahdd
Dabhol and Chiplun. Much holiness attaches to Mahabaleshvar at
the source of the Krishna river about thirty miles north-west of
SatAra.* No early inscriptions giving the names of kings have been
found in the district. But it seems probable that as in the rest of
the Bombay Deccan and Konkan the Andhrabhritya or Shd.takarni
kings (B.C. 90 - A.D. 800) and probably its Kolhdpur branch held
Sd.tara till the third or fourth century after Christ. For the 900
years ending early in the fourteenth century with the Musalm^n
overthrow of the Devgiri Yadavs no historical information regarding
Satdra is available and the Devn^gari and Kdnarese inscriptions
which have been found on old temples have not yet been translated.
Still as inscribed stones and copperplates have been found in the
neighbouring districts of Ratnagiri and Belgaum and the state of
Kolh^pur, it is probable that the Early and Western Chalukyas
held the S^td,ra district from about 550 to 760 ; the Rashtrakutas to
973 ; the Western Chalukyas and under them to about 1180 by the
Kolhdpur Siiahards (1050-1220); and the Devgiri Yddavs till the
Musalman conquest of the Deccan about 1300.

The first Musalmdn invasion of the Deccan took place in 1294,

1 Cuimingham's Stupa of Bharhut, 135, 136, 139. Karid gives its name to the
Karhdda BrAhmans still largely found in the Sdtdra district.

" Fergusson and Burgess' Cave Temples, 211-217 ; Archseological Survey of Western
India, IV. 60.

' Besides the Buddhist caves at Karhd,d and Wdi, there are groups of caves and cells
Buddhist or BrAhmanical at Bhosa in Tfcgaon, at Mdlavdi and Kundil in KhdnApur,
at P^tan in PAtan, and at PAteshvar in SAtdra. Dr. Burgess' Antiquarian Lists,
58 - 59, WAi is locally believed to be Vir^tnagari the scene of the thirteenth year exile
of the Pindavs. Lady Falkland's Chow Chow, 1.191- 192.

* Journal Bombay Branch Eoyal Asiatic Society, X, 1-18.

Deccaa.]

sItIra.

225

but the power of the Devgiri YMavs was not extinguished till 1318.1
Ifrom 1318 Maharashtra began to be ruled by governors appointed
trom Delhi and stationed at Devgiri. In 1338 the Delhi emperor
Muhammad Tughlik (1325-1351) made Devgiri his capital and
dbanged^ its name to Daulatabad or the Abode of Wealth. In 1341
Musalman exactions caused a general revolt in the Deccan, which,
according to Ferishta, was so successful that in 1344 Muhammad had
no part of his Deccan territories left him except Daulatabad.^ In
1346 there was widespread disorder, and the Delhi officers plundered
and wasted the country .s These cruelties led to the revolt of the
Deccan nobles under the able leadership of an Afghdn soldier
named Hasan Gangu. The nobles were successful, and freed the
Deccan from dependence on Northern India.* Hasan founded

Bnggs Fenshta, I. 304. In 1294 BAmdev the ruling king of Devgiri or Devgad
7^A^^'?^J^^^ '° ^^^ capital by Ald-ud-din Khilji the nephew of the Delhi emperor
Jam-ud-din Khilji, and forced to pay tribute. In 1297, KAmdev gave shelter to
«4i Karan the refugee king of Gujarat, and neglected to pay tribute for three years
tV^'iA' 1 '■ "^ ^^^ ^^''■^ ^^fuj" AU-ud-din's general reduced the greater part
ot Mahirdshtra, distributed it among his officers, and confirmed Rtoidev in his
allegiance (Ditto, I. 369). In 1309, Malik Kd,fur, on his way to Telingan was received
with great hospitality at Devgad by Rimdev (Ditto, I. 371). In 1310 as Edmdev
was succeeded by his son Shankardev who was not well afifected to the MusalmAns,
Mahk Kif ur on his way to the Karnitak left a force at the town of Paithan on the left
bank of the Goddvari to overawe the Yidavs (Ditto, I. 373). In 1312 Malik KAfur
marched a fourth time into the Deccan, seized and put Shankardev to death,
wasted Mahdrishtra, and fixed his residence at Devgad (Ditto, I. 379), where he
remained till Ald,.ud-din in his last illness ordered him to Delhi. During Malik KSfur'a
abseuceatDelhi, Harpaldev the son-in-law of Rd,mdev stirred the Deccan to arms, drove
out many Musalmdn garrisons, and with the aid of the other Deccan chiefs recovered
Maharashtra. In 1318Mub4rik Khilji, AlA-ud-din's son and successor, marched to
the Deccan to chastise H^rpAldev who aed at the approach of the Musalm^jis, and
was pursued, seized, and flayed alive. Mubdrik appointed Malik Beg Laki, one of his
father s slaves, to command in the Deccan, and returned to Delhi (Ditto, I. 389).

Bnggs' Perishta, I. 426-427. This statement seems exaggerated. In 1346 there
were MusalmAn governors at Edichur, Mudgal, Kulbarga, Bedar, BijApur, Ganjauti,
Kdibdg, Gilhari, Hukeri, and BerAr. Ditto, 437.

'Bnggs' Ferishta, I. 432-43.r

* Briggs' Ferishta, II. 285-291. Hasan Gangu, the first Bahmani king, was an Afghan
of the lowest rank and a native of Delhi. He farmed a small plot of land belonging to
a BrAhman astrologer named Gangu who was in favour with the king of Delhi. Having
accidentally found a treasure in his field, Hasan had the honesty to give notice of it to
his landlord. The astrologer was so struck with his integrity that he exerted his
influence at court to advance Hasan's fortunes. Hasan thus rose to a great statioD in the
Deccan, where his merit marked him out among his equals as their leader in their
revolt. He assumed the name of Gangu in gratitude to his benefactor, and from a
similar motive added that of Bahmani or Brihmani by which his dynasty was
afterwards distinguished. Elphinstone's History of India, 666. The Bahmani dynasty
consisted of the following eighteen kings, who were supreme for nearly 150 years
(1347-1490) and continued in power for about thirty years more :

The Bahmarm,lSi7-lBBe.

Name.

Date.

Name.

Date.

Al&-ud-din Haaan Gangu.

1347 - 1368

Hum^yun

1467 - 1461

Muhammad I.

13B8 - 13T5

Nizim

1461-1463

MujAhid

1376 - 1378

Muhammad II.

1463-1482

Daud

1378

M&hmudll

1182 - 1518

MSiimud I

1378 - 1397

GhaiSs-ud-din

1397

Nominal Kings.

Shams-ud-din

1397

Ahmad II

1618-1520

Firoz

1397 ■ 1422

Aia,-ud-din III

1620-1522

Ahmad I

1422 - 1435

Vali

1622 - 1626

A.14-ud-din U

1435-1457

Kalim

1626

Chapter VII.

History.

MusalmIns.
Delhi Governors.

B 1282—29

[Bombay Gazetteer.

22«

DISTEICTS.

Chapter VII.
History.

MusalmAns.

Bahmania,
1347-1489.

Durga Devi

Famine,
1396-1407.

a dynasty, which in honour of his patron a Brdhman he called
Bahmani, and which held the command of the Deccan for nearly
150 years. The Bahmani capital was first fixed at Kulbarga about
180 miles east of S^tdra and in 1426 was removed to Bedar or
Ahmadabad-Bedar about 100 mUes further east. By 1351 AM-nd-din
Hasan Gangu Bahmani, by treating the local chiefs and authorities
in a liberal and friendly spirit, had brought" under his power every
part of the Deccan which had previously been subject to the throne
of Delhi.^ In 1367, Ald-ud-din divided his kingdom into four
provinces or tarafs, over each of which he set a provincial governor
or tarafddr. Sat^ra formed part of the provinces of Kulbarga which
extended from Kulbarga as far west as D^bhol and south as far as
Raichur and Mudgal in the Nizam's territory. Ald-ud-din apparently
had control over the whole of Satara, except the hilly west which
with the Konkan was not reduced till a century later. In the later
part of the fourteenth century, under the excellent rule of Muhammad
Shah Bahmani (1358-1376) the banditti which for ages had harassed
the trade of the Deccan were broken and scattered, and the people
enjoyed peace and good government.^ This period of prosperity,
when the fort of Satara and many other forts were probably built,
was followed by the awful calamity of the Diirga Devi famine, when
the country is said to have been reduced to a desert by twelve
rainless years (1396-1407) . In the first years of the famine Mdhmud
Shdh Bahmani (1378 - 1397) is said to have kept ten thousand
bullocks to bring grain from Gujarat to the Deccan, and to have
founded seven orphan schools in the leading towns in his dominions.*
No efforts of any rulers could preserve order or life through so long
a series of fatal years. Whole districts were left without people,
and the strong places fell from the Musalmdns into the hands of local
chiefs.* Before the country could recover it was again wasted by
two rainless years in 1421 and 1422. Multitudes of cattle died and
the people broke into revolt.^ In 1429 Malik-ul-Tujdr the governor
of Daulatabad, with the hereditary officers or deshmukhs, went
through the country restoring order. Their first operations were
against some Ramoshis in Khatd,v Desh and a body of banditti that
infested the Mahadev hills. The army next marched to Wd,i and
reduced several forts. So entirely had the country fallen waste
that the old villages had disappeared and fresh villages had to
be formed, which generally included the lands of two or three old
villages. Lands were given to all who would till them, free of rent
for the first year and for a horse-bag of grain for the second year.
This settlement was entrusted to Dadu Narsu K^le, an experienced
Brdhman, and to a Turkish eunuch of the court.^ In 1453 Malik-
ul-Tujd,r, who was ordered to reduce the sea coast or Konkan forts,
fixed his head-quarters at Ch^kan, a small fort eighteen miles north
of Poona, and, after reducing several chiefs, laid siege to a fort

' Briggg' Ferishta, II. 291-292 ; Grant Duffs Mardth^s, 25.
''Briggs' Ferishta, II. 325-326.

^Briggs' Ferishta, II. 349-350. These seven towns were Cheul, DAbhol, Eliohpur,
Daulatabad, Bexiar, Kulbarga, and KAndhAr. •> Grant Duffs Mardthds, 25.

» Briggs' Ferishta, II. 405 - 406. « Grant Dufl's MarAthds, 26.

Deccau.]

satAra.

22!

whose chief was named Shirke whom he speedily obliged to sur-
render and to deliver himself and family into his hands. Malik-ul-
Tujar insisted that Shirke should embrace the Muhammadan faith
or be put to death. Shirke on this, assuming an air of great humility,
represented that there existed between him and Shankar Rd,y of
■Khelna or Vishalgad in Kolhdpur a family jealousy, and that should
he become a Muhammadan, his rival, on Malik-ul-Tuj^r's retreat,
would taunt him with ignominy and excite his own family and
subjects to revolt. He further promised to accept the Muhammadan
faith if Malik-ul-Tujar would reduce his rival, and agreed to guide
him and his forces through the woody and very difficult country
to Shankar's dominions. Malik-ul-Tujdr marched against the chief
of Khelna but was treacherously surrounded and killed in the
woods by Shirke.^ About this time (1463-1480) no references have
been traced to Satara places except to Wd,i and Mdn which are
mentioned as military posts, whose troops in 1464 were ordered
to join Mahmud Gdwdn in his Konkan expedition.^ In 1460, and
twelve years later in 1472 and 1473, failure of rain so wasted the
country that in 1474 when rain fell scarcely any one was left to
tni the land.^ The power and turbulence of their provincial
governors was a source of weakness and danger to Bahmani rule.
To remove this evil Md,hmud Gdwan, the very learned and able
minister of Muhammad Sh^h Bahmani II. (1463-1482), framed a
scheme imder which the Bahmani territories were divided into
eight instead of into four provinces. SdtAra was included under
Bijapur, one of the two divisions into which Kulbarga was divided,
and was placed under Khwdja Gdwan himself. In each province
only one fort was held in the governor's hands ; all other forts were
entrusted to captains and garrisons appointed and paid from
head-quarters ; the pay of the captains was greai?ly increased and
they were strictly compelled to keep their garrisons at their full
strength.* This scheme for reducing their power brought on the
minister the hatred of the leading nobles. They brought false
charges of disloyalty against Mdhmud Gawdn. The king was weak
enough to believe them and foolish enough to order the minister's
execution,^ a loss which Bahmani power never recovered.

In 1481, on the death of Md,hmud Gaw^n, his estate of Bijdpur
including Sdtara was conferred on Yusuf Adil Khdn the future
founder of the Adil Sh^hi dynasty of Bijd.pur^ who was appointed

Chapte^VII
History.

MvsalmAxs.

Bahmanis,
1347-1489.

1 Briggs' Ferishta, lU. 438-439. = Briggs' Ferishta, II. 483.

» Briggs' Ferishta, II. 483, 493, 494. i Briggs' Ferishta, II. 503, 504.

5 Yusuf Adil Sh4h of BijApur was a Turk, a son of AmurAth Sultiln (1421-1451)
of Constantinople. He founded the family of the Adil ShAhi rulers of BijApur consisting
of nine sovereigns whose rule lasted nearly 200 years. See BijApur Statistical
Account. At the same time the Nizd,m SbAhi dynasty under Ahmad NizAm was
established at Ahmadnagar (1490-1636), the Kutb ShAhi dynasty under Sultto
Kutb-ul-Mulk at Golkonda (1512 - 1609), audtheBerid ShAhi under KAsim Berid
at Bedar (1492-1609). Though kings, nominally supreme, continued to rule as
late as 1526, the supremacy of the Bahmanis may be said to have ceased when
the Bijapur (1489) and Ahmadnagar (1490) governors threw oflf their allegiance
and established themselves as independent rulers. According to Colonel Meadows
Taylor, except HumAyun ShAh (1457-1461), the 'Bahmani kings protected their
people and governed them justly and well, Among the Deccan Hindus all

[Bombay Gazetteer,

Chapter VII.

History.

MusalmAns.

Adil ShAhis,

1489-1686.

228

DISTRICTS.

tarafddr or provincial governor^ while Daria Khdn Fakr-ttl-Mulk,
Mallu Khdn, and most of the Moghal officers attached to him obtained
estates in the province. In 1489 Yusuf Adil Khan asserted his
independence and proclaimed himself king. He wrested many forts
from the governors of Mahmud Shah Bahmani II. (1482-1518) and
subdued all the country from the river BhimatoBijapur.^ In 1551 Saif
Ain-ul-Mulk, late commander-in-chief of the Ahmadnagar army who
had taken refuge in Berar and who at the request of the Bijdpur
king had come to Bij^pur was given considerable estates in Satara.
In the battle of Sholdpur against Ahmadnagar in the same year
Ibrdhim-Adil-Shdh suspected Saif Ain-ul-Mulk of treachery, and he,
in consequence, retired to M^n in east Sdt^ra, collected the revenues,
and divided them among his troops.^ Ibrd,him Adil Shdh sent one
of his officers with 5000 horse to expel Ain-ul-Mulk, but the BijApur
troops were defeated. Saif Ain-ul-Mulk, growing bolder by success,
gathered the revenues of many districts including Valva in south
Sdtara. Ibrahim next sent against him 10,000 horse and foot under
Nidz Kuli Beg and DiMvar Khdn Habshi. These troops were also
defeated and so many elephants and horses and -so great a store of
valuable baggage fell into the hands of Ain-ul-Mulk tha,t he levied
fresh troops and determined to establish himself as an independent

elements of social union and local government were preserved and strengthened by
the Musahnins, who, without interfering with or remodelling local institutions and
hereditary offices, turned them to their own use. Persian and Arabic education was
extended by village schools attached to mosques and endowed with lands. This
tended to the spread of the literature and faith of the rulers, and the effects of this
education can still be traced through theBahmani dominions. A large foreign commerce
centred in Bedar, the capital of the Deccan, which was visited by merchants and
travellers from all countries. The Bahmani kings made few public works. There
were no water works, no roads or bridges, and no public inns or posts. Their chief
works were huge castles which after 500 years are as perfect as when they were
built. These forts have glacis and counterscarps, covered ways, traverses, flanking
bastions with curtains and intermediate towers, broad wet and dry ditches, and m
all plain fortresses a faussebraye or rampart-mound with bastions and towers in
addition to main rampart. No forcible conversion of masses of Hindus seems to
have taken place. A constant stream of foreigners poured in from Persia, Ara,bia,
Tartary, Afghanistan, and Abyssinia. These foreigners, who served chiefly as soldiers,
married Hindus and created the new Muhammadan population of the Deccan.
Architecture of Bijdpur, 12-13. The names and dates of the Ahmadnagar and BijApur
kings are :

Ahmadnaga'r and Bijdpu/r Kings, 1U89 -1686.

Ahmadnagar.

BhApub.

N'ame.

Date.

Name.

Date.

Ahmad I

Burhin

Huaain

Murtaza I

Mir&n Husain

Ismael

Burh&n 11

Ibrahim

Ahmad II

Bahadur

Murtaza II

1490-1608
1508 - 1653
1653 - 1666
1666-1688

1688
1688 - 1690
1690-1594

1694

1696
1696-1699
1606-1631

Tusuf

lamael

Mallu

Ibrahim I. ...

Ali I. ... :..

Ibrahim II

Mahmud

Ali II.

Shikandar

1489-1610
1510-1634

1634
1634-1667
1557 - 1580
1680-1626
1626-1666
1666-1672
1672 - 1686

' Briggs' Ferishta, III. 9.

' Details of the battle are given in the SholApur Statistical Account.

Deccan.]

sAtIra.

229

chief. Ibrdhim Adil Shdh took the field in person at the head of 5000
chosen horse, 3000 foot, and a train of artillery. Ain-ul-Mulk
encamped on the river Man, and the king arrived and halted some
days on the opposite bank without attacking him. Saif Ain-ul-Mulk
resolved not to quit the country without fighting. For three days
he advanced towards the king's camp as if to engage but as often
retired, the royal army remaining under arms on each occasion
from dawn till sunset expecting the attack. On the fourth day
Ain-ul-Mulk put his troops again in motion ; but the king, supposing
that his design was only to parade as on the preceding days,
neglected to make preparations for his reception, the common
guards of the camp only getting under arms. At length, when
the enemy's standard appeared in sight, Ibrdhim Adil Shdh
marshalled his troops in great haste and moved out of the camp
to give battle. Ain-ul-Mulk averse from engaging the king in
person consulted with his friends, observing that it was treason to
fight against the royal standard. To this all agreed except
Murtaza Kid.a Anju who remarked that the standards did not fight,
and there was no danger of shedding royal blood. Ain-ul-Mulk
satisfied with his casuistry and finding it too late to hesitate,
charged the royalists, and attacking the centre where Ibrdhim Adil
Shdh was posted, pressed on it so fiercely that it was thrown
into disorder and the king fled. On this his whole line broke
and victory declared in favour of Ain-ul-Mulk, who seized the royal
canopy, elephants, and artillery, besides all the tents and baggage.
Ain-ul-Mulk pursued the king towards Bijdpur, but was afterwards
obliged to fiy by the route of Mdn Desh to the Ahmadnagar
dominions where he was assassinated.^ In 1579, the Bijdpur minister
Kishvar Khdn falsely accused Chdnd Bibi the dowager queen of
instigating her brother, Murtaza Nizdm Shah king of Ahmadnagar,
to invade Bijapur, and sent her a prisoner to Satara after subjecting
her to many indignities.^ On Kishwar Khdn's fall in the same year
Chand Bibi was released from prison and conducted to Bijapur.^ In
1592 Dildvar Khan the Bijapur regent was sent a prisoner to Satara
where he shortly after died.*

Under the Bijdpur kings, though perhaps less regularly than
afterwards under the Moghals, the country was diyided into districts
or sarkdrs. The district was distributed among sub-divisions which
were generally known by the Persian names pargana, karydt, eammat,
mahM, and tdhika, and sometimes by the Hindu names of prdnt and
desh. The hiUy west, which was generally managed by Hindu officers,
continued to be arranged by valleys with their Hindu names of
hhora, mura, and mdval. The collection of the revenue was generally
entrusted to farmers, the farms sometimes including only one village.
Where the revenue was not farmed, its collection was generally
entrusted to Hindu officers. Over the revenue-farmers was a
government agent or amil, who, besides collecting the revenue,
managed the police and settled civil suits. Ci^^il suits relating to

Ghapter VII.
History.

MuSALMilNS.

Adil SMhis,
1489-16S6.

Their Institutions.

1 Brisas' Ferishta, III. 105. "Briggs' Ferishta, III. 14& ^Bnggg. Ferishta, III. 150.
^^ * Briggs- Ferishta, III. 172-173.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

230

DISTEICTS.

Chapter VII.

History.

MusalmAns.
Adil ShAhis,
1489-1686.

Mardthds,

land were generally referred to juries or panchdyats. In money suits
the amils or government agents probably passed decisions. One of the
amilddrs, who superintended a considerable division and to whom
all other amilddrs were subordinate, was termed mokdsdddr, and it
is conjectured that he had some percentage on the revenues. The
mokdsdddr' s office though sometimes continued from father to son was
not hereditary. Frequently but not always over the mokdsddd/r was
a subha who, although he took no share in the revenue management
and did not live in the district, executed deeds and formal writings of
importance. Though the chief powerin the country wasMuhammadan,
Hindus were largely employed in the service of the state. The
garrisons of hill forts seem generally to have been Hindus, Mardthds,
Kolis, R^moshis, and Dhangars, a few places of special strength
being reserved for Musalmdn commandants or killeddrs. Besides
the hill forts some parts of the open country were left under
loyal Mardtha and Brihman officers with the titles of estate-holder or
jdgirddr and of district head or deshmuhh. Estates were generally,
granted on military tenure, the value of the grant being in propor-
tion to the number of troops which the grant-holder maintained.
Phaltan, from which in the time of the Peshwds 350 horse were
required, furnished only fifty to the Bijdpur government at a very
late period of that dynasty, but the Mardtha chiefs could procure
horsemen at short notice and they were entertained or discharged
at pleasure. Family feuds or personal hate, and, in the case of
those whose lands lay near the borders of other kingdoms, an
intelligent regard for the chances of war, often divided Maratha
families and led members of one family to take service under
rival Musalmdn states. Numbers of Hindus were employed in the
Bijdpur armies and those of distinguished service were rewarded
with the Hindu titles of raja, ndik, and rdv}

The principal Mardtha chiefs in Satdra under the Bijdpur
government were Chandrardv More of Javli, about thirty-five miles
north-west of Sat^ra, Rdv Naik Nimbdlkar of Phaltan about thirty-
five miles north-east of Sat^ra, Junjhdrrdv Ghdtge of Malavdi about
twenty-seven miles east of Sdtdra, Daphle of Jath about ninety miles
south-east of Sdt&ra, Mdne of Mhasvdd about sixty miles east of
Sdtara, and the Ghorpade of Kapshi on the Varna about thirty miles
south of Karhdd. A person named More, originally a Karndtak
chief was appointed in the reign of Yusuf Adil Shdh (1490-1510)
to the command of a body of 12,000 Hindu infantry sent to
reduce the strong tract between the Nira and the Vdrna. Morfe
was successful. He dispossessed the Shirkes and completely
suppressed the depredations of their abettors the chief of whom
were Gujar, Mamulkar, Mohite, and Mahadik. More was dignified
with the title of Chandrarav and his son Yashvantrav, having
distinguished himself in a battle fought with the troops of
Burhan Nizdm Shah (1508-1553), in whichhe captured a green flag,
was confirmed in the succession to his father as Rdja of Jdvli and

1 Grant BufPs MarAthAs, 36-37,

Deccan.]

sAtAra.

231

had permission to use the banner he had won. Their descendants
ruled in the same tract of country for seven generations and under
their mild and just management that barren tract became populous.
All the successors of the first More assumed the title of Chandrarav.
The unswerving loyalty of this family induced the Bijd,pur government
to exact little more than a nominal tribute from districts producing
so little, and which had always been in disorder under Muhammadan
governors. Rdv N^ik Nimbalkar or Phaltanardv was the Ndik of
Phaltan. His original surname was Pov^r ; he had taken the name
of NimbAlkar from Nimbalik or Nimlak where the first Nimbdlkar
lived. The family is considered one of the most ancient in
Maharashtra as the Nimbalkar was made sardeshmukh of Phaltan
before the middle of the seventeenth century by one of the Bijdpur
kings. The deshmukh of Phaltan is said to have become a polygar
or independent chief and to have repeatedly withheld the revenues
of the district. Vangoji or Jagpdlrdv Ndik Nimbalkar who lived in
the early part of the seventeenth century was notorious for his
restless and predatory habits. Dipdbai the sister of Jagpd,lrd,v
was married to Md,loji Bhonsla Shivaji's grandfather who was one
of the principal chiefs under the Ahmadnagar kingdom. Jagpalr^v
Ndik seems to have been a man of great influence. It was through
his exertions that the marriage of Maloji's son Shah^ji and Jijibai
Lukhdev Jddhavrdv's daughter was brought about against the wishes
of the girl's parents. One of the Phaltan Ndiks was killed in 1620
in a battle between Malik Ambar and the Moghals. Nimbdlkar never
exchanged his ancient title of ndik for that of Mdja. Junjharrdv
Ghd,tge the deshmukh of Malavdi was the head of a powerful family
whosefounder Kam R^je Ghdtge had a small command under the
Bahmani kings. His native country Khatav was separated from
that of the Nimbalkar by the Mahddev hills. The Ghatges were
deshmukhs and sardeshmukhs of the pargana of Mdn. In 1626
Nd,gojiGhatge was given the title of sardeshmukh as an unconditional
favour by Ibrahim Adil Shdh II. together with the title of Junjhdrrdv.
The head of the Mane family was deshmukh of MhasvSd, adjoining the
district of the Ghdtges. The Mdnes were distinguished shileddrs
or self-horsed cavaliers under BijApur, but were nearly as notorious
for their revengeful character as the Shirkes. The Ghorpades,
who were originally Bhonsles, according to their family legend
acquired their present surname during the Bahmani times from
having been the first to scale a fort in the Konkan which was
deemed impregnable by fastening a cord round the body of a
ghorpad or iguana. They were deshmukhs under the Bijd,pur
government and were divided into two distinct families, one of
K5pshi near the V£rna river and the other of Mudhol near the
Ghatprabha in the Karndtak. Under Bij^pur the Kdpshikar
Ghorpades were known as the navhas or nine-touch Ghorpades and
the Mudholkars as the sdtkas or seven-touch Ghorpades, a distinction
which the two families maintain. The head of the Mudholkar
Ghorpades is the patil of a village near S4tara. The Ghorpades seem
to have signalized themselves at a very early period. The high
Musalm^n title of Amir ul-Omra or Chief of the Nobles was conferred
on one of the members of the Kapshi family by the Bijapur kings.

Chapter VII
History.

MosalmAns.

Adil ShAhis,
1489-1686.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

232

DISTRICTS.

Chapter VII.
History.

MPSAT.MJJJTS.

Adil ShaMs,
1489-1686.

Mardthds.

Shivdji,
ie^-1680.

The first Ghorpade that joined Shivdji was one of the KSpshikars
while the Mudholkars were his bitter enemies. The Daphles were
deshmuhhs of the pargana of Jath. Their original name was Chavhan
and they took the surname of Daphle from their village of DaphMpur
of which they were hereditary pdtils. They held a command from
the Bijapur kings.*

In 1636 the Nizam Shahi dynasty came to an end and in 1637
Shdhaji Bhonsle the son of Maloji Bhonsle, who had taken a
considerable part in Nizam Shdhi affairs during the last years of
the dynasty, was allowed to retire into the service of Mdhmud
Adil Shah of Bijdpur (1626- 1656). In 1637 besides giving Shdhdji
his jdgir districts in Poona, Mahmud Adil Shdh conferred on
ShAhaji a royal grant for the deshmukhi of twenty-two villages in
the district of Ka,rhM, the right to which had by some means
devolved on government.^ Before the middle of the 17th century,
Shah^ji's son Shivdji, the founder of the Maratha empire, had begun
to establish himself in the hilly parts of Poona in the north where
by 1648 he had succeeded in gaining possession of his father's
estate of Poona and Supa and of the strong forts of Torna in Bhor
about thirty-five miles and Kondh^na or Sinhgad about ten miles
south-west of Poona, of Purandhar about twenty miles south of Poona,
and of Rdjgad in Bhor about five miles east of Torna. At this time
the south of the Nira, as far east as Shirval and as far south as
the range of hills north of the Krishna, was farmed by the hereditary
deshmukh of Hardas Mdval, a Mardtha named Bdndal, and the
fort of Rohira was committed to his care. He early entertained a
jealousy of Shivdji and kept a strong garrison and carefully
watched the country round Purandhar. The deshpdnde of the place
was a Prabhu a caste to whom Shivaji was always partial. W^i
was the station of a Bijdpur mokdsdddr or manager who had
charge of Pandugad, Kamalgad, and several other forts in the
neighbourhood. Chandrardv More, Rdja of Javli, was in possession
of the Ghdtmdtha from the Krishna to the Vdrna.^ The Bijd,pur
government being impressed with the, idea that it was incited by
Shahaji, over whom they had complete control, took no active
measures to suppress Shivaji's rebellion. In 1649 Shahaji was
imprisoned at Bijapur and in 1651-52 a feeble attempt to seize
Shivaji was made by a Hindu named BAji Shdmrdj, Shivdji
frequently lived at the town of MdhM in Kolaba and the party
of Shdmrdj, passing through the territory of Chandrardv More,
lurked about the Par pass until an opportunity should oifer. Shivaji
anticipated the surprise, attacked the party near the bottom of the
pass and drove them in great panic to the forests. In 1653, Shdhdji
was released from confinement at Bijapur and was bound by a
solemn engagement to refrain from molesting the Mudhol chief who
had been instrumental in his capture. To induce both parties to
forget what had passed, Mahmud Adil Shah made them exchange
their hereditary rights and indma as deshmuhhs. Baji Ghorpade thus
obtained from Sh^hdji the deshmuhi rights of twenty- two villages,

> Grant Duff's MarAtli^ 38-40. s Grant Duffs MarAthda, 55

I Grant Duffs Marithfe, 62.

Deccan.]

sItAra.

233

in Karhdd which Shdhdji had acquired in 1637 from Bijdpur.'
Disturbances in the Karndtak prevented the Bijapur government
taking active steps against Shivitji, and no sooner was Shdhaji
released than Shivaji began to devise new schemes for possessing
himself of the whole Ghd,tmatha or hilly West Deccan. He had in
vain attempted to induce the E^ja of Javli to unite with him
against BijApur. Chandrardv More, although he carried on no war
against Shivilji and received his messengers with civility, refused
to join in rebellion against Bijd,pur. The permission granted to
Shdmrdj's party to pass through his country, and the aid which he
Was said to have given him afforded Shivdji an excuse for hostility ;
but the B.^ja was too powerful to be openly attacked with any
certain prospect of success. He had a strong body of infantry of
nearly the same description as Shivdji's Mdvalis ; his two sons, his
brother, and his minister Himmatrd,v were all good soldiers ; nor did
there appear any means by which Shivdji could create a division
among them. Having held his troops in a state of preparation for
some time, Shivaji sent two agents a Brdhman named Rd.gho BalMl
and a Maratha named SambhSji KAvji for the purpose of gaining
correct intelligence of the situation and strength of the principal
places, but ostensibly with the design of contracting a marriage
between Shivaji and the daughter of Ohandrardv. Rdgho Balldl and
Sambhdji KAvji proceeded to Javli attended by twenty-five Mdvalis.
They were courteously received and had -^several interviews with
ChandraraVj and Rdgho Balldl seeing the RAja totally off his guard
formed the plan of assassinating him and his brother to which
Sambhdji KAvji readily agreed. He wrote to ShivAji communicating
his intention which was approved, and, to support it, troops were
secretly sent up the SahyMris from the Konkan, where Shivdji,
besides the district of Kalydn^ held the forts of Tala, Ghosdla,
and Rdiri in Koliiba. Shivaji to avoid suspicion marched from
Rdjgad his capital to Purandhar and from Purandhar he made a
night march to Mahdbaleshvar at the source of the Krishna where
he joined his troops which had assembled in the neighbouring forests.
Ragho BalMl, on finding that the preparations were completed,
took an opportunity of demanding a private conference with the
Rdja and his brother, when he stabbed the Rdja to the heart and
his brother was despatched by Sambhdji Kdvji. Their attendants
being previously ready the assassins instantly fled and darting into
the thick forest which everywhere surrounded the place they soon
met Shivdji who according to appointment was advancing to their
support. Before the consternation caused by the double murder
had subsided, Jdvli was attacked on all sides, but the troops, headed
by the Rdja's sons and Himmatrdv, notwithstanding the surprise,
made a brave resistance until Himmatrdv fell and the sons were
made prisoners. ShivAji lost no time in securing the possessions of
Chandrardv More. The capture of the strong fort of Vd,sota, about
fifteen miles west of Sd.td.ra called Vajragad by Shivdji, and the
submission of the Sevtar valley completed the conquest of Jdvli.
The sons of Chandrardv who remained prisoners were subsequently

Chapter VII
History.

MusalmIns.

Adil ShAhis,
1489-1686.

Jdvli Bdja's
Murder.

B 1282—30

1 Grant Duffs U&r&th&a, 66,

[Bombay Gazetteer,

234

DISTRICTS.

Chapter VII.
History.

MnSALMiNS.

Adil ShAhis,
1489-1686.

Pratdpgad built

by Shivdji,

1656.

Afzul KhArCs
Murder,
1659.

condemned to death for maintaining a secret correspondence with
Bijdpur. Shivdji followed up his conquest by surprising Rohira
which he scaled at night at the head of his Md,valis. Bdndal,
the deshmukh who was in the fort at the time stood to his arms on
the first moment of alarm; and although greatly outnumbered
his men did not submit until he was killed. At the head of them was
Bdji Prabhu the deshpdnde ; Shivdji treated him with generosity,
received him with great kindness, and confirmed him in all his
hereditary possessions. He had relations with Shivdji, and
afterwards agreed to follow the fortunes of his conqueror; the
command of a considerable body of infantry was conferred upon
him and he maintained his character for bravery and fidelity to the
last. In 1656, to secure access to his possessions on the banks of
the Nira and the Koyna and to strengthen the defences of the
Pdr pass Shivdji pitched upon a high rock near the source of the
Krishna on which he resolved to build another fort. The execution
of the design was entrusted to a Deshastha Brdhman named
Moro Trimal Pingle, who shortly before had been appointed to
command the fort of Purandhar in Poona. This man, when very
young, had accompanied his father, then in the service of Shdhdji to
the Karndtak and returned to the Mardtha country about the year
1653 and shortly after joined Shivdji. The able manner in which
he executed every thing entrusted to him soon gained him the
confidence of his master and the erection of Pratdpgad, the name
given to the new fort, confirmed the favourable opinion entertained
of him.i In the same year (1656) the Moghals invaded the Bijdpur
territories and Saijerdv Ghdtge, Nimbdlkar, and other Mardtha
estate-holders promptly joiaed Khdn Muhammad the Bijdpur
prime minister with their troops.^

About the year 1658 Bijdpur was distracted by factions among
its nobles and the youth of its sovereign Ali Adil Shah II. At
last they became sensible of the necessity of making an active
effort to subdue Shivdji. For this purpose an army was assembled
consisting of 5000 horse and 7000 choice infantry, a good train of
artillery or what was considered as such, besides a large supply of
rockets, a number of swivels mounted on camels, and abundance of
stores. Afzul Khan, an officer of high rank, volunteered to
command the expedition, and in his public leave-taking, ia the
vaunting manner particularly common to Deccan Muhammadans,
pompously declared that he should bring back the insignificant rebel ,
and cast him in chains imder the footstool of the throne. To avoid
impediments which presented themselves on the straight route
from Bijdpur and the heavy rains which seldom subsided in the
neighbourhood of the hills till the end of October, the army proceeded
in September 1659 from Bijdpur to Pandharpur and thence marched
towards Wai. Shivdji, on its approach, took up his residence in
Pratdpgad and sent the most humble messages to Afzul Khan. He
pretended to have no thought of opposing so great a personage, and
seemed only anxious to make his peace with the Bijdpur government

1 Grant Duffs MarAthAs, 67 - 68.

2 Grant Duffs MaritMs, 70. •

Deccau-]

SlTAkA.

235

through the Khdn's mediation ; he affected the utmost sorrow for
his conduct, which he could hardly persuade himself would be
forgiven by the king, even if the Khan should receive him under
the shadow of his protection ; and he would surrender the whole of his
country to the Khdn were it possible to assure himself of his favour.
Afzul Khd,n, who had all the vanity of a Muhammadau noble, had
also a thorough contempt for his enemy. At the same time as he
had formerly been in charge of the Wdi district he was aware of the
exceeding difficulty of an advance through the wild country which
he must penetrate. With such considerations and mollified by
Shivdji's submission, Afzul Khdn in answer to repeated applications
despatched a Brdhman in his own service named Gopindthpant with
suitable attendants to PratApgad. On his arrival at PAr a village
below the fort, ShivAji came down to meet him. The Brahman
stated that the Khdn his master and Shdhdji were intimate f riendSj
that the Khdn bore no enmity towards his son, but on the contrary
would prove his desire to aid him by interceding for his pardon,
and even endeavouring to get him confirmed as jdgirddr in part
of the territory he had usurped. Shivdji acknowledged his
obligation although his reply at the public meeting was not couched
in the same humble strain he had used in his messages. He said
that if he could obtain a part of the country in jdgir it would be
all he could expect, that he was the king's servant and that he had
been of considerable usfe to his government in reducing several chiefs
whose territory would now come under the royal authority. This
was the substance of what passed at their first interview. Shivaji
provided accommodation for the envoy and his suite, but assigned a
place for the Brdhman at some distance from the rest. In the
middle of the night Shivsiji secretly introduced himself to Gopind.th-
pant. He addressed him as a Brdhman his superior. He
represented that all he had done was for the sake of Hindus and
the Hindu faith, that he was called on by^ the goddess Bhav^ni
herself to protect Brd,hmans and cows, to punish the violaters of
their temples and their gods, and to resist the enemies of their
religion, that it became Gopindthpant as a Brd,hman to aid a course
which Bhavdni had sanctioned, and that if he did, he should ever
after live among his caste and countrymen in comfort and wealth.
Shivdji secondedhis arguments with presents, and the solemn promise
to bestow the village of Hevra on him and his posterity for ever.
The Brdhman envoy could not resist such an appeal seconded by
such an inducement and swore fidelity to ShivAji, declared he was
his for ever, and called on the goddess to punish him if he swerved
from any task Shivdji might impose. They consulted on the
fittest means for averting the present danger. The Brdhman, fully
acquainted with Afzul Khdn's character, suggested temptmg hnn
to a conference and Shivdji at once approved of the scheme. He
sent for Krishndji Bhdskar, a confidential Brahman, informed him
of what had passed, and of the resolution which he had adopted.
After fully consulting on the subject they separated as secretly as
thev had met. After holding some interviews and discus.sions for
the purpose of masking their design, Krishndji Bhdskar as Shiydjis
agent was despatched with Gopindthpant to the camp of Afzul

Chapter Vir
History.

MusalmAns.

Adil Shihis,
1489-1686..

Afzul Khdn's

Murder,

1669.

[Bombay Ga,zetteer,

236

DISTRICTS.

Chapter VII.
History.

MuSALMijSS.

Adil Shdhis,
1489-1686.

Afzvl Khdn's

Murder,

1658.

'Khi.n. Gopindthpant represented Shiv^ji as in great alarm ; but
if his fears could . be overcome by the personal assurances of the
Khdn, he was convinced that he might easily be prevailed on to give
himself up. With a blind confidence Af zul Kh^n trusted himself
to Gopindlthpant's guidance. An interview was agreed on, and the
Bijdpur troops with great labour moved to Javli. Shiv^ji prepared
a place for the meeting below the fort of Pratdpgad ; he cut down
the jungle, and cleared a road for the Khan's approach but every
other avenue to the place was carefully closed. He ordered
Moropant and Netdji Pdlkar from the Konkan with many thousands
of the Mdvali infantry. He communicated his whole plan to these
two and to Tdndji Malusre. Netdji was stationed in the thickets
a little to the east of the fort, where it was , expected that part of
the Khdn's retinue would advance, and Moro Trimal with a body
of old and tried men was sent to hide himself in the neighbourhood
of the main body of the Bijdpur troops which as had been agreed
remained near Javli. The preconcerted signal for Netdji was the
blast of a horn, and the distant attack by Moro Trimal was to
begin on hearing the fire of five guns from Pratd,pgad which were
also to announce Shivdji's safety. Fifteen hundred of Afzul
Khdn's troops accompanied him to within a few hundred yards of
Pratdpgad, where, for fear of alarming Shivaji, at Gopindthpant's
suggestion they were desired to halt. Afzul Khdn, dressed in a
thin muslin garment, armed only with his sword, and attended, as
had been agreed, by a single armed follower advanced in his
palanquin to an open building prepared for the occasion. Shivaji
had made preparations for this purpose, not as if conscious that he
meditated a criminal and treacherous deed but as if resolved on
some meritorious though desperate action. After bathing, he laid
his head at his mother's feet and asked her blessing. He took a
hasty but afi'ectionate farewell of his friends committing his son
Sambhdji to their care. He rose, put on a steel chain cap under his
turban and chain armour under his cotton gown, hid a crooked
dagger or hiehva in his right- sleeve, and on the fingers of his left
hand he fixed vdghnakhs or steel tiger's claw a treacherous weapon
well known among Mardthds.^ Thus armed he slowly descended
from the fort. The Khdn had arrived at the place of meeting before
him, and was expressing his impatience at the delay, when IShivdji
was seen advancing, apparently unarmed and like the Khdn attended
by only one armed follower, his tried friend Tdndji Malusre. Shivdji
in view of Afzul Khdn, frequently stopped, which was represented
as the effects of alarm, a supposition more likely to be admitted from
his diminutive size. Under pretence of assuring Shivdji, the armed,
attendant by the contrivance of the Brdhman stood at a few paces
distance. Afzul Khdn made no objection to Shivdji's follower
although he carried two swords in his waistband, a circumstance
which might pass unnoticed, being common amongst Marathds. He

1 In 1826 KAja PratApsinh when chief of Sd.tAra (1810-1839) gave the vdghnahU
to Mr. Elphinstone. They were most formidable steel hooks, very sharp, and
attached to two rings fitting the fingers and lay concealed in the inside of the hand.
Colebrooke's Elphinstone, 11. 188. See also Scott Waring's Mar^thds, 69,

Deccan.]

SATAEA.

237

advanced two or three paces to meet Shivdji ; they were introduced,
and in the midst of the customary embrace Shivdji struck the
vdghnalchs into the bowels of Afzul Khdn, who quickly disengaged
himself, clapped his hand on his sword, exclaiming treachery and
murder, but Shivdji instantly followed up the blow with his dagger.
The Khdn had drawn his sword and made a cut at Shivdji, but the
concealed armour was proof against the blow ; the whole was the
work of a moment, and Shivdji was wresting the weapon from the
hand of his victim before their attendants could run towards them.
Syed Bandu the Khdn's follower refused his life on condition of
surrender, and against two such swordsmen as Shiv^ji and his
companion, maintained an unequal combat for some time before
he fell. The bearers had lifted the Khdn into his palanquin during
the scuffle, but by the time it was over, Khandu Mdle and some
other followers of Shivdji had come up, cut off the head of
the dying man, and carried it to Pratdpgad. The signals agreed
on were made ; the Mdvalis rushed from their concealment and
beset the nearest part of the Bijd,pur troops on all sides, few
of whom had time to mount their horses or stand to their arms.
Netdji Pdlkar gave no quarter ; but orders were sent to Moropant
to spare all who submitted. Shivdji's humanity to his prisoners was
conspicuous on this as on most occasions. Many of those that had
attempted to escape were brought in several days afterwards in
a state of great wretchedness. Their reception and treatment
induced many of the Mardtha prisoners to enter Shivdji's service
The most distinguished Maratha taken was Junjhdrrav Gh^tge
whose father had been the intimate friend of Sh^hdji, but Shivdji
could not induce him to depart from his allegiance to BijSpur. At
his own request he was allowed to return, and was honourably
dismissed with valuable presents. The son and family of Afzul
Khdn were taken by Khanduji Kdkde one of Shivdji's officers, but
on being offered a large bribe he agreed to guide them to a place
of safety, and led them by unfrequented paths across the mountains
and along the banks of the Koyna, until he safely lodged them in
Karhad. When this treachery came to ShivSji's knowledge Kakde
was condemned to death and at once executed.'^

This success greatly raised the reputation of Shivdji. The
immediate fruits were four thousand horse, several elephants, a
number of camels, a considerable treasure, and the whole train of

Chapter VII
History.

MusalmAns.

Adil Shdhis,
1489-1686.

Afzul Khdn's
Murder,
1668.

1 Grant Duff's Marithds, 76-78. AbduUa Afzul Kito who was a man of great
personal prowess secured ShivAji with one of his hands and endeavoured to stab him.
Shivdji was indebted for his life to the precaution he had used of wearing armour.
Disengaging himself from his grasp, he plunged vdghnakhs into his stomach and
cut him down with his sword. His secretary GopinAthpant endeavoured to avenge
the act when Shiviiii bade him fly as he should always hold sacred the life of a
Brahman. The troops now rushed^out and not a man, except the fortunate Brahman
escaped to relate the horrid murder! Scott Waring's MarithAs, 67 - 69. Scott Waring
in a note adds : This account rests entirely upon the authority of the MarAtha
manuscripts, and I think them entitled to credit. Had not AbduIIa Khdn intended
the like treachery I should doubt his consenting to an interview with such a man as
ShivAii and upon such harsh conditions. For what more could he expect to effect
at an interview than could have been efl'ected by his secretary ? This intention of
Abdnlla does not extenuate Shivdji's conduct, for ShivAji had made up his mind
from the first to murder the MusalmAn general. Ditto, 200.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

238

DISTRICTS.

Chapter VII.

History.

MusalmAns.

Adil Shihia,

1489-1686.

Afzul Khdn's

.1658.

equipment which had been sent against him. Such of his troops
as were wounded, ShivAji on this occasion distinguished by presents
of bracelets, necklaces, chains ^of gold and silver, and clothes.
These were presented with much ceremony, and served to stimulate
future exertion among his soldiers as well as to give greater fame
to his exploit. The sword of Afzul Khan and Shiv^ji's favourite
sword Bhavdni passed to the Moghals on the capture of Sambhlji
in 1690. They were restored by Aurangzeb to Shdhu in 1707 and
till 1827 remained a valued trophy in the armpury of Shivdji's
descendants. Gopindthpant received the promised grant ia reward
for his treachery, and was afterwards promoted to considerable rank
in the service.^

In 1659, Shivdji surprised the fort of Vasantgad about seven
miles north-west of KarhAd, levied contributions along the
Krishna, and left a thdna or garrison with a revenue collector
in the gadhi or mud fort of Battis Shirala. In January 1661, Ali
Adil Shdh II. disappointed in his hopes of crushing Shivdji, took
the field in person and marched to Karhd,d. All the district
authorities, some of whom had submitted to ShivAji, attended the
royal camp to tender their allegiance. Ali Adil Shdh recovered
Panhdla andEdngna in Kolhd,pur which had fallen to Shiv^ji in the
previous year.^

In 1661, as Shivdji was unable to visit the famous temple of
Bhavdni at Tuljdpur during the rains, he with great solemnity
dedicated a temple to her in the fort of Pratdpgad. His religious
observances from this time became exceedingly rigid ; he chose the
celebrated Rdmdds Svdmi as his mahdpurvsh or spiritual guide,
and aspired to a high character for sanctity.^ In. 1662 when
Shivdji thought of making Raygad in Koldba his capital he held
the Konkan Ghdtmdtha that is the hilly West Deccan from the
Bhima to the Vdrna.* In 1665, in accordance with the terms of
the treaty ot Purandhar by which Shivaji ceded to the Moghals
the forts which he had taken from them and twenty others taken
or built by him in the territory of the late Nizam Shdhi government
and obtained the right of levying the chauth and sardeshmuhhi
over the BijApur dominions and to co-operate with the, Moghals
to subdue Bijdpur, Shivdji with a body of 2000 horse and
8000 infantry joined Jaysing and the combined army
marched about November, Their first operations were against
Baidji Ndik Nimbdlkar a relation of Shivdji and a jdgirddr of
Bijdpur. Phaltan was reduced and the fort of TAthvad scaled by
ShivAji's Mdvalis. All the fortified places in their route were taken.
Ali Adil Shah had prepared his troops, but endeavoured to prevent
the invasion by promises of settling the demands of the Moghals.
But Jaysing continued his advance and met with little opposition
until near Mangalvedha in ShoMpur.^ In 1668 Shivdji obtained
a yearly payment of money from the Bijapur government in lieu
of a levy of the chauth and sardeshmuhhi over the Bijapur dominions

1 Grant Duff's MarAthis, 79. " Grant Duflfa MarAth^, 82.

3 Grant Duff's MarAthds, 83. * Grant Duffs MarAth^, 85,

5 Grant Duffs MarAthis, 94 - 95 .

Deccan]

sAtAra.

239

and in spite of the narrowing of his territory by the Purandhar
treaty he still retained the western Satdra hills.

The years 1668 and 1669 were of greatest leisure in Shivaji's
life. Some of his contemporaries, speculating on the future,
supposed from his apparent inactivity that he would sink into
insignificance, but he employed this interval in revising and com-
pleting the internal management of his government, which with his
various institutions are the key to the forms of government
afterwards adopted by every Maratha state. Shivaji's regulations
were gradually formed and enlarged, but after a certain period
underwent no change by the extension of his territory until he
assumed the ensigns of Toyalty. Even then the alterations were
rather in matters of form than in rules. The plans of Maratha
encroachment which were afterwards pursued so successfully by his
nation may be traced from a very early period and nothing is more
remarkable in regard to Shivaji than the foresight with which
some of his schemes were laid and the fitness of his arrangements
for the genius of his countrymen.

The foundation of his power was his infantry ; his occupation of
the forts gave him a hold on the country and a place of deposit for
his plunder. His cavalry had not yet spread the terror of the Mard-
tha name ; but the rules of formation and discipline for his troops,
the interior economy of his infantry and cavalry^ the regulations for
his forts, his revenue and judicial arrangements, and the chief offices
through which hisgovernment was administered were ftdly developed.
Shivaji's infantry was raised in the West Deccan and Konkan ; the
men of the West Deccan tract were called MAvalis or westerners,
those of the Konkan Hetkaris or southerners. These men brought
their own arms and required nothing but ammunition. Their dress,
though not uniform, was generally a pair of short drawers coming
half-way down the thigh, a strong narrow band of considerable length
tightly girt about the loins, a turban, and sometimes a cotton frock.
Most of them wore a cloth round the waist, which likewise answered
the purposes of a shawl. Their common arms consisted of a sword
shield and matchlock. Some of the Hetkaris, especially the infantry
of SavantvMi, used a species of firelock, the invention of the lock
for the flint having been early received from the Portuguese. Every
tenth man, instead of firearms, carried a bow and arrows which
were useful in night attacks and surprises when firearms were kept
in reserve or forbidden. The Hetkaris excelled as marksmen but
they could seldom be brought to the desperate sword-in-hand attacks
for which the Mavalis were famous. Both of them had unusiial
skill in climbing, and could mount a precipice or scale a rock with
ease, where men of other countries must have run great risk of
being dashed to pieces. Every ten men had an officer called a ndik
and every fifty a havilddr. The officer over a hundred was termed
Jumldddr and the commander of a thousand was styled ek-hazdri.
There were also officers of five thousand, between whom and
the sarnolat or chief commander there was no intermediate step.
The cavalry were of two kinds hdrgirs literally bridlemen or riders
who were supplied with horses and sMleddrs who were self -horsed ;

Chapter VII
History.

MusalmAns.

Adil ShAhis,
1489-1686.

Shivdji's
Institutions,

[Bombay Gazetteei*,

240

DISTRICTS.

Chapter VII.
History.

MrrSALMANS,

Adil Sh^his,
1489 -1686,

Shivdji's
Institutions.

Shivdji's hdrgirs were generally mounted on horses, the property
of the state. A body of this description was termed pdgdh or
household troops, and Shivdji always placed more dependence on
them than on the shileddrs or any horse furnished on contract by
individuals : with both he had a proportion of his fdgdh mixed, to
overawe the disobedient and to perfect his system of intelligence
which abroad and at home penetrated into a knowledge of the most
private circumstances, prevented embezzlement, and frustrated
treachery. The Maratha horsemen were commonly dressed in a
pair of tight breeches covering the knee, a turban which many of
them fastened by passing a fold of it under the chin, a frock of
quilted cotton^ and a cloth round the waist, with which they
generally girded on their swords in preference to securing them with
their belts. The horseman was armed with a sword and shield ; a
proportion in each body carried matchlocks, but the great national
weapon was the spear, in the use of which and the management of
their horses they showed both grace and skill. The spearmen had
generally a sword and sometimes a shield ; but the shield was
unwieldy, and was carried only in case the spear should be broken,
Over every twenty-five horsemen Shivdji had a havilddr.
To one hundred and twenty-five there was a jumldddr, and
to every five jumlds or six hundred and twenty-five was a
suhheddr. Every subha had an accountant and auditor of
accounts appointed by Shivaji, who were liable to be changed and
were invariably Brdhmans or Prabhus. To the command of every
ten suhhds or six thousand two hundred and fifty horse, which
were rated at only five thousand, there was a commander styled
panch-hazdri with whom were also stationed a muzumddr or
Brdhman auditor of accounts and a Prabhu register and
accountant who was called amin. These were government agents.
Besides these every officer, from the jumldddr upwards, had one or
more kdrkuns or writers paid by himself as well as others in the
pay of government. Except the sarnobat or chief no officer was
superior to the commander of five thousand. There was one
sarnobat for the cavalry and one for the infantry. Every jumla,
subha, and panch-hazdr had an establishment of news-writers and
spies besides secret intelligencers. Shivdji's head spy was a Mardtha
named Bahirji Naik, to whom, some of the Brd,hmans readily
admit, he owed many of the discoveries imputed to the goddess
Bhavani. The MarAthds are peculiarly roused from indolence and
apathy when charged with responsibility. Shivaji at the beginning
of his career personally inspected every man who offered himself,
and obtaraed security from some persons already in his service for
the fidelity and good conduct of those with whom he was not
acquainted. This system of security must soon have made almost
every man answerable for some of his comrades ; and although it could
have been in most instances but a form, owing to the ease with which
the responsibility could be evaded, the demand of security was
always a part of Shivdji's instructions to his officers. The Mdvalis
sometimes enlisted, merely on condition of getting a subsistence ^
in grain ; but the regular pay of the infantry was 6s. to £1 4s. (1-3

Deccan.]

SATlRA.

241

pagodas) a, mont'h^;t'ha,i of the bdrgirs or riders was 12s. to £S
(2-5 fagodds) ; and that of the shileddrs or self-horsed cavaliers
£1 16s. to £4 16s. (6-12 pagodas) a month. All plunder as well as
prizes was the property of government. It was brought at
stated times to Shivaji's darbdr or place of public audience and
individuals formally displayed and delivered their captures. They
always received some small proportionate compensation; they
were praised, distinguished, and promoted according to their success ;
and to plunder the enemy is to this day (1827) used by the Mardthds
to express a victory, of which in their estimation it is the only
real proof. The horse, especially at an advanced period of Shivaji's
history, were subsisted during the fair season in the enemy's country ;
during the rains they were generally allowed to rest, and were
cantoned in different places near kurans or pasture lands, under the
protection of some fort, where the grass of the preceding season
was stacked and grain prepared by the time they returned. For
this purpose persons were appointed to whom rent-free lands were
hereditarily assigned. This system was preserved when many of
Shivaji's institutions were neglected, and it proved a great aid to
the success of his countrymen.

Shiv5,ji kept the Hindu festival of the Dasara with great pomp.
It falls in October at the end of the south-west rains, and was
particularly convenient for a general muster and review of his troops
previous to their taking the field. At this time each horse was
examined and an inventory and valuation of each soldier's effects
were taken to be compared with what he brought back or eventually
to be made good. If a horseman's effects were unavoidably lost, his
horse killed, maimed, or destroyed in government service they were
on due proof replaced. On the other hand all plunder or articles
discovered, of which no satisfactory account could be given, were
carried to the credit of government, either by confiscating the article
or deducting the amount from the soldier's arrears. It was at the
option of the captors to keep almost any articles if fairly brought
forward, valued, and paid for. The accounts were closed every
year, and balances due by government were paid either in ready
money or by bills on the collectors of revenue in favour of the
officers, but never by separate orders on villages. The only
exceptions to plunder made by Shivdji were in favour of cows,
cultivators, and women ; these were never to be molested nor
were any but rich Muhammadans or Hindus in their service who
could pay a ransom to be made prisoners. No soldier in the
service of Shivdji was permitted to carry any female followers with
him to the field on pain of death. His system of intelligence was
the greatest check on every abuse, and his punishments were
rigorous. Officers and men who had distinguished themselves, who
were wounded, or who had suffered in any way, were always
gratified by promotion, honour, or compensation. Shivaji did not
approve of the jdgir or estate system ; he confirmed many, but,
with the exception of the establishment for his forts, he seldom
bestowed new military estates and gave away very few as personal

Chapter VII
History.

MUSALMANS.

Adil ShAhis,
U89-1686.

Shivdji's
Institutions,

1 A pagoda was equal to from Es. 3 to Bs. 4.

B 1282-31

[Bombay Gazetteer,

242

DISTRICTS.

Chapter VIL
History.

McsalmXns.

Adil Shdhis,
1489-1686.

Shivdji's
Institutions,

assignments. Indm lands were granted by him as well in

reward of merit as in conformity with the tenets of his faith ; a

gift of land, especially ,to Brdhmans, being of all charities the most

acceptable to the divinity. Shivdji's discipline, which required

prompt obedience to superiors in every situation, was particularly

strict in his forts. The chief person or Mlleddr in the

command of a fortress was termed havilddr and under him

there was one or more sarnohats. In large forts there was a sarnobat

to each face. Every fort had a head clerk and a commissary of

grain and stores ; the head clerk a Brahman was termed sabnis ;

the commissary was commonly of the Prabhu caste and was called

kdrkhdnnis. The orders regarding ingress and egress,rounds, watches,

and patrols, care of water, grain, stores, and ammunition were most

minute, and the head of each department was furnished with

distinct rules for his guidance from which no deviation was allowed.

A rigid economy characterised all Shivdji's instructions regarding

expenditure. The garrison was sometimes partly composed of the

common infantry. Independent of them each fort had a separate

and complete establishment. It consisted of Brahmans, Marathds,

Eamoshis, Mhdrs, and M^ngs ; the whole were termed gadkaris or

fort-men. They were maintained by permanent assignments of

rent-free lands in the neighbourhood of each fort, which with the

care of the fort passed from father to son. The Eamoshis and

Mhars were employed on outpost duty. They brought intelligence,

watched all the paths, misled inquiries, or cut off hostile stragglers.

This establishment while new and vigorous was admirably suited

to Shivdji's purpose as well as to the genius of the people. The

gadkaris described the fort as the mother that fed them, and

among other advantages, no plan could better provide for old or

deserving soldiers.

' Shivaji's revenue arrangements were founded on those of DddSji

Kondadev, Shdhdji's Brahman manager, to whom Shivaji's education

in Poona. was entrusted (1645). The assessments were made on

the actual state of the crop, the proportionate division of which is

stated to have been three-fifths to the husbandmen and two-fifths

to government. As soon as Shivdji got permanent possession of

any territory, every species of military contribution was stopped,

all farming of revenue ceased, and the collections were made by

agents appointed by himself. Every two or three villages were

superintended by a kdrkun under the tarafddr or tdhikddr who

had charge of a small district, and was either a Brahman or a

Prabhu. A Mar^tha havilddr was stationed with each of them.

Over a considerable tract there was a subheddr or mdmlatddr who

had charge of one or more forts in which his collections both of

grain and money were secured. Shivdji never permitted the

deshmvJchs and deshpdndes to interfere in the management of the

country ; nor did he allow them to collect their dues until their

amount had been ascertained, when an order was annually given

for the amount. The pdtils, khots, and kulkarnis were strictly

superintended, and Shivdji's government though popular with the

common cultivators, would have been unpopular with village and

district officers, of whom Shivaji was always jealous, had it not been

for the resource which all had of entering his military service.

Deccan]

sItara.

243

The method which the Brahman ministers of the Mar^tha
government afterwards adopted, of paying the military and civil
servants by permanent assignments on portions of the revenue of
villages, is said to have been early proposed to Shivdji. He
objected to it, not only from fear of immediate oppression to
the husbandmen, but from apprehending that it would in the end
cause such a division of power as must weaken his government and
encourage the village' and district authorities to resist it as they
frequently did that of Bij^pur. With the same view he destroyed
all village walls and allowed no fortification in his territory which
was not occupied by his troops. Religious establishments were
carefully preserved, and temples for which no provision existed
had some adequate assignments granted to them, but the Brahmans
in charge were obliged to account for the expenditure. Shiv5ji never
sequestrated any allowance fixed by the Muhammadan government
for the support of tombs, mosques, or saints' shrines. The revenue
regulations of Shivaji were simple and in some respects judicious ;
but during his life it is impossible they could have been attended
with such improvements and increase 'of population as are ascribed
to them by his countrymen. His districts were frequently exposed
to great ravages, and he never had sufficient leisure to complete
his arrangements by that persevering superintendence which alone
can perfect such institutions. The Muhammadan writers, and Fryer
a contemporary English traveller describe his country as in the
worst possible state, and the former only mention him as a depre-
dator and destroyer. Still those districts taken by him from BijApur
which had been under the management of farmers or direct agents
of government probably experienced great benefit by the change.
The judicial system of Shivdji in civil cases was that oi panchdyat
or council which had invariably obtained in the country. Disputes
among his soldiers were settled by their officers. He drew his
criminal law from the Hindu sacred works or Shdstras ; but as the
former rulers were Musalmdns they had naturally introduced
changes which custom had sanctioned and perpetuated. This
accounts for the difference that may be still found between Hindu
law and Maratha usage.'

To aid in the conduct of his government, Shivaji established
eight principal offices : 1st the Peshwa or head manager
whose office was held by Moro Pant or Moreshvar Trimal
Pingle ; 2nd the Muzumddr or general superintendent of finance
and auditor general of accounts, whose office was held by Abiji
Sondev, subhedar of the province of Kaly^n ; 3rd the Surnis or
general record-keeper, superintendent of correspondence, examiner
of letters : the office was held by Annaji Datto j 4th the Vdnknis-
or private record-keeper and superintendent of the household
troops and establishment : the office was held by Dattajipant ; 5th
the Sarndbat or chief captain of whom there were two Prataprdv
Gujar over the cavalry and Yes^ji Kank over the infantry ; 6th the
Dahir or minister for foreign alFairs, an office held by Somnath-
pant ; 7th the Nydyddhish or superintendent of justice, an office
managed by Nirkji Rdvji and Gomdji Ndik ; and 8th the Nydya
Shdstri or expounder of Hindu law an office held fi-rst by Shambhu
Upkdhya and afterwards by Raghun^thpant.

Chapter VII
History.

MusalmAns.

Adil Sh&his,
1489-1686.

Shivdji's
Institutions,

[Bombay Gazetteer,

244

DISTRICTS.

Chapter VII.
History.

M0SAI.Mi.NS.

Adil Shihis,
1489-1686.

Shivdji's
Institutions.

Shivdji takes
-Sdtdra.

The officers at the head of these civil situations, except the
Nyayddhish and Nydya Shdstri, held military commands, and
frequently had not leisure to superintend their duties. All there-
fore were aided by deputies called kdrbhdris, who often had power
to fix the seal or mark of their principals on public documents.
When so empowered they were styled mutdliks. Bach department
and every district establishment had eight subordinate officers
under whom were an adequate staff of assistants. These officers were,
1st the Edrbhdri, Mutdlih, or Divdn ; 2nd the Muzumddr or
auditor and accountant ; 3rd the Fadnis or Fadnavis deputy auditor
and accountant ; 4th the Sabnis or clerk sometimes styled daftarddr ;
5th the Kdrkhdnnis or commissary; 6th the Ohitnis or correspon-
dence clerk ; 7th the Jdmdar or treasurer in charge of all valuables
except cash ; and 8th the Potnis or cashkeeper. Attached to him-
self, Shivaji had a treasurer, a correspondence clerk, and an accountant
besides a Farisnis or Persian secretary. His clerk was a Prabhu
named Bdldji Avji, whose acutenessand intelligence were remarked
by the English at Bombay on an occasion when he was sent there
on business. Balkrishnapant Hanvante, a near relation of Shd,hdji's
head manager was Shivdji's accountant. On Shivdji's enthronement
at Raygad in 1674 the names of such offices as were formerly
expressed in Persian were changed to Sanskrit and some were marked
by higher sounding titles. There was only one commander-in-
chief for the infantry and cavalry and one Nydyddhish or judge. -^

In May 1673 a detachment of Shivdji's Mavalis surprised Parli
about four miles south-west of Sdtara. Its capture put the Musalmd,n
garrisons on the alert, and Satara, a fort that had always been kept
in good order by the Bijapur government, which was next invested,
sustained a siege of several months and did not surrender till the
beginning of September. It is remarkable that this fort which had
long, perhaps before the Adil Shdhi dynasty, been used as a state
prison, in time became the prison of Shivaji's descendants. The forts
of Chandan, Vandan, Pandugad, Nandgiri, and Tathvad all fell
into Shivdji's hands before the fair season.^ In 1675 Shivdji again
possessed himself of all the posts between Panhala in Kolhdpur and
Tdthvad. As soon as he was occupied in the Konkan and had
carried down all the infantry that could be spared, Nimbalkar and
Ghdtge, the desmukhs of Phaltan and Malavdi, attacked Shivaji's
garrisons, drove out' the posts and recovered most of the open
country for Bijdpur.^ In 1676 Shivaji for the third time took

1 Grant Duffs MarAthda, 100-106. The following statement gives the names and
the old and new titles of ShivAji's ministers in 1674 :

Shivdji's Ministers, 167U.

Naub.

Old Title.

New Title.

Moropant Pingle

Peshwa.

Mukya PradMn.

Bamchandrapant B&vd6vkar..

Muzumddr.

Pant Amatya.

AnnajiDatto

Sumis.

Pant Saohiv.

Dattajipant

Vinknis.

Mantri.

Hambirrfi,v Mohite

Sarnobat.

Senipati.

Jan&rdanpant Hanvante

Dabir.

Sumant.

BAl&jipant

Ny&y&dhiah.

Nyay&dhish.

Baghunathpant

Nyayash&stri.

Panditrav.

a Grant Diiffs Marithds, 116.

3 Grant Dufi's Marithis, 119.

Deccau.]

Si-TlRA.

245

possession of the open country between Tathvad and Panhala. To
prevent future inroads by neighbouring proprietors Shivaji gave
orders to connect the two places by a chain of forts, which he named
Yardhangad, Bhushangad, Saddshivgad, and Machhindragad.
Although of no great strength they were well chosen to support his
intermediate posts and to protect the highly productive tract within
the frontier which they embrace. While engaged in this arrange-
ment Shivdji was overtaken by a severe illness which confined him
at Satdra for several months. During this period he became extra-
vagantly rigid in the observance of religious forms, but he was at
the same time planning the most important expedition of his life,
the invasion of the Madras Karnd.tak.^ The discussion of his legal
claim to share in half his father's Karnatak possessions and the
possibility of making this a cloak for more extensive acquisitions in
the south was a constant subject of consultation.^ While Shivdji
was in the Karnatak a body of horse belonging to Ghatge and
Nimbalkar laid waste Panhdla in the south and retired plundering
towards Karhad. A detachment from Shivaji's army under Nilaji
KAtkar overtook them at Kurli, attacked and dispersed them, re-
covering much valuable property, which, as it belonged to his own
subjects, Shivaji scrupulously restored.*

In 1679, Shivaji's son Sambhaji joined theMoghals. Diler Khd,n
the Moghal general, intent on making Sambhdji the head of a party
in opposition to his father, sent a detachment of his army from
before Bijapur which they had invested, accompanied by Sambhd.ji
as Raja of the Marathds, and took Bhopalgad in the Khandpur
sub-division Shivdji's easternmost outpost.* At the time of his
death in 1680, Shivdji, who during the last two years of his
life had become an ally of Bijdpur against the Moghals, possessed
that part of Sdtdra of which the line of forts built from Tathvad to
Panhala distinctly marked the eastern boundary. Shingndpur in
the Man sub-division in the east with the temple of Mahadev was
his hereditary indm village given by one of the Ghdtges to his
father Shdhaji.^ Rdmdas Svami, Shivdji's friend and spiritual guide,
whose life and conduct seem to have deserved the universal praise
of his countrymen, a few days before Shivdji's death wrote Sambhdji
his elder son from Parli an excellent and judicious letter, advising
him for the future rather than upbraiding him for the past, and
pointing out the example of his father yet carefully abstaining from
personal comparison.*

After Shivaji's death, Rajdrdm his yotinger son being placed
on the Maratha throne at Rdygad in KoMba, Sambhaji the elder
son made his escape from Panhd,la, and, having made himself
master of his father's dominions, among others, put to death
Sojarihii Rdjardm's mother, and imprisoned RAjAram. A con-
spiracy in favour of Rdjardm was detected and it was discovered that
it was supported by the whole of the Shirke family whose motive

Chapter VII.
History.

MUSALMANS.

Adil ShAhis,
1489- 1686.

Sambhdji,
1680-1689.

1 Grant Duffs Mardthia, 120.
' Grant Duffs Mard,thAa, 123.
3 Grant Duffs Mar4th4s,'127.

4 Grant Duff's MarAthds, 130.
6 Grant Duffs MarAthds, 133.
« Grant Duffs Mar4th4s, 134.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

246

DISTRICTS.

Chapter VII.

History.

MusalmAns.
Adil Shihis,
1489-1686.

Fall of Bijdpur,
1686.

was revenge for the death of Soyarabai who belonged to their family.
Such of the Shirkes as could be found were executed and the rest
fled and several of them entered into the Moghal service. Sambhaji
gave himself up to idleness and pleasure and the system which Shivdji
had introduced soon fell into decay. Decay first appeared in the
army where Shivdji's discipline and strict orders were neglected.
When the horse took the field, stragglers were allowed to join, plunder
was secreted, women followers who had been forbidden on pain of
death were not only allowed but women were brought off from the
enemy's country as an established article of plunder and either kept
as concubines or sold as slaves. The booty brought back by the
commanders of the horse was too small for the pay of the troops.
They took the field in arrears and leave to keep part of the plunder
was a natural compensation for the regular pay allowed by Shivdji.
Sambhdji was prodigal in his expenses and his minister and favourite,
Kalushaa North Indian Brdhman, raised the land-rent by the addition
of various cesses. When he came to collect the revenue he found
the receipts much less than they had been in the time of Shivdji
as the assessments were nominally greater. The managers of
districts were in consequence removed for what seemed to him
evident peculation. The revenue was farmed, many of the husband-
men fled from their villages, and the approach of a vast army of
Moghals under Aurangzeb helped to complete the prospect of ruin
to Shivaji's territory,^ In 1685 during this campaign Sultdn
Muazzam lay at Valva, and in the emperor's name took possession of
such parts of the country as he could overrun. Deeds still remain
in which Muazzam confirmed in his own name grants of lands origin-
ally given by Bijdpur generals. In October a pestilence broke
out in his camp, swept off many of his men, and greatly diminished
his force. Still on receiving the emperor's orders to reduce the
south-west districts above the Sahyddris, formerly taken by Shivdji
from Bijdpur, he advanced without hesitation for that purpose.^

In October 1686 Bijapur fell to Aurangzeb, the Bijdpur govern-
ment came to an end, and its territories passed to the Moghals.^ In
the same year Shirze Khan of Bijapur, who was sent to invade
Sambhaji's districts, marched towards Satdra.* The Maratha Mansab-
ddrs or men of title who had been in the service of Bijapur, sent

1 Grant Duff's Mardthfe, 142. » Grant Duff's MarAthds, 147.

3 Grant Duft's MarAthds, 151 . In taking possession of a district theMoghals appointed
two officers the /awzdar a military and the iAdZso dimre a civil officer. The fauzddr,
who was in command of a body of troops was charged with the care of the police and the
protection of his division. He held, or, according to circumstances assumed, a greater or
less degree of power. The regular amount allowed him for the maintenanceof the district
establishmentwas about 25 per cent of the government collections. The duties of the dimra
were entirely civil and he was entrusted with the collection of the revenue whether for
the exchequer or on account of a,jdgirddr. The Moghal commander who received land
grants or jdgirs from the newly acquired territories seldom had lands permanently
made over to them similar to the tenure by which the Mardtba mansabddrs held their
possessions. The usual practice was to grant assignments for a term of years on
specified districts for the support of their troops. Thus the fauzddrs were more on
the footing of feudatories than the jdgirddrn. The fauzddrs in conjunction with the
divdns farmed out the districts to the deghmukhs or desdis and the divdns realized
the amount from them. Ditto, 154. * Grant Duff's MarAthAs, 151,

Deccan.]

Si-TlRA.

247

professions of duty to the emperor, but showed no readiness to join
his standard. Shirje Khan passed as far west as Wdi where he was
attacked and defeated by Sambhdji's chief captain Hambirr^v, a
victory dearly bought by the death of Hambirrdv who fell mortally
wounded. The advantage which the Mard.thd,s had gained was not
neglected ; several detachments pushed forward and occupied a great
part of the open country towards Bijapur.^

Sambhaji became careless of all general business and spent his
time 'between PanhAla and Vishd,lgad in Kolhapur at a favourite
house and garden in Sangameshvar in Ratndgiri. The whole power
was in the hands of his favourite Kalusha whose time seems to have
been more occupied in managing his master's humours than in
attending to the business of the state. The discipline of the
Mardtha army became looser. Though ruinous to Sambhdji's
resources as head of an organized state, this increased looseness had
a wonderful effect in spreading predatory power. Every lawless
man and every disbanded soldier, Muhammadan or Mar^tha, who
could command a horse and a spear, joined the Mardtha parties, and
such adventurers were often enriched by the plunder of a day.
Independent of other causes, a warlike spirit was thus excited among
a people fond of money and disposed to predatory habits. The
multitude of horsemen nurtured by former wars was already too
heavy for the resources of the Mardtha state. The proportion of
the best troops which was kept in the Imperial service would pro-
bably have soon enabled Aurangzeb to suppress the disorder com-
monly attendant on Indian conquest had not the love of war and
pillage been kindled among the Mardthas. A pride in the conquests
of ShivAji, their confidence in the strength of the forts, the skill
and bravery of many of the Mard.tha leaders, the ability and
influence of many of the Brdhmans, and the anger raised among
Hindus by the odious poll-tax, excited a ferment which required
not only vast means but an entire change of measures to allay.

Aurangzeb had great military and financial strength ; he had
considerable local knowledge, and in the first instance the same
power of confirming or withholding hereditary right as his prede-
cessors in conquest. Titles, mansabs, and jdgirs were bestowed,
and still more frequently promised with a liberality greater than
that of any former conqueror. Still presumption, jealousy, and
bigotry deprived him of many of those advantages. He was not
fully aware of the strength of predatory power, and instead of
crushing it by the aid of the established governments, he pulled down
the two leading states of Golkonda and Bijapur and raised nothing
in their place. He involved himself with enemies on every side ;
he discharged the soldiery, whom, in addition to his own troops, he
could not maintain, and thus sent armies into the field against
himself. He supposed that he was not only acquainted with the
details of the arrangements necessary in a newly conquered territory,
but capable of superintending them. He placed little confidence in
his agents, while at the same time he employed Muhammadans in

Chapter VII|
History.

MtrsALMAns.

Moghals,
1686-1720.

\Graut Duff's MardtMs, 154.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

248

DISTRICTS.

Chapter VII.
History.

MttsalmIns.

Moghals,
1«86-1720.

situations for which policy and humanity alike advised the choice
of Hindus. The confusion and disorder which followed could not
be quieted by the emperor's fancied wisdom or by the flattery and
praises of his court and countrymen. Marathds^ especially Marathi-
speaking Brdhmans, are less dazzled by show than Muhammadans,
and soon found the weak points in their magnificent emperor.
The powerful Sdtara chiefs Daphle, Ghatge, Mane, and Nimbdlkar,
during the siege of BijApur hovered round the imperial camp
until the fall of the capital. They then withdrew to their estates,
sending their agents with humble professions of duty, and in some
cases attending themselves. Still from this time they became
unsettled and joined plundering parties of their countrymen or
submitted to the Moghals as circumstances invited or forced them.
Few of the plunderers were independent of Sambhdji's parties or of
some of the local chiefs because the Moghal fauzddr's troops were
always too strong for common banditti. While their envoys were
in the imperial camp professing obedience to Aurangzeb, the
chiefs often sent parties to plunder the Moghal districts. In
case of discovery their Brd.hman agent, who, by bribery had secured
the patronage of some great man at the Moghal court was ready to
answer for or to excuse the irregular conduct of his master's followers.
The Moghal fauzddrs were told to please the Mardtha chiefs on
condition that they agreed to serve the Moghals. The chiefs
were negotiating with the fauzddr ; their agents were intriguing
at court ; their own villages were secure ; and their followers,
hid under the vague name of Mardthds, were ravaging the country.
The Moghal officers who had land assignments in the Deccan soon
found that they could raise little revenue. Their corruption was
increased by poverty, and the offenders who in the first instance
had plundered their districts by purchasing the connivance of the
fauzddrs, bribed the jdgirddrs at court with a part of the pillage.
The hereditary rights and the family feuds which had before use-
fully served as an instrument of government, in the general confu-
sion of the period became a cause of increasing disorder. The intri-
cate nature of some of the hereditary claims in dispute and the
ingenuity of Brdhmans who were always the managers made every
case so plausible that the officers of government found little difficulty
in excusing or at least in palliating many acts of gross injustice to
which they scandalously lent themselves. The rightful owners
had often reason for complaint ; they absented themselves with their
troops, joined the plunderers, and when induced or compelled to
come in they boldly justified their behaviour by the injustice they
had suffered.

When an hereditary office was forfeited or became vacant in any
way the Moghal government selected a candidate on whom it was
conferred ; but the established premium of the exchequer was
upwards of six and a half year's purchase or precisely 651 per cent
on one year's emoluments, one-fourth of which was made payable at
the time of delivering the deeds and the remainder by instalments.
Besides this tax the clerks exacted an infinite number of fees
or perquisites all of which lent encouragement to confiscations
and new appointments. The emperor, weighed down by years, was

Oeccan.]

satAra.

249

soon overwhelmed with pressing cares ; his ministers and their under-
lings were alike negligent and corrupt ; even after deeds and papers
were prepared years passed before the orders they contained were
carried out.^ Aurangzeb spent about three years at Bijdpur (1686-
1689). During this time his arms were everywhere successful. In
Sambhdji's Decean districts nothing but the strong forts remained
unsubdued (1689). The Moghal troops had possessed themselves
of Tdthvad and the range of forts built by Shivdji between that
place and Panhala, and Aurangzeb was now preparing to enter on a
regular plan for reducing the whole of the forts, as, in his opinion,
this was all that remained to complete the conquest he had so long
meditated. His plans were thwarted by the terrible outbreak of
plague which forced him to leave Bijapur and pass north to
Brahmapuri in Sholapur.^

in 1 689 Sambhdji was surprised at Sangameshvar in Ratnagiri. He
was carried in triumph to Aurangzeb's camp at Akluj in ShoMpur,
and as he refused to become a Musalmd,n and insulted the Prophet
Muhammad and Aurangzeb, he was executed at TuMpur in Poona on
the Indrdyani. So unpopular had Sambhdji become that no attempt
was made to rescuehimor to avenge his death. AtRdygad,on the news
of Sambhdji's death, his younger brother Rdjdrdm was declared
regent during the minority of Sambhdji's son Shivdji afterwards
known as Shdhu. In 1690 RAygad the Mardtha capital fell to the
Moghals and young Shivdji and his mother Yesubdi were made
prisoners arid taken to the Moghal camp. Shivdji's sword Bhavani
and the sword of Af zul Khan were taken by the Moghals. Yesubdi
and her son found a friend in Begam Sdheb the daughter of
Aurangzeb, and the emperor himself became partial to the boy
whom he named Shdhu. Rdjdram moved from place to place and
afterwards made Ginji about eighty miles south-west of Madras
his head-quarters. In a fresh arrangement of state offices made at
this time Santdji Ghorpade the oldest representative of the Kdpshi
family was made sendpati or chief captain and dignified with the
title of Hindu Bdv MamlaJcat Maddr. He was also entrusted with
a new standard called the jaripatka or Golden Streamer, and in
imitation of the imperial officers of the highest rank he was
authorized to beat the nobat or large drum and assume various other
signs of rank. Rajdrdm at this time created a new office called
Pratinidhi or the king's likeness and conferred it on Pralhdd Nirdji
who at this time was the soul of the Maratha cause.

While Rdjdram was at Ginji, Rdmchandrapant Bdvdekar one of
the principal men of the time was left with the title of Hukmat Panha
in charge of all the forts and possessing all the pcJWers of govern-
ment, and under him was placed Parashurdm Trimbak who from
the humble situation of hereditary kulkarni of Kinhai had brought
himself into notice and had given proofs of intelligence and spirit.
These officers used great exertions in restoring forts and giving
spirit and zeal to the garrisons. Ramchandrapant moved from place
toplace,but fixed his principal residence at Sdtdra, where, by the aid of

Chapter VII
History.

MusalmAns,

Moghals,
1686-1720.

Rdjdrdm,
1689- 1700.

1 Grant Duff's Mardth^s, 155-158.
B 1282—32

2 Grant Duff's MardthAs, 158.

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History.

MnSALMANS.

Moghals,
1686-1720.

his head writer Shankrdji Nar^yan Gaudekar, he not only attended
to every military disposition, but regulated the revenue and estab-
lished order. He had raised troops of his own and had cut off
several straggling parties o£ Moghals before Santdji and Dhandji
returned from Ginji. When they joined him Rdmchandrapant
proposed a plan for surprising the fauzddr at Wdi to which Santiji
greatly pleased immediately agreed, took the fauzddr with all his
troops prisoners, and in their stead established a Mardtha post. The
presence of Santdji and Dhandji inspirited Rdmchandrapant's men
and he stirred his captains to follow their example. He sent them
to make their established collections the chauth axxdmrdeshmukhd,
as they were termed, from the Moghal territory, and under the
encouragement of success his officers added a third contribution for
themselves under the head of ghdsddna or forage money. In this
manner a new army was raised whose leaders were Fovix, Thordt,
and Athavle. Rdjd,rd,m gave them honorary presents and rewards ;
the title of Vishvd,srd.v was conferred on Povd,r, of Dinkarrdv on
Thordt, and of Shamsher Bahddur on Athavle. Rdmchandrapant was
particularly partial to the Dhangars or shepherds a great number of
whom served among his troops ; and many of the ancestors of those
who afterwards became great chiefs in the eihpire began their career
under Rdmchandrapant. Shankrdji Ndrdyan, known as an able
officer, received charge of Wdi.^ Ginji in which Rdjdr^m was besieged
fell to the Moghals in January 1698. But a few days before the fall
Rdjdrdm was allowed to escape and came in safety to Vishdlgad in
Kolhd,pur.^ In 1699 Rdjd,rd.m remained for a short time at Sdtdra
which at the recommendation of Rdmchandrapant he made the seat
of government and then passed north with his army plundering.^ On
hearing of Rdjdrd,m's return Aurangzeb marched west from Brahma-
puri in ShoMpur and encamped under the fort of Vasantgad about
seven miles north-west of Karhdd. Batteries were prepared and in
three days the 'garrison surrendered. The emperor named the fort
Kalid-i-fateh or the Key of Victory and was much pleased with his
success. Aurangzeb marched for Sdtdra, a movement wholly unex-
pected by the Mardthd,s, who, filled with the idea that Panh^la in
KolhApur was about to be besieged, had directed all their prepara-
tions towards its defence. The provisions in Sdt^ra fort were not
enough to stand more than a two months' siege. This neglect roused
the suspicion that Rdmchandrapant had purposely left it unprovided.
Of this suspicion Aurangzeb took advantage, and when during the
siege, in consequence of Rdjdrdm's ilhiess, Rdmchandrapant was
called to Sinhgad in Poona, Aurangzeb wrote a letter which fell into
the hands of Parashurdm Trimbak and widened the breach which
had for some time existed between him and Rd,mchandrapant. On
arriving before Sdtd.ra Aurangzeb pitched his tents to the north of
the fort on the site of the present village of Karinja. A'zam Shdh
was stationed at a village on the west side which has since borne the
name of Shdhdpur. Shirze KhAn invested the south side and Tarbiyat
Khdn occupied the eastern quarter; and .chains of posts between

» Grant Du fl's Mardthds, 166, 2 (jra^^t p„jpg MarAthfe, I7I.

3 Grant DufiTs Mardth^s, 172,

Deccan.]

sAtAea.

251

the different camps effectually secured the blockade. The fort which
occupies the summit of a very steep hill of moderate height, and
whose defences consist of a sheer scarp of over forty feet topped by
a stone wall, was defended by Pryd.gji Prabhu HavildAr, who had
been reared in the service of ShivAji. He vigorously opposed the
Moghals, and disputed every foot of ground as they pushed forward
their advanced posts. As soon as they began to gain any part of
the hill he withdrew his troops into the fort and rolled huge stones
from the rock above, which did great execution, and, until they threw
up cover, were as destructive as artillery. In spite of Prydgji's
efforts the blockade was completed. All communication with the
country round was cut off ; and as the small stock of grain was
soon exhausted, the besieged must have been forced to surrender
had not ParashurAm Trimbak, who had thrown himself into the
fort of Parli, bought the connivance of A'zam Shdh and brought
provisions to the besieged. The divisions on the west and south
faces raised batteries, but the grand attack was directed against the
north-east angle, one of the strongest points with a total height of
sixty-seven feet of which forty-two were rock and twenty-five were
masonry.

Tarbiyat Khdn undertook to mine this angle, and at the end of
four months and a half (1700) completed two mines. So con-
fident of success were the Moghals, that the storming party was
ready formed, but concealed as much as possible under the brow of
the hill from the view of the garrison. Aurangzeb was invited to
view the spectacle, and to draw the garrison towards the bastion
the emperor moved off from that side in grand procession, so that
when the match was ready, hundreds of the Mardthds, drawn by
his splendid retinue crowded to the rampart. Among them was
Prydgji the commandant. The first mine was fired. It burst
several fissures in the rock, and caused so violent a shock that a
great part of the masonry was thrown inwards and crushed many
of the garrison in its ruins. The storming party in their eagerness
advanced nearer ; the match was applied to the train of the second
and larger mine, but it was wrongly laid and burst out with a dread-
ful explosion, destroying, it is said, upwards of 2000 Moghals on the
spot. Prydgji the Mardtha commandant was buried in the ruins
caused by the first explosion close to a temple dedicated to
the goddess Bhavdni, but was afterwards dug out _ alive. His
escape was considered a lucky omen, and under other circumstances
might have done much to inspirit the garrison to prolong the
defence. But as A'zam Shdh could no longer be persuaded to allow
grain to pass into the fort, proposals of surrender were made
through him, and the honour of the capture which he so ill-deserved
was not only assigned to him, but the place received his name and
was called by the emperor Azam Tdra. SatSra surrendered about
the middle of April 1700. Immediately on the fall of Sdtdra, Parli
was invested. The siege lasted till the beginning of June, when,
after a good defence, the garrison left the fort. The fort was called
by the emperor Nauras Tara. As the south-west monsoon burst
with great violence, the Moghal army, which was unprepared,,
suffered much distress and hardship before the camp could be

Chapter VII.
History.

MusalmIks,

Moghals,
1686 - 1720.

Sdtdra taken iy

1700.

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DISTRICTS.

Chapter VII.
History.

MaSALMANS.

Moghals,
1686-1720.

Tdrdbdi's

Regency,

1700-1708.

nioved from the hills. After much loss both of baggage and of
life, the army reached Khavaspur on the banks of the Mdn in
Sholapur, where the rains are comparatively light.^

A raid of Rdj arum's against Jdlna about fifty miles east of
Aurangabad was met so vigorously by Zulfikd,r Kh^n, the only Moghal
general of whom the Mardth^s then stood in fear, that R^jdr^m
was forced to fly. So hot was the pursuit that though he managed
to escape he died of exhaustion at Sinhgad in Poona in the middle
of March 1700, a month before the fall of Sit&ra.^ The news of
Rajar^m's death was received in the emperor's camp at SSt^ra with
great rejoicing. TAv6h&i, R^jdram's elder widow, who, with the
aid of Rdmchamdrapant Amdtya had immediately assumed the
government for her son Shivdji a boy of ten, raised Parashurdm
Trimbak to the rank of Pratinidhi, and placed him in general charge
of all the forts. Tdrdbdi had no fixed residence.^ The Mankaris
began to profess obedience to the descendant of ShivSji and
sometimes joined his standard, but they always plundered on their
own account when opportunity offered.*

Aurangzeb, whose reign was prolonged beyond all expectation,
persevered to the last in his fruitless endeavours to stifle MarStha
independence. In 1701 besides several other forts in Poona and
Kolhapur, Chandan Vandan and Pdndugad surrendered to his
officers.^ But these apparently vigorous efforts were unsubstantial ;
there was motion and bustle without zeal or efficiency. The empire
was unwieldy, its system relaxed, and its ofiicers corrupt beyond all
example. It was inwardly decayed, and ready to fall to pieces as much
by its inherent weakness as by the corroding power of the Marath^s
whom the Muhammadan wars had trained to arms. Though the
weakness of the government tempted them to plunder, the Marathds
had not yet the feehng of conquerors. There was a common sym-
pathy but no common effort ; their military spirit was excited by
plunder, not by patriotism. Many enjoyed greater advantages under
the weak Moghals than they were likely to enjoy under a strong
Maratha government, andthese were eager that war should not cease.
Many Moghal officers in charge of districts were in the pay of
both parties, and they also had no wish that the confusion should
end. Parties of Mar^thas in the service of the Moghals met, rioted,
and feasted with their countrymen, and at parting or when passing
within hearing of each other used to mock the Muhammadans by
uttering an alhamdalildh Praise be to Allah, and praying for long
life to the glorious Alamgir whose mode of warfare made their life
so easy.

Some of the Moghal officers were anxious to negotiate a peace and
Kdm Bakhsha the favourite son of the emperor, whose early plans
were directed to the establishment of an independent kingdom at
Bij^pur, contrived to obtain the emperor's consent tq open a

1 Grant Buff's MarAtMs, 174-175. See Khdfi Khan's Mnntathabu-l-LubAbia Elliots
and Dowson, VII. 369-368. " Grant Duff's MarAth^, 175.

' Grant Duff's MarAthds, 175. ■» Grant Duff's Mardth^s, 176.

* Grant Duff's MarAth^s, 177 ; Elliot and Dowson, V. 370.

Deccau.]

Si.Ti.IlA.

253

negotiation with Dhandji Jadhav. Overtures were begun by-
proposals for releasing Shdhu the son of Sambhdji. The negotiations
proceeded and for a few days Aurangzeb had been brought to agree to
pay ten per cent of the whole revenue of the six subhds of the Deccan
as sardeshmukhi for which the Mardthds were to engage to maintain
order with a body of horse. On the news of this concession the
Marathas, who, notwithstanding their predatory character were at
all times exceedingly eager to have any right formally recognized,
flocked to Dhandji's camp. With their increasing numbers their
expectations and their insolence rose. Their tone changed from
prayer to demand, they crowded near the camp, and when they
required honorary dresses for seventy officers, Aurangzeb suspected
treachery, broke off the negotiation, and recalled his ambassador.
Soon after he left the Mardtha camp the Moghal ambassador was
attacked, and as this confirmed the emperor's suspicion of treachery
he withdrew to the east.^

In 1705 Tarabdi went to live at Panhdla in Kolhdpur and
admitted Edmchandrapant to a very large share of power. In the
following year Vasantgad and S^tara were taken by the Pratinidhi
ParshurJm Trimbak. S^t&a was surprised by the artifice of a
Brahman named Annajipant. Thisman'had escaped from prison at
Ginji and assumed the character of a mendicant devotee. He fell
in with a party of Moghal infantry marching to relieve the Satara
garrison, amused them with stories and songs, obtained alms from
them, and so ingratiated himself with all that they ' brought him
with them, admitted him into the fort and in reward for his wit
allowed him to live there. Annajipant, who had been a writer
attached to a body of Mavali infantry, saw that with the aid of a few
of his old friends the place might be surprised. He watched his
chance, told Parashurdm Trimbak of his design, and having intro-
duced a body of Mavalis into the fort the enterprising and remorseless
Brdhman put every man of the garrison to the sword.^

Aurangzeb diedinl707. BytheadviceofZulfikdrKh^nAurangzeb's
second son, prince A'zam Shdh, determined to release Sh£hu
and promised that if he succeeded in establishing his authority and
continued steadfast in his allegiance he should receive the tract con-
quered from Bijd,pur by his grandfather Shivaji.3 On Shdhu's approach
Tdrdbdi, unwilling to lose the power she had so long held, pretended
to believe him an impostor and determined to oppose him, and
chose Shankrdji N^rayan to defend the western hill country. But
DhandjiJMhavwasdetachedfromher cause and the Pratinidhi finding
he was not supported fled to Sdtdra. Shdhu, joined by Dhandji
Jadhav, advanced and took Chandan Vandan. He seized the
families of all who were acting against him and sent an order to
ParashurAm Trimbak to surrender Sdt^ra. Parashur^m did not
obey, but Shaikh Mirdh a Muhammadan officer who commanded

Chapter VII

History.

MusalmAns.

Moghals,

1686- 1720.

Shdhu Released"'
1707.

1 Graat Duff's MarAth^. 179. = Grant Duff's Marathia, ISO.

8 Grant Duff's Mar^thds, 185.

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DISTRICTS.

Chapter VII.
History.

MUSALMANS.

1686 - 1720.

imder him confined him and gave up the fort.^ On gaining
possession of Sd.tdra Sh^hu formally seated himself on the throne
in March 1708. Gadddhar Pralhdd was appointed Pratinidhi and
Bahiropant Pingle was made Peshwa. Dhandji Jddhav was confirmed
in his rank of Senapati or chief captain and the right of making
collections in several districts was entrusted to him. In the prevailing
confusion the revenue was realized on no fixed principle, hut was
levied as opportunity presented itself in the manner of contribution.
The principal writers employed by Dhandji in revenue affairs were
A'b^ji Purandhare accountant of Sdsvad in Poona, and another
Brdhman accountant of Shrivardhan in Janjira, a village claimed
by the Sidi, from which, in consequence of some intrigue connected
with the Sidi's enemy, A'ngria, he had fled to Sasvad and had been
recommended to Dhandji by Ab^ji Purandhare and Parashur^m
Trimbak. The name of the Shrivardhan accountant, afterwards
famous as the founder of the Peshwa's power, was BAldji Vishvanath
Bhatt. During the rains of 1708, Shdhu's army was cantoned at
Chandan Vandan and he neglected no preparations to enable him to
reduce his rival. Among other expedients he made an unsuccessful
application to Sir Nicholas Waite the Governor of Bombay for a
supply of guns, ammunitioUj European soldiers, and money .^

At the opening of the fair season after holding the Dasara holiday,
preparations were made to renew the war against T^rdbai (1709).
PanhdlaandVishdlgad, two of Tdrdbdi's forts, were taken, and Shahu,
on the approach of the next rains, retired to Kolhd,pur where he
cantoned his troops. In October 1709, on the opening of the fair
season, Sh^hu intended to renew the war, but about that time
an agreement with the Moghals waived the question of hereditary
claim and made the reduction of T^rdbdi less important to Sh^hu.*
Ddud Khan Panni, whom Zulfikdr Khan left as his deputy iu the
Deccan, settled with such Mardtha chiefs as acknowledged Sh^hu's
authority, with certain reservations, to allow them one-fourth of the
revenue, at the same time reserving the right of collecting and
paying it through his own agents. Dd.ud Khan's intimacy with
most of the Mardtha chiefs, his connection with Zulfikd,r KhSn, and
the terms of friendship between Zulfikar and ShdJiu, not only
preserved ShAhu's ascendancy, but, except in instances where inde-
pendent plundering bands occasionally appeared, secured a fairly
correct observance of the terms of the agreement. At the close of 1 709
Shdhu returned to Sd,tdra and married two wives, one from the
Mohite and the other from the Shirke family. His other two wives
who were married to him while in Aurangzeb's camp were with
his mother at Delhi, where one of them the daughter of Sindia shortly
afterwards died. Dhanaji Jadhav, after a long illness, died on his
way from Kolhdpur on the banks of the Vdrna. His writer Bdlsiji
VishvanAth had accompanied him on that service, and during his last
sickness had the management of all his affairs. This brought on
Bdlaji the keen jealousy of Dhandji's son Chandrasen Jddhav, and

^ Grant Dufe's Marathds, 185 - 186.
2 Bruce's Annals in Grant Dnfi's Mar&th^, 187. ' Grant Duff's MardthAs, 187.

Deccan]

sItIra.

255

of several Brdhmans in his service. In 1710, the army had scarcely-
returned to Sd,td,raj when T^rdbdi, encouraged by the commandant
of Panhd,la, marched from MAlvan in Ratnd,giri reinforced by the
troops of Phond SAvant, and made Panhdla and the neighbouring
town of Kolhdpur her residence. Shankrd,ji Ndrd,yan the Pant JSachiv
maintained TdrdbAi's cause and Shdhu determined to reduce him
instead of renewing his attack on Panhd,la. About this time Shd,hu
thought of moving his capital to Ahmadnagar, but as this gave
oifence to Zulfikdr Khdn, Shdhu at his desire gave up the idea. In
1711 an army marching towards Poona succeeded in gaining Edjgad,
but as most of the Sachiv's forts were stored with provisions and
garrisoned Shdhu was relieved from the risk of a defeat in reducing
them by the Pant Sachiv's death, who drowned himself, it was
said, from grief that the oath he had taken to Tardbdi forced him
to fight against his lawful prince.^

In January 1712 Shivdji the son of TdrdbAi who was an idiot
died of small-pox. Rdmchandrapant seized the opportunity to
remove T^rab^i from the administration and to place Sambhdji
the son of R^jasbdi the younger wife of Rdjardm in her stead j
and exerted himself with renewed vigour. Still so long as DAud
Khan's government continued Shdhu was secured in the ascendancy.
He was surrounded by most of the experienced ministers and
was entirely free from the cruelty and love of excess which his
enemies gave out he inherited from his father Sambhaji. The
loss of Shankrdji Ndr^yan the Pant Sachiv was a severe blow to the
opposite party, and Shdhu, with the tact and temper for which he
was deservedly applauded, despatched clothes of investiture to
Bhankrdji's son Ndro Shankar then a babe of two years. At the
same time he confirmed in his situation Shankr^ji^s mutdlik or chief
agent. This measure secured to Shdhu the support of the Pant
Sachiv's party, who never afterwards departed from their allegiance.
Sh^hu was not equally successful in binding to his interest all the
members of the Pratinidhi's family. In 1713 Shahu released
Parashur^m Trimbak, restored his honours by the removal of Gad^-
dhar Pralhd,d, and confirmed him in his formal charge of Vishdlgad
and its dependencies. The Pratinidhi sent his eldest son_ Krishnaji
BhiCskar to assume the management of the fort and district, but he
had no sooner obtained -possession than he revolted, tendered his
services to Sambhdji and was made Pratinidhi at Kolh^pur. On
this defection Parashur^m Trimbak was again thrown into
confinement, and Shdhu, under the belief that the revolt had been
encouraged by him, intended to have put him to death but was
dissuaded from his design. ^ In consequence of changes at the
Imperial court, Daud Khan was removed from the government of the
Deccan and the agreement between the Moghals and the Mardthds

Chapter VII
History.

MusalmAns.

Moghals,
1686-1720.

1 Grant DuEFs Mar^tMs, 188. He performed the ja? samddh or water-death a

fnrm of death to which Hindu devotees were partial. The victim seated himself on a
wnnden nlatform supported in deep water by earthen pots with their mouths turned
down. Small holes were bored in the earthen pots and the platform sank.

a Grant Duffs MarAthAs", 189.

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DISl'RICTS.

Chapter VII.
History.

MUSALMANS,

Moghals,
:68t>-1720.

was dissolved. Chandrasen Jd,dhav, who on the death of his father
Dhandji JMhavhad been appointedchief captain, was sent from SAtara
witha considerable army and directed to leyj the chauth, sardeshmuMi,
and ghdsddna from the Moghal districts. He was attended by his
father's writer BdMji Vishvand,th who was now charged with
collecting and appropriating a share of the revenue for Sh^hu, a
situation of control which^ under no circumstances, was likely to be
favourably viewed by Chandrasen. The old jealousy was increased
tenfold, and in a dispute about a deer run down by one of BaMji's
horsemen, the suppressed hatred burst forth. BAMji was forced to
flee for his life. He fled first to Sdsvad in Poona but the Sachiv's
agent at S^svad did not think it prudent to protect him. With a
few followers, amongst whom were his sons Bajirav and Ohimndji,
Baldji attempted to cross to P^ndugad a fort in the opposite
valley, butChandrasen's horsemen were already on his track searching
for him everywhere. In this extremity he contrived to hide for a
few days until two Mar^thds, PiMji Jadhav and Dhumal, then
common cavaliers in his service, by their influence with their
relations, gathered a small troop of horse, and promised at the risk of
their lives to carry him and his sons to the mdchi or village attached
to the hill fort of P^ndugad. BaUji was so little of a horseman
that he required a man on each side to hold him on. In
spite of this disadvantage the horsemen fought their way to the
fort and Balaji was protected by Shdhu's orders. Chandrasen
demanded that Bdldji should be given up, and in case of refusal
threatened to renounce his allegiance. Shdhuj though not prepared
to punish this insolent demand, refused to give up BAMji and sent
orders to Haibatrd,v NimbAlkar, Sar Lashkar, then near Ahmadnagar
at once to march on Sd,td,ra. Meanwhile BaMji Vishvandth was in
Pdndugad surrounded by the Sen^pati's troops. Haibatrdv, who
was annoyed that he had not been made Sendpati and was
incensed at Chandrasen's behaviour, eagerly obeyed the order to
march against him. Hearing of Haibatrd,v's arrival at Phaltan
Chandrasen quitted Pdndugad and marched to Devur about fifteen
miles to the south-east. The armies met, Chandrasen was
defeated, retired to Kolhd,pur, and from KolMpur went to meet
Chin Kilich Khdn Nizam-ul-Mulk the Moghal viceroy of the Deccan,
by whom he was well received and rewarded.^ Chandrasen for
revenge and Niz^m-ul-Mulk who was disposed to favour the cause of
Sambhiji and desirous of suppressing the ravages of Shdhu's officers
sent an army against Haibatrd,v. To support him Shdhu
sent forward a body of troops under Bdlaji Vishvanath whom he
now dignified with the title of sena hurt or army agent. A battle
was fought near Purandhar in Poona, in which the advantage
claimed by the Mardth^s is contradicted by their subsequent retreat
to the Sdlpa pass twenty miles south of Purandhar. A detachment of
Mardthds from the Moghal army took possession of the Poona
district. At length an accommodation was made, hostilities ceased,
and the Moghals returned to Aurangabad. When the war was over

' Grant Duff's MardthAs, 189 - 191,

Deccan.]

Si.Ti.RA.

257

the emperor Feroksher appointed Shdhu to the command of 10,000
horse. But for seventeen months the pohcy and vigour of ]Srizd,m-
ul-Mulk greatly controlled the Mard,thd,s.i During the rains of
1714 the Mardthds resumed their depredations, ill the deshmukhs
and deshpdndes in the Moghal districts of Maharashtra fortified
their villages on pretence of defending themselves, but they
frequently joined or aided their countrymen of whatever party in
escape, defence, and concealment.^

As ISTizdm-ul-Mulk favoured the KolhSpur party SambMji's
influence rose and Shdhu's fell. The Ghorpades, both of Kdpshi
and Mudholj joined the Kolhdpur party. Sidoji Ghorpade, the son
of Bahirji and nephew of the famous Santdji also declared for
Sambh^ji, but, along with his ally the Nawdb of Sd,vanur was too
intent on his schemes of conquest and plunder to quit the Karndtak.^
Krishnarav Khatavkar, a Brahman, raised to power by the Moghals,
took post about the Mahddev hills within Satara limits, and without
joining either Sdtd.ra or Kolhapur plundered the country on his own
account. Damd,]! Thor^t, a lawless ruffian of the Kolhd,pur party
who acknowledged no chief but his old patron Rd,mchandrapant, levied
contributions in Poona. Uddji ChavMn, another of Rdmchandra's
officers took the mud fort of Battis Shirdla about twenty miles
south of Karhdd, and in a short time became so formidable that
Shdhu was glad to enter into a compromise by conceding the chauth
of Shirdla and Karhdd, which Uddji long continued to receive as a
personal allowance. Several other petty wasters declared for Sambhdji.
Among these the most formidable was Kdnhoji Angria who
then held the coast from Sdvantvddi to Bombay, and was spreading
his power over the province of Kalydn in Thdna. So great was the
anarchy that, without a sudden change of fortune and greater
efficiency in Shdhu's government, his authority over the Mardthds
must soon have ceased. BSMji Vishvan^th instilled some vigour
into his councils and began to lead in public affairs^ He set out to
reduceDamdji Thor^t; but, together with his friend AbdjiPurandhare,
and his two sons B^jir^v and Chimnaji, he was treacherously
seized by Thordt and thrown into confinement. After many
indignities their ransom was settled and paid by Shdhu who now
applied to the Sachiv to suppress Thordt. The Sachiv and his
manager advanced against Thor^t, but they too were defeated and
thrown into confinement. At the same time two other expedi-
tions were prepared at Sd,tdra, one nnder the Peshwa Bahiropant
Pingle which went to guard the Konkan and repel Angria and
the other commanded by Bdl^ji Vishvandth was ordered to suppress
Krishnarav Khatavkar. Krishnarav had become so bold that he
marched to Aundh about ten miles south of Khat^v, to meet Shdhu's
troops. He was totally defeated principally through the bravery of

Chapter^ VII
History.

MnSALMAN"S.

Moghals,
1686-1720.

1 Grant Duffs Mar^tWa, 195.
i" Grant Duff's MarAthAs, 191. Khander^v Dabhdde who acknowledged Shdhu as
his chief and had established himself about Ndndod in Rdjpipla committed several
robberies at this time in Gujarat.

' About this time Sidoji gained a great acquisition in the fort of Sondur a place
of singular strength within twenty-five miles of BeMri. Grant Duff's MarathSs, 192.

B 1287—33

[Bombay Gazetteer,

258

DISTRICTS.

Chapter VII.

History.

MtisalmAns.
Moghals,
1686-1720.

Bdldji Vishvandth

appointed Peshwa,

17U.

Shripatrav, the second son of Parashuram Trimbak the Pratinidhi,
whose father had urged him to perform some action which
might wipe away the misconduct of his elder brother and procure
his father's release. Shdhu accordingly once more restored the
Pratinidhi to liberty and rank. Krishnarav submitted, was pardoned,
and received the village of KhatAv. This success was of considerable
importance, but a like good fortune did not attend the Peshwa's
expedition. Bahiropant was defeated and made prisoner by Angria
who took Lohogad and Rdjmdchi in West Poona, and was reported
to be marching on S^tSra. All the force that could be spared was
gathered to oppose him. It was placed under Baldji Vishvandth
whose former connection with Angria would, it was hoped^ lead to
some settlement. Balaji's negotiations were successful, and Angria,
on condition of large cessions^ in the Konkan, gave up his Deccan
conquests except RajmAchi, renounced Sambhaji, released the
Peshwa^ and agreed to maintain the cause of Shdhu. As
Baldji performed this service entirely to Shahu's wishes, on his
return to Sdtdra he was received with great distinction, and in
consequence of the failure of Bahiropant Pingle, that minister was
removed from the dignity of Mukhya Prddhdn and Bdldji appointed
Peshwa in his stead (1714). His friend Abdji Purandhare was
confirmed as his chief agent or mutdlik and Rdmdjipant Bhanu an
ancestor of the celebrated Ndna Fadnavis as his fadnavis?
After the desertion of Chandrasen Jddhav, Mdndji More had
received clothes of investiture as chief captain or Senapdti, but
failed to perform the services which were expected of him.
He was now ordered, with Haibatrav Nimbdlkar, to accompany
Bdldji into the Poona district to reduce Damdji Thordt. As
it was feared that the Sachiv, who was still Thordt's prisoner at
Hingangaon in Poona, might be killed if the place were -attacked,
Yesubdi the Pant Sachiv's mother prevailed on Bdldji to endeavour
to obtain his release before hostilities began. In this Baldji
succeeded, and Yesubdi in gratitude made over to the Peshwa the
Sachiv's rights in the Poona district and gave him the fort of
Purandhar as a place of refuge for his family who then lived in
Sdsvad. Bdldji obtained a confirmation of the grant of Purandhar
from Sh^hu who thus unconsciously forged the first link in the
chain which fettered his own power and reduced his successors to
pageants and prisoners. The force assembled was too powerful
for Thordt. His fort was stormed and destroyed and himself made
prisoner.^

In 1715 Haibatrav quarrelled with Shdhu for not appointing
him Sendpati, retired to the Godavari, and was never reconciled.
The Peshwa induced the Moghal agent in the Poona district, a
Mardtha named Bdji Kadam, to make over the superior authority

' Grant Duff's MarAtMa, 193. Angria received ten forts and sixteen fortified places
of less strength with their dependent villages and was confirmed in command of the
fleet and in his title of sarhhel.

" Grant Duff's Marithas, 192-193. » grant Duffs MarAthAs, 193 - 194.

Deccan.]

sAtAea.

259

to him, on the promise that Rambhdji NimMlkar's jdgir should be
respected.^

In all quarters Mar^tha affairs began to improve. Still after a
period of such confusion, weakness, and anarchy, the rapid expansion
of their power is in any view very remarkable and at first-sight seems
incredible. _ The influence of Bdlaji Vishvanath continued to increase
and no affair of importance was undertaken without his advice. A
conciliatory policy was agreeable to Shdhu and dictated all Bdldji's
measures. The system of Shivaji was the groundwork of their
arrangements; but since the time of Sambhaji (1680-1689), the
necessity of preserving the Edja's supremacy by profusely issuing
deeds confirming to every successful Maratha leader the possession
of all the territory in which he could establish himself, was ruinous
both to their union and their resources as a nation. Still the nature
of the tribute which Shivaji's genius had instituted suggested a
remedy for the endless divisions which every additional acquisi-
tion of territory was likely to create. The expedient adopted,
which is given below, although it insured its end only for a time, is
the most ingenious as well as the deepest scheme of Brahman policy
which is to be found unconnected with their religious system.

The ministry as far as practicable was composed of the old

retainers, and the posts of those who adhered to the Kolh^pur

party were conferred on their relations. The details of the ministry

in 1715 were :

Shdhu's Ministers, 171S.

Title.

Name.

Title.

Name.

Pratinidhi

Th3 Eight Ministers.
Peshwa or Mukhya

Pradhiin

AmSil^a

■Sachiv

Parashurdm Trimbak

BSiaji Vishvandth.
Ambar&v BSpu Han-

vante.
NSfo Shankar.

Mantri

SenS,pati

Sumant ... ...

Nyayadhish
Panditrav

Naro Rdm Slienvi .
M&nsing Mor6.
AnandrAv.
HonAji Anant.
MuOgal Bhatt UpSr
dhya.

About this time both Parsoji Bhonsla and Haibatr^v Nimbalkar
died. Parsoji's son Kanhoji was confirmed by Shahu in all his
father's possessions and succeeded to his title of Sena Sdheb Subha,
but the rank of Sar Lashkar was conferred on DhAvalshi Somavshi
together with the right and honours of the post. Haibatrdv's son,
annoyed at being set aside, quitted Shdhu's standard and joined
Nizdm-ul-Mulk. Shdhu was not without ability. He was naturally
generous, liberal to all religious establishments, observant of the
forms enjoined by the Hindu faith, and particularly charitable to
Brdhmans. The hilly west Deccan and^e rugged Konkan were
his birthright, but as his childhood was pleasantly spent in the pomp
and luxury of the Moghal camp his habits were those of a Musalman.
He occasionally showed the violence of the Maratha character, and
for the time anger overcame his indolence. In general he was
satisfied with the respect and homage paid to his person and the

1 Grant Duffs Mar4thd,s, 194. The Peshwa suppressed some banditti which
infested the Poona district, restored order in the villages, stopped revenue-farmings
and encouraged tillage by low and gradually increasing assessments. Ditto.

Chapter VII
History.

MUSALMANS.

Moghals,
1686-1720.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

260

DISTEICTS.

Chapter VII.

History-

MusalmInS.
Moghals,
1686-1720.

obedience which his ministers invariably J)rof essed to his commands.
He was pleased at being free from the drudgery of business and
in giving himself up to his fondness for hawking, hunting, and
fishing, ne did not foresee that he was delegating a power which
might supersede his own. As legitimate head of the Mar^th^s,
the importance of that nation was increased by the manner in
which he was -courted by the Moghals ; and the dignities and
rights conferred upon him in consequence of his sitifation gave
an influence and respect to the name of Shdhu, which under
other circumstances he could never have attained. Both the sons
of Shivdji, Sambhdji and Rajaram, followed the example of their
father from the period when he mounted the throne and always
declared their independence. Shdhu acknowledged himself a vassal
of the throne of Delhij and while styling himself king of the
Hindus, affected, in his transactions with the Moghals, to consider
himself merely as a zaminddr or head deshmukh of the empire.^

In 1715 Feroksher, the emperor of Delhi^ becoming jealous
of the Syed brothers to whom he owed his elevation, appointed
the younger Syed Hasain Ali Khdn to the viceroyalty of the
Deccan, in the hopes that by separating the brothers he should
weaken their power and compass their destruction. In 1716,
Khanderav Ddbh^de, whoi had established a line of posts along
the Surat-Burh^npur route and defeated two large Moghal
armies, went to S^tara, paid his respects to Sh^hu, and was
raised to the rank of Senlpati of the empire, Manaji More being
removed for inability and misconduct. The Mardtha officers
encouraged by their success and by the secret overtures of Feroksher
now extended their encroachments, and in addition to the chauth
which they had agreed to receive from Daud Khan in lieu of all claims,
they everywhere levied the sardeshmukhi. Under these circum-
stances the Deccan government of Syed Husain Ali Khiii, distracted
by Maratha depredations on one side and court intrigues on the other,
had recourse to negotiations with Shahu. Shankriji Malhdr
originally a writer under Shivaji and appointed Sachiv by Rdjdram
at Ginji, had retired duritig the siege of that place to Benares.
Tired of a life so little in accord with his former habits,
although a very old man, Shankrdji took service with Husain Ali
Khdn when he was appointed to the Deccan. He soon gained the
confidence of his master, and at an early period entered into a
correspondence with his friends at Sdt^ra. He represented to the
viceroy that if the Mardtha claims were recognized, they would
have an interest in the prosperity of the country ; that this was the
only way to restore tranquillity, and a certain means of gaining
powerful allies by whose aid he might rest secure from present
intrigues, and eventually defy the avowed hostility of the emperor.
Husaia Ali approving of these views sent Shankrdji MalhAr to
Sd,t^ra to arrange an alliance between the Moghals and the
Marathds. This mission opened a great prospect to the aspiring
mind of Balaji Vishvandth. Besides the chauth and sardeshmukhi

1 Grant DufPs Mar^thSs, 194-195.

Deccan.]

SATARA.

261

o£ the six suhhds o£ the Deccan including the Bij^pur and
Haidarabad Karnataks, with the tributary states of Maisur
Trichinopoli and Tanjor, Shdhu demanded the whole of the
territory in Maharashtra which had belonged to Shivdji with the
exception of his possessions in Khdndesh, and in lieu of Kh^ndesh
territory near the old districts as far east as Pandharpur was to be
substituted. The forts of Shivner in Poona and of Trimbak in
Ndsik were also to be given up. The old districts in the Karnatak
were also demanded, and a confirmation of some conquests lately
made by Kdnhqji Bhonsla the Sena Sdheb Subha in Gondavan and
Berar. Lastly the mother and family of Shdhu were to be sent
from Delhi as soon as practicable. On these conditions Shihu
promised to pay to the imperial treasury, for the old territory a
jesLTlj peshkash or tribute of £100,000 (Rs. 10 Idkhs); for the
sardeshmukhi or ten per cent of the whole revenue he bound himself
to protect the country, to put down every form of disorder, to
bring thieves to punishment or restore the stolen property, and to
pay the usual fee of 651 per cent on the annual income for the
hereditary right of sardeshmukhi ; for the grant of chauth no fee was
to be paid, but he agreed, to maintain a body of 16,000 horse in the
emperor's service, to be placed at the disposal of the subheddrs
fauzddrs and oflBcers in different districts. The Karnatak and the
subhds of Bij^pur and Haidarabad which were then overrun by the
partizans of Sambhaji Raja of Kolhapur, Shdhu promised to clear
of plunderers, and to make good every loss sustained by the people
of those provinces after the final settlement of the treaty.
Shankrdji Malhdr had already sufiiciently proved his desire to
forward the interests of his countrymen, and Shdhu appointed him
(17 17) to conclude the terms, which, according to the above proposals,
were with some exception conceded by Husain Ali Khfin.

The territory and forts not under the viceroy's control were to be
recovered at some season of leisure or in any manner which Shahu
might think fit. Meanwhile a body of 10,000 horse were sent to
join the viceroy. SantAji and Parsoji Bhonsla relations of the Sena
Sdheb Subha, Udaji Povdr Vishvd,sr^v and several other commanders
were detached in charge of the Maratha troops for this duty. At the
same time agents were sent to inquire into the state of the districts
and collect the extensive shares of revenue now assigned to them,
while the Brdhman ministers were devising a system for realizing
their intricate claims which it was by no means their object or
interest to simplify.

The emperor refused (1718) to ratify the treaty. An unworthy
favourite encouraged him in his intrigues for the destruction of the
Syeds, he became less guarded in his measures, and as an open
rupture seemed inevitable, Husain Ali Khan prepared to march
for the capital and solicited aid from Shdhu. He also pretended to
receive from Shahu a son of Sultan Muhammad Akbar then residing
at the Mardtha court. Such an opportunity was not neglected.
BdMji Vishvandth and Khanderav Dabhade proceeded to join the
viceroy with a large body of troops, for which he agreed to pay
them a certain sum daily from the date of their crossing the
Narbada until their return. Husain Ali Khdn further promised

Chapter VII
History.

MuSALMASa.

Moghals,
1686-1720.

[Bombay Gazetteeti

262

DISTEIOTS.

Chapter VII.

History-

Mtjsalmans.
Moghals,
1686-1720,

Grant of

Chauth and

BardeshmuNU,

that the treaty should be ratified and the family of Shd,hu released
and delivered to his officers. On his departure Shdhu instructed
Bdldji Vishvandth to endeavour to obtain the cession of the forts of
Daulatabad and Chdnda^ and authority to levy the tribute, which
had for some time been imposed by the Mar^thds in Gujarat and
Mdlwa. The plea on which these extraordinary pretensions to
tribute were made was that the chief who had already levied
contributions in those provinces would break in and plunder^ unless
Shdhu could receive such an authority as must oblige them
to look to him only for what they termed their established
contributions, and that under these circumstances Shahu would be
responsible for the protection and improvement of their territories.
The combined army marched to Delhi where the wretched emperor
Ferokhsher after some tumult was confined by the Syeds and
put to death. Two princes of the line succeeded and died within
seven months. Roshan Ikhtiar the grandson of Sultd,n Muazzam
was then raised (1719) to the imperial dignity with the title
of Muhammad Shdh, but the two Syeds held all the power.
Bdldji Vishvandth and his MardthSs remained at Delhi until the
accession of Muhammad Shah (1720). During the tumult which
preceded the confinement of Ferokhsher, Santdji Bhonsle and 1500
of his men were killed by the populace in the streets of Delhi. The
army was paid by the Syeds, according to agreement, and Shdhu's
mother and family were given over to Balaji Vishvandth. As both
the Peshwa and the Sendpati were anxious to return to the Deccan
they were allowed to leave, and in accordance with the treaty with
Hussain Ali Khan, they received three Imperial grants for the
chauth, sardeshmukhi, and svardjya? The chauth or one-fourth of
the whole revenue of the six suhhds of the Deccan including the
Haidarabad and Bijapur Karnd,taks and the tributary states of
Tanjor, Trichinopoli, and Maisur ;^ the sardeshmuhhi or ten per cent
over and above the chauth ;* and the svardjya literally Own Eule

' Ch^da is in the Central Provinces about a hundred miles south of N^gpur.

* Grant Duffs MarAthis, 199. When Grant Duff wrote (1826) the original grants
•were in the possession of the RAja of SAtdra. They were in the name of Muhammad
ShAh, dated in the first year of hia reign A. H. 1131 (A. D. 1719). The emperor
Muhammad Sh^ was not placed on the throne till 1720. During the mouths that
Intervened between the dethronement of Ferokhsher and his elevation, two princes
had filled the throne whose names were expunged from the records.

* The deed for the chauth dated 22nd Kabi-ul-Akhir a.h. 1131 granted to ShAhu
the fourth of the revenue of the six suhhds of the Deccan simply on condition that
he should maintain 15,000 horse to aid the military governors in keeping order.
Grant Duffs Mar^this, 199 note.

*The sardeshmuhhi graiit is dated 4th JamAdi-ul-Aval or twelve days after that
of the chauth. It does not specify in the body of the deed that it is granted as an
hereditary right ; but the customary fee on such occasions is stated on the back of
the instrument as follows :

Subhds.

Kevenue.

SiibMs.

Eevenne.

Aurangabad

Berar

Bedar

BijS,pur

Bs. a. p.

1,23,76,042 11 3

1,16,23,508 14 3

74,91,879 12 3

7,85,08,560 14 1

Haidarabad

Khindesh

Total ...

Rs. a. p.

6,48,67,483 0 0
67,49,819 0 3

18,06,17,294 4 1

The sardeshmukhi was estimated at Ks, 1,80,51,730. Peshkaeh or established fee on

Deccan.]

SAtArA. 263

that is the districts held by Shivaji at the time of his death, which Chapter VII

were granted to Shahu, excepting the detached possessions in „.—

Kh^desh, the fort of Trimbak with the adjoining district, and the history.

conquests south of the Vardha and the Tungbhadra rivers, which MarIthas,

were not ceded. In lieu of such of these claims as lay to the 1720-1848.

north of the Bhima, districts beyond the line of forts from Tathvad

to Machhindragad in Sdtara, as far east as Pandharpur, were wholly

ceded to Shahu, and also those districts which Aurangzeb had

promised to him at the time of his marriage in that emperor's camp.

The country watered by the Yerla, Man, and Nira, celebrated for

good horses and hardy men, the home of some of the oldest families

m Maharashtra, who had not hitherto formally acknowledged the

descendants of Shivaji, including the whole of the present district of

Sdtara, was by this cession placed under Shahu's authority .^ The

Marathds pretended that the conquests of Ber^r by Parsoji and

Kanhoji Bhonsle, and their right to tribute in Gujarat and Malwa

were confirmed at the same time ; but though some very indefinite

verbal promise may have been given and Balaji Vishvanath left

an agent for the purpose as is alleged of receiving the sanads,

subsequent events prove the falsity of the assertion.

When Balaji Vishvanath started for Delhi, he left his divdn
Abaji Purandhare as his mutdlik or deputy in charge of his seal of
office, and the duties of Peshwa continued to be carried on at the
Mardtha court in BdMji's name. On Balaji's return to Stitdra with
the Imperial deed the scheme for collecting and distributing the
revenues which all admit to have been projected by Bdlaji was
examined, and the system which had already been partially
introduced was now openly accepted. The sardeshmukhi or ten
per cent on the revenues of the subhds of the Deccan was first set
aside an'd termed by the ministers the Raja's vatan, a gratifying
sound to the ears of a Mard,tha whether prince or peasant. The
imposition of the sardeshmuhhi reduced to a proportionate degree
the actual collections from a country the resources of which were
already drained to the utmost, but the nominal revenue continued
the same. To have collected even one-fourth of the standard
assessment would probably at ihis period have been impossible but the
Marathas in all situations endeavoured to secure, in lieu of their
chauth, at least twenty-five per cent of the real balances. Although
they seldom could collect it, they always stated the chauth as due
upon the tankha or standard assessment, because, even should a day

hereditary rights conferred, 651 per cent, amounted to Es. 11,75,16,762 ; the
immediate payment on delivering the deed to one-fourth or Ra. 2,93,79,190-8-0 ;
the remainder payable by instalments to Rs. 8,81,37,571-8-0. The fee so calculated
was commuted to Ra. 1,17,19,390 in consequence of the depopulated state of the
country. Grant Duffs MardthAs 199-200 (footnote).

1 The following is a list of the sixteen districts included in the grant of svardjya :
Poona, Supa including Birdmati, IndApur, WAi, the MAvals, Sdtdra, KarhAd, Kbat&v,
M4n, Phaltan, Malkdpur, TArla, PanhAla, A'jra, Junnar, and Kolhdpur ; the pargands
north of the Tungbhadra including Kop41, Gadag, Haliyd,!, and all the forts which
were captured by Shivdji ; the Konkan including Rimnagar, Gandevi, Jawhdr,
Cheul, Bhiwndi, Kalyin, RAjpuri, DAbhol, JAvli, RAjApur, Phonda, Ankola, and
Kuddl. Grant Duffs Mardthds, 200.

[Bombay Gazetteer;

264

DISTRICTS.

Chapter VII.

History.

MaeIthIs,
1720-1848.

of retribution come the Moghals could make no claim o£ peshkash or
tribute on that head, as none was specified in the deed. In regard
to the sardeshmukhi, it suited both their foreign and domestic
policy to keep that claim undefined ; but their system in practice,
that of exacting as much as they could, was as simple as it was
invariable. Of the seventy-five per cent which remained to the
Moghals, one-third or twenty-five per cent was received according
to established usage by the fauzddr, and the balance was collected
sometimes for the Imperial exchequer, but generally on account of
some jdgirddr, to whom most of the Moghal conquests in the
Deecan were assigned for the support of troops. This general
mode of appropriating the revenue explains.the seizures, resumptions,
and cessions of territory under the name of jdgir during the
later wars in the Deecan between the Nizam and the Peshwa. It
likewise explains the practice which prevailed in many villages,
even up to the British conquests, of bringing fifty per cent of
the net revenue to account under the head of jdgir, for which the
hulkarnis in less than a century could assign no reason except
the custom of their forefathers. The term svardjya or Own
Rule, which in the first instance was applied to that part of the
territory north of the Tungbhadra possessed by Shivdji at his
death, on the return of Bd,ldji Vishvandth was extended to the whole
of the Mardtha claims exclusive of the sardeshmukhi. Of these
claims one-fourth or twenty-five per cent was appropriated to
the head of the state in addition to the sardeshmukhi. This
fourth was known by the name of the Edja's hdbti. The balance
was termed mokdsa. Of the mokdsa two shares were left at the
disposal of the Rdja ; the one was sahotra or six per cent and
the other nddgaunda or three per cent, both calculated on the
whole svardjya. The balance of the mokdsa was sixty-six per cent
of the whole of the Maratha claims exclusive of the sardeshmukhi
The sahotra was bestowed by Shdhu on the Pant Sachiv as an heredi-
tary assignment ; it was collected by the Sachiv's own agents onlv
withm the territory whoUy possessed by the Mardthdsf separate
collectors were sent by the Rdja to realize it in distant districts The
nddgaunda was granted to different persons at the Rdia's pleasure
Independent of salaries from the treasury the Pradhdns had manv
indm villages conferred on them. Bdldji Vishvandth received
several districts nea,r Poona in personal jdgir, including the fort of
Lohogad. The Pratimdhi, the Peshwa, and the Pant Sachiv were
charged with the collection of the hdUi on the Rdja'-s accomt
Thus there were distinct agents for realizing the hdbU ^^Tr-
deshmukhi, for the sahotra of the Pant Sachiv for the 7, <i ,1^1!!^ /ft
the assignee to whom it belonged, and fo'r LmoMsTS^it^
officers for maintaining troops. The mokdsa was distributed among
a great number of chiefs as military Uair burdpn^rl ^.ZTa- 4°
the circumstances with dues to the ^ead ^the s£te hof^^^^^^
and of troops The districts of old MZALTjlltd^'itTZ
from the chavm but they were generally liable to the plyment of
Wes7lmMM^, besides furnishing their quota ofhorsP Snn^^' •
m a grant of mokdsa for a ifrge trL we^ ^SaV^sttiTS

Deccan]

SATARA. 265

deductions and long before districts were conquered, formal grants Chapter VII

and assignments of their revenue were distributed. Numberless Historv.

persona] jdgirs and indms of lands and of whole villages were

alienated by Shdhu ; the former commonly required the perform- mo^iffl'

ance of some service but the latter were entirely freehold. The

Raja's authority was considered necessary to collect the revenues

thus conceded, but the authority for which they were constantly

petitioning was a mockery. The Brdhmans soon proved, at least

to their own satisfaction, that the Rdja's sanad was sufficient for

levying tribute in districts not specified in the imperial deeds. A

district once overrun was said to be under tribute from usage ;

other districts were plundered by virtue of letters patent.

Particular quarters of the country were assigned to the leading
officers, which, as far as they can now be ascertained, were as fol-
lows. The Peshwa and Sendpati, charged with the command of a
great proportion of the Rdja's personal troops, were ordered to
direct their attention to the general protection and defence of the
territory. The Peshwa had authority to levy the government dues
in Khandesh and part of the Biildghat to the north-east of ShoM-
pur ; the Senapati was vested with similar authority in BAglan and
a right to realize the dues established by usage from Gujarat.
Kd/uhoji Bhonsle the Sena Sdheb Subha had charge of Berar Payin-
ghdt and was privileged to conquer and exact tribute from Gondvan
to the east. The Sar Lashkar had Gangthadi including part of
Aurangabad. Fateh Sing Bhonsle was appointed to the Karn^tak ;
while the general charge of the old territory from the Nira to the
Varna, and the collections from Haidarabad and Bedar were left to'
the Pratinidhi and the immediate agents of the Rdja. The Chitnis
had particular charge of several districts in the Konkan. The
Pant Sachiv enjoyed the revenue of the whole sahofra besides his old
possessions in jdgir. The agents for collecting the^Raja's zaviinddri
dues were styled ndib sardeshmukhs. Kanhoji Angria, retaining
his districts in the Konkan, levied his chauth, as he termed it, by
continuing to plunder the ships of all nations that appeared on the
coast. He used to pay a tribute to the Raja in guns, muskets,
military stores, and ammunition. He also presented frequent
nazars in articles from Europe and China ; and he was sometimes
charged with the very extraordinary duty of executing state cri-
minals.

All the principal Mardtha officers as a further means of pre-
serving intercourse and union had particular claims assigned to them
on portions of revenue or on whole villages in the districts of each
other. The greatest Maratha commanders or their principal Brahman
agents were eager to own their native village; but although
vested with the control, they were proud to acknowledge them-
selves of the family of the patil or kulkarni : and if heirs to a
mirxs field, they would-sopner have lost wealth and rank than been
dispossessed of sUch a vatan or inheritance. Yet on obtaining the ab-
solute sovereignty, they never assumed an authority in the interior
village concerns beyond the rights and privileges acquired by birth
or purchase, according to the invariable rules of the country. Such
B 1282—34

266

[Bombay Gazetteer,

DISTRICTS.

Chapter VII.
History.

MABiTHi.S,

1720 - 1848.

Nizdm

Independent,

17S0.

is a brief outline of the system and arrangements settled by the
Maratha ministry on the return of Bdldji Vishvan^th ;
and such was the mode by which a common interest was
created, and for a time preserved, among the Maratha chiefs ;
while the character of Shihu, the influence and power of Bdldji
Vishvanathj the abilities of his sons B&jir^v and Chimnaji, and the
preponderance of Brahman opinion and authority paved the way,
though by gradual steps, for the supremacy and usurpation of the
Peshwas.

In 1720, Nizd.m-ul-Mulk the governor of Malwa^ throwing off
his dependence on the Syeds, determined to possess himself of
the Deccan. He overran Khandesh and defeated the Moghal
troops under Dilawar Ali Khan at Burh^npur slaying their
commander. The troops of Shahu under Ktohoji Bhonsle the Sena
S^heb Subha, and Haibatrdv Nimbalkar speedily joined Shankr^i
Malhar who since the departure of Hussain Ali Khdn had livid
with the deputy viceroy Alam Ali Khan as the envoy of Shihu.
Khanderav DabhMe who had just returned from Delhi was likewise
despatched from Satara with a body of horse. Alam Ali Khdn was
defeated at Baldpur in Berar Payinghat by the troops of Nizam-ul-
Mulk, and fell surrounded by Marathd,s slain in his defence. On this
occasion the Marathds behaved as faithful auxiliaries and fought
with bravery. They lost no person of note except ShankrAji
Malhar who was inortally wounded and made prisoner.^ Soon
after events happened at Delhi by which the power of the Syeds
was destroyed, Muhammad Shah was freed from their control
and Nizam-ul-Mulk confirmed as viceroy of the Deccan.*
Meanwhile several important changes had taken place ab the
Maratha court, chiefly owing to the death of three leading
ministers Parashur^m Trimbak, BdUji Vishvanath, and Khanderav
Dabhade. , Shripatrdv the second son of the Pratinidhi had
succeeded his father Parashur^m Trimbak before the return of Bdldji
VishvanAth from Delhi. The Peshwa's health had suffered
from the fatigue of the journey to Delhi and the labour he had
bestowed on different arrangements after his return. He obtained
leave from Shahu to retire for a short time to Sasvad in Poona
where his family resided, but his constitution was exhausted and he
survived for only a few days. At the time of his death (October
1720) he left two sons Bajirciv and Chimndji. Bajirdv was not
formally invested with the dignity of Peshwa for nearly seven
months, due perhaps to the absence of the principal officers
at the Maratha court, or Bdjirdv may have joined the army
which did not return for some time after the battle of
Bdldpur. The troops of Khanderdv Dabhdde behaved with so
great bravery on that occasion and one of his officers Damfiji G-aikwAr
the ancestor of the G^ikwdrs of Baroda so particularly distinguished
himself that on his return Bdjirav recommended him to Shahu in
the warmest manner. The Raja in consequence appointed him se-
cond in command under Khanderav with the title of Samsher Bah^-

1 Grant Duff's MarAthAs, 206 - 207.

» Grant Duff's MardthSs, 208.

Deooaa.}

sItAea.

267

dur. Neither DamAji nor Khanderav survived their return above
a few months. The son of Khander5,v, Trimbakrfiv Ddbh^de, was
honoured with the dress of Sendpati in May 1721, the same month
in which BdjirAv received his robes as Peshwa. PiUji Gdikwdr
succeeded to his uncle Damdji, and Chimndji the second son of the
late Peshwa, who received Supa in jagir^ was appointed to a similar
command under his brother B^jirdv. Abdjipant Purandhare their
father's chief manager, according to the rule of appointment, was,
reinvested by Shahu with scrupulous ceremony. During the in-^
terval between the death of Bdl^ji Vishvandth and the appointment
of Bdjirdv, Abdjipant Purandhare transacted ordinary ai&irs with,
the seal of the late Peshwa ; but a great part of the business felt
into the hands of Khando BalMl Ohitnis and Shripatrdv Pratinidhi,
Khando Balldl gave his attention principally to the Angria, the
Sidi, and the affairs of the Konkan ; while the Pratinidhi aided by
Anandrdv Sumant Pradhdn conducted important negotiations with
Nizdm-ul-Mulk. Anandrdv's son Mahtdji was employed as
Shdhu's agent with Nizam-ul-Mulkj who while he apprehended
an attack from Hussain Ali Khdn, conciliated Shdhu by pi!omi«ing
to give up all that the royal grants conceded. No sooner was he
apprised of the ascendancy acquired by his party at Delhi and
of the loss the Mardthds had sustained in the death of Bdldji
Vishvanath than he began to start objections to- the- establishment
of Shdhu's collectors, founded on some pretensions set up by
Sambhdji and Chandrasen Jddhav. The wise precautions of
Baldji Vishvanath, and the communion of interest which the distri-
bution of the ceded revenue had produced, placed the Ei,ja of the
Mardthds in a far more commanding situation than that in which
he had stood during the first period of Nizdm-ul-Mulk's govern-
ment of the Deccan. The agent remained at Aurangabad where
his arrangements would probably have been of little avail, but
a vast army of Marathds was assembling in the Gangthadi under
the Sar Lashkar, and their appearance had considerable effect in
hastening the delivery of orders to allow Edja Shdhu to establish
his collectors. A fresh order or farmdn obtained by the Marntha
agent at Delhi from Muhammad Shdh opportunely arrived to
remove from Nizdm-ul-Mulk the appearance of having yielded to
menace, and afforded an opportunity of evincing the promptitude
with which he obeyed the imperial commands.^

Bajirdv soon after his appointment as Peshwa (May 1721) set
out with an army for Khdndesh where he levied his mokasa
although not without opposition. From the period of his accession
he gave a considerable portion of his attention to extending Mardtha
conquests to the north, and his aims were early turned to Mdlwa.
Circumstances generally obliged him to return yearly to Sdtdra
and Poona. During the three expeditions, before the rains of 1724,
though he had sent detachments into Mdlwa, it is not ascertained
that he crossed the Narbada in person until the end of that year;,
nor did he remain in Mdlwa for any length of time until upwards
of eleven years after his accession as Peshwa. Affairs in the

Chapter VII

History.

MaeAthas>
1720 -lS4a.

Bdjirdv Balldl,
Peshwa,

ini ■ njfi.

1 Grant Duff's MarAthAs, 210.

rBombay Gazetteer.

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History.

MAlU.THis,

1720-1848.

Deccan required his presence, and with the intrigues of Nizdm-ul-
Mulk and domestic opposition, restrained both his ambition and his
enterprise. At different times before the year 1724 Bdjir^v had
defeated the SubhedAr of Burhd,npur and an officer named DAud
Khd,n sent against him by Azim-ulla Khdn from Mdlwa. In one of
these battles two of Bdjird.v's officers who afterwards rose to high
rank first came into notice. One was Malhdrji Holkar a shileddr
or self-horsed trooper who commanded a party of his own horse.
He was a Mardtha Dhangar, a native of the village of Hoi on the
Nira, of which his father was chaugula or pdtil's assistant. He
had served under KantAji Kadam Bande one of the Rdja's officers
and had gathered a small body of horse. The other officer was
Ild,noji Sindia descended from a younger branch of the family of
Kannairkhed a village fifteen miles east of Sdtdra. The Sindias
according to local legends have been distinguished horsemen since
the time of the Bahmani dynasty. There are two Mardtha families
or rather clans named Sindia, the one distinguished by their here-
ditary pdtil village of Kanhairkhed and the other by the title of
Ravirdv. Both families claim Rajput descent. Those of Kannair-
khed had a mansab under Aurangzeb and Sindia's daughter, who
was given in marriage by that emperor to Shdhu, died in captivity
at Delhi. Sindia remained faithful to the Moghals, and, as his fate
was never known, it is conjectured that he was killed in some
distant country possibly with A^zam Shdh in the battle of Agra in
1707. The family had fallen into decay and RAnoji who revived
its fame was reduced to a state of abject poverty serving as a
hargir or rider first in the troop of Bdldji Vishvandth and afterwards
in that of Bdldji's son. To contrast his original with his subse-
quent condition, he is said to have carried the Peshwa's slippers,
and to have been marked by Bdjirdv as fitted for a place of trust
by the care he took of his humble charge.

Another officer who gained fresh honour about this time was
Uddji Povdr Vishvdsrdv. His father was first raised by Rdmchan-
drapant Amdtya when he governed the country during the siege
of Ginji, and the young man joined Shdhu and obtained the
command of a considerable body of horse. He was employed on
various services and appears to have been an active partizan. Like
most contemporary Mardtha leaders of experience, such as Kantdji
Kadam Bande, Pildji Gdikwdr, and Kdnhoji Bhonsle, he calculated
on the surest advantage in the most distant ventures where his ap-
pearance was least expected. He made incursions into Gujardtand
Mdlwa, plundered Gujardt as far as Lundvdda, and found Mdlwa so
drained of troops that he was able to remain some time in the country
intimating to the Rdja that if supported, he might collect the chaulh
and sardeshmukhi in every direction. How long he maintained his
station in the country on his first inroads is uncertain, but it is
probable that he was obliged to retire from Dhdr a fortress in the
west of Mdlwa where he first established himself, upon the appoint-
ment of Girdhar Bahddur, whose exertion in the defence of Mdlwa
was the chief cause which prevented the Mardthds getting a
firm footing in that province for more than ten years after the
accession of Bdjirdv.

Deccan]

Si.Ti.RA.

269

The progress of Uddji Povdr, the successes of Kantdji Kadam
Bande and Pildji Gdikwdr in Gujardt, and the dissensions between
NizAm-ul-Mulk and the Imperial court opportunely occurred to
favour the Peshwa's views of spreading Maritha conquests in North
India. BAjirdvwhowasearly trained by hisfatherto business was bred
a soldier as well as a statesman. He united the enterprise, vigour,
and hardihood of a Mardtha chief with the polish, astuteness^ and
address of a Konkanasth Brdhman. He was fully acquainted with
his father's financial schemes and chose the part of the plan which
was calculated to direct the predatory hordes of Mahdrdshtra in a
common effort. The genius of BAjirdv enlarged his father's
schemes, and unlike most Brdhmans he 'had both the head to plan
and the hand to do. To the unceasing industry and minute watch-
fulness of his caste he added a judgment that taught him the
leading points of importance which tended to spread Mardtha
sway. Bdjirdv's views of spreading Mardtha power in Upper India
were at first disapproved by Shdhu, and from prudence as
well as rivalry were opposed by ShripatrAv the Pratinidhi.
Jealousy in public places is a passion which the subtlest Brdhman can
rarely command or hide. The passion is bitterest among Brdhmans
of different tribes. The rivalry between Bdjirdv the Konkanasth
Peshwaand Shripatrdvthe Deshasth Pratinidhi tended to preserve the
Rdja's ascendancy longer. The Peshwa's first proposal for exacting
what he called the established tribute from MAlwa and extending
Mardtha conquests into North India was violently and for a time
successfully opposed by the Pratinidhi. Shripatrav represented
it as rash and imprudent. He held that, though the head of the
State might not be called to account for casual inroads, to allow the
Peshwa to make raids must draw on the Mardthds the whole power
of the empire, and precipitate hostilities with Nizdm-ul-Mulk whose
victorious army was still at their gates ; that so far from being pre-
pared for resistance there was a total want of regularity even in
their arrangements, that they could scarcely quell a common insur-
rection ; and that to enter on a war before they had secured what had
been ceded was the extreme of folly and of rashness. The Pratinidhi
added that he was a soldier as well as the Peshwa, and when expe-
dient as ready as Bdjirdv to head an expedition; that after they had
established their collectors and arranged other parts of the country
it would be advisable, before pursuing their conquests in the north,
to reduce the Karndtak and to recover the countries conquered
by Shivdji ; that Fattehsing Bhonsle's troops could scarely
venture to cross the Krishna, and that the first efforts should be
made in that quarter.

These were probably the real opinions of Shripatrav. The
wisdom of Bdjirav was of a higher order. He comprehended
the nature of predatory power ; he perceived its growth in the
turbulence and anarchy for which the system of distributing the
revenue was the first remedy ; he foresaw that confusion abroad
would tend to order at home; that as commander of distant
expeditions he should acquire the direction of a larger force
than any other chief of the empire ; that the resources
of the Deccan would not only improve by withdrawing the hordes

Chapter VII
History.

MaeAthAs,
1720-1848.

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DISTRICTS.

Chapter VII.

History.

MaeAthAs,
1720-1848.

of horse which unprofitably consumed them, but must fall under the
control of that person who could most readily procure employment
and subsistence for the troops. While B4jirav concealed his private
designs and partly admitted the justice of Shripatrdv's views, he
endeavoured by his commanding eloquence to arouse enthusiasm or
ambition in Shahu. He went over the conquests of Shahu's famous
grandfather and reminded him of the powerful kings and the
mighty emperor with whom Shivaji had successfully contended.
He painted the present condition of India, the weakness indolence
and imbecility of the Moghals, and the activity energy and enterprise
of the Mardthas. If, he said, the great Shivaji had been of the
same opinion as the Pratinidhi, he would have thought it necessary
before venturing into the Karnatak to reduce Bijapur and Golkonda.
As. to their domestic quarrels beyond the Krishna, it' would be time
to think of them hereafter ; by the Rdja's good fortune every
desire would be accomplished. Bajirdv ended a speech of considerable
length, with the words : Now is our time to drive strangers from
the land of the Hindus and to gain undying renown. By turning our
efforts to North India the Mardtha flag shall fly from the Krishna
to the Attock. You shall plant it, replied Shahu, in the Kinnar
Khand beyond the Himd,lyas; a noble son of a worthy father.
Let us strike, said Bajirav, at the trunk of the withering tree ; the
branches must fall of themselves.

At what time ShAhu's consent was obtained is not known. The
form of obtaining the Edja's consent on all such occasions was rigidly
observed by the Peshwas at a stage when their supremacy was far
advanced. By virtue of that authority and their station as mukhya
•pradhdns or chief ministers, even when their usurpation became
complete, it suited the BrAhman character to act as nominal servants
and real masters to rule the Maratha chiefs as the delegate of their
prince.^

In 1725, Hamid Khan, the uncle of Nizam-ul-Mulk, for the aid
he gave him against Mubariz Khan, granted the chauth in Gujardt
to KantSiji Kadam Bdnde and Pilaji Gdikwar, who proceeded to levy
their assignments. The division of the money led to perpetual dis-
putes. Pilaji, as the agent of Ddbhdde Sendpati considered himself the
superior authority in Gujardt and Kantdji as an officer of the Rdja
despised his pretensions. An agreement was signed by which the
chauth east of the Mahi was assigned to Pilaji and that to the west
to Kantaji.^ Meanwhile Bajirdv took advantage of the confusion
caused by Moghal dissensions to carry his arms into Mdlwa, where,
though opposed by Raja Girdhar, he was successful for two seasons
in obtaining plunder and contributions. It is probable that Nizdm-
ul-Mulk against whom the Imperial forces were acting in Gujardt,
may have connived at his incursions, but there is no proof of any
direct communication with the Peshwa. Bdjirdv, by virtue of the
authority vested in him by Shahu, granted deeds to Povar, Holkar,
and Sindia to levy chauth and sardeshmukhi and to keep half the
moMsa in payment of their troops. In 1726, the Peshwa with a

' Grant Duff's Marathas,.214-215.

2 Grant Duff's MardthAs, 216-217.

Seccau.l

sAtIrA. 271

large army under Fattehsing Bhonsle, inarched into the Madras Kar- Chapter VII|

ndtak, plundered the districts, and levied a contribution from Ser- History-

ingapatam. The Mard,thds lost a number of men without gaining

the expected advantages. BAjirav had objected to the expedition, and ^20^1841!

was dissatisfied with the result, and on returning to Sdtara he found

more serious reasons of dissatisfaction in the measures pursued by the

Pratinidhi. The cause of his displeasure originated in the artful

schemes of Nizam -ul-Mulk, which, but for the penetration and vigour

of Bajir^v, would probably have unlinked the chain by which Bdl^ji

Vishvanath had joined the interests as well as the inclinations of

most of the Hindu chieftains of the Deccan.^

In 1727 Nizam-ul-Mulk, though relieved from immediate appre-
hensions from the Delhi Emperor Muhammad Shah whose power
was daily declining, became alarmed at the spreading power of the
Marath^. He beheld in their systematic and persevering encroach-
ments on the divided revenue of the Deccan and the Karndtak, the
extinction of his own resources as well as those of the empire, and
took measures to avert these evils by endeavouring to consolidate his
own power and to create divisions among the Mardthds. In these
measures he overlooked the ability of his opponent Bajir^v and
little thought that the pursuit of his own schemes should strengthen
the power of the Peshwa. He had fixed on Haidarabad, the ancient
capital of the Kutb Shahi kings, as fittest for the seat of his new
government, and was anxious on any terms to remove the Mardtha
collectors from that quarter. Although Nizdm-ul-Mulk had confirmed
the imperial grant in Shdhu's favour, a great deal of what was
yielded was not actually given up. Numerous points had remained
unadjusted. Shd,hu's part of the agreement to prevent plundering
was not fulfilled and constant discussions were the consequence. A
new authority for a part of the old territory was granted by
Nizam-ul-Mulk, which particularly specified the fiied personal j'agfirs
that Shahu agreed to exempt from sequestration. Jdgir assignments
in the old territory about Poona which the Nizam had given to
Rambh^ji Nimbalkar one of the disaffected officers who had joined
him, were exchanged for new grants to the eastward about Karmdla,
a measure on the part of Nizam-ul-Mulk particularly conciliatory
to Shdhu. After this a settlement was concluded through the
Pratinidhi by which Shdhu agreed to relinquish the chauth and
sardeshmuhhi in the neighbourhood of Haidarabad. An equivalent
in money was to be paid for the chauth, and for the sardeshmukhi
Shdhu received some jdgir territory near Indapur in Poona of which
district he was an hereditary deshnmkh,^ and a jdgir in Berdr was
conferred on the Pratinidhi. Nizam-ul-Mulk had thus effected his
first object by negotiation, but the exchange met with the decided
disapproval of Bdjirdv who was ever an enemy to consolidation
and disputes ran so high between him and the Pratinidhi that
Nizd,m-ul-Mulk, encouraged by appearances and the support and
alliance of Chandrasen Jadhav, Rkv Eambha NimbdYkaTC j'dgirddr

1 Grant Duflfs Mardthis, 218.

2 Half of this deshmukhi was bought by Shd,h4jx Bhonsle the father of Shiviji
after he entered the service of MAhmud Adil Sh4h, Grant Duff's Mar^th^s, 220

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DISTRICTS.

Chapter VII.

History.

MabAthas,
1720-1848.

of BSrsi, and Sambhaji Raja of Kolhapur, resolved to complete the
design he had formed. With this view he espoused the cause of
Sambhaji and endeavoured to create a complete division in the
Mar^tha government by reviving the former feuds between Shdhu
and Sambhaji.

Nizam-ul-Mulk began by formally hearing the claims of Sam-
bhaji in a demand made for an equal division of the revenue;
and, according to a prevalent custom in the Deccan, sequestrated
the property in dispute by removing the collectors of the sardesh-
mukhi and displacing the moJcdsdddrs of Shdhu until their respective
rights should be adjusted. Assuming this privilege as viceroy he
pretended to become the friend and arbiter of both parties. Bsgirav
was not to be duped by the old artifice of engaging the Maratha
cousins in an hereditary dispute. He quickly turned the Nizam's
weapons to his own advantage, for Shdhu, true to the feeling of a
Mard,tha, of whom even among the peasantry the mildest men became
violent when a vatan is concerned, though for some time he had
been reconciled to Nizdm-ul-Mulk^was at once on hearing of this
interference roused to implacable resentment against him, and for
the time against all who had vindicated or who dared to justify his
conduct. He looked to Bajirav for counsel and for vengeance ; for
these he would have bartered life, and for these he virtually sold
the supremacy of his empire. At first he determined to lead his
army, but it was represented that to march in person would place
him on an equality with Sambhaji of Kolhapur ; none but the
emperor was worthy of contending with the king of the Hindus.
Full powers were therefore given to Bajirav. The great influence
which the Peshwa had gained was shown in the promptness with
which many of the most unruly and factious of the Shileddr families
gathered round the standard of the nation.

Nizdm-ul-Mulk perceived his mistake, and sought to amend it by
writing to Shahu and the Pratinidhi that he was solely actuated
by a wish to benefit the Raja in order to prevent the usurpation of
the Konkani Brdhmans by whose creatures every situation was filled;
that the molcdsdddrs and collectors of the sardeshmukhi had been
replaced by others belonging to the RAja's relation, Sambhdji, whom
he had appointed the Rdjd's deputy, as Sardeshmukh of the six
subhds of the Deccan ; and that the Raja when freed from the
control of the Konkani Brdhmans might afterwards appoint agents
entirely of bis own selection. But the animosity of Shdhu, worked
to the highest pitch by the Peshwa, was not to be appeased by ofiers,
which, under the colouring given to them by Bdjirdv, only added
insult to injury. Both parties prepared to attack each other as soon
as the rains should subside and enable their horse to cross the rivers.
In the war that ensued in Gujarat and Khdndesh (1728) between
Nizam-ul-Mulk aided by Sambhaji on one side and the Peshwa on
the other the able conduct of Bdjirav forced ISTizdm-ul-Mulk to agree
to a negotiation. Bajirav demanded that Sambhaji should be sent
to his camp ; that security should be afforded for the future collec-
tion of the Maratha shares of the revenue by giving up severaL
fortified places ; and that all arrears not yet realized should be made

Deccanl

sAtara.

273

good. Nizdm-ul-Mulk agreed to all the articles except that of
delivering up Sambhaji. Bdjirav represented that he was a near
relation of the Rdja's and that he should be treated with equal
respect. It was at last settled that Nizd,m-ul-Mulk should guarantee
his safe arrival in Panhala, when Shahu should be at liberty to
take what steps he might think proper for the settlement of their
family dispute.

BAjirav was then negotiating with Sar Buland Khan in hopes of
obtainingthe cession of the chauth and sardeshmuJchi of Gujarat. After
the ratification of the treaty with Nizdm-ul-Mulk, Ohimnaji Apa
the Peshwa's brother marched with a large army and exacted a heavy
contribution from Petldd and plundered Dholka, but on promising
that if the chauth and sardeshmukhi were yielded the districts
should be secured from depredation, Sar Buland Khan agreed to the
Peshwa's proposals, and in 1729 granted the sardeshmulthi or
ten per cent of the whole revenue both on the land and customs
except the port of Surat and the district round it, together with the
chauth or one-fourth of the whole collections on the land and
customs except Surat, and five per cent on the revenues of the city
of Ahmadabad.

While Bajirdv's presence was necessary in the north to support
Chimndji in Gujardt, Sambhdji Raja of Kolhapur, instigated by
Udaji Chavhan refused to listen to overtures made by Shahu and
encamped on the north side of the VArna with all his baggage
women and equipments, and began to plunder the country. The
Pratinidhi surprised Sambhaji's camp and drove them to Panhdla
with the loss of the whole of their baggage. Many prisoners were
taken, among others Tardbdi and her daughter-in-law Rd,jasbd,i the
widow of Shivdji of Kolhapur. Both these persons were placed in
confinement in the fort of Sdtdra (1730). This defeat brought on
an immediate accommodation. Except some forts, the Mardtha dis-
tricts and claims in the tract of which the rivers Varna and Krishna
to the north and the Tungbhadra to the south are the boundaries
' were wholly ceded. Kop^l near the Tungbhadra was relinquished
by Shdhu in exchange for Ratndgiri, and the territory of the
Konkan, extending from Sdlshi to Ankola in North Kdnara was
comprehended in the sovereignty of Kolhdpur. The fort of Vadg^on
occupied by Ud^ji Chavhdn on the south bank of the Vdriia was
destroyed. Miraj, Tdsgaon, Athni, and several villages along the
north bank of the Krishna and some fortified places in Bijdpur
were given to Sh^hu. This treaty was offensive and defensive
and provided for the division of further conquests to the south of
the Tungbhadra which, on co-operation, were to be equally shared.
Grants of indyn land or hereditary rights conferred by either party
within their respective boundaries were confirmed.

Although enemies were not wanting to detract from the reputa-
tion of the Peshwa and to extol that of his rivals, the success of
the Pratinidhi did not materially aifect the ascendancy which Bdji-
Y&v had attained ; but Nizam-ul-Mulk was still bent on opposing
him and found a fit instrument for his purpose in Trimbakrdv
DiCbhdde. Ever since the Peshwa had obtained the deeds from Sar

E 1282 -35

Chapte^VII
History.

MarAthAs,
1720- 1748.

[Bombay ftazett'eer,

Chapter VII.

History.

MakAthAs,
1720-1848.

274

DISTRICTS.

Buland Khdji, Dabhade had been negotiating with other Marath^
chiefs and assembling troops in Gujarat. At length finding himself
at the head of 35,000 men he had resolved to march for the Deccan
in the next season. Bajirdv was well aware of the Sendpati's
enmity, but was not alarmed by his preparations until he discovered
that Nizam-ul-Mulk was to support him in the Deccan. On
learning their intention he at once determined to anticipate them,
though, when joined by all his adherents, his whole army did not
amount to more than half that of DAbhdde. DabhMe gave out
that he was proceeding to protect the Edja's authority, and was
supported by Pilaji GAikwdr, Kantdji and Raghuji Kadam Bdnde,
Udaji and Anandrd,v Povdr, Chimnaji Pandit a very active marauder,
and Kur Bahadur with many others. B^jirdv proved that Ddbhdde
Senapati was in alliance with NizAm-ul-Mulk and declared that he
was leagued for the purpose of dividing the Mar^tha sovereignty
with the Raja of Kolhapur, a measure inconsistent with sound
policy and contrary to the divine ordinances of the Sh^stras.

The preparations of Nizdm-ul-Mulk hastened the march of Bajirdv,.
and as his army, though so inferior in number, was composed of
the old Paga horse or the Rdja's household troops and some oT
the best Mard,tha Mdnkaris, he moved rapidly towards Gujarat.
At the same time he began negotiating from the day he left Poona,
and continued until the hour of attack. In the battle which took
place (1st April) between Baroda and Dabhoi in Gujard,t, the death
of Trimbakrav Ddbhade the Sendpati and many who commanded
under him left complete victory to Bdjirdv with all but nominal
control of the Mardtha sovereignty.^ A treaty was concluded in
August and at the close of the monsoon the Peshwa returned to
Satdra. He would have punished Nizdm-ul-Mulk's treachery, but
the Nizdm warded off the blow which he could with difficulty have
withstood by directing its aim against the head of the empire. Bdji-
r&v readily agreed to the Nizdm's views. It suited his favourite
policy, and it gave employment to persons likely to disturb the
domestic arrangements he aimed at establishing. Troops were im-_
mediately sent towards Mdlwa under his brother Chimndji while
he himself remained for a time engaged in the interior arrangements
of government at Poona and S^tAra. Such appear to have been the
rise and progress of the events and intrigues which ended in a
secret compact between Bdjirav and Nizam-ul-Mulk which secured
to B^jirdv supremacy as Peshwa and to the Nizam a kingdom in
the Deccan.

The victory over Dabhade, like the issue of every civil war, left
impressions on the minds of many not easily effaced. The Peshwa
adopted every means of conciliation in his power. He continued
D^bhade's charitable practice called dakshina of feeding thousands of
Brdhmans for several days every year at Poona, and gave sums of
money to the assembled Shastris and Vaidiks. Yashvantrav the son
of Trimbakrav D^hdde was raised to the rank of Senapati, but
being too young to take the management on himself, his mother

^ Grant Duff's MarAthAs, 225,

Deccau.]

SlTiRA.

275

Um^b^i became his guardian and PiMji Gaikwdr their former
mutdlik or deputy was confirmed in that situation with the title of
SenaKhdsKhel or Captain of, the Sovereign Tribe in addition to his
hereditary title of Samsher Bahadur. An agreement was drawn up
under the authority of Sh5hu and subscribed by the Peshwa and
Senapati, that neither party should enter the boundary of the other
in Gujardt and Mdlwa. Within the limits of Gujardt the Senapati
was to have entire management, but he bound himself to pay
one-half of the revenue to government through the Peshwa. All
contributions levied from countries not specified in the deeds
given under the authority of Sar Buland Khan were to be made
over to the Bija after deducting expenses.^

Perceiving B^jir^v's complete ascendancy, the appointment of the
Hindu prince Abhaysing to supersede Sar Buland Khan, the imbeci-
lity of the emperor, and the treachery as well as venality of his
courtierSj and knowing also that he had rendered himself in
the highest degree obnoxious, Nizdm-ul-Mulk had good grounds for
apprehending that the Peshwa might be able to obtain the viceroy-
alty of the Deccan. The plan which under these circumstances
he adopted belongs to the higher order of politics. It seems to have
been framed for the purpose of diverting the Marathas from
destroying the resources of his own country and of making his
own power a balance between that of the emperor and the Peshwa.
Before invading Mdlwa in person Bajirdv had an interview with
Nizam-ul-Mulk and endeavoured to induce him to advance a subsidy
for the aid he was afibrding, but the Nizam considered the induce-
ment sufficiently strong without paying his auxiliaries. The dis-
tricts in Kh^ndesh were to be protected by the present agreement
of the Peshwa in his passage to and from MAlwa and nothing more
than the usual tribute was to be levied in the six subhds of the
Deccan, a, proposal to which Bajir^v readily acceded. Bijiriv on
crossing the Narbada assumed command of the army in Mdlwa and
sent his brother and PiMji Jadhav back to Satara to maintain his
influence at court and to concert measures for settling the Konkan
which was very disturbed. In Gujarat Pildji G^ikwAr, who was
assassinated by Abhaysing's emissaries, was succeeded by Damiji
(1732).

In I733j Muhammad Khdn Bangash the new governor of Malwa,
having entered Bundelkhand and established himself in the territory
of Raja GhitursdJj the Rajput prince solicited aid from Bd,jirav:
Aid was readily granted. Bangash Khan was reduced to the
greatest distress and the province was evacuated by his troops^
ChitursAl in return for this service conferred on B4jir4v a fort and
district in the neighbourhood of Jhdnshi worth £25,000 (Rs. 2^
lakhs) of yearly revenue, adopted him as his son, and at his death,
which happened soon after, bestowed on him one-third of his pos-
sessions or an equal share with his two sons the R^ja of Kdlpi and
the RAja of Bundelkhand. In 1734, Raja Jaysing was appointed to,
the government of the provinces of Agra and Malwa and nothing

Chapter VII
History.

MAB^THitS,

1720-1848.

1 Grant Duff's MarWhds, 226.

Maeathas,
1720-1848.

[Bombay Gazetteer,
276 DISTRICTS.

Chapter VII. could be more favourable to the views of BdjirAv. As Jaysing was
History situated the honour of the Rajput was at variance with the subsist-

ing arrangement between him and the Mardthds. This may account
for his hesitating to comply with their demands ; but he at last came
to an agreement with BAjirdv and yielded him the government of
M^lwa in the following year, and for the time the emperor, by
Jaysing's persuasions, tacitly acquiesced in the arrangement.^

During the Peshwa's absence Kdnhoji Bhonsle, the Sena Saheb
Subha, had been accused of disobedience and confined at Sdt^ra, and
Raghuji the son of Kanhoji's cousin Bimbaji had been appointed
Sena S^heb Subha in his stead. Raghuji had accompanied Shahu
in his excursions and by his boldness and skill as a hunter had
ingratiated himself with Shahu and obtained a great ascendancy
over him. Shdhu married him to the sister of one of his own wives
of the Shirke family, which, except their having the same surname,
and that possibly they may have been originally relations and rivals
for the hereditary right of pdtil of their village, is the only coimec-
tion which can be traced between the Bhonsle families of Sd,td.ra
and Nagpur.^ On receiving the sanads for Berdr, Raghuji gave a
bond to maintain a body of 6000 horse for the service of the state,
to pay yearly a sum of £90,000 (Rs. 9 Idkhs), and, exclusive of
ghdsddna or forage money, a tribute which since the time of Rajdram
the Sena S^heb Subha had been allowed to reserve, to pay to the
head of the government half of all other tribute, prize property,
and contributions. He also bound himself to raise 10,000 horse
when required and to accompany the Peshwa or to proceed to
any quarter where he might be ordered. This arrangement was
eftected during the absence of Shripatrav Pratinidhi who had been
sent into the Konkan by the Raja. The Pratinidhi being the friend
of Kd,nhoji Bhonsle endeavoured to obtain some mitigation of his
sentence, but failed. Kanhoji, who was an officer of great enterprise
died at Sat^ra after having lived there many years a prisoner at
large.^

Whether Nizam-ul-Mulk had made any preparations in conse-
quence of these dissensions is uncertain ; but Chimnaji Apa con-
ceived or affected to believe that he meditated an attack. He there-
fore pitched his camp about forty miles east of Satdra, leaving
Pilaji Jadhav with an inconsiderable body of horse, being the
only troops at Sdt^ra in the immediate interest of the Peshwa.
When Bajirav advanced into MSlwa, it was his design to engage
the Raja's mind with petty aifairs in the Konkan. Divisions
of authority, contending factions, and the turbulent disposition
of some of its inhabitants afforded ample field within the small
tract from Goa to Bombay for engaging and fatiguing attention.

Katak,

Deccan]

sAtAra.

277

Savant the principal deshmukh of Vddi occupied his hereditary-
territory in that quarter but having suffered from Kdnhoji Angria's
attacks before the late peace (1730) between the Rdjd,s of Satd,ra and
Kolhdpur he always bore an enmity to Angria's family. Kanhoji
Angria's death happened in 1728, and all attempts to reduce his
power before that time on the part of the English, the Portuguese, and
the Dutch had failed. In the quarrels between his sons which
followed Kanhoji's death, BAjirdv helped Mdnaji and obtained from
him the cession of Kotaligad in Thana and Rajmd,chi in Poona. The
Sidi, besides defending against the Marathd,s the districts which had
been placed under his chargebyAurangzeb, including Mahad, R^ygad,
Dabhol, and Anjanvel, frequently levied contributions from Shdhu's
districts. As force was not likely to prevail, the Pratinidhi,
Jivaji Khanderav Chituis, and others of the Raja's ministers formed
schemes for ruining the Sidi by intrigue. For this purpose the
Pratinidhi gained one Yakub Khixi a daring pirate who possessed
the entire confidence of the Sidi. To aid this scheme a force was
sent into the Konkan in 1733 under the Pratinidhi, his chief
agent Yamaji Shivdev, and Ud^ji Chavhdn. The intrigues were
unsuccessful, and a war ensued in which the Pratinidhi was worsted
and the fort of Govalkot in Ratn^giri though strongly garrisoned
was disgracefully surprised and taken. Chimndji Apa incurred the
RAja's displeasure for not sending assistance to ShripatrAv after
repeated orders. PilAji Jadhav was at length despatched, but as
none of the other officers at Sdtdra would undertake to support
the Pratinidhi except on condition of receiving the conquered
districts in jdgir, he was compelled to return to Sdtara with great
loss of reputation. About this time the Sidi died and a quarrel
ensued between his sons. Ydkub Khdn immediately embraced the
cause of Sidi Rehman one of the sons and called on Shdhu for
support (1735) ; but nothing could be done until the return of
BdjirAv, who, after leaving Holkar and Sindia in Mdlwa, returned
to the Deccan, and on crossing the Goddvari intimated to the Rdja
that he should march straight to Danda-Rdjpuri. All the disposable
infantry were directed to join the Peshwa, and PiMji Jddhav was
sent off, reinforced with a body of horse, to support MalhArrdv
Holkar in Mdlwa. Sidi Rehman and Ydkub Khdii joined Bdjirdv
who began operations by attacking some of the forts. Fattehsing
Bhoasle and the Pratinidhi proceeded to co-operate, but the only
help they gave was to recover ShivAji's capital Rdygad, the
commandant of which had been previously corrupted by Ydkub
Khdn. The Peshwa reduced the forts of Tala and GhosAla and
besieged Janjira but was obliged to listen to overtures made by the
besieged, who ceded to the Marathd,s the forts of Raygad, Tala,
GhosAla, Auchitgad, and BirvMi. After this successful close of
hostilities, Bajirav, with additional power and influence, returned to
Satdra and was appointed Subhedd,r of the late acquisitions.^ Holkar
completely overran Mdlwa and the country south of the Chambal and
took possession of several places. Afterwards, on the persuasion of

Chapter VII

History-

MaeathAs,
1720-1848.

1 Grant Duffs MarAthAs, 233.

[Bombay Gazetteer

278

DISTRICTS.

Chapter VII,

History.

Marathas,
1720-1848,

Kant^ji Kadam BAnde, he made an incursion into Gujarat, and they
both levied contributions as far as the Bands and plundered several
towns to the north of Ahmadabad including Idar and Pdlanpur.

In 1736, Bajirdv, owing to the vast army he had kept up to
secure his conquests and to overcome his rivals, had become deeply
involved in debt. His troops were in arrears : the bankers to
whom he already owed a personal debt of many Idkhs of rupees,
refused to make further advances, and he complained bitterly of
the constant mutinies and clamours in his camp which occasioned
him much vexation and distress.^ Part of the distress originated in
the high rates of interest which he was obliged to pay in order to out-
bid Nizdm-ul-Mulk and secure the best of the Deccan soldiery. He
levied the chauth and sardeshmukhi in Md,lwa and applied through
Rdja Jaysing for their formal cession in that province, and likewise
for a confirmation of the deeds granted by Sar Buland Khan for
Gujarat. The Turani Moghals who formed a considerable party in
the ministry were decidedly against a compromise so disgraceful.
Khdn Daurdn and the emperor, hy whom it had already been tacitly
yielded, were disposed by the advice of Jaysing to acknowledge
the title in due form ; but in the course of the negotiation which
ensued between the Imperial minister and the Peshwa both parties
went beyond their original intentions and hastened the advancing
reconciliation between Muhammad ShAh and Nizdm-ul-Mulk. The
emperor in the first instance agreed to relinquish in the form of an
assignment £130,000 (Rs. 13 Idkhs) of the revenue of the districts
south of the Chambal for the ensuing (1737) season, payable by
three instalments at stated periods ; and to grant an authority to the
Peshwa to levy a tribute from the Rajput states from Bundi and
Kota on the west to Budavar on the east, fixing the annual amount
at £106,000 (Rs. 10,60,000). This concession. Khan Daur^n
probably expected, was more likely to create enmity than establish
friendship between the Rajputs and the Mardthds. This minister
imagined himself superior to a Mardtha BrAhman in political artifice
and continued to negotiate when he should have had no thought
but to chastise. Rdja Jaysing was the medium through whom
Kh£n Daurdn sent an envoy of his own named Yddgir Khi,n to treat
with Bdjirdv. The sanads for the chauth and sardeshmukhi were
secretly prepared and given to the agent with instructions to
reserve thein. But Dhondopant Purandhare, the Peshwa's Vakil
residing with Khdn Daurdn, discovered this preliminary admission
and apprized B4)ird,v of the circumstance. Bdjird,v's demands now
exceeded all bounds ; and after great discussion he succeeded in
gaining the sardeshpdndegiri of the Deccan a grant similar to the
sardeshmuhhi but of five per cent instead of ten. This grant
was a stroke levelled at Nizdm-ul-Mulk by Khdn Dauran. It had

1 Grant Duff's MarAthAs, 234 I have fallen into that hell of being beset by creditors,
and to pacify sdvMrs and sUUddrs I am falling at their feet till I have rubbed
the skin from my forehead. Thus wrote BdjirAv to his mahdpurush the SvAmi
of DhAvadshi a village within a few miles of Sitdra. The SvAmi was a much
venerated person in the country. ThePeshwa's letters to the SvAmi detail the actions
of his life in a familiar manner without disguise and are invaluable. Ditto, 232.

DeccanJ

SATiRA.

279

the immediate effect o£ rousing the Nizd.m's jealousy, while
encouragement from the Moghal faction and pressing invitations from
Muhammad Sh^h to repair to Delhi and save the empire at length
induced Nizam-ul-Mult to think of turning the scale against his
predatory allies. In the meantime negotiations produced no cessation
of activity on the part of Bdjirdv and his demands were so exorbitant
that, after protracted consultations, it was determined to assemble
a vast army by the mere display of which it seemed as if they
expected to annihilate the Mardth^s. The Peshwa on hearing of
Khan Daurdn's advance deposited his heavy baggage with his ally
in Bundelkhand, and advanced to a position on the banks of the
Jamna forty miles south of Agra. He had attacked the E^ja of
Budavar for refusing to settle his claims and levied contributions in
every direction. Malhdrrdv Holkar, Pildji Jddhav, and Vithoji Bole
committed great depredations in the Doab until driven across the
Jamna by SMat Khan who marched from Oudh and unexpectedly
assailed the Mardthds. He wrote an exaggerated account of his
success to court stating that he had wounded Malhdrrdv Holkar,
killed Vithoji Bole, and driven the whole Mardtha army across the
Chambal ; that 2000 were killed and as rnany were drowned in the
Jamna. On SAdat Khdn's arrival at Agra, Bdjir^v quitted his
ground on the banks of the Jamna and moved north-east to a more
open country. Nothing was talked of in Delhi but the hero SMat
KhAn who had driven the Mardthds back to the Deccan. I was
resolved, said B4jirav, to tell the emperor the truth, to prove that
I was still in Hindustan and to show him flames and Mard,thds at
the gates of his capital. He advanced at the rate of forty miles a
day and pitched his camp in the suburbs of Delhi. He inflicted a
severe defeat on the Imperial troops at the very gates of Delhi, and
upon a promise of obtaining the government of Mdlwa and £130,000
(Rs. 13 lakhs), set out on his return to Satira, where he paid his
respects to the Rdja and immediately proceeded into the Konkan to
repel an attack of the Portuguese on MdnAji Angria (1737). The
Peshwa succeeded and took Mdnaji under his protection on
condition of his paying a yearly sum of £700 (Rs. 7000) and
presenting annually to the Raja foreign articles from Europe or
China to the value of £300 (Rs. 3000) more. The war with the
Portuguese led to the invasion of Salsette, and Bdjirdv, to secure his
conquests in Th^na and maintain the war against the Portuguese,
entertained some Arabs and a very large body of infantry principally
Md,valis and Hetkaris. News from Delhi obliged him to withdraw
part of his forces from the Konkan. Nizd,m-ul-Mulk was restored to
favour and ordered to drive the Marathds from M^lwa and Gujardt.
B^jir^v assembled all the troops he could collect and by the time he
reached the Narbada found himself at the head of 80,000 men,
though Yashvantrav DabhMe and Raghuji Bhonsle had not joined
him (1 738) . In the affair at BhopAl, the Nizam on the 1 ] th February
was compelled to sign a convention at Durai Sarai near Seronje,
promising in his own handwriting to grant to Bajirav the whole of
Md,lwa and the complete sovereignty of the territory between the
Narbada and the Chambal. To obtain a confirmation of this
agreement from the emperor, and to use every endeavour to procure

Chapter VII.

History.

MaeAthas,
1720-1848.

[Bombay Gazetteer,
280 DISTRICTS.

Chapter VII. the payment of a subsidy of £-500,000 (Rs. 50 Idkhs) to defray his
History. expenses/ the Peshwa remained for a time levying contributions

south of the Chambal and carrying on negotiations at court where the
1720 ™48.' threatened invasion of 'NMix Shdh was creating alarm. At the same
time the war with the Portuguese was being vigorously carried
on by the Peshwa's brother Chimndji and several forts in ThAna
were taken by the MarAthds. Raghuji Bhonsle made an incursion
to the north as far as Allahabad, defeated and slew the SubhedAr
Shuja Khd,n and returned loaded with booty. These expeditions
undertaken without regular sanction were highly resented by
Bdjirdv. He marched from Poona for the purpose of punishing
Raghuji's misconduct and sent forward Avji K^vre to plunder
in Berd,r. Avji was defeated by Raghuji in the end of February
1739. Bdjirdv was preparing to avenge his loss when news
reached him of the arrival of Nddir Shdh, the defeat of the Moghals,
the death of Kh^n Daurdn, the capture of Sd,dat Khd,n, and finally
that the victorious Persian was dictating the terms of ransom
at the gates of Delhi. These accounts exceedingly alarmed
Bdjirdv. The subsequent intelligence which he received at
Nasirabad in Khdndesh informing him of the imprisonment of the
emperor, the plunder of Delhi, and the dreadful massacre of many
of its inhabitants seemed for a time to overwhelm him. Our
quarrel with Raghuji Bhonsle is insignificant, said the Peshwa ;
the war with the Portuguese is as naught ; there is but one enemy
in Hindustd,n. He appears to have conceived that NAdir ShAh
would establish himself as emperor, but he was not dismayed when
he heard reports that a hundred thousand Persians were advancing
to the south. Hindus and Musalmdns, said Bdjirdv, the whole
power of the Deccan must assemble, and I shall spread our
Mardthds from the Narbada to the Chambal. He called on Ndsir
Jang the Nizam's second son to arm against the common foe, and
Chimndji Apa was ordered to desist from the Konkan warfare
and join him with all speed. Chimndji was now in possession of
the whole of Sdlsette and had begun the siege of Bassein.
Notwithstanding offers of submission, Chimndji prosecuted the
siege and on the 16th of May Bassein fell. Holkar and Sindia as
soon as Bassein fell were sent to join B^jirdv with all speed, but by
that time news arrived of the retreat of Nd.dir Shd,h. Nddir Shdh
restored the throne to its degraded owner and wrote letters to all
the princes of India announcing the event. Among others, he
addressed a letter to Shd,hu and one to Bdjirdv. He informed
Bdjirdv that he had reinstated Muhammad Shdh and now considered
him as a brother ; that although Bdjirdv was an ancient servant
possessing a large army, he had not afforded the emperor assistance ;
but that all must now attend to Muhammad Shdh's commands for
if they did not he would return with his army and inflict punishment
upon the disobedient.^

Shortly after the departure of Nddir Shdh Bdjirdv sent a letter
to the emperor expressive of his submission and obedience, and a

1 Grant Duff's MarAthds, 239. 2 Grant Duff's Mar4thda, 243.

Deccan.]

satXra.

281

nazar of 101 gold mohars. This was acknowledged in suitable
terms and a splendid khillat was sent in return.^ He was assured
by the emperor that the rank, possessions, and inheritance already
conferred on him would be confirmed, and that he might depend on
finding his interests best promoted by continuing steadfast in his
duty to the Imperial government.

Aljbhough no new subheddr nor any deputy of Nizam-ul-Mulk
was appointed to Malwa, no sanad was sent conferring the
government on Bdjirdv. This omission the Peshwa considered a
breach of faith on the part of Nizam-ul-Mulk ; but as the Nizam's
army was still in Hindustan, and as some of B4jird,v's best officers
and troops were in the Konkan he deferred enforcing his claims
until a fitter opportunity. In the meantime he was busy arranging
the affairs of the province of Mdlwa and strengthening his connection
with the Rajput princes in the western quarter along the banks
of the Chambal from Kota to Allahabad, but especially with the
E^jas of Bundelkhand.

These arrangements to secure the northern frontier were
preparatory to a war with Nizam-ul-Mulk or an expedition into
the KarnAtak. The late success against Nizam-ul-Mulk, his
departure from the terms of agreement, his great age, the
probability of contentions among his sons encouraged or stimulated
the Peshwa to attempt the subjugation of the Deccan. The
deficiency of his resources was the chief obstacle which deterred
him from this undertaking. On the other hand the prospect of
contributions and plunder by which he might liquidate his debts
and perhaps some secret encouragement from Arkot, where according
to Colonel Wilks the Marath^s were invited by the Divan of
Safdar Ali, were strong allurements for venturing into the
Karndtak. But Bdjirdv was critically situated, and circumstances
compelled him to choose the Deccan as the theatre of his operations.
Dd.bhd,de's or rather the Gdikwdr's party who possessed very
considerable resources was always hostile to the Peshwa ; B-aghuji
Bhonsle was jealous of the Brdhman ascendancy ; he meditated a
revolution by getting the Rdja into his own power ; and as Shdhu
had no prospect of an heir, Raghuji might have contemplated the
acquisition of Mardtha supremacy by being adopted as his son.
Fattehsing Bhonsle, the only Mardtha likely to supersede him in
the RAja's choice, possessed neither ability nor enterprise, and had
failed to create power by acquiring popularity among the soldiery.
Raghuji had many difficulties to overcome in prosecuting a scheme
of the kind. Although a party existed hostile to the Peshwa,
Bijirdv's friends and dependents surrounded the Rdja and possessed
his ear, if not his entire confidence ; nor could Raghuji Bhonsle or
Damaji Gaikwdr concert a plan or transact the slightest business
without Brahman agency. Should Bdjirdv quit the position which

1 Grant Duflfs MarAthAs, 244. A khillca comprehends the sMrpdv or head to foot dress,
that is cloths for the turban trousers girdle and gown complete, and jewels horse
elephant and arms according to circumstances and rank of the parties. Bdjiv^v
received two ornaments of jewels for the turban and a pearl necklace together with
a horse and an elephant. Ditto footnote.

B 1282—36

Chapter VIII

History.

Marathas,
1720-1848,

[Bombay Gazetteer,
282 DISTRICTS.

C3iapter VII. he occupied between the territories of those two, there would be no

„."j~ obstacle to their uniting against him. The subsisting difference

IS ory. between Raghuji and Bdjirav arose from Raghuji's having

^AKATH^, plundered the province of Allahabad and not having joined Bajirdv

when he was ordered according to the terms on which he held his

lands and title. The Peshwa affirmed that Raghuji had no authority

to levy contributions north of the Narbada and declared his

determination, at the time of marching from Poona in the end of

1 738, to enforce restitution not to the owners but to the Mar^tha

state and to punish the aggression. A temporary compromise took

place on the arrival of the Persians at Delhi ; but the dispute was

unsettled and nothing but a sense of injury to their mutual interests

prevented an open war.

This state of affairs laid the foundation of schemes which had
a great effect in extending the spreading but unstable power of
the Mardthds. Though there are few direct proofs to illustrate
this part of their history, it is certain that B^jirdv and Raghuji
had a meeting and that they were reconciled, and there is reason
to suppose that Bdjirdv unfolded as much of his schemes to
Raghuji as were necessary to engage his co-operation, and the
plunder of the Karndtak, an eventual addition to his own territories
in the Deccan, and a future partition of Bengal and North India
may have been urged by the Peshwa to excite Raghuji's ambition
and cupidity. In this conference may also be seen the real source
from which a host of Mardthds were poured into the Karndtak.

In prosecution of his plans of conquest in the Deccan, Bdjirdv
seizing the opportunity afforded by the absence of NizAm-ul-Mulk
-'ai Delhi, about the end of 1740 began operations against the NizAm's
son Ndsir Jang. The war proved unprofitable and the Marathds
,; gladly entered on terms of accommodation and a treaty was concluded

at Mungi-Paithan by which both parties pledged themselves to
maintain peace and mutually to refrain from plundering in the
Deccan. Hindia and Kirkaun, districts on the banks of the Narbada,
were conferred on BAjirav in jdgir, and the Peshwa without visiting
Poona or Sdtd,ra, in great vexation amounting almost to despair, set
off with his army towards North India.^

In the meantime Mdnaji Angria attacked by his brother had
applied to the Peshwa's son Bdlaji Bajirdv, generally called Ndna
Sdheb, who was with the Raja in the neighbourhood of Sdtara. 500
men were sent to support the garrison and an express despatched to
Chimniji Apa for instructions. Chimnaji had ordered his nephew
to repair to KoMba in person and applied to the Governor in Council
at Bombay with whorn he had concluded a treaty and maintained a
friendly intercourse since his late campaign in the Konkan to
support the garrison at KoMba. The English and Bdldji had

1 Grant Duff's MarithAs, 247. Thus he wrote to his mahdpurush about this time r
I am involved in difficulties, in debts, and in disappointments and like a man ready
to swaUow poison. Near the lUja are my enemies, and should I at this time go to
S4t4ra they will put their feet on my breast. I should be thankful if I could meet
death. Ditto, footnote.

fieccan]

sItAra.

283

succeeded in humbling Sambhdji, Manaji's brother when Chimndji
Apa joined them. They were concerting plans for the reduction of
Revdanda when news reached them of the death of BdjirAv which
happened on the banks of the Narbada on the 28th of April 1740.
On receiving this intelligence Shankraji Narayan was appointed
Subhed^r of the Konkan and Khanduji Mankar was left in
command of a body of troops, while Chimnaji Apa and his nephew,
after the usual mourning ceremonies, returned to Poona and
shortly after to Satdra. Bajirav left three sons BdMji Bdjirdv,
Raghundthrdv afterwards so well known to the English, and
Jandrdan Bdba who died in early youth. He also left one illegitimate
son by a Muhammadan mother, whom he bred a Musalmdn and
named Samsher Bahd,dur.

The army which entered the Karndtak under the command of
Raghuji Bhonsle was composed of troops belonging to the R^ja, the
Peshwa, the Pratinidhi, Fattehsing Bhonsle, and various chiefs of
less note. The Ghorpades of Sondur and Guti were invited to join
by letters from Shahu and the Peshwa ; and Murd,rrdv the grand-
nephew of the famous Sant^ji Ghorpade and the adopted son and
heir of MurdrrAv of Guti appeared under the national standard for
the first time since the death of his distinguished and ill-requited
relation. The whole force amounted to 50,000 men. Dost Ali the
NawAb of the Karnd,tak fell and the Divdn was made a prisoner.
After this the Mard,thd^ began to levy contributions all over the
Karndtak imtil bought off by the Nawdb's son and heir Safdar Ali,
with whom, before retiring, they entered into a secret compact to
destroy Chanda Saheb then in possession of Trichinopoli. While
the main body of his army remained encamped on the Shivganga,
Raghuji Bhonsle returned to Sdtd,ra and endeavoured to prevent
Baldji BajirAv's succession as Peshwa by proposing Bd,puji Ndik of
Bdramati, a connexion but an enemy of the late Peshwa, for the
vacant office. Bapuji Ndik was possessed of great wealth and his
enmity toBdjirdv arose from a very common cause that of having lent
money which his debtor could not repay. Raghuji's party used the
irritated creditor as their tool and very large sums were offered to
Shdhu on condition of Bdpuji's being raised to the vacant Peshwaship.
The Pratinidhi, although averse from the supremacy of the Peshwa
was still more hostile to the pretensions of Raghuji, and as he did hot
engage in the intrigue, Baldji Bajirav aided by his uncle Chimndji
was at last invested in August 1740. A more serious cause of un-
easiness to BaMji arose from his being answerable for his father's
debts andBapujiNaik enforced his demand with harassingpertinacity.
From this persecution Baldji was relieved by the influence and
credit of his Divdn Mahddajipant Purandhare, a service of which the
Peshwa ever after retained a grateful recollection. Raghuji, on
finding his schemes abortive, carried Bapuji Naik with him towards
the Karnd.tak and returned to reap the expected harvest at Trichi-
nopoli accompanied by Shripatrdv the Pratinidhi and Fattehsing
Bhonsle. Trichinopoli surrendered on the 26th of March 1741, and
Chanda Saheb was brought a prisoner to SatAra where he remained
in the custody of an agent of Raghuji Bhonsle's till he was set free.

Chapter VIL

History.

MabXthas,
1720-1848.

Bdjirdv's Deaths

1740.

Bdldji Bdjirdv

Peshvja,

1740-1761.

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284

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Chapter VII.

History.

MabathAs,
1720-1848.

in 1748.1 Mur^rrdv Ghorpade was left in command of the fort of
Trichinopoli, and a part of his garrison was composed of infantry-
belonging to the Peshwa. Their expenses were defrayed by
SMhu, besides which it was settled that £2000 (Es. 20,000) of the
share of tribute from the province of A.rkot should be annually paid
to BAldji Bajirdv.

One of the first acts of the new Peshwa was to forward
petitions to Delhi respecting various promises made to his father.
These applications were transmitted through Jaysing and Nizam-
Til-Mulk. A supply of ready money was what B41dji most earnestly
craved and £150,000 (Rs. 15 lakhs) as a free gift were granted by
the emperor. Proposals for an agreement were then drawn up in
the joint names of the Peshwa and Ohimndji ilpa in which they
asked to have the government of Mdlwa, which, on the death of
Bajir4v, was conferred on Azam-ulla Kh^n. If the government
of Malwa was granted they promised to pay their respects to the
emperor ; to prevent any other Mardtha crossing the Narbada ;
to send a body of 500 horse under an officer of rank to remain
in attendance on the emperor^s person ; and to ask no more than
the gift of money already bestowed. They agreed to send 4000
horse for service who would punish refractory landholders as far as
their numbers would enable them, and they promised not to seques-
trate the rent-free lands or jdgirs assigned for charitable or religious
purposes. No notice seems to have been taken of the application.
But Balaji, whose disposition was conciliatory, was anxious to
have the government of Mdlwa conferred as a right according to
the treaty with his father. With this object when Nizd,m-ul-Mulk
was marching to the Deccan, in order to suppress his son N^sir
Jang's revolt, BaMji paid (1741) him a respectful visit near the
Narbada and sent a body of his troops to join him. At this time
he sustained a great loss in the death of his uncle Chimndji Apa
which happened in the end of January 1741. Eleven days before
this event, Khanduji Mankar under Chimndji's direction had reduced
Revdanda the last place remaining to the Portuguese between Goa
and Daman. Chimndji Apa from his successes against the Portu-
guese has a greater reputation among the Marathas as an officer
than he probably deserved.^

On the death of his uncle, the Peshwa returned from the
northern districts and spent nearly a year in civil arrangements
at Poona and Satara. Continuing to show the greatest respect for
the RAja, he obtained from Shdhu a grant by which the whole
territory conquered from the Portuguese was conferred on him,
and also, except in Gujard,t, the exclusive right of collecting the
revenues and of levying contributions north of the Narbada. In
1742, Bhaskarpant the Divan of Raghuji Bhonsle of Berdr, carried

1 Grant Duff's MarAthAs, 255. Chanda SAheh or Hnssain Dost Khdn does not

A Un^n Viaan /innfinPrl TTI ^:nft TOrt nnr t.n Have Pn"l^nT>0(-I O ^Tnaa ^mrwtiannmani^.

appear to have been confined in the fort nor to have endured a close imprisonment.

Tint TTlPrplv tfl ViaVe har* "" o^^4■o^l(^!^T^^: Grnn.r/1 TJi7Vl*iT'**-»ro*. \\a T«ra«4- T'l^in n...*.nn...i4-i..n iti

confirmed by the ease '

appear to nave oeen cuuirueu m i-no xuii. uui uu nave euuureu a uiose imprisonmeuij,
but merely to have had an attendant guard wherever he went. This supposition is
confirmed by the ease with which Dupleix appears to have intrigued with him during

his term of imprisonment

z Grant Duff's MarAth^s, 256.

fitccau]

sAtAra,

285

his arms eastwards, but the Peshwa eager to establish his power
over those territories for which the authority obtained from the
Edja was as usual assumed as a right, marched though late in
the season, towards Hindustan and made himself master of Garha
and Mundela before the rains set in. He was obliged to encamp
on the banks of the Narbada during the rainy season, and probably
meditated an expedition into Allahabad when he was called upon
to ^ defend his rights in Mdlwa which was invaded by l)amaji
Gaikwdr and Bdburdv Saddshiv. This inroad seems to have been
instigated by Raghuji to obstruct the Peshwa's progress eastward ;
and on Bdlaji's arrival in Malwa the army of Gujarat retired.
On this occasion Anandrdv PovAr was confirmed by the Peshwa
in the possession of Dhdr and the surrounding districts, a politic
measure which not only secured Povar in his interests, but opposed
a barrier on the western side of Malwa to incursions from Gujardt.
Since the Peshwa's arrival at Mundela a negotiation had been
going on between him and the emperor through the mediation
of Raja Jaysing supported by Nizam-ul-Mulk. The chauth of the
imperial territory was promised and a khillat more splendid than
had ever been conferred on his father was transmitted to Balaji.
It does not appear that any deed for collecting this general chauth
was ever granted by Muhammad Shdh ; .sums of money and
convenient assignments were the mode of payment. The object in
the pending treaty was on the Peshwa's part to obtain sanads for
the promised government of Malwa, and on the part of the court of
Delhi to procrastinate and to widen the breach between the Peshwa
and Raghuji Bhonsle.

In the meantime Bhaskarpant had invaded B^har. The
Mardtha army consisted of 10,000 or 12,000 horse and report had
swelled their numbers to nearly four times that amount. Bhas-
karpant obtained the possession of the town of Hugli and most of
the towns from Katvato the neighbourhood of Midndpur fell into
the hands of the Marathd,s. Raghuji also advanced to Bengal. The
emperor ordered Safdar Jang the Nawab of Gudh to drive out
Bhaskarpant, and at the same time applied to Bdlaji Bdjirav to
afford his aid. As inducements to the Peshwa an assignment for
the arrears of chauth due from Azimabad was sent to him by the
emperor and an assurance of confirming him in the government of
Mdlwa. The reward was prized too highly and the service was
too desirable to be refused. On BdMji's approach, Raghuji decamped
and retreated towards the hills. Bdldji overtook, attacked, and
defeated Raghuji's army. Bhaskarpant retreated through Orissa
and BAlaji returned to Mdlwa in order to secure the long-promised
government. The Peshwa's conduct left no reasonable excuse on
the part of Muhammad Shah for refusing to perform the engagement;
but to save the credit of the imperial name, the feeble palliative
of conferring the appointment on the Peshwa as the deputy of
Prince Ahmad, the emperor's son, was adopted. The rest of the
treaty differs little from the former proposals made in the joint names
of BAMji and his uncle Chimnaji, except that instead of 4000, Baldji
promised to furnish 12,000 horse the expense of the additional
8000 being payable by the emperor, Jaysing between whom and

Chapter VII

History.

MarAthAs,
1720-1848.

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286

DISTRICTS.

Chapter VII.

History.

MaeAthas,
1720-1848.

BaMji tlie moat friendly intercourse subsisted, was guarantee fon
the observance of the treaty with Muhammad Shah, and Malhdrr^T
Holkar, Rdnoji Sindia, and Pilaji Jadhav declared in due form that
should the Peshwa recede from his duties they would quit his
service. The Peshwa returned to Satd,ra to pay his respects and
go through the form of producing his accounts of the revenue.
These accounts were made out by the Peshwa as a general in
command of a body of the Rdja's troops.^

In 1744 Raghuji Bhonsle sent agents to the Peshwa assuring him
of his sincere desire of reconciliation and of his conviction that the
plans of Bdjirdv were those best suited to his own and to the real
interests of the MarAtha nation. He continued the same profession
with apparent sincerity, but as he was on full march towards
Satara, the Peshwa thought it necessary to be on his guard,
particularly as DamAji Gdikwar was also approaching. The Pra-
tinidhi had become infirm by sickness, but his mutdlik Yamiji
Sliivdev was an active able man, adverse to the Peshwa's supremacy,
and, although not leagued with Raghuji, intimately connected
with the faction of Dabhdde. Under these circumstances BdUji
B^jirdv had to choose between a war with the MarAtha chiefs or the
resignation of Bengal to Raghuji. The question did not admit of
hesitation; he chose the resignation of Bengal to Raghuji. At the same
time as it was understood that the country north of the Mahdnadi as
well as of the Narbada was comprehended in his agreement with
the emperor, he made a merit of concedinghis right of levying tribute
to Raghuji, and a secret compact in which the Raja was used as a
mediator was finally concluded. The object of the contracting
parties seems avowedly to have been not so much an alliance as an
agreement to avoid interference with each other. The Rdja's autho-
rity was in this instance convenient to both. A sanad was given
to the Peshwa conferring on him his original mokdsa, all the jdgirs
bestowed on himself or acquired by his father or grandfather, the
governments of the Konkan and Malwa, and the shares of revenue or
tribute from Allahabad, Agra, and Ajmir ; three sub-divisions in the
district of Pdtna, £2000 (Rs. 20,000) from the province of Arkot, and
a few detached villages in Raghuji's districts. On the other hand, it
was settled that the revenues and contributions from Lakhnau, PAtna,
and Lower Bengal including Bih&r should be collected by Raghuji who
was also vested with the sole authority of levying tribute from the
whole territory from Berar to Katak. It was also agreed that Damdji
Gdikwar should be obliged to account to bhe Peshwa for the amount
of the contributions he had levied in Mdlwa, but nothing was urged
at this time respecting the large arrears due by Ddbhade to the head
of the government. It does not appear that any settlement was
concluded but Damdji seems to have remained in the Deccan,
although his presence was much required in Gujardt. The Peshwa's
southern and eastern boundaries in North India were well defined

1 Grant Du£Ps MarAtMs, 259. It is a remarkable fact that after the R&jia of S4t4r»
had become perfect ciphers in the MarAtha government, the Peshwa's accounts con-
tinued to the last to be made out in the manner described. Ditto.

Deccan]

sAtIra.

287

by the Narbada, the Son, and the Ganges but the sanad delivered
on this occasion authorized him to push his conquests to the north-
ward as far as practicable.^

and

Raghuji Bhonsle was intent on reviving his lost fooling in Bengal ;
d the I'eshwa in order to excuse himself to the emperor for not

acting against Raghuji remained in the Deccan. As soon as the
season opened Bhaskarpant was sent with 20,000 horse into Bengal
by Raghuji, but alongwith twenty officers was treacherously murdered
by Aliverdi Khdn in an entertainment and the army retreated
to Berdr. Raghuji himself proceeded to the scene of action, and,
partially defeated while returning, succeeded in annexing Devgad
and Chdnda to his territory. Shortly after Raghuji had entered
Bengal, Bdlaji Bdjird,v went (1745) to Mdlwa, addressed letters to the
emperor full of assurances of perpetual fidelity, but excused himself
from paying his respects in the royal presence. He expressed sur-
prise at Aliverdi Khan's inactivity in not repulsing Raghuji, which
the emperor in his reply accounted for by charging Bdldji with not
having stopped the passes in Raghuji's rear as preconcerted. But
the agreement which had taken place with Raghuji precluded all
interference ; the Peshwa evaded the discussion, and on pretence of
business in the Deccan, after making his yearly collections speedily
returned to Poona.

In 1746 the Peshwa sent his cousin Sadashiv Chimnaji Bh^u
accompanied by Sakhdram Bapu the writer of Mahdddjipant Puran-
dhare on an expedition into the Karndtak to punish some of the
deshmukhs who had driven out the posts of the Peshwa's old
creditor Bapuji Ndik Baramatikar. That person by the interest of
Raghuji Bhonsle had obtained the chauth and sardeshmuJrhi
between the Krishna and Tungbhadra in farm from the Raja for
the yearly sum of £70,000 (Rs. 7 lakhs) ; but the opposition he
experienced and the heavy charges for maintaining the troops totally
ruined him in a few years. The expense of the present expedition
added to his embarrassment, but he would not, as was proposed
to him, agree to give up the contract in favour of iSadashiv
Chimndji. Saddshiv Chimnaji levied contributions as far as
the Tungbhadra and reduced BahMur Benda to which the Marathds
had a claim of long standing. On Saddshiv Chimndji's return
from this expedition, he was invested by the Rdja with the
same rank as had been enjoyed by his father, that is second-
in-command under the Peshwa, and being ambitious and bolder
than his cousin the Peshwa he began to assume considerable
power. He chose as his writers Vdsudev Joshi and Raghunath
Hari, two able men brought up under Kdnhoji Angria. In
1747 the Peshwa himself concluded a new and more specific agree-
ment with the RdjAs of Bundelkhand, by which, after deducting the
district which had been ceded to the late Peshwa, one-third of the
territory estimated at £165,000 (Rs. 16^ Idkhs) was made over to
Balaji Bajir^v besides a like share from the profits of the diamond
mines of Panna. During this period of comparative tranquillity

Chapter VII

History.

MabXthAs,
1720 - 1848.

1 Grant Dufl's MarAthAs, 260.

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DISTRICTS.

Chapter VII.

History.

MarX-thIs,
1720 - 1848.

the Peshwa encouraged agriculture, protected the villagers and
grain merchants^ and improvement was everywhere visible. But
about this time events occurred in North India, in the- Deccan, and
in the Madras Karndtak, which were the forerunners of fresh
troubles and great revolutions in every part of India.

In I749j the Deccan which was completely drained of troops
presented an inviting field to the Peshwa, but domestic arrange-
ments of the utmost importance demanded his presence at Satdra.
Eaja Shahu had for some years been in a state of mental imbecility
brought on, it was said, through grief for the death of his youngest
wife Sagundb^i of the Mohite family.^ As his health declined, Shdhu
recovered the use of his intellect/ and the dependents of the
Peshwa about his person urged him to adopt a son. The Eaja on
the loss of his only child, some time before his derangement, con-
trary to all his former invectives against him had declared that
he would adopt Sambhaji Eaja of Kolhapur provided he had issue.
As Sambhdji had no children, it was proposed that an inquiry
should be made for some lineal descendant of Vithoji the brother
of Maloji the grandfather of the great Shivdji. Search was accord-
ingly made, but none was discovered. It was then suggested
that he should take the son of some respectable shileddr of the
pdtil family. This proposal, ShAhu said, he had a strong reason
for declining. At last he told Mahddajipant Purandhare and
Govindrav Chitnis that Tardbai who was still living in Sdtara, had
somewhere hid her grandson Edm the son of the second Shivaji
who was born in 1712 after the death of his father. It is not
known by what means Sh^hu became possessed of this secret;
and the subject, intricate in itself, had been so studiously involved
in mystery as to excite a suspicion that the Peshwa was convinced
of the legitimacy of Eam Eaja^ and found it necessary for the
purpose of rendering him insignificant to invent or at least to
connive at the insinuation that the whole was a trick of state.
TSrdbai on hearing of the intended adoption of Sambhaji of Kolhd-
pur was heard to say ' I will prevent that,' and on being closely
questioned and encouraged declared the existence of her grandson.
The elder surviving wife of Shdhu, Sakv^rbai of the Shirke family,
on being acquainted with this declaration on the part of Tardbd,i
which deprived her of all chance of power, incited Sambhaji to
oppose the alleged grandson of Tdrabdi whom she declared

1 Grant Duff's Marithds, 265. Sh4hu was for some time aflSicted with that harmless
silly madness which is sometimes ludicrous, even whilst it excites eommisseration.
It first appeared on an occasion when he had to receive a visit from two Maritha
SardArs in full darbAr, by his dressing out his favourite dog in gold brocade, covered
with jewels and putting his own turban on the dog. He never resumed any cover'
ing for his head after he recovered his senses. This dog had once saved his life when
hunting a tiger, and amongst other frea.ks, he issued sanads conferring a jagir upon
him and entitling him to use a palanquin in all which the EAja was humoured and the
palaiiquin establishment kept. Ditto, footnote.

2 ShAhu had some wit and his reply to a letter about this time from KAja J.iysing of
Jaypur shows that he retained it to the last. The Eaja asked what he had performed
for the Hindu faith and what charities he had bestowed. I have, replied Shdhu,
conquered from the Musalm^ns the whole country from E^meshvar to Delhi and I
have given it to the BrAhmans, Grant Duff's Uar&ihAs, 266 footnote.

Seccau.]

SiTlRA.

289

an impostor. She promised to aid Sambhaji to her utmost,
and engaged YamAji Shivdev in her cause. Jagjivan the
younger brother of Shripatrav who had been appointed Pratini-
dhi on the death of Shripatrav in 1747, also promised her all the
support in his power. Dam^ji Gaikw^r gave his assent to the
proposal, and emissaries were despatched into the Gh^tmatha and the
Konkan, a tract ever prone to insurrection, to raise men and be
prepared for her purpose. B^ldji Bajirav repaired to Si.ti.ca, with
an army of 35,000 men, but so cautious was he of committing any
act which might outrage the Maratha feeling, already jealous of
Brdhman power, that he did not attempt to separate Sakvdrbdi
from Jier husband or to impose any restraint likely to arouse the
active enmity of her relations. Although he knew the extent of
her plots, and was also aware that Sakvarbai had a plan to assas-
sinate him, he was at the same time suspicious of Tarabai, whose
known enmity to Balaji Bdjir^v is indeed the principal evidence
in support of her extraordinary story. The pregnancy of
Bhav^nibai the wife of the second Shivaji, was strongly suspected
by Rajasbai the younger wife of R^jdrdm at the time of Shivdji's
death, and it required all the care and circumspection of Tdrabai
to keep the infant from destruction. She found means to convey
the child from the fort of Panhd,la and having given him in charge
to the sister of Bhavd,nibai he was carried to Tuljapur and thence
to Barsi in ShoMpur where he was reared in obscurity. The Peshwa
was at a loss what to do. During three months spent at Satara
before Shihu's death, he was alternately swayed by ambition and
apprehension. He thought of at once asserting his supremacy by
setting aside the Raja entirely.^ But on the whole he considered it
most expedient to support the assertion of Tarabai. Yet, though
he was scrupulous in every outward form of respect towards the
prince whom he acknowledged, he was not afterwards desirous
of suppressing a current report at Poona that the whole was ficti-
tious. When the power of the Peshwa was complete, and the end
was gained, such a pageant as the Rdja, in some respects, was incon-
venient to the usurper, and to countenance a belief of the imposture
was the first step to his being wholly set aside. But the voice of
the country was too strong and an heir of the house of Shivaji
would have been joined by thousands. Sakvdrbdi, to conceal her
plot, always gave out that in the event of Shdhu's death she
would burn with the body. This declaration proved her ruin, for
the wily Brahman aifeeted to believe it, and took care to circulate
the report until it became so general that its non-fulfilment would,
in the eyes of the whole country, have been a reflection on the

1 Grant Duff's MarAthAa, 267. The following letter from SadAshiy Chimna,ji to the
Peshwa recommends his usurping the power at once. After compliments : It seems
impossible to judge of what will be the result of all this. The B4i's doings are not
to be depended upon ; keep continually on your guard The B4i is not a person to
blunder in that which she sets about. Let nofliing induce you to act contrary to
■what has hitherto been professed, or let any thing appear respecting your inten-
tions ; but in the event of the Rdja's decease, you .must take the upper hand of
all. While the R4ja is in existence, do not allow so much as a grain of uil-seed
to appear different in your conduct. As matters proceed continue to write to mo
eonstantly. Despatched 16th Sav41. Ditto footnote.

» 128^-37

Chapter Vir

History.

MabAthAs,
1720-1848.

[Bom'bay Gazetteer

290

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Chapter VII.
History.

MARiTHAS,

1720- 184S.

SMhu's Death,
1749.

honour of the family. Although SakvArbdi seldom quitted the
Rdja, and kept him constantly surrounded by persons in her in-
terest, Bdldji found means to obtain a private interview, at which
he induced the liaja to give him a deed empowering the Peshwa
to manage the whole goverimient of the Maratha empire, on con-
dition of his perpetuating the EAja's name and keeping up the
dignity of the house of Shivdji through the grandson of Tdrdbdi
and his descendants. This paper also directed that the Kolhdpur
state should always be considered an independent sovereignty;,
that the jdgirs now existing were to be confirmed to the holders,
leaving power with the Peshwa to conclude such arrangements with
the jdgirddrs as might be beneficial for extending Hindu power, for
protecting the temples of the gods, the cultivators of the fields, and
whatsoever was sacred or useful.

The Rdjja had scarcely ceased to breathe when a body of horse
gallopped into the town of SAtara, surrounded and seized the
rratinidhi and his mutdlih Yamdji Shivdev, placed them in irons,
and sent them off strongly escorted to distant hill forts. Every
avenue about the town was occupied by troops, and a garrison of-
the Peshwa^s was placed in the fort, while a party was detached to
reinforce the escort of Ram Raja who had not arrived when
Sh^hu died. Sakvirbai had not recovered from the first emotions
of consternation and rage at finding her whole plans unmasked
and defeated, when the Peshwa sent her an insidious message
begging that she would not think of burning with the body of her
husband for that he and all her servants were ready to obey her
commands. Not content with working on the mind of an angry
woman to incite her to self-destruction, he sent for her brother
KoSiji Shirke, represented the dishonour that threatened to attach
to his house, and promised him a jdgir in _ the Konkan if he
persuaded his sister to burn herself, not only for the honour
of the family of Shirke, but for the honour of all India under the
sway of the late Rdja. By these arts BaMji Bdjirdv secured his
victim.^

Before Sh^hu's death, orders in his name had been sent tp
Yashvantrdv Ddbhade and Eaghuji Bhonsle requiring their presence
at Satdra. Yashvantrav Dabhade had become totally imbecile
from debauchery, and as had probably been foreseen neither
DabhMe nor Damdji Grdikwdr the commander of his army
attended. Most of the other jdgirddrs were present, but if any
were disposed to resist the Peshwa's authority, they remained
passive until they should see what part Raghuji Bhonsle would play.
Raghuji's ambition was now controlled by the caution of age and the
teaching of experienca He was not only intent on directing yearly
raids into Bengal, but owing to the absence of his son Janoji in the
Kamatak with 10,000 horse and to the number of troops which he

1 Grant Dilffs MarAthAs, 268. Those of BAUji's countrymen who knew the secret
history of this transaction and whose minds had not been perverted by the calm villain^
of a BrAhman court did not attempt to palliate it as a sacrifice in conformity with
their faith. On the- contrary they mentioned it with detestation and said that even
the ordinary mode of execution would have been more manly and less objectionable. Do,

Deccan]

satAra.

291

was compelled to leave in his own territories he arrived at Sdtdra
in the month of January 1750, with a force of only 12,000 men.
His disposition was pacific towards Balaji but he made some demur
in acknowledging R^m Raja. He required, in testimony of his
being a Bhonsla and the grandson of Rdjd,rdm, that Tdrdbdi should
first eat with him in presence of the caste, deposing on the food they
ate together that Rdm Rdja was her grandson. When this was
complied with in the most solemn manner, Raghuji declared himself
satisfied ; and after a long conference with the Peshwa he gave his
assent to the propriety of the plans submitted for his consideration.
As a proof of the good understanding which subsisted between
them, BaMji took occasion to proceed in advance to Poona, leaving
the Raja in Raghuji's charge, and requesting that he would
accompany him to Poona with the whole of the jdgirddrs, for the
purpose of concluding the arrangements made by the will of the
late Shahu Rdja. From this period (1750) Poona took the place of
Satdra as the capital of the Mardthas.

In the success of his schemes, Balaji almost overlooked Tarabiii,
who though upwards of seventy years of age, soon convinced him that
it was dangerous to slight a woman of her spirit. On pretence
of paying her devotions at her husband's tomb in Sinhgad near
Poona she went there and endeavoured to persuade the Pant Sachiv
to declare for her as head of the MarAtha empire. Bdldji, after
much persuasion, induced her to come to Poona, and having flattered
her ambition with the hope of a large share in the administration,
at last obtained het influence with Ram Raja in confirming the
many schemes he had now to carry into effect. Raghuji Bhonsle
received new deeds for Berar, Gondvan, and Bengal, and some lands
which had belonged to the Pratinidhi adjoining Berar. The title
deeds for half of Gujarat were sent to Yashvantrav Ddbhade, which,
as he had never yet accounted for a share of the revenue to the state,
gave Damaji Gaikwdr to understand what he might expect from the
growing power of the Peshwa. About this time Ranoji Sindia died
and his eldest son Jaydpa was confirmed in his estates. The whole
of Malwa estimated at about £15 millions (Rs. 150 Idhhs) of
yearly revenue except about £100,000 (Rs. 10 MMs), was divided
between Holkar and Sindia, and £745,000 (Rs. 74^ Idhhs) were
conferred on Holkar and £655,000 (Rs. 65^ Idhhs) on Sindia. The
remaining £100,000 (Rs. 10 Idhhs) were held by various jdgirddrs
of whom A'nandrav Povdr was the most considerable. All of them
were subservient to the views of the Peshwa and from them he had
no opposition to fear. Bllaji Bajiriv, without intending to
employ them, confirmed the eight Pradhdns, and for a short time
nominated Gangadhar Shrinivd,s as Pratinidhi; but on the
application of Raghuji Bhonsle and of some other jdgirddrs,
when about to return to their districts, he made them a promise
to release Jagjivan Parashur^m and accordingly restored him to
his rank and liberty. As the Raja's establishment was to be
much reduced, and it was necessary to secure in his interests
such of his officers as he could not employ, the Peshwa reserved a
OT-eat part, of the Pratinidhi's lands as jdgirs and assignments
to the persons in question, particularly the tract west of Karh5.d

Chapter VII.

History-

MabathAs,
1720-1848.

Udm Bdja,
1749-1777.

Sdtdra ceases to

he the Mardtha

Capital,

1750.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

292

DISTRICTS.

Chapter VII.
History.

MARATttis,

1720-1848.

between the Unntidi and the Varna where he apprehended an
insurrection supported by the E^jaof Kolhdpur. Fattehsing Bhonsle
the adopted son of Sh^hu was confirmed in the possession of his
jdgir, in various minor claims, in shares of revenue, and in
the title of Rdja of Akalkot, which, except the detached claims
alluded to, are still enjoyed by his descendants. An appointment
created by Shdhu for a relation of the Mantri, and which was
termed Ajdhut Sardeshonukk or general agent for collecting the
sardeshmukhi was nominally preserved ; but jdgir lands were
assigned in lieu of the right of interference in the collection of the
ten per cent on the six subhds of the Deecan. The appointment of
Sar Lashkar was taken from the family of Somvanshi and given
to Nimb^ji Naik Nimbalkar. All these changes and appointments
were made in the name of Ed,m Rdja, but it was now well
understood that the Peshwa's authority was supreme in the state
and generally admitted without dissatisfaction. Yamdji Shivdev,
who recovered his liberty at the same time with the Pratinidhi,
threw himself into the fort of Sdngola near Pandharpur where he
raised an insurrection and made head against the Peshwa until he
was suppressed by the Peshwa's cousin Saddshiv Chimnaji. In the
measures which have been detailed the Peshwa owed much of his
success to his DivAn MahMAjipart, who, next to his cousin
Sad^shivrdv, possessed the greatest influence over Bdldji Bdjird,v of
any of his advisers. Saddshivrd,v on his expedition to Sangola was
accompanied by RAm Rdja for the purpose of giving Yamdji
Shivdev no excuse for resistance. During their stay at that place,
the Raja agreed to renounce the entire power and to lend his
sanction to whatever measures the Peshwa might pursue, provided
a small tract round S^tdra was assigned to his own management,
conditions to which Bd,ldji subscribed but which he never fulfilled.
The Rdja under a strong escort returned from Sdngola to Satdra.
The Peshwa in order to soothe T&i&hii whose great, age did not
render her less active and intriguing, incautiously removed his
troops from the ioxt of Sdtara, and having placed in it the gaikari»
and old retainers who had great respect for the widow of Raj^ram,
gave up the entire management to her. The Raja was kept with a
separate establishment in the town of Sd,tdra, but perfectly at large,
and a splendid provision was assigned to him and his officers, the
expense of which amounted to the yearly sum of £660,000
(Rs. 65 Idkhs)}

In 175 1 , when the Peshwa left for Aurangabad, t6 support the
claims of Ghd,zi-ud-din the elder son of the Nizd,m to the
viceroyalty of the Deecan, Tarab^i sounded R^m Raja in regard
to his assuming the control usurped by his servant Balaji the
Peshwa ; but not finding him fit for her purpose, she pretended to
have had no serious intentions in the proposal. At the same time
she sent messengers to Dam^ji GAikwar, representing the
unguarded state of the country and recommending his immediate
march to Sdtd,ra to rescue the Edja and the Mardtha state from the

1 Grant Duff's MarAthds, 272.

Seccan.]

satIra.

293

power of the Brdhmans. Damdji at once acted on this request
and TdrdMi, as soon as certain accounts were received of the
Gdikwar's approach, invited the Rdja into the fort of SAtdra and
made him prisoner. She then reproached him with his want of spirit ;
regretted that she had ever rescued him from a life of obscurity for
which only he could have been destined ; declared that he could
not be her grandson or the descendant of the great Shiv4ji ; that
he was neither a Bhonsle nor .a Mohite, but a baseborn Gondhali
changed in the house where he had been first conveyed ;^ and that she
would make atonement on the banks of the holy Krishna for ever
having acknowledged him. She ordered the Havild^r to fire upon
his attendants, most of whom unconscious of what had happened
remained near the gate of the fort ; and she directed the guns to
be pointed at the houses in the town below belonging to the
partisans of the Konkani Brahmans. Trimbakpant commonly called
Ndna Purandhare, Govindrdv ChitniSj and the officers in the Peshwa's
interests at Satdra were at first disposed to ridicule this attempt
as that of a mad old woman, but, on hearing of the approach of
Damaji Gaikwar from Songad, they quitted the town and assembled
troops at the village of A'rla on the banks of the Krishna. On
the advance of the Gaikwdr by the Sdlpa pass, although they had
20^)00 and their opponent only 15,000 men they made an irresolute
attack and retired to Nimb about eight miles north of Sdtdra where
they were followed the next day, attacked, and defeated by the
Gujardt troops. Damdji G4ikwdrimmediately went to pay his respects
to Tarab5.i, and several forts in the neighbourhood were given to her.
Sat^ra was well stored with provisions, and the Pratinidhi promised
to aid Tdrabai's cause. News of these proceedings recalled the Peshwa.
Before he returned Nana Purandhare had redeemed his lost credit
by attacking and compelling the army of Damdji Gdikwar to retire
to the Jod- valley about twenty-five miles north-west of Satara where
they expected to be joined by the Pratinidhi from Karhdd and by
troops from Gujardt. In this hope they were disappointed ; and as
Shankrajipant Subhedar of the Konkan was assemblingtroops in their
rear and the Peshwa's army which had marched nearly 400 miles in
thirteen days was close upon them, Damaji sent a messenger to treat
wijh BdMji. Bdlaji solemnly agreed to abide by the terms proposed
and enticed Damaji to encamp in his neighbourhood, where, as soon as
he got him into his power, he demanded the payment of all the arrears
due from Gujarat, and the cession of a large portion of his territory.
Damaji represented that he was but the agent of Dabhade the
Sendpati, and had no authority to comply with what was required.
On this reply the Peshwa sent private orders to seize some of the
family of the Gdikwdr and Ddbhade who lived at Talegaon in Poona,
and treacherously surrounded, attacked, and plundered the camp of
Damdji Gdikwdr and sent him into confinement at Poona. ^ The
Peshwa next tried to induce Tdrabai to give up the fort and the

Chapter Vli

History.

MarAthas,
1720-1848.

1 Grant Duff's MarAthds, 274. EAm RAja was first concealed in the house of a
Gondhali or a gondhcd dancer. Ditto, footnote.

' Grant Duff's MarAthds, 274. In consequence of this treachery, it is said that Damiji
ever after refused to salute this Peshwa except with his left hand. Ditto, footnote.

[Bombay Gazetteer,
294 DISTRICTS.

Chapter VII. Raja ; but she assembled her garrison and required an oath from
g£^„ every man that he would stand by her to the last. Such of them

as chose were allowed the option of quitting the fort. Some of the
l72oa^' Peshwa's troops became impressed with an idea that she was a dev
or good spirit and others that she w^s a daitya or evil spirit, but
the Mardthas were so strongly of opinion that Tdr^bdi was the
rightful regent that BaMji found there was more to be apprehended
from proceeding to extremities than from leaving her unmolested ;
although to become formidable her party required only a leader of
reputation. Perplexing as the affair was Tdrdbdi's conduct in the
end proved advantageous to the Peshwa as it took from him the
odium of being the first to confine the Rdja to the fort of S^tdra.
Tdrdbdi did not merely confine Ram Rdja to the fort. His prison
was a damp stone dungeon and his food was of the coarsest grain.
Damdji Gdikwar was the only man whom the Peshwa dreaded,
but as he was now a close prisoner at Poona, Bdlaji proceeded
towards Aurangabad in prosecution of his engagements with
Ghazi-ud-din. Rdja Raghundthdas the prime minister of SaMbat
Jang opened a communication from Ahmadnagar with Tdrdbdi and
Sambhdji of Kolhdpur.^

During Bdldji's absence at Aurangabad Tdrdbai occupied the
districts of Wdi and Sdtdra aided by 5000 or 6000 Mard.thd,s and
Ramoshis whom she had entertained in her service. A large force
was sent to invest Sdtd,ra and starve her into submission. Anandrd,v
JMhav, the commandant of the fort, convinced of the folly of
resistance, formed the design of carrying the Rdjaout of her power.
When this came to her knowledge she ordered him to be beheaded ;
■a sentence which the garrison executed on their own commander^ as
well as on several others subsequently implicated in a like scheme.
Baburdv Jadhav, a person unconnected with the, late commandant
and a relation of the JMhavs of Sindkhed was appointed to the
command of the fort. In 1753 the Peshwa before leaving for the
Karndtak endeavoured to pave the way to a compromise with Td,rdbd,i.
On his march to the Karnatak he sent to assure Tardbd,i that if she
would submit the control of the Rdja's person and establishment
should remain at her disposal. To this Tdrdbai would not listen
unless BdMji BajirAv would cometo Sdtd,ra, acknowledge her authority,
and give such personal assurances as would satisfy her.^ Encouraged
by the approach to Poona of Jdnoji Bhonsle the son and heir of
Raghuji Bhonsle, and on assurances of safety and protection from
the Peshwa, Tarabdi, leaving the garrison of Satdra and the custody
of Rd,m Raja's person to Bdburav Jddhav repaired to the Peshwa's
capital accompanied by Bimbdji Bhonsle the youngest brother of
Janoji who had attached himself to her party and married one of
her relations of the Mohite family. At Poona Tardbdi was received
with so much attention and consideration that she agreed to the
Peshwa's proposals as formerly made, provided he would promise
to accompany her to the temple of Jejuri and there solemnly swear
to abide by his present declarations. The Peshwa acquiesced on

1 Grant Duff's Mar4th^, 274 ■ 275. 2 Grant Duff's MarAthds, 281.

Deccan]

satAra.

295:

condition that B^burdv Jadhav should be dismissed to which
TAxih^i reluctantly agreed. Taking advantage of her obstinate
temper, he gained his end of keeping the Kdja a prisoner by
pretending a great desire to see him released. Rd,m Rd-ja was a
prince deficient in ordinary ability, and the miserable thraldom he
underwent during a long confinement broke his spirit and ruined
his health.^

Before Shdhu's death (1749) little improvement had taken place

in the civil administration of thecountry. Bdrlaji Bdjirdv (1740-1761 )

appointed fixed mamlatddrs or subheddrs each of whom had charge

of several districts. The territory between the Goddvari and the

Krishna including the greater part of S^tara, the best protected

, and most productive under Mardtha rule, was entrusted to the

Peshwa's favourites and courtiers some of whom were his relations.

They held absolute charge of the police, the revenue, and the civil

p,nd criminal judicature, and in most cases had power of life and

death. They were bound to furnish regular accounts, but they

always evaded settlement. They governed by deputies and remained

at court whether in the capital or in the field in attendance upon

the Peshwa. Their districts were in consequence extremely ill

managed and in very great disorder ; the supplies furnished for the

exigencies of the state were tardy, and in comparison with the

established revenues insignificant. The beginning of a better

system is ascribed to Rd.mchandra Baba Shenvi and after his death

Saddshivrd,v Bhau improved on his suggestions. BdMji Bdjirav

Peshwa was sensible of the advantage to be gained from bringing

the collectors under control. He had not sufficient energy for the

undertaking himself, but he supported his cousin's measures.

Panchdyaf.s the ordinary tribunals of civil justice began to improve,

because the supreme power if it did not always examine and

uphold their decrees, at least did not interfere to prevent the

decisions of the community. Most of the principal Brdhman

families of the Deccan date their rise from the time of BaMji

Bdjirav. In short the condition of the whole population was in

his time improved and the Mardtha peasantry sensible of the

comparative comfort which they then enjoyed have ever since

blessed the days of Ndna Sdheb Peshwa.

In 1760 the Marathas sustained the crushing defeat of Pdnipat,
and Peshwa BdUji who never recovered from that terrible blow
died in 1761. In the end of September 1761, Mddhavrdv the
second son of the Peshwa Bdlaji Bajirav, then in his seventeenth
year, went to Sdtdra accompanied by his uncle Raghundthrdv and
received investiture as Peshwa from the nominal Rdja, who
remained in precisely the same state of imprisonment under the
obdurate Tar abdi, until her death in the following December at the
age of eighty-six. To the last moment she maintained her inveterate
hatred against BdMji Bajirav and Sadashivrdv, declaring that she
died contented having lived to hear of their misfortunes in the
battle of Pdnipat and their death. The Raja's condition was

Chapter VII.

History.

MarAthIs,
1720-1848.-

Battle ofPdnipat,
1760.

Mddhavrdv

Peahwa,
1761-11173.

1 Grant Duff's Mar^thAs, 285.

[Bombay Gazetteer.
296 DISTRICTS.

Chapter VII. afterwards so far improved that he was brought from the fort

History. ^^^ suffered to live a prisoner at large in the town of Sdtdra. At

a later period, Madhavrav allowed him to appoint agents for the

Yt^^IsIs' management of his pdtil dues in several villages and the collection

of his other hereditary claims as deshmuJih of IndApur.'-

In 1762,^ Raghunathrdv, who had assumed chief control over the
young Peshwa, displaced Shrinivas Gangddhar, more commonly
known by his original name BhavAnrdv, who had succeeded his
uncle Jagjivan Pratinidhi, and raised his infant son Bhdskarrdv to
the dignity of Pratinidhi and appointed NAro Shankar Edja
Bahd,dur to the office of mutdlik, which was in effect conferring the
office of Pratinidhi upon him. In 1763, when this and other acts of
EaghunAthrav had made him unpopular, Rdja Pratdpvant Vithal
Sundar a Yajurvedi Brahman the Divan of Niz^m Ali, persuaded
his master that he had now an opportunity of completely reducing
the Mar^thds, and that his l3est policy was to overthrow the
power of the Konkani Brd,hmans, to depose Ram Rdja as unfit
to govern, and to appoint Janoji Bhonsle regent. To this scheme
JAnoji readily agreed, but Nizdm Ali, whose duplicity rendered
him true to no plan, while his minister was negotiating, secretly-
renewed a correspondence with the Rdja of Kolhlpur by which he
intended to have an eventual competitor in reserve in case Jdnoji's
claims should prove inconvenient.^ Everything seemed to promise
success. BhavdnrdiV the dispossessed Pratinidhi and many of the
Peshwa's officers joined the Moghals and hostilities were renewed.
In the war which followed Jdnoji deserted and the Moghals
being defeated entered into a treaty with Raghunathrdv, who was
much aided by the young Peshwa. Bhavanrdv was restored to the
rank of Pratinidhi upon the death of Bhaskarrdv which happened
about the same time.* Peshwa Madhavrdv after regaining his power
from Raghunathrav seized every interval of leisure to improve the
civil government of his country. In this laudable object he had
to contend with violent prejudices and with general corruption ; but
the beneficial effects of the reforms he introduced are now universally
acknowledged, and his sincere desire to protect his subjects by
the equal administration of justice reflects the highest honour on
his reign. His endeavours were aided by the celebrated Rdm
Sh^stri Parbhone a native of the village of Mahuli near SdtAra.
By 1772 the supremacy and gradual usurpation of the Sd.td,ra Raja's
authority also superseded that of the other Pradhd,ns as well as of
the Pratinidhi. Forms of respect instituted with their rank were
maintained, but they were only of importance in the state according
to the strength and resources of their hereditary jdgirs and of
a superior description of soldiery, who, on pay much inferior to
what they might elsewhere have obtained, adhered to some of
them, with that pride in their chief, which caught the fancies
of men in all countries and dignified military vassalage. Of all

' Grant Duff's UaT&th&a, 323. ' Grant Buff's MarAtMs, 327.

3 Grant Duff's MarAth^, 327. The letters were addressed to JijiMi the widow of
SambhAji who acted as regent during the minority of her adopted sou named Shivilji,
Ditto footnote. « Grant Duff's MardthSs, 330,

Deccan]

Si.Ti.RA.

297

these personages at the period of MAdhavrd,v's deaths Bhavdnrdv the
Pratinidhi was the most considerable both for the greater number
of his vassals and from his warlike character.

Mddhavrdv died in November 1772, and Nd.rd.yanrd,v his younger
brother early in December repaired to Sd,td,ra where he was invested
as Peshwa by the Rdja. Next year (1773) the commandant of Rdygad
in Koldba who was in rebellion against the Peshwa, on being required
to surrender replied that he held the fort for the Rdja of Sd,tdra and
would maintain it against the Peshwa until the Rdja was released.
On this an order was caused to be written from Ram Rdja to the
■ commandant who then surrendered the fort to the Peshwa.^ On
the murder of Ndrdyanrd.v in the same year, Amritr^v the adopted
son of Raghundthrdv attended by Bajdba Purandhare was
despatched to Sd,td.ra for the robes of office for Raghundthrdv which
were accordingly given.^ In the troubles which followed, the
ministers who had sided with Gangdbdi the widow of Ndrdyanr^v
were on the point of releasing the Rdja of Sd,tdra as a measure
calculated to insure them the aid of many of the MarAtha soldiery
who were discontented or neutral. But the retreat of Raghund,thrAv
caused them to abandon the design. In April 1 774 as a son and heir
was born to Gangdbdi, Sakhdr^m B^pu and Ndna Fadnavis were
deputed by Gangdbdi to receive the robes of office for her son which
were sent from Sdt^ra by the Rdja in charge of Mddhavrdv Nilkant
Purandhare.

3 In the reign of MMhavrav BalMl (1761-1772) Tasgaon and its
neighbourhood were taken from Kolhd,pur and added to the Peshwa's
territory as jdgirs of the Patvardhans. In 1777 they were
temporarily recovered for Kolhdpar but Mahddji Sindia succeeded
in preventing their permanent loss. At the close of this year (1777)
Rd,m Rdja died at Satara having previously adopted a son of
Trimbakji R^ja Bhonsle a pdtil of the village of V^avi a
descendant of Vithoji the brother of Mdloji the grandfather of the
great Shivdji. Trimbakji R^ja commanded a body of 200 horse
with which his son served as a shileddr when chosen as heir to a
throne and tenant of a prison. He was styled Shahu Mahard.]".*
At the same time Bhavanrdv Pratinidhi died and was succeeded by
his son Parashuram. In 1788 Bajaba Purandhare was confined in
Vandan by Nana Fadnavis as one of Raghunathrav's chief
adherents. In 1790 Parashuram Bhau was occupied near Tdsgaon
raising levies for the Maratha contingent to the army engaged
in the first English campaign against Tipu. Two battalions of
Bombay Native Infantry with Artillery arrived at Kumta near

Chapter Vir
History-

1720-1848.

N&rdyanrdv
Peshwa,

im-ms.

Death of

Sdm Rdja,

1777.

Shdhu II.,
1777-1810.

•■ Grant Daffs MarAthAs, 359. " Grant Duff's Mardthds, 362.

3 Contributed by Mr. J. W. P. Muir-Maokenzie, C. S.

^ During the time of BdlAji Bdjirdv it iiad been artfully contrived that there were
only a few families old, but of no power with whom the EAja of the Mardthds
could, intermarry. Until a long time afterwards the KAja of SAtAra would have
thought himself degraded by a marriage with the daughter of Kimbdlkar and JAdhav
although from them Shivdji was descended from the maternal line. This artifice, which
may have been managed by bribing the UpddhyAs and Shdstris, explains the reason
why it was scarcely known that ShAhn was marrited in Aurangzeb's camp to a
daughter of Sindia of Kannairkhed. Grant Duff's MarAthAs, 402 footnote.

B 1282—38

[Bombay Gazetteer,

298

DISTKICTS.

Chapter VII.
History.

MAuiTHiil,

1720-1848.

T^tgaon on the 18th of June travelling by Sangameshvar and the
Amba pass. They seem to have remained in this neighbourhood
some three weeks.

In 1792 the phantom E^ja of SAtdra gave the formality of his
permission to the Peshwa to assume the dignity of Vakil-ul-Mutlak
bestowed on him by the no less phantom Moghal emperor of Delhi,

The EAstids of Wdi seem at this time to have exercised great
influence in the court of the Peshwa at Poena where they sided
with the Brahman ministerial party against the encroachments of
Mahddji Sindia. In September 1795 Parashurdm Bhd,u, after taking
part in the battle of Kharda and the subsequent arrangements,
returned to Tdsgaon. Throughout this year^ owing to the dread
that Mahadji Sindia intended to make the Raja an instrument for
suppressing the Peshwa's and BrAhmanical ascendancy. Nana
Fadnavis almost entirely confined the Edja to the fort of Sdtdra,
where not even his relations were allowed to visit him. Parashuram
Bh^u was also summoned in haste from Tdsgaon to Poona to cope with
the difficulties which had arisen over the succession to the suicide
Peshwa Madhavr^v. Nona's proposal that Bajir^v Eaghund,th should
succeed occasioned a rupture with Sindia. On the advance of Sindia's
army Nd.Da Fadnavis repaired in alarm to S^tdra with some idea of
restoring the Raja to supremacy. But, owing to his recent treat-
ment of him, ShAhu had no confi-dence in N^na and Ndna retired
to Wai. From Wdi he returned to Satdra to receive the robes of
investiture for Chimnaji Apa the Peshwa set up by Sindia's general
Baloba Tatia as a rival to Bajirav Eaghundth, but suspecting designs
against him on the part of Bdloba, Nana remained at Wdi.
Chimndji was installed in May and a pretence made at a reconci-
liation between Nana and Bdloba. But Haripant the bringer of
the message crossed the Nira on his way to Wdi at the head of
four or five thousand horse. Nana took alarm and fled to the Konkan
throwing a strong garrison into Pratdpgad. Nana's intrigues were
successful in gaining Sindia to his cause, but his partisans in Sindia's
camp betrayed the conspiracy from want of caution and part of
them had to take refuge in the hills south of the Nira. The troops
met at WAi and shortly afterwards ten thousand men were gathered
in the Sahyddris and declared for B.ijird,v. In October the army
was joined by the regular battalions in the Peshwa's service under
Mr. Boyd. Bi,loba Tdtia was aided by Sindia and the army marched
for Poona with Nfea at its head in Bajirdv's interest. The
Patvardhan estates near Tasgaon were attacked by the Kolh^pur
Edja at Ni.na's instigation and Parashurd,m Bhdu was made
prisoner. Owing to Bdjirav's treachery this triumph was short-
lived and, in 1797, Nana was confined in Ahmadnagar. The
Rd,ja of SAtara at the same time seized the fort and confined
Nona's agent. But to the Peshwa's disgust, when Shivram N^rd,yan
Thatte came to receive charge, the R^ja, instigated by Sindia
refused to give up the fort. Madhavrav Rdstia was sent against
the Raja but had to retire to M^legaon. Parashurdm Bhd,u,
who was then confined at Wai was released on promise of quelling-
the disturbance. He soon assembled a considerable force and

Deccau.]

Si.Ti.RA

299

advanced to Sdtdra in the heigbt of the rains crossing the Vena
by an unknown ford. The Rdja had only a small force which was
overcome after a slight struggle in the suburbs. The Edja, who
had thrown himself into the fort, surrendered for want of provisions.
His brother Ohitursing escaped to Kolhapur closely pursued by a
body of Rdstia's troops joined by others of the Pratinidhi which
encamped near the Varna for more than a year. In 1798 they
were cut off almost to a man by four hundred horse reinforced from
Kolhdpur. Ohitursing next made a raid as far as Pal and took all
the guns and dispersed the whole of a force of over 2000 men
collected by RAstia. He again retreated to the Varna and kept
7000 men continually on the move throughout the Satdra territories.
The Kolhapur forces also attacked and pillaged Tdsgaon the capital of
Parashurdm Bhdu^s jdgir. Parashurdm Bhd,u was shortly afterwards
defeated and mortally wounded in the battle with the Kolhdpur
troops. This only served to concentrate all the forces of the state
in the effort to reduce Kolhdpur which was only saved by distractions
at the Peshwa's court in Poena. The southern part of S^tdra must
have formed the principal base of these operations which included
the investment of the town of Kolhapur by the armies of the
Peshwa.

In 1802, after Bdjirdv's flight from yashvantrd,v Holkar, Shahu of
Satara was reluctantly induced by the persuasion of Ohitursing to
invest Vin^yakrav the nephew of Bdjirav as Peshwa. In 1803 when
General Wellesley advanced on Poona he was joined by the
Patvardhans and Patankars among other jagird£rs of the Satara,
territory.

After the war of 1803 the territories of the Peshwa suffered
considerably from plundering insurgents and freebooters. The
distress was also aggravated by a famine in the Deccan through
deficiency of rain which destroyed vast numbers of men and horses,,
but by the end of 1804 British supremacy had restored order. Thia
year the country of the Patvardhans about Tasgaon was in a state
of considerable disturbance which was not quelled till an
arrangement was effected in the interests of Bajirav by Khanderav
EAstia. In 1805 the district was the scene of ravages by Fattehsing
M^ue a general of Holkar's with an army of 10,000 men. He was
defeated by Balvantrav Fadnavis Mutdlik of Kardd an ancestor of
the Sarddr Nardyanrdv Anant Mutdlik, aided by Chintdmanrd,Y
Patvardhan.

The young Pratinidhi, Parashurdm Shrinivd,s, was at this time
at Karhad, under the restraint of his mutdlik or deputy whose
doings were supported by the mother of the Pratinidhi and connived
at by the Peshwa. In 1806 a quarrel ensued, and BApu Gokhle the
Peshwa's general was sent with troops to enforce submission, while
the Pratinidhi was confined in the mud fort of Masur. Next
year the Pratinidhi was rescued by T^i Telin his mistress the
wife of an oil-seller. In 1807 this woman gained possession of the
fort of V^sota in the extreme west of Jd,vli and from it descended
on JVTasur and rescued the Pratinidhi. The Pratinidhi declared for^
the Rdja of Sdtdra and against the Peshwa. Many of the ppople of
the district rose with him but his excesses and inability disgusted

Chapter^ VII.

History.

MarAthAs,
1720-1848,

[Bombay Gazetteer,

300

DISTRICTS.

Chapter VII-

History.

MabIteIs,
1720-1818.

Pratdpainh,
1810- 1839.

Trimbakji Denglia's

Insurrection,

1817.

them. Bd,pu GokUe again went against himj and a slight
engagement ensued near Vasantgad. The Pratinidhi was severely
wounded and carried to Poona ; and his estates sequestrated. His
mistress still held out and BApu Gokhle had to take the hill forts
one by one advancing by the Koyna valley. He met with no
difficulty except at Vdsota which held out under TAi Telin for eight
months. In this year (1810) Shdhu the Eaja of S^tara died and
was succeeded by his son Pratapsinh. Bapu Gokhle was allowed by
the Peshwa to take all the benefit of these conquests. He levied
heavy exactions over the whole district and seized all the Pratiiiidhi's
jewels and private property. In 1811 the Peshwa demanded back
his territory, which, with that usurped by the Patvardhans and
Eastias, was brought under his control by British influence, while
Rdstia's estate was finally sequestrated by him in 1815. The same
year Trimbakji Denglia was sent into confinement at Vasantgad
for instigating the murder of Gangddhar Shdstri the Baroda
minister, and was then delivered to the custody of the British
Government. He afterwards escaped and infested among other
places the Mahddev hills supported by the Mdngs and Rdmoshis.

In 1812 the Peshwa had seized Ohitursing the younger brother
of the late Raja. On pretence of rescuing Ohitursing a Gosavi of
the same name took up arms and in 1816 obtained possession of
Prachitgad by stratagem. He also took many of the forts, and
with fhe ostensible purpose of setting up the Sd,tara R^ja, plundered
the district without mercy. Next year (1817) occurred the
pretended insurrection which was the beginning of Bajirdv's open
hostility to the British Government.

Trimbakji Denglia on being given up to the British Government
was confined in Thana. He escaped and retired to the hills near
Shingndpur in east Satara. Early in January 1817 he was at
Phaltan, and constantly changing his residence between that place
and Pandharpur, extended his range as far as the Mahimangad and
Tdthvad forts. On the 29th January he had 500 men near Berad in
Phaltan and Nateputa in Md,lsiras, 300 near Shingnd,pur, 600 near
Mahimangad, and 400 near Phaltan, a total of 1800 men alniost
all foot and the bulk of them Mangs and Rdmoshis. Up to the
iSth of February cavalry and infantry continued to join them near
Shingnapur while the 18th of March was fixed for the outbreak.
Trimbakji's head-quarters were at Berad in Phaltan, where he used
to sleep in the forest guarded by five hundred Rdmoshis, In spite
of the large number of troops who were collected, the Peshwa
denied the existence of any insurrection or gathering of armed
men, and though he sent B^pu Gokhle into the district with
troops they professed to hear no n'ews of insurgents. On the
7th of March after the serious messages addressed to the Peshwa by
Mr. Elphinstone the troops were partly dispersed. In April the
operations of Colonel Smith drove the insurgents from their haunts
in Shingnapur, aud_ when Colonel Smith left for Poona, a
detachment under Major MacDonald prevented their remaining in
Mdn or the Jath state. In Ma.y Pandugad was taken by the,
so-called rebels. But Mr. Elphinstone suspected collusion on the

Deccan/

sItIra.

301

part of the Peshwa's officers for the purpose of eventually

delivering the forts to Trimbakji. The Peshwa made the rising a

pretext for gaining Mr. Blphinstone's acquiesence to his taking the

forts while his forces assembled near Sdtara. The Peshwa's plan

was thought to be to retire to Sd,ti.ra with his brotherj with whom

he had eilected a reconciliation, and thence to Vdsota or to Dhd.rwdr

in the Karndtak with a force of 10,000 horse and foot under Nd,ropant

Apte. He relied on a successful resort to the old Mard.tha style

of warfare as well as on the improbability, as he believed, of

the English proceeding to extremities. In May followed the

treaty of Poena and subsequently General Smith's troops were

drawn to the North Deccan in operations against the Pendhdris.

Soon after the Peshwa had an interview with Sir John Malcolm at

Mahuli at which Sir John misled by the Peshwa's professions

advised him to recruit his army. All this time the Peshwa was

actively engaged in his schemes against the British Government,

and while at Mdhuli appointed Gokhle leader of all his measures,

investing him with full powers of government by a formal writing

under his own seal confirmed with an oath. He did this not only

in pursuance of his own policy, but also as security to the chiefs

who were afraid to stand by him on account of his insincerity and

vacillation. To aid his preparations Bdjirdv gave Gokhle as much

as a million sterling, and he made the RAja of Sd,tAra privy to his

designs against the English, but from fear of his not co-operating

sent him and his family to Vdsota a remote hill fort on the edge of

the Sahyadris. The recruiting and arming of forts rapidly proceeded,

the Peshwa returned to Poena, and his power was destroyed on the

5th of November in the battle of Kirkee. General Smith arrived

at Kirkee on the 13th and took Poena on the 17th. The Peshwa

fled towards Satara. After securing Poena General Smith followed

on the 22nd. On the 26th he reached the Sd,lpi pass, halted there

on the 27th, and on the 28th ascended the pass without opposition.

On the top he was attacked by six hundred horse with a few rockets.

But the advance soon drove them back with loss. They gathered

strength as they retired, and towards the close of the march

showed three to five thousand on the front and as many more in the

rear. Gallopper guns, that is light field pieces, were opened in the

evening with great effect. The second battalion of the 9th Regiment

under Major Thacker had the rear guard and masked a gallopper

gun under a division of auxiliaries which the enemy were preparing

to charge. It opened with grape and did great execution.

Throughout the day the enemy lost about one hundred and twenty

men while General Smith had only one havilddr and a sepoy slightly

wounded. The next day the enemy was very shy, but in the evening

showed about five thousand horse out of range. Taking advantage

of a rise in the ground the guns were pushed on within range. They

opened with great effect upon the enemy who were ready formed and

inflicted a loss of many men and horses. The only difficulties were

that the enemy would not fight and that there was a want of cavalry

to keep them at a distance, while the grain supplies for the followers

ran short, and owing to the close order which had to be kept on the

marches which began at two or three in the morning, the camps

Chapter VII.

History.

MarIthAs,
1720-1848.

Imprisoned in
Vdsoia,

Battle of Kirkee,

5th November

1817.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

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DISTRICTS.

Chapter VII.

History.

MabIthAs,
1720-1848.

PursuH of

the Peshwa,

1818.

could not be reacted till two or three in the afternoon. G-eneral
Smith was now close on the Peshwa who till then.had remained
at Mahuli. From MahuH Bdjir^v fled to Pandharpur. He had sent
for the Rdja of Sd,tara from Vdsota but had to start before he
arrived. It was not till the middle of December that he was joined
by the Rdja and four thousand horse under Naropant Apte which
had escorted the Rija from Vasota. The Peshwa after going as far
north as Junnar again turned south and the Rnja was with the
Peshwa at the famous battle of Koregaon on the Bhima river. On
the 5th of January 1818 the Peshwa was fleeing towards Sdtaraand
General Pritzler taking up the pursuit marched direct upon Mdhuli
by the Sd,lpi pass. He caught a body of the enemy on the 8th of
January close to Sdtdra and killed and wounded sixty men^ and took
thirty horses and six prisoners. On the 12th General Smith was
near Phaltan and was moving south-east towards Shingndpur where
he intended to cross the Mdn near Marde opposite Mhasvad.
Thus he and General Pritzler pursued the Peshwa in hopes
of intercepting him if he again turned north. General Smith was
just outside the eastern boundary of the district while General
Pritzler went by the usual route to Tdsgaon. On the 17th of
January about ten thousand horse of Gokhle's army in two
divisions attempted a reconnaissance of General Pritzler's camp.
The cavalry under Major Doveton charged them three times and put
them to flight, their loss being forty killed and wounded. The day
after part of Pritzler's army was placed under General Smith while
Pritzler still moved down the right bank of the Krishna. About
the same time the Peshwa turned north and passing 'Pritzler to the
west reached Karhad on the 23rd. On the 23rd General Smith
who had turned northwards after the Peshwa reached Kavta two
miles south of Tdsgaon. About half-way on the march his rear guard
was closely pressed by the whole of the enemy's light division not
less than fifteen thousand strong and commanded by Appa Desdi,
Trimbakji Denglia, the Vinchurkar, several of the Patvardhans, and
Gokhle himself. The ground being confined and intersected by
water-courses they took ground and moved out to drive off the
enemy. The latter kept their ground firmly for some time
behaving with much more spirit than usual. Five six-pounders and
a howitzer were kept firing on them for some time and their losses
were considerable. Meanwhile the Peshwa had succeeded in
passing General Pritzler and his force in the west and on the 23rd
was at Karhdd. By the 27th General Smith's division had reached
Pusesd,vli while the Peshwa was six miles from MAhuli. The enemy
under Gokhle five thousand strong contented themselves with
harassing the troops on the march. General Smith was only six
miles from Mdhuli by sunset the next day. The Peshwa had arrived
at noon. He left at one in the morning of the 29th and did not
stop till he reached Hanbad six miles from the Nira bridge. Here
his advance guard fell in with a force under Captain Boles. He
instantly moved on and at 8 p.m. reached Phaltan leaving many
tired men and camels at Hanbad. He only stayed two hours at
Phaltan and marched again in the direction of Pusesd,vli. He
halted about sixteen miles further on. He had marehed about

Decctln.]

SiTiRA.

303

eighty miles iu forty hours and in consequence had got separated
from his baggage. He afterwards turned south-east and on the
30th reached N4teputa. Smith started in pursuit of the Peshwa on
the 29th. The light division of Gokhle's force attempted to pass
him by the short route by Koregaon in order to join the Peshwa
but he managed to intercept them and they had to take a more
circuitous route further west, as General Smith neared the Salpi pass.
Part of them made another push at a point where the valley is
some five or six miles wide, probably not far from Deur. General
Smith had just pitched his camp. The enemy was advancing
along the opposite side of the valley. The 2nd Cavalry and the
Horse Artillery supported by the Grenadiers of the 65th Regiment
and part of the Light Infantry were immediately ordered under
arms and proceeded with the intention of cutting off this body as
they passed between them and the hills. Seeing this the enemy kept
close under the hills and upon the advance of the cavalry and horse
artillery at a gallop fled in the greatest consternation to avoid the
charge. Their rear was driven back by the road by which they were
advancing, while the main body pushed on at speed for some miles.
A few with part of the baggage which had preceded the horse took
refuge in the hills and numbers crawled up to the top by a path which
from below appeared almost perpendicular. The grenadiers and part of
the Light Battalion went up and took part of what remained, killing
such of the armed men as offered resistance. The rest under Gokhle
moved by the Khdmatki pass and was joined next day by a body
of troops from the eastward below the pass. After ^waiting at
Khandala Gokhle again retired above the Khdmatki pass. On the
30th General Smith joined Colonel Boles with his reserve at Lonand.
He had marched five hundred and seventy miles in forty days with
only three halts. General Pritzler returned by the same route after
having been driven as far as Galgala in Bijdpur, and had marched
three hundred miles in eighteen days and altogether twenty-three
days without a halt. It was determined to effect a meeting. With
this object General Smith again moved south on the 4th of February
and reached Rahimatpuron the (ith. Here General Pritzler joined
him from the south and on the 8th the united force went to Sdtara,
and the fort surrendered on the 10th. The British colours were
hoisted, but only to be replaced by the Bhagva Jhenda or ancient
standard of ShivAji.

On this occasion Mr. Elphinstone who, since the battle of
Kirkee had been the chief political officer in the Deccan, published
the following manifesto : That in 1796 from the time when
Bajirdv ascended the throne, his country had been a prey to faction
and rebellion and there was no efficient government to protect the
people. That in 1802 when Bajirdv was driven from Poona he took
refuge at Bassein, and entering into an alliance with the British
Government, early in 1803 was restored to his full authority and
the supremacy of the British in the Deccan ensured peace. In 1803
when Bd/jirdv was restored the country, was wasted by war and famine,
the people were reduced to misery, and the government drew scarcely
any revenue from its lands. Prom that time, through British protection,
in spite of the farming system and the exactions of B^jirdv'a

Chapter VII.

History.

MaKathas,
1720-1848.

Pursuit of the

Peahwa,

1818.

Sdtdra surrendered

to the British,

10th Feby. 1818.

Mr. Elphinstone's
Manifesto.

[Bombay Gazetteer,.

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DISTRICTS.

Chapter VII.

History.

MabAthAs,
1720-1848,

Mr, Elphinatone^a
Mamfesto.

officers, tte country had completely recovered, and Bdjirdv had
accumulated those treasures which he was now employing against his
benefactors. The British Government not only kept peace within
the Peshwa's possessions but maintained his rights against his
enemies abroad. It could not, without injury to the rights of
others, restore his authority over the Maratha chiefs, which
had expired long before its alliance with him, but it paid the
greatest attention to satisfy his admissible demands and in spite
of many difficulties succeeded in adjusting some and putting
others in a train of settlement. Among these were Bajirdv's
claims on the Graikwdr. The British Government had prevailed
on the Gdikwdr to send his prime minister to settle Bajirdv's
demands, and they were on the eve of adjustment with great profit
to the Peshwa, when Gangadhar Shdstri the Gaikw£r's agent was
murdered by Trimbakji Denglia, the Peshwa's minister, while in
actual attendance on his court and during the solemn pilgrimage
of Pandharpur. Strong suspicions rested on Bajirav, who was
accused by the voice of the whole country, but the British
Government unwilling to credit such a charge against a prince and
an ally contented itself with demanding the punishment of Trimbakji.
This was refused until the British Government had marched an
army to support its demands. Yet it made no claim on the Peshwa
for its expenses and infficted no punishment for his protection of
a murderer ; it simply required the surrender of the criminal, and
on Bajirdv's compliance it restored him to the undiminished
enjoyment of all the benefits of the alliance. Notwithstanding this
generosity Bdjirdv immediately began a new system of intrigues
and used every exertion to turn all the power of India against the
British Government. At length he gave the signal for disturbances
by fomenting an insurrection in his own dominions, and prepared
to support the insurgents by open force. The British Government
had no remedy but to arm in turn. Its troops entered
Bdjirdv's territories at all points and surrounded him in his capital
before any of those with whom he had intrigued had time to stir.
BAjirdv's life was in the hands of the British Government, but that
Government, moved by Bdjirdv's professions of gratitude for past
favours and of entire dependence on its moderation, once more
resolved to continue him on his throne, after imposing such terms
on him as might secure it from his future perfidy. The principal
of these terms was a commutation of the contingent which
the Peshwa was bound to furnish for money equal to the pay
of a similar body of troops. When this was agreed to the British
Government restored BSjirdv to its friendship and proceeded to
settle the Pendhdris who had so long been the pest of the peaceable
inhabitants of India and of none more than of the Peshwa's subjects.
Bajirdv affected to enter with zeal into an enterprise so worthy of a
great government. He assembled a large army on pretence of
cordially aiding in the contest, but, in the midst of his professions, he
spared neither pains nor money to engage the powers of Hindustan
to combine againsb the British. No sooner had the British troops
marched towards the haunts of the Pendhiiris, than he seized the
opportunity to begin war without a declaration and without even

DeccauJ

sItIra.

305

an alleged ground of complaint. He attacked and burnt the house
of the British Resident, contrary to the laws of nations and the
practice of India, plundered and seized peaceable travellers, and
put two British officers to an ignominious death. Bdjirdv himself
found the last transaction too barbarous to avow ; but, as the
perpetrators were still unpunished and kept their command in his
army, the guilt remained with him. After the beginning of the war,
Bajirav threw ofE the mask regarding the murder of Gangddhar
Shastri and avowed his participation in the crime by uniting his
cause with that of the murderer. That by these acts of perfidy and
violence, Bdjirdv had compelled the British Grovernment to drive
him from power and to conquer his dominions. For this purpose
a force had gone in pursuit of Bdjirav which would allow him no
rest, a second was employed in taking his forts, a third had arrived
by way of Ahmadnagar, and the greatest force of all was entering
Khandesh under the personal command of His Excellency Sir
Thomas Hislop. A force under General Munro was reducing the
Karndtak and a force from Bombay was taking the forts in the
Konkan and occupying that country. In a short time no trace of
Bd,jir^v would remain. The Raja of Sdtara, who had always been a
prisoner in B^jirdv's hands, would be released and placed at the head
of an independent state of such an extent as might maintain the Raja
and his family in comfort and dignity. With this view the fort of
Satara had been taken, the Raja's flag had been set up in it, and
his former ministers had been called into employment. Whatever
country was assigned to the R^ja would be administered by him
and he would be bound to establish justice and order. The rest of
the country would be held by the Honourable Company. The
revenue would be collected for the Government, but all real and
personal property would be secured. All vatan and indm or heredi-
tary lands, varshdsans or yearly stipends, and all religious and chari-
table establishments weuld be protected, and all religious sects
tolerated and their customs maintained as far as was just and
reasonable. The revenue -farming system was abolished. Officers
should beforthwithappointedtocollecta regular andmoderate revenue
on the part of the British Government, to administer justice, and to
encourage the cultivators of the soil. They would be authorized to
allow remissions in consideration of the circumstances of the times.
AH persons were forbidden paying revenue to BdjirSv or his adherents
or aiding them in any way. No reduction would be made from
the revenue on account of such payments, Vatanddrs and other
holders of land were required to quit his standard and return to their
villages within two months. The Jaminddrs would report the
names of those who remained and all who failed to appear in that
time would forfeit their lands and would be pursued without remission
until they were crushed. All whether belonging to the enemy or
otherwise, who might attempt to lay waste the country or to plunder
the roads would be put to death whenever they were found.

^Rdja PratSpsinh was established in Sd,tAra,and Captain Grant Duff
the author of the History of the Mard,thds, was placed with him to

Chapter VII.

History.

MaeAthAs,
1720-1848.

Mr. Mphintsone'i

Pratdpsinh

Restored,

March 1818.

B 1282— 39-i-

1 Slacker's Mardtha War, 256.

[Bombay Gazetteer

306

DISTRICTS.

Chapter VII.

History.

MarAthas,
1720-1848.

aid his councils and direct Ms conduct. The family whOj without
in any way aiding or proving useful to the British, had been raised
from hereditary confinement to power, included, besides Prat^psinh
who was in the prime of life, two brothers Chatursing and Shdhaji
and their mother. Pratpfcinh was described as dull and
unschooled with little knowledge of the world and apparently with no
knowledge of Mar^tha history. His mother, who was more ambitious,
made large claims stating that she expected that the family would
be re-established on the footing it enjoyed in its time of greatest
fortune.^ ,

Onthe29thofMarohl818aftera twodays' halt part of the reserve
marched from Sd.tara and on the 30th camped at some distance on the
high road towards VdrSota^ which had been Pratapsinh's prison and
where some of his family were still confined. Vdsota stands on one of
the Sahyadri hills about 3000 feet high on the Konkan side and about
2000 feet above the Deccan plain. Like most Mardtha hill-forts it
was commanded from neighbouring hills. Its greatest strength lay in
its height and in the difiSculty of approach. In almost every direction
it was surrounded by inaccessible mountains, except a few passes so
narrow and rugged as to be easily defended, and extremely difii cult
though in no way strengthened by art,^ On the 31st, under Colonel
Hewett's command, a detachment of six companies of the European
flank battalion, two companies of llifles, and flank companies of the

1 On the 29th of March 1818, Mr. Elphinstone rode with the KAja through the
lower part of the valley of SAt^ra. Groves of mango trees, clumps of cocoa-palms so
uncommon above the Sahyidris, here and there fine tamarind or ;)impai trees throwing
their deep shade over a temple by the Krishna, and the picturesque hills that surrounded
the whole made this the finest part of the Peshwa's country, if not of India. The
fiaja went into SAt^ra with the pomp of a prince and the delight of a schoolboy.
Colebrooke's Elphinstone, II. 30.

2 Slacker's Maritha War, 295-298. The force assembled tor this service included two
corps of Europeans, the flank battalion of the Bombay Europeanregiment, half ahattalion
of European Rifles, four battalions of Native Infantry of the line, that is the 2nd
battalion of the 12th Madras, the 2nd battalion of the 7th, and the 2nd battalion of the
9th Bombay, and an auxiliary battalion from Poona. To this force was attached 700
Poona AuxiliaryHorse and four companies of Pioneers. The ordnance included twenty-
nine pieces, of which four were iron eighteen-pounders and two were iron twelve-
pounders. There were one ten-inch and four eight-inch mortars, two heavy five and a
half inch howitzers, and two brass twelve-pounders. The rest were field guns and hght
howitzers. Colonel Dalrymple of the Madras establishment commanded the artillery
of which there were 270 Europeans'and 317 Natives of both Presidencies, Captain
Nutt of the Bombay establishment was chief engineer.

3 From the camp near Sudoli, twelve mEes from VAsota, Mr. Elphinstone wrote
(3rd April) : The pass is now a good open road to the top. The scenery was less
romantic and the fort less alarming than before. The descent was worse than the
ascent. Along the bank of the Koyna, where there was a good road, there were
occasionally fine views of the water bordered with trees and surrounded by woody
hills. The scenery was romantic. Dr. Coats compared it to Malabar and General
Pritzler to St. Domingo. The road to Vdsota lay along a valley between high
mountains and was quite secluded, as if no one were within a hundred miles. The
hill sides had a variety of summits and ravines. In some places were craggy rocks
intermingled with trees ; in others appeared smooth summits covered with the richest
and greenest foliage : in some the forest was on fire and gusts of smoke drawn through
the leafless trees; in others the fire was spent and there remained only the blackened
ground and scorched trunks. Towards the west of the valley the bottom and sides
of the hills were covered with brushwood or with tall pine-like trees, but all the upper
part of the mountain was bare rock or withered grass. The whole was closed by
Vdsota. Colebrooke's Elphinstone, II. 31-32.

Decoan.]

sItAra.

307

2nd battalion of tlie 12tli and 7th Bombay Native Infantry, was
sent forward to Vdsota about twenty miles west of Sdtdra. In
tbe afternoon Colonel Hewett's detacbment reached Induli a small
village within two miles and a half of Vasota, and drove in an outpost
of the garrison. Two companies of the Seventh were left in
possession of the fort, and the rest of the force returned to Tdmbia,
five miles from Vdsota as there was no nearer place fit for
encampment. The investment was put ofE till the first of April,
when three outposts were established, one at old Vasota distant
700 yards and commanding the place, the second at the same
distance and commanding the road to the gateway, and the
third to the right of it distant no more than 400 yards from the
walls. A summons was sent to the commandant, but it was
refused admittance. On the first and second all the Pioneers and
litter-bearers were engaged in making a road. On the 3rd, the
head-quarters of the division were moved forward to Tdmbia, and
with the help of elephants the mortars and howitzers were brought
across the hills to the same place. Next day a strong working
party was employed on the pathway to old Vasota to complete the
work begun on the first, and some light guns and ammunition were
got up. The Rdja Pratapsinh, some of whose family were prisoners
in the fort, arrived in the camp, and a detachment of rifles and
auxiliary horse was sent into the forests to search for eighteen
elephants which their keepers had carried off from Pandugad
immediately before that place was reduced. On the fifth the battery
from old Vasota opened with good effect and one of the largest
buildings in the fort was fired by the bombardment. The garrison
returned a few shots from their large guns, but kept up an
unremitting fire from their wall-pieces and small arms and were all
day busily employed in improving their defences. The bombardment
continued on the 6 th. As it was found that the arrangements
were insufficient to intimidate the commandant the Pioneers
were directed to complete the road from the camp for the advance
of the battering guns. This proved unnecessary. On the following
morning the garrison surrendered unconditionally and a company
of Bombay Native Infantry took possession of the fort. The loss
of the enemy amounted to seventeen killed and wounded and that
of the British force to only four. Among the prisoners set free
were two officers Cornets Morison and Hunter, who were restored to
freedom after an almost hopeless confinement. They were the first
to meet the party advancing to receive possession of the place,
among whom were some intimate friends, but so greatly had their
past hardships changed them that they were scarcely recognized. The
members of Prat4psinh's family were also set free and accompanied the
chief to Sat^ra, Much importance was attached to the fall of Vasota
which was one of the Peshwa's treasure-houses and one of his strongest
forts. The 7th was spent in the removal of the mortars and guns
from the batteries back to the park and in preparing to re-cross the
mountains. The passage was effected during the two following days
and on the 10th the force returned to S^tdra having reduced the
fortress of Parli by detaching a party of infantry under a native
officer to whom it surrendered. The detachment of rifles and.

ChaptMVII
History.

MAKiTHiS,

1720-1848.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

308

DISTRICTS.

Chapter VII.

History.

i/LARA-inks,
1720-1848.

auxiliary horse, -which had been sent off a few days before rejoined
with the elephants they had gone in search of, after a long and most
fatiguing march among the hills. With the usual ceremonies,
which the general and the leading oiBcers attended, the Commissioner
formally seated Pratapsinh on the masnad or pillow of state.
On the 11th of May a halt was called during which visits of
ceremony were exchanged with the lli5ja, and on the 12th the
force began its return southward by the valley of the upper Krishna
to reduce more forts during its progress to join Brigadier-General
Munro from S^tara. On the 13th of May the encampment was at
Masur, which, as well as the hill fortress of Vasantgad, surrendered
in the course of the day. On arriving at Karhad on the 14th the
garrison of Kole and Sadashivgad abandoned those places. At
Kopargaon, on the following day, the submissions of Machhindragad,
Battis Shird,la,Isldmpur, Vd,nghi, and Valva, -flfere received. Garrisons
were established in all these as well as in other places. Prom
Vdlva the force marched without halt by Isl^mpur, Ashte, and
Siredvar, to Nagar Manoli, General Mnnro's head-quarters which
were reached on the 22nd. Dategad, Makrangad, Pratapgad,
Bhairavgad, and Jangli Jdygad, also surrendered. The rapid fall of
so many places bore out the truth of the well-known saying that
forts quickly fall when there is no army to keep the field. The
garrisons seemed to want only a pretence for surrendering.

Strong military forces were stationed at Sdtd,ra and Karhdd.
Shortly after a conspiracy was discovered for the release of Chitursing,
the murder of all Europeans at Sdtara and Poena, the surprise of
some of the principal forts, and the possession of the Edja's person.
The plot was suppressed and several of the conspirators executed.
On the 25th of September 1819 a treaty was concluded under which
Pratapsinh agreed to hold his territory in subordinate co-operation
with the British Government. He 'was neither to increase nor to
diminish his military force without its sanction, and as a
fundamental condition he was positively forbidden to hold any inter-
course with persons not his subjects except through the Resident at
Sdtdra. The British Government charged itself with the defence of
his territory which was to be managed by a British Agent till the Rdja
had acquainted himself with the business of government.^ Their lands
were restored to the great Jagdrd^rs and in most cases at their own
request they were placed under the Raja of Sd.t^ra. By the treaty of
1819 Raja Pratapsinh was formally installed as ruler of a territory
which included the whole of the present district of Sd,td.ra except
the sub-division of Tasgaon which then formed part of the
Patvardhan estates. The Satara chief held in addition what are
now the sub-divisions of SAngola, Mdlsiras, and Pandharpur in
Sholdpur, and part of the Bijapur district in the neighbourhood of
3,nd including the city of Bijapur.

Captain Grant Duff found Pratdpsinh naturally intelligent and
well disposed, but surrounded by profligate men bred among
intrigues and ignorant of every thing except court etiquette.^ All
went well so long as Captain Duff remained in sole charge. In

I Grant Duff'g Mardthas, 682.

= Grant Duff's Mar4th*s, 678,

BeccanJ

SAtARA. 309

1822 Pratdpsini. was freed from tutelagSj and a fresh treaty was Chapter VII

concluded in which especial stress was laid on the articles regarding History.

foreign intercourse. For a time things went well. In 1829 Sir

John Malcolm admired the condition of the country, the chief's 1720^1848.'

devotion to business, and his promotion of useful works. The chief

made a road to Mahd,baleshvar and part of that to Poona by the Salpi

pass. He also provided funds for the dam and lake at Mahabaleshvar,

and at Sdtdra he made the water works by which the town is

supplied from springs in the neighbouring hills of Yavteshvar.

He built some large public" offices and a fine palace and pleasure

gardens and arranged that his territory should be surveyed by

Captain Adams.

In 1825 Bishop Heber wrote that the chief was a well disposed
young man of good understanding. His country was peaceable,
orderly, and as prosperous as could be expected after the famine.
He was so ardent a professed lover of peace as almost to bring his
sincerity in question.^ In November 1826 Mr.' Elphinston wrote :
He is the most civilized Mardtha I ever met, has his country in
excellent order, and everything to his roads and aqueducts in a
style that would credit a European. T was more struck with his
private sitting room than anything I saw at Sdtdra. It contains
a single table covered with green velvet at which the descendant
of Shivdji sits in a chair and writes letters as well as a journal of bis
transactions with his own hand.^ All this time stirred on by those
around him and imbued with an exaggerated idea of his importance
Pratapsinh became impatient of control. General Briggs who
succeeded Captain Grant Duff found Pratdpsinh impracticable and
retired. Colonel Robertson the next Resident never interfered, and
Colonel Lodwick seldom, and when he did with little effect. Bdlaji-
pant NAtu in November 1835 informed Colonel Lodwick that
Pratdpsinh was in the habit of talking of the probable fall of the
British Government and making other treasonable remarks. Baldji
had also heard rumours of a plot among the chiefs which he
thought that Pratdpsinh might be induced to join. Colonel
Lodwick regarded these accusations as the result of intrigue and
did not report them to Government. According to General Lodwick
the Raja's feelings were embittered by delay in settling the question
of his rights to the lapsed estates of the great Jdgirdars, and that
he was further annoyed by the Governor's refusal to • visit him at
Sdtdra. He sent an agent to the Court of Directors, and, contrary
to the terms of the 1822 treaty, without the Resident's knowledge.
He communicated direct with various Europeans and natives in
Bombay. His disloyalty and bad faith went further. His minister
Govindrav was employed to interview Shaikh Gulamsing and Gulj^r
Missar two Subheddrs of the 23rd Regiment then at Sdtara and
tempt them from their allegiance. On the 21st of July 1836 one
AntAjipant took the Subheddrs to the minister's house, and
they were shown to Pratdpsinh who secretly recognised them.
Ten days later Antdji told them that the Raja called them to a

1 Journal, 11,212. ' Colebrooke's Elphlnstone, II. 187-188.

[Bombay Gaietteer.

310

DISTUICTS

Chapter VII.

History.

Maratbas,
1720-1848.

Pratdpsinh's
Plots.

private interview. During August matters went no further. On
the 8th of September the Snbhedars were summoned in disguise
to the R^ja who told them that the signal for rising was to be
disturbances in Bombay and Belgaum, the arrival at S^tdra of an
army from Haidarabad, and at the Narbada of an army from
Hindustan. On the 18th of September Antdji met the Subheddrs
for the last time and had a long and treasonable conversation with
them. Next day Antd,ji was enticed into the lines and arrested, and
when Pratdpsinh was told of the accusations against him the
minister was given up. On the 10th of October 1836 a commission
consisting of Colonel Ovans, Mr. Willoughbyj and the Resident
Colonel Lodwick met to inquire into the extent of the conspiracy
and of the Rdja's connection with it. The Commission fully believed
the Subheddrs' statements. They were satisfied that PratApsinh
secretly recognized the Subheddrs and afterwards held
private and treasonable conversations with them. That Prat^psinh
was party to a conspiracy was proved beyond doubt. As to the
extent of the conspiracy, it appeared that during the interview hints
were thrown out of aid from Sindia and of a Moghal emissary.
Some attempt also was made to show that Pratd,psinh had been
in communication with Mudaji Bhonsle the ex-Rdja of Nd,gpur,
and that he even thought of corresponding with Russia. The
commission rejected the evidence of so widespread a plot, as
untrustworthy, and held that, though there could be no doubt of
the RAja's hostile feelings to the British Government, he had no
defined or intelligible plan of action. Much of his disloyal conduct
was due to exaggerated notions of his consequence and to the
designs of evil men by whom he was surrounded. Of the minister
Govindr^v's and the Brdhman AntAji's guilt there could be no doubt.
Both were imprisoned, the minister at Ahmadnagar.

Next year (1837), through his mother Girjabdi, the minister made
disclosures which proved that, contrary to the belief of the
Commission, Pratdpsinh had communicated both with the Viceroy of
Goa and with Apa Sdheb the ex-Rd.ja of Nd,gpur. The Goa intrigues
had begun as far back as 1826-27 when a certain NAgo Devrdv was
sent to Goa to conduct communications with the Portuguese Viceroy
Dom Manoel. In that year a draft treaty was prepared at Sdtdra.
Negotiations were continued till 1828-29, and an agent named
Erculano Dettora was sent to Satdra to ascertain whether Pratdpsinh
acknowledged Nago Devrdv as his agent. He returned with presents
and satisfactory assurances from Pratapsinh. The object of the
intrigues with Goa was to enter into an offensive and defensive
alliance with Portugal against the British Government. The
principal conditions of the alliance proposed by Pratapsinh were :
That Portugal was to furnish an army for the recovery of the
territories which formerly belonged to the Marathd,s ; that
Pratapsinh was to bear the cost of the army, and that when the
conquest was completed the Portuguese were to be rewarded in
money and territory and a portion of their army was to be subsidised
at Sdtdra. The evidence shows that Pratapsinh hoped to gain
possession of the whole territories which had been under the last
Peshwa Bdjirdv and additional conquests in Southern India, The

DeccanO

sItIra.

311

idea was also entertained of uniting France, Russia, and Austria
in the alliance against the English. No doubt remained that
Prat^psinh, and probably the agents on his side, believed that their
scheme was feasible, and that the Portuguese Viceroy and his agents,
besides their feeling of hostility to the English, encouraged and
continued the plot for the sake of Pratdpsinh's large disbursements.
The last act of this intrigue was a mission of Mddhavrdv Shirke on
the departure of Dom Manoel in 1835-36. The whole was disclosed
by voluntary information after the seizure of the minister^ GovindrAv
m the Subheddrs' case. The third intrigue was with Apa Sd,heb
ex-EAja of Nagpur. Though he was destitute and under restraint in
Jodhpur, the proposal was that Apa Saheb should raise £200,000
(Rs.20 lakhs) to enable the Portuguese to replace him in power. At
bd,tdra the intention to link this with the Goa conspiracy was evident,
but no direct communications between Goa and Jodhpur were proved.
One Apa Siiheb Mahadik of Tdrle took a sword of the Bhonsles to
Apa Sdheb at Jodhpur and brought back a mare and letters.
The exchange of letters lasted over about eight years, and the
correspondence ceased only with the seizure of the minister
Govindrdv at which time a messenger of Apa Sdheb was found hid
at a village near Sd,tAra. In addition undoubtedly genuine letters
were discovered from Pratapsinh to the native soldiery urging
them to rise. Though both the Government of India and the Court
of Directors held the evidence of Pratapsinh's guilt complete a
long interval of much intrigue both in India and in England passed
before Pratdpsinh was called for a final explanation of his conduct.
In a vague and unsatisfactory reply, Pratapsinh made no real
attempt to meet the charges which had been brought against him.
Sir James Carnac Governor of Bombay (1839-1841) more than once
asked him to bind himself strictly and in good faith to act up to
the articles of 1819. Pratapsinh refused to promise even this. To
agree, he said, would lower him to the position, of a mamlatdar.
It was felt that the chief had shown such ingratitude and ill-feeling
towards the British Government, and that he was so full of absurd
ambitions and pretensions that it would be misplaced clemency to
overlook his treason and his want of contrition. On the 5th of
September 1839 Pratdpsinh was deposed. Lord Auckland the
Governor General, proposed that the Company should resume the
state. But the Court of Directors decided to give it into the hands
of the Rdja's younger brother ShdhAji as the other brother, the
gallant Chitursing, had died in 1821. The Edja was sent to Benares
and died there in 1847. The chief commander Bdlasdheb, who
was as deeply involved in the intrigues as his master, was also sent
to Benares and died on the journey.

In spite of the clearness and completeness of the evidence against
Pratapsinh every effort was made to discredit the discoveries of the
Resident Colonel Ovans. The principal informants, even Colonel
Ovans himself. Were accused before the Court of Directors of taking
bribes to trump up a case against Pratd,psinh, and the chief papers
were said to be forgeries. Shdhaji the successor to the chief ship hated
his brother Pratdpsinh, and Pratd,psinh's advocates declared that many

Chapter VII

History.

MaeathAs,
1720-1848,

Pratdpsinh

Deposed,

5th Sept. 1S39.

Shdhdji,
1S39 - 184S.

[Bombay Gazetteer,,,

312

DISTEICTS.

Chapter VII.

History.

Maeathas,
1720-1848.

SlidJidji's
Public Worhs.

of the accusations brought against their client were due to Shdh^ji'sn
malice and ambition. Pratdpsinh's case was taken up by a pensioner
of the Bombay Government named Mylne, several proprietors of
Bast India Stock, and General Lodwick the former Eesident of
Sdtdra. The cry reached Parliament. But the explanations of
Colonel Ovans and his colleagues in the Commission of 1836 were
entirely satisfactory. Nothing came of the agitation except three
years' delay between Pratdpsinh's conviction and his punishment.

Till the end Pratdpsinh's management of the state was excellent.
His strength and practical sense as a governor deepen the disgrace
of his political crimes. His schemes, however unlikely to succeed,
were neither the blind follies of an ignorant tool nor the empty
aspirations of a visionary.

After his succession to power Shahi,]i's excellent character
and loyalty to the British Government strongly contrasted with
Pratdpsinh's family and political crimes. Under a treaty dated the
4th of September 1839 all the provisions of the treaty of 1819
not expressly repealed were confirmed. The chief change was
that the great estate-holders or jdgtrddrs were placed under the
direct control of, the British Government instead of under the
chief of S^tdra. Shahd,ji built and supported a civil hospital and
schools and was liberal in expenditure on roads, bridges, and other
public works which were executed out of the balance found in
Pratdpsinh's treasury and by savings in the military establishment.
He abolished transit duties and introduced the Company's rupee.
The rite of sati or widow-burning had become very common under
Pratd.psinh'B administration, and in spite of the Resident's remon-
strances,Britishsubjectshad been allowed to come to Saturate perform
the rite. On his accession Sh^hdji of his own accord abolished sati by
proclamation and at a later period interfered to prevent a woman
burning herself. During the Kabul war (1841-42) Shdhdji offered his
troops, and during the 1845 insurrection in Kolhdpur and Sdvantvddi
he kept his territories in order, sent a detachment of his troops to act
against the rebelsj and did valuable service by forwarding supplies
and keeping open communications. His expenditure on public works
including those above named amounted to nearly £110,000 (Rs.ll
lakhs) . Of this, nearly £20,000 (Rs. 2 lakhs) were for improving the
Satdra water works and another £20,000 (Rs. 2 Idhhs) for two fine
bridges across the rivers Vena and Krishna on the Poena road by
the Sdlpi pass. He also finished the magnificent court room and
buildings known as the New Palace and now used as the Satdra
court of justice. In March 1848, in the midst of his plans of
usefulness, Shahdji was attacked with serious illness. He for
some time had taken under his protection a boy of obscure birth
on whom he had conferred the name of Balvantrdv Bhonsle and
the title of Rdjddnya. On the 1st of April as his sickness increased
Shahdji sent for the Resident Mr., the late Sir Bartle, Frere, and
more than once engaged in long conversations with him regarding
the succession. He expressed the wish to make so extravagant a
provision for Rdjddnya that Mr. Prere formed the idea that he was
anxious to adopt him as his son, Mr. Frere remarked that so low-
bom a child was unsuitable to succeed him, and Shahdji stated that

Deccan.l

SATARA.

313

he intended to ctoose from any branch of the Bhonsle family except
those of KolhApur, as they had married into the less pare family of
the Sindias and of VAvi. Because his brother Pratdpsinh had
adopted a boy from their family, he expressed a strong unwillingness
to recognise Prat^psinh's adopted son. He hinted that if he was
suddenly overtaken by death he would adopt and trust to the
generosity of Grovernment to recognize the adoption. On the 5th
of April the Resident left for Mahabaleshvar. He was brought back
by a note telling him that the Rdja despaired of life and had
declared his purpose of adopting a son. The adoption took place in
the presence of Dr. Murray the Civil Surgeon of S^tdra. The lad
who was named Venkdji, was of the house of Shedgaon which traces
its origin to Sherifji the uncle of the great Shivaji. The Raja made
Dr. Murray write in English, as he spoke in Mardthi, a memorandum
of his adoption of Venkaji whom he named Venkaji RAje after
ShivAji's younger brother. There can be no doubt that all through
these proceedings Shdh^ji was anxious to- defer to the British
Government in every possible way, and that nothing but the near
approach of death led him to make an adoption without their
sanction.

Mr. Frere arrived at Satdra at ten in the evening. He went
sitraight to the palace and explained to the Rdnis and assembled
chieftains that the decision of the Supreme Government must be
awaited as to the course of succession j that till then he could not
recognise the adoption -, and that the government of the SdtAra
territory would be conducted by the same agency as before under
the Resident's control. All expressed their confidence in and
willingness to defer to the wishes of the Supreme Government. On
the 12th of April 1848 the Resident wrote to Government, ' No act
is so trifling but it has been interpreted in various ways, favourable
-or unfavourable to the continuance of the state, according to the
hopes or fears of the party. Government will not be surprised at
this when it is considered that the bread of almost every one in the
city depends more or less on this decision. Besides the holders of
land and other grants who may feel more or less secure according
"to the tenure on which they hold, at least 10,<^00 persons are
support/ed directly by salaries from the court, and most of these have
probably many dependents. Few of the people of Satdra, even of
those whom the change would not directly affect, would be indifferent
to the passing away of Shivdji's dynasty.'

Intrigue was at once opened with Pratapsinh's family at Benares.
Reports were circulated and letters written stating that the late Raja
had asked the Resident to send for Pratapsinh's adopted son, that,
though this was not the case, Pratdpsinh's choice was nearer by blood
to the Raja's line than Shahaji's choice, that Bdbajipant forced
Shahdji to adopt Venkdji, and that Shahdji was insensible when the
adoption took place. The presence of Dr. Murray and the precautions
taken by the Rdja and the Resident in specifying the Raja's intentions
gave the lie to these reports. The British Government had to decide
.what was to be done with Satdra. Their decision turned on three
leading points : (1) Was Sha,hdji's adoption valid without recognitipg

E 1282—40

Chapter VII.

History.

, MarAthA's,
1720-184,8.

SAdhdji's Death,
5th April 184S.

1720-1848.

[Bombay Gazetteer,
314 DISTKTCTS.

Chapter VII. by the Britisli Government ; (2) If it was not valid was the Bombay
History- Government bound in justice or expediency to recognise it; and (.3)

What were the claims of Pratdpsinh's adopted son and the members
^Twi^^sAa' °^ ^^^ house of Shdhdji. The opinion was generally accepted that

as regarded private estates the adoption was valid without the
recognition of Government. Whether the adoption was valid as
regarded the political powers conferred by the treaty of 1 819 was a
point on which opinions differed. All members of the Government
feoth of Bombay and India held that the sanction of the paramount
power was required to render an adoption to a principality
valid. But Sir George Gierke Governor of Bombay (184<7-1848)
teld that in the case of Satara the right of sanction could not
■without, injustice be exercised to the extent of forbidding adoption.
The other members of the Bombay Government and all the members
of the Government of India were of opinion that to confer or to
•withhold the sanction was at the option of the British Government
-as the paramount power, and that the only question was one of
•expediency. On financial, military, and political grounds it was
decided that it was expedient to withhold the sanction of
Government to the adoption. All agreed that the country would
benefiit by the annexation of Satara, and that the condition of th^
Deccan no longer made it necessary to maintain native states like
Satara as a safety valve for characters who would be discontented
under direct British rule.

It was held that no other members of the family of Shivdji had
any claim to the succession. The treaty of 1819 was with
Pratapsinh and his heirs and successors. All his ancestry were
passed by, no right was confirmed to them. The other branches
of the family could have no pretension to the territorial rights which
were created in favour of Pratapsinh. The arrangement of 1839
especially admitted Pratapsinh's brother Shahaji to that settlement,
and the adopted son of the last recognised possessor of the throne
must have a better right than the adopted son of the deposed
chief or of any other claimant. When the discussion was
shifted to England certain advocates- argued that political powers
conferred on the Satara state differed from the tenure of all those
persons to whom the right of adoption to territorial possessions had
been refused, and that, as regards Sdtdra, the title of Paramount
Power as applied to the British Government was misplaced. That
therefore if the adoption were legal according to the usages of the
state it was valid independent of British sanction. It was further
argued that if British sanction was required it was contrary to the
treaty to refuse it; that even if the adoption was invalid for want of
sanction or for any other cause, the collaterals had claims under the
treaty the terms of which did not necessarily restrict the succession
to lineal heirs and that at any rate the claims of collaterals should
not be barred without giving them a chance of stating them.
The able management of the state by both Rajas, and the loyalty
of the second Kaja, were urged as reasons for showing consideration
to Shdhd,ji's wishes. A well governed state it was argued was a
source of strength to the British empire. Only five members of
the Court of Directors dissented from the annexation of Sdtdra,

Deccan.]

sAtAra.

315

Early in May the Resident received a letter dated the 1st of May
1849, stating that it had been resolved that from failure of heirs the
Safcara territory had lapsed to the power which had bestowed it. Ota,,
the 6th of Jane following Mr. Frere reported to Goverament that
the notification of the annexation had been received loyally but
despondently by the sabjects and servants of the late R^ja. The
senior Rani protested strongly bat showed no active opposition to
the decision of Government.

Every thing went quietly till May 18.50 when the decision of
Government as to the provision to be made for the family of the late
Raja was communicated to the Rdnisv They rejected tfee tenms:
offered, and stipulated for the continuance- of the household of the
late Rdja in their service, and • intrigued in the hopes of gaining
indirectly what they failed to procure by direct means. Finally they
withdrew their demands and their affairs were settled in December
1851. Their lands and allowances and the priva-te property left by
Shahaji, valued at upwards of £150>00©' (Rsv 15 Idkhs) were restored
and distributed among them in proportions fixed by Government,
and separate apartments in the palace were assigned to each of the
Rdnis and to their adopted son VenkSji Raj^. Besides a large
amount of jewels, furniture, and e<jnipages, the R^uis gave to Ven-
kaji the whole of their hereditary lands and villages yielding a net
yearly revenue of over £2000 (Rs. 20,000) and added to it portions
of their own allowances which raised his income to more than £6000
(Rs. 60,000) a year. The parties interested were satisfied and all
excitement was allayed. Every individual belonging to the house-
hold of the late Raja, not retained in the service of their Highnesses;
the Rdnis or of Balvantrav Bhonsle, the boy whom the lute Raja
had taken under his protection, was pensioned, employed, or-
discharged with a gratuity. Since the settlement of their affairs
their Highnesses the Ranis abstained from giving further trouble-
to Government. The final arrangement made may be thus sum-
marised. The late Rdja's private debts amounting to £23,545'
(Rs. 2,35,450) and the expenses attending his visit to Kolhapur-
amounting to a further sum of £-5875 (Rs. 58,750) were discharged
by advances from the public treasury- A. balance of £2500'
(Rs. 25,000) remaining in the hands of the architect of the new
palace was assigned for the improvement of the aqueduct built by
Shahu Raja of SatAra, and a further balance of £3586 (Rs. 35,860),
chiefly savings out of the pay to his late Highness's cavalry, was
also devoted after the manner of the late Government to public^
works. The yearly life allowance of £10^000 (Rs. 1,00,000) settled
on the Ranis was divided among them in the following proportions ::
£4500 (Rs. 45,000) to the senior Rani, £3000 (Rs. 30,000) to the-
second Rdni, and £2500 (Rs. 25,000) to the third Rani. The
private movable and immovable property was unreservedly given?
up by Government to the Ranis and they were allowed to keep.
a life possession of the old and new palaces, which with alL
other public buildings were declared to be the property of Gov-
ernment. Balvantrav Bhonsle was allowed to keep property worth;
about £14,247 (Rs. 1,42,470) that had been given to him, and in
deference to the wishes of His late Highness a further monthly-

Chapter VII]
History.

The British,

1848-1884,

Sdtdra Annexed
m May 1849.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

316

DISTEICTS.

Chapter VII.

History.

The British,
1848-1884.

Miitimes,
1857.

allowance of £60 (Ea. 600) was settled on him. PratSpsinh'a
widow and adopted son were each allowed monthly pensions of
£120 (Rs. 1200) and the widow was also granted a sum of £1200
(Rs. 12,000) to meet the expenses of her journey from Benares to
S^tara where the Governor General had allowed her to live. She
reached Satdia in 1854. To GojrAsaheb PratApsinh's daughter
land only child was assigned a monthly pension of £120 (Rs. 1200)
with a monthly remainder of £100 (Rs. 1000) to her male heirs*
On her leaving Benares for Satdra in October 1 §48, the Govern-
ment of India granted Gojrasaheb £2000 (Rs. 20,000) to meet
the expenses of her journey, as well as several months' arrears
amounting to £900' (Rs. 9000) on account of herself and followers.
On the death of this lady, on the .30th of August 1853, Govern-
ment granted her family the sum of £500 (Rs. 5000) to meet the
cost of her funeral rites.

From 1849 Sdtdra was directly under the British Government
though the Regulations were not introduced 'till 1863. No signs
of discontent appeared till the disordered state of the country
^during the 1S57 mutinies stirred some members of Prat^psinh's
tfamily to seditious intrigue. No outbreak occurred at Satdra
during the mutiny, but evidence was discovered of a widespread
conspiracy only a week before the date fixed for the rising. A.
Edmoshi named Nana Ragbu Chavhan, who about 1831 had received
£1000 (Rs. 10,000) from Government for the arrest of the great
Ramoshi bandit Umaji N5ik, told a dismissed agent of the Pant
Sachiv that a conspiracy was on foot in Sdtd,ra. The Pant Sachiv's
agent told Mr. Rose the District Magistrate on the 10th of June 1857.
Inquiry showed that armed Mardthas had gathered at Bagarvadi a
village near Bhor, the Pant Sachiv's capital, that they had started
for Satara, and had arranged for Eamoshis and others to follow
them. As there was a large Eamoshi population near Bagarvd,di,
thirty of the Southern Maratha Irregular Horse were sent under
Lieutenant Kerr, accompanied by the First Assistant Commissioner
Lieutenant Sandford, to intercept them. The party marched forty-five
miles in sixteen hours over difficult rugged ground, but were seen
by some of the Marathds who returned from Sdtdra and the greater
number of the men escaped to the hills. Thirteen Marathas were
seized, but of the thirteen only one was a man of consequence. All
vDonf essed that they had come together for the purpose of attacking
the station at Satara. In consequence of this intelligence the
magistrate asked for a detachment of European troops from Poena
which arrived towards the end of the month. On the day after the
intelligence was received from Bhor a Rajput messenger on the
establishment of the Satd,ra Judge's court was arrested in the lines
of the 22nd Regiment N. I. at Sdtara, endeavouring to corrupt a
Subhedar and through him all the Hindustani men of the regiment.
The magistrate Mr. Rose was empowered to try him by special com-
mission and he was executed on the 20th of June. On the scafFold
he harangued the people present telling them that the English
had less hold on the country than when they set foot in it, and
urging them as the sons of Hindus and Mnsalmans not to remain
quiet. A short time before a gang robbery had taken place

Seccan.]

SATARA.

817

near Parlr behind the S^t^ra fort. It was then reported that
this gang formed a detachment from a considerable body of
men who had gathered in the neighbouring forests but had dis-
persed on the return of the troops from Persia. It was now ascer-
tained that Pratdpsinh's agent Rango Bapuji had been living for
six weeks in Parli, and that he had gathered this body of men to
act with the band assembled in the Bhor country and with armed
men bid in SAtara. The plot was mainly directed by Rango Bdpuji
who had visited England as Pratdpsiuh's agent; The intention was
at the same time to attack Satara, Yavateshvar, and Mahdbaleshvar,
to massacre all Europeans^ and to plunder the treasury and the town.
Besides circulating news of the rising in HindustaUj Rango Bapuji
set on foot absurd but widely believed stories : The Governor of
Bombay had commissioned Rango to restore Prat^psinVs family and
had ordered him to seize all Europeans who were to be released if
they agreed to the arrangement and if they refused to agree were to
be massacred. Meetings of conspirators had begun as far back as
January 1857. Matters had failed to come to a head merely for
want of concert, and the failure of one or other of the number to
bring his contingent at the proper moment. At their last meeting
the ringleaders had solemnly sworn over the sweetmeats which they
ate together never again to fail. At the time the information was
received every thing was ripe for an attack. In Sd4:dra the orga-
nization was incomplete as at the last the conspirators were short
of ammunition. In Bhor were large stores of powder, lead, and
cannon balls, and in Sdtdra 820 bullets were found ready cast in
one house. According to the evidence at the trials, after the last
meeting 2000 men were ready for the attack and ari-angements
had been made for opening the jail and for letting out the
300 convicts. The Pant Sachiv was deeply involved in the plot
and the other feudatories were believed to be no less guilty, and
members of Prat^psinh's family who were living at the old palace
were proved to be closely implicated. One night the horses of Shdhu
Pratdpsinh's adopted son and of Durgasing" the Send,pati's adopted
son were saddled that the young Riijas might head the attack. Antdji
Raje Shirke, known as Bd,vasaheb, the native head of the Satdra
police, who was then drawing £60 (Rs. 600) a month, was completely
corrupted by the elder Rd,ni. and had engaged to keep the local
police inactive. It also came out that during the previous year
Bavasaheb had been intriguing to bring 40,000 Rohillas to
Sdtara. The inquiry further showed that Shdhaji's adopted son
Venkdji Bhonsle had knowledge of the treasonable designs against
the British Government. It was uncertain whether he was under the
influence of Pratapsinh's family or of the great estate-holders. The
impression formed by Government was that he was trimming between
the two parties, fearing that unless he fell in with their designs, if
Pratapsinh's party succeeded he would be in a worse position than
he was under the British Government. Secret levies were being
raised in all parts of the district from Bhor to the furthest part of
Khand,pur Valva, on the line of communication with Kolhdpur,
was the seat- of much intrigue. Rango Bapuji used to boast that
ie could bring over a thousand men from Belgaum and that

Chapter VII
History.

The BBiTiSii,

.1848-1884,

Mutinies,

1857,.

[iBombay Gazetteei',

318

DISTRICTS.

Chapter VII.

History^

The British,
.1848-1884.

Mutinies,
1857,

Kolhapur would also rise. The event proved that as regarded
Kolhdpur his boast was well founded. Besides this, if the confes-
sions of Pratapsinh's adopted son are to be believed, encouraged
by Holkar and Rango Bdpuji, the Ranis had been plotting ever
since their return from Benares in 1854. The province, as it
was then called, of Satara was ripe for sedition. With one
exception the feudatories were without male issue, and in conse-
quence of the non -recognition of ShShaji's adoption were afraid
that at their deaths their estates would be lost to their families^
Government had also decided that alienations made by the last two
Rdjas without the Resident's- consent were to be resumed on the
death of present holders. These sources of discontent had much
less influence on the people than a feeling which, since their return
to Satdra in 18-54, had sprung up in favour of Pratapsinh's family.
The first news of the mutinies in Upper India came to Satara in a
private letter to an obscure Brahman. The Brdhman took the
letter to Pratapsinh's chief Bdni and prayed for her favour when
she came into power. The letter was read publicly in the native
library. The receiver was warned to burn it and the matter was
kept a close secret. One of the reasons for a rising on which
Rango B^pnji dwelt ever since his return from England was
England's embroilment with Russia. This, he said, gave the best
possible chance for gathering levies and raising the people against
the British power in India. He said that all the discontented people
in the Deccan looked to Satdra, the ancient seat of the Maratha
empire, as the place which should first free itself from the
British yoke.

Several arrests were made in July including the son of Rango
Bapuji in Kolhapur territory. Though a reward of £50 (Rs. 500)
was ofl^ered f or his apprehension Rango Bapuji escaped and has never
been heard of. The detachment of Europeans reached Satara at the
end of June and for about a fortnight all remained quiet. On the
13th of July a desperate attack was made on the office and treasury
of the mdmlatdar of Pandharpur, then in Satara, with the further
object of raising the eastern districts on the Niznm's border. The
attempt was made with only a few men and the attack was success-
fully repelled by the local police with a loss of four killed including
the mamlatd^r of Pandharpur. Two of the six leaders were killed in
the attack, the other four were captured and blown from guns at
Satara with two of their followers. The rest were transported. On
the 27th of August a special commission sat for the trial of seventeen
persons concerned in the plot, including the son and another relation
of Rango Bdpuji. These persons were convicted and executed on the
8th of September. On the 6th of August, by order of Government,
Shdhu, the adopted son and the two R^nis of Pratdpsinh, the adopted
son of Balasaheb Senapati, and a cousin of Shdhu were removed for
confinement to Butcher's Island in Bombay harbour. This measure
was urgently necessary in consequence of the uneasy state of the
province owing to the rising at Kolhapur on the 3 1 st of July. Guns
were taken to and pointed on the palace in the early morning and
the family were removed in closed carriages. Heavy roads made
the journey tedious, but it was successful. In the same moi^th

Deccau.;

Si-TlEA.

319

the disarming of tlie district was ordered and begun. All the
cannon and wall-pieces in possession of the feudatory chiefs were
taken, except two small pieces which they were allowed to keep
for occasions of festivity and rejoicing. By the end of June 1858
over 32,000 small arms had been discovered, 1 30 guns and wall-
pieces had been destroyed, and over £200 (Rs. 2000) taken in fines
for concealment of arms. No further disturbance occurred. But
the insurrrection at Kolhapur in December 1857 necessitated the
despatch of small parties of troops. Seventy-five were sent to Ashta
then the head-quarters of the V^lva sub-division and twenty-five to
Shirdla a strong mud fort to check any rising on the southern fron-
tier. These troops were kept at these stations till August 1858
"when they were sent to Tasgaon to join 200 men of the 22nd Native
Infantry lately sent there from Satara to overawe the Southern
Mard,tha chiefs and to check the rising which it was thought might
follow the annexation of the Patvardhan chiefs' territories on his
decease without male issue. No disturbance took place and the
troops returned at the beginning of the fair season. The political
prisoners Rdjasbdi and Gunvantd.bAi the widows, and Shahu and
Durgdsing the adopted sons of Pratapsinh and B^ldsaheb were
kept at Butcher's Island till March 1857. In December 1857 Mr.
Rose went to Butcher's Island and induced the adopted sons and
Kdka Saheb a relation of 8hd.hu's to make confession of their part
in the intrigues. In March 1 858 they were removed to Karachi in
Bind and were kept in residences separate from the Rdnis, who
proved incurable intriguers.

ShShu, the adopted son of Pratapsinh, was allowed to return
to Sdtdra where he was joined by his wife Anandibai. Venkdji,
Shahdji's adopted son, was removed first to Ahmadabad and then
to Ahmadnagar in 1859 and 1860. Monthly allowances of £10
(Rs. 100) were granted to ShdhU; of £5 (Rs. 50) to Durgdsing, and
of £3 (Rs. 30) to Kdka Sdheb ; to the Rdni Rajasbdi £10 (Rs. 100)
and to Gunvantdbdi £4 (Rs. 40). Certain old servants of Pratapsinh
were pensioned at a total monthly cost of £73 (Rs. 730) while others
were discharged with gratuities amounting to £153 (Rs. 1530).
Yashvant Malhdr Chitnis, who induced the young Raja and Senapati
to make their confessions, received £300 (Rs. 3000) and certain
palace servants who aided were given small gratuities. The Subhedlr
. who resisted the rebels' overtures was invested with the thir-d class
order of merit, and Saddshiv Khanderav the Bhor Kdrbhari who
conveyed the first information was restored to his office, presented
with a dress of honour worth £60 (Rs. 600), and given a village worth
£50 (Rs. 500) a year. Venkaji died in 1864, and Shahaji's widow
adopted another son Madhavrd,v, who is at present known as Aba-
B^heb and has a son named Shivaji. Since 1859 except for one or
two gang robberies the peace of the district has remained unbroken.

Chapter VII.

History,

The British,
1848-1884.

Mutinies,
1857,

[Bombay Gazetteer

CHAPTER VIIL

Chapter^VIII.
Ihe Land.

ACQtJISITION,

1818-1848,

Changes,
1848-1875.

THE LAND.i

SECTION 1.— ACQUISITION, CHANGES, AND STAFF.

The earliest British possessions in the present (1883) district ol
Satara were the sixteen villages in the Tdsgaon sub-division, which
were obtained on the overthrow of the Peshwa in 1818. Eleven
years later (1829) in exchange for other lands three villages of
Malcolmpeth were ceded by the Raja of Satara. The rest of the
present (1883) Satara district lapsed between 1837 and 1848 on the
death of the chiefs who had held it.^

The district of Sd,tara came into existence in 1848 on the
death of Shd,hdji RAja of Sdtd,ra. It was at first called a province
not a collectorate or district, and was placed under a Commissioner
and distributed over eleven sub -divisions, Bijdpur, Javli, Kardd,
Khdnd,pur, Khatd.v, Koregaon, Pandharpur, Sd-tira, Targaon, Valva,
and Wdi. In addition to these sub-divisions, at the revision of the
district establishment in 1856, twelve mahdls or petty divisions
were formed.^ The villages were redistributed over the eleven
sub-divisions and the twelve new petty divisions to manage which
twelve mahalkaris were appointed. Under Government Resolution
2637 of 7th July 1862 the district establishment was again revised
and the eleven sub-divisions and the twelve petty divisions were
changed into fourteen sub-divisions and two petty divisions.* la

1 Besides the Survey Commissioner Colonel W. 0. ABderson's memorandum written
in 1880 on the Sitdra Revenue History, materials for the Land History of S4t4ra
include Bom. Gov. Sel. LXXV. and XCIV., Survey Commissioner's Office Files
regarding Revenue Survey Settlements in the Southern Maritha Country, and Annual
Jam4bandi, Administration, and Season Reports in Bom. Gov. Rev. Rec, 22 of 1852,
16 and 20 of 1856, 17 of 1860, 19 of 1861, 90 of 1861, 13 of 1862-1864, 235 of
1862-1864, 75 of 1866, 57 of 1867, 95 of 1871, and statements in Bom. Gov. Res. Rev.
Dept. 6092 of 27th Oct. 1875 and in Bom. Pres Genl. Adm. Reports from 1872-73
to 1882-83.

" Four villages in Tdsgaon on the death of the Chinchni chief in 1837, three villages
in TAsgaon on the death of the chief of the fourth share of the Miraj estate in 1842,
eight villages in TAsgaon on the death of the Soni chief in 1845, and uiue villages in
Tilsgaon on the death of the TAsgaon chief, and the whole of the rest of the district
on the death of the S^tira chief in 1848. The old SitAra state is now divided
among the BijApur SAtAra and ShoMpur districts. Before 1848, except forty villages
in TAsgaon and three in Malcolmpeth, the whole of the present SitAra district was
included in the old SAtdra state.

' The petty divisions were Pimpaude in Koregaon, Khandala in Wdi, Bdmnoli ia
Jivli, Kole in Kardd, ShirAla and Peth in VAlva, HelvAk in Tirgaon, Mftjni in
Khdndpur, NAteputa and Pusegaon in Ehativ, and Singola and Bhdlavni in
Pandharpur.

* The sub-divisions were Bijapur, J4vh, Kar^d, Khdnipur, Khativ, Koregaon,
MAlsiras, M4n, Pandharpur, Pdtan, S&Ura, Tirgaon, Valva, and Wdi; and the petty
divisions were Khanddla in WAi and Shirdla in V^lva.

Becoan.]

sAtIea.

321

1862-63 Bijapur was transferred to Belgaam and from the 1st of
August 1863 Tasgaon was movedfrom Belgaum to Siltara. In 1864.-65
Pandharpur was made over to Sholapur. From the 1st of January
1867 the Targaon sub-division was abolished and its eighty-three
villages were distributed among the Karad, Koregaon, Satara, and
Patau sub-divisions. At the same time sixteen villages from KarM
were transferred to Valva. Prom the 1st of August 1875 Malsiras was
moved to Shol&pur. At present (1884) the district consists of the
eleven sub-divisions of J^vli, Kar£d, Khanapur^ Khatd,v, Koregaon,
Man, Patau, Satdra, Tdsgaon, Valva, and Wdi, and the petty divisions
of Khand^la in Wai and Shirala in Vdlva.

The revenue administration of the district is entrusted to an
officer styled Collector on a yearly pay of £2790 (Rs. 27,900).
This officer, who is also Political Agent of the Jath, Atpadi, Aundh,
Bhor, and Phaltan states, is chief magistrate and executive head of
the district. He is helped in his work of general supervision by
a staff of four assistants, of whom two are covenanted and two are
uncovenanted servants of Government. The sanctioned yearly salaries
of the covenanted assistants range from £840 (Rs. 8400) to £1080
(Rs. 10,800), and those of the uncovenanted assistants from £360
(Rs. 3600) to £720 (Rs. 7200). For fiscal and other administrative
purposes the lands under the Collector's charge are distributed over
eleven sub-divisions or tdluhds. Of these seven are generally
entrusted to the covenanted assistants or assistant collectors, and
four to one of the uncovenanted assistants or district deputy
collector. As a rule no sub-division is kept by the Collector under
his own direct supervision. The other uncovenanted assistant or
huzur that is head-quarters deputy collector is entrusted with
the charge of the treasury. The covenanted and uncovenanted
assistants are also magistrates, and those of them who have revenue
charge of portions of the district have, under the presidency of
the Collector, the chief management of the different administrative
bodies, local fund and municipal committees, within the limits of
their revenue charges.^

Under the supervision of the Collector and his assistants the
revenue charge of each of the eleven sub-divisions is placed in bhe
hands of officers styled m^mlatdars. These functionaries who are
also entrusted with magisterial powers have yearly salaries varying
from £180 to £300 (Rs. 1800 - 3000). Two of the eleven sub-
divisions,. Valva and Wd,i, contain each a petty division or peia
mahdl, Shird,la in Valva and Khandd.la in Wd,i, each placed under
the charge of an officer styled mahdlkari, who, except that he has
no treasury to superintend, has the same revenue and magisterial
powers as a mamlatd^r. The yearly pay of these mah^lkaris varies
from £60 to £72 (Rs. 600 - 720).

In revenue and police matters the charge of the Government

Chapter^ VIII

The Land.

Chanobs,
1848 - 1873.

Sta'ff,

1884.

District Officers.

Sub-Divisional
Officers.

Village Officers.

1 Mahibaleshvar is in charge of a Superintendent who is a oommiasioned medical
officer with second class magisterial powers and Ptochgani is in charge of a Superin-
tendent who 13 a non-commissioned medical officer with third class magisterial
powers.

B 1282—41

[Bombay Gaietteer*

822

DISTRICTS.

Chapter VIII.

The Laud.

Staff,
1884.

Village Ofkeri.

Village Servants.

villages is entrusted to 1300 headmen or pdtils all of whom are
hereditary. Of these 331 perform revenue duties only, 241 attend
to matters of police only, while 728 are entrusted with both
revenue and police charges. The yearly pay of the headmen
depends on the revenue drawn from each village. It varies
from 12s. to £17 4s. (Rs. 6 - 1 72) and averages about £3 (Rs. 30).
Besides the headmen, in many villages members of their family
are in receipt of land grants from Grovernment amounting in all
to a yearly sum of £591 (Rs. 5910). Of £4538 (Rs. 45,380) the
total yearly charge on account of the headmen and their
families, £647 (Rs. 6470) are met by grants of land and £3891
(Rs. 38,910) are paid in cash. To keep the village accounts, to
draw up statistics, and to help the village headmen, there is a body
of 786 accountants or hulharnis, 785 of them hereditary and one
stipendiary or about thirteen accountants to sixteen villages. Bach
accountant's charge contains on an average 980 people and yields
an average revenue of about £183 (Rs. 1830). The yearly salaries
of the accountants vary from 10s. to £31 (Rs. 5 - 310) and average
about £7 8s. (Rs. 74). Of £5827 (Rs. 58,270) the total yearly
charge on account of village accountants, £151 (Rs. 1510) are met
by land grants and £5676 (Rs. 56,760) are paid in cash.

Under the headmen and accountants are the Village servants with
a total strength of 3174. They are either Musalmans or Hindus,
Of the Hindus a few are Jains and Lingiyats, and the rest
belong to the Mhdr, Mang, Rdmoshi, Dhangar, Chdmbhdr, Koli,
and other depressed castes. These men are liable both for revenue
and police duties. The total yearly grant for the support of this
establishment amounts to £6304 (Rs. 63,040) being £1 19s. 8f c?.
(Rs. 19 as. 13|) to each man or a cost. to each village of £6 lis. id.
(Rs.65 a.s. 10|). Of this charge £4472 (Rs. 44,720) are met by
grants of land and £1832 (Rs. 18,320) are paid in cash.

The average yearly cost of village establishments may be thus
summarised : Headmen and their families £4538 (Rs. 45,380),
accountants £5827 (Rs. 58,270), and servants £6304 (Rs. 63,040),
making a total of £16,669 (Rs. 1,66,690), equal to a charge of
£17 7s. 3d. (Rs. 173|) a village or about eleven percent of the district
land revenue.

Tencbbs.
Mirds,

SECTION II.— TENURES.1

The Hindu theory of land tenure seems to have been that the
state was the owner of the soil, and granted the right to occupy it to
such persons as it pleased on various terms. In some land the state
made over to individuals either a part or the whole of its. interest.
These lands are known as alienated lands. Land whether alienated
or kept by the state was held on four tenures, hereditary or mirds
also called sthalkari or thalkari, casual or upri, crown or sheri, and
on lease or isidva. Hereditary or mirds landholders had a private

1 Contributed by Mr. J. W. P, Muir-Maokenzie, C. S.

Dacoan.]

sAtIra.

323

right of occupancy on condition of paying the government dues. This
right they could sell or mortgage ; and though the permission of
gorernment may at some time have been necessary to the private
sale or mortgage of hereditary land, it was not usual to interfere
as the state lost nothing by the transfer. The person who bought
the miras right became responsible to government for the
assessment. Mirdsddrs were of two classes, either vatanddrs
or hereditary residents of one bhduhand or brotherhood
whose land their ancestors were supposed to have brought
under tillage, or they were husbandmen who had gained hereditary
rights by living in the village for one or more generations,
holding the same fields, and steadily paying the regular, dues.
Government passed no title deeds. But, provided it was not already
mirds, government could bestow land in mirds. The buyers of mirds
land were admitted to all the rights and privileges of the former
occupant. The first and most respectable of these two classes of
mirdsddrs were styled pdtil vatanddrs, because they generally enjoyed
a portion of the indm or rent-free land attaching to the patilship
with its accompanying mdnpdn or rights and honours. The other
class were teTnaed. thalvdikov Kunbi vatanddrs t\ia,t is hereditary
landholders. As far as the mirds right in the land extended, pdtil
and sthalvdik or thalvdik vatanddrs were on an equality. The
mirdsddr had many advantages. He could not be ousted from his
field so long as he paid his share of the revenue, and he had a voice
in all village afi^airs. He was often freed from the pdtil's that is
village headman's dues and house tax; he had a right to graze
on the gdyrdn or village common, to a share of the village
site, and to any houses built on his share of the village site
either by himself or by others. A mirdsddr could contract a
marriage with families with which other landholders could not
become allied. Should the mirdsddr remain in his village and his
field become waste, the other mirdsddrs were obliged to pay his
rent. But when he left the district, as was generally the case when
he became insolvent, the other mirdsddrs paid nothing unless they
chose to take the field and pay the full assessment, a course which was
seldom adopted except among- relations. When the field was not taken
government could let it on lease. But as the government Jtdrkun or
clerk had not as much influence as the pdtil, he usually leased the land
at something less than the full assessment. If a mirdsddr returned
and claimed his field, it was restored him at the end of the lease.
Usage established the greatest forbearance in regard to mirdsddrs.
Where revenue was not paid the right of government to declare mirds
land forfeited was not disputed. Still no mirdsddr would willingly quit
his field, and if it would yield a profitable crop such as might make
it an object with government to take possession, the mirdsddr's
kinsmen would readily take the land and pay its rent, so that there
could be no advantage and consequently no forfeiture Unless govern^
ment disposed of the field to another in mirds tenure. This last course
seems never to have been taken.^ In 1822, except in Bijd.pnr, the

Chapter VIII

The Land-

Tenures.
Mirds,

1 In Lieut. MacLeod's memorandum it is stated that governments were in the habit
of selling mirds.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

824

DISTRICTS.

Chapter_VIII.

The Land-

Tenukes.
Mirds.

Dpri.

Sheri.

mirds tenure was general throughout the SAtara territory. Atout
seventy per cent of the landholders were beheved to be • mirdsddrs
and these landholders were careful not to lose their hereditary
rights. Except collecting its rent the officers of government
exercised no control over mirds land. If a mirdsddr refused to till
his field he was threatened with being forced to resign all his
privileges. All mirds land was fully assessed and the assessment
was often more than the land could bear. The heavy rates were
endured for the sake of the privileges which attached to the tenure.
The average sale value of mirds lands seems to have been small, as
Captain Grant Duff puts it, at five to seven years' purchase. This
is clearly separated in his mind from the sentimental value
which would probably have been much larger. He only
intended to show how small a margin of profit these lands yielded
to the holder. Some authorities have held that mirdsddrs could
not sell their land without the consent of the state. This
was not Captain Grant Duff's opinion. 'It does not appear/ he
writes, ' that any register of such sales was kept. Usage had
rendered an application to government unnecessary. Still
applications were sometimes made to mdmlaMdrs for a certificate of
sale in order to attest the transaction. In this case a nazar or fee
was presented. Mirds bills of sale are very particular in guarding
against claims by any other member of the seller's family.'

The upri or casual tenure was originally the tenure by which
people held who belonged to other villages. It was a mere tenancy-
at-will terminable at the pleasure of the state, either at the end of
the current year or of a term of years if a lease had been granted.
Land held under the upri tenure was subject to rates specially
agreed on, and these rates were generally much lighter than the
standard assessment.^ At the same time some of the casual or
upri land was fully assessed and became known as chdli jarain.
Much of this land was taken by tenants who were the hereditary or
mirds holders of other lands in the same village, while some was
tilled by residents of neighbouring villages and. some by new
settlers. A casual or upri tenant had none of the privileges of an
hereditary tenant or mirdsddr. He might build a house in the
village, bilt he could neither sell nor remove it, and the house became
the property of the village or of the mirdsddr on whose share_of the
village site it was built. Casual holders could not bequeath or sell
their land, and could be turned out in favour of a better tenant.
Apparently upri land might become mirds by long enjoyment at
the full rate of assessment. . The power of granting lands other than
mirds at reduced rates seems to have rested with the village head.
This was his great inducement to spread cultivation and was a
source of power and occasionally of oppression.

Sheri or crown lands were those immediately under the manage-
ment of government. They were supposed to have been originally
taken to form gardens or fields to be kept for the use of government.

1 The rate thus paid was known as khand mahta that is the agreement or contract
rate.

Deccan.]

sAtIra.

325

When sheri lands ceased to be kept for government use^ they were
rented direct by the mdmlatddrs to the husbandmen and generally
at an easier rate than the lands managed by the village authorities.
In 1822 except the chief's khds hdg or private garden all sheri or
crown lands were placed under the management of the heads of
villages and their rent was included in the village assessment.
The easy rates were continued and old landholders were kept on
the former terms except where fraudulent leases, obtained by the
collusion of former mdmlatddrs, were discovered.

The istdva or rising lease tenure was granted for bringing waste
land under tillage. The usual term of lease was five to seven years
and the rent steadily rose until the full assessment was reached.
The land then became cJidli or fully assessed land, and could be
held on upri or mirds tenure according to circumstances. Under
British management various regulations were made for granting
Tchand maJda that is fixed and istdva or rising leases. All distinc-
tions of tenure were abolished by the survey Act I of 1865, when
every holding was declared to be the occupant's transferable and
hereditable property. Sheri or crown lands are now everywhere fully
assessed. The only lands under the direct management of govern-
ment are grazing, forest, and waste lands, and lands set apart as
quarries or for other public purposes.

In alienating land the state made over to the grantee the state
share in the produce of the land. When villages or lands held in
mirds were alienated to third parties the mirds rights were in no
way disturbed. Land which was not mirds the alienee might dis-
pose of as he pleased, within the same limits as government disposed
of unalienated land, and, in theory at least, subject to the fulfilment
of existing promises. When one or more villages or portions of
villages were alienated, all previous alienations of land within the
village recognized by the state remained untouched. Thus the
alienation of land wholly at the disposal of government, as casually
held land,crown land, and waste land, carried with it much fuller powers
than when the land Which formed the subject of the grant was either
in the hands of hereditary holders or of earlier alienees. The alienee
of a village stood to its land in the same relation the state had stood
to the land before the grant. . When the state alienated land wholly
at its disposal, the alienee had a mirds right to the land either rent-
free or on a quit-rent according to the terms of the grant. The
holder of a newly granted village had no authority to charge
assessment oil older alienated land or to depi'ive hereditary holders
of their mirds rights. The alienee of a village frequently gave out
land rent-free, and this land he also called alienated land. But
these gifts rested on his pleasure, tod it is a question how far on a
reversion of the village the state would have been bound by such
gifts. It may be assumed that all villages were originally
government villages, that is the revenue of all at first came into the
government treasury. What was the earliest form of alienation
does not appear. AppECrently in Satara the earliest alienation
documents refer to hereditary oflBces, and the assignment of rent-
free lands to the village establishment. A copperplate grant

Chapter^VIII

The Land.

Tbndkes.
Sheri,

Ittdva.

Alienated Land,

[Bombay Gazetteer,

326

DISTRICTS.

Chapter VIII.

The Land-

Tbnctees.
Alienated Land.

mentioned by Captain Grant DufE shows that the early Mardtha
dynasties in Panhdla granted whole villages, though on what terms
does not appear. The Mardtha chiefs of pre-Musalmdn times also made
grants for charitable and religious institutions. The Musalmdns
gave Jdgirs or alienations of district and village revenues for the
support of troops or in reward for personal service. In Mar^tha
times alienations of every kind were multiplied. The greatest num-
ber took place during the reign of Shahu (1708-1749), and in most
keenly disputed hereditary office cases deeds of that time are still
produced. -The early Peshwas and the Pratinidhi conferred not a
few grants. In later times (1800-1818) Peshwa Bajirav adopted
the policy of sequestrating grant estates or jdgirs generally on the
plea that tbe services for which they had been granted were not
performed. In 1819 the first of the British-invested Rdjas of
Satara tried the same policy, generally by refusing to allow estate-
holders to adopt. In both cases these attempts led to disaster.
They hastened the overthrow of BAjirav by turning the leading
chiefs against him and they were one of the chief causes of com-
plaint with the British against the management of Shdh^ji familiarly
known as Appa Saheb Mahardj. The Patvardhans and the Rdstia
Jdgirdars in Tasgaon and Wai were the victims of the Peshwa's
rapacity, while the Raja of Sd,td,ra was particularly harsh towards the
houses of Phaltan, Bhor, and the Pratinidhi. Atthe end of the Peshwa's
supremacy two main classesof alienations werein use in Satdra : Jdgirs
or service grants and indms or perpetual gifts. Jdgirs were lands
alienated inreturn eitherforpersonal called^fdi or military called saraw-
jdm service. In theory these grants were continued only so long as
service was required; in praoticemany of thegrants became hereditary.
At the same time the word jdgir was very loosely used and beyond
question some hereditary grants were called jdgirs. Such were the
grants to the great SatAra estate-holders or jdgirddrs, the Pant
Sachiv of Bhor, the Nimbdlkar of Phaltan,. the Pratinidhi of Aundh
and Atpddi, and the Daphle of Jath. AH of these the British
Government continued as hereditary grants. The only estate-holder
of Musalmd,n origin in Sdtdra was the Shaikh Mia of W£i who held
the village of Pasarni as a military grant or saranjdm.

Indms were gifts in perpetuity either granted by Hindu and
Muhammadan governments or by village authorities. In the case of
village grants possession was acquired by hhogavta or prescription,
the assent of the state being implied by continued acquiescence.
Government indms were generally unattested by deed, the most
respected bearing the ruler's autograph. Village iwaTWs were granted
either in reward for services or by special favour. They were often
wrung out of the village authorities by Brdhmans in office. Captain
Grant Duff (1822) was satisfied that scrutiny would show that many
of the village grants were false and were held by fraudulent collusion
with village officers. Captain Grant Duff arranged state and village
grants or indms under six classes : Hindu, Musalman, devasthdn or
religious, dharmdddy or charitable, dengis or miscellaneous gifts, and
vatans or village staff grants. Hindu indms were of six varieties :
to BrdhmanSj to Gosdvis or religious beggars, to Marathds for war

Beccan.]

Si-TlRA.

327

services^ to Bhats or reciterSj to Jangams or Lingdyat priests, and to
Fair Flags, as each village used to send a flag to the great fairs or
religious gatherings. Musalmdn perpetual grants or indms, all of
■which were included under the head of charity or khairdt, were of
eight varieties, to Musalmdns, to Musalman beggars, to tumblers or
DombAris, to bull showmen or Gopdls, to bear-men or Darveshis,
to eunuchs or Hujres, to picture showmen or Chitrakathis, and to
reciters or Dhd,ras. Devasthdn or religious grants were both
Hindu and Musalmdn. The Hindu religious grants were of three
varieties; {1) MsiV^tha. devasthdns ma.de either by rulers or village
oflScers, including grants to famous temples for lights or dips, for
food or naivedya, for worship or puja on great festival days or
uchchdvs ; (2) gdon devta to meet the expense of village shrines ; and
(8) saunstJidns, grants to religious teachers made by Marathd chiefs,
. by the Peshwas, and by village officers, the most interesting of which
were to Bhd,rgavram B^jirdv's teacher and to R^md£s Svdmi
ShivAji's teacher. Musalman religions grants were of three kinds
mosque lands, tomb or darga lands, and prayer-place or idga lands.
Dharmdddy or charity lands were held almost entirely by Brahmans.
Dengis or gifts were miscellaneous grants usually by village officers
to mdntriks or sorcerers and magicians, devrishis or spirit
controllers, bahurupis or Tm.in.es, ghads hi vdjantris or pipers, shingddis
or crooked horn-blowers, tutdrivdlds or long trumpet blowers,
pakhvdjvdlds or drummers, kalvantins or dancing girls, chiidris or
painters, atdrs or perfumers, raktvdns or ink-makers, patvekars or
silk workers, chobddrs or macebearers, sondrs or goldsTaiths, shimpis
or tailors, sutdrs or carpenters, gaundis or bricklayers, Ihois or
fishermen and litter-bearers, vaidyds or physicians, kdsdrs or bangle
makers, pdnddis or water-finders, mdnbhdvs or beggars, virs or
heroes who had died in defence of the village, and hdlparveshi and
mdnparvesM for the children and widows of village martyrs.
Vatanddr grants were for village officers and village establishments.

The holders of alienated villages are Brdhmans, Marathds, Vdnis,
Jangams, Grosavis, Prabhus', Mhars, and Musalmdns.^ The
proprietor as a rule does not live in his village. Many estates are
divided into shares and some are enjoyed in tarn by the descendants
of the original holder. In many cases the estates or shares are
mortgaged to creditors and in a few cases they have been sold.^
There is, no notable difference either in the condition of the people
or in the character of the tillage in alienated and neighbouring
Government villages. As a rule the alienated villages are the

Chapter^VIII.

The Land.

Tenubbs.
Alienated Zcmd.

Alienated

Villages,

1883.

1 The Collector of SdtAra, 6263 of 17th October 1883. Of the seventy-two alienated
villages in MAn, KhAnApur, T^gaou, and Khatdv, BrAhmans hold fifty, MarAth^
fourteen, GosAvis two, Prahhus one, Mhirs one, MusalmAns one, Gujars one, Jangams
onejand one is heldjointlyby aBrAhman and a LingAyat. In Kard,d, VAlva, and FAtan
also the chief holders are Brihmans and MardthAs ; of these fiye are Sardirs, and the
rest are traders, begging Brdhmans, and husbandmen.

2 Of the five villages in MAu, one is in the management of a moneylender or sdvlcdr ;
of the twenty- two villages in Khdndpur, seventeen have been mortgaged, and of the
thirteen in Tdsgaon, five. Of the thirty-two villages in KhatAv, some have been sold
and the names of the purchasers have been entered in the Government books and
nineteen are in the hands of moneylenders or advkdrs.

[Bombay Gazetteer,
328 DISTRICTS.

Chapter VIII. choicest villages of tlie neighboiirliood and so are better able to bear
The Land. without suffering the heavier rates which they have to pay. Alienated

Tenuke villages have two leading classes of tenants, mirdsddrs or hereditary

Alienated tenants and gatkuUs or casual tenants. Yearly tenants are also

Villages, found under mirdsddrs and in the proprietor's private holding.

188S. All, except perhaps the under-tenants, pay a fixed rent. In

unsurveyed villages the proprietors sometimes attempt to raise the
rent especially when the tenancy is for a year or other limited period.
But all tenants have a right to hold their lands so long as they do
not fail to pay their rents, and can be ousted only in due course of
law. The payments are nearly always in cash, though grain rents
are paid in a good many Patan villages. The ordinary rates in
surveyed alienated villages do not differ from those in Govern-
ment villages ; in unsurveyed villages they are generally higher.^
Proprietors seldom do anything to aid their tenants to improve the
land. If the tenancy is for a limited period, they sometimes help
the tenant in digging wells or in carrying out improvements. No
advances or tagdi are granted to tenants. If a tenant improves his
holding he usually reaps the full benefit of his improvements. The
proprietor as a rule will ask no more rent than the former rent. Most
alienated villages have waste gdyrdn or grazing land for the
landholders to graze their cattle on free of charge. In some cases
this waste land is set apart as kuran or grass land and the right of
grazing is sold yearly or given by contract. The right to cut timber
depends on the terms of the proprietor's sanads or title deeds.
Landholders can usually cut trees on their fields, except the kinds
set apart as Government trees. The help given to proprietors to
recover rents is regulated by sections 86 and 87 of the Land Eevenue
Code. On application a summary inquiry is made, and if the
proprietor appears entitled to help an order is passed to help him.
The tenant is given a week, a fortnight, or a month to pay. At the
end of the term of grace, under the Collector's order, the mamlatddr
enforces the usual compulsory process. The proprietor of a surveyed
village is aided to recover his dues up to the survey rates. In
unsurveyed villages help is given up to what seems fair in each
village. When such cases arise average actual collections during
the previous five years are generally considered fair.

1 In Kar4d, Vdlva, and PAtan the ordinary dry-crop acre rate in unsurveyed
alienated villages is about 10s. (Ks. 6) and the garden acre rate ]4s. ( Rs. 7). Mdn has
three of its five villages surveyed, and in the other two the drycrop acre rates vary
from 2s. to 2id. (Re. 1 - IJ as.) ; the revenue is hovrever levied by the proprietors at
three-fourths of the full assessment and consequently the actual burden of revenue on
the landholders is not much in excess of what falls on Government landholders in
neighbouring villages. In the four unsurveyed villages in KhdnApur the dry crop
acre rates vary from 3s. lO^d. to T^d. (Rs, 1 J| - 5^ as.), and the acre rates on watered
land from 9s. 9d. to is. lO^d. (Rg.4J - 2^^) ; the corresponding rates in the neighbouring
Government villages are for dry crop land from Ss.i^d. to 3d. (Rs. lJJ-2 ai.) and for
watered land 9s. to 5s. {Rs.44--2J). In the six unsurveyed villages in Tisgaon the
highest acre rates are for dry crop land 10s. TJcf. (Rs. 5^) and for watered land 17».
6d. (Rs. 8|),,and the corresponding rates in the neighbouring Government villages are
5s. 6d. (Rs. 2|) and 13s. 6Jci. (Rs. 6 as. 12J). In the eighteen unsurveyed villages in
Khativ, the acre rates vary for dry-crop land from 6s. to 2s. (Rs. 3-1) and for watered
land from £1 2s. to 10s. (Rs. 11-5) ; the corresponding rates in the neighbouring
Government villages are for dry-crop land is. to 3d, (Rs, 2 - as, 2) and for watered
laud 10s. to 5s. 6d. (Rs. 5 - 2f ).

Deccan]

SATARA.

329

SECTIOlsr III.— HISTORY.i Chapter VIII.

The first land measurement and appraisement of which record T^e Land.
remains was under the Bijdpur government, pi-obably during the Histoey.

last years of the 16th century. The accounts were kept in pagodas.
In some villages the BijApur standard of assessment was continued to
the end of the Peshwa's rale(18l7),bnt the accounts are imperfect and
no estimates of the rates are available. When Shivaji took the country
(1655) he made a new but imperfect measurement. His system was
the same as that of Malik Ambar in the North Deccan (1605-1626),
who fixed two-fifths of the produce or its equivalent ia money as
the government share. Shivdji kept his accounts in pa^odJas. The
Moghals in the time of Aurangzeb (1686 - 1707) introduced the
system of Todar Mai, which was a permanent assessment of one-
third of the average produce or its equivalent in money .^ In Satara
the Moghal assessment was fixed not by measurement as in the earlier
conquered districts, but by the average of the accounts of the ten
previous years. In some cases Aurangzeb raised the rents for some
years as high as he could and this amount was ever afterwards
entered in the accounts as the kamdl or rack rental though it was
subject to permanent and casual remissions.

Before the rise of the Marath^s and during their supremacy. Former Surveys.
many surveys were made of parts or of the whole of the Satara
territory apparently with the object of readjusting rather than of
altering the assessment, which, under the name of hamdl or rack
rent, had remained the same time out of mind.^ No accurate account
of the Bijdpur survey remains. The standard of measurement was
a hdthi or pole, said to be about five feet, but probably nearer ten
• feet long.* In the time of BaMji Bdjirdv (1740-1761) one Shdmr^v
Ambdji surveyed thirty-one villages in Wdi and Karad of which
records remained in 1822. Other villages were surveyed by Sakharam
Bhagvant mdmlatddr of Ohandan-Vandan and Babu Krishnai-dyV of
Satdra but the records were lost. The unit of measure is said to -
have been six hdfhs or ten feet.^ Probably none of these surveys
extended to the hill lands. In alienated villages, which keep many
old practices, the valley lands pay a fixed rent while the uplands are
measured year by year. The rates are fixed by the square rod
of land actually cultivated. About 1 75 1 parts of KarM, Vdlva,

> Contributed by Mr. J. W. P. Muir-Mackenzie, C. S.

" The standard fixed in Northern India and parts of Gujarat and KhAndesh by the
great Akbar, ' whose assessment,' says Mr, Ogilvy the Commissioner of S^tira in 1851,
•• may be that which now exists,' was a third of the produce. According to Mr.
•Ogilvy, the mode he adopted was to cause a small medium portion of the crop to be
cut for several seasons and then to estimate from this specimen the produce of the
entire field. The assessment was fixed on a calculation of the market prices for a
series of years. Mr. Ogilvy, Commissioner of SAtdra, 419 of 29th October 1851, Bom.
<Jov. Efiv. Rec. 22 of 1852, 23-24.

3 Bom. Gov. Rev. Rec. 22 of 1852, 21.

* Captain Grant afterwards Grant Duff mentions a stone at Nher in Khatdv with
a measure of five cubits and three hand-breadths. Another mark by its side showed
what was supposed to be ShivAji's standard and this was six cubits and three hand-
breadths. According to the general opinion ShivAji's measure was five cubits and
five hand-breadths or nearly ten feet. East India Papers, IV. -646.
Captain Grant, 17th June 1822, East India Papers IV. 646.

1282-42

[Bombay Gazetteer,

3B0

DISTRICTS.

Chapter VIII-
The Land.

HlSTOSY,

Former Boies,

Sevemcc Officers.

KhanApur, and Bijapur, were measured under the auspices of the
Pant Pratinidhi.^ Though surveyed they do not seem to have been
assessed.^ About 1821 the Bijapur sub-division -was surveyed and
assessed and every piece of land then received a nominal rent.^

A-bout 1822 the acre rates returned for good land varied from
£1 16s. lid. (Rs. 18 a. |f) to 2s. M. (Rs. H) j for mixed land from
18s. f d. (Rs. 9 o.^^y) *o 1«- 8-i^. (13i as.) ;and for upland from 4s. 6|d
(Rs.2 as.4jy to 6|d (4^ as.). The acre rate in gas-den land varied
from £2 16s. 4|c?. (Rs. 28 as. 3^) to 2s. 3d. (Rs. U).* In Captain
Grant's opinion these rates were so high that if the whol-e land had
been subject to them no margin would have been left for the land-
holder's maintenance. In practice the landholder tilled less heavily
rented alienated or leasehold landj and even portions of the village
lands which nominally were liable to the full rates were let off with
short rates -or -^/(amcZ mahtn. The landholders were also helped by
the pay which members of most families earned in the chief's retinue
or in his army.

The officers immediately connected with the land management
were hereditary. In the village they were the -patil or headman, the
hulharni or clerk, and the chaugliula or assistant headman. These
offices were of remote antiquity. The word pdMl is possibly of
Musalm^n origin,^ but the older words gavda and grdmadhikdri prove
the antiquity of the office. The ancient name for the hulkarni was
■gmm lekhak or village writer. The ^atil was the head of the village
and with the hulharni superintended the collection of the revenue.*
The 'pdtil apportioned the assessment and managed cultivation,
the hulharni kept the accounts and records, and the chaughula helped
the pdtil. Over the village authorities were the deshmukh or group
head and the deshpdnde or group clerk. As presidents of paoichdits
or juries they had special power to settle cases relating to hereditary
property. The office ^ of desh-chaughula also existed, but seems to
have been a Maratha institution. Deshmukhs and deshpdndes are
probably as ancient as the village offices. Grant Duff thought they
were as ancient as the Bahmani dynasty and probably of far
remoter origin, but it is not proved that the offices were hereditary
before the Musalmdns. No Satdra records have been traced which
give in early Hindu times the grades of officers who held power
between the deshmukh and the R^ja. In Musalman times the
revenue was farmed and collected by agents of government named
amils. Still the authority of the deshmukhs and deshfdndes

^ On this measurement Karid, V^lva, KMnApur, and Bij&jnir were iassessed in 1851,
Bom. Gov. Rev. Eec. 22 of 1852, 154.

2 ' KarAd, VAlva, and Khiudpur have not been assessed for about 100 years, and a
great deal of apparently unarable land seems then not to have been taken into -con-
sideration.' Lieut. Sandford, Second As&t. Comr. 9th August 1851, Bom. Gov. Eev,
Rec. 22 of 1862, 132. ^ gom. Gov. Rev. Rec. 22 of 1852, 132.

* The records are in bigJids each of 4290 square yards that is about Jths of an
acre or 4840 square yards." The bigha rates are in good land from Re. 1 to Rs. 16 ;
in mixed land Re. | to Es. 8; in upland Ke. J to Rs. 2 ; and in garden land Re. 1 to
Rs. 25. East India Papers, IV. 649.

' It is more probably the Sanskrit pattakil or leaseholder.

6 Grant Dufi's Marilthiis, 16.

Deccan.!

satIea.

331

remained.. They frequently had chairge of forts and often farmed
the revenue of their districts. The superintendent of amils over a
considerable tract of country was termed mokdsddr who was
probably paid by a percentage on the revenues. Frequently above
the moTidsddr was a suhheddr who did not live constantly in the
district and took no share in the revenue management. The
mohdsddr's ofiB.ce was occasionally but not often hereditary.
Mokribkhan Mokdsdar of Kardd and KhatAv was succeeded by his
son and grandson. On the other hand the appointment often lasted
only for a year. MoJcdsddrs were not always Musalmans. The
deshpdndes and deshmukhs were a source- of division in authority
and frequently resisted the Bijapur government. To reduce their
power Shivdji (1668-69), while maintaining the village officers,
abolished the interference of the hereditary district officers in the
land management, but they continued to have considerable influence
as referees in questions relating to hereditary property. At the same
time Shivaji established a strict ch.eck over the pdtils and hulkarnis
in the shape of a staff of district agents styled tarafddrs or tdlukddrs,
an upper class of clerks who tested the revenue management of a
group of villages and did clerical work. For the active duties there
was a havdlddr for each tdlukddr, and a suhheddr or mdmlatddr
with a similar charge over a larger area. Highest of all under the
Peshwds or prime ministers was the mujumddr or finance minister
and the sabnis or record-keeper.'^ The Peshwas continued the same
system and MahdavrAv Ballal (1761-1772) brought it to considerable
efficiency. The mdmloAddrs were appointed from year to year, but
they were not removed during good behaviour. Government estimated
a mdmlatddr *s expenditure and receipts at the beginning of the year.
He had a salary, a public and private establishment, and a right to a
private assessment of about five per cent on the revenue. He had to
advance part of the expected revenue to government, receiving a
premium of ten per cent and one per cent interest monthly until
the period when collections were expected, when the interest
ceased. The accounts when closed were carried by the district
fadnis or mdmlatddr' s first clerk to Poena and carefully examined.
The mdmlatddrs were encouraged to live in their districts, and when
they could not the affairs of the district were closely examined.
This system continued but more laxly till the time of Bd,jirdv TI.
(1796) when the whole system went to ruin. The mdmlatddra.
either themselves became, or were replaced by contractors, wha
farmed the revenue of the districts and treated the landholders with;
the greatest harshness. The contractors were usually given civil
and criminal jurisdiction and the people had no redress.

The village and district officers were originally hereditary.^ They
were paid by the grant of lands and by certain dues. ThQpdtils and

Chapter VIIL

The Land-

History.
Bevenue Officevs.

1 To the time of the Peahwda belong the expressiona nddgaunda &ni.deshchaughula
that is district head and district assistant, aar pdtil or head pdtil, and the revival of
the term mokdsddr with a new signification explained in the section on the revenue
system.

^ Mr. Muir-Mackenzie, O.S. His authorities are Grant Duff's MarAthAs and Letters
of June 1822, and information obtained by inquiry into hereditary office cases,

[Bombay Gazetteer,

332

DISTRICTS.

CiapterVIII.

The Land.

History,
Eevenue Officers,

Jculkarnis held rent-free lands and in Maratha times if not earlier
enjoyed the mushdhira or salary, and the tashrif and sMfpdv or
honorary presents of cash and tarbans at the yearly revenue
settlement. These charges were allowed when the village revenue
was collected and the amounts were deducted from the receipts. The
alienated land was divided among all the members of the pdtil and
hulkarni families. But the extras were generally paid only to the
officiating pdtil or hulkarni, though in some villages the relations
obtained a share.^ From the landholders the patil and kulkarni
received presents of grain called ghugris, varying from eight to
twelve pounds (4-6 shers) to the bigha of land, or one-tenth, eight
pounds in eighty (4 shera in the man), of the grain yield. They
also enjoyed other very ancient perquisites termed marks of honour
or mdn-pdn. The chief of these marks of honour were charmi
joda or a pair of shoes from the village shoemaker ; the Basra
sheep allowed from the village expenses ; | anna weight of oil
from the oilman on working days ; oil and molasses given by
merchants on the cattle festival ia Ashddh or June - July ; pieces
of cloth, blankets, betel-leaf, or vegetables from the sellers and
makers of these articles; a small tax of j or J a. (1|- to 3
farthings) a piece on all traders ; and to the pdtil two-thirds of
watching fees of three farthings to a half-penny a head a night on
travellers and others. They also helped themselves largely to the
sddilvdr or extra village expenses. These were assessed and their
amounts fixed by the village officers and were a source of much
complaint on the part of the villagers.

Government occasionally exercised careful supervision over these
extra village charges. But before British influence became paramount
in 1818, the usual practice was to care little for exactions from
which the state did not suffer. The policy regarding hereditary officers
seems to have been to allow the land to descend by the ordinary rules
of Hindu inheritance, but, as far as possible, to forbid or at
least to restrict its alienation out of the family. This would
have the effect of attaching to the soil a family with a stake
and interest in the village, and this was considered the most
suitable material from which to choose the officials who dealfi
immediately with the individual landholders. The special items of
remuneration in cash and perquisites were to be given to the actual
officiators. The modern law adopts a different view. The land
possessed by the whole family is regarded as an equivalent for the
remuneration of the officiator, and the whole land both of officiators
and of relations is now fully assessed while the officiator alone gets, a
fixed percentage on the revenue of the village. Under former govern-
ments the rent-free lands were necessary to keep the family attached
to their villages. In the present day they have not the inducement
to leave their homes in search of plunder or of military or court
employ, and there is no reason why the state should allow the
subordinate members of pdtil and hulkarni families to hold rent-free

1 The officiators paid the members of the family a portion of their dues under the
ime of svdmiiva or lord's share.

name

Deccan.]

sAtAra.

338

lands. In spite of state restrictions much of the lands intended for
the support of these officers has been alienated especially in the case
of the pdtils who belong to the improvident Mardtha caste. The
alienations are for the most part of long standing and are left
undisturbed because the present system secures sufficient
remuneration for officiators without interfering with transactions
most of which were in good faith^ while the levy of a full rate of
assessment from those lands has saved the state from loss. The
manner in which these hereditary officers perform their revenue
duties seldom gives entire satisfaction. A large percentage are fined
and suspended from office every year, while about two per cent are
dismissed ; and convictions for criminal offenceg, usually embezzle-
ment among the Jmlkarnis, are not uncommon. At the same time
they do a great deal of indispensable work on a small pay, and it may
be doubted whether any other system would succeed as well. In
early MarAtha times the district hereditary officers like the pdtils
were paid in land. Besides this they had the collection of certain
dues which were levied from the villagers in the form of cesses.
The collection of these dues was an occasion of unlimited extortion
and even petty warfare. The levy of these dues continued even
when the services of these district officers had been dispensed with.
Under the Musalmdn kings they collected these dues themselves.
But to check their extortion and centre authority in himself ShivAji,
wherever his rule was established, stopped these collections. Daring
the time of slack rule which followed Shivaji's death, the practice
revived, and it was not finally stopped till the establishment of the
British system. Since 1 863 the hereditary district officers, instead of
dues, have been allowed fixed assignments on the revenue, and in
lieu of service they pay a cess of one-fourth of their income from
both land and cash assignments. Even to a greater extent than
those of pdtils and kulkarnis the lands of district hereditary officers
have been alienated. But the alienations have been seldom
interfered with so long as the state receives the one-fourth cess. If
the hereditary officer no longer holds the land, the one-fourth cess is
generally secured to him from the alienee that he may not have to
pay Government for lands which he no longer enjoys.

From early times the hereditary village accountant probably
kept a general statement in which the whole land was first entered
and then the commons, roads, village site, and unarable waste were
deducted.-"^ The arable land was next shown and all alienations noted.
The balance was the land on which the government assessment was
levied. There was probably also something like the modern patta,
a statement of the amount each landholder had to pay. No record
remains of what accounts were kept in Musalmdn times, but as
their names were Musalmd.n, the greater number of the forms in use
in 1819 seem to have been handed down from Musalmdn times. In
1822 the kulJearni's accounts included the jamin jhdda or land
register, corresponding to the present Form No. I., a record of
the name, quality, and contents of every field in the village,

Chapter^VIII.
The Land.

HlSTOKY.

Revenue Officers-

A ccounts.

1 Grant DufiPs MarithAs, 16.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

334

DISTRICTS.

Chapter VIII.

The Land.

History.
Accounts,

showing whether it was alienated or not, to what class, first
second or third, its soil belonged, and whether it was garden or
dry crop. Except in the Javli district where there was no record
these details were forthcoming in most villages, but were in
general incomplete and unworthy of credit. The old land registers
were lost or perhaps quite as often hidden under pretence of
being lost or burnt during unsettled times. The land register
was intended to form the groundwork of the assessment,
but its incompleteness or falsity made it little worthy of trust.
The second statement, corresponding to the present Form No. VI.
was the Idvni patrak or rent roll, a general record of the lands
held and the revenue due by each landholder. In many villages
the sardeshmukhi and other cesses were in addition to the rent of
the fields and were not shown in the Idvni patrak or rent roll. The
Idvni patrak for the past year was the most useful paper in framing
the yearly village rent settlement as the only changes which had
to be made were for fresh cultivation, exchange of fields among
landholders, and frauds and embezzlements of land. Neither of the
first two records could be trusted till the land was appraised and
measured. The third paper, corresponding to the present Form
No. Ill, was the sowing statement or bi pernydche patrak. This
was a monthly statement of sowings kept very irregularly by the
Jculkarni and forwarded to the mdmlatddr, showing the area of land
sown in each village for the early and late crops and specifying
the amount of land revenue due from each. The fourth paper
was a holding statement called kulghadni, showing the area
and character of each cultivator's holding and its rental including
extra cesses. It was made out before the rent roll and
contained the same information in greater detail. It was a separate
account with each landholder instead of a general statement of
every holder in the village. The personal or rayatvdri settlement
was framed with reference to each man's holding or kulghadni.
The habul kutbds or holders' agreements and the rayatvdri pattas
or state agreements differed from it only in form. The fifth
paper waS' the shop statement or mohtarfdcM kulvdr, a record of all
the craftsmen and trades people in the village, with the shares
of the mohtarfa or professional tax due from each. The sixth paper
was the lease roll or istdvdchi patti, stating all the istdva or rising
leases with the terms of each. The seventh paper, corresponding
to the present day-book, was the tahsali ydd, a daily account of the
landholder's payments, showing the date of payment and the payer's
name. The eighth paper, corresponding to the present ledger, was
bot-khat khatdvni, an account current with each landholder, showing
the amount of revenue paid and the balance due by each. The
ninth paper was the patti vasuU or the accounts forwarded from
the villages, with all moneys sent to the mdmlatddr' s office in
payment of revenue, specifying all particulars of the remittance.
The tenth was the tdleband showing the revenues and charges under
each head. The eleventh, was the sarsdl jamdkharch showing all
payments and receipts in the village with the outstanding balances.^

Captain Grant, I7th June 1822, East India Papers IV. 665.

D6ccan.]

sItIra.

33£

These accounts were brought to light in the investigations made
during the first year after the overthrow of the Peshwa (1818). In
1822, after constant corrections during three years, they were
thought to be as correct as was possible until a survey was made. In
1822 they supplied a fair estimate of the assessment and enabled the
authorities to decide on complaints of extra exactions, because the
hulghadni or landholder's detailed statement specified every item
of revenue to be levied from each individual, and for which he had
passed his kahul kutba or agreement paper. Whether regular
receipts were granted under the original Maratha government does
not appear. After 1818 they were granted in regular rotation by
the pdtil to therayat, by the mdmlatddr to the pdtil, and by the head-
quarter officer to the mdmlatddr. In addition to the above the
kulkarni of each village had to prepare all the kahul kutbds, by which
the landholders signified their willingness to pay the items of revenue
they contained. Their information was contained in each landholder's
jpatta or deed, which was the state's authority to the landholders to
hold the land on the terms agreed. In Maratha times these accounts
were most loosely kept and the new system added seriously to the
kulkarni' s labours. The 'mdmlatddr s kept statements of their charges,
corresponding to the village statements, and of these forwarded
three to head-quarters at the close of the year. The mdmlatddr's
three statements were : The mahdlki jhadti a rough account of all
receipts and charges^, a statement of the revenue settlement of
each village ; and receipts from persons having fixed allowances
and other papers relating to his expenses.^ The chief defect of the
account system was carelessness in specifying alienations, cesses, and
exactions.

From early times the general revenue system was at least in theory
personal or rayatvdr. It is the current theory, says Mr. Grant Daff,
that the original tenure was rairds that is hereditary subject to the
payment of rents fixed by the state. According to the same authority
the deskmukhs, deshpdndes, and jdgirddrs or estate-holders at no
time claimed such ownership in the soil as was g^ranted to the district
officers and estate -holders in Bengal, There were no large landlords
in the modern sense of the term. The earliest mention of revenue
farming seems to be under the Musalm^ns. Under the Bijapur dynasty
the practice became common and the deskmukhs aiid deshpdndes often
farmed the revenues. The mohdsddrs were paid by a percentage on
the revenue, but there is nothing to show that they farmed it. As far
as he could, Shivaji stuck closely to the personal or rayatvdr system.
So also did the early Peshwds. It was not till the time of BAjirdv II.
(1796-1818) that revenue farming became usual. The first Mardtha
claims to the revenue of the Sdtara districts were made by Shivaji.
He claimed the chauth or one-fourth of the existing revenue and the
sardeshmukhi or extra one-tenth. In theory, in Shivdji's time,
the Bijdpur government got only three-fourths of the standard
assessment, Shivaji got one-fourth, and the landholders had to pay
one-tenth beyond the former assessment, which tenth was taken by

Chapter^VIir.
The Land.

HlSTOEY.

Accounts.

Revenue System.

1 East India Papers IV, 633,

[Bombay Gazetteer,

336

DISTRICTS.

ChapterVIII.

The Land.

History.
Revenue System.

Shivdji. In practice Shiv^jij besides the fourth, and the extra tenth,
took as much more as he could. The whole was lodged in his
treasury. When under Shivdji's successors the government became
weak the Mardtha sarddrs or chiefs exacted all they could as
eardeshmuhhi and chauth. In 1719 these assignments were granted
to the Mardtha crown on the revenues due to the Moghals from the
six Deccan provinces.'^ The territory west of Pandharpur, including
the whole of Sdtara, with all its revenue was ceded to the Marathds
of Sdtara. The territory thus ceded was supposed to represent
Shivaji's original dominions and as such was called the svardjya pr
own rule. In it the Mar^thds in theory continued existing rates ; in
practice they raised the rents according to their fancy. The chauth
was not levied in Sdtara because, as the whole of the revenue belonged
to the Marathas, there was no occasion for a distinct leVy of chauth
and the term ceased to be used except when this share of the revenue
was assigned by the Mardtha government to some third party. The
sardeshmukhi or extra tenth continued to be levied. In theory
therefore, after 1719, the Marathds were entitled to eleven-tenths
of the old assessment. The extra tenth or sardeshmukhi went to
meet the Raja's state expenses. Of the rest one-fourth termed
hdbti or cesses went to meet his personal expenses. The
balance was termed mokdsa. From this mokdsa two deductions
were made j the sahotra or six per cent on the whole revenue, and
the nddgaunda that is district head cess or three per cent on the
whole revenue. The sahotra was assigned in perpetuity to the Pant
Sachiv of Bhor, and the nddgaunda or district head cess of three
per cent went in gifts to the hereditary chitnis or secretary and to
several dhangar or herdsmen chiefs. The details are :

Sdtdra Revenue, 1719.

Thu State.

To ASSIONliES.

Per Cent.
Extra Tenth or Sardeshmukhi. 10
One-Fourth or BiiMi 25

Per Cent.
Six per cent or Sahotra ... 6
DistnctMeaAor Nddgaunda... 3
Military or Saranjdm ...66

I'hat is of the whole 110 parts thirty-five came to the Rdja and
seventy-five were assigned to other parties.^

The system was further complicated by giving the various chiefs
and officers assignments in each other's districts. Besides there
were numerous alienations of revenue in whole villages or districts.

' The six Deccan Provinces were Aurangabad, Berir, Bedar, BijApur, Haidarabad,
and Khtodesh.

^ These proportions are from Grant Dufi's MardthAs. In his letter of 17th June
1822 (East India Papers IV. 653) he puts the proportion of nddgaunda at 2 per
cent on the mokdsa or IJ per cent on the whole revenue, and the sahotra at 6 per
cent on the moMsa or 44 per cent on the whole. Thus the amount remaining for
saranjdm would be 69 per cent on the whole revenue and not 66 per cent. Also when
a Mardtha indmddr calls himself nddgaunda or mokdsddr it means that he was the
assignee of those items of revenue in some particular district, not that he wasa
mokdsddr under Musalmdn rule or ever held the headship of a group of villages in
a K^narese district.

Beccan]

SlTlRA.

337

According to Captain Grant Duffi these artificial divisions of
revenue created union and gave an immediate direction to the
predatory power in the Deccan. The Mard,thds would probably
never have spread so far but for this means of at once conciliating
and controlling the chiefs. Bajir5,v I. (1720 - 1740) had neither
leisure nor inclination to attend to detail. Every one interpreted
the amount of his own or his master's claims according to his power to
enforce them rather than his ability to prove their justice. Shivdji's
more solid institutions remained among his native hills in West
Sdtdra and Poona^ and there alienations except by the sovereign's
authority usually came direct into the state treasury. The
proportions above quoted soon became little more than theoretical.
Sardeshmukhi dues especially were collected in the most arbitrary
manner, sometimes at only two per cent over the revenue at other
times at ten to twenty per cent.^ Until the time of Bd,3ir^v II.
(1796 -,1818) matters continued on this footing. He increased
his own revenue but injured the administration beyond hope of
recovery by the universal introduction of the farming or contract
system both for revenue and for expenditure. Revenue contractors
who failed in their contracts were forced to give up all their
property and that of their sureties, and if all was insufficient,
were thrown into hill-forts and treated with the greatest rigour.*
The system of contracts was indefinitely multiplied; those in
contract with government sublet their farms. The contractors
frequently failed to pay their contracts to government or to
each other. The government put pressure on the government con-
tractor and he on those who had taken the under-contracts. Thus in
regular gradation pressure passed on the villagers, the whole generally
ending in a promise to pay at a future day. The contractor was often
a court favourite. To please Bdjirav, and in the hope of making his
loss good in some other way, he would offer more for a district or
village group than it was worth. The under-contractors took all
they could from the heads of villages. If a landholder died and
the contractor refused remission the village head added the dead
landholder's share to the payments due by the other villagers. If the
villagers failed to make good the loss, the headman had either to
pay the amount himself, raise it from a moneylender, be imprisoned,
or sit in the sun with a stone on his head. Villages used to pay the
outgoing contractor a sum called antast or secret payment to persuade
the incoming contractor that the villagers' payments in the past year
■were less than they actually were. Contracts were usually yearly but
were sometimes for as long as three years. Before 1819 payments
were accepted by assignments on bankers or sdvlcdrs which in
exchange charges, interest, and premium cost the landholders one
to four per cent a month on their payments. The result was that
most villages were hardened by a heavy debt incurred on the
responsibility of the headman and on behalf of the village. In

1 Marithils, 251. ' Grant Duff, 22nd June 1822.

' Grant Duffs Marith^s, 624-625.

Chapter VIII

The Land>^

History.
Revenue System

B 1282—43

[Bombay Gazetteer.
338 DISTRICTS.

Chapter VIII. Maratha times village creditors relied partly on the headman's

The~Land. power of forcing the villagers to pay creditors and partly on the

support of government. These village debts, says Captain Grant

isTOKY. Duff,^ were nothing more than an extraordinary and increasing land

Revenue System, ^g^^ occasioned by the misrule of the former government which the
profits on agriculture could never have paid, and which in the end
must have fallen on the government with which it originated and
by whose measures the whole system was countenanced and
supported. Of the greater part of the village debts bankers were
not the creditors, but individuals engaged in no trade or business
except ' multiplying this drain on the country.' ' The great mass
of these debts' says^ Mr. Chaplin 'consists of advances or loans to
the late Mardtha government. Both village and private debts have
arisen to a great degree out of the exactions of the farming system.'
The crops of a whole village were often mortgaged to creditors
before they were ripe, but it was very difficult to distinguish
public from private transactions. In 1822 Captain Grant Duff
calculated the village debt at £50,000 to £70,000 (Es. 5 to 7
lakhs). ^ To clear this great burden Captain Grant Duff proposed
in each village to conduct a personal inquiry into the history of the
debt in the presence of the creditor and of the villagers. Money
which had been paid down must in every case be repaid. Where
interest payments already equalled or exceeded the sum advanced, a
further payment of twelve per cent was to be made and the bond
cancelled. When the paid interest already amounted to 150 per cent on
the original debt the debt was to be held cancelled. Where new bonds
had been passed including principal and interest only the principal
was to be paid. When the amount due from the village was fixed
it was to be paid by government and their share recovered by
instalments from the different landholders. Captain Grant Duff's
proposals were approved by Mr. Chaplin and seem to have been
carried out.

The first step after the establishment of the Sdtara Rdja in
1818 was to abolish the revenue contract system and to revert to
a strictly personal or rayatvdr settlement. One great evil of the
contract system was that the headman had great opportunities
of profiting by exactions in which he was seconded by the
authority of government. In transactions with moneylenders the
headman made profits which were ensured by heavier exactions on
the landholders. Under the system introduced by Captain Grant
Duff the headman could not levy one copper in addition to what

1 Letter of 14th February 1822, East India Papers IV. 677.

" Report on the Decean para 362, East India Papers IV. 516.

' The proportions of the different items which made- this total amount were roughly
-calculated at balances 25 per cent, penalties 41 per cent, new borrowings to pay old
^ per cent, over-assessment 7 per cent, village bonds as surety for personal debts
i per cent, advances for tillage 2J per cent, village land 3 per cent, to pay up
thefts J per cent, due by village officers J per cent, security 1 per cent, due to
the mimlatdir who paid the amount IJ per cent, village bonds extorted 2J per cent.
Letter of 14th Feb. 1822. The total of the items is 90 per cent, not 100 per cent.

Deccan]

sAtAra.

339

was stabod in the landholders' accounts nor could he defraud the
state by granting alienations or unduly easy leases. By improving
the system of accounts and enforcing the improved system the
headman's unjust gains and tyranny became impossible and the
ruinous dealings between villages and moneylenders ceased.

Captain Grant Duff thus describes the Mardtha revenue settlement
of a village in the eighteenth century. The total amount of the naJd
hob or cash taxes, which were the first item in the account, was first
put down. Next came the statement of arable land from which
were deducted fallow land, alienations, claimants or hahddrs that is
village officers' land, village devasthdn or temple endowments, and
baluta or village servants' land. If the headman's and accountant's
land was not specified, five bighds the chdhur were assigned for
both together. To the amount of taxes the assessment on the
remaining land was added and the whole completed by the addition
of seven cesses or pattis amounting altogether to thirty-two per cent.^
These cesses together with the taxes and net land revenue formed
the total rent settlement or jamdbandi of the village. When the
total rent demand was fixed the village authorities, with or without
the help of the government agent, proceeded to divide the assessment
among the various members of the community. Besides the regular
items extra assessments were levied in the same way as the cesses.
They were imposed more or less arbitrarily, and once put on were
seldom taken off. . There were also remissions, some permanent when
the gross rental was found to be above the resources of the village, and
some occasional for bad harvests and on other excuses. Theseremissions
were often corruptly obtained as a matter of favour. The land was.
divided in pdnds or twentieths of a bigha,a bigha equal to about three-
fourths of an acre, and chdhur equal to 120 bighds or 90 acres. Each
chdhur was probably at one time divided into tiJcds or thikds which
depended on the number of vadils or heads of families. Each thika had
a managinghead who in turn apportioned the rent among his bhduband
or brotherhood, according to the numbers of rokhars or forty-eighthi
part shares of the thika each held. The thiha varied in size from
one-half to one-twentieth of a chdhur. They were chiefly used in
Khandpur, Vd,lva, Wai, and Koregaon. Instead of into thikds the
lands of villages near the Sahyd,dris were divided into khords or
valleys, and the lands of the villages in the district of the upper
Varna known as the Vdrna taraf, were divided into bodkds of ten to
fifty fields. Each bodka had its manager, who distributed the land
and its revenue among the connections while the individal or rayatvdr
settlement was made by the headman with the head landholder.
Probably it was formerly the universal custom for the village head to
settle only with the family heads and for the family heads to fix the
sharBS due by the different members of the family. When the
settlement had been made with each ray at or family head, each family
head signed a paper of assent,, specifying the quantity and quality of'

Chapter^VIII
The Land.

fliSTOBT.

Bevenue System

1 The details were : Expenses of collection at 5 per cent, sardeshmuhU 10 per cent,
deshmukhi 5 per cent, deshpdnde 2\ per cent, deshchaughula li per cent, sahotra
6 per cent, and nddgaunda 2 per cent.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

Chapter VIII.
The Laud.

HisTOEr.

Collections.

1821-1848.

340

DISTRICTS.

the land and the revenue with all extras. Prom these papers patida
or state-agreements were framed and sent to head-quarters for
signature and seal. They were returned to the mdmMtddrs, who,
with the village officers, referred to them as the authority for the
levy of the assessment.

Under the Mard,thd,s the assessment was paid in four instalments
called the tusdr or early rain crop in October of twenty per cent,
the hharif or chief rain crop in January of twenty -five per cent, the
rahi or cold weather crop in March of thirty per cent, and the akhersdl
or hot weather crop in May of twenty-five per cent. These instalments
were continued unchanged till 1863, except that the date of taking
the tusdr or first instalment was postponed from October to JSTovem-
ber, that the landholder might be able to pay it after disposing of
some of his crop. Payment was made in different coins, which led
to charges for exchange in which the landholder was always a loser.
After 1819 theRaja's government collected the revenue at two percent
discount, which was the charge made by the former government on the
ankushi rupee to bring it up to the malhdr shdhi or standard rupee.
One and a half per cent of the whole revenue was collected in the
Valva sub-division by a rupee called by Captain Grant the menih
hokeri. The malhdr shdhi was collected in the Bijapur district and
formed four per cent of the whole revenue. The remaining 94^
per cent were collected in ankushi rupees. Little compulsion was
required in collecting the revenue. Landholders in the same and in
neighbouring villages went security for one another and distraint
was rarely necessary. If a landholder could not pay his rent he ran
away. If he was a casual holder or upri any one could take the land ;
if he was an hereditary holder or mirdsddr some one took the land
under condition that the former holder might oust him if he came
back and paid what he owed.

After the restoration of the Sd,td,ra Rdjds the old and very heavy
assessment was continued.^ Between 1821 and 1829 Captain Adams
surveyed all the lands of the state. The arable area was divided into
numbers or fields and the areas of all holdings and grants or indms
were fixed.^ But as no boundary marks were set up the work of the
survey was of little use except in preventing indms from encroach-
ing on government land. No permanent revision of the assessment
was introduced.' Every village had its old kamdl or standard assess-

1 Colonel W. C. Anderson, Survey Commissioner, 881 of 23rd October 1880. In
1851, Mr. afterwards Colonel Parr thought the assessment absorbed half the produce.
Mr. Ogilvy the Commissioner thought that even a larger share was taken. Bom. Gov.
Eev. Kec. 22 of 1852, 23.

" Captain Adams' bigha contained 4444 square yards or 396 square yards less than
the English acre of 4840 square yards. The ancient bigha in Mr. Ogilvy 's opinion was
originally about the same size as the new, Mr. Ogilvy, Commissioner of Sdtdra,
419 of 29th October 1851, Bom. Gov. Rev. Eec. 22 of 1852, 22-23.

^ Colonel W. C. Anderson, Survey Commissioner, 881 of 23rd October 1880. Colonel
Anderson's account agrees with Mr. Saudford's but differs from Mr. Ogilvy's. Ac-
cording to Mr. Sandford the Assistant Commissioner in charge of Kardd, VAlva,
Khstad,pur, and BijApur (1851), Captain Adams measured the country but the assess-
ment was not altered ; the consequence was that great confusion was occasioned by
the. old Ughds and the measurement bighds as they were severally styled. In all but-

Deccan.]

sAtIra.

341

ment fired, and the total assessment of tte occupied area of all
the villages made up the total kamdL or standard assessment of any
tdluJca or sub-division. Each field was supposed to be known, and
had its name and area recorded in the accounts in kadim or ancient
bighds, which was a measure of valuation and not of area, and in the
bigka of Adams' survey which was equal to thirty- six gunthds or
^\ths of the English acre. The kamdl or standard assessment was
also entered against each field. Next, as the standard assessment as
a rule was too high to be realized, a certain amount was taken off as
tota or permanent remission and the concession of which was sup-
posed to prevent the landholder demanding casual remissions. It
was in fact supposed to be an agreement to take bad and good years
together and contract to pay a certain sum considerably less than
the full legitimate demand. In practice the demand for yearly
remissions on the plea of poverty and failure of crops remained
much as before.^ Under the E.djd,s' system, landholders were
encouraged to increase garden land by advances for making or
repairing wells, and by remitting half of the difference of assess-
ment between that laid on dry and on garden lands, if the holder
turned dry land into garden. ^ Appa Saheb or Shdhdji, the second
chief (1 839-1848), conferred on the country the benefit of a uniform
standard of weights and measures which was in use in 1851 and
bore the state stamp.*

In 1818, when the SAtd,ra state was formed, one of the first steps
taken was to abolish revenue farming. The village authorities were
maintained in full vigour but their actions were carefully watched.
The hereditary district officers were not allowed to take part in the
revenue administration. Their influence was considered by Captain
Grant to depend on their power and their power on their knowledge
of embezzlements in their districts, and to be therefore disadvan-
tageous. Their names and signatures were occasionally required in
cases of alienation sales and transfers, and arbitrations were some-
times submitted to them by the consent of parties. At first they
were often consulted on general subjects, but as they were found
untrustworthy, the practice ceased. In the time of the Peshwds
Satara was divided into fourteen mdmlats or sub-divisions a number
which Captain Grant reduced to ten. The mdmlatddrs were paid
one per cent on the net revenue of their charge. Each mdmlatddr

Chapter VIII

The Land.

History.
18S1-184S.

the BijApur sub-division the assessment was on the old Ugha while the cultivated area
was shown in measurement higlids. Bom. Gov. Eesr. Rec. 22 of 1852, 154. According
to Mr. Ogilvy the Commissioner (1851), between 1821 and 1829 Captains Chalan and
Adams, in communication with heads of villages and other intelligent natives,
surveyed the entire territory of SdtAra with the exception of the lands of several
indmdd/rs and of a few villages in the Bijdpur sub-division. They revised the assess-
ment by which they made a trifling increase on the whole revenues. The revised
rates were introduced and continued in operation for a few years till it was found
that owing to the resistance offered by those whose rents had been raised, added to
the loss sustained from those whose rents had been reduced, the revenues declined.
On this the Rija directed that the old rates should be again levied instead of the new.
The change confused the accounts by keeping the new higha and the old rates. Bom.
Gov. JRev. Kec, 22 of 1852, 22.
1 Colonel W. C. Anderson, Survey Commissioner, 881 of 23rd October 1880.
Bom. Gov. Key. Eec. 22 of 1852, 155. ^Bom, Gov. Rev. Kec. 22 of 1852, 27.

[Bombay Gazetteer.

342

DISTRICTS.

Chapter VIII.
The Laud-

History.

was not paid precisely in proportion to the amount of the collections,
the highest pay was one hundred and seventy and the lowest one
hundred rupees a month. Complaints of exactions or tyranny were
rare, but fourteen mdmlatdd/rs were dismissed within the first three
years chiefly for bribery and embezzlement. The post of tdlukddr
or shekhddr that is group clerk or manager and of mdmlatddr
were continued and regular salaries took the place of irregular gains.
The accounts were strictly supervised at head-quarters. Under the
British system in Satara, as elsewhere, the district hereditary officers
were without duties or powers. The village system was maintained
in purity and efficiency. In spite of the elaboration of the system
and the changes made to suit modern financial practices the revenue
jurisdiction and duties of the mdmlatddrs and officers corresponding
to the shekhddrs were closely analogous to those 'of ancient times.
The working of the system showed that it was suited to the country,
fitted to check extortion, and to ensure the punctual collection of
any assessment the landholder could afford to pay.

In spite of Captain Grant Duff's efforts to improve the system, it
continued in several respects loose and uncertain. The village
accounts were kept on loose pieces of paper and were never balanced
at the end of the year, and the district officers framed their monthly
and yearly cash accounts from equally slovenly records. These
accounts showed the receipts only and not the disbursements ; for it
was the practice to remit monthly to the district officers the sums
necessary to meet their charges by the hands of the person who had
brought the collections to the state treasury. Waste lands were
often entered as cultivated and lands let at reduced rates were
recorded as fully assessed. The nominal rent of land free from
assessments and receipts from other sources, were so mixed with the
land revenues as to make their separation almost impossible. No
care seems to have been taken to realize the revenues by instal-
ments at seasons convenient to the payers. If arrears accurnulated
the landholders were pressed for payment when they should have
been left undisturbed in their fields.^

Large yearly remissions were always required. When the crops
began to ripen the heads of vUages and the shekhddrs or group
managers examined them and reported their state to the mdmlatddr.
Where any village was reported to have suffered much loss, the
mdmlatddr or one of his head writers went and examined the crops.
From these reports and from personal observation the mdmlatddr
made a rough estimate of the required remission. At the time of
making the rent settlement the mdmlatddr submitted this rough
estimate to the Raja. The amount of remission was then fixed in
the same way as if the sale of an estate was the subject of discussion.
The mdmlatddr would ask £5000 (Rs. 50,000) remission. The RAja
would offer £2000 Rs. (20,000)and so they haggleduntil some medium
sum such as £3500 (Rs. 35,000) was agreed on. Armed with authority
to remit this sum the mdmlatddr and his subordinates would go

"Bom. Gov. Rev. Rec. 22 of 1852, 25-26.

Deccan. ]

sAtAea.

343

throngh the several villages, fixing each landholder's remission by a
similar process of bargaining. In the end a list was sent to head-
quarters with every landholder's name and the remission alleged to
have been given him. Several cases of dismissal of revenue servants
proved that the alleged remissions were not always given/ and if they
were given they were not distributed till after one or more seasons.^
If by the Eaja's permission any portion of the revenue was left
uncollected, it was generally not recorded.^ It often happened that
the alleged remissions were made to cover deficiencies arising from
inaccurate entries in the accounts, to meet excesses of village ex-
penditure, or to accommodate persons in favour with those in power.
InsuflScient sums were allowed to meet contingent village expenses
and when, as often happened, these sums were exceeded, the poor
were defrauded to make good the deficiency.*

A separate establishment was maintained at the capital for the
collection of outstanding balances ; and as the local officers were not
held answerable for their realization they took no pains to prevent
their accumulation and made no exertions for their recovery. The
very lax manner in which the accounts were kept rendered it
extremely difficult for the department specially appointed for the
purpose to know from whom they ought to levy the outstandings.
The village accountants were bound to keep records of the details,
but their accounts were very imperfect, and it was (1851) probable
that only a small portion of the whole amount of the outstanding
balances could be recovered.*

Under the Rdja's revenue system, yearly advances were required
to keep up tillage and yearly remissions to save the landholders from "
ruin. Rents were kept at so high a standard that large balances
accumulated, which enabled the government officers to draw the
utmost from the landholders and even to absorb, by harsh and
questionable means, any profits they might earn in other pursuits
than agriculture. In the opinion of Mr. Ogilvy, who was Commis-
sioner of S^tara in 1851, the system of revenue management under
the chiefs destroyed energy and self-dependence and could never
lead to improvement.^

SECTION IV.— THE BRITISH.

On the introduction of British management in 1848, the Com-
missioner of Sdtara made the same use of the hereditary district
officers, the deshmukhs, deshchaughulds, deshpdndes, and nddgaudds,
as had been done in older British districts. He introduced rules
under which the pay of village headmen and accountants was raised
to a standard more suited to their duties. When the salaries of
the village officers paid by the late government were found enough

' Lieut. Sandford, Assistant Commissioner, Bom. Gov. Re\r. Rec. 22 of 1852, 143-145

2 Bom. Gov. Kev. Reo. 22 of 1852, 26.

8 Colonel W. 0, Anderson, Survey Commissioner, 881 of 23rd October 1880

* Mr. Ogilvy, 1851, Bom. Gov. Rev. Reo. 22 of 1852, 26.

» Bom. Gov. Rev, Rec. 22 of 1852, 27.

^Mr. Ogilvy, Commissioner (1851), Bom. Gov. Rev, Rec. 22 of 1852, 27-28.

Chapter VIII.
The Land.

History.
18S1-184S.

Thb British.
1848-1851.

[Bombay Gazetteer)

344

DISTRICTS.

Chapter VIII.
The Land.

The British.
1848-1861.

they were left untouclied ; when they were not enough they were
raised by a percentage scale on the village revenues. One village
accountant had sometimes the care of several villages and when
their salaries fell short of the authorized percentage on the revenues
of their charge, the salary was raised according to that scale. ^ The
anomaly of having the old rates entered with the new higha was
stopped and orders were issued to the revenue officers directing them,
until the assessment was revised to record the ancient bighds and
the ancient rates. Contingent allowances for the supply of
stationery for village accountants were fixed at a percentage on the
village revenues and directed to be spent under the authority of the
pdtils and kulkarnis, and to be detailed in the village day-book.
The kulkarnis were ordered to keep regular village accounts under
the system of checks in force in other British districts of sealed and
numbered pages, and the local officer's signatures at the end of the
volumes. The day-books were directed to be balanced daily and
the accounts of individuals yearly. A receipt book was given to
each landholder in which their payments were regularly entered.
The accounts were (1851) kept so as to show the land and extra
receipts with every necessary detail. The syste m was made to resemble
as closely as possible that in use in other British districts. In 1851
Mr. Ogilvy from personal observation was satisfied with its efficient
working. Corresponding improvements were introduced into the
mode of keeping the district accounts. The day-books were
balanced daily and the volumes bore the Commissioner's signature.
Samples of the district accounts in use in British districts were
obtained from the Revenue Commissioner and distributed to the
different mamlatdars. Ordinary payments were made from the local
treasuries, extraordinary payments formed the subject of separate
references. The instalments of revenue were collected at the seasons
most convenient to the landholders, and the mdmlatd^rs were made
responsible for the collections. The collection of outstanding balances
for former years was also added to their duties. Fields, whose
crops were stated to have wholly or partially -failed, were minutely
inspected by the village and district officers, whose proceedings
were watched and revised by the Commissioner and his assistants,
and after careful inquiry remissions were granted. Statements
framed at head-quarters, bearing the Commissioner's seal and show-
ing the sums due from each landholder and the remissions allowed,
were fixed for general information in a conspicuous part of every
village. There was little risk (1851) that the relief failed to reach
those for whom it was intended.^ Under the system introduced
(1848-1851) by Mr. Prere, every field in which there was any loss
was examined by the village officers who prepared a return showing

1 The percentage paid to headmen was : On the gross land revenues up to Es. 500
five per cent, from Ra. 500 to Rs. 1000 2i per cent, from Es. 1000 to Es. 2000
two per cent, from Es. 2000 to Es. 3000 IJ per cent, from Es. 3000 to Es. 4000
one per cent ; beyond Es. 4000 half per cent. Percentage paid to village clerks : On
the gross land revenues up to Es, 1000 five per cent, from Es, 1000 to Es. 2000
four per cent, from Es. 2000 to Es. 3000 three per cent ; from Rs, 3000 to Rs. 4000
two per cent, beyond that one per cent. Bom, Gov. Rev. Bee, 22 of 1852, 28-29.

2 Bom. Gov. Rev, Eec. 22 of 1852, 30-33,

Deccan ]

SlTARA.

345

what share the crop bore to a full crop. The shekhddr or mamlatddr^s
group-clerk came round and entered his opinion of the field. Finally
the mamlatddr or his shirasteddr or head kdrhun examined the field
and recorded his opinion. This last estimate unless it greatly-
differed from that recorded by the village officers was accepted as
final. WTien the difference was striking the officer who made the
revenue settlement or jamdbandi inquired into the matter. The
result of the examination of all the fields was embodied in a village
abstract, which again was put into a list prepared for each division
or thdna, and the division list was embodied in a memorandum
showing the state of the crops for the whole district. A lump
remission was fixed as the share of the loss which Government should
bear. This lump remission was then divided until each landholder's
name appeared with the amount due and the amount remitted. The
village deed or patta which formerly contained collections without
showing remissions or expenses was then filled and given to the
headman. A memorandum was also prepared sho\^ing each land-
holder's name, the amount he had to pay^ and what remissions were
given him. This memorandum was posted in the village office or
temple. As a further precaution the mamlatdar or one of his clerks
went through the sub -division and entered in each landholder's
receipt book the revenue he had to pay and the remission he received.
Daring the first two years of British rule (1847-1849) remissions
were given on the old plan and during the next two years they were
given on the plan detailed above. The new system worked without
complaint.'^

In 1850-51 the lands of Sdtdra stretched about 160 miles from
north to south and 150 miles from east to west.^ Exclusive of
chiefs' territories it incladed the eleven sub-divisions of Sdtd,ra,
Tdrgaon, Karad, Vdlva, JAvli, WAi, Koregaon, Khanapur, Khatav,
Pandharpur, and Bijdpur. Of 1697 villages 1175 were Government
and 522 were alienated. The sub-divisions of Satara, Tdrgaon,
Kar^d, Vdiva, JAvli, and W^i, nearest to the Sahyadris, were the
most favoured in soil and climate, the richest, best tilled, and
most populous. They were watered by numerous streams fed by
abundant and seasonable rain. They were crossed by lofty moun-
tains whose steep sides were often clothed with crops, while their tops
were crowned with fields and villages. In these sub-divisions much
of the land was alienated on rent-free or service tenure. Of what
remained and was assessable, the largest part was mirds that is held
by hereditary holders who could not be ousted so long as they paid
the government rental. The commonness of this favourable tenure
kept the west of the district in the highest cultivation. The eastern
sub-divisions of Khanapur, Khatav, Pandharpur, and Bijdpur were
less favoured in soil and climate, and, being more liable to invasion
and to failure of rain, had been so wasted by war and famine that
few hereditary holders were left. The husbandmen had no interest

Chaptei^VIir
The Land.

The British.
1S48-18S1.

1850-51.

1 Bom. Gov. Key. Rec. 22 of 1852, 144- 148,

2 Bom. Gov. Kev. Eeo. 22 of 1852, 15.

B 1282—44

The British.
1850-51.

[Bombay Ga zetteer
S46 DISTRICTS.

Chapter VIII. in the soil, and as they were not bound to particular fields exerted
The~liand. themselves to exhaust rather than to improve the land. These four

eastern sub-divisions were much less highly tilled than those in the
west. At the same time they were great pasture countries, and the
cattle of Bijapur, owing probably to the tracts of salt laden soil,
were highly esteemed. Still they were not numerous enough to meet
the demand and numbers of cattle were brought from Malwa. The
buffaloes of Bijdpur were equally celebrated and their tup or gJii that
is clarified butter was said to keep longer fresh than any other ghi.
The soils to the west were dark and rich ; those to the east were
light and poor. Karad was the richest agricultural sub-division in
the district and BijApur the poorest. Though the stiff black western
soils sometimes required six pairs of bullocks to draw a single
plough, and though they were generally highly manured, the heavy
and continuous crops they yielded more than repaid the cost of
tillage. In the west watered lands yielded four crops and unwatcred
lands two crops a year. The valleys in and bordering on the
Konkan mountains grew rice^ and wheat while the hill sides yield-
ed the inferior grain called ndchni. In some parts of this tract,
especially in the otherwise poor sub-division of Jdvli, the soil was
red and rich, and nipdni or unwatered sugarcane was grown. Much
labour and careful farming was required to grow this cane ; but the
yield was better than the yield of watered cane.^ During 1850-61
about 7136 acres (9515 bighds) of native and 4151 acres (5535 bighds)
of Mauritius sugarcane were grown chiefly for local use. Without
much encouragement from the Government, the cultivators had
greatly extended the growth of Mauritius cane as they found it pay.
The west yielded the finest jvdri and the east the best bdjri, the
grains most eaten by the people. During 1850-51 about 4413 acres
(5884 highds) of tobacco were grown. It appeared to be of superior
quality and it was largely exported though not beyond seas.
Mr. Ogilvy wished to introduce Syrian tobacco and to grow some
from Nadiad seed to compare it with that of Sdt^ra. A small quantity
of opium was grown during 1850-51 from 5^ bighds of poppy in the
Si^tara and Koregaon sub-divisions. The district officerswere ordered
to take the opium from the growers, who, if Government approved,
would be paid for the drug at such rate as the opium Agent might
determine. At the village of Deur in Wdi, belonging to the Raja
of Nd,gpur, opium was also grown and sold for the benefit of the
proprietor. Daring the same year 11,155 highds of native cotton
were grown. Its production was increasing, but the quantity varied
with the state of the foreign market. It was estimated that, under
the stimulus of unlimited demand, nearly 40,000 bighds of land or
about 36,727 acres might grow cotton. The greater part of the
crop was used in the country, the rest found its way to the ports of
Ghiplun, Khed, and Mahdd. The best cotton sub-divisions were

' Rice was (1850-51) onltivated in those parts of theKardd and VAlva sub-divisiona
bordering on the Sahy4dris where nauch rain fell. The rice lands in the BijApur sub-
division were watered from the magnificent lake of MamdApur. Bom. Gov. Rev.
Rec. 22 of 1852, 155. « Bom. Gov, Rev. Reo. 22 of 1852, 33.

Deccau]

sAtIra.

347

Karad and Vd,lva. Attempts were being made to introduce New
Orleans and Broacli cotton. San or tag that is Bombay hemp was
grown to a small extent for making coarse cloth and ropes. Hemp
or ambddi was also grown and used for the same purposes, and
gdydl or wild hemp found on the banks of rivers was likewise made
into ropes. The produce of various fruit trees growing on Govern-
ment lands was annually farmed. Mangoes were farmed separately
in each villa.ge. Tamarind trees, chiefly in Bijdpur, were farmed
in the same manner. Bach fruit-bearing jack tree paid Is. 4§ti.
(1 Oil as.) in J^vli and 5|d. (3| as.) in Satdra. Date trees, mostly
near Bijapur, were farmed for spirit. In the Koyna valley in Td,rgaon
and Javli there was a promising teak forest, and as most of the
western hills were capable of yielding teak, bdbhul, sandal, and other
trees, measures had been taken for preserving and improving them.'-
An inferior dark and bitter salt was produced in most parts of
Bijdpur and at a few places ia Pandharpur and Khatdv. It was
manufactured for limited local consumption only, for sea-borne salt
was used throughout the territory.^ The landholders most of whom
were Kunbis were hardworking and skilful husbandmen. They
understood the rotation of crops, the value of manures, and the
necessity of refreshing some soils by fallows. Individual holdings
were small,* though probably larger than in some other British
districts. Many farms were held by two or more families whose
women and children helped in the fields.* The following statement,
shows for eight of the eleven subdivisions the number of landholders
and the highest lowest and average rents ^ :

Sdtdra Landholders and Rents, 1850-51.

Rental.

Sdb-Division.

Land-
holders.

Average
Rent.

Highest.

Lowest.

Re.

Rs. a.

Rs. a. p.

Kar&d

634

3 9

9226

20 9 6

vava

1843

0 li

8907

26 14 7

Kh&niipur

300

0 4

6383

18 0 7

BiJSpur
Pandharpur ...

299

0 4

4429

19 0 10

399

0 4

8132

17 7 1

Khativ

482

0 6

7189

18 7 1

Koregraon

612

1 8i

6616

17 0 0

TArgaon

687

0 ii^

6347

19 8 3

According to Captain Adams' measurements in 1822 Sd,td,ra con-
tained 2,683,998 acres (2,923,167 bighds) of arable land. Of these in
1850-51, including, alienations but excluding the lands of feudatories,
2,444,459 acres (2,662,283 bighds) were under tillage yielding
£316,079 (Rs. 31,60,790) a year or £35,833 (Rs. 3,58,330) less tha,n
the kamdl or nominal full assessment. Of the rental little more than
half came to Government. The arable waste was 239,528 acres

Chapter^VIIII

The Land.

The British.
1850-51.

' Bom. Gov. Rev. Eee. 22 of 1852, 38-39. The reference to teak in Jdvli seems
mistaken. Mr. Muir-Maekenzie, C. S. ' Bom. Gov. Rev. Rec. 22 of 1852, 39.

' In Pandharpur, Kbatdv, Koregaon, and TArgaon, most of the landholders had
farms paying an average rent of about £1 18s. (Rs. 19). Larger farms were rare.
Bom. Gov. Rev. Rec. 22 of 1852, 195. «Bom, Gov. Rev. Rec, 22 of 1852, 18-19, "

5 Bom. Gov. Rev. Rec. 22 of 1852, 177, 225.

[Bombay (Jazetteer,

348

DISTRICTS.

Chapter VIII.

The Land.

The Beitish.
1850-51.

('260,884 bighds) and, if tilled and fally assessed, would yield an
estimated rental of £7893 (Rs. 78,930). This was probably more
than the landholders were able to pay, so that it seemed (1861)
that increased cultivation would hardly repay Governme^t for any
large and permanent reduction of assessment.^

The assessment was in all cases on the land and not on the crop.
On watered land the bigha rate averaged about £2 Is. (Rs. 20^), on
tinwatered land about £1 8s. (Rs. 14), on rice land about £1 14*.
(Rs. 17), and on hill side land about 3s. 7^d. (Re. 1 as. 13). In
Mr. Ogilvy's opinion these rates were (1851) much heavier than in
the surveyed British districts. But as the mdmul or ancient bigha
on which the assessment was based, from time and other causes had
probably become somewhat indefinite, there was possibly less differ-
ence in the actual incidence. Reduction as well as revision of rates
was necessary not only because prices had fallen from the cessation
of the court expenditure, but also because the more the country
became opened by roads so as to admit the cheaper produce of the
neighbouring districts into the Satd,ra markets, the more must prices
fall and with them jihe landholder's power to pay high rates.
Mr. Ogilvy (1851) had no means of ascertaining when or by whom
the assessment was originally fixed or on what principle it was im-
posed, or whether it was at that time light or heavy. In his opinion
the price of produce and the value of the precious metals were liable
to so many fluctuations that fixed money rents could never for any
length of time represent the same proportion of the crop.^

In Kardd and Vdlva the dry crop assessment looked startling, being
as high as and even higher than the garden rates. This was partly
owing to the richness of the soil on the banks of the Krishna and
probably still more to the large size of the ancient or kadim bigha on
which the rates were charged.* Garden land was divided into three
classes dam-watered or dharan bdgdyat, lift-watered or budhi bdgdyat,
and well-watered or vihir bdgdyat. In the dam -watered or dharan
bdgdyat land, the dam was generally of earth stones and, grass. It
had to be renewed every year and repaired after every dry weather
thunderstorm. The cost of these repairs was nearly equal to the
keep of a pair of bullocks. In the lift-watered land or budki
bdgdyat the water was raised from a stream or pool by bullocks as
from a well. In the well- watered or vihir bdgdyat the chief element
of cost was the keep of one or more pairs of bullocks. The variety
of the soil in the different parts of the district also gave rise to
difference in the rates of garden assessment.*

The following statement^ shows the highest, average, and lowest
higha rates of assessment on garden, rice, and dry-crop lands in four
of the eleven sub-divisions :

' Mr. Ogilvy, Comr. 419 of 29th Oct. 1851, Bom. Gov. Rev. Rec. 22 of 1852, 19-20.
" Mr. Ogilvy, Commissioner of SdtAra, 419 of 29th October 1851, Bom. Gov. Eev.
Kec. 22 of 1852, 20-21. » Bom. Gov. Eev. Rec. 22 of 1852, 153-154.

* Bom. Gov. Rev. Rec. 22 of 1852, 152-153.
' Bom. Gov. Rev. Rec. 22 of 1852, 221.

Ceccan .]

SATlRA.

349

Sdtdra Assessment Bigha Rates, 1850-51.

Sob-Division.

Watered Land. 1

Dharan or Dam.

Biidki or Water-Lift.

Vihir or WeU.

Highest.

Average.

Lowest.

Highest.

Average.

Lowest.

Highest.

Average.

Lowest.

Pandharpur ...
Khat&v

Koregaon. !!!
T&rgaon

Bs. a.

88" 0
20 0
18 0

Bs. «..
u" 0

18 0
13 0

Bs. «..

i" 0

1 6
10 0

Bs. a.

14 ■ 0
12 0

Rs. a.

lb" 0
10 0

Bs. »,.

2 0
6 0

Bs. a.

16 10}
60 0

14 0

15 0

' Bs. a.

7 0

28 0

10 0

12 0

Es. a.

0 6i
16 0

2 0
10 0

Shb-Division.

UN WATERED LAND. 1

Dry Land.

Bice Land.

Highest.

Average.

Lowest.

Highest.

Average.

Lowest.

Pandharpur

Khat&v

Koregaon

T&rgaon

Bs. a.

7 8
6 0

16 0

8 0

Bs, a.
2 13
6 0
8 0
6 0

Es. a.

0 1

1 0

0 4

1 0

Es. a.
15" 0

Es. a.

13" 0

Rs. ».
7" 0

Besides the land tax landholders had to pay a number of cesses of
which the chief were, gavat katdi or grass cess, a fixed sum of £254
(Rs. 2540) levied from certain villages instead of grass formerly-
supplied to the Rajas free of charge. Batta or exchange tax amounting
to £3457 (Rs. 34,570), being the difference fixed in 1830 at 2f per
cent between the old Poena kori or uninscribed rupee and the exist-
ing (1851) local Chdndvad ankushi rupee. Ohud-onda-patti or beacon
wood tax at £37 (Rs. 370) a year levied from villages near forts,
instead of faggots formerly supplied by landholders to feed beacons
lighted to guide watchmen absent on duty from the fort. Ghar-patti
or house-tax of £1500 (Rs. 15,000) a year, was levied by families
rather than according to the extent of ground occupied ; it varied
from 3d. (2 as.) to 2s. (Re. 1). It was a partial tax. In some villages
it was levied on shopkeepers and strangers only, in others on land-
holders also, but never on Br^hmans and vatanddrs, and rarely on
labourers. Buffalo or vancharai that is grazing tax of one rupee was
levied on each buffalo not engaged in cultivation and not belonging
to the village headmen. It yielded upwards of £600 (Rs. 6000). In
some parts a tax levied on cattle driven to pasture yielded about £437
(Rs. 4370). A grazing tax on sheep yielded about £2426 (Rs. 24,260).
It was levied at different rates in almost every village and averaged
a little over 12s. (Rs. 6) the hundred sheep.^

As Sdtara was so well watered both by large rivers and small
streams Mr. Ogilvy thought that £10,000 (Rs. 1,00,000) a year
should be set apart for water works. Much might also be done to

Chapt«yiII

The Land.

The British.

1850-51.

Cesses,
1851.

' The average rate on 100 sheep was in Sdtdra Rs. 6J, in TAsgaon Rs. 6,^, in
KarAd Rs. 5,%, in Vdlva Rs. 5§, in Khatdv Rs. 6|, in KhJinApur Rs, SJ, in
Pandharpur Rs. 5J, in Wdi Ks. 64, in Koregaon Rs. 5|, in Bijdpnr Rs. 5|, in
Phaltan Rs. 6|, in AtpAdi (under jdgirddr) Rs. 7. The wandering tribe of
KhiUris were charged a fixed rate Ot Rs. 7i the hundred sheep. Bom. Gov. Rev.
Reo. 22 of 1852, 39-42.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

350

DISTEICTS.

Chapter VIII.

The Land.

The British.
1851.

StmvEY,
1853-1863.

improve the district by opening roads and markets.^ Otherwise Mr.
Ogilvy thought the withdrawal of the revenue to Bombay would
cause a fall in prices and a decline of revenue.^ An inquiry into
produce prices satisfied Mr. Ogilvy that produce prices had varied
little during the twenty years ending 1852, and that during that period
the average was about one-half of the average under the Peshwa.
As the assessment on the land remained unchanged the rental must
have pressed with more than double weight on the landholders.
A field assessed at 4s. (Rs. 2), yielding Es. 6 in the time of the
Peshwa and 6s. (Rs. 3) in 1852, would leave 'to the husbandmen
8s. (Rs. 4) in the former period and 2s. (Re. 1) in the latter or only a
quarter of his former profits. This showed the pressing need of a
revision of the assessment, since rents that might once have been light
might now (1852) be ruinous.^

In 1853 when the revenue survey was introduced S^tara included
eleven sub-divisions, Bijdpur, Pandharpur, Khatav, Koregaon, Kha-
nd,pur, Wii, Sd,t^ra, Jdvli, Tdrgaon, Karad, and Valva. Of these
Bijapur has passed to Bijd,pur and Pandharpur to Sholapur ; the
other nine sub-divisions still belong to Satdra. Besides these a
group of nineteen villages, eight of the Soni estate or jdgir which
lapsed in 1845 and eleven of the Td,sgaon estate or jdgir which
lapsed in 1848, were in 1848 formed into a sub-division styled Td,s-
gaon, which was originally given to Belgaum but since, between
1857 and 1864, has belonged to Sdtara. The survey settlement was
introduced into this TAsgaon sub-division in 1852-63, reported
in 1855-56, and sanctioned by G-overnment in 1856-57. In 1857
some villages were handed from Tasgaon to Athni and some froni
Athni to Td,sgaon. After Tdsgaon the survey settlement was
introduced into Khatdv and Mayni in 1858-59 ; into Koregaon and
Khandpur in 1859-60; into Wdi in 1860-61; into SatAra, Jd,vli,
Targaon, and part of Helvak in 1861-62 ; and into Kar£d, Helvd,k,
and Vd,lva in 1862-68. The total number of surveyed and settled
villages was 933, and the efEect of the survey settlement was a fall
in the rental on the tillage area from £119,538 to £115,189
(Rs. 11,95,380 to Rs. 11,51,890) or about four per cent. The
following statement shows the order in which the different sub-
divisions were settled and the effect of the survey settlement in each
group :

^ Works to improTe communication were (1851) in active progress under the Civil
Engineer, while the Superintendent of Cotton Experiments was engaged in making
and distributing carts of a superior description. The Commissioner in 1849 (37 of
13th April) showed the efifect on prices in contiguous sub-divisions caused by the
facilities or the impediments to communication. The use of carts instead of pack
bullocks would lower the cost of transport in the proportion of 5 to 3 and effect a
saving of time in the proportion of 6 to 4. Mr. Ogilvy, Commissioner of SAtAra, 419
of 29th October 1851, Bom. Gov. Rev. Eec. 22 of 1852, 37.

" Mr. Ogilvy, Commissioner of Sd,t4ra, 419 of 29th October 1851, Bom. Oov, Rev
Bee. 22 of 1852, 44-46.

' Mr. Ogilvy, Commissioner of S&k&va, 520 of 26th October 1852, Bom. Gov. Rev.
Eec. 16 part 9 of 1856, 2528-2529.

Deccau.]

sAtAra.

351

Sdtdra Survey Settlement, 185S-1863.

Former.

Survey Rental. |

Tbab.

Group.

LAOES.

CoUec- ,
tions.

TiUage.

Waste.

Total.

Bs.

Ra.

Eb.

Rs.

1862-53

TSsgaon

87,690

60,056

13,566

73,611

1868-B9

Khatav

105

91,236

1,03,567

3690

1,07,257

1868-59

M&yni (Kh&n5,piir) ...

37,208

43,457

2708

46,186

1859-60

Koregaon

1,49,635

1,36,949

4488

1,41,437

1869-60

Kh&nipur

67,394

67,432

6988

73,420

1860-61

WAi

103

1,04,366

96,278

1706

96,984

1861-62

S&t&ra

101

91,889

85,928

2743

68,671

1861-62

J&vli

141

41,579

40,020

263

40,273

1861-62
1861-62

T&rgaon

Helvak (Tdrgaon) ...

42
13

j- 93,338

86,534

2890

89,424

1862-63

KarSd

1,85,762

1,66,297

8664

1,73,961

1862-63

Helv&k (T&rgaon) ...

10,777

13,881

177

14,068

1862-63

VUva ...

Total ...

103

2,34,605

2,63,491

9170,

2,62,661

933

11,96,375

11,51,890

66,032

12,07,922

In 1852-53 the survey settlement was introduced into the Tasgaon
sub-division then in Belgaum. In 1848, on the death without heirs
of the Tasgaon chief, his estate or jdgir came into the hands of
Government. The eleven villages near Tasgaon and Athni were
formed into a separate mamlatdar's charge in which were also in-
cluded eight neighbouring villages which had belonged to the Soni
chief's estate which had lapsed three years before. Most of these
nineteen villages enjoyed a fairly certain and sufficient rainfall.
Grain was the chief produce and the early or Mart/" harvest was
njore important than the late. Some sugarcane was grown in
garden lands. The population was 39,061 or 243 to the square mile.
Tillage was almost the only industry. In Tdsgaon of 9000 people
nearly 400 were weavers and dyers. The chief import and
export markets were Athni, S^ngli, Tasgaon, and Miraj. Of
the nineteen Government villages^ in Tasgaon eight had been
in the hands of Government since the death of the Soni chief
in 1845, and the remaining eleven since the death of the Tdsgaon
chief in 1848. In 1855 at the time of the settlement beyond a few
doubtful fragments no revenue returns could be found for any of
these villages before their lapse to Government. Little was known
of the revenue management of the Soni and Tasgaon chiefs. Captain
Anderson believed it fairly represented the average management
of Mar^tha chiefs.

The AamciZ or rack rent was too high to be ever realised; it
was twice to four times the amount actually levied. Though the
landholders agreed to till at those excessive rates there was an
unspoken understanding tliat the full rates should not be levied.
Eegarding the amount to be paid the views of the two parties
differed greatly. The landholder was determined to pay the smallest
possible amount; the chief or the chief's agent intended to, levy
every rupee over what was required to keep the landholder able
and willing to till the land during the next season. The chief often
took more than this and left the landholder dependent on advances
for food and seed. The unpaid balance of the nominal rent was

Chapter^ Vlll

The Land.

■Stjevby,
1853-1863,

Tdsgaon,
1853-53.

' Besides these there were two alienated villages. Bom. Gov, Sel. XCIV. 4.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

352

Districts.

Chapter VIII.
The Land.

StTEVBY.

Tdagaon,
185^-53.

added to tlie landholder's outstandinga. Som6 of these oiitstand-
ings were realised ia an unusually good season, and the threat
of levying the rest was held over a landholder who either refused
to till as much land as the chief wished him to till, or threatened
to leate the chief's state. ^ Rather than allow land to remain waste,
if no one would till it at the usual nominal rates, it was given
for tillage at any procurable rate, the difference between the actual
rate and the full assessment being shown as khafid tota or loss by
agreement. Lands held on these terms were entitled to no remission.
Against the great advantage of holding land with this remission in
advance, was the fact that the land was held for only one year so
that any attempt to improve it was lost labour. With kindly
management a fair share of comfort was possible under this system.
At the same time no advance was possible under it as the amount
levied was based not on the productive power of the land but on
the produce.^

In spite of their enormous nominal assessment the Tdsgaon land-
holders were not very badly off under the native system. They
were slaves but their masters were considerate, and seldom tightened
their bonds beyond the limits of endurance. They were not allowed
to become wealthy ; on the other hand they were seldom or never
reduced below the level of a fair subsistence. They were
the chief's milch cows which he took care no one but himself
should touch. The gross produce in a well-managed native dis-
trict was greater than in unsurveyed British districts, but far short
of the gross produce of surveyed British districts where the land-
holder had learned that he worked for himself, not only for the
state.^ In Captain Anderson's opinion whatever might be the
defects of the native system of management, the lapse of a district
and the consequent introduction of the British revenue system
was by no means a boon to the people. Probably a century or
two had passed since the nominal or kamdl assessment had been
fixed. During that time the standards of value had changed. Even
had the standards remained unchanged, the rates and apportionment
of the assessment and the boundaries of fields had in many cases
been forgotten. Under native management this change was of little
practical consequence, as the old rates though kept in the accounts
were, either by extensive remissions or by special agreement, so
far modified as to be bearable. In settling the Tasgaon villages
in 1848-49 Mr. Manson noticed that lands had been granted by
the chief to his oificials instead of ready-money payments, but the
nominal value set opposite these lands was seldom realized.* The
receivers of these lands who were styled stipendiaries or taindtddrs
sublet them at rates lower than those shown in the books. In
the Tasgaon villages thirty-one landholders had written agreements
with the grantees, and as they had begun to sow and had been at

1 Captain W. C. Anderson, Survey Superintendent Southern Mardtha Country,
318 of 8th December 1855, Bom. Gov. Sel. XCIV. 22.

2 Captain W. C. Anderson, 1856, Bom. Gov. Sel. XCIV. 23.

^Captain Wingatein Green's Deooan Eyots, Bom. Gov. Sel. XCIV. 23-24.
* Mr. Manson, £70 of 22nd December 1849 para 35.

Deccau.l

Si-TARA.

353

expense in bringing the land to order, Mr. Manson agreed for
that year to levy only the amount entered in their papers. They
were warned that next year the full assessment would be charged.
Again in 1850 Mr. Manson writes that a large sum £638 (Rs. 6380)
had been included among remissions under the head of hhand tola or
loss by agreement.^ This loss was on land which the former rulers
had let considerably under the nominal assessment. The holders
of these lands made no claims to any special right to hold land at less
than the regular rates. Still the fact of the agreement was proved
and as they had been at expense in bringing the land into order,
Mr, Manson felt bound to continue the specially low rates for a year.
The holders were warned that at the close of the year the full
assessment would be levied.

The result of levying the full assessment was that much of the
land was thrown up. The first BngUsh officers, knowing that their
position laid them open to fraud, naturally felt that their only safe
course was to enforce the full assessment. In this way the
adjustments which experience had forced on the former rulers wepe
ignored at the cost of much hardship to the people in the first
instance and in the end of serious loss to the state. The fact that
the levy of the fall assessment was followed by the throwing up of
land showed the Bnghsh officers that in all cases the nominal rates
could not safely be enforced and liberal remissions were accordingly
granted. Other expedients also helped to relieve the people from
the full pressure of the rates. They reduced their holdings, gave up
the land bearing the highest assessment, and the district and village
officers found it necessary not to look too minutely into encroach-
ments on Government waste. Through shifts and evasions matters
at last found their level. But before this state of things was reach-
ed, the people^s resources were reduced to the lowest ebb.^ The
following statement of the chief revenue details of the eight Soni
and the eleven T^sgaon villages shows that the system of adjustment
by shifts and evasions was accompanied in the Soni villages by a
fall in tillage from about 15,000 acres in 1845-46 to about 10,000
in 1851-52 and in the Tasgaon villages from 37,625 acres in
1848-49 to 32,693 acres in 1851-52. The details are :
Soni-Tdsgaon Tillage and Revenue, ISJjS-lSSS.

ViLLAOEB.

Year.

Cultiva-
tion.

Assess-
ment.

Es.
36,042
33,444
34,676
32,394
27,712
27,223
26,697

Acre Bate.

Remis-
sions.

Collec-
tions.

Soni (8)

1845-46

1846-47

1847-48

1848-49

1849-60

1850-61

1851-62

Acres.
14,974
14,250
12,882
12,809
11,191
10,298
10,191

Rs. a. p.
2 5 6
2 6 7
2 11 1
2 8 6
2 7 7
2 10 4
2 9 11

Ba.

10,546
8116
4262
3846
4689
1098
1803

Rs.

24,496
26,328
30,423
28,648
23,023
26,126
25,394

Tasgaon(ll)..,-j
I

1848-49

1849-50

1860-61

1851-52

37,626
30,618
28,479
32,693

76,306
69,650
64,916
62,945

2 0 8
1 15 1
1 14 10
1 14 10

9065
4616
1476
2069

67,261
64,934
53,441
60,886

Chapter^VIII

The Land.

Survey.

Tdsgaon,

lS5!S-53.

1 Mr. MaBSon,-277 of 4th Nov. 1860 paras 5 and 7, Bom. Gov. Sel. XCIV 25. 2S

2 Captain Anderson, 1855, Bom. Gov. Sel, XCIV. 23-26. '

B 1282—45

[Bombay Gazetteerf

354

DISTRICTS.

Chapter VIII.
The Land.

Survey.

Tdsgaon,
186^-63.

Besides the marked decline in tillage this statement shows that
from the first liberal remissions were granted. It also shows, that
in the first two years the acre rate was lower than in any after years;
On acquisition of these villages much land was held by Brdhmans
and others on rates lower than the full assessment. In a year or
two the full rates were levied on these lands, so that in 1847-4S
though the whole tillage had fallen from 14,974 to 12,882 acres in
consequence of the levy of full instead of reduced rates the average
acre rate rose from 4s. S\d. (Rs. 2 as. 6y|-_) to 5s. 4|(Z. (Rs. 2 as. 11 fV)'
From 1847-48 till the near approach of the survey in 1850-51
the returns show a steady fall in the average acre rates. ■ This fall
was due to the fact that the pressure of the rates forced the better
lands out of tillage. In consequence of the Tasgaon chief's in-
debtedness during the last years of his life the Tasgaon villages
had been very heavily assessed. After their lapse to the British
much smaller remissions were granted in the Td,sgaon than in the
■Sbui villages, and according to local information much larger sums
were levied than^ had been realised by the chief. The result was
by 1850-51 the lands of these villages were deeply mortgaged.

In 1850-511 .;^p^ Manson> the Assistant Political Agent who was
then in charge of this district, estimated that of the £4037
(Rs. 40,370) paid into the treasury on account of the three first
Tevenue instalments of that year, no less than £1931 (Rs. 19,310)
were raised by loans from moneylenders. He was satisfied^ (1850)
that the shrinking of tillage and the failing revenue proved that
the assessment was too high. In the Tdsgaon villages the dry crop
Mglia^ assessment ranged from 6s. to £1 (Rs.3-10) on the black
isoils on the Krishna banks. In the village of Palus it was as low
«s3s.3d. (Rs.lf).*

In 1855 Colonel Anderson had no doubt that under British rule
more revenue wa« raised from this sub-division than it could afford to
pay, and that a material reduction in assessment was required. The
new rates of assessment in this sub-division as well as in Athni were
fixed in 1852 in conjunction with Captain Wingate. The nineteen
villages were distributed among four classes which were charged
highest dry crop acre rates varying from 4s. (Rs.2) to Is. 9ci.(14 as.)i
In the first class, with a highest dry crop acre rate of 4s. (Rs. 2),
were ten villages close to the Krishna with a good climate and
good markets. In the second class, with a highest dry crop acre
rate of 3s. Qd. (Rs. If), were five villages further inland with a
less certain rainfall. In the third class, with a highest dry crop
acre rate of 3s. (Rs. IJ), were two villages further inland than the
second class, with shorter rainfall and not so well placed for markets.
The remaining two villages formed the fourth class and were charged
a highest dry crop acre rate of Is. 9i. (14 «s.). Most of the villages
had more or less garden land. The chief gardens were afr Soni,
Tdsgaon, Terandoli, Bhosa, and Palus. About one-sixth of the

1 Letter 7 of 20th Nov. 1851 para 25. 2 Report 277 of 4th Nov. 1850 para 5.

' This bigha is a measure of value, not of area. It ranged from one to six acres
and in one case ivas as much as twelve acres. Bom. Gov. Sel. XCIV, 29.
* Bom. Gov. Sel. XCIV. 28-29.

Deccan.]

sItAra.

355

whole garden area was given to sugarcane, TAsgaon and Soni
together had between nine and ten acres of betel-leaf. In the
remaining gardens wheat, turmeTic, and vegetables were the chief
crops. The old garden rates varied much in different villages,
the highest average assessment in any village being 16^. 5rf.
(Rs.8 as. 3J) in Besur. Some villages in which the survey officer
found garden land had no garden land shown in the old accounts.
The land had been held as dry crop, but it was generally highly
rated in some cases heavier than the new garden rates. In most
villages water was found near the surface. Several streams also
ran for a great part of the year and could be dammed at a tricing
cost. With these facilities and the fixed survey tenure it was
hoped that the area of watered land would rapidly spread. The
nature of the well, the quantity of water and its depth from the
surface, the crops grown, and the class of soil were the chief data
on which the assessment of well- watered garden land or motasthal
hdgdyat was fixed. In channel-watered or pdtasthal land, the cost
of repairing the channel and the date to which the channel ran had
also to be considered. The assessment was fixed by the Survey
Superintendent field by field, after considering the whole data
mentioned above for each field. The following statement shows
the highest, lowest, and average survey gardlen rates and assessment :
Tdsgaon Oarden Survey Rates, 1852-53,

DESCEffTIOH.

Former.

Survey.

Area.

Rental.

Average
Acre Rate.

Area.

Rental'

Average
tiBte Rate.

aigHest
Acre
Rate.

Lowest
Acre
Rate.

WeU-watered ...
Channel-watered
Both

Total ...

Acres.

Rs.

Rs. A. p.

Acresi

893

262

Bs.

2672
115
791

Rs. ». p.
3 0 0

2 15

3 2 3

Rs. a.
i 0

4 12
6 4

Bs. a.
1 8
0 12
3 0

1055

4321

i 1 7

1200

3678

2 15 8

6 4

0 Vi

The effect of the new rates was in every class a reduction in the
average acre rate of about one-third on the old assessment. The
details are : Tdsgaon Survey SetOemmt, 1852-53.

Class.

Vil-
lage.

Former
Rental
(1852-53)

Sdrvey.

Tillage.

Waste.

Total.

Highest

Drycrop

Acre

Rate.

Area»

Rental.

Area.

Rental.

Area.

Rental.

Ill

IV. ...■ ...

Total ...

10
5
2
2

Rs.

64,499

16,343

2267

7390

Acres.

34,070

10,138

1786

6663

Rs.

45,112
9463
1290
4191,

Acres.

9426

8053

913

2194

Rs.

7409
4640
814
1192

Acres.

43,496

18,191

26»S

885T

Rs.
62,521
14,103

1604.

6383

Rs. a.

2.. 0
li 12
1 8
0 14

89,489

52^656

60,056

20,686

13,565

73,242

73,611

...

This settlement was introduced in 1852-53, reported in 1855-56,
and sanctioned by Government in 1856-57.1

, The following statement^ showa the results of the survey settle-
ment in this group of nineteen villages between 1855 and 1865 :

ChaptCTVlII
The Land.

Survey.

Tdsgaon,
1852-53.

1 Bom. Gov. Sel. XOIV.

2 Bom. Gov, Sel. XCIV. 127.

356

[Bombay Gazetteer,

DISTRICTS.

Chapter VIII.
The Land.

SUBVEY.

18S2-5S.

Khatdv,
1858-6&.

Tdsgaon

Survey Settlement Results,

t8S5-

1865.

Year.

Ogcdpieb.

AJIAELE WASTS.

Alienated. [

Area.

Assess^
menfe.

Collec-
tions.

Area.

As-
se*-
ment.

Gvaz-
ing
Fees.

Area,

Assess-
ment.

Q!Ut

Eent.

Acres.

Ks.

Es.

Acres.

Bs.

Rs.

Acres.

Es.

KS.

1865-66

62,168

68,283

67,188

8810

B608

1082

20,015

21,010

1788

1856-67

63,861

69,083

67,949

7128

2862

1316

20,013

21,0OS

1907

1867-68

65,07C

96,423

69,062

6980

266r

757

19,931

20,909

2001

1868-69

65,737

69,723

69,361

5307

2281

904

19,916

20,893

2593

1869-60

67,137

70,308

69,945

4362

1777

672

19,S6I

20,528

2493

V 1860-61

67,76C

70,633

70,180

3808

1811

810

19,774

20,764

3164

1861-62

69,81£

■ 71,345

70,998

2011

1063

1370

19,695

20,491

6210-

1862-63

70,88E

71,640

71,199

1466

890

.1665

19,676

20,468

5266

1868-64 ..

70,826

71,699

71,389

1071

760

1361

19,676

20,436

5242

1864-65

...

70,763

71,676

71,473

986

740

1662

18,666

20,691

6693

In 1858-59 the survey settlement was introduced into 105 villages
of Ehatav and thirty-seven villages of the MAyni petty division in
Khdndpur. Except about thirty villages in the Phaltan plain below
the Mahad.ev hills on the north, Khatav was a tableland divided
from Pandharpur on. the east by a well marked line of hills. On
the north Khatav was separated from the Phaltan plain by the
Mahddev range ; on the west a third line of hills divided KhatAv
from Koregaon ; and to the south the country sloped gradually
into Khdnapur. Khat4v was a fairly regular oblong about
forty miles from east to west and about twenty-five- from north to
south. The climate varied greatly. On the east on the Pandharpur
boundary the rainfall was scanty and! uncertain j. the south-west
supply became more plentiful towards the west, and in the extreme
west was sufficient and certain. Except in the east and south-east
the Khatav villages were well placed for -markets. Phaltan one of
the chief local trade centres was six to fifteen miles from the
north-western villages and S^tAra the other local centre was sixteen
to twenty miles from the west villages. The made road from
Sholapur to Sd,tara crossed the group, from east to west, and with
phaltan there was ready communication by two roads down the
Mahddev range. Smaller markets in and near the group were also
useful. Except a few scattered cotton and blanket weavers the
people lived by tillage. Like Pandharpur, Khatav had been part
of the Sat^ra chief's territory. The revenue management of both
was the same. In the outlying eastern villages, as in Pandharpur,
under the Rajds lavish permanent reductions of revenue had
been made. In the closer at hand western villages the rates
erred on the side of over rather than of under assessment.'- The
people of the west were better ofE than those of the east. They
had a better climate^ the soil was richer, more land wa,s watered,
and the markets were better. The very low rates in the east had
tempted landholders to take more land than they could properly till.
The following statement shows the collections and remissions iia.
the 105 Khatav villages during the eleven ye4rs ending 1858 :

1 Captain W, 0. Anderson, Surv. Snpt. 300 of 27th January 1859.

Deccan.]

SlTARA.

Khatdv Revenue, ISJfl-lSBS.

357

Ybab

Tillage.

Collec-
tions.

Remissions.

RedLlotions.

Acres.

Es.

1847-48

166,168

1,11,870

668

66,875

1848-49

163,816

99,319

12,782

66,262

1849-50

164,111

83,198

28,652

67,347

18S0-61

164,399

89,062

21,952

57,841

1851-62

165,818

81,908

29,388

68,327

1852-53

166,224

1,02,037

9788

67,609

1853-54

167,19i

69,980

41,279

69,016

1864-56

167,017

1,03,327

7763

58,781

1855-66

166,431

79,266

81,535

68,773

1856-67

166,879

97,478

14,003

68,861

1857-58

1847-1858 ...

167,334

91,236

21,185

69,038

165,763

91,607

19,907

68,066

1853-1868 ...

166,771

88,257

28,153

68,894

The former survey measurements seem to have been incorrect.
The new survey recorded 276^760 acres of occupied Government
land and 23,376 acres of arable waste that is upwards of 100^000
acres of occupied land more than were shown in the former
accounts. As the former survey showed only 8098 acres of arable
waste it followed that it had shown as unarable nearly 100,000 acres
of land which had since been occupied. The 105 Khatav villages
were arranged in six classes with highest dry crop acre rates
varying from 3s. 9d!. (Rs. 1-|-) to" 2s. (Re.l). One rupee was taken
as the highest dry crop acre rate for the villages in the extreme
east of Khatav bordering on Pandharpur. Then passing west the
villages were divided into five more classes with an increasing rate
in each, class to meet the increasing advantages of climate and
markets. The whole group had over 8500 acres of garden land
most of which was given to wheat and vegetables. The old garden
rates were very variable and on the average were high. The new
garden acre rates varied from 7s. (Rs. 3|) in the first class to 4s.
(Rs. 2) in the sixth class, the average gradually increasing in the
intermediate classes. The new garden rates were estimated to
efiect a reduction of fifteen to twenty per cent. The general esti-
mated result of the new settlement was a survey total or hamdl of
£10,726 (Rs. 1,07,260). Of these, making due deduction for possi-
ble unoccupied waste, £10,200 (Rs. 1,02,000) were considered to be
realizable against £8826 (Rs. 88,260) the average collections of the
five previous years. The following statement shows the effect of
the survey : Khatdv Survey Settlement, 1858-59.

Class.

VlL-

;<AaES.

FORMBK.

SuRvay.

1857.68.

1867-68,

Waate.

Total.

Highest
Dry-
crop
Acre
Eato.

II.
III.
IV.

VI.

Total ...

10
14
27
21
20
13

Bs.

17,749
21,660
18,906
16,309
10,298
7314

Es.
14,145
19,819
21,276
20,910
16,080
11,337

Es.
339
633
803
984
489
442

Es.
14,484
20,452
22,079
21,894
16,669
11,779

Es. a.
1 14
1 10
1 6
1 4
1 2
1 0

105

91,236

1,03,567

3690

1,07,257

Chapter_VIII|
The Laud.

SUEVEY,

Khatdv,
1858-59.

IBombay Gazetteer,

358

DISTRICTS.

Chapter VIII.
The Land.

Survey,

Khatdv,
1858-59.

Mdyni,

These rates corresponded with those fixed in similar villages in
other settled sub-divisions. The first and second classes show a
considerable redaction. In many of these villages the old rates
were excessively high, particularly on the garden land whose
average acre rate was above 14s, (Rs. 7) in five villages of the first
class and iu three villages of the second class. The villages of the
last four classes showed an increase of revenue under the new rates.
These had much poor soil which was not brought to account by the
former survey, and was held at rates lower even than the grazing
was worth. The same state of things had been found in Pandharpur
and in the Nateputa petty division of Khatav where the new rates
had greatly increased the revenue without causing dissatisfaction.
The survey rates proposed for Khatav were sanctioned by Govern-
ment in February 1 859.^

In the same year (1858-59), along with Khatdv, the survey
settlement was introduced into the Mayni petty division of Khdnapur.
These thirty-seven Mayni villages lay close to the south of the
western half of Khatdv, with which they corresponded in climate'
and character. They were fairly placed as regards markets.
The large markets of Sdtdra and Kardd were both easily reached by
made roads. Pusesdvli, one of the villages in the group, had a good
market and other minor markets were available. During the eleven
years ending 1857-58 in the Mdyni petty division tillage fell from
59,153 acres in 184i7-48 to 57,309 acres in 1857-58, collections from
£4270 (Rs. 42,700) to £8721 (Rs. 37,210), and remissions had risen
from £118 (Rs. 1180) to £459 (Rs. 4590), The details are :
Mdyni Tillage and Revenue, 1847-1858.

Year.

Tillage.

Collec-
tions.

Eemis-
sions.

Reduc-
tions.

Year.

Tillage.

Collec-
tions.

Eemis-
sions.

Eeduc-
tions.

1847-48
1848-49
1849-50
1860-61
1851-62
1862-53
1858-51

Acres.
59,163
68,944
58,606
68,329
67,722
67,401
57,618

Es.
42,699
36,367
28,086
32,880
85,837
86,163
27,122

Es.

1184
7661

13,858
9081
5932
6393

14,360

Es.

9927
10,449

1076
10,838
10,621
10,522
10,639

1864-55
1866-68
1866-67
1867-58

1847-1858 ...
1853-1868 ...

Acres.
«7,041
56,779
66,883
67,309

Es.
37,024
30,400
86,826
37,208

Es.
4339
10,876
4616
4689

Es.
10,646
10,664
10,459
10,478

57,799
67,126

84,418
33,716

7634
7766

10,619
10,517

The same rates were proposed for Mdyni villages as for the
corresponding Khatdv villages. The fifteen eastern villages of
Mdyni corresponded with those of the third class in Khatdv and
were assessed at a highest dry-crop acre rate of 2s, 9cZ. (Rs. 1|) ;
the nineteen central villages corresponding with those of the second
class were assessed at 3s. ^d. (Rs. 1-|) ; and the two western
villages corresponding with those of the first class were assessed
at 3s. 9a!. (Rs. If).^ The first class had only two villages because
most of the villages of that part were alienated. The whole group
had over 3800 acres of garden land. The average garden acre rates
were estimated at 7s. (Rs. 3J) in first class villages, 5s. 6d. (Rs. 2|)

• Gov. Letter 652 of 22nd February 1859. The direct levies fRs. 5094) hitherto
collected by the village oifioers were abolished and absorbed by the survey assess-
ment. ' The details for one village were not available.

Deccau]

SATARA.

359

in second class villages, and 4s. 6c?. (Rs. 2^) in third class villages.
In many villages tlie old garden rates were oppressive. It was
thought that a fall in garden rates would help to reconcile the people
to the rise in the dry crop land assessment.^ The'f ollowing statement
shows the effect of the survey :

Mdyni Survey Settlement, 1858-59.

CLAsa.

Vil-
lages.

FORMEE.

SmtVBT.

1857-68.

Waste.

Total.

Highest
Dry-crop
Acre Rate.

.11.
III.

Total ...

2
19
16

R9.

8634
21,384
12,190

Bs.

2563
27,785
13,100

Es.
165
16.57
986

Bs.

2728
29,343
14,095

Rs. a.
1 14
1 10
1 6

37,208

43,467

2708

46,165

In 1859-60 the survey settlement was introduced into theKoregaon
sub-division and into the m^mlatdd,r's section of the Khdndpur sub-
division. Koregaon lay to the west of and below the Vardhangad-
Machindragad hills which running north and south separate the
valley of the Krishna from the valley of the Yerla and its feeders.
This line of hills divided Koregaon from Khatdv which had been
settled in the previous year. Koregaon was about thirty miles from
north to south, and varied in breadth from eighteen miles in the
north to ten in the south. The climate was exceedingly good ; the
rainfall as a rule was ample and certain, decidedly better than in the
sub-divisions beyond its eastern hills. The western villages had
probably some small advantage in rain over the eastern villages.
In one year the better soils without watering commonly yielded
two crops. The produce of Koregaon was the same as is ordinarily
found in first class dry crop lands jvdri, bdjri, wheat, gram, and oil-
seeds. Very little cotton was grown j the climate and much of the
soil was suitable, but other crops paid better. 3773 acres were
under garden tillage watered chiefly by watercourses or pats fed by
small streams of which the sub-division was full. The chief garden
crops were garden wheat, groundnut, and vegetables. The Kore-
gaon subdivision was exceedingly well placed for markets. In this
respect the western villages had an advantage being four to ten miles
east of the town of Sdtdra which was an excellent market for every
sort of field produce. In the south was the large market town of
Rahimatpur in the centre of Koregaon, and in the north Deur.
Other smaller markets were in and near the sub-division. The north-
western villages were within ten miles of the large market town of
Wai, but a high range of hills prevented cart communication. The
sub-division was also exceedingly well supplied with means of com-
munication by excellent well-made roads which were open for
traffic at all times of the year. The Belgaum-S^tdra road passed
by Tdrgaon through the south of the sub-division ; the direct road

ChapterVIII
The Laud.

Survey.

Mdyni,
1858-69.

Koregaon,
1859-60.

1 This MAyni survey settlement was sanctioned by Government in Letter 652
of 22nd February 1859. ■ The direct levies (Rs. 940) hitherto collected by the village
officers were abolished and absorbed by the survey assessment.

[Bombay Gazetteer^

360

DISTRICTS.

ChapterVIII.
The Land.

Survey.

Koregaon,
1839-60.

from Belgaum to Poona which connected the Belgaum-Sdtdra line
with the Sdtara-Poona line avoiding the turn by S^tara, passed
nearly north and south through the centre of the sub -division j
the Pandharpur-SAtd,ra road passed east and west through the
centre of the sub-division ; the Sd.tdra-Poona road passed through
the north-west; and the Satara-Wdi road passed through the
extreme north-western villages. A few weavers both of cotton
cloth and of blankets were scattered in the different villages. But
the manufactures were oE no importance. The Koregaon sub-
division had thus an excellent climatOj good markets, and abundant
means of communication with distant as well as with local centres
of trade.

At the time of the survey settlement the average rates of assess-
ment were decidedly high, and, from their extreme inequality,
pressed severely on a large section of the landholders. Lavni tota
or permanent reduction from the standard assessment had been
much more sparingly granted in the villages near Sdt^ra than in
the eastern villages. Remissions had been small and given less
sparingly in later years than formerly ; and the average dry crop
rates on the lands of entire villages frequently ran as high as 8s.
(Rs. 4). The acre rates on the entire garden lands of some villages
averaged as much as 18s. (Rs, 9). It was not surprising that the
people were largely in debt. The land revenue could not have
been paid entirely from the land. Large numbers of carts were
owned in the sub-division, and were engaged in the carrying trade
to S^tara and between Poona and Sat^ra. Much money had also
come into Koregaon from wages earned in working on the railway
in the Poona district. In the opinion of Mr. Price, the Assistant
Superintendent of Survey, without these advantages the people
instead of taking fresh land must have been forced to part with
what they held.^

During the twelve years ending 1858-59 tillage in Koregaon had
fallen from 63,489 acres in 1847-48 to 60,428 acres in 1855-56 and
again risen to 62,991 acres in 1858-59 ; collections had fallen from
£14,625 (Rs. 1,46,250) in 1847-48 to £12,617 (Rs. 1,26,170) in
1849-50 and again risen to £14,953 (Rs. 1,49,530) in 1858-59 ; and
remissions had risen from £643 (Rs. 6430) in 1847-48 to £2625
(Rs. 26,250) in 1849-50 and again fallen to £362 (Rs. 3620) in
1858-59. The details are :

Koregaon Tillage and Seveniie, 1847-1859.

Perma-

Yrae.

TUlage.

Collec-
tions.

Remis-
sions.

nent
Reduc-
tion.

Ybak.

Tillage.

CoUeo-
tiona.

Remia-
sions.

nent
Reduc-
tion.

Acres.

Es.

Ea.

Ka.

Acrea.

Ra.

1847-48...

63,489

1,46,264

6427

26,295

1863-54...

61,365

1,28,562

20,661

23,698

1848-49...

63,347

1,39,896

12,796

24,639

1864-55...

60,992

1,40,880

7833

23,485

1849-50 ..

63,159

1,26,167

26,251

?!'^!!

1866-56...

60,428

1,46,114

3493

23,426

1860-61...

63,816

1,31,846

20,618

24,756

1856-57...

61,476

1,41,030

8936

23,608

1861-62...

63,409

1,28,177

24,591

24,345

1857-58..

61,748

1,46,093

6210

23,621

1852-63...

63,017

1,30,206

21,864

24,361

1868-69..

62,991

1,49,635

3618

23,641

1 Mr. W. S. Price, Assist. Supt. of Survey, 12th December 1859.

Deccan.]

satAra.

361

The statement shows that a stricter system began to be
introduced in 1854-55 under which remissions fell from about £2000
(Rs. 20,000) to about £600 (Rs. 6000). Under the survey
settlement the seventy-three Koregaon villages were arranged in
three classes with highest dry-crop acre rates varying from 6s. to
5s. (Rs. 3 - 2^). The first class villages in the west of the sub-
division had pome advantage over the rest in climate and in
markets ; the third class villages in the east and north-east had
the worst climate and the poorest markets. The second class
villages were intermediate between those of the first and third
classes. The rates in the first and second classes were higher thaii the
officers of the Southern Mardtha Country survey had ever imposed,
but the survey had never been introduced in any sub-division with
such extraordinary natural and acquired advantages. For garden
lands the highest acre rates proposed by the survey were 13s.
(Rs. 6J) for the first class, 12s. (Rs. 6) for the second class, and
lis. (Rs. 5 J) for the third class. The average garden acre rate was
estimated at 8s. (Rs. 4). On the tillage of 1858-59 the survey rates
showed a fall from £14,953 (Rs. 1,49,530) to £13,695 (Rs. 1,36,950)
or eight per cent. The details are :

Koregaon Survey Settlement, 1859-60.

Class.

VlL-
liAQBS.

FOEMBB.

SURVET.

1868-69.

1858-59.

Waste.

Total.

Highest

Dry-crop

Acre

Bate.

Ill

Total...

29
25 .

Rg.
61,946
53,064
34,636

Es.
61,606
48,334
37,009

Es.

1281
1686
1622

Bs.
62,887
49,919
88,631

Es.
3
2}
si

1,49,535

1,36,949

4488

1,41,437

The proposed survey rates were sanctioned by Government in
January 1860.^

In the same year (1859-60) the survey settlement was introduced
into the mamlatdar's division of KhAnapur in the east of the
district. This group of fifty-six Khandpur villages lay immediately
south of the Mayni mahdlkari's division of Khanapur which had
been settled in 1858-59. The Khanapur group was bounded on
the south by alienated or private villages mixed with the lands of
Athni in Belgaum and Tdsgaon then in Belgaum and now in Satdra.
On the west the Khandpur sub-division was separated from Karad
and Targaon by the continuation of the line of hills which divided
Koregaon from Khatdv. The Khdnd,pur group of fifty-six villages
covered about forty miles in extreme length from east to west with a
breadth from north to south varying from ten to eighteen miles.
The rainfall dwindled from west to east and was much more ample
and certain in the western villages than in the eastern. The crops

Chapter^VIII

The Land.

Survey.

Koregaon,

1859-60.

' Gov. Letter 395 of 28th January 1860 ; the Surv. Supt. Capt. W. C. Anderson's
Report 19 of 12th January 1860.

B 1282—46

IBombay Gazetteer,

Ghapter^VIII.
The Land.

Survey.

1S59-60.

362

DISTRICTS.

both dry and garden were like those of Koregaon. Khdn^pur had
several small markets within its limits, but the chief mart was the
large trading town of Kardd about ten miles to the west. The
made road from Eijapur to the coast, by the lately opened Kumbh^rli
pass, ran east to west through the south of Khdndpur. The road
from Belgaum to Sdtdra by Tdsgaon also ran through the west of the
IChandpur survey group from south to north. In roads and markets
the western villages had a decided advantage over the rest of the
group. A few weavers were scattered through the different villages,
but there was no manufacturing town. The bulk of the people
seemed fairly off, certainly much freer from debt than in Koregaon.
During the twelve years ending 1858-59 Khan4pnr tillage had
varied little. The area in 184-7-48 was 67,253 acres and in 1858-59
67,298 acres, the least was 65,807 acres in 1855-56, and the
average was 66,503 -acres; collections were £6686 (Rs. 66,360) in
1847-48 and £6789 (Rs. 67,890) in 1858-59, the lowest was £4628
'(Rs. 46,280) in 1853-54, and the average £5799 (Rs. 67,990) j and
remissions had varied from £1985 (Rs. 19,850) in 1849-50 to
Bothing in 1858-59 and averaged £824 (Rs. 8240). The details

■are

Khdndpur Tillage and Revenue, 1847-1859.

Year.

.Tillage.

Collec-
tions.

Remis-
sions.

Eediio-
tions.

Year.

Tillage.

Collec-
tions.

Eemis-
Bions.

Eeduc-
tions.

1847-48...
1848-49...
1849-60..,
1860-61...
1851-62...
1862-53...
1853-54...

Acres.
67;253
66,802
67,148
66,980
•66,660
66,481
66,014

Es.
66,363
64,886
46,540
52,186
64,315
67,100
46,286

Es.

1222
11,229
19,846
13,276
11,079

8907
19,399

Es.
14,032
14,861
14,965
14,636
14,201
14,790
14,536

1864-56...
1866-66...
1866-57...
1857-68...
1868-69...

Average .

Acres.
67,469
65,307
66,083
66,666
67,298

Es.
66,914
62,348
64,719
66,826
67,394

Es.

8867

3184

1770

Rs.
14,496
14,186
14,163
14,090
14,126

66,603

57,990

8237

14,416 .

Under the S^tara chiefs the revenue management of this group
was half-way between the sub-divisions to the east where the
permament reductions or tola were lavish and uncalled-for, and the
west like Koragaon where the management was strict and the
assessment high.'' The average rates of assessment in many villages
were low, and were moderate in all except those in the west. Every-
where great inequalities were common and might be removed to
the gain rather than to the loss of revenue. The survey divided the
fifty-six Khdndpur villages into four classes according to their
distance to the west which carried with it good climate and good
markets. The highest dry crop acre rates proposed were 4s., 3s. 6d!.,
3s. \\d., and 2s. M. (Rs. 2, Rs. If, Rs. 1^^, and Rs. If). In 4304
acres of garden land the highest rates proposed were 10s. and 9s.
(Rs. 5 and Rs. 4|) for the first and second classes, and 8s. and 7s. 6cZ.
(Rs. 4 andRs. 3|) for the third and fourth classes. As much of
the garden land was poor the average garden rate was estimated
at 5s. &d. (Rs. 2|). The effect of the survey was in the seventeen
first class villages to lower the assessment on the 1858--59 tillage

1 Capt. W. C. Anderson, Surv. Supt. 19 of 12th January 1860.

Deccan.]

sAtara.

363

from £1947 (Rs. 19,470) to £1639 (Rs. 16,390) ; in tlie nineteen
second class villages the effect was to raise the revenue from £2334
(Rs. 23,340) to £2524 (Rs. 25,240) ; in the thirteen third class
villages to raise the revenue from £1954 (Rs. 19,540) to £2016
(Rs.'20,160) ; and in the seven fourth class villages to raise the
revenue from £504 (Rs. 5040) to £564 f Rs. 5640). Over the whole
fifty-six villages the effect was a slight increase from- £673d
(Rs. 67,390) to £6743 (Rs. 67,430). The details are :
Khdrmpur Survey Settlement, 1859-60.

Vn-

PORMEK

Survey,

Highest

Classi

Dry-

1868-69.

1858-69.

Waste.

Total.

Crop
Acre
Bate.

Ea:

Rs.

Ra.

Es.

Bs. a.

19,468

16,387

1737

18,124

2 0

23,343

26,238

2168-

27,404

1 12

19,645

20,162

1362

21,614

1 9

Total ...

6038

6645

733

6378

1 6

67,394

67,432

6988

73,420

Government sanctioned these survey rates in January 1860.^

In 1860-61 the survey settlement was introduced in Wdi in the
extreme north-west of the district. Wdi included 103 villages,
seventy-four of which were under a mdmlatddr and twenty-nine
under a mahalkari. The mdmlatddr's charge was entirely above
the Salpi range of hills. It was bounded on the north by the Bhor
state, on the east" by Koregaon, on the south and south-west by
S^tdra and Jdvli, and on the west by the villages under the
Superintendent of Mahdbaleshvar which, except in a few cases, came
between the Wd,i villages and the crest of the hills. The mahdlkari's
villages were in the valley of the Nira in the extreme north. They
were divided from Poona by the Nira and from the rest of Wdi by th©
east and west running SAlpi or Kdmatki spur. On the west this group,
was bounded by the villages of the Pant Sachiv and on the east by
the villages of the chief of Phaltan. The two Wdi groups differed
much in climate. In the mahdlkari's eastern villages along the
Sdtdra-Poona road between the Sdlpi hills and the Nira brid^&
the rainfall was light and somewhat uncertain. With almost every
mile westwards along the banks of the Nira the rainfall became more
favourable, till in the western villages near Shirval on the Poona-
Mahdbaleshvar road the fall was ample. There was also much
variety in the md,mlatddr's villages. Those of the main sub-division
to the east, south-east, and south of Wdi were considered first class
dry crop villages having as good a climate and as certain a
rainfall as anywhere. Tt» the west nearer the Mahd,baleshvar
hills the rainfall rapidly became heavier, and in the villages close
under the hills was too heavy for aily but inferior dry crops, and the

Chapter VIII
The Land-

SlJEVBY.

Khdndpur,
1S59-60.

Wdi,
1860-61.

1 Gov. Letter 395 of 28th January 1860 ; the Surv. Supt. Capt. W. C. Anderson's
Report 19 of 12th January 1860.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

364

DISTRICTS.

Chapter^ VIII.
The Land-

Survey.

Wdi,
1860-61.

hill side villages and hill top villages had little continuous tillage.
The inferior grains ndchni sdva and vari, which formed the staple food
of the hill people, were grown on the hill sides without the help of
the plough, one spot being cropped for two or perhaps three years and
then left fallow to recover for three to eight years. Some rice was
grown in Wai especially close to the hills. lu the east jvdri bdjri
gram and the other crops common to superior dry crop districts
throve well. Nearer the hills the rainfall became too heavy for
superior dry crop tillage and almost the only dry crops grown were
the hill grains ndchni, vari, and sdva. Especially near Wai the
villages in the east and south-east of the mdmlatddr's division had
a good deal of garden land. The garden land was partly watered
by wells but chiefly by water-courses or pats led from streams or
ndlds, many of which ran all the year. A good deal of sugarcane
was grown. Its juice was made into gul or raw sugar which was
readily sold in the^town of Wdi or sent to Poona and Sd,td,ra. The
better soils without the help of water commonly yielded two crops
in one year.

The sub-division was well off for markets. Besides the large
town of Wd,i in the centre where a daily market was held, within
the sub-division were minor markets, and beyond the borders were
Phaltan, Bhor, Sdtdra, and Malcolmpeth or Mahdbaleshvar. A good
made road ran from Wdi to Sdtdra,and the road from Sdtdra to Poona
which ran along the western edge of the mahdlkari's division gave
the villages of that part ready communication with large markets.
A made road with a good slope but almost too narrow for carts ran
from Wdi to Mahdbaleshvar up the Pasarni pass. From Wdi a bullock
cart track by the Kdmatki pass and Shirval led about forty-five
miles to Poona. The western villages of the mahdlkari's division
had no made road near them. Except a little scattered hand-loom
weaving tillage was the only industry. Wdi, with about 11,000
people, was the only place of importance in the sub-division. It was
a favourite residence for Brdhmans and other men of means and was
a good market for local field produce. In the eastern villages the
husbandry was decidedly good and the people on the whole were
fairly off. Though not uncommon debt was by no means general,
In the hill villages the people were as well probably better off than
in most hill districts as their produce found a ready sale in the
large market of Malcolmpeth.

Captain Adams had surveyed the whole subdivision about 1820 and
since 1823-24his areas hadformedthebasis of the accounts. Still, under
the Rdjds' rule and up to the survey settlement, the ancient rates of
assessment remained in force. The chief change had been the
introduction of Idviii tota or permanent reductions which were largely
granted by the Rdjds, though less freely in the west near Sdtdra than
in the east. In Wdi as in Koregaon the average assessment was high
and the pressure was aggravatedby extreme inequality. It was the
Rdjds' principle to exact the last rupee from good soil and well favoured
districts and to give poor land and dry districts at an almost
nominal assessment. A common result was that good land passed
out of tillage and the people were forced to work the poorer soils. In

Deccan.I

sAtAra.

365

many villages dry crop acre rates of 8s. or 10s. (Rs. 4 or Rs. 5)
were common. In garden land tlie rates were specially high and
unequal. In several villages the garden acre rates for the whole
village averaged £1 4s. and £1 8s. (Rs. 12 and Rs. 14), and average
rates of 14s. to £1 (Rs. 7 - 10) were common. In other villages the
average garden acre rate was only 4s. to 10s. (Rs. 2-5). As every
village had a share of poor garden land so high an a,verage could
not be kept up without trenching on legitimate profits. During the
thirteen years ending 1859-60 tillage^ in "W^i had varied from 79,757
acres in 1854-55 to 86,970 in 1859-60 and averaged 83,730 ; collec-
tions from £7814 (Rs. 78,140) in 1853-54 to £10,531 (Rs. 1,05,310)
in 1858-59 and averaged £9334 (Rs. 93,340) ; and remissions from
£213 (Rs. 2130) in 1858-59 to £2076 (Rs. 20,760) in 1850-51 and
averaged £1045 (Rs. 10,450). The details are :
Wdi Tillage and Revenue, 1847-1860.

Yeae.

Tillage.

Assess-
ment.

Reduc-
tions.

Remis-
sions.

Collec-
tions.

1847-48 ..
1848-49 ..
1849-50 ..
1860-61 ..
1861-62 ..
1862-63 ..
1853-64 ..
1864-66 ..
1856-56 ..
1856-67 ..
1867-68 ..
1868-59 ..
1869-60 ..

Average..

Acres.
84,999
86,062
86,115
85,398
82,270
81,383
80,728
79,767
82,636
83,233
84,726
86,214
86,970

Rs.
1,23,418
1,23,148
1,23,245
1,23,488
1,14,105
1,13,282
1,12,188
1,11,346
1,18,992
1,20,014
1,21,121
1,22,751
1,23,627

Rs.
14,782
15,694
15,677
16,876
16,694
16,336
15,727
16,601
16,427
16,472
16,699
16,311
16,324

Rs.

6018

12,628

12,784

20,764

16,989

14,229

18,323

6626

7239

11,460

4709

2126

8937

Rs.

1,03,618

94,826

94,784

86,848

82,422

83,718

78,138

89,219

96,326

93,082

1,00,713

1,06,314

1,04,366

83,730

1,19 ,287

16,502

10,449

93,336

During the six years ending 1859-60, probably chiefly from the
improvement in the state of the people due to the rise in produce prices,
remissions were comparatively small especially during the last three
of these six years. The measuring of Wdi was begun in the end of
1855-56 when a spread of tillage set in and continued steadily.
This spread in tillage like the fall in remission was apparently
chiefly due to a rise in the price of grain. From 1847-48 to
1854-55 the average yearly collections were £8920 (Rs. 89,200),
and from 1855-56 to 1859-60 they were £9996 (Rs. 99,960),
that is an increase of £1076 (Rs. 10,760) or twelve per cent.
In Wdi as in other parts of the district considerable areas were
taxed at needlessly light rates. In many cases also the rates were
unduly high. The rate's wanted levelling rather than lowering.^

The twenty-nine villages in the mahdlkari's charge were arranged
in four classes with highest dry-crop acre rates varying from 4s. 3d.
to 2s. 9c?. (Rs. 2| to Rs. If). The first class included the extreme

Chapter^ VIII
The Land.

Survey.

wai,

1860-61.

' The acres were^obtained by turning Capt. Adams' highU into acres at 36 guntMa
to a bigha.

" Capt. W. 0. Anderson, Survey Superintendent, 55 of 22nd January 1861 and 67
of 31st January 1861.

[Bombay Gazetteer^

3G6

DISTRICTS.

Chapter VIII.
The Laud.

StJRVEy.

Wdi,
1860-61.

westerly villages ■whicli had the best climate ; and the fourth class ■
the dry eastern villages bordering on the Poona-Sd,tara road be-
tween the foot of the S&lpi hills and the Nira bridge. The second
and third class villages lay between the first and fourth classes.
The mamlatdd,r's seventy-four villages were arranged in six classes
with highest dry-crop acre rates varying from 6s. to 2s. (Rs. 3 -
Ee. 1). The first class comprised the villages in the east of the
sub-division which were the best dry-crop villages with ample but
not excessive rainfall. The second third and fourth classes pro-
ceeded in regular order westward, the rainfall becoming too heavy
for the best dry-crop tillage and the villages more outlying and cut
ofE from markets. The fifth and sixth classes comprised villages at
the tops of valleys between the spurs of hills and on hill sides and
hill tops. These hill villages had three kinds of dry-crop land ;
jirdyat steadily tilled year after year, of which many villages had
little or none ; tisdli land cropped for three years and then fallowed
for one to three or four years ; and dali or kumri lands cropped two
or sometimes three years and then left fallow for six to ten years.
On the tisdli and kumri a scale of rates headed by one rupee was
proposed, but the highest acre rates actually levied were 40. (3 as.).
for kumri and 9d, (6 as.) for tisdli land. On the jirdyat or con-
tinuously tilled lands of the fifth and sixth classes the highest rates
proposed were 2s. 3d. and 2s. (Rs. 1^ and Re. 1). As in these hill
villages the old assessment was shown in the lump on each holding,
no detailed comparison could be made between the former rates
and the new rates.

The reason for the unusual number of groups and rates of assess-
ment was the variety in the tillage of the sub-division from the best
dry crop to nearly the worst hill land. The following statement
shows the difEerent groups with their respective rates :
Wdi Survey Boies, 1860-61.

Rice Land.

Division.

Cl/ASS.

Vll-

LAGES.

HlOHEST

Dry-crop
Acre

Aver-
age
Garden

Highest

Average

Bate.

Rate.

Bs. a.

Rs. a.

Rs.

Rs. a p.

Mahdlkari's

2 2
1 14

3 8
3 8

}3 3 9

Charge.

1 "^

1 10

3 0

L IV

1 6

2 12

...

( I

3 0

5 8

10'

2 12 5

2 10

6 0

5 6 7

M4mlatd4r'a

J in

2 6

4 0

. 3 13 10

Charge.

2 2

4 0

4 11 6

) Hill vU-
J lages.

{:::

4 2 10

L VI

4 6 3

The effect of the survey was to lower the rental from £10,437
(Rs. 1,04,370) to £9528 (Rs. 95,280) or about nine per cent. The
details are :

Deccan.]

sItAra.

3G7

Wdi Survey Settlement,

1860-61

•

Division.

Glass.

Vit-

LAOES.

Former.

SURVKT.

1869-60.

1859-60.

Waste.

Total.

MahS,1k!ui'a
Charge.

M&mlatdilt'a
Charge.

Total ..

1"
: III
^ IV

f I
II

, III

\ IV
V

I VI

7
9
6

20
10
i
8
23
9

Ks.
9511
8932
6623
8048

46,599
11,071
2066
2394
6708
2415

B3.

7074

8264

6544

10,321

39,846
10,046
1549
2466
6438
2732

Ba.

198
92
64

130

836
177
21
79
70
49

Rs.
7272
8366
6698
10,461

40,681
10,222
1570
2546
6508
2781

103

1,04,366

95,278

1706

96,984

The proposed rates were sanctioned by Government in February
1861.1

In 1861-62 the survey settlement was introduced in the S^td,ra
sub-division of 101 villages. Sd,td,ra was bounded on the west by
the great range which runs parellel to the main crest of the
Sahyddris, separated from it by the Koyna valley ; on the north by
a range of hills separating it from Koregaon and the KudAl valley ;
on the east by the Krishna ; and on the south by a spur which
separated it from Targaon. The sub-division consisted of two
valleys, that of the Yenna or Vena on the north and that of the
Urmodi or Parli river on the south of the S^tdra fort range. Both
these rivers were feeders of the Krishna and their valleys merged
into the Krishna valley whose course formed the eastern boundary
of the sub-division. Throughout the eastern half of the sub-division
the chmate was exceedingly favourable to agriculture, the supply both
of the early and of the later rains was in general ample and certain,
and in most seasons all good dry-crop soils yielded two harvests.
Towards the west the rainfall became heavier, till in the hill villages
at the head of the Parli valley continuous dry-crop tillage almost
entirely gave way to ndchni and rice. In the centre and east the
dry-crop tillage was excellent. A considerable area of garden land
was watered by wells and channels or pats in the centre and east
and almost exclusively by channels in the west. Most parts of the
subdivision were well ofEfor made roads. The road from Belgaum by
Tasgaon, after crossing the Krishna, ran up theTenna valley to Sdtara,
and the road from Sd.tara to Mahabaleshvar also ran up the Yenna
valley. Three other made roads crossed the north of the subdivi-
sion, from Sdt^ra to Wdi, to Poona, and to Pandharpur, of which all
and especially the Poona road were much used. In the south the
Parli valley was crossed by the Sdtara-Kolhdpur road. The villages
towards the head of the Parli. valley were the only villages in the
sub-division which were badly off for communications. Still even
this tract was in no place more than twelve miles from Sdtara in a
direct line. The Satdra sub-division was exceedingly well off for

Chapter_VIII
The Land.

Survey.

Wdi,
1860-61,

Sdtdra,
1861-60,

1 Gov. Letter 867 of 20th Feb. 1861 ; Survey Superintendent, 55 of 22nd January
1861 and 67 of 31st January 1861.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

368

DISTRICTS.

Chapter VIII.
The Land.

SUEVET.

Sdtdra,
1861-60.

markets. The town of Sdtara supplied an unfailing demand for
every form of local field produce. There were also minor markets
in and near the sub-division. The heavy traffic on the trunk roads
created an enormous demand for grain especially for cattle fodder.

On the whole the people were well-to-do. There was a good deal
of debt. Stillj even where the rates pressed heaviest, landholders
were able to eke out a living by carting or by labour in Bombay
during the fair months. Daring the fourteen years ending 1860-61
tillage^ in Sdtdra varied from 40,201 acres in 1852-53 to 46,740 in
1860-61 and averaged 43,643; collections from £7116 (Rs. 71,160)
in 1853-54 to £9188 (Rs. 91,880) in 1860-61 and averaged £8577
(Rs. 85,770) ; and remissions from £123 (Rs.-1230) in 1858-59 to
£1993 (Rs. 19,930) in 1853-54 and averaged £672 (Rs. 6720). The
details are :

Sdtdra Tillage and Reverme, 184-7 - 1861.

Teae.

Occu-
pied.

Assess-
ment.

Reduc-
tions.

Remis-
sions.

Collec-
tions.

1847-48 .
1848-49 .
1849-60 .
1850-61 ,
1851-62 .
1852-63 .
1853-64 .
1864-65 .
1865-56 .
1856-67 .
1857-58 .
1858-59 .
1869-60 .
1860-61 .

: ::: ;'.;

Acres.
40,630
40,622
40,341
40,525
40,696
40,201
45,655
45,620
45,909
45,781
45,989
46,197
46,396
46,740

Bs.
1,06,182
1,05,934
1,06,642
1,05,747
1,03,777
1,03,249
1,02,907
1,03,074
1,02,907
1,03,167
1,03,601
1,04,242
1,04,605
1,05,514

Ks.
11,770
11,683
11,640
11,704
11,796
11,664
11,812
13,717
11,676
11,806
11,866
11,883
12,033
12,362

Ks.

2800

7474

12,169

11,667

8318

10,635

19,932

6490

2621

3818

2384

1230

3367

1277

Es.

91,612
86,777
81,743
82,476
83,664
80,960
71,163
84,867
88,610
87,633
89,262
91,129
89,115
91,885

Average .

43,643

1,04,303

11,813

6719

85,771

As in Koregaon and Wdi the old assessment was extremely un-
equal, and especially in the east of the sub-division was very high. In
the village of Patkhal near Sdtara the dry-crop higha (^^oths of an
acre) rate was said to be as high as £1 and £1 4s. (Rs. 10 and Rs. 12).
In this village in 1860-61 the average dry-crop acre rate amounted
to I7s. id. (Rs. 8|). The corresponding dry-crop acre rates were
lis. ^\d. (Rs. 5|^) in Gojegaon, 7s. I^d. (Rs. 3^f ) in Nisral, 6s. lid.
(Rs. 3j*g) in Chinchner, and 7s. l\d. (Rs. 3^) in Angdpur. All of
these villages contained a large proportion of poor soil, so that
without some special help these rates could not have been realised.
The explanation was that the government lands in these villages
had been excessively taxed under the R^jas to make up for the large
area of quit-rent or rent-free land which the villages contained.
The same practice existed in many KarSd villages. In some cases
it was stated that no one was allowed to till alienated land unless
he held a certain portion of heavily assessed government land. The
indmddrs would be greatly benefited by fixing the assessment of
the Government land on a just standard.^ Survey rates correspond-

' The acres were found by turning Oapt^ Adams' bighds into acres at 36 guntMs to
a higha.

» Major W. C. Anderson, Supt. Kev. Surv. Southern Mardtha Country, 553 of 24th
December 1861,

Ofeccali.]

sAtAra.

36'9

ing to those adopted in the mamlatdd,r'a division of Wd.i which
was settled in the previous year were proposed for Satdra. The
villages to the east and as far as a little to the west of a north and
south line running through Sdtdra were placed in the first class.
Thence to the west the highest rate decreased as the rainfall
became more and more excessive and the villages less accessible.
In the hill villages where all tillage was broken by fallows the dry-
crop rates were much lower than anywhere else. The plain villages
were arranged in five classes and the hill villages in two classes.
Of the seven classes, the first included all the eastern or plain por-
tion of the sub-division and nearly all the highly assessed villages.
In the remaining villages the existing assessment was generally
moderate and sometimes low. Everywhere the existing rates on
rich soils were out of proportion heavier than those on poor soils
which were often given at nominal rates. The following statement
shows the different classes and their highest rates of assessment :
Sdtdra Survey Bates, 18Sl-6g.

Class.

VllLAOES.

Highest
Dey-crop
Acre Rate

AVERAOE

Garden
Rate.

Rice Land.

Highest
Bate.

Average
Rate.

III

VII

44
12
10
7
7
lltHillVil-
10 f lages.

Rs. a.
3 0
2 10
2 6
2 2
1 14

Rs. ...
} 6 14

1 48
4 0

s" 0

Rs. i>.

9 0

(80

t 7 8

7 0

6 8

6 0

Rs. a. p.

3 7 8

4 4 5
4 5 4
4 11 3

4 11 9

5 6 2
4 10 4

On the tillage of 1860-61 the survey rates showed a fall from
£9188 to £8593 (Rs. 91,880 ^ Rs. 85,930) or 6-5 per cent. The

Sdtdra Survey Settlement, 1861-6S^

Former.

30BVBY.

Class.

Villages.

1860-61.

Waste.

Total.

Rs.

4;!

71,310

61,945

2460

64,405

en-i

6747

120

«867

III .

6391

7054

7115

IV .

1 •••

3007

4111

4135

1872

2054

2075

VI .

Il)HiIlVil-
10 S lages.

( 2132
I 1461

22.55

2261

1762

1813

)tal ...

101

91,885

86,928

,2743

88,671

Except the hill villages the proposed survey rates for the entire
sub-division were sanctioned by Government in May 1862. Instead
of two hill classes Government made one class assessed at a highest
dry-crop acre rate of 2s. (Re. 1).^

In 1861-62 the survey settlement was introduced into the Javli
sub-division.^ Jdvli included three distinct sections: The Kuddl

Chapter^VlIIJ
The Land.

SORVET.

Sdtdra,
1861-6$.

Jdvli,
1861-6S.

1 Government Letter 1843 of 8th May 1862 ; Major W. 0. Anderson, Surv. Sunt
553 of 24th December 1861. '' '

2 A group of 37 vUIages settled in 185S-59 and included in Mah4baleahvar was
excluded from this settlement,

E 1282-47

[Bombay Gazetteer,
370 DISTRICTS.

Chapter VIII. valley ; the Media .valley up which the Sdtd,ra-MahAbaleshvar road
The~Land. ^^^ > ^^^ ^^^ upper Koyna valley and a portion of the tableland on
each side of the Koyna river. The Kudal and Medha valleys ran
^^ /■ from west to east, and the Koyna valley from north to south parallel

1861-62. "^^^^ *^® Sahyd,dris. The three Jdvli valleys started from the

Mahabaleshvar plateau and were separated by spurs branching from
it. Near the Mahdbaleshvar plateau the tablelands on their tops
broadened till they held many villages. Every variety of climate
occurred within Jdvli limits. In the extreme east of the Kuddl
valley near the Wai-Sdtdra road the rains were light enough to
admit of first class dry-crop tillage, while in the Mahabaleshvar
villages the fall of rain varied from about 150 to 370 inches. In
the Mahabaleshvar villages nothing could grow bat hill grains or
rice, and even they failed if planted before the first violence of the
monsoon was over. In the eastern villages both of the Medha and
of the Kuddl valleys especially in the Kuddl villages the rainfall was
sufficiently moderate to allow of high dry-crop tillage and the
better soils without the help of water yielded two crops in the year.
Up the western valleys the better dry-crops such as jvari became
less common and at last at the head of the valleys and in the hills
most of the land was cropped for two or three years and then left
fallow for three to six years. Ndchni, vari, and other hill grains
formed the staple dry crops. In the patches of good land capable
of continuous tillage a little barley and wheat were raised. Rice
was the staple crop in all these villages and in some villages con-
siderable quantities of sugarcane were grown.

All Jdvli hill villages were well off for markets. The large market
of Sdtdra was within easy reach of the east end of the Medha valley
aiud the large market of Wai was within easy reach of the Kudal
valley, and the station of Mahdbaleshvar absorbed all the marketable
produce of the hill villages which, excepting the extreme southern
villages on the Koyna, were all within twelve or fourteen miles of
Malcolmpeth. These villages were also within a moderate distance
of the tidal port of Chiplun in Ratndgiri from which all sorts of
produce went by sea to Bombay. Chiplun was reached by bullock
tracks down the Sahyadris. The people of the hill villages were
therefore much better off than most hill people. They had a
ready market for all produce, also for grass, wood, bamboos, and
other house building materials. The station of Mahd,baleshvar
created a large demand for high paid labour for several months in
the year. A considerable bullock traffic between the plains and
the port of Mahad also moved up the Medha and Kudal valleys by
the Kelgad and Tdi passes across the Mahabaleshvar range. This
traffic caused a great demand for fodder. Till this survey settle-
ment in all hill villages, even far down the Medha and Kudil
valleys, the revenue management was very rude. The lands of a
village were generally divided among a certain number of persons,
originally of one family and bearing one family name. The lands
of each sharer were known to himself and to the other villagers,
but there was no precise record of the situation of the lands of each
in the accounts. Each person was debited with his share of the

Ceccan ]

SATARA.

371

village revenue. The landholders whose names were entered in the
accounts tilled part of their lands themselves and sublet parts to
others on their own terms. In the Medha and Kud^l valleys where
was much superior land the rates in neighbouring villages were
very unequal. The villages were generally very small, and people
living in one village often tilled in another and thus to some extent
the heavy assessment of one village was counteracted by light
assessment in a neighbouring village. In the hill villages the
assessment was generally moderate. For several years before 1 862,
the revenue had not increased more than ten per cent while produce
prices had nearly doubled. Within the four or five years ending
] 862 the state of the people had greatly improved. This rise in
prices had enabled the people to do almost entirely without remis-
sions and to bring under tillage all but 923 acres of the arable
land.^

During the fourteen vears ending 1860-61 collections in Javli had
fallen from £3850 (Rs. 38,500) in 1847-48 to £2194 (Rs. 21,940) in
1853-54 and again risen to £4158 (Rs. 41,580) in 1860-61 : and
remissions had risen from £233 (Rs. 2330) in 1847-48 to £1695
(Rs. 16,960) in 1853-54 and again fallen to £4 (Rs. 40) in 1860-61.
The details are :

Jdvli Tillage and Revenue, 1847-1861.

Year.

Collec-
tions.

Remis-
sions.

Reduc-
tions.

Ykab.

Collec-
tions.

Remis-
sions.

Reduc-
tions.

1847-48

1848-49

1849-50

1850-61

1851-62

1862-53

1853-64

1854-55

Es.
38,602
86,616
37,644
35,895
38,031
36,990
21,943
36,131

Ra.
2332
4137
3187
3605
1460
2133
16,951
3125

Ra.

6883
6940
6836
6736
6710
7231
7094
7139

1866-66

18.56-67

1857-68

1868-69

1859-60

1860-61

Average

Rs.
3^,462
34,747
38^199
39,802
41,009
4,1,57»

Rs.

6983
6000
465
199
74
36

Rs.
7152
7151
6926
6781
6768
6679

36,389

S549

6930

The 141 villages were arranged in seven classes with highest dry-
crop acre rates varying from 6s. to 2s. l^d. (Rs. 3 - l^^g^) . The>
survey rates proposed for Javli were almost the same as those pro-
posed for the Satdra sub-division. They began with a three-rupee
highest dry-crop acre rate for the villages farthest east in the
Kuddl valley close to the Satara-Wd,i road and gradually became
smaller towards the western hills. In the sixth and seventh
class hill villages the rates both for dry-crop and rice land were
slightly in excess over those proposed in the Sd,tdra hill villages,
as the nearness of Mahdbaleshvar and of Ohiplun gave them a
decided advantage as regards markets. Garden land was almost
confined to the Kuddl and Medha valleys. ■ The hill villages and
the Koyna valley had very little garden land. For the Jdvli
garden lands the same rates were adopted as those proposed for
Sdtdra. The following statement shows- the number of villages and:
the survey rates proposed for each class :

Chapter VIII

The Land.

Survey.

Jdvli,
1861-6S.

Survey Superintendent, 76 of 26th March 1862.

372

[Bombay Gazetteer,

DISTRICTS.

Chapter VIII.
The Land.

Survey.

Jdvli,
1861-62.

Tdrgaon,
1861-62.

J<Mi Survey Sates, 1S61-62.

Class.

VlLLASES.

Highest
Drt-crop
AcreRatr

Average

Garden

Rate.

Rice Lahd.

Highest
Acre Rate.

Average
Acre Rate.

III

8
6

14
7

14,

Bs. a.
3 0
2 10
2 6
2 2
1 14
i 1 2
\ 1 1

Es. o.
} 54

} ^«
4 0

} 34

lU. jv.

9 0

f 8 0
17 8
7 0
(78-
17 0

Bs. a. p.
(2 10 1
(5 0 9
4 S 6
4 10 4
6 4 0
8 11 11
4 14 2

(a) Hill villages and the Eoyna valley.

On the tillage of 1860-61 the survey rates showed a fall from

£4158 to £4002 (Rs. 41,580 - Rs. 40,020) or 37 per cent. The

details are :

JdvU Survey Settlement, 1861-62.

Former.

Survey.

Class.

VlL-

laqes.

1860-61.

Waste.

Total.

Es.

Bs.

Rs.

681.S

6049

6118

3-305

3123

3160

Ill

6619

6902

6906

2615

2966

' 5

2961

4580

6162

5210

15,610

13,792

13,832

VII

Total ...

3137

3036

3086

141

4,1,579

40,920

263

40,273

The proposed survey rates were sanctioned by Government in May
1862, with, as in the case of the S^tara settlement, the alteration of a
highest dry-crop acre rate of one rupee for all hill villages.^

In the same year (1861-62) the survey settlement was introduced
in the Tdrgaon sub-division. The Td,rgaon survey group included
fifty -five villages, forty-two in the mamlatddr's division and thirteen
in the raahAlkari*s division. In position the Tdrgaon sub-division
corresponded with the Sdtdra sub-division, except that it stretched a
little farther east and west. It was bounded on the east by the line
of hills which separated the Khatdvand Khandpur sub-divisions from
those in the Krishna valley, Koregaon Sdtara and Karad. On the
west Tdrgaon reached the main Sahyddri range including the lower
part of the Koyna valley, instead of, as was the case with Sdtara,
being bounded by the eastern or Bdmnoli-Gherddategad range,
running parallel with the main crest of the Sahyadris, which forme(i
the eastern boundary of the Koyna valley. The bulk of the mdm-
latdars' villages were in the Krishna valley. Very few were in the
side valleys between the spurs of the inner line of the Sahyddris
and of those which formed the eastern boundary of Tdrgaon. The
villages on these spors to the west and in the valleys between them
were nearly all alienated. The Patankar alone' held forty-three.

1 Government Letter 1842 of 8th May 1862 ; Major W. 0. Anderson, Surv. Supt.
Southern Mardtha Country, 76 of 26th March 1862.

Deccan]

SAtArA. 373

The mahdlkari's division included the lower part of the Koyna Chapter VIII
valley. The Koyna river ran north and south between the main mu ^ j
line of the Sahyadris and the parallel range as far as the
mahalkari's station of Helvdk where it was crossed by a fine bridge Sctrvey.

built in 1857. At Helvdk was a break in the eastern range and the Tdrgaon,

river turned sharply to the east and flowed east to the Krishna at iS6i-6S.

Karad about twelve miles east of the eastern limit of the Helv^k
mahdlkari's charge. In the Krishna valley the rainfall, as a rule,
was sufficient and certain, and the best dry crop cultivation flourished!
On the superior soils in many cases two dry crops were grown in the
same year. Further to the west the rains steadily became heavier
and less favourable for superior dry crops, till, on the western border,
the bulk of the dry crops were obtained from Ifroken hill tillage.

The main road from Kolhapur to Sdtdra passed through the centre
of the m^mlatddr's villages to the west of the Krishna. A parallel
line of road from Kar^d by Masur joined at Masur the Pandharpur and
Kumbhdrli pass road. The Pandharpur road went through Masur
and then down the Cherigaon pass by Helvdk and the Kumbharli
pass to Chiplun. Thus the valley of the Krishna and the valley of
the Koyna after its easterly turn at Helvak were well provided with
roads to the large markets of Kardd and Sdtdra and also to the
Ratndgiri port of Ohiplun. Ndchni straw had a very considerable
value near all made roads or bullock tracks which passed over the
Sahyddris at intervals of every few miles. The surplus produce of
the Sahyddri villages went to the Konkan where was a ready market
for all kinds of food. For some years before the survey (1 857-1 862)
it had become common for men to leave their villages between the
harvest and sowing season and go in search of labour to Bombay or
Khanddla. A few even went beyond sea, occasionally, in times of war,
to China.^ The wives and families of absentees were supported in
their villages on the produce of the preceding harvest. Even if the
whole crop was used by the husbandman and his family without
leaving any surplus for sale, the money earned by labour, after
paying the assessment, provided what clothing or other articles
were required or was spent in clearing debts incurred on marriage
ceremonies.^ The land was well and carefully tilled and the people
seemed well-to-do. There was some debt but high produce prices
during the past six years and the opening of fresh markets by road-
making had lightened the burden of heavy and uneven assessment.
During the fourteen years ending 1 860-61 tillage in Tdrgaon varied
from 50,368 acres in 1851-52 to 54,795 in 1860-61 and averaged
51,995; collections from £7918 (Rs. 79,180) in 1851-52 to £9334
(Rs. 93,340) in 1860-61 and averaged £8660 (Rs. 86,600) ; and remis-
sions from £48 (Rs. 480) in 1860-61 to £1258 (Rs. 12,580) in
1849-50 and averaged £590 (Rs. 5900). The details are :

' In 1861 Major Anderson, the Survey Superintendent, in one of the most out of the
way parts of the Sahy^ris met a man who told him that for some months he had
been in China with the Land Transport and had only left Tien Tsin 3J months before.

s Major W. C. Anderson, Survey Superintendent, 131 of 26th April 1862.

374

[Bombay Gazetteer,

DISTRICTS.

Chapter VIII.
The Laud.

Survey,

Tdrgaon,
1861-6S.

Tdrgaon Tillage^ mid Revenue, 1847 -1861.

Teae.

Occu-
pied.

Keduc-
tions.

Remis-
sions.

Collec-
tions.

Year.

Occu-
pied.

Reduc-
tions.

Remis-
sions.

Collec-
tions.

1847-48
1848-49
1849-50
1850-51
1851-52
1852-53
1853-64
1854-65

Acres.
50,581
60,457
60,458
60,588
60,368
51,868
61,484
61,805

Rs.

20,192
20,722
20,611
21,228
21,097
20,940
20,494
21,066

Rs.

4073

5447

12,577

11,619

12,137

11,023

8051

6542

Rs.

89,730
87,799
80,87i
81,276
79,181
79,842
81,832
84,676

1865-66
1856-67
1867-68
1858-59
1859-60
1860-61

Average ...

Acres.
52,277
62,760
63,082
63,664
53,767
54,795

Rs.

21,011
21,879
21,444
22,840
21,818
21,786

Rs.

1641
3227
3605

790
2527

484

Rs.
90,644
90,013
90,238
92,633
91,107
93,338

51,995

21,187

6896

86,605

The fifty-five Targaon villages were arranged in six classes and
charged highest dry crop acre rates which corresponded very closely
with the Satdra rates. The first class comprised all the villages in the
centre of the Krishna valley, which were most favourably placed both
as regards climate and communications. The second clasa included
the villages immediately under the line of the Bdmnoli-G-herd,dd,tegad
hills, that is the range parallel with the main crest of the Sahyddris.
They were somewhat less favourably placed as regards nearness to
lines of made road. This class also included the villages immediately
to the west of the first class villages. The third fourth and fifth
classes included villages further and further to the west, and the
sixth class included three hill villages in the mdmlatddr's charge
and thirteen hiU villages in the mahalkari's charge. The reason why
so few villages appeared in the second third fourth and fifth classes
was that in the centre and west of the mamlatd£r's charge most of
the villages were private or indm , The average garden land rates
were a little higher in the first class than in the Sdtara sub-division
because the average quality of the Tdrgaon garden land was somewhat
better than in Sdtdra. The highest rice land rates from the second
class downwards were a fraction lower than in SAtara. The first
four classes had only 153 acres of rice land. The assessment both
of dry and of wet land in the sixth class or hill villages was consider-
ably lower than that proposed for Satara and Javli. The three hill
villages in the mdmlatdar's division were in out of the way places,
and the thirteen "hill villages in the mahd,lkari's division were on the
second range of hills to the south of the Koyna and the Kumbharli
pass road in the next valley to that of the Koyna in an inferior
position to either the SAtdra or the Javli hill villages. The following
statement shows the proposed survey rates for the different classes :

Tdrg

aon Survey Rates,

186S.

Highest

Average

Rice Land.

Class.

Villages.

Dry-crop

Garden

Acre Rate.

Hate.

Highest
Bate.

Average
Rate! :

Rs. a.

Rs. a. p.

3 0

6 12

9 <S

3 7 2

II.

2 10

6 0

8 0

4 6 4

III.

2 6

4 8

7 8

•8 6 10

IV.

2 2

4 8

7 0

a 0 11

1 14

4 0

7 0

4 13 7

VI.

1 0

2 8

6 0

2 11 8

' The survey showed that the fonner areas were about 20 per cent short of the
actual measurements. Still the change in the tillage area from year to year is pro-
bably fairly accurate.

Deccan-l

sAtAra.

375

On the tillage of 1860-61 the survey rates showed a fall from
£9334 to £8653 (Rs. 93,340 - Rs. 86,530) or seven per cent. The
details are :

Tdrgaon Survey Settlement, 1861-68.

FOIUIER.

SnavsT.

Class.

VlLLAOBS.

1860-61.

Waste.

Total.

Ra.

Ks.

Rs.

71,730

64,609

2318

66,927

14,328

14,090

62i

14,612

Ill

1401

1436

982

814

818

1661

1675

1677

Total ...

3236

8911

3955

93,338

86,534

2890

89,424

The new rates showed a large reduction in the first class villages.
In five villages the average existing acre rate on the whole occupied
dry crop lands was over 6s. (Rs. 3), and in three villages the average
garden acre rate was over £1 (Rs. 10). These excessive assessments
could not be removed without some loss of revenue. In the second
third fourth and fifth classes the old rates were much more moderate
than in the first class, and there was little difference between the
estimated gross collections of the existing and the new assessment.
In the sixth class or hill villages a rise in the dry crop rates more
than made up for a fall in the rice rates. The proposed survey
rates for the Targaon villages were sanctioned by Government in
May 1862.1

In 1862-63 the survey settlement was introduced into the eighty-
eight villages of the Karad subdivision and into the remaining
fifty -three villages of the Helvak petty division of Tdrgaon the
rest of which had been settled in the previous year.^ Karad was
much like Targaon and Sat^ra. It lay immediately to the south
of Targaon. On the east a range of hills separated it from
Khdndpur. The town of Karad, a little to the south-east of the
centre of the sub-division, was the sacred meeting of the nearly
equal sized Krishna and Koyna. Kardd consisted of three valleys ;
part of the Krishna valley whose main direction was north and
south ; the lower part of the Koyna valley running east and west ;
and to the south of the Koyna the entire valley of the Kola
which passed west between the high spurs up to the interior range
of the Sahyddris. Most of the Krishna valley, the lower part of the
Koyna valley, and the Kola valley, was the finest alluvial black soil,
and the south-west rains were as certain as in Tdrgaon and Sdtdra.
Towards the west the rainfall increased, till, in the hill villages at
the head of the Kola valley and on the tableland on the top of the

1 Government Letter 1841 of 8th May 1862 ; Major W. C. Anderson, Surv. Supt.
Southern Mardtha Country, 131 of 26th April 1862.

2 At the time of the survey settlement these eighty-eight and fifty-three villages
did not belong to KarAd and HelvAk. In 1862 (Dec. 30) the Survey Supermtendent
wrote that though great changes had lately been made in the distribution of villages
it was more convenient to deal with the groups by their old names than as parts of the
dififerent sub-divisions into which they had lately been redistributed.

Chapter VIII
The Land.

Survey,

Targaon,
1861-62.

Kardd,
186^-63.

tBombay Qaietteeis

376

DISTMCTS.

Chapter VIII.
The Land.

StTEVET.

Karad,

1862-63.

hills which bounded the Kola valley^ the regular dry crops gave
place to hill grains grown at intervals of three to six years of fallow.
The dry crop tillage of the centre of the sub-division was excellent.
Nearly all the villages had some garden landj the whole Grovernment
garden area amounting to 4684 acres. Sugarcane, tobacco, and other
valuable crops were widely grown. The groundnut was also grown
to a great extent, as, for some years before 1862, large quantities
had been sent to Europe. Chiefly in the western villages were 1911
acres of Government rice land much of which yielded a second crop
of wheat or pulse and occasional crops of sugarcane. Except
in the Kola valley the KarAd villages were well off for roads and
markets. The great road from Belgaum and Kolh^pur to Sdt^ra
ran through Karad along the right bank of the Krishna. From east
to west, also through Karad, the sub-division was crossed by the
inland road which passed westward up the left bank of the Koyna by
the Kumbhdrli pass fifty-five miles from Karad to the tidal port of
Chiplun in Eatnagiri. The traffic along these two trunk lines caused
a great demand for every kind of fodder. Kar^d was a very large
market and a place of considerable trade and other minor but useful
local markets were scattered over the subdivision. Chiefly from the
opening of the Kumbharli pass road and the very high produce
prices which had prevailed for eight years before the introduction
of the survey, though not without debt, the people were well-to-do.^
In the Koyna and Krishna valleys the fields were exceedingly well
and carefully tilled and the people were prosperous. The people of
the upper Kola valley, with excessive rainfall and long distances
from markets, were much less well-to-do. During the fifteen years
ending 1861-62 tillage^ in Kar^d varied from 71,790 acres in 1847-48
to 78,363 in 1860-61 and averaged 74,359; collections from £14,712
(Rs. 1,47,120) in 1852-53 to £18,581 (Rs: 1,85,810) in 1860-61 and
averaged £16,903 (Es. 1,69,030); and remissions from £25 (Es. 250)

1 Kardd Survey Eeport, 466 of 30th Deo. 1862. The following statement shows the
produce prices prevailing during the thirteen years ending 1863 at KarAd the chief
market in south-west S^tara :

Kardd Produce Prices :

Pounds the Rupee,

1851 - 18BS.

Year.

Jvdri.

Wheat.

Geam.

Bdjri,.

January.

June.

January.

June.

January.

June,

January.

June.

1851

1862

185S

1854

1865

1868

1857

1858

1869

1860

1861

1862

1863

VAlva Surv. Kept. 116 of 5th May 1863.
one SAtdra slier equal to two pounds.

2 The acres are obtained from Adams' survey
equal to 36 guntlida.

These pounds are obtained at the rate of
as on the basis of one higlia

Deccan.]

sAtIra.

377

in 1861-62 to £2720 (Rs. 27,200) in 1852-53 and averaged £983
(Rs. 9830). The details are :

Kardd Tillage and Reoenue, 184-7 -ISeS.

Teaiu

Occu-

Reduc-

Remia-

Collec-

Ybae.

Occu-

Reduc-

Remis-

Collec-

pied.

tions.

sions.

tions.

pied.

tions.

sions.

tions.

Acres.

Bs.

Rs.

Es.

Acres.

Rs.

1847-48 ...

71,790

21,920

5714

1,70,900

1856-67 ...

74,249

24,911

9122

1,73,797

1848-49 ...

71,930

23,734

12,.593

1,64,212

1857-58 ...

74,717

24,900

66S9

1,77,471

1849-60...

71,879

24,063

14,602

1,62,462

1868-59 ...

77,944

24,886

2067

1,82,731

1850-61 ...

73,852

24,276

5586

1,70,889

1859-60 ...

78,337

26,107

2694

1.82,688

1851-62...

73,796

24,943

19,609

1,66,181

1860-61 ...

78,363

24,995

607

1,86,813

1852-63 ...

73,615

26,103

27,197

1,47,120

1861-62 ...

78,257

24,862

254

1,85,762

1853-64...
1854-55 ...

72,074
71,793

24,149
24,641

14,672
19,662

1,64,713
1,50,726

1855-56 ...

72,789

24, 684

7689

1,70,021

Average...

74,359

24^478

9826

1,69,032

In addition to tlie rise of produce prices, whicli after about
1856 became general over tbe wbole country, certain local causes
helped to increase the improvement in Karad. . During 1855-56 and
1856-57 there was a la^ge local expenditure on public works. Both
the Kumbharli pass road and the cleared road from Sat^ra to
Kolhdpur were being made and gave full and well paid employment
to the labouring classes. The opening of the Kumbhdrli pass road
was a great source of wealth to the sub-division.

Though Kardd had greatly improved during the six years before
the survey settlement, the inequalities of the old assessment pressed
heavily both on individual holdings and on entire villages. In many
cases the extremely high rates of assessment were in practice less
burdensome than they appeared. As in other parts of the district
the excessive rates were confined to villages with a large area of
alienated land. The rule was enforced that no man should till
alienated land who did not hold some over-assessed Government land.
By this means the proprietors or alienees of rent-free or quit-rent
lands, in order to get 'their lands tilled, had to content themselves
with something less than their natural rental because without this
concession the holders of over-assessed Government land could not
afford to till the alienated land. By this means some additional
revenue was indirectly recovered from the holders of rent-free or
quit-rent land.^

Under the survey settlement the eighty-eight Karad villages
wore arranged in six classes and charged highest dry crop acre rates
of Qs. to 2s. (Rs. 8-1).^ The first class contained the villages in the
valley of the Krishna and the lower Koyna and Kola valleys near
their meeting with the Krishna. They had a moderate and certain
supply of rain and were well placed for roads and markets. The
second third and fourth classes included the less accessible Koyna

1 Major W. C. Anderson, Surv. Supt. Southern MarAtha Country, 466 of 30th
December 1862. . .

2 For Kardd the Survey Superintendent proposed to adopt a grouping of villages
and rates of assessment the same as those adopted for the neighbouring sub-division
of TArgaon, which were very similar to the SAtdra rates and differed little from those
of WAi. He was unwilling to fix a higher basis for the rates because he doubted
whether the recent great rise in produce prices would last. Major Anderson, Survey
Supt. Southern Maritha Country, 466 of 30th December 1862.

B 1282—48

ChapterVIII
The Land.

SuBVBr.

Kardd,

1862-63.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

Chapter VIII.

The Land.

Survey.
Kardd,
1862-63.

378

DISTRICTS.

and Kola valley villages further to tlie west. The second class also
included the villages to the east under and among the spurs of the
hills to the east of the Krishna valley. The fifth class included the
villages at the head of the Kola valley, and the sixth class the hill
villages on the slopes and tops of the hills enclosing the Kola valley.
The following statement shows the survey rates proposed for the
Kard,d villages : Kardd Survey Rates, 1862-63.

ClASS.

Villages.

Highest
Dry Crop
Acre Hate.

Highest

Rice and

Garden

Acre Rate.

Ill

41
12
11

8(a)

Rs. a.

3 0
2 10
2 6
2 2
1 14
1 0

Rs.

7
E

(a) Hill Tillages.

The central first class villages were those where the existing
assessment ranged highest, and where the practice of over-assessing
government land in the occupation of holders of alienated lands had
been commonest. In some of these villages the average existing dry-
crop acre rate for the whole village was over 9s. (Rs. 4^) . On garden
land 16s. (Rs. 8) was a common acre rate and in some villages the
average acre rate was as high as £1 4s. (Rs. 12) . In the second class
the existing assessment was extremely variable, very high in some
villages and very low in others. The general result of the survey
rates was a slight increase. In the third class villages most of which
were high in the Kola valley the existing rates were little lower than
in the Krishna valley villages. Before the days of roads the difference
between the value of the lands of these two classes may have been
small, under present condition the difference was great. The fourth
and fifth classes comprised the villages farther up the Kola valley
and the sixth class the hill villages. For the sixth class 2s. (Re. 1)
was proposed as the highest dry-crop acre rate but the small area
of land which was continuously culturable could alone bear this rate.
In pure hill lands whose terms of tillage were separated by five or
six years of fallow the survey acre rate ranged from 3d. to 4|d.
(2-3 as.). The general result of the whole proposed settlement was
a reduction of eleven per cent on the collections of the previous year.
The details are :

Kardd Survey Settlement, 1862-63.

Class.

Vil-
lages.

FORMKK.

Sdrvky.

1861-62.

Waste.

Total.

II
III
IV

V
VI

Total ...

41
12
11
8
8
8

Rs.

1,24,324

26,926

18,422

6886

8037

2167

Rs.

1,08,326

26,866

14,778

6062

7697

2678

Rs.

6576
1696
514
361
275
263

R9.

1,13,902

28,651

16,292

5413

7972

2831

1,86,762

1,66,297

8664

3,73,961

Deccan-]

sItAra.

379

• /^^^^2"63 along with KarM the survey settlement was introduced
mto the remaining fifty-three villages of the petty division of
Helvak m Tdrgaon, into the rest of which survey rates had been
introduced in the previous year. Most of these fifty-three villages
were near the Sahyadris. They had not been settled in the previous
year because their classification could not be completed in time.
AH were in the Koyna valley or on the hills by which the Koyna
valley was bounded, They joined the KarM portion of the Koyna
valley. Along the part of the valley, below the sharp bend from
south to east which the Koyna takes at Helvdk, along the Koyna's
left bank ran the Karad-Chiplun road. The heavy traffic along
this road gave the villages of this section a marked advantage over
the villages in the upper part of the valley. This survey group had
1171 acres of Government rice land and 190 acres of Government
garden land. In most villages the bulk of the tillage was of hill
lands which required fallows. The condition of the people was
much the same as in Karad. In the lower Koyna villages they were
well-to-do, in the upper hill tracts they were poor.

During the fifteen years ending 1861-62 tillage in Helvak had
varied from 31,492 acres in 1865-56 to 32,364 in 1847-48 and
averaged 31,961 ; collections from £702 (Rs. 7020) in 1853-54 to
£1100 (Rs. 11,000) in 1847-48 and averaged £1049 (Rs. 10,490),
and remissions from £402 (Rs. 4020) in 1853-54 to nothing and
averaged £58 (Rs. 580). The details are :

Hdvik Tillage and Bevmue, 1847 -186^.

Yrah,,

Occupied.

Reduc-
tions.

Remis-
sions.

Collec-
tions.

Acres.

Be.

Rs.

Rs,

1847-48 ...

32,364

3400

1123

11,001

1848-49 ...

32,303

3945

636

10,912

1849-60 ...

32,300

3437

1580

10,-372

1860-51 ...

32,177

3685

916

10,698

1851-62 ...

32,125

4179

10,876

1852-63 ...

32,180

4204

289

10,683

1863-64 ...

32,180

4170

4019

7021

1854-66 ...

81,679

4103

10,791

1856-66 ...

31,492

4369

10,666

1856-67 ...

31,679

4164

...

10,626

1867-68 ...

31,704

4164

10,709

1868-59 ...

31,770

4153

10,742

1859-60 ...

31,801

4118

>..

10,803

1860-61 ...

31,833

4113

10,844

1861-62 ...
Average ...

31,674

4063

10,777

31,951

4021

684

10,488

The fall in tillage from 32,364 acres in 1847-48 to 31,674 acres in
1861-62, and in collections from £1100 (Ra 11,000) in 1847-48 to
£1078 (Rs. 10,780) in 1861-62, in spite of the great rise in produce
prices is remarkable. The Survey Superintendent explained the fall
by the fact that under existing arrangements most of the villages
being hill villages paid a lump assessment and the villagers
distributed the shares among themselves. In this way all the arable
area was shown as occupied. Since the opening of the Kumbhdrli
pass the condition of the people had greatly improved. The survey
rates applied to the Targaon villages settled in the previous year
proved suitable to these villages. According to their position they
fell into four classes with highest dry-crop acre rates varying from

Chapter^VIII.
The Laud.

Survey.

Helvak, .
186^-63,

[Bombay Gazetteer,

Caiapter VIII.
The Land.

SWEVEY.

HelvAh,
186^-63.

Vdlva,

380

DISTEICTS.

4s. Zd. (Rs. 2|) to 2s. (Re. 1) and highest garden acre rates varying
from 14s. (Rs, 7) to 10s." (Rs. 5). The details are :

Helvdk Survey Rates, 1863-6S.

Class.

Villages.

Highest
Dry-Crop
Acre Bate.

Highest

Garden and

Bice Acre

Bate.

III

2
12

3l}W

Bs. it.

2 2

1 14

( 1 0

1 1 0

Bs.

7
7
7
5

(a) Hill villages.

On the tillage of 1861-62 the survey rates showed a rise from
£1078 (Rs. 10,780) to £1388 (Rs. 13,880) or twenty-eight per cent.
The details are :

HelvATe Survey Settlement, 186S-63.

Class.

Vil-
lages.

Former.

Survey.

1861-62.

Waste.

Total.

II
III
IV

Total ...

2
12

7
32

Bs.

1611

3932

662

4672

Bs.

1925
5430
88l!
5644

Bs.

136

Bs.

1944
6449
886
6779

10,777

13,881

177

14,058

The grounds for the increase of twenty-eight per cent in the
Government demand on these villages were the opening of the
Kumbharli pass road and the consequent great increase in produce
prices.

The proposed survey rates for the Karad and Helvdk villages
were sanctioned by Grovemment in March 1863.^

In 1862-63 the survey settlement was also introduced into the
Vdlva sub-division of 103 Government villages. As several changes
had lately been made in this group of villages the Survey
Superintendent dealt with it according to the old boundaries. The
Valva group of villages lay in the south-west of the district in the
corner between the Varna and Krishna rivers. It was bounded on
the north by Karddj on the north-east and east by the Krishna, and
on the south and south-west by the Varna. On the western half of
the northern boundary Vdlva was separated from Kardd by a lofty
spur of the Sahyadris, which in the fifteen miles in the west reduced
Valva to a strip of not more than three miles wide. The east, near
the meeting of the Varna and Krishna, was a rich black plain.
Towards the west the country became more hilly, broken by small
spurs from the Sahyadris, and with tracts of mdl or stony land.
The west of Vdlva was exceedingly hilly ; the tract between the

1 Gov. Res. 693 of 4th March 1863 ; Major W. C. Anderson, Surv. Supt. 466 of
30th Dec, 1862 ; and Mr, E, E. H. Light, Asst. Supt. 26th November 1862,

Deccan.]

sItIea.

381

Vdrna river and the lofty spur on the north was roughened with small
spurs and branches. The rainfall varied greatly in different parts.
On the Sahyddris and for some miles down the Vdrna valley the fall
was too heavy for any dry-crop tillage except hill grains. Further
east the rainfall became more and more moderate and seasonable,
till to the east of the centre of the sub-division the general average
of the rains was all that could be wished for the best dry crop
tillage. The centre and- west had much rice and garden land, the
garden land watered both from wells and watercourses, and yielding
considerable crops of sugarcane. The soil and climate of some of
theeastern villages were excellently suited to cotton. But in the
ordinary state of the cotton market grain and fodder paid better
than cotton. The acre outturn of New Orleans was at least fifty
per cent more valuable than that of local cotton.^ The Vdlva
sub-division was crossed from north to south by the Satdra-Kolh^pur
road and from it a cleared branch of about ten miles passed
south-west to Battis-Shirala. These were the only made roads in
the sub-division. Most of the east and centre was level enough to
admit of cart traffic by the ordinary country tracks during nine
months of the year. The main lines of export were two, to the east
for rice and other hill produce to the great markets of Sdngli and
Miraj, and to the coast with grain and oil seed. Communication
with the coast was either by the circuitous route of KarAd and the
Kumbharli pass to Ohiplun or by bullock track by Malkdpur a
large trade centre in Kolhdpur down the Amba pass to the tidal
port at Rdjdpur, or by a second bullock track which followed the left
bank of the Vdrna and descended the Tivra pass to Sangameshvar
in Ratndgiri. The people of Vdlva appeared (1863) on the whole
prosperous. Compared with Karad or Tasgaon the existing assessment
was light. These low rates were due to the distance of Valva from
Satdra. Under the former rule in all the sub-divisions near the
capital the assessment had been forced to the highest point. In the
more distant sub-divisions, such as Bijapur and PandharpUr, the old
revenue management was very lax. The distance from the capital
allowed the district and village officers to settle matters among
themselves with much less check or interference on the part of the
head-quarters officials than in parts near Sd,tara.

During the fifteen years ending 1861-62 tillage in Valva had fallen
from 110,711 acres in 1847-48 to 108,543 in 1853-54 and again
risen to 113,711 in 1861-62; collections had fallen from £21,077
(Rs, 2,10,770) in 1847-48 to £19,178 (Rs. 1,91,780) in 1851-52 and
again risen to £23,460 (Rs. 2,34,600) in 1861-62; and remissions
had risen from £1303 (Rs. 13,030) in 1847-48 to £3635 (Rs. 36,360)
in 1851-52 and again fallen to £147 (Rs. 1470) in 1861-62. The
details are :

Chapter VIIL

The Land-

Survey.

Valva,

1862-6S.

1 In 1863 (116 of 5th May) Major Anderson the Surv. Supt. wrote to the Collector
of SAtira : Should the attempt to introduce New Orleans cotton prove successful a
considerable addition to the present supply of cotton may be expected from Valva
and its neighbourhood. Much land in the Kolhdpur SAngli and Miraj states would
yield good New Orleans. Once show the people that New Orleans grows and pays in
valva and it will spread to all the neighbouring state and alienated villages. Bom.
Gov. Sel, LXXV. 7-8.

382

[Bombay Gazetteer,

DISTRICTS.

Chapter VIII.

The Land-

Survey.

VaXva,

186^-63.

Vdlva Tillage and Bevenue, 1847-1862.

Yfar,

Occupied.

Reduc-
tions.

Remis-
aioDS.

Collec-
tions.

Aorea.

Ea.

Es.

1847-48

110,711

31,986

13,031

2,10,768

1848-49

108,499

31,820

28,078

1,98,468

1849-50

108,738

30,163

40,294

1,87,876

1850-51

108,921

29,272

12,984

2,16,463

1861-62

109,189

28,637

36,348

1,91,781

1862-53

109,776

27,968

24,495

2,05,076

1853-54

108,543

27,742

9506

2,20,063

1864-55

110,012

27,792

3900

2,26,415

1855-56

110,232

28,168

2624

2,26,419

1886-57

110,370

28,058

2189

2,28,943

1857-58

111,409

27,834

21,426

2,10,686

1858-69

112,812

27,743

1994

2,31,086

1859-60

113,012

27,676

4134

2,30,051

1860-61

114,264

27,639

2423

2,38,842

1861-62

113,711

27,661

1470

2,34,606

The very slight increase in the tillage area from 110,711 acres in
1847-48 to 113,711 acres in 1861-62 was remarkable. The returns
were of little value as the survey measurements showed that more
^ than one-fourth of the area under tillage had not been brought to
account. Of the whole area of 157,129 acres shown by the survey
measurements as much as 10,777 acres were excellent garden and rice
land. So that the existing acre rate (Re. 1 as. 1\^) could not on the
whole be heavy though faulty distribution caused individual hardship.
Except in 1857-58 when there was a serious local failure of rain,
since the rise of prices which set in about 1855 remissions had
greatly decreased. With the prices which ruled during some years
before the settlement the rates were very light. Under the survey
settlement the 103 Vdlva villages were arranged in six classes with
highest dry crop acre rates varying from 5s. 3c?. to 2s. (Rs. 2f -
Re.l). The villages in the first class were close to the Karad
sub-division in the Krishna valley. The second class villages
incladed the whole of south-eastern and central Vdlva to a little
west of the Kolhdpur-Sdtara road, and were bordered on the east
by some Tdsgaon villages. For these a highest dry crop acre rate
of 4s. 9(i. (Rs. 2f ) was proposed.^ For the remaining classes, rates
of 4s. 3d., 3s. 9d., 3s. 3d, and 2s. (Rs. 2^, Rs. 1|, Rs. 1|, and Re. 1)
were proposed according as the villages lay more towards the west
up to the Sahyddris. On the tillage of 1861-62 the survey rates
showed a rise from £23,460 (Rs. 2,34,600) to £25,349 (Rs. 2,53,490)
or eight per cent. The details are :

1 The highest dry crop acre rate for Tdsgaon which was settled in 1852-53 was
Ks. 2. This, in 1863 when V^va was settled, was considered extraordinarily low,
as prices had doubled between 1852 and 1863. Besides the climate of central V^va
was decidedly more certain than that of Tdsgaon. On these grounds the Vilva survey
rate was 9d (6 as.) higher than the T^gaon rate. Bom, Grov, Sel, LXXY. 12,

Deccan.]

sItAea.

383

Vdlva Survey Settlement, 186Z-6S,

Class.

Vn-

LASES.

FOEMBR.

SnavBT.

1861-62.

Waste.

Total.

Highest
Dry Crop
Acre Bate.

Highest

Bice and

Garden

Bate.

II
III
IV

V
VI

Total ...

10
37
11

13
18

Ba.

64,663
1,28,664

13,9S8

14,8U
9600
2909

Ba.
62,863
1,46,756
13,639
16,984
10,223
3026

Bs.

2166
4437
879
418
376
1395

Bb.
66,029
1,61,199
14,018
17,402
10,698
4421

Ba. a.
2 10
2 6
2 2
1 14
1 10
1 0

Ba. a.

8 0
7 8
7 0
7 0
6 0
S 0

103

2,34,605

2,53,491

9170

2,62,661

A considerable part of tlie increase of revenue was from the
assessment of inferior soils of wliicli there were considerable tracts in
the centre of the sub-division. Under former prices the cultivation
of these soils would not pay ; they were considered unarable, never
having been tilled within the memory of man. They were used by
the nearest landholder without being brought to account. This to
some extent explains the great excess in occupied area shown by
the survey. Existing high prices made these poor lands profitable.
At the settlement they were often the object of keen competition.
Thus the assessable area was very considerably increased. The
survey rates proposed for Vdlva were sanctioned by Government in
June 1863.1

The available revenue returns show that a marked increase of

revenue accompanied and followed the introduction of the revenue

survey. The revenue rose from £113,956 (Rs. 11,39,560) in 1855

when the revenue survey assessment was introduced in seventeen

villages to £136,298 (Rs. 13,62,980) in 1865 when the new rates

had been introduced over the whole 981 villages. Since 1864-65 it

slowly increased till it reached £137,278 (Rs. 13,72,780) in 1874-75.

In the next seven years it fell to £135,946 (Rs. 13,59,460) in 1881-82.

The details are :

Sdtdra Survey Results, 1854-1882.

Year.

GOTBENMENT.

Occupied.

Waste.

Area.

Assess-
ment.

Bemis-
sions.

For
Collec-
tion.

Area.

Assess-
ment.

Grazing
Fees.

Acrea.

Bs.

Ba.

Bs.

Acres.

Ba.

1854-55

812,676

13,93,116

2,93,381

10,99,734

186,188

18,156

1856-56

820,691

14,13,805

3,02,117

11,11,688

185,662

19,022

1858-59

1,063,684

13,63,494

1,82,996

11,80,498

206,020

29,975

1861-62

1,198,348

12,40,054

80,668

11,69,486

197,908

18,402

1864-65

1,379,089

11,90,002

264

11,89,748

55,409

14,624

9208

1869-70

1,416,480

12,04,776

360

12,04,426

46,327

12,697

13,366

1874-75

1,404,754

11,96,612

896

11,94,716

38,941

8401

2859

1875-78

1,396,686

11,88,015

435

11,87,580

43,660

9631

3834

1876-77

1,393,708

11,86,713

2419

11,84,294

44,873

10,187

4010

1877-78

1,390,946

11,86,203

470

11,85,733

46,644

10,678

. 2977

1878-79

1,386,022

11,84,812

217

11,84,696

60,666

11,890

1861

1879-80

1,378,549

11,83,166

497

11,82,669

45,637

10,126

1837

1880-81

1,367,612

11,80,436

154

11,80,282

71,611

16,702

2226

1881-82

1,360,734

11,80,244

148

11,80,096

77,612

17,571

2908

Chapter_VIII.
The Land.

SuEVEy,

Vdlva,
1862-63.

Survey Results, \
1854-1882.

1 Gov. Res. 2110 of 27th June 1863; MajorW.O. Anderson, Surv. Supt. Southern
MarAtha Country, 116 of 5th May 1863 ; and Mr, Light, Asst. Supt. 8th Jan. 1863.

384

[Bombay Gazetteer,

DISTRICTS.

Chapter VIIL

The Land.

SuBVET Results,
1854-1882,

S(Udra Survey

Results—

jontinued

Altenates.

Total.

Outstand-
ings.

Surveyed

Ybae.

Area.

Assess-
ment.

Quit-Rent.

Area.

Assess-
ment.

For
Collec-
tion.

AND

Settled

VlLLAOEB.

Acres.

E8.

Es.

Acres.

Ks.

Es.

1854-56 ...

1,222,014

11,39,564

1775

1866-66 ...

...

.••

1,228,792

11,62,940

1817

1868-69 ...

1,665,788

12,31,317

394

207

1861-62 ...

1,716,606

12,72,894

738

1864-65 ...

365,459

4,46,'699

I,64',b28

1,799,957

16,51,125

13,62,984

981

1869-70 ...

372,298

4,52,623

1,64,784

1,835,105

16,69,996

13,72,666

■l72

1874-75 ...

381,786

4,66,074

1,76,201

1,825,481

16,70,087

13,72,776

1227

1875-76 ...

385,533

4,72,462

1,76,645

1,825,879

16,70,108

13,68,069

17,906

• ••

1876-77 ...

386,789

4,74,398

1,77,308

1,826,370

16,71,298

13,65,612

1,20,191

>.*

1877-78 ...

386,583

4,74,117

1,76,793

1,824,073

16,70,898

13,65,603

28,537

1878-79 ...

386,889

4,74,174

1,77,230

1,823,477

16,70,876

13,63,686

49,128

1879-80 ...

386,686

4,74,884

1,77,511

1,810,772

16,68,165

18,62,007

21,947

• It

1880-81 ...

886,666

4,74,320

1,77,471

1,826,788

16,70,458

13,59,979

10,986

1881-82 ...

384,375

4,69,825

1,76,463

1,822,721

16,67,640

13,69,457

1049

Season Beforts.

1849-SO.

1850-51.

1S51-5S.

1855-56.

1856-67.

SECTION v.— SEASON REPORTS.
The following is a summary of the chief available season details
during the thirty-four years ending 1882-83 :

A failure of rain in 1849, in spite of liberal remissions, was
followed by a shrinkage of tillage in Bij^pur and Khdndpur. The
season was also very bad in Kardd and V^lva, but there the land-
holders were for the most part better off, and could continue to hold
their fields in spite of a bad season.^

In 1850 much of the early or hharif crops which were nearly
ruined from want of rain were saved by heavy showers at the end
of the season. As the crops in Khdndpur and Bijdpur were mostly
early, larger remissions were given in these two sub-divisions than in
Kar Ad and Vdlva, where the late harvest was the most important.
The cold weather crops were nearly failing when a very heavy and
timely fall of rain in December made the season in Kardd and Vdlva
one of the best known for years.*

The season of 1851 was an average one with a suflScient but ill-
timed rainfall. The revenue of 1851-52 showed a decrease of about
£5380 (Rs.53,800). The fall was due to the abolition of the exchange
tax and to the liberal remissions in the south and east.^

In 1855 the early rain was very scanty, and the early crops
suffered considerably . The latter rains were abundant and the late
harvest was good in all parts of the district except Jd.vli, Khat£v,
Khdnapur, and Pandharpur where the early harvest is of most
importance.*

In 1856 the fall in the early part of the monsoon was very
scanty, and the early crops suffered in all parts of the district except
in Valva. The late or rabi crop yielded a good harvest and the
season was healthy.^

1 Bom. Gov. Rev. Reo. 22 of 1852, 133. This information is for Karid, V41va,
KhAnApur, and BijApur only. The district annual reports for 1847-48, 1848-49, and
1849-50 are not available. Collector, 3153 of 2nd June 1883.

2 Bom. Gov. Rev. Rec. 22 of 1852, 148-149.

3 Bom. Gov. Rev. Bee. 16 part 9 of 1856, 2514. The reports for 1852-53, 1853-64,
and 1854-55 are not available. Collector, 3349 of 8th June 1883.

* Bom. Gov. Rev. Bee, 17 of 1860, 5. * Bo^_ Qo^, jjev. Bee. 17 of 1860, 148.

Deccan.]

sAtIra.

385

In 1857-58 rain fell abundantly in easterly showers at the
beginning of the south-west monsoon and the prospects of the
season appeared favourable throughout the district. Later on the
rain failed in the eastern sub-divisions of KhuUv, Khd,nd,pur, Pan-
dharpur and Bijapur, and parts of the sub-divisions of Valva and
Wdi, and the outturn of the early or Icharif crops was small. In the
remaining sub-divisions the fall of rain was seasonable and the
harvest was above the average. Except in Khatdv and Bijd,pur and
in parts of Wai the rabi or lato crops yielded a good return. The
season was healthy. The collections were £144,813 (Rs. 14,48,130),
£9727 (Rs. 97,270) were remitted, and £10 (Rs. 100) left out-
standing.

In 1858-59 the fall in the early part of the south-west rains
was scanty and the early crops in light soils suffered. With this
exception both the early and late harvests were good. The district
was on the whole healthy. The collections rose from £144,813 to
£152,794 (Rs. 14,48,130 -Rs. 15,27,940), £3384 (Rs. 33,840) were
remitted, and £5 (Rs. 50) left outstanding.

The season of 1859-60 was scarcely an average one. Public
health was not good ; cholera fever and dysentery prevailed. The
collections rose from £15^,794 to £155,025 (Rs. 15,27,940-
Rs. 15,50,250), £4076 (Rs. 40,760) were remitted, and £4 (Rs. 40)
left outstanding.

In 1860-61 the rainfall was favourable and the early crops yielded
a good r eturn except in the md-mlatdar's division of Vdlva and in the
mahalkari's division of Wdi, where they suffered from want of rain
and from the ravages of insects. In January 1861, except the
shdlu or late jvdri, which suffered from insects in the Koregaon and
Bijapur sub- divisions, from excessive heat in the Satdra sub-division,
and from excessive moisture in the Kardd and Javli sub-divisions,
the late crops promised a good harvest. Disease was slightly
prevalent among men and cattle throughout the district. The
collections rose from £155,025 to' £161,556 (Rs. 15,50,250-
Rs. 16,15,560), £1555 (Rs. 15,550) were remitted, and there were
no outstandings.

In 1861-62 the rainfall though sufficient was ill-timed, and, except
of rice ndgli and sdva, there was an extensive failure of the early
crops. Cholera prevailed to some extent and cattle disease was
present in a few places. The collections rose from £161,556 to
£170,793 (Rs. 16,15,560 - Rs. 17,07,930), £2805 (Rs. 28,050) were
remitted, and there were no outstandings.

In 1862-63 the early rains were very short and the early crops to
a great extent failed. Later in the season, during September and
October, heavy showers improved the prospects and enabled the
cultivators to sow with late crops much land in which the early crops
had either not been sown or had failed. The return from these late
or rafci crops was (March 1863) expected to" be sufficient to make
good the losses caused by the failure of the early rains. Public
health was good. Cholera and in a few places fever and ague
appeared, but did not become general. In July and August cattle
B 1282—49

Chapter VIII.

The Land-

Season Reports,
18S7-58.

1858-59.

1859-60.

1860-61.

■1861-6S.

186S-63.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

386

DISTRICTS.

Chapter VIII.
The Laud.

Season Kbfobts.

ises-Bi,

1864-65.

1S65-66.

1866-67.

1867-68.

1868-69.

1869-70.

in some of the sub-divisions died from want of fodder. The col-
lections fell from £170,793 to £161,685 (Rs. 17,07,930- Rs.16,16,850),
£3961 (Rs. 39,61u) were remitted, and £27 (Rs. 270) left out-
standing.

In 1803-64 in the early part of the monsoon the rainfall was
generally scanty and insufficient. Later in the season, except in
Man, Malsiras, and Pandharpur, the fall was more general and
satisfactory. With these exceptions the season was on the whole
an average one. Cholera prevailed and cattle disease to a trifling
extent. The collections rose from £lbl,685 to £184,919 (Rs
16,16,850 -Rs. 18,49,190), £2641 (Rs. 26,410) were remitted, and
£171 (Rs. 1710) left outstanding.

In 1864-65 to the end of August the rainfall was seasonable and
abundant, but a widespread failure of the September-October rains
damaged both the early and the late harvests. Cholera prevailed
slightly. The collections fell from £184,919 to £174,085 (Rs.
18,49,190 -Rs. 17,40,850), £58 (Rs.580) were remitted, and £212
(Rs. 2120) left outstanding.

, In 1865-66 the rainfall though not seasonable was suf3Scient and
the early or khwrif crops were good. The lute or rabi crops were
(February 1866) also generally good and promised a fair harvest.
The season was healthy. The collections fell from £174,085 to
£172,239 (Rs. 1 7,40,850 -Rs. 17,22,390), £55 (Rs. 550) were remitted,
and £12 (Rs. 120) left outstanding.

In 1866-67 in the four sub-divisions of Mahdbaleshvar, Patau,
Karad, and Tdsgaon,- the early harvest was good. In Koregaon,
Sdtara, Jd,vli, Vdlva, and Shirala it was average, and in Td,rgaon,
Wdi, KhatAv, Khandpur, Mdn, and Mdlsiras it was poor. In all
except Khatav, Khanapur, Mdn, and Md.lsiras, the prospects of the
late harvest were (February 1 867) good. Fever and cholera prevailed
to a slight extent, but on the whole public health was good. The
collections fell from £172,239 to £172,052 (Rs. 17,22,390 - Rs.
17,20,520), £39 (Rs. 390) were remitted, and £18 (Rs. 180) left
outstanding,

. In 1867-68 the season was on the whole good. The early crops
yielded a very good harvest especially in the east and the late crops
throve generally and promised a good return. Public health was
good though fever was prevalent. The collections fell from
£172,052 to £171,165 (Rs. 17,20,520 -Rs. 17,11,650), £152 (Rs, 1520)
were remitted, and £16 (Rs, 160) left outstanding.

In 1868-69 the early fall was general and favourable to the early
crops which promised well. But the late rains were short and
the late crops were injured to some extent especially in Mdlsiras
where the outturn was small. Cholera and fever were widespread
but' slight. The collections fell from £171,165 to £170,256 (Rs.
17,11,650 -Rs. 17,02,560), £48 (Rs.480) were remitted, and £211
(Rs. 2 1 10) left outstanding.

In 1869-70 the rainfall was abundant and seasonable and the
early harvest was excellent. In January 1870 the late crops were
also thriving and promised a good harvest. Much Tieavy rain fell

Deccan.J

in November and December. Public healtb on the whole was good. Chapter VIIL

The collections fell from £170,256 to £169,230 (Es. 17,02,660- ti,«7:«;i
Es. 16,92,300), £123 (Ea. 1230) were remitted, and £84 (Es. 840) left

outstanding. Season Kbport*.

In 1870-71 the early rains were not seasonable and in some parts 1870-71.

of the district sowing was kept back. Later on the fall of rain was
so incessant and excessive as to injure the crops. The early crops
on the whole yielded an average harvest, and in January 1871 the
late crops promised well. During the early part of the season fever
was general but seldom fatal, and during August and September
there was much cholera. A slight epidemic of cattle disease passed
over some of the sub-divisions. The collections fell from £169,230
to £168,568 (Rs. 16,92,300 - Es. 16,85,680), £49 (Es. 490) were
remitted, and £60 (Rs. 600) left outstanding.

In 1871-72 the rainfall was scanty. In the west the early crops 1871-7S.

yielded a fair return ; in the east from want of rain the early crops
were in most parts not sown, and where they were sown the yield
was small. The late crops where sown withered for want of late rain
which failed almost throughout the whole of the district. Cholera
and fever prevailed to a slight extent, and cattle disease appeared in
some sub-divisions. The collections fell from £168,568 to £1 66,636
(Es. 16,8.5,680 - Es. 1 6,66,360), £286 (Es. 2860) were remitted, and
£2494 (Es. 24,940) left outstanding.

In 1872-73 the rainfall was on the whole seasonable. The early 187S-7S,

harvest was good except in some of the hill villages of Javli,
Pdtan, Wai, and Valva. In December 1872 the cold weather crops
promised well. Slight fever and cholera prevailed, but the season
both for men and for cattle on the whole was healthy. The
collections rose from £166,636 to £168,810 (Es. 16,66,360- Rs.
16,88,100), £197 (Es. 1970) were remitted, and £195 (Es. 1950) left
outstanding.

In 1873-74 the rainfall was on the whole seasonable and plentiful. 1873-74.

Both the early and late harvests were good. Except slight fever
and dysentery there was little sickness, and cattle also were healthy
except in Vdlva and Pd,tan. The tillage area fell from 1,660,362
to 1,658,080 acres and the collections from £168,810 to £165,190
(Es. 16,88,100 - Es. 16,51,900), £243 (Es. 2430) were remitted, and
£281 (Rs.2810) left outstanding.

In 1874-75 the rainfall was seasonable and plentiful. All over 1874-76.

the district the early harvest was about an average and in December
1874 the late crops were promising. The public health was good.
The tillage area fell from 1,658,080 to 1,650,015 acres and the
collections from£165,190 to £16 l-,456 (Rs. 16,51,900-Es. 16,44,560),
£121 (Es. 1210) were remitted, and £555 (Rs. 5550) left
outstanding.

In 1875-76 the rainfall was plentiful but unseasonable, heavy at 1875-76.

first and scanty in the latter part of the season. The early crops
were damaged by excessive rain, and in some places by floods, but
the outturn was not below the average. The late harvest was rather
below the average ov?ing to want of rain. Cholera prevailed during

[Bombay Gazetteer,

388

DISTRICTS.

Chapter VIII.
The Land-

Season Kefobts,

1876-77.

1877-78.

1878-79.

1879-80.

1880-81.

1881-8S.

part of the year, but public health on the whole was good. The
tillage area feU from 1,650,015 to 14!21,067 acres and the collections
from £164,456 to £155,794 (Rs. 16,44,560 - Rs. 15,57,940), £92
(Rs. 920) were remitted, and £414 (Rs. 4140) left outstanding.

In 1876-77 the rainfall besides being short was very ill-timed
and the season over the east of the district was one of famine.
The early crops suffered considerably and very little of the late
crops were sown. Cattle suffered greatly from the want of fodder.
Cholera was general and the mortality high. The tillage area fell
from 1,421,067 to 1,418,004 acres and the collections from £155,794
to £130,470 (Rs. 15,57,940 -Rs. 13,04,700), £288 (Rs.28S0) were
remitted, and £25,185 (Rs. 2,51,850) left outstanding.

In 1877-78 the rainfall was favourable and the season was good.
Cholera, fever, and small-pox prevailed. The tillage area fell from
1,418,004 to 1,415,242 acres. The collections rose from £130,470
to £151,551 (Rs. 13,04,700 -Rs. 15,15,510), £139 (Rs. 1390) were
remitted, and £5080 (Rs. 50,800) left outstanding.

In 1878-79 in October a very heavy fall of rain did much injury to
the early crops. Rats and locusts damaged the cold weather crops,
but the harvest was fair. A fatal form of fever prevailed during
the cold weather. The tillage area fell from 1,415,242 to 1,410,218
acres and the collections from £151,551 to £150,641 (Rs. 15,15,510-
Rs. 15,06,410), £116 (Rs. 1160) were remitted, and £5574 (Rs.
55,740) left outstanding.

In 1879-80 early in the season rats threatened to be troublesome,
but the heavy rains of July and August freed the district from the
pest. Both early and late crops were everywhere good and in parts
excellent. The season was healthy. The tillage area fell from
1,410,218 to 1,404,949 acres, and the collections rose from £150,641
to £152,006 (Rs. 15,06,410 -Rs. 1.5,20,060), £100 (Rs. 1000) were
remitted, and £3288 (Rs. 32,880) left outstanding.

In 1880-81 the short rainfall caused a want of water during the
hot months. But as the fall was singularly well-timed, the harvest,
especially the cold weather harvest, was one of the richest reaped
for years. The season was very healthy. The tillage area fell from
1,404,949 to 1,392,916 acres and the collections rose from £152,006
to £153,540 (Rs. 15,20,060 - Rs. 15,35,400), £57 (Rs. 570) were
remitted, and £1210 (Rs. 12,100) left outstanding.

In 1881-82 the rainfall was unequally distributed, being in some
places above and in others below the average. The July and August
falls were scanty, but most of the early crops were saved by good
September and October rain. The late crops were generally good.
Except in Tasgaon, Ehdnapur, part of Vdlva, and Khanddla, the
season was favourable. Cholera prevailed in all the subdivisions and
caused 1508 deaths, and guineaworm was common owing to the
inferior water-supply. The tillage area fell from 1,392,916 to
1,886,746 acres. The collections rose from £153,540 to £154,989
(Rs. ] 5,35,400 -Rs. 15,49,890). £178 (Rs. 1780) were- remitted, and
£192 (Rs. 1920) left outstanding.

Deccan.]

sAtAra.

389

In 1882-83 the season was on the whole favourable. Except in
Kardd, the rainfall was much above the average in all the subdivisions.
Partial damage was caused by excess of rain in some sub-divisions.
Locusts spread over a large portion of the district, but, except in hill
villages in Wdii and Jdvli, did no serious injury. The November
rains were very favourable to the late crops. Except that cholera
proved fatal in 993 cases, public health was on the whole good. The
tillage area fell from 1,386,746 to 1,384,254 acres. The collections
rose from £154,989 to £155,270 (Es.15,49,890 - Rs. 15,52,700), £230
(Rs. 2300) were remitted, and £58 (Rs. 580) left outstanding.

The following statement shows in tabular form the available yearly
statistics of tillage and land revenue during the twenty-six years
ending 1882-83 :

Sdtdra Tillage and Revenue,, 1857-1883.

Chapter^VIII.

The Laud.

Season Reports,
1882-83.

Tbae.

TlLLASB.

Land Revendb. 1

Remitted.

For
Collection.

Out-
standing.

Collected.

Aorea.

Bs.

Es.

1857-58

97,275

14,48,227

14,48,129

1858-69

33,835

16,27,991

16,27,937

18S3-60

40,762

15,50,285

16,50,247

1860-61

15,646

16,16,565

16,15,665

1861-62

28,061

17,07,929

1862-63

39,613

16,17,125

"270

16,16,8.56

1863-64

...

26,410

18,50,901

1713

18,49,188

1S64-65

580

17,42,968

2116

17,40,852

1865-66

...

652

17,22,510

117

17,22,393

1866-67

888

17,20,700

183

17,20,517

1867-68

1519

17,11,805

169

17,11,646

1868-69

478

17,04,670

2110

17,02,560

1869-70

1236

16,93,143

840

16,92,303

1870-71

488

16,86,282

604

16,86,678

1871-72

2863

16,91,307

24,946

16,66,362

1872-73

1,660,362

1966

16,90,062

1964

16,88,098

1873-74

1,868,080

2429

16,51,708

2806

16,51,902

1874-75

1,660,1116

1208

16,.90,)11

6550

16,44,661

1875-76

1,421,067

917

15,62,082

4141

16,57,941

1876-77

1,418,004

2880

15,66,-546

2,51,849

1-3,04,697

1877-78

1,415,242

1388

16,66,310

80,796

16,16,614

1878-79

1,410,218

1161

16,62,148

56,742

16,06,406

1879-80

1,404,949

1002

15,52,946

32,883

15,20,062

1880-81

1,39-2,916

666

16,47,493

12,096

16,36,397

1881-82

1,386,746

1777

16,61,808

1917

16,49,886

1882-83

1,384,264

2302

16,53,280

683

15,.52,697

[Bombay Gazetteer,

Chapter IX.

Jnstice-

Undee the
Peshwas,
1749-1818.

UlTDEE

PratApsinh,
1818-1839.

CHAPTER IX.

JUSTICE.

TJndee^ the PeslawAs (1749-1818), except in a few large cities
whioh had occasionally exclusive civil courts mostly deciding suits
referred by the Peshwds, there were no independent civil courts.
With little or no control from the central government the office of
civil judge was usually combined in the same office with that of
political chief, commander of troops, collector of revenue, and police
magistrate, and as his military, fiscal, or magisterial duties were
more pressing and perhaps more attractive than the hearing and
decision of suits, the judicial duties except under special interest
or favour were considered subordinate and received little attention.
Thus, as there were few independent civil courts in which the people
could seek redress as a matter of right, civil justice in rural parts
was chiefly administered among husbandmen by the village council
or panchdyat, among traders by the trade or caste guild or
vnahd^jan, and among the military classes by the military commander.
In cases in which the suitor was a poor trader and the party who
owed him redress a powerful chief, the suitor often resorted to
dharna or trdga to obtain justice, that is he stationed himself at the
door of the chief's house and often underwent severe privations.

On the establishment of the Rd,ja's government under Pratapsinh
in 1818, though the machinery was little changed, justice was better
administered. The chief or in his absence his brother and heir-
apparent alone were the- final court of appeal. Before he filed a
suit the complainant had to submit a written or verbal complaint to
the chief. The chief orally examined the complainant as to the
grounds of his complaint and the evidence he had to produce in
support of it, and sometimes sent for the defendant if at hand and
examined him in the same way. The dispute was thus often settled,
or the case dismissed as frivolous, without coming to a formal trial.
But in doubtful or intricate cases, or where no settlement could be
made, the chief gave leave to bring a suit by filing a detailed
petition in the court. The suit was then entered for trial in regular
course before one of the ordinary tribunals of the country, such as
the panehdyats, the courts of mamlatdars, or the Rdja's ffliato or
court where the Raja's brother presided and where the order to
any particular officer to try any particular case was registered.
This preliminary inquiry by the chief in person, though it showed

1 Early justice (1749 - 1849) is compiled from the Reports in 1851-62 of the Com-
missioner the late Sir Bartle Frere and of his judicial assistant Mr. Coxon.

Deccan]

Si.Ti.RA.

391

the old Mardtha principle tliat the admission to a court of justice
was a favour and not a right, led to the immediate satisfaction of
many just claims which would otherwise have been repudiated;
other claims were withdrawn or settled by the parties when they saw
the view taken of their case as stated by themselves to an unbiassed
judge ; while a regular trial was reserved for cases which from their
intricacy or the conflict of evidence required to be formally stated
and carefully sifted in a court of law before any decision could be
formed as to their merits.

In 1839, on the accession of Shd,ha or ippa SAheb the judicial
courts were remodelled under the advice of Colonel Ovans whose aim
it was to make all possible advance towards the system laid down in
Regulation IV. of 1827. Petty cases were left to the revenue and
magisterial officers. For the trial of more important causes regular
judges called amins and nydyddhishs were appointed on fixed salaries.
Provision was also made for a regular system of appeal to the chief
who exercised a general control over every branch of the judicial
administration. In the eleven subdivisions including Pandharpur and
Bijdpur besides the present district of Sdtdra except TAsgaon which
then formed part of A'ppa Sdheb's territory, sixteen civil courts, five
for amins and eleven for nydyddhishs were established. Of the
five amins' courts, with powers to decide suits of £30 (Rs. 300) and
upwards, three were held at Satdra, one at Kardd, and one at
Khdnapur. The S^tdra courts had jurisdiction over six sub-divi-
sions Jdvli, Khatd,v, Koregaon, Sdtara, TSrgaon, and Wd.i ; the
Karfid court over two sub-divisions Kardd and Vdlva; and the
Khanapur court over three sub-divisions Khdnapur Pandharpur
and Bijdpur. Bach of the eleven nydyddhishs' courts was held
at the head-quarters of each of the eleven sub-divisions, with
powers to decide suits of £2 10s. to £30 (Rs. 25-300). To dispose of
claims under £2 10s. (Rs. 25) the mdmlatddr in each sub-division
held a court of petty requests in which a petition was received and
the defendant called upon for his reply. If the defendant admitted
the claim, an order to pay was endorsed on the petition ; if he dis-
puted the debt, the case was reported to the chief who directed
that evidence to the claim should be recorded, or that the claim
as primd facie untenable should be thrown out without further
inquiry. In the disposal of these cases no powers of award were
vested in the mdmlatddrs who, after having taken the evidence on
both sides, referred their proceedings for final disposal to the husur
or head-quarter office. Suits of less than £1 (Rs. 10) were usually
referred by the mamlatddr to the shekhddr of the village group within
which the cause of action arose or the defendant dwelt. The shekhddr
investigated and reported the case to the mdmlatdar in the same
manner as did the mdmlatdar to the huzur. Independent of these
civil courts subject to revision by the chief, the six guaranteed
jdgirddrs of Bhor, Phaltan, Aundh, Jath, Daphlapur, and Akalkot,
held their own courts. Against the decrees of these jdgirddrs an
appeal lay to the Resident at the Rdja's, court. Besides these,
under grants or sanads received from Appa Sdheb or former
Governments, a number of smaller jdgirddrs and indmddrs held
petty tribunals, with powers to decide suits arising within the limits

Chapter IZ.
Justice.

Under Appa

SAheb,
1839 - 1848.

Civil Justice.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

392

DISTRICTS.

Chapter IX.
Justice.

Under Appa

Saheb,

1839-1848.

Civil Justice,

of a particular village group, town, or quarter of town to which the
grant referred.

During the reign of Appa Saheb (1839-1848) civil justice was
administered with extreme leniency. Compared with the system
given in the Regulation Code, the Rdja's system of administering
justice differed in seven chief points. Under the Regulation Code
no suit, however trifling, was tried -before any but the regular
judicial tribunals, and with the same formalities as suits of the
largest amount. Under the Rd,ja's system all small suits of less
than £2 10s. (Rs. 25) were tried by revenue and magisterial officers
styled mdmlatdars and shekhddrs. Appeals were tried by a judge
of appeal who went on circuit and sat in each subordinate court
from which the causes were appealed. Under the Raja's system
the parties to a suit were examined as chief witnesses and other
witnesses were not called till all that the parties could depose had
been ascertained. Under the Regulations, in disposing of conflicting
claims to property attached by any process of court, a separate action
at law became necessary to enable the party who held possession
before the property was attached to raise the attachment. Under
the Rdja's system when the process was opposed by another, the
mamlatdar, to whom the enforcement of the decree was entrusted,
had to make a summary inquiry into the nature of the lien brought
into competition with the decree, and report the result, to the chief,
awaiting further instructions as to proceeding or withdrawing.
This practice resembles that of a British Court of Equity without the
delays which in practice kttend a reference to a Master in Equity.
Under the Raja's system, when the insolvency of a trader was clear,
a petition from one creditor was generally enough to stop any proceed-
ings on behalf of another creditor against the same insolvent. The
insolvent's principal creditors were called together, and a committee
or panchdyat appointed, consisting of members on behalf of both
the insolvent and his creditors, with one or more appointed by
the court. The accounts of the insolvent were made over to the
committee who reported on his debts and assets and often wound up
the insolvent's affairs under the orders of the court. Under the
Rd,ja's system pcmchdyats were much more employed than in the
Regulated Provinces. In complicated cases they were employed
to ascertain the exact issues to be decided as well as to decide on
the issues themselves. Thus in an intricate mercantile case, a
reference to a panchdyat would often be made to ascertain the
precise points on which .the case hinged, which points might
be afterwards tried by the ordinary tribunal. When employed
to decide an issue, the proceedings of the panchdyat became a
part of the proceedings of the court. While the case was under
investigation before the panchdyat, it appeared in the returns as
one of those in arrears in the court whence it was referred, and when
the panchdyat gave in their award, it became the basis of the
final decree, and thus obtained all the force which would have
belonged to a decision of the court. In all cases of action to recover
balance of a running account or a bond debt, the practice of the
Ri.ja's court was much more like that of Bankruptcy Commissioners
than of civil courts under Regulation. Whatever might be the

Deccan.]

SATARA.

393

terms of a bond, the amount of value received was always strictly
inquired into, and the award limited to the amount so proved, with
legal interest which never exceeded twelve per cent a year, or cent
per cent when compound interest at twelve per cent would exceed
the principal. Moreover, when an award was given which the
party cast could not liquidate at once, but had the means of
paying by instalments, the instalments were fixed in the decree.
When a debtor's person or property was attached under a decree
one attachment was in ordinary cases held to be a sufficient satis-
faction, though in the event of the party against whom the attach-
ment issued subsequently acquiring property, the previous attach-
ment was not a sufficient answer to a fresh suit brought to obtain
payment of an unliquidated balance.

^ Bach of the eleven sub-divisions of the Satara territory under
Appa Saheb (1839-1848) was in charge of a mdmlatddr who super-
intended the collection of revenue and managed the police. Under
the mdmlatdar, each sub-division was divided into a number of
village groups or thdnds of about seventeen villages, each in charge
of a shekhddr. Subordinate to the shekhddr were village headmen
or pdtils. Under the headman or pdtil were his deputy or chaugula
and his assistants Mhdrs and Rdmoshis. In his police and revenue
duties the headman was aided by the village accountant or kulkarni
who kept accounts and wrote all reports, depositions, proceedings,
receipts for revenue, and generally all bonds and acknowledgments.
On receipt of a report from the headman of a crime having been
committed in a village, the shekhddr went to the spot, inspected
the scene of crime, and examined the witnesses and suspected
parties. When murder was suspected, the shekhddr held an inquest
on the corpse before allowing its obsequies to proceed. The
shekhddr had no power of deciding cases or of inflicting fine.
After making inquiries he sent a report to the mdmlatdar who
referred it to the huzur or head-quarter office.^ At the huzur a
police case sent for trial by the mamlatdar was received by the
favjddr munim, whose duty it was to prepare it for final hearing
and to call upon the mdmlatdar for any further evidence that he
might consider necessary, or that might have been overlooked by
the mdmlatdar. The duties of the faujddr munim were very
similar to those of a shirasteddr or head clerk in a magistrate's
office. He reported on all petitions from complainants and on
representations from the sub-divisional police on matters connected
with his particular department, prepared cases for hearing, saw that
the witnesses were in attendance, and brought on the trial. The
Raja was the sole judge of his own court. When sitting in judgment,
he was attended by the chief officers of his court, and the procedure
was similar to that of a magistrate's office. It differed from that
of a sessions court, in no evidence being taken and recorded anew
from the mouths of the witnesses. Under Appa Saheb the chief

Chapter IX.

Justice-

Under

Appa SAhbb,

1839-1848.

Civil Justice.

Criminal
Juttice,

' The office of shekhddr has now given way to . that oi mahdlkari who wag first
employed in the Konkan with the status of a deputy-mAmlatdAr, and the system
having worked well, was extended first to Poona and then to other distriets.

B 1282—50

[Bombay Gazetteer,

894

DISTRICTS.

Chapter IX.
Justice.

British,

1849.

Civil Justice.

features of criminal justice were tliat capital punishment, torture,
mutilation, and such punishment as deprived the offender of his
caste were avoided ; where compensation was offered by the offender,
punishment was much lessened ; and corporal punishment and
public disgrace were freely used. There was no written code of
laws, and the only guides were equity, expediency, and the usage
of the country and of the caste.

In 1849, when the territories of Sdtara were annexed by the
British Government, the judicial staff was reorganized. For the
courts of the five amins and eleven nydyddhishs maintained by
Appa Sdheb at a monthly cost of £49 16s. (Rs. 498), eleven civil
courts, one of principal sadar amin, one of sadar amin, five of
munsifs, and four of nydyddhishs were substituted at an increased
monthly cost of £185 (Rs. 1860). The principal sadar amin,
-drawing a monthly salary of £50 (Rs. 500), held his court at SatAra
with jurisdiction over the sub-divisions of Sat^ra and Javli. He
had powers to try suits to any amount and, if necessary, appeals up
to £10 (Rs. 100). Under the principal sadar amin a nydyddhish,
drawing a monthly salary of £5 (Rs. 50), held his court at Javli and
tried such suits under £10 (Rs. 100) from the Javli sub-division as
the principal sadar amin referred to him. The sadar amin, drawing
a monthly salary of £35 (Rs. 850), held his court at Karad for
the disposal of suits from the Karad, Targaon, and Valva sub-
divisions. His jurisdiction extended to suits of value not greater
than £1000 (Rs. 10,000). Under the sadar amin two nydyddhishs,
one for Tdrgaon and the other for Valva, were employed, each on
a monthly salary of £5 (Rs. 50) and with powers to try suits under
£10 (Rs. 100). The munsifs of Pandharpur, Wai, Koregaon, and
Khandpur, each of whom received a monthly salary of £20 (Rs. 200),
were invested with first class powers and the munsifs of Bijd,pur and
Khatdv, each of whom received a monthly salary of £10 (Rs. 100),
were invested with second class powers only. The munsifs had
powers to try suits up to £500 (Rs. 5000), the suits of greater
value being referred to the principal sadar amin. The munsif for
Wdi and Koregaon was assisted by a nydyddhish at Koregaon on a
monthly salary of £5 (Rs. 50). The law administered was that of
the Regulations in a modified form, all interpretations and circular
orders of the sadar addlat being sent to the Commissioner as to a
District Judge. The powers and responsibilities of the first assistant
were those of a District Judge, and his salary was not lower than
that of a senior assistant judge for a detached station. The appellate
powers which had formerly resided in the sadar addlat were trans-
ferred to the Commissioner but he was allowed to use his discre-
tion in submitting for the judgment of the addlat cases of a
peculiarly difficult nature. The jdgirddrs' courts both those of the
greater feudatories and those of inferior jdgirddrs, possessing
judicial powers within their own estates, remained as in Appa
Saheb's time. The Commissioner in regard to these was invested
with authority to hear appeals from decisions of the jdgirddrs' courts
or to refer them to his judicial assistant for trial ; in the latter case
he was empowered to review the decision of his assistant. All
suits regarding possession of land and hereditary offices were, as in
the Regulation Provinces, cognizable by the revenue courts.

Deccau.l

SATARA.

395

Among the reforms introduced at the time of the annexation was
the substitution of stamp duties for the gunhegdri or fiues that had
formerly been levied from unsuccessful suitors. lu the EAja's
time when the defendant appeared in. court the nature of the claim
was stated to him, and he was required to give in a written answer.
If this contained an admission of the claim, the court passed decree
in favour of the plaintiff. If however the claim was disputed, both
parties were required, before proceeding further with the suit, to
furnish security for what was called hwrku gunhegdri, that is a fine
OD the loss of a suit.i This in native states represented the stamp
duties paid in British districts. In the Satara Raja's courts, the
gunhegdri amounted to ten per cent of the whole value in suits up
to £1000 (Rs. 10,000), eight per cent in .suits for amounts ranging
from £1000 to £2000 (Rs. 10,000-Rs. 20,000), and five per cent in
suits for more than £2000 (Rs. 20,000). As in Regulation courts
this charge was levied after judgment, where costs were awarded
from the party cast in the suit. As the gunhegdri system was very
complicated and troublesome, Appa Sdheb partially introduced
stamps by requiring that all plaints, besides a variety of other
documents, should be prepared on stamped paper. When the state
came under British rule gunhegdri was at once replaced by the
ordinary stamp duties.

After the annexation in ISidj tlie faujddr munini or one of his
clerks submitted all criminal cases sent by the m^mlatddr to the
third assistant to the Commissioner who had powers similar to those
of an assistant magistrate. The third assistant having examined
all the witnesses produced by the sub-divisional police officers ordi-
narily decided the case and forwarded his proceedings to the
Commissioner. If however he found that the case was beyond his
jurisdiction or that the offence was deserving of a severer punish-
ment than he was competent to inflict, he simply recorded the
evidence and sent the accused to the Commissioner for trial, for-
warding at the same time to that officer the record of the evidence
taken by him.

On the 4th of October 18.54, instead of the Commissioner Mr.
Rose was appointed as Collector of Sdtdra and was invested with
all the powers political and judicial which had formerly resided in
the Commissioner. In criminal matters the powers of the Collec-
tor's judicial assistant were coextensive with those of a Sessions
Judge.

On the 15th of April 1S63 the district was brought under the
general regulations.

In 1870 the number of civil courts was ten,, the number of suits dis-
posed of was 13,899, and the average duration was 132 days. In 1875
the number of courts was the same as in 1870, the number of suits
disposed of fell to 11,448, and the average duration rose to 149 days.
In 1880 the number of courts rose to thirteen, the number of suits
disposed of fell to 4360, and the average duration rose to 182 days.
At present (1883) the district has a District Judge and eleven sub-

Chapter IX.

Justice.

British,

1849.

Civil Justiile.

Criminal
Justice^

1854.

1863.

Civil Cotjets.
1870 - 1883.

1 Of Jmrhu gunhegdri, hurhu means a share of damage gained from hurku to wia
and gunhegdri means a fine.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

396

DISTRICTS.

Chapter IX.

Justice-

Civil Courts,
1870-1883.

Civil Suits,
1870-1882.

judges. Of the eleven sub-judges one has powers of the first class
and the rest exercise powers of the second class. In general a sub-
judge is appointed for each sub-division, but the two small sub-
divisions of W^i and Jdvli have been united under one sub-judge,
and in Sdtdra the most important of the sub-divisions it has been
found necessary to appoint two of these ofi&cers. Of the two sub-
judges at Satara one, a first class sub-judge, has special jurisdiction
above £500 (Rs. 5000) over the whole district and ordinary jurisdic-
tion over the Satara sub-division ; and the other, a joint second
class sub-judge, has ordinary jurisdiction over the Sdtdra sub-
division. Of the remaining nine second class sub-judges the Wai
and Medha sub-judge has jurisdiction over W4i and Jdvli, the
Rahimatpur sub-judge over Koregaon, the Pdtan sub-judge over
Pd,tan, the KarM sub-judge over Karad, the Ashta sub-judge over
Valva, the Dahivadi sub-judge over Md,n, the Khat^v sub-judge
over Khatav, the Vita sub-judge over Kh^ndpur, and the T^sgaon
sub-judge over Tdsgaon. The average distance of the'S^tdra court
from its furthest six villages is eighty miles as respects its special
jurisdiction and fourteen miles as respects ordinary jurisdiction,
of the Wdi and Medha court twenty-two miles from 'Wai for Wdi
and eighteen miles from Medha for Javli, 6f the Rahimatpur court
twenty-seven miles, of the Patau court fifteen miles, of the Kard,d
court fourteen miles, of the Ashta court sixty miles, of the Dahivadi
court twenty- two miles, of the Khatav and Vita _ courts each
eighteen miles, and of the Tasgaon court twenty-one miles.

During the thirteen years ending 1882 the yearly number of suits
decided varied from 13,899 in 1870 to 3660 in 1881 and averaged
9934. Of the thirteen years, during the seven years ending 1876
the suits varied from 13,899 in 1870 to 11,448 in 1875 and averag-
ed 12,937; during the three years ending 1879 the suits fell by
about thirty per cent, varying from 9094 in 1877 to 8289 in
1878 and averaging 8695 ; and during the next three years end-
ing 1882, owing to the introduction of conciliators and village
munsifs under the Deccan Agriculturists' Relief Act in 1879 the
suits further fell by about fifty per cent, varying from 4478 in 1882
to 3660 in 1881 and averaging 4166. Of the total number of suits
decided, sixty-seven per cent have on an average been given against
the defendant in his absence. During the ten years ending 1879
this percentage shows no marked change, varying from 75'4 in 1870
to 66*4 in 1878 ; after 1879, owing to the introduction oi" conciliators
and village munsifs under Act XVII. of 1879 the percentage fell
to 29-2 in 1880, to 8-9 in 1881, and to 6-7 in 1882. The details are :
Sdtdra Ex-parte Decrees, 1870-188&.

Year.

Suits.

Dedded
Exparte.

Percent-
age.

Tear.

Suits.

Decided
Exparte.

Percent-
age.

1870
1871
1872
1873
1874
1875
1870
1877

13,899
13,280
13,024
13,802
12,674
11,448
12,484
9094

10,480
10,004
9708
10,430
9241
8117
9180
6560

75-4
76-3
74-5
75-4
72-9
70-9
73-6
72-1

1878
1879,
1880
1881
1882

Average...

8289
8703
4360
3660

4478

5510

6016

1274

327

302

66-4

69-1

8-9

6-7

9934

6702

67-4

Deccan.]

sAtIra.

397

Of contested cases, during this period of thirteen years an average
of 16-62 per cent have been decided for the defendant, the percentage
varying from 1479 in 1879 to 19-95 in 1 880. In 433 or 9-66 per cent
of the suits decided in 1882 the decree was executed by putting the
plaintiff in possession of the immovable property claimed. The
number of this class of cases varied from 311 out of 4360 in 1880
to 540 out of 12,674 in 1874. In 867 or 19-36 per cent of the 1882
decisions, decrees for money due were executed by the attachment
or sale of property, 690 or 15-40 per cent being for immovable property
and 177 or 3-96 per cent for movable property. The number of
attachments or sales of immovable property varied from 650 in
1881 to 9366 in 1873, and of movable property from 177 in 1882
to 2272 in 1879. During the thirteen years 'ending 1882 the
number of decrees executed by the arrest of debtors varied from
seventy-four in 1881 to 616 in 1874. During the five years ending
1874 this number varied from 436 in 1871 to 616 in 1874; during
the next five years ending 1879 the number fell, varying from 169
in 1877 to 391 in 1875 ; and during the three years ending 1882
the number further fell, varying from 107 in 1880 to seventy-four
in 1881. The following table shows that during the same thirteen
years (1870-1882) the number of civil prisoners varied from twenty-
five in 1881 to 267 in 1874 :

Sdtdra Civil Prisoners, 1870 ■

188$.

Release.

Year.

Prison-
ers,

Days.

Satisfying

Creditors'

No Sub-

Disclo-
sure of
Property.

Time

Decrees.

Jiequest.

sistence.

Expired.
4

1870

212

136

1871

183

109

1872

227

134

1873

260

167

1874

267

160

1875

210

130

1876

191

ia5

1877

111

1878

1879

1880

1881

1882

The following statement shows in tabular form the working of
the district civil courts during the thirteen years ending 1882 :
Sdtdra Civil Courts, 1870-188S.

Uncontested

Tear.

Suits.

AVEKAQE

Value
in£.

Decreed
Exparte.

Dismissed
Exparte.

Decreed
on Con-
fession,

Otiierwise

Total.

1870

13,899

7-25

10,256

224

806

97.5

12,281

1871

13,280

7-79

9796

208

764

811

11,679

1872

13,024

8-36

9544

164

762

820

11,280

1873

13,802

10-13

9894

636

688

926

12,044

1874

12,674

9-02

8745

496

6'i4

1308

11,071

1875

11,448

V-88

73.i0

767

431

1300

9848

1876

12,434

7-26

8260

900

469

1016

10,845

1877

9094

8-62

6931

629

495

614

7669

1878

8289

10-64

4872

638

613

747

6770

1879

8703

10-61

6002

1013

448

794

7257

1880

4360

11-73

1033

241

690

1268

3122

1881

3660

16-52

277

664

1332

2323

1882 ...

4478

14-88

211

564

1386

2242

Chapter IX.

Justice,

CrviL StriTS,
1870-1882.

398

[Bombay Gazetteer,

DISTRICTS.

Chapter IX.

Justice.

Civil Suits,
1870-1882.

Sdtdra Civil Courts, 1870-1882 — continued.

Arbitration

COCETS.

Reqistkation.

YiAr.

CONTHSTJBD.

EXECDTIOS.

For
PJaintiEf.

For De-
fendant.

Mixed.

Total.

Arrest

of
Debtors.

Possession
of Im-
movable

Property.

Attachment or
Sale of Property.

Immov-
able.

Mov-
able.

1870 ...
1371 ...

1872

1873 ...

1874 ... :;

1876 ...

1877

1878 ...

1879 ...

1880 ...

1881

1882 ...

1251
12^5
12S8
1320
U45
1145
1324
1025
1095
1069
782
809
1129

269
293
305
296
280
299
274
232
233
214
247
220
338

118
163
151
143
178
156
191
168
191
173
209
308
769

1638
1701
1744
1758
1603
1600
1789
1425
1619
1446
li38
1337
2236

651
436
461
629
616
391
814
169
389
260
107
74
89

380
368
366
447
640
435
419
409
369
496
311
369
433

44S5
4081
4727
9366
8384
8705
6593
4377
4467
2967
2368
660
690

778

662

710

1625

1640

isa4

985
496
1685
2272
1119
195
177

On the 13th of August 1877 an arbitration court was established
at Waij which up to 1883 decided 264 cases or an average of forty-
four a year. This court charges a fee of one per cent on suits for
less than £100 (Rs. 1000), of \ per cent on suits for sums between
£100 and £200 (Es. 1000 -Rs. 2000), of ^ per cent on suits for sums
between £2Q0 and £1000 (Rs. 2000 - Rs. 10,000), and of i per cent
on suits for more than £1000 (Rs. 10,000). At first this court found
considerable favour with the people; but since 1879, owing to
the introduction of the conciliation system under the Deccan
Agriculturists Relief Act it is not much resorted to.

Registration has two branches, one under Act III. of 1877 and the
other styled village registration under the Deccan Agriculturists'
Relief Act (Act XVII. of 1879). Ordinary registration under Act
III. of 1877 employs eleven special or full-time sub-registrars,
one being stationed at each subdivisional head-quarters. According
to the registration report for 1882-83 the gross receipts for that
year under Act III. of 1877 amounted to £402 (Rs. 4020) and the
charges to £635 (Rs. 6350), thus showing a deficit of £233
(Rs. 2330). Of 1486, the total number of registrations, 1300 related
to immovable property, 149 to movable property, and 37 were
wills. Of 1300 documents relating to immovable property 380
were mortgage deeds, 725 deeds of sale, twenty-nine deeds of gift,
128 leases, and thirty-eight miscellaneous deeds. Including £35,634
(Rs. 3,56,340) the value of immovable property transferred, the
total value of property affected by registration under Act III. of
1877 amounted to £39,517 (Rs.3,95,170). Under ActXVII. of 1879,
village registration employs fifty-nine village registrars, all of
whom are special or full-time officers. In every case a sub-registrar
of assurances under Act III. of 1877 is ex-officio a village registrar,
and has within the limits of his charge as sub-registrar, a jurisdiction
similar to that of other village registrars; he issues registration books
10 the village registrars of his circle, and embodies in one general
form the monthly accounts of the village registrars. In 1882-83
the gross registration receipts under ActXVII. of 1879 amounted to
£1072 (Rs. 10,720) and the charges to £1510 (Rs. 15,100), thus
leaving a deficit of £438 (Rs. 4380). Of 36,383, the total number

Deccan.]

sItIea.

399

of registrations, 23,922 related to immovable property and 12,461 Chapter IX.

to movable property. Of 28,922 documents relating to immovable Justice.

property, 11,808 were mortgage deeds, 3347 deeds of sale, eighty-six Rkqistkation.

(deeds of gift, 7806 leases, and 875 miscellaneous deeds. Including

£190,680 (Rs. 19,06,800) the value of immovable property

transferred, the total value of property affected by registration

under Act XVII. of 1879 amounted to £270,330 (Rs. 27,03,300).

Owing to the introduction of village registration under Act XVII.

of 1879, registration under Act III. of 1877 has considerably fallen.

Compared with the figures of 1 879, the year previous to the working

of Act XVII. of 1879, the 1882 registration figures under Act III.

of 1877 show a fall of 6462 in registered documents, of £1433

(Rs. 14,.330) in fees received, and of £153,879 (Rs. 15,38,790) in

the value of property affected by registration. Under Act XVII. of

1879 a special officer styled the inspector of village registry

offices examines the village registry offices. Over both branches

of registration, in addition to supervision by the Collector as

District Registrar, a special scrutiny under the control of the

Inspector General of Registration and Stamps is carried ou by the

divisional inspector.

During the calendar year 1883, seventy-seven village registrars
appointed under the Deccan Agriculturists' Relief Act of 1879
registered 20,331 documents ; fifty-nine conciliators, disposed of
18,198 applications and under sections 44 and 45 of the Act
forwarded 3020 agreements to courts ; twenty-one village munsifs
decided 276 cases; and under chapter II of the Act eleven
sub-judges decided 1648 cases.

At present (1883) thirty-nine officers share the administration of Magistracy.
criminal justice. Of these six, including the District Magistrate,
are magistrates of the first class and thirty-three are magistrates
of the second and third classes. Of the magistrates of the first
class three are covenanted civilians and three called deputy collectors
are uncovenanted civil officers. The District Magistrate has a
general supervision of the whole district, and, except the huzur
deputy collector who has charge of the city and station of Sditd,ra,
each of the other four first class magistrates has an average charge
of 1247 square miles and 265,480 people. In 1883 the District
Magistrate decided no original cases but only three appeals, and the
other five first class magistrates decided 360 original cases. Besides
these, three of the first class magistrates, who are invested with
appellate powers, decided seventy-three appeals against the
decisions of the second and third class magistrates. Two of these
magistrates have also divisional magistrates" powers. Of the thirty-
three second and third class magistrates four are • Europeans and
twenty-nine Natives. Of these Native magistrates four are honorary
magistrates who decided 132 cases, eleven as head-clerks to
mdmlatdars have no separate charges, and the remaining fourteen,
eleven mdmlatddrs and three mahalkaris, have each an average
charge of 356 square miles and 75,851 people. In 1883 these
magistrates decided 2305 original criminal cases. Besides their
mao-isterial duties these magistrates exercise revenue powers as
mdmlatddrs, mahalkaris, and head-clerks of mdmlatddrs. Besides

[Bombay Gazetteer,

400

DISTEICTS.

Chapter IX.
Justice-

ViLLAOE Police.

Criminal

Classes.

Police,
1882.

these^ of 1356 village headmen who have petty magisterial powers
seven under section 15 of the Bombay Village Police Act (Act VIII.
of 1867) can in certain cases fine up to 10s. (Rs. 5); the others,
under section 14^ cannot fine and can imprison for only twenty-
four hours.

There is no regular village police; the revenue headman or pdtil
as a rule performs the duties of a police headman. His ofiice is
generally hereditary and his pay is in proportion to the land revenue
of the village under his charge. The headman is assisted by
watchmen who are paid either in land or both in land and cash.
Besides by Government, watchmen are paid by the people in grain
as baluta, and travellers also pay them certain fees for watching
their property at night. Of. 1344 village watchmen 1138' are
Rakhvaldars in all the sub -divisions, 157 Sanadis in Tdsgaon, forty-
one Shetsandis in Vdlva, and eight Mangs in Jdvli and Khdndpur.
Satdra has no Mhdr or Jaglia watchmen. The police headman is
directly under the District Magistrate, and his nomination and
dismissal rest with the Divisional Commissioner.

The chief classes given to thieving are Rdmoshis and Mangs who
are found in large numbers in the district. Formerly under the
Mardtha and Peshwa Government when every Maratha was a
freebooter, Ramoshis and Md,ngs were generally in charge of the
hill-forts and their depredations were winked at. Latterly under the
Udja's rule (1818 - 1S49), to put a stop to their midnight maraudings
the able-bodied men among Rdmoshis and Md;ngs were made to sleep
every night at the village office or chdvdi. Under British rule from
1849, instead of making them sleep at night at the village office,
Edmoshis and Mdngs have been mustered thrice every night, allow-
ing all except those who have been convicted, to rest at home.

In the year 1882 the total strength of the district or regular
police force was 953. Of these, under the District Superintendent,
two were subordinate officers, 175 inferior subordinate officers,
and eighteen mounted and 758 foot constables. The cost of
maintaining this force was for the Superintendent a total yearly salary
of £904 14s. (Rs. 9047) ; for the subordinate officers on yearly salaries
of not less than £120 (Rs. 1200), and the inferior subordinate
officers on yearly salaries of less than £120 (Rs. 1200), a total
■yearly cost of £4328 1 2s. (Rs. 43,286 ), and for the foot and mounted
constables a cost of £7400 10s. (Rs. 74,005). Besides their pay a
total sum of £270 (Rs. 2700) was yearly allowed for the horse and
travelling allowances of the Superintendent ; £443 (Rs. 4430)
for the pay and travelling allowance of his establishment ; £21 7 14s.
(Rs. 2177) for the horse and travelling allowances of subordinate
officers ; and £1 556 6s. (Rs. 15,563) a year for contingencies and petty
charges. Thus the total yearly cost of maintaining the police force
amounted to £16,120 16s. (Rs. 1,51,208). For an area of 4792 square
miles and a population of 1,062,350 these figures give one constable
for every 5'02 square miles and 1113 people, and a cost of
£3 3s. (Rs. 31-I) to the square mile or 3-|d (2^ as.) to each head of
the population. Of the total strength of 953 exclusive of the
Superintendent, twenty-nine, three officers and twenty-six men,
were in 1882 employed as guards at district, central, or subsidiary

Deccan.]

sAtara.

401

jails ; seventy-six, twelve of them officers and sixty-four men were
engaged as guards over treasuries and lock-ups, or as escorts to
prisoners and treasure; 752, 143 of them officers and 609 men,
were employed on other duties in the district ; and ninety-six men
were stationed in towns, municipalities, and cantonments. Of the
whole number, exclusive of the Superintendent, 597 were provided
with firearms and 382 with swords or with swords and batons j and
twenty-four were provided with batons only ; 308 of whom 107
were officers and 201 men, could read and write ; and 1 27 of whom
thirty were officers and ninety-seven men, were under instruction.

Except the Superintendent who was a European, the members of
the police force were all natives of India. Of these fifty-four
officers and 185 men were Muhammadans, ten officers and twelve
men Brdhmans, nine officers and thirteen men Rajputs, one man
a Prabhu, 101 officers and 523 men Mardthds, two officers and three
men Jains and Lingd.yats, thirty-five men Hindus of other castes,
one officer and three men Pdrsis and Jews, and one officer and one
man Christians.

The returns for the nine years ending 1882 show a total of 162
murders and attempts to murder, twenty-eight culpable homicides,.
219 cases of grievous hurt, 355 gang and other robberies, and 41,229
other offences. During these nine years the total number of
ofEences gave a yearly average of 4666 or one offence for every 228
of the population. The returns show that during the famine year
of 1877 the total number of offences was large, being 5912 or
about twenty-five per cent more than the average. The number
of murders varied from thirteen in 1879 to twenty-six in 1882
and averaged eighteen ; culpable homicides varied from one
in three years to eight in 1878 and averaged three ; cases of
grievous hurt varied from thirteen in 1878 to thirty-five in 1874
and averaged twenty-four ; gang and other robberies varied from
sixteen in 1875 to sixty-five in 1877 and averaged thirty-nine; and
other offences varied from 3586 in 1874 to 6025 in 1880 and
averaged 4581. Of the whole number of persons arrested the
convictions varied from thirty-six per cent in 1874 to sixty per
cent in 1877 and averaged forty-eight per cent. The percentage of
stolen property recovered varied from twenty- five in 1879 to seventy-
one in 1881 and averaged forty-three. The details are :
SdMra Crime and Polke, 1874- 188^.

Ykar.

Ofpenoes and Cohvictions. (

Murder and Attempts
to Murder.

Culpable Homicides. |

Grievous Hurts. 1

Dacoities and
Bobberies.

19
17
15
21
14
13
16
21
26

162

■^

1
o

36
29
34
23
13
20
21
14
30

89
71
71
37
39
82
30
22
42

88
60
46
22
31
16
20
11
10

21
16
30
66
47
67
61
37
81

■5

44
25
6o

218
86

206
62
20
12

24
11
18

115
18

166

1874

1875

1876

1877

1878

1879

1880

1881

1882

Total ..

67
34
44
42
26
21
16
29
16

285

21
30
26
12
24
17
12
19
9

37
88
69
28
92
80
75
65
56

1
1
5
3
8
4
1
3
2

1
1
5
3
12
10
2
6
2

2
3

6
4
2
1

100

"40

lOO
60
40

100
16

lOO

42
70
63
69
79
60
66
60
23

64
44
27
52
20
76
68
65
25

170

219

483

243

366

787

892

Chapter IX

Justice.

Police,
1882,

OrFENCES,

1874-1882.

B 1282-51

[Bombay Gazetteer;

402

DISTRICTS.

Chapter IX,

Justice-

Offbnces,
1874-1882.

Jails.

Sdtdra Crime and Police, lli74-lS8S.

TlUR.

OrPKNOEs AND C0SV1CTI0S&— continued.

Other Offences.

Total.

Property.

- <£

Stolen.

Reco-
vered.

Percent"
age.

■5

■§

1874

S586

6772

2075

3662

6963

2169

£
5429

2864

1875

S612

5990

2167

3676

6521

2268

4684

1852

' 40

1876

S980

6726

2368

4064

6910

2459

9937

4177

1877

5800

8461

6092

5912

8761

5244

9659

4133

1878

4278

7224

3608

4360

7387

3682

6767

3040

1879

4713

6224

31:91

4807

6492

3484

12,669

3170

1880

6025

5979

2983

6H4

60S9

8103

6141

2884

1881

4400

3462

J823

4475

3539

1865

2394

1702

!S82

Total ..

4836

4036

1812

4924

4107

1836

. 4011

2806

41,229 '62,272

26,217

41,993

63,769

26,090

60,491

26,177

Besides the lock-up at each m^mlatdd,r's oflBce there is a district
jail at Sdtdra and three subordinate jails one each at Kar^d, Khat^Vj
and Tdsgaon. The number of convicts in the Satara jail on the
31st of December 1882 was eighty-four of whom sixty were males
and twenty-four females. During the year 1883, 297 convicts of
whom 250 were males and forty-seven females, were admitted, and
311, of whom 258 were males and fifty-three females, were
discharged. During the year the daily average of prisoners was
seventy-eight and at the close of the year the number of convicts
•was seventy-seven of whom fifty-nine were males and eighteen
females. Of the 297 convicts admitted during the year 217 males
and thirty-eight females were sentenced for not more than one year,
twelve males and three females were for over one year and not
more than two years ; seven males and three females were for more
than two years and not more than five years ; and seven males and
two females were under sentence of transportation and seven males
and one female were sentenced to death. The total yearly cost of diet
was £134 2s. (Rs. 1341) or an average of £1 12s. M. (Rs. 16|) to
each prisoner.

Deccan.]

CHAPTER X.

F I NANCE.

The earliest balance-sheet of the district as at present constituted
is for 1875-76.1 Exclusive of £75,917 (Rs. 7,59,170) the adjust-
ment on account of alienated lands, the total transactions entered in
the district balance-sheet for 1 882-83 amounted under receipts to
£337,172 (Rs. 33,71,720) against £298,568 (Rs. 29,85,680) in
1875-76, and under charges to £323,092 (Rs. 32,30,920) against
£293,754! (Rs. 29,37,540). Leaving aside departmental miscel-
laneous receipts and payments in return for services rendered, such
as post and telegraph receipts, the revenue for 1882-83 under all
heads. Imperial, provincial, local, and municipal, came to £227,403
(Rs. 22,74,030),2 or on a population of 1,062,350, an individual share
of 4s. 3d. (Rs. 2^). During the last eight years the following
changes have taken place under the chief heads of receipts and
charges.

Land revenue receipts which form 72*59 per cent of the entire
district revenue, have fallen from £156,468 (Rs. 15,64,680) to
£154,790 (Rs. 15,47,900), and charges from £32,529 (Rs. 3,25,290) to
£27,197 (Rs. 2,71,970). The decrease both in receipts and charges
in 1882-83 is chiefly due to the transfer of Mdlsiras to Sholdpur,
whose collections and charges from 1st April to 25th July 1875
stand included in those for 1875-76; the decrease in charges is also
partly due to the transfer to the police head in 1882-83 of the
charges on account of the village officers performing police duties.'

Stamp receipts have fallen from £22,291 (Rs. 2,22,910) to £12,394
(Rs. 1,23,940) and charges from £683 (Rs. 6830) to £391 (Rs. 3910).

In 1882-83 the excise revenue amounted to £6882 (Rs. 68,820) and
charges to £864 (Rs. 8640) . Of 108 shops eighteen are licensed to sell
Europe liquor, fifty-six to sell country spirit and thirty-four to sell
intoxicating drugs. In 1882-83 of the eighteen shops licensed to
sell Europe liquor one paid a yearly fee of £10 (Rs. 100), thirteen
of £5 (Rs. 50) each, and each of the other four shops temporarily
opened at fairs paid a daily fee of 2s. (Re. 1). In 1882-83 the
revenue from this source amounted to £76 14s. (Rs. 767). The
yearly import of Europe and other foreign liquor averages 1077
gallons, of which about 855 gallons are locally used. At the SAtara
central distillery built in 1878 at a cost of £2365 12s. (Rs. 23,656)
the farmer under Government supervision makes spirit from
mahuda or flowers of the Bassia latifolia and supplies it to all
district shops. The mahuda flowers are brought from Gujarat and

Chapter Z.
Finance.

Land Revenue.

Stamps.

EXCISB.

' The last territorial change was the transfer of MAlsiras to Sholdpur in August
1875.,

2 This total includes the following items : £172,971 land revenue, excise, assessed
taxes, and forest ; £14,237 stamps, justice, and registration ; £904 education and
police ; £39,291 local and municipal funds ; total £227,403.

' The land revenue collected in each of thetwenty years ending the Slst March
1882, is given abpve under The L9>nd.

[Bomliay Gazetteer,

404

DISTRICTS.

Chapter X.
Finance.

Excise.

Law and Justice.

FoKKsr.

A.ssESSEi> Taxes.

Post.

Telegraph.

REaiSTKAHON.

Central India. In 1882-83 from the central distillery 16,440 gallons
of spirit of 25° under proof, that is under London proof, were sold,
paying a still-head duty of 5s. (Rs. 2^) a gallon.^ The highest sell-
ing price was 9s. (Rs. 4|) a gallon. The revenue from toddy is com-
paratively small. Of the thirty-four shops licensed to sell intoxicat-
ing drugs twenty -nine were for bhdng and gdnja or drinking and
smoking hemp ; four for mdjum, that is bhdng with sugar and spices
formed into cakes ; and one for pendka, that is spices mixed with
bhdng BbTid boiled in clarified butter. In 1882-83 the revenue from
this source amounted to £249 (Rs. 2490). To prevent smuggling
the excise management of the five Satdra states, Bhor, Phaltan,
Aundh, Jath, and Daphldpur, has been placed in the hands of the
Collector, the chiefs receiving yearly compensation at fixed rates.
The excise management of these states is conducted on exactly the
same principles as that of the district.

Law and Justice receipts, chiefly fines, have fallen from £1382
{Rs. 13,820) to £1034 (Rs. 10,340), and the charges have risen from
£19,889 (Rs. 1,98,890) to £20,647 (Rs. 2,06,470). The increase in
charges is due to the additional staff sanctioned for the service of
judicial processes in subordinate courts.

Forest receipts have risen from £3897 (Rs. 38,970) to £5756
(Rs. 57,560) and charges from £1825 (Rs. 18,250) to £5246 (Rs. 52,460).
The increase in charges is due to the increased cost of establishment
and to payment of compensation for lands taken for forests.

The following table shows, exclusive of the recoveries from official
salaries, the amounts realized from assessed taxes levied from
1860-61 to 1882-83. Owing to the variety of rates and incidence it
is diflBoult to make any satisfactory comparison of the results :
Sdtdra Assessed Taxes, 1860-61- 188S-8S.

YEiR.

Amount.

Year.

Amount.

Year.

Amount.

jTicmne Tax.

Income Tax—

License Tax.

1860-61

18,234

continued.

1878-79

11,302

1861-62

19,618

1867-68

1883

1879-80

11,129

1862-63

11,030

18,68-69

1104

1880^81

646&

1863-64

7642

1869-70

4704

1881-82

6032

1864-65

1!90

I870-T1

8606

1882-88.

4702

) 865-66

1199,

1871-72

3413

1866-67

3296

1872-73

2096

Post receipts have risen from £3734 (Rs. 37,340) to £7398
fRs. 73,980), and charges from £7394 (Rs. 73,940) to £28,327
(Rs. 2,83,270). The increase both in receipts and charges is chiefly
due to the transfer of the money order business to the postal
department.

Telegraph receipts have risen from £306 (Rs. 3060) to £779
(Rs. 7790) and charges from £412 (Rs.4120) to £645 (Rs. 6450).

Registration receipts have fallen from £4426 (Rs. 44,260) to £809
(Rs. 8090), and charges have risen from £1185 (Rs. 11,850) to £1548

1 The alcoholic strength of liquor is denoted by degrees over or under the standard
of London proof which is taken at 100 degrees. Thus 25° U. P., that is under proof,
is equivalent to 75 degrees of strength ; 60° U. P. is equivalent to 40 degrees of
strength ; and 25° 0. P. or over proof, is el[uivalent to 125 degrees of strength.

Deccan.]

sAtIra.

405

(Es. 15,480). Before the 1st of April 1871, the registration receipts
and charges were shown under law and justice.

Police receipts have risen from £69 (Rs. 690) to £466 (Rs. 4660)
ana charges from £15,433 (Rs. 1,54,330) to £17,556 (Rs. 1,75,560).

Education receipts have risen from £399 (Rs. 8990) to £438
(Rs. 4380), and charges from £1843 (Rs. 13,480) to £1910 (Rs. 19,100).

Transfer receiptshave risen from £92,826 (Rs. 9,28,260) to £123,945
(Rs. 12,89,450) and owing to a fall in cash remittances charges
have fallen from £86,603 (Rs. 8,66,080) to £65,450 (Rs. 6,54,500).

In the following balance-sheet of 1875-76 and 1882-83, the
figures shown in black type on both sides represent book adjust-
ments. On the receipt side the items of £75,260 (Rs. 7,52,600) and
£75,917 (Rs. 7,59,170) represent the additional revenue the district
would yield had none of its land been alienated. On the debit side
the items of £12,324 (Rs. 1,23,240) and £10,283 (Rs. 1,02,330) under
land revenue and £2428 (Rs. 24,280) under police are the rental of
lands granted for service to village headmen, accountants, and watch-
men. The items of £62,936 (Rs. 6,29,360) and £63,256 (Rs. 6,32,660)
under allowances and assignments represent the rental of the lands
granted to indmddrs, saranjarnddrs, district hereditary officers, and
other non-service claimants who have not accepted the terms of the
vatan settlement :

Sdtdra Balance Sheet, 1875-76 and 1882-83.

Receipts.

Charges.

Head.

1876-76.

1882-83.

Head.

1875-76.

1882-83.

Land Revenue

Stamps

Excise

Justice

Forests

Assessed Taxes

Interest

PubUo Works

Military

Post

Telegraph

Jails

Registration

Police

Education

Medicine

Printing

Miscellaneous

Total ...

Tramfer Items.

Deposits and Loans

Cash Remittances

Pension Fund

Local Funds

Total ...
Grand ToTAii ...

156,468

75,260

22,291

2821

1382

3897

"99

6273

2859

S734

806

450

4426

399

246

154,790

75,917

1J,394

7723

1034

5756

4702

218

13,459

2040

7398

779

617

809

466

438

■22

671

Refunds

Land Revenue

Stamps

Excise

Justice

Forests

Assessed Taxes ...
Ecclesiastical

Medicine

Allowances and Assignm

Pensions

PubUc Works

Mihtaiy

Post

Telegraph

Jails

Registration
Police

Education

Printing

Mmor Establishment

Cemeteries

Miscellaneous
Political Agencies...

enta ...

1185
32,529
12,321

683

19.889
1825

1044

2817

27,173

62,936

4144

63,425

23,873

7394

412

1358

1185

16,433

1343
24
183
8
888
857

1602

27,197

10,233

391

899

20,647

6246

"863

3284

24,419

63,256

4189

87,797

25,490

28,337

645

4701

1548

17,566

2428

1910

463

375

205,742
75,260

213,227
75,917

8011

64,642

470

29,703

23,696

82,09:i

239

18,919

Total ...

Transfer Items.

Deposits and Loans

Gash Remittances

Interest

Local Funds

Total ...

207,151
75,260

257,642
-76,917

12,029

65,428

9091

17,756

37,620

281

9791

93,826

123,945

86,603

65,460

298,568
75,260

337,172
75.917

Geabd T(

)TAL ...

293,764
76,260

323,092

75,917

Chapter X.

Finance-

Police.

Education.

Transfer,

Balance Sheet

1875-76 AND

1882-83.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

406

DISTRICTS.

Chapter X. Revenue other than Imperial.

Finance. District local funds, collected to promote rural education and

Local Funds supply roads, water, drains, rest-houses, dispensaries, and other
useful objects, amounted in 1882-83 to £18,919 (Rs. 1,89,190) and
the expenditure to £22,246 (Rs. 2,22,460). The local fund revenue
is derived from three sources, a special cess of one-sixteenth in
addition to the ordinary land-tax, the proceeds of certain subordinate
local funds, and certaiu miscellaneous items. The special land cess,
of which two-thirds are set apart as a road fund and the rest as a
school fund, yielded in 1882-83 a revenue of £13,244 (Rs. 1,82,440).
The subordinate funds including a ferry fund, a toll fund, a travel-
lers' bungalow fund and a cattle-pound fund yielded £1998
(Rs. 19,980). Government and private contributions amounted to
£2388 (Rs. 23,880) and miscellaneous receipts including certain
items of land revenue and school fees to £1289 (Rs. 12,890) or a
total sum of £18,919 (Rs. 1,89,190). This revenue is administered
by committees composed partly of officials and partly of private
members. The district committee consists of the Collector, assistant
and deputy collectors, the executive engineer and the educational
inspector as official and the proprietor of an alienated village, and
six landholders as non-official members. The sub-divisional com-
mittees consist of an" assistant collector, the mdmlatdar, a public
works officer, and the deputy educational inspector as official, and
the proprietor of an alienated village and three landholders as non-
official members. The sub -divisional committees bring their local
requirements to the notice of the district committee who prepare
the yearly budget.

Fop administrative purposes the local funds of the district are
divided into two main sections, one set apart for public works and
the other for instruction. During 1882-83 the receipts and dis-
bursements under these two heads were as follows :
Sdtdra Local Funds, 188^-83.
PUBLIC 'WORKS.

Receipts.

Amount.

Charges.

Amount.

Balance

Two-thirds of Land Cess ...

Ferries

Cattle-pounds

Rest-lxouses

Contributions

Tolls

Miscellaneous

Total ...

6835

8829

208

490

439

1294
243

18,345

Establishment

New Works

Repairs

Medical

Miscellaneous

BaJanoe

Total ...

710
4521)
6988

646
2.300
4275

18,345

INSTRUCTION.

Receipts.

Amount.

Charoeb.

Amount.

Balaijoe

One-third of Land Cess

chool-fee Fund

rt ^ .,- /-Government ...

ttons "l Municipal and

Miscellaneous

lotal ...

3646
4415
1043

1775

174

School Charges

Scholarships

School-houses

Miscellaneous

Balance

Total ...

6378

3»

1642

126

2880

11,06)

11,066

Deccan.]

SlTlRA.

407

Since 1863-64 the following local fund works have been carried
out : To improve communications^ about 620 miles of road Lave
been either made or repaired, bridged, and planted with trees at a
cost of about £132,308 (Rs. 13,23,080) and £46,018 (Rs. 4,60,180)
have been paid by the local funds as contributions towards Imperial
repairs. To improve the water-supply about 139 wells, seventy-six
reservoirs, and five tanks have been either made or repaired at a
cost of about £27,420 (Rs. 2,74,200) and sixty-one cattle pounds have
been, made or repaired. To help village instruction about 222 schools
have been either built or repaired at a cost of about £16,359
(Rs. 1,63,590). For the comfort of travellers 263 rest-houses or
dharmshdlds, 114 village offices or chdvdis, and eight travellers'
bungalows have been either built or repaired at a cost of about
£14,770 (Rs. 1,47,700).

In 1882-83, of the thirteen municipalities one each was at Ashta,
Isldmpui-, Kardd, MAjai, Malcolmpeth, Mhasvad, Puses^vli, Rahi-
matpur, Sdtdra, ShingnApur, Tdsgaon, Vita, and Wai. They were
administered by a body of commissioners with the Collector as
president and the assistant or deputy collector in charge of the sub-
division as vice-president. In 1882-83 the district municipal
revenue amounted to ■ £20,372 (Rs. 2,03,720), of which £4560
(Rs. 45,600) were recovered from octroi dues, £1203 (Rs. 12,030)
from a house-tax, £577 (Rs. 5770) from a toll and wheel tax, £486
(Rs. 4860) from assessed taxes, and £13,545 (Rs. 1,35,460), including
£10,000 (Rs. 1,00,000) on account of a loan raised by the Sdtara
municipality for the SAtdra water-works, were from other sources.
The following statement gives for each municipality the receipts and
charges and the incidence of taxation during the year ending the
31st of March 1883:

Sdtdra Municipal Details, 1883-83.

Naue.

Date.

People.

Receipts.

TOTAl.

Inci-
dence.

Octroi.

House-
Tax.

Tolls
and
Wheel
Tax.

Assessed
Taxes.

Miscel-
laneous.

Ashta

lsl£impur

KarSd

Malcolmpeth

M&yni

Mhasvad

Puses&vli

Eahimatpur

S&tSra

Bhlngnipur

T&sgaon

Vita

Total ...

1863
1863
1865
1865
1854
1866
1864
1863
1863
1865
1865
1864
1865

9648
8949

12,731
3248
2997
6581
2669
6082

29,028
1167

10,206
4477

11,676

128

345

115

2975

271

338

i'os,

623

144
31

£,

126

■"2

"5
420

178
26

"20
206

190

532

903

139

11,606

105

185

318

1045

1512

238

121

141

16,128

461

440

649

8. d.

0 4

0 8

1 7
9 2
0 3
0 10
0 11
0 6

10 6
7 10
0 10

0 i

1 1

108,259

4660

1203

677

486

13,646

20,372

...

Chapter X.
Finance.

Local FroNus.

Municipalities,

[Bombay Gazetteer,

408

DISTRICTS.

Chapter Z,

Sdtdra Munidpal

DetaMs

Jf*5^-*5— continued.

Finance.

Name.

Charges. .

TOTAl,.

MUNICIPAIITIES.

.Works.

Misoel-
laneoiis

Staff.

Safety.

Health.

Schools.

New.

Repairs.

Ashta

120

IslampUir

275

840

Kar&d

126

156

"as

430

Malcolmpeth

203

497

1238

Mayni

Mhasvad

183

Puses&vli

101

Rahimatpnr

135

S&tira

499

196

6983

""4

"210

2416

9308

Shingn&pur

129

227

TSsgaon

176

"■5

341

Vita

W&i

Total ...

153

369

704

1588

3S1

7659

147

81 873

2684

13,218

Deccan.]

CHAPTEE XI

INSTRUCTION.

In 1882-83 there were 248 GrOTernment schools or an average of
one school for every five inhabited villages, with 14,498 names on
the rolls and an average attendance of 10,875 pupils or 7 per cent
of 153,837, the male population between six and fourteen years of
age.

In 1S82-83 under the Director of Public Instruction and the
Educational Inspector Central Division, the schooling of the district
was conducted by a local staff 466 strong. Of these one was a
deputy educational inspector with general charge over all the
schools of the district drawing a yearly pay of £210 (Rs. 2100),
one an assistant deputy educational inspector drawing a yearly pay
of £60 (Rs. 600), and the rest were masters and assistant masters
with yearly salaries ranging from £54 (Rs. 540) to £6 (Rs. 60) .

Excluding superintendence and building charges, the total
expenditure onaccount of these schools amounted to £70 76 (Rs.70,760)
of which £2448 (Rs. 24,480) were paid by Government and £4628
(Rs. 46,280) by local and other funds.

Of 248, the total number of Government schools, one was a high
school teaching English and Sanskrit up to the matriculation
standard, four were anglo -vernacular schools teaching English and
Mardthi, and the remaining 243 were vernacular schools, of which
238 were boys schools and five girls schools.

Besides the 248 Government schools sixty -three private schools
in the states of Bhor, Phaltan, Aundh, and Jath were under
Government inspection. Of these three, one each in Bhor Phaltan
and Jath were second grade anglo-vernacular schools with ninety-
five names on the rolls and an average attendance of forty-
nine ; fifty-six were boys Mardthi schools with 2326 names on the
rolls and an average attendance of 2194; and four were girls
schools with 133 names on the rolls and an average attendance of
seventy-six. Besides these there were three important private
schools at Satara, an English school, an American Mission Mardthi
school, and a Sanskrit school. The English school was started in
1878-79 by Mr. Bhdskar Sakhardm Purohit, a matriculated student of
the Sdtara high school. In 1882 it was attended by about 150 boys.
The American Mission school was started in 1834 by Mrs. Graves of
the American Mission. From 1834 to 1849 the school was held
every year during the fair season at Mahabaleshvar and during the

B 1212—52

Chapter XI.
Instruction.

Staff.

Cost.

Instbuction.

Phivatb

SCHOOM.

[Bomlja.y Gazetteer*

410

DISTRICTS.

Chapter XI-

Instruction.

Pbivate
Schools.

Pkogkess,
1855-1883.

Girls Schools.

Bbadees and

Weiters.

rains it was remoTed to Sdtdra. Since 1849 when the Reverend
William Wood of the American Mission settled permanently at
Sii&ra,, the school has been held throughout the year at Sdtd,ra. In
1882-83 it was attended by about twenty-two boys and eight girls.
In the Sanskrit school which was started about fifty years ago by
Bh^skar Shdstri, Sanskrit grammar and literature are taught to
Brdhman boys. In 1882 this school was attended by about twenty-
five pupils.

In 1855-56 there were only twenty-five vernacular and one anglo-
vernacular schools in the district with 1834 names on the rolls and
an average attendance of 1383 pupils. In 1866-66 the number of
schools had risen to 104 with 6100 names and an average attendance
of 491 7. Of these schools including one for girls 103 were vernacular
and one angle -vernacular schools. In 1875-76 the number had
further risen to223 with 11,511 names and an average attendance of
9069. Of these schools including four for girls, 220 were vernacular,
two anglo-vernacular, and one was a high school. In 1882-83 the
number of schools had reached 248 with 14,498 names and an average
attendance of 10,875. Compared with 1855-56 the returns give for
1882-83 an increase in the number of schools from twenty-six to
248 and in the number of pupils from 1834 to 14,498.

The first girls school was opened in the city of S^tara in the year
1865. In 1865-66there was only one girls school with forty-eight
names and an average attendance of twenty pupils. In the next
ten years the number of schools increased to four with 185 names
and an average attendance of 113 pupils. In 1882-83 the number
of schools was five with 436 names and an average attendance of
260.

The 1881 census returns give for the chief races of the district
the following proportion of persons able to read and write : Of
1,024,597, the total, Hindu population, 10,914 (males 10,792,
females 122) or 1-06 per cent below fifteen and 2188 (males 2176,
females 12) or 0'21per cent above fifteen wore under instruction; 893
(males'880, females 1 3) or 0-08 per cent below fifteen and 25,547 (males
25,458, females 89) or 2 "49 per cent above fifteen were instructed;
394,004 (males 201,538, females 192,466) or 38-45 per cent below
fifteen and 591,051 (males 272,519, females 318,532) or 57-68 per
cent above fifteen were illiterate. Of 36,712 the total Musalman
population 603 (males 596, females 7) or 1-64 per cent below fifteen
and 84 (all males) or 0-22 per cent above fifteen were under
instruction ; 34 (males 31 , females 3) or 0-09 per cent below fifteen
and 926 (males 919, females 7) or 2'52 per cent above fifteen were
instructed; 13,865 (males 6905, females 6960) or 37-76 per cent
below fifteen and 21,200 (males 9922, females 11,278) or 57-74 per
cent above fifteen were illiterate. Of 886 Christians 78 (males 47,
females 31) or 8 80 per cent below fifteen and 23 (males 1 5, females 8)
or 2-59 per cent above fifteen were under instruction ; 3 (males 2,
female 1 ) or 0-33 per cent below fifteen and 425 (males 335, females 90)
or 47-96 per cent above fifteen were instructed ; and 154 (males 79,
females 75) or 17-38 per cent below fifteen and 203 (males 124,
females 79) or 22-91 per cent above fifteen were illiterate.

Deocan-]

SATAKA.

411

Sdtdra Education, 18S1.

Age.

Hindus.

MnSALuAss.

Christians. 1

Males.

Females.

Males.

Females.

Males.

Females.

Under Instruction.
Below Fifteen
Above Fifteen

10,792
2176

122
12

696
84

47
16

Irutruoted.
Below Fifteen
Above Fifteen

880
26,458

31
919

2
335

Illiterate.
Below Fifteen
Above Fifteen

Total ...

201,638
272,619

192,466
318,632

6906
9922

6960
11,278

79
124

76
79

613,363

611,234

18,467

18,265

602

284

Before 1855-56 no returns were prepared arranging the pupils
according to race and religion. The following statement shows that
of .the two chief races of the district the Musalmans have the larger
proportion of their boys and girls under instruction :
Pupils by Race, 1855-56 and 1883-83.

Racs.

1855-66.

1882-83.

Pupils.

Percent-
age of
Pupils.

Pupils.

Percent-
age of
Pupils.

School-
going

Popula-
tion.

Percent-
age on
School-
going
Popula-
tion.

Hindus
Musalmiins

Total ...

1785
43

97-65
2-35

13,466
1009

93-03
6-97

274,876
9836

4-89
10-26

1828

100

14,475

100

284,711

6-08

Of 14jl89 the total number of pupils in Government schools
except the high schoolj at the end of 1882-83, 4478 or 31-55 per
cent were Brahmans and Kayasth Prabhus ; ninety-nine or 0'69
per cent Kshatriyasj 1147 or 8'08 per cent Lingd,yats; 608 or 4-28
per cent Jains ; 4396 or 30'98 per cent Kunbis or husbandmen;
1064 or 7'49 per cent trading castes including 164 shopkeepers;
1051 or 7'40 per cent artisans; 192 or 1 '35 per cent labourers ;
seventy-two or 0'50 per cent depressed classes; and sixty-three or
0'44 per cent other Hindus ; and 1003 or 7"06 per cent Musalmans ;
and sixteen Parsis, Christians, and Jews.

The following tables prepared from special returns furnished by
the Educational Department show in detail the number of schools
and pupils with their cost to Government:

Sdtdra School Returns, 1855-56, 1865-66, and 1883-83.

CliASS.

Schools.

Pupils.

Hindus.

MusalmAris.

1855-56.

1865-66.

1882-83.

1866-66.

1865-66.

1882-83.

1866-56.

1866-66.

1882-83.

High School
Anglo- Vernacular ...
Vernacular

Total ...

"l
103

243

"95
1690

144
5795

296

13,101

"1
161

1
1002

104

248

1786

5939

13,466

162

1009

Chapter XI.
Instruction.

RbABBES AND

Writers.

Back.

Caste.

Schools,
1855-1883.

Chapter XI.
Instruction.

Schools,
18S5-1883.

[Bombay Gazetteer.

412

DISTEICTS.

Sdtdra School Heturne, 1855-56, 1865-66, and 1881-83— coaihmed.

Class.

FVTILS— continued.

AVEKAOE DAILT

F&rsis and Others.

Total.

Attbndancb.

1855-S6.

1866-66.

1882-83.

1866-56.

1866-66.

1882-83.

1856-66.

1866-66.

1882-83.

High School
Anglo-Vernacular ...
Vernacular

Total ...

7
16

i02
1732

6964

309

14,119

ioo

1283

123

4794

244

10,666

1834

6100

14,498

1383

4917

10,876

Class.

Ekoeipts.

Government.

1866-66.

1882-83.

1865-66.

1882-83.

1866-56.

1866-66.

1882-83.

High School
Anglo- Vernacular
Vernacular

Total ...

i«.'to2s.
lid. toed.

2s.
id.toSd.

3s. to is.
is. to 2s.

K tols.

£ «. d.

1 li" 2i
0 5 2i

£ s. d.

2 "6 6
0 10 8

£ s. d.
4 9 Hi
1 7 6
0 11 IJ

163
347

177
1866

673

1764

...

500

2043

2447

Class.

Ji%CEipie— continued. [

Local Cess.

Municipalities.

Private.

1865-66.

1866-66.

1882-83.

1866-66.

1882-83.

1865-66.

1882-83.

High School
Anglo-Vernacular ...
Yemacuiar

Total ...

£
3151

£
3046

£
81

"48
62

3161

3046

110

Class.

Recbipts — continued.

£XPENI>ITURE.

Fees.

Total.

Inspection and
Instruction

1855-66.

1866-66.

1882-83.

1855-56.

1866-66.

1882-83.

1855-56.

1865-66.

1882-83.

nigh School
Anglo-Vernacular ...
Vernacular

Total ...

406

424

1012

163
381

177
6503

£
1097

101
5874

166

448

265
3047

1068
104
6876

405

1466

534

5680

7075

604

3312

7047

Class.

Expenditure — contimied.

Buildings.

Scholarships.

Total.

18 S-.",!.

1866-66.

1882-83.

1855-66.

1865-66,

1882-83.

1865-66.

1866-66.

1882-88.

High School
Anglo-Vernacular ...
Vernacular

Total ...

'.'.'.

is6

448

279
3177

£
1097

104
5875

...

604

3456

7076

eccan.]

SlTARA.

413

Sdtdra School Returns, 1855-56, 1865-66, and i5S;J-S5— continued.

Class.

Cost to

Government.

Local Cess.

Other Funds.

Total.

High School

Anglo-Vernacular...

Vernacular

Total ...

163

448

177
3076

673

1766

3046

£
3

£
203

424

1074

166

448

380
3076

£
1097

104
6876

601

3263

2443

3046

:!03

1582

604

3466

7076

A comparison of the 1882-83 provision for teaching the town
and the country population gives the following result. In Satdra
ten Government schools had 1523 names on the rolls and an
average attendance of 1241. Of these schools one was a high school ;
eight were Marathi schools, seven for boys and one for girls ; and one
was a Hindustani school attended by boys and girls. The average
yearly cost of each pupil in the high school was £4 10s. (Es. 45) ; in
. other schools the cost varied from 4s. hd. to 1 2s. (Rs. 2^- - Rs. 6) . Since
1874-75, fifty-one pupils in all, that is five a year, have on an average
passed the matriculation examination from the Sdtdra high school.^
In addition to the Government schools, in 1882-83 one aided and
inspected school in the town of Satara had 102 names on the rolls
and an average attendance of eighty-two pupils. In Kardd in
1882-83 six Government schools had 556 names on the rolls, an
average attendance of 412, and an average yearly cost for each
pupil of 9s. 6d. (Rs. 4|). Of the six schools one was a second
grade angle-vernacular school with twenty names on the rolls and
an average attendance of sixteen ; one was a girls school with 126
names on the rolls and an average attendance of fifty-six ; one was
a Hindustani school with fifty-three names, forty-one boys and
twelve girls, and an average attendance of forty- two; and the
remaining three were Mardthi boys schools. In Wai in 1882-83
seven Government schools had 605 names on the roll, an average
attendance of 413, and an average yearly cost for each pupil of
^s. lOd- (Rs. 4}J). Of the seven schools one was a second grade
anglo-vernacular school with an average attendance of twenty-four j
one was a girls school with seventy-five names on the rolls and an
average attendance of fifty ; one was a Hindustani school with fifty-
eight names, forty-one boys and seventeen girls, and an average
attendance of forty; and the rest were Marathi boys schools.
Besides these Government schools two aided schools had 112 names
on the rolls and an average attendance of ninety-one. In Tasgaon
in 1882-83 five Government schools had 363 names on the rolls, an
average attendance of 283, and an average yearly cost of lis. \d.
(Rs. 5^). Of the five Government schools one was a second grade
anglo-vernacular school with an average attendance of seventeen ; one
was a girls school with eighty-five names on the rolls and an average

Chaptei* XL

Instruction.

Schools,
1855-1883.

Town Schools.

1 The details are : In 1874 six, in 1875 four, in 1876 eight, in 1877 two, in 1878
four, in 1879 three, in 1880 three, in 1881 four, in 1882 nine, and in 1883 eight.

[Bombay Gazetteer>

414

DISTRICTS.

Chapter XI.
Instruction.

Town Schools.

Village
Schools.

Libraries.

attendance of forty-seven ; one was a Hindustani school ■with fifty-
three names, thirty-eight boys and fifteen girls, and an average
attendance of thirty-six ; and the rest were Marathi boys schools. In
Ashta in 1882-83, four Government schools had 289 names on the
rolls, an average attendance of 1 92, and an average yearly cost for each
pupil of 9s. H\d. (Rs. 4§^). Of the four Government schools one was
a second grade anglo-vernacular school with an average attendance
of nineteen ; one was a girls school with forty-six names on the
rolls and an average attendance of thirty-one ; and the rest were
Marathi boys schools. In Urun in 1882-83 three Government schools
had 222 names, an average attendance of 162, and an average yearly
cost for each pupil of 9s. 7d. (Rs. 4^). Of the three schools one
was a Hindustani school with thirty names on the rolls and an
average attendance of thirteen. In Rahimatpur in 1882-83 three
schools had 178 names on the rolls, an average attendance of 117,
and an average yearly cost for each pupil of 9s. 4J<i. (Rs. 4j-^). Of
the three schools one was a Hindustani school with twenty-six
names on the rolls and an average attendance of eighteen. In
Mhasvad in 1882-83 two Government schools had 148 names on the
rolls, an average attendance of 112, and an average yearly cost for
each pupil of 9s. 4|c?. (Rs. 4^^). Of the two schools one was a
Hindustani school with an average attendance of twenty-three. In
Bhilavdi one Government school had 106 names on the rolls, an
average attendance of seventy- three, and an average yearly cost
for each pupil of 10s. Id. (Rs. 5-^^). In Nerla in 1882-83 one
Government school had 121 names on the rolls, an average attendance
of ninety, and an average yearly cost for each pupil of 7*. 9|(f.
(Rs. 3|f). In Kola in 1882-83 three Government schools had 186
names on the rolls, an average attendance of 162, and an average
yearly cost for each pupil of 9s. lOd. (Rs. 4i-^). Of the three schools
one was a Hindustani school with twenty-five names on the rolls
and an average attendance of seventeen.

In 1882-83, exclusive of the eleven towns, S^tara was provided
with 203 schools or an average of one school for every 6"5 inhabited
villages. The following statement shows the distribution of these
schools by sub-divisions :

Sdtdra Village Schools, 188Z-83.

Sub- Division.

Villages.

People.

Schools
(Boys').

Sub-Division,

Villages.

People.

School^
(Boys').

JMi

Kar&d

EliatSiv

Khin&pur

Koregaon

MiiJi

P&tan

262
102
84
90
73
77
201

63,729
124,973
74,027
75,850
76,105
46,530
108,866

12
28
19
18
24
8
13

S«t&ra

T&sgaon

VSllva

WAi

Total ...

147
47
132
124

91,312

63,929

138,432

76,934

18
16
26
21

203

1329

938,687

In the district are two libraries and six reading-rooms. The
two libraries are at Sdtara and Mahdbaleshvar. In 1852 Satara
city had two libraries, the Satara city library and the S£td,ra
station library. In February 1866 both these libraries were
amalgamated under the name of the SAtara city library.' This

Beccan.]

SATARA. 415

library owns a nice building which was given to it by the widow

of Shahdji, the last Rdija of Sdtara. In 1882-83 the number of

subscribers was 107 and subscriptions amounted to about £88

(Rs. 880). At present (1883) the library has 1761 English Marfithi

and Sanskrit books. Including the two English dailies of Bombay,

the library takes eighteen English and twelve Mardthi papers and

pamphlets. The Mahd,baleshvar library is located in a room in the

Frere Hall and is supported by European visitors to the station. In

1882-83 siibscriptions and donations amounted to about £150

(Rs. 1500). In the beginning of the year 1882-83 the number of

subscribers was 174 and the number of books 2459. In 1882-83 the

six reading-rooms were one each at Ashta, Karad, Malcolmpeth,

Tdsgaon, Vita, and Wai. Of these the reading-rooms at Malcolmpeth

and Vita have their own buildings built by raising subscriptions.

The reading-rooms are all supported by educated natives. In

1882-83 the number of suhscribers varied from eleven to thirty-two

and the amount of yearly subscriptions varied from £11 6s. (Rs. 113)

to £23 10s. (Rs. 235). The reading-rooms take five or six leading

Mar^thi papers, and some take the daily or bi-woekiy copies of the

Bombay Gazette and the Times of India.

In the towns of Kardd, Sdtara, and Wai yearly elocution meetings
are held, at which candidates speak on prescribed subjects, and those
who succeed in satisfying the committee of examiners receive the
prizes which are previously notified. The charges incurred on
account of prizes and notifications are paid by subscriptions raised
from the members of the elocution society.

In 1882-83, of the three newspapers published in the district the
Shubh-Suchak or Good Indicjitor was started in 1858, It is litho-
graphed and written in Marathi. The other two are the Maharashtra
Mitra or the Friend of Maharashtra started in 1868 and the Bodh
Sudhdkar or the Moon of Knowledge started in 1872. Both are
printed generally in Mardthi, but they have occasional contributions
in English.

Chapter H-
Instruction.

LiBRABIES.

Litbeaby
Societies.

Newspapers.

[Bombay Gazetteer*

Chapter XII.
Health.
Climate,

Hospitals,

1882.

SMdra.

CHAPTER XII.

H EALTH.

The Satdra climate is a marked^ change from the moist and
relaxing Konkan. It is best suited to the nervous, the simply-
debilitated and the relaxed, to the dyspeptic, and to those affected
with chronic bronchitis. It is liable to aggravate or render more
acute fever and head derangements by constricting the surface
vessels and forcing inwards an increased flow of blood. The increased
flow of blood congests and obstructs the organs which have been
weakened by disease or climate. These adverse conditions are
limited to the dry season, or at least are considerably modified
during the soft mild and damp south-west monsoon. The rains
seem specially suited to Europeans. While they last severe disorders
are unusual, the prevailing complaints being slight fevers and chest
and bowel complaints. Among the natives rheumatic and neuralgic
afiiections are common and obstinate ; Europeans are comparatively
free from them.

Besides the Sdtara civil hospital and the Mahdbaleshvar conva-
lescent hospital, there were in 1882 seven grants-in-aid dispensaries
one each at WAi, Kardd, Islampur, Pusesavli, Mhasvad, Patau, and
Tasgaon. The total number of patients treated during the year
was 41,976 of whom 41,499 were out-patients and 477 in-patients.
The total cost was £2498 (Rs. 24,980). The following details are
taken from the 1882 report :

The Sd/tdra civil hospital was established in 1840 by Appa Saheb
the Edja of Satara. For the hospital a separate building has been
provided, within whose walls are included for distinct departments,
a general hospital for the sick natives who are supported
free of charge ; a police hospital for the sick members of
the district police force ; a ward for the treatment of female
patients; and a dispensary for out-door patients who are
supplied with medicine and advice free of charge. The hospital
is under the supervision of the Civil Surgeon who has under him
two hospital assistants and two apprentices. In 1874 the vaccine
establishment attached to the hospital was removed vaccination
being now performed under the supervision of the Satdra muni-
cipality. In 1882 the commonest diseases treated were malarious
fevers, intestinal worms, skin diseases, stomach and bowel
affections, and eye-diseases. In 1882 cholera prevailed to a very
considerable extent in the whole district and out of 5433 cases
2374 deaths were reported. 6818 out-patients and 357 in-patients
were treated at a cost of £517 (Rs. 5170).

Deccau]

SATARA.

417

At the Mahdbaleshvar convalescent hospital was opened in 1828.
The commonest diseases were parasitic diseases, constipation, ague,
scabies, conjunctivitis, bronchitis, and chronic rheumatism. In 1882
there was no epidemic. 3743 out-patients and twenty in-patients
were treated at a cost of £1123 (Rs. 11,230).

The Wdi dispensary was opened in 1864. The prevailing diseases
were malarious fevers, skin diseases, and ulcers. In 1882 cholera
prevailed in May and June and there were nine deaths out of
twenty-three cases. 203 persons were vaccinated, and 5247 out-patients
and sixteen in-patients were treated at a cost of £135 (Rs. 1350).

The Karad dispensary was established in 1864. The prevailing
diseases were malarious fevers, intestinal worms, and skin diseases.
In 1882 cholera prevailed from May to August, and there were
eighteen deaths out of thirty-nine cases. 5585 out-patients and
seven in-patients were treated at a cost of £130 (Rs. 1300).

The IsMmpur dispensary was founded in 1867. The most
prevailing diseases were malarious fever, intestinal worms,
respiratory affections, and syphilis. In 1882 cholera prevailed in April
and May in the town and neighbourhood. 392 persons were
vaccinated, and 6224 out-patients and sixteen in-patients were
treated at a cost of £124 (Rs. 1240),

The Pusesavli dispensary was established in 1871. The prevail-
ing diseases were malarious fevers, intestinal worms, conjunctivitis,
and skin-diseases. In 1882 cholera prevailed in the sub-division
but did not attack the town. 118 persons were vaccinated, and 3616
out-patients and ten in-patients were treated at a cost of £107
(Rs. 1070).

The Mhasvad dispensary was established in 1871. Malarious
fevers, intestinal worms, eye-diseases, and bronchial affections were
the commonest diseases. In 1^82 cholera prevailed in July and
September and out of twenty -five cases eleven proved fatal. 1 85
persons were vaccinated, and 3669 out-patients and twenty-six
in-patients were treated at a cost of £86 (Rs. 860) .

The Patau dispensary was opened in 1873. The prevailing
diseases were malarious fevers, skin diseases, and conjunc-
tivitis. In 1882 cholera prevailed from April to August and there
were sixty deaths out of 147 cases. 119 persons were vaccinated,
and 3999 out-door and fourteen in-door patients were treated at a
costof £173 (Rs. 1730).

The T^sgaon dispensary was established in 1876. The chief
diseases treated were malarious fevers, and rheumatic respiratory and
skin afiections. In 1882 cholera occurred in Tasgaon town and
vicinity in April and May and out of thirty-eight cases sixteen
proved fatal. 227 persons were vaccinated and 2608 out-patients
and eleven in-patients were treated at a cost of £103 (Rs. 1030).

According to the 1881 census 4336 persons (males 2690, females .
1646) or 0'40 per cent of the population were infirm. Of the total
number 4180 (males 2597, females 1583) were Hindus, 154 (males
91, females 63) Musalmdns, one a Christian male, and one a Pdrsi
male. Of 4336, the total number of infirm persons, 174 (males
B 1282—53

Chapter XII.
Health.

Dispensaries.

Kardd,

Iddmpur.

PusesdvH.

Mhasvad.

Pdtan.

Tdsgaon.

Infirm People;

[Bombay Gazetteer,

Chapter XII.

Health.
Infibm People.

Vaccination.

Cattle Disease.

418

DISTBIOTS.

123, females 51) or 4-01 percent were of unsound mind, 2416 (males
1277, females 1139) or 55-71 per cent were blind, 567 (males 361,
females 206) or 13-07 per cent were deaf and dumb, and 1179 (males
929, females 250) or 27-19 per cent were lepers. The details are :
Sdtdra Infirm People, 1881.

Hindus. ,

MUSALUA'HB.

Christians.

Pa'esis.

Total. 1

Insane

117

123

BUnd

1248

1107

1277

1139

Deat-Mutes ...

342

194

361

206

Lepera

Total ...

890

233

...

929

2S0

2697

1583

2690

1646

In 1883-84 under the supervision of the Deputy Sanitary-
Commissioner, Deccan Registration District, the work of vaccination
was carried on by fifteen vaccinators with yearly salaries varying
from £16 16s. (Rs.l68) to £28 16s. (Rs.288). Of these operators
fourteen were distributed over the rural parts of the district
and one was employed in the town of S^tara. Besides the
vaccinators the medical officers of seven dispensaries carried on
vaccine operations. The total number of persons vaccinated was
38,705, besides 652 re- vaccinations, compared with 15,868 primary
vaccinations in 1869-70. The following statement shows the sex,
religion, and age of the persons primarily vaccinated :
Sdtdra Vaccination Details, 1869-70 and 1883-84.

YEAH,

Pbimary Vaccinatiohs. I

Sex.

Beligion.

■ Age.

Total.

Males.

Females.

Hindus.

Musal-
m&ns.

par-
sis.

Chris-
tians.

Others.

Under
One
Year.

Above
One
Year.

1869-70 ...
1883-84 ...

8408
19,775

7460
18,030

14,276
31,802

514
1417

22
20

1066
6462

6861
20,412

10,007
18,203

16,868
38,705

In 1883-84 the total cost of these operations, exclusive of those
performed in dispensaries, was £929 &s. (Rs. 9293) or about 6\d.
(4^ as.) for each successful case. The charges included the following
items : Supervision and inspection £475 4s. (Rs. 4752), ei,stablishment
£418 14s. (Rs. 4187), and contingencies £35 8s. (Rs. 354). Of these
the supervising and inspecting charges were met from Government
provincial funds, while £424 14s. (Rs. 4247) were borne by the
local funds of the different sub-divisions and £29 8s. (Rs. 294) by
the S^td,ra municipality for the service of a vaccinator in the town.

Of ^ the fifteen kinds of cattle disease ien, dhundulna or dhdrgalna,^
ghdtia, kdlidhaveri, huli, Idl, mdmrnodya, mdthesul, phodya, patki

^'Collector's Letter to the Revenue Commissioner, 3692 of 21st December 1873.

Ceccan]

Si-TlRA.

419

or musumda, and thorla, are common to all cattle ; three chdndni,
palkida, and pashan, attack only horses ;and two haladya and
topshya, are found only amongst sheep and goats. Of these dhun-
dulna generally attacks young cattle causing excessive purging.
The liver of the cattle affected becomes diseased and their dung
emits a bad smell. In about eight days the animal dies. Ohdtia
generally attacks strong young cattle. The windpipe becomes
choked, the belly swells, and the mouth is inflamed. From the neck
to the liver blood becomes watery and the liver is found after death
to be full of small holes. In about eight days the animal dies.
Kdlidhaveri is a more fatal disease causing death in one day; the
liver of the animal attacked with it rots and becomes perforated.
In kuU the mouth and feet show rheumatic symptoms and in one or
two days the animal dies. Ldl generally attacks weak cattle about
January when the east wind sets in. The feet rot, worms are gene-
rated in the intestines, and the hoofs fall off. The mouth also rots
and a viscous fluid flows from it. The disease lasts about a month.
In imdaiTnodya the animal tosses its head towards the side attacked ;
this disease lasts about four days. In mdthesul the animal walks
round and round and refuses food ; its flesh becomes yellow and
watery. In phodya boils as on the human skin appear and blood
and flesh seem diseased ; the disease lasts from four to eight days.
In patki the animal is excessively purged and the stomach becomes
diseased. Either the animal dies in one to four days, or it recovers
after seven days. In thorla the eye sheds water and the animal
trembles, refuses food, and is purged. Either the animal dies in
three days or it recovers after one month. Chdndni, palkida, and
pashan attack horses only. Eaiadya only attacks kids who pass
urine mixed with blood ; through the circulation the skin and every
organ become tinged with yellow. In cases of topshya sheep and
goats are suddenly attacked and die in one or two days ; the
stomach becomes diseased.

In May 1882, of about 250 cattle at P^nchgani in Wii sixty-five
were attacked by rinderpest, of which fifty died. About this cattle
plague the Veterinary Surgeon Mr. H. A. Woodroffe reported as
follows :^ Rinderpest is a contagious fever depending upon a blood
poison which has its specific effect upon the membrane lining the
alimentary canal, extending from the mouth to the rectum. Unlike
foot and mouth disease which affects all animals without any regiard
to species, rinderpest generally confines its attacks to buffaloes
cows and bullocks, and is extremely fatal ; but when recovery does
take place the animal is rendered insusceptible to another attack.
The disease probably originates from bad sanitary arrangements,
such as foul air arising from overcrowding animals in dirty little
huts without any provision whatever for drainage or ventilation.
The first signs of the malady visible to the ordinary observer are
dulness, loss of appetite, staring coat accompanied by shivering fits.
About the second day there is a discharge from the eyes and
nostrils, the former presenting a highly reddened appearance.
There is also a slight dry cough, and breathing becomes slightly

Chapter XII-
Health.
Cattle Disease.

>Gov. Ees. Gen. Dept. 2062 of 3rd June 1882.

[Bombay Gazetteer.

420

DISTRICTS.

Chapter XII.
Health.

Cattle Disease.

Births and
Deaths.

Oppressed. The mouth on examination will be found intensely hot.
The gums, at first red, assume a yellowish or salmon colour, the
tongue is covered with an eruption which in the early stages of
the disease appears in the form of little red nodules often
presenting a bran-like appearance. As the disease progresses, sores
appear on the palate and the back of the tongue. At this stage of
the disease rumination is generally suspended, and the animal
refuses all food, can only drink water with great difficulty and
seems greatly distressed, frequently lying down and getting up
again, and may be seen anxiously looking round at its flanks.
After about the third or fourth day the bowels which have been
costive during the early stages, become relaxed, and violent diarrhoea
sets in accompanied by copious discharge of mucus frequently tinged
with blood. These symptoms cause great suffering and may
continue from three to five days. As a general rule the animal
dies about the sixth or seventh day after being attacked. As death
approaches the breath becomes very offensive and not unfrequently
the animal dies in a state of delirium. After death the rumen or
first stomach is found to contain a large quantity of undigested
food and the membrane lining the fourth or true stomach to be
covered with patches of a deep claret colour. The small intestines
are very red and inflamed and in the large intestines the same
patches may be observed as were found in the fourth stomach. The
liver is rather paler than usual and the gall bladder is usually full
of bile. There is generally more or less emphysema of the lungs
and the membrane lining the windpipe presents a reddened
appearance. The disease being of a specific nature must run its
course terminating fatally or otherwise according to the intensity
of the attack, and medicinal treatment is of no avail. To stamp out
the malady six sanitary and preventive measures are suggested. A
temporary enclosure should be set apart where all animals on first
showing symptoms of the disease must be isolated. Sheds or
cow-houses in which the disease has appeared should be thoroughly
cleansed and disinfected with ordinary limewash made of freshly
burnt lime, each gallon to contain one-fifth of a pint of commercial
carbolic acid. All dung and litter which has been in contact with
diseased animals must be burnt. Carcasses of animals that have
died of the disease should be slashed and buried six feet deep.
Animals that have been in close contact with diseased ones should
be prevented from mixing with other cattle for nine days. Cattle
traffic between infected and noninfected villages should be
discouraged and fairs suspended for the time.

The total number of deaths shown in the Sanitary Commissioner's
yearly reports for the eighteen years ending 1883 is 437,832 or an
average mortality of 24,324 or, according to the 1881 census, of
twenty-three in every thousand of the population. During the
famine year of 1877 the total number of deaths was very high,
being 62,033 or 114 per cent above the average. Of the average
number of deaths 15,821 or 65 '04 per cent were returned as due
to fevers, 1917 or 7'88 per cent to cholera, 536 or 220 per
cent to small-pox, 2712 or 1115 per cent to bowel complaints, 357

Deccau.]

satAra.

421

or 1"47 per cent to violence or injury, and 2981 or 12'26 per cent to
miscellaneous diseases. An examination of the returns shows that
fever, which during the eighteen years ending 1883 caused an
average mortality of 15,821 or 65'04: per cent, was below the average
in nine years and above the average in the other nine years. During
the ten years ending 1875, except in 1872, it was below, the
average and during the eight years ending 1883 besides in 1872 it was
above the average. Of the nine years below the average, two years
had less than 10,000 deaths, 8250 in 1867 and 9111 in 1868 ; three
years 1866, 1869, and 1870 had between 10,000 and 11,000 ; one
year 1871 had between 11,000 and 12,000; and three years 1878
1874 and 1875 had between 14,000 and 15,800. Of the nine years
above the average two years 1876 and 1882 had between 16,000 and
17,000 deaths ; five years 1872, 1879, 1880, 1881, and 1883 between
17,000 and 18,000; one year 1878 between 27,000 and 28,000 ; and
one year 1877 between 31,000 and 32,000. Of the deaths from
cholera which amounted to 34,508 and averaged 1917, 8157 or 23*64
per cent of the total happened in 1869, 6702 or 19'42 per cent in

1877, and 5386 or 15-60 per cent in 1878. The only other years
above the average were 1875 with 3666 deaths, 1882 with 2406
deaths, and 1876 with 1938 deaths. Of the twelve years below
the average one year 1872 had between 1700 and 1600; two
years 1866 and 1883 had between 1200 and 1100 deaths ; one
year 1881 had between 900 and 800 ; two years 1868 and 1870
between 660 and 560; one year 1871 between 200 and 100 ; two
years 1867 and 1880 had less than forty ; and three years 1873
1874 and 1879 were free from cholera. Of the deaths from small-
pox, which amounted to 9654 and averaged 536, 2518 or 26'08 per
cent of the total happened in 1872, 2079 or 21-53 per cent in 1869,
and 1896 or 19-64 per cent in 1868. The only other years above
the average were 1877 with 950 deaths and 1873 with 694 deaths.
Of the thirteen years below the average two years 1867 and 1883
had between 400 and 300 deaths ; three years 1870, 1871, and 1876
between 300 and 200 ; one year 1874 between 100 and seventy ;
three years 1866, 1875, and 1878 between fifty and twenty ; three
years 1879, 1880, and 1882 had less than five deaths ; and one year
1881 was free from small-pox. Of the deaths from bowel complaints
which amounted to 48,814 and averaged 2712, seven years were
above the average. The smallest number of deaths from bowel
complaints in any one of the eighteen years was 1117 in 1871 and
the largest was 7796 in 1877. Injuries with a total of 6426 and
an average of 357, varied from 488 in 1877 to 225 in 1868. Other
causes with a total mortality of 53,653 and an average of 2981,
varied from 4542 in 1877 to 2016 in 1879.

Birth returns are available only for the thirteen years ending
1883. During these thirteen years the number of births averaged
29,337. The yearly totals vary from 41,497 in 1882 to 18,725 in

1878. The details are :

Chapter XII
Health.

BlETHS AND

Deaths.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

422

DISTRICTS.

Chapter XII.
Health.

BiBTHS AND

Deaths.

Sdtdra Births and Deaths,

1866 -i

SS5.1

TKiB,

Deaths.

BlRTBa,

Cholera.

Small-
pox.

Fevers.

Bowel
Com-
plaints.

In-
juries.

Other
Causes.

Total.

1866

1134

10,355

2914

360

2985

17,797

18W

S79

8250

1961

290

2654

13,667

...

1868

667

1896

9111

2319

225

3264

17,472

1869

8157

2079

10,299

8631

259

3606

28,080

1870

669

200

10,635

3038

261

3296

17,999

1871

131

248

11,944

1117

328

3707'

17,475

22,403

1872

-J.640

2518

17,919

4004

322

• 3294

29,697

23,089

1873

...

594

15,746

2434

413

2668

21,905

25,434

1874

14,772

2064

399

2342

19,648

31,033

1875

3666

14,031

2229

393

2794

23,133

30,180

1876

1938

207

16,705

2990

373

2662

24,776

28,334

1877

6702

950

31,555

7796

488

4542

62,033

23,664

1878

5386

27,361

4121

476

3488

40,872

18,726

1879

...

17,286

1494

434

2016

21,233

27,093

1880

17,08^

1197

370

2178

20,844

31,914

1881

866

• ••

17,360

1631

319

2600

22,676

37,334

1882

2406

16,396

1814

357

3060

24,036

41,497

1883

Total ...

1209

386

17,980

1960

359

2698

24,691

40,737

34,608

9654

284,777

48,814

6426

63,653

437,832

381,387

Average ...

1917

636

15,821

2712

867

2981

24,324

29,337

* The death returns are believed to be fairly correct and the birth returns to be
incomplete.

Deccan.]

CHAPTER XIII.

SUB-DIVISIONS.i

Ja'vli in the north- west is bounded on the north by Wii, on the
east by Wai and S^tdra, on the south by Sdtdra and Pdtan, and on
the west by Khed in Eatndgiri and Mahdd in KoMba. It has an
area of 419 square miles, a population in 1881 of 63,729 or 152
to the square mile, and in 1882 a land revenue of £9702 (Rs.
97,020).

Of the 419 square miles, 390 have been surveyed in detail. Ac-
cording to the revenue survey returns 106 square miles are occu-
pied by the lands of alienated villages. The rest contains 116,062
acres or 57'85per cent of arable land, 7612 acres or 3'80 per cent
of unarable land, 64,540 acres or 32 '17 per cent of forests, and 12,394
acres or 6*18 per cent of village sites, roads, rivers, and streams.
From the 116,062 acres of arable land 2 1,890 acres have to be taken
on account of alienated lands in Government villages.

J^vH is full of hills. At Mah^baleshvar in the north-west the
three valleys of the Koyna, the Krishna, and the Vena run to a
point where their great dividing spurs, which rise 2500 feet above
the valleys, meet the main range of the Sahyadris. Though they
are alike in general character, of the three valleys the Koyna valley
is much the largest and finest. Near the head of the Koyna valley
are the grandest hill and forest views in SAtara, Even here there
is a sameness in the hills as the sides of all rise in layers to a flat-
topped wall of rock. And as the valley bottom is high not less
than 2000 feet above the sea, the hill sides want the grandeur of
those that fall west into the low rugged Konkan. In the Koyna
valley, and to a much less extent in the Krishna and Vena valleys
where the forest has not been cut and burnt for kumri or wood-ash
tillage, the hills are covered with dense coppice ten to fifteen feet
high. Elsewhere the hill sides are a succession of bare fed patches
of what passes for soil and are thickly dotted with stunted trees.
The Koyna valley is at all times beautiful. ' Even in April the blue
haze of smoke from the fired tillage plots softens the hot-weather
bakedness of the hills. And after the rains the barest rocks are
broidered with the soft dazzling green of moss and grass. Every
shadow has a hue of its own and the sunlight striking between
masses of floating clouds sheds over the universal green endless
varieties of light and shade. Throughout the hot weather the
Sahyddri tops are deliciously cool.

Chapter XIII
Sub-Divisions

JAVLI.

Area.

Aspect.

1 Of this chapter the aspect, climate, water, and soil sectiong are contributed by
Mr. J. W. P. Muir-Mackenzie, C.S.

[Bombay Gazetteer.

424

DISTRICTS.

Chapter XIII.

Sab-Divisions.

JAvu.

Climate,

Water.

Soil.

Stock,

Holdings.

Crops,
1881-8^.

From June to October the extreme rainfall, over 250 inches at
Mahdbaleshvar, and the high winds and constant driving mists make
the climate chilly, and ti-ying. At the close of the rains excessive
damp and excessive vegetation make the valleys feverish. Later,
about Christmas, they are chill, sometimes bitterly cold, and even
in the hot weather though the days are warm the nights are cool.
At Malcolmpeth, the highest point of the SahyAdris 4710 feet
above sea level and about twenty -eight miles north-west of Satd.ra,
during the ten years ending 1869-70 the rainfall varied from 312
inches in 1861-62 to 156 inches in 1869-70 and averaged 248 inches ;
and during the thirteen years ending 1882-83 it varied from 373
inches in 1882-83 to 168 inches in 1877-78 and averaged 262 inches.
At Medha, which is about sixteen miles east of the Sahyadris and
fourteen miles north-east of Sat^ra, during the ten years ending
1869-70 the rainfall varied from seventy-nine inches in 1861-62 to
fifty-three inches in 1864-65 and averaged sixty-four inches ; and
during the thirteen years ending 1882-83 it varied from 111 inches
in 1882-83 to forty-eight inches in 1880-81 and averaged seventy-
two inches.

' The two chief rivers are the Vena which joins the Krishna at
Mdhuli in Sdtara and the Koyna which meets the Krishna at KarAd.
The Koyna and the Vena are fed by numberless smaller streams and
rills, which dry after the rains, and during the dry weather even the
Koyna and the Vena are deep only in occasional moderate-sized pools.
Away from the rivers water is scarce and hardly fit to drink.

In the valleys are patches of fairly deep red-soil on which rice is
grown. The rest of the soil is poor and is for two or three years
tilled in Jcumri or wood-ash fashion with ndehni and other coarse hill
grains and then left to a four to twelve years' rest.

According to the 1882-83 returns farm stock included twenty-
three riding and 366 load carts, 4581 two-bullock and 837 four-
bullock ploughs, 11,949 bullocks and 10,361 cows, 2405 he-buffa-:
loes and 7125 she-bufflaloes, 242 horses, 4683 sheep and goats, and
sixty-four asses.

In 1882-83 the number of holdings including alienated lands in
Government villages was 5838 with an average area of 19'78 acres.
Of the whole number of holdings 2360 were of not more than five
acres ; 834 of five to ten acres ; 834 of ten to twenty acres ; 6 1 8 of
twenty to thirty acres; 421 of thirty to forty acres; 217 of forty to
fifty acres ; 399 of fifty to a hundred acres ; 132 of 100 to 200 acres;
17 of 200 to 300 acres ; 4 of 300 to 400 acres ; and two of over
400 acres.

In 1881-82, of 93,982 acres held for tillage 54,889 or 58'40 per
cent were fallow or under grass. Of the remaining 39,093 acres,
1050 were twice cropped. Of the 40,143 acres under tillage, grain
crops occupied 34,711 acres or 86'46 per cent, of which 2325 were
under spiked millet bdjri Penicillaria spicata, 6344 under Indian
millet _7i;ari Sorghum vulgare, 10,215 under rdgi or ndehni Bleusine
corocana, 1051 under wheat gahu Triticum sestivum, 9116 under
chenna sdva Panicum miliaceum, 3097 under rice bhdt Oryza sativa,

Deccan]

SItIRA. 425

1088 under Italian millet rdla or kdng Panicum italicum, 11 under Chapter XIII.

maize makka Zea mays, 44 under barley yaw Hordeum hexastichonj Sub-Divisioiis.

67 under kodra or harik Paspalum scrobiculatum, and 1353 under

other grains of which details are not given. Pulses occupied 2586

acres or 6'44 per centj of which 527 were under gram harhhara i881-8^.

Cicer arietinum, 749 under tur Cajanus indicuSj 700 under kulith or

hulthi Dolichos biflorus, 68 under udid Phaseolus radiatus, 11 under

mug Phaseolus mungo, 72 under peas vdtdna Pisum sativum, 30

under masur Ervum lens, and 434 under other pulses. Oilseeds

occupied 2236 acres or 5'57 percent, of which 1366 were under

gingelly seed til Sesamum indicum, 42 under linseed alshi Linum

usitatissimum, and 828 under other oilseeds. Fibres occupied 65

acres or 0'16 per cent, of which 57 were under Bombay hemp san

or tag Crotalaria juncea, and 8 under other fibres. Miscellaneous

crops occupied 545 acres or 1'35 per cent, of which 51 were under

chillies mirchi Capsicum frutescens, 211 under sugarcane its Saccha-

rum officinarum, 7 under tobacco tamhdhhu Nicotiana tabacum, 5

under cofEee Coffee arabica, and the remaining 271 under various

vegetables and fruits.

The 1881 population returns show that of 63,729 people, 61,518 P€oplf

or 96-53 per cent were Hindus, 1981 or 3'10 per cent Musalmkns, 1881.'

192 or 0-30 per cent Christians, 35 Pdrsis, and 3 Buddhists. The
details of the Hindu castes are : 1516 Brahmans ; 32 Pafcd,ne Prabhus
and 20 Kdyasth Prabhus, writers ; 293 Lingdyat Vanis, 230 Maratha
V£nis, 209 Tdmbolis, 87 Jains, 32 Komtis, 18 MArwar V^nis, and
8 Gujardt Vdnis, traders and merchaats ; 42,430 Kunbis and 1015
Mails, husbandmen; 638 Sutars, carpenters; 615 Chdmbhd,rs,
leather-workers ; 452 Telis, oilmen ; 389 Sonars, goldsmiths ; 358
Kumbhars, potters ; 274 LoMrs, blacksmiths; 209 Shimpis, tailors;
81 Koshtis, weavers ; 73 KasSrs, bangle-makers ; 69 Buruds,
bamboo- workers ; 13 Lonaris, cement-makers; 11 Pdtharvats,
stone-dressers ; 4 Otaris, casters ; 255 Guravs, priests ; 17 Ghadsis,
musicians ; 880 Nhavis, barbers ; 458 Parits, washermen ; 2497 Dhan-
gars, cowmen ; 495 Kolis, ferrymen ; 78 Bhois, fishers ; 45 Pardeshis,
petty traders ; 19 Thdkurs, husbandmen ; 78 Ramoshis, watchmen ;
6064 Mhars, village messengers ; 325 Mangs, village watchmen ;
7 Bhangis, scavengers ; and 6 Dhors, tanners ; 871 Jangams, 156
Gosavis, 75 GondhHs, 54 Joshis, 54 Kolhdtis, ^,nd 8 Gopdls, beggars.

Kara'd in the centre of the district is bounded on the north by Karad,

Sdtdra and Koregaon, on the east by Khat^v and Khand.pur, on the
south by Vdlva, and on the west by Patau. It has an area of 391
square miles, a population in 1881 of 140,920 or 360 to the
square mile, and in 1882 a land revenue of £34,893 (Rs. 3,48,930).

Of the 391 square miles, 355 have been surveyed in detail. Ac- Area,

cording to the revenue survey returns 81 square miles are occupied
by the lands of alienated villages. The rest contains 148,985 acres or
74-95 per cent of arable land, 7408 acres or 3' 73 per cent of unarabla
land, 993 acres or 0'50 per cent of grass, 29,823 acres or 15'60per cent
of forests, and 11,572 acres or 5'82 per cent of village sites, roads,
rivers, and streams. From the 148,985 acres of arable land 33,783
acres have to be taken on account of alienated lands in Government
villages.

B 1282-54

[Bombay Gazetteer,

426

DISTRICTS.

Chapter XIII.

Sub-Divisions.

Kabad.

Aspect.

ClimaCe.

Water.

Soil.

.Stock.

Holdings-

KarM is a portion of the Krislina valley which runs thirty milea
from north to south between two parallel chains of hills. The west-
ern chain is broken h«lf-way by the Koyna, which, running' from
the west, joins the Krishna at Kardd. Most of Kardd is flat slop-
ing to the hills on both sides, the ground growing more broken
especially on the west as it nears the hills. There are no forests
but many gardens and groves, and in the Krishna for a tract so close
to the Sahyddris the unusual charm of numbers of pools or rivers
reaches several miles long. Much of the land is of- extreme richness,
covered with green not only during and after the rain but again
with cold-weather crops in January and February. A bridle path
from the plateau of Kadegaon down to the village of Tembhu to the
south of Sadashivgad fort has lovely views of the rich Karad plain,
stretching, brightened by water and darkened by groves, in garden
after garden to the gray-blue of the western hills.

During the cold weather, especially near the rivers, the air varies
in warmth from 30° to 35° in the twenty-four hours. The days are
warm and the nights are bitterly cold. In the hot weather it is one
of the warmest parts of the district. But even then the nights are
not unpleasant. At Kardd, which is about thirty miles east of the
Sahyiidris and thirty-two miles south of Satara, during the ten years
ending 1869-70 the rainfall varied from thirty-five inches in 1860-61
and 1867-68 to nineteen inches in 1864-65 and averaged twenty-seven
inches; and during the thirteen years ending 1882-83 it varied from
fifty inches in 1882-83 to seventeen inches in 1871-72 and averaged
twenty-seven inches.

The rivers are the Krishna which crosses the sub-division from
north to south ; the Td,rli which joins the Krishna from the north-
west at TJmbraj ; and the Koyna which joins it from the west at
Karid. In addition to the ordinary means of watering by wells and
rough dams the Krishna canal starts from a dam thrown across the
river at Khodshi, about a mile above Kardd, and runs about thirty-
five miles to the south-east. Elsewhere the water-supply is good
except in the south-west, where, in the rocky soil close under the
hills, water is very scarce.

The soil is excellent throughout, except small patches of murum
close to the hills. All round the canal, as well as away from it at
Masur and in the Tarli valley are splendid stretches of garden land.

According to the 1882-83 returns farm stock included ninety-
seven riding and 2714 load carts, 1409 two-bullock and 2867 four-
bullock ploughs, 29,923 bullocks and 16,436 cows, 2817 he-buffaloes
a,nd 10,980 she-bufialoes, 1784 horses, 62,711 sheep and goats, and
436 asses.

In 1882-83 the number of holdings including alienated lands in
Government villages was 25,371 with an average area of 5'84 acres.
Of the whole number of holdings 14,708 were of not more than five
acres ; 6564 of five to ten acres ; 3152 of ten to twenty acres ; 831 of
twenty to thirty acres ; 89 of thirty to forty acres ; twenty of forty to
fifty acres ; five of fifty to a hundred acres ; and two of 100 to 200
acres.

Deccau.l

SiTiEA.

427

In 1881-82, of 115,510 acres held for tillage 18,961 or 16-84 per
ceat were fallow or under grass. Of the remaining 96,549 acres,
4790 were twice cropped. Of the 101,339 acres under tillage, grain
crops occupied 76,884 acres or ,75-86 percent of which 22,944 were
under spiked millet bdjri Penicillaria spicata, 43,470 under Indian
millet _/«ari Sorghum vulgare, 2438 under rdgi or ndchni Eleusine
corocana, 693 under wheat gahu Triticum asstivum, 1495 under
chenna sdva Panicum miliaceum, 726 under rice hhdt Oryza sativa,
2740 under Italian millet rdla or hdnff Panicum italicum, 662 under
maize makka 'Lea, mays, 221 under barley jia.« Hordeum hexastichon,
and 1495 under other grains of which details are not given. Pulses
occupied 14,126 acres or 13-93 per cent, of which 5020^ were under
gram harbhara Cieer arietiniim, 3226 under tur Oajanus indicus,
2442 under kulith or kulthi Dolichos biflorus, 1148 under udid
Phaseolus radiatus, 541 under mug Phaseolus mungo, 88 under peas
vdtdna Pisum sativum, and 1661 under other pulses. Oilseeds
occupied 4984 acres or 4"91 per cent, of which 27 were under linseed
alsJd Linum usitatissimum and 4957 un.der other oilseeds. Fibres
occupied 710 acres or 0-70 per cent, of which 39^ were under" cotton
kdpus Gossypium herbaceum, 376 under Bombay hemp san or idg;
Crotalaria juneea, and 295 under other fibres. Miscellaneous crops
occupied 4635 acres- or 4-57 per cent, of which 1530 were under
chillies mirehi Capsicum frutescens, 1303 under sugarcane m« Sae-
charum oflS.ciuarum, 1165 under tobacco tamkdkhu Nicotiana taba-
cum, and the remaining 637 under various vegetables and fruits.

The 1881 population returns show that of 140^920 people 135,599
or 96-22 per cent were Hindus, 5.315 or 3-77 per cent Musalmans,
and 6 Christians. The details of the Hindu castes are: 6727 Brdh-
mans ; 79 Kdyasth Prabhus and 30 Pd,tane Prabhus, writers ; 1775
Lingdyat Vd,nis, 443 Maratha Vinis, 372 Jains, 182 T^mbolis, 32
Mar war Vanis, 14 Gujarat Yanis, and 2 Komtis,, traders and mer-
chants j 83,435 Kunbis and 1609 Malis, husbandmen ; 2340Kumbhdrs,
potters; 2179 Cbdmbhdrs, leather-workers;2140 Koshtis, weavers ;
1494 Shimpis, tailors ; 1450 Telis, oil-men ; 1227 Sutara, carpenters ;
1124 S^is, weavers; 993 Soni,rs, goldsmiths; 739 Kdsars, bangle-
makers ; 633 Lobars, blacksmiths ; 463 Sangars, wool-weavers ; 332
Vaddrs, earth-diggers; 177 Buruds, bamboo-workers ; 72 Beldars,
quarrymen ; 55 Karanjkars, saddle-makers ; 28 Ild,uls, tape-makers ;
23 Ot^ris, casters; 17 Lonaris, cement-makers ; 10 Rangaris, dyers ;
3 Ghisidis, tinkers ; 2 Kanjdris, weaving brush-makers ; 1437
Guravs, priests ; 137 HoMrs, labourers ; 50 Ghadsis, musicians ;
1821 Nh^vis, barbers ; 1076 Parits, washermen; 3034 Dhangars,
cowmen; 46 Gavlis, cow-keepers; 791 Bhois, fishers; 342 Kolis,
ferrymen ; 103 Pardeshis, petty traders ; 82 Thd,kurs, husbandmen ;
1673 Edmoshis, watchmen ; 38 Vanjaris, husbandmen ; 10,740 Mhdrs,
village messengers ; 2598 Mangs, village watchmen j 200 Dhors,
tanners; 4 Bhangis, scavengers ; 393 GosAvis, 381 Jangams, 176
Joshis, 142 Gondhlis, 53 Mdnbhavs, 39 UchHs, 15 Ohitrakathis, 10
Tir malis, 9 Vaidus, aii!d 8 Bhats, beggars.

Klia'lia'pur^ in the east is bounded on the north by Khatav, on
the east by the Atpddi sub-division of the Pant Pratinidhi, on th^.

Chapter XIII,
Sub-Dirisioua.

KarXp.

Crops,
1881-8S.

People,
1381.

"KsksksxTB,,,

428

[Bombay Gazetteer>|

DISTRICTS.

Ghapter^XIII. south by T^sgaon, and on the west by Kardd. It has an area of 509
Sub-Divisions. square miles, a population in 1881 of 80,327 or 157 to the square
Khanapur. ^^^^' ^^^ ^^ 1^82 a land revenue of £16,632 (Rs. 1,66,320).

Area. Of the 609 square miles, 495 have been surveyed in detail.

According to the revenue survey returns, 100 square miles are
occupied by the lands of alienated villages. The rest contains
209,540 acres or 79-95 per cent of arable land, 12,746 acres or 4-86
per cent of unarable land, 190 acres or 008 per cent of grass, 32,340
acres or 12-34 per cent of forests, and 7253 acres or 277 per cent
of village sites, roads, rivers, and streams. From the 209,640 acres
of arable land 40,172 acres have to be taken on account of alienated
lands in Government villages.

Aspect. Khdn^pur is an upland 200 to 300 feet above the Karad

valley on the west and the great plain of the M^n on the east. It
is a fine rolling country but sparingly wooded except near the feeders
of the Terla which crosses the sub-division from north to south on
its way to the Krishna. The banks of these streams are shaded with
fine clumps of trees. The country, which is about two hundred and
fifty feet above the Krishna valley on the west, slopes gently to the
Yerla. To the east of the Yerla water-shed is a deeper valley at
Vita. Beyond the Vita valley, a rise of one hundred feet leads to
the eastern plateau of Khd,nApur proper. The Kh^n^pur upland, in
which the Agrani river rises, keeps its high level nearly to the
Mahimangad-Panala spur of the Mahadev range on the eastern limit.
Besides these varieties in height from east to west the country
following the course of the Terla slopes slowly south towards
Tasgaon,

Climate. The climate is fairly temperate except for occasional hot winds

from March to the middle of May. The rainfall is scanty and
uncertain, varying greatly from year to year and in different parts of
the sub-division. At Vita, the head-quarters of Khdndpur^ which
is about fifty miles east of the Sahyddri crest and forty-five miles
south-east of S^t^ra, during the ten years ending 1869-70 the rain-
fall varied from thirty-nine inches in 1862-68 to eleven inches in
1866-67 and averaged twenty-one inches ; and during the thirteen
years ending 1882-83 it varied from thirty-four inches in 1878-79
to eleven inches in 1876-77 and averaged twenty-four inches.

Water. Except the Yerla, which as mentioned runs northand south through

the centre of the sub-division, and the Agrani, there are no consi-
derable streams. Besides the ordinary means of watering from wells
and streams Khanapur has the Chikhli canal which stretches five
miles from a dam thrown across a feeder of the Terla at the village of
Chikhli. It has also the last mile of the Mayni canal which waters
the lands of the village of Mdhuli in the north-east. The ordinary
water-supply is often scanty in the hot weather, particularly in the
east.

jgffll The soil is either black or gray murum with its intermediate

varieties. The black soil, which occurs near rivers, yields first rate
crops oijvdri, gram, and oilseed. Wheat also is grown both on
watered and dry land especially on the eastern plateau. The poorer

Deccan.]

'SATlRA.

429

soils grow botli idj'ri and a late autumn jvdri called duhliri, which
though a hardy crop requires somewhat better soil than hajri.

According to the 1882-83 returns farm stock included eighty
riding and 1433 load carts, 711 two-bullock and 2486 four-bullock
ploughs, 25,081 bullocks and 15,153 cows, 3453 he-buffaloes and
7200 she-buffaloes, 1525 horses, 53,097 sheep and goats, and 322
asses.

In ] 882-83 the number of holdings, including alienated lands in
Government villages was 16,335 with an average area of 12-50 acres.
Of the whole number of holdings 4245 were of not more than five
acres; 3439 were of five to ten acres j 4914 were of ten to twenty
acres ; 2663 of twenty to thirty acres ; 987 of thirty to forty acres ;
80 of forty to fifty acres ; 4 of fifty to a hundred acres ; two of
100 to 200 acres ; and one of over 400 acres.

In 1881-82 of 164,577 acres held for tillage, 24,078 or 14-63 per
cent were fallow or under grass. Of the remaining 140,499 acres,
2058 were twice cropped. Of the 142,557 acres under tillage, grain
crops occupied 99,554 acres or 69'83 per cent of which 39,254
were under spiked millet hdjri Penicillaria spicata, 48,073 under
Indian millet jvdri Sorghum vulgare, 47 under rdgi or ndchni
Eleusine corocana, 6342 under wheat gahu Triticum ^stivum, 1559
under chenna sdva Panicum miliaceum, 484 under rice bhdt Oryza
sativa, ,1080 under Italian millet rdla or kdng Panicum italioum,
192 under maize maklia Zea mays, 42 under barley jav Hordeum
hexastichon, and 2472 under other grains of which details are not
given. Palses occupied 27,396 acres or 19'21 per cent of which
74'04 were under gram harbhara Cicer arietinum, 8120 under tur
Cajanus indicus, 3254 under hulith or Tculthl Dolichos biflorus, 1148
under udid Phaseolus radiatus, 207 under mug Phaseolus mungo,
54 under peas vdtana Pisum sativum, and 7209 under other pulses.
Oil-seeds occupied 10,015 acres or 7'02 per cent of which 29 were
under gingelly seed til Sesamum indicum, 51 under linseed ahhi
Linum usitatissimum, and 9935 under other oilseeds. Fibres
occupied 390 acres or 0'27 per cent of which 172 were under cotton
kdpus Gossypium herbaceum, 206 under Bombay hemp san or tag
Crotalaria juncea, and 12 under brown hemp ambddi Hibiscus canna-
binus. Miscellaneous crops occupied 5202 acres or 3'64 per cent, of
which 1252 were under chillies mirchi Capsicum frutescens, 838
under sugarcane us Saccharum ofBcinarum, 273 under tobacco tam-
hdJehu Nicotiana tabacum, 359 under hemp gdnja Cannabis sativa,
20 under safllower kusumba or Jcardai Carthamus tinctorius, and
the remaining 2460 under various vegetables and fruits.

The 1881 population returns show that of 80,327 people, 77,334
or 96-27 per cent were Hindus, 2989 or 3-72 per cent MusalmAas,
and 4 Jews. The details of the Hindu castes are: 2502 Brdhmans;
24 Kayasth Prabhus, writers; 1751 Lingayat V^nis, 406 Mar^tha
Vanis, 288 Tdmbolis, 278 Jains, 28 Marwdr Vanis, 17 Gujarat
Vdnis, and 5 Komtis, traders and merchants ; 45,460 Kunbis and
966 Mdlis, husbandmen ; 1605 Chdmbhdrs, leather workers ; 958
Sutars, carpenters ; 833 Kumbhars, potters ; 692 Koshtis, weavers ;
S37 Talis, oilmen 518 Sonars, goldsmiths ; 424 Shimpis, tailors ;

Chapter Xllt.

Sab-Divisions.

KhjInApub.
Stock. ,

Holdings,

Crops,
1881-8S.

People,
1881.

[Bombay Gazetteer^

Chapter XIIL

Sab-Divisions.

KhAnApuh.

People,
1881.

KhatIv.

Area,

Aspect.

Climate,

Water,

430

DISTEICTS.

361 Lohdrs, blacksmitlis ; 268 K^sars, bangle makers ; 182 Vadars;
earth diggers ; 167 Sangars, wool weavers ; 139 Sails, weavers ; 79
Beldars, quarrymen ; 67 Patharvats, stone dressers; 61 Baruds,
bamboo workers ; 50 Kdranjkars, saddle-makers ; 12 Otaris, casters ;
9 Lonaris, cement makers ; 5 Rangdris, dyers ; 5 Rauls, tape makers;
671 Guravs, priests ; 268 Holars, labourers ; 41 Ghadsis, musicians ;
1323 Nhdvis, barbers ; 675 Parits, washermen ; 3717 Dhangars
cowmen; 260 KoUs, ferrymen; 6 Bhois, fishers; 181 Pardeshis'
petty traders ; 45 Thakurs, husbandmen ; 2302 Ramoshis, watchmen ■
6204 Mhdrs, village messengers; 2223 Md,ngs, village watchmen;
170 Dhors, tanners; 355 Jangams, 129 GosAvis, 33 Bhd,ts, 16
Gondhlis, 12 Tirm^lis, and 6 Joshis, beggars.

Khata'v partly in the centre and partly in the east, is bounded on
the north by Phaltan and Mdn, on the east by Mdn and Atpddi, on
the south by Khdn^pur, and on the west by Kardd and, Koregaon.
It has an area of 499 square miles, a population in 1881 of 74,027
or 148 to the square mile, and in 1882 a land revenue of £15,464
(Rs. 1,54,640).

Of the 499 square miles, 415 have been surveyed in detail.
According to the revenue survey returns, 133 square miles are
occupied by the lands of alienated villages. The rest contains
192,893 acres or 82-33 per cent of arable land, 20,256 acres or 865
per cent of unarable land, 205 acres orO'09 per cent of grass, 13,063
acres or 5'57 per cent of forests, and 7874 acres or 3-36 per cent
of village sites, roads, rivers, and streams. Prom the 192,893
acres of arable land, 45,245 acres have to be taken on account of
alienated lands in Government villages.

Khatdv is a continuation to the northward of the Khdnd,pur
plateau, the northern half being of considerable height. It consists
wholly of the Yerla valley, the river rising at the northern point of
the sub-division and flowing through it from north to south. The
shape of the subdivision is a right-angled triangle with the southern
boundary for the base and two lines of hills running, the one due south
and the other south-east for the two sides. The western hills are
the higher, the eastern range though the descent into the Mdn valley
is considerable, rises but little above the KhatAv upland. With the
solitary exception of the singular fort of Bhushangad the south is
flat and bare compared with the well-wooded picturesque north.

The climate of the southern half is like that of KhAnApnr, that of
the northern half is damper and cooler. In no part is it unhealthy.
The rainfall is scanty and fitful, varying greatly from year to
year and during the same year in different parts of the sub-division.
At Vadu], the head-quarters of Khatav ^'hich is about forty-five
miles east of the Sahyadris and thirty miles nearly east of Satd.ra,
during the ten years ending 1869-70 the rainfall varied from twentyr
four inches in 1860-61 to nine inches in 1866-67 and averaged
seventeen inches ; and during the thirteen years ending 1882-83
it varied from thirty-six inches in 1877-78 to seven inches in
1879-80 and averaged twenty-one inches.

The Yerla is the only river of importance. Besides from wells
and rough fair weather dams the lands of Klatdv are watered by
the Yerla canals drawn from the lake at M^yni and the stone dai»

Deccan]

SATlRA.

431

at Kiatgaon. The lake at Nher is also completed. Except for
this artificial storage the water-supply is scanty and uncertain.

The soil is black near the Yerla and away from it is murum
of various varieties, often mixed with red. Thb black soil yields
jvdri, gram, and oilseed and when watered sugarcane. The out-
turn of the poorer soils, which is almost all bdjri, depends entirely
on the rainfall. When it succeeds bdjri is a valuable crop, but as
both scanty and untimely rain ruins it, the sub-division is very apt to
suffer from famine.

According to the 1882-83 returns farm stock included forty-one
riding and 1235 load carts, 288 two-bullock and 2771 four-bullock
ploughs, 23,362 bullocks and 12,773 cows, 1446 he-buffaloes and
4351 she-buffaloes, 1476 horses, 50,150 sheep and goats, and 561
asses.

In 1882-83 the number of holdings including alienated lands in
Government villages was 5095 with an average area of 35'93 acres.
Of the whole number of holdings 855 were of not more than five
acres ; 658 of five to ten acres ; 996 of ten to twenty acres ; 746 of
twenty to thirty acres ; 589 of thirty to forty acres ; 340 of forty to
fifty acres ; 629 of fifty to a hundred acres ; 225 of 100 to 200 acres j
33 of 200 to 300 acres ; 10 of 300 to 400 acres; and 14 of over 400
acres.

In 1881-82 of 140,035 acres held for tillage, 15,919 or 11-36
per cent were fallow or under grass. Of the remaining 124,116
acres 1779 were twice cropped. Of the 125,895 acres under
tillage, grain crops occupied 111,854 acres or 8884 per cent, of
which 94,034 were under spiked millet bdjri Penicillaria spicata,
10,854 under Indian millet jvdri Sorghum vulgare, 4387 under
wheat gahu Triticum sestivum, 229 under chenna sdva Panicum
miliaceum, 161 under rice bhdt Oryza sativa, 560 under maize
makka Zea mays, 94 under harley jav Hordeum hexastichon, and 1535
under other grains, of which details are not given. Pulses occupied
7400 acres or 5'87 per cent, of which 2587 were under gram
harbhara Cicer arietinum, 558 under iwr Cajanus indicus, 3114 under
kulith or kvlthi Dolichos biflorus, 149 under udid Phaseolus
radiatus, 3 under mug Phaseolus mungo, 22 under peas vdtdna
Pisum sativum, 2 under masur Brvum lens, and 965 under other
pulses. Oilseeds occupied 6045 acres or four per cent, of which
7 were under linseed alshi Linum usitatissimum and 5038 under
other oilseeds. Fibres occupied 9 acres, of which one was under
cotton kdpus Grossypium herbaceum and 8 under Bombay hemp nan
or tdg Crotalaria juncea. Miscellaneous crops occupied 1587
acres or 1'26 per cent, of which 734 were under chillies mirchi
Capsicum frutescens, 663 under sugarcane its Saccharum officinarum,
135 under tobacco tcmbdkhu Niootiana tabacum, 8 under hemp gdnja
Cannabis sativa, and the remaining 47 under various vegetables
and fruits.

The 1881 population returns show that of 74,027 people, 71,948 or
97-19 per cent were Hindus, 2072 or 2-79 per cent Musalmans,
and 7 Parsis. The details of the Hindu castes are : 4047 Brdhmans ;
22 P^t^ne Prabhus and 6 Kdyasth Prabhus, writers ; 1533 Lingayat

Chapter XIII<

Sub-Divisions*

KhatIv.

Soil.

Stock.

HoUingi.

Crops,
1881-82.

People,
1881,

[Bombay Gazetteer,

432

DISTRICTS.

Chapter XIII.
Snb-Divisions.

KhatAt.

P-eople,
1881.

KOREGAON.

Area.

AspecL

Climate,

Vdnis, 451 Jains, 274 Tambolis, 220 Maratta Vdnis, 24 M^rw^r
Vdnis, and 10 Gujardt Vdnis, traders and merchants ; 36,778 Kunbis
and 2978 Malis, liusbandnien ; 1355 Chd,mbMrs, leather workers ;i
1308 Koshtis, weavers ; 808 Kumbhdrs, potters ; 774 Sutdrs, carpen-|
tersj 753 Telis, oilmen; 715 Sonars, goldsmiths; 656 Sangars, wooll
weavers; 602 Shimpis, tailors ; 331 Lobars, blacksmiths ; 147 Kdsdrs,
bangle makers ; 144 VadArs, earth diggers ; 116 Beld&.rs, quarrymen ;
86 Buruds, bamboo workers; 42 Kdranjkars, saddle makers; 18
Bd,uls, tape makers ; 14 Ot^ris, casters ; 8 Londris, cement makers ;
4 Pdtharvats, stone-dressers ; 3 Ghis^dis, tinkers ; 726 Guravs,
priests; 123 Holers, labourers ; 22 Ghadsis, musicians; 1117Nh^vis,
barbers; 599 Parits, washermen; 2553 Dhangars, cowmen; 8 Gavlis,
cow-keepers; 277 Kolis, ferrymen; 63 Bhois, fishers; 54 Pardeshis'
petty traders; 6 Thdkurs and 880 Vanjdris, husbandmen; 3215
Edmoshis, watchmen ; 5521 Mhars, village messengers ; 2031
MdngSj village watchmen ;■ 153 Dhors, tanners ; 165 Jangams, 147
Gosivis, 36 Bhats, 13 Gondhlis, 7 Joshis, and 5 V^sudevs, beggars.

Koregaon in the centre is bounded on the north by Khandd,la and
Phaltan, on the east by Phaltan and Khatdv, on the south by
Kardd, and on the west by S^tara and W^i. It has an area of 340
square miles, a population in 1881 of 81,187 or 238 to the square
mile, and in 1882 a land revenue of £24,396 (Rs. 2,43,960).

Of the 340 square miles, 327 have been surveyed in detail.
According to the revenue survey returns, 53 square miles are
occupied by the lands of alienated villages. The rest contains
1,39,241 acres or 75" 74 per cent of arable land, 8162 acres or 4'44
per cent of unarable land, 28,036 acres or 15"25 per cent of forests,
and 8397 acres or 4'57 per cent of village sites, roads, rivers, and
streams. From the 139,241 acres of arable land 30,958 acres have
to be taken on account of alienated lands in Government villages.

Except on the south-west where the Krishna bounds it, Koregaon
is surrounded by hills which are highest towards the north and
north-west. The country is comparatively flat in the south, but
everywhere slopes gently towards the hills. A remarkable tongue
of hills passes from the north-west into the upper half of the sub-
division. The hills are thinly clothed with scrub towards the north,
but in the south-east are bare and exchange the abrupt hog and
saddle-backed ridges for rounded and detached summits. The val-
leys and plains of the western half are beautif ally studded with
clumps of mango trees and the gardens of Kumthe a village close
to Koregaon are renowned. The eastern portion is generally raised
and barer and more barren.

The climate is generally healthy but the rainfall is precarious..
The southern portion of Koregaon is decidedly warm in the hot
weather; otherwise the temperature is pleasant. At Koregaon,
which is about thirty-two miles east of the Sahy^dris and twelve
miles east of Sat^ra, during the ten years ending 1869-70, the rain-
fall varied from fifty-six inches in 1861-62 to eighteen inches in
1865-66 and averaged twenty-seven inches ; and during the thirteen
years ending 1882-83, it varied from thirty-eight inches in 1874-75
to twenty inches in 1872-73 and 1876-77 and averaged twenty-
seven inches.

Deccan]

SATARA.

433

The only river of imporfcance besides the Krishna is the Vdsna.
There are plenty of wells in the western half of the sub-division
as well as the Revd.di canal which is taken from a dam on the river
VAsna at a village about ten miles above Koregaon.^ In the east
the ground is hard and water difficult to obtain, and wells are
scanty.

Near the Krishna and Vdsna the soil is black and rich yielding
jvdri, gram, and tur and when watered sugarcane, condiments,
vegetables, and other garden produce. Near the hills the soil
becomes poor and more or less red or gray chiefly yielding idjri and
the coarser y war*.

According to the 1882-83 returns farm stock included 122 riding
and 1508 load carts, 1092 two-bullock and 1613 four-bullock
ploughs, 10,246 bullocks and 12,188 cows, 2092 he-buffaloes and 4577
she-buffaloes, 11 77 horses, 20,715 sheep and goats, and 309 asses.

In 1 882-83 the number of holdings including alienated lands in
Grovernment villages was 7016 with an average area of 19"65 acres.
Of the whole number of holdings 1930 were of not more than five
acres; 1396 of five to ten acres ; 1540 of ten to twenty acres ; 852
of twenty to thirty acres ; 488 of thirty to forty acres ; 266 of forty
to fifty acres ; 442 of fifty to a hundred acres ; eighty-one of 100 to
200 acres ; ten of 200 to 300 acres ; two of 300 to 400 acres, and
nine of over 400 acres.

In 1881-82, of 108,191 acres held for tillage, 9831 or 9-08 per cent
were fallow or under grass. Of the remaining 98,360 acres, 3736
were twice cropped. Of the 102,096 acres under tillage, grain
crops occupied 77,979 acres or 76'37 per cent, of which 40,829 were
under spiked millet bdjri Penicillaria spioata, 33,215 under Indian
millet jvdri Sorghum vulgare, 3423 under wheat gahu Triticum
sestivum, 21 under chenna sdva Panicum miliaceum, 73 under
rice bhdt Oryza sativa, 288 under Italian millet rdla or hdng
Panicum italicum, 114 under maiz;e makka Zea mays, and 16 under
barley jav Hordeum hexastichon. Pulses occupied 17,871 acres or
17'50 per cent, of which 6582 were under hulith or kuUhi Dolichoa
biflorus, 4833 under gram harbhara Cicer arietinum, 3207
under tur Cajanus indicus, 1516 under udid Phaseolus
radiatusj 97 under mug Phaseolus mungo, 12 under peas vdtdna
Pisum sativum; and 1624 under other pulses. Oilseeds occupied
4437 acres or 4'34 per cent of which 5.72, were under linseed alshi
Linum usitatissimum, and 3865 under other oilseeds. Fibres occupied
861 acres or 0'35 per cent of which 355 were Under Bombay hemp
san or tag Crotalaria juncea, and 6 under other fibres. Miscellaneous
crops occupied 1448 acres or 1*41 per cent of which 489 were under
chillies mirahi Capsicum frutescens, 715 under sugarcane us
Saccharum officinarum, 84 under tobacco tambdkhu Nicotiana taba-.
cum, and the remaining 160 under various vegetables and fruits.

The 1881 population returns show that of 81,187 people 78,988
or 97'29 per cent were Hindus, 2196 or 2' 70 per cent Musalm^ns,

ChapterXIir
Sub-Divisions

KOREGAON.

Water^
Soil.

Stock.

Holdings.

Crop),
1881-8S.

People^
1881.

' Details of the Revddi canal are given above under Irrigation, Chapter IV,
? 1282—55

[Bombay Gazetteer,

434

DISTRICTS.

Chapter XIII.
Sub-Divisions.

KOREQAOlf,

People,
1881.

MAN.

Area.

A gpect.

Climate,

2 Christians, and one Jew. The details of the Hindu castes are :,
3403 Brdhmans; 16 KAyasth Prabhus, writers ; 1222 Lingdyat Vdnis,|
310 Maratha Vdnis, 291 Jains, 252 Tambolis, 25 Marwdr Vdnis, and
7 Gujarat Vanis, traders and merchants; 47,525 Kunbis and 2379
Mdlis, husbandmen j 131 7 Chdmbhars, leather-workers ; 993 Kumbh^rs,
potters; 963 Telis, oilmen; 952 Sutdrs, carpenters; 745 Koshtis,
weavers ; 736 Sondrs, goldsmiths ; 601 Shimpis, tailors ; 345 Lohdrs,
blacksmiths ; 330 Kasars, bangle-makers ; 214 Vadiirs, earth-
diggers; 129 Sangars, wool-weavers ; 86 Belddrs, quarrymen; 57
Buruds, bamboo-workers; 33 Karanjkars, saddle-makers; 11 Otdris,
casters ; 10 Ghisddis, tinkers ; 9 Salis, weavers ; 819 Guravs, priests;
45 Ghadsis, musicians ; 8 HoMrs, labourers ; 1223 Nhavis, barbers;
662 Parits, washermen ; 1443 Dhangars, cowmen ; 284 Kolis, ferry-
men ; 26 Bhois, fishers; 76 Thdknrs, husbandmen; 17 Pardeshis,
petty traders; 2011 Ramoshis, watchmen; 6674 Mhars, village
messengers ; 1852 Mangs, village Watchmen ; 59 Dhors, tanners ;
5 Bhangis, scavengers ; 211 Gosdvis, 209 Joshis, 191 Jangams, 126
Gondhlis, 69 Uchlas, and 17 Tirmalis, beggars.

Ma'n in the north-east is bounded on the north by Phaltan and
Malsiras, on the east by Mdlsiras and Atpfidi, on the south by
Atpddi and KhatdV, and on the west by Khatdv. It has an area of
625 square miles, a population in 1881 of 52,111 or 83 to the square
mUe, and in 1882 a land revenue of £8420 (Rs. 84,200).

Of the 625 square miles, , 613 have been surveyed in detail.
According to the revenue survey returns, 27 square miles are
occupied by the lands of alienated villages. The rest contains
282,933 acres or 73-92 per cent of arable land, 47,842 acres or 12'50
per cent of unarable land, 1561 acres or0'40per cent of grass, 35,540
acres or 9'30 per cent of forests, and 14,870 acres or 3'88 per cent of
village sites, roads, rivers, and streams. From the 282,933 acres
of arable land 47,100 acres have to be taken on account of
alienated lands in Government villages.

Mdn is a lower level and on three sides is shut in by low hills.
At the best of times it is barren and desolate, sparsely wooded even
near the river and rock everywhere staring out from shallow
unfruitful soil. The north-west is saved froni the general ugliness
by fairly high hills at times forming picturesque groups, the tops
crowned by the forts of VArugad and Tdthvdda. Except in occasional
monsoon floods the beds of the Mdn and its feeders are dry. Only
in the fine gorge to the east of Dahivadi on the road to Shign^pur,
which is one of the prettiest spots in the district, do the streams
add anything to the landscape.

The climate is decidedly hotter than most of the district and is
more like Sholapur than Sdtdra. Prom March till June the hot winds
prevail and in May dust-storms are frequent. The rains consist
chiefly of periodical thunderstorms with intervals of incessant wind
and dust tempered with an occasional drizzle. The western rain
is seldom heavy. The fall is very uncertain an:I partial, sometimes
less than ten and seldom more than twenty to twenty-five inches.
At Dahivadi, the head-quarters of Man, which is about fifty-five
miles east of the Sahyadri crest and forty miles east of S^tdra,

Deccan]

SATlRA.

435

during the eight" years ending 1869-70 the rainfall varied from
twenty- four inches in 1862-63 to nine inches inl866-67 and averaged
sixteen inches; and during the thirteen years ending 1882-83 it
varied from thirty-three inches in 1874-75 to ten inches in 1876-77
and averaged twenty-one inches.

The Mdn is the only considerable stream. The ordinary sources
of water-supply are wretchedly precarious even for drinking.
The Rd.jevadi reservoir near Mhasvad will not supply this sub-
division, but the lake and canal at Pingli will admit of considerable
enlargement.

The area of black soil is small, and owing to the scanty rain and the
want of water-works what black soil there is yields but little. Most
of the rest of the soil is murum yielding hdjri which is easily spoilt '
by untimely rain. Mdn is subject to constant droughts and suffered
terribly in the 1876-77 famine. Every year large numbers of people
are forced to leave in search of work.

According to the 1882-83 returns farm stock included eighty-three
riding and 961 load carts, 600 two-bullock and 2610 four-bullock-
ploughs, 19,.568 bullocks and 14,413 cows, 1863 he-bufEakies: and;
2497 she-buffaloes, 1404 horses, 92,060 sheep and goats, and 414

asses.

In 1882-83 the number of holdings including alienated lands in
Government villages was 4800 with an average area of 57"06
acres. Of the whole number of holdings 323 were of not more
than five acres ; 301 of five to ten acres ; 740 of ten to twenty acres ;
756 of twenty to thirty acres ; 577 of thirty to forty acres ; 443 of
forty .to fifty acres; 1078 of fifty to a hundred acres; 457 of 100
to 200 acres ; eighty-three of 200 to 300 acres; twenty-three" of 300
to 400 acres ; and twenty-four of over 400 acres.

In 1881-82, of 227,339 acres held for tillage 36,266 or 15-07 per
cent were fallow or under grass. Of the remaining 191,073 acres,
6136 were twice cropped. Of the 197,209 acres under tillage, grain
crops occupied 161,673 acres or 81-98 per cent of which 122,952
were under spiked millet hdjri Penicillaria spicata, 25,777 under
Indian millet jvdri Sorghum vulgare, 1655 under wheat gahu
Triticum sestivum, 307 under chenna sdva Panicum miliaceum, 229
under rice hhdt Oryza sativa, 486 under Italian millet rdla or Mng
Panicum italicum, 860 under maize makka Zea mays, 451 under
barley yay Hordeum hexastichon, and 9006 under other grains of
which details are not given. Pulses occupied 28,207 acres or 14-30
per cent of which 1206 were under gram harbhara Cicer arietinum,
1715 under tur Cajanus indicus, 2692 under kulith or hulthi
Dolichos biflorus, one under peas vdtdna Pisum sativum, and
22,593 under other pulses. Oilseeds occupied 4361 acres or 2-21
per cent, of which 9 were under linseed alehi Linum usitatissimum,
and 4352 under other oilseeds. Fibres occupied 564 acres or 0-28
per cent, of which one was under cotton kdpus Grossypium herbaceum
and 563 under Bombay hemp san or tdg Crotalaria juncea. Miscellane-.
ous crops occupied 2404 acres or 1-21 per cent of which 634 were
under chillies mirchi Capsicum frutescens, 382 under sugarcane us.

Chapter XIII.
Sub-Divisions.

MiN.

Water.

Soil.

Stock,

Holdings.

Crops,
1881-8S.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

436

DISTEICTS.

Chapter XIII.
Sub-Divisions.

MAN.

PeoTple,
1881.

PAtan.

Area,

Aspect.

Climate,

Saccliaruni oflBcinarum, 94 under tobacco tambdkhu Nicotiana
tabacum, and the remaining 1294 under various vegetables and
fruits.

The 1881 population returns show that of 52,111 people 50,984
or 97-83 per cent were Hindus and 1127 or 2'16 per cent Mnsalmdns.
The details of the Hindu castes are: 1864 Brdhmans; 39 Kayasth
Prabhus, writers ; 673 Lingayat Vdnis, 225 Jains, 202 TAmbolis,
173 Mardtha VAnis, 22 Md,rwar Vdnis, and 16 Gujardt V^nis,
traders andmerchants ; 19,331 Kunbis and 3020Md.lis, husbandmen;
1438 Lonaris, cement makers ; 710 ChAmbb£rs, leather workers ;
502 Sangars, wool weavers ; 4 58 Kumbh^rs, potters ; 440 Sut^rs,
carpenters ; 402 Koshtis, weavers ; 399 Shimpis, tailors ; 312 Sondrs,
goldsmiths ; 298 Lohdrs, blacksmiths ; 220 Telis, oilmen; 156 Kas^rs,
bangle makers ; 102 Sdlis, weavers ; 69 "Vadars, earth diggers ; 27
Karanjkars, saddle makers; 18 Patharvats, stone-dressers; 17
Buruds, bamboo workers; and 8 Otdris, casters ; 687 Holars,
labourers ; 439 Guravs, priests ; 167 Ghadsis, musicians ; 636 Nhavis,
barbers ; 303 Parits; washermen ; 7160 Dhangars, cowmen ; 1 21 Kolis,
ferrymen ; 50 Bhois, fishers ; 51 Thd,kurs, husbandmen ; 38 Pardeshis,
petty traders ; 3070 Eamoshis, watchmen ; 951 Vanjd,ris,husbandmen;
3732 Mh^rs, village messengers ; 1719 Maugs, village watchmen ;
393 Dhors, tanners ; 181 Gosavis, 96 Jangams, 29 Gondhliis, and
20 Joshis, beggars.

Pa'tan in the south-east is bounded on the north by Jdvli and
S^tdra, on the east by Karad, on the south by Vdlva, and on the
west by Sangameshvar and Chiplun in Eatndgiri. It has an area of
431 square miles, a population in .1881 of 112,414 or 260 to the
square mile and in 1882 a land revenue of £15,600 (Es. 1,56,000).

Of the 43il square miles, 361 have been surveyed in detaiU
According to the revenue survey returns, 119 square miles are occupied
by the lands of alienated villages. The rest contains 117,693 acres
or 59"00percentofarableland, 5124 acres or2'57 per cent of unarable
land,72,3o6 acres or 36-27 percent of forests, and 4315 acres or 2-16
per cent of village sites, roads, rivers, and streams. From the 1 1 7,693
acres of arable land 19,989 acres have to be taken on account of
alienated lands in Government villages,

Patan like J^vli is hilly. The chief feature in the west is the
south-running Koyna valley with its lofty flanking hills. As ip,
Jdvli these ranges are full of beautiful hill and forest views though,
as in Javli over large areas the forests have been bared by Jcumri
tillage. At Helvak, about twelve miles west of P^^tan, the course
of the Koyna turns suddenly from south to east. On the east the
valleys of the Koyna Tarle and Kole open into the plain,s of the
Krishna, and in appearance an,d soil the country is like the west of
Kardd.

The climate is cool and healthy in the hot weather, but the chilly
damp of the rains makes it feverish. The rainfall on the western
ridge of the Sahyadris is at least as heavy as at Mahdbaleshvar.
At Pdtan which is fifteen miles east of the Sabyadris and
twenty-two miles nearly south of SdtSra, during the eight years

Deccan]

SlTlRA.

437

ending 1869-70 the rainfall varied from eighty-five inches in 18G3-64
to forfcy-two inches in 1867-68 and averaged fifty-eight inches, and
during the thirteen years ending 1882-83 it varied from 102 inches
in 1882-88 to thirty-nine inches in 1880-81 and averaged sixty-
five inches,

Besides the Koyna the only considerable river is the Tarle
which rises in the north-east of the sub-division above the
large village of the same name. These rivers and their feeders
furnish abundance of water to the villages on ajid near their
banks. Away from the rivers, both on the tops of the hills and
in the valleys, especially during March April and May water is
scarce.

The soil of the eastern valleys is good and yields both early and
late crops chiefly jvdri and groundnuts and when watered sugarcane.
The rest of the soil is red and except in the hollows where rice
and sometimes sugarcane are grown, is under wood-ash tillage.

According to the 1882-83 returns farm stock included fifty-seven
riding and 1137 load carts, 7864 two-bullock and 2336 four-
bullock ploughs, 25,379 bullocks and 19,050 cows, 6163 he-buffaloes
and 9459 she-buffaloes, 820 horses, 14,933 sheep and goats, and
thirty-three asses.

In 1882-83 the number of holdings including alienated lands in '
Government villages was 15,021 with an average area of 7'57 acres.
Of the whole number 6271 were of not more than five acres; 3084
of five to ten acres; 2621 of ten to twenty acres; 2007 of twenty
to thirty acres; 918 of thirty to forty acres ; 119 of forty to fifty
acres ; and one of fifty to a hundred acres.

In 1881-82, of 85,814acres held for tillage 38, 464, or 44-64 per cent
were fallow or under grass. Of the remaining 47,350 acres, 5498
were twice cropped. Of the 52,848 acres iinder tillage, grain crops
occupied 43,154 acres or 81'65 per cent, of which 1423 were under
spiked millet bdjri Penicillaria spicata, 11,596 under Indian millet
jvdri Sorghum vulgare, 16,172 under rdgi or ndchni Eleusine
corocana, 593 under wheat gahu Triticum aestivum, 84 under chenna
sdva Panicum miliaceum, 5036 under rice hhdt Orjza sativa, 1200
under Italian millet rdla or kdng Panicum italicum, 5530 under
maize makka Zea mays, 20 under barley jav Hordeum hexastichon,
and 1500 under other grains of which details are not given. Pulses
occupied 7563 acres or 14'31 per cent, of which 1182 were under
gram harlJiara Gicer arietinum, 1928 under tur Cajanus indicus, 100
under Jculith or kultJd Dolichos biflorus, 3124 under udid Phaseolus
radiatusj 300 under mug Phaseolus mungo, 100 under peas vdtdna
Pisum sativum, 125 under masur Brvum lens, and 704 under other
pulses. Oilseeds occupied 505 acres or 0'95 per cent, of which 5
were under linseed alshi Linum usitatissimum, and 500 under
other oilseeds. Fibres occupied 97 acres or 0'18 per cent, of which
89 were under Bombay hemp san or tag Crotalaria juncea and
8 under other fibres. Miscellaneous crops occupied 1529 acres or
289 per cent, of which 875 were under chillies mirchi Capsicum
frutesoens, 530 under sugarcane us Saccharum oflBcinarum, 13 under

Chapter_XIII.
Sub-Divisions.

Patan.

Water.

Soil.

Stock.

Holdings.

Crops,
1881-8H.

IBombay Gazetteer,

438

DISTEICTS.

Chapter XIII. tobacco tambdkhu Nicotiana tabacum, and tie remaining 111 under

Sub-Divisions. various vegetables and fruits.

Patan. The 1881 population returns show that of 112^414 people 110,788

People, or 98-55 per cent were Hindus and 1626 or 1-44 per cent Musalmans.

1881. The details of the Hindu castes are : 2265 Brdhmans ; 29 P^tane

Prabhus, writers ; 947 Lingdyat Vdnis, 286 TAmbolis, 270 Maratha
Vdnis, 218 Jains, 37 Komtis, 25 Marwar Vdnis, and 9 Gujarat
Vanis, traders andmerchants j 74,615 Kunbis and 193Malis, husband-
men j 1499 Kumbhars, potters; 1230 Sutdrs, carpenters; 1013
Chambhars, leather workers ; 893 Lobars, blacksmiths ; 820 Talis,
oilmen; 713 Shimpis, tailors; 597 Sonars, goldsmiths; 514 SAhs
and 243 Koshtis, weavers; 155 Sangars, wool weavers,- 146
Kasdrs, bangle makers ; 101 Buruds, bamboo workers ; 94 Vadd.rs,
earth diggers ; 76 Patvekars, tassel makers ; 49 Ghis^dis, tinkers ;
44 Kdranjkars, saddle makers ; 41 Beldars, quarrymen; 19 Eauls,
tape-makers; 14 Otaris, casters; 9 Pdtharvats, stone dressers; 1310
Gruravs, priests ; 16 Ghadsis, musicians ; 7 Holars, labourers ; 1315
Nhavis, barbers ; 729 Parits, washermen ; 4280 Dhangars, cowmen ;
1028 Kolis, ferrymen; 195 Bhois, fishers; 32 Pardeshis, petty
traders ; 18 Thakurs, husbandmen ; 279 Rdmoshis, watchmen ;
11,999 Mhars, village messengers; 1860 Mdngs, village watchmen;
,19 Dhors, tanners; 2 Bhangis, scavengers; 191 Jangams, 123
Gosavis, 118 Gondhlis, 80 Joshis, and 23 Kolhatis, beggars.

Sa'ta'ra in the centre of the district is bounded on the north by
Javli and Wd,i, on the east by Koregaon and the Krishna, on the
south by Karad and Pdtan, and on the west by JAvli. It has an
area of 320 square miles.a population in 1881 of 119,913 or 374 to the
square mile, and in 1882 a land revenue of £24,916 (Rs. 2,49,160).

Of the 320 square miles, 262 have been surveyed in detail.
According to the revenue survey returns, 97 square miles are
occupied by the lands of alienated villages. The rest contains
108,708 acres or 76"11 per cent of arable land, 5369 acres or 3'76
per cent of unarable land, 22,665 acres or 15'87 per cent .of forests
and 6090 acres or 4'26 per cent of village sites, roads, rivers, and
streams. From the 108,708 acres of arable land 43,253 acres have
to be taken on account of alienated lands in Government villages.

Aspect. Sdtara consists of the three valleys of the Krishna, Vena, and

Urmodi rivers. The two latter run from north-west to" south-east
and are enclosed by three compact ranges of straight ridged hills
running parallel to the rivers and from 1500 to 2000 feet in height.
A lower range separates the upper half of this sub-division from that
of Koregaon, while the Krishna forms the boundary of the lower half.
The valleys are open and slope gently to the very foot of the hills
which rise extremely steep and are crowned with fortress-like
summits. The hills are bare but the valleys are studded with
clumps of mangoes, and hdbhuls grow plentifully on the banks, of
the Krishna in the south-east.

Climat*. The climate is healthy. During March and April there is consi-

derable heat and glare particularly at the foot of the hills during the
day, but the nights are nearly always cooled by the sea breeze.

SAtAra.

Area.

Deccan.]

SATlRA.

439

During the south-west monsoon, though this is probably the least
healthy season of the year the temperature is delicious. At Satdra,
which is a.bout twenty miles east of the Sahyddris, during the ten
years ending 1869-70 the rainfall varied from forty-six inches in
1861-62 to twenty-nine inches in 1862-63 and averaged thirty-six
inches ; and during the thirteen years ending 1882-83 it varied from
fifty-eight inches in 1882-83 to twenty-nine inches in 1880-81 and
averaged forty inches.

The rivers are the Krishna and its feeders the Yenna and Urmodi.
Water is generally abundant, except in the town of Sdtdra ; the
well water is sweet and good. The Kas water works, which are
nearly completed, will remove the deficiency of water at Satara.

The soil of the land bordering on the rivers is black and rich.
Towards the east as it nears the hills it becomes shallower and poorer
and mixed with murum or gray soil till at last the mdlrdn or poorest .
quality is reached. On the west as it approaches the hill the soil
in like manner becomes poorer, but is more mixed with red than
with gray soil. The black soil yields the stenple jvdri, gram, and tur
Cajanus indicus. The poorer soils yield the inferior qualities of
jvdri and bdjri, while in the west rice is grown at the foot of the hills.

According to the 1882-83 returns farm stock included 365 riding,
and 1591 load carts, 2577 two-bullock and 1975 four-bullock ploughs,
24,080 bullocks and 15,668 cows, 1960 he-buffaloes and 10,165
she-bufEaloes, 1292 horses, 20,571 sheep and goats, and 444 asses.

In 1882-83 the number of holdings including alienated lands in
Government villages was 7947 with an average area of 13'66 acres.
Of the whole number of holdings 3156 were of not more than five
1633 of five to ten acres; 1586 of ten to twenty acres;

acres ;

133 of twenty to thirty acres; 260 of thirty to forty acres; 748 of
forty to fifty acres; 278 of fifty to a hundred acres; 108 of 100 to
200 acres; twenty-two of 200 to 300 acres ; seven of 300 to 400
acres ; and sixteen of over 400 acres.

In 1881-82, of 67,473 acres held for tillage, 14,041 or 20-80 per
cent were fallow or under grass. Of the remaining 53,432 acres
1677 were twice cropped. Of the 55,109 acres under tillage, grain
crops occupied 45,062 acres or 81*76 per cent, of which 12,639 were
under spiked millet bdjri Penicillaria spicata, 22,739 under Indian
millet jvdri Sorghum vulgare, 2022 under rdgi or ndchni Eleusine
corocana, 1373 under wheat gahu Triticum sestivum, 2893 under
chenna sdva Panicum miliaceum, 1402 under rice bhdt Oryza sativa,
1192 under Italian millet rdla or hdng Panicum italicum, one under
maize makJca Zea mays, 77 under barley jav Hordeum hexastichon,
and 724 under other grains of which details are not given. Pulses
occupied 5605 acres or 10'17 per cent, of which 1071 were under
gram harbhara Cicer arietinum, 1156 under tur Oajanus indicus,
1773 under kulith or kulthi Dolichos biflorus, 482 under udid
Phaseolus radiatus, 906 under mug Phaseolus mungo, 16 under peas
vdtdna Pisum sativum, 15 under masur Brvum lens, and 180 under
other pulses. Oilseeds occupied 2752 acres or 4'99 per cent, of
which 21 were under linseed alsM Linum usitatissimum and 2781

Chapter^XIII.

Sub-Divisions.

SAtaba.
Climate.

Water.

Spil.

Stock,

Holdings.

Crops,
1881-82.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

440

DISTRICTS.

Chapter XIII.
Snb- Divisions.

SatjLra.

People,
1881.

Tasgaon.

Area.

Aspect.

under otter oilseeds. Fibres occupied 310 acres or 0'56 pet cent,
of whicli 304 were under Bombay hemp san or tag Crotalaria juncea
and six under other fibres. Miscellaneous crops occupied 1380
acres or 2-50 per cent, of which 637 were under chillies mirchi
Capsicum fratescens, 542 under sugarcane us Saccharum ofBci-
narnm, 54 under tobacco tambdkhu Nicotiana tabacumj and the
remaining 147 under various vegetables and fruits.

The 1881 population returns show that of 119,913 people 113,985
or 95"05 per cent were Hindus, 5305 or 4'42 per cent Musalmdns,
527 or 0'43 per cent Christians, 48 Parsis, 29 Sikhs, 16 Jews, and
3 Buddhists. The details of the Hindu castes are : 9020 Brahmans ;
91 Kayasth Prabhus and 42 Patane Prabhus, writers ; 1082
Lingd,yat Vd,nis, 472 Jains, 446 Maratha Vdnis, 329 Td,mbolis, 80
Komtis, 68 Gujard,t Vdnis, and 34 Mdrwdr Vanis, traders and
merchants; 68,853Kunbis and 2069 Mdlis, husbandmen; 1705Shimpis,
tailors; 1365 Telis, oilmen; 1321 Chd.mbhd,rs, leather workers;
1268 Kumbhdrs, potters; 1243 Sonars, goldsmiths; 1001 Sutdrs,
carpenters; 692 Lobars, blacksmiths; 627 Kas^rs, bangle-makers;
269 Vaddrs, earth diggers ; 190 Sangars, wool-weavers ; 178
Buruds, bamboo workers; 176 Lonaris, cement makers; 128
Koshtis, weavers; 103 Karanjkars, saddle-makers; 84 Ghisadis,
tinkers ; 77 Sdlis, weavers ; 70 Patvekars, tassel makers ; 25 Otdris,
casters ; 7 Rangdris, dyers ; 3 Beld^rs, quarrymen ; 3 RAuls, tape
makers; 1048 Guravs, priests ; 154 Holdrs, labourers ; 68 Ghadsis,
musicians ; 1377 Nhavis, barbers ; 987 Parits, washermen ; 2552
Dhangars, cowmen ; 153 Gavlis, cowkeepers ; 415 Bhois, fishers ;
242 Kolis, ferrymen; 315 Pardeshis, petty traders; 1001 Rdmoshis,
watchmen ; 6 Kaikddis, basket makers ; 8240 Mhars, village
messengers ; 2477 Mdngs, village watchmen ; 292 Dhors, tanners ;
81 Bhangis, scavengers; 589 Gosdvis, 378 Jangams, 122 Gondhlis,
116 Joshis, 112 Bhats, 55 Bhutyas, 43 Chitrakathis, 36 Kolhd,tis, 25
Vasudevs, 11 Tirmdlis, 9 Gopals, 5 Mdnbhavs, and 5 Uchlas, beggars.

Ta'sgaon in the south-east is broken up by many patches of
SAngli and Miraj. It is bounded on the north by Khdndpur, on the
east by Jath Sangli and Miraj villages, on the south by Sangli and
Miraj, and on the west by Valva. It has an area of 323 square
miles, a population in 1881 of 79,704 or 246 to the square mile, and
a land revenue in 1882 of £17,437 (Rs. 1,74,370).

Of the 323 square miles, 320 have been surveyed in detail.
According to the revenue survey returns, 52 square miles are
occupied by. the lands of alienated villages. The rest contains
144,902 acres or 83'52 per cent of arable land, 10,348 acres or 5'97
per cent of unarable land, 516 acres or 0"30 per cent of grass, 11,518
acres or 6'64 per cent of forests, and 6200 acres or 3"57 per cent of
village sites, roads, rivers, and streams. From the 144,902 acres of
arable land 25,252 acres have to be taken on account of alienated
lands in Government villages.

All of it is rather low, chiefly the land near the meeting of the
Yerla and Krishna. The northern and eastern portions are rocky
and barren cut by ranges of low hills which branch from the
Khand.pur plateau. The west and south-west on and near the great

Oeccan]

Si-TlRA.

rivers form a continuation of the rich plain of the eastern Valva, and Chapter XIII.
like it are well wooded with mango and bdbhul. Sub- Divisions.

The climate is perhaps somewhat warmer than in the east of the Tasgaon,

district, though the heat is at no time considered severe and trying CUmatfi.

nights are rare. Especially in the east the rainfall is variable and
precarious. At Td.sgaon, which is about fifty miles east of the Sahyadri
crest and sixty miles south-east of Satdra, during the eight years
ending 18(59-70 thei-ainfall varied from thirty-four inches in 1862-63
to thirteen inches in 1 865-66 and averaged twenty-three inches ; and
dui'ing the thirteen years ending 1882-83 it varied from forty-seven
inches in 1882-83 to seven inches in 1876-77 and averaged twenty-
six inches.

The only important rivers are the Krishna forming the western Wator.

boundary, and the Yerla which enters, near the middle of the sob- .
division from the north. In the west near the rivers the water-
supply is good and the means of irrigation are fairly plentiful, while
the extreme end of the Krishna canal penetrates into the north-west
corner of the sub-division. The eastern portion is very badly off,
water being wholly dependent on the uncertain rainfall.

Near the Krishna and Terla the soil is rich black as fine as any Soil.

in the district. It bears the usual crops of jvdri and gram besides
oilseed groundnut and cotton and when watered sugarcane and
condiments. Towards the north-east the soil is rocky and barren
and as in KhdnApur hdjri and late jodri are grown with wheat in
favoured spots.

According to the 1882-83 returns farm stock included twenty- Stock.

six riding and 2144 load carts, 238 two-bullock and 1232 four-
bullock ploughs, 17,544 bullocks and 8700 cows, 2190 he-buffaloea
and 7479 she-buffaloes, 1186 horses, 26,554 sheep and goats, and
286 asses.

In 1882-83 the number of holdings including alienated 'lands in Holdings.

Government villages was 6064 with au average area of 23" 15 acres.
Of the whole number of holdings 928 were of not more than five
acres; 1125 of five to ten acres; 1614 of ten to twenty acres;
1017 of twenty to thirty acres; 520 of thirty to forty acres ; 337
of forty to fifby acres ; 403 of fifty to a hundred acres ; 101 of 1 00
to 200 acres ; ten of 200 to 300 acres ; seven of 300 to 400 acres ;
and two of over 400 acres.

In 1831-82 of 115,234 acres held for tillage, 12,933 or 11-22 per Crop»,

cent were fallow or under grass. Of the remaining 102,301 acres 1881-8S,

177 were twice cropped. Of the 102,478 acres under tillage,
grain crops occupied 11,0X1 acres or 75'64 per cent of which
10,843 were under spiked millet hdjri Penicillaria spicata, 60,524
under Indian millet jvdri Sorghum vulgare, 177 under rdgi or
ndchni Eleusine corocana, 4535 under wheat gahu Triticum sestivum,
169 under rice bhdt Oryza sativa, 177 under Italian millet rdla or
hang Panicum italicum, 954 under maize makha Zea mays, and 138
Under barley jav Hordeum hexastiohon. Pulses occupied 16,243
acres or 15"81 per cent of which 6705 were under gram harbhara

B 1282-56

[Bombay Gazetteer,

442

DISTEICTS.

Chapter ZIII.
Sub-SivisionS'

TASGAON.

Crops,
1881-80.

People,
1881,

VXlva.

A7'ea,

Cicer arietinunij 6017 under tur Oajanua indicugj 2057 under
hulith or kulthi DolicBos bifloras, and 1464 under other pulses.
Oilseeds occupied 3209 acres or 3' 13 per cent of which 4 were
under linseed alshi Linum usitatissimum and 3205 under other
oilseeds. Fibres occupied 3388 acres or 3'30 per cent of which
3233 were under cotton kdpus Grossypium herbaceunij 45 under
Bombay hemp san or tdg Orotalaria juncea^ and 110 under other
fibres. Miscellaneous crops occupied 2121 acres or 2'06 per cent
of which 353 were under chillies mirchi Capsicum frutescenSj 560
under surgarcane us Saccharum oflBcinarum, 1006 under tobacco
tambdkhu Nicotiana tabacum, and the remaining 202 under various
vegetables and fruits.

The 1881 population returns show that of 79,704 people 75,743
or 95-03 per cent were Hindus, 3955 or 4-96 per cent Musalmdns,
and six PArsis. The details of the Hindu castes are : 4408 Brdhmans ;
15 Kayasth Prabhus, writers ; 6234 Jains, 3700 Lingayat Vanis,
205 Mardtha Vanis, 188 TamboUs, 23 Mdrwdr Vanis, 9 Gujardt
Vanis, and 3 Komtis, traders and merchants ; 33,197 Kunbis and
2855 Mdlis, husbandmen ; 1681 Chambhdrs, leather workers ; 1418
Koshtis, weavers; 997 Shimpis, tailors; 971 Sut^rs, carpenters ;
759 Telis, oilmen; 711 Kumbhars, potters; 577 Sonars, goldsmiths;
413 Lohdrs, blacksmiths ; 312 Vadars, earth-diggers ; 260 Sangars,
wool weavers ; 95 Buruds, bamboo-workers ; 84 Rauls, tape makers ;
72 Karanjkars, saddle makers ; 71 Kas^rs, bangle makers ; 70 SAlis,
weavers ; 55 Belddrs, quarrymen ; 43 Londris cement makers ; 27
Ghisadis, tinkers ; 22 Otaris, casters ; 9 Patharvats, stone dressers ;
8 Rangdris, dyers ; 641 Guravs, priests ; 95 Holers, labourers ; 61
Ghadsis, musicians; 1247 Nhd.vis, barbers ; 454 Parits, washermen;
3167 Dhangars, cowmen ; 47 Gavlis, cow-keepers ; 779 Kolis, ferry-
men ; 84 Bhois, fishers ; 162 Pardeshis, petty traders; 11 Thd.kurs,
husbandmen; 1361 Rdmoshis, watchmen ; 111 Vanjdris, husband-
men; 5547 Mhars, village messengers; 1619 Mdngs, village
watchmen; 126 Dhors, tanners; 3 Bhangis, scavengers; 357
Jangams, 168 Gondhlis, 115 Gosavis, 44 Chitrakdthis, 33 Bhdts,
10 Vasudevs, and 9 Joshis, beggars.

Va'lva in the extreme south-west is bounded on the north by
Patau Karad and Khdndpur, on the east by Tasgaon and Sdngli,
on the south by the Vdrna and beyond the Varna by Kolhapur, and
on the west by the Vd,rna and beyond the V^rna by Kolhdpur and
Sangameshvar in Ratnagiri. It has an area of 545 square miles, a
population in 1881 of 169,408 or 310 to the square mile, and in
1882 a land revenue of £44,133 (Rs. 4,41,330).

Of the 645 square miles, 502 have been surveyed in detail.
According to the revenue survey returns, 128 square miles are
occupied by the lands of alienated villages. The rest contains
211,190 acres or 79'06 per cent of arable land, 2968 acres or I'll
per cent of unarable land, 1491 acres or 0'56 per cent of grass,
31,777 acres or 11'89 per cent'of forests, and 19,722 acres or 7'38
per cent of village sites, roads, rivers, and streams. Prom the
211,190 acres of arable land 46,312 acres have to be taken on
account of alienated lands in Government villages.

Deccan.]

sItIra.

443

Valva is in two parts, the Krislina and lower Varna valley in
tlie east and tlie upper Varna valley in the west. The lower valley
is a black soil plain and the upper valley is hilly and in the extreme
west has some of the densest forest in Satdra. As in Patan and
Javli the beauty of the western hills and forests is marred by
stretches left bare by humri. Much of the east is one great garden
adorned by mango groves and by the long still reaches of the bdbhul~
fringed Krishna.N

The heat is nowhere severe. In the east the climate is about the
same as, perhaps a little warmer than, in Kardd, while the west is a
hill climate, feverish in the rains and delicious in the hot months.
The rainfall is much heavier in the west than in the east. At Peth,
which is about twenty-five miles east of the Sahyddris and forty-two
miles south of Satara, during the ten years ending 1869-70 the rain-
fall varied from twenty-seven inches in 1869-70 to twelve inches in
1862-63 and averaged seventeen inches; and during the thirteen
years ending 1882-83 it varied from forty-one inches in 1882-83 to
thirteen inches in 1876-77 and averaged twenty-seven inches. At
Shirala which is about twenty miles east of the Sahyadris and eight
miles south-west of Peth, during the seventeen years ending 1882-83
the rainfall varied from fifty-seven inches in 1882-83 to twenty-
three inches in 1871-72 and averaged thirty-four inches.

The only two important rivers are the Krishna flowing south-east
and the Varna, which, rising in the Sahyddris, flows duo east and
joins the Krishna a few miles beyond the south-east corner of the
sub-division. Except near the hills on rocky soils away from rivers
the water-supply is fair. The Krishna canal runs through the ten
miles to the north-east of the Krishna between KarAd and Tasgaon.

The Krishna and lower Varna valleys have magnificent black soil
like that of Karad, growing much the same crops, jvdri and gram
the staple dry-crops and sugarcane and condiments where watered.
Cotton and groundnuts are also grown, while in the hills rice, ndchni,
and other humri grains are the usual crops.

According to the 1882-83 returns farm stock included 227
riding and 2664 load carts, 3368 two-bullock and 3070 four-
bullock ploughs, 30,857 bullocks and 15,998 cows, 7318 he-
buffaloes and 13,073 she-buffaloes, 1761 horses, 49,384 sheep and
goats, and 974 asses.

In 1882-83 the number of holdings, including alienated lands in
Government villages, was 7597 with an average area of 26'95
acres. Of the whole number of holdings 1814 were of not more
than five acres; 1569 of five to ten acres ; 1612 of ten to twenty
acres ; 929 of twenty to thirty acres ; 566 of thirty to forty acres ;
359 of forty to fifty acres ; 517 of fifty to a hundred acres ; 173 of
100 to 200 acres ; forty-four of 200 to 300 acres;- ten of 300 to 40O
acres, and four of over 400 acres.

In 1881-82 of 158,553 acres held for tillage, 33,719 or 21-26- per
cent were fallow or under grass. Of the remaining 124,834 acres
7585 were twice cropped. Of the 132,419 acres under tillage
grain -crops occupied 93,158 acres or 70'35 per cent of which 6893

Chapter XIII.

Sub-Divisiona.

VAlva.
Aspect.

Climate.

Water.

Soil.

Stock.

Crops,
1881-8^.

[Bombay Gazetteer,
444 DISTRICTS.

Chapter XIII. were under spiked millet hdjri Penicillaria spicata, 38,279 under
Sab-Divisions- Indian millet judri Sorghum vulgare, 9140 under rdgi or ndchni
Eleusine corocana, 5656 under wheat gahu Triticum asstivum,
■ 4091 under chenna sdua Panicum miliaceum, 6139 under rice bhdt

1S81-8S Oryza sativa, 5455 under Italian millet rdla or hdng Panicum

italicum, 1072 under m^aize makka Ties, mays, 145 under barley j<iv
H'ordeum hexastichon, and 17,288 under other grains of which
details are not given. Pulses occupied 18,531 acres or 13'99 per
cent of which 12,584 were under gram harbhara Cicer arietinum,
2611 under tur Cajanus indicus, 230 under kulith or kulthi
Dolichos biflorus, 1825 under udid Phaseolus radiates, 695 under
mug Phaseolus mungo, 95 under peas vdtdna Pisum sativum, and
491 under other pulses. Oilseeds occupied 3437 acres or 2*59 per
cent of which 17 were under linseed alshi Linum usitatissimum,
and 3420 under other oilseeds. Fibres occupied 8230 acres or 6"21
per cent of which 7145 were under cotton kdpus Gossypium
herb'aceum, 133 under Bombay hemp san or tdg Crotalaria juncea,
and 952 under brown hemp amhddi Hibiscus cannabinus. Miscella-
noous crops occupied 9063 acres or 6"84 per cent of which 2531 were
under chillies mircM Capsicum frutescens, 2199 under sugarcane
ws Saccharum officinarum, 3815 under tobacco tambdkhu Nicotiana
tabacum, and the remaining 518 under various vegetables and
fruits.
People, The 1881 population returns show that of 169,408 people

^**'- 162,105 or 95-68 per cent were Hindus, 7289 or 4-30 per cent

Musalmans, and 14 Christians. The details of the Hindu castes are ;
6220 Brdhmans; 51 Kayasth Pi'abhus and 30 Pdtdne Prabhus,
writers ; 5990 Jains, 4014 Lingdyat Vanis, 478 Mardtha Vanis, 225
Tdmbolis, 29 Md,rwar Vdnis, and 8 Gujarat Vdnis, traders and
merchants; 93,178 Kunbis and 2659 Md,lis, husbandmen; 2850
Chdmbhars, leather workers; 2180 Kumbhdrs, potters; 1891
Shirapis, tailors ; 1874 Sutdrs, carpenters ; 1352 Koshtis, weavers ;
1304 Telis, oilmen ; 1212 Sonars, goldsmiths ; 750 Sdlis, weavers ;
735 Lohdrs, blacksmiths; 668 Yadars, earth diggers ; 373 Lonaris,
Cement makers ; 220 Kdsars, bangle makers ; 155 Sangars, wool
Weavers ; 148 Buruds, bamboo workers ; 145 BeldArs, quarrymen ;
122 Kdranjkars, saddle makers ; 84 Otdris, casters; 63 Pd,tharvats,
stone dressers ; 25 Eduls, tape makers ; 7 Rangdris, dyers ;
1543 Guravs, priests ; 83 Ghadsis musicians ; 78 HoMrs, labourers ;
2117 Nhavis, barbers; 1070 Parits, washermen; 5879 Dhangars,
cowmen ; 19 Gavlis, cowkeepers ; 654 Kolis, ferrymen ; 255 Bhois,
fishers; 216 Pardeshis, petty traders; 48 Thakurs, husbandmeu ;
1622 Ramoshis, watchmen ; 66 Vanjdris, husbandmen ; 14,669
Mhdrs, village messengers; 3129 MAngs, village watchmen; 206
Dhors, tanners; 8 Bhangis, scavengers; 657 Jangams, 323
Gosdvis, 198 Bhats, 112 Joshis, 47 Gondhlis, 37 Uchlas, 23
Mdnbhdvs, 11 Kolhdtis, and 5 Vd,sudevs, beggars.
Wii. Wa'i in the extreme north-west is bounded on the north by Bhor

and the Nira and beyond the Nira by Mdval in Poona, on the east by
Phaltan and Koregaom, on the south by Satara and Jdvli, and on the
west hy Bhor. It has an area of 390 square miles, a population ra

Deccan.l

Si-TiRA.

445

1881 of 88,610 or227to the square mile, and in 1882 a land revenue
of £19,656 (Rs. 1,95,560).

Of the 390 square miles 340 have been surveyed in detail.
According to the revenue - survey returns, 82 square miles are
occupied by the lauds of alienated villages. The rest contains
130,008 acres or 65-91 per cent of arable la,nd, 13,456 acres or 6-82
per cent of unarable laud, 46,077 acres or 23"36 per cent of forestSj
and 7698 acres or 3-91 per cent of village sites, roads, rivers, and
stream*. From the 130,008 acres of arable land 29,003 acres have
to be taken on account of alienated lands in Government villages.

Wd,i is surrounded and crossed in a number of directions by spurs
of the Sahyadris while it is divided by the Mahddev range into two
halves belonging to the valleys of the Krishna and Nira rivers.
The Krishna half is decidedly the more fertile and pleasing of the
two, the country about the river is well wooded, and the hills in parts
are fairly clothed with trees. The other half, termed the Khanddla
petty division, is bare and slopes towards the Nira which divides it
from the Poena district.

The climate of the plains is temperate throughout, though the
Khanddla petty division is warm in the hot weather and subject to
frequent droughts, and the rainfall there is very precarious. The
climate in the Sahyadri parts is very cool and the rainfall heavy as
in Javli. At Wdi, which is about sixteen miles east of the Sahyadris
and twenty miles north of Satara, during the ten years ending
1869-70 the rainfall varied from thirty-four inches in 1861-62 to
twenty inches in 1865-66 and averaged twenty-seven inches; and
during the thirteen years ending 1882-83 it varied from forty-nine
inches in 1875-76 to nineteen inches in 1871-72 and averaged thirty-
one inches. At Khandala, which is about twenty-five miles east of
the Sahyddris and twenty-six miles north of Sdtara, during the
sixteen years ending 1 882-83 the rainfall varied from twenty-seven
inches in 1867-68 to eight inches in 1871-72 and averaged nineteen
inches.

The Krishna and Nira are the only important rivers. The Nira
forms the boundary of the Poona district and the Krishna can be
traced past holy Wdi almost up to its source above the village of Jor
in the extreme west. In the Krishna valley water is abundant but
the supply is poor in the Khandala petty division. Land is watered
both from wells and from streams.

Near the Krishna the soil is good ; elsewhere it is poor. Towards
the west the hill crops of ndchni Eleusine corocana, vari Panicum
miliare, and rice are grown on red soil, and humri or wood-ash
tillage prevails. In the east the soil is mostly poor black or gray or
of the kind called mdlrdn, Jvdri and bdj'ri being the staple crops.

According to the 1882-83 returns farm stock included 120 riding
and 1281 load carts, 9127 two-bullock and 2072 four-bullock
ploughs, 19,932 bullocks and 11,900 cows, 893 he-bufEaloes and 5805
she-buffaloes, 723 horses, 30,516 sheep and goats, and 541 asses.

In 1882-83 the number of holdings,^ including alienated lands in
Government villages was 19,074 with an average area of 6'79 acres.
Of the whole number of holdings 9763 were of not more than five

Chapter XIIL
Sab-Divisions.

Area.

Aspect.

Climate.

Water.

Soil.

Stoch,

Holdinge,

[Bombay Gazetteer,
44^ DISTEIOTS.

Chapter XIII. acres ; 5025 of five to ten acres ; 3011 of ten to twenty acres ; 1049
Sub- Divisions'. ^^ twenty to thirty acres ; 169 of thirty to forty acres ; seventeen of
forty to fifty acres ; thirty-one of fifty to a hundred acres ; four of 100
to 200 acres ; two of 200 to 300 acres ; and three of 300 to 400 acres.
Crops, In 1881-82, of 101,951 acres held for tillage, 19,503 or 19-12per

88 -8^, pg^^ were fallow or under grass. Of the remaining 82,448 acres,

2469 were twice cropped. Of the 84,917 acres under tillage grain
crops occupied 70,076 acres or 82'52 per cent of which 35,500 were
under spiked millet hdjri Penicillaria spicata, 20,434 under Indian
millet jvdri Sorghum vulgare, 4846 under rdgi or ndchni Eleusine
corocana, 2017 under wheat gahu Triticum sestivum, 3944 under
chenna sdva Panicum miliaceum, 2468 under rice bhdt Oryza sativa,
793 under Italian millet rdla or kdiig Panicum italicum, three under
maize makha Zea mays, and 71 under barley jav Hordeum
hexastichon. Pulses occupied 11,001 acres or 12"95 per cent of
which 1177 were under gram harhhara Cicer arietinum, 2035
under tur Cajanus indicus, 4570 under hulith or hulthi Dolichos
biflorus, 248 under ud/id Phaseolus radiatus, 641 under mug
Phaseolus mungo, 79 under peas vatdna Pisum sativum, six under
Tnasur Ervum lens, and 2245 under other pulses. Oil-seeds
occupied 2884 acres or 3'39 per cent of which 459 were under
gingelly seed til Sesamum indicum^ 105 under linseed alshi Linum
usitatissimum, and 2320 under other oilseeds. Fibres occupied 37
acres or 0'04 per cent of which 16 were under Bombay hemp san or
tag Crotalaria juncea, and 21 under brown hemp ambddi Hibiscus
cannabinus. Miscellaneous crops occupied 919 acres or 1 '08 per cent
of which 65 were under chillies mirchi Capsicum frutescens, 393
under sugarcane us Saccharum officinarum, 12 under tobacco
tambdkhu Nicotiana tabacum, and the remaining 449 under various
vegetables and fruits.
People, The 1881 population returns show that of 88,610 people 85,605

1881. or 96-60 per cent were Hindus, 2857 or 3'22 per cent Musalmans,

145 or 0'16 per cent Christians, and 3 Pd,rsis. The details of the
Hindu castes are : 6390 Brahmans ; 1 1 P^tdne Prabhus, writers ;
26b Lingayat VAnis, 239 T^mbolis, 235 Jains, 62 Maratha VAnis, 15
Marwar Vdnis and 13 Gujarat Vdnis, traders and merchants ; 45,544
Kunbis and 4796 Malis, husbandmen ; 1459 Chambhars, leather
workers ; 978 Sutars, carpenters ; 939 Sond,rSj goldsmiths ; 876 Telis,
oilmen ; 875 Kumbhdrs, potters ; 683 Salis, weavers ; 629 Shimpis,
tailors ; 308 KdsArs, bangle makers ; 226 Lobars, blacksmiths; 162
Sangars, wool weavers; 128 Beldars, quarrymen ; 123 Koshtis,
weavers ; 104 Vadars, earth diggers ; 75 Buruds, bamboo workers ;
66 Ghisadis, tinkers; 51 Kdranjkars, saddle makers; 42 LonAris,
cement makers; 24 Pdtharvats, stone dressers ; 21Eduls,tape makers ;
19 Otaris, casters ; 810 Guravs, priests ; 44 Holdrs, labourers ; 40
GhadsiSj musicians ; 1195 Nh^vis, barbers ; 627 Parits, washermen ;
5265 Dhangars, cowmen ; 46 Gavlis, cowkeepers ; 508 Kolis, ferry-
men; 115 Bhois, fishers; 57 Thd,kurs, husbandmen; 27 Pardeshis,
petty traders ; 1336 Edmoshis, watchmen ; 8285 Mhdrs, village
messengers; 1086 Mdngs, village watchmen; 11 Dhors, tanners;
10 Bhangis, scavengers ; 280 Gosdvis, 179 Gondhlis, 158 Jangams,
129 Joshis, 27 Bhats, 6 Kolhdtis, and 6 Vdsudevs, beggars.

Deccan.]

CHAPTER XIV.

P L A C E S .1

Akhalkop is a small town of 2910 people four miles north-east Chapter XIY.

of Ashfca and eleven miles west of TAsgaon, The town lies on the Places^

right bank of the Krishna at a point where the river takes a bend
from west to south. A flying bridge leads across the Krishna to
Bhilavdi village on the left bank immediately opposite Akhalkop
and a fair weather local fund road leads to Tasgaon and Ashta. The
village is chiefly agricultural and depends for its prosperity on the
rich produce of the black soil of the Krishna. Akhalkop has two
small temples of Dattdtraya and Mhasoba both in high local repute
and the scenes of large fairs. ' The Dattdtraya temple (6' 6" x 4'
9" X 9') is built on rising ground in a grove of trees chiefly
nim and consists of a small cut-stone shrine facing east and
containing the footprints of Dattdtraya. The shrine was first
built by the Deshpdndyds of Akhalkop and rebuilt about 1860 by
Krishnard,v Trimbak Bdpat then m^mlatddr of Vdlva. A flight
of steps (12' X 6') built from alms obtained by devotees leads up to
the entrance gate. The temple enjoys lands valued at £1 3s. 6d.
(Es. 11 f) but the Brahman ministrants make about £80 (Rs. 800)
during the three fair days^ the full-moon of Margghirsh or November-
December, the dark fifth of Mdgh or January-February, and the dark
twelfth of Ashvin or September -October. On all the three occasions
the mask of the god is carried in a palanquin with the honours of
the umbrella, peacock fans, maces, and flywhisks as symbols of
sovereignty. The second in January -February is the chief fair
attended by over 5000 people. A large charitable dinner is given
on this day to Brahmans and the poor. The traders of Akhalkop
and rich merchants from other parts of the district furnish
contributions in money and in kind.

The other temple is of Mhasoba a spirit believed to be an attendant
on Ganpati. The temple is a domed stone shrine ten feet long by
eight feet broad and including the dome about twelve feet high.
According to the Krishna-mahdtmya the temple is said to have
originally belonged to Ganpati and this seems probable as separate
temples of Mhasoba are very rare. Round the shrine are stones
representing the attendants of Ganpati and inside a stone for
Mhasoba. In front of the temple are three gateways built about
200 years ago by a headman of Akhalkop. A fair is held in April
and attended by about 2000 people chiefly low caste Hindus, Dhors
Mangs and Rdmoshis, and a few Mardth^s, who are generally credited

J This chapter is contributed by Mr, J. W. P, Muir-Mackenzie, C. S,

[Bombay Gazetteer

448

DISTRICTS.

Chapter ZIV.

Places.

Akhalkop,

ASHTA,

with hatching evil plans for gang robberies and dacoities on the
occasion. From one to two thousand goats are offered at the fair
to Mhasoba. The heads are all given to the village headman, who
usually has a large number of guests whom he either entertains
on sheep's head or who buy the heads from him at |c?. (^ a.)
a piece. The rest is eaten by the offerers who first offer the meals
to the god by placing it before the temple and then retire to feast
on it. No meat-offering is allowed inside the shrine. The temple
enjoys rent-free lands assessed at £13 (Rs. 130) a year and worth
probably £50 (Rs. 500) a year. The Gurav priests of the temple
get about £20 (Rs. 200) more during the fair. A flight of thirty
steps (30'xl'xl') with four landings all built by devotees leads
down from the temple to the river bed.

Ashta in Valva with in 1881 a population of 9896, is a municipal
town twelve miles south-east of IsMmpur. The town lies on a slight
rise above the valley of the Krishna river which flows four miles to the
east. The Peth-Sdngli local fund road passes close to the west.
The town is walled and has four gates one on each side. There is a
sub-judge's court, a post office, and a vernacular school. The water-
supply is chiefly from a well at the north-west corner of the town
for drinking purposes and a tank outside the west of the town
for washing and cattle-watering. The well is dug in the solid rock
and is about forty feet square. In 1880 its supply was in danger of
running short when some of the rock was blasted as a last hope that
a spring would be discovered. The boring rods were -driven into
the rock and a fault hit upon. The water shot up as from an
artesian well and there has been no diflSculty since. But the
remotest quarters of the town and the low castes are often in
difiiculties for water and in dry seasons have to go as far as the
Krishna. The 1872 census showed 8874 Hindus and 674 Musalmdns
or a total of 9548. The 1881 census showed 9270 Hindus aud 626
Musalmans. The trade of the town is small, the population being
entirely agricultural. In area Ashta is nearly the largest village in
the district,^ and yields a land revenue of over £3000 (Rs. 30,000),
while no other village in the district comes within much more than
half this amount. About a quarter of a mile to the west of the town
is another large tank formed by a dam said to date from Musalm^n
times. The hollow behind the dam has silted up and the tank now
hardly holds water. Some large banian and tamarind trees at its east
and south-east edges make good shade for a camp. At the east
side is a temple of Bhairav kept by Dhangars. The temple itself is
very small, and consists only of an image chamber with a small
veranda opening east. But it has a paved courtyard with cloisters
about 120 feet square with walls twelve feet high and a gateway
surmounted with a drum chamber or nagdrkhdna. The worship
is entirely conducted by Guravs and Dhangars. The Dhangars
meet every evening and on Sunday evenings in large numbers,
advancing to the temple in procession with drums and pipes, to

1 Mhasvad and Varkute in Mdn are the only two villages which can compare
with Ashta but their lands are all barren mdi, while those of Ashta are nearly all
rich black soil.

Deccan.]

SlTARA.

449

dance and sing before the god, before whom sheep and goats are often
sacrificed. Most of the buildings are the work of rich Dhangars
and point to a time when the caste had some wealth and influence.
The town has a cloth-shop kept by Vani members of the community
of different castes and occupations on the co-operative principle
which is a new feature in the district. It pays its way fairly well
and cash payments are strictly adhered to. In 1882-83 the
municipality had an income of £185 (Rs. 1850) and an expenditure
of £120 (Rs. 1200). It has built a set of public latrines in a
useful quarter and is adding to their number in other parts of the
town. In 1857 during the insurrection at Kolh^pur, a body of
seventy-five horse was stationed at Ashta then the head-quarters of
the Valva sub-division.

Aundh. village is the residence of the Pant Pratinidhi and forms
part of his estate or j'dgir. It is surrounded on all sides by
Grovernment territory forming part of the Khat^v sub-division and
lies nine miles south-west of Vaduj, the head-quarters of the
Khatav sub-division and about twenty-six miles south-east of
Sdtdra. At the top of the pass by which the Sfitara-Td,sgaon
road connects the Khatav and Koregaon sub-divisions, a cross
road branches due east to Aundh which lies in a basin of small
hills entirely sheltered from the north and east. The village
has vernacular schools for boys and girls, a native library
with a few books and photographs and the chief native news-
papers. The dispensary is in charge of a passed medical pupil and
has an average daily attendance of about thirty-five patients. The
drinking water-supply of the town is mainly from wells. But there
are also two large tanks twenty yards apart and each about fifty yards
square said to have been built by a Vani many hundred years ago.
The water is bad and little used even for washing. The Pant's
mansion or vdda is the chief building in the village and consists of
a two-storeyed vdda, in the Maratha style with a quadrangle in the
centre. In front is a courtyard fianked with buildings out of
which a narrow approach leads at right angles into the main street.
The whole building covers a space of about two acres. Next to it
in the north of the town is a temple of Yamuna Devi, the patron
goddess of the Pant Pratinidhi's family. In front of the temple ou
the east is a very fine lamp-pillar or dipmdl about sixty feet high
and not more than about fifteen feet in diameter at the base. It
is studded in eight alternate lines with in each line twenty-two
projecting stones for mounting by and twenty-two brackets for
lamps making a total of 176 lamps and as many steps. To break
the monotony of the structure the steps are fixed in a position
intermediate between the brackets and vice versa. The moulding of
both brackets and steps is plain but graceful and the stone work
of the whole finely cut and well put together. The uncommon height
and slender tapering of this dipmdl makes it unusually elegant.
Aurangzeb came to the village, it is said, with the intention of
breaking open the idol, but he spared the dipmdl. About two
miles south of the town is a bungalow in a plantain garden built
as a summer resort. About a mile to the south-west of the town

B 1282-57

Chapter XIV,
Places.

ASUTA.

A.UNDH,

[Bombay Gazetteer,

450

DISTRICTS.

Cliapter XIV.
Places.

AUNDH.

BAHiBtTRVADI.

is a hill about 800 feet above the plain, the summit of which is
crowned by another temple of Yamuna Deri. It is the special
resort for worship of the Pant and his family, and has been much
enlarged and adorned by the present chief and his ancestors.
Except its great local repute for holiness the temple has nothing
remarkable about it. The courtyard is about thirty yards square
paved with stone and surrounded by ramparts about twelve feet
thick and fifteen feeb high inside. Outside, the height rises with the
hill, and in places is not less than forty feet- There are five
bastions one at the south-west and two each at the north-west and
north-east corners. The South-east corner is rectangular. On the
north-west side is the gateway a pointed arch of the thickness of
the wall and on its left is the nagdrhhdna or music chamber. The
temple consists of a plainly built mandap about thirty feet by twenty
fronting east with a star-shaped cut stone but plain idol-chamber
or gdbhdra with a greatest length and breadth of about twenty
feet and surmounted by a twelve-sided stucco spire. The gdbhdra
contains a black stone image of Tamnai. The ascent up the hill
is made easy by means of about a hundred steps and an excellent
pathway about ten feet broad. There is an alternative route by
a second flight of steps up the lower half of the hill and passing
a small shrine of Ganpati. On the hill side at the north-west of the
temple is a flat ridge with the remains of a mango grove and a
stone tank about twenty yards square. The temple and its
neighbourhood are the favourite haunt of small very tame monkeys.
Twenty acres of land are given as indm to the monkeys, and
grain is spread for them in the rains when they are believed to be
in difficulties for food. Though the temple building is not very
notable the ascent gives a fine view about twenty-five miles north-
west towards Sd,tara and on a clear day as far as Shingnapur about
thirty miles to the north-east. In 1 7 1 3 Aundh was the scene of a battle
between Krishnarav Khatdvkar a Brdhman raised by the Moghals
and BAldji Vishvanath afterwards the first Peshwa and at that time
a clerk to Shdhu (1708 - 1749) of Sdtdra. Krishnarav was defeated
and on submission was^pardoned and granted the village of Khatav,
twenty-five miles east of Satdra.

Baha'durva'di is an alienated village belonging to the Sangli
state and granted to Ramchandrar^v Mahipatrav Ghorpade adopted
son of the widows of Mahipatrav Ghorpade a junior branch of the
Mudhol family. The village lies within the limits of the Vd,lva
sub-division about twelve miles south-east of Peth, and is easily
reached by turning east from the Kolhd.pur mail road at the village
of Td,ndulvd,di which is ten miles south of Peth. BahadurvAdi is
remarkable for a fort consisting of three enclosures. The first or
outer enclosure is round, about 150 yards in diameter, and consists of
an earthen embankment about thirty feet high. Inside is another
round space about 100 yards in diameter enclosed by a stone and
mud wall about four feet thick and twenty feet high, with a shallow
ditch about six feet wide. It has nine bastions of which the central
bastion is over a fortified gateway of some strength. All the bastions
are loopholed for musketry. The third and innermost enclosure is a

Deccau]

SlTARA.

451

square about sixty yards ia diameter surrounded by a moat twenty
feet wide and thirty feet deep. It is enclosed by walls of stone
and mud about thirteen feet thick and surmounted by eight bastions,
one at each corner and one at the centre of each side. The bastions
facing east are particularly strong and the wall is of rough masonry
in mortar. The centre bastion on the east is inhabited and the
walls contain store chambers. The walls and bastions, are surrounded
by a parapet and are loopholed for musketry. Their ramparts
formerly held guns and mortars the few remaining' of which were
taken possession of by Government when the district was disarmed
in 1857-58. The inmost enclosure has a mansion forming the
residence of the Indrnddx and a rock-out well with stepSj about fifty
feet deep and twenty -five feet wide, and always holding twenty feet
of water. The situation of this fort is decidedly striking, crowning
as it does the knoll on which the village is built with the- temple-
crowned hill of Mallikarjan to the north, the luxuriant Vdrna valley
on the east south and west, and Panhala and Pdvangad to the south-
west. No remarkable engagement seems to have taken place at the
fort and since the death of Mahapatr^v, who served the last Peshwa ii>
a high office under Hari Pant Phadke, the general in charge of
the jaripatka or standard, the family has not been distinguished.
The fort is said to have been built by the fourth Peshwa Mddhavrav
(1761 - 1772) as a frontier protection against the attacks of
Koihdpur.

The temple- of Mahadev though not old is worth a vi-sit. It
consists of an idol- chamber or gdbhdra and a hall or mandap
together about fifty feet by twenty. The entrance is by a low
irregular-shaped arch,, and the walls about twelve feet high are of
well dressed black stone. The brick spire is not unhandsome. .
The walls have a, facade of images in relief and painted in chunam
with some grotesque figures of animals and human beings on the
roof of the mandap..

Ba'gni in Vdlva four miles south-west of Ashta is a large
agricultural village alienated to the junior branch of the Mantri
family the senior branch of which Eves at Islampur.. The 1881
census showed a population of 4707. The village has lofty walls in
many places thirty feet high with, all round, a deep moat forty
feet broad usually full of water on the west. There is also an inner fort
or citadel, entered by a strong gate. A large colony of Musalmd-ns
live in the village, and the place was one of the posts or thdnds of
the Bijdpur kings (1489 - 1686). Outside the village about half a
mile to the east is a mosque about thirty feet square and fifteen-
high with a small dome in the centre. There are eight pillars four
embedded in the walla and four in the centre. The niches are
Saracenic handsomely moulded and decorated in floral patterns. To
the east of the mosque is a courtyard about sixty yards square
containing a mausoleum of the usual type in honour of Kadir Sdhib
a Pir who received this honour for, among other things, miraculously
curing a tumour with which Mdhmud Shdh, seventh king of Bijapur
(1626-1656) was afflicted. The tomb inside is covered with a,
beautiful brocade curtain presented by the Mantris of Bdgni.

Chapter^ XIV.
Places-

BAHA.DUKVi.DI,

BAONI.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

452

DISTRICTS.

CShaptor XIV.
Places-

BiHE.

Bahfle.

Ba'he, five miles north-east of Path, with in 1 881 a population of
2402, is an alienated village chiefly remarkable for temples of Shri-
Ramling, Md,rnti, Ganpati, and Shrikrishna, built on an island in the
bed of the Krishna. The chief temple of Shri Rdmling was built by
one Antoba Nd.ik Bhide about a century and a half ago. _ It is built
of mortared brick throughout on a plinth two feet high. The
gdbhdra or image-chamber is about ten feet square and ten feet
high. The outer chamber has a vaulted roof with four pillars. The
side aisles are about eight feet high and the centre about thirteen
feet high. The arches are pointed and about six feet wide. The
whole chamber is about twenty feet square and is capped as
usual by a pinnacle about thirty feet high also in mortared brick.
The legend about the temple is that R^m halted here during a
pilgrimage and worshipped the ling. Two fairs are held at the
temple one on the last day of Paush or December -January and the
other on the bright ninth of Chaitra or March -April in honour of
Rd,m's birthday. The temple of Maruti built in 1814 by a Dhangar
Setu Harpa Shot is a poor double building about thirty feet
by fifteen. The whole is surroucded by a walled court. The
entrance is through a solid masonry arch. In high floods the river
flows right up to the dome of the temple and every year surrounds
the walled court. Setu Dhangar also presented the lld.mling temple
with a curious brass cobra. Besides thcjse temples the village has a
Grovernment vernacular school with about forty boys.

Bi,he village was originally granted to Yashvantrdv Thorat who
flourished in the reign of RAjdram (1689-1700) and his son Shivaji
(1700-1708). Yashvantrav was killed in the battle of Panhala (1706),
his adopted son was not present, and his villages were given to
Sidduji his nephew. YashvantrAv's mansion in Bdhe was fortified
with mud and stone walls bastioned at the corners.

Bahule village situated close under the north slope of the
Mala-Tambve spur three miles south of Mandrul and ten miles
east-south-east of PAtan contains a curious" little Hemddpanti
temple said to have been built in a single night. It stands in the
middle of a paved court (78' x 64') sunk four feet in the ground and
surrounded by five acres of fine old pimpal trees. The temple faces
east and consists of an image-chamber with stone walls set in mortar
(14' 4'''x 18' 8") and surmounted by a shikhar or spire twenty-nine
feet high from the ground. This spire is modern and built
during the last century by Parshurdm NArdyan Angal a rich banker
of Nigadi who built a temple at Pateshvar near Sdtara and many others
in the district. The walls are 2' 8" thick and the inner space about
eight feet square. In the centre is a ling of Bahuleshvar Mahddev
in a case or shdlunhha fronting north and over a spring the
water of which drains through a channel shaped like a cow's head
into a stone basin formed on the north side in the court pavement.
In the north-west and south-east corners are two small basins sunk
in the floor and there are two niches one in the south and one in
the north wall. The entrance to the image-chamber is through a
vestibule (7' 4"xl8' 10") by a quadrangular doorway two feet broad
by 4' 9" high. The vestibule Jias two solid niches in the north and

Deccan]

sAtara.

463

south walla. The hall or manda'p which is really the only ancient
part of the temple is fourteen feet long east to west and 18' 10"
broad north to south. It is, as usual, open at all four sides,
supported by twelve pillars in four rows of three each, 6' 8"
apart east to west or three rows of four each 4' 6" apart north to
south. The four west pillars are embedded in the modern vestibule
wall ; of the rest the four middle form a square in the centre
of which is a small stone bull or Nandi, and the remaining four
are partly embedded in a stone bench 2' 8" wide the end of which
lies vertically under the eaves, which are broad and turned up at the
end. The roof 7' 8" high from within was originally flat but has been
put on a slope with brick and cemented by a modern hand. Behind
the bench rises a back about four feet high from the ground. The
pillars are all of one pattern. The shafts are of a single block cut
in rectangular octagonal and cylindrical concentric divisions but
without any carving or ornament. The stone used throughout the
mandap is in large blocks or slabs and at the roof is joined to the
pillars by brackets branching in four directions. Bach compartment
has a ceiling in the lozenge pattern, formed by placing slabs
diagonally to each other without mortar. About nine feet east of
the temple is a bathing tank (15' 11" x 19') fed from a spring in the
south-east corner of the court and joined with it by a drain. Five
steps lead down to the water of which there is always three feet
depth. The officiating temple priests are some Br^hmans inhabiting
the neighbouring village of Garavde. The temple is connected with
Bahule half a mile off by a causeway. Water is very plentiful in
this neighbourhood, and advantage has been taken of it in many
wells and channels for irrigation purposes, while close by the temple
an excellent supply is given to Garavde village by a pipe so
constructed as to tap a spring. In fact few villages in the district
have such a pure and incorruptible supply of water. Fairs in honour
of Bahuleshvar are held on the Mahdshivrdtra or Great Night of
Shiv in February-March and the Mondays of Shrdvan or July- August
and attended by from two to three thousand people. The ling is
said to have been set up by a cowherd to whom the god appeared
and showed the spring flowing with milk.

Ba'uilioli village with a population of 494 lies seven miles
south-west of Medha. It is connected with Medha by an
excellent bullock track, and is the starting point in the Koyna valley
for the Amboli pass connecting it with the Konkan. The village
has been a local market from early times and has one or two
shops of traders. Like Tdmbi, Bdmnoli was a small administrative
centre under the Mardtha government.

Banpuri in the Vd,ng valley, ten miles south-south-east of PAtan,
is an alienated village belonging to Vasudev Anant Deshpdnde of
KolevidL To the south of the village on the hill side is a temple
of N^ikba, a form of Shiv, The temple is a solid but poor structure
with stone walls and a tiled roof. The ling has a silver mask which
is carried in procession on the two fair days, the fifth of Chaitra
(March- April) and the tenth of Ashvin (September-October). On the
latter occasion the attendance numbers over 7000. The legend is

Chapter XIV.
Places.

Bahule.

BAmnoli.

Banpuri.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

454

DISTRICTS.

Chapter XIV.
Places.

Bakpuri.

BlvDHAN.

Bhairavgad
Fort.

tTiat a cultivator surnamed Janagade devotedly worsliipped Shiv on
this spot until he grew so old and infirm that he could go no longer.
Shiv ordered him to go home and promised to follow him if he did
not look behind. The old man obeyed till on his way hearing a
terrible noise he looked back and saw an enormous boulder fallen
from the hill and smashed to pieces. That night he had a dream
that the boulder was Shiv who should be worshipped on the spot and
styled Nd,ikba.

BaVdhan village alienated to Rdjiirdm Bhonsle^ the adopted
son of the widows of the late Eaja of SUtara, had in 1881 a population
of 4095 or an increase of 374 over that of 1872. It is situated three
miles due south of Wdi and a mile south of the Wdi-Panchvad road,
with which it is connected by a small road leading down to the
Krishna river which flows about 1^ miles to the north. To the west
of the village is a bare range of hills branching from Pasarni and
containing two small caves very diflBcult of access believed to be
Buddhist. On the, hill top is a flat plateau with a temple of Devi
in charge of a Gosavi. In the village is an old temple of Bhairav
the whole of which was rebuilt about fifty years ago from village
subscriptions. The temple is whitewashed and is a rude stone work
with a" brick spire and a courtyard. A yearly -fair is held on the
dark fifth of Phdlgun (February - March) and is attended by 500
to 1000 people. A far more interesting structure is the Mahddev
temple down by the Krishna about a quarter of a mile north of
the high road. A paved court has been built on the side which
slopes gently down to the river. The temple consists of an
image-chamber about twelve feet square apparently old and
a modern hall open at the sides, with twelve pillars supporting
a flat roof with a parapet and broad eaves. On the north of the
image-chamber or gdbhdra is a small stone basin into which flows
the water thrown over the ling and over a spring believed to be one
of the mouths of the Sarasvati. The hall is about twenty feet square
and the courtyard in front eighty feet by sixty. The image-chamber
is surmounted by a spire or shikhar in the old star shape. Leading
from the temple to the river is a flight of stone steps thirty feet
wide. The temple was added to and restored by a Peshwa ofiicer
surnamed Kdnitkar. Besides these temples the village contains his
large mansion or vdda with lofty brick walls and a gateway about
forty feet high surrounding the court, and another two-storeyed
mansion in eight compartments belonging to the Kulkarni family.

Bhairavgad Fort twenty miles west south-west of Pd,tan and
aboutfour miles west of Md,la, from which it is pretty easily accessible
by a rough footpath through dense jungle, is a rounded hill situated
on the face of the Sahyd,dri range and jutting about a hundred feet
into the Konkan. A narrow neck thirty yards long separates it
from the cliff on the east, which rises some 300 feet above it.
About five acres in area the hill has on the east a temple of Bhairav
which gives it its name.

According to Grant DufE^ Bhairavgad was one of the forts built

I Mar^tMs, 13 note 3.

DeccanO

SlTARA.

455

by the rdjds of Panhala. The garrison in Mardtha times was
furirished by soldiers sent from Sdtdra. There are no traces of
houses and the walls are in ruins. In the last Mard,tha war
Bhairavgad was captured by the English on the 23rd of May 1818.
A detachment of a hundred rank and file was sent by Lieutenant-
Colonel Kennedy under command of Lieutenant Capon from
Savarda in Chiplun in Uatnagiri. They proceeded to Taldyda
a village at the foot of the hill from which there was an ascent
of nearly six miles. But a message brought down the native officer
in charge of the, fort with a party of the garrison, who promised
to surrender next morning on condition that the arms and property
of himself and the garrison about a hundred strong, were respected
and an escort of sepoys allowed as far as Pdtan. The fort was
taken accordingly without resistance.-'

Bhilavdi, 9^ miles south-west of T^sgaon, is a village on the
left bank of the Krishna with in 1881 a population of 6569. The
1872 census showed a total of 6227 of whom 5832 were Hindus and
395 Musalmdns ; of the 1881 total 61 56 were Hindus and 413
Musalmd,ns. The village is almost entirely agricultural, but has
some substantial moneylenders. The surrounding land is some of
the best black soil of the Krishna valley. The road from Tasgaon
to Ashta passes through this village which is connected by a flying
bridge with Akhalkop on the opposite bank. A fine bathing ghat
or flight of steps has been made down to the river. The descent is
not more than about five feet and the steps have been so built that
a coin placed on any step can be seen from any position of equal
height in the rest of the flight. The river bank is very soft and
muddy and the foundation for the steps is said to be constructed
principally of cattle horns which were collected in great numbers and
thrown into the water the action of -which it is said caused them to
spread and take root like trees. In 1827 Captain Clunes notices
Bhilavdi as a village of 550 houses with fifteen shops and a resthouse.^

Bhopa'lgad hill fort lies within the village limits of Banur
at the extreme south-east of the Kh5,nApur sub-division. The
easiest approach to it is from Khdndpur eleven miles by the Kard.d-
Bijapur road to Palshi, whence a rough path passable for ponies
leads through a very stony country four miles due east to Bdnur. A
small neck of land divides the spur on which the fort and village are
situated from the main Khdnapur plateau. The fort is formed by
broken walls skirting the edges of an irregular rhomboid raised
about sixty feet above the rest of the plateau. A hill in the centre
might serve as the bdla killa or citadel, but it is unfortified and
contains a temple of Mahadev. The village of B^nur is situated
at the south of the fort just inside the wall. The internal area
of the fort is between two and three hundred acres. On the south-
east, east and north, it is fairly unapproachable up the precipitous
descent of about 700 feet on into the Mdn valley below. On the
west and south there is nothing but the small rise of sixty to one
hundred feet above mentioned, but to reach this the narrow neck
noticed above has to be crossed. The fort, however, is commanded

Chapter XIV-
Places-

Bhairavgad
Fort,

Bhilavdi.

Bhopalgad
Fort.

PeadhAri and MarAtha War Papers, 345.

3 Itinerary, (

[Bombay Gazetteer,
456 DISTRICTS.

Chapter XIV. from hills about half a mile to the west. A broad track was made

Places. ■'^ ancient times from the village of Jarandi five miles south-east

, by which stores used to be sent. There is a small tank inside the

°^^^^ fort, and close on the south a fine large one with a well adjoining

and full of water throughout the year. According to a local legend

the fort was built by a king named Bhop^l. In 1679, Bhopdlgad

fort as the eastern outpost of Shivd,ji's territories was besieged and

taken by a detachment under Sambhdji then in rebellion against

his father Shivaji and sent by Diler Khan the Moghal general

then besieging Bijapur.^

Bhose. Bhose, a village of 2185 people nine miles south-east of T^sgaon,

is remarkable for a curious cave temple of Dandoba Mahddev. The
temple is situated in the hills to the south-east of the village about
fifty-eight feet from the summit of a point rising about 1200
feet above the level of the spur. The spur on which the hill
stands branches due south from the Khinapur plateau, and the
cave temple on it faces east. The ascent from Bhose is easy by
" the elephant path," a track cleared by the Patvardhans for their
elephants, though there is no made road. A flat platform leads
to the temple doorway which is cut rectangularly out of the rock
four feet high by three feet broad. There is no door or any frame-
work for one. Immediately inside is a hole made in the rock
above which lets light in the whole cave except the image-chamber
which is artificially walled off from the rest. The whole excavation
is fifty-eight feet long east to west and thirty-six feet broad north
to south, and was originally apparently nothing but an oblong cave.
A great deal of building has since been done by modern hands.
An inscription noticed below shows that a king" named Shringan
was intimately connected with it. His place of residence is called
Kausalyapur. A legendary account gives Kaundanyapur as the
place of residence of a raja known as Hingandev, a name a trace of
which also remains in the Hingankhadi at Mhasurne and perhaps
in the name Shingndpur,^ where he is said to have performed much
devotion. The date in the inscription is said to read Shah 611
(a.d.689), but this seems wrong and the king is probably the Devgiri
Yddav king Singhan I. or II., who flourished in the twelfth and
thirteenth centuries.^ It seems possible that he built this temple,
more especially as the temples of Kundal and Malkeshvar are
referred by Dr. Burgess to a period between the twelfth and
fourteenth centuries. The chamber roof is quite flat and there
are no benches at the sides. Inside the door a space twenty-
eight feet wide and thirty feet long has been walled up, leaving
recesses between the wall and sides of the cave. At right angles
to this is a wall right across the cave, with a door about five feet
by four which leads to a hall or mandap. Immediately in front of
this door two stone figures of a man and woman called "Bahule
with Mardthi inscriptions below them are, it is believed, door-
keepers or satellites of the gods. One contains the date 8haJc 1695
(a.d. 1773). The rest is not legible. The other contains the
names Shinapa and BaMpa Tatavte bin (son of) Jaydpa Tatavte,

1 Grant Duff's MarAthAs, 130. 2 See below Shingnipur,

' Fleet's Kdnarese Dynasties, 72-74,

Deccan]

SATARA.

457

residence Sanik Savemane Rajoji. These letters are modern.
Inside the mandap extends tlie whole width of the cave. Above
the centre of the mandap is a masonry structure (14' x 10') forming
the image-chamber. A door (7'x5') leads into the chamber which
contains a stone ling on a pedestal about four feet high railed off
by a cross bar to prevent worshippers coming too close and over-
crowding. A passage is left round the chamber five feet wide at the
back and thirteen feet wide at the sides. This is ordinarily used
for the holy circuit or pradakshina which is necessary to qualify
a worshipper to enter into the image-chamber. The rest of the
mandap is taken up with masonry arches made to give a nave and
side aisles. The pillars are about a foot in diameter with plain
and square shafts and round arches. In front of the door of
the image-chamber is a small stone Nandi, and to its right is an
eight-handed image of Bhavdni about three feet high and a foot
in diameter, and close by it is a slab in the middle west pillar which
is carved in front with the Kanarese inscription above mentioned.
Next the north-west pillar is another stone image of Virbhadra,
similar in size to the Devi. Upon the summit of the hill and
supposed to be directly over the ling is a spire about thirty feet
square at the base and of the same height, formed of four
concentric square courses each about three feet less in diameter
than the other and surmounted by an urn-shaped pinnacle. The
lower courses are of stone and the upper courses and pinnacle are of
brick. The stone courses are of considerable age, but who built them
is not known. The brick courses were added by Ohintd,manrd.v Apa
Patvardhan at the beginning of the present century. The god is
called Dandoba after the priest mentioned in the inscription. In his
honour about 500 people assemble for worship on each Monday
in Shrdvan or July -August. The worshippers are chiefly Ling^yat
Vanis and Jains.

Bhusliailgad. in Khatav about eleven miles' south-west of Vaduj
is a roughly oval solitary hill rising about 600 feet above the
surrounding plain. On the north-west half down the slope are a
number of houses mostly inhabited by Brahmans formerly attached
to the fort garrison. The ground above the fort slopes towards the
top. Except near the gateway on the north-east the walls are of
light masonry. On the top was a very deep tank now filled up.
The ascent is easy. Bhushangad is not commanded by any hill
within five miles. The fort was built by Shivd,ji about 1676j and
sustained an attack from Fattehsing Mane in 1S05 then camped at
Eahimatpur.

Bopardi, within 1881 a population of 796, is a small village
two miles north of Wd,i and connected with it by a well cleared
track. It contains a modern but well built little temple of Mahddev
curiously placed in a stone tank, from which four steps lead upwards
on to the surrounding court. The temple is nothing but a shrine
with a porch the whole measuring twenty feet long by eighteen feet
wide. The porch is four feet by eighteen and consists of three small
flat-roofed compartments supported on rectangular shafted pillars
eighteen inches at the base with brackets at the head. The shrine
is surmounted by a very elaborate stucco-decorated - brick spire or

J 1283—58

Chapter XIV.
Places-

Bhosb.

Bhushahgad.

BOPAKDI.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

458

DISTEICTS.

Chapter^XIV.
Places.

BOPABDI.

BoKQAOir.

■Chandan Vakdan
Forts.

Vandan,

shilchar. In front is a Nandi canopy also with, a smalLspire. The
ling is over a ricL. spring and there is a drain on the north side
ttrougli which the water is allowed to run. The temple, which
though small is for a modern structure very pleasing, was built by
one Lakshman Dhonddev Phadnis a dependant of the great Eastia
family who flourished about a hundred years ago. The temple is in
great local repute at Wdi.

Borgaon, 5^ miles north-east of Islampur and five miles north-
west of Vdlva, is a large agricultural village situated on the right
bank of the Krishna at a sudden bend which it takes northwards.
The population in 1881 was 4144. The village has a vernacular
school and a temple on the north adjoining the Krishna. The
temple is an interesting modern building in a court about 100 feet
square with round arched cloisters of brick covered with mortar.
The land in the neighbourhood is some of the finest Krishna valley
black soil.

Chandan^ and Vandan forts are situated some ten miles north-
east of Satara and stand out prominently from the range of hills
running nearly south from Hari,li the massive hill immediately east
of the Khdmatki pass and terminating with Jaranda nearly due east
of Satdra. Vandan the higher, larger, and more prominent of the two,
3841 feet above sea level, is approached most easily from Jaranda
a hamlet of Kikli. The path, which bears evidence of having been at
one time a broad roughly-paved causeway with here and there some
rude steps, ascends steeply the northern slope of the fort until it
reaches the saddle between Vandan and Chandan, then it doubles
back along the eastern slope immediately under the lower of the two
scarps for some distance almost level. About midway along the
eastern side of the hill it again doubles back and the ascent is by a
steep fiight of rough steps to the first gate which looks nearly due
south. The gateway is in fair order but the curtain behind it has
fallen down and is completely ruinous. A sharp zigzag leads to the
second gate which looks more ancient than the first gate and is nearly
blocked up with stones. There is an inscription in Persian characters
over the gateway and within are several rooms for the accommodation
of the guard. A covered way leads on from the gate to a point whence
a very steep winding flight of stones leads direct to the top of the
scarp or a more gradual gradient gives access to the top by walking
round to the northern side. The lower scarp is a very perfect one
and the only possible approach to the top is by the gateway first
mentioned. Once within this gateway, now that the curtain has
fallen down, the top can be reached by either route.

The area on the top is considerable and bears the appearance of
having held a large garrison. The ruins and foundations of houses
^re very numerous up and in the south-east corner where there is a
jregular street. This quarter is pointed out as the Brdhman dli.
Immediately above it, approached by a broad flight of steps, are
the ruins of the sarTcdrvdda overshadowed by a large banian tree.
Close by is a second large banian and above a large shivri tree.

I Contributed by Mr. H. B. Cooke, C.S.

Deccau.]

sAtIra.

459

These trees form conspicuous objects on the hill top from consider-
able distances around. Near the vada is a large room divided into
three compartments and still completely roofed. More to the west
is a mosque still in fair preservation, but chiefly used as a cattle
stall and at the extreme west corner is a considerable Musalmdn
bathing place with two roofed and walled tombs. A ministrant
with a small patch of indm land still attends to them and the tombs
themselves are covered with cloths. There are several large water
reservoirs on the hill top, noticeably one close below the sarkdrvdda,
and another, near the Musalmdn burying place, which is still confined
by masonry in fairly good order. Near the south-west corner there
evidently was a large tank formed by excavation, the earth being^
thrown up near the edge of the precipice so as to form a dam. But
the dam has been pierced evidently on purpose and the tank can
hold no water now. The whole of the hill top is not level. An
eminence rises with steep slopes on its southern half to a height of
some 100 feet above the level of the sarkdrvdda. This eminence is
surmounted with the ruins of a considerable building, the object of
which, unless it were a pleasure-house, is not evident.

The whole of the hill top is not walled. There are masonry walls
at all the weak points and bastions at the angles. Captain Rose
visited the fort in 1857 the mutiny year to burst the cannon none
of which now remain. He probably also destroyed the dam. There
used to be a Suhhedd.r on the hill. Some 200 Oadkaris were
attached to the fort and lived in the various hamlets around chiefly
to the north.

Chandan, separated from Vandan only by the saddleback
scarcely half a mile across, is a slightly lower hill and wants the
eminence on the top of Vandan. The gate is at the south-east corner
and the easiest ascent is from the north crossing the north-east slope
of the hill. If visited from Vandan, difficult footpaths lead from
the saddle either along the north-west or north slopes or along the
south slope to the south-east angle where they join the regular
approach near the gateway. The gateway is no way remarkable,
and once within, there is no further difficulty beyond a steep ascent
to gain the level top. There is no second gate, but, after passing an
old temple to Mah^dev and a fine banian tree, a flight of fairly broad
steps leads to the top of the hill between two curiously built pillars.
They consist each of four huge unhewn stones piled one on another.
It is said they were placed there when tbe fort was built about 1600
by Ibrahim Adilshd,h II. (1580-1626) the sixth BijApur king.i
A local legend explains how the stones were erected. A huge
stone was first made firm, then it was surrounded by earth, and up
the back thus formed a second huge stone was rolled and pushed
and fastened on the former. This operation was repeated again and
again and finally the earth cleared away leaving the present pillars
of huge stone rising to a height of some fifteen to twenty feet. There
is not much else of interest in the fort. There are evidences of the
existence at one time of a very considerable population and traces
remain of a fine sarkdrvdda and a room. The tank is now empty, the

' According to Grant Duff Chandan and Vandan were among the fifteen forta built,
by one of the Panhilla kings about 1190. MarAthAs, 13 note 2.

Chapter XIT.
Places-

Chandan Vandan

FOETS.

Vandoai.

Chandan.:

[Bombay Gazetteer,

460

DISTRICTS.

Chapter^ XIV.

Places.

Chasdan Vandak
Ports.

i^haridan.

Chaphal

dam having been evidently purposely damaged to prevent water
being retained. A Subheddr formerly resided on the fort with vil-
lages from the present Koregaon sub-division in his charge. As
in the case of Vandan only the broken points were defended by
masonry walls and the angles by bastions. In 1673 Ohandan Vandan
were among the forts which fell into Shivd-ji's hand.i They were taken
by Aurangzeb's officers in 1701 but were recaptured by Shdhu after
a^.<r^®af ''' •'•^^^■^ During the civil war between Tarabai and
bMbu, Shd,hu's army was encamped at Chan dan Vandan in the rains
of 1708.3_ In a revenue statement of about 1790 ' Candanwanden'
are mentioned as the head-quarters of a pargana in the Bii^pur
subha with a revenue of £2164 8s. (Rs. 21,644).* They fell without
resistance in 1818.

Cha'plial an alienated village with in 1881 a population of
1953 being an increase of 38 over that in 1872, lies on the M^nd
a tributary of the Krishna six miles west of Umbraj. It is reached
by a first class local fund road as far as Charegaon three miles
south-west of Umbraj from where a track reaches Chd,phal by
. Majgaon. The village is prettily placed in a narrow part of the
valley and is surrounded by fertile black soil lands and teak-covered
hills. The water-supply for drinking and irrigation is plentiful.
The proprietor is Lakshmanrav Rdmchandra Svami the descendant
of the famous Rd,mdd,s Svdmi the contemporary and spiritual adviser
of Shivaji. The representative of this family takes rank first
among the Sd,td,ra native chiefs above the Pratinidhi and the
Sachiv and the chiefs of Phaltan and Jath j and divides his residence
between Chdphal and the fort of Parli. Bight villages of the
head Man valley are alienated to him, besides others in Sdtdra
near Parli fort. Chaphal village is distributed over both sides of
the river. On the left bank is the main street inhabited by several
well-to-do traders where a weekly market is held. A foot bridge
connects it with the right bank where are the vernacular school in a
good Government building, a few cultivators' houses, and the temple
and mansion of the Svami. They are built on a hill within the
same paved court and are reached by a causeway surmounted by a
flight of fifty steps and an archway with a nagdrkhdna or drum-
chamber on the top. The dwelling houses line the sides of the court
and in the middle is the temple dedicated to Ramd^s Svami and to
his tutelary deity the god Maruti, The temple court steps are all
of fine trap masonry and in excellent repair but, apart from solidity
and good plain workmanship, are in no way remarkable. The
temple faces east and has an open hall on wooden pillars and a stone
image-chamber with a tower of brick and cement. The temple was
completed in 1776, at an estimated cost of over £10,000 (Rs. 1,00,000),
by Bdlaji Mdndavgane a rich Brahman who built many others in
the district. The north side faces the river whose banks here are
about sixty feet high of crumbling black soil and kept together by

1 Grant Duflfs MarithAs, 116. = Grant Duflfs Mar4tli&, 177, 185.

' Grant Duff's Mardth^a, 187.

* Waring's MarAthAs, 244. The statement also mentions ' Chenden ' separately witb
an income of £2078 12s. (Rs. 20,786). Ditto.

Deccau.]

sAtAra.

461

a solid retaining wall of mortared masonry. The temple is enriclied Chapter XIV.
by many offerings and is a favourite place of pilgrimage. A fair Places-

attended by 2000 to 3000 pilgrims is held on the ninth of Ohaitra
or March -April.

Charegaon, within 1881 a population of 3175 being an increase Chaeegaon.
of 104 over that in 1872 is a large village four miles west of Umbra]
on the TJmbraj-Malharpeth. road which crosses the Mand river by a
bridge close to the south-west of the town. Charegaon has a good
vernacular school and a large population of Vanis who conduct a
carrying and export trade with Chiplun. From early times pack
bullocks from this village crossed the Kumbhdrli pass in numbers.
Their place is now taken by carts the payments of which form a
large portion of the proceeds of the Urul toll on the Malharpeth road.

CMkurde, a village of 3894 people, lies in the Vd,rna valley Chikitkdb.
between nine and ten miles south-south-west of Peth and six miles
west of the Sd,tara-Kolhapur road. It is one of the most thriving
villages in the district with broad streets and good houses. The
land surrounding it is excellent yielding rich crops of sugarcane
and pepper. The Deshmukhs of Ohikurde are an affluent Brahman
family of local repute and importance and have held the office since
the days of the Bijapur kings. Besides their own mansion which
is a fine specimen of the modern Mardtha mansion or vdda, the
Deshmukhs, especially the present representative and his father, have
done much in endowing and enlarging a modern but handsome
temple of Mahddev, which lies about a mile north-west of the village
at the edge of a bare plain oimdlrdn. The temple (50'x30') has an
image-chamber, a stone hall or mandap, and a brick tower. In
front is a large paved courtyard 120 feet square surrounded by a
stone wall, and outside a large masonry tank about eighty feet
square. The temple has considerable endowments bestowed by the
Deshmukhs for the maintenance of the worship and for reading
Parens. Ohikurde has a vernacular school and a village post office.

Chimangaon, a village of 1966 people, ontheleft bank of a stream Ckimanqaon.
about four miles north-west of Koregaon, has a ruined Hemadpanti
temple of Mahddev. The sanctuary is modern but the hall with its
sixteen pillars is old. The centre course in each pillar is well carved.
The facade of the roof is of stone slabs with the usual broad eaves
curved and turned-up margins. The carving in the pillars, the frieze
of the plinth, and facing of the roof, is good an d in a floral pattern with
knots and balls. The brackets supporting the pillars are also well
carved. Chimangaon was the head-quarters of B^pu Grokhle in an
attack on Vardhangad fort when in 1807 he was returning to Poena
after the action below Vasantgad in which the Pant Pratinidhi was
taken prisoner.^

Dahivadi, 17° 42' north latitude and 74° 36' east longitude the DinryADi.

head-quarters of the Man sub-division, with a population in 1881 of
2049 being 508 less than in 1872, lies on the right bank of the Man
on the Pusesavli-Shingnd,pur road, forty miles east of S^t^ra and

1 Grant Duffs MarAthAs, 616.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

DISTRICTS.

(Jhapter XIV.
Places.

DIteqad.

about four miles from the junction of the aboTe mentioned road with
the Sdtara-Pandharpur road. The river banks are low and the
village is spread along the sides for about a quarter of a mile.
Besides the sub-divisional revenue and police oflBceSj Dahivadi has
a sub-judge's court, a vernacular school, a post ofiBce, and a weekly
market. The revenue and police offices are in an old native mansion.

Da'tegad, or Sun dargad, about 2000 feet above the plain, lies three
miles north-west of Pdtan. It is one of the highest points for many
miles and not commanded by any neighbouring hill. The ascent is
about three miles by a very steep bridle path leading on to a plateau
whence there is a steep ascent to the fort. The scarp is about thirty
feet high, but owing to scattered boulders is in places easy to climb.
About 600 feet long by 180 feet broad, the fort is oblong in shape
and has an area of about three acres. The entrance is about the
centre of the west face. A passage about seven feet broad is cut
about twenty feet down from the top of the scarp. This passage
contained a gateway of a single-pointed arch ten feet high which has
now fallen in. About twenty rock-cut steps lead out on the top turn-
ing south halfway up. In the corner of the angle is a red image of
Maruti still worshipped. The walls are now in ruins and consisted
originally of large laterite blocks, well cut, and put together without
mortar. These must be the original structures though there are many
modern additions. The wall originally had a loopholed parapet
about four feet high. On the east a little more than half-way up is
a curious dungeon. Some steps lead down about eight feet into the
rock in which a room apparently about thirty feet by twelve and
eight high has been made. It is fearfully dark and two small holes
are perforated for light and air. This room, it is said, was used as
an oubliette or dungeon. There is also a very curious well 100 feet
deep cut twenty feet square out of the solid rock, and with a flight of
sixty -four rock-cut steps twelve feet wide. The water is approached
through a sort of gateway made by leaving unhewn a portion of the
rock joining the two sides of the passage. The water is always
good fresh and abundant. The story is that the well belongs to the
Koyna river and that a leaf thrown into that river at the right place
will be found floating in this well. There are two large tanks thirty
feet square and a smaller one all said to be for the storage of grain.
This seems doubtful ; they were more probably used to store water
drawn from the big well. On the south of the fort are the remains
of four buildings and facing north and adjoining the rock is
the hacheri building or court-house. The fort had a permanent
garrison of 150 and lands were assigned for its maintenance in the
neighbouring villages. Administrative orders were frequently sent
for execution by the Mar^tha government to the officer in charge of
this fort. Though the usual native tradition ascribes its building
to Shivaji, documents show that the Muhammadans had possession of
this fort. Its appearance makes it likely that it is older than either
and the well is ascribed to mythological seers or Rishis. On the
east face is a tank made in the side of the hill at the foot of the
scarp and cut out of the rock in the form of a cow's mouth. It has
been proposed to use this spring for a drinking and irrigation

Deccau.]

SlTlRA.

463

supply to tlie town of P^tan, but the Irrigation Department have
found the scheme impracticable. After the establishment of the
Sdtdra Rdja in 1818, Captain Grant obtained the surrender of
Ddtegad about May in exchange for five horses of the fbrt
commandant which had been captured by the local militia, and
promising to allow the garrison their arms and property.

DGUr, on a feeder of the Vdrna, about ten miles north-west of
Koregaon and fourteen miles north-east of Sdtara, is a large village
with a vernacular school and a travellers' bungalow. The village
lies about a mile above the junction of the old Poena and Deur-Sap
roads and had, in 1881, a population of 1614 or 354 over that of
1872.

In 1713 Deur was the scene of a battle between Chandrasen
J&dhav aud Haibatrdv Nimbalkar chiefly on the question of the
surrender of Bdlaji Vishvanath, afterwards the great Peshwa, but
then only in a subordinate station attached to Jadhav and deputed
to superintend revenue collections for the Satara RAja. This
was resented by Jadhav and Bd,ldji fled for his life to Pdndugad.
Jadhav demanded his surrender from Shahu Raja who replied by
ordering up Haibatrav. " Jadhav was defeated and retired to
Kolh^pur, where he was received and given a jdgir}

Devra'shta in KhSnApur, a village of 2040 people about twelve
miles south-west of Vita, has a curious cluster of temples and ancient
monkish cells. These lie about a couple of miles north-west of the
village and a good roadway made and planted with trees by the
devotees of the place leads to the bare round -topped hills near
which the village lies. The temples lie in a hollow about half-way
down a small gently sloping but rocky pass through an opening in
the hills which forms the communication between tho Khdndpur
and Vdlva sub-divisions. They are perhaps more easily accessible
from Takari viUage in the Valva sub-division which has an Irrigation
bungalow good to serve as a starting point. A walk north-
east of about one mile along a path running between the Satara-
Tasgaon road and the range of hills which runs parallel to it leads
to a ravine opening to the north up which the path turns. The
rocks on each side are bare and rugged and the ground much
broken by deep stream beds. A little scrub grows here and there.
A mile of this and the ravine closes in. The path begins to ascend
slightly, and after a rise of about fifty feet reaches the hollow where
are the temples. The hollow is about sixty yards square and
quite shut in by low rocky hills and broken ground, but contains no
less than forty-three temples large and small nearly all of the same
pattern, a square shrine with vestibule and a spire of brick, and all
in honour of Mahddev and containing no image but the ling. The
chief temple is in the centre, and, though modernised by restoration,
is apparently older than the rest. It is dedicated to Samudreshvar
Mahadev or Mahddev of the Sea and the antiquity and sanctity
of the place is derived from this temple and its accompanying
cells. Entering from the south in a row on the left or west

Chapter XIV
Places-

Deur.

DeveAshta,

' Grant Duff's Mar*th*s, 189-190.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

4G4

DISTRICTS.

Chapter XIV.
Places.

DevbAshta.

are three temples and on the right or east are the cells, seven in
a row running from west to east and then, at right angles, seven
more running from south to north. These buildings are undoubtedly
old and are said to have been inhabited by seers or Eishis. As
there is no inscription it is difficult to fix their exact date. But
legends connect the place with a Raja of Kundal/ where are a large
number of Brdhmanical caves, and these cells, therefore, are
probably of about the same age. They look as if they were an
unfinished part of a cloistered quadrangle for a temple. The
position of the temple of Samudreshvar to the north of the end of
the cells would not suit with this theory, but there is a small shrine
now made into a modern temple in a place almost corresponding to
the centre of the quadrangle. The cells are each six feet long
and four feet broad and about 5' 8" high. They have pillars with
shafts at each corner and square dome-like tops closed in with
rough flat slabs. The cells all open inwards and are separated
by stone partitions a foot thick, which gives some support to the
quadrangle theory. They are closed at the back by a solid stone
wall about two feet thick and about seven feet high including
a slightly raised coping. This gives a fall for the centre roof
which slopes inwards down to the broad eaves in the old
Hem"ddpanti style. These eaves are one foot seven inches broad,
curved, and turn up at the front margin. They are kept in their
places by the heavy roof slabs which overlap them some six inches.
The rest of the roof is made in the same fashion, the upper slabs
overlapping the lower. The coping stones at the top are about
five feet long and one foot ten inches wide with wedge-shaped
incisions apparently for the insertion of dovetailing blocks to hold
them together. Each roof slab, where it overlaps the one below,
and the eaves, is faced with mouldings and crochets. No
mortar is used throughout the structure, which is of large blocks
of trap finely cut. Old slabs mouldings and shafts of various
fashions are scattered about different parts of the place and are
worked here and there into the new temple buildings.

Immediately in front of the seven cells running north are five
temples in a row opening west. In a line with these cells are three
more temples or rather modern chambers opening west and turning
west of them are four more opening south. Facing the east row of
cells are four temples in a row opening east, a dharmshdla or rest-
house and then another temple. In the centre is a small temple
above alluded to, north of it another, and north of this last the temple
of Samudreshvar. It has a mandap with the old style of pillars and a
brick spire but no signs of antiquity. Twenty yards north of it are
three masonry tanks about ten feet long and six feet broad, one
below the other for different castes, always full of beautiful clear
water with about nine small temples surrounding them. East of
these is the road leading up to Devrdshta and beyond the road
the sacred tank generally dry but when filled with water used
for ablution. Its waters are supposed to have miraculous powers

1 See below Kundal.

Deccan.]

SATARA.

465

and to have originally cured the Rdja of Kundal who built the
cells. The legend is that a sage named Sut told the great sage
Vy^s that he had been to all sacred places and yet had not been
satisfied. Vyas then informed all the Bishis that there was a
sacred spot named Samudreshvar which would become known in
the days of Raja Sheteshvar. Rdja Sheteshvar once went to hunt
in the Ambika country. He shot an arrow at his quarry but
missed and in following it arrived at the forest of Nibid. He was
in great difficulty for water and came to where the sage Sumitra
was sitting. He asked him for water. But the sage was rapt in
divine contemplation and would not answer him. The Rd,ia then
got in a rage and threw some lice which were on the ground at the
sage. At that moment the sage awoke from his trance, saw
Sheteshvar and visited him with the curse that vermin would come
out all over his body. The Raja begged for mercy, on which the
sage said the plague should occur only at night and disappear in the
day, and after twelve years the sanctuary of Samudreshvar would
be discovered, and his sins be cleansed there by the devoted worship
of his wife. The Rdja went home and his wife passed the appointed
time praying for him and cleansing him day by day of the vermin
that appeared on him at night. He then went to hunt in the same
partof the country and was again in difficulties for water, when he saw
a small rill trickling from a rock in the Sahyddris. Its water he took
in his hand, washed with it his eyes and mouth and when he got home
his wife noticed at night that his hand eyes and mouth were free
from the vermin plague. The wife then suggested that he should
go to the spring wherewith he had washed. He made a large tank
where the rill had appeared, and washed his whole body, when the
vermin entirely disappeared. On inquiring for the origin of this
sacred water he was told by Kartik Svami that it came from the
head of Shankar. The reason of its appearance and the name
Samudreshvar are thus explained : Shankar killed a gigantic
sea demon called Jalandar. The sea or Samudra, delighted at this,
worshipped Shankar and asked him to manifest himself at
some spot where Samudra would put up the ling in his honour.
Shankar consented and out of his head sprang a branch of the
Ganges which was the rill Sheteshvar found and hence the name
Samudreshvar. Shankar promised to favour this spot as he did
Benares itself. The legends contain no account of how the cells
were built. The other shrines here were built in honour of various
manifestations of Shankar and kindred deities. A prince named Bil
R^ja erected one and Somndth of Sorath, a name which seems to have
some reference to the celebrated K^thiAw^r temple destroyed by
Muhammad of Gazni, is another. Another prince mentioned is Giri
Raja, but there seem to be no historical personages corresponding
to these names. The cells are said to have been built by
Hingandev, the king who is said to have built the well at Mhasurne
or Hingankhadi in Khatav ; while the village of Hinga&gad close
by in the Khandpur sub-division is perhaps named after him. His
place of residence is said to have been Kaundanyapur which is said
to be the same as Kundal, the Pant Pratinidhi's village about four
miles to the south-east.
B 1282—59

Chapter XIV
Places.

DevbAshta.

[Bombay Gazetteer,.

466

DISTRICTS.

Chapter XIV.

Places-
Dhavassei,

DiVASBI Khpbd.

Dhom.

Dha'vadshi village about six miles nortli-west of Sat^ra is
interesting as the head-quarters or sansthdn and afterwards as the
burial place or samddhi of BhArgavram the spiritual teacher or
mahdpurush of Bajirav the second Peshwaj and his son Balaji
Bdjirdv or Ndna Saheb, the third Peshwa. Bdjirdv and his son
reported all their proceedings to Bhdrgavr^m. Their letters are
valuable historical records.^

Divashi Khurd village in Pdtan, alienated to ]Sriigojird,v
Patankar, contains a curious cave and spring sacred to Dv^reshvar
Mahadev and Rdmchandra. The cave lies seven miles north-west
of Pdtan on a platform of rock on the east side of the spur ending
at D£tegad, and about 70(3 feet above the plain. Two hundred feet
higher is the large mwm or ledge generally found on the sides of these
Mils and 100 feet above this the rocky ridge or hogback which crowns
this spur throughout. The worshippers are chiefly unmarried Jangams
or Lingayat priests. The cave is about 200 feet long, thirty-five feet
deep, and six to eight feet high. In the centre is the Mahddev shrine
and twenty yards to the north a shrine of Ed,mchandra. The Jangams
have maths or cells all along the cave leaving spaces for the temples
about twenty feet square. They make themselves and their cattle
fairly comfortable by blocking up the rock with mud partitions and
doorways. The water drips from a spring in the sohd rock above the
Mahddev cave. The Mahddev cave has a little wood ornamentation
put up by a member of the Pdtaukar family about eighty years ago,
but except its size and curious nature the cave has nothing very
remarkable. Great holiness attaches to the place and it is visited
by pilgrims from the Karndtak and elsewhere. Jatrds or fairs are
held in honour of Mahadev on the first day of Mdrgshirsh or
November- December and in honour of Rdmchandra on the first of
Chaitra or March-April and are attended by about 500 people from
the neighbouring villages.

Phom village lies on the north bank of the Krishna about five
miles north-west of Wdi with which it is connected by a broad
cleared track maintained in fair repair from Local Funds. The
population consists mainly of the Brahman worshippers at the
temples which form the only objects of interest in the village. The
chief temple is between the village and the river and is dedicated
to Mahddev. It consists of a shrine and a veranda, and in front of
these small Saracenic scoUopped arches supported on pillars about six
feet high and a foot thick. The arches and the inside walls are of
highly polished basalt. The shrine is fifteen feet long and fourteen
feet broad and the veranda fifteen feet broad'and eighteen feet long
projecting two feet on each side of the shrine making the length of
the whole structure thirty-eight feet. The veranda arches are
covered with leaves and what appear to be cones. Beyond the
arches, on each side of the facade, is a broad band of wall carved in
arabesques, The height of the building including the spire is
probably not more than forty feet, and, except the spire which is of
brick, it is all made of basalt. The spire in two twelve-sided tiers with

' Captain Grant Duff in S4t4ra Records. See above p. 278.

Dhom.

Oectiaa.J

sAtARA. 467

an urn-shaped pinnacle on the top. The urn rests on a sort of basin Chapter XIV.
the edges of which are carved in a lotus leaf pattern. There are Plftces-

similar small pinnacles at the corners of the shrine and the mandap.
The whole building is raised from the ground on a plinth about two
feet high. Four feet in front is the sacred bull Nandi well carved
of polished basalt and under a canopy surmounted by a dome. It is
seated upon the back of a turtle represented as in the act of swimming
and surrounded by a stone basin by filling which it is intended to
complete the illusion. The canopy is octagonal supported on
scoUopped arches similar to those in the shrine. The bull is in the
usual reclining attitude with the point of the right foot resting on
the tortoise and the right knee bent as if about to rise. The
usual trappings, necklace bells, and saddle cloth are carved in stone.
The tortoise is circular with feet and head stretching out from under
the shell and very roughly done. It rests en a circular basement
and has a diameter of about fifteen feet. The sides and margin of
the basement are tastefully cut so as to represent the fringe of the
lotus flower. The canopy is surmounted by a small octagonal spire
or shilchar eight feet high, and profusely decorated in stucco. The
basin in which this structure rests is circular, about two feet deep
and twenty feet in diameter and is simply sunk into the pavement of
the court with a small turned back lip or margin. Round this chief
temple are four others dedicated to Narsinh, Ganpati, Lakshmi, and
Vishnu which contain yellow marble images of those divinities said
to have been brought from Agra. One temple which stands outside
by itself represents the Shiv Panchdyatan. Four heads look to
the four cardinal points of the compass and the fifth heavenwards.
Of the other four temples the Narsinh temple deserves mention for
its curious hideosity. It has a circular basement on an octagonal
plinth about six feet high and surmounted by a hideous structure
made of mixed stucco and wood and supposed to represent an
umbrella. All these buildings are in a paved court 100 feet by 120
with brick walls about twelve feet high. There is an entrance
consisting of a stone pointed archway which by itself is not
unimposing, but the walls are very much out of keeping. These
temples were all built by Mah^dev Shivram a Poena moneylender
who flourished about 1780 a.d. A side door from the temple court-
yard leads to a flight of steps built about the same time by one
Nd,rayanr^v Vaidya. On the right is a small temple to Udm
attributed to the last Peshwa Bdjirdv II. (1796-1817). Its conical
spire has been broken off by the fall of a tree. Below this and
facing the river is a sort of cloister containing an image of Ganpati.
The arches are pointed and the date of the building is probably
about 1 780 a.d. About half a mile up the river is a small temple to
Mahddev built by Sh4hu (1708-1749) who came to Dhom to bathe
in the river. The place is held in great veneration and the Mahadev
ling is said to have been first set up by a Bishi named Dhaumya
said to have come from the source of the Krishna at Mah^baleshvar.
A fair or jatra in honour of Mahadev takes place on the full-moon
of Vaishdkh or April -May and one in honour of Narsinh on the
bright fourteenth of Vaishdkh.

[Bombay Oazetteef ,

468

DISTRICTS.

ChaptoXVI. Gunvantgad or Morgiri Fort, six miles south-west of Pdtan, is

Places. ^ steep oblong hill about 1000 feet above the plain. The walls have

GuNVANTOAD fallen in. There is a well but no marks of habitation and no gateways
remain. The hill is the end of a lofty spur branching in a south-east
direction from the main range of the Sahyddris at Mala. The fort is
completely commanded from this spur with which it is connected by a
narrow neck of land a quarter of a mile long. The north-east comer
of the fort is the highest point and the ground slopes irregularly to
the south-west. The form is not unlike a lion couchantj which is
the supposed meaning of the word morgiri. Part of the village of
Morgiri lies close below the south-east side of the fort, while there
is another hamlet similarly situated on a shoulder of the hill to
the north-west.

The fort has no signs of age. In the eighteenth century it
appears to have maintained a garrison of the Peshwa's soldiery
when Ddtegad held people attached to the Pant Pratinidhi and the
authorities of the two forts seem to have thrown difficulties in the
way of executing orders issued by the governments they opposed.'
In the Mardtha war of 1818 the fort surrendered to the British
without resistance.

Helvak, Helva'k is a village of 376 people on the north of the KarM-

Kumbharli pass road, thirteen miles west of Pdtan, at the point
where the Koyna river turns at right angles from its southerly to
an easterly coarse. From the west flows a small stream up the
valley of which the Kumbhdrli road ■ climbs till the edge of the
Sahyadris. The ascent is not more than 300 feet in four miles and
the incline moderate. At the village of Mendheghar just opposite
Helvdk is a small Public Works bungalow which serves well for a
resting place. Carts on their way to and from Chiplun usually halt
here and during the busy season tbe number of carts is the same as
at Pdtan. In the angle formed by the Koyna river is a large flat
space given up in the rains to rice fields and in the fair weather to
a camping ground for carts, when temporary shops for grain and
other necessaries are formed under booths, and the scene is one of
constant bustle and activity. The cultivators of the neighbouring
hill villages bring down bundles of firewood usually kdrvi which
they sell to the eartmen partly for their own use, but also in
considerable and increasing amounts to the return eartmen who
take them as far as KarM or even further and sell them for ten
times what they give in Helvak, which is about f d. to 2id. {as. J-li)
per load according to size and weight. The cultivators above
Helvak also bring down rafters and poles on rafts to Karad. About
six men accompany each raft. The river Koyna is a succession of
pools and by a little portage over the intervening shingles the
people are able in the earlier part of the dry season, as far as
January, to bring down the wood to Karad in about ten days.
This traffic is increasing but is at present only confined to alienated
villages, no extensive cuttings except in one recent ease having yet
been made in Government forests. The wood was sold at Helvak by
auction and probably much besides is taken east either by returii

' Aacertaiued from papers produced during an enquiry into a hereditary office case.

Deccan-]

sAtara.

469

carts or by water At NecUa village three miles west of Helvak is
a fine stretch of virgin forest worth a visit. At Khemse on the
edge of the Sahyadris is another small bungalow but not kept in
good order. Its windows give a fine view down to Chiplun, but the
line of the Sahyddris is not well seen from here as projections shut
out the more distant hills. The Kumbharli hills are strikingly abrupt
and bold and alone worth looking at. The view northwards of the
Koyna valley is most beautiful at this point. Mahsir fishing is to be
had, and Helvak is an excellent starting point for big game shooting
expeditions in every direction, bear and ehital to the north, bison at
Mala to the south, sdmbar always and tigers occasionally on all sides.

Jakhinva'di. See KaeAd.

Jangli Jaygad hill fort, about six miles north-west of Helvak,
lies on a spur projecting from the main line of the Sahyddris into
the Konkan from the village of Navje in Patau. .Perhaps the
easiest way to get to the fort is to climb the hill 2000 feet or more
or about three miles to Torne as far as which the ascent is easy.
There is a passable footpath along the top of the hill for another
three miles, where the old path from Navje village used for the
fort guns is hit. This is in fine perennial forest. A mile over
dead leaves and slippery but clear walking brings one to the edge of
the Sahyadris and nearly all the rest of the way is through dense
bamboo forest and undergrowth through which it may be necessary
to hack the way. At last the edge of the prominence is reached
and the fort is seen about a hundred yards ofE and as many feet
lower. To reach it a narrow neck of unsafe land has to be crossed
through a thick growth of kdrvi bush. A most unpleasant scramble
leads to the gate on the iiorth entirely in ruins. The fort is oblong
and about 180 yards long and about 160 wide. A good many
ruined buildings and one or two large and a good many small tanks
inside the fort show that it was permanently garrisoned. Outside
underneath the scarp about fifty feet high are several cave tanks with
excellent water. At the western end the drop is very sudden for
about a hundred feet, and the rest of the descent to the Konkan is
very steep and impracticable. The forest once cleared, however, the
difficulties of approach from Navje are not insurmountable. Though
very rarely visited on account of the thick forest to be passed,
the magnificent view of the line of the Sahyddris right up to the
saddleback hill or Makrandgad makes it well worth a visit. According
to a local story Td,i Telin the mistress of the Pant Pratinidhi held
possession of this fort in 1810 and BApu Gokhle drove her out of it.
It surrendered to a British force under Col. Hewett in May 1818.

Ja'vli, with in 1881 a population of 206, is a small viUage
situated on a ravine about two miles east of Pratapgad and about
three miles north-west of Malcolmpeth as the crow flies, but down a
tremendously steep descent. The village is of great interest as
giving its name to the large mountainous tract extending probably
as far as the Vdrna river which was one of the earliest MarAtha
states since Muhammadan times. It was formerly under some
chieftains named Shirke of whose family a representative still
exists in S^t^ra enjoying alienated villages in the south of the

ChapterXVI.
Places.

HelvAk.

JakhinvAdi.

Janoli Jatoad
Fort.

JAVLI,

[Bombay Gazetteer,

470

DISTRICTS.

Chapter XIV.
Places.

JAtli,

Kadegaon.

district. The Shirkes possessed this tract till towards the tod of the
fifteenth century, when Chandi-ardv More was given 12,000 Hindu
infantry by the first Bijapur king Yusuf Adil Shah (1489 - 1510) to
undertake their conquest. In this -Chandrardv was successful,
dispossessing the Shirkes and stopping the depredations of their
abettors the Grujars, Manulkars, Mahddiks of Tarle in Pd,tan, and
Mohites. More was given the title of ChandrarSv, and his son
Yashvantrav, distinguishing himself in a battle near Purandhar with
the Ahtnadnagav forces of Burhdn Nizamshdh (1.508-1553) by
capturing a standard, was confirmed in succession to his father.
He retained the title of Ohandrardv and for seven generations
the family administered the district with mildness and efficiency.
In consideration of their unalterable fidelity the Muhammadan
government allowed them to hold these barren regions at a nominal
tribute. This they continued till in 1655 Shivd,ji attempted to
corrupt the ruling chief. He still remained faithful. He had
given passage to Shdmraj an emissary of the Bijapur government
sent to seize Shivdji, who therefore determined to regard him as
an enemy. But the hUlmen then had the character they have now,
and formed as good infantry as Shivdji's own, while the Edja's
son brother and minister Himmatr^v were all thought good
soldiers. Shivaji then had recourse to stratagem and sent two
agents Ragho Ballal a Brahman and Sambhaji Kavji a Maratha
ostensibly to arrange a marriage between Shivaji and the daughter
of Chandrar^v. They came to Javli with twenty -five Mavlis, and
Rdgho BalMl and Sambhd,ii then formed the design of assas-
sinating Ohatidrarav. It was approved by Shivdji who secretly
advanced to Mah^baleshvar through the forests with -troops.
Rd,gho BalMl then asked a private interview with the Ed,ja and his
brother, assassinated them both with the help of Sambhaji, and
escaped into the forests to Shivdji. The latter thereon attacked
JAvli which fell after a brave resistance. Himmatrav was killed
and the Raja's sons made prisoners.-*- Since then the tract had been
in the hands of the descendants of Shivaji and the Peshwa govern-
ment until reduced by the English. Though it was evidently the
residence of the Mores, there are no remains to show that it was a
place of note.

Kadegaon is a village of 2608 people or 103 more than in 1872,
on the Karad-Bijdpur road about a mile and a half west of Kadepur
and eleven miles east of Kardd. It is well situated on the bank
of a stream forming part of the catchment of the Chikli canal,
with on its west a fine mango grove which is one of the favourite
camps in the district. The town is walled as usual with mud and
stones. In the centre is a tower situated on a knoll and rising
above the rest of the village. There are gates on all four sides
flanked with bastions. All these are now in ruins. A small mosque
a Kd,zi and a Musalman population remain to show that the village
was held in force by the Musalmdns. Most of the leading local

1 See above p. 233.

Deccau.]

sAtAra,

471

moneylenders and traders reside here, and the town has a small
local trade. The village has a vernacular school in a good building

Kadepur thirteen miles east of Karad is' a village of 1330
people or 299 more than in 1872 situated at the junction of
the Sd,tara-Tdsgaon and Kardd-Bijapur roads. The village is
remarkable only for an old temple which stands on a hill to the south-
west and the spire of which is a conspicuous object for miles
round.

Ea'le nine miles south of Karad is a large agricultural village
with in 1881 a population of 5169. The people are unusually
enterprising and have an unusually flourishing school attended by
about 150 boys.

Kamalgad Port^, 4511 feet above sea level, is situated about
ten miles due west of Wai. The hill divides the head of the.
Krishna valley. To the north of it flows the Vdlkij and to the
south the Krishna proper, the two streams meeting at its eastern
base. The top of the hill is approached by unfrequented
footpaths from Asgaon to the east, from Vasole to the north,
and from Partavdi to the south. The top of the hill consists of
an area of only three or four acres quite flat and surrounded by
a low scarp and can now be reached only by arduously scaling
the scarp. Formerly the approach was by an artificial funnel or
tunnel leading upwards from the base of the scarp and issuing on
the top. This funnel is now blocked by a large boulder which has
fallen into it. There are now no traces of any buildings on the top
nor of any walls or gateway. There is only a hole which is
said to be the remains of a deep well sunk right through the rocky
layer constituting the scarp and penetrating to the soil below which
seems still to be full of water. The hole is now only eighteen to
twenty feet deep though the well was thirty or forty. The sides of
the well which were formed of the natural rock are said to
have contained recesses in which criminals were placed to choose
between starvation and throwing themselves down into the water.
No traces of the recesses now remain. No one lives on the hill, its
sides are covered with thick scrub and water is found only at the
base of the scarp. The lands belong to the village of Asgaon.
There are no Gadkaris in connection with the fort. To the west of
the base of the scarp is a rude temple dedicated to Gorakhnath.
The builder of the fort is unknown, but it is probably very old. In
April 1818 Kamd.lgad surrendered after a slight resistance to a British
detachment under Major Thatcher.

Kanerkhed in Koregaon with 894 people or 194 less than in 1872
is an insignificant village only remarkable as the birthplace of the
founder of the Sindia family. They were jpatils or headmen of ■
Kanerkhed and the present officiators are deputies appointed by the
Grwalior family. The village can be easily reached by taking the Sdp
road for six miles from Koregaon and then, turning east where the
road meets Nigadi village.

Chapter XIVi
Places.

Kadbpub.

Kale.

KamAlgad
Fort.

Kanerkhed,

1 Mr. H. R. Cooke, C.S.

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472

DISTRICTS.

Chapter XIV.

Places.

KarAd.
Description,

Kara'd, properly KarMd,17°l7'north latitade74°13'east longitude,
at the junction of the Krishna and the Koyna thirty-one miles south of
Satdra, is a very old town^the head-quarters of the Kard,d sub-division,
with in 1881 a population of 10,778. Approaching Kar^d from any
side two tall minarets, like chimneys rising out of what appears a
dead level plain, strike the eye. Coming close the town appears
situated at the junction of the Krishna and Koyna rivers, the
Koyna having turned almost north and the Krishna running about
south-east. On joining the two rivers flow eastward for a couple
of mileSj when the course again turns south. Thus the banks on
which Kard,d is situated form a right angle against the apex of
which the Krishna rushes at full tilt. The north-west side of the
town is in places from eighty to a hundred feet high above the
Koyna, overhung with bushes and prickly pear. The northern side
is rather lower and less steep, the slope being broken by the steps
or ghdts bending down to the river. Six miles to the north-west
is the fort of Vasantgad hidden by the ends of the spur which
branch out beyond it to within three miles of the town. Four
miles north-east the flat-topped hill of Sadd,shivgad is in full view,
while the same distance to the south-east is the peak of Agashiv about
1200 feet above the plain which crowns the north-west arm, honey-
combed with Buddhist caves, of the spur which forms the south-west
wall of the Kole valley. These hills aremore or less bare,though green
is struggling up the hollow. But the soil below is some of the most
fertile in the district and green with crops to the end of February. The
high red banks of the Koyna, the broad rocky bed and scarcely less
lofty banks of the Krishna with broad pools of water at the very
hottest season fringed with bdbhuls or overhung by the irregular
buildings of the town, the hills filling up the distance on every side,
with a clear atmosphere and the morning and evening lights make
up an interesting view. The Koyna is crossedby a lofty bridge which
is best seen from the north-west angle of the town where it is viewed
obliquely, and, at a little distance, the irregular Agdshiv spur gives
a good back ground. No less than five roads, the Poona-Belgaum,
Kardd-Chiplun, Karad-Td,sgaon, Karad-Bijdpur, and Karad-Masur,
meet at Kardd- The KarM-Bijdpur and Kardd-Masur roads enter the
town from the left and the others from the right bank of the Krishna. The
town covers an area of about half a mile square and is surrounded,
except where the rivers bound it, by rich black soil lands. It is
therefore crowded and, except on the south-east, has little room for
extension. At the north-west angle is the mud fort originally
Muhammadan if not earlier, and subsequently the palace of the Pant
Pratinidhi until his power was wrested from him by the Peshwds in
1807. Next to the fort are the set of steps or ghdts and temples at
the junction of the two rivers, the eddies of which have accumulated
a huge bed of gravel and sand. To withstand their force a large
masonry revetment was built in ancient times remains of which still
exist. In this the north-west quarter live the chief Brahman
families, and here are the sub -divisional revenue and police offices
and a large anglo-vernacular school. This quarter is bounded on
the west and south by two streets one running north and another
east. At their junction is the municipal office and immediately

Deccan]

sItIra.

473

sontli of it is a mosque and minarets. Following the east street
known as the Peth two Musalman tombs of some pretensions and the
municipal garden are passed on the right. Walking south about
600 yards and turning east are reached the post office and sub-
judge's court. Another 150 yards lead to the dispensary on the
right and a hundred more to the' travellers' bungalow on the left
of the road. The street running north and south contains the
houses and shops of the chief traders, and a weekly market is held
here on Sunday. About "a hundred yards south of the mosque is a
turn east which leads to the market place, an open square with a small
slightly raised space in the centre where the people sit and sell
vegetables and other small ware on market days. Here live a
considerable colony of Musalmans, some of whom reside round about
the mosque and others, among whom is the descendant of the
Kazis originally appointed by the Bij:d,pur kings, in the south-west
angle of the town. The Mhdrs and other outcastes live in the south
and the bulk of the Kunbi population in the north-east. The
weavers and Shimpis occupy the rest of the south-west part of the
town. The chief streets are about twenty feet broad, the others are
less so, and carts find it difficult to pass each other as the already
narrow roadway is still further cramped by the deep open gutters
on each side, which serve more to accumulate than to clear
away filth. The chief streets are kept fairly clean and water is
supplied to part of the town by an iron pipe. Three quarters of
a mile to the south-east lies the old Musalman burial ground with a
large idga or place of prayer and about 200 yards to the west of
the travellers' bungalow is a large iron-roofed rest-house and the
Executive Engineer's bungalow.

There are in all fifty-two chief temples in KarAd, none of
them of mnch antiquity or beauty. The largest are those of
Krishndbdi Devi and Kashivishveshvar on the Krishna ghat
and Kamaleshvar Mahddev half a mile further down the
river. They mostly consist of the usual mandap or hall and
gdbhdra or sanctuary with brick shikhars or spires adorned with
rough figures in stucco. The ghdts consist of three chief flights
one bending from the Brahman quarter and another from the
north end of the principal street. These have been built chiefly
by voluntary contributions from the inhabitants. Much has been
done by the Pant Pratinidhi and a good deal by devotees,
rich tradesmen, and others, while a handsome addition was lately
made by Ndrdyanrdv Anant Mutalik, the descendant of the heredi-
tary chief officer of the Pratinidhis. A third flight is the end of a
roadway brought eastward from the municipal garden. It is built
by the municipality and made of excellent masonry. Although the
temples singly are of no great beauty, yet the groups of them at the
^Mfs look very picturesque. The ground is terraced and adorned
with fine old trees chiefly tamarind and pimpal. On Fridays when the
women of the town assemble in their holiday dress to do honor to
Krishnd,bai Devi, their graceful figures dotted about the temples lend
much life and colour to the scene.

The mud fort of the Pratinidhi occupies a space of about a hundred
B 1282—60

Chapter_XIV.

Places.

KabAd.

Description,

Temples,

[Bombay Gazetteer.

474

DISTRICTS.

Chapter XIY. yards square at the north-east angle of the town. Its frontage is to
Places- the east and towards the chief street from which it is entered by a

KarAd. broad flight of steps. The steps pass through two gateways crowned

FoH. with music chambers or imgdrkhdnds and flanked by two large

bastions. Inside are a number of buildings the chief of which is the
ydda or mansion of the Pant Pratinidhi. It is a two-storeyed building
in the usual open court Mar^tha style. The only remarkable thing
about it is an extra quadrangle on the south side of which is a
fine hall of audience measuring eighty-three feet by thirty-one feet
and about fifteen feet high. It consists of a central nave fourteen
feet wide and two side aisles. The east end contains a canopy
for Bhavani Devi, in whose honor the hall was built. The ceihng
is of teakwood and ornamented with a lace work of wood and
iron painted black. It was built about 1800 by KAshibai mother
of Parshur^m Shriniv^s Pratinidhi. The rest of the quadrangle was
completed in much the same style by the present Pratinidhi's
Step Well. father. The most remarkable object in the fort is its step well.

It lies near the west end of the fort which overhangs the Koyna
river some eighty to a hundred feet, and is dug right down to
the level of the river with which it communicates by a pipe.
The opening at the top is 136 feet long. The west end of it is
thirty-six feet square with the north-east corner rounded off for the
purposes of a water-lift. The other 100 feet are for a magnificent
flight of eighty steps leading down to the water level. The
well must have been dug in softish material probably murum,
andj to prevent it falling ia, it has been lined with excellent trap
masonry in mortar^ the sides slightly sloping from bottom
outwardSj each line of stones slightly protruding beyond the
line above. At the end of each twenty steps is a landing about
three times the width of each step. The flight of steps and
the main shaft of the well are separated by two massive ogee
archways, which, together with the mortar used in the masonry, seem
to show that the work is Muhammadan. These archways are
connected with each side of the well and form a massive block
between the steps and shaft with the archways cut in them. The
block is about seventy feet high and twelve feet thick, while the
archways are about thirty feet and twenty feet high, the solid
masonry above each of them being about ten feet in height. The
sides also have their peculiar longitudinal rectangular grooves on a
level with the three landings with ten semicircular transverse
cuttings at regular intervals. The object of this, it is said, was to
insert flooring along the grooves to be supported by transverse
beams thrust into the cuttings, and thus convert the well into a
three-storeyed underground building with communications between
each story by the flight of steps and between the shaft and step
sections by the archways. What can have been the use of such a
building it is difficult to imagine. According to one story it was
for ambuscade in case the fort was taken. But it looks more like
an attempt to use the well, which was not often wanted for water-
supply^ for storage purposes. There is nothing else remarkable in
the fort. It has twelve bastions two about the centre and one at
each comer of its four sides which form nearly a rhombus with the

Deccan]

SATARA.

475

acute angle at the norfch-east. The walls all vary according to the
level of the ground inside from twenty to eight feet in height
including a mud parapet six feet high and loopholed obliquely.
The lower parts are of loose rubble and mud fully eight feet thick.
But for the bastions the top level is uniform. Outside the height
varies with the ground from forty to nearly 100 feet at the highest
point above the Koyna river. A huge retaining wall of mortared
trap was formerly built at the west side round the north-west angle,
mostly^ it is said, in Musalman times. The greater part of it
however has been swept away, the last and worst damage within
memory being done at the great flood of 1875. So tremendous is
the force of the flood waters at the junction of the Krishna and the
Koyna that it is a wonder the work has stood so long. Every year
the river is damaging the west side and it is to be feared the curious
step well may fall in as the damage increases. A small entrance leads
from between two bastions to the Krishna and the small temple of
SangameshvarMahddev probably the oldest at Karad. The mosque
and minarets of Karad are scarcely inferior in interest to the fort.
Inscriptions show the date of its foundation and the builder to be
one Ibrahim Khdn in the time of the fifth Bijdpur king Ali Adil Shah
1.(1557-1580). The minarets, 106 ft. high, are plain and cylindrical
slightly tapering with an urn-like top. They rest on a massive ogee
archway of plain masonry about thirty feet by fifteen feet with
chambers in the sides and entered by a small low door which leads to
an open space. On the left or north is a plain square building for the
shelter of travellers and mendicants and the bath or hamdmkhdna
and on the right or south is the mosque. This is a building open to the
east about forty-one feet by eighty-two and thirty feet high. But
for the usual dome in the centre and eight pinnacles one at each
corner and one at the centre of each side, it is flat-roofed outside.
The outside is of plain smooth cut masonry with broad slabs for
eaves supported by handsomely carved brackets. The east front
consists of three ogee arches supported by square pillars, the two side
ones plain and the centre one ornamented with frills and knobs.
The roof rests from within on two more pillars, thus making six
compartments the roofing of each ornamented and slightly domed
with vaulting sections. Between the pillars are four transverse
arches similar to the longitudinal ones. The two central
compartments are richly sculptured with floral and bead decorations
and Arabic texts. In the centre of the west wall is a niche something
like a recess with a long inscription in Arabic on black stone. There
are in all nine inscriptions and texts on various parts of the walls :

One on a pillar records *' Ibraldni Klia'ii bin Kamil !Kha' n. bin Isma'el E"ha'n
servant in the house of Q-od ;" the second round a pillar records *' "When the
assistance of Ood shall oome and the victory, and they shall see the people
enter into the religion of G-od by troops, celebrate the praise of thy Lord
and ask pardon of him, for he is inclined to forgive;" the third "During
the time of Sha'h Ali Adil Sha'h, the shelter of all the people and the
shadow of the favour of God— may he continue faithful and enjoy health
and Khilat (or grant) to Ibra'him Ka'mil Kha'n a friend of the family ;"
the fourth on another pillar records " The beggarly powerless and dust-like
Pehelwa'n Ali bin Ahmad Ispahani, a servant of God in this house of God,
Sunah 983 titled (P) Tuzyet Kha'n. Completed on this date. Pray for the
.welfare of the builder of this mosque ; " the fifth an Arahdo inscription on a pillar

Chapter XIV

Places.

Karad.
Fort.

Inscnptiom.

IBombay Gazetteer,

476

DISTRICTS.

Chapter XIV.

Places.

KabAd.
Jnscriptiowi,

records " May God forgive its builder for tie sake of Miihammad and Ms
descendants ;" the sixth also an Arahic inscription on the top of an arch records "I
bear witness that there is certainly no Grod but God, that he is only one
and that he has no sharers and I bear witness that Muhammad is certainly
his servant and prophet ; " the seventh is at the foot of an arch in Kuflic characters,
which cannot he made out. On the top are the two remaining inscriptions recording ' O All
there is nobody young but Ali. There is no sword but the Zul Pikr.l God
send blessing to Muhammad the chosen (of God), Ali the approved, Hassan
the elect (of God), Husain who became a martyr atKerbalah, Zainu'l Abidin
Muhammad Bakar, Ja'far Sa'dik, Musa-ul-Ka'zim, Muhammad Taki Ali
Naki, Hasan Ashka'ri, Muhammad Madhi. 'The most high and glorious God
hath said: But he only shall visit the temples of God who believeth in God
and the last day, and is constant at prayer, and payeth the legal alms, and
feareth God alone. These perhaps may become of the number of those who
are rightly directed'. And 'Do ye reckon the giving drink to the pilgrims
and the visiting of the holy temple to be actions as meritorious aa those
performed by him who believeth in God and the last day and fighteth for
the religion of God ? The most high and glorious God hath said— regularly
perform thy prayer at the setting of the sun, and at the first darkness of
the night and the prayer of daybreak, for the prayer of daybreak is borne
witness unto by the angels, and watch some part of the night in the same
exercise as a work of supererogation, for peradventure, the Lord will raise
thee to an honourable station. And say, O Lord cause me to enter with a
favourable entry and cause me to come forth with a favourable coming
forth; and grant me from thee an assisting power '.8

The mosque has a mulla attached. The tombs adjoining the
municipal gardens are in honor of Musalman saints. One of them
has a curious canopy on the top of its dome, and is not unhandsome.
There are also two large masonry dargdhs or mausoleums in the
Guruvdr Pefch built in 1350 and 1391 (H. 752 and 793) in honour
of two Musalman saints. The idga or prayer place is a wall about
250 feet long by thirty feet high, with a platform built about twenty-
iive feet off the ground for preaching purposes. The wall is built
of stone below and brick for the last six feet above. It is about
nine feet thick at the base and four feet thick at the top. Round the
idga is the old Musalman burial ground.

The trade of Karad is nearly all in the carrying and money-
lending line. There are about 400 traders, mostly Brdhmans,
Mdrwar Gujarat and Lingdyat Vdnis, Telis, Sangars, Koshtis,
Shimpis, and Musalmdns, and the town contains branches of the
largest moneylending and exchange houses in the district. It
also contains several correspondents of houses elsewhere engaged
in the export and import traffic with Chiplun. But except for the
local supply there is but little stationary trade at Karad. A gigantic
through traffic passes over the Karad-Chiplun road which is fed
almost wholly from the south and south-east by the Kardd-Tasgaon
and Kolh^pur roads. The Koyna bridge toll which is only one-
fourth of the ordinary rate sold for £550 (Rs. 5500) in 1884-85, and
in the busy season from the middle of February to the middle of May,
it was found that about eight hundred carts passed through every
day. The local market consists of grain, cloth, piecegoods, household
pottery and utensils but sparingly of cattle which are usually
bought and sold at Bhilavdi. Karad has no local manufacture of.
importance.

' The Zul Fikr is the famous two-edged sword of Ali which Muhammad said he
had received from the angel Gabriel. ' Dr. Burgess' Antiquarian Lists, 60-61.

Beccan-I

SATARA.

477

KarM suffered severely in a heavy Krishna flood in 1844, A
large part of the retaiiling wallat the north-west of the town was
swept away and the water rose to within twenty feet of the top of the
fort wall. The chief streets were flooded and the houses in
front of the Pant's fort were all swept away. Much injury was done
to the ghats and temples on the river bank. A small stone temple
of Maruti in the centre of the stream said to have been covered with
the rain water year after year for two centuries was injured for the
first time.

The 1872 census showed a population of 11,410 of whom 9845
were Hindus and 1565 MusalmAns. The 1881 census showed a fall
of 632 or 10,778 of whom 9281 were Hindus, 1495 Musalmans, and
two Christians. Besides the sub-divisional revenue and police oflS.ces
Karad has a municipality, sub-judge's court, dispensary, traveller's
bungalow, and six schools. The municipality which was established
in 1855 had in 1882-83 an income of £1045 (Rs. 10,450) and an
expenditure of £429 (Rs. 4290). The dispensary treated in 1883
in-patients eleven and out-patients 5852 at a cost of £100 (Rs.lOOO).
when the West Decoan Railway is furnished Kar^d will have a
station called Kardd Road four miles on its east. Of the six schools
one is an anglo-vernacular school, three Mar^thi, one Hindustani,
and one a girl's school.

The^ Buddhist caves, which form the chief object of antiquarian
interest in Karad, are in the hills to the south-west of the town
the nearest being about two and a half miles from the town, in the
northern face of one of the spurs of the Agdshiv hill, looking
towards the Koyna valley ; the most distant group are in the
southern face of another spur to the west of Jakhinvadi village,
and from three to four miles from Karad.

The caves were first described by Sir Bartle Frere in 1849, and
arranged into three series : the southern group of twenty-three
caves, near the village of Jakhinvadi ; nineteen caves, in the south-
east face of the northern spur ; and twenty- two scattered caves facing
the Koyna valley. Besides these sixty-three caves there are many
small excavations of no note and numerous water-cisterns," often two
to a single cave.

The absence of pillars in the larger halls, the smallness of many
of the excavations, the frequency of stone-benches for beds in the
cells, the primitive forms of the chaityas, and the almost entire
absence of sculpture in these caves, combine to show their early
age. Unfortunately they are cut in a very coarse, soft, amygdaloid
rock, on which inscriptions could not be expected to remain legible
for long ages, if many of them ever existed ; and only a portion of
one has been found, with the faintest trace of another. The letters
are rudely cut, but appear to belong to the same period as most oJE
the Karle inscriptions of about the first or second century after
Christ. From all such indications these caves may be placed
approximately about the same age as those of Sheldrrddi or Gdrodi

Chapt^XIV.
Places.

KarAd.

Flood,

Oaves.

1 Fergusson and Burgess' Cave Temples of India, 213-217-

[Bombay Gazetteer,

478

DISTRICTS.

Chapter XIV.
Places.
KaeAd.

Caves.

in Poona and Kuda and Pdl in KoMba, and not far from the age of
the Junnar and Nasik caves.^

They are mostly so small and uninteresting that they need not be
described in detail, and only a few of the more noteworthy and
characteristic may be noticed. In the first group, the most westerly
cave I. has had a veranda, perhaps with two pillars and corresponding
pilasters ; but it has been walled up by a modern mendicant.
Beyond this is a hall (22' x 11' x 7') with a bench along the back and
ends ; and at the back of this, again, are two cells with stone-
benches. Cave II. has a hall about thirty-four feet square, and its
veranda has been supported by two square pillars.

Cave V. is a chaitya or chapel facing south-west, and is of the
same style as one of the Junnar caves, but still plainer. It has a
semicircular apse at the back and arched roof but no side aisles,
and in place of the later arched window over the door it has only
a square window. At each side of the entrance is a pilaster, of
which the lower portions are now destroyed, but which has the
N^sik style of capital crowiled by three square flat members
supporting, the one a wheel or chakra the emblem of the Buddhist
doctrine or law, and the other a lion or sinha a cognizance of
Buddha himself who is frequently called Shdkya Sinha. The
dome of the relic shrine or ddghoba inside is about two-thirds
of a circle in section and supports a massive plain capital. The
umbrella is hollowed into the roof over it and has been connected
with the capital by a stone shaft now broken.

Cave VI. has had a veranda supported by two plain octagonal
pillars with capitals of the Nasik Kuda and Pd,l type. The hall
is 16' 10" wide by 13' 5" deep with an oblong room at each end,
the left room with a bench at the inner end and the right room
with a small cell. At the back is a room twelve feet wide by
eighteen 'deep, containing a ddghoba nearly seven feet in diameter,
in the front of which an image of Vithoba has been carved by a
mendicant.

Cave XI. is a rectangular chaitya or chapel about fourteen feet
wide by 28' 9" long with a flat roof. The ddghoba'is much destroyed
below J its capital is merely a square block supporting the shaft of
the umbrella carved on the roof. Cave XVI. is another chapel.
The veranda is- supported by two perfectly plain square pillars
without base or capital; the hall (20' 8"x 11' 4") is lighted by the
door and two windows, and has a recess fifteen feet square at the
back containing a ddghoba similar to that in cave XI. but in
better preservation.

Nos. IV. IX. and XX. are the largest of the other vihdrs or
dwelling caves, and have all cells with stone-beds in them.

The second group of twenty-two caves begins from the hea,d of
the ravine. The first cave is XXIV. a vihdr or dwelling cave
facing east-north-east, 21' wide by 23' deep and 7' 10" high, with

1 Compare Bombay Gazetteer, XI. 332-342, 345-348, XVI, 541-639, and XVIII.
chapter xiv. Gdrodi and Junnar.

Deccan.]

SiTlRA.

479

a veranda originally supported by two plain square pillars.
Carved on the south end wall of the veranda, near the roof, are
four small chaitya or horseshoe arches, with a belt of rail-pattern
above and below and a fretted torus in the spaces between the
arches. Below this the wall has been divided into panels by small
pilasters, which were carved, perhaps, with figures now worn away.
On the north wall were three horseshoe arches, the central one
being the largest, and apparently contained a daghoha in low relief as
at Konddne in Thd,na.^ Below this is a long recess as for a bed, now
partially fallen into the water-cistern beneath. Prom the hall four
cells open to the right, three to the back, and one to the left, each,
except the centre one in the back, with a stone lattice window close
to the roof and about 1' 3" square. No. XXIX., originally two
caves, of which the dividing wall has been broken through, has
similar windows in four cells.

Cave XXX. is a ruined vihdr or dwelling cave (36' 6" by 19') with
eleven cells round the hall and a twelfth entered from one of these.
From this cave about three-quarters of a mile lead to the next
excavations, caves XXXI. to XXXV. of which are no ways noteworthy.
Cave XXX VI.- about 100 yards west of cave XXXV. consists of
an outer hall about 17' by 13', with a cell in each side wall, and
through it a second hall (9' 4" X 12' 7" X 6' 9") is entered which has
six cells and two bench-bed recesses.

The third series of twenty-two caves is divided into two groups
the first facing northwards and the second in a ravine further west
and facing westwards. It consists of caves XLII. to LXIII. the
first five containing nothing of note. Cave XL VII. consists of a room
(15' X 11' X 7' 6") with a bench in each end, an unfinished cell at
the back, and two at the left end, on the wall of one of which is
the only inscription, of which any letters are traceable, recording
'The meritorious gift of a cave by Sanghamitra, the son of Gopd,la(?).'
A few indistinct letters are just traceable also on the right hand
side of the entrance, and near them is the faintest trace of the
Buddhist rail-pattern.

Cave XLVIII. is a range of five cells
supported on three square pillars and

(27' X 11' 3") containing a relic shrine still entire, the upper edge of
the drum and the box of the capital, which has no projecting slabs
over it, being carved with the rail-pattern. The umbrella is carved
on the roof and attached to the box by a shaft. In front of this,
against the right-hand wall, is the only figure sculpture in these
caves, and, though much defaced, appears to have consisted of
three human figures, the left a man with high turban and front knob,
similar to some of the figures at K^i'le and on the capitals at Bedsa,
holding some objects in each hand. He wears a cloth round his
neck and another round his loins, which falls down in folds between
the legs. His right hand is bent upwards towards his chin, and
over the arm hangs a portion of the dress. He also wears armlets
and bracelets. To his left a slightly smaller figure appears to be

Chapter XTV.

Places-

KabAd.
Caves,

with a veranda in front,
pilasters, the central cell

1 Compare Bombay Gazetteer, XIV. 208-209.

[Bombay Gazetteer.

480

DISTRICTS.

Chapter XIV.

Places-

Kabad.

Caves.

KlSEOAON.

approacliiiig Hm with some ofEering. Above this latter is a tbird,"
perhaps a woman. At the right end of this excavation is another
cell approached from outside. The remaining caves in this group
ending with cave LV. are small and uninteresting. The cells are not
so frequently with stone-beds as in the caves previously described.
From No. LV. about a mile and a half leads to LVI. which has a
veranda (25' 4" x 11' 9") with two plain square pillars in front. The
hall is about twenty-four feet square with ten cells, three in each
side; and four at the back, several of them unfinished. Cave LX.
is almost choked with earth, but is 38' long by 13' 10" wide, with
a semicircular apse at the extreme end and arched roof similar
to the Bedsa dwelling cave 11.^ Outside and above the front,
however, are traces oi a horizontal row of c^aiij/a- window ornaments,
so that, though there is no apparent trace at present of a chaitya
having occupied the apse, the cave may have been a primitive
form of Chaitya-cave with a structural relic shrine or ddghoha.

The firsb mention of Karad appears in inscriptions of about
200 B.C. to 100 A.D. recording gifts by KarAd pilgrims at the Bharhut
Stupa near Jabalpur in the Central Provinces and at Kuda thirty
miles south of Alibdg in Kolaba.^ These inscriptions show that
Karad, or, as the inscriptions call it Karah^kada, is probably the
oldest place in Sdt£ra. That the place named is the SAtdra Kardd
is confirmed by the sixty-three early Buddhist caves about three
miles south-west of Karad one of which has an inscription of about
the first century after Christ.^ In 1637 the seventh Biid,par king
Mdhmud Adilshdh (1626-1656) conferred on Shahdji the father of
Shivaji a royal grant for the deshmukhi of twenty-two villages in
the district of Kardd.* In 1653 the cZes/imw^/ii right was transferred
to Baji Ghorpade of Mudhol.^ In 1659, after the murder of Afzul-
khan, his wife and son, who were taken by Khanduji Kdkde one of
Shivd,]'i's ofiBcers, were on payment of a large bribe safely conducted
and lodged by him in Karad. In January 1661 the eighth Bijdpur
king Ali Adil Shdh II. (1656-1672) disappointed in his hopes of crush-
ing Shivdji took the field in person and encamped at Karad where all
the district oflBcers assembled to tender him their homage.^ In a
revenue statement of about 1790 Kar^d appears as the head of a
pargana in theRajh^gsarkdr with arevenue of £36,255 (Rs. 3,62,660).''
About 1805 the young Pratinidhi Parshurdm Shrinivas fled from
Poena to Kardd his jdgir town to escape a plan for seizing him made
by Bdjirdv Peshwa assisted by Sindia.s During his flight BAjirdv
stopped at KarM on the 23rd of January 1818. In 1827 Captain
Clunes describes ' Kurarh ' as the chief town and residence of the
Pant Pratinidhi with 2500 houses including 200 weavers 100 oil-
pressers twenty-five blanket-weavers and thirty paper-makers.^

Ka'segaon in Valva close to the Sdtd,ra-Kolhdpur mail road,
eleven miles south of Kard,d and four miles north of Peth, is one of

' Compare Bombay Gazetteer, XVIIL chapter xiv. Bedsa.

" Stupa of Bharhut, 135, 136, 139 ; Arch. Sur. of Western India, IV. 87.

* See above p. 479. * Grant Duffs MarAthis, 55. ^ Grant Duffs MarithAs, 66.

« Grant Duffs Mardth^, 79, 82. ' Waring's Mar^thAs, 244.

= Grant Duffs Mar^th^a, 615. » Itinerary, 34.

Beccan.]

satIra.

•481

the most thriving villages in the VAl va sub-division. The population
in 1881 was 4325. The village is inhabited by several well-to-do
merchants who traffic with the coast in the local produce, which
consists largely of tobacco, pepper, and sugarcane. The village has
a vernacular school in a good Government building. About a
quarter of a mile to the south of the village is a district officers'
bungalow, about the nicest in the district, in a large enclosure
partly planted with young trees. The inhabitants have an
unenviable character for crime and litigiousness, mischief to crops
cattle-poisoning and arson having been very frequent for many
years.

Keujalgad or Ghera Khelanja Port, 4269 feet above sea
level, is situated on the Mdndhardev spur of the Mahadev range
eleven miles north-west of Wd.i. It is a flat-topped hill of an irregular
oval shape, about 250 yards long and one hundred yards wide at the
extremes, looking remarkably strong both from afar and near. But
on ascending it is found to be commanded by the Yeruli Asre and
Doichiv^di plateaus about two -miles to the east which are easily
ascended from the Wdi side, and the Jambli hills about a mile to
the west. The fort forms a village in itself but has to be ascended
from the villages of Asre or Khavli which lie at its foot on the Wai
side. The ascent is by about two miles of a very steep climb or the
Asre-Titeghar bridle path can be followed for two miles when a
tolerably easy path leads due west from the pass another mile on to
the fort. The fort is a black scarp rising vertically from the main
ridge which is hogbacked. The scarp is one of the highest in any of
the Sd,tdra forts and reaches in places eighty to a hundred feet. The
only entrance is on the north side up a set of a hundred steps running
parallel to the line of the scarp till within four or seven feet of the
top, when they turn at right angles to it and cut straight into a
passage leading on to the top. The steps are peculiarly imposing and
differ from any others in the district. Thus on entering the scarp
is on the left and there is nothing on the right till the passage is
reached, and invaders ascending would be liable to be hurled back
over the cliS. At the foot of the steps is a bastion which evidently
flanked a gateway. There are remains of six large and three small
buildings all modern. The head-quarters or kacheri is now only
marked by a large fig tree. The only building thoroughly
recognizable is the powder magazine on the west which is about
thirty feet square with strong stone walls three feet thick and
seven feet high and three feet of brick on the top. The walls of
the fort were originally of large square cut blocks of unmortared
stone, but were afterwards added to in many places. They are
in most places fully four feet thick and including the rampart about
eight feet thick. There was a parapet of lighter work mostly
ruined. The fort has three large water tanks about forty feet
square and six small ones for storage of water and grain. But
there is no living spring inside the fort. The largest tank is in
the southern face and is quite thirty feet deep. The tanks were
emptied when the fort was dismantled by blowing up the outer,
sides which were formed by the ramparts and letting the water
empty itself down the hill side. On the west is a sort of nose
B 1282—61

Ghapter^XIV.
Places.

ELiSEOAON.

KeNJALGAD OB

Ghera Khelanja
Fort.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

482

DISTRICTS.

Chapter XIV.

Places.

Kenjaload or
Ghera Khelanja

FOKT.

Knij^ApuH.

Khatav.

projecting beyond and a little lower tlian tte main ridge of the
fort, also strongly fortified. There is a narrow promenade on the
ridge at the foot of the scarp and on the north side is a large cave
with excellent water and partly used for storage purposes. The
village lies about 300 feet below on a ledge of the northern hill
slope. To its immediate west is a dense temple grove oijdmbhul and
anjcm. The village of Voholi, the one Government village on the
north side of this range the inhabitants of which were part of the
keceditary garrison, is in a hollow to the north-west. Kielanja fort is
said to have been built by the Bhoj Sajds of Panh^la who flourished
in the twelfth century. Its remarkable strength is noticed by
Mr. Elphinstone who says it could scarcoly be taken if resolutely
defended. It was one of tbe few S^lira forts which fired before
surrendering to the detachment sent by General Pritzler up the W^i
valley about the 26th of March 1S18.

Kha'na'p'UU' about ten miles east of Vita is a town of 4909
inhabitants or 298 more than in 1872. It gives its name to the
Khandpur sub-division and from its greater proximity to the fort
of Bhopalgad was probably in early times the administrative head-
quarters of the surrounding country. The town has stone and mud
walls now much decayed, and gatps at the north-west and east
flanked with bastions. There is a large market street and several
smaller branch streets and more than one large native mansion.
The Khan^pur plateau produces in the western half a considerable
amount of good unirrigated wheat. The land is even higher than
the rest of the sub-division, the whole of which is on an average
quite 2.50 feet above the Krishna valley. About two miles east of
Vita the ground agaii;i rises more than one hundred feet. This second
plateau extends from Palshi in the south-east to Balavdi and Revan-:
gaon in the north-west. There is a drop of about 500 feet into the
M^n valley in the eastern side and the rest is a straggling outline of
hills in the south-west and west and forming shallow valleys and
ravines. This plateau is better pff for i-ain than almost any other part
of the sub-division and to this are due the regular and good wheaij
crops. Towards the south-east, however, the soil is wretchedly hare
and rocky and the country very wild wbile subsistence becomes as
difficult as in the worst parts of Md,n. To the sputh of the town is
a small stream which joins the Agarni a feeder of the Krishna about a
mile to the east. The supply of water is limited and precarious and a
camp in the tempting mango g^ove to the west of the town by the
edge of the stream is sure to be infested by clouds of mosquitoes
which swarm lik.e midges in England on a summer's evening.
Khand.pur has a vernacular school.

Khata'v village, eightmiles north-west of Vaduj the sub-divisiona;l
head- quarters, gives its name to the Khatd.v sub-division and had
in 1881 a population of 2710 or 362 less than in 1872. Under the
Maratha government (1760 - 1818) Khatav was the chief town in
the pargana called after it, which corresponded pretty closely to the
present sub-division. The town is walled and has two gates at the
east and west ends of its market street, with two or three large
mansions belonging to families of importance under the Maratha rulei

Deccan.]

sAtIra.

483

Kba.t&v has a post office, a civil court establislied since the introduction
of the Relief Act, a native library, and a vernacular school.

To the north-west of the town in an open space is an old HemM-
panti temple of Mahddev, now almost entirely deserted. It consists
of an image chamber and vestibule (17' x 15') shaped in the old
cruciform plan. The image chamber is square inside and contains
a ling. Bast of the image chamber is the hall open only at the
front, and the side walls are four feet thick at the centre from which,
they narrow to the front and back. The same style of wall is found
at Parli in Satara and Mahuli in Khdnapur. In front is an open
space thirteen feet broad, partly blocked by a balustrade three
feet high and four feet broad. In addition to the side walls the
roof is supported on sixteen pillars eight of which on the sides
are embedded in the walls, and eight in the centre are free. The
pillars are of the usual type, a shaft of a single block cut into differ-
ent courses, rectangular basement, and the rest cylindrical octagonal
or again rectangular with a capital consisting of a bracket branch-
ing in four directions. In the centre of the mandap is a round slab
on which the Nandi . usually rests. The compartment formed by its
four pillars has a well carved roof slightly domed. The others are of
the lozenge pattern, three rows of slabs disposed one on the top of
the other so as to form three concentric squares the diagonals of the
upper touching the centre of the side of the lower square. The
front of the balustrade is most beautifully carved in a sort of rail
pattern as at Parli, Mahuli, and other Hemd,dpanti temples. The
whole structure is of large blocks of unmortared stone. The roof
above is flat and has traces of a spire apparently pyramidal. The
usual broad eaves remain but they are probably restorations as the
slabs are small and mortar is used. Close to the north of this is a
small canopy of still larger blocks of stone and containing a Mdruti.
About fifty yards west is a modern Mahddev temple (60' x 20') with
a brick spire and image chamber and a long stone mandap. It is sur-
rounded by rude cloisters lining a court yard (IOC X 50'). A fair is
held at the temple in July- August or Shrdvan. In the town itself^
in a street branching from about the centre of the chief street which
runs north and south is another old temple of Nd.rayan restored almost
beyond recognition. There is also about a quarter of a mile north
of the town a Musalm^n idga or place of prayer, and a family of
Kazis still live in Khatdv. The earliest mention of Khatav is in
1429 when the Durgddevi famine having laid waste the country and
the chief places of strength having fallen into the hands of local
chiefs, Malik-ul-Tujar the Bahmani governor of Daulatabad with
the hereditary officers or deshmukhs went through the country
restoring order, and their first operations were directed against
some Rdmoshis in Khatdv Desh.i When (1 688 - 1689) the Moghala
invaded the country, Krishnardv Khatdvkar was actively assisting
them and was made by them a leading Deshmukh.^

Kha'tgun in Khatdv is a small village on the right bankoffehe
Terla eleven miles north of Vaduj. It has an irrigation bungalow and
not far from the village is the weir whence start the two, original

Chapter XIT.

Places.

KhatAv.
Temple:

KhItguk.

1 Grant; Duff's MarAtMs, 26,

^MarithAs, 178 uat.e, 192.

[Bombay Gazetteer>

484

DISTEICTS.

Chapter XIV.
Places.

KhAtguit.

KiKLI.

Yerla canals now connected wifcli 'the Nlier storage tank.* In the
south-west corner of the village is the shrine of a Musalmdn saint
or pir, a small mosque but with an inner chamber much like a
Hindu shrine or gdbhdra, which contains the tomb of the saint.
The saint lived and died at Vadgaon thirteen miles south-west of
Vaduj and a hybrid mosque temple at Khatav was built in his
honour by his Hindu disciple. A fair in honour of the saint is
held at Khdtgun in March when about 15,000 Musalmd,ns Mard,thas
and lower castes attend.

Eikli a small village twelve miles south-east of W^i and about
three miles east of the junction of thePoona and Wai-Panchvad roads
is remarkable for a group of ancient temples. The village is about a
mile west of the Chandan Vandan forts and is easily reached on foot
or on horseback from Panchvad a favourite camp on the Poona mail
road three miles west. The temples are situated in an enclosure
about 120 feet square. Two are in complete ruins, the one razed to
its foundations and the other a mere heap of stones. The third is
evidently built largely from the stones of the second on the plan of
the first. It faces east and consists of an outer hall or mandap
eighteen, feet square, flat roofed and opeu at the sides, leading by a
door in the west into an inner hall twenty-three feet square. This
hall leads into three shrines each six feet square in the north-west and
south. Thus the plan of the whole temple is cruciform. Each of the
shrines is connected with the inner hall by a vestibule and while
the inside is square, on the outside the courses of masonry overlap
each other so that the plan of each shrine is also cruciform. There
is no sign of any ancient spire or tower. The roof outside has
lately been sloped with mortar and brick and mounted with a
small urn or halas. The mandcvps are supported each by sixteen
pillars in four rows of four each. The central four form a large
square of twelve feet in the inner mandap and of ten feet in the
outer leaving side passages 5^ and 4^ feet wide respectively. The
walls of the inner mandap and shrines are here less than four feet
thick and the height from ten to twelve feet. The outer mandap
has in place of walls the usual balustrade forming the back of a
stone bench. There is nothing remarkable in the decoration
of the outer mandap. The pillars are of the usual Hindu type in
plainly dressed rectangular cylindrical and octagonal courses.
An exception is one of the four central pillars which is carved like
those of the inner mandap. The decoration of the inner mandap
is elaborate. The four centre pillars are elaborately carved in
floral and arabesque patterns. The centre rectangular course is
panelled with figures in relief representing on the two northern
pillars the exploits of Krishna and on the southern those of Maruti.
The basements are supported by figures of satellites male and
female. The portals of the shrine vestibules have a wainscoting of
figures similarly sculptured in relief. The execution is in all cases
superior to anything elsewhere to be found in the district. All
this carving comes from the ruined temples. Each shrine contains
a ling with a case or shdlunkhU; the northern also containing an

Details of the Yerla canals and the Nher storage reservoir are givenabore p. 152.

Decean.]

sAtAra.

485

image of Bhairav. In the centre square of the outer mandajp is a
mutilated stoae Nandi or sacred bull. On the plinth in front of
the outer shrine are a few almost unreadable letters said to be the
words Shingandev Rd.ja to whom the building of this temple is
ascribed. To its north is the old and probably original temple exactly
similar in plan and dimensions with the present one in which only
three lings now remain. To its east is the other oldtemple whose walls
remain but the roof has fallen in and the mandap is a shapeless heap
of stones. In the south-west corner of the enclosure is an ancient
well about twenty feet square and thirty deep but now choked up.
All the images in the new temple including the Nandi have their
noses broken off, it is said by the emperor Aurangzeb. The stones
of the original temple are also said to have been taken to Wai by
the Bij^ipur general Afzulkhdn when leading the expedition which
terminated in his murder by Shivaji. A small fair is held in
honour of Bhairav on Dasara the bright tenth of Ashvin or
September - October.

Kinliai seven miles almost due north of Koregaon is a village
belongingtothePantPratinidhi. Kinhai is best reached from Koregaon
by following the Pandharpur road for a mile and then taking a track
which branches off due north and passes by Chinchli village on to a
made road built by the Pant Pratinidhi. The village lies on either
bank of a feeder of the Vasna which always holds water. The soil
is good and the country round thickly studded with mangoes. To
the north and north-west is a spur of steep hills at the end of which
rises the ancient fort of Nandgiri (3537). On the south-east are two
small hills divided by a gorge to the east of which is the temple of
Tamndi Devi the patron goddess of the family. This temple has a
fortified appearance and with its battlements and towers is visible
for many miles on all sides throughout the Koregaon sub-division.
The village consists of a broad street running north-west and south-
eastand crossing the streamintothe Pethormarketquarters and thence
continuing to the road above mentioned up towards the temple and on
through the small gorge between the two hills to' Koregaon. The
Pratinidhi has a handsome mansion or vdda in the village, the lower
part of stone and the upper part of brick with an enclosure or court
surrounded by strong walls. The mansion contains some reception
rooms of handsome size and proportions in the native style.
Usually one of the wives and a son of the Pratinidhi reside here.
The village has also . a vernacular school. On the right bank
of the stream behind the Pant's mansion is a small temple of
Mahddev about thirty feet by fifteen with a flight of steps lead-
ing down to the stream. It consists of an open sided mandap
and an image-chamber with a spire. The pillars are imitations
of the early Hindu style. The spire is of brick with stone orna-
mentation. The temple of Yamndi Devi lies on the summit of a some-
what pointed hill about 350 to 400 feet above the plain. The
way up to it is by the road before mentioned which close to the gorge
is left on the right for a flight of 300 steps with a stone balustrade
on each side. The steps are made of slabs quarried from the
surrounding rock and are in excellent repair. Numbers of people
may be seen ascending and descending the steps on Tuesday and

Chapter XIV.
Places.

KiKLI.

Kjnhai,

[Bombay Gazetteer,

486

DISTRICTS.

Cliapter XIV.
Places.

KiNHAI.

KOLE.

KOREaAON.

Friday, the holy days of the godd&gs. The temple court irregular
and nearly oVal is entered from the west by a pointed archway with
a music chamber or nagdrkhdna on the top. The rock is fenced
with a solid masonry wall about twelve feet high from inside, and
outside in places from thirty to forty feet high. At the eastern end is
a small entrance from a path communicating with a spring half-way
dotyn the south slope of the hill. There are cloisters with a terrace
on the left or south side of this entrance and on the north a large
solid but plain lamp pillar or dipmdl. The pillar was broken a few
years ago by lightning and as this is said to be the third time of
its being struck, it ia thought ominous to repair it. The
temple is a plain structure abotit forty feet by twenty with a flat
roofed hall or mandap supported on three rows of four pillars about
eighteen inches square at the base and plain imitations of the early
Hindu style. The image-chamber or gdbhdra ia square and
contains an image of devi in black stone ornamented with jewels
and embroidered apparel and displayed to Europeans with much
pomp by means of a mirror casting light upon it from outside. The
courtyard is paved and immediately in front of the mandap is a
stone embedded in the pavement and containing vents made to
receive coins to be laid in them for presentation to the goddess.

The Pratinidhi family are hereditary hulharnis or accountants of
Kinhai and several of the neighbouring villages and it was from
that position that Parshuram Trimbak raised himself till he was
appointed the third Pratinidhi in 1700, since which time the office
has remained hereditary in his family.

Kole in the Vdng valley about eight miles west-south-west of
Kardd is a village of 1953 people lining both banks of a stream
which joins the Vang at its northern end. The village was origin-
ally the head-quarters of a petty division or Tnalidl comprising
the Vdng valley and the starting point of much of the carrying
trade over the Mala pass by Dhebevadi. It is now nothing more
than an agricultural village with a few well-to-do traders. A large
fair attended by about five thousand people is held on the bright
fifth of Mdgh (January- February) in honour of a Hindu ascetic
named Ghadge Bova a devotee of Vithoba who flourished about
three generations ago. His disciple Kushraba has built a small
temple in honour of the god which is much resorted to by people
from the surrounding villages.

Koregaon, north latitude 17° 42' and east longitude 74° 12', is the
head- quarters of the Koregaon sub-division, within 1881 a population
of 2730 or 124 more than in 1872. The village has a large street
passing east and west and another passing north and south. In the
latter are situated the sub-divisional revenue and police ofiices in a
mansion or vdda utilised for the purpose, and the vernacular school
in an excellent building with a garden. The Pandharpur road
runs east on the north side of the town and the Deur road from the
other side of the stream on the west. At the same point joins in
the Sd,td,ra road which crosses the Vasna by a good stone bridge
about three-quarters of a mile south. The Sap road runs round
the east of the town. Koregaon lies on a stream known as th©"

Deceaa.]

SlTARA.

487

M&agSbnga, which holds water throughout the year and forms the
water-supply of the town. Its banks are well studded with mango
and other trees. There is a good rest-house on the north of the
Indapnr road. A tolerable camp is formed in the mangoes to the
south of the town, buf a much better one is an excellent grove on
the left bank of the Mdnganga about a mile up the stream and north
of Koregaon within the boundaries of the fertile village of Kumta.

Eundal is a village belonging to the Pant Pratinidhi but with
two others adjoining it is almost surrounded by British territory
belonging to the Vdlva Khd.n4pur and Tasgaon sub-divisions. It
lies about five miles north of Yilva, about a mile from the end of
the long spur which shoots ofE from the Mahadev range thirty miles
north at Mol in Khatav, and will have a station on the West Deccan
Railway about twenty-two miles south-east of Karad. The village
is said to be the same as Kaundanyapur mentioned in Pur4nie
legends and to have been the residence of Raja Hingandev, probably
the same as the Devgiri Tadav king Singhan I. (11 79) or Singhan II,
{1209 - 1247). The walls of the town are in fair repair, but show no
signs of great age. The chief object of interest about the village
is a set of Brdhmanical oaves in the spur above mentioned. The face
of the spur is generally north-east and south-west, but at the end it
is splayed into two branches which form a widemouthed crescent
facing east. In the southern arm of this crescent facing north-east
is the chief set of thirteen caves and on ths south face are three
more. The first thirteen are all in a ledge of the hill about
three hundred feet above the plain. Of these the first five face
approximately north, the next three north-east, and the remaining
five due east. They are approached by a flight of steps leading up
through an archway six feet broad and deep, fourteen feet high,
and girt by side walls nine feet wide. Two hundred and fifteen paces
further on is the second gateway twenty-two feet broad, sixteen feet
high and six feet deep, and crowned by a music chamber or nagdr-
Ichdna eighteen feet long, eight feet high, and sixteen feet broad.
Eighteen steps further on is the third gateway nearly on a level with
the caves. This gateway is twenty-four feet wide, ten feet high,
and five feet deep. This leads on to a paved terrace built upon the
rock and supported by a solid masonry wall about fifteen feet high
following the line of the crescent. About twenty-six feet further on
is a large hall supported on twenty-four pillars in four parallel rows
making three aisles. The pillars are of brick, one foot in diameter
and eight feet high. Except in the aisle formed by the third
and fourth rows to the southward, where it is vaulted, the roof is
flat. A door from this hall leads into what now must be termed
the chief cave (30' X 20' x 8') a temple of Virbhadra a demon
produced by Mahddev. The entrance is only by a small rook-cut
door two feet wide. The chamber inside is eight feet square and
six feet high and is walled in. On each side of the centre door is
another small door leading to the holy circuit or pradcikshina which
is 14' to the back of the cave, 19' 6" across leaving a passage six feet
^ide behind the image, 14' 6" wide on the east and 7' wide on the
^jest. In the centre of the ima,ge phamber is a three feet Igigln image

Chapter^XIV
Places-

KtTNDAL.

Caves.

[Bombay Gazetteei',

488

DISTEICTS.

Chapter XIT.
Places.

KUNDAL.

Caves.

of Virbhadra. It is of wHte stone apparently rough trap. In the
right hand is a sword and in the left a bow. In the west wall of the
hall is a very small door leading into the second cave (20' x 11' x 7')
which is dedicated to the goddess Ddlima. Immediately in front
of it is a small built temple of Mahadev 12' square and 8' high. To
the east of the Virbhadra cave are two tanks about six feet square
with water leading into one another. East of the tank is cave V.
(14'xl0'x6') with a small opening. To the west of the Ddlima
temple is cave VI. (16' x 9' x 7') best known as the cooking cave;
close by it is cave VII. (16'xirx7') next which is cave VIII.
(24.'xl8'x8') known as the hacheri or court. These three caves
are in the angle of the crescent, face north-east, and are entered
each by separate small doors. Next it and facing north is cave IX.
a small excavation containing two small tanks full of water and
adjoining these is the washing or sndn cave X. (13' x 8' x 7'). North
of it is cave XI. known as the bhanddrghar or dining cave
(27'x 2rx 6') a double hall with three pillars and a tank adjoining
it. The next two caves XII. (12'.x 7' X 6') and XIII. (14' x 13' x 6')i
are devoted to no special purpose. All the caves seem to have been
cut out with the chisel and none of them seem natural excavations.
The rock inside is soft and of dark brown colour. The outside walls
and partitions dividing caves from tanks are very thin and crumb-
ling away. The hall gateways and terraces as also the temple of
Mahddev are all modern. Except perhaps that of Ddlima the images
do not look old. The hall and chief gateway were made by one
Basappa Limpne a V^ni of Kundal about 1870 at a cost of £2500
(Rs. 25,000) . A fair attended by about one thousand people is held
on the no-moon oi. Edrtik or October -November. The three caves
on the south can be reached by following the ledge round the east
end of the cliff for about half a mile. On turning the corner a small
terrace is reached in which is one of the caves. From the plain
only the small door of one of the caves can be seen about three
hundred feet up the hill. It is reached direct by a very steep path
the last thirty feet cut into steps leading on to a terrace very lately
built. The more easterly of the two caves is entered by a small door
about four feet high-by two wide. It is twenty feet by sixteen and
seven high and has at the back an open recess (7'x 6' x 7'). In the
back are figures of RAm Sitabdi and Lakshman rudely sculptured
in relief. Ram is six feet high and Sitd,bdi and Lakshman on each
side of him are each four feet high. Parallel with the recess is a small
tank sunk in the floor and off the rest of the cave is a small cell six
feet square. It is about four feet higher than the main cave and
communicates with it by a small door and some steps. The western
cave about ten paces distant is a cell with a temple and measures
twenty-five feet by twelve wide. Inside it is built a small modern hall
resting on seventeen pillars six of them attached to the walls. This
inner hall measures thirteen feet by ten by six high and has a roof
four feet lower than the cave roof. The remaining space on the west
of this hall is a cell with a tank at the north-west end. At the back of

1 Six feet given as the height of both the caves are average heights as the roofs
slope a good deal.

Deccan.l

SATARA.

489

Chapter_XIV,
FlaceS'

KUSKUD.

the hall are images of Shivwifcli Pdrvati and Gangaoneon each side,
each about 8' high by 2' wide, also very rudely sculptured in relief.
In this set the eastern caves are Vaishnav and the western Shaiv.^
Kusmd, a small village about sis miles due south of Patan, has
near it a curious cave temple. The cave is on the north slope of a
hill spur about a quarter of a mile south of the village and three
hundred feet above the plain. A red spot in the slope marks its
existence and a scramble up shows it to be a natural cave about fifty
feet long and thirty-eight deep with a stream from the hill top
pouring over the edge of the rock. The cave contains a large stone
image of Ganpati painted red and about four feet high and four feet
wide. Behind it on a crescent is a row of rude life-size sculptures
made of mud and cowdung. The figures are of men and women
and are represented standing in various attitudes. Some of the
men have the large headdresses given to kings and gods in the old
representations and the women have wooden bangles on their wrists
and the arms above the elbow. A passage about five feet wide
behind the row of figures leads to a chamber about ten feet square
in which is a MahAdev ling. There is another chamber at the north-
west corner of the large cave. These chambers are hewn out of the
rock, but the large cave is natural. The Ganpati sculptures are
probably not very old. The execution is fair in some but the people
of the place asci'ibe them an untold antiquity. To guard against
their being inj ured by wild animals the front of the cave has been
blocked up within the last twenty years by a mud and stone wall
about ten feet from the edge of the cave thus having a veranda
formed by the overshadowing rock.

Loha're. See Wli. Lohare.

Machhiudragad, the most southern of the chain hill forts built Machhindraqad,
in 1676 by Shivaji, is a solitary round-topped hill ten miles south-east
of Kard,d. The hill lies close to the west of the Kardd-TAsgaon road
which runs through the gorge dividing the fort hill from the main
range which stretches from Mol in Khatdv to Kundal in Tasgaon.
The fort has few features of interest. The ascent is by a steep but
well kept path on the north from a hamlet lying close under the hill
side. The hill is about 800 feet above the plain and the ascent which
is by sharp zigzags occupies about twenty minutes. The last third
of the ascent is by steps cut in the rock. The top is waving and
surrounded by walls but with scarcely any scarp. The walls are of
loose small dry stone about eight to twelve feet high on the outside
and six inside and about six feet thick at the foot with a two feet
parapet. The entrance is by a rough-pointed arched gateway now
broken down. There are remains of a few buildings, and on the
south is a small temple of Machhindranath. A devotee of this god
came from the village of Kale five miles south of Karad about 1830
and revived the worship of the god. His descendants still reside oil
the hill and attend to the temple. Near the templeare several tombs of
ascetics andsah'monumentswithstonefacsimilesofhandandfoot prints.
On the north about fifty yards south-west of the gate is a large pit

1 Compare Dr. Burgess' Lists, 59.

» 1282—62

tBombay Gazetteer,

490

DISTRICTS.

Chapter XIV.
Places.

Maohhindbaoad.

MahIbalbshvak.

Description.

or tank dug out of the rock which generally holds dirty water. It
was made at the same time as the fort. There is another spring on
the south which is used by the G-osd,vis living on the hill and by the
people chiefly from the neighbouring village who frequent a yearly
fair. The path up is kept in repair for this fair and the approaches
to the temple on the top are lined with trees also planted and main-
tained out of the fair receipts. The fort was garrisoned by the
Pratinidhi till it was taken by Bapu Gokhale about 1810. It was
then managed by Gokhale for thePeshwa till May 1818 when it was
surrendered without resistance to a British force under Colonel
Hewitt. Machhindragad will have a station on the West Deccan rail-
way twelve miles south-east of Kardd Eoad the station for KarM.^

Maha'baleshvar^, 17° 51' north latitude and 73° 30' east longi-
tude, in J^vli about eighteen miles north-west of Medha, tw^nty^
miles west of Wd,ij and about thirty-three miles north-west of Satara,
is the chief sanitarium of the Bombay Presidency situated on one of
the Sahyddri spurs. The height averages 4500 feet above the sea,
and at Sindola ridge the highest point reaches 4710. Several spurs
standing out from the north and west of the main body of the hill
form promontories that command magnificent views of the precipi-
tous slopes of the Sahyddri hills and of the valleys below. At the
heads of the ravines that run between these points the streams,
issuing from springs in the higher part of the hill, fall over ledges
of trap rock in cascades, one of which is about 2000 feet from the
lip of the fall to the bottom of the valley.

Except in the east and extreme north the top o£ the hill is wooded
to the very edge of the scarp, and though only in a few sheltered
glades are there trees of any great size, the wood is so dense that
it forms one vast waving stretch of rich foliage, broken by the
chimneys and roofs of the higher houses, and by the varieties of
shade from the olive leaf of the pisa to the blue-green of the jdmhhul
and other fruit-bearing trees. The deep-cut roads and paths,
bordered by a thick undergrowth of bracken and shaded by moss-
covered trees, are like the views in a highland hill side. But the
resemblance ceases with the sudden ending of road and shade at
one of the numerous points that overlook the ravines, perhaps 2000
feet deep, bounded on the opposite side by the steep bare wall of
one of the flat-topped Deccan ridges or by the low castellated
outline of a Mardtha hill fort.

The hills to the south-west differ considerably from those to the
south and east. To the south-west the outlines are bolder and
irregular and their sides are fairly clothed with trees and brush-
wood. To the south and east with a lighter rainfall the sides are
utterly bare, and the forms, worn only by the sun and rain, are
flat-topped and monotonous. The pressure of population on the

1 See above page 207.

' Contributed by Dr. McConaghy, formerly Superintendent of Mahdbalesnvar.
Besides by the name MaMbaleshvar or the Very Mighty God, which it takes
from a famous temple of Shiv of that name, the station is called Nahar by the lower
classes.

Beccan-l

SATARA.

491

arable land lias driven tillage up the sides of some of the less
precipitous hills, where the wearing of the soil can be stopped by
low terraces resting on stone walls, which lend somewhat of a
Ehenish or Italian character to the view. In clear air before or
after rain, often parts, and in rare cases, the whole of a fifty miles
range of sea, shows extending from about the Shdstri in Eatnagiri
to a little south of Janjira. But the coast line cannot be traced
except near the Sdvitri riyer. The distance to the sea along this
range of view varies as the river from thirty to fifty miles.

The beauties of the hill vary much at different seasons. Most
persons probably think it at its best in October immediately after
the cessation of the south-west monsoon. Many spots are then
carpeted with wild flowers. The wild arrowroot lily fills every
glade and in numberless spots are found wild rose and sweet pea.
The ferns of which there are seventeen varieties are then in leaf.
The less frequented paths and open spots are soft with turf. Every
bank and stone, the rugged cliffs of the hills themselves, are
dazzlingly green with moss and grass. The streams are at the
fullest. A fall of rain of tropical violence probably occurs and the
Yenna falls become imposing, while the faces of the cliffs are lighted
with innumerable silver rills and dazzling sprays. At this time
are to be seen the most distant views. The hills stand out against
the sky in wonderful relief. In the mornings the ravines are filled
with fleecy rolls of mist or with a wealth of dark blue shadow. In
the evenings great clouds gather and impart endless variety of
light and shade to the landscape and of glorious colour to the rays
of the setting sun. Pew lights are more majestic than that of the
great thunderstorm of this season sweeping the adjacent valleys or
over the distant sea. The breezes though strong are sweet and
the bracing cold of the evenings is met with a cheerful fire.

But the favourite season for visiting is from March to June,
The reason of course is the escape thereby afforded from the heat
of the plains. But the grass wild flowers and ferns are now gone
and the streams and waterfalls are dry. Haze obstructs the view
and the eye is fatigued by glare. Still then too the hill has its
peculiar beauties. The evergreen forests are renewing their foliage
and impart a fresh verdure to the landscape. There is the tawny
bracken not unlovely and the mighty heights of the Gh^ts are.
perhaps more imposing than when delicately clothed as in October
at many of their most rugged portions.

Towards the end of May the mists begin to creep up and thunder-
storms lay the dust and cool the air. Few scenes are more fairy-,
like than the valleys on a May morning filled with mist, the frag-
ments of which as it rises gild and throw into relief the finest of
the surrounding peaks. At this time too the strawberry is in full
fruit and the gardens are brilliant with heliotrope, geranium and.
fuchsias, and roses, where cared for, do well.

At all times the hill is most attractive, and not its least attractions
are the excellent drives as well as walks which give access to all
its parts. In this it contrasts happily with most hill stations,,
Ootaoamund always excepted..

Chapter XIV.
Places.

MahAbaleshvak.
Description.

[Bombay Gazetteei*,

49a

DISTRICTS.

Chapter XIV.

Placefs.

Mahabaleshvar.
Description.

Koads.

The station^ called Malcolm Petli after Sir Jolin Malcolm, includes
all lands within a radius of five miles from the Frere Hall. Most of
this land is reserved for forest and is caUed the Five Mile Reserve.
It includes the lands of sixty-five villages, fifty-six from the Jdvli and
nine from the Wdi sub-divisions of Satdra. These villages are usually
from four to twenty huts surrounded by a few fields. Each village
has a certain amount of land set apart for tillage and grazing, the
rest being covered with thick evergreen forest.

Mahdbaleshvar is reached by three chief roads, the Poona road
from the east branching off from the Poona-Sat£ra road at Snrul,
the Satara and Kelghar road from the south-east, and the Fitz-
Gerald pass road from the west. In travelling to Mahabaleshvar
from Surul the Poona road begins to rise almost immediately
after leaving Wai and climbs along the north face of a steep and
barren range of hills almost as far as Panchgani, a distance of
about eight miles. Frequent turns open fine views of the upper
Krishna valley and of the hills that face Mahabaleshvar, which are
nearly as barren as those up which the road winds. One or two points
give a glimpse of the peaks of Torna (4606) and Rdjgad (3992), and,
at the highest point of one steep rise, the wood-encircled temple and
village of Mahabaleshvar is seen, but again lost when the curve of
the road turns to the south-west. Except along the banks of the
Krishna and its tributaries there is little vegetation. The sides of
the hills are terraced in a few places for the growth of coarse grain,
but the rest is utterly bare.

At the top of this ascent the little settlement of Pdnchgani breaks
pleasantly on the view with its long lines of casuarina trees and
bamboos in which are bedded a number of substantial little houses
and a market. Until Pdnchgani is passed there is no view to
the south or south-east, but about a mile further the road to
Mahabaleshvar strikes along the edge of a deep valley that opens
on the southern plains with Tavteshvar and the Satdra fort (3307)
in the back ground. The hills round Pdnchgani are flat-topped and,
except close to the station, untilled. In the valleys below, the
streams, so long as they keep running, are used to water small
patches of wheat or vegetables, but the bulk of the crops, consisting
of rice or ndchni, is harvested soon after the end of the rains and
only stubble is left to mark the patches of tillage. A little beyond
Pdnchgani the road rises with severalups and downs toMahdbaleshvar,
passing along the tableland which forms the top of this spur of the
MahdValeshvar system of hills. About half-way between the two
stations signs of a heavy rainfall appear in the richness of the bracken
and other ferns and in the numbers of bulbous plants which flourish
nowhere but near the western crest of the Sahyddris. The valley of
the Tenna is soon reached, along the north-eastern side of which the
road is carried to the embankment of the lake immediately below
the station. The Tenna falls are not visible though the rocks
near them can be made out. Unlike the Panchgani spur the south-
western side of the valley up which the road to Sdtdra winds is
clothed with scrub jungle. The gardens, begun by the Chinese
convicts and continued by local workmen whom they have taught,
are seen on both banks of the upper Yenna, on the south-west of

Deccan]

SATlRA.

493

which close to Mahdbaleshvar, the view is bounded by the ridge of
Sindola the highest point of the hill. From the lake the road
winds round one or two small valleys to the Frere Hall, from which
all distances are calculated.

For those who have time a better route is from Bombay by the
FitzGrerald pass with travellers' bungalows at PolAdpur and Ddagaon
in Koldba, and at Vada at the foot of the FitzGerald pass. Coasting
steamers touch Bankot at the mouth of the Sd,vitri and from Bankot
small steamers or boats ply twenty-four miles up to Dd,sgaon.
Leaving Poladpur eighteen miles from" Dd,sgaon, the line goes by
the old Kineshvar road for five and a half miles. It then branches
to the left, gradually climbing round the western and northern
shoulders of Pratapgad for sixteen miles to the Vada bungalow on
the first plateau. From V^ada the road winds ten miles more, round
the valleys between Bombay and Sidney Points, and passing close
under Bombay Point, rises easily from the east of it into the
Bombay Point road by the Terraces. The scenery along this route
is very fine, but it is very dusty below the hill in the hot weather.

The geology of the hills is simple, trap overlaid by a light
capping of iron clay. The trap shows in most ravines and in
horizontal belts on the sides of the hill, which are more numerous
and much leas deep than the trap scarps in the range further
north. The Mahd,baleshvar trap is often columnar and accompanied
by crystallised quartz, apophyllite, stilbite, and scolecite found in
cavities. The iron clay contains a variable proportion of peroxide of
iron which used to be extracted by a class of men called Dhavads.
But recent orders restricting the use of charcoal have put a stop
to the manufacture of iron. The laterite ends on the Sdtdra road
6^ miles from the Frere Hall, on th.e Poona road 13^ miles, and on
the Mahdd road 2^ miles.

As the laterite capping is nowhere very thick, the substratum of
water-bearing trap is soon reached, and a well sunk to a moderate
depth, say from thirty to fifty feet, will yield a certain supply of
water. In this respect the station presents a most favourable
contrast to Mdtherdn. A lake, with an area of about twenty-eight
acres and an average depth of ten feet, made by the late Rdja of
Sdtara and fed by perennial springs, not only adds to the beauty
of the hill-top, but both directly and indirectly aids in watering a
line of small gardens that stretch to a considerable distance below.
It helps directly by means of a stream that issues from the lake and
ultimately grows into the Yenna river ; and it helps indirectly by
raising the general spring level in the gardens, so that a sufficient
supply of water can be drawn from a shallow dip well, by means of
a bucket and bamboo pole weighted with a large stone and
worked by a single, labourer. The little streams that flow from the
upper parts of the hill into the larger streams are, so long as they
last used in cultivation by means of artificial water-courses. The
drinking water is generally excellent.

From early October to June the climate is bracing and healthy,
Buiting most constitutions except those suffering from such chronic
complaints as liver or heart disease. Some rain usually falls in
October and the place is a little damp and the evenings misty ; the

Chapter^ XIV.
Places-

MahAbalbshvab.
Boads.

Geology.

Water.

Climate.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

494

DISTEICTS.

Chapter XIV.

Places.

MahIbaleshvar.
Climate.

Gardening.

average mean temperature is 66'8°. In November December and
January tbe climate is dry witb occasionally strong easterly winds
cold enough, to make a fire in the evenings almost necessary j the
average mean temperature of these months is 63'4°. From February
the temperature gradually rises to a mean of 67°^ and the cold
season ends about the middle of the month. The hottest time of
the year is generally from about the 12th of March to the middle of
April, when, during the day, the temperature rises to a little over
90°. About the 20tli April the wind changes to the west, and cool,
moist, and invigorating sea breezes set in and gather strength as
the season passes. In May there are occasional showers and
tbunderstorms ; the air grows moister and clouds and mist often fill
tlie valleys. On most hot weather mornings the hill sides are
covered with, wbite clouds which completely veil the Konkan, but
these disappear as the day advances. The rainy season usually
begins early in June, but a number of visitors remain on the hUl
till the middle of the month. As the different houses are emptied
the owners cover them round with rain screens made of holamb and
other grass so as to protect the walls against the heavy rains. Most
of the dealers and hawkers leave the bazAr at the end of the
season, but a number of Vanis and the poorer classes remain. They
completely surround their houses with screens, leaving only a small
opening on the side furthest from the prevailing wind. The VAnis
carry on their trade to a limited extent as the Dhavads and others
who inhabit the hill and surrounding villages are too poor to lay in
sufiicient supplies for th.e monsoon. During these months it is
generally very cloudy and misty, and the rain, though not inces-
sant, falls for the greater part of the time. It is usually heaviest
in July, and twelve inches or more are occasionally registered in a
day. Every spring becomes a torrent and mucb damage is done to
roads and gardens.

During the twenty-four years ending 1884 the rainfall varied
from 167-63 incbes in 1877 to 374-49 inches in 1882 and averaged
263-82 inches.!

Witb abundant water and plentiful street sweepings and other
manure gardening is carried on with great success. English
vegetables are grown along the banks of the Tenna and other
streams, where there are also beds of strawberries and other fruit.
The excessive rainfall prevents the cultivation of most European
fruit trees, though they flourish at Pdnchgani about ten miles east.
Potatoes are largely grown and highly esteemed in the Poena and
Bombay markets. In a sheltered locality, three miles from the

1 The rainfall details are :

MahAbaZesJivm- Main/all, 1861 ■ 188&.

Year.

Inches.

TBA.R.

Inches.

Year.

Inches.

Tear.

Inches.

1861 ...

316

1867 ...

216

1873 ...

271

1879 „.

278

1862 ...

243

1868 ...

236

1874 ...

298

1880 ...

207

186S ...

281

1869 ...

175

1876 ...

340

1881 ...

261

1864

261

1870 ...

260

1876 ...

243

1882 ...

' 374

1865 ...

265

1871 ...

202

1877 ...

167

1883 ...

296

1866 ...

27»

1872 ...

268

1878 ...

265

1884 ...

. 329

Deccan.l

satAea.

495

station, a coffee plantation has recently been started by a Goanese
merchant and has already defrayed almost the whole of the
outlay.

Among exotics may be mentioned a few oak trees, grown from
acorns brought by the late Rev. J. Wilson, D.D. Though scarcely
thoroughly acclimatised they have reached a considerable size.
Two of the best are to be seen in Sindola property directly facing
the bungalow. The field crops are chiefly wheat, ndchni or ndgli,
soma, vari, coarse rice, and a little barley. Sugarcane is found only
in a few spots which have a plentiful supply of water. As a rule
the crops are harvested in the early season, so that the cultivators,
unable to occupy themselves with cold weather sowings, have to
seek other means of subsistence during the rest of the year. Except
near water-courses, the soil is barren, and, as a rule, yields scanty
crops. The local grain is always poor and is seldom used by any
but the growers and a few low class serv^ants.^

The principal birds are the bulbul, spurfowl, junglefowl, bird
of paradise, blackbird, and golden oriel sometimes called the
mango bird. A number of venomous snakes are found, of which
the ndg (Naja tripudians), phursa (Echis carinata), ghonas, and
manydr are the commonest. Phursds are found in great numbers,
and though small are very poisonous. The destruction of venomous
snakes is encouraged by a reward of Sd. (2 as.) for each cobra
and l^d. (1 a.) for each of the other sorts. Of the larger wild
animals tigers, panthers, and leopards, and of the smaller, spotted
and four-horned deer and hog, are occasionally seen on the hill and
in the surrounding villages. Sdmbar are also found, and a few
years ago a bull bison was shot.

According to the 1881 census, the permanent population of
Malcolm Peth numbered 3248. The original inhabitants are Kolis,
Kulvadis or Kunbis, Dhangars, and Dhavads. These four tribes
differ considerably in appearance and language. The Kolis are the
most intelligent and are usually well made, with broad chests and
strong muscular frames, but their expression is coarse and unpre-
possessing. Their usual employments are fishing and hunting. The
Kulvadis are also well developed physically and have a pleasanter
expression. They devote their time to agricultural pursuits. The
Dhangars are milder tempered and less muscular and hardy than
the Kulvddis ; their occupation is that of herdsmen ; they do not
keep sheep or goats, as they cannot stand the heavy rains of the
Mahabaleshvar hills. It is considered a disgrace in a Dhangar to
own no cattle, but two are sufficient to entitle him to respect and to
enable him to marry. The Dhangars have a belief that when
buffaloes scent a tiger or panther they range themselves in a circle
round their keeper. The Dhavads or iron-smelters are supposed to
have come from KarM in Satara nearly three-quarters of a century
ago. They are a hardy race, distinguished from the other tribes by
their high cheek bones, beard, large lips, and small eyes; their
principal occupation until lately was. iron-smelting. Besides a

Chapter XIV.

Places.

Mahabaleshvar.
Gardening.

Animals.

Population.

1 A list of the principal MaMbaleshvar plants is given in Appendix B.

[Bombay Gazetteer.

496

DISTRICTS.

Chapter XIT.
Places.

MAHiBALESHVAK.

Population.

number who live in Malcolm Pefch they inhabit four hamlets in the
forest.

The home speech of the first three castes is Mardthi with a
rather peculiar pronunciation difficult to be understood by other
classes. The language of the Dhavads is Marathi with a large
admixture of Hindustani. The huts of all the tribes are built
generally on an uniform plan with thatched roofs and a frame
work of rough wood, the walls being invariably formed of kdrvi
stems in the usual wattle and daub fashion. The Kolis and Kul-
vadis build on the level plateaus close to springs ; the Dhangars
and Dhavads are less particular, provided water is near. Both
classes are to a great extent nomadic in their habits and squat when-
ever they can get food for their cattle. The dress of the men of all
the castes is much alike and usually scanty, consisting of a waist-
band, a waistcloth, and occasionally a turban. The Kolis and
Dhavads are fond of intoxicating drinks. The first three profess
the Hindu religion and all have their grdm-devta or village deity,
as well as their tutelary god or goddess, both of whom are faith-
fully adored. They have also van-devtds or wood deities which are
equally sacred in their eyes, together with numerous other minor
spirits. They have temple servants, who take the offerings made
to the gods as their perquisites, and a set of men known as Devrushis
or mediums in whom they have extraordinary faith, as they are
supposed to reveal the wishes of the gods, and are consequently
held in universal esteem and referred to on all occasions of sick-
ness or other misfortune. The household gods are kept on a raised
shrine and are worshipped with devotion. The castes do not inter-
marry though they will associate and eat together, provided the
food is prepared by a member of a higher tribe ; they are believed
to live to an old age and have sometimes large families. The
religion of the Dhavads is a mixture of Hinduism and Mahammad-
anism. All eat mutton and game when they can get them, but
their usual diet is such coarse hill grains as ndchni, vari, sdva, and
occasionally butter, with forest roots and fruits, the chief of which
are the jdmbhul, toran, Jcarvand, and phanas or jack.

The^ demarcation in 1853 of the forest of the Five Mile Eing has
caused considerable change in the habits of the population. The
demarcation was made on the following principles : The lower part of
the valleys lying below the hills were marked off for cultivation. All
the upper ground in the villages, except spots allotted for cultiva-
tion by the superintendent, were kept as forest. Formerly the
whole hill side was subject to cultivation in some form or other of
the wood-ash system. The effect of the demarcation was to restrict
all cultivation to one-third of the whole area. The average of
cultivated land was reduced to two and ahalf acres a head and of
this one-seventh of an acre only was rice or irrigated land. This
meant that the greater part of the population would have a
severe struggle for existence had they to subsist on cultivation
alone. But owing to special means of livelihood the condition of the

1 Mr, J, W, P, Muir-Mackenzie, C. S.

Deccan.]

satAra.

497

population round Mahdbaleshvar is certainly no worse than any other
group of Ghdt villages. The public works in and about Malcolm
Peth give employment every year to numbers of labourers, while
coolies for miscellaneous work are constantly wanted and haud-
somely paid. The demand for forest products is a still better
source of profit. The demand for grass both as food for cattle
and for thatching houses is always great, so also for firewood.
Bamboosj fruits such as jack, mangoes, Tcarvand berries, and
miscellaneous articles such as honeycombs, ferns, orchids and moss,
all find a market, and the prices paid are so good that the
attraction is felt well beyond the Five Mile Eadius. All these
products may be gathered free except bamboos for which the forest
department charge a nominal fee. There can be no doubt that the
harvest thus reaped makes up for the deficiency of land for cultiva-
tion. But the change in 1853 certainly caused considerable hard-
ship to a population then purely agricultural until the development
of the station provided a substitute for their previous means of
livelihood. This substitute namely manual labour while more
precarious demanded more continuous and severe exertion than
agriculture. It involved a loss of social position carrying with it
feelings of degradation only to be removed in process of time. In
the forest demarcation and settlement recently sanctioned by Gov-
ernment th.e area to be finally included in forest was fixed at 4839
acres or 64 per cent of the whole. All their former privileges as
regards forest products were allowed to the villagers.

About three years after the station was started, a jail was established
for Chinese and Malay convicts, as it was found that the climate of
Poona and Thdna was injurious to their health. The jail, which was
constructed to contain about 120 prisoners, is thus described
by Dr. Winchester in 1830 : The jail is built in a quadrangular
form with an inner paved court. The front or entrance side contains
rooms for the guard of sepoys, offices for the jail authorities, and
two rooms used as solitary cells, or as places for prisoners when too
sick to walk to hospital or requiring quiet and separate attendance ;
the other three sides of the jail are composed of long, lofty, and
very airy apartments entered only from the inner quadrangle. Two
of these sides were generally occupied by the prisoners, while the
third was used as a store and work-room. The jail stood on the
ground at present occupied by the Engineer's store. Prom the
reports of different Superintendents it appears that the prisoners,
tbough convicted of such grave crimes as murder piracy and robbery,
were quiet and amenable to discipline. Each convict received a
daily ration of 2^d. (1^ as.). During working hours, from 8 a.m.
to 4 P.M., they were required to work for Government. With
few exceptions they were shut up at six in the evening, though
lights were allowed till eight or nine o'clock, and during this time
the majority of the prisoners occupied themselves in different kinds
of in-door work. During their leisure hours they were allowed to
visit the bazdr and get provisions. A number availed themselves
of this liberty to plant potatoes and other English vegetables in the
adjoining fields which could be easily irrigated, and they were
allowed to enjoy the profit derived from their sale. A few convicts
B 1282—63

Chapter^XIV.

Places.

Mahabaleshvar

Population.

Chinese Convicts.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

498

DISTEICTS.

Chapter XIV.
Places-

MAH AB ALESHVAB .

Population.

Chinese Convicts.

Malcolm Peth.

of good character were occasionally allowed the privilege of working
all day in their potato fields and of sleeping in them during the
night, on condition that substitutes were provided for the Government
work ; the privilege was seldom abused. The principal labour in
which the prisoners were employed was the construction of station
roads. They were also frequently employed in preparing arrowroot
for the Commissariat Department ; as much as 3500 pounds were
supplied in one cold season. The Chinese greatly improved the
station gardens, and it is owing in great measure to their industry
that potatoes and English vegetables have been so great a success.
They also taught the inhabitants to make cane baskets and chairs.
When the jail was abolished in 1864 the majority of the prisoners
obtained tickets-of-leave, and some of these were permitted to
remain on the hill on condition of presenting themselves on the
first of every month at the Superintendent's office. Misconduct
renders them liable to forfeit their liberty and be sent to the Pooua
jail. At present there are only four Chinamen on the hill ; one of
these has a good garden near the lake which yields a large supply
of vegetables.

The village of Malcolm Peth covers an area of 211 Iff acres of
which 2006-^ acres are unarable and 105^f acres arable. Of the
unarable land 1204 acres are forest and 793 acres house sites; and
of the arable land sixty-two acres are tilled, twenty-three are waste,
and about twenty acres private or indm. The cultivated land is
chiefly in the north and south, close to watercourses, and the banks
of the Yenna and Tdmb rivers. Ten acres and four-fortieths
are a permanent endowment to the Mahdbaleshvar temple, and
seven acres and six-fortieths were assigned for Bhavd,ni of Pra-
tdpgad, the tutelary goddess of the Sdtd,ra family. Both of
these pay one-fourth of the full rental. The rest is land held
for obsolete services no longer required. When the village of
Malcolm Peth was started a large tract of land was obtained for
village purposes from the proprietors of Talemetha, Haroshi, and
Mahdbaleshvar. Land was similarly obtained from the Govern-
ment villages of Sindola and Birvddi. The levy of assessment
according to survey rates is restricted to arable- ground which
realizes an annual revenue of £19 (Rs. 190) ; the land under
occupation of bungalows is subjected to special rates of assessment
which vary from 2s. to 10s. (Rs. 1 - 5) the acre. Leases are granted
for twenty-one years. Since 1882 an uniform rate of 10s. (Rs. 5)
the acre has been charged by Government on all properties whose
leases have been renewed. The revenue for 1882-83, including
the Local Fund sixteenth, amounted to about £174 (Rs. 1740), .a
considerable reduction Compared with the returns of some years
back. The fall is due to the conversion of leasehold into freehold
properties, and to the exemption of Bella Vista from land rent, as,
since 1877, it has become Government property. The forest area,
about 1204 acres, known as the Five Mile Reserve, is chiefly covered
with brushwood. In 1883-84, exclusive of hirda, it yielded a
revenue of £290 (Rs. 2900). The revenue from cultivated land and
from the forests is credited to Government, and the ground rent
from buildings is credited as a state grant to the station funds.

Deccau.]

satAra.

499

The^ discoverer and first visitor of the Mahdbaleshvar hills, for
change of climatOj was the late General P. Lodwick, who, being
stationed with his regiment at Satara during the hot season of 1824,
determined on exploring these mountains. He was the very first
European who ever set foot on the since celebrated promontory of
Sidney Point, which has now been officially called after him. He
made his way, with a Walking stick in hand, through the dense
and tigerish forest, to the edge of that grand precipice, without any
encounter with the wild beasts that then infested the place in
numbers,; but a day or two after his Hog, when close to him, was
carried off by a panther. He was also the first to bring the subject
before the public through the medium of newspapers. He was
followed by the late General Briggs, Resident of Satara, who in 1826
built a cottage and prevailed on the Rdja to construct an excellent
carriage road from his capital to the present station. liittle further
was done till Sir J. Malcolm, Governor of Bombay (1827-1830),
zealously took up the matter, established an experimental convalescent
hospital for European soldiers, and, by his personal residence at
the hills in the hot season of 1828, attracted a crowd of visitors.
In the same season Colonel Robertson, the successor of General
Briggs, built a house at the station. In November 1828, Sir J.
Malcolm returned to the hills, bringing with him Dr. Williamson
specially appointed to the duty of reporting on the climate and
fitness of the locality for a sanitarium. Sites were now selected
for some public buildings ; the jGovernor's residence on Mount
Charlotte, called after Lady Malcolm, was commenced ; and a
proclamation was soon afterwards issued by the Raja of S^tdra,
inviting settlers to his newly founded village of Malcolm Peth or
' Malcolm- Ville '. His Highness also undertook to continue the
high road onward over the hill and down the Radtondya or Rotunda
pass to the boundary of the British territory in the Konkan, from
which point the English Government agreed to construct a similar
road down the Par pass through Mahad to D^sgaon in KoMba, the
most convenient harbour on the Sd,vitri or Bankot river. These
works were completed in 1830. Next season Pdrsi shopkeepers
made their appearance, and Government employed a number of
Chinese convicts in cultivating an extensive garden whence supplies
of the finest vegetables, especially potatoes, were speedily drawn.
The convicts, about twelve in number, came from the English
settlements to the East and after working out their time in chains
remained at the place, married, and improved their condition, with
the proverbial frugality and industry of their race. A public
subscription was raised to make bridle roads to the most picturesque
points, and in a few years the station reached the flourishing
condition in which it now is. Mahdbaleshvar was ceded in 1828 by
the Sd,tAra Rdja in exchange for the village of Khanddla in Wdi,
and in 1848 was incorporated in the SAtd,ra collectorate on the lapse-
of the S^tdra state to the British Government.

From 1827 to 1866 the management of the station was carried
on by a committee. During this time it was chiefly maintained

Chapter XIV.
Places-

Mahabaleshvak.
History.

Management..

Murray's Bombay Handbook (2ncl Edition), 198 - 199.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

500

DISTRICTS.

Chapter^ XIV.

Places.

MahAbaleshvab.
Management.

Market.

from imperial revenues ■which. coBstitufced the station fund. In
January 1865, to raise a revenue for the improvement of the station,
a municipality was organised, and in May 1866 its limits were
extended to include the whole of the station. The committee was
dissolved in April 1867, and the management transferred to a town
municipality. The income is limited, and Grovernment still continue
to contribute from the public revenues. In 1 883-84 the revenue
amounted to £1399 (Rs. 13,990) of which £1038 (Rs. 10,380) were
derived from Government grants and £361 (Rs. 3610) were from
municipal receipts. The expenditure in the same year chiefly on
establishment and public works was £1160 (Rs. 11,600). The Post
Office is open throughout the year, and the telegraph office from 1st
October to 15th June. The station has a good vernacular school
at which teaching is conducted up to the fourth standard. The
municipality does not contribute towards its support.

The bazar or general market is in a central position on a waving
slope that stretches from the high ground on which the church stands,
with a gradual descent towards the south, thus affording a good
natural drainage. The area of the bazar is twenty-three acres and
1075 yards, and the population varies from about 1400 during the
rains to between 2500 and 8000 in the hot months. The bazir
contains a considerable number of shops where supplies of every
description can be obtained at reasonable prices, a number of itinerant
hawkers from Poona, Bombay, and elsewhere visibing the station
during the season with a variety of goods. The shopkeepers are
Lingayat Vdnis, Kdm^this originally from Telingan, Gujardt Vanis,
Mdrwdr Vd.nis who form the bulk of the trading class, Goanese,
Parsis, and Bohoras. Several of these deal exclusively in pota-toes
honey and wax which form the staple trade of the place and are
sent in large quaaitities to Poona and Bombay. Mahabaleshvar
honey is in great repute and from £100 to £150 (Rs. 1000 - 1500)
worth of it is sold in the bazdr every year. It is gathered from the
Sahyadri forests chiefly by Kolis. The shops are arranged on
either side of the main road. In the centre of the bazar is the
vegetable market, which in . 1880 was thoroughly repaired and
roofed with iron. It consists of seventeen compartments which
are annually rented and afford sufficient accommodation for the sale
of vegetables. The mutton and beef markets are removed some
distance from the main street and are ample for the requirements of
the station. There are two stands or addds at convenient places
to the south and west of the baz^r where imported grain, building
materials^ and, sundry other commodities are daily exposed for sale.
On the extreme west is the Government firewood store, where the
Forest Department retails firewood collected from the reserves.
Here also are the mail contractor's stables where carriages and
pony carts are generally available. The Roman Catholic Chapel,
Native Library, and School are on the same side. The dharmshdla,
constructed by Mr. Prdmji Nasarwanji Patel of Bombay, is on the
eastern side, and the Chinamen''s burial ground is towards the south.
The houses in the back streets on the southern side are generally
the dwellings of traders and working people ; those of the Mbdrs,
MdngSj and other menial classes are on the extreme south. Dhavads,

DeccaJi.]

satIea.

501

Clidmblid,rs or shoemakers, and Buruds or basket-makerSj chiefly
live on the same side but a little to the north ; Brd^hmans, Kanbis,
and Muhammadans live in the centre. In a few retired spots are
Hindu temples dedicated to Shiv, Ganpati, Maruti, and Vithoba ;
they are supported by private gifts without any help from
Government. There is a mosque on the north. Firewood is cheap
and grass plentiful, the best grass coming from Panchgani. Timber
and building materials are easily procured, and the principal working
classes are well represented. The bazar is conveniently situated as
regards drainage, but the houses are rather close to each other, and
to prevent overcrowding all applications for vacant sites in the
immediate vicinity are disallowed. The Malcolm Peth market draws
its chief supplies of native fruit from Dd,poli, Wdi, and Sdtara.
During the greater part of the year, potatoes, which are extensively
grown, form the chief food of the working classes.

The public buildings are the Frere Hall, sanitarium, church,
hospital, rest-house, and Government bungalows. The Frere Hall,
built in 1864, contains a large reading room and library with a large
and well chosen supply of books. It is a great acquisition to the
station. The sanitarium is an excellent building, originally built by
Government but transferred to the station in 1861 . It contains eight
sets of good well ventilated rooms, furnished for the accommodation
of bachelors. In 1882 an excellent club house was built on the
debenture principle on the ground lying between the Frere Hall and
the sanitarium, and with the sanction of Government the management
of both these institutions was handed over to the club committee
on condition that the general public whether members of the club
or not should still have access to the Frere Hall and library on
payment of the usual subscription and that sick officers going to the
hill should still obtain accommodation to a limited extent in the
club chambers (old sanitarium) on payment of the regulated fees.
For the use of the sanitarium the club pays the station Rs. 800 a
year, this amount being the average yearly income derived by the
station from the sanitarium for the five years previous to the opening
of the club. The eight rooms forming the old sanitarium being
insufficient to meet the requirements of the members of the club,
six additional bedrooms have been erected on the rising ground
between the Frere Hall and the Post Office. In 1879 an excellent
permanent badminton shed containing four courts was constructed
near the Frere Hall and has proved, especially during inclement
weather, a source of great enjoyment to visitors. This badminton
shed and lawn tennis courts at Sassoon Point have now become
the property of the club, and thus all public amusements are
regulated by the club committee. The church called Christ Church,
91 feet long from east to west and B7^ feet broad from north to
south, is built on rising ground a little to the north of the bazdr.
It was consecrated by Bishop Carr in 1842, but was almost
completely rebuilt in 1867. It contains 210 sittings and is in
charge of the chaplain of SdtAra, who makes MahAbaleshvar his
head-quarters during the hot season of the year.i About sixty

Chapter XIV.

Places-

MahAbaleshvak.
Market.

Buildings.

1 Dr. J, Pavidson, Superintendent of MahAbaleshvar.

[Bombay Gaietteer,

502

DISTRICTS.

Chapter^ XIV.

Places.

Mahabaleshvar.

Beckwith

Monument.

Bungalows,

yards to the west o£ the chnrcli is the Beckwith momiment 4558
feet above sea level and reached by a bad stony path. It is a plain
obelisk about thirty feet high and was erected from public sabscription
at a cost of £300 (Es. 3000). Sir Sidney Beckwith died here in 1831
while commander-in-chief. The subscribers put up an inscription
and Lady Beckwith sent out another on a marble tablet. The
influence of weather on marble rendered the second inscription
almost illegible as early as 1843 ; the first inscription remains
comparatively uninjured though the writing is much obliterated and
blackened and can only be read with the greatest difficulty. For
several years the monument has been regarded as sacred by the
poorer classes, who resort to it for the purpose of obtaining answers
to prayers. The first inscription on the west face runs :

" Sacred to the Memory of

Iiieutenaut-G-eneral Sir Thomas Sidney Beckwith, K.C.B.,

Governor and Commander-in-Chief of Bombay,

and Colonel of His Majesty's Eifle Brigade ;

who, after a long course of distinguished service, expired at his

Kesidenoe on these Hills, on the 15th day of January 1831,

aged 60 years.

Erected by a small circle of his friends in testimony of their admiration for

his noble character, and to perpetuate the memory of so good and amiable

a man."

The other inscription on the east face runs :

" This Tablet is placed by Mary, Lady Beckwith, daughter of the late Sir
"William Douglas, of ElUiead, Bart., as a memorial of the most devoted
affection for her lamented husband, by whose sudden death she has been
deprived of a most attached partner and friend and guide, in whom WEts
combined every amiable ciuality by which the Christian character is
adorned, and the intercourse of domestic Ufe is endeared— a loss which
can only be alleviated by the hope that looks beyond the grave. The
symBathizing friends ■who erected this monum^ent have kindly permitted a
Borrowing widow to add her heartfelt tribute to theirs."

About 700 yards south-east of the obelisk on the left of the road
leading to Lodwick Point is the cemetery canopied with the shade
of many trees. It is well kept and contains several notable
monuments.'-

There are about a hundred bungalows on the hill within a radius
of about three or four miles. Almost all are occupied in the hot
season. The majority have thatched roofs, but as, owing to the
excessive rainfall, the thatch has to be renewed every two years,
iron roofing is becoming more common, as it can be maintained in
good repair at a trifling expense. The cost of building these houses
varied from £100 (Rs. 1000) to £1800 (Rs. 18,000). Their number
has increased from seven in 1 840 to forty-eight in 1 860 and ninety-
eight in 1884. Of the ninety-eight in 1884 eight were Government
and the rest private. Of the ninety private bungalows thirty-four
are owned by Europeans, eighteen by Hindus, twenty-two by Pteis,.

1 Here are buried Lieutenant Hinde of the 4th Dragoons who was killed on these
hills by a bison on the I9th of April 1834 ; Dr. James Fraser Heddle some time
master of the Mint at Bombay, a man of great scientific acquireBients, and founder
of the Bombay Geographical Society ; Captain Thomas John Newbold of the 23rd
Eegiment Madras Army, Assistant Resident at Haidarabad, who died May 29th, 1850.
A pillar supporting an urn on a very large base is the monument of Major William
Miller, Judge Advocate General of the Bombay Army. Murray's Bombay Hand-
book, 201.

Deccan.;

SlTiRA.

503

ten by Musalm^ns, and the remaining six by Jews and others. For
the cold season^ that is from October to the middle of February, the
highest rent is £30 (Rs. 300) and the lowest £12 (Rs. 120). If the
bungalows are hired at this time by the month the rent varies from
£3 to £15 (Rs.30-150). In the hot season, from the first of
March to the rains, they are not let by the month, the highest rent
for this period being £150 (Rs. 1500) and the lowest £25 (Rs. 250).
In the cold season the number of visitors is comparatively small,
chiefly Europeans and a few rich natives. As a rule in the hot
season all the houses are occupied, the greater number of visitors
being Europeans. Of the materials used in building these houses
the teak came from Bombay, Ratnagiri, Poona, and Kanara, other
timber from the neighbouring districts, the lime from W^iin Sd.td,ra,
and the corrugated iron from Bombay. The properties on the hill
are generally held on lease ; in a few cases the Government rent has
been redeemed. The roads, which extend to about forty miles, are
nearly all metalled and kept in thorough repair.

The' principal points are Arthur's Seat (4421), Blphinstone(4184),
Sidney or Lodwick (4067), Bombay, Carnac, Falkland, Sassoon, and
Babington (4245) on the Konkan face and Kate's on the Deccan face.

Blphinsfcone Point is a seven-mile drive from Frere Hall. Two
miles more lead to Arthur's Seat. The cliffs at these points are
higher than at any of the nearer eminences. These rise from the
Konkan which is some two thousand five hundred feet below the level
of the Koyna valley. The ravine between Blphinstone Point and
Ajthur's Seat is the rise of the Sd,vitri river, and the height of the cliff
at the point where the stream reaches its base is not less probably
than 3000 feet. There is a small bungalow at Elphinstone
Point but without furniture or special accommodation
The road which passes the Mahdbaleshvar temple is
light vehicles, but is unbridged and abounds in steep
sharp curves. From Elphinstone Point to Arthur's Seat it runs
close to the edge of the cliffs from which a small stone parapet
only divides it. Great care should be taken in driving this portion.
Arthur's Seat, so called after Mr, Arthur Malet who first built a
house here, is the highest point of the range in the neighbourhood,
being 442 1 feet above "sea level. The view is of immense extent
in all directions. North-west over a ridge about five hundred feet
lower is seen the Jor valley dense with forest and concealing the
head waters of the Krishna. Rdjgad (3992) and Torna (4605) in the
Bhor state, and Kangori (2457) in Kolaba are all visible from this
point. During the hot weather the haze usually obstructs the view,
but in October and November these and other hills in the Bhor
territory are seen to fine advantage. They form masses of huge
rocks rugged beyond description and apparently unscalable. In
most places the vegetation has been cleared or burnt off them.
This adds to the wildness of the scene. But notwithstanding its
grandeur the eye would gladly find some relief from the universal
bareness, and turns with enjoyment to the masses of foliage on the

for visitors,
passable for
inclines and

Chapter^ XIV.

Places-

MahIbaleshvab.
Bungalows.

Points,

Elphinstone and
Arthur,

1 Mr, J, W. P. Muir-Mackenzie, C.S.

[Bombay Gazetteer*

504-

DISTRICTS.

Chapter XIV.
Places*

Mahabaleshyab.
Points.
Arthur.

Sidney or
Lodwich.

Lodwick
Monument.

southern side. About half a mile from Arthur's Seat itself is a
small path, which, by a scramble, leads down to a spring 200 feet
below called the Wishing Well. The path follows the line of the
cliffs and mounting up meets the carriage road at the Httle cleared
spot which constitutes Arthur's Seat. A very steep and rathei*-
unsafe path over the eminence enables a good climber to get down
to a small ledge known as the window. It is about 200 feet below
the Seat and once reached gives a magnificent view of the
extraordinary drop on iiito the valley below. The ledge is so low
that the visitor can lean over it and gaze securely into the depths
below without endangering his balance by straining in any way.
Another circuitous path starts northwards from the Seat and is a
safer way of reaching the window. Beyond the window a long
spur projects into the Konk'an, and by the path above mentioned the
people habitually pass the range, sometimes even with heavy burdens.
Considerable time is usually necessary for seeing Blphinstone Point
and Arthur's Seat. The best plan is to send out provisions and
make a long morning of it.

The way to Sidney or Lodwick Point, which is nearly three
miles north-west of the bazar, is to follow the Mahd.d road and take
the second turning to the right. One more turning is met and the
right hand should again be chosen. The road, though steep, is
well adapted for carriages. It follows the northern slope of the
spur through dense though small forest and opens on to a space
at the base of a sort of promontory two hundred yards long. The
carriage way extends to the top of a rise in the promontory on
which the Lodwick monument has been placed. Beyond this
again is the extreme end of the Point known as the Nose 4067 feet
above sea level. This must be reached on foot, as it is connected
vfith the rest of the spur by a narrow ridge not more than five or
six feet wide with a deep drop on each side. This should be
crossed with caution. The nose or end of the point is only twelve
feet wide and the sides have a drop of over 2500 feet to the Koyna
valley below. Many persons consider Sidney Point the most
beautiful on the hill. The view is less extensive on either side than
from several other points. But Pratapgad and Blphinstone point
crags are seen thence in their very best. There is a fine rebent
of prospect north-west over the Konkan, while the height and
ruggedness of the surrounding hills is nowhere more fully brought
home to the mind than from this almost isolated rock rearing its
colossal height between two deep ravines crowned with rugged cliSs.

Sidney or Lodwick Point was formerly called Sidney after Sir
Sidney Beckwith. A few years ago, by order of Grovernment, the
name was changed to Lodwick Point, in honour of General Lodwick
who was the first English officer that climbed the hill. By permission
of Government a column has lately been erected on the point by
General Lodwick's son. The column is about twenty-five feet high
from the ground to the top of the urn which surmounts the pillar.
On the west of the base of the monument is the head of the General,
sculptured in alto-relievo in white marble, protected by stout tin
wire in an iron frame. The iron has rusted and stained the face,
which is scratched but not disfigured. On the south side is written :

Deccan.]

sItAra.

505

" In memory of

General Peter Lodwick,

Second son of John Lodwick, Esq., S. Shoebury, Essex,

wlio entered the Hon. E. L Co.'s service in 1799,

and died at Bagneres de Bigorre, Prance,

August 28th, 1873,

aged 90.

Senior Ofllcer of H. M.'s Forces in India

On the east, side is written :

In 1803-04, he saw service as a Subaltern in connection with the opera-
tions of the Army under Sir Arthur 'Wellesley. He was Brigade Major of
Captain Ford's Subsidiary Force at the Battle of Kirkee, BTovember 5th,
1817, when 2800 British Troops defeated the Peishwa's Army, and was
present at the taking of Puraudhar and other hill forts. He commanded a
Eegiment at Kittur in 1824; he subsequently became Town Major of
Bombay ; and closed his career in India as Resident of Sa'ta'ra.

The first European w^ho set foot on these hills, he made known the salub-
rity of the climate, and led to the establishment of the Maha'baleshvar Sani-
tarium, thus conferring an inestimable benefit on the Bombay Presidency.

Oa the north side is written :

This Point, now by order of Government designated Lodwick Point in
honour of his name, he reaehedalone in 1827, after hours of toil through the
dense forest. Here, therefore, as the most appropriate spot this monument
has, with the permission of Government, been erected by his only son,
E. 'W. Lodwick, of Her Majesty's Bombay Civil Service, Accountant
General of Madras, in 1874.

Bombay Point, so called apparently because of its being on the
old road to Bombay, is one of the earliest known in Mahdbaleshvar.^
The v^iew from it is perhaps the most extensive on the hill. It
comprehends on the right or north-west Pratd,pgad and on the south-
west the saddle-back and the set of hills between them, of the most
varied and beautiful forms to be seen in the immediate neighbour-
hood. . This also is the point from which to see the sunset over the
sea. It is the most frequented rendezvous on the hill. A large
space has been cleared for carriages and a platform made for a band.
The point is reached by two roads. For both the Mah^d road must
be followed for a full mileto a spot where three roads meet The
shorter way to the point is straight on. One portion is rather steep
but the saving in distance is very great, and the gradients have
lately been improved. The whole road from the turning runs
through thick woods. The turn to the right is the longer road,
which gives a much easier gradient but a mile more driving. The
Mahd,d road is followed for three quarters of a mile when a turn to
the left leads to the point. Many fine glimpses of Sidney Point are
obtained from this road.

Oarnac and Falkland Points called after the Governors of those
names are within a quarter and half a mile respectively of Bombay
point. The views are very similar. The saddle-back hill is seen to
greater advantage from these two than from Bombay Point, but the
sunset view is somewhat obstructed by the shoulder of Bombay
Point itself;, Falkland Point however has a large space for carriages
and is a very favourable resort. The cliffs of Babington Point are
exceedingly well viewed from this point. These heights while
exceedingly abrupt are specially well clothed with vegetation. The
lines of the mosses and passes are specially attractive in October

Chapter XIV.
Places-

MAHiBALBSHVAK

Points,

Lodmeh

Monument.

Bombay.

Falkland.

1 Compare Lady Falkland's Chow Chow, I. 147.

B 1282-64

[Bombay Gazetteer,

500

DISTRICTS.

Chapter XIV.

Places.

Mahabalbshvab .

Points.

Fcaklcmd,

Sassoon.

Kate's.

"Waterfalls.

Yenna Falls.

and in the coM weather the ravine is filled with the intense hlue
shadow characteristic of these hills.

Closely adjoining' Falkland Point is the glade, an open space
cleared in the forest a charming specimen of the beautiful interiors
of these small light woods. There. is a direct road to Falkland
point by the left hand turning of the three mentioned above. It is
broad and drivable but very steep in parts, and not much used for
carriages.

Sassoon Point about half-way on the road to Bahington Point has
the Lawn Tennis Courts of the station. There are now six of them
well famished and in good order.

Babington Point is about two miles almost due south of the
Frere Hall. The road is an excellent one. It passes through the
bazd,r past Sassoon Point on the right and on for another half a mile
by gentle gradients. The last half mile where it turns a little to
the west is very steep and leads on the point a fine open space.
This is the point of view for the Eoyna valley and the saddle-back.
_ Kate^s Point, unlike all the others, affords a view to the Deccan
side. The hills here have less variety and grandeur. But the
valley of the Krishna has beauties of its own in a winding river and
patches of cultivation. Kamdlgad P^ndagad and Mandhardev,
three fine heights, are prominent objects in the landscape. WAi
unfortunately is shut out from view by a shoulder of the hill called
Tai Ghat. The road to the point has recently been made easily
passable for light carriages. It turns off from the Poena high road
about a mile and a half east of the lake and from here it is another
mile and half to the point. It is a spur jutting out into the Krishna
valley. At the extremity is a huge piece of rock a hundred feet high
which appears to have become detached from the main scarp. A
few smaller boulders wedged between this rock and the face of the
cliff form a connecting link not more than sis feet wide requiring
steadiness to cross. The rock and scarp with the connecting
boulders form a curious natural arch. The road to Kate's Point
forms part, of the old path to Malcolm. Peth known as General
Phayre's road. It follows the northern slope of Panchgani from
the village oE Dahiyat and emerges on the plateau about a mile
east of Kate's Point. This path was at no time made passable for
wheels and is now completely out of repair.

There are three chief waterfalls on and near the hill, the Yenna
falls in the Yenna valley near Lingmalla, the Dhobis' fall almost
midway between Lodwick Point and the bazar, and the Chinamen's
fall near the gardens formerly cultivated by the Chinese ticket-of-
leave men. These are well worth a visit, especially in the cold
weather when the volume of water is considerable.

The Yenna falls are reached by two different routes. One is
by the Sdtdra road which has to be followed for about 2J miles
from the Frere Hall, when a mile more along a branch road to the
left will lead to the falls. Carriages cannot approach within a
quarter of a mile and the branch road is narrow and steep every-
where. A turn io 'the right about three quarters of a mile from

aeccan.]

SATlRA.

507

the road sliows the path leading to the falls which are excellently-
viewed from several of its angles. The stream is here precipitated
over the face of a steep cliff with a sheer descent of some 500 feet,
unbroken when the torrent is swollen by rain, but ordinarily divided
by projecting rocks, aboat one-third of the way down, and scattered
below into thin white streaks and spray, which are often circled
by rainbows from the oblique rays of the sun. A strong eddy of air
created by the fall blows back on to the top the spray and light
objects thrown over the fall. The headlong rush and roar of the
falling river ; the many other streams lining with silver the steep
dark sides of the chasm, as they hasten to join the foaming torrent,
which far below is dashing on through masses of rock ; the grandeur
of the scenery, now wreathed in floating mists now bright ia
sunshine, combine to form a scene of the most absorbing beauty.^
By means of an arduous scramble the very edge of the fall can be
reached, though usually at the expense of a wetting. The forest
bungalow of Lingmalla is close by. This bungalow and the falls
can be reached by another carriage route along the Poona road
from which the road to the bungalow branches off to the right a few
hundred yards east of the Kate's Point road.

A most beautiful view of the Solshi valley can be obtained by
passing from what is known as the Blue Valley road^ which connects
Babington Point and the Sdtdra road. The turn bo the left from
the Sdtdra road is about a mile and half distant from Prere Hall
and cannot be mistaken. The road is passable for light carriages
but careful driving is required.

The Dhobis' or washermen's waterfall is on -a bridle path connecting
the Sidney Point with the Blphinstone Point and the old
Mahd,baleshvar road. The fall is insignificant but situated in a lovely
sequestered nook and looking straight at the south side of Elphinstone
Point ravine. The rocks on either side are abrupt and lofty, while
there is abundance of foliage and forest to add to the beauty of
the scene.

An excellent round of the hill can be made on foot or horseback
by starting alose^g the Mak^baleshvar road taking the left turn to
the Dhoibis'' waterfall and on to Sidney Point. Thence another
bridle path starts south, known aa From Dan to Bersheba. It
crosses the. M'ah&d road and eventually reaches Bombay Point.
From Bombay Point the carriage road is followed to Falkland Point,
whence again the Tiger Path, strikes off following the head of the
Babington Point ravine and past the Chinamen's fall till Babington
Point i^ reached,. From Bahington Point it passes by the Blue
"Valley road' to the Sdtdra road.. The distance covered will be about
twelve miles and most of the best views will have been seen.

It should not be omitted to. notice that the Albert road, a loop
branching southwards ftom the S^td,ra. road about half a mile from
the Frere Hall and close to the pillar post, gives perhaps the finest
panorama of the landscape west of Pratd,pgad to be seen on the hill.

Chapter XIV.
Places.

Mahabalbshvab.
Waterfalls.
Yenna Falls.

Dhobis' Fall.

'Muifray's Bombay' Haaidbook, 199.

^ The Blue Valley takes its namo from the blue haze and shadow for which it is
notable.

tBombay Gaietteer,

508

DISTRICTS.

Chapter XIV.
Places.

MahAbaleshvak,

Cinclioiia
Plantation.

It includes tHe whole of the Blue Valley and the saddleback range
as far as Pratd,pgad.

Near the Tenna falls at Lingmalla about three miles east of the
bazdr is the site of a cinchona plantation. The land belongs to the
temple of Mahdbaleshvar. The portion taken for the plantation is oil
the right bank of the river about a quarter of a mile above the falls
and contains about ninety-five acres. Before the formation of the
plantation about two acres of the land bad been bought by Govern-
ment for £85 (Rs. 850). The rest was obtained from the proprietor
on a thirty years' lease renewable at the option of the lessee from
the 1st of August 1865 to the 31st of July 1895. The terms of the
lease were that £30 (Rs. 300) should be paid annually in half-yearly
instalments.

Two dams were built at a cost of £619 (Rs. 6190), one a short
distance below the Yenna lake, the other across a stream nearer
Lingmalla to direct the water towards the plantation. Owing to
the scarcity of water in the hot season a channel from the Yenna
lake to the plantation, a distance of more than two miles, was made
in 1869 at a cost of upwards of £600 (Rs. 6000). As this did not
supply sufficient water a further sanction for £87 (Rs. 870) was
obtained for a new dam. But this, though of ample elevation,
did not answer, as, owing to the porous nature of the laterite, the
water ceased to run in the end of January or the beginning of
February.

An establishment at a monthly cost of £56 (Rs. 560) was
sanctioned in February 1865 on condition that all receipts should
be credited to the general revenues. In April 1865 GovernmeDt
sanctioned an allowance of £27 (Rs. 270) a month for the Assistant
Superintendent and gardeners. In 1867 the establishment was
increased and an additional sum of £10 (Rs. 100) monthly was
granted, and in 1 868, in consideration of the zeal displayed by the
Assistant Superintendent in the management of the plantation, an
annual increase to his salary of £2 10s. (Rs. 25) monthly, till it
reached a maximum of £20 (Rs. 200), was sanctioned. When the
plantation proved unremunerative, reductions took place from time
to time, and when in 1875 it was transferred to the Forest Depart-
ment the members of the establishment were dismissed and only a
messenger was left in charge of the Superintendent's house.

The first attempts to raise cinchona from seed were unsuccessful.
Subsequently about 20,000 young plants were brought from the
Nilgiris and an experienced superintendent was appointed. The
plants flourished for four years, then canker made its appearance
and destroyed more than three-fourths of the plants, and a few
years later scarcely a plant remained. When the plantation seemed
likely to prove a failure, the Superintendent of the Nilgiri
Ciuchona Plantation was asked to visit Mahabaleshvar and report
on the condition of the plants. He was of opinion that the project
would never pay and attributed the decay of the plants to the long
dry weather followed by excessive rain. The Superintendent of the
Botanical Gardens at Ganesh Khind requested to be allowed to try
precautions for the caijker. A year was granted for his experi-
jpents but all failed. The project was abandoned in 1875 and the

Beccau]

SATi.RA.

S09

land made over to the Forest Department. A sum of £6400
(Rs. 64j000) had been spent, and the return was nominal.

The places in the neighbourhood of the hill to which excursions
are occasionally made are Pratapgad, Makrandgad or Saddleback,
P^rut, Bamnoli, Chanda, Kamd,lgad, Shin Shin Gali or the Robbers'
Caves, and the Mahdbaleshvar temples.

Prat^pgad, 3543 feet above sea level^ is famous in Maratha
history. Early in his career it was the seat of Shiv4ji the founder
of the Maratha empire, and here in 1659 he treacherously murdered
Afzul Khan the commander of the Bijdpur army. The fort was
designed by Shivaji in 1656 and built by Moro Trimal Pingle.
For many years it was a great . Mardtha stronghold, but is now a
ruin. Inside is the temple of Bhavani, Shivdji's family goddess.
The tomb, a short distance outside of the fort, marks the spot where
Afzul Khan's head was buried. Pratd,pgad has been made much
easier of access by a good road which runs nearly the whole way,
and a travellers' bungalow at Vdda or Ambenali at the bottom of the
pass where refreshments can be had and arrangements made for
carrying those who find it difficult to climb the hill. The YAda,
bungalow is within forty minutes'walk of the fort. Fifteen villages,
yielding a yearly revenue of £335 (Rs. 3350), have been granted
for the maintenance of the temple of Bhavdni.^

Makrandgad, perhaps the sweet or pleasant hill, and known to
Europeans as the Saddleback, stands on the left of Prat^pgad in
the village of Ghonaspur, about five miles south-west of Mahabalesh-
var. The hill, which is sparsely covered with timber, is 4054 feet
above sea level or 500 feet higher than Pratapgad. It is unfortified
and has on the top a good spring of water and the ruins of an old
temple. The chief attraction is its wide view, which on a clear day
includes much of the Konkan and a long stretch of sea coast. The
paths up the hill are steep, and here and there narrow and bordered
by precipices.^

P^rut in the Koyna Valley, five or six miles beyond Babington
Point, is reached by an excellent footpath and has a good supply
of pig, deer, peafowl, junglefowl, and spurfowl. About ten miles
further at a place called Bdmnoh, or at T^mbi five miles beyond, bear
and sdmbar are found. In going to Bamnoli it is usual to drive to
Medha and then ride over the hill about seven miles along a good
bridle path. Arrangements should be made two or three days before.

Chanda, a small hill in the direction of Pratapgad and about five
miles from the bazar, is occasionally visited by sportsmen. It is
surrounded by a dense forest, which generally contains some of the
larger wild animals.

Kam^lgadj a small hill north of Kate's Point on the opposite side
of the Krishna valley, 4511 feet above sea level, can be reached
either by a pony-cart or on horseback as far as Kate's Point and
thence on foot. A good walker can reach the top of the hill in
about two hours. Pig are generally plentiful in April and May, and
small deer and spurfowl are abundant at all seasons. About twenty-

' Details of PraUpgad are given below under Pratapgad.

2 Petails of Makrandgad are given below under Makrandgad.

Chapter^ XIV.

Places.

MahIbaleshvab..
Excursions,

Pratapgad.

Makrandgad.

Pdrut.

Chanda,

Kamdlgad.

[Bombay Gazetteer.

510

DISTRICTS.

Chapter XIV.

Places-

Mahabaleshvae.

Excursions,

Robbers' Cave.

Temples.

five beaters are required. It is best to send some one who knows
the place a day in advance to make ready booths or mdndavs,
and to find out from the villagers what game is about and where it
is to be found.

Another place occasionally visited is Shin Shin Gali or the
Robbers' Cave^ about four miles south-east of the station. The
best way to get to it is to ride or drive about a mile beyond
Babington Point, taking the left hand road. After this a footpath,
chiefly used by the Dhavads of Malusre, leads to a rocky plain on
one side of which is the cave. There are many stories about this
care. Some Hindus consider it an ancient abode of the giants,
while others- assert that it was made as a chapel by the Bishis or
seers. Others again say that the cave is the work of Dhavads who
dug it to get the laterite stones they used in making iron. The
objection to this last story is that as laterite is found on the surface
it is diSicult to see what the Dhavads gained by mining. The
length of the cave is about 150 feet, the mouth about ten feet wide
and high enough for a man to enter without stooping. In the
middle it becomes considerably lower. A few years ago the cave is
said to have been a tunnel about 500 feet long. It is gradually
being filled by clay left by the rainy season floods. The cave is
seldom or never entered by the villagers, as the thick forest round is
infested by wild animals which, no doubt, frequently resort to the
cave. The natives call it Shin Shin Grali or the Shin Shin passage.
What Shiu Shin means is not known.

At the upper part of a small wooded ravine about midway
between the Sindola range and the road leading to Kate's Point from
the P^nchgani road is another Robbers' cave smaller than the
above but better known and more often visited.'

About Arthur's seat sdmbar are found during the greater part
of the cold and hot seasons. Owing to the thick undergrowth,
principally Jcdrvi, it is most difficult to beat them out. One hundred
beaters are necessary, and even then the sdmbar often break back.
Small deer and spurfowl are plentiful here as on most parts of the hill.

During March and April there is some bush quail shooting about
four miles from the station on the Panchgani road and on the Sdtdra
road from Lingmalla onwards.

The temple of Mahabaleshvar which gives its name to the station
is situated 4385 feet above sea level in a small village two and
a half miles north of the bazdr. Near the main temple of
Mahabaleshvar are two other temples, one dedicated to Krishn^b^
or the river Krishna and another to Atibaleshvar or Vishnu.
Mahabaleshvar and Krishndb^i are held in more esteem than, Vishnu
and their temples are more costly.

The temple of Mahdbaleshvar is surrounded by a stone wall about
five feet high. In the centre the temple, built of black trap and
supported on stone pillars, consists of two apartments, a small
inner room for the god and a larger outer room for the worshippers.

1 Sir Bartle Frere probably refers to this cave in his introduction (p. x.) to
Pandurang Hari who lays one of his scenes in such a oave.

Deccan-]

sAtara.

511

The temple of Krislinabdi, which is also of trap, is larger than the
temple of Mahabaleshvar and of a different shape. It consists of
Mians or arches on three sides with an open space in the centre,
the whole somewhat resembling a theatre. The fourth or northern
side is formed by a high stone wall, at the base of which, about
three feet apart, are five holes out of which water flows ; these are
supposed to be the five rivers Krishna, Koyna, Yenna, Gayatri, and
Savitri, which, after running for about ten feet, unite and fall
through the mouth of a carved stone cow into a cistern, and
overflowing the cistern fill a second reservoir. The upper cistern
is used for bathing by Hindus of the higher castes and the second
by Hindus of the lower classes. There is no written information
regarding the building and cost of these temples. But from local
inquiries, it appears that they hare been in existence from remote
times, and that about 150 years ago they were rebuilt and
thoroughly repaired by the wealthy Satara banker Parshuram
Ndrdyan Angal.i Repairs at a cost of about £1500 (Rs. 16,000)
were carried out in 1876, when a corrugated iron roof was placed
over the temple of Krishn^bdi by the Chief of Jamkhandi.

The village is regarded by Hindus as a tirth or sacred pool, and
as all classes of Hindus come to it to perform religious rites the
Brdhman priests and temple servants who form the bulk of the
inhabitants enjoy a considerable revenue. The god Shiv has an
endowment granted by the late Rd,ja of Sdtara, which is administered
by an agent appointed for the purpose. Besides frequent gatherings
■ on all religious festivals, yearly fairs are held in honour of the two
chief deities, and are largely attended by all classes of Hindus,

The traditional origin of these temples is that two rdhshas
or demon brothers named Mahabal and Atibal, bitter enemies of
the Brahmans and their gods, were so powerful and warlike that
they disturbed the devotions of the Brahmans and harassed the
people. The Brdhmans appealed to Vishnu who came and killed
the younger brother Atibal. Enraged at the death of his brother,
Mahdbal challenged the god to single combat. They fought so
long that Vishnu became exhausted and sought the help of the
goddess of enchantment. She cast a spell over the giant so that
he ceased fighting and promised to grant any favour the god should
ask of him. The favour asked by the god was the death of Mahd.bal.
As Mahdbal had pledged his word this favour had to be granted,
and the gods began to cut the giant in pieces without his offering
any resistance. Struck with admiration Shiv offered to fulfil any
of his dying wishes. Several requests were made and granted, the
chief being that Shiv and Vishnu should take the names of the
giant and his brother, and that in memory of their fight their
temples should be called Mahd,baleshvar and Atibaleshvar.

There are three yearly festivals or utsavs at the temples,
Krishnd.bai's and Navrdtra in honour of the river Krishna,

Chapter XIV.

Places.

MahAbalbshvae
Excursions.
Temples.

' According to a local story Parshurdm Xiriyau Angal was a Sdtdra beggar who
suddenly discovering a large treasure became a banker and spent his money in
building temples, rest-houses, and wells in the Sdtdra district. Lady Falkland's
Chow Chow, II. 31. See below Piteshvar.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

512

DISTRICTS.

Chapter XIV.
Places.

• MAHi.BALESHVAR.

Exoursiona.
Temples.

and Shivrdtra in honour of Mah^baleshvar. Krislind,bai's fair
begins on the first day of the bright half of Phdlgun (February •
March) and lasts for five days ; the Navrdtra begins on the first day
of the bright half of Ashvin (September- October) and lasts for ten
days ; and Shivrdtra begins on the twelfth day of the dark half of
Mdgh (February - March; and lasts for seven days. To meet the cost
of these fairs and to entertain daily about 500 Brd,hmanSj the sum of
£15 (Rs. 150) is sanctioned from the revenue of the endowed village
of Kashri. The amount falls short of the outlay, and about £20
(Rs. 200) are yearly collected by private contributions. The Navrdtra
festival is of secondary importance, its festivities costing about £7
(Rs. 70), which is wholly met by the proprietor .i While these fairs
last, from £20 to £30 (Rs. 200 - 300) are spent on the observance of
such religious rites as prayojan, purdn, and Mrtan or Jtatha. The
amount sanctioned for the performance of these rites is about £17 iOs.
(Rs, 175), and the excess is met from funds raised on the occasion.

At the Navrdtra there are scarcely any strangers. On the two
other occasions from about 1000 to 1500 Brdhmans, Prabhus, Yd,nis,
Mardthd,s, Sonars, Shimpis, and others gather from the neighbouring
villages in the Javli and Wdi sub-divisions of Sat£ra, and from the
nearer villages of the Mahd,d sub-division of KoMba. People from
Poona and Ndsik and from the more distant parts of the Deccan
and of Northern India, especially Bairagis and Fakirs, may also
sometimes be seen. And occasionally Pdrsis and Musalmdns are
attracted for the sake of amusement or from curiosity. Of these,
visitors those who live close at hand return the same evening, and
those who dwell farther off remain till the close of the fair. These
are accommodated either in Krishnabai's shrine or in the houses
of priests, most of whom hold papers from the ancestors of the
pilgrims appointing them their hereditary religious guides. The
only rites performed by the pilgrims are bathing in the sacred
waters of the Panchganga and worshipping the principal images.
Rich pilgrims sometimes give feasts and dinners to Brdhmans. The
privilege of bathing in the sacred waters is not enjoyed by all.
People of low caste are forbidden to touch the water in the holy
pond. But the temple Kolis serve out water which they carry from
the spot, and use it at some distance from the shrine. Except the
petty shopkeepers and Malis of Malcolm Peth few traders open
stalls at these fairs. The articles offered for sale are of the
commonest sort, glass bangles, earthen toys, dry dates, cocoanuts,
potatoes, guavas, plantains, and other ordinary fruit, and raw sugar
and sweetmeats. Their aggregate value is about £24 (Rs. 240) and
they are sold to the pilgrims for cash for immediate use.

These feasts and fairs are a source of profit to the temple priests
and servants. The income depends chiefly on the number and
position of the pilgrims and is in no case trifling. A Brdhman on
an average can lay by from £2 10s. to £4 (Rs. 25 - 40), though

1 The amount originally estimated by the late Edja of SdtAra for the purpose was
about £4 6s. (Rs. 43) ; but the prices of provisions have since risen, and the original
grant is inadequate. '

Deccan.]

Si.Ti.RA,

5-13

be may often complain.^ The Guravs^ or ministers appropriate the
money offered by the pilgrims to all the images except to Murlidhar
in Krishndbai's temple, whose offerings belong exclusively to Koli
temple servants.

Besides these presents and offerings the priests and temple
servants receive yearly allotments in cash or in kind from the land
assigned to the temples. The revenue of the villages of Kashri and
G^nje, estimated at £50 (Rs. 500) and paid chiefly in kind, goes
■wholly to the priests. The Guravs, in addition to their income from
the yield of indm land in Jor and Jdvli,' ^^}0j a yearly cash payment
of £2 (Rs. 20) and of two khandis and three mans of rice in husk
from the proprietor. They have, besides, the privilege of using the
articles of food supplied for the god by the indmddr. * Unlike either
the priest or the Gurav the Koli has no land. He receives from
the proprietor a yearly allowance of 4s. (Rs. 2) and of four khandis
of rice in husk. The villages which were assigned by the late Rdja
of Sdtdra and continued by the British Government, yield a yearly
revenue of from £110 to £120 (Rs. 1100 - 1200).

Mahimaudangad in Jdvli is a small fort on the top of a hill
rising about 600 feet above the valley, and situated in the small village
of Shindi eleven miles west of Bdmnoli and close to the south of the
Amboli pass bullock track. The fort is easy of ascent from Shindi.
It is not more than about ten acres in extent and was but little used
as it is commanded on all sides by other hills. Except some light
broken down walls and a pond little of the fort remains.

Mahimangad Port in M£n lies within the village limits of Shindi
Budruk about five and a half miles west of Dahivadi. The easiest
way to it is by the Satd,ra-Pandharpur road to a point about half a
mile west of the pass descending into the lower parts of the Mdn
sub-division. From this point a broad track branches off northwards
to the fort which lies not more than half a mile from the road.
There are three hamlets close on the north of the fort which towers
about 250 feet above them. It consists of a flat nearly triangular
table land with the apex to the east surmounting a perpendicular
scarp of black trap below which are steep slopes of short grass with
a little soil. The sides are overgrown in places with prickly pear
especially on the north-west corner. The ascent should be made
from the second hamlet which will be encountered on approaching
the Pandharpur road from the north-west. A path about five feet

1 There were formerly about seventy-five familiea. About fifty have lately left.
The income of those that remain must be considerable.

2 There are twelve Gurav families dependent on the temple. The representative
of each family worships the idols in turn, and enjoys during his time the right of
using the food offered to the god.

' The produce of these lands was formerly worth about Ea. 82^. But as much of
it has been included In the Five Mile Forest Reserve the income of the Guravs has
greatly fallen off. , . i i, i. 1 1

* The articles set apart as food for the god are for one day, rice one sfier ; wheat IJ
shers ; pulse J sJier ; split gram | iher ; clarified butter, sugar, and molasses, each three
tdks ; cocoa-kernel two t&a ; and other condiments and spices 1\ shers. Besides these
half an anna was allowed as a present or dakshina. The rice and other articles are
cooked, the dishes are set before the image, and when tlie worship is- over the toed iS-
eaten by the Gurav and his family.
B 1282-65

Chapter XIV.
Places-

MAHiBALBSHVAR.

Mahimandanqad
Fort.

Mahimanqau
Fort.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

514

DISTRICTS.

Chapter XIV. wide is still kept in good order with rude steps at intervals of almost
Places- every yard. A steep walk of about five minutes leads up to the

Mahimangad gateway, the immediate approach to which is in places almost block-
FoEi. ed by prickly pear. The path which leads up the side in a south-

east direction here takes a turn at nearly right angles to the south-
west. But before entering the visitor will probably go some fifteen
yards further to see a small tank cut in the rock, the site of an
excellent spring always full of water and furnishing the neighbour-,
ing hamlets with their hot weather supply. The gateway has been
cut in the scarp about thirty feet below the summit. The passage
cut is about six feet wide but the gateway narrows to about five feet.-
It consisted as usual of a single pointed arch about seven feet high
of well cut masonry the top of which has fallen in. Inside are
twenty-two rock-cut steps which wind through a right angle and
lead to the top facing east. The inner side of the curve is as usual
protected and the way up the steps proportionately narrowed by a
curtain of solid masonry. On emerging on the top and proceeding
east along the north face of the fort on the right hand is a small
hillock on which stood the ofiice or kacheri now in ruins. A
little further on is a water tank thirty feet square, originally built
of well cut masonry, but now a great deal fallen in. Near it are
two small tanks liued with cement for the storage either of grain or
water, and to the south of these is a large pit rough hewn out of the
rock, perhaps intended for prisoners as in V^rugad. About fifty
yards further east is a turret of considerable size the masonry of
which is still solid and on which a gun was planted. This turret
stretches right across the fort but underneath it on the southern
side is an archway about four feet high by two broad. By creeping
through it is reached the eastern end which tapers off nearly to a
point. The fort is about a hundred yards long by forty wide. The
walls are at present about five or six feet high and the masonry,
except the top layer, is in fair preservation. At the east end is one, and
at the west end are two bastions at the north-west and south-west
angles. Originally all three were crowned with guns and there are
still remains of parapets on them. On the east bastion is a small
stone placed erect for a ling and worshipped as the image of the god
Jajarnath JMahddev. A small fair is held in honour of the god and
the existence of this shrine explains how the path up to the fort is
in good order. There is also a ruined building of loose stones near
the south-west bastion in honor of some Muhammadan saint or pir.

Eistory, Mahimangad is expressly mentioned as one of the chain forts built

by Shivdji to guard his eastern frontier. But some of the natives
declare that the fort existed in Musalmdn times and point to the pir
shrine as evidence. This shrine however proves nothing since there
are many such unfortified hills. The masonry is characteristic of the
later built forts of Maratha times consisting of small, almost or
altogether, uncut stones bound together by mortar usually poor but,
at the bastions and entrance, of good sound quality. On the same
spur about a hundred yards east of the fort is a hill which barely com-
mands it and is connected with it by a neck of the spur. The ham-
lets at the foot are not walled or protected in any way so that the

Deccan.]

SATlRA.

515

approacli within 250 feet of the top must have been easy enough.
To escalade it however must have been difficult though at the south-
east corner by no means impossible. The hereditary garrison
consisted of abont seventy-five Ramoshis and Mhdrs who hold the
gadkari indm lands. The fort had lands assigned for it. The
havdlddr or former commander of the garrison is now the pdtil
and the sahnis or accountant is the kulkarni of the lands which
are for purposes of administration as a distinct village called by
the name of the fort.-

Ma'huli, a small village of 1097 people in Khdndpur, ten miles
north of Vita with which it is joined by a local fund road, has a
remarkable HemAdpanti temple of Kadamba Devi. The temple
is in the centre of the village, though not easy to find out. It is
about forty feet long by about twenty broad and consists of a hall
or mandap with a shrine and vestibule, but without a spire. It is
built of gray trap on a mound about ten feet above the average
level of the village streets. It is closely surrounded by mud houses
and therefore seen to less advantage than many of these old temples
which are usually found in vacant spaces and often outside the
villages. It is raised on a stone plinth about three feet high, the
face of which is out in a lozenge pattern. The walls are different
from the usual type of Hemddpanti temples in the district being
elaborately carved externally, especially the shrine wall. The hall
or mandap is twenty feet square and the walls reach to the roof not
as usual left solely for support to the pillars. The line of the front
or east wall is straight and contains a square entrance. But it is
in bad repair, the carved work nearly defaced and everywhere
blocked up with mud and stones put in to prop it up. The side walls,
which also contain two square entrances, are as usual rather wider
at the centre, the outline slightly resembling the cruciform. The
stones are pointed in beaded and tooth work and floral decorations
are faintly carved on them. The vestibule to the shrine is about
five feet by nineteen. The shrine is star-shaped and about fifteen feet
by twenty at the widest part. At the west north and south sides
are flat faces connected by zigzags showing five corners. These
walls are carved in much the same way as the hall or mandap walls
but far more elaborately. The faces contain niches with images,
of deities fairly well executed. The image in the north niche i»
MahishAsuri Devi riding on a buffalo and holding the child Parshu-
rdm in her lap ; the image on the west is of Narsinh the man-lion j
and the image on the south is Glanpati and Shad^nan or Kdrti'-
keya. The roof has heavy eaves of carved stone but scarcely
projecting and a modern brick parapet. The hall or mandap^
inside has four pillars in the centre carved in the usual pattern.
The shafts are of a single block and about seven feet high. The
basement is square and the rest of the rock is cut into cylindrical
square and other sections all carved in floral and beaded patterns.
Under these four pillars is the round slab called rangshila for
religious dancing and the like. Embedded in the walls are twelve
other semi-detached pillars of the same pattern connected with the
roof by crochets of a scroll pattern. The roof is divided by cross
beams into nine compartments cat in the lozenge pattern. But th&

Chapter XIV
Places.

Mahimangad

FOBT.

Mahuli.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

516

DISTRICTS.

Chapter XIV-
Flaces-

Mi.HULI.

Mahuli.

Temples.

most notewortliy thing in the interior is the sort of screen which
divides the shrine or gdbhdra vestibule from the mandap. It is df
pierced stone work very elaborately cut in lozenges of a sort, of
tooth pattern exceedingly elegant and striking. The shrine is a
plain square chamber and contains nothing but two projecting
slabs or stone symbols of Devi with the ling and shdiunkha of
Mahd,dev in front. Though so small inside the carving of the
temple is superior to anything in the district, except perhaps some
at Shingnd,pur and the old temple at Parli. The temple is said to
have been built by a Kdsdr or bangle-maker more than a thousand
years ago. A branch of the KasAr's family is said to reside. at
present in Kolhdpur without any connection with Mdhuli.

Ma'huli, 17° 42' north latitude and 74° 6' east longitude, also
called Sangam Mahulifrora its position at the meeting of the Krishna
and the Yenna, is a holy town of 2916 people in gi-eat local note
about three miles east of Satara. The town is divided into
two parts Kshetra Mahuli in British territory on the east bank
of the Krishna^ with 1630 people and Vasti Mahuli on the west
bank of the Krishna with 1286 people, the property of the Pant
Pratinidhi by whose family most of the Mahuli temples were built
in the eighteenth century. These temples,^ which form the chief
objects of interest 'at Mahuli, are ten in number and are built
almost on or about the river banks. Descending the river the first is
the temple of R^dhdshankar on the east bank of the Krishna in the
limits of Kshetra Mahuli. The temple stands on the Giri Ghd,t a
long and handsome stone platform built by one Bdpu Bhat Govind
Bhat about 1780. The temple is built of basalt and consists of a
shrine and a vestibule which may here be described as a veranda
supported by three small horse-shoe scoUopped arches. The dome
is of brick and almost conical in shape. It is broken up into gradu-
ally lessening rows of stucco ornamentation in which are niches
filled with images. On each side of the entrance is a lamp-pillar
or dipmdl. The temple was built about 1825 by T£i Sdheb Sachiy
the great-grandmother of the present Pant Sachiv of Bhor.

The second, also on the east bank of the Krishna, is the temple of
Bilveshvar built about 1742 by ShripatrAv Pant Pratinidhi. The
temple consists of a vestibule (18'xl8'x 11') and a shrine (10'9"x
10' 6" X 13'). The vestibule has no opening but a low door close to
which is the Nandi. The roof is supported by a few pillars each of
which is in alternate courses square round or octagonal. The front
is plain and about thirty, feet long. The sides gradually contract
by a series of offsets which run up nearly' to the top of the dome so
that the back wall is only five or six feet long. Except the upper
part of the dome which is of brick covered and ornamented with
stucco, the temple is built of gray stone and bears a very solid
appearance. Over the bull near the vestibule door is a square

' The Krishna is crossed near MAhuli by a flying bridge and the steep descent on
its east bank is obviated by a good winding pavement or ghdt.

° The temple accounts are from the MSS. of the late ilr. E. H. Little, C,Si
formerly First Assistant Collector, Sitira, Compare Chesson and Woodhall'll
Bombay Miscellany, I. 303-304,

Deccan.}

SlTlRA.

517

stone caaopy apparently later than tlie temple and supported on each-',
side by a broad low pointed arch. In front of the temple are a few'
tombs of ascetics and further beyond is the ghat or winding pavement
and flights of steps leading to the river built in 1738 by A'nandrdv
Bhivrd,v Deshmukh Angapurkar. The thirds also on the east bank
of the Krishna but at some distance from the first two as also from
Mahuli village, is a large temple dedicated to Rdmeshvar. and
bnilt about a.d. 1700 by Parshuram Nardyan Angal of Dehgaon.
Looking at it from the opposite or west bank the chief objects of
note are the very fine flights of thirty-five steps leading up to it
from the river-bed. One flight with its broad platform was begun
by the last Peshwa Bajirdv II. (1796-1817), but never finished.
Though forming part of the whole structure, it would lead, if finish-
ed, rather to the side of the temple than to the temple itself. The
other flight begins nearly where the first leaves off, and at an angle
to it, and is said to be the work of Parshurd,m Angal. Half-way
up it on either side is a small cloister of two, arches, which would
be perfectly circular but for a small niche in the keystone. The
roof is domed and formed by concentric layers of stone, each,
projecting over the one below and so diminishing in circumference
till only a small hole is left enough to admit one stone. At the top,
of the steps are two lamp-pillars one on either side and on the right
is a small shrine with a three-faced image of Datfcdtraya. In front is a
bull with his face towards the door of the vestibule. He is very richly
ornamented with chains and bells. Between his feet is a small ling
overshadowed by the cobra with two worshipping women. The
canopy is supported at the corners by pillars which are square and
round or octagonal in alternative courses. Above is a low octagonal
dome on two courses, the lower plain, the upper with a few figures.
Above this again is a representation of the lotus, but the stucco
has fallen off. The doorway consists of a stone porch supported
on half pillars. The vestibule is very small and is entered by a
low door. There are three domes, the lowest is over the vestibule,
the next comes a little higher, and the third adjoining it is the
highest. All the domes are of brick and stucco surmounted by.
a representation of the lotus. Behind the temple is a cloister of
five arches. A small door leads into the shrine with five small
figures in black basalt. The central figures are Shiv and Parvati.
At one end is an upright Hanuman with hands clasped together.

The fourth temple of Sangameshvar Mahddev is, as its name shows,
close to the sangam or junction of the two rivers, on the west,
bank of the Krishna and the north bank of the Tenna and nearly
opposite the Bilveshvar temple. Prom the bank of the Krishna,
two flights of steps lead up to the courtyard wall in which is a
small door opening into the quadrangular court in which lies the
temple. It consists of a small open veranda with a roughly
executed painting of Lakshmi and a vestibule and shrine. In
front is the sacred bull under a canopy resting on four pillars.
The breadth at the back is gradually diminished by a series of
offsets which are carried up into the dome. The architecture is
pure Hindu. The pillars are round or octagonal and square in^
alternate coursesj and the roof is formed of long stones which

Chaipter XU

Places-

MAhum.
Ilempleai

[Bombay Gazetteer,

518'

DISTRICTS.

Gliapter_XIV.

Places.

MAhuli.
Templest

stretcli diagonally from pillar to pillar so as to form a series of-

lozenge or diamond-sliaped spaces, filled in with square stones of

less size. There are good flying buttresses to the platform of

the sacred bull and the top of the dome. Like Bil\reshvar the

body of the building is of basalt and the dome of brick and stucco.

It is said to have been built by Shripatrdv Pant Pratinidhi about

1740. Just below this temple and at the actual junction of the

rivers is a triangular plot of ground occupied by tombs built

over the burial places of an ascetic named Banshapari and his

disciples. The largest, under which the ascetic himself is said to

be buried, is an octagonal building of gray basalt, surmounted

by a low dome. The sides are open, and the triangular heads of

the openings are scolloped and richly carved above ; a broad ledge

is carried round supported on elegant scrolls. Inside is a ling

and sacred bull. _ The next in size is square with a horse-shoe

opening about six feet high and carved pilasters on each side.

The dome is of brick plastered and fluted. Inside are a ling and

bull. The third is a mere canopy with fluted dome and supported

on square pillars over the ling and bull.

The fifth, the largest of the Mdhuli temples on tho south bank
of the Tenna at its meeting with the Krishna is dedicated to Vish-
veshvar Mahddev and is said to have been built by Shripatrav Piint
Pratinidhi about 1735. It is of basaltand enclosed by an irregular-
shaped court-yard open on the river side, from which it is approached
by a flight of steps. The high platform on which it is raised, the
low colonnade which runs round the greater part of it, the short
thick pillars in alternate courses of round octagonal and square,
the lozenge-figured stone roof, the breadth increasing from the
front by offsets and then decreasing in a similar way behind, all
show that it is a building purely Hindu in architecture. The
length from back to front is about fifty feet, and the breadth varies
from twenty feet to five feet. The interior consists of a vestibule
with images of Ganpati and Lakshmi and a marble shrine. The
dome is of brick and stucco. The squareness of the form in this
and other domes of this time contrasts with the round domes of a
later period. Animals are carved in the capitals of the pillars and
the cornices. The sacred bull is on the usual platform surmounted
by a canopy and octagonal dome, the niches of which are filled with
mythological figures, and are divided from each other by figures of
men on elephants. On two sides of the court-yard are cloisters with
broad low pointed arches and square pillars ; they are either meant
to serve for cooking purposes or are hostelries for visitors. On
another side is a similar unfinished building with narrower and
more pointed arches. At the entrance of the vestibule is a fine bell
apparently with no writing but the date 1 744 in English figures.
The beU was probably taken by the Mardthds from some Portu;:
guese church in the Konkan after the capture of Bassein in
1739. At the back of the Vishveshvar temple and very inferior
to it in every respect is a basalt temple of Ramchandra said to
have been built in 1772 by Trimbak Vishvan^lth Pethe usually
called M^ma a distinguished general under the fourth Peshwa

Deccan.]

sItIea.

51S

Mddhavrilv (1761-1772) and the maternal uncle of Saddshivrav
Bhaa. It is very small and consists merely of a veranda and a
shrine with brass figures of R^m, Lakshman, and Sita. The wall
behind them is panelled with broad low arches and painted with
flowers. The dome consists of only two polygonal courses. There
are five other small temples in Md,huli. The temple of Vithoba
was built by Jotipant Bhdg vat of Chinchner about a.d. 1730. It
originally consisted of a small veranda with carved wooden pillars
opening into the shrine by a low Muhammadan arch. A hall or
vestibule with wooden pillars and door all round was added about
1860. The roof is hung with lamps. Bhairavdev's is a small
temple consisting of a shrine and open vestibule or veranda with
three small arches. It was built about 1770 by one Krishnambhat
Talke and a hall with wooden pillars^ as in the temple of Vithoba,
has been recently added to it. The other three temples are one of
Krishndbdi and another of Krishueshvar Mahddev built in 1754
and 1790 by Krishna Dikshit Chiplunkar ; and a temple on the right
of the Satara road with a handsome flight of steps begun by one
of the Satara Ed,nis in 1865. Besides these temples Mlhuli has on
each side of the road leading to the ferry several tombs or cenotaphs
to members of the late royal family of Sdtara and others.' One or
two of these have some simple but handsome stone carving.^ Mahuli
was the birthplace of Ram Shastri Parbhone the famous spiritual
and political adviser of the fourth Peshwa Mddhavrdv (1761-1772).
Mdhuli was the scene of an interview between the last Peshwa
Bajirav (1796-1817) and Sir John Malcolm just before war was
declared against him and during his wandering he constantly
returned to Mdhuli.

Makrandgad, 4054 feet above sea level, well known to Mah^ba-
leshvar visitors as the Saddleback, is a hill fort situated as the crow
flies seven miles south-west of Malcolm Peth. It is well named the
Saddleback and consists of two flattened humps with a ridge
between them.^ From almost any part of the western face of the hill
between Bombay and Babington points it forms a fine object in the
magnificent pile of hills varied in form and colour which form the
south-west group. It is perhaps best seen from Sassoon Point where
several peaks and ridges in the back ground serve for contrast
and throw it into strong relief. It is about 650 feet lower than the
Mahabaleshvar plateau, but to reach the summit it is necessary to
walk from ten to twelve miles and descend about 1800 feet into the

Chapter^XIV

Places.

MAhuli,
Temples.

Makeandgad.

1 The illustrious dead from SAtAra and the neighbouring villages are brought for
cremation to MAhuli.

^ One tomb with the figure of a sitting dog is said to mark the burial place of a
favourite dog of K4ja Shdhu (1708-1749) called VedA Eija or the Mad King from his
eccentricities. It was a black greyhound and saved ShAhu's life by its furious bark-
ing, which called the king's attention to a tiger which was in the act of springing on
him. On one occasion Shihu dressed him in gold brocade covered with jewels and
put his own turban on his head when he was about to receive two MarAtha chiefs in
full court. A palanquin establishment was kept up for him. Grant DuflPs Mardthis, ■
265 note 4 ; Lady Falkland's Chow Chow, 11. 31-32 ; Murray's Bombay Handboo'k,

275.

' A view of the fort with its two flattened humps is given in Ohesson and Wood-
hall's Bombay Miscellany, I. 177.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

520

DISTRICTS.

Chapter XIV.
Places^

Makbandgad.

Mala,

MIlAvdi.

Koyna valley. The easiest way is to take a patK beyond Babingtofl
Point which descends by Devli village whence after crossing the
Koyna a fairly gradual ascent leads to the village of Ghonaspur
lying on a shoulder of the hill at the south-east corner of the scarp.
The line of the ridge is north-west south-east. The south-east
hump is scalable but the north-west very difficult to climb if
possible. Oq the south-east hump is a temple of Mallikarjun built
by Shivaji and an unused spring. The fort walls are broken down
and appear not to have been very strong at any time. The local
story about this as about other SdtAra forts is that it was built by
Shivaji probably about 1656 at the same time. as Pratapgad. It
was a fort of minor importance as it commanded none of the
important passes, but it served as a link in the chain between Vasota
and Pratdpgad. It was surrendered by private negotiation on 14th
May 1818 at the same time as PratApgad.^

Mala, a small village sixteen miles south-west of Pdtan on a
plateau at the very edge of the Sahyddris, gives its name to a very
favourite bullock pass which connects the port of Sangameshvar in
Ratnagiri with the Satdra district. The road from Patan is by the
Kumbhdrli metalled road as far as the Yerad ferry, then by Morgiri
on to Kokisri, whence by an easy ascent is climbed a long spur ten
miles of a level path along which leads to Mala. The path crosses
a small ridge about a mile from Mala and the camping ground
adjoins a temple situated in a shallow basin of rice and flat lands
surrounded by the rounded tops of the neighbouring hills. ' A mile's
walk over nearly dead level ground leads to the edge of the pass
from where on clear days a fine view as far as the sea is obtainable.
There are a few bison and sdmbar in this neighbourhood, but to beat
the forest a very large number of men and two or three guns are
required. In October, and, if the monsoon is late, after the first
fall of thundershowers, there is a fair chance of falling in with
game by stalking in the early morning. The Mala forests are not
good for bear, but tigers not unfrequently roam in the neighbour-
hood. The climate in the hot weather is delicious and the ascent at
Kokisri once made easy a fair weather track for carts and rough
carriages would easily be maintained. The bullock traffic is chiefly
along another spur from DhebevAdi a village in the V^ng valley.
The ascent is not much steeper than at Kokisri and the ten miles of
track along the ridge by PAneri and Humbarni are equally easy.
These two villages as well as P^nchgani on the other route are good
places for bear and sdmbar shooting. There is also a track to Helvak
but this is less used and the ascent at Ndv is exceedingly steep.

Mala'vdi, near the head of the Man river, is a village 9f 1363
people in the Mdn sub-division, seven miles north-west of Dahivadi.
There is some tolerable land near the village and river, but low rocky
hills close the village in on three sides, and at a very little distance
from the village the ground is very broken and the country rugged
and wild. The village has walls with gates flanked with bastions
on the north and south between which is the market street lined .

1 FeudMri and Mar^tha War Papers,' 3tS.

Deccan.]

sAtAra,

521

with shops. There is now only a small local traffiCj but in Maratha
times Mdlavdi was the home of the Ghatges one of the most
influential Maratha families. The Ghatges were Deshmukhs and
Sardeshmukhs of M4n and their chief had a mansab or command of
horse or some equivalent dignity under the Bahmani dynasty. The
title of Sardeshmukh was given them in 1626 when it was bestowed
on Nagoji Gh^tge as an unconditional favour by the sixth Bij^pur
kinglbrdhim Adil Shah(1580- 1626), together with the title of Jhunjdr
Rav. The great ancestor of the family was Edm Rdja Gh^tge who
had a small mansab under the Bahmanis. From that period the
Ghdtges have been notorious for their family feuds. They held indm
andjdgir lands under the Bijdpur government immediately subject
to the control of the mokdsaddr or district administrator and served
it with a body of horse.^ In 1657 when Aurangzeb attacked Bij^pur
Sarjerdv Ghdtge joined the Bijd,pur general Khdn Muhammad with
his troops.^ About 1680 the Deshmukhi claims of MdMvdi were
given by the Moghals to the Brahman Deshmukhs of Khatav.
When returned to the Ghdfcges on their submission they were placed
under the Brahmans' surveillance. The Ghd,tge3 were plundering
without stint over the whole district up to Malkdpur near Panh^la,
although Aurangzeb's army was within forty miles of them.
The present representative of the family, enjoying a yearly revenue
of about £2000 (Rs. 20,000), is Shivaji bin Bhavanji Ghdtge who
resides both at Md,idvdi and Budle.

Mallika'rjun Hill in Vdlva, about 1000 feet above the plain, is
a point in the range of hills which breaks off from the Kandur
spur at Yeupe about twelve miles south-west of Kardd and with a
break at the joint boundaries of the villages of Itkare and Yede
Nipdni runs as far as Pokharni and Bavachi close to Ashta. The hill
is more or less conical in shape with a flat plateau of about ten acres
on the top. The ascent can be made from Mdlevd,di on the south or
from Yede or Gotkhindi on the north from two to three miles either
way. On the flat plateau at the summit are three large tombs of
Musalmdn saints or pirs and several smaller ones much resorted to
by devout Musalrad,ns. The chief mausoleum is of Chdnd, a native
of Bokhara in Tartary who is said to have lived here as a devotee
and died some three or four centuries ago. A hundred years later
one G^vri built him the mausoleum which is a whitewashed stone
building with a small dome about twenty feet square and twenty
feet high. Another follower Badrud-din of Baghddd in Turkey in
Asia came some seventy years ago and his disciple one Satu a
Maratha from Sangli built his mausoleum. Anndji, son of Satu, built
another to his father's memory adjoining Badrud-din's and Annaji^s
son Ndikji is still alive and lives in attendance at the mosque. This
is a living instance of a Mardtha family becoming hereditary disciples
of Musalmdn saints without breaking with their own religion.
Ndikji has built a Hindu temple to his father Anndji which lies on the
south-east while ascending the northern slope from Gotkhindi. The
temple of Mallikd,rjun lies about 700 feet off the plain. At less than

Chapter^ XIV
Places

MalAvdi.

MALLIKAH.rnK
HlLL

1 Grant Duffs MarAthds, 39.
B 1282-66

■i Grant Duff's Mardthas, 71.

tBombay Gazetteer*

522

•DISTRICTS.

Chapter XIV.

Places-

Mallikarjun
Hill.

Caves,

a third of the way or about 200 feet from the plain is the Pdtdl Ganga
spring. From here a path with steps leads about 400 feet higher up
to the first terrace which was built on to the side of the hill in mortared
masonry by one Shiddppa Gogre of Panhdla about 1830. About
seventy-five feet higher is another and the chief terrace also built by
Gogre about sixty feet long by twenty broad and on a level with some
caves which are now dedicated to Mallikdrjun. Round the north-
east and west sides up to the various buildings is a parapet. The
entrance is up some steps a little east of the centre. A little west of
the centre and in the middle of the terrace are two lamp pillars or
dipindls with a basil platform between, evidently modern.

Beginning from the east the first is a modern cave-like structure
of two masonry arches and a fiat roof builtforty years ago by Lingappa,
a Vdni of Botkhal in Sdngli. Close to it oil the west is an old cave
twenty-five feet long by nine deep and six feet high with two arches
and a partition in the centre forming a double cell. The roof is
flat and the arched entrance modern. The third close by is a small
temple of Kd,lbhairav with a conical tower also modern. Adjoining
this to the west is a large cave twenty feet long by eighteen feet
deep with two arches at the face. An open space of four feet is
followed by a masonry veranda of three arched divisions and
evidently modern twenty-one feet long and ten feet broad. In a
line with this is another veranda of four divisions a pillar supporting
each. The veranda is not more than six feet high, about twenty-
one feet long and eight feet broad, built of masonry and against the
face of the rock in which a small door about five feet high by two
feet broad is cut. Inside is the main temple, a flat roofed chamber
(21' X 16' X 5' 10"), the roof supported on four squat pillars in three
courses two rectangular with a cylindrical one between them. The
space between the pillars from east to west is about ten feet and
between the two southern pillars a vestibule sixteen feet by ten is
made leading to a small door four feet by two which opens into the
shrine or gdbhdru. The shrine is about ten feet by eight and
contains a ling of Somndth Mahddev. Westward from the outer
division of the mandap is a chamber (10' 7"x8'x9') containing the
Iwg of Mallikarjun Mahddev. The roof here is very thin and a
conical spire has been built upon the rock by some modern restorer.
To the west of this again is a small stone basin. To the north
and in a line with the veranda of the mandap is the Nandi chamber
also dug in the rock which projects here beyond the entrance of the
mandap. Again upon the terrace and in front of this is another
modern Nandi chamber surmounted with a drum-chamber or
nagdrlthdna built about fifty years ago by a Vdni of Nard in the
Alta petty division of Kolhd,pur. He also built the veranda in front
of the chiei mandap. A little above and adjoining the pond next the
Nandi cave is a double flat-roofed cave seventeen feet long east to
west by twelve deep and six high and to the west of these are two
more modern masonry cells built by Sakhoba a Vdni of Shirdla in
Valva- The path to Mdlev^di leads past a small spring in a stone basin
the water of which however is not used. Further on on the south side
is another spring constantly used about 220 yards from Mallikariun's
temple and about thirty more from the Musalmdn tombs above.

Deccan-I

sItIra.

52S

Nothing is known of the maker of the caves which ai'e admitted
to be ancient though artificial. The sage Agastya, mentioned in the
Earvir Mahatmya as the devotee of Mallik£rj un is generally accredited
with being the builder. Somnath is said to be the older form of the
deity. Its position would make it probable that it is the chief one
but the only fair held here is in honour of Mallik^rjun on the first
and last Mondays of Shrdvan or July- August, when about 500 people
assemble and the god's palanquin or pdllchi is carried in proces-
sion. The temple is a favourite spot of worship with the Jains and
Lingdyat 'V&nis. Shidappa Gogre the Vani of Panhala lately made
extensive repairs and built the very fine terraces and his sons set aside
a portion of their earnings for this purpose year by year. The pillars
of the mandap are very curious and are sharply cut, while the roof
and wall doors are the same. Except a little moulding the doors have
no carving. There are no signs in any of the caves of stone benches
or beds and the set is classed by Dr. Burgess as Brdhmanical the
pillars being of about the twelfth and thirteenth centuries.^

Ma'ndhardev is a point in the Mahd,dev range lying six miles
north of Wdi from which a spur branches northward to Ving. It
crowns a long plateau which is easily reached by the bridle path known
as Phayre's road from WAi on the south whence the ascent is eight
mileSj from Shirval on the north whence tha ascent is about thirteen,
or from the west by Baleghar about ten miles by a road made from
the top of the Khdmatki pass. All these roads were made at about the
same time when it was intended to make Mdndhardev a health resort
for troops. This plateau is about twelve miles long and generally
about half a mile wide looking down some 2000 feet on the north and
west to the Bhor territory and the Khand^la petty division and about
1500 on the south towards W^i. A small dip on the west contains a
rest-house, garden, and an excellent water cistern built by Tai Sdheb
Sachiv the great grandmother of the present prince of Bhor. To the
west again of the dip is the plateau of Yeruli similar toMdndhardev and
about four miles long. The height above sea-level of the M^ndhardev
peak is 4510. There are still traces of the road made by Grovernment
when the health resort was under consideration and to the west are the-
remains of a travellers' bungalow. The hill is very bare, the slopes
on all sides for about a hundred feet down being under cultivation.
The only exception is an Anjan grove which surrounds a temple of
Devi. The temple is said to be 300 years old. It was built in honour
of Kdlubai or Kaleshvari Devi the patron goddess, of the village.
The idol has two silver masks and some garments. About 1850 a
spire was added to the temple. The temple enjoys, about 47| acres
of rent-free land assessed at £1 3s. (Rs. 11^) . The grant is entered in
the name both of Mdndeshvar and Kaleshvari. The masks are carried,
in procession. The Guravs perform worship by turns for a fortnight
and the offerings go to each during his turn. A yearly fair lasting
for a day and night and attended by about 5000 people takes place
on the full-moon of Paush or December -January. The offerings
are estimated at £10 (Rs. 100). Above the temple is a small flat

Chapt^XIT.
Places.

MallikAejon
Hill.

MAktdhakdev
Hill.

1 Cave Temples of India, 427-428.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

524

DISTEIGTS.

Chapter XIV- space on the hill top where the people -who assemble at the yearly fair
Places. usually camp. The spot commands an extensive view on all sides

and Purandhar in Poona stands out with a special boldness to the
north.

Mjsub. Masur in Kardd is a village of 4530 inhabitants, lying on the left

bank of a stream at the junction of the Kardd-Targaon and Umbraj-
Pandharpur roads four miles east of Umbraj and eight miles north of
Kardd. The village obtains a copious water-supply from the stream
on which it lies. The surrounding land is most of it excellent
black soil with unusual facilities for irrigation by water-lifts and
small dams yielding some of the best wheat crops in the Kardd sub-
division. Masur has a vernacular school with over a hundred boys
and a village post office. The village has one main street running
west to east with an open space at the west end which serves for a
market. To the north of this market is a large building with the
remains of a wall about twenty feet high with corner bastions.
The walls enclose a space of about two acres and contain a large
mansion in the native style with a two-storeyed building in the east,
a quadrangle in the middle centre, and stabling in the west. This
was formerly the head-quarters office of the Tdrgaon sub-division
which reached as far west as Helvak. Before this Masur was a
mud fort under the Pratinidhi, and in 1806 the Pant Pratinidhi
Parshurdm Shrinivds was confined here, shut up by the last Peshwa
Bajirav and his mother who was backed up by Balvantrav Phadnis
themutdlik or deputy. Bapu Grokhale was sent to enforce submission,
and for a time the country was quiet, but shortly afterwards Tai
Telin an oilwoman mistress of the Pratinidhi collected a force in
Vasota, descended on Masur, carried it, and released the Pratinidhi.
But Gokhale came back and succeeded in taking the Pratinidhi
prisoner.^

Mayni. Ma'yni,17°27'northIatitudeand74°34'eastlongitude,amunicipal

town with in 1881 a population of 2997 or nineteen more than in
1872, lies thirteen miles south-east of Vaduj at the junction of the
Tdsgaon-Mograla and Malharpeth-Pandharpur roads. It has a
vernacular school, a village post office, and to the north a lake
built by the Irrigation Department in 1875-76 with a small
irrigation bungalow about a mile east of the town.^ The town is
walled and entered by gates on the west and east. A tolerable
water-supply is obtained from a stream which runs by the north-
east of the town and falls into the Yerla five miles south-west. The
canal and most of the good soil lie to the south of the town. In
places where the level of the land is too high for water to be
obtained direct from the canal, it is raised by water-lifts attached to
small wells dug near the canal banks and supplied by sluices from
the canal.

The municipality which was established in 1854 had in 1882-S3'
an income of £43 (Es. 430) and an expenditure of £38 12s. (Rs. 386).
In a revenue statement of about 1 790 Mdyni appears as the head-

1 GrantDuffsMarAthds, 615-616.

^ Details of the Miiyui lake are given above p. 154.

Deccan]

SiTlRA.

625

quarters of a sub-division in the Rayb% sarhar with a revenue of
£1312 (Rs. 13,120).! In 1827 Captain Cluties notices Mayni as a
kasha or market town with 600 houses, thirty shops, and a water-
course.^

Medha, 17° 46' north latitude and 73° 56' east longitude, about
fourteen miles north-west of Sdtara, is the head-quarters of the Jd,vli
sub-division with in 1881 a population of 1407 or 215 more than in
1872. Medha lies about a hundred yards from the left bank of the
Yenna which is crossed about a few hundred yards above by a foot-
bridge and has an excellent water supply in some cisterns or stone
basins filled from a pipe fed by a spring in the range of hills to the
north of the town. The Medha-Bamnoli and Medha-Gogva bullock
tracks leading to the Koyna and Solshi valleys start from Medha. A
well built fair weather track passes through a gorge about ten
miles north-north-east to Kuddl and a perennial road joins Medha
with Sdtara and Malcolm Peth. Besides the sub-divisional revenue
and police offices, Medha has a Monday market, a school, a post
office, a travellers^ bungalow, and, since the passing of the Deccan
Agriculturists' Relief Act, a sub-judge's court. The sub-divisional
offices are located in a native building where in 1880 a large number
of Government records were destroyed by fire,

Mhasvad, 17° 38' north latitude and 74° 55' east longitude in
Md,n, seventeen miles south-east of Dahivadi and about fifty-three miles
east of Sdtdra, is a municipal town, and in its village extent the
largest in the Man sub-division. It lies on the Satara- Pandharpur
road on the left bank of the Mdu and had in 1881 a population of
5581 or 740 less than in 1872, the fall being chiefly due to the
1877 famine which was very severe in the Man sub-division. The
1872 census showed 6058 Hindus and 263 Musalmans and the
1881 census showed 5354 Hindus and 227 Musalmans. The
municipality which was established in 1857 had in 1882-83 an
income of £238 4s. (Rs. 2382) and an expenditure of £182 10s.
(Rs. 1825). Mhasvad is enclosed by a ruined mud wall with corner
bastions. The town has one main street running from east to west
and leading to the Pandharpur road which runs round the north of
the town. It is about half a mile long and thirty feet broad with
on each side grain and cloth shops. A weekly market is held
on Wednesday. It is an important trade centre with about sixty
traders mostly Brdhmans, Gujarat and Lingdyat Vanis, Shimpis,
Jains, and Sangars. Bombay and English piece-goods are brought
in large quantities by Gujarat Vanis and Shimpis from Bombay and
Poena. The Vanis and Jains buy from the growers spiked millet
raw sugar wheat and earthnuts and send them in cart-loads to
Sholapur and Pandharpur in the east and Satara Mahad and
Chiplun in the west, and from Chiplun bring salt cocoanuts and
spices. The Sangars buy sheep's wool-twist from the Dhangars,
weave it into blankets or Aam&Hs, and send them to Chiplun, Mahdd,
Satara, Pandharpur, and Sholapur. To the north-east of the town is

Chapter XIV.
Places-

Medha.

Mhasvad.

1 Waring's MarAthAs, 244.

= Itinerary, 62.

Mhasvad.

[Bombay Gazetteer,
5^6 DISTEICTS.

Chapter XIV. the dispensary in ctarge of a hospital assistant which was established
Places. ^^ 1871 and in 1883 treated thirty-two in-patients and 4121 out-

patients at a cost of £59 4s. (Rs. 592). Besides the dispensary
the town has a post office and two schools.

Temples. ISTear the west entrance of the town in the north side of the street

is the temple of Shidnath usually called N4th. The original
structure is evidently ancient and recoursed. The gabhdra or
image-chamberj with an internal area of 20' by 20' but outside
about 30' by 30' is of the star shape and buUt of gray basalt. It
contains images of Ndth and his wife Jogai in human form. The
walls are ten feet high. The original unmortared blocks have been
replaced by smaller ones in mortar but the old shape has been
retained. The spire thirty feet high is of brick and lime with a
series of octagonal concentric storeys. The mandap has a vestibule
about 6' by 6' the walls of which are in black basalt and have
a wainscot of carved stone figures. This leads into a mandap now
an oblong structure (30'x20') with a roof ten feet high. In the
centre are four of the ancient pillars in the usual octagonal cylin-
drical and rectangular courses excellently carved and moulded.
The whole is on a plinth four feet high. Outside this is a modem
court about fifty feet square enclosed on three sides by rude
verandas of stone and mud with wooden pillars. On the wall of
the western veranda is imbedded a large black stone on which
is a very plainly written Kdnarese inscription. Every evening
Purans are read here by a Brdhman. On the fourth or southern
side is a detached hall on wooden pillars about 50' by 30' and
beyond this again an uncovered court. Just outside the southern
end of the hall is a large black stone elephant about 5' high and
4' broad with the right foot raised and trunk curled. A legend
explains that NAth rescued from drowning in the Ganges the
elephant of which this is the image. It is much venerated and
many oflferings are presented to it. Attached to the right foot is a
small chain and the story goes that rheumatism can be cured by
waving the chain over the shoulders ; also that if any one fail while
visiting the temple to give a suitable offering to the elephant, the
chain will be discovered next day in his field, and he will have to
return it to the temple under pain of severe calamities arising from
the displeasure of Ndith. TJie court also contains at the south-east
corner a fine lamp-pillar. Two archways lead into the street of
which the inner about thirty feet high is a little higher than the
outer archway. Who built the original temple is not known, as the
inscription has not been made out. The courts, archways, lamp-
pillar and restorations are mostly about 200 years old, the work of
BaMji Ddbal a member of the Kardd Deshchaughula family. A
yearly fair is held on the bright first of Mdrgshirsh or November-
December, when the masks of the images are driven in a car. Besides
the usual articles of trade this fair, which is attended by about 20,000
people and lasts for about fifteen days, has a special traffic in horses
and cattle. The number of cattle and horses sheep and goats
exhibited reaches about 3000, and as much as £3000 (Rs. 30,000)
are estimated to change hands. Six miles south-east of Mhasvad at

Deccan-l

sAtAra.

527

R^jevddi in the Atpddi territory is the great Mhasvad irrigation
lake which when full covers an area of six square miles. ^

Mhasvad was the home of the Mane family who were its
Deshmukhs. The Mdnes were distinguished Shileddrs under the
Bijdpur government but nearly as notorious for their revengeful
character as the Shirkes.^ In 1827 Captain Clunes notices
Mhasvad as a kasba or market town with 785 houses, sixty shops,
and a bi-weekly market.^

Nandgiri or Kalya'ngad Port, 3537 feet above sea level,
stands at the end of a spur of the Mahadev range running south-west
from the villages of Vikhle and Bhddle, eight miles north of Koregaon
and about fourteen miles north-east of Satara. It is separated
from the rest of the spur by a small gorge or khind and stands on
a lower hill than the Ohandan Vandan range close to its north-west.
It forms therefore a less conspicuous object from Sdt^ra than the
Chandan Vandan twins, though from the south it comes prominently
in view as it forms the southern extremity of the spur dividing
the Vangna and Vasna valleys. The hill sides are very steep and
rugged and the scarp is very perfect. There is no regular approach
and the ascent is made by very tortuous and precipitous footpaths
from Dhumalvddi the village immediately at the foot of the hill
to the east to the first gate directly above the village and facing
north. Though easy at first, the ascent becomes very steep
afterwards and much blocked by prickly pear. Halfway up in a
ravine is a good spring and pond known as the Khd,m pond with
near it some large tamarind and pi^pal trees. The pond is hollowed
out of the rock in' three divisions and the roof is supported by
pillars. The water is good and abundant.* The fort has two
gateways the one below the other connected by steps. The first gate
faces north, the path turning abruptly as it is reached. Within is
a hollow used formerly for stores. From the inside facing east is
another cave pond called the Gavi also full of good water. The
entrance to it is protected by a wall and there is a drain apparently
to furnish water to people outside saving them the trouble to go in
and fetch it. This cave pond is now very difficult of access, the way
being thickly blocked with prickly pear. The second gateway of
mortared stone leads out into the plateau, which is about two
hundred yards high by one hundred broad with many ruined
buildings, and four chief ponds inside the second gate. The first
pond is about ninety feet by forty in area and twenty feet deep,
its sides made of large blocks of masonry. Another smaller one
is near the eastern face ; a third is in a hollow stopped with an
earthen dam ; and the fourth is a small one near the south wall.

ChapterXIV.
Places.

Mhasvad.

Nandoiei or

Kalyangad

Fort.

' Details of the Mhasvad irrigation lake are given above pp. 156-157.

» Grant Duff's Mar4thAs, 39. ' Itinerary, 64.

* Mr. H. R. Cooke, C. S., found that perhaps the most remarkable feature on the
hill was its water-supply. Immediately after entering the lower gate a steep footpath
descends within the western wall into a hollow at the bottom of the scarp. The
hollow is about forty or fifty feet deep. When the bottom is reached the entrance
to a huge cavern is seen which can only be reached by stooping. The cavern is full
of water but very dark. Outside the gate and to the north there evidently were huge
caverns but these have been built up with rough masonry.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

528

DISTRICTS.

Chapter XIV.

Places.

Nandgibi or
KalyIngad

FOBT.

Nerla.

Nher.

Here was situated tlie head-quarters office or kacheri, the stone
plinth and brick walls of which still remain. Near it are the remains
of the houses of the garrison and a small mosque and mausoleum
in honour of Abdul Karim a Musalm^n saint. The tomb is still
visited and, though the roof has fallen in^ a cloth still covers the
tomb. Immediately behind the tomb is a large banian tree forming
a conspicuous object for many miles around. All the building
remains except a few tombs to the north end. The south end is
entirely open and probably formed a place for amusement or parade.
The hill-top is fairly level and surrounded by a wall of large blocks
of unmortared stone very massive and ancient. There were two
guns on the fort which were taken away at tho Mutiny. According
to the grandsons of a former mdmlatddr and a hdrkun of the fort
establishment, the fort was the head-quarters of an administrative
sub-division with a treasury and had an establishment of a
mdmlatddr, fadnis, sabnis, havdlddr and daffeddr, two Jcdrhuns,
three ndiks, and one hundred and sixty sepoys. According to
tradition the fort was built by the Silahara king Bhoj II. of Panhala.^
In 1673 with other S^tdra forts it surrendered to Shivaji.^ The
Pratinidhi administered it till his struggle with Bdjirav the second
Peshwa (1720 - 1740). In 1791 Major Price describes it as looking
like the hull of a ship of war with opposite it another hill with on
its summit some places of devotion.^ In the last Mardtha war it fell
to the army of General Pritzler in April 1818 without firing a shot.*
In 1802 it is described as a dismantled and uninhabited fort with a
steep approach and a strong gateway but no water and no supplies.^

Nerla in Vdlva is a large village of 6807 inhabitants, two miles
north of Peth on the east of the Sdtara-Kolhd,pur mail road, with a
travellers' bungalow and a vernacular school. A quarter of a mile
south of the town close to the west of the mail road is a market place,
with shops chiefly of grain dealers and wheelwrights lining three
sides of a square. Carts generally stop here on their way to and
from Chiplun. The village has also a much frequented market for
cattle and grain. Since the establishment in 1855 of a municipality
at IsMmpur or Urun about five miles to the south-east with its
consequent octroi much of the trade has shifted to Nerla. The
village is often in difficulties for water, as a pond on the west
contains a supply which though constant is of a very bad quality.
Nerla had a municipality under the old Act which was abolished
in 1873. In 1827 Captain Clunes notices Nerla as a post runner's
station with 400 houses, one shop, a water-course, and wells.^

Nher village in Khatd,v on the right bank of the Terla,
fourteen miles north-west of Vaduj and a mile north of the Satdra-
Pandharpur road, gives its name to a large storage lake built by
the Irrigation department between 1876 and 1881.' In its land to
the north is the Pd,lu Mai a stretch of rocky ground interesting on

1 Grant DnfFs Mardthds, 13 note 3. = Grant Duffs Mardthds, 116.

3 Memoirs of a Field OfiBcer, 261. ^ Bombay Courier, 11th and 18th April 1818.

•' Government List of Civil Forts, 1862.

« Itinerary, 34. ' Details of the Nher storage reservoir are given above p. 152.

Deccan.]

satIra.

529

account of its having had a standing camp of the Moghals for twelve
years.

Nigdi village on the right bank of the Krishna eleven miles
south-east of Sdfcdra and four miles south-west of Rahimatpur has
the tomb or samddh of a famous religious teacher or mahdpurush
named Raghundthsvami. In 1791 Major Price notices it as being
m possession of a fraternity of Gosdvis to whom it was oricrinallv
granted by Shivdji.i ° •'

Nimb is a flourishing market town about eight miles north
of BAtdra with in 1881 a population of 3968. It is alienated to
R^jaram Bhonsla the adopted son of the late Sdtara Ranis. The
neighbourhood of Nimb is noted in the district for its fruit especially
mangoes though not of a very superior variety. ' Grapes also are
occasionally grown. In 1751 Nimb was the scene of a victory by
Damdji Gdikvdd who was advancing to Satdra in the interests of
T^rab^i against the Peshwa's faction. He was opposed by 20,000
men being 5000 more than his own force at the Sdlpi pass. He
drove them back to Nimb where he defeated them and caused
several of the forts to be given up to T6,T&Mi.^

Nimsod in Khat^v, about ten miles south of Vaduj, is mentioned
in a revenue statement of about 1790 as the head-quarters of a
pargana _in the Raybag sarMr with a revenue of £2625
(Rs. 26,250).^ In 1827 Captain Clunes notices it as a market town
or kasba with 225 houses, fifteen shops, a water-course, and wells.^

Pal village, originally called Rajdpur, lies on both banks of the
Tarla about twenty miles north-west of Kardd, and had in 1881 a
population of 3617. The village is chiefly remarkable for a temple
of Khandoba where a yearly fair attended by about 50,000 people is
held in December -January.

On the right bank of the river is the market street containing
the shops of the chief grain dealers, moneylenders, and merchants,
and most of the dwellings. On the left bank is the noted temple
of Khandoba and the houses of the worshippers priests and a few
others. The temple lies on the site of a legendary appearance by
the god Khandoba to a favourite devotee, a milkmaid named
PaMi in whose honour the village name was changed from R^jd,pur
to Pal. The temple was built about 400 years ago by a Vdni
named Aba bin Sheti Padhode. It is a very favourite resort
with all classes and has been added to in many ways. The original
structure consists of a stone shrine or gdbhdra and a porch
thirty-five feet by twenty-eight from outside. The porch is
enclosed by four pillars very plain but of the old pattern, the shaft
being cut in rectangular octagonal and cylindrical blocks, but in
mortar which shows that the temple is not older than the thirteenth
century. The image-chamber sixteen feet square inside contains on a
pedestal two lings with brass masks representing Khandoba and his
consort Mhd,lsAbdi. On the right hand is a black stone image of

Chapter XIV
Places.

NlG])I.

Nimb,

NiMSOD.

Pal.

Khandoha's
Temple,

' Memoirs of a Field Officer, 260.
' Waring's Mardthds, 2-14.

B 1282-67

2 Grant Duff's Mar^thSs, 274.
* Itinerary, 62.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

530

DISTRICTS.

Chapter XIY-

Places.

Pai,.

Khanddba'a
Temple.

Banub^i another wife of Khandobaj and beHind are brass figures on
horseback representing Khandoba's chief minister Hegadi Pendhd,ri
and his wife. The porch holds in niches on the north the image
of Ganpati and on the south the image of Siddhavasini. On the
north is the drain for water poured on the images, covered with a
canopy and flanked by stone horses. To these buildings DhanAji
bin SambhAji JddhaT, the well known Maratha general who
flourished in the reigns of Shivd,ji (1627-1680) and Rajard,m
(1689 - 1708) and died in 1709, added a hall or mandap twenty-one
feet square with open sides. It is supported on twelve pillars
about two feet high and similar to those in the gdbhdra porch and
surrounded by a bench with a carved back. The roof has the usual
broad carved eaves and parapet. The whole is of stone but the
pillars are disfigured by whitewash and painting. Several of them
are coated with brass and have a little poor carving. At each corner
of the mandap is a small pinnacle and in the centre a small arched
spire or sMkhar. Over the porch of the shrine is a rather large spire
and over the shrine itself is the main spire about fifty feet high ofi the
ground, and tapering from the base which is as large as the shrine
roof. All the spires are of brick and more or less ornamented in
stucco with niches painted with mythological designs and images
of gods and goddesses. The ornamentation is neither good nor
elaborate. But the parts of the building are in good proportion
which makes it look massive and imposing without being heavy.
The temple occupies the centre of a fine square court paved throughout
and measuring One hundred and forty feet east to west by eighty
feet north to south. The court also contains at the north-west
comer a small shrine of Omkdreshvar Mahddev, and in the south-
west corner one of Hegadi. In front that is east of the mandap
is the canopy with the image of the sacred bull Nandi covered
with brass. On each side are two carved stone lamp-pillars or
dipmdls about fifteen feet high. The bases are supported by
grotesque stone images of elephants and bulls. Still further east is
another rather larger canopy containing a brass-coated stone
elephant, about one-third of life size and rather well carved. To
the south of the Nandi canopy is a small temple to Shiv^ji and to its
north is a platform for the tnlsi or basil plant. The wall of the
court is about twenty feet high, and the west, the north-west, half
of the south, and north half of the east side are all cloistered, the
former in ogee arches and fine masonry, the work of His Highness
Sindia, and the latter with flat roof resting on plain pillars of the old
pattern built by Dhandji Jddhav. The outer roof of these cloisters
is flat and serves as a terrace and promenade. Compartments of the
cloisters are walled up at irregular intervals and used as lodgings
for devotees and permanent worshippers and for stabling the horses
attached to the god's establishment. In the pavement of the
court are embedded stone tortoises, while between the Nandi
canopy and the mandap is a large tortoise coated with brass. The
court-yard has three entrances. The eastern is a small doorway
SIX and a half feet wide flanked inside by two large stonelamp-
pillars thirty feet high with twelve sets of brackets for lamps
handsomely carved and by far the finest lamp-pillars in the court.

Deccan.l

SATARA.

531

This gate and lamp-pillars were built by Gramdji Ohavlidn, a pdtil
of Nher in the Khatav sub-division. The northern entrance is
another small doorway built by the Sindids in their cloisters. The
southern about twelve feet high by five feet wide is the chief and
the finest gateway to the south of DhanAji Jadhav's cloisters. Inside
it is flanked by two cloistered chambers, the western chamber
forming the end of Dhandji's cloisters and containing an image of
Mdruti ; the eastern consisting of two cloisters and containing a
smaller image of Ganpati was built by the Ghorpades of Mudhol.
On the top is an ornamental music -chamber or nagdrhhdna in
brick and mortar which with the archway of the gate was the work of
the Manes of Eahimatpur. Outside the court is an outer yard
also paved with stone. 'The east side has a rough wall with some
ruined cloisters ; the south side contains a rectangular stone building
originally built with a dome and eaves supported by carved brackets^
of which the latter raised by Dhandji Jadhav still remain. The
rest of the south side and most of the west is taken up by
buildings, but in the west is another very large gateway thirty feet
high twenty feet broad and two feet thick, with a massive stone
pointed archway about six feet broad inside. This was erected by
Yamaji Shivdev the founder of the Kard,d Mutdlik family. The
number of prominent historical families in the Deccan who have
bestowed gifts on this temple shows the great veneration in which
it is held. Besides lands assigned for the maintenance of its
establishment the temple enjoys a Government yearly cash grant of
£30 (Rs. 300). The offerings at the great December -January fair
are estimated at about £60 (Rs. 600), while many offerings are made
throughout the year. Every pilgrim entering the temple at the
fair time has to pay a toll of ^d. (\ anna) and an equal shop tax
is levied without official authority on every trader. A clerk
superintends the finances of the establishment and carries the metal
masks of the god in procession. The worshippers and priests are
Guravs and Brahmans and, connected with the temple, as at Jejuri„
are many Murlis or female devotees mostly women of easy virtue.
The great yearly fair held in the month of Paush or December -
January is attended by about 50,000 people from all parts of Sd,td,ra
and the neighbouring districts. The pilgrims usually camp in
the bed of the Tarla which at this time forms a large dry beach.
The fair proper lasts three or four days, being the days during
which the marriage ceremony of the god Khandoba is supposed to
proceed. The days vary slightly with' some conjunction of stars.
The traders linger some time longer. Copper and brass pots,
bangles, piece-goods, silk-cloth, country blankets, and other small
articles are sold at the fair, the sales amounting to more than £800
(Rs. 8000). Sanitary arrangements are superintended by the
village officers and the district police who keep water free from
pollution and dig trenches for latrine purposes. Cholera once broke
out during the 1869 fair when forty-three out of sixty-one reported
cases proved fatal. A municipality at Pdl was estabhshed under
the old Act, but was abolished in 1872-73, as the committee took
no active part ia superintending the fair arrangements and the only

Chapter^XIV.
Places.

PAl.

Khandoba'a
Tempk.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

532

DISTRICTS.

ChapterXIV.
Places.

Pi.L.

Palshi.

PiLtrs.

Panchgani.
Description.

work of improvement was a general superintendence of the village
cleanliness and sanitation and repair of the chief street.

In Maratha times P^l was a kasba or market town of some note on
the main road from Sat^ra to Kardd. Pdl village and temple are
closely connected with a celebrated exploit of Ohitursing in February
1799 in revenge for the defeat of his brother Shdhu the SAtara
Raja. He had heard that Edstia was encamped near Sdtara fort
with a force of 2000 or 3000 men on behalf of the Peshwa. He
accordingly led 600 infantry through the hills and valleys till
opposite Pdl where he remained concealed till night. He then
repaired to the celebrated temple^ performed the usual worship,
and the whole party having solemnly invoked the deity, stained
their clothes with yellow dye, rubbed their hands and faces with
turmeric in token of a vow to win or die, and issued forth to the
attack. The enemy was not unprepared but had only time to fire
a few rounds when they were furiously charged sword in hand,
their guns taken, and the whole body dispersed in a few minutes.
Ohitursing then retreated to Kolhd,pur so quickly that he could not
be overtaken.^

Palshi, a small village to the north of the Kardd-Bijapur road
seven mites south-east of Khanapur, has to the extreme east a curious
fort called Kuldrng about one hundred and ten acres in area. The
fort lies on a plateau between two streams descending down a steep
rocky hill into the Man valley which lies about 700 feet below.
There are remains of a wall and four bastions on the south-west
side ; all the rest has no defences except the great natural steepness
of the hill side. Inside are the plinths of several buildings and the
whole is said to be of great antiquity, the work of a Koli Rdja who
endeavoured to head an insurrection against the Bhoj Raja of
Panhdla. In 1827 Captain Clunes notices Palshi as a small village
on the Vasna with twenty-five houses.^

Palus is a large village of 4771 inhabitants on the Karad-Tdsgaon
road about ten miles north-west of Tdsgaon. The village consists of
one broad market street and a few small lanes. The Krishna Canal
ends in the lands of this village. The soil is rich and sugarcane is
abundantly grown in irrigated and a good deal of cotton in the
unirrigated soils. The village has a vernacular school.

Pa'nchgani * in W4i, about ten miles west of Wdi and about
eleven miles east of Mahdbaleshvar, is a small health-resort on the
Surul-Mahabaleshvar road 4S78 feet above sea level. The village,
which, according to the 1 881 census, had a population of 636, lies
with five others on a Sahyddri spar which juts out at Mahdbaleshvar
and terminates about a mile from Wai. Situated to the lee of
Mahdbaleshvar and about 200 feet lower, it escapes the heavy rain
and fog of the outer range which are carried away into the valleys to
the north and south. It is also happily shielded from the east wind
by being built under a large extent of tableland. The magnificent

' Grant Duff's Mardthda, 546. " Itinerary, 32.

' Contributed by the Kev. Mr, Burgess, Headmaster Pduchgani High School.

Deccan]

sAtIra.

533

scenery of the Krishna valley extending for many miles from east
to west with its numerous hamlets, highly cultivated fields, and
picturesque river, can be seen along the whole northern ridge of
the mountain. Though less extensive, the southern aspect is even
more beautiful. The geological formation of Pdnchgani is volcanic
as is the rest of the Deccan. While all along the road up the hills
from Wai to Dhandheghar two miles from Panchgani trap is found,
the soil on the hill top has a large admixture of oxide of iron which
reddens the stratum into laterite. At the base of the scarp of the
tableland are to be found bubbles thrown up in the rapid cooling of
molten rock of preadamite days. The water-supply is from springs
on the south-west of the hill all of which except three are on private
grounds. Of the three public springs the most important and the
chief source of the station water-supply lies on the north of the village
and much below it in elevation. It has been built round and is
known as the Maratha well. It has been very recently improved by
Government at a cost of £35 6s. (Rs. 353).

Considered as a sanitarium, Panchgani stands almost unrivalled.
With a temperature like that of Mah^baleshvar it has the eminent
advantage over that charming health resort of being comfortably
habitable throughout the year. The climate is cool salubrious and
comparatively dry. It is excellently adapted for both adults and
children but for children especially it is unsurpassed in India.
The average rainfall is fifty-six inches^ or about a fifth of that
of Mahibaleshvar. The temperature varied in 1883-84 from 55° at
6 A.M. in December 1883 to 96° at 2 p.m. in March 1884. The
mean temperature at noon is 71° and the mean daily range only 6°.

The European settlement was founded by private enterprise,
chiefly through the energy and zeal of the late Mr. John Chesson,
who, in 1854, began farming here on a small scale. After
careful observations extending over many years,^ Mr. Chesson was
satisfied that the climate and soil of Pdnchgani were suitable for
the cultivation of most of the fruits of the temperate zone, besides
making it a cheap health resort for Europeans. By 1862 there were
six substantial houses built by Europeans and a yearly grant of
£200 (Rs.2000) was made to the station by Government in that year.
Mr. Chesson was appointed Honorary Superintendent and Magistrate
by Sir Bartle Erere. The great drawback to Panchgani is its
isolation; but the opening in 1886 of the West Deccan Railway
will greatly benefit the station. If, as is probable, a branch line will
be carried to Wai, this would bring Panchgani within ten miles of
the line of rail.

The 1881 census showed a population of 636 of whom 555 were
Natives and eighty-one Europeans. The number of Europeans varies
from 140 in the summer to about seventy-five through the rest of the
year. The station is managed by a Superintendent with second class
magisterial powers, and has, besides hisoffice, a well-appointed travel-
lers' bungalow, a rest-house, a post office, a market, a Government

Chapter^XIV.
Places.

PANCHGANI.

Description.

Glimate.

1 The rainfall in 1883 during the five rainy months June to October was 58 inches
11 cents. " Chesson and Woodhall's Bombay Miscellany, IV. 336.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

534

DISTRICTS.

Chapt^XIV.
Places.

Panchgani.

High School,

Nurseries.

PiNDAVVABI.

PiNDAVGAD
JFOBT.

vernacular school for natives and an aided high school for Europeans
and Eurasians, a dispensary, and thirty residences three of them
belonging to Government. The travellers' bungalow, which is about
sixty-four feet long and 33^ feet broad, has a cook-house, servant's
and messman's rooms, and stables. It is much used by visitors on
their way to Mahabaleshvar. The high school, which is managed
by a committee in connection with the Diocesan Board of Education,
■was originally opened in 1876 and reopened in 1880 by the
Bishop of Bombay, In 1884 it had an average of thirty-two
pupils including day scholars and boarders. A neat and substantial
school room (40' X 18') was added in 1884 at a cost of £260 (Rs. 2600).
It is used for church services on Sundays. This school is the
only one of its sort permanently located in the hills for European
boarders and offers special advantages, to those parents who, unable
or unwilling to send their children to Europe, are yet anxious to
remove them early from the injurious effects of the climate and
surroundings of a life on the plains. In 1883-84 the dispensary treated
6163 out-patients. This is an increase in numbers not due to
increased sickness in the neighbourhood, but to the continued
presence of skilled medical ofiBcers who attract natives even from con-
siderable distances, from as far as Mahad in Kolaba and Pandharpur
in Sholapur. The station funds, including a yearly Government
contribution of £200 (Rs. 2000), amounted in 1883-84 to £334 14s.
(Rs.3347) and the expenditure to £195 2s. (Rs. 1951). Nurseries are
attached to the station where experiments have been made in' planting
exotic and other trees and shrubs and in cultivating English potatoes,
which with peaches, the pear, and the blackberry thrive in the mild
climate. The coffee of PAnchgani has been favourably reported
on by London brokers. Here too the sweet heliotrope and myrtle
grow in wild profusion. The sweet briar, so rarely met with in
India, flowers here; and the eye of the traveller from the dusty
plains below is gladdened with the sight of lanes bordered With
hedge-roses which festoon overhead entwined with honeysuckle.
A single cluster of sixty or seventy roses is not an unusual sight.
Pd,nchgani, always beautiful, is at its best in August and September
Vhen the fairy pimpernel the buttercup and the wild sweetpea cover
the hillside while the springy turf of the tablelands is thickly carpeted
with the velvety bluebonnet and the more delicate stargrass.

Pa'ndawa'di, a hamlet of Bhogaon village about three miles
west of Wdi, is apparently named like Pandavgad from the legendary
Pd,ndav princes. It is celebrated as the place where in 1673 died
the great Mar^tha poet Vdman Pandit a contemporary of Shivaji
Tuk^rain and Rd,mdd,s. Vaman was a Rigvedi Deshasth Brdhman
originally an astrologer of Koregaon. He studied the Shdstras afe
Benares. His two great works are in the ovi metre a commentary
on the Bhagvadgita and a metaphysical work called the Nigams^r.^

Pa'ndavgad or Pa'ndugad Port, 4177 feet above sea level,
lies four miles north-west of Wdi. The fort is conspicuous over
a low spur branching east from its southern angle. A path to the

' Navanita (New Edition), 80 - 81,

Ddccau.]

sAtIra.

535

hamlet of SheMrv^di leads on to a small break in the above mentioned
spur and trom this break the path continues by a shoulder of the
mil on which are a few huts belonging to Kolis formerly connected
witiithe tort and now charged with attendance on the temples
remaining there. The ascent from the Koli huts is steepish and for
lil I'll Z^ ^•^n.'i^ed yards is in steps roughly cut in the sides of
ine niu. ijie tort is about six acres in extent and nearly square Its
aetences consist of a scarp generally from forty to sixty feet high,
more than usually precipitous and in many places actually
over banging and surmounted by a wall with masonry ramparts The
original materials of enormous blocks of dry stone have nearly all
disappeared and except the northern end where the gateway and
wall are of the huge masonry of the old forts, what remains is very
tight work. On the south is a modern bastion in tolerable repair.
J. he entrance consisted of a single archway with apparently no
door On the top which is nearly level is a large pond one hundred
teet b^ sixty now quite empty and silted up. The water apparently
was first let out by blowing up the scarp and wall which form the
outer side. The fort has fourteen other ponds and cisterns almost
all empty and useless except two still used by the Kolis, and two
small temples of Pandjdi Devi and Mdruti. The fort is completely
commanded from the Yreuli plateau about two thousand yards
distant and led up to by easy bullock paths from the north by
Ving and Mdndhardev or from the south from Wd,i. The W^i path,
however, would be commanded from the fort.

The fort is said to have been built by the Kolhdpur Sildhd,ra
chief Bhoja II. (1178-1193) of Panhala. About 1648 it is men-
tioned as being in the charge of a Bijdpur mohdsdddr stationed
at Wdi.i In 1673 it was taken by ShivAji.^ In 1701 Pdndavgad
surrendered with Chandan Vandan to Aurangzeb's officers.^ In
1713 during his flight from Chandrasen Jddhav the Mar^tha
captain or Sendpati, Bd,Mji Vishvandth afterwards the first Peshwa,
being refused shelter by the Sachiv's agent at Sdsvad attempted to
cross to P^ndavgad in the opposite valley. Closely pursued he
contrived to conceal himself until two Mardthds Pilaji Jd,dhav and
Dhumal then common cavaliers in his service, gathered a small troop
of horse and carried him with great difficulty to Pandavgad where
he was protected by Shahu's orders. Chandrasen demanded that
BaMji should be given up and 'in case of refusal threatened to
renounce his allegiance. Shahu refused to give up Balaji and sent
orders to Haibatr^v Nimbalkar Sarlashkar then at Ahmadnagar to
march on at once to SAtara. Meanwhile Bd,Mji was in Pd,ndavgad
surrounded by Ohandrasen's troops. But hearing of Haibatrdv'a
arrival at Phaltan about forty miles east, Chandrasen quitted
Pdndavgad and marched to Deur about fifteen miles to the south-east.*
During Trimbakji Denglia's insurrection in 1817 Pd,ndavgad was
taken by the insurgents. It surrendered in April 1818 to a detach-
ment of the 9th Native Infantry Regiment under Major Thatcher.^

1 Grant Duflfs MardthAs, 62, ^ Grant Duflfa MarAthis, 116.

3 Grant Duff's Mardthda, 177. ^ Grant Duff's MarithAs, 189-190.

= Bombay Courier, 18th April 1818.

Chapter XIV.
Places ■

Pandavoad

FOKT,

History,

[Bombay Gazetteer,

Chapter_XIV.

Places-

Pandavgad
Fort.

Caves.

Paeli or
Sajjangad

FOKT.

536

DISTRICTS.

The Pandavgad caves are situated on a small south-east
projection of Pandavgad fort within the limits of Dh^vdi village.
On taking the path to Pandavgad and reaching the opening in the
hills instead of turning up the shoulder of the hill to ascend the
fort, the way to the caves goes straight on towards Dhavdi by a
well defined footpath which skirts the face of the hill. The small
spur with the caves is found at about a distance of 300 yards.
The angle it makes with the main spur should be made for and
about 200 feet up are the caves. The first is a flat roofed chapel
or chaitya about twenty-one feet by seven and about twelve to
fourteen feet high. An arched entrance blocked up with mud and
stones leads to a relic shrine or ddghoba four and a half feet in
diameter and six feet high. Its capital is lost. Close by is another
cave seven feet square, also flat roofed with an arched entrance
and containing a mutilated stone instead of the ddghoba and locally
said to be a ling. It looks more like a ddghoba, being fully three
feet in diameter at the base • and scarcely a foot at the top. East
of Cave II. is an eight-celled dwelling cave or vihdr about thirty-
five feet square and five feet high. The floor has been much silted
up with earth brought in by rain water. The original height, as
seen from the outside, was probably eight feet. The roof is flat and
the rock overhangs four feet making a veranda with an entrance
in its back wall about eight feet wide. The cells are two each on
the east and west and four on the north, and there is a bed shelf
all round. Five yards to the west is a rock-cut cistern six feet deep
and nine feet wide holding no water.

Parli or Sajjangad' Fort, about 1045 feet above the plain
and 1824 yards in circumference, lies on a detached Sahyddri spur
about six miles west of S^t^ra. Inspection reports of 1850 and
1881 describe the fort as surrounded and commanded by three
hills, Tavteshvar about 3500 yards to the north. Old Sd,td,ra about
2500 yards to the south, and Nanka within 1100 yards to the south-
west. The road from Sdtdra is fairly good, unmetalled after about
two miles but running over rock or gravel and passable by
infantry cavalry and mountain guns at all times. At aboiifc five
miles the road crosses the Urmodi by a rocky ford which is rather
diflBcult for carts and becomes unsuitable for wheeled carriages
' when it reaches the hill on which the fort stands. Another more
diflficult path leads from Parli village to the fort gates.

The only entrance to the fort is by two gateways at the south-
east angle and by a partly blocked up sallyport at the south-west
angle. Both the gateways are in good order strongly built of cut-
stone and flanked by towers and a parapet along the rock. The
lower gateway which is partly under the rock is completely hidden
from the approach and commanded by the upper gateway.

The defences consist of a scarp of perpendicular black rock
varying in height from about 100 feet along the faces to about

1 The name Sajjangad that is the fort of good men or mjjan ia locally eaid to be
derived from the number of good men who visited it after it became the residence of
lidmdas Sv^mi the spiritual adviser of Shiv^ji,

Deccan.j

satAra.

537

fifty feet at the south-west angle of the fort. The scarp is built
up in places, but, except near the gateway and at the south-west
angle which appears to have been strongly fortified, little of the
old parapet remains. The south-west angle is the only place prac-
ticable for an escalade as in other places the rock is too high and
the hill below it too steep to allow ladders to be placed against it,
while there is no cover from the fire of the fort.

The fort contains a partly ruined mosque and three temples, one
of which situated about the middle of the fort and dedicated to
Ed,m is a handsome cut-stone building capable of defence. In the
village around are aboat thirty-five buildings of various kinds with
about 200 inhabitants chiefly Brdhmans and Vanis. Just outside
the gate is a small hamlet inhabited by about sixty Parvd,ris. The
water-supply of the fort is from ponds, of which there are several but '
only two hold water throughout the year. Of these two, one to
the north of Ram's temple holds good water.

Parli village lies about 1200 yards by a path to the north of the
fort. It contains about 130 houses, some of which and several
temples in the neighbourhood are built of cut-stoue or have thick
mud walls, which, with their situation, render them capable of defence.
A weekly market is held at the village on Monday at which forage
and vegetables are obtainable. The water-supply of the village is
from wells and from the Urmodi which flows to the north. All
round the base of the hill on which the fort stands are several small
hamlets, some of them consisting of not more than three or four huts.
Parli was the favourite residence of Rdmdds Svdmi (1608-1681)
the famous spiritual guide or guru of ShivAji (1627 - 1680) who
gave it to the Svami in indm. The local tradition is that if Shivd,ji
in Sdtdra required counsel from Rdmd^s SvAmi, Rd,mdas reached
Satara through the air in a single stride. The temple of Ramdas
is in the middle of the village surrounded by the dwellings of his
disciples. The temple of basalt with a brick and mortar dome was
built by Akabai and Divakar Gosdvi, two disciples of the Svd,mi. It
was repaired and ornamented in 1800 and 1880 by Parshurdm Bhau
of Shirgaon village eight miles south-east of Wai. The spire is in
octagonal tiers and about seventy feet high with handsome stucco
decoration. The veranda was built by one Vaijnath Bhagvat of
Tavteshvar. A yearly fair attended by about 6000 people is held in
February.

On the north-west of Parli village about a few yards outside are
two old Hemddpanti temples facing east. The southern temple now
deserted looks like the older of the two ; and some of its best carvings
have been transferred to the northern temple. It is about forty by
twenty feet, including the gdhhdra or shrine which is of the old star
shape. Of the shrine the walls alone remain. They are about six
feet high and built of enormous blocks of unmortared stone. The
shrine has a pyramidal roof of huge slabs diminishing in size from
the bottom upwards. The shrine portal is most beautifully carved
in relief in a pattern similar to the carving of the balustrade and
pillars in the northern temple.'^

Chapter XIV.
Places-

Pabli or

Sajjanoad

FOBT.

1 See below p. 538.

B 1282—68

[Bombay Gazetteer,

538

DISTRICTS.

Caiapter XIV.

Places.

Pabli or
Sajjanoad

FOBT.

Tlie nortbern. temple of about the same size a,s tbe southern

temple is complete, but the immense stones show signs of

falling. The hall or mandap is about twenty-four feet square

with four rows of four pillars each, seven feet apart, supporting

with brackets a flat roof ten feet high. The central one over the

round slab in which the Nandi is placed has a canopied top.

Each of the other compartm«nts formed by four pillars has a ceiling

of the lozenge pattern. Outside in an unenclosed court is the Nandi

canopy. The pillars supporting it are specially rich, the carving

pattern differing in each. Its ceiling is domed and about the same

height as the rest of the temple. It is well paved and elaborately

carved, every available bit -of space being filled with decorative

moulding of some kind. A small vestibule also beautifully worked

leads to the gdbhdra or shrine which is square inside but star- shaped

outside. The sides are walled in at an early but comparatively

modern time with mortared stone. At the entrance is a balustrade

very elaborately carved. The pillars in the mandap are plainer than

is usual in the oldest Hemddpanti temples. Some are giving way and

rude props have been erected between them. Slabs belonging to the

broad eaves of the old temple roof have been used to make a pedestal

for a lamp-stand. The balustrade and Nandi canopy probably belong

to the northern temple, the rest is very likely a building of Shivaji's

time or perhaps even later after the Moghals took Parli (1 700) . It is

not known who first desecrated the old shrine, but either the Bijapur

Musalmd,ns or the Moghals must have done so, and the new temple

was a feeble copy of the old raised after their departure. To the

north of the entrance is a tablet bearing a very indistinct

inscription. Fifty yards north of these temples is a pond about

forty yards square and ten feet deep. It is of the old pattern, the

lower stones projecting beyond the upper ones. The existence

of these two old temples and ponds makes it probable that Parli fort

was in existence before Musalman times. It was subsequently

occupied by them and surprised by a detachment of Shivaji's

M^valis in May 1673.^ A few days before his death in 1681 Ramdas

Svdmi addressed from Parli a judicious letter to Sambh^ji, advising

him for the future rather than upbraiding him for the past and

pointing out the example of his father yet carefully abstaining from

personal comparison.^ In 1699, when the Moghals werei besieging

Sdtdm, Parshuram Trimbak Pratinidhi prolonged the siege by

furnishing supplies from Parli. After the capture of Satara in April

1700 tho Moghal army besieged Parli. The siege lasted till the

beginning of June, when, after a good defence of a month and a half,

the garrison evacuated. Aurangzeb called the fortNaurastdra.* In a

revenue statement of about 1790 Peraly appears as the head-quarters

of a paryana in the Nahisdurg sarkdr with a revenue of £2250

(Rs. 22,500).* In 1 SI 8 Parli was taken by a British regiment, and a

detachment of native infantry under a native officer was kept here.

Puring the 1857 mutinies a gang robbery took place in Parli, and it

' Grant DnS's MarAth^s, 116.
' Grant Duff's Mar^th^s, 174, 175.

2 Grant Duff's MarAth^s, 137.
* Waring'a MarAthils, 244.

Daccan)

Si-TlRA.

539

was rumoured that this gang was a detachment from a considerable
body of men who had gathered in the neighbouring forests, but had
dispersed on the return of troops from the Persian war. It. was
found that the ex-Rdja Pratdpsinh's agent Rango Bapuji had been
living for six weeks in Parli, and that he had gathered the gang to
act with the bad assembled in Bhor territory and with armed men
hid in Sat^ra^.

Pa'r Pa'r or Par proper and Peth Par or the market of Par are
two villages five miles west of Malcolmpeth and immediately south
of Pratdpgad. They give their name to and mark the old route
into the Konkan called the Pdr pass which goes straight over the
hill below Bombay Pbinb and winds at a very steep incline with so
many curves that it was named by the British the Corkscrew pass.
Passing through the two Pars the further line of the Sahyddris is
descended by an equally steep path to the village of Parghdt in the
Kolaba district. This route was maintained practicable for cattle
and the guns of the period from very early times and had chaukis.
or toll stations for transit duties and defence at various points.
The rulers of JAvli and Shivaji who generally resided at Mahad in
KoMba must have used this route. BAji ShAmrdj, sent by the Bijdpur
government to seize Shivdji, lurked about this pass till he was sur-
prised at its foot and driven in panic to seek safety in the forest.^
In 1659 Par village was the scene of an interview between Shivdji
and Gopindthpant sent by Afzulkhdn to stipulate with him.^ Afzul-
khd,n brought his forces by the same Par pass route to the famous
interview at Pratdpgad where he was murdered by Shivd,ji.* In 1 796
N4na Phadnavis fled down this pass to Mahad and took measures for
his safety by blocking it and throwing a strong garrison into Pratap-
gad.^ Until the building of the Kumbharli road in 1864 and the
Fitzgerald pass road in 1876 the P^r pass was the only highway
leading into the Konkan. The line now taken by the Fitzgerald
pass gives a splendid view of Elphinstone Point and Arthur's Seat,
cliffs which the Par pass misses. But the abrupt descent from Fdv
westwards is very fine.

Pa'tan, 17° 22' north latitude and 73° 38' east longitude, on
the Kard,d-Kumbhd.rli road at the junction of the Koyna and
Kera rivers about twenty-five miles south-west of Satdra, is a sub-
divisional head-quarters, with in 1881 a population of 3548. The
town consists of two parts the upper town containing the sub-divi-
sional and post offices, a school, a market, and the mansion of the
indmddr N^gojirav PAtankar a second class Sarddr and honorary
magistrate with civil jurisdiction in his own villages. The other
part consists of abeautifully wooded suburb called Ild,mdpur on the left
bank of the Koyna. A specially fine grove of mango and jack trees
lies at its south-east corner. A broad market street and a number
of artisans' and traders' shops complete the village. The Pdtankar
family was originally in two branches, of which the elder branch alone
has flourished. The younger branch represented by Hanmantrav

Chapter XIT-
Places-

PiR PAR.

Patak.

1 See above pp. 316 - 317. ' Grant Duff's Mar^thds, 65 - 66.

' Details are given above, p. 235. * Grant Duff's Mar^th^s, 76, 77.

5 Grant Duff's MarAth4s, 525,

[Bombay Gazetteer,

540

DISTRICTS.

Chapter XIV.

Places.
PXtan.

Pi.TESHVAB.

now living was located in Rdmdpiir. His mansion a fine large
house was completely destroyed by fire in 1874. The sub-divisional
ofBce built on a knoll after the standard model has a square courtanda
massive arched gatewa-y with rooms over it in which the subordinate
Civil Court lately instituted under the Deccan Agriculturists' Eelief
Act is held. The houses of the Brahmans and better classes are
down below near the Kera. Several of them are substantial
but exceedingly damp. On a hill immediately adjoining the sub-
divisional office and about one hundred yards to the south is
the dispensary an excellent stone building. The dispensary was
established in 1873 and in 1883 treated ten in-patients and 4362
out-patients at a cost of £163 (Rs. 1630). Next to it on the south
is the -mansion of Nagojirdv with strong high stone walls and
ramparts and a gateway flanked by bastions. A rose and plantain
garden has been made close to it by the indmddr. A market is
held here in the town proper every Monday and numerously
attended from the hill villages. Blacksmiths wheelwrights
and bullock farriers come in considerable numbers during the
carting season. There are no special traders at Patan, but there are
several considerable moneylenders who deal with the cultivators
almost entirely in grain. Rice goes from Pd,tan and Tarla ten
miles to the north-east to Karad and Chiplun and from Chiplun are
brought salt cocoanuts and groceries. The water-supply is taken
from both the Kera and Koyna rivers. The Koyna is muddy being
polluted by the thousands of cart drivers and bullocks of the carts
which throng the camping ground, some eight hundred passing
every night during the busy season. There are two wells sunk in
the Kera which give fair water to the better quarters of the town
proper. The main street of the town is kept clean, but the bye-
lanes are very dirty. The Patankars. were the Deshmukhs under
the Mardthds of the whole surrounding district and had charge
of Dategad fort three miles to the north-west. During the strug-
gles between the Peshwas and the Pratinidhis they did pretty
much what they pleased. The elder branch is one of the few pros-
perous Mardtha families in the district; all the younger branches
are sunk in debt. There is no historical mention of Pdtan. But
title deeds show that the BijApur kings had a well established rule
here. The district was assigned to the Pratinidhi by Edm E^ja
but was wrested from him by the Peshwa after the rebellion of
Yamdji Shivdev Mutalik in 1750.^ It was not finally secured to
the Peshwa till the time of Gokhale and throughout the eighteenth
century both authorities would issue contradictory orders, the carry-
ing out of which rested very much on the will of the Pdtankars
alone. In 1827 Captain Clanes notices P^tan as a market town
with 360 houses and twenty-five shops.^

Pa'teshvar, a peaked hill rising above the rest of the range about
seven mile's south-east of Sd,tdra, has on its north-west face close to
the junction of the villages of Degaon Nigdi and Bharatgaon and
within the limits of Degaon a series of cave temples. The easiest
Way for a visit-on foot or horseback is to take the track to Degaon.

1 Grant Duff's Ua,T&tMs, 271.

2 Itinerary, 63.

Deccan.]

satAra.

641

which branches from the tank in the village of Godoli south and
east of the cantonment. From Degaon a path strikes to the south-
east and winds up to a khind or gorge from which by steps in places
it proceeds at a very gentle incline for about three quarters
of a mile along the hill side till the temples are reached. Another _
way is to drive to Bharafcgaon on the Kolhdpur road whence a two-
mile walk leads to the khind by the south side. Halfway^ up the
path the steps on the right lead to a large image of Ganpati
coloured red. At the end of the path is a hollow in which is a
masonry pond measuring fifty-five feet by eighty with steps leading
down to it from the middle of the north side. The hill slope runs
close down to it at the north-west corner in which is a small cave
ten feet square much choked up and containing a small image called
the Margal Mhas of a lying bufEalo with a litig on its back. To the
east of the pond are some houses and a math belonging to the resident
Grosavi. From the south-east end of the pond a series of thirty-five
low steps lead up a slight incline to a temple of Mahddev. The
temple stands in a courtyard one hundred and thirty-five feet east
to west by sixty-five north to souths partly if not entirely cut out of
the hill side to a depth of ten feet. The entrance is on the north
from the steps above mentioned and is flanked by four chambers
each ten feet square. The chambers next the doorway are empty and
the further ones contain images, the east chamber of the god
Rodkoba and the west chamber of the man-eagle Garud. The door-
way is a small pointed arch about six feet by three. Immediately
opposite the doorway is the Nandi canopy, ten feet square and
twenty-seven high, facing the temple which fronts east. The latter
is a modest structure, forty-eight feet long, consisting of an image-
chamber and a hall. The hall is twenty-six broad and the shrine
eighteen feet broad, the sides of the mandap projecting about five feet
on each side beyond those of the gdbhdra or shrine. The front is a
plain balustrade about five feet high and six feet broad, on each
side of a three feet passage for entrance. The walls on each side
are 5' 6" thick. The roof is of the lozenge pattern and supported
by four pillars in the centre, a plain imitation of the Hemadpanti
style. The whole is raised on a plinth three feet high. The
wall to the roof is thirteen feet high with a three feet parapet.
Over the image-chamber is the octagonal spire or shikhar of
brick and stucco thirty-eight feet from the roof, and with a total
height of fifty-four feet from the ground. The image-chamber
ten feet square is entered by a low doorway with a stone tortoise
in front. In the centre is the ling of Pdteshvar. Behind in the
west wall are images of Pdrvati and a goddess, and at the north-
east corner is the water drain. In the centre of the north side are
images of Ganpati and Dasmaruti both facing south, and on the
south side facing north are images of Jatdshankar and Sheshshdyi
or Vishnu reclining upon the serpent Shesh. On either side of the east
end of the temple are small shrines of an eight-handed Devi on the
south and of Bhairav on the north. Behind the Nandi shrme to the
north-east is the tulsi or basil platform and to the east two temples

Chapter XIV

Places.

PAteshvar.
Cave Temples.

1 Compare Fergusson and Burgess' Cave Templea, 427.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

542

DISTRICTS.

Chapter XIV.

Places-

PAteshvar.
Cave Temples.

Peth.

eact eighteen feet higli. The whole temple and courtyard is of good
stone work but all modern, the work of Parshurdm N^rdyan Angal
the great banker and temple-builder who lived in the time of Shdhu
(1708-1749).^ in this group the only object of any age would seem
to be the Margal Mhas cave. Passing about a hundred yards east
four caves are reached all about ten feet square and facing about
north-west. They have flat roofs about ten feet high and no signs
of building in them. A number of lings are scattered about without
any order. A little east of these is a small modern temple of
Balibhadra or Agni with a curious image of which the body from the
neck back is a bull, tail and all. The face from the mouth upwards
is human, the chin that of a bull. It has four horns growing out of
the head, four hands on the right and three on the left, and three
legs, two of a man and one of a bull. This image is typical of Agni
or the god of fire who is represented in the Shastras as having three
legs, seven hands, two mouths, and four horns. On an oblong stone
near the image are some well carved figures in relief of men and
women. Next to Agni's temple on the east is a temple of Satvdi
Devi containing two small images of goddesses. Both the temples
are modern. Five hundred paces east is a curious cave or group of
caves known as the VarddgJiar, The southern side has a shrine
about ten feet square. In the three sides are arched niches prettily
sculptured with bead decorations. The southern niche contains a
ling three -feet high. The eastern niche has some figures of
Rishis, and in the western niche is a long shaped stone with eight
figures in relief though what the figures represent cannot be made
out. Two pillars support the roof, one with a club figured on it m
relief, the other with some indistinct letters of which va sa and het
can be made out. The part which opens west contains only a ling.
Much of the original cave remains. It is about thirty-five feet
deep, but too dark and impenetrable for taking exact measurements.
A little to the east of this group is a small pond known as the Bhim
Kund. The caves are plain flat-r6ofed cells without benches and
originally without pillars. All the building here is done by Angal,
the only remaining representative of whose family is Sakhardm the
great-great-grandson of Parshuram and aged ninety.

Peth, 1 7° 3 ' north latitude and 74° 1 7' east longitude, about
forty-five miles south-east of Sdtdra, is the head-quarters of the
Vd-lva sub-division, with in 1872 a population of 4971 and in
1881 of 5672. The town lies close to the junction of the provin-
cial Poona-Kolhapur and local fund Peth-Slngli roads, and besides
the sub-divisional revenue and police offices has a post office.
The 1872 census showed 4799 Hindus and 172 Musalmd,ns, and the
1881 census 5433 Hindus and 239 Musalm^ns. There was a muni-
cipality under the old Act which was abolished in 1872-73. As its
name indicates the town is one of the local trade centres, the chief
articles of trade being grain and cattle. The chief traders are well-
to-do Grujars who deal chiefly in raw sugar and tobacco, which they
buy from the cultivators and export through Chiplun in Eatnigiri.

1 See above p. 511 note 1,

Deccau.]

sAtara.

543

A yearly fair attended by about 5000 people is held in tbe village Chapter XIV.

in February. The fair is chiefly noteworthy in the eyes of the p^

people for the yearly occurrence of a miracle, the breaking of an iron

chain by an aged Md,ng who is endowed with the necessary strength ^'^''"•

by the spirit of the deity which enters into him after much load

supplication. The performance of the miracle, however, is but

poor. The chain is very old and rusty and is fastened to a ring in

the pavement of the courtyard. A decrepit Mang advances to the

gate of the courtyard surrounded by others of his caste who sing or

rather yell an invocation to the god. The old Mdug tugs at the

chain banging it down on a sharp stone till it is worn through.

The demeanour of the crowd hardly betrays the smallest belief in

the miraculous nature of the performance which falls far below the

level of the commonest juggling.

Pimpoda Budmkll, a small village about sixteen miles north Pimpoda Budrukh.
of Sdtara and sixteen miles east of Wdi, was in 1830 the scene
of the death of ISTdrayan Povdr a cultivator who at the age of nine
became famous by his art in catching venomous snakes. It was
given out that he was an incarnation of the deity Ndrayan who
was to rid the country of the English. Thousands flocked to see
the new deity. The sick came to be healed and prophecies were
found out about him. After six months the boy died of the
bite of a serpent. He was expected to rise again, and besides in the
Deccan the belief caused much excitement both in Bombay and
Kolaba and Ratnagiri.^

Pingli, a village of 661 people, lies four miles south-west of
Dahivadi at the junction of the Pusesavli-Shingn^pur and S^tdra-
Pandharpur roads, while from the former the Tdsgaon-Mogr^la road
branches off a mile north. Pingli is the site of an irrigation
pond on a small feeder of the Md,n three miles above the head works
of the Gondoli canal. About half a mile from the village along the
Shingndpur road is a very fair camp. A little snipe and duck
shooting is to be had and rock grouse are abundant.

Prachitgad in Valva, about forty miles north-west of Peth, is a
hill fort projecting westwards from the edge of the main range of
the Sahyadris with the Konkan on three of its sides and joined to
the Deccan on the fourth side by a narrow strip. The fort is iu
a very inaccessible situation at the junction of tbe village of
Rundhiv in S£tara with Nairi and Shringarpur in the. Ratn^-

PlNOLI.

Praohitgad
Fort.

1 Oriental Christian Spectator, I. (1830) 246-247, 279-281. The Rev. Mr. Nesbit
wrote (Or. Ohr. Spec. V. 185 - 186) of the boy's tomb in 1834 : The boy is buried at the
spot where he first received divine worship. His little coat is spread over the slightly
elevated mound that surmounts his ashes ; his shoes are placed at the lower end of it ;
and a piece of shining metal is put at the head to represent his face. The sticks he
used to bear in his hand lie at the sides of the tomb ; and thousaads of toys, with
which he was presented by his worshippers, are ranged at some distance behind him.
Two BrAhmaus and a shepherd who has turned a devotee wait upon him continually
with music singing and incense burning. A regular house ia built over his toinb
and a shopkeeper has built another close by where he disposes of such articles as
may be reijuired by those who come to make offerings or fulfil vows to the deceased
god. Compare Jour. Koy. As. Soc, VII. (Old Series) 109-112.

[Bombay Gazetteer

544

DISTRICTS.

Chapter XIV.

Places.

Pkachitgad
Fort.

giri district. The paths to the fort pass over the crest of the
Sahyddris through thick forest or over sheet rock and unite at a
point about a mile from the' fort. It is • about four miles either
from Rundhiv or Javli the nearest villages. Jdvli is foar miles
from Peth Lond the favourite halting place on the east side of the
south Tivra pass which there joins the Yasna valley track. The
path to Jdvli runs north-west from Peth Lond and seems to have
been the one most used in former days. Rundhiv is four miles
south-east of Mala' the village at the top of the Mala pass. From
the junction of the two paths it is about a' mile to the edge of the
Sahyddris and from here a winding path leads on to a small neck
or gorge about thirty yards long and about two hundred feet below,
crossing which the gate is reached. A narrow ledge runs at the
level of the gate right round the fort and at the western end
communicates with a steep path leading down to the Konkan.
Above this ledge is a scarp varying in height from thirty to sixty
feet and crowned with towers on the east and west and ja wall all
round loopholed for musketry. The wall is in parts composed of
enormous boulders unmortared, in others of smaller stones to
which mortar has been applied. On the west is a sort of prominence
fortified by a tower capable of mounting several guns. The top is
undulating and in area not more than three or four acres at the
outside, the extreme length being not more than two hundred and
the breadth not more than one hundred yards. Under the scarp on
the south side are some cave ponds filled with excellent water. On
the top on the west is a large pond and one or two smaller ones
with a less certain supply. There are ruins of buildings all over
the fort. The head-quarters apparently were near the centre on
the east side. There is nothing to show what the other buildings
were. Who built Prachitgad is not known, but the character of some
of its masonry points to a considerable age, perhaps anterior to
the Musalman rule. In 1862 Prachitgad is mentioned as a dismantled
and ruinous fort with ample water. It was said to have contained
a garrison of 300 men but was then deserted and not garrisoned.

Prachitgad was never, the scene of any notable event until 1817
when it was seized by a Gosavi named Chitursing who gave
himself out to be the younger brother of the Satdra Raja
Shdhu. The real Chitursing was, by his gallantry, an object
of much interest at the time, and being considered dangerously
hostile to the Peshwa, Trimbakji Denglia seduced him to a
conference and imprisoned him in the fort of Kdngori in Kol4ba
where he eventually died. The pretended Chitursing however
gave out that he had escaped to Prachitgad. He got possession
of the fort by a daring enterprise suggested by a traditionary-
account of Shiv^ji's exploits. From before the time of Shiv^ji it
was usual for villagers to supply leaves and grass for thatching
the fort houses. The insurgents having corrupted one or two
persons in the garrison a party of them each loaded with a bundle of
grass, with his arms concealed in it, appeared at the fort gate in

1 See above Mala p. 520.

Deccan]

SATAEA.

545.

the dress of villagers to deposit, as they pretended, the annual
supply. Admittance being thus gained they surprised the garrison
and possessed themselves of the fort.^- Prom Prachitgad as his
head-quarters, the pretended Chitursing plundered the surrounding
country until the fort was taken by Colonel Cunningham on the
10th of June 1818. He encamped as near as the forest would permit
and shortly afterwards occupied a high hill which immediately
commanded the place. The commandant was sent to with a demand
for surrender but without efEeot. Captain Spiller was admitted
under a flag of truce and did all he could to induce the garrison,
to surrender. They promised to do so. But Colonel Cunningham,
not relying on their promises, sent back during the night for one
of the guns which had been brought the previous day to the top of
the adjoining south Tivra pass. By the exertions of the detachment
and assistance sent from Sdt^ra the gun was mounted by two in
the morning. The commandant was warned of the consequences if
the fort was not immediately surrendered. No satisfactory answer
was received and the shelling began. The first two shells caused
considerable alarm, but the cover was so good that the garrison
could not be reached and finding this out they defied the British
force. Captain Spiller then proposed to blow up the gate with
musketry and Assistant Surgeon Bedford volunteered to accompany
him. Fifty men of the 6th Regiment and a party of the auxiliary
force were then formed and advanced to the gateway on the opposite
side of the tower. A heavy fire prevented the besieged suspecting
what was going on at the gate. A hole was blown through the gate
sufficient to admit Captain Spiller, but a grenadier stuck owing
to his cartridge box. Captain Spiller returned and enlarged the
hole enough to get every one through. Colonel Cunningham and
Surgeon Redford had by this time joined the party. They all got
through one by one and concealed themselves in the gateway till the
whole party had entered. They then rushed upon the garrison
who were completely surprised and fled panic-stricken in all directions.
The fort was taken without the loss of a man. The enemy had five
men killed and the fort subheddr wounded, and Chitursing and
family were taken prisoners.^

Prata'pgad Port in Javli,3543 feet above sea level, twenty miles
north-west of Medha and by road eight miles west of Mahabaleshvar,
is built on a range which forms a spur of the Mahabaleshvar hills and
separates the villages of Par and Kineshvar commanding the road
between them. The fort from a distance looks like a round-topped
hill, the walls of the lower fort forming a sort of bend or crown
round the brow. It can be visited with great ease from Malcolm
Peth. An hour's drive down by the excellent Fitzgerald pass road
brings the visitor to the pretty travellers' bungalow at Vdda or
Ambenali a small hamlet within the limits of Bheroshi village.
Ponies or chairs with bearers are to be had here during the fair
weather. About three quarters of an hour's easy climbing leads

Cliapter_XIV.
Places.

Prachitgad

FOKT.

PkatApgad
Fort.

' Compare Grant Duffa Mardthda, 63 note, 632; PendhM and Mardtha War
.Papers, 97.

2 PendhAri and MarAtha War Papers, 366 ; Bombay Courier, 20th June 1818 ;
Grant DuflPs MardthAs, 680.

B 1282—69

[Bombay Gazetteer,

546

DISTRICTS.

Chapter XIV,
Places.

PBATAPGAT)

Fort,

to the fort gateway, most of the pathway lying through small, but
in places thick, forest. On passing the gateways the outwork of
AbduUa's tower lies to the right while the path to the upper fort is
on the left. The temple of Bhavdni is on the eastern side of the
lower fort. It consists of a hall and shrine, the hall with wooden
pillars about 50' long 30' broad and 12' high. The shrine is of stone.
It contains a black stone image of Bhavdni with some fine clothes
belonging to it. The roof of the temple is flat inside. Outside is a
leaden covering put up by the Sat^ra Raja Pratd,psinh (1818 - 1839)
and over the shrine is a small spire or shiJchar. The temple is in
good repair but unattractive and only worth a visit on account of
its historical associations. The western and northern sides of the
fort are gigantic cliffs with an almost vertical drop in many places
of seven or eight hundred feet. The towers and bastions on the
south and east are often thirty to forty feet high, while there is in
most places a scarp of naked black rock not much lower.i

In an inspection report of 1842 Pratapgad is described as
occupying the highest point of the range with a full and commanding
view of the surrounding country. The west and north sides were
very steep and inaccessible, both covered with huge masses and
a vast precipice of trap rock. On the east and south the hills
were more sloping and covered with a dense wood in contrast
with the rocky west and north, and gradually descended
to the valleys separating Mahabaleshvar and the Kineshvar
range on the east and the Konkan valley on the west. It
consisted of two forts, an upper fort built on the crest
of the hill and a lower fort immediately below on the south
and east, both overlooking the surrounding country and guarding
the passage to the hill on almost all sides. One approach,
however, was not so strongly guarded as others, which, passing
over an easy ground fit for a mortar battery, led to a tower
locally known as Abdulla's tower. From the tower the ascent
ran up a steep and rugged pathway along the south of the
outwork and completely defended by it. The pathway led to the
entrance between two strong towers through two narrow and well
built gates. From the lower to the upper fort were two entrances
one of them on the north-east corner. It was a mere opening
without a gateway between two towers very weak but for a precipice
outside. The fort walls varied in height according to the nature
of the ground. The parapet wall was very slight and the rampart
only three feet broad. The upper fort, built upon the crest of the
hill, was 200 yards long by 200 broad and contained several
permanent buildings for residence and a temple of Mahddev.
A remarkable tree stood on the highest part of the fort ; from this
tree and the northward . was a steep and rugged descent to the
wall on the north, below which was a large pond and a good stone
well with never failing water. The lower fort, 350 yards long by
120 broad, was on the eastern and southern side, of the hill.
The southern side was rocky and precipitous, while the eastern side
had a strong outwork ending in the tower above mentioned
which commanded the approach to the place. The outwork was

' Mr, J. W. P. Mnir-Mackenzie, C.S,

Deccau.]

sAtIra.

547

said to have been added by Shivdji after the murder of the
Bijapur general Abdulla properly Afzul, whose head is buried
beneath the tower which bears his name. At the end of this
outwork, where it joins the lower fort, appears to have been a
gateway now destroyed. The entrance to the fort lay on the
south of the outwork, but the approach to it was completely
commanded by the walls of the outwork which overlooked the path
the whole way up to the entrance. The entrance was well protected
and very strong, the space between the towers on each side not
exceeding four feet, the pathway very steep and rugged, and a
double gate or doorway forming the actual entrance. The only
buildings in the lower fort were a few ruined hats, some houses of
Brahmans, and a well furnished temple of Bhavdni. There were
two ponds, one east below the steep descent leading from tbe upper
fort, the other south on a point of rock. Both contained an
unfailing supply of excellent water In 1862 Pratdpgad is noted
as a strong fort with ample water-supply and provisions. It was
garrisoned by ten of the Sd.tara police.^

Pratapgad was built in 1656 by the famous Brdhman
More Tirmal Pingle at the command of ShivAji, who
upon this high rock near the source of the Krishna,
securing access to his possessions on the banks of the Nira
the Koyna, and strengthening the defences of the Pd,r pass.^
1659 the foot of the hill was the scene of Shivd,]'i's famous

minister
pitched
thereby
and
In
inter-
view with the Bijapur general Afzulkhdn and of Afzulkhdn's
treacherous murder.^ In the rains of 1661, Shivaji, unable to visit
the famous temple of Bhavdni at Tuljdpur, dedicated with great
solemnity a temple to Bhavani on Pratd,pgad fort.* In 1778
Sakhdrd.m Bdpu, a famous Poena minister, was confined by his
rival NAna Fadnavis in Pratdpgad and from here secretly removed
from fort to fort until he perished miserably in Raygad.^ In 1796
Nana Fadnavis, flying from the intrigues of Daulatr^v Sindia and his
minister Baloba to W^i and the Konkan, threw a strong garrison
into Pratdpgad and went to Mahd,d.® In the Mardtha war of 1818
Pratdpgad surrendered by private negotiation, though it was an
important stronghold, had a large garrison, and could much annoy
the country round Wai.

Pusesa'vli in Khatdv, twelve miles south-west of Vaduj, is a
municipal town, with in 1872 a population of 2456 and in 1881 of
2569. The municipality was established in 1854 and had in 1882-83
an income of £120 (Rs. 1200) and an expenditure of £101 (Rs. 1010).
Besides the municipality Pusesd,vli has a dispensary, a Collector's
bungalow, a post office, and a weekly market on Wednesday. The
dispensary was founded in 1871, and in 1883 treated ten in-patients

1 Government Lists of Civil Forts (1862). ' Grant Duff's Marithds, 67.

3 Details of the interview and murder are given above pp. 234-237.

« Grant Duff's Mar^thds, 83.

5 It is a suggestive irony of fate that SakhdrAm BApu, a descendant of.Gopindth-
pant Bokil, who decoyed his master Af zulkhAn to the treacherous interview and mur-
der in 1659 should, 120 years after this event, have to look down, with the treineiid-
0U3 abyss of 4000 feet of black rugged rock on his west, on the eastern side where
his ancestor Gopinithpant pledged to Shivdji the treacherous oath which betrayed his
master to the stab of the murderer. Grant Duff's MarAth^s, 426-.

» Grant Duff's MarAthds, 525.

Chapter^XIT
Places.

PeatApgad

FOET.

History.

PnsEsivLi.

[Bombay G-azetteer,

548

DISTRICTS.

ChapterJXIV.
Places.

Eahimatpub.

Mosque.

and 3638 out-patients at a cost of £144 (Rs. 1440) . Pusesdvli is a
small trade centre witli about 120 traders, mostly Brdhmans, Gujarat
and local V^nis, Telis, and Koshtis. In 181 8, while pursuing Bdjirdv,
General Smith's division reached Pusesdvli on the 27th of January.^
In 1827 Captain Clnnes notices it as a kasha or market town with
380 housesj twenty shops, and wells.^

Rahimatpur in Koregaon, 17° 35' north latitude and 74° 17'
east longitude, is a municipal town of 6082 people on the S^tara-
Tasgaon road, seventeen miles south-east of Sdtdra, seven miles south
of Koregaon, and ahout three miles beyond the flying bridge on the
Krishna at Dhamner. Besides the municipality Rahimatpur has a
sub-judge's court and a post office. The 1872 census showed a total
population of 7168 of whom 6678 were Hindus and 490 Musalmdna.
The 1881 census showed a fall of 1086, or 6082 of whom 5590 were
Hindus and 492 Musalmans. The municipality was established in
1853 and had in 1882-83 an income of £649 (Rs. 6490) and an
expenditure of £704 (Rs. 7040). A weekly market is held on
Thursday and Friday. Rahimatpur is a pretty large trade centre
with about 155 well-to-do traders chiefly Brd.hmans, MarwAr and-
Gujar^t V^nis, Shimpis, Sangars, Maratha Kunbis, Jains, Koshtis,
Kasdrs, and Musalmd,ns. Of these traders the Brd,hmans are
generally moneylenders. Bombay and English piece-goods twist
and silk are brought by the MArwdr Vanis from Poona and Bombay ;
the Vdnis Jains and Mardtha Kunbis buy from the growers raw
sugar, turmeric, earthnuts, and coriander seed, send them in
bullock carts to the ports of Chiplun, Rdjdpur, and Mahd,d, and
bring from those ports salt, cocoanuts, dates, and spices. The
Musalmdns Sangars and Koshtis buy twist from the Marwar Vanis
which the Musalmans weave into turbans and the Sangars and
Koshtis into waistcloths, women's robes or lugdis, cotton sheets or
pdsodis, and other hand-made piece-goods. There are three
schools, one of them Hindustani. The chief object of interest
in the town is a mosque and mausoleum, which, with the name,
show that Rahimatpur was a head-quarter town under Muham-
madan rule. The mosque is about forty feet long by twenty
feet broad and opens to the east. The inner roof is divided
into six vaulted divisions made by two lines of Saracenic
arches running from north to south and two from east to west.
There is a good deal of ornamental work about the arches and
walls. The shafts of the pillars supporting the arches are in a single
rectangular course. The roof above is fiat with a small parapet
and projecting eaves supported by brackets at intervals. Bast of
this is a raised stone platform forty-five feet square and three feet
high with a projecting margin, and in the centre a pipe for a
fountain. To the east of this again is a domed mausoleum about
thirty feet square. The usual tomb inside the spring of the dome
is about twenty feet ofE the ground and the whole about forty teat
high. In the centre of each side is a small door about two teet
by five broad. The mausoleum seems to have been built in honour
of Eandulldkhd,n, a distinguished Bijdpnr officer who flourished in
the reign of the seventh Bijapur king Mdhmud (1626-1656). He

1 Pendhdri and Mardtha War Papers, 200, 209. ^ Itinerary, 32, 62.

Deccan.1

sItAea.

S49

died about 1650 (h. 1053 or 1059). The mosque has four inscrip-
tions one on each side. The east side inscription runs :

On the death of BanduUa'kha'n Sa'hib Bahadur he went tojheaven
on aooouut of his merits. He was reckoned as one of the brave in
the world. He died while speaking. The date of his death is 1053.
Nothing like this ever happened. There was a saying in heaven
that this man was one of the lords of the world. He obtained a
place in the heaven of heavens near the gods. This is a wonderful
occurrence.

The west side inscription runs :

This Eandulla'kha'n was highly praised by people for his good
acts, and because he assisted the kings' throne he was given the
rank of minister. This chief got the victory over many forts strong
and fine in appearance. He was charitable, kind, strong, and at the
same time learned; thus this man was known throughout his Ufa
for these qualities and his fame was spread throughout the world,
famous Vazir died with all his pomp, in the year 1059.

The north side inscription runs :

This is the wonderful 'Ghumat' of the holy Eandulla'kha'n which
IS famous throughout the world. The air of this G-humat is excellent
like heaven, and the Ghumat being wide looks beautiful. The chief,
friendly to Kaudulla'kha'n, ordered this inscription to be written.
■WiUe they were writing there was a word from God. There is no
Ghumat like this Ghumat. EanduUa'kha'u Sa'hib whose body was
like the sun, rested peacefully in this Ghumat in 1059,

The south side inscription runs :

By the grace of God this man was blessed in his life as he was in
a former state of existence. His body was handsome. He became
victorious in every war and was very skilful in assaults and battles.
Being inventive he had need of no one. He confided in no one and
did every thing for himself. He oonguered every famous place. He
was the most valorous in the world this BanduUa'kha'n Sa'hib.

About a hundred yards south-east of the mosque, on the south of the
road, is a tower about fifty feet high with a slope bending down
to the ground on the west. This is an elephant water -lift which
supplied power for the mosque fountain. At Brahmapuri on the
Krishna, three miles south-west of the town, is a Hindu temple of
Vithoba, in whose honor a yearly fair lasting for a month is held
in Mdrgshirsh or November -December and is attended by about
8000 people. The cultivators in the neighbourhood of Rahimatpur
are considered to be some of the most prosperous in the district,
the burden of debt and land assessment being unusually light.
In April 1791 Major Price notices Rahimatpur as a considerable
town marked by a mosque with a swelling dome.^ While pursuing
Bdjirdv General Smith reached Rahimatpur on the 6th of February
1818 and here he was joined on the 7th by General Pritzler and the
combined force went to S^tdra.^ In 1827 Captain Clunes describes
Rahimatpur as a market town belonging to the Patvardhans with
500 houses, 110 shops, a water-course, and wells. ^

Rena'vi, about five miles east of Vita, is a small village on
the east of the Khdnapur plateau. It is celebrated for an old
temple of Revan Siddh a local saint said to have been under the
special favour of the god Dattdtraya and a great favourite with
the Lingd.yats. Among other fabulous exploits he is related.

1 Memoif s of a Field Officer, 260.

2 Grant Buflfs MarAth^s, 659 ; PendhAri and MarAtha War Papers, 213.

3 Itinerary, 32.

ChaptOT XIV.

Places.

Rahimatpub.
IiiacHpHon,

EbnIvi.

[Bombay Qazetteer,

550

DISTEiCTS.

Chapter XIV.
Places.

RljPURl.

Caves.

when staying at the house of a Brahman in Vita who had lost
his seven children, to have ordered the wife to cut the last child
into seven pieces from which he created seven new children. He
is said to have attained immortality and is believed still to hover
about the, locality. -The temple consists of an image-chamber with
a mandap, all walled in but without a spire, the whole about thirty
feet by thirty. It is a conspicuous object on the south side of the
Karad-Bijapur road as soon as the plateau is reached. A yearly fair
attended by about 500 people is held at the temple in Febriiary.

Ra'jpuriMn JAvlihasa group of caves, situated, as the crow
flies, about five miles south-west of Wai and about midway between
B^vdhan and Pahchgani.- The caves which are almost wholly natural,
are formed by the removal of the soft material below the rock scarp of
the hill. The hard rock has also here and there been worked away
to improve appearance and- shape. The excavations form one whole
although there are four or five separate entrances. They face nearly
due east and are picturesquely situated about 100 feet below the little
village of RAjpuri and about 4000 feet above sea level. The scarp
is_ about fifty feet high, forms the corner of a small ravine, and
shghtly overhangs the entrance to the caves. From above some
fine creepers hang gracefully, below the ground shelves steeply
away and is studded with some fine mango trees, one or two
ckdmphds, and a, jdmbhul. The most northerly entrance leads into
a cave temple dedicated to Kdrtiksvdmi. The cave is small in size,
but penetrates deep into the hillside at its north-west corner. From
this cave it is possible to gain access to all the others without again
going outside, but the communication between the fourth and fifth
caves is by a mere hole through which it is possible to creep only with
difiiculty. These four caves are full of carved stones, some in good
preservation and some much worn with age. Sitd.bai's arm, with the
pustule on the palm of the hand, figures conspicuously on several of
these stones. The fifth cave is the most curious of all. Almost the
whole area is occupied by a couple of small ponds out in the solid rock,
each about eight feet square and three or four feet deep. Beyond
these, in the innermost recess, is the figure of Ambabai to whom the
cave is dedicated. The ponds are filled by a spring which issues
beyond the caves to the south and is introduced by a small channel
into the southern corner of the southernmost cave. It is then- led
into the back of the figure of a boll and passing through the animal's
body it issues in a strong stream from its mouth. The figure is of
stone, but has been carved elsewhere and merely placed in its
present situation. Outside, in front of the caves, is a figure of the,
bull or Nandi under a canopy. Beneath its mouth is the figure of
a man represented as feeding it with oil-cake. Resting against
the outer wall of the caves is a stone tablet bearing an inscription
in old indistinct characters apparently Marathi. Towards the
northern extremity the mouth of the caves has been built up to
support the rock above which threatens to fall in. A fair, chiefly
attended byBrahmans, is held at the cave every third year inKdrtik of
October-November. A Gurav living in Rdjpuri looks after the caves.

1 Mr. H. E. Cooke, O.S,

Peccan]

sAtAra.

551

Sada'shivgad, four miles north-east of Kardd, is one of the
chain forts built by Shivaji. Its defences consist of alow scarp of
black rock with some light walls originally nine feet high now
nearly in ruins. The ascent is by a very steep little frequented
path from the north from a hamlet on the south of the Karad-
Bijdpur road. The top is about twenty- three acres in extent and
uninhabited. On the north side is a high gateway fallen into a
well and there were four high bastions which fell fifty years ago.
The fort has also some ponds dug on the soil but not built in with
masonry and some cave ponds all empty. On the hill top is a small
temple of Mahddev at which a fair is held on the dark fourteenth
of Mdgh or February-March. In 1862 Saddshivgad is noted as a
dismantled and ruinous forfc. It had no garrison and had no water
or supplies.^

Sangam Ma'huli. See Mahuli.

Sa'ta'ra,^ north latitude 17° 31' and east longitude 74° 3'^ so called
from the seventeen or satara walls towers and gates which the
Satdra fort was supposed to possess, is the head-quarters of the
Sdtara district and sub-division, with in 1881 a population of 29,028.
With a height of 2320 feet above sea level, Satara is about six;ty
miles from the coast, sixty-nine miles south of Poona, and seventy-
six miles north of Kolhapur. The 1881 census showed that Sdtara
is the twelfth city in the Bombay Presidency with a town site of 526
acres and a population of 29,028 or fifty-five to the square acre.
Sdtara town is bounded on the north by the new Poona-Satdra road,
on the west by the Yavteshvar hill, on the south by the fort, and on
the east by an ofEshoot of the fort hill. Its greatest length from
east to west is about two miles and from north to south about
one and a half miles. Seen from a distance of nearly three miles
on the new Poona- Sdtdra road, the town is situated at the base of
the fort, and in a semicircular recess on the south-western border
of the valley formed by the fort and the Yavteshvar hill. It is
built on the slope below a range of hills which form the end of a
spur running down from the Sahyadris near the hill station of
Mahabaleshvar which is twenty-nine miles to the north-west. This
high situation has given a great advantage in health since all
drainage goes to the Yenna on the north by means of many small
brooks rising from the hills on its three sides. The tableland, which
stretches along the summit of the Sahyadri bills as far as Mahd,-
baleshvar, varies very much in width ; at Sdtdra it ends in a rook the
highest peak of which is about 1500 feet above the town. Close
under the peak is the small but sacred temple of Yavteshvar. From
the peak the range slopes rapidly down to the south-west comer of
the town where it has been tunnelled to form a roadway. Continu-
ing its course to the south-east it rises again 900 feet above the
plain and forms the steep flat-topped hill known as Manglai Devi or
the Sdtdra fort. This dominates the south of the town. A bold
spur jutting northward from Yavteshvar and a small shoulder

Chapter XIV-
Places.

Sadashivgad

FOBT.

Sanoam MAhuli
Saiaka.

Description,

1 Government List of Civil Forts (1862). ,, ,. „,^„.,, „ ^ .

2 This account has been mainly contributed by Mr, C. W. Kiohardson, Huzur Deputy

Collector, S&t&ia,.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

552

DISTRICTS.

Chapter XIV.

Places.

SItaba.
Description,

projecting similarly from the fort form partial enclosures on the
east west and south. The best view of the town and neighbourhood
is fromjthe fort. Immediately below, the town is seen well wooded
and partly sheltered on the north-west by a spur of the Yavteshvar
range and completely so on the west and south by the connecting
saddle-backed ridge and the fort. The different spurs running
from the SahyMris in a south-easterly direction stand out like giant
buttresses enclosing between them rich valleys along the centre of
which rivers, fed by the springs along the high land and by the
rain falling on the neighbouring hills, run a rapid course and are
discharged into the Krishna. On the north-east, at a distance of
about twelve or fifteen miles, is a spur of the Mahd,dev range of hills
among which the hill forts of Chandan Vandan (3841) and Nandgiri
(3537) stand out conspicuously; whilst the huge hill of Jaranda,
sacred to Hanuman, is seen raising its vast crest, about seven miles
to the east of the town.

A visitor from Poena will probably enter the municipal limits
by the village of Karanja. He may note just west of that village,
north of the road, the small pillar which marks the site of Aurang-
zeb's encampment in 1700. Passing the race course on the right, and
leaving the main road a mile further on, he will continue his course
to the travellers' bungalow. Thence meeting the old Poena road
he will start due south up the hill, till he again joins the mail road
at the post office, passing the treasury and head-quarter offices on
his right. Prom the post office he will have choice of two roads
for entering the town. Taking the lower which runs due west he
will pass between the jail on the left and the Police head-quarters
on the right. A quarter of a mile further are the livestock and
grain markets in an open space on the left and the vegetable and
meat markets on the right. The street here turns south-west and
meets the main thoroughfare of the city in theBhavaniPeth. Turning
again west, of the sixty yards, passing between the city post office
and the chief constable's office, he will find himself in a square. The
western side is lined with the old and new palaces of the Rd,jAs
Pratapsinh and Apa Sd,heb, now the High School and District
Judge's Court. Its south-west corner contains the stables of the
Rdja, and the north-west the road leading to the Jalmandir or water
pavilion. Having seen these he will return to the square, and,
taking the road past the south wall of the High School, will pass
Shupakar's Tank, and continuing west out of the city to the storage
reservoirs. Returning again to the square and driving east he will
go by the main thoroughfare past the Civil Hospital and the principal
mosque of Amina N^ikin and meet the upper road which started
from the post office junction. Turning up this to the right he will
pass successively the Rangmahal or private palace of the Rd,jd,s, the
old Adalat vd.da or public offices on the left, the Mdmlatdar's offices
down a small street to the right and the Sachiv's and Daflekar's
mansions. Passing this road, and keeping to the left, he will reach
the tunnel by driving through which a fine view is obtained of Parli
and the Urmodi valley. In this manner most of the objects of
interest wUl have been passed. The southern part of the town is
most of it on a slope, some of it rather steep being the lower

Decoftul

SlTlRA.

558

declivities of the fort hill. The centre of the town is fairly
level and remarkably well wooded, but a good deal cut up by
the streamlets which run through it. The chief stream is the
Krishneshvar which runs from Yavteshvar and the headsprings of
which form the mainstay of the present water-supply. The main
street is a, broad thoroughfare while the lower road is also wide. But
the buildings in both are of small pretensions and there is little
either picturesque or attractive in the streets, apart from the
people and shops which impart plenty of life and variety. The
square containing the old and new palaces is fairly large and the
effect of the large buildings on its west is not unimposing though
it is disfigured by the mean buildings on the eastern side. Alto-
gether the town, though pleasing when viewed from the fort and
beautifully situated, hardly gains on acquaintance with the interior.
The climate of Sd,tara is one of the best in Western India and is
said to be particularly good for Europeans. The hot season generally
sets in about the beginning of March. Its beginning is sometimes
sudden and well marked, but more frequently gradual; and the heat
of the weather increases pretty steadily during the month. The in-
door thermometer reaches considerable elevation at an early period
of the day not beginning to decline until eight in the evening. In
ordinary years the heat reaches its maximum in April. In the
early part of May the temperature somewhat declines ; and after the
middle of the month, westerly winds become more prevalent, and
the air is cooled by the clouds which then begin to form on the
neighbouring mountains. Throughout the hot season the early morn-
ings are calm and serene and the air is cool and pleasant until about
seTen. After eight in the morning the heat rapidly increases. The
early part of the day is generally still, or there is a light air veering
from east to north. The exceptions to this generally occur in March,
particularly about the period of the equinox (21st March), at which
time a high hot land wind occasionally blows throughout the day.
Soon after midday a strong westerly breeze sets in with a sudden
gust, and continues to blow during the remainder of the day. This
constitutes the hot wind of this part of the Deccan. It begins
during March, between twelve and two at noon, and generally by
midday in April and the first half of May, after which it is usually
the prevailing wind throughout the twenty-four hours. It blows
with considerable strength, and is hot, dry, and disagreeable until
sunset, when it becomes milder and less gusty, and towards dusk it
gradually gets soft, cool, and refreshing. When it does not set in,
till after two, it generally continues warm and unpleasant until late
in the evening. In the early part of May it rarely retains its
warmth beyond five in the evening, after which hour it is
comparatively pleasant, and in the latter half of the month it gains
a pleasant degree of wetness and an invigorating freshness, in its
passages through the mists, fogs, and clouds which at that time
gather on the summits of the SahyMris. In the early part of the
season the westerly wind usually blows till eight or nine in the
evening when it shifts to the northward, and is occasionally
followed by a close night ; but during April and May the sea breeze
generally blows with greater or less strength until morning and
thereby ensures cool nights. April is both thermometrically and to

B 1282—70

Chapter XIV.
Places.

SAtAra,

Climate.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

554

DISTRICTS.

Chapter XIV.

Places.

Satara.
Climale.

the feelings the hottest month, March is thermometerically the
coolest, but the climate of May is more pleasaat to the feelings
than either of the other two months. Two or three heavy thunder-
showers from the eastward generally fall towards the end of May
and occasionally one or two showers in April. Though always
preceded by a close atmosphere, these showers are generally followed
by a considerable abatement of the hot winds. The heat of S^t^ra
then is neither immoderate nor protracted. It is rarely very oppressive
to the feelings, nor does the climate in the hot season prove so
relaxing or exhausting to the system as might be expected from
its abstract temperature. This arises partly from the dryness of
the atmosphere, but chiefly from its rarefaction and from the
regularity and strength of the sea breezes. In a substantial thatched
house, with the doors shut and the windows closed and sdreened
between the hours of from seven to nine in the morning and five
in the evening, the temperature in the hottest month of the season
usually ranges between 76° and 84°. Tattis are neither absolutely
necessary nor do they do much good. A single tatti put up in the
afternoon is useful as a means of renewing the inner air, rather than
of cooling the apartment, its effect being to elevate rather than to
depress the thermometer, in consequence probably of the wind
blowing at that time from the seaward. In the outer air the wind
is felt to be unpleasantly hot, but the reflected heat is by no means
so great as might be expected, or as it is found to be in less elevated
and more inland parts of the Presidency. The parched and brown
appearance of the surrounding country is agreeably relieved by the
fresh foliage of the surrounding trees.

During the first half of June a gradual change is felt from the
dry and unpleasant heat of the hot season to the soft and refreshing
temperature of the monsoon. On some days there is a genial
softness of the air with westerly breezes; on others, and these
perhaps the most numerous, the atmosphere is close and hot in the
early part of the day ; soon after noon clouds begin to form on the
eastern horizon, and the day closes in with a heavy thunder-shower
from the same quarters. These thunder-showers vary much both
in frequency and severity in different years. The date at which the
south-west monsoon sets in varies in different years, but it generally
begins between the tenth and twentieth of June. For one or two
days the characteristic initiatory monsoon clouds are observed to
cap the summits of the surrounding hills accompanied by a
delicious freshness of the air, and at length the monsoon begins
usually during the day, either with dense drizzling showers or with
steady heavy rain continued for an entire day. The climate now
gains the coolness characteristic of theDeccan monsoon ; vegetation,
which had partially sprung up under the influence of the preceding
thunder-showers, now inci'eases with astonishing rapidity, and in a
few days the fields and surrounding hills assume the freshness and
verdure of a northern spring. The weather throughout the
remainder of June, and during the month of July and greater
part of August, presents the same general character, modified to
a certain extent by the relative quantity of rain. For about a
fortnight in July the rain falls heavily. But during the rest of the
monsoon there are two or three heavy falls of a week or ten days

Deccan]

Si.Ti.RA.

556

each. The weather during these falls gets chilly and damp. The
temperature is cool, equable, and very agreeable to the feelings,
being alike removed from sultriness on the one hand and from
unpleasant chilliness on the other ; there is a pleasant alternation
of dense dark gray sky with partial sunshine ; a fresh breeze blows
with scarcely any interruption from west-south-west and the rain
chiefly falls in short though frequent showers, in the intervals of
which exercise in the open air is very agreeable. The station is
protected by the adjoining hills from the full violence of the rains
and of the boisterous winds which prevail on the summits of these
hills, and in a less degree on the narrow tract of country from their
base to the sea-coast, while it is exempted from the scanty and
uncertain falls and the frequent droughts of the inland country,
only a few miles to the eastward. Although the occurrence of short
and drizzling showers in the afternoon, which are generally most
frequent in the scantiest monsoons, interferes with the evening
exercise, no excessive dampness of the air is ever experienced indoors.
Towards the end of August or beginning of September the showers
become lighter, taore partial, and of shorter duration; the air is
sensibly drier and warmer but still pleasant, and the wind begins
to shift at times to the northward of west, while clouds are again
observed to rest on the tops of the higher hills, and occasionally in
the morning to trail along their sides ; and during the day elevated
white fleecy clouds with large intervening patches of blue sky
take the place of the darker and denser rain clouds of the previous
months. During the latter half of the month the air is at times
close and sultry, but in general it is pleasantly moist and agreeable
to the feelings. The winds are now light and variable, veering
from north-west round 'by north to east. Prom the latter quarter
proceed the thunder-showers that mark the close, as they usher
in the beginning, of the monsoon. Hailstorms too are occasionally
experienced at this time.

The climate of the four monsoon months, which, but for the
opportune fall of the periodical rains would prove the hottest part of
the year, is in this part of the Deccan more agreeable than that of
the cold season. The temperature in a house during three months
of this period ranges generally from 72° to 75° ; the atmospheric
moisture is moderate, and exercise in the open air during the day
may be indulged in with pleasure and greater impunity than during
the months of the cold season. During the twenty-four years ending
1883 the rainfall varied at Sdtdra from thirty inches in 1866 to
fifty-eight inches in 1875 and averaged 41"52.i The rainfall at the
civil hospital situated in the town usually exceeds that in the station
situated a mile north-east by six or eight inches. The month of
October connects the rainy and cold seasons. During the first part
of the month the sky is usually chequered with clouds ; there are
occasional short heavy showers, with or without thunder, from the
eastward ; the winds are light and changing, and the air is soft and
occasionally close, though by no means unpleasantly warm. The
atmosphere is without the bracing freshness so characteristic of

Chapter XlV-

Places.

SAtAea.
Climate.

I Details are given, above pp. 22-24.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

656

DISTRICTS.

Chapter XIV.
Places-

Climate.

Soil.

Drainage.

the mountain air at this time ; but, on the other hand, it does not
partake of the oppressiveness ■svhich is felt on the coast. But
when there is a deficiency of the late rains, a hot dry easterly
wind sometimes prevails, succeeded by close nights. In the latter
part of the month the sky is clear, and the air becomes dry
and warm at midday. In the evening there is generally a light
westerly wind and a heavy dew at night. The cold season usually
begins in the first week of November, after which, and during the
two following months, the climate maintains a tolerably uniform and
steady character. The mornings are still and cool, and frequently
cold ; and during November, but rarely afterwards, a smoky Jog
generally rests over the beds of the Yenna and the Krishna rivers
until seven or eight. In the early part of the day an easterly or
north-easterly wind springs up, and blows with varying degrees of
strength, but in general very moderately, until three or four in the
afternoon, when it either subsides into a light easterly air, or draws
to the southward, and is succeeded by a still night. In clear
weather, during the early part of the season, there is a pretty
copious deposit of dew. Towards the end of January the wind
begins to draw westward in the evening, and in February the sea
breeze generally sets in with great regularity between eleven and
one and blows through the rest of the day, rendering the climate
more agreeabje than in the colder and drier months that precede
it. Such is the prevailing character of the weather of the cold
season. But there are frequent intervals of cloudy weather, which
lasts for a week or ten days. The coldest weather is always
experienced when the sky is perfectly clear, and the wind
is either due east, or one or two points to the northward of east.
A few showers of rain generally fall in the course of the cold
months, but they are less frequent and less heavy at this station
than in the district to the east. They occur most frequently
in November, though occasionally at other times. A plentiful
fall of the late autumnal rain is not less beneficial to the climate
than it is to the crops of the cold season, and tends more
particularly to temper the dryness and freshness of the east winds.
The mean temperature in the four winter months, excluding October,
usually averages from 68° to 70°, but though this is the coolest
period of the year, the weather is not so pleasant as the monsoon
climate. The air is often unpleasantly dry, particularly when the
wind blows uninterruptedly from the east for several days in
succession, without drawing round to the southward or westward.
In the cold season the temperature sometimes varies as much as
40° in twenty-four hours.

The hills in the neighbourhood are composed of trap, capped
in some places, as at Yavteshvar, with laterite. At Satara the soil
varies in depth from two or three feet to perhaps fifteen or twenty
and consists of a soft, spongy,, easily friable murum o.verlying the
hard trap-rock.

Its situation on a hill-slope gives Satara excellent natural facilities
for drainage. The slope is generally from south-west to north-east
and the stormwater is carried o£E from the west by the largeKrineshvar
streamlet which rises in the hills beyond the Mahardara springs

Deccau.]

SATARA.

557

in the curve formed by the Yavteshvar range, whilst that from the
steep precipitous sides on the north of the fort is conveyed by six
streamlets which flow through the town and, like the Krineshvar,
eventually discharge themselves into the Yenna. All these streams
dry up after the rainy reason is over.

Sat^ra was first formally divided into seven divisions which are
supposed to date from the reign of Shahu I. (1708-1749) who is
reputed to have done much for the improvement of the town. The
names were Ravivdr or Aditvar, Somvar, Mangalvdr, Budhvdr,
Guruvar, Shukravar, and Shanvar, after the days of the week.
There was also an independent division known as the Mdchi close
under the fort.i The village of Karanja on the north and the
suburb of Raghund.thpura at its south-west corner j the quarter
called Basappa's Peth between Karanja and the town, the village
of Grodoli three quarters of a mile east, and the Sadar Bazdr within
the station have also been included within municipal limits.
The western and southern divisions, that is the Mdchi and the
Mangalvar and Shukravar Peths, are the oldest parts of the town
proper, and probably all that existed up to the time when (1660)
Shivdji the Great took up his residence in S^tara and made it
the seat of government. Each of the above divisions, though of
unequal size, was compact and had tolerably regular boundaries.
But they contained blocks or sub-divisions with distinct names.
These blocks have since become separate divisions, and when such
is the case the old names cling only to the remainder of the original
divisions from which these blocks were formed. Hence the irregular
shape and size of the present divisions of the town, which number
twenty-two and vary in extent from two to 132 acres.

Of the eight original divisions or Peths, Ravivdr Peth was the
most easterly and was almost square, running through the whole
length of the town. Next on its western side came a narrow strip,
the Guruvar, then another narrow strip divided into two parts, that
is the Budhvdr or northern and the Shanvdr or southern. West of
the Budhvdr division lay the Shukravdr division of irregular shape
and west of the Shanvar the SomvAr division, another strip, and
beyond it again, the Mangalvar division of irregular shape. To the
south of the Mangalvdr Somvar and Shanvdr divisions was the
Machi.

The old Ravivae division contains the following blocks: In the
north centre Pantacha got or Pant's shed, so called because it con-
tained the residence of the Pant Pratinidhi. It has an area of ten
acres, seventy houses, and a population of 230 mostly Government
servants. The water-supply is from two wells a small unbuilt pond
and two cisterns of Yavteshvar water. In the north-west the
Malhae Peth has an area of ten acres, 122 houses, and a population
of 872 mostly oil-pressers or Telis. The water-supply is from four
wells one tank and two cisterns. The cisterns in front of the Police
head-quarters were built in 1872 at a cost of £40 (Rs. 400) ; in front
of the jail is a native rest-house. In the centre are Rdjaspura and
Durga Peth. Rajaspuea has an area of sixteen acres, thirty-three

Chapter XIV.
Places-

SatAka.

Divisions.

1 MAohi is the common name for hamlets attached to forts.

[Bombay Gazetteer>

558

DISTRICTS.

Chapter XIV.

Places-

SAtAra .
Divisions.

houses, and a population of 152 mostly Musalmdns. DuRGA. PBTHis
the most thickly populated in the town. It has an area of two acres,
sixty houses, and a population of 250 mostly Mdngs of the late Raja's
artillery. It has one small native rest-house. The south-west corner
is named Kbshaekae's Peth and includes parts of the fort slopes. It
has an area of twenty-seven acres, 1 1 2 houses, and a population of 522
one-fourth of which are Musalmdns. The last three blocks have no
wells or cisterns, but depend for their water-supply on the neighbour-
ing sub-divisions. There remains the present RavivAr division with
an area of sixty-one acres, eighty-nine houses, and a population of 409
mostly lime-burners. The water-supply is from two reservoirs one
within the rest-house enclosure, the other opposite the treasury. It
has a large rest-house adjoining the Poona-Kolhd,pur road.

The GrUETJVAE Peth contains no separately named blocks. With an
area of twenty-seven acres, it has 579 houses, and a population of
2916 mostly silk-dyers and spinners. The water-supply is from
twenty-three wells, one of them municipal.

The ShanvIr Peth contains no separate block. With an area of
ninety-four acres, it has 777 houses and a population of 3785 about a
fourth of whom are Brdhmans. Its water-supply is from fifty-two"
wells, one of them municipal. It has two schools, one Government
branch vernacular and the other, an American Mission school.

The BudhvIe Peth contains two blocks. The PratIpganj, on
the north-west, called after Edja Pratd-psinh (1818- 1839), has an
area of twelve acres, 127 houses, and a population of 737 mostly
tailors basket-makers and coppersmiths. It has two private anglo-
vernacular schools. Sadashiv Peth on the south has an area of
ten acres, 193 houses, and a population of 706 mostly Musalmdns
and Brdhmans. The water-supply is from fourteen wells and a
reservoir. It contains the meat and vegetable markets. There
remains the present BudhvaePeth with an area of thirty-four acres,
214 houses, and a papulation of 932 mostly Musalmans and Sangars
or wool traders. The water-supply is from fourteen wells and a
reservoir. It has two private Marathi schools and a native rest-
house built by the municipality in 1874 at a cost of £122 (Rs. 1220).

The SomvAe Peth contains the YMo Gopal block, a narrow strip
cut off from its south-west corner. It has an area of forty-seven
acres, 193 houses, and a population of 1084 one-fourth of them
Brdhmans. The water-supply is from thirty wells, one of which is
municipal. The remainder or present Shanvae Peth has an area of
twenty-six acres, 355 houses, and a population of 1811 mostly brass
and copper smiths and dancing-girls. The water-supply is from
fifteen wells and a large reservoir. It has two vernacular schools
one Government and the other private, and one i-est-house built in
1858.

The Shukeavae Peth contained a block at its south-east corner,
the present BhavIni Peth, which contains the old and new palaces
and principal square of the city. It has an area of thirty-four acres,
167 houses, and a population of 1137 mostly traders and shopkeepers.
The water-supply is from nineteen wells, two reservoirs, and one
fountain. This is the busiest of all the Peths and contains the High

Deccan]

satIea.

559

School, District and Subordinate Judge's courts, head-quarter offices
of _ the Assistant and Deputy Collectors and Magistrates, and the
principal shops and banks of the town. The present ShukeavIk
Peth has an area of 132 acres, ] 82 houses, and 941 people mostly the
poorer classes. Water is supplied from two reservoirs, a large pond
and twenty-eight wells one of them municipal. This division
contains the Jalmandir or water-pavilion and some schools.

The -west portion of this Peth was separately named Kdnupura
but has not become a distinct division. The western and larger
half of the old MangalvAe Peth contained the following blocks now
separate divisions : Vyaneatpura, including a small block called
DhavalpueAj has an area of twenty-six acres, 130 houses, and a
population of 963 one-half of whom are well-to-do Brdhmans.
Water is supplied from thirty wells and two reservoirs, one of the
Maratha government and the other municipal built in 1862 at a
cost of £67 (Rs. 670). There are two vernacular schools, one
private and the other Government. South of Vyankatpura lies Chi-
MANPURA with an area of sixty-five acres, 85 houses, and a popula-
tion of 520 more than half of whom are Brdhmans. Water is supplied
from two reservoirs, one for low castes, and twenty-one private wells.
East of Chimanpura lies Ramacha Got with an area of forty -two
aci'es, 208 houses, and a population of 1250 mostly Gujar^ti money-
lenders, jewellers, and lime-burners. Water is supplied from twenty-
three private wells, and there is one Government vernacular school.
There remains the present Mangalvar Division with an area of
eighty-six acres, 423 houses, and a population of 2530 one-third of
whom are well-to-do Brdhmans mostly moneylenders. Water is
supplied from two large ponds and sixty-nine wells, three of them
municipal. There are two rest-houses in this division, one of them
municipal and one private.

The Machi Peth contains no separate blocks. It has an area of
twenty -seven acres, fifty-seven houses, and a population of 250 mostly
labourers. The water-supply is from six wells and seven reservoirs.

Basappa's Peth is a detached sub-division about two hundred yards
north of the Gueuvar Peth. It has an area of two acres, forty-five
houses, and a population of 195 mostly coppersmiths.

RaghunIthpuea, the sonth-west corner of Karanja, has an area
of eleven acres, ninety-five houses, and a population of 444 mostly
gardeners, tanners, and hide-dealers.

Karanja Village, with an areaof about half a square mile, has 206
houses, a school, and a population of 2261 principally cultivators.
It is the site of Aurangzeb's camp when he besieged Sd,tAra fort in
1700. To the village is attached a hamlet inhabited by washermen.

GoDOLi Village, with an area of about half a square mile, has 181
houses and a population of 1217.

The Sadae Bazar, which belongs to the station but is under the
Municipality, has an area of twenty-eight acres, 343 houses, and a
population of 1954 mostly Parsis Musalmans and Mhdrs. Water is
supplied from seven wells. There are four private rest-house3_and
four schools three of them private and one Mission,

Chapter XIV
FlaceS'

SAtAea.
Divisions.

[Boml)ay Gazetteer,

560

DISTRICTS.

Chapter XIV.
Places.

SAtaba.

Boada.

Tunnel.

Houta.

The 1872 census showed for SAtara a population of 25,603 of whom
21,824 or 85-24 per cent were Hindus, 3176 or 12'40 per cent were
MusalmAns, 549 Christians, and 54 Others. The 1881 census showed
an increase .of 3425 or 29,028 of whom 24,809 or 85*47 per cent were
Hindus, 3596 or 12-38 per cent Musalmans, 527 Christians, forty-eight
P^rsis, and forty-eight Others.^

A large portion of the town was originally laid out by the late
Majoi--Greneral Briggs a former Resident at the court of the late Rdja,
and broad roads ruaning from south to north and east to west
■were constructed as the principal thoroughfares. Twenty-six miles
of made roads are kept out of municipal funds.

The principal outlets from the town are, one at the post office
where a large rest-house is situated on the Poona-Belgaum mail
road, and whence branch roads, to Pandharpur by Mdhuli and
Koregaon, to Tasgaon by Rahimatpur the old Poena road, another by
the tunnel at the south-west angle of the town which communicates
with Parli fort and by a cross road with the Belgaum road further
south ; and a third by the road running north from the Bhavani Peth
which joins the new Poena and Mahabaleshvar roads about a mile
from the town. From the post office a large sti-eet runs west to
the Bhavani Peth and another along the south of the town to the
tunnel. From this another street branches west to the BhavSni
Peth. This is the broadest street in the town and contains the
principal shops. Another large street runs parallel to this a little
further south but has not much traffic. There are two principal
streets running from south to north, the one from the Adalat vada
to the last street mentioned and so on through the length of the
town, the other from the tunnel turning to the Bhavani Peth.
From the Bhavtini Peth also branch two main streets, the one
northwards to the Poena road and the other westwards through
the Mangalvar and Yyankatpura divisions.

The tunnel is cut through the base of an offshoot of the hill to
the south of the town for securing communication with the roads
leading to Kardd in the south-east and to the fort of Parli in the
south-west, the burial place of Rdmdas SvAmi the spiritual guide of
Shivaji. It was built in 1855 soon after the death of the last
RAja of SAtdra, under the direction of Captain P. L. Hart. A
tablet built at the entrance shows that the tunnel was completed
in 1855 at a cost of £2900 (Rs. 29,000) when Mr. Ogilvy was
Commissioner of Sdtd,ra.

Tho city has 4084 houses of which ninety-eight are of the
better sort and 3986 of the poorer sort. The better class of houses
are, as a general rule, built upon a plinth of well chiselled cut-
stones with a superstructure of burnt bricks and roofed with
good seasoned wood sometimes with an upper storey. The outer
-walla of the principal houses of this class are strongly built with
a gateway leading into an open court-yard with a veranda run-
ning all round the main building. The rooms and the upper
stories have generally windows facing the court-yard. The roofa
of the houses are invariably covered with the flat brick tiles

I Diatribution details of the city population are given above pp. 557-559,

Oeccau,]

SATARA.

561

made in the town. The front storeys have in some cases balconies
facing the roads which add to the appearance of the building.

The houses of the poorer sort have generally a coarse rubble plinth
and are built with sun-dried bricks^ the walls being in many cases
plastered with mud. They have only one groundfloor, and when
they have an upper storey or loft it is generally set apart as a lumber
room. They have the doors generally opening into the streets,
and in some instances a row of small windows. The ventilation of
these houses is very defective as it is only from the low doorway
opening into the street by which air finds admittance into the
house in the daytime, while during the night the door being
closed, ventiktion is obstructed. All these buildings are also
covered with tiles. The internal arrangement of these houses is
generally regulated according to the social position, means, and the
religious prejudices of the owners. Houses of the better sort,
belonging to well-to-do Brdhmans Prabhus and MardthAs, contain
generally a separate god-room, cook-room, sleeping room, store-
room, and a hall, the hall being generally more spacious and open
to light than the other apartments. The rooms for the female
members of the family and bathing rooms are also provided for in
the rear of the building. Privies cattle-sheds and stables are
detached from the main building. Poor houses cannot afford such
conveniences, but when the owner of such a house happens to be a
Brdhman these objects are attained by the use of reed or bamboo
partition walls plastered with mud. If however the house is
sufficiently large, mud walls are built to form the requisite number
of rooms for accommodation. Some of the newly built houses have
been provided with means of ventilation and the old practice of
carving the figures of animals or any mythological characters on
the wood work of the building is dying out. Except the figures of
such mythological characters as are considered both devotional and
virtuous, coloured paintings on the walls are replaced by yellow
blue and pink paints.

The houses of Muhammadans have the halls and the female
apartments more spacious and well ventilated, the rest of the
internal arrangements of the buildings being the same as observed
in Hindu houses. The Pdrsis, who form but a very small portion
of the community have their' houses built entirely after European
fashion.

Sdtdra is throughout the year the seat of the judge and civil
surgeon, and during the rains of the Collector, the assistant and
deputy collectors, the police superintendent, district forest officer
and district engineers for irrigation and public works. It is also the
head-quarters of the chief revenue and police offices of the Satdra
sub-division and is provided with a municipality, church, jail, court-
house, civil hospital, high school, civil jail, post and telegraph offices,
the offices of the staff officer, and of the deputy commissary and the
barrack Serjeant, a travellers' bungalow, and a fort.

On the 1st of August 1853 Sdtara was constituted a municipality,

in 1875 declared a town municipality under Act VI. of 1873, and a

city municipality since March 1884. To the east and north-east of

the town are the residency and civil station in which European and

B 1282—71

Chapter XIV.

Places.

SXtAha.
Houses.

MunieipaXity.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

562

DISTRICTS.

Chapter XIV. Native troops are quartered whilst the Sadar Bazdr of the station
Places. forms the district municipal quarters or peth.

SatAra. I^ 1882-83, besides a credit balance of £2589 (Rs. 25,890) and a

' loan of £10,000(Rs. 1,00,000) taken during the year, the municipality-

had a net income of £5127 (Rs. 61,270) or a taxation of about
3s. 6^d. (Rs. If) a head. This income is chiefly drawn from octroi.
During the same year the expenditure amounted to £9308 (Rs.93,080)
of which £5000 (Rs. 50,000) were spent on buildings for the city
water-supply.

Water Supply. The water-supply of SdtAra is chiefly derived from three sources

Yavteshvar, MahArdara, and wells. The first is from the summit
of the Yavteshvar hill where an intercepting masonry channel was
made during the Mardtha rule along the northern ridge which
catches the water from about thirty springs as they issue along the
verge of the hill. The channel passes along the eastern face and
that of the dividing ridge and over the tunnel along the side of the
fort and is distributed from the highest point of the town near the
BoMg Mahal. It supplies eighty-seven public fountains and dipping
wells and ten private cisterns. The water is extremely pure, but
runs short during the hot weather (March- May) when it is most
needed.

The second is known as the Mahardara and is taken from three
masonry ponds in the valley of the Krishneshvar stream in the
Yavteshvar recesses. The water is let out by sluices into a channel
to the large pond in the MangalvAr Peth known as Shripatrav
Pratinidhi's Tank and built by the Pant Pratinidhi of that name
about 1730. From this pond the water is raised by a Persian wheel
usually worked by two bullocks and supplied by channels to the
western quarters of the town, the Jalmandir or water pavilion and
the old and new palace reservoirs, and a dipping well close to
the town library. It is estimated that the Yavteshvar and
Mahd,rdara supplies together yield about twenty gallons a head,
except in April May and June when they sink down to three or four
gallons a head or even less. The public dipping wells are raised
stone cisterns about three or four feet deep and are divided into
compartments for the exclusive use of different castes of Hindus
and for Musalmdns. The Mhars and M^ngs are not allowed to
enter the enclosures where high caste Hindus draw water ; and
in some quarters of the town until lately no provision was made
by which they could obtain it. Now at certain fountains men are
employed by the municipality to distribute the water to the low caste
people outside the enclosure and at other places separate cisterns
outside have been provided for their use. Besides the above there
are 425 wells which however nearly all run dry in the hot weather
and seven ponds the water of which is mostly undrinkable. Of the
various ponds and wells the following are worth special mention.
The dipping well adjoining the civil hospital in the GuruvAr Peth
is a fine bit of work and the principal source of supply of the
Ya,vt6shvar water. One of the ponds in the Budhv^r Peth known
as the Divdn's Tank is of good masonry, 100 feet long and 10 feet
deep with a broad flight of steps. It was built by the father of the

Deccau]

sAtara.

563

present T%a Sdheb Div^n. To the east of Shukravd,r Peth is
Bdjirdv's wellj a fine bit of masonry built by Bdjirav the second
Peshwa (1720-1740). It has a flight of sixty steps and is eighty
feet deep and about forty feet in diameter. The Badd,mi well in
the same division behind the Jalmandir or water pavilion is a
curious structure so called from its almond-like shape. In the
middle of the Shanvir Peth is a large pond called the Imampuri.
It was originally hewn out as a quarry which was afterwards
abandoned and when water collected in it used as a pond. A
parapet has been erected and its sides have been repaired from time
to time. But it usually runs dry in the hot weather.

Nightsoil is removed from the town under the superintendence
of two inspectors. There are two iron and eight wooden night-
soil carts for its removal and they make seven trips during the
night. The filth is taken to the Genda Mai, an open space to the
north, where it is stored in 330 pits each ten feet long by seven broad
and six deep dug in the ground. Here are also removed and buried
all dead animals.

There are two open market-places and two market buildings.
The Monday market is held in the southern half of the Bhavdni
square. On Thursdays and Saturdays it is held in a square to the
south of the lower road about a quarter of a mile west of the jail.
At all these markets grain, and at the Thursday and Saturday
bazars livestock, are brought for sale. On Tuesday mornings a
small rice market is held in the Bhavdni square.

The permanent markets are in Saddshiv Peth and consist of three
parallel ranges of buildings, l^hey are on the right or north of the
lower road about 160 yards beyond the second open market place.
There are two rows of shops running east to west about 450 feet
long separated by wooden partitions. They are flanked by two
smaller rows running north to south about a hundred feet long.

In the middle of the space are two plinths, one covered, about 150
feet long and divided lengthwise by partition walls running east
and west. On these the vegetable sellers sit and the shops are
rented from the municipality by traders of various kinds but
principally in grain cloth and hardware. To the north is a large
open space of about 1200 square yards usually occupied by Dhangars
with sheep for sale. Fifty yards north-west of these markets is
the meat market, a space of about 27 yards by 14 enclosed with
buildings opening inwards and divided into two sections by an
open passage six yards wide running east and west. This contains
the meat stalls. All stalls and shops are rented from the
municipality. The buildings are all plain brick with tiled roofs and
raised on stone plinths about five feet high and are without any
architectural pretensions.

Most of the vegetable and fruit gardens are to the north of the
Budhvd,r Peth between Sd,tdra and Karanja and are worked by the
Mails of Raghunathpura. Behind the old and new palaces is the
Shikhri Bdgh, a palm and plantain garden in former days used by
the Zenana people of the Maratha Rdjas and now belonging to
Ab^ S^heb Bhousle. There are other private gardens formerly

Chapter XIV.
Places-

SItAsa.
Water Supply.

Nightsoil.

Markets.

Gardens.

[Bombay Qazetteet

564

DISTRICTS.

Chapter XIV.

Places-

SatIka.
Gardens,

Objects.

AddUt Vdda.

Rang Mahdl.

Sachiv'e Mansion.

belonging to the Rajds of Satara and now to Abd Saheb at Khed
two miles north-east and at Khondiye two miles north-west.

The station has a fair collection of roses and other plants at the
recreation ground, while there is also a Government recreation ground
garden supported partly by voluntary subscriptions whence plants
and European vegetables are obtainable. The supply greatly varies
owing chiefly to unsteadiness of demand and frequent change in the
management.

As above explained most of the ancient town was under the fort
walls. According to tradition Shivaji used to reside principally in
the fort. He and his successors used the old Addlat vdda as a
court for the transaction of business. The Peshwds afterwards
appropriated it entirely to their own use. The Rang Mahdl was
used as a pleasure house and on the shoulder of the fort was the
Ranis' pleasure house, principally used by them for witnessing the
Dasara processions. Neither these nor any other of the old buildings
seena to have been remarkable for elaborate carving or for
architectural decorations. The rooms were low and the court-yards
the reverse of spacious. Nothing of an imposing nature seems to
have been attempted till Rdja Pratdpsinh built the old palace in 1824.

The Addlat vdda is situated at the base of the fort walls not
far from the post office junction on the road to the tunnel. Its
plinth is about ten feet high on the outside and was so built in order
to obtain a level basement as the slope of the hill is considerable.
The gateway is plain ; a flight of a dozen steps leads to the court
which is as usual rectangular about 60 feet square surrounded by
buildings, mostly inhabited only in the upper storeys, the lower
being long verandas opening on to the courts. Behind this is a
solid block of buildings. The whole covers about 225 feet by 160.
The civil courts were held in this building till the new palace was
appropriated by Government in 1876.

The Rang Mahdl, about 220 yards east of the Addlat vada, was
originally a rectangular building facing north about 100 feet long
and 50 feet wide on an enclosure 150 feet wide. ■ It was burnt in
1874 when the high school which had been held in it since 1849
was transferred to the old palace. Shdhu the first died at the Rang
Mahdl which therefore must date from at least as early as his reign.
Directly in front of it is a large enclosure known as the mansion of
the Sendpati or commander-in-chief. The walls have all been
pulled down since its confiscation at the banishment of the Senapati
with the Raja Pratapsinh. The enclosure was nearly^350 feet square.

North of this is a rectangular building with two wings which
used to be the elephant stable in the days when a number were
required for state purposes. North of this again is the mdmlatddr's
hacheri or office. It consists of the eastern half of a mansion which
originally belonged to the Shirkes, one of the most ancient Maratha
families, and was confiscated by Government after the mutiny in
1857 on proof of the complicity of the elder Shirke.

About 220 yards east of the Addlat vdda and about forty yards
down the first turn to the right, on the left hand side of the street
is the Sachiv's mansion. The block of buildings occupies about 150

Deccan]

SATARA.

565

feet square. There is a garden with a few plantains at the back
but thei-e is little remarkable in the mansion.

About a hundred and twenty yards beyond the turn to the
Sachiv's mansion is that of the Daphle another of the principal
feuda,tories and chief of Jath. It is of about the same size as the
Sachiv's mansion and has a plantain and palm garden to the north.
The chief of late has been residing pretty constantly in this mansion.
About eighty yards north of the Sachiv's mansion along the same
street is Natu's mansioDj now belonging to the descendants of
BalvantrAv Nd,ta, one of the principal adherents of the Rdja Shdhaji,
who was principally concerned in unmasking the plots of the Raja
Pratdpsinh against the British Government from whom he received
handsome rewards for his loyalty. This mansion is noteworthy as
being much used in former days by the Peshwds as their private
residence.

The Pant Pratinidhi's mansion is situated in the Pant's Got, and
is not in any way remarkable. Adjoining it in the south is a large
set of stables. The treasury and account oflS.ces with those of the
permanent head-quarter Magistrate and Deputy Collector are situated
in a block of buildings known as the Hajiri bungalow. They are
north of the Poena road close to the post office junction. The
treasury is in a two-storeyed block in the centre. The other offices
are in buildings lining the sides of the enclosure. A broad
causeway leads on to the large open space forming the present race
course. The name of this set of buildings is taken from the fact
that it was the head-quarters and muster or hajiri ground of the
army in Mardtha times. The buildings occupy a space of about
200 feet square. The present buildings were erected by Davlat
Khdn, the commandant of the cavalry or risdla under the last two
Rajds, out of savings accumulated from the sale of stable manure.

The present police head-quarters are in a block of buildings
directly opposite the jail and about equal in size to the Hajiri
bungalow. They were originally the head-quarters of the cavalry
belonging to .the last two Rdjds.

On a shoulder of the fort-hill was situated a small palace used by the
Rd,nis as a pleasure-house, and principally for viewingthe Dasara sports.
These sports were one of the principal institutions under Mardtha rule.
They are held in honour of the slaughter of a demon named Mahishdsur,
by the devi who was created by Shiv at the intercession of the
minor deities on account of the devastations caused by the demon.
This demon had the form of a buffalo centaur. The ceremonies
therefore commenced with the slaughter of a buffalo before the
shrine of Bhav^ni, the patron goddess of the Mardthas, the fatal
blow being given by the Raja himself. But first the buffalo is
taken in procession round the city very much in the character of
the Jewish scapegoat as a victim to carry away the sins and evils
bodily or spiritual of the city. His slaughter is an act of merit,
though no Hindu will eat his flesh which is given to the outcastes.
On the same day an unlimited number of sheep and goats are also
sacrificed in honour of Bhav^ni. Great veneration is paid to horses
who are decorated in fantastic fashion and also form a principal

Chapter XIV.

Places.

SAtIba.

Objects.

Dwphh's Mansion,

Pant Pratinidhi's
Mansion,

Dasara Sports.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

566

DISTRICTS.

Chapter XIV.

Places-

SAtIea.

Objects.

Dasara Sports.

Water Pavilions.

part of the procession. The forehead of every horse was anointed
with the blood of the sheep or goat, and after that the flesh was
eaten by the grooms or horsekeepers. The next ceremony after
the slaughter of the buffalo, which took place generally towards
evening, used to be the great procession headed by the Rdja and
followed by all his nobles. In this procession it was a point of
honour that the nobles should bear all their insignia and come in
the highest state for which they were entitled. For instance, a
noble entitled to sit in a pdlkhi would be bound so to appear, and
his appearance on horseback would be disrespectful. About the
neighbourhood of the Hajiri Bungalow were planted numerous apta
trees typical again of the demon who was slain on the day. The
procession over, the Raja struck the first tree and his followers the
rest. The leaves of the tree were then gathered by the populace as
the spoil of the demon. They were considered typical of gold pieces,
and were afterwards given to friends as complimentary presents
and wishes of good luck. The day terminated with the chief darbdr
or state assemblage of the year on which offerings were made to the
reigning prince who in his turn bestowed dresses of honour titles
and rewards.' The only other buildings of Maratha times worth
mentioning are the Par^s Khd,na or store-house of camp equipage
and the pdga or Raja's stables both adjoining the large square.

In the Shukravdr Peth are two water paTilions or jalmandirs, the
old and the new. The old pavilion, which was laid out by Rdja
Pratdpsinh in 1824-25, is a plain one-storeyed building and had one
room of which the walls and ceilings were covered with looking-glass.
It is now occupied by the local municipality by whom the building
and the pleasant garden attached to it have been repaired at some
outlay. A pretty little pond between the municipal office and the
garden adds to the attraction of the pla.ce. The new water pavilion
owned by Aba S^heb Bhonsle was laid out by Rdja Pratdpsinh's
brother much about the same time as the old building. It has a
large and beautiful garden divided into two parts, the upper or
western and the lower or eastern. The upper part contains the
water pavilion, which is two-storeyed and built on a pavement in the
centre of a small tank. It has also a mirror-room of two apartments,
one containing pictures of native and Anglo-Indian celebrities by
native artists. The walls and ceiling of the other are completely
covered with mirrors. The garden contains a large number of cocoa
and betel palms and other fruit trees besides a good number of
flower plants. ^It is intersected with parallel paths paved with well
chiselled stones. The lower or eastern portion of the garden contains
a pleasure-house. The buildings and gardens are up to the present
time well taken care of and are frequented by people of all classes.
The large open ground to the south of the garden, but within the
enclosure of the jalmandir, is used during the rainy and cold seasons
for foot races and athletic sports, a favourite amusement with the
surviving Maratha, nobles and retainers. These sports attract many
wrestlers from N^gpur Baroda and Gwalior.

1 Details are given below in Appendix D.

Dcccan.]

sAtIra.

567

The palace in the Bhavani Peth, which is a good specimen of
native architecture, is a four-cornered block of buildings, occupying
several acres of ground and the large open space in front admits
of its being seen to advantage. There is nothing very imposing
about the facade, the white plastered surface of which is only
broken by numerous large windows and their wooden frame-work.
A low veranda on wooden pillars runs along the ground floor.
There is some carving about the wood-work, but it is too
minute to produce any general effect on the building. The
palace is in two blocks, one block called the old and another called
the new. The old palace built in 1824 by Eaja Pratapsinh can be
seen to adva.ntage from a distance of more than a mile in the east,
■while its terrace at the top fifty feet from the ground commands a
full and extensive view of the whole town up to the base of the
surrounding hills. Its right wing contains a large cistern for the
use of the inmates of the palace. The front hall has two balconies
on either side of the gateway from which the chiefs and the royal
family used to look at the sports in the large open space below.
This palace is now occupied by the local high school and was used
as a relief house during the 1876-77 famine. The other block of the
building that is the new palace is an improvement upon the old one
and was built by Edja Shd,hdji in 1838 to supersede the Rang Mahdl,
a building of less pretensions immediately under the fort. A large
portion of thebuildingcontainingfifty-two rooms consisted of women's
quarters. The most distinguishing feature of the building is its solid
structure. A gateway leads into a court-yard surrounded by a broad
colonnade. The walls are covered with paintings of mythological
subjects and hunting scenes. The audience hall .at the upper end on
the western side of the courtyard dedicated to Bhavani, the patron
goddess of the MardthAs, was built by Rdja Sh^haji in 1 844. The
hall is eighty-three feet long forty-five broad and twenty-five high.
The roof is supported on two parallel longitudinal rows of teak beams,
sixteen in each row with scolloped horse-shoe arches between the
pillars. The pillars during the Raja's time were covered with tapestry
consisting of rich brocade with profuse gold embroidery and spangles,
while the sides of the hall were hung with costly materials of brilliant
coloured Ghazni silk. The hall is surrounded on three sides by rows
of fountains, which when in play throw up jets of water nearly
twenty-five feet high. In a small but richly carved room opening
from the colonnade was the royal throne. Near the throne-room is
another in which Bhavani, the far-famed sword of Shivdji, was kept.
In the time of the lateRAja, during the Navrdtra holidays in Ashvin
(September-October), the shrine of Bhavd,ni in the palace was much
thronged with visitors from the town and the district especially by
the relatives, dependents, and retainers of the Maratha nobles.
In 1876 the palace was taken possession of by the British
Government and the audience hall, together with a part of the
colonnade on either side, is now occupied by the courts of the
district and subordinate judges and of the higher district officers.
The hall is still used as an audience and reception hall on occasions
of grand state ceremonies.

The charitable institution called the Frere Annachhatra or
Almshouse was founded on the 17th of September 1854 under

Chapter XIV.

Places.

SatAba.
Objects.

Palaces,

Frere
Almshouse,

[Bombay Qazettecr,

568

DISTRICTS.

Chapter XIV.

Places.

SAtAba.

Objects.

Frere

Almshouse,

Jail.

Government authority to commemorate the services rendered by the
late Sir Henry Bartle Edward Frere when Commissioner of Sdtdra
between 1848 and 1 850. A fund was raised by voluntary contributions
by the estate-holders bankers Grovernment servants and pensioners.
The amount to the credit of the fund stood on 1st January 1884
at £1106 2s. 4|d (Rs. 11,061 as. 3). Out of the interest of the
fund, which amounted in 1883 to £44 3s. 8d. (Rs. 441 as. 13^), grain
of the value of 4s. (Rs. 2) is distributed every Sunday Tuesday and
Thursday morning among the blind, the lame, and the helpless. At
a place to the east of the town and north of the Pavai Ndka is
the tree near which the charity distribution takes pjace. The tree
has a stone-work or par round it bearing a Mard,thi and an English
inscription. The English inscription runs :

"This Testimonial in conjunction with a charitable Institution
has been erected in the year 1865 by subscription of
Ja'girda'rs and others as a respectful tribute of gratitude and
memory of His late Highness Sha'ha'ji Ka'ja of Sa'ta'ra and of
H, B. B. Frere Esquire, the British Commissioner, Sa'ta'ra."

The number of persons receiving grain every Sunday Tuesday and
Thursday varies from seventy-five to a hundred.

A large building in Shanvir Peth, built originally for a jail by the
late Raja, was used for that purpose till 1864. Owing to its defective
arrangements a new jail covering ten acres of land was built in 1864
in Malhdr Peth On the site occupied by the late Raja's arsenals,
opposite the police head-quarters. The jail buildings were built by
a gang of nearly 150 Chinese convicts. It is a fourth class jail,
accommodating 125 persons or one prisoner to 648 cubic feet of
space. The jail is more or less overcrowded the number of
prisoners in ordinary times amounting to 400. Large numbers have
recently been employed on extramural work, thereby decreasing
the pressure on the central jail. There are two barracks for male
prisoners running from south to north and facing each other capable
of holding thirty prisoners each. The female ward, which is a
detached building, provides accommodation for fourteen prisoners
though the number often varies from thirty to forty. In addition
to these are fifteen cells,^ each capable of holding nearly ten
prisoners if necessary. There is a small detached building in the
jail used as a hospital with beds for fifteen patients under the charge
of a second class hospital assistant. Within the jail is one cistern
supplied with cooking and drinking water from the Mahdrdara
reservoir and an unbuilt pond which serves as a reservoir for rain
and spring water ordinarily used for watering the jail garden, and
in the hot season when the supply at the cistern is generally scanty,
for cooking and washing. The pond is the result of quarrying for the
outer jail walls. Within the walls is a small garden where country
and European vegetables are grown, the former for the use of the
prisoners and the latter for the station. The other buildings are
the oflBce of the jail superintendent who is the civil surgeon and
the manufactory. Among the articles turned out by convict labour
are tapes, ropes, trouser cloth, towels, napkins, tablecloth, .blankets,

1 Of the fifteen cells four are for under- trial prisoners, four for condemned prisoners,
two for Europeans, four for boys, and one for other purposes.

Deccan.]

SATARA.

569

and cane work. The number of convicts in the jail on the 31st of
December 1882 was eighty-four. Daring the year 1883, 297 convicts
were admitted and 311 were discharged. The construction of a new
]ail has been sanctioned by Government.

The Civil Hospital is situated in the Durga Peth on the south
of the large thoroughfare connecting Bhavdni Peth with the tunnel
road. The enclosure covers some 2000 square yards and contains
an in-patients' ward and dispensing room on the south, hospital
assistants' _ quarters on the eastern and women's ward on the
northern side. Besides the Civil Surgeon who attends daily there
is a resident hospital assistant. The hospital was established in
1840 and in 1883 treated 438 in-patients and 9047 out patients at a
cost of £1219 4s. (Rs. 12,192).

The Municipal Office is on the north-east corner of the new palace,
and consists of the old Jalmandir. It is conveniently situated
adjoining the most busy quarters of the town. The library is at the
south-east corner of the Bhavdni aquare. It has 1761 English
Mardthi and Sanskrit books and subscribes to the daily papers
vernacular and Anglo-Indian and is much used as a reading room
by educated natives. Several leading English periodicals and
weeklies are also taken. This institution also serves as a circulating
library to the Europeans of the station who subscribe pretty generally.

The High School is situated in the old palace and is attended by
among others the sons of the Pant Pratinidhi and Pant Sachiv.
There are nine other schools eight of them Mardthi and one Hin-
dustani. Of the eight Mardthi schools one is for girls. These ten
schools had, in 1882-83, 1523 names on the rolls and an average
attendance of 1241. Since 1874-75 the High School has passed,
on an average, five pupils at the matriculation examination.
Besides these ten G-overnment schools, the city has an aided and
inspected school with 102 names on the rolls and an average
attendance of 82 pupils.

Of the ninety-seven temples, built some by the Satdra chiefs and
some by private persons, forty-four are in four divisions, thirteen in
the Shanvar Peth, twelve in the Manglv^r Peth, eleven in the
GuruvAr Peth, and eight in Vyankatpura. The remaining fifty-
three are distributed in the other divisions except Durga and
Rajaspura which contain no temples. The two oldest temples of
MAruti in the Guruvd,r Peth and of AmbAbdi in the Mangalv^r
Peth are two hundred years old. None of these temple buildings
are of any beauty or antiquity.^ The most patronised is the
Krishneshvar temple in the extreme west of the city in
Shukravdr division. It consists of a plain stone shrine and
vestibule with a hall on wooden pillars and a rectangular court
lined with cloisters. There are regular services and expositions
of the sacred books and the daily attendance is considerable. The
temples of Bhuleshvar and Ganpati in the Mangalvdr Peth near

Chapter XIV.
Places.

SAtAra.

Objects,

OivU Hospital.

Municipal
Office.

Schools.

Temples.

1 The Sitira city temples are so poor because Mdhuli three miles to the east is the
place of devotion for Sdt^ra and contains all the best temples. Details are given above
under Miihuli pp. 516 - 519,
B 1282—72

[Bombay Gazetteer,

570

DISTRICTS.

Chapter XIV.

Places.

SItara.
Objects,
Temples.

Mosques.

Church.

Station.

the large pond and of Rani further south, are also large and much
patronised. On the first day and full-moon of every month, ou
the Mondays and especially the last Monday of Shrdvan- or July-
August troops of people are seen on the road to Mdhuli.
Many also pass this way up a Saturday on their way to the sacred
hill of Jaranda seven miles distant. To Mdhuli also are carried
the dead of all who can afford it in order that the bodies may be
burnt near the sacred Krishna and the ashes carried away by the
stream. Of the ninety-seven temples twenty-nine receive from the
British Government yearly cash allowances varviner from 2s. to
£21 (Rs. 1-210).

Of the nineteen mosques six are found each in GuruvAr and
Shanvdr Peths and the remaining seven in the Mangalvdr, Eavivar,
and Malhdr Peths and in the Ramachd,got Rd,]aspura and Durga Peth.
The costliest of these mosques is in the Durga built at a cost of
£10,000 (Rs. 1,00,000) by the late Raja Pratdpsinh at the request
of Amina a dancing girl. It is a plain domed whitewashed building
aboiit fifty feet by forty and fifteen feet high. The building fronts
east with four Saracenic arches, another row running down the
centre of the building. The arches are ornamented in floral patterns
of tolerable workmanship.

Immediately behind the southern block of market shops in the
Sadashiv Peth is the American Mission church. Regular services
and preaching are held in the church and open air daily and on
Snndays. The mission has a school about fifty yards north of the
post office.

The station, immediately east of the town, has an area of three and
a half square miles. It is situated very pleasingly on high ground
about a mile from the right bank of the Yenna at the point where
the stream reaches the more open vale of the Krishna into which it
falls two miles lower down at Mahuli. Owing to the less confined
position of the station, the amphitheatre of hills rising from the
borders of the two rivers are seen to much greater advantage than
from the town. Some of the hills in question, among which Chandan
Vaudan, Jaranda, Tavteshvar, and the hill fort of Siitara stand
prominent, show in their most striking forms the distinctive features
of the secondary trap formation and give a character of peculiar
beauty to the scenery of the Sdtdra valley. These hills form most .
striking objects in the landscape from their boldness and variety in
shape and colour. They environ the station on the north, south,
and west in distances varying from two to eight or nine miles and
reach heights approximately from 1000 to 1300 feet above the plain,
the forms most general in them being table-shaped and hog-backed.

The surface of the station is well wooded and contains a large
extent of grazing ground cut by several natural streamlets
carrying the drainage into the Yenna. The soil immediately
round is very shallow and consists chiefly of a light friable yellowish
red murum formed from the decomposed trap with very little
alluvial soil. But the black mould gradually deepens as it approaches
the Yenna. From the rapidity with which the porous substratum
of the soil soaks moisture and from the sloping nature of the ground

Deccan.l

sAtIra.

571

the surface very soon dries after the heaviest monsoon rains. There
is very little watered land around and the neighbourhood is free
from malarious influences. The station is most excellently provided
with roads which intersect it in all directions and in many places are
beautifully shaded. The old Poena road over the Nira bridge skirts
the camp limits on the north-west and the road to Kolhapur^ which is
part of the Poona-Belgaum roadj skirts its southern boundary above
which lies Godoli village which is included in the camp limits.
The road to Rahimatpur, which is part of the Sdtdra-Belgaum roadj
runs south-west through the station, while that to Mahuli which is
part of the Satdra-Pandharpur road, passes nearly due east through
its upper part. In the hot weather the aspect of the station is bare
and brown as is inevitable. But the abundant rainfall in the
monsoon clothes the surrounding hills and large open spaces with
brilliant green and gives a park-like appearance to the whole
landspape. There are few who will not be struck with the unusual
verdure of Sdtd,ra during the rains as compared with most Indian
stations. This lasts usually well over October and seldom entirely
fades till late in November, when occasionally it is restored by a
late fall of rain. The surrounding country is not good riding and
there is but little game. But the drives are excellent. E'ew views
are more beautiful than those of the Krishna at Md,huli and Vaduth,
and of the Urmodi valley looking either south or south-west from
the khind, a small opening in the hills three miles south along the
Poona road.

The magnificent avenues of trees on the old Poona road are a
sight in themselves, and delightful views of the hills are to be had
up the Yenna valley by driving either along the Mahdbaleshvar road
as far as the shoulder which runs out to the north-east of the town or
alono- the new Poona road to the Yenna bridge. The race course
too is a fine open space whence the country round is excellently
viewed.

The station water-supply is nearly all from wells. It runs very
low in the hot weather. Daulatkhdn^s Tank near the travellers'
bungalow and the new well in the Godoli pond last the longest.
The best drinking water is to be had from the cistern near the
Haiiri bungalow which contains Yavteshvar water. The military
cantonment of Satdra was transferred to the civil authorities and
the municipality in 1867 when it became a civil station. The troops
at present quartered consist of two companies of Her Majesty's
European Regiment and a Native Infantry Regiment.

Proceeding down the Mdhuli road from the post office junction
the first building is the Executive Engineer's office on the right.
Two hundred and fifty yards further on, also on the right hand, is
the Collector's bungalow and offices known as the Residency.
Immediately east of the Residency enclosure are several blocks of
barracks and in the north is a separate block conspicuous from its
corrugated iron roof. Just before reaching the Residency gate a
turn north is reached ; a hundred and fifty yards down this road are
the public gardens, the recreation ground of the European officers
and their families. Another 150 yards lead to the European hospital,
a low thatched building. The same distance further on is the mess

Chapter XIV.
Places.

SatAra.
Station.

Water Suppljf-

Objects.

[Bombay Gazetteeri

57^

DISTRICTS.

Chapter XIV.
Places-

Satara.
Objects.

Church.

Chapels.

Cemetery.

Fort.

also thatched and easily recognizable from its size as compared
with the neighbouring bungalows. The native lines are situated
about 200 yards to the north-east of the mess, and between the lines
and the mess is the parade ground. The Sadar bazdr lies
immediately to the north of the lines. Opposite the mess another
road turns almost due west following which for 250 yards is reached
the church on the right hand side of the road. About a hundred
yards south-west of the church and in full view is the arsenal
surrounded by a slight earthwork and a ditch.

The church of St. Thomas was opened in 1850. It is sixty-
three feet from east to west and sixteen feet from north to
south. At the east end is a handsome stained glass window and
a carved teak screen. The Gothic roof is of teak and the
pulpit of polished gray stone. The old colours of the 6th
Native Infantry are crossed over the west entrance.^ The station
has two Roman Catholic chapels one under the jurisdiction of
the Roman Catholic Bishop of Bombay and the other under the
jurisdiction of His Grace the Archbishop of Goa. The chapel
under the Bishop of Bombay is in the Military Lines. It was
built in 1863 by the Reverend De Souza, military chaplain of Satara,
partly from a Government contribution but chiefly at his own
expense. The chapel under the jurisdiction of His Grace the
Archbishop of Goa was built in 1846 by public subscription and
dedicated to the Blessed Virgin Mary under the invocation of
Nossa Senhora De Saude. Near the chapel, surrounded by a burnt
brick wall repaired in 1866 by the Portuguese community, is a
cemetery. The chaplain is paid by the Goa government. About
half a mile north-east of the European barracks is the cemetery
planted with flowers and cypresses and other fine trees. It contains
a remarkable tomb with a white marble cross, to the wife of
Thomas H. Leach, who died August 1870^ and to her husband who
died January 31st, 1875, when out with the police after a criminal
and shot accidentally by one of his own police men. At the
south-east corner is the grave, unmarked by a stone, of the wife of a
sub-judge shot by her husband by accident. A little o£E to the
right of the road leading to the fort is the old cemetery now closed
where the oldest tomb is to Major Bromley who died July 15th,
1852.2

The chief places of interest within easy reach of Sdtdra are Parli,
Pdteshvar, Tavteshvar,^ and the fort. The steep-sided and flat-
topped hill fort of Satkra lies to the south of the town and at the
end of one of the many Sahyadri spurs jutting south-east along the
Yenna valley. It rises rather abruptly to the height of about 900
feet and commands the town and the view of a most extensive and
superb panorama of hills among them Chandan and Vandan and
the lofty ridge- of Jaran da on the east, Yavteshvar and other hills
on the west, and Parli to the south-west. It stretches for about
1100 yards from east to west and 600 yards from north to south.

1 Murray's Bombay Handbook, 270. 2 Murray's Bombay Handbook, 270.

3 Details are given above under Parli and Pdteshvar and below under Yavteshvar.

Deccan.]

sAtIra.

673

Its summit is shaped like a triangle, the eastern portion of the
rampart with a strong tower in the north stretching from the
north-eastern to the south-eastern angle forming its base. It is
defended by a steep perpendicular precipice of black rock about
forty feet high surmounted by a masonry stone work and breast-
works with loopholes for defence. There are only two gates one in
the north 150 yards from the north-west angle and the other a mere
sallyport on the south side, the same distance from the south-east
angle. The approach to the last is almost inaccessible ■ from
steepness. That to the other is by an excellent path from the
station. This path is about eight feet wide. It is about two miles
long and starting from Godoli village strikes the shoulder of the
fort hill on which the Rdnis' palace is situated about half a mile
from that village. It crosses the shoulder about half a mile further
on and at a gentle gradient follows the northern slope of the hill till
within about 250 feet of the top and directly under the western
angle. It then turns sharp round' to the east and becoming steeper
runs up to within fifty feet of the northern gate, where it again
turns south. Oatside the gate is a small hamlet. Bastions at the
western angle and at an angle a hundred yards north-east of the
gate command this path on two sides. The old paths connecting
the fort with the town are very steep and zigzag to the gate where
they join the present path, the one from the junction of the tunnel
road with the street which runs to Bhavani Peth and the other
about a hundred yards east of the Addlat vd,da. The path up to
the gateway is within the range of gunshot from the rampart above,
and the nearer it approaches the gateway the more vertical to the
base of the rampart are the loopholes till within but a few yards of
the entrance door where the way is exposed to fire from the bastion
in the north-east. The walls are of various materials from the huge
boulders of pre-Muhammadan times to the small masonry of the
later Maratha. They are generally not less than ten feet thick
with a parapet two or three feet thick and much the same in height.
The remains on the top are no less than nine ponds, a palace
built by the last Peshwa Bajirav (1796-1817) and other buildings.
In the north-eastern angle just on the brow of the strong tower
is a temple of MangUi Devi the guardian deity of the fort.
Two of the ponds situated close to the north wall about 200 and
500 yards from the gateway are of well built masonry. Their
dimensions are about 80 yards square and 40 by 60 yards with a
depth of 20 to 30 feet. Another pond of about the same size
as the second of the above is situated 100 yards south of it and a
fourth 150 yards south of the third. These ponds are merely cut
out of the rock. All have plenty of water and are stocked with
fish some of a large size. Bdjirdv's palace is an insignificant
oblong building two stories high. It faces north and is situated
midway between the first two ponds on nearly the highest point
in the fort. It has served as barracks for European troops who
iised to be quartered in the fort and since then has been used
occasionally by officers of the station as a residence during the
hot weather. After the mutiny it was thought necessary to garrison
the fort with a small number of European troops, but now for many
years this has been discontinued. For. the last, two years a small

Chapter XIV.

Places-

SXtaka.
fort.

[Bombay Gazetteer.

574

Chapter XIV.

Places.

SatAka.
Fort.

History,

DISTRICTS.

guard of native infantry has been kept in the fort which was recently
surveyed for the purpose of considering its value as a defensive
position. The nearest hill commanding it is that of Yavteshvar
within 3500 yards. All the slopes within 2000 yards are to be
cleared of forest and the slopes on the south and north-east, which
belong to Aba Sdheb Bhonsle, will be purchased for that purpose.

About 1190 the fort is said to have been built by the Kolhapur
SilahdrachiefBhoj II. (1178-1193), better known as Bhoj Rijaof
Panhala in Kolhapur, and at the time of its building two Mhars, one
a boy and the other a girl, are said to have been offered to the place-
spirit and buried alive at the west gates. Sdtdra fort was always kept
m excellent order by the Bijdpur government and used as a state
prison. Here were imprisoned Chdndbibi widow of Ali Adilshah I
(1557-1580) in 1580 and DiMwar Khdn a Bijapur nobleman in 1592!
Shivaji captured it after a three months' siege in September 1673.
It was besieged by Aurangzeb and taken after five months' siege in
April 1700, but retaken in 1706 by a stratagem. Chandd,saheb, son
of the Nawdb of Arkot, was confined here on bis capture by the
Maratha force which invaded the Madras Karnatak in 1747. Since
1749 it was used as a prison for the Rajd,s of Satara when under the
dominion of the Peshwas. Once only did the Rd,]a rise in 1798 and
used the fort as a stronghold, but finding it destitute of provisions he
surrendered to Parshuram Bhdu Patvardhan who took possession of
it. The Peshwas occupied it till the 7th February 181 8 when it
surrendered to General Smith after scarcely any resistance.

The earlist mention of Satara appears to be in the reign of the

fourth Bahmani king Muhammad Shah (1858 - 1375) when with

other forts Sdtdra fort is said to have probably been built.^ In 1579.

the Bijdpur minister Kishwar Khd,n falsely accused Ghandbibi, the

dowager queen, of instigating her brother Murtaza Nizam Shah

king of Ahmadnagar, to invade Bijd,pur, and sent her a prisoner to

Sdtd,ra after subjecting her to many indignities.^ But in the same

year on Kishwar Khan's fall Ghandbibi was released.^ In 1592

DiMwar Khdn, the BijApur regent, was sent a prisoner to Satara

where shortly after he died.^ In 1673 after the capture of Parli

Shivaji laid siege to Sd,td,ra fort which had been kept in good order

by the Bijdpur government, and took it after a siege of several

months.^ In 1686 Shirze Khan of Bijdpur, who was sent by

Aurangzeb to invade Sambhslji's districts marched towards Satara.*

In 1692 Ramchandrapant Bdvdekar, one of RajAram's high officers,

fixed his residence at Satara where by the aid of his head writer

Shankrdji Nardyan he not only attended to every military disposition

but regulated the revenue and established order.' In 1699, at the

recommendation of Ramchandrapant, Rajd,rd.m made S^t^ra the seat

of the Maratha government.* In 1700, while the Mardth£s were

directing all their preparations towards the defence of Paahdla in

Kolhapur, Aurangzeb appeared suddenly before the fort of SdtAra,

and pitched his tents to the north on the site of Karanja village.

' Briggs' Perishta, II. 325 - 326.
8 Briggs' Ferishta, III. 150.
« Grant DuflPs MiratMs, 116.
''GrantDu£f»MarAthds, 166.

- Briggs' Ferishta, III. 148.

* Briggs' Ferishta, III. 172-173.

* Grant Duff's Mdrath^s, 151.
s Grant Duff's Mar^thSs, 172.

Deccan.

sAtAra.

575

Places.

SAtAea.
history.

Aaam Shall, Aurangzeb's son, was stationed at a village on the west Chapter XIV.

side which has since borne the name of Shdhd,pur. Shirze Khd,n

invested the south side and Tarbiyat Kh^n occupied the eastern

quarter; and chains of posts between the different camps effectually

secured the blockade. The fort, with provisions hardly enough to

stand a two months' siege, was defended by Pryigji Prabhu

Havd,ldar who had been reared in Shivdji's service. He vigorously

opposed the Moghals and disputed every foot of ground as they

pushed forward their advanced posts. As soon as they began

to gain any part of the hill he withdrew his troops into the fort and

rolled huge stones from the rock above which did great execution

and, until they threw up cover, were as destructive as artillery.

In spite_ of Prydgji's efforts the blockade was completed, all

communication with the country round was cut off', and as

the small stock of grain was soon exhausted, the besieged must

have been forced to surrender had not Parshurd,m Trimbak

Pratinidhi, who had thrown himself into the fort of Parli, bought

the connivance of Azam Shdh and brought provisions to the

besieged. The grand attack was directed against the north-east

angle one of the strongest points with a total height of sixty-seven

feet of which forty-two were rock and twenty-five masonry.

Tarbiyat Khan undertook to mine this angle and at the end of four

months and a half completed two mines. The besieging party was

so confident of success that Aurangzeb was invited to view the

spectacle, who marched from that side in such a grand procession

that when the match was ready, hundreds of Mardthds and among

them Pryagji, drawn by the splendid retinue, crowded to the

rampart. The first mine was fired. It burst several fissures in the

rock and caused so violent a shock that a great part of the masonry

was thrown inwards and crushed many of the garrison in the ruin

with Pryagji the commandant, who was afterwards dug out alive.

The storming party in their eagerness advanced nearer when the

match was applied to the train of the second and larger mine, but

it was wrongly laid and burst out with a dreadful explosion

destroying about 2000 Moghals on the spot. Pryagji's escape

was considered a lucky omen, and under other circumstances might

have done much to inspirit the garrison to prolong the defence.

Bat as Azam ShAh could no longer be persuaded to allow grain to

pass into the fort, proposals of surrender were made through him,

and the honour of the capture, which he so ill deserved, was not

only assigoed to him but the place received his name and was

called by the emperor Azam Tara.^ About this time the news of

Ildjard,m''s death, which happened a month before the fall of Sd,tira,

was received in the emperor's camp with great rejoicing.^ In

1706 Satara was surprised and re-taken from the Moghals by

Parshuram Trimbak Pratinidhi by the artifice of a Brdhman named

Annajipant. This man, who had escaped from prison at Grinji in

Tanjore and assumed the character of a mendicant devotee, fell in with

a party of Moghal infantry marching to relieve the Satdra garrison.

He amused them with stories and songs, obtained alms from them

1 Grant Duffs MarAthds, 174-175 ; Elliot and Dowson, VII. 367-368,
2 Grant Duffs MarAth^s, 175,

[Bombay Gazetteer,

576

DISTEICTS.

Chapter XIV.

Places.

Satara.
History.

and so ingratiated himself with, all that they brought him with
them, admitted him into the fort, and, in reward for his wit, allowed
him to live there. Ann^jipant who had been a writer attached
to a body of Mavli infantry saw that, with the aid of a few of
his old friends, the place might be surprised. He watched
his chance, told Parshur4m Trimbak of his design, and having
introduced a body of Mdvlis into the fort the enterprising and
remorseless Br5,hman put every man of the garrison to the sword.i
In the confusion which followed the release of Shdhu in 1708 the
Pratinidhi took possession of Sdtdra fort. Shahu, joined by
Dhanaji his general, sent an order to Parshuram Trimbak to
surrender Satara. Parshuram disobeyed but Shaikh Mirah, a
subordinate Muhammadan officer, confined him and gave up the
fort.2 On gaining possession of S^tdra Shdhu formally seated
himself on the throne in March 1708. In the end of 1709
Shahu, who had been out to renew the war, returned to Satdra and
married two wives one from the Mohite and the other from the
Shirke family .» In 1713 an expedition under the Peshwa
Bahiropant Pingle sent from Satdra by ShShu. against Angria
failed. Bahiropant was defeated and taken prisoner by Angria who
threatened to march on Sd,t^ra. All the force that could be spared
was gathered to oppose him and placed under Balaji Vishvanath
whose former connection with Angria would, it was hoped, lead
to some settlement. BdUji's negotiations were successful and on
his return to Sdt^ra in reward for his services he was appointed
Peshwa.* In 1716 Khanderdv Ddbhdde defeated two large Moghal
armies, went to Sd,t^ra, paid his respects to Shahu, and was raised
to the rank of Sendpati or general of the Mardtha empire.^ About
1730 Sambhaji Rdja of Kolhdpur encamped on the north side of
the Varna with his baggage, women, and equipments and began to
plunder the country. The Pratinidhi surprised Sambhd,ji'8 camp
and took many prisoners, among others Tarabai, Rajd,rdm's widow,
and her daughter-in-law Rdja8bd,i, the widow of Shivd,ji of Kolhdpar
who were both placed in confinement in the fort of Sd,td,ra.^ In
1732 Bajirdv the second Peshwa assumed the command of the army
in Malwa, and sent back his brother Chimndji and PiMji Jddhav to
Satara to maintain his influence at court and to concert measures for
settling the Konkan which was in a very disturbed state.^

During the Peshwa^s absence Kanhoji Bhonsle, the Sena Sdheb
Subha, was accused of disobedience and confined at Sdtdra.
Shripatrdv Pratinidhi, who was a friend of Kanhoji, endeavoured to
obtain some mitigation of his sentence, but failed, and the brave
Kanhoji died, after having lived there many years a prisoner at
large.^ In 1735 after Bajirdv's successful return to Satd,ra from
his campaign against the Sidis of Janjira, he was appointed Subhed^r
of the late acquisitions.^ On receiving the news of Bajirav's death
in 1740 Ohimnaji Apa and his nephew, who were in the Konkan^
returned to Sdtdra after the usual mourning. Raghuji Bhonsle, the

1 Grant Duffs Marithda, 180.
' Grant Duffs Mardthds, 188.
' Grant Duff's MaritMs, 196 ■
' Grant Duffs Marithds, 227.

2 Grant Duff's MardttAs, 185 - 186.
* Grant Duffs Marithds, 192 - 193.
197. ^ Grant Duffs MarAtMs, 223.

8 Grant Duff's Mardthis, 229 - 230,

» Grant Duffs Mar4thAs, 233.

DeccanJ

sAtara.

577

Ms
3 a
In
his

Mardtha general, also came to SAtdra and prevented BdiMji Bdjird,v's
succession as PesLwa, proposing for the vacant office Bdpuji JSTdik,
a rich banker of Bdrdmati in Poena and a connexion, but an enemy,
of the late Peshwa. "Eaghuji offered large sums to Shahu on
condition of Bapuji's being raised to the vacant Peshwaship. The
Pratinidhi, although averse from the supremacy of the Peshwa, was
still more hostile to the pretensions of Raghuji and, as he did not
engage in the intrigue, Balaji Bajirav aided by his uncle Chimnd,ji
was at last invested in August 1740. On the 26th of March
Trichinopoly was taken by Eaghuji and Chanda Saheb the well
known aspirant to the Madras Karnd,tak Nawabship, was brought a
prisoner to Satdra where he remained in the custody of an agent
of Eaghuji Bhonsle till he was set free in 1748.1 On the death of
his uncle Chimnaji Apa, which happened in the end of January
] 741, Bdldji Peshwa returned from the northern districts and spent
nearly a year in civil arrangements at Poena and Sdtara, and obtain-
ed from Shahu a large grant of territory and revenues.^ In 1743
after his Bengal campaign Balaji returned to Sdtdra, paid his
respects to Shahu and went through the form of producing
accounts of the revenue which were made up by himself e
general in command of a body of the Raja's troops.^
1749 Shdhu died but not without a great trouble about
succession and the grant of a deed to Bdldji empowering him to
manage the whole government of the Maratha empire. Scarcely
had Shdhu ceased to breathe when a body of horse gallopped into
the town of Sdtara, surrounded and seized the Pratinidhi and his
deputy Tamdji Shivdev, placed them in irons, and sent them off
strongly escorted to distant hill forts. Every avenue about the
town was occupied by troops and a garrison of the Peshwa's was
placed in the fort, while a party was selected to reinforce the
escort of Edm Rd.ja who had not arrived when Shahu died. After
making arrangements at SAtdra, Balaji left (1750) for Poena and
henceforward Satara ceased to be the capital of the Mardtha empire.
Ram Edja -^ho had accompanied Bhau, the Peshwa's cousin, to
Sangola in ShoMpur, agreed to renounce the entire power and to
lend his sanction to whatever measures the Peshwa might pursue
provided a small tract round Sd,td,ra was assigned to his own
management, conditions to which BAlaji subscribed but never
fulfilled. The Eaja under a strong escort returned to Satd,ra. The
Peshwa in order to conciliate Tdrdbai, Eaja Rd,m's grandmother,
whose great age did not render her less active and intriguing,
incautiously removed his troops from the fort of Sdtdra and
having placed in it the gadkaris and old retainers, who had great
respect for Tdrabai, gave up the entire management to her. The
Edja was kept with a separate establishment in the town of Sd,td,ra,
but perfectly at large and a splendid provision was assigned to
him and his officers, the expense of which amounted to the yearly
sum of 65 IdJchs of rupees.*

Chapter^XlV

Places.

SArinA.
Hiatori/,

1 Grant Duflf's Mar^this, 255. Chanda SAheb was better known in the Deccan by
bis less familiar name of Husain Dost Kh^n. He does not appear to have_ been
confined in the fort nor to have endured a close confinement. Ditto, footnote 2,

2 Grant Duff's MarAthfe, 256. ^ pitto^ 529, 4 Ditto, 272.

B 1282—73

[Bombay Gazetteer,

578

DISTRICTS-.

Chapter XIV.

Places.

SItaka.
Hietwy.

About this time the French missionary Tieffenthaler describes
Sat^ra as a great city the capital of the Maratha chief, a Rajput
of the Sisodian family. On the back of a hill was a fine fortress
with walls that looked like a hill as the rocks were used as a wall.
On this wall of rock worked with the chisel was raised a wall of
stone nine yards high. The fort had rich springs. It was taken by
Aurangzeb but went back to the Mard,thds.^

In 1751 after the Peshwa left for Aurangabad TardbAi finding
Edm Rdja unfit for her purpose sent messengers to Damaji
Gdikwdr to march to Sdtara to rescue the Rdja and the Mardtha
state from the Brdhmans. Damdji at once acted on this request,
and Tdrdbdi, as soon as certain accounts were received of the
Gdikwar's approach, invited the Rdja into the fort of Sdtdra and
made him prisoner, Trimbakpant Purandhare, Govindrdv Chitnis,
and other of the Peshwa's officers at Sdtdra were at first disposed to
ridicule this attempt of Tdrdbdi a.s that of a mad old woman. But
on hearing of Damdji's approach from Songad fort on the Gaikwari
Khdndesh frontier they quitted the town and collected troops at
the village of Arle seven miles north-east of Sdtdra. The next day
they were defeated by Damdji who went to Sdtdra to pay his respects
to Tarabdi and several forts in the neighbourhood were given to her.
Sdtara was well stored with provisions and the Pratinidhi promised
to aid Tdrdbdi's cause. News of these proceedings recalled Baldji.
In the meantime Damaji was totally defeated and sent a messenger
to treat with Bdlaji. Bdlaji solemnly agreed to abide by the terms
proposed by Damaji and enticed him to encamp in the neighbour-
hood. As soon as Balaji got him into his power, he took him a
prisoner and sent him to Poona.^ The Peshwa then tried to induce
TSrabai to give up the fort and the Raja. Some of the Peshwa's
troops were impressed with the idea that Tarabdi was a dev or good
spirit and others that she was a daitya or evil spirit, bub the Mardthas
thought that she was a rightful regent. Under these circumstances
Baldji thought it safe to leave her unmolested. Tdrabdi confined
Edm Rdja in the fort in a damp stone dungeon giving him food
of the coarsest grain. During the absence of Bdldji in Aurangabad
Tardbdi occupied the districts of Sdtdra and Wdi and a large
force was sent to Sdtara to starve her into submission. Anandrav
Jddhav, the commandant of the fort, convinced of the folly of
resistance formed the design of carrying the Rdja out of her power.
On learning this she ordered him to be beheaded and appointed
one Baburdv Jddhav, a person unconnected with the late
commandant, to the command of the fort. In 1753 the Peshwa
on his march to the Earndtak sent to assure Tardbdi that, it she
would submit, -the control of the Rdja's person and establishment
should remain at her disposal. To this Tdrdbdi would not hsten
unless Bdldji Bdjirdv would come to Sdtdra, acknowledge Her
authority, and give such personal assurances as would satisfy ner,
but on assurances of safety and protection from the Pesjiwa
she left the garrison of Sdtdra and the custody of Ram^Ka^as
person to Bdburdv Jddhav and repaired to Poona.^

In 1772

1 DeBcription Historique et Geographique de I'lnde, I. 487.

Deccan]

SATARA.

579

after Madhavrdv's deathj his younger brother N^rdyanrSv
repaired to Satdra where he was invested as Peshwa by the
Raja. But in the same year Ndrayanrdv was murdered and
Amritrdv the adopted son of Raghuudthr^v attended by Bajd,ba
Parandhare was sent to Sdt^ra for the robes of office for Raghund,th-
T&Y, which were accordingly given.i In 1774, after the birth of a
son and heir to Gangilbai widow of N^rdyanrav, the S^tdra Rdja sent
the robes of the Peshwa's office for her son in charge of Madhav-
rdiV Nilkant from whom they were received by Sakh^r^m Bsipu
and Nd,na Fadnavis who were deputed by Gangdbsii for that
purpose.2 At the close of 1777 Rdm Rdja died at Sdtdra having
previously adopted a son of Trimbakji Rd,ja Bhonsle a pdtil and a
descendant of Vithoji the brother of Mdloji, the grandfather of
the great Shiv^ji. In a revenue statement of about 1 790 S^td,ra
appears as the head-quarters of a pargana in the Nahisdurg sarhdr
with a revenue of £6000 (Rs. 60,000)> During the whole of 1792,
owing to the dread that Mah^dji Sindia intended to make the
Raja an instrument for suppressing the Peshwds and Brdhmanical
ascendancy, Ndna Fadnavis almost entirely confined the Rdja to
the fort of Satdra, where not even his relations were allowed to
visit him. After Madhavrdv II. 's suicide in 1 795 disorder prevailed
in Poena for a time and Daulatrdv Sindia advanced with an army.*
NanaFadnavis repairedin alarm to Sdtdra with some idea of restoring
the Raja to supremacy. But owing to his recent treatment of him,
Sh^hu had no confidence in Nd,na and Ndna retired to Wdi.
From Wai he returned to Sdtara to receive the robes of investiture
for Chimnaji Apa the Peshwa set up by Sindia's general BdlobaTdtya
as a rival to Bajirav Raghundth, but suspecting designs against him
on the part of B^loba he remained at W^i.^ In 1798 Shdhu rose and
used the fort as a stronghold, but finding it destitute of provisions he
surrendered to Parshuram Bhd;U Patvardhan of Tdsgaon. In the last
Mardtha war on the 8th of March 1818 the united army of General
Smith and General Pritzler went to Sdtdra and the fort surrendered
on the 10th. The British colours were hoisted but only to be replaced
by the Bhagva Jhenda or ochre-coloured standard of Shivaji. In
accordance with Mr. Elphinstone's manifesto Raja Pratapsinh was
established in Satara and Captain Grant Duff, the author of the
History of the Marathas, was placed with him to aid his councils
and direct his conduct. On the 29th of March Mr. Elphinstone
rode with the Rdja through the Satara valley to Satara, which
Pratdpsinh entered with the pomp of a prince and the delight of
a school-boy.^ After taking Vasota the British army returned to
Satdra, having on their way reduced the fort of Parli. Strong
military forces were stationed at S^td,ra and Kar5d. Shortly after a
conspiracy was discovered for the release of Ghatursing, the murder
of all Europeans at Sdtara and Poena, the surprise of some of the
principal forts, and the possesion of the Rajahs person. The plot was
suppressed and some of the conspirators executed. A treaty was made
on the 25th of September 1819 under the terms of which Pratdpsinh

1 Grant Duff's Mar^th^, 359, 362.
3 Waring's Mm&thAs, 240.
B Grant Duff's Mar^thAs, 524,

Chapter ZI7.
Places.

SAtIra.

2 Grant Duff's Mardthda, 368.

* Grant Duff's MAr4thds, 521.

* Colebrooke's Elphinstone, II, 30.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

3S0

DISTRICTS.

Chapter XIV.

Places.

BAtara.
History,

Shingnapue,

was formally installed ruler. He supplied the city with Yavteshvar
water and built some large public offices and a fine palace and pleasure
grounds. On the 5th September 1839 Edja Pratdpsinh was deposed
for treason against the British Government. His younger brother
Shahaji was appointed his successor. He built and supported a
civil hospital and schools and was liberal in expenditure on roads
bridges and other public worksj especially the city water-works.
He also finished the magnificent court-room and buildings known as
the New Palace. ShSh^ji died in April 1848 without issue and on
financial military and political grounds it was decided to annex the
state.^

During the 1857 mutinies no outbreak occurred at Sdtara but
evidence was discovered of a widespread conspiracy only a week
before the date fixed for the rising.^ Prompt measures were taken
against any attempt at rising and on the 6th of August 18.57, by
order of Government, Shahu the adopted son^ the two Ranis of
Pratapsinh, the adopted son of B^ldsdheb Senapati, and a cousin of
Rh^hu were removed for confinement to Butcher's Island in Bombay
Harbour. Guns were taken to and pointed on the palace in the
early morning and the family were removed in closed carriages.
Shahu was afterwards allowed to return to Satd,ra.

Shingna'pur, north latitude 17° 50' and east longitude 74° 42',
in Mdn thirteen miles north-east of Dahivadi the sub-divisional head-
quarters, is a famous place of pilgrimage situated in a nook of the
Shikhar Shingndpur hills. The hill^ crowned by a temple of Mahadev
to which the village owes its celebrity, appears at a distance like the
point of a very obtuse-angled cone. It is the highest point for many
miles and can be seen all the way from Dahivadi and from other
parts of the Man sub-division. It is reached by a poor local fund
road unbridged and undrained. But the main difiicultieSj namely
the negotiation of the precipitous sides of the two valleys of the
Mdn and one of its tributaries, are made surmountable by passes,
though not of the best, and the surface is passable for tongas or
pony carts and country carts. The rains too are so light and
intermittent in this part of the district that little difficulty would be
experienced in visiting Shingnd,pur even during the monsoon, after
reaching the irrigation bungalow of Gondvale three miles south-east
of Dahivadi. Nine miles north-east on the Shingnapur road will be
met the village of Vavarhira in one of the M4n ravines and here may
be visited a curious old temple ofMahadevon the right as the eastern
pass is ascended. The temple on the site of a fine spring is very
rude but probably old. Six miles further north-east is Shingnapur.
The tower and lamp-pillar of the great temple stand out distinct
flashing against the glary sky. The hills look hopelessly bare and
wretched. ' A mile from the village the road takes a turn to the
south-east and thenagain resuming its north-east course runsthrough
an opening of what now turns out to be a cluster of hills into a
space opposite the municipal bungalow. The road turns again at
right angles to the westward and makes for the temple steps and a
very pleasant camp is reached opposite a municipal rest-house. The

1 Details are given above pp. 311 -314, 2 Details are given above pp. 316-319.

Deccan.]

SATARA.

581

Beighbourhood is studded with tamarinds on all sides, and consists
of a basin of land, shut in witb low round-topped hills except at the
south-east where is an opening, occupied by the village itself and
some more mango and tamarind .trees. At the foot of the eastern
hills and the lowest point of this basin lies a great pond, T-shaped,
the cross stretching north and south, and the stem, which is very
short, to the west. Except where there are openings the pond is
completely enclosed by walls. The walls are highest and strongest
at the opening before mentioned where they constitute a masonry
dam to the streams which would otherwise pour their waters away
from these hills in a south-easterly direction. The depth of water
in the pond in January 1884 was said to be eight feet. The wall at
this part was quite ten feet out of the water and therefore probably
twenty feet high at least. Its breadth here, as everywhere else, is
about five feet, while nowhere does the masonry appear to have
given way. The flood-mark of the water appears at four feet from
the wall top ; but the leakage from the pond is very great. On the
south where lies the village is a set of bathing ghats or steps.
These, with the solid and square built houses of the village which
give it almost a fortified appearance, have a very picturesque aspect
viewed from the north end of the pond. The wall is everywhere
studded with projecting stones to enable bathers or others to climb
up and down. At the east end is a sluice through which water is
let out to garden lands ; while in the north-east corner and at the
centre of the north bank are two water-lifts by which water is drawn
from wells dug in the sides of the pond. The pond covers an area
of about forty acres, and were it made properly water-tight would
apparently hold a good deal of water. This is curious as the
catchment area is very small indeed, and the rainfall light and
capricious. There is also no side of the pond left open letting in
rain torrents. Any such waters must either filter in under the wall
or get in through the small openings which are placed haphazard
and at intervals for the entrance of bathers and the Hke. Thus
the pond would seem to have been formed merely to retain whatever
water fell immediately over it, and from that point of view it
certainly holds a surprising amount. Soil has accumulated behind
the walls which block the chief water-courses and thence are
formed the plots on the north and north-east irrigated by the
water-lifts, while on the west is a similar accumulation of soil which
produces excellent grass till late in the hot weather. To reach the
temple the way passes west of the camp along the municipal road.
After about two hundred yards, the first hundred of them on a rude
pavement, begin the steps very rough and varying in breadths
After the first thirty steps comes a small temple of Mahadev
standing right in the centre of the causeway. It is a small modern
temple about fifteen feet long by six feet broad and ornamented
with a small tower. A little further on is a small shrine of
Khadkeshvar Mahadev and from here an ascent of one hundred
and fifteen steps, the last few of them rather steep, leads to the first
gateway. This gateway was built about a hundred and fifty years
ago by a Dhangar of NAjhra village ten miles southwest of S^ngola in
Sholdpur, and consists of a rectangular building forty-two feet high,
forty-one feet two inches broad, and fifteen feet nine inches thick,

Chapter XIV.
Places.

ShingnIpuk.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

582

DISTEIOTS.

Chapter XIV.
Places.

ShingnIpuk,

witli a single pointed arcli about thirty-two feet high and fourteen
feet ten inches cut through it. The building has a flat wide roof
and stone eaves, about two feet broad and resting on twenty-two
brackets, project horizontally from it. In the side walls of the arch
are chambers seven feet square and about six feet high vaulted and
with sides open to the west and to the interior of the large archway.
Each contains the image of an elephant roughly worked in stone,
and from each staircases lead up to the roof. Two-thirds of the
way up are arched windows looking east. The threshold is a foot
high from the ground, and at the centre is a cylindrical block girded
with a coil of ornamental chain work raised in relief. This seems
intended to receive the bolts of folding doors which should have
been fitted to the archway. On each side of this block are two
rough bits of carving which may be intended for the satyr-like
masks usually placed at the entrance of temples and public buildings.
Water is always poured on the centre block by worshippers. On the
outer or eastern side are two platforms or plinths one on each side
of the entrance eleven feet two inches long and thirteen feet eight
inches broad and three feet nine inches high. The whole building
is made of small rectangular blocks of stone roughly cut and set in
mortar. Immediately inside the arch on the left hand is a small
niche containing a rough slab of black stone which is an image of
Mangoba the god of the Mangs, who are supposed to approach the
great temple only so far. The causeway now passes up between lines
of houses. The steps for some sixty yards are very broad and the
rise is scarcely felt. It then steepens for about another 150 steps
till the second gateway is reached which forms the entrance to the
court-yard of the great temple. This gateway the court-yard and
the temple itself were built by the great ShivAji (1627 - 1680) . The
lower gateway is rather larger than this but a mere copy of it.
This gateway is thirty-four feet wide, thirty-eight feet high, and
thirteen feet thick. The arch is pointed as on the lower gateway
and is about twenty-six feet high by fourteen feet two inches broad.
There are windows in the front and eaves to the roof as in the lower
gateway. The eaves rest on twenty brackets. On the front, about
twenty feet from the ground, four lotus-like ornaments are cut in
relief, two on each side of the arch. The inside ornaments are on
the left wall a relief of three knotted cobras and on the right one
of Krishna riding on a five-headed cobra. As in the lower gateway
there are vaulted chambers on the sides with stone elephants, one of
which is evidently an object of worship. There is also in the centre
the raised threshold with a cylindrical block decorated with chain
work and flanked with mask-like ornaments. Eleven more steps
lead to the terrace on which the temple court is built. About ten
yards to the right of these is a chamber built in the terrace which
contains the footprints of Mahadev^ and forms the limit to which
Mhars are allowed to approach. The terrace is ascended by about
twenty steps cut in the masonry the rise of each step being about
one foot. The walls on each side of this entrance are over eight
feet above the level of the courtyard and were evidently intended
to support another arch which however was never built. On the
left of this entrance is a projection with five small lamp-pillars or
dvpmdls. These steps lead on to the south-east end o£ the court.

Deccan]

SiTiRA.

683

Immediately on the right is the largest and finest lamp-pillar, not
less than forty feet high. It is made of cut-stone well set together
and the innumerable branches for holding the small lights are shaped
each with a graceful curve upwards, while the small base and fine
tapering of the column gives it a light and elegant appearance,
which contrasts finely with the other clumsy structures round it.
The court is about thirty-seven yards long east to west by twenty-
seven yards broad and paved throughout with large rectangular
slabs of trap. Its walls vary in height from six to eight feet.
There are four entrances, one noticed above at the south-oast, another
from the north at the north-west corner, a third from the west and
overlooking the edge of the hills rather north of the middle of
the western side, and the fourth from the south at tlie middle of
the southern side of the court. The second of these is a mere
rectangular opening in the terrace wall, not more than five feet
high. It communicates directly with the temple of Bali Mahddev.^
The third is an archway similar to Shivdji's archway outside the
eastern entrance, and communicates with a basil altar and two small
temples at the very edge of the cliff where the marriage ceremony
of the god is celebrated during the fair. The courtyard wall on
each side of this gateway has been made into small cloisters with a
promenade on the top. The horses belonging to the god are kept
in these, and other parts are used for dwelling and storing purposes
by the temple establishment. The southern entrance is about ten
feet broad and communicates with the tombs of R^ja SambhAji and
two other celebrities and a group of buildings situated on the
southern end of the ridge on which the temple stands. There is no
archway here but a small rest-house has been built on the right
just outside this entrance, while on the left is a well about twenty
feet in diameter and twenty feet deep surrounded with a wretched
plaster parapet. This entrance is flanked by two large and rather
ugly lamp-pillars. Between this and the eastern entrance in the
south-east corner of the court-yard is the music-chamber or
nagdrkhdna where the daily service of pipes and drums is performed.
In the centre is situated the great temple itself. In front of it is a
canopy with four pillars and a fiat roof about six feet square and
ten feet high in which, upon a plinth three feet high, is a stone
Nandi. Two bells, with the date 1720 in Roman letters engraved
on them and probably brought from some Portuguese church in
the Konkan, hang from the roof. A special interest may be said to
attach to this temple, at least to the whole of its stone work, as
although built by the great Shivdji and therefore not much more
than three centuries old, the ancient Hemadpanti style has been
adhered to throughout its structure and it seems likely from a
comparison with the remains of the original temple which this was
intended to replace, that this temple must have been in great part
a restoration, though perhaps an enlarged one, of the original
structure. The style seems to be exactly the cut-corner Chdlukyan
both in the centre hall or mandap and shrine or gdbhdra and matches
closely with that of the temple of Bali Mahddev which is both said

Chapter XIV.
Places.

ShinqnApur.

1 See below p. 586.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

584

DISTRICTS.

Chapter XIV.
Places.

ShingnApue.

to be and evidently is Hemddpanti. The remains alluded to lie just
inside tlie southern entrance on the way to Sambhdji's tomb. There
are parts of the eaves of the pillars, brackets, the cross beams, all
enormous slabs of stone evidently put together without mortar.
The pillars and brackets show carvings of exactly the same pattern
and in some cases decidedly superior in workmanship to that of the
pillars belonging to the present structure. The designs of the eaves
and roofing were evidently exactly the same. The modern workman-
ship however is unusually good, and very different fi'om the imitations
of Hemadpanti work in other parts of the district. The work was
carried out by a banker named Balvantrav to whom Shivaji furnished
the funds. The mandap is nearer cruciform than anything else, while
the gdbhdra is almost star-shaped. The whole pile stands on a solid
stone plinth with overhanging rims. The plinth projects everywhere
three feet beyond the rest of the building and is three feet high.
The roof of the mandap is not supported by walls, but by pillars
originally eighteen, though now, owing to the numerous cracks in
the rooi, many small pillars of the poorest workmanship have been
put up as additional props. The roof overhangs the outer pillars
by some three feet with heavy stone eaves. The pillars, including
the capital brackets, are nine feet six inches high. But the sides
are partly filled up by a sort of balustrade five feet two inches
high. Three feet from the ground on the inside of this is a seat
two feet wide and running round the mandap. The inside of the
balustrade is curved so as to form a comfortable lean-back, while
the whole arrangement is in solid stone. But the only support
given to the roof in all this comes from the embedding of the
lowest three feet of fourteen out of the eighteen pillars in the stone
work of the bench. The other four pillars form a square in the
middle of the mandap under which are placed three Nandis covered
with brass and copper and of poor workmanship. The pillars are
remarkably handsome. Excluding the brackets which support
the roof the shafts are seven feet nine inches high each made
out of a single block of stone. This is cut in five sections, the
first section or basement being rectangular, two feet square by
one and a half high. On this is another rectangular block one foot
eight inches square and two feet two inches high. The third is an
octagon one foot eight inches in diameter and one foot five inches
high, Upon this is another rectangular block, base two feet square
and height one foot three inches. Upon this is a cylinder, one foot
eight inches in diameter and one foot five inches high. The carving
on the fourth section consists of figures in bas relief representing a
variety of subjects, dancing, eating, duelling, a great deal of hunting
and fighting, but little if any of mythological subjects. In one
women are represented tiger hunting. Generally the animals hunted
are the boar, tiger, rhinoceros, and the animal used for hunting the
dog. The favourite weapon in fighting and hunting is the spear
though in several the bow appears. In one fighting picture a man
is shown using a gun. The other sections are carved with floral and
bead patterns. Here and there the work is pierced, and all is
beautifully defined and clear cut. The brackets rest on the upper
section of the shaft and branch out on four sides about two feet out
from the centre. They are solid blocks of stone, shaped like

Deccanl

SiTlRA.

585

female torsos. The faces are fairly well carved, but without
particular expression in the features. The brackets support horizontal
stone beams, on which the roof consisting of flat stone slabs is
placed. Inside the space between the centre pillars has been
carved into a flat dome. In the spaces between the other pillars
the roofing is cut into a favourite pattern made by three slabs one
below the other. Each side of the rectangular space formed by the
beams is bisected by the corners of a lozenge cut out of the centre
of the first slab, while the second slab has a square cut out of its
centre similarly inscribed in the lozenge of the first. The third or
top slab is ornamented with a disc in the centre florally carved in
relief. The mandap roof is flat on the top and suri'onnded by a
plain parapet about a foot high. It has four small shikhars or spires
one in the centre about six feet high of plain stone and pyramidal
in shape. The other spires are of about the same height canopy-
shaped and made of painted stucco, elaborately ornamented, and
situated one on each outer side and one on the front wing of the
mandap. The gdbhdra is surmounted by the great spire of the
temple which is about sixty feet high. It is a twelve-sided pyra-
mid, with the usual halash or urn-shaped ornament at the top, now
much broken down and p. great disfigurement. It is in eight storeys,
gradually lessening in size, and giving the effect of steps up the
sides. At the four sides are a sort of arms which run up as far as
the kalash. Their summits are pointed and curve inwards towards
the tower, suggesting the idea of four cobras erect with their faces
inward. The spire is made of brick covered with stucco. The
whole is elaborately carved and painted especially in front where
the structure is brought on to the roof of the gdbhdra vestibule.
The twelve faces of the first two storeys contain niches mostly
containing images of Hindu deities in relief. Above this the
remainder is nearly all ornament mostly of a sort of rail pattern
with various fancifal decorations. The style of the whole resem-
bles that of the towers which crown the southern gopurs,^ and it
was very probably like the rest of the temple a copy of something
more ancient.

To the south of the temple, about a hundred yards along the edge
of the hill, lies a block of buildings which includes three mauso-
leums. They are in a line facing southwards and on the east and
west sides the building projects beyond the edge of the hill and is
built up by strong masonry walls in places over thirty feet high.
The centre mausoleum is of Shd,haji the father of Shivaji. It
consists of three divisions separated by plain pillars with pointed
arches in front. It is eighteen feet six inches long thirty feet
broad and about eight feet high. On the west is the mauscleum of
Shivaji and Hirdbdi of Kolhd,pur nine feet long by twenty-five feet
broad and seven feet nine inches high with similar pillars. To the
east is the chief mausoleum, of Sambhaji the son of Shivaji, nearly
fifty feet long by thirty-six feet broad. The mandap is divided by
ten -pillars into five divisions and leads to a shrine with a ling in its.
case or shdlunkha. The court is flanked on the east by cloisters in

Chapter XIV.
Places.

ShingnApdr,

' The gopur is a large and lofty gateway.
Bombay Gazetteer, XXII. 716.

B 1282-^74

Compare the Gadag gopur in

[Bombay Gazetteer,

586

DISTRICTS.

Chapter XIV.
Places-

ShingnApitk.

eight pointed arches fifty-eight feet long by eight feet deep and
about seven feet high. Deep -windows are pierced in the walls,
which are over four feet thick. Sambhdji was executed by Aurang-
zeb in August 1689, and this mausoleum was afterwards set up to
him by Shdhu.

Next to the great temple, or perhaps even greater in interest,
is the temple of Amriteshvar, known as Bali Mahadev. It is
reached direct by a road which turns off to the right from the steps
about a hundred feet below the great temple ; or it can be reached
from the great temple by the south-east gateway. About twenty
yards further on a turn to the right leads down twenty small steps
to the chief gateway, an archway of the ogee pattern about twenty-
five feet high and otherwise similar to tbe main gateways of the
great temple. The temple is in a courtyard eight feet below
the level of the gateway and more or less in a pit. It may bo
described as a miniature of the great temple, though of far ruder
and plainer workmanship. The walls of the courtyard are very
large blocks of stone, here and there repaired with mortar. The
central hall or mandap, with the shrine vestibule, forms a rectangle
from which there are three porches on the west north and east. The
gdbhdra or shrine is on the south. The sides of the mandap are open
and the roof is supported by the pillars, which, including the outer
pillars of the porches, are sixteen in number and form thus three
divisions or khans. The southern division is the vestibule to the
shrine and is closed up all but a narrow door in the centre. The
pillars are shaped as those in the great temple and the roofing inside
is of the same pattern. The carving though well executed is much
less elaborated. Affixed to the vestibule by a closed passage is the
•shrine or gdbhdra star-shaped and much as in the great temple.
The mandap and vestibule are about forty-two feet long by
thirty-two feet broad, and the extreme length and breadth
of the gdbhdra about twenty-three feet. The spire is modern
and ' covered with stucco work in apparent imitation of the
main temple though it is locally believed to be of the same
age with the temple. This pattern of ornament is a sort of rail and
tooth work. The tower is ten-storeyed and about forty feet
high. As in the larger temple there are also arms at the four
sides bending over the top of the tower like erect cobras. There
is a small pyramidal stone turret in the centre of the mandap
which is disfigured by an ugly urn or kalash with which it is
surmounted. The towers of this temple are grossly disfigured
by whitewashing, and the stucco painting has entirely faded.
The roof and eaves are of stone slabs, adorned and worked
as in the larger temple. There are special festivities during the
festival of Shivrdtra in February -March. The great fair or ^air a
is held from the bright fifth to the full- moon of Chaitra in March -
April. The attendance varies sometimes reaching 50,000. In 1876
it was probably not much less as the municipal pilgrim tax was
farmed for £220 (Rs. 2200) which implies an estimated attendance
of over 35,000. During the fair the masks of the god are paraded
in procession. The offerings at the fair are almost solely in money.
Some of them are made for the benefit of the temple. These are
administered by a committee appointed by Government. The

DeccanO

SATAEA.

587

worship, however, is conducted by Badve Brahmans and Guravs who
receive many private contributions from the visitors. The permanent
income of the temple from alienated villages and other sources is
£269 5s. Qd. (Es. 2692f) and this is all spent in establishment
and the Shivrdtra festivities.

Great care is taken as to the sanitary arrangements during the
great fair. Government provides a hospital assistant at the expense
of the municipality. Sweepers and trenches are provided for
latrine purposes and care is taken to prevent the water from pollution.
Some excellent wells have been dug in various parts of the locality,
notably one the gift of Ahalydbai Holkar the great temple-building
princess of Indore (1735 - 1795). The usual small merchandise is sold
at the fair. The transactions are valued at about £5000 (Es. 50,000).

The municipality, which was established in 1857, had in 1882-83
an income of £460 (Es. 4600) and an expenditure of £228 (Es. 2280).
The name Shingnapur would seem, almost certainly, to have been
derived from the Devgiri Tadav king Singhan whose name so often
occurs in the district. ^ The village was subsequently conferred as
a hereditary possession by one of the Gh^tges on Shd,hd,ji Bhonsle,
father of Shivdji the great (1627 -1680) ,2 whose devotion in building
the Mahadev temple is thus explained. The neighbourhood is some
"of the wildest part of the Mahddev range, named no doubt from
this temple, and has been the resort of turbulent characters from
the earliest times. In January 1817, after having effected his
escape from the Thana jail where he was confined, Trimbakji
Denglia retired to the Shingnapur hills and collected 1800 men in
the neighbourhood. But in April 1818 the operations of General
Smith's force drove the insurgents from their haunts in Shingndpur.*

Shirala, 16' 59°north latitude and 74' 11" east longitude, in Valva
is a petty divisional head-quarters about nine nyles south-west of
Peth. The town lies on the Vdrna valley local fund road on a
stream which flows into the Morna a tributary of the Vdrna about
a mile lower down. On three sides are bare hills with broken
and undulating ground in the neighbourhood. Besides the petty
divisional revenue and police offices Shirdla has a branch post
office and a vernacular school. A weekly market is held on
Monday. About three quarters of a mile south-east of the town and
reached by a good causeway lined with trees is a grove called
Gorakhndth or more correctly Gorakshnd,th after the presiding deity
an incarnation of Shiv. The grove is chiefly of fine old tamarinds
and is frequented in large numbers by peacocks, whose lives are
carefully respected and which are fed with grain thrown them by
the Gosavi devotees who reside in the math or monastic house iuj
the grove. The image of the presiding deity is a large stone, like-
a millstone, placed on the north side of a gigantic old tamarind
of the species known as Gorakh Amli. A, remarkable property

attributed to this tree. Its bark is scored everywhere in

every direction by natural lines and cracks. These are- supposed
to be characters written by the deity in an unknown tongue and
every Kanphd,ta devotee coming to worship there gets his name

Chapter^ XIV.
Places.

Shingnapuk.

Shirala.

' See above pp. 455, 465, 487. " Grant Duff's Mardthds, 133 and note 2;

3 Grant Duff's MarAthto, 631, 633, See above pp. 300-301,

[Bombay Gazetteer,

588

DISTRICTS.

Chapter XIV.
Places.

Shieala.

Shirval,

written on the tree whetlier he tells it or not. A fair in great
local repute is held in the month of Ghaitra or March- April and is
attended by many Lingd,yafc Vanis, Marathd,s, and other people.
Shirdlais famous for its brass lamps or samais, and except being the
residence of a very large capitalist named Shinde, who has most of
the old landholding families of the neighbourhood in his debt, has
but little trade. The town is surrounded by mud walls and was in
Maratha times a fort of some strength and not unfrequently
attacked during the wars on the Kolhdpur frontier. A hereditary
officer of some dignity was always stationed at Shir^la for the
administratioQ of the surrounding tract and custody of records.
The petty divisional office is a strong building of stone with gates
flanked with small bastions.

Shirval^ on the north-west border of the S^tara district in the
territory of the Pant Sachiv, fourteen miles north of Wai, has a group
of fifteen early Buddhist caves. The caves are from two to three miles
south-west of the Shirval travellers' bungalow at the head of a short
narrow valley on the eastern slope of a spur from the JMandhardev
range of hills which bound the Nira valley on the south. ^

The caves face north-east and are of the same severely plain type
as all the earliest caves. Six of them on the south side of the
ravine are small excavations filled up with rubbish. Of the
remaining nine the first is a small chapel cave, 20' 3" deep by 14'
wide and square at the back with, 3' 3" in front of the back wall and
4' 6" from the sides, a plain relic-shrine 5' 3" in diameter, surmounted
by a plain capital of four three-inch fillets, the uppermost 2' 6"
square. The door is 5' wide, but the whole floor is so silted up
that no part of the interior is more than 5' 6" high. The second
excavation, perhaps the most imposing of the series, has been a
dwelling cave or vihdr of which the whole front has disappeared
with one of the cells on the right side. It has been about 26' square
with three cells on each side and in the back.^ Round the hall
runs a bench up to the level of the top of which the floor is filled
with dry mud. Of the nine cells which vary from 6' to 7' in
depth and from 5' 9" to 6' 3" in width and are about 6' 6" in height,
seven have the usual stone benches and four have small window
openings, a foot square with a counter-sunk margin on the outer
side. The rock in which this cave has been cut is somewhat softer
than the rest and the partitions are here and there broken down,
more especially near the mouth of the cave. The third is apparently
a natural irregular cavern 17' deep and only about 3' 6" high.
The remaining four caves in the lower tier and two in the upper are
more or less irregular apartments much ruined by the decay of the
rock. One of them has at its back two cells with benches.

^ Fergusson and Burgess' Cave Temples of India, 212 j Major Lee's MS. Report.

^ It was up this spur that Colonel Phayre, when Quartermaster General of the
Bombay Army, traced the road up the proposed MAndhardev sanitarium, See above
Mindhardev,. p, 523.

2 The floor of the centre of the hall is lower than the cell floor and the 2' 6" passage
in front of them. This central part is filled with clay silt but it is lecally believed
to have been originally a cistern. Major H. Lee, R.E,

OeccanJ

SATARA.

589

Ta'ka'ri village in Vdlva south of the SAtara-T^sgaon road,
ten miles north-east of Path and sixteen miles south-east
of Kardd, is remarkable for a curious cave, sitaated on the
south face of a range which runs nearly south-east about half a
mile north of the road. A very steep scrambling ascent of
about a quarter of a mile especially the last fifty feet, with a few
steps made here and there, leads to a platform of rock, twenty
yards east of which is the cave. Conspicuous from a loug distance is
the whitewashed temple of Kamalbhairi which blocks up the south-
east end. The cave, most of it a natural excavation about forty feet
long by thirty feet deep, contains an oblong pond (11' x 10') of good
water with steps leading down at its east end. West of the cave is
a small artificial — looking chamber evidently used as a temple of
Mahadev with a ling. About ten feet further on is another small
pond. The temple is a moderu structure, measuringabout twenty-five
feet by ten feet. The temple consists of a small hall and a shrine,
the hall with six feet high pillars in three courses, rectangular
cylindrical and octagonal, supporting a stone roof. The shrine is
a square chamber with a stone roof on which is reared a conical
mortared superstructure of brick and mortar with a kalash or urn
on the top. The temple is said to have been built about 1 730 by
Ed,mr^v Bhagvant of Ohandar near Chikodi in Belgaum. A fair
attended by from 1000 to 2000 people and lasting for three days is
held on the dark fourteenth of Mdgh or February - March. The
image of Kamalbhairi is carried in a pdlkhi or litter procession all
through the fair night. Takdri has an irrigation bungalow.

Ta'mbi village lies on the right bank of the Koyna about sixteen
miles west of SatSra with which it is connected by the Amba pass
an old pack-bullock path over the lofty Dategad spur which
forms the eastern wall of the valley. It is on the main bullock
track from Helvd,k up the Koyna valley to Mahdbaleshvar and has
been a market village from early times. It formed the head-quarters
of a small petty division or administrative centre, probably connected
with Vdsota fort.

Tamkane, a small hill village three miles north-west of Pdtan,
has, in a hill to the west, two small Buddhist caves, a chapel, and a
dwelling cave. The village is easily reached by the bullock-path
from Pdtan up the Kera valley. A climb of a quarter of a mile up
the bed of the chief stream leads to the two caves which are on
either side of it. Both the caves are of the plainest type and
entered from the east. The chapel or chaitya 16' long by 12' broad
and 8' high contains at the west end a relic-shrine or ddghoba 9' in,
circumference and surmounted by an umbrella capital. Almost
adjoining the chapel, on the other side of the stream, is the dwelling
cave or vihdr 19 ' long by 17' broad and 9' high. At the north-west
and south-west corners are two small chambers five feet square.
Adjoining the south-west chamber is a bench two feet high. The
caves would appear to be of the same period as the early Buddhist
caves at Kardd, but there are no sculptures or inscriptions giving
any clue as to their probable date.^

Chapter^XIV.
Places.

TIkabi,

Tambi.

Tamkank.

1 Compare Fergusson and Burgess' Cave Temples of India, 212.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

590

DISTRICTS.

Chapter XIV-

Places.

Targaon.

TAela.

Tasoaon.

Ta'rgaon village, with in 1881 apopulation of 2687 or an increase
of 375 overthatin 1872, lies on the left bank of the Krishna seven miles
south of Rahimatpur. A cleared local fund track connects Tdrgaon
with Masur and Karad, and Tdrgaon is one of the proposed stations
on the West Deccan Railway thirteen miles south of Koregaon. It
was formerly a place of some importance being a kasba or market
town, and the head-quarters of a revenue sub-division. It is now
nothing more than a well-to-do agricultural village with a vernacular
school.

Ta'rla, about ten miles north-east of Patau is an alienated village
with in 1881 a population of 4117. It is the chief village in the
valley of the Tarli and has one or two traders of considerable
capital dealing chiefly with Chipluh. A good local fund bullock
track connects it with Pd,tan. There is another short cut to Helvdk
passable for bullocks and ponies passing by Nivkane, Karvat^ and
Vajegaon. The Td,rli valley grows a great deal of sugarcane and
groundnut most of which comes to the Tarla market before export
to Chiplun. A weekly market is held on Saturday. The village
has a vernacular school in an excellent building. The water-supply
of the town is taken from an excellent spring in a small tributary
of the Tarli, over which a temple of Mahadev has been built. The
temple is neither old nor noteworthy, but the spring is very good.
The water is collected in small stone tanks to which suUage drains
are attached.

The village is alienated to the Mahadik family, a Maratha house
of distinction and one of the branches of which was connected by
marriage with the line of Shivdji. During the 1857 mutinies a
member of the Mahadik family was concerned in the Sdtdra
plot, and his share in the family possessions was confiscated. The
neighbourhood of Tarla has been considered a fit site for one of the
large irrigation schemes. It is proposed to make here a storage
pond which will increase the supply for the Krishna canal and give
enough water for another canal on the right bank.

Ta'sgaon, 1 7° 2' north latitude and 74° 40' east longitude, the
head-quarters of the Tasgaon sub-division, is a municipal town of
10,206 people sixty-four miles south-east of S^tara by the direct
Sdtdra-T£sgaoh road. A far more convenient route is by Kardd
only two miles longer. Travellers' bungalow accommodation and a
metalled road are to be had as far as Karad sixty-two miles, and
from Kar^d thirty-four miles of a first class local fund munim road.
Sixteen miles along the road is the irrigation bungalow at Td.kd,ri.
The town is on a slight rising ground on the north bank of a stream
which flows into the Yerla about four miles to the south-west. The
S^tara-Tasgaon road crosses the Yerla three miles west of Td.sgaon.
Except during the rains its bed is perfectly dry. In the rains the
floods last but a short time, but are very sudden. The water-supply
of the town is taken from the stream above mentioned andj from
private wells. The wells are.|liable to pollution by soakage, but the
water of the stream is good and tolerably abundant at all seasons.
The 1872 census showed a population of 10,528 of whom 9644 were
Hindus and 884 Musalmans. The 1881 census showed a decrease
of 322 or 10,206 of whom 9282 were Hindus, 920 Musalmans, and

Deccan.]

satAra.

591

four Pdrsis. Tasgaon has about 150 traders mostly Brdhmans,
MSrwdr Gujdrat and Lingayat Vduis, Mardtha Kuubis, Jains,
TeliSj and Musalmd,ns. The traders buy from the growers cotton,
tobacco, raw sugar or gul, and earthnuts, and send them to Sd,t^ra,
Sholdpur, Poonaj and Chiplun, and from Ohiplun bring in exchange
salt, piece-goods, dates, silks, sugar, metals, and spices. As there are
no steam-presses, cotton, which is the chief article of export, is loosely
packed, and loses much in quantity and quality. Besides the sub-
divisional reyenue and police offices Tdsgaon has a sub-judge's court,
a municipality, and a dispensary. The revenue and police offices to
the east of the town in a good grove of bdbhul trees with a small
garden and good well are held in an excellent set of buildings built
on the government standard plan. The court is held in a native
building in the centre of the town. The dispensary, which is in
charge of a hospital assistant, was founded in 1876 and treated in
1883 three inpatients and 2867 outpatients at a cost of £93 (Rs.930).
The most common diseases were malarious fevers, rheumatic respi-
ratory and skin afEections. Cholera occurred in the town and vicinity
in April and May 1882 with thirty-eight cases and sixteen deaths.
The attendance of patients at this dispensary is remarkably small in
proportion to the large population. The municipality contribute
£50 (Rs. 500) and Government an equal sum. The municipality
founded in 1867 had in 1882-83 an income of £439 (Rs. 4390) and
an expenditure of £342 (Rs. 3420). There are four schools, one
anglo-vernacular, one Mardthi, one Hindustani, and one for girls
with an attendance respectively of 143, 111, 83, and 87. The
municipality contribute £1 (Rs, 10) a month to the English class.
There is a native library with most of the vernacular prints, to
which the municipality contribute 12s. (Rs. 6) a year. Conservancy
arrangements are carried out by sweepers and the sweepings
deposited in dust-bins and conveyed outside the town for burial.

The town was originally surrounded by walls the remains of
which are still seen. There are four gates of which the Bhilavdi
gate is the entrance on the west of the town from the Td,sgaon-
Bhilavdi and Ashta local fund track. Pursuing the road at a turn
on the right is the dispensary. Another fifty yards on is the school
on the left or north side of the road. On the south side is
the large mansion of the Tasgaon Patvardhan family. A street
crosses this road at right angles close by the school. This is the
Somv^r Peth and contains the Somvdr gate, similar to the Bhilavdi
gate. Turning south through a winding continuation of the Somvar
street is reached the great temple of Ganpati. Here again the road
turns east, passing through a large gateway crowned with the
nagdrkhdna or drum-chamber, and having on its north side in a
house built for it the triumphal car of the god. After about a
hundred yards east through a broad street lined with shops, comes
another cross street the Guruvar Peth. It runs from north to
south, and, a quarter of a mile up it, a turn to the east leads to the
sub-divisional office. The streets of Td,sgaon, more especially the
Guruvd,r Peth and the hundred yards east from Ganpati's temple, are
unusually broad and the whole town is better ofE for space than native
towns usually are. One of the largest capitalists in the district has a
house here, with corresponding establishments in Poona. The great

Chapter XIV.
Places.

TASOAON,

[Bombay Gazetteer,

592

DISTRICTS.

Chapter XIY.
Flaces-

TISGAON.

Patvardhan
Mansion.

Qwnpati
Temple.

trade of the town is cotton wMcli is warehoused here for exportation,
by Chiplun. There is also a considerable ^rain trade. The chief
buildings are the Patvardhan's mansion and the temple of Ganpati
also built by the Patvardhans. The mansion of the Patvardhan
family is a set of buildings of the ordinary native type, with front
and back courts and the private dwelling house between with several
verandas. It is situated in an enclosure about 360 feet square
surrounded by mud and stone walls from twenty-two to thirty feet
high on the outside, twenty feet on the inside, and ten feet broad
all round. There are three chief gates, a small one about thirty
feet from the north-west corner and two large ones at the centre of
the north and east corners. They are lofty archways fortified on
each side. The northern gate was built by the greatest of the
Patvardhans, Parshur^m Bhau, who flourished at the end of the
eighteenth century, and is often mentioned in his Indian Despatches
by General Arthur Wellesley afterwards the Duke of Wellington.
He left by this gate to his last battle (1799) where he was defeated
and slain. In grief at his loss the gate was blocked up and remains
so still. The stabling ran along the inside of the north wall.
The most strongly fortified is the eastern gate which is -flanked by
thick walls, and commanded by three towers on the southern side.
The four corners of the enclosure and the centre of its southern side
are surmounted by bastions. A small temple is near the north-west
gate, and a well near the centre of the western side. The temple of
Ganpati was begun in 1779 by Parshuram Bhd-u and finished in 1799
by his son Appa. It consists of an image-chamber and a hall of
plain but finely worked stone. The image-chamber is thirty-one
feet by twenty-nine feet and the hall forty-five feet by thirty-four.
The image-chamber has a spire thirty-four feet high from the
ground, fianked by two smaller ones eight feet shorter. These are
all of brick and rather tastefully decorated stucco. The hall consists
of a nave with two aisles made by two rows of pillars with plain
rectangular shafts. In front of the temple, with a ten feet space
between them, are shrines of the bull Nandi and the man-eagle
Garud twenty-one feet high including the pinnacles. They consist
of open canopies six feet square and crowned by pinnacles eight feet
high. The courtyard is paved with drains and gutters and has a
wall ten feet high with a promenade on the top. Part of the
pavement is interrupted by tree and flower beds. The entrance to
this courtyard contains the most striking object in the building,
a gateway formed by a masonry arch surmounted by a tower of the
form so frequent in Southern India and known as the Gopur.^ It
is seven-storeyed, gradually tapering till the top storey is a mere
ridge. The outer ends curve towards one another like the hoods
of the cobra ; while at the centre is a pointed urn or kalash. The
lowest storey measures thirty-seven feet two inches from north to
south, and twenty-nine feet from east to west. The whole is ninety-
five feet five inches high, and the kalash and curved arms are seven
inches higher. The lowest storey is of stone and the rest of brick

' See above p. 585 and note 1 ,

Deccan,]

sAtAra.

593

covered with coloured stucco carved into images of gods and
goddesses. On each side are stairs for ascending the gopur with
openings in the centre of each storey. The top storey gives a capital
bird's-eye view of the surrounding country and of Tdsgaon itself.
Bast of the gnpur is another lower gateway about thirty feet high
with a nagdrkhdna or drum-chamber on the top, and on the north
side is the triumphal car of the god used on festival days.
Walking away east from this gateway and looking back the gopur-
appears to rise gradually behind the gateway, and looks much like
a huge snake rearing its head above the entrance to the town.

In 1730 Tdsgaon is mentioned as one of the villages which were
ceded by Sambhiiji Rd,ja of Kolhdpur to Shd,hu of Satara (1708-
1749). 1 About 1758 the French scholar Anquetil du Perron notices
Tasgaon as a great walled town protected by towers and a ditch.
The country round was pretty and tilled.^ In the reign of the
fourth Peshwa Mddhavrav (1761-1772) Td,sgaon and its neigh-
bourhood were taken from KolhSpur and added to the Peshwa's terri-
tory asjdgirs of the Patvardhans. In 1777 they were temporarily
recovered by Kolhd,pur, but Mahddji Sindia succeeded in preventing
their permanent loss. In June 1790 Major Price notices Tdsgaon as
having recently risen to importance. The palace was a respectable
if not a handsome structure, and Parshurdm was trying to
beautify the town. Near the palace was a neat temple of Ganpati.*
In 1799 the Kolhapur forces attacked and pillaged Td.sgaon, then
the capital of Parshuram Bh^u's jdgir and burnt his palace.* In
1827 Oaptain Olunes notices Tdsgaon as belonging to the Patvardhans
with 1610 houses 266 shops and wells.^ During the 1857 mutinies,
to overcome the Southern Marditha chiefs and to check the rising
which it was thought might follow the annexation of the Patvai'dhan
chief's territories on his decease without male issue, troops were
stationed at Tdsgaon. No disturbance occurred and the troops
returned at the beginning of the fair season of 1858.

Ta'tha'vadeor Santoshgad hiUfortlies in thenorth-west comer
of the Man sub -division, about twenty miles north-west of Dahivadi the
sub-divisional head-quarters. The way lies through hills and broken
country unsuitable for travelling and care should be taken in at-
tempting to visit it from any part of Man above the Mahadev range.
The fort lies barely twelve miles south-west of Phaltan, and can be
easily approached from any part of that state or the small corner of
MAn below the Mabddev hills. From S^td,ra the easiest way is twenty
miles to Pusegaon village on the Pandharpur road and thence a ride
of eleven miles north-west through the villages of Ld.lgun and Diksal
over a barren and stony but easily traversable country to the edge
of the Mahd,dev range. There is a well defined track all the way,
manageable by a tonga or pony cart in the fair season. Prom Diksal
the road makes for a detached hill on the north-west a few hundred
yards beyond which is the edge of the ghdts which support the
table land of the Khatav sub-division about a thousand feet above the
plain. These ghdts stretch from north-west to south-east and San-

Chapter^ XIV
Places.

TASOAON.

History,

Tathavade or

Santoshgad

Fort.

' Grant Duffs MardthAs, 224. ^ Zend Avesta, I. ccxxv.

' Memoirs of a Field Officer, 193. " Grant Duffs MarAthAs, 547.

•' Itinerary, 33.
B 1282—75

[Bombay Gazetteef)

594

DISTRICTS.

Chapter XIV.
Places.

tilHAvADE OE

Santoshgad

FoKT.

Description.

toshgad fort stands on a hill about half a mile from the main range but
connected with it by a neck of hill about .500 feet high which meets
in its tarn a spur three or four hundred feet higher. The ascent to
the fort is in two ways, either by the main track down to Tdthavade
village at the foot of the fort riding the whole way ; or, to save much
climbing, the main track can be left for a small path leading to the
spur above mentioned. A rough path down a ravine north of this
spur runs along the face of the hill on to the neck above mentioned,
and faces the south-west angle of the fort. This path continues in
a northerly direction and under the walls of the fort right up to the
main entrance which is on the northern side. The fort is roughly
triangular in shape. The hill on which it stands is a little lower
than the main range. The apices of the triangle are north-west
north-east and south-oast making it nearlyequil ateral. At the foot on
the northern side lies the village of Tathavade with 787 people nearly
all cultivators mostly Kuubis with a few BrAhmans. The traders and
most of the Ramoshis have left the place since the abandonment of
the fort about 1849. The defences consist of three walls, the top wall
going all round the hill and forming what may be called the citadel.
It surmounts a perpendicular scarp of black rock about thirty feet
high, and is itself about fifteen feet higher. In thickness it is quite
twenty feet and had originally a parapet about six feet high and
three thick, all of which has broken down. It is made of laterite
blocks from one to two cubic feet each, and solidly set in mortar,
lined with small stones and mud. It is carefully provided at
intervals with secret escape .doors for the garrison should the fort
be successfully taken. It is especially strong at the three angles
from which project triangular outworks about sixty feet lower
than the citadel. The outworks are of unequal size, but built of
the same materials and more strongly even than the citadel. The
sides of the south-west outwork are not more than thirty yards long
but it is perhaps the most solid of the three ; the sides of the north-
east outwork are about fifty yards, and those of the north-west
outwork about seventy yards long. The first two outwoi'ks
communicated with the citadel by a small door not more than two
feet wide built through the walls, which led on to the steps cut in
the scarp. The citadel wall has a gap at the north-west angle which
formed the communication with the north-west outwork. On the
north-east side of this was the main gateway about five feet wide,
also made of laterite, of beautifully cut massive ma&onry. It faced
east and was sheltered by a projecting bastion. This the north
side of the hill was partly protected for about a hundred feet by
two lower walls or terraces the one below the other with bastions
at intervals. They are of much lighter workmanship than the
citadel and its outworks, the face being of small rectangular trap
blocks in rough mortar and the lining of uncut stones and mud.
These walls both run east and west along the entire length of the
northern face of the hill. They then turn through an angle of over
90 degrees, and are taken up the hill to meet the walls above them.
The upper of the two is broken by a gateway of trap facing east, like
the upper gateway, similarly sheltered, and otherwise like it, but
of far less strength and of much rougher workmanship. The lowest

DeccauJ

sAtara.

595

wall is divided by a gap of full thirty feet in the centre flanked by
two strong bastions, but no gateway. The ascent between these
three entrances and from the north-west outwork on to the citadel
is by a winding path with steps at intervals where, not unfrequently,
the naked scarp of the rock has to be surmounted. 1'he steps are
nearly everywhere broken down and the way generally blocked
with prickly pear. The above description will show that the hill
was unprotected below the citadel and its outworks on the south-
west and south-east sides, and that elaborate care was taken to
protect tbe north side. There seems to be no especial reason for
this difference except that the entrance and therefore the weakest
point of the citadel was on the north side. By making the two
gateways face east and protecting them with projections of the
wall their assault was impeded while it was impossible to hit them
directly with cannon shot from the plain below, which, according
to tradition, was a special point in the fortification of the day. In
sieges it was apparently the fashion to direct a cannonade first
against the gate and to provide a force to rush through if the
besiegers succeeded in bursting it. The difficulties of elsewhere'
penetrating or escalading hill forts such as these were probably
and not wrongly thought insuperable, bribery and stratagem apart.
The citadel is not more than about 600 yards round atid its area
not much more than twenty acres. There were originally but few
buildings. The head-quarters or sadar was a building about fifty
feet by thirty feet including its two otds or verandas. It opened to
the north and besides accommodating the treasury was used as.
a sort of court-house for the subheddr in charge of the fort. Next
to it on the west was a stone building about forty feet by twenty
with walls three feet thick, and a roof on the south side made of
brick coated with cement. It contained three chambers for storage
of grain treasure and gunpowder. The east chamber still
remains. Immediately south of the east chamber is the great pond
cut some sixty to seventy feet down into the rock, and the sides
smoothed off with great care. It holds a tolerable supply of water,
but is fed by no spring. It is about twenty-five to thirty feet
square and has steps on the eastern side leading down to the water's
edge. Halfway down at a landing and turn of the steps is a small
temple of Titoba Mahddev from whom the fort takes its name.
This large pond is apparently the only source of the water-supply
of the citadel. It has been much choked with silt, and is said to
bold much less water than before, much probably leaking down
through the laterite. The rest of the citadel is so blocked with
prickly pear that no other buildings can be distinguished. The
hill top has room only for very few. One is a mosque for
Musalman sepoys. Its north-east walls have fallen from disrepair
and the south-west walls partly by the same cause, and partly when
hit by the shells of the English. The north-east outwork has some
buildings while, inside the two lower walls, are others all in ruins.
Outside the lowest entrance is pointed out the side of the elephant-
house fit for not more than two beasts. On the saddleback between
the southern angle and the main range of hills has been cut
a gap with remains of buildings said to have been the grass stacks.

Chapter XIV
Places.

TAthavade or
Santoshqad

FOET.

Description.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

596

DISTEICTS.

Chapte^XIV.

Places.

TathIvade or
Santoshgax)

FOET.

Description.

of the fort. The grass was supplied chiefly from lands on the plateau
above the Mah^dev range and brought for storage to this spot. It
is more than two hundred yards from the fort and is hardly more
convenient than the village itself which is at least as accessible as the
fort. Immediately inside and directly facing the lowest entrance
is a large cave pond. Its mouth has been almost wholly blocked
with rubbish. A descent of some six feet is therefore necessary to
reach the water. The excavation is partly natural but evidently
enlarged artificially. The water is exquisitely sweet and clear.
The exact size cannot be made out but the depth of water is at least
six or seven feet and the extent of excavation not less than thirty
to forty feet square. Three massive pillars appear supporting the
roof. The rock is laterite and hence no doubt the abundant supply
of excellent water which filters from above. The upper fort is
nearly all made of laterite with no traces of quarrying about.
It seems therefore not improbable that the ponds were excavated
by the fort builders and the stone used for the fort walls. There
are four other similar ponds completely blocked up. Their stone
and that of the big pond on the top would amply suffice for the
external work considerable as it is. The mildew of this laterite is
used by the people as a tonic for women after childbirth. It
probably contains some principle of iron. It is a belief in the village
that the large pond in the citadel and this cave are connected by a
passage now choked up, and that a lemon thrown into the water of the
one used in former times to appear on the surface of the other. These
ponds show that the hill internally is made of laterite with an outer
coating of trap, thin at the sides but on the top some forty feet
thick. The name of this village is traditionally derived from
Tatoba, a sage who took up his abode on the fort hill. The cave
pond is said to have been made by him, and the small temple of
Mahadev in the big pond is named after him. The local tradition is
that this fort was built by Shivdji the Great (1627-1680). In 1666 it
was in the hands of Bajaji Ndik Nimbalkar an ancestor of the present
chief of Phaltan and an estate-holder of the Bijdpur government.
In the same year Shivd,ji after the treaty of Purandhar served under
Jaysing the Rajput general of Aurangzeb's army against Bijapur
and with his Mdvlis escaladed TdthAvade.^ The Bijapur government
again apparently got it back from the Moghals probably by treaty.
Shivaji retook it for himself in 1673 and apparently held it ever
afterwards though twice in 1675 and 1 676 he had to retake the open
country in its neighbourhood, the estate-holders of which were always
ready to rebel against him.^ The fort was taken by the Moghals in
1689^ but was ceded to Shdhu in 1720 in the Imperial grants made
to him in that year.* In a revenue statement of about 1790
Tathora appears as the head of a sub-division in the Nahisdurg
sarJcdr with a revenue of £112 (Rs. 1120).^ The fort remained in
the hands of the Mardthds till 1818 when it was shelled by a
detachment of General Pritzler's army from the plateau and a spur

1 Grant Duff's Mardthds, 94. » Grant Duff's Mardthds, 1 16, 119- 120.

' Grant Puff's MarAthAs, 158. * Grant Duff's MarAthds, 200.

' Waring's MarAthds, 244.

Deccan]

SiTARA.

597

Chapter XIV.'
Places.

TAthAvadb or

Santoshoad

Fort.

now pointed out about half a mile to the west. A good many of the

buildings and part of the walls are said to have been injured at the

shelling. The commandant fled at the first few shots, the garrison

followed, and the fort was entered without resistance. Its elaborate

design and considerable strength for the times in which it was built

may be explained by the fact that it was close to the Nizdm Shd.hi History.

frontier and of some importance therefore to the Bijdpur

government while the constant disturbances in the neighbourhood

in Shivdji^s time would amply account for any additions he made

to it. A story goes that the famous dacoit Um^ji N^ik (1827) was

resting at a spring in the ravine which leads down to the fort from

the plateau, and that a Brahman on his way to Tathvad passed by

with a little grain given him in charity. Umdji called on him to

stand and give up what he had ; but when he learnt that it was

only grain sent him ofE in peace, entreated his blessing, and gave

him twenty-five rupees.

Umbraj village, with in 1 881 a population of 3164, lies on the Umbraj.

Poona-Belgaum mail road ten miles north-west of Kardd and twenty-
four miles south-east of Satara on the right bank of the Krishna just
below its junction with the Tarli which is bridged at this point.
The Mdnd also flows into the Krishna at this point, and from here
a first class local fund road branches to Malhar Peth in Pdtan
where it meets the provincial road to Chiplun. This continues east to
Pandharpur by theShamgaon gorge Mayni andKaldhun pass through
the Atpddi state. East of Umbraj the road is a third class track,
carrying only a small local traffic. Umbraj has a large market
street flanked with shops running east to west, and one of the
oldest and chief banking houses in the district. It was formerly a
place of some trade, little of which now remains. There are about
twenty-five traders mostly Brahmans, Gujardt and Lingdyat Vdnis,
and Shimpis. Of these traders the Brahmans are generally money-
lenders. The Vanis buy chillies earthnuts and rice from the growers
of Patau, Tarla, and Morgiri and send them either to Sdngli, Miraj
or Ohiplun, and bring salt dates and groceries in exchange, from
Chiplun. The Shimpis buy women's robes or lugdis and bodice-
cloths or Ichans at Pal and Tarla. The weekly market is held on
Monday. The village has a vernacular school and a post oJEce and
a thatched bungalow belonging to the engineering department. In
1827 Captain Clunes notices it as a kasba or market town with 150
houses and thirty-two shops. ^

Urun-Isla'mpur, 17° 2' north latitude and 74° 20' east Ueun-Islampur.
longitude, is a double name given to what are really two different
quarters of one large municipal village in V^lva, three miles east of
Peth the present sub-divisional head-quarters. It is situated on a
very slight rise of hard gravelly ground protruding from the black-
soil plain of the Krishna valley. It is the most central place in the
sub-division and new offices are being built here for the sub-
divisional head-quarters which are to be transferred here from Peth.
The 1881 census showed a population of 8949. The Musalman

1 Itinerary, 34.

[Bombay Gaietteer,
598 DISTEICTS.

Chapter XIV. percentage is larger than in most SAtdra towns and the name

Places- Isldmpur shows the fact which is undoubted that the town was at

one time a Musalmdn colony. Urim the Hindu and older quarter

TTbun-IslAmpue. ^g Q^ ^i^g gg^g|. g^jj^ contains little of note except the shrine or dargdh
of Shambhuappa Koshti. Shambhuappa was a Hindu devotee of the
weaver caste, but took for his spiritual director a Musalman saint
named Bd-va Phdn who lived at Md,lgaon in Miraj twenty-eight miles
south-east of Islampur. Shambhuappa used to travel this distance
every night for eight years, at the end of which he broke down. The
saint touched at his devotion offered to return with him; and
Shambhuappa then built the dargdh in honour of Bdva Phan when
he died, and continued to perform devotions at his shrine till his
own reputation for sanctity increased. Several miracles are said
to have been performed by Shambhuappa. One day, while sitting
rapt in religious contemplation, he suddenly informed the bystanders
that he had been invoked by a merchant to save his ship, that he
had been in the spirit to the ship, and had saved it. As a proof
he produced salt water from his bosom. Another trader journeying
over the Sahyd,dris met with a tiger but on his invoking Shambhu-
appa the tiger fled. It is further related that the Musalmdns
objected to Shambhuappa a Hindu becoming the disciple of their
Fir. They met together and challenged him to prove his mission
by reading the Kuran. He called for some blank paper and off it
read the whole Kuran. After this teot the Musalmdns troubled
him no more. He was then tested by the Hindus. A covered pot
containing flesh was placed as an offering with the view of tempting
him to eat the flesh and thereby violate the chief title to sanctity
among Hindus. But whenhe ordered the vessel to be opened the flesh
had vanished and Jasminum zambac or mo^ra flowers blossomed in its"
stead. This test was not deemed suflBcient. Some Jogis or religious
beggars getting jealous of him threatened to carry him off by force
if he did not satisfy on the spot their unexpressed desires. He
immediately produced two hundred mangoes with rice bread which
turned out to be exactly what they had desired, and this notwith-
standing that it was the dark twelfth of Mdgh (February -March),
nearly two months before the mango season (April- May) commenced.
In honour of this exploit a charity dinner is given on that day to all
comers. A fair also is held from the tenth to the fifteenth of
Kdrtih or October-November and a fine mandap or hall is arranged
in the courtyard of the dargdh, the covering of which is a gorgeous
cloth woven and decorated by the various weaver castes of the town.
The dargdh is a square building with a dome and four of the usilal
small cupolas and contains the tomb of Bava Phd,n. Isldmpur
contains the residence of Sarddr Anandrd,v Mantri. The residence
is in the usual Maratha mansion style but of no special size. It
overlooks a pond and is surrounded by a brick wall and moat which
probably formed the original Mnsalmdn fort of Isldmpur. The rest
of the town is straggling and poorly built and is badly situated
for water. The town has one large moneylending firm and a
good many smaller grain and cloth merchants and a large class
of weavers. There are about thirty traders mostly Brdhmans,
M^rwdr and Gujarat and Lingd,yat VdniSj and Mardtha Kunbis.

Deccan]

SATi.RA.

599

Large quantities of tobacco and raw sugar or gul are sent to
Chiplun and in exchange salt, dates, betelnut, groceries, spices,
English and country piece-goods and metals are brought and sold
at IsMmpur and the neighbouring villages. The weaving industry
had formerly several wealthy members but it has now greatly
sunk down. The town has always been in difficulties for
water which used to be supplied by the large ponds, one on the
north side of Uran, a hollow dug in the soil without the aid of
masonry, a large well on the outstreets between the two quarters
and a stone pond within the fort. All these were originally
dependent for their supply on scanty and precarious rainfall, to
remedy which, during the 1876 famine, a large dam was built partly
out of municipal and partly out of local funds, under the supervision
of the irrigation department. The municipality, which was
established in 1855, had in 1882-83 an income of £318 (Rs. 3180)
chiefly from octroi duties and an expenditure of £339 (Rs. 3390).
The dispensary which was established in 1 867 treated in 18S3 twenty-
seven in-patients and 5515 out-patients at a cost of £79 (Rs. 790).
A market is held every Saturday, the chief articles of commerce being
cattle and grain. The town, however, is surrounded by large
villages which hold similar markets, and the octroi has had the
effect of driving the trade away from Isldmpur. Notwithstanding
this attempts to abolish octroi and replace it by a house tax are
obstinately resisted by the municipality.

The founder of the Mantri family was Ndroram Rangrdv a native
of Kochre in Vengurla in Ratnagiri. In 1691 he became minister
to Dhandjirav Jddhav the commander-in-chief of the Maratha
army: Seventeen years later (1708) Sh^hu was making his return
to S^tara, and Tdrdbai, who was then in power, ordered the Sendpati
to oppose him. DhanAji met him at Khed on the Bhima in Poona.
Shdhu had but a small following and Dhandji a numerous and well
appointed army which Shdhu felt there was no chance of passing.
He accordingly negotiated with N^roram the Divdn to offer a night
interview and actually entered Dhand,ji's camp in disguise. The Divan
penetrated the disguise, but instead of betraying his prince he sent
him back to his own camp and engaged to exert his influence with
Dhandjirdv to prevent a battle. On hearing the exhortations of
his Divdn, who announced that Sh^hu was the rightful sovereign,
Dhandji was anxious to give way but for an oath which Td,rdbd,i had
made him swear solemnly on rice and milk. The Divd,n admitted
that a battle must be fought, but suggested as a way out of the
difficulty to have a sham fight and to fire off the muskets and cannons
with blank cartridge. This satisfied the scruples of Dhan^ji who
fought his sham battle, met Shdhu, and was confirmed by him as
Sendpati. The news of this reached Tdrdbai who, thereon, fled to
Kolhdpur, and Shahu took possession of Satara. After this enmity
arose between Dhandji and Shahu and in 1755 Dhanaji went south
with the army. But N^roram Rangrdv stayed behind and adhered
to the Rd,ja, who rewarded him with the title of RajMnya and a yearly
allowance of £400 (10,000 huns). Four years afterwards, in 1759,
he was invested as mantri and was given some districts with the
administration or mutlak of the sardeshmukhi, and jdgirs, and vatans;

Chapter XIV.
Places.

Urun-IslAmpuk.

The Maniris,

[Bombay Gazetteer,

600

DISTRICTS.

Chapter XIV.
Places-

TTRTTN-ISLiMPOK.

The Mantris.

Vadtjj.

tlie whole of tlie revenue inam quit-rents and sardeshmulchi in She-
gaon in Kbdnapur, Asangaon and Pangad in Sdtdra, and in the Wai
sub-division the Nddgaundi claims over the following sammats or
sub-divisions Nimb, Yaghote, Koregaon, Jokhora, and Jd,mbul)ihora
consisting of two per cent of the revenue and two highds per
chdhur of land, and on izdfat or service tenure the village of Menavli,
including the svardj and indm quit-rents, and the indm quit-rents in
the following forts, Santoshgad, Vardhangad, Mohangad, Kalydngad,
Kamd,lgad, Chandangad, Vandangad, and Vairatgad; as, saranjdmthe
hukeri contribution from Bagni in Pandi Tasgaon, and assignments
of mohdsa, hitta &c. in many other villages. This ancestor was a
very religious man who founded in 1769 a religious establishment
in honour of Palkeshvar Mahadev at SidApur in Kar^d, as well as at
Asangaon in Sd,ti.ra in honour of Kamaleshvar and Bhimashankar
at Wdi, and built temples at his native village of Kochre, and gave
much land to Brdhmans. The RAja's records were full of testimonies
to his success. He died in 1747. His son Ghanashy^m was then
invested as Mantri and Trimbakrdv was given the sardeshmukhi
and dues in Tuljdpur and the Bdlaghdt enjoyed by his father.
His descendants now live in Bd,gni; Ghanashyd,m had his indms
confirmed by the Peshwa BdMji Bajirav, and in 1779 he built a
temple at Bhilavdi in Tdsgaon and made a pilgrimage to Benares,
performing many charities and building temples and rest-houses.
He then became a sanydsi or recluse and retired to Benares dying
in 1780. His son Raghundthrdv succeeded him. He was born in
1743 and after many good deeds died in 1789. Jay vantrdv his son
succeeded him and died in 1832,^ Bajird^v the last Peshwa unjustly
resumed much of his possessions. Raghun^thr^v Jayvant, father
of the present Mantri, was born in 1 806 and was invested as Mantri
by Pratdpsinh Mahd,rd-j in 1832. His possessions were curtailed by
the invalidation of his title to three villages in Belgaum by the
Inam commission. He bore a high reputation for justice, courage,
and good service as Mantri and died at IsMmpur in 1874. The
present representative of the house A'nandrav Raghundth is forty-
two years old and was made a second class Sardar in 1874. Ho
enjoys a gross yearly income of about £1810 (Rs. 18,100).

Vaduj, 17° 34' north latitude and 74° 31' east longitude, on the
Pusesavli-Shingndpur road, thirty-one miles south-east of Sd.tara, is
the head-quarfers of the Khatav sub-division, with in 1881 a popu-
lation of 3363. Besides the sub-divisional revenue and police offices
on the standard Government plan, Vaduj has a post ofiice and a
vernacular school in a good Government building. There is little
trade and the place does not seem to have been very important
at any time. The Yerla runs close to the south-west corner of the
town, and gives an unfailing supply of good water. About a mile
north-west of the town is a pleasant camp.^ In a revenue statement
of about 1790 Varuja appears as the head of a pargana in the
R^ybag sarMr with a revenue of £3750 (Rs. 37,500).^

' In 1827 Captain Clunes mentions Urun-IslAmpur as a post-runner's station with
1500 houses, fifteen shops, and twenty wells. Itinerary, 34,
' Details of Camps are given below in Appendix C. ' Waring's Mardthds, 244.

Deccan-l

sAtAra.

601

Vaira'tgad Port in Javli, 3939 feet above sea level, lies nine
miles nortli-easfc of Medha and six miles south-east of Wdi, on a-
spur of the main Sahyddri range whicli branches nearly due east
for about twenty miles from Malcolm Peth by PAnchgani. It is a
prominent object east of Wd,i between the Khd,matki pass and the
gorge by which the mail road passes into the Satara sub-division.
The villages of Vydjvadi and Jambulne on the north and Mhasve on
the south all touch the fort, the greater part of which is in VyAjvddi.
The ascent can be made either from Mhasve village or Bavdhan.
The easiest way is to climb by the gorge separating Mhasve and
Bdvdhan up the west face of the hill, along the northern ridge of
Jdmbulne village till the hamlet of Yydjvddi is reached lying close
beneath the fort gate. The fort is about 1000 feet above the plain
and the ascent is about two miles. It would be about half a mile less,
but much steeper direct from Mhasve. The fort has a vertical scarp
of black rock, thirty feet high, surrounded by about seven feet of
wall loopholed for musketry. The lower parts of the wall are of
large rectangular unmortared stones. The upper part is mortared
and of smaller material. There are remains of the head-quarters
buildings and some quarters for sepoys, all modern. Inside the
fort are five stone ponds none of them more than forty feet in
diameter, and outside is one cave pond. The fort is one of those
said to have been built by Bhoj Rdja the Kolhdpur Sildhdra chief
Bhoja 11. (1178-1193) of Panhila, and its name is locally derived
from the Vairdts, a wild tribe supposed to have dwelt in this
neighbourhood, who were subdued by the P^ndavs. The fort is
partly commanded by the heights of Bdvdhan three miles to the
west. The view on all sides is very fine and extends on the west
to Malcolm Peth.

At the foot of Vairdtgad within the limits of Mhasve village are
two banian trees, the larger of them shading an area of three quarters
of an acre. The space covered by it is a very symmetrical oval.
There is no brushwood underneath, nor aught to impede the
view save the stems of the shoots from the parent tree which has
decayed.^

Va'lva, 17° 2' north latitude and 74° 27' east longitude, a village
of 4466 inhabitants formerly the head-quarters of the Vdlva sub-
division, lies on the right bank of the Krishna eleven miles south-
east of Peth and seven miles east of Islampur. A feeder
flows into the Krishna at this point and on its banks and
between it and the Krishna is some rocky rising ground on

Chapter XIV

Places.

VairAtoad
Fort.

Banian Trees,

VAlva.

' Murray's Bombay Handbook, 195 ; the late Mr. E. H. Little, C.S., First Assistant
Collector, SAtdra ; Bombay Literary Magazine, 292 - 293. Lady Falkland writes
(Chow Chow, I. 206-207) : The shade was so complete, I could sit in the middle of the
day without any covering on my head. The tree was of such a size, that separate
picnic parties might take place under it, and not interfere with each other. There
were countless avenues, or rather aisles, like those of a church, the pale gray stems
being the columns, which, as the sun fell on them, glistened in parts like silver ; and
here and there were little recesses like chapels, where the roots from the boughs
formed themselves into delicate clustering pillars, up and down which little squirrels
wfere chasing each other, while large monkeys were jumping from bough to bough,
the boughs cracking and creaking as if both monkeys and boughs would fall on my
head.

B 1282—76

[Bombay Gazetteer,

602

DISTRICTS.

Chapter XIV-
Places.

VAlva.

History.

Vabdhangad

FOBT.

which the village is built. But the eastern portion close to the
river is much subject to flooding, as also sometimes the western
which is on the banks of the stream, of which a backwater
runs when the Krishna is in flood. A new village site, a quarter
of a mile west of the present site, was accordingly granted to
this village about 1876 after the great Krishna floods of 1875.
The people, however, have taken little advantage of the concession
owing to the distance of the new site from the Krishna their sole
source of water-supply. A well was sunk at the new site but the
supply was found to be of poor quality and precarious in quantity.
Vdlva has a vernacular school in a good Government building of the
old type, consisting of one single room with a veranda on all four
sides. A municipality was established at V^lva but abolished in
1873 owing to the smallness of its income. Except the mansion of
the Thordt family of Deshmukhs the village has no remarkable
buildings. The family first came into notice under Shdhn (1708-1749)
and was confirmed in the deshmukhi pf villages extending up to
Shirdla, besides receiving saranjdms or. military grants of several
large and productive villages. The deshmukhi dates from the
Musalmdns. This family must not be confounded with that of the
great Dhanajirdv with which it is but distantly connected.

In October 1659 Shivdji took Vdlva after capturing Shirdla.
The Muhammadans had so depopulated it that a donkey sprang over
the walls. The first Pratinidhi and Ramchandra Pant Amdtya
repopulated it about 1690, when Amdtya was given the command of
Vishalgad and Panhala. In 1684 the district was occupied during
the monsoon by a Moghal army under Sultan Mudzzim who
cantoned on the banks of the Krishna. It was then annexed
by Sambhaji to Kolhd.pur and suffered greatly from the ravages
of Udaji Chavhd,n. The Pant Pratinidhi surprised the camp of
Sambhdji and Cbavhan, Yashvantrdv Thoritt was killed^ in the
engagement, and they were driven to Panhdla with the loss of
all their baggage. This first occasioned the cession to the Satara
king of the Vd,lva district north of the "Vdrna and ShAhu then
placed Valva under a thdna at Islampur, and gave charge of it to
one Kus^ji Bhonsle. The first noteworthy Thorat was Bhonsle's
sarnohat. The charge of the district was given over to him by
BaMji Bdjirdv the third Peshwa (1740-1761) and continued in the
Thordt family till the British annexation in 1818. In a revenue
statement of about 1 790 V^lva appears as the head of a pargana in
the Rdybag s(wkdr with a revenue of £7500 (Rs. 75,000). ^

Vardhangad hill fort lies on the Bhadle-Kundal spur of the
Mahddev range at a point of it on the boundary between the Kore-
gaon and Khatdv sub-divisions, seven miles north-east of Koregaon
and nineteen miles north-east of Sdtdra. It is a round-topped hill
rising about 900 feet above the plain below on the west or Koregaon
side and about 700 feet on the east or Khatav side. The ascent to the
fort is from a mdchi or hamlet at its foot on the KhatAv side. This
is easily reached from the Sdtdra-Pandharpur road, which winds up

» Grant Duff's Mar^thAs, 225.

" Waring's MarAthAs, 244.

Deccau-l

Si-TARA.

603

the southern slope of the fort hill to a hiU close to which on the
north lies the fort hamlet. Two large ponds attributed to the
Musalmdns lie about two hundred yards off to the south of the road.
The path from the hamlet takes about half an hour to ascend
with ease and goes diagonally up the south slope, till it reaches
the middle of the south side where is the only gateway
reached by a turn to the south-west. The wall on each side
juts out so that the gateway can be sighted only through a very
narrow passage from the north-east. It consists of a pointed arch and
wooden doorway close outside which is shown the mark of a cannon
shot fired when the fort was attacked by Fattehsing Mdne (1805).
The fort is sloping all round from the sides to the top, is round at
the summit, and covers about twenty acres. On the east is a hollow,
where are two ponds and the site of the garrison^s quarters, now
thickly covered with prickly pear, and the buildings in ruins. Only
two small guns remain among the rubbish. They were sold for old
iron by Government at the annexation, but the purchaser never
found it worth while to take them away. His family, it is said, are
extinct, and the people firmly believe because he bid for the old
guns. The fort has but little scarp, the wall crowning a ridge of
black rock protruding abruptly from the sides of the hill which
though steep are covered with loose shallow soil. The walls with
parapet vary from ten to fifteen feet on the outside, and follow the
contour of the ridge, the hollows being filled up with strong masonry.
They are about sixteen and a half feet thick with a parapet two feet
high on the inside. The height is generally about six feet from the
ground close under them. The ground rises so abruptly behind them
that at any distance they would give no shelter, and the fort is
commanded on the north from a hill in LAlgun, and on the south
from the hill of Rdmeshvar, each about 2000 yards distant, with
perfectly possible ascents at any side. The masonry of the walls is
mostly small and put together with mortar only in a few places. The
gate and its neighbourhood are the strongest points. Except on
the north-west, where it has fallen down considerably, the wall is in
fair repair. On the north side was a pond now empty. The east is
the only side where water is constantly found, but that in small
quantities.

The fort was built by Shivdji in 1673, and finished in 1674 as an
outpost guarding the east frontier of his newly acquired territory.
In 1800 the fort, then in the hands of the Pratinidhi, was invested
by Mahddji Sindia's force with 25,000 men. The Ramoshis in
the south-west mdchi were attacked and killed the horse of Muzaf-
farkhan one of Sindia's generals. The mdchis were then sacked
and burnt. Further havoc was stopped by the infiuence of the
Sarnobat Ghorpade's wife who was sister to the wife of Sindia.
In 1803 Balvantrav Bakshi the commandant of the fort fought here
a battle with Tesai Sdheb Firangi. The fort was shelled, the mdchis
sacked, and a contribution of £300 (Rs. 3000) levied.^ In 1805 the
fort was attacked by Fattehsing Mdne. The Kdrkhdnis and other-
oflScers were killed and Fattehsing took many horses in the neighbour-
hood. In 1806 after the battle of Vasantgad, Bdpu Gokhale brought

Chapter XIV
Places.

Vaedhangad
Fort.

History,

[Bombay Gazetteer,

604

DISTRICTS.

Chapter XIV.
Places.

Vaeuqad
Fort.

the Pant Pratinidlii to Chimangaoiij a Koregaon village close to the
nortli of the fort, and the fort was then surrendered to him. He
administered it for five years till 1811 when the Peshwa took charge
of it.^ It appears to have surrendered in 1818 without resistance.

Va'rugad Port in Mdn lies, as the crow flies, about twelve miles
north-west of Dahivadi, within the limits of Panvan village. The
best way to it is to camp at Pingli Budrukh four miles south-w^est of
Dahivadi and to travel thence by the very rough Tdsgaon-Mogr^la
road for about ten miles to Jddhavvadi, a hamlet of Bijvadi village
lying almost a quarter of a mile east and within sight of the road ;
from here a well marked track due west goes to the village of
Tondle, and from Tondle a path leads direct to the fort over rough
ground broken but perfectly passable by a pony, and skirting the
northern base of the long plateau of Panvan. The direction of the
path is generally a little north of west and it crosses innumerable
small ravines and water-courses which lead through rough hill
tracts to the edge of the plateau of which the Mdn sub-division
chiefly consists. These streams pour down the bare sides of the
main hill range, here some 1000 to 1500 feet high, on to the plain
of Girvi adjoining the Phaltan state. The country all the way
from Pingli is terribly bare and rocky. Here the stony hills and
ravines are interrupted by fairly level plateaus with tolerable soil
and good sites for cultivation and grazing. A few small deer and
chinhhara will probably be seen, while cattle are everywhere
browsing in considerable numbers. Three hamlets, one of them
known as Ghoddvddi, are reached, and some well-to-do cultivators
will probably meet the visitor and turn out to be Gadkaris or
descendants of the ancient hereditary fort garrison. The hamlet is
situated on a projection between the two ravines, and has been built
on a hill of a truncated conical shape. The hill rises about 250 feet
above the level of the plateau, which itself constitutes the summit of
the Mahadev range at this point. The cone with the walls on it is
seen from a great distance and appears very small indeed. But on
near approach it is seen to be but the inner citadel of a place of
considerable size and strength for the times in which it was built.
On the south-west the outer wall or enceinte is entered by a rude
gateway of a single pointed arch about eight feet high and five feet,
broad. As usual there is a curtain of solid masonry inside. The
gate lies about 1 .50 yards east of the edge of the plateau, which
there terminates in an almost unbroken vertical precipice of several
hundred feet in height and receding in a north-easterly direction.
No wall was built along about three hundred yards of this part which
is absolutely unscalable, but for the rest of the way the walling is
continued along the edge of the chf£ in a north-east direction for
about another three hundred yards. Here it turns still following the
cliff to the south-east for another seven hundred yards, and then
gradually rounds to the westward covering four hundred and fifty
yards more till it meets the gateway. But for the break of the
inaccessible precipice this outer wall would form a nearly equilateral

' Papers in possession of the fort Sabnis.

Deccan-1

SA.TA.EA.

605

triangle with the corners rounded off, the side being of some
six hundred and fifty yards. Facing nearly north, about fifty
yards from the north-east angle, is a gateway with a couple of
curtains in solid masonry. This entrance is cut in the sides of
the cliff about twenty feet below the top which is reached by
some dozen steps. It consisted as usual of a pointed arch, the
top fallen in, about ten feet high by five broad. It leads out to
the path down to Girvi a village in the plains below and it probably
formed the communication with Phaltan. This road winds
down the face of the range for some five hundred feet till it
hits the shoulder of a spur which it then follows to the base. The
walling on the south side, from the edge of the cliff to some
hundred yards east of the southern gate, is not more than a couple
of feet in thickness and consists of ill-fitting stones unmortared.
The rest is massive and well' mortared and still fairly
preserved. The average height is from seven to ten feet. In the
south-east angle is a rude temple of Bhairavnath and a few houses
with the remains of many more. On the right side of the southern
gate is a well preserved stone pond about thirty yards square with
steps leading down to it. Next to and on the north of
Bhairavndth's temple is another pond. The way up to the fort proper
or upper and lower citadels is from the north side. The path up the
hill side, which is steep but with grass and soil left in many places,
is almost destroyed. About 150 feet up is the outer citadel built
on a sort of shoulder of the hill and facing almost due west. It
contains two massive bastions of excellent masonry looking north-
west and south-west so that guns planted on them could command
respectively the north and south gateways. This citadel was
connected with the main wall by a cross wall running across the
whole breadth of the fort from east to west. Its entrance lies
close below that to the upper citadel. A masonry curtain pro-
jects so as to hide the arch itself, which is not more than seven
' feet high by three broad, and has to be entered from due east.
On the south side the walls' are carried right up to the scarp
of the upper citadel and are some ten feet high, so that to take
the lower citadel in rear or flank must have been difficult. The
upper citadel is above a vertical scarp some thirty feet high. The
entrance to it lies some thirty feet above that to the lower citadel,
and is cut in the rock about eight feet wide. There is a gateway
of a pointed arch with the top fallen in and twenty odd steps leading
up to it and ten more cut out of the rock, and winding up past the
inside curtain on to the top. The walls of this upper citadel
are still in tolerable preservation. They were originally about ten
feet high and built of fair masonry. There is a large turret on
the south-west corner, evidently meant to command the southern
gate. About ten yards to the east of this turret is a new looking
building which was the head-quarters or sadar. Immediately east of
this and below it is a great pit about thirty feet square and equally
deep roughly cut in the rock and said by the people to be a dungeon.
Next it on the south is a small pond evenly cut and lined with mortar
used for storing water. There"are some remains of sepoys" houses,
and, near the turret, a small stone wheel said to hehng- to a gun.

Chapter XIV
Places.

VArugad
Fort,

[Bombay Gazetteer,

Chapter XIV.
Places-

ViKUGAD

Fort.

VisOTA FOKT.

606

DISTEIOTS.

The outer walls east of the gates have bastions at every turn of the
cliffs, and the masonry here is particularly strong and well preserv-
ed. It would appear that attacks were dreaded chiefly from the
plain below. The assailants could either come up the spur towards
the north entrance or they might attempt the spurs on the other side
of the eastern ravine and attack the southern gateway. Hence
apparently the reason for strengthening the walls of the enceinte on
this side. After passing the southern gateway the assailants would be
commanded from the lower citadel. They would then be encountered
by the cross wall. If that obstacle was overcome the besieged would
run round the east side and into the two citadels. The appearance
from the fort of the plain in the north is most formidable. It would
however be easily captured now. The Panvan plateau completely
commands and indeed almost overhangs it. The fort is believed to
have been built by Shivaji to resist the Moghals whose attacks he must
have dreaded from the plain below. The Kdrkhanis or Superintendent
of the fort was a Prabhu and his descendant a fine strong young
man still lives on lands held by him in the neighbourhood; The
fort garrison consisted of 200 Rdmoshis, Mhdrs, and other hereditary
Gadkaris besides sepoys. It was surrendered in 1818 to Viththal
Pant Phadnis of the Raja of Satdra left in charge of the town. He
detached 200 men to take possession, being part of a force then
raised to protect the town from the enterprizes of BdjirSv's
garrisons then in the neighbourhood .■'■

Va'SOta hill fort in Jdvli is situated five miles west-north-west of
Tdmbi, at the head of a small valley which branches west from the
Eoyna. At the mouth of the valley is a village named Vasota, but
•the fort is within the limits of Met Indoli village, and on the very
edge of the Sahy^dris. It is a flat-topped hill nearly oval in shape
and about 800 feet above the valley. The height on the other or
Konkan side is probably some 3700 feet. The first clear drop is
perhaps 1500 feet, which, Arthur's Seat excepted, is one of the
sheerest on the Sahyddris. The ascent is made from Met Indoli
village. The first half is through dense forest apparently primeval, a
block specially preserved to increase the difficulties of approaching
the fort. Emerging from this by the path which is here and there
cut into steps and gets steeper every yard there is a kdrvi grove
which is nasty to get through, bat quite commanded from the fort.
Further on is a perfectly bare piece of rock with rude steps cut in it.
This leads to the doable gateway at the northern end of the eastern
face along a causeway made for about twenty yards on a ridge
below the scarp. To enter this the path, here much blocked up
with fallen debris, turns right round to the south, and by some fifty
steps cut in the rock emerges on to the plateau above. There are
three massive masonry arches set in mortar and apparently of
Musalmdn type. The space on the top is some fifteen acres in
extent. On reaching the top and turning to the north close
by is the temple of Chandkdi a small plain stone structure.
■Fifty yards farther is a large pond forty feet square and fifty feet

' Elphinstone in Pendh^ri and Mardtba War Papers, 245,

Deccan.]

SiTARA.

607

deep. Beside this is another pond holding good water. It ia
built of large blocks of dry stone, each block projecting about
two inches below the one above, a very ancient type. Further on is
a temple of Mahddev with an image-chamber and a small hall
completely modernised. It has a small whitewashed spire with
an urn-like top. There are remains of the head- quarters or sadar a
building about fifty feet square. witE walla about fifteen feet high and
three feet thick, modern but of finely hewn stone. The plinth and
first three feet of the walls are partly of large dry stone blocks. and
may be much older. To this building is attached an inner dwelling
house or mdjghar with a court about thirty feet square, on the west
of which is the powder magazine. The defences consist of a vertical
scarp varying in height from thirty to sixty feet, crowned by a wall
and parapet from six to eight feet high and loopholed at intervals.
The principal portion of this wall is of huge boulders of dry stone, but
it was added to by different masters of the fort, who mostly used
mortar and smaller masonry. To the north is a small detached
head, used apparently as an outpost. It is connected with the fort
by a narrow neck which dips some thirty feet below the general
level of the fort. This has been filled up with immensely strong
mortared masonry, while the walls of this head, though mostly
modern, are in very good condition. The rest are much fallen in.
On the south of the fort is a gorge, on the other side of which rises
what is known as the old fort. This is about 300 yards distant, and,
like the hills to the north about 1000 yards distant, completely
commands the present fort. Remains of the batteries of the British
attacking force are still seen on the brow of the old fort. But
there are no other buildings or trace of fortifications on it, nor is
any reason given why it is so named. The cliff to the west
of the gorge has a sheer drop of 1500 feet if not more. It is
known as the Bdbukh^da and was used as a place of execution for
criminals or offenders who used to be hurled down the cliff. The
west face of the fort is only a degree less abrupt, and a loose block
or boulder of the old wall, if tumbled down the cliff, may be seen
bounding from ledge to ledge with increasing violence and speed
for an extraordinary distance. The face of the cliff to the south is
in three concave stretches and a shout or whistle gives three or
sometimes four beautifully distinct echoes. The view to the north
is fine, including Makrandgad or the Saddleback and the fine group
of steep hills about Kdndat and the Pfir pass. The view south ia
shut out by the Bdbukhdda, but the west gives an extensive prospect
over the rugged Konkan down to the sea.

The fort of VAsota is the most ancient in the hill districts. It is
attributed to the Kolhapur Silahara chief Bhoja II. (1178 - 1193)
of Panhdla and, from the Cyclopean blocks of unmortared trap which
form the pond and older portions of the wall, appears undoubtedly
to be of great antiquity. The gateway looks Musalm^n, but it is
doubtful whether any Muhammadan ever came so far. The Shirkes
and Mores possessed the fort till it was taken by Shivdji in 1655
after the murder and conquest of the Jd,vli chief. Shivd.ji named the
fort Vajragad which name it has not retained. Since then it was chiefly
used as a state prison. . Early after his defeat at Kirkee (5th November

Chapter^XIV
Places-

VAsoTA Fort.

History,

[Bombay Gazetteer,

608

DISTRICTS.

Chapter XIV-

Places.

VAsoTA Fort.
History,

VAteoaon.

Tempk^-

181 7) Bajirdv sent the Sdtara Edja and his family into confinement at
Vd,sota, but before the end of themonth the princes were brought away
and sent to join his camp on march from Pandharpur to the Junnar
hills. The wives and families with him remained till the following
April. About the same time Cornets Hunter and Morrison of the
Madras establishmentj on their way from Haidarabad to Poona with
a small escortj were captured by the Peshwa's forces at Uruli about
fifteen miles east of Poona after a manful resistance^ sent first to
Kdngori fort in KoMba^ where they were severely treated and
thence to Vasota. At Vasota they were lodged in a single room in
the head-quarter buildings. A man named Ml]d,td,rji Kanhoji Chavhd,n
looked after them and was rewarded by the British Government
for his attentions. Their humane treatment was due to the special
orders of Bdpu Gokhale. The British force advanced from Medha
by Bdmnoli and Tdmbi, driving in outposts at Vdsota and met at
Indoli. Negotiations were opened with tbe commandant one Bhdskar
Pantj but he obstinately refused to surrender. The British forces
then advanced a detachment under cover of the thick forest
before mentioned to positions in the kdrvi grove where they dug
shelters for themselves in the hill side. A battery was set up on
the old fort. The local story is that negotiations proceeded seven
days, when at last it was decided to bombard. The first shot fell
over in the Konkan, the next in the powder magazine which it
blew up, the third in the temple of Chandk^i, and the fourth in the
middle of the head-quarter on which the commandant surrendered.
This is the native account but evidently not true, as, according to
Grant D'uff, the bombardment lasted twenty hours. ^ The prize
property amounted to about £20,000 (Rs. 2 lakhs) and the Sd.t^ra
Raja recovered family jewels worth £30,000 (Rs. 3 Idhhs).^

Va'tegaon in Vdlva is an alienated village of about 2800 people
on the banks of a stream called the Bhogdvati Ganga six miles
north-west of Peth. The village lies on both banks of the river and
is in charge of a Bri,hnian kamdvisdar under the Kurundvad chief
to whom it belongs. The village has an indigenous school and a
liquor shop under the British Government. The streets and roads
are better than is usual in villages of its size and there are two or
three well off merchants trading in tobacco, raw sugar, and other
agricultural produce. On the'left bank of the stream, in the west
half of the village, are two temples of Lakshmin^rdyan and Vdteshvar
Mah^dev. The original portions of the structures are of finely
hewn stone and consist of an inner shrine or gdbhdra about ten
feet square and dome-roofed. The entrance is by an arch three
feet wide and built like the walls three feet thick. There is a cross
passage two feet wide and another similar door leading by one
step into the outer hall, the vestibule or mandap, which is about
fourteen feet square with the corners cut off by oblique canopy -like
arches. The roof is also dome-shaped and about thirty feet high
all of large stone. Two more steps lead into another mandap with

» Compare Bom. Gazetteer, XI. 323, 471-472. » Details given above pp,"306-307.
3 Bombav Courier. 18th Atiril ]«7S

' Bombay Courier, 18th April 1818,

Deccan.]

SATlRA. 609

galleries of rough work used for sermons or Idrtans and religious Chapter XIV
atories OT pui'd as. The images of NArdyan and Lakshmi are on a Places-

curious stand, consisting of five upright blocks or slabs of highly
polished stone each one broader than and ranged behind the other, the tbgaon.

broadest behind. The outer corners of each slab are decorated with Temples.

a carved pendant shaped like a ram's head. Outside over the gdbhdra
is the usual pyramidal sort of pinnacle about forty feet high from
the ground decorated with figures of gods and goddesses but in cut
stone instead of as usual in brick. The four corners of the gdbhdra
and inner mandap have smaller pinnacles to match and there is also
a central pinnacle to the inner mandap. The court is insignificant
but for a fine bit of masonry wall built on the side of a stream. A
noteworthy feature of this temple is the use of stone throughout,
particularly for the internal dome roofs and pinuacles. The effect
internally is striking and the situation on the stream most picturesque.
The original structure was built by one Rdghopant Joshi a native of
V^tegaon village who served as minister or kdrbhdri to one of the
subordinate chiefs of the Nimbalkar family in the time of N£na
Fadnavis (1764 -1«U0).

The Vateshvar temple is a small insignificant building of rough trap
and mortar, but it has a strictly pyramidal tower about forty feet
high. The court-yard is a hundred feet square and surrounded by
ruined cloisters. The walls are of masonry, quite four feet thick, of
roughly cut rectangular blocks of trap, each corner flanked with a
small bastion. A winding pavement with steps here and there leads
up to the entrance which is by an insignificant archway. The temple
is beautifully situated at a sudden bend in the stream, and behind
it is a magnificent grove of tamarinds perhaps finer than any of
their kind in the district. The temple is said to be old but who
built it is not known.

Vita, 17° 1 6' north latitude and 74° 35' east longitude, forty'seven Vita.

miles south-east of Sdtdra, with in 1881 a population of 4477, is
the head-quarters of the Khand,pur sub-division, with a muni-
cipality, a post office, a sub-judge's court, and a vernacular school.
It is situated at the junction of the Tasgaon-MogrAla and
Kardd-Bijdpur roads twenty-six miles east of KarM and eighteen
miles north of Tasgaon with the Terla river seven miles to the west.
The town lies in a slight depression, a bit of rolling ground divid*
ing the valley of the Vita river from the Terla. Two miles east is
a rather more abrupt rise of about 200 feet on to the Khanapur
plateau. The Vita is a small stream which flows into the Yerla at
Bhilavni seven miles to the south-west. It runs very dry in the
hot weather and barely suffices for the water-supply of the town.
On its banks are some fine mango trees about the irrigated lands
which make a good camping ground. The municipality established
in 1854 had in 1U82-83 an income of £93 (Rs. 930) and an
expenditure of £48 (Rs. 480). It is intended to provide Vita with a
dispensary, the only difficulty being about the building. The town
has a wall about twenty feet high, of stone for the lower ten feet
and the upper ten mud, with gates on the east and west flanked
by bastions. The sub-divisional offices are in an old native mansion
built against the east wall with a gateway flankpd by a strong
B 1282-77

[Bombay Gazetteer,
610 DISTEICTS.

Chapter XIV. wall. The deshmuJchs who live here used to be connected with
pi"77 Bhopalgad fort twenty-four miles to the east.

^y^j Wa'i, 17° 58' north latitude and 78° 68' east longitude, on the

left bank of the Krishna, twenty-one miles north-west of S^tara,
is a holy town, the head-quarters of the Wdi sub-division, with
in 1881 a population of 11,626. The town lies fifty-six miles south-
east of Poona with which it is connected by a metalled road which
branches off from the Southern Maratha Country mail road at
Surul seven miles east of W^i and forty-eight miles south of Poona.
Wdi is one of the most sacred places on the Krishna, and has a
large Brahman population. At the west end of the town the
river forms a pool partly by the aid of a stone weir built from the
steps about fifty yards above a large temple of Ganpati. The
face of the river for halfa mile is lined with steps, and for an hour
after dawn and before sunset people are incessantly engaged in
their ablutions and clothes-washing. The river banks are low and
overhung with grass and trees. The country round is beautifully
wooded with mangoes, and the Pasarni and Pandavgad ranges fotm
a noble background to the smiling valley viewed either from north or
south, while to the west the SahyAdri range rises blue in the distance,
and south the Krishna winds on ever -widening and deepening, its
banks clothed with fertility and verdure. The 1872 census showed
a population of 11,062 of whom 10,126 were Hindus and 936
Musalm^ns. The 1881 census showed an increase of 614 or 11,676
of whom 10,698 were Hindus 963 Musalmans and fifteen Christians.
Besides the sub-divisional revenue and police offices, Wdi has a
municipality, sub-judge's court, dispensary, post office, travellers'
bungalow, and about twenty temples. The municipality, which was
established in 1855, had in 1882-83 an income of £649 (Rs. 6490)
excluding a balance of £263 (Rs. 2630) and an expenditure of
£704 (Rs. 7040). The dispensary, which was established in 1864,
treated in 1883 twenty-one in-patients and 6724 out-patients at a
cost of £117 (Rs. 1170). Wai is a large trade centre containing
about 150 well-to-do traders mostly Brdhmans, Mdrwar and Gujarat
Vdnis, Maratha Kunbis, Sdlis, Koshtis, Telis, Kasars, and Musal-
mdns. From Bombay and Poona Mdrw^r Vdnis import Bombay
and English piecegoods and twist ; from Chiplnn the Vanis import
salt, betelnuts, dates, and groceries ; from Poona and SAtara the
Kdsd,rs import copper and brass pots j from Nahar or Malcolmpeth
the Musalmdns import potatoes and vegetables ; and from BAvdhan
and Surul-Kavtha the Salis and Koshtis import small quantities of
women's robes or lugdis. Besides importing women's robes from
Bavdhan and Surul-Kavtha the Salis and Koshtis prepare women's
robes, waistcloths, bodicecloths or Ichans, and other hand-made goods
from the twist which they buy from Mdrw^r Vd,nis and sell them
to consumers in their houses.

Temples. Beginning^ from above, the first group of buildings is on the

north bank of the Krishna, and consists of a ghat or steps, a vdda

' The temple aooounts are from the MS. papers of the late Mr. E. H. Little, C.S.

Deccan.]

SATIrA. 611

or mansion, and a temple. The ghat goes by the name of Gandpuri Chapter XIV
and is a flight of twelve steps. The first portion 200 feet long was Places-

built of cut-stone by GangAdhar Rastia in 1789. To this o.neBhdu
Joshi added seventy-six feet and Bajirdv II. (1796 - 1817) eighty feet, "^'^'^'•

making now an unbroken length of 356 feet. At the back of the Temples.

steps is a plain brick wall through which a door opens into the
street with the Gandpuri vdda now the sub-judge's court on the left
and the temple of Umamaheshvar Panchdyatan on the right. The
temple on the right like the ghat was built by Gangddhar Rastia
in 1784, It consists of a vestibule and shrine and is about forty
feet high. It has all the Muhammadan forms of architecture
common at the period. In the four corners are separate shrines
dedicated to Vishnu, Lakshmi, Ganpati, and Surya. Vishnu's shrine
is on the left on entering and has a wooden hall or mandap, the
back wall of which is covered with figures as are also the outer walls.
The great cluster of river temples begins at some distance nearly
opposite the travellers' bungalow. The first on a low ghat seventy-
five feet long is a domed shrine containing a marble Nandi and the
image of Dhdkleshvar Mahd,dev. In a line with it, but near the
bank on an upper ledge of the same ghcit, is the temple of Gangd-
rameshvar Mahddev built by Gangadhar Rastia about 1780. It is
built of basalt and consists of an open veranda with three scolloped
arches and a shrine. The breadth in front is thirty-two feet and
the length from front to back about twenty-six feet ; while the
height, including the dome of brick and stucco with blank panels, is
not less than forty feet. In front is Nandi under a plain canopy.
The next is a temple of Ganpati bnilt by Ganpatrdv Bhikdji Rdstia
in 1762 at a cost of £15,000 (Rs. 1,50,000) near a ghat 163 feet long
built by Gan patrav's brother A'nandrav Bhikdji. Besides the
usual veranda and shrine, in which is a huge black basalt image of
Ganpati painted red, the temple has a covered court or mandap
(60' X 30'). The roof is flat and composed of square cut-stones
cemented with mortar. The walls have the unusual thickness of
four feet which gives considerable dignity to the small arches five
on a side and three at the end with which they are pierced.
Except the dome which is pyramidal or conical and of brick covered
with white plaster and fluted, the material used is gray basalt. The
total height is over seventy feet.

Ascending the bank but hidden from view by the huge Ganpati
temple is the Kdshivishveshvar temple perhaps the best group of
buildings in Wdi. Surrounded by a wall, the temple stands in a
quadrangular court 216' by 95'. It was built in 1757 by Anandrdv
Bhikaji Rastia and consists of a shrine and a vestibule with a total
length from front to back of forty-nine feet and a facade of about
twenty-eight feet from side to side. A notable part of the building
is a covered court called hund mandap at the east entrance with a
lamp-pillar or dipmdl on each side. The mandap is about forty
feet square, and its flat roof is of square stone cemented with mortar
and supported on sixteen lofty pillars in four rows of four each with
neat semicircular moulded arches between them. The pillars about
1' 6" in diameter and about 15' high, make three parallel arches
whether looked at from north to south or from east to wes*-., In th©

[Bombay Gazetteer,

612

DISTRICTS.

Chapter XIV.
Places-

Wai.

style Mutamroadan forms largely prevail. The spire is twelve-
sided with, like the Lakshmi tower, three tiers with rows of figures
and a Muhammadan dome; the temple mandap is domed and there
are four pinnacles at the corners. The large bull or Nandi in front,
under a plain canopy with plain scolloped arches, is carved out of a
magnificent piece of black basalt. The bells and flowers with which
it is adorned are very beautifully cut. The whole temple structure
is of basalt and the pillars originsilly black are polished to the
brightness of a mirror. There is a little ornamentation at the spring
of the arches and on the facade butnone elsewhere. But the exquisite
fineness of the stone work and material and its general lightness
make the building the best sight in Wai. The next, away from the
river on the east side of the market, is a temple of Mahd^lakshmi
built in 1778 by Anandrav Bhikdji Ed.stia at a cost of £27,663
(Rs. 2,76,630). The temple, about seventy feet high, consists of a
vestibule and shrine, which together measure about seventy feet
from back to front. The facade is about forty feet from side to side.
The vestibule is open in front with two pillars and pilasters in antis.
The corners at the top are rounded off by scolloped work. In the
floor is a trap door and the roof is formed of large slabs stretching
from lintel to lintel. The maridap has two doors on each side,
five pillars in depth with two in width, and on a lower step an
additional range over a stylobate approached by three steps. The
whole looks heavy and dark. The beauty of the Lakshmi temple
is its gracefully tapering spire which has a square base with a
handsome frieze above which are five dodecagonal tiers surmounted
by an urn or kalas. The whole is about fifty-six feet high.

Off the west side of the street leading to the market, in a garden
(200' X 100') enclosed by a high stone wall, is the temple of Vishnu
built in 1774 by Anandrav Bhikaji Eastia at a cost of £21,625
(Rs. 2,16,250). A covered court or mandap (48'xl8') of five
round arches, supported by square-based massive pillars five feet
thick with a cut-stone roof without intermediate support, leads to
a raised veranda with three small Muhammadan Saracenic arches ^
behind which is the shrine. The walls are very thick, with five
scolloped arches on each side and three in front. The roof facade
is worked in arabesques. The spire is poor, and consists of three
octagonal tiers. The whole about fifteen feet high is of beautifully
cut gray stone and excepting the spire very handsome. The
mandap or hall is the best in Wdi. There are ten other temples
on the river bank of no special note, eight of them dedicated
to Mahddev, one to Dattatraya, and one to Vithoba. The eight
Mahddev temples built by various private individuals vary in date
from 1740 to 1854.^ The temple of Dattdtraya was built in 1861
by a mendicant named Vyankoba Bdva on a ghdt or landing made
in 1785 by Anandrav Rastia. The temple of Vithoba was built
by Tai Sdheb the great-grandmother of the Bhor chief.

' The pillara supporting the arches are of plated 'work in beautifully polished
black stone.

» The temple dates are 1740, 1744, 1760, 1760, 1760, 1808, and 1854. The date of
one is not known.

Deccan.]

satIra.

613

Besides the temples tlie chief objects of interest in and about the
town are Rdstia's vddds or mansions, an old Peshwa bridge, and
Buddhist caves in Loh^re village about four miles to the north.
Of Rdstia's mansions there are several in and about the town.
The chief of them is the Moti Bdgh in a large garden with water
tower and fountains about a mile and a half west of Wdi. The
mansion was built about 1789 by Anandrav Bhikaji Rdstia at a
cost of £10,200 (Rs. 1,02,000). The interior walls are covered with
paintings whose colour is fast fading away.

The Peshwa's bridge is to the south of the town about a hundred
yards below the new Krishna bridge. It is said to have been built in
the time of the Brdhman government, and the oldest inhabitants
of Wdi know from hearsay that wayfarers used to cross the river on
planks fixed between the piers. There are eight piers remaining but
the original number would seem to have been ten. The piers are
irregular in size and shape and situated at irregular intervals.
They stand on the rock of the river and are mostly nine feet high.
They are formed by a wall of rough masonry and excellent mortar
built in the shape of an oval. This was filled in with whitewash
and stones and plastered over with cement. The piers vary in
girth from fifty-six to sixty-nine feet and the short diameters
average thirteen feet. The intervals vary from fourteen to nineteen
feet. So far as known the bridge was merely built to join Wdi
with the opposite river bank, and it did not form part of any
particular line of communication.^

FouT^ miles north of Wdi, in the village of Lohdre and near
Sultdnpur, is a group of eight excavations cut in soft trap rock,
running from south-east to north-west and facing south-west. The
first from the south-east is a plain dwelling cave or vihdra about
27' by 21' with three cells and a pond near it. The second and
chief cave has a hall 31' by 29' 6" and 8' 6" high with a bench along
the left side and along parts of the front and back ; four cells on
the right side with bench-beds and small windows ; while in the back
are two more similar cells with addghoba shrine between them. The
shrine 16' square had originally a door and two windows to admit
light. The capital of the ddghoba or relic-shrine has been destroyed
to convert it into a huge ling 6' 4" high and 8' in diameter called
Palkeshvar or Palkoba. To the left of this chief cave is a much
ruined excavation. Two hundred yards north-west of this is
another dwelling cave or vihdra of which the hall is about the
same size as the hall of the chief cave and has a bench round the
sides and back and four cells in the back and one on the left side,
also an entrance made in the right wall running up to what may
have been intended for a chamber over the roof of the cave but
never finished. The roof is supported by six octagonal pillars in
two rows from front to back with a stone joist running through the

Chapter XIV
Places-

WAl.

Old Bridge.

Caves.

' Mr. H. R. Cooke, C. S.

2 Fergusson and Burgess' Cave Temples of India, 212-213. The caves were first
described by the late Sir Bartle Frere about 1850 when Commissioner of SAtilra,
Journal Bomb. Branch Roy. Ais. Soo. III. Fart II. 55.

[Bombay Gazetteeti

614

DISTEIGTS.

Chapter XIV. lieads of eacli row, but only fragments of them are left. On the

Places.. right hand wall near the back are the remains of some human

WXi. figures, apparently two standing females and two seated males, all

now headless and otherwise mutilated. The other caves are smaller

and not of much interest.

History. Its position on the Krishna in a beautiful valley and the Buddhist

caves in its neighbourhood ^ show Wdi to have been a holy town
and an old Buddhist settlement. WAi is locally believed to be
Vir^tnagari/ the scene of the thirteenth year exile of the Pindavs.*
Nothing further is known of Wai until Musalmdn times. In 1429
Malik -ul-Tujar, the Bahmani governor of Uaulatabad, after subduing
the Eamoshis and other banditti of Khat^v and the Mahidev hills,
marched to W^i.* Between 1453 and 1480 Wai is mentioned as a
military post of the Bahmanis from where troops were ordered in
1464 to join the Bahmani minister Mahmud Gdw^n in his Konkan
expedition.^ About 1648 Wai was the head-quarters of a Bijdpur
mofcasddf/.r or manager.^ When Shivaji rebelled, he took possession
of Wdi, and before his murder at Pratapgad in 1659 Wdi was
the scene of the last halt of Afzulkh^n and his ill-fated expedition.'^
From this time Wai passed to the Marathsts. In 1687 it was
attacked by the Bijdpur general Shirjekhdn who suffered here a
defeat at the hands of the able Mardtha general Hambirrdv Mohite
who however was killed on the occasion. This victory enabled the
Mar^th^s to occupy much of the open country they had previously
lost to the Moghals.^ The latter got possession of Wai again in
1690 in the reign of EAjdram (1689-1700), but it was regained for
the Marathd,s in the same reigu by Santdji Grhorpade the oldest
representative of the KApshi Ghorpade family. Ramchandrapant,
one of the chief men of the time, and afterwards made minister or
amdtya, proposed a stratagem whereby Saat4ji managed to
completely surprise thefaujddr of W^i, took him prisoner with all his
troops, and established a Maratha post or thdua in the town. On its
capture the Wai district was given in charge of Shankr^ji Narayan
a clerk of Ramchandrapant who retook from the Moghals the
important fortress of Rajgad in the Bhor state.^ Wai then fell into
the hands of the Peshw^s, but in 1753 was occupied by RajdrAm's
widow Tarabai with the aid of 5000 Ramoshis and Marathds.i*
About 1774 R^m Shastri,the spiritual and legal adviser at the Poena
court, retired from the government in disgust to a sequestered place
near Wdi on hearing that RaghunAthrav finally connived at the
murder of his nephew Nard,yaarav Peshwa.^^ About 1790 theRAstia
family of Wai first began to rise to influence at the Peshwa^s court
at Poena where they sided with the ministerial party against the
encroachments of Mahddji Sindia.^^ In October 1791 Major Price,

' Dr. Burgess' Antiquarian Lists, 58-59. See above pp. 224,613.
" Hence the name Vairdtgad given to the fort in the neighbourhood.

3 Lady Falkland's Chow Chow, 191 - 192. ^ Grant Durs Mar^thds, 26.

» Briggs' Ferishta, II. 483. « Grant DuflPs MarAthds, 62.

' Grant Duff's MardthAs, 76. « Grant Dufi's MarithAs, 154.

s Grant Duff's U&v&this, 166. " Grant Duft's Mar4thds, 280.

" Grant DufFs Mardthis, 362. " Grant Duffs MarAthAs, 502.

Deccan.]

SATARA.

615

wHose Memoirs of tlie Early Life and Services of a Field Officer- were
published in 1839 by Major Moor author of the Hindu Pantheon,
describes W^i as a town of great importance, the property of the
elder brother of the Eastia family who had built several neat
stuccoed temples. The town was locally believed to be the scene of
the exploits of the Pandav brothers, one of whom slew in battle the
giant Kichak and dragged the body to the summit of the eminence
hard by now named Pandavgad and the toe of the giant was so large
that, in tearing it along, it ploughed up the very deep ravine which
terminates near the entrance of the town from the eastward. The
large tumulus on the hill north-east of Wai, with a temple on its top,
was said to be formed of the body of the monster and three of his
companions burnt to ashes by the conqueror.^ In 1 796 when N^na
Fadnavis found Bdjirdv Peshwa siding with Sindia to compass his
ruin he retired to WtH. The next year Haripant Phadke the
Peshwa general was sent to bring Nana back to Poena. But as
he advanced with 4000 horse Ndna took alarm and fled to the
Konkan.^ In 1798 Parshuram Bhau Patvardhan of Tasgaon was
confined at Wdi, but soon released on quelling some disturbances
in the neighbourhood.^ In 1827 Captain Clunes notices W4i
as a town with a large Brahman population, formerly belonging
to the Rastias and still their residence.* About 1850 Lady Falkland
(1848-1854) writes of W^i, 'I know nowhere a more lovely spot
than Wd,i, and although I often visited it during my stay in India; I
saw new beauties every time. Here there is grand scenery, as well
as pleasing quiet spots and charming bits. The view from the
travellers' bungalow is perfectly beautiful. Behind the city rise
hills of all the shapes which are peculiar to the mountains in the
Deccan. There are round, peaked, flat-topped hills ; some covered
with rocks, looking at a distance like forts and castles.'^

Yavteshvar is a small village on the plateau to the north-west of
the summit of the Yavteshvar hill, about two miles west of Sdtdra.
The plateau is reached by a good bridle path branching off from
the tunnel at Satara or by the steps which climb straight up the
hill side. It is 1100 feet above the plain and pleasantly cool at
all times of the year, though a little hot wind is sometimes felt.
During the hot weather it is not unfrequently used as a health-resort
for the civil and military officers of the station of Sd-tAra. The village
contains a temple of Yavteshvar and close to the south further up
the slope are the remains of two bungalows.

Yelur in Valva, nine miles south-east of Peth and four miles west
of the SAtd,ra-Kolhdpur mail road, is a large village with in 1881 a
population of 2808. It is the residence of several well-to-do capitalists
and large agriculturists, with an export traffic to Chiplun in pepper
sugarcane tobacco and hardai oilseed. At its weekly market on
Saturday, besides the articles above mentioned, cattle horses sheep
and goats are largely bought and sold. The village was originally

Chapter XIV
Places.

WAi.
History.

Yavteshvah.

Yelue,

1 Memoirs, 275-276. ^ Grant Duflfs Mardthds, 523, 525.

' Grant Duff's Mardthis, 535. * Itinerary, 32.

5 Chow Chow, I. 188 ; Murray's Bombay Handbook, 194.195.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

616

DISTEICTS.

Chapter XIV. walled, remains of which may be still seen. About a mile east of the
Places. Tillage is an excellent grove of mangoes for a camp.

Yebad Yerad village, with in 1881 a population of 705, lies close to the

Kardd-Kambharli pass road three miles south-west of Patan. Close
to the south of the road on the river bank, conspicuous from afar, is-
a fine grove of mango trees. In the middle of this grove is a
small stone temple with a tiled roof and a ling said to be Yedoba
an incarnation of Shiv. Silver masks of the god are carried in
procession on the fair day, namely the full-moon of Chaitra or
March-April. Some 10,000 people assemble every year, this being
the favourite fair of the hill cultivators who come from very long
distances to visit it. They stay three days and camp in every
direction. Special police parties are detached for sanitary
arrangements, notwithstanding which' the nuisance and pollution
of the Koyna river is great. On this account Yerad, though a
favourite camp, should not be visited between the fair and the
monsoon following. In the pools near the village mahsur can be
caught trolling or with the spoon bait.

STATES.

Of the six Si,ti.Ta,Jdgirs or feudatories which became tributaries to States-

the British G-overnment on the lapse of the Sd,tAra territory in 1849,
four, Bhor Phaltan Aundh and Jath, with in 1883 an area of 3026
square miles, 318,687 people, and a gross revenue of £178,186
(Rs. 17,81,860), are under the supervision of the Collector of S^tdra
as Political Agent. Of these Bhor lies in the north-west, Phaltan
in the north, Aundh in the east, and Jath in the extreme south-east.
Besides these four large jdgirs or states, a group of six villages
belonging to the jdgirddr of DaphMpur is under the Collector of
Sd,tdra as Political Agent. Under British rule the y(ig'tr<iars were
continued in all their former rights and privileges, except the powers
of life and death and of settling some of the more serious criminal
cases. Their administration is now conducted on the principles of
British law. Criminal and civil justice is administered by the
chiefs themselves with the aid of subordinate courts. In civil suits
special appeals from the decisions of the chiefs lie to the Political
Agent. In criminal cases heinous offences requiring capital
punishment or transportation for life, are tried by the Political Agent
aided by two assessors, the preliminary proceedings being conducted
by the chiefs. Criminal appeals from their decisions also lie to the
Political Agent.

Bhor begins from the north-west corner of Satara on the north Shoe.

of the MahMev hills. From the Mahddev hiUs, with a breadth
varying from thirty-five miles in the south to fifteen miles in the
north, Bhor stretches north-west over the rough Sahyadri lands in
south-west Poona and in east Kolaba, as far as withui six miles of
the line of the Bhor pass in Poona and seven miles of Pen in
Kolaba. It has an estimated area of about 1491 square miles, a
population in 1881 of 145,876 or niaety-eight to the square mile,
and in 1883 a gross revenue of £52,318 (Rs. 5,23,180). It is
bounded on the north-west and north by KoMba, on the north-
east by the SahyMris, on the east by Poona and Sdtara, on the south
by Sdtara, and on the west by Kolaba. Except one-fourth which is
flat, the country is hilly. The climate of the part of the state which
is above the Sahyadris is like that of S^t^ra and in the part below
the Sahyadris is like that of Kolaba. In 1883 the rainfall varied from
268 inches at Vichitragad to 1 3944 inches at Sudhagad. Intermit-
tent and remittent fever and guineaworm are very prevalent, and
cholera appears every two or three years. Of natural resources the
chief are agriculture and forests. Iron-smelting which was once of
some importance has been given up, and in industries the state is poor.
Except a few cotton and wool weavers the bulk of the people are
husbandmen mostly Marathi-speaking Hindus. The chief Hindu
castes are Brahmans, Vanis, MarAthds, Edmoshis, Mh£rs, Mangs, and
Ch^mbh^rs. About three-fourths of the soil is red and about
B 1282—78

[Bombay Gazetteer,
618 DISTRICTS.

States- one-fourth is black and gray. Scarcely any of the land is watered ;

Bhor. what there is is watered from wells and fair weather dams. Of rivers

above the Sahyadris the Mutha runs in the north and the Nira in the
south, and below the Sahyadris the Amba runs south-west. Of roads
above the Sahyadris the Pandharpur-MahM made cart-road runs east
and west by the Yarandha pass and Bhor to Mahdd in Kolaba ; and
the Poona-Belgaum mail road runs north and south by the Khamatki
pass ; and below the SahyMris the Poona-Panvel road by theBhor pass
runs a little above its northern boundary. The state is at present under
survey, but no one sub-division has been finally settled. In 1882-83 it
had three civil and seven criminal courts. Besides thirty horsemen in
the huzur pdga or head-quarter guard who aid as mounted police, the
police were 184 strong. There is no municipality, but a committee of
five officers supervise sanitary arrangements on which £164 (Rs.l640)
were spent in 1882. In 1882-83 the actual revenue was returned at
£49,500 (Rs. 4,95,000) and the expenditure at £48,800 (Rs. 4,88,000).
The local funds collections amounted to £3100 (Rs. 31,000), which
are said to have been spent on local objects ; 1045 patients were treated
at the Bhor dispensary and 2267 persons were vaccinated. There ,
are twenty-seven schools with 923 pupils.

History. In 1697 Rdjaram, the son of Shivdji, appointed Shankraji NArayan

Pant Sachiv for his able services.^ He was given an estate or jdgir
and other vatans or rent-free lands. In 1707, Shankrdji died at
Ambevadi and was succeeded by his son Ndro. On his death in
March 1737, Naro was succeeded by his nephew Chimndji who had
three sons Sadashivrav, Anandrav, and Raghunathrdv. In 1757, on
the death of Chimnaji, his eldest son Saddshivrav became Pant
Sachiv. In 1787, on his death Sadashivrdv was succeeded by his
youngest brother Raghunathrdv. On Raghun^thrdv's death in 1791,
his son Shankarrdv became Pant Sachiv. He had no male issue and
adopted Chioanaji who succeeded him in 1798. Till their downfall
in 1818, Chimnd,ji continued in the service of the Peshwas. On his
death in 1827, Chimnaji was succeeded by his adopted son
Raghun^thrdv ; for this adoption a nazamn a or present of £4000
(Rs. 40,000) was paid to the Raja of Sdtara. In 1836 Raghundthr^v,
being without legitimate male issue, adopted Chimndji who succeeded
him in 1839. On the 12th of February 1871, on his death Chimnd,ji
was succeeded by his son Shankarrav, the present chief. During the
chief's minority a Jcdrbhdri or manager was appointed by the British
Government to look after his affairs. In 1874 at the age of
twenty-one, Shankarrav assumed the charge of his state. The Pant
Sachiv ranks as first class sarddr. He is a Brahman by caste and
his head-quarters are at Bhor. He pays a yearly tribute of £523
10s. (Rs. 5235) to the British Grovernment, nominally on account of
■pilkhcina or elephant stables.

1 The pant sachiv was one of tlie titles given to his eight ministers by ShivAji
at the time of his crowning in 1674. The eight titles were the peshwa or prime
minister, pant amdtya or councillor, pant sachiv or minister, mantri or general
eounciUor, sumant or foreign minister, nydyddkish or judge, and panditrdv or the
learned. In 1698 a ninth title of pant pratinidhi or viceroy, ranking higher than
the other eight, was created by KAjilrAm,

Becoau,]

satAra.

61-9

Fhaltau lies to the north of the MahAdev range which drains States-

north to the Nira. It has an estimated area of about 397 square PhIxtan.

miles, a population in 1881 of 58,402 or 147 to the square mile, and
in 1883 a gross revenue of £56,763 (Es. 5,67,630). It is bounded on
the north by the Nira and beyond the Nira by Bhimthadi in Poena,
on the east by Malsiras in Sholdpur, on the south by Man Khatdv
and Koregaon in SAtdra, and on the west by Koregaon and Khandd,la
in SAtdra. The country is chiefly flat ; lines of small stony hills
divide it from the Satdra district. The climate is hot and the
rainfall scanty and uncertain. Intermittent and remittent fevers are
very prevalent, also guineaworm, boils, and itches, and sometimes
cholera and small-pox. Of natural resources the chief are building
timber, extensive sheep-grazing lands, and salt. The chief Hindu
castes are Brahmans, Lingayats, Marathas, Eamoshis, Chdmbh^rs,
Mh^rs, and Md,ngs. The prevailing soil is black and the rest is red.
About 9000 acres of garden land are watered mostly from wells.
Of rivers the Nira runs in the north of the state. Of roads the
Pandharpur-Mahd,d made cart-road runs east and west by Phaltan
to MahMajidby the Adarki pass a road runs south-west to Sdt^ra.
The chief industries are the weaving of cotton and silk goods and the
carving of stone idols. In the town of Phaltan a number of Gujarat
Vdnis carry on a brisk trade in importing and exporting between
the coast and the interior. Yearly fairs are held at Phaltan and Jdvli.
The state was surveyed in 1869-70. It sufiered severely during the
1876-77 famine, and a good deal of arable land fell waste and has
not again been brought under tillage, partly from the numbers who
left and died and partly from the want of cattle. In 1882-83 the state
had three civil courts besides criminal and sessions courts under
Joint Administrators. Besides forty-three rakhvdlddrs or watchmen,
who guard the public buildings in Phaltan and generally aid the
police, the regular police are fifty-two strong. The municipality of
Phaltan was established in 1868, and the income is levied by a
graduated tax as well as by a sixteenth of the pay of the state
servants. In 1882 the municipality had a revenue of £580
(Rs. 5800), of which £480 (Rs. 4800) were spent on scavenging,
roadside trees, and sinking a well. The streets are well kept and
clean, and the road round the town is well shaded by trees. The
taxation is 3d. (2 as.) a head. In 1882 the gross revenue of the
state was returned at £20,900 (Rs. 2,09,000), and the expenditure
at £18,300 (Rs. 1,83,000). The excise and salt arrangements are in
the hands of the British Grovernment. A toll has been put on the
Adarki pass, on which the state had previously spent over £1700
(Rs. 17,000). There are sixteen schools with 719 pupils. English
is taught at Phaltan.

The chief of Phaltan is a Mard,tha of the Povdr clan. According History.

to the state records, in 1 327 one Podakla Jagdev entered the service
of Muhammad Tughlik (1325-13-51), the emperor of Delhi, who was
then warring in the Deccan. Podakla was killed in battle, and the
Emperor granted his son Nimbrd,] a jdgir together with some indm
lands and the title of ndik. Nimbrd,j founded the present town of
P-haltan and died in 1349. He was succeeded by his son Yanag who
was put to death in 1374. In, 1390 Yanag's son YangpAl retook

[Bombay Gazetteer,

620

DISTRICTS.

States- Phaltan and died in 1394. Between 1394 and 1630 nine chiefs ruled

PhIltan. ^* Phaltan, about whom little but their names is known.^ In 1644

History. *^® ruling chief iMudhoji (1630-1644) was killed by the king of

Bijd.pur, and his son Bandji was taken prisoner to BijApur. In 1651
Bandji was restored to his father's estate. He had four sons
MahMd,ji, Grorkhoji, Yangoji, and Mudhoji. In 1676, on the death
of Bandji his third son Vangoji succeeded, but died without issue in
1693, and was succeeded by his nephew Jdnoji. Jdnoji was deposed
by his step-brother Bandji, and was afterwards restored by Shdhu
of Satdra (1708 - 1749). In 1748, on his death Jdnoji was
succeeded by his son Mudhoji. In 1765, on the death of Mudhoji,
his wife SagunabAi administered the state for a short time, but was
deposed by Peshwa MMhavrav Balldl and one Soyraji raised to the
chief ship. In 1774 Sagundbai adopted a son Mdloji, and with the
aid of Peshwa Madhayrav Ndr^yan regained control of the state.
In 1777, on his death Mdloji was succeeded by his adopted son
J^nrav. Janrdv continued in the service of the Peshwas till their
fall in 1818. On the 1st of January 1825, on JanrAv's death the
state was attached by the Raja of Sdt^ra, but on the 3rd o:& September
1827 Bandji was allowed to succeed on payment of a rtazardna or
succession fee of £3000 (Rs. 30,000). On the 17th of May 1828,
on Bandji's death the state was again attached by the Rdja of SdtAra.
On the 3rd of December 1841, on payment of a nazardna or succession
fee of £3000 (Rs. 30,000), Jibai Ai SAheb the wife of Bandji was
allowed to adopt the present chief Mudhojirav. During Mudhojirdv's
minority Ai Saheb acted as regent tiU her death on the 17th of
November 1853. After her death the British Grovemment managed
the state till the 10th of February 1860, when Mudhojirav was put
in sole charge of the state. The chief of Phaltan styled Nimbdlkar,
is a Mardtha by caste and ranks as first class sarddr. His head-
quarters are at Phaltan, and he pays the British Grovemment a yearly
tribute of £960 (Rs. 9600) on account of svdrs or horsemen. The
family holds a patent allowing adoption. In matters of succession
they do not follow the custom of primogeniture. Of late, as he was
deeply involved in debt, Mudhojirav applied to Grovemment for a
loan and offered to resign the management of the state till the debt
was paid and the affairs of the state were put in order. In December
1882 the offer was accepted and joint administrators were appointed,
one the son of the chief and the other a revenue officer of the British
Government. The debts which amounted to £25,000 (Rs. 2^ Idkhs)
will be discharged by a yearly instalment of about £2500 (Rs. 25,000)
and the state is expected to be free from debt in thirteen or fourteen
years. Under the joint administration many of the departments
have been reorganized, the pay of the police has been raised, and
the Deccan Agriculturists' Relief Act has been introduced to give
the cultivators the same protection as in Poona or Satdra. The
joint administration has also resumed the civil, criminal, and revenue
charge of the Rd,m-Sansthan group of six villages, which have a

nine chiefs were : Vangoji (1394-1409), Mdloji'(1409-1420), BAji (1420- 1445),
45. 1470), BAji (1470 - 1512), Mudhoji (1512 - 1527), BAjidAr (1527 - 1560), Maloji

>70) anil Var..»ni"; /lS7n_ lCC!n\

1 The _

Joya (1445 - ., .„ J. ,..^ „,„„ „^

(1560-1570), and Vangoji (1570-1630).

Deccau]

Si.Ti.RA. 621

yearly revenue of over £4700 (Rs, 47,000) and wliich Mudhojirdv States-

gave in grant to a temple.

Aundh is partly scattered within the limits of the Mdn, Kof egaon, Aundh.

Khdndpur, Kardd, and Tasgaon sub-divisions of Sdtd,ra and partly
forms a considerable block of the itpadi sub-division to the north-
east of Khdndpur which draias north-east into the Man. It has an
estimated area of about 447 square miles, a population in 1881 of
58,9 16 or 131 to the square mile, and in. 1883 an estimated gross
revenue of £39,960 (Rs. 3,99,600). The AtpMi sub-division, vrith
an area of about 300 square miles, is bounded on the north by MAn
in Satdra and Mdlsiras in Sholapur, on the east by Sd,ngola in
Sholapur, on the south by Khanapur, and on the west by Khanapur
Khatav and Mdn. The country belonging to Aundh is for the most
part flat. The climate of the AtpSdi sub-division is hot and the
rainfall scanty and uncertain. In 1883, the rainfall varied in
different parts from sixteen to thirty inches. The prevalent diseases
are remittent fevers, severe colds, and guineaworm. Cholera and
small-pox occur every two or three years. The bulk of the people
are Hindus and Musalmdns, who speak Mard,thi K^narese and
HiadustAni. The chief Hindu castes are Brdhmans, Mardthds,
RAmoshis, Mhdrs, Chdmbbdrs, and M^ngs. In the Atpddi subdivision
about half the soil is black, one-fourth gray, and the remainiag
fourth red. In other parts about two-thirds of the soil is black and
one-third gray. The garden land is almost all watered from wells.
Of rivers the Mdn runs north and south in the AtpMi sub-division.
Of roads the Malharpeth-Pandharpur made cart-road runs through
the Atpddi sub-division by the Kaldhon pass. In 1882-83 the state
had one appellate and six subordinate civil courts and thirteen
crimiaal courts. Besides village watchmen, the strength of the
police is fifty-two men and 170 shetsandis or militia. In 1882-83, at
the Aundh dispensary 2460 patients were treated and 1085 children
vaccinated. There are niueteen schools with 736 scholars.

The family of the Pant Pratinidhi is descended from Trimbak History.

Krishna, the accountant of the village of Kinhai in the Koregaon
sub-division of Sat^ra. In 1690, Eajd,ram, the youngest son of
Shivdji, raised Trimbak' s son,Parashur^m Pant, who was in the service
of Rdmchandra Pant Amatya, to the rank of sarddr. He became a
great favourite of Rdjard-m's, and in 1698 was made pratinidhi or
viceroy. In 1699, his predecessor Tim^ji Hanmant, who had been
taken prisoner by the Moghals, was set free and re-appointed
Pratinidhi, and Parashuram Pant received the office of Peshwa or
prime minister. In 1700, on the death of Raj^rdm, his widow Tdrd-
bai again appointed Parashuram Pratinidhi. In the civil war which
followed the death of Rajdram, Parashuram was TdrdbAi's chief
general, and in 1707 was defeated and taken prisoner by Sh^hu the
grandson of Shivaji. Parashurdm lost his appointment, and in 1710
the office of Pratinidhi was given to Gadidhar Pralhdd. On
Gradadhar's death in the same year, Parashuram was set free and
restored, but in 1711 the office was again taken from him and given
to Nardyan Pralhad. In 1713 Parashurdm Pant was agaia restored
and the office of Pratinidhi was made hereditary in his family. In

[Bombay Gazetteer,
622 DISTRICTS.

States. 1717 on his death Parashur^m was succeeded by his second son

AuNDH Shrinivas, as his eldest son Krishndji was Pratinidhi of Vishdlgad

Historu ^ *^® Kolhdpur state. Shrinivas also called Shripatray was during

all his lifetime Shdhu's chief adviser. In 1746 he died without
male issue and was succeeded by his younger brother Jagjivan,
commonly called Dddoba, whom Shdhu appointed to his brother's
post of chief minister. In 1750, when, on the death of Shdhu, the
Peshwa became supreme, DMoba was deposed and in ITiSl was
succeeded by Shrinivas Grang^dhar, also called Bhavanrdv and
grandson of Dddoba's elder brother Krishna ji Parashurdm. In 1762,
Dd,doba was restored to the office, with Shrinivas as his assistant.
On Dadoba's death without issue, the office was given to Shrinivds.
In 1762, Eaghun^thrav deposed Shrinivas and gave the office to
his own son Bhdskarrdv. Bh^skarrav died four months after getting
the office which was then given to Ndro Shankar. In 1763 Shrini-
vds also called Bhavdnrdv intrigued with the Nizam and Eaghoji
Bhonsla of Nagpur and was restored. In 1765 he was again deposed
by the Peshwai for disobedience, and his office was given to his
cousin Bhagvantrav Trimbak. Bhavdnrav then went to Poena
where he lived for about four years, receiving £5000 (Rs. 50,000) a
year from the Peshwa. In 1768, Bhavanrav was given a saranjdm
or military grant of the yearly value of £50,000 (Rs. 5 lakhs). He
waged constant war with the Pra^mic?/! iBhagvantravtiU Bhagvantrdv
died in 1775. In 1777 Bhavanrav died and was succeeded by his
son Parashuram. Parashurdm was born the day after his father's
death, and was at once installed as Pratinidhi by JSTdna Fadnavis,
who was a great friend of his father. In 1795 at the age of eighteen
Parashuram Pant took charge of his estate or jdgir. He is said to
have had great valour. He died ia 1848 and was succeeded by the
present chief ShrinivAsrdv, who had been adopted in 1847 with the
permission of the British Grove rirment and the late Rd,ja of Sdtdra.
A nazardna or succession fee was paid at the time of adoption.
During the government of SirBartle Frere (1862-1867) Shrinivasrd,v
was a member of the Legislative Council of Bombay. The
Pratinidhi is a Brahman by caste and ranks as first class sarddr.
He lives at Aundh, an isolated village in the Khatd,v sub-division.
He pays no tribute to Government.
Jath. Jath. Btretches east and then north to the Man and Bhima about

twenty miles south-east of Pandharpur. It has an estimated area of
885 square miles, a population in 1881 of 49,486 or fifty-six to the
square mile, and in 1883 a gross revenue returned at £28,000
(Rs. 2,80,000). It is bounded on the north by Sd,ngola in Sholdpur
and Mangalvedha in Sd.ngli, on the east by Indi and Bijdpur, on the
south by Athni in Belgaum, and on the west by Sangli and Miraj.
Except a number of small hills near the town of Jath, the country
is flat. The land is poor and thinly peopled, and is specially suited
for cattle breeding. The climate is hot and the rainfall is about
the same as at BijApur. The south-west monsoon begins and
ends with heavy thunder showers. The Madras or north-east
monsoon sometimes extends to Jath in December. During the
autumnal months intermittent fevers are common. From May to
September cholera appears almost every yea,r. The bulk of the

Deccan.]

SATARA. 623

people are Hindus who speak Mard,thi Kdnarese and Hindustd,ni. States.

The chief Hindu castes are BrAhmans, Lingayats, Jains, Mardthas, j^^

RAmoshis, Vadars, Berads, Mh^rs, Mangs, and Chambhdrs. About
one-sixth of the soil is black, one-sixth red, and the remaining two-
thirds stony and gravelly. Most garden lands are watered from
wells. Of the rivers small feeders of the Mdn and Bhima run
through the state. Of the roads the chief is the Kar4d-Bij^pur
road running north-west and south from Bijd.pur to Kar4d by Jath.
The survey was introduced in 1878, and has been of great benefit to
the people by sweeping away a number of arbitrary cesses. The
rates are moderate and there is a large area of arable waste. In
1882 about 3000 acres were taken for tillage, and a large part has
been reserved for forest. The forest reserves amount to about
38,400 acres. In 1882-83 the state had four criminal courts. The
police were sixty-one strong. In 1882 the gross revenue was returned
as amounting to about £27,500 (Rs.2,75,000), besides £800 (Rs. 8000)
collected as local funds, and the expenditure was about £15,000
(Rs. 1,50,000) including £2200 (Rs. 22,000) paid for debts, and
excluding £460 (Rs. 4600) spent on local fund objects, chiefly on
education. At Jath a municipal fund is raised by a tax on the sale
of cattle at the weekly market, and the proceeds are spent in
maintaining the roads and trees, and on lighting the town. The
Jath dispensary, which was closed for some years of financial
embarrassment, was re-opened towards the close of 1882. The state
has seventeen schools with 682 pupils.

The family of the Jath chief claim descent from Lakhmdji bin History.

Eldaji Ghavhdn, headman of the village of DaphMpur. Lakhmd,ji had
two sons Satvajir^v and Dhondjir^v. In 1680 Satvdjir^v, who
had entered the service of Ali Adil Shah, king of Bijdpur, on
paying a succession fee or nazardna, was appointed Deshmukh of
the sub-divisions of Jath, Karajgi, Bardol, and Yanvad ; Satvajirdv
contiaued one of the leading Bijdpur nobles till the state was
overthrown by Aurangzeb in 1686. He assumed independence
for a few days, but finally submitted to Aurangzeb, receiving
Jath and Karajgi in jagir, and Jath, Karajgi, Vanvad, and Bardol
as vatans. Satvd,jirdv's two sons, Bab^ji and Kh^naji, died about
1700 before their father. On Satvaji's death without heirs, Esubdi,
the wife of his eldest son Bavaji, succeeded. On her death in
1754 Esubd,i was succeeded by her nephew Yashvantr^v. In 1759
Yashvantrdv died and was succeeded by his son Amritrd,v. Amritrav
was succeeded by his son Khdnajird,v, who had two wives Renuk^bd,i
and Salubdi. In 1818 RenukabAi made a treaty with the English
under which all her possessions were confirmed to her. In 1823
Renukdbdi died and was succeeded by Salub^i who admiaistered the
state fof ten months and died without leaving male issue. The
state was then attached by the Raja of Sd,tara, but in 1824 it was
granted to Rdmrav bin NardyanrAv a member of the same
family. In 1835 Rdmrd,v died leaving no male_ issue. The Rdja
of Sdtd,ra again attached the state and managed it till 1841, when
it was granted to Bhagirthibai the widow of Ramrav. In 1841,
with the permission of the S^tara government, Bhdgirthibai

[Bombay Gazetteer,

624

DISTRICTS.

States.

Jath.

History.

DaphlApce.

adopted Bhimrdv bin Bhagvantr^v. BhimrAv on his adoption took
the name of AmritrAv. During Amritray's minority the state
was managed by Bh^girthib^i tUl her death in 1845. On
Bhagirthibdi's death Sakhojirdv Sdyant was appointed ka/rhhari or
manager, and remained in office till Amritrav came of age in 1865.
In 1872 owing to numerous complaints of oppression on the part of
Amritrav, the Grove rnment of Bombay ordered Captain, now Lieute-
nant Colonel, West to make inquiries into the alleged grievances.
The result of these inquiries was that both the civil and the criminal
administration was taken out of the chief's hands. The chief of Jath,
who is styled Deshmukh, is a Maratha by caste and ranks as first
class sarddr. Besides small sums on account of rights in other
districts, the chief pays to the British Government a yearly tribute
of £473 18s. (Es. 4739) on account of sardeshmuhhi rights in the
Sdtara district and of £640 (Rs. 6400) in lieu of furnishing svars
or horsemen. At present (1884) the chief has no jurisdiction.
A kdrbhdri or manager has been appointed with the powers of a first
class subordinate judge in civil cases, and of a first class magistrate in
criminal cases.

The small state of DapMa'pur consisting of six villages, lies in
the west of Jath. It is at present managed by a lady, the
Baisaheb LakshmibAi Daphli, who exercises the powers of a
magistrate of the first class and in civil matters of a first class
subordinate judge. DaphMpur has an estimated area of forty square
miles, a population in 1881 of 6007 or 150 to the square mile, and
in 1883 a gross revenue of £1160 (Rs. 11,600). In 1882 the
survey of the state was completed and the assessment raised from
£900 to £1300 (Rs. 9000 - 13,000). There are thtee schools in
the state.

Deccau.]

APPENDIX A.

The following notes on the botany of the district are contributed by Maior
H. H.Lee, RE. :

The Satdra district affords an interesting field for the botanist, comprising
as it does so great a variety of soil and climate. The plains and bare hills of
the eastern districts may be readily exhausted but the observer will have his
hands full when he approaches the Western Gh^ts crosses the Koyna
valley, and traverses the boundary line between Satdra and the Eonkan. The
grassy slopes of the Ghdts teem with luxuriant growth in the latter part of
.September, when the heavy rains are over, and a visitor to Mahd,baleshvar on a
fine day at this season is well repaid by the varied colouring of the wild
flowers. Later on in October and November the western spurs are brightened
by the vivid yellows of Composites and the pink of strong-growing Balsams,
whilst pretty Smithias and hosts of other species of the pea-tribe carpet the
forest side.

There are few better spots for botanising than the re-entering angle of the
FitzG-erald Pass below Elphinstone Cottage, early in ISTovember and even later. '
The traveller will admire too the pretty mauve balsams that grow out of his
reach, clinging to the rock under the big waterfall higher up. The sheltered
portions of the Koyna valley are well wooded and would be more so had
Kumri or wood ash cultivation never been allowed. No very large amount of
■ useful timber is however to be found anywhere, and apparently the teak does
not attain any large size. The plains are for the most part destitute of trees ;
the avenues which mark snake-like the great highways alone telling of what
might be, were arboriculture more practised by the tiller of the soil.

The following is a list of the chief plants to be met with in the district .

EANUNCULACE:^,
Clematis wightiana.
„ Gouriana.

Common climbers on the hills ; the popular names of the English
Clematis, "Traveller's joy" and "Old Man's Beard," are well
known.

DILLENIAOE^.

Dilhnia peniagyna —

Flowers in March ; forest tree with large strongly veined leaves
and a yellow fruit the size of a gooseberry ; flowers yellow in
clusters ; at Helv^k.

MAGNOLIACEiE.

Michelia champaca — One of the Champas.

A fine umbrageous tree with very sweet yellow flowers ; found in
temple groves on the Sahyadris.
ANONACB^.
Polyeelfhia cerasoides.

A tree found in the Koyna valley.

MENISPERMACE.^.
Tinoyiora cordifolia.

A woody climber. A decoction of the stems, root, and leaves forms
gulamha, extensively used in India as a febrifuge.
Coccului maerocarpus.

The well known " Cooculus indicus " seeds of commerce are
obtained from a plant of this order, Anamirta cocculus. The
seeds are poisonous and are said to be chiefly employed to render
malt liquor intoxicating. By one man who writes on the art of
brewing it is recommended that three pounds be added to every
ten quarters of malt (Lindley).

B 1282—79

Appendix A
Botany.

[Bombay Gazetteer,
626 DISTRICTS.

Appendix A. PAP AVERAGES.

isOT NY. Argemone mexicarui, — Mexican or Oamhoge Thistle.

Common as a weed all over the plains. Flowers and juice yellow;
foliage somewhat thistle-like ; seeds highly narcotic ; native of
Mexico.

CAPPARIDEJE.

Gyrumch-opsis pentofphylla.

A heavy smelling purplish-flowered weed. Common in the plains
during the rains. The six stamens are attached to an elevated
tube (gynophore).
Cwpparis spinosa.

The common Indian and oriental form of the Caper plant, notable
for its ivory white large flowers and purple filaments. The
young flower buds are the Gapers of commerce. Mahdbaleshvar.
Capparis aptvylla — Kesli.

Apparently leafless, with small pink flowers in many-flowered
oonymbs ; not very common ; plains.
Capparis pedunculosa.
Cappa/ris divaricata.

A small tree with warty fruit ; plaias.
Cadaba indiea.

Small shrub. Flowers small, whitish ; near Muruj, cold weather.

SAMYDACE^.
Casearia glomerata — Pipdni.

Sub-arboreous. Flowers green, inconspicuous, with sepals only.
Fruit size of an olive, fleshy yellow and somewhat grooved when
ripe. May. HelvSk.

PITTOSPOREjE.
Pittosporwmflcnibmhdum — Yelcadi.

All along the range of the Ghdts. (Dalzell).
POLYGALE^.
Folygala persicarioefolia.
Polygala chinensis.

Low weeds appearing in the rains in the plains. The leaves are
thick ; the first species has lilac, and the second, which is very
common, yellow flowers.

PORTULACAGE^.

Postulaca oUraeea.
A weed.

TAMARISCINE^.
Tamarix ericoides.

A common shrub in river beds and mountain streams. Flowers
heath-lifce.

MALVACEAE.

Sida hwmilis.

Sida ca/rpinifoUa—Chihm.

Cold weather. Flowers yellowish. The " Chikni" is used to make
besoms, the twigs being at once supple and tough. On the Sahyd-
dris.
AhuUhn polyand/m/m.

A variety with orange flowers having a purple spot at the base.
Leaves odorous, with clammy pubescence. Plains near Kundal.
ZTrena hbata.

On the Ghdts. Flowering in October. Flowers pink.
HUnseus pand/wrceformis.

Flowers yellow with a purple spot at base. November. Eastern
districts in cotton fields.

Deccanl

SlTARA.

627

Kydia calycina — Wdiv.ng.

Sahyddris. Flowers white. October and November. Small tree.
Bombax malabaric^t/m.

Silk cotton tree ; flowers large, bright red. Flowers in February
when the tree is leafless. Excellent as a stuffing for pillows.
Steroulia colorata.

March and April ; comtnon on the Ghats (DalzellX
Helicteres isora.

Kevan or Kevni. Shrub ; on the Gh^ts. Flowers bright red ; ripe-
carpels spirally twisted : hence the generic name.

TILIACE^.
Ortwia Microcos^

May; common near the Qhdts. A low shruh with small whitish,
flowers. Leaves long and pointed.
Ch-ewia tilioefolia.

Eastern spurs of the Ghdts. A moderate sized tree ; May. Fruit
eaten by the natives.
Erinocarpm Nimjinoamas — Chcfwra or Forest Bhendi.

A small tree. Lower Ghdts. September and October. Flowers
large yellow. Fruit triangular bristly.
Cordiorus olitorms.

Eains ; common in the plains. Flowers yellow. It is a species of
this genus which yields the fibre called jute from which gunny
bags are made, and ladies' hair frizettes.
LINE^.
Lirvwm Mysorense.

Small ; flowers yellow ; September.
Reinwardtia Uigyna.

Shrubby ; October. Flowers large yellow ; cultivated as a pot
plant ; found truly wild on Varandha Ghdt.

ZYGOPHYLLEiE.

TriMus terresiris.

Flowers yellow. Fruit angular, prickly. A procumbent plant.

GERANIACE^.

Oxalis comiculaia.

Flowers yellow. A weed and a pest in gardens. Leaves like those
of the clover. The European wood-sorrel Oxalis acetosella is '
believed to be the original of the Irish shamrock.
Biophytv/m sensitimim,.

Leaflets 6-15 pairs. Common in the plains in the rains.
Impatiens acawlis.

Small plant ; handsome ; mauve flowers. Found on the Gh4ts
growing on rooks under waterfalls. August, September, October.
Well worthy of a place in the conservatory.
Impatiens oppositifoUa.

Fitzgerald Ghdt.
Impatiens Dalzellii.

A variety with yellow flowers.
Impatiens balsam/ina.

The origin of the common garden balsam ; very common on the
hUls in the rains.
Impatiens pulcherrima.

A stout succulent plant with large purplish flowers ; rains ; Fitz-
Gerald Ghd,t.
Impatiens inconspioua (Var ram,osissima).

EUTACE^.

Clausena indica — Forest nimh.

In fruit in May ; Ghdt tableland. Above Helvdk common.
Berries like a very small lime ; an unarmed shrub with pinnata
leaves.

Appendix A

BoTAjfy.

[Bombay Gazetteer,
628 DISTRICTS.

ADVendiX A- Toddalia aculeata.

'"' — S-foliolate ; straggling, prickly shrub. Fruit size of a large pea.

BoT.\Ny. May. Highest Ghdts.

Feronia elephantv/m.

The " wood-apple. " Leaves, smell like anise-seed. Eulp of fruit
good for jam. Plains.
^gh marmehs — Bel.

The Bel tree. Pruit considered to be a specific for dysentery.
Tall thorny tree.
Ailanfhus excelsa.

Plains. Wood light, used for sword-handles.
Balanites Boxbwghii — Hingam.

A spiny tree with small green flowers, and a hard fruit size of an
egg, which is employed in fireworks. A small hole is drilled in
it, and the kernel extracted. When the fruit is filled with powder
and fired, it bursts with an exceedingly loud report.

BURSERACE^.

Boswellia serrata — Sdlphulli.

Hills near Umbraj. Low resinous trees. The resin is used for
incense. Frankincense (olibanum) is supposed to be extracted
from a Boswellia.

MELIACE^.
Melia azadarachta.
The Nim tree.
Melia azadarach.

The Persian lilac ; usually found cultivated.
Cedrela toona — Polar.

Hedgerows at Panohgani. The wood is like inferior mahogany
and is much used in Bengal for furniture, bedsteads, chairs, and
other articles.

OLACINE^.

Mappia foetida.

A small tree with yellowish white extremely foetid flowers. Maha-
baleshvar ; common in the cold weather.

CELASTRINEiE.

Gymnosporia roihiana — Yekoli.

Common thorny shrub with small white flowers. Deocan Hills.
'Eloeodendron glaucwm — Tanwu.

A small tree, Sdtdra and Kh^matki Ghats (Dalzell).

BHAMNEiE.

Ventilago calycina.

Plains. A scandent shrub. Native name " Malla lokundi bdl."
Zizyphus jujvha — Bor.

Cultivated for its fruit which is somewhat apple-like in taste.
Zizyphus nwm/mularia.

A straggling thorny shrub ; the wait-a-hit.
Zizyphus rugoosa — Twran.

Ghdts. Berry fleshy white.
Rliamnus Wightii — B,agtrorai.

GhAts. Unarmed shrub.
Scutia indica — Ghimti.

A straggUng thorny shrub. Leaves sub-opposite. April. GhAt
districts.

AMPELIDEjE.
Vitis awiculata.

Notable for its large leafy stipules.
Viiis pedata.

Besides the above there are many species met with on the higher
Ghdts.

Deccan.]

SAtIrA. 629

ieeo maerophylla. Appendix A

Satdra; June ; stems erect, flexuose ; leaves simple nine inches to _ —

two feet. Botany.

SAPINDACEuE.

CardiospermuTn helicacahum.

Common on the plains ; a delicate climbing herb with tendrils,
small white flowers and a bladder-like fruit containing three
black seeds with a white spot.
Allc^hyllus Gobbe.

A woody scandent shrub with tri-f oliolate leaves and small white
flowers ; Mah4baleshvar.
Nephelium, longana.

A tree ; leaves 4 to 18 inches ; leaflets 2 to 12 inches. Fruit size of
a cherry, reddish or purple. Aril wholesome. Koyna valley.
Wood of this tree is hard, close-grained, and white.

ANACABDIAOE^.

Mangifera indica — Amba-

The Mango tree.
Semecarpus anacardiwn — Bibba.

The marking nut. The fruit contains a corrosive resinous juice
used for marking linen.

CONNARACB^.

Connai'us rtionoearpus.

Shrub with a red pod-like capsule. Khambala Gh4t. April and
May.

LEGUMmOS^.
Heylandia latebrosa.

Flowers small yellow. Pastures, in the rains. The flowers appa-
rentty do not open till late in the day.
Crotola/fia LeschenauUii — Dingala.

The handsome broom-like plant of Mahdbaleshvar,
0. jimcea — Tag.

Cultivated Indian hemp.
0. calycina.

Ghdts. A species with but a few flowers at the terminations of the
branches. Corolla scarcely longer than calyx.
C. orixensis.

Cold weather.
MeUloius alba.

Rare ; seen only at KarAd on the borders of caltivation in the bed
of the Koyna.
Trigonella fcenugrcecvmi — Methiohi bhaji.

Cultivated ; the seeds form the base of a medicinal confection
(LadiusJ extensively used by the natives.
Medicago sativa — Lasan grass.

Cultivated extensively near cantonments.
Indigofera glandulosa.

Plains. Common in the rains. Flowers bright red. Pod 1 to
2-seeded, leaves simple.
Indigofera irita.

Plaias. Common in the rains. Flowers purplish. Pod 6 to
10-seeded ; leaves 3.
Indigofera triqueira.
„ atropwrpwrea.
„ cordifolia.

Indigofera trifoliata.

Sdtara.

Gyamopsis soraloides.

Cultivated.

[Bombay Gazetteer,
630 DISTRICTS.

Appendix A. Psoralea eordifoUa.

— Common about SdtS,ra in and after the lains ; leaves pitted with

Botany. blackish glands. Flowers small whitish.

Tephrosia tmctcn-ia.

Flowers brick-red. Leaves sUky beneath ; var-pulcherima ; rare ;
Varandha Ghat ; September ; var-intermedia ; Sd,t^a.
Sesba/nia egyptiaca.

Cultivated in sugarcane fields ; also La river beds to form a
settling ground for silt.
Sesbania grandiflora.

A thinly branched, cultivated, short-lived^ small tree, with large
white or pink flowers.
Geissapis cristata.

A creeping annual with two pairs of leaves, the flowers with large-
veined ciliated bracts. Common in pastures in the rains.
Arachis hypogea — Bhm/mung.

Cultivated. The earth or ground nut. A native of Africa ; the
so-called nuts are the pods which force theipselves into the ground
and ripen there. The flowers are yellow. The oil extracted from
the seed is used to adulterate olive oil.
ZoiYkia dvphylla. Var-zeylonensis.

Common in pastures about S^t4ra in the rains. A very small plant,
with yellowish flowers ; leaflets dotted.
Smifhia sensitiva.
„ setidosa.
„ bigemina,
„ blamda.
The Smithias may be generally recognised by the pod which
consists of several joints folded together inside the calyx. They
are chiefly GhAt plants appearing in the rains. All have yellow
flowers with usually a red spot. Some have very handsome leaves
abruptly pinnate.
Alysicarpus rugosus.

Banks Vdma river, Kuneygaum ; a variety with long racemes ;
calices slightly ciliated and glumaceous in fruit.
Alysicarpus tetragonolobits.
Alysicarpus pvbescens.
SAtdra. Eains.
Desmodiwrn roi/wndfolium.

Sahyadris ; end of rains. Flowers pinkish. Leaves simple.
Desmodium parmflorwm.

Plains and Gh&,ts. Cold weather ; leaves 1-3 f oliolate. A variable
plant, as can be seen at Mahabaleshvar, where it is common after
the rains.
Cicer arietinu/m — Harbhara.

The familiar chana or gram ; cultivated.
Vicia hirsuta — Mdswi:

Cultivated ; it affords a reddish grain, which when ground and
mixed with jvdri is said to form the piuch advertised Beva-
lenta arabiea (Dalzell).
Phaseolus grandis.

Pasarni Qhit ; an erect plant.
Phaseolus trvne/rvius.

A twining plant.
Phaseolus rmmgo — Udid.

Cultivated extensively. It is the earliest crop of the season.
Vigna vexillata.

Phaseolus sepiarius of Dalz. and Gibson, Bombay Flora. Flowers
large, rose-coloured. Rains ; Ghdts ; common. Sweetpea as
commonly known.
Butea frondosa — Palas kahria.

Ghats. Not very common in the plains. Flowers orange red.
Cold weather. Pod with a solitary seed at the tip.

Deccan.]

satAra.

631

Ei'ythnna indiea — Pdngdra.

Flowers bright scarlet. A prickly rather naked tree, plentiful on
the higher Ghdts ; pod necklace-shaped.
Clitoi'ia tematea.

Flowers large, blue with an orange centre : sometimes white ;
common in hedges in the plains Rains.
Dolidios lablah — Pdvte.

Cultivated. Flowers very sweet scented.
Dolichos hiHoi-as — Kulthi.

Cultivated. A pulse much used on the Madras side instead of
gram.
Psophocarpus tetragonolobus — Uhaudhari.

Chevaux-de-frize bean ; cultivated. The French bean is P. nanus.
The scarlet runner P. multiflorus.
Atylosia lineata.

Atylosia Lawii of Bombay Flora. Flowers yellow.
{Hajarms indiais — Twr.

A common shrub on the Ghits. Cultivated. The stalk is used
for charcoal. It is also useful for making baskets, grain bins, etc.
Cylista scariosa.

A somewhat woody creeper with curious dried or enlarged calyx,
and yellowish red corolla ; cold weather ; common.
Eynchosia minima.

Common. Flowers yellow with purple stripes. Cold weather.
Flemingia strohilifera.

Sahyddris. Flowers hidden by a large folded persistent bract.
Dalbergia — The blackwood tribe.

There are several species in the Koyna valley. Probably D. volu-
bilis as a creeper and D. latifolia as a tree.
Pongamia glabra — Karanj.

A handsome tree with light green foliage like the beech. Common
along the banks of river-beds near the hills. Flowers whitish-
lilac ; May. A useful roadside tree where the subsod is moist.
Ccesalpinia sepiaria.

A very prickly woody climber, common as a hedge plant near vil-
lages. Flowers yellow ; cold weather.
CoesaVpinia bondiic — Sdgargota.

Also a prickly woody climber. The pod dry and armed on the face
with abundant ivory prickles.
Hcematoxylon campecheaivmn — The logwood tree.

Found planted in compounds about the station at S4td,ra. Flowers
in thick yellow spikes. The wood and bark afford a dye in
considerable abundance, a dye not unknown to wine concoctors.
Poinciana pulcher — Gvlmohor.

The common garden variety.
Poinciana regia.

The Eoyal Gulmohor ; gardens.
Wagatea spwata.

Sahyddris. Flowers in tapering spikes 1 to 2 feet long. Scarlet and
orange-coloured. A prickly woody climber.
Parkinsonia acvleata.

A low tree ; cultivated. Found near villages especially those where
Musalmdns have settled. A broom-like tree with yellowish
flowers.
Cassia fistula — Gwrmald or Bam.

A handsome small tree with drooping bunches of yellow flowers.
A little like the laburnum at first sight ; towards the Ghats ;

Appendix A,
Botany.

Cassia auriculata — Tarwar.

A shrub.
Cassia absus.

Shrub. Leaflets 9 ; large membranous.

[Bombay Gazetteer,
632 DISTRICTS.

Appendix A. Cassia pvm/ila.

— The Cassia flowers are all yellowish composed of 5 sub-equal petals.

bOTANY. rpjj^Q stamens are usually of various sizes, rarely all perfect.

The bark of the Oamioulata is much used for tanning; it produces
a valuable light-coloured leather. The Senna of commerce is
formed of the leaves of various cassias, whilst the pulp in the
legume of 0. fistula is a safe laxative.
Tamarindys indicits — Chinch.
The Bast Indian tamarind tree. The West Indian species is T.
occidentalis. It is to be found at Ahmadabad and where Musal-
mans have been, but not elsewhere.
Bavhinia racemosa — Apia.

Leaflets united to the middle. Several varieties of Bauhinia are
found as avenue trees, and are conspicuous for their handsome
light purple or white flowers a little like those of a Pelargonium
at a distance.
Bavhiwia pwrpv/rea.
Found truly wild on the Pasarni Grhdt. Flowers September ; deep-
purple.
Prosopis spicigera.

Not common. A low tree. Much commoner in Gujarat. This is the
tree to which (in the Deccan) processions proceed during the Dasra
festival (Dalzell).
Dierostach/ys cinerea.

Khdmatki Ghd,t. A thorny shrub. Spike of flowers, one-half the
spike yellow, the rest rosy.
Mimosa hamata.

Heads of flowers rose-coloured. A snSall prickly bush like the sensi-
tive plant. Stony plains.
Acacia arahica — Bahhul.

There are several varieties of this acacia.
Acacia famesiana.

A singularly sweet-flowered erect shrub with thick pulpy pods.
Common.
Acacia leucopMcea — Sem/ru.

A tree with long straight spines and panicled yellow inflorescence.
The bark is employed in distillation. Plains.
Acacia suma.

Plains. A middle-sized tree with white bark and downy branchlets.
Corolla nearly white. A. catechu (khair) and A. sundra, which are
both near A. suma, are stated by Dalzell to be met with in the
plains. Near the Khdmatki Gh4t a number of acacias and mimosas
are to be found. The best gum arabic is said to be the produce of
Acacia vera, an African species, but probably the same as our
A. arabica. The valuable astringent substance called " Catechu or
Terra japonioa" is procured by boiling and evaporating the brown
heartwood of A. catechu. It is obtained by simply boiling the
chips in water until the inspissated juice has acquired a proper
consistency. (Lindley, Veg. Kingd.)
Aliizzia lebbeTc

Generally found as an avenue tree.
Albizzia stipulata — Ud/ul.

A handsome graceful tree growing on the Sahyadris. Flowers
pinkish.

KOSACEiE.
Pygewm Gardneri.

MahcLbaleshvar. A tree ; flowers yellowish white. Cold weather.
The seeds smell strongly of prussic acid. The kernels of the fruit
said to be used for poisoning fish.

CRASSULACE^.
Kalanehoe olivacea.

Hills near Umruj and Kardd. A fleshy-leaved olive-coloured plant,

Deccan]

SATIrA. 633

■with largiab. pale-pink flowers. These plants are very readily pro- Appendix A

pagated, pieces of the stem or leaf forming new plants readily. „ —

COMBRETACBiE.i otany.

Anogeisus latifoUa.

Common as a stunted tree on the eastern slopes of the Sahy^dris.
Tei'mbialia chebula — Sirda.

Grh^ts ; common. The fruit is an article of commerce for the large
quantity of tannin it contains.
Terminalia glmnu — Ain.

Near the SahyMris, chiefly Konkan side. A useful timber tree.
Terminalia panicutata — Kinjal.

Ghat country.
Gomhretvm, ovalifolw/m.

Sahyddris. A large scandent shrub.

MELASTOMACE^.
Memecylon edhde — Anjan.

The iron-wood tree, common at Mahabaleshvar and on the Sahyadris.
Notable for its pretty tufts of purple flowers and dark shining
leaves.

MYRTACE^.

Eugenia jarnbolana — Jdmbhul.

Very common, especially on the Ghdts.
Careya arborea — Kwmbya.

A common tree near the Gh4ts. One of the trees usually
pollarded for the leaves and branches which are used as an ashy
manure.

LYTHRACBjE.
Am/mama flor'Snmda.

Books near water on the G-hd,ts. This is the plant so commonly
called " Heather " by visitors at Mahdbaleshvar.
Woodfordia tomentosa — Dhaiti.

Grislea tomentosa of Bombay Flora. Very common on hill sides.
A shrub with red flowers. The calyx being red and conspicuous
may be readily mistaken for the corolla.
Lawsonia alba — Mendi.

The Henna plant, used as a shrub for garden hedges.
Lagerstroemia parviflora — Ndneh.

Near Gh4ts ; common. The Benteak tree. Flowers small white.
May.

CUCUBBITACE^.

This family is fairly well represented in SdtSra ; notable is the
Colocynth, a creeping plant with a fruit the size of an orange
variegated longitudinally with green and yellow.

BEGONIACE^.

Begonia crenata.

Mahabaleshvar. Bams.

UMBELLIFEB^.

Eeraclewm coiwanense—Pinda ,r i..<i. i i, j t,' ,

Common on the SahyAdris between Mahabaleshvar and Panchgani.
August. The white flowers which are large for the order are pretty.
It is eaten by the natives.
Coriand/ivmsativwrn^Koflmwr.

Cultivated. The plant has a peculiar smell, hence the native name.
The seeds " Coriander " are much used in curries. Besides the •
above, the family is represented by several weeds of but little
general interest.

1 The well known " Quia-Qualis " of Indian gardens beloags to this order.
B 1282—80

[Bombay Gazetteer,

634

DISTRICTS.

Appendix A.

Botany.

CACTEjE.

Opuntia dillenia.

" Prickly pear." Native of Brazil. Common near villages ; a great
pest. The coohineal is said to feed on a species of Opuntia.

RUBIACE^.i

Muscenda frondosa.

Sahyadris. Cold weather. Shrub notable from one of the calyx
segments being produced into a white leaf.
Mandia dwmetorwm, — U-hela.

A small thorny tree or shrub. Common on the Grhats. Hot
weather. Flowers white or yellowish ; fruit hard, size of an apple.
Ixora parmfim-a — Makri.

Eastern spurs of the Sahyadris ; tree; wood useful for torches.
Ixora nigricans — Kdthwra.

Ghdts (Dalzell).
Pavetta indioa — Pdpat.

A common shrub on the Chdts. Flowers white in corymbs on the
leafless branches. April.
Hamiltonia m/ysorensis.

Fort-hill, Sdtara. November. A small erect-growing shrub with
fascicled flowers of which the pallidly purple anthers contrast
prettily with the creamy white corolla.
Wendlandia notowiana.

A shrub. Fragrant crowded white flowers. Banks of the Tenna, Jan-
uary and February.
Jledyotis aspera.

Plains. Common.
Anotis camosa.

A very common straggling triohotomously branched herbaceous plant
with purple flowers. Found in the rains on the plains and after on
the Ghdts.
Riihia cordifolia — Qoose grass.
Sahyadris.

COMPOSIT.^.

LamprackmriAwm, nmcrocephal/wm.

Mahdbaleshvar. Flowers purple. October. Decaneuron microcepha-
lum of Bombay Flora.
Adenoon indic/wm.

Mah^baleshvar. Flowers blue. October.
Vernonia cinerea.

Plains. A common low weed. Flowers purple. Cold weather.
Vernonia anthehnintica.

Black soil ; plains. A tall erect purplish plant. Heads purple.
Cold weather.
Gentratherwm terme.

Decaneuron lilacinum of Dalzell. Fitzgerald Ghdt. Flowers of a
beautiful lilac. After the rains.

October.

Ambenala. Fitzgerald Qh&t.
Adenostem/ma viscosvm,.

Mahdbaleshvar. Flowers white.

1 This order is a very large one and contains many important species, foremost
among which may be placed cinchona and coffee. Attempts have been made to
introduce the Cinchona plant at Lingmalla — Mahdbaleshvar. The attempt, however,
has been a failure, either through the site being too exposed or the soil unfavourable.
The use of the cinchona bark from which quinine is made was first introduced into
Europe by the Jesuits after the conquest of Peru, and it was known for a long time
as Jesuit's bark. Coffee is grown at PAnchgani, but apparently not very successfully.
Ipecacuanha is the root of a plant of this order (Cephselis ipecacuanha), a little creep-
ing-rooted half-herbaceous plant found in damp shady forests in Brazil.

Deccau.]

SATARA.

635

Aggeratvm conyzoides.

Flowers white. A. very common weed in tte plains. Cold weather.
Cyafhocline strieta.

Common everywhere in the cold weather. Flowers purple. A deli-
cate, odorous, erect-branched plant.
Gomyza absmthifoUa.

Flowers yellow. An erect pubescent plant. Very common at
Mah&baleshvar in the cold weather. i

Erigeron asteroides.

Rare ; plains. Cold weather. Flowers bi-colorous.
Blwmea amplectens.

Plains. Cold weather. Flowers purple ; common ; especially on
West liower G-hdts.
Blwmea glomerata.

Flowers yellow ; cold weather. "Whole plant highly aromatic.
Sphoeranthus mollis.

Cold weather. Flowers purple in bullet-like heads. Very common
in rice fields and marshy ground. An aromatic plant.
Chmphalw/m indicru/m.

An insignificant tomentose whitish weed with yellow flowers.
River banks ; in cold weather.
CcesuUa axillaris.

Flowers light purple. Common in water-holes after the rains. Plains.
Vicoa awriculata.

Flowers yellow. Common in the cold weather in the plains.
Vicoa cemua.

Flowers yellow. Common at Mahibaleshvar and Grhdt region after
the rains.
Pvlicaria wightiana.

Callistephus wightianus of the Bombay Flora. Flowers yellow,
largish, common in the eastern districts ; plains ; in the cold
weather.
Lagascea mollis.

Cold weather. Rare. Flowers white. Found near Tasgaon. A
more or less pubescent flexuose branched plant.
Siegesbeckia orientaUs.

Common. Plains. Flowers yellow. Cold weather.
EMpta alba.

Common; flowers white ; after the rains ; plains.
Blainvillea latifolia.

Flowers white ; inconspicuous ; common after the rains. Plains.
SpUanthes acmella.

Flowers yellow ; common.
QvJkotia abyssimea — RdntU.

A commonly cultivated plant ; flowers yellow. The seeds produce a
bland oil.
Glossocardia linearifoUa.

Flowers yellow ; grass lands ; plains.
Bidens pUosa.

Flowers yellow ; common in the plains ; late in the rains.
Artemisia vulgaris — JDavna.

An erect coarse plant, very common on the sides of hills, is out
and used for roofing purposes.
Cfynvra simplex.

Flowers deep orange like a gigantic dandelion. Kelghar and other
Ghdts. Flowers after the rains.
Notorda grandiflora.

A fleshy smooth shrub, a little like the Euphorbia ; flowers yellow ;
heads large ; cold weather ; Sahyddris.
Senecio Grahami.
Senecio belga/wmensis.
EcMnops ecM/nalMS.

Indian thistle. Common on the plains.

Appendix A

Botany.

[Bombay Gazetteer,
636 DISTRICTS.

Appendix A. Goniocanlmi glabrum.

g ■"" "Amberboa " of tbe Bombay Flora. Flowers lilac ; near W^i.

Tricokpis glabenima.

Fitzgerald Grh4t. Flowers purple; tall, erect, smooth plant. The
leaves are spotted with black specks. Cold weather.
LactiuM sonchifolia.

" Brachyrampus '' of the Bombay Flora. Common on the plains in
the cold weather. It reminds one of the sow-thistle.

CAMPANULACE^.

Lobelia nicotianxfolia.

A tall erect plant with large white flowers. After the rains ; Grhdts ;
common.

PRIMULACE^.

Afiagallis arvensis.

Shepherd's, weather glass. Pdnchgani; rains; flowers blue; open
only when fine.

MYRSINE^.

Mcesa iiidica — Atki.

MahAbaleshvar ; common ; November. A shrub with very small
white flowers.

SYBACE^.

Symplocos Beddomei.

A small tree ; Koyna Ghats.

OLEACE^.

Jasminiwrn, arhorescens.

The wild jessamine ; common near and on the Ghdts. March .
During the famine the large seed of the jasmine was pounded up
and used with other forest seeds for food.

APOCYNACE^.

Carissa caraiidas.

The well known " Corinda." The berries are ripe in May ; they are
edible and useful for preserves and tarts.
Vinca rosea.

The periwinkle of Indian gardens; common at Sdtira.
Tabernoemontana eoronaria — Lagad.

S^tdra gardens ; common in the rains ; the sweet-scented double
white flowers very noteworthy.
Plvmeria acidifolia — Kha/ri champa.

SAtdra. The whitish-flowered and then leafless rigid tree of com-
pounds ; leaves large, collected at the extremities of the blunt
truncated branches.
Holarrhena antidysenterica — Daolahura.

Very common about Helvdk. " This plant furnishes the officinal
conessi bark, used in fever and diarrhoea, and which contains an
uncrystallizable alkaloid " (Dalz. an4 Gib., Bombay Flora).
Wrightia tinctoria — Kdh, huira.

A tree with long slender follicles. Fitzgerald Gh4t below " Cherry.
Khiad." " The wood of this tree is remarkably white and close-
grained, coming nearer to ivory than any other I know of." — Boxb.
" Indigo is made from the leaves and tender branches." — Dak.
Neiium odorwm — Oleander.

Common in gardens. It is to be met with along the banks of the
Teuna near Medha, probably escaped from cultivation.
Beaumontia grandijlom.

An extensive woody climber with large leaves and grand white
flowers. Gardens ; Sdtdra.

Deccan]

sAtAra.

637

ASOLEPIADE^.i

Cryptulepis Bitchanani.

A milky shrub with dark-coloured bark. December. Vdma river.
Calotropis procera.

A common shrub in the plains, notable for its large oval leaves and
bunches of purplish flowers. The mUky juice is used by the
natives for medicinal purposes and also for preparing leather.
Handkerchiefs have been made from the fibre of this plant. The
fibre is very strong and silky.
Doemia extensa.

A common climber. Plains. Notable for its fruit which is in pairs
and covered with soft bristles.
Ca/rallwma fimbriata — Mdhwr sing.

Koregaon. A fleshy leafless plant of unpleasant appearance, Eaten
as a vegetable.

GBNTIAlSrE^.=

Exacum hicolor.

GhAts ; September. Flowers large white, tipped with blue.
Exacwm pivmilwrn.

Pdnchgani. Flowers blue.
Camscora diffusa.

A common weed at Panchgani and Mahdbaleshvar after the rains.
Flowers pinkish to white.
Swertia decussata.

Hills. Cold weather. Flowers white. Forms an excellent substi-
tute for gentian ; sold in the bazdrs as a bitter.
Limnanfhemii/m indicum.

A floating plant; ponds on table land Pdnchgani ; September. Flowers
white.

BORAGINE^.'

Tricodesma amplexica/ide — Chhota haVpa.

Satdra. Rains ; a common weed.
Paracarywm ccelestinwm.

Flowers pale blue. During and after the rains. Very common at
Mahdbaleshvar.

CONVOLVULACEuS;.

Argyreia cwneata — Mdhdlung.

An erect growing shrub with deep purple flowers, common on the
sides of low hills about Satdra.
Ipomcsa ohscwra.

Flowers yellow ; base of tube purple ; Ambenala.
Ipomcea coptica.

Flowers white. Leaves palmate.
Ipomcea vitifolia.

Flowers yellow.
Ipomcea ccendea.

Flowers' pale blue. Ghdts. Common.
Ipomcea campanulata.

Flowers large, pale rosy, deeper-coloured at base. Fitzgerald Ghdt.

The above are mostly strong climbers.

Appendix A

Botany.

' The Asclepiads are well represented in the plains. Sufficient notes, however, have
not been taken to catalogue the genera and species fully. The garden " Stephanotis "
belongs to this order.

^ The order of Gentian worts is characterised by the uniform bitter secretions of
every part, root, leaves, flowers, and fruit. The well-known Indian bitter and febrifuge
Chiretta consists of the stems and leaves of " Swertia ohirayta," a native of Nepaul.

' The plant whose leaves are generally used in ' cups ' in India is not a Borage at
all, but a Labiate, Coleus aromaticus. The "prickly Comfrey" about which so much
was written as a fodder plant some years ago, is a Borjige " Symphytum ofiicinale."

[Bombay Gazetteer,
638 DISTRICTS.

Appendix A. JSvolvulus MrmUus.

A very small herbaceous plant with, tiny flowers of a beautifiil deep

Botany. blue. A common creeping plant in grassy places in the plains ;

the flowers are somewhat like those of " Veronica."
Gusauta hyalina.

A leafless climbing parasite. Flowers small white, waxy. Found late
in the rains on rubbish heaps from gardens in S4td,ra. Eare.
Besides the above there are several other plants of this order, which have
not been catalogued. In gardens the following are common : " The China
creeper, Ipomoea quamoclit " with its multifld leaves and bright crimson flowers ;
I. phoenicea, also with crimson flowers and cordate leaves, the Jacquemontia
and the " Elephant creeper."

SOLANACEuS;.

Solcmwm Jacquinii.

Flowers purplish. A prickly plant. Plains. Berries yellow when ripe.
The seeds are reputed to be a sedative in toothache, when smoked
in a pipe.
Solanwm gigantevm.

Flowers purplish. Berries size of a pea ; red when ripe ; leaves large,
mealy below. A prickly shrub. FitzGerald Ghd,t.
Physalis sorrmifera.

Pd,nohgani. A plant like the " Cape gooseberry."
Datwra fastuosa.

Flowers large white. This is a well known plant and much used when
insensibility to outward things is required.
The order Solanaoese whilst it comprises many extremely poisonous plants
such as Henbane and deadly nightshade, comprises also useful and nutri-
tious ones such as the Potato, Tomato, Egg-plant or " Brinjal," Capsicum, and
the Cape-gooseberry with its pleasant subacid fruit enveloped when ripe in a
yellow calyx. Tobacco should not be omitted in the list of useful plants.

The potato is extensively cultivated at Mah&baleshvar, and at one time
produced tubers quite equal to the European ; but, owing to the carelessness
of cultivators in not selecting the best for reproduction, the potato is not what
it was, or should be. The Tomato grows most luxuriantly at Sit4ra. The" Ldl
Mirchi " (Capsicum frutescens) is extensively cultivated in the plains, the
bright red fruit showing out pleasantly from amid the dark green leaves.
The yellow pepper (C. nepaulensis) does well at SAtara.

The Brin]al (Solanum melongena) is to be met with everywhere in the
plains near villages as a cold weather crop. The variety of tobacco chiefly
cultivated is believed to be Nicotianum tabaoum.

SOEOPHULAMNE^.

Celsia cwomandelliana.

Common ; plains. Flower in spikes, yellow; a viscid plant ; cold weather.
Stemodm viscosa.

Common near Vdma river. Flowers dark-blue solitary.
Herpestis monniera.

Flowers pale blue. Karad — bed of Koyna river.
Striga orobomcMoides.

Common at Mahabaleshvar ; cold weather; flowers usually pink,
few white flowered varieties are met with. A parasite on different
species of Euphorbia and Lepidagathis ; reddish almost leafless
plants.
Striga densiflora.

Flowers white. Leaves lanceolate-linear. V4ma Bridge, cold weather.
Sopubia deVphwiAfolia.

Flowers solitary, large, rose-coloured ; an elegant plant with feathered
leaves. Varna Bridge ; cold weather.

OEOBRANCHACE^.

Orohanche vnMca.

Flowers large purple ; a leafless parasite growing on the roots of
tobacco plants in the cold weather and considered harmful to them

Deccan.]

satIra.

639

LENTIBULARIAOE^.

Utricularia orbiculata.

Rains. Pcinchgani.
Utricularia a/rewxta.

Flowers large purplish-blue. Rains. These pretty little plants are
found only in the rains, growing in the crevices of rocks or where
the ground is more or less saturated with moisture ; they have
no real roots, but have long root-like capillary branches, inter-
spersed with little bladders or vesicles full of air.

GESNERACE^.
Klugia notoniana fVar scabraj.

PitzQerald Ghd,t ; after the rains ; flowers deep blue handsome. Leaves
somewhat like those of a Begonia.

BIGNONIACE^-.
Heteroph/ragma Boxbm-ghii — Vdras.

Flowers dingy white ; March ; pod about a foot long and two inches
broad. A timber tree very common on the Ghdts and plain hills.

PEDALINE.^.

Martymia diandra.

A large-leaved somewhat coarse plant with large handsome pinkish
trumpet-shaped flowers ; springs up in waste places in gardens in
S4tdra in the rains. "The quaint-shaped beetle-like seed-vessel
with its two sharp anterior hooks is noteworthy. The plant is a
native of Mexico.

Sesamwm mdiarnn.

A cultivated plant, but found growing in waste places. Flowers rose-
coloured, handsome. September The seeds produce "Jingelly" oil,
an oil as tasteless as olive oil and for which it might be substituted.

ACANTHACE^.
Th/wnbergia fragrans.

Flowers large, white. Hills in the rains, A creeping plant.
Hygrophila long%folia.

V4rna river and elsewhere. Flowers blue in whorls. " It is a kind
" of religious service among the Hindus to collect a lakh of these
" flowers to present to their idols. The ceremony is called
"'LaMioli.' The seeds have considerable diuretic powers and are
" called T41im-khana." Dalz. and Gib,, Bombay Flora.
StroMlanthvs grdha/mmrw,.

Flowers large, blue. A tallbranched-shrub. FitzQerald Gh^t.
Strobilanfhus neesiana — Kdrvi.

Very common along the Ghdts. The stems, often 8 or lOfeet long,
are useful for thatching, and the plants growing up thickly form
an almost impenetrable forest. They are said to flower only once
in six or seven years, and then die down to be replaced by num-
berless seedlings.
Blepharis asperrima.

A herbaceous plant. Flowers blue; lobes of upper lips wanting.
Very common at Mahdbaleshvar ; cold weather.
Barleria terminaUs.

FitzGerald Gh4t. Flowers deep blue, two inches long ; November.
Barleria gramdiflora.

FitzGerald Qhit. Stem shrubby. Flowers sohtary ; very large, pure
white and handsome. November.
Barleria prionMis. —,. . . ^,

Found atKundal; cold weather; flowers yellow, i he juice ot the
leaves mixed with sugar and water is given to children in fevers and
catarrhal affections. The ashes of the burnt plant mixed with
water and rice hdnji are employed in cases of dropsy and also in
coughs.

Appendix A

Botany.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

640

DISTRICTS.

Appendix A.

BOTAHY.

Lepidagaffms cristata.

S4tdra. Common. Flowers whitish, small ; cold weather.
Justicia diffusa.

Flowers small, pale, purple, common. Sdt&ra; rains ; herbaceous,
Justicia procmnbens.

Flowers as above. Mahabaleshvar ; herbaceous,
Justicia, montana.

Shrubby. Flowers large, white, in terminal compound spikes. Ghats;
common.
Adhadtoda vasica.

Shrubby. Flowers large, white with brown spots ; GhSts ; pretty com-
mon (Dalz. and Gib.). Roxburgh says the wood is good for making
charcoal for gunpowder. It is also used for making hedges in Ghat
villages (D. & G.).
Rhinacanth/us cormmmis.

Shrubby. Flowers small, white with a long compressed tube. Gene-
. rally to be found in gardens. The roots rubbed with lime juice
and pepper are used to cure ringworm. (D. & G.)
Ecboliwm.

A glabrous shrub the only one of its genus . Flowers greenish or

azure-coloured, rather noticeable. The Ghd,ts.
gia repens.

V&ma river. Flowers small, pink ; very common ; cold weather.
Bv/ngia elegans.

Flowers largish, of a beautiful blue. Sdtdra ; in moist places under
trees ; cold weather.
Dicliptera bivalvis.

Flowers pink. Mahdbaleshvar. Herbaceous.
Peristophe hicatyculata.

Flowers rosy ; stem herbaceous, hexagonal, notable for having one
of the bracts much longer than the other and looking at a distance
like a pod. A common weed ; plains.

VERBENACE.-S3.

Lantana aculeata.

Shrubby. A common hedge plant around bungalows ; the flowers
are light purple to yellow and the leaves smell when bruised some-
what like black currants.
Callicarpa cana.

A tall shrub with small red flowers and large tomentose leaves
"The bark is sub-aromatic and slightly bitter" (Graham), Common
on the Sahy&dris,
Teetona grandis — Sagvan.

The well-known teak tree. It apparently never grows to any size
in these districts, the forests only furnishing rafters and small scant-
lings. Sahyddris,
Chnelina arborea.

A tree. Flowers large, yellow with an open mouth ; yields a valuable
wood, light and strong, used for artillery waggon shafts.
Yitex hicolor.

A common shrub near the Ghdts and elsewhere. Makes a capital
fence. Flowers light blue ; underside of 3-5 foliolate leaves whita
Vitex lencoxylon.

Sdt4ra Ghdts. (Shuttleworth).
Clerodendron serratum.

A shrubby plant. Flowers pale blue. Khodal-Khind. Kolhdpur Road.
Clerodendron phhmoides.

A large shrub. Flowers white, fragrant ; common in hedges near
GhSs. Many of the Clerodendrons afiord handsome pot-plants.

LABIATE.

Ocvrmiim sanctym, — Tidsi.

The sacred " Tulsi." The flowers are pale purple and inodorous.
A plant is to be seen in the courtyard of the house of any Hindu

Deccan.]

sAtIra.

641

of repute, and in temples. The plant goes through, the ceremony
of marriage about the end of October.
Lavatrdida Perrottettii.i

Pdnchgani and Pasarni Grhdts. November. Flowers blue.
Lavandula Burmanni — Ooria.

Eains. Plains. Flowers generally deep blue, but white varieties are
found,
Pogostemon pwrpurkaulis.^

Sahyadris; common. A coarse somewhat shrubby plant, with a
purple stem. Has the odour of black currants.
DysopKylla myosmoides.

Flowers purple ; a low plant growing in water holes. Very common
at MahcLbaleshvar.
Micromei-ia malcolrrmma.

On the banks of the Tenna, Mahdbaleshvar. In its aromatic and
carminative qualities, it rivals the peppermint (D. & Gr.).
Salvia plebeia.

Flowers very small, in whip-like racemes. Cold weather. " Seeds
used for killing vermin."
Scutellaria discolor.

Mah4baleshvar (D. and G.). Leaves purple beneath.
Le,ueas longifolia.
Leuoas linifolia.

Plains. Flowers white.
Leuoas stelligera.
Leucas ciliata.

Both plants common at Mahdbaleshvar.
Leonotis nepetcefolia.

" Kdnta Sanmukh," Herbaceous ; 6 feet high. Flowers large orange-
coloured ; common on heaps of rubbish. Plains; scarcely indigenous.

NTCTAGINACB^.
Boerhavia repanda.

Flowers pink. Satara ; hedges ; a climbing plant.
Boet%avia repens.

SAt^ra. Fruit ribbed, viscous. A climbing plant.
Mirabilis jalapa — Oulhas.

English Marvel of Peru. Closes during the day and opens about 4
P.M. Common along compound hedges in Satara.
Bofutgaimiillea spectabilis.

A woody creeper with beautiful mauve bracts, having a few small
yellow flowers enclosed ; does well in Satdra gardens, and is a
marked feature there in the Cold weather.
Polygonwm chinense.

SahyAdris only. A scandent plant with white flowers and a triangular
black nut.
Pohjgomwm, glahrv/m.

Eiver beds. Flowers rose-coloured. An erect plant.

AMARANTACE^. ^
Plants of this order are common in Satara. They are chiefly small
herbaceous plants with generally inconspicuous flowers. The
order furnishes numerous pot-herbs as " Ghol " from Mengea tri-
quetra, which when young is as good as spinach. The Tafferi
Gwndi or globe amaranth (Gomphrena globosa) is common in every
Satara garden in the rains. Its heads of flowers somewhat resem-
ble Red Clover. " Cockscomb " belongs to this order.
CHENOPODE^.
This order furnishes spinach (Spinaoea oleracea), beet-root Mangel

Appendix A

B0T.iHT.

' None of the SAtdra lavenders have the same fresh odour aa the European lavender
(L. viva).

* The well known scent Patchouli is obtained from a plant of this genus, P"
patchouli.

B 1282- 81

642

[Boml}ay Gazetteer,

DISTRICTS.

Appendix A.
Botany.

■vrarzel, garden oraclie (Atriplexhortensis), Af(ij/(iZic?ii£ft.(iji(Basella
alba), most of whicli grow well in Sdtdra gardens.
PLUMBAGINE^.
Plumbago zeylanica.

Stems shrubby. Mowers wbite. Eundal. Tdsgaon. Grows from
Kabul to New Holland. (Dalz. and Gib.).

SALIOACE^.^
Salix tetrasperma — Wdllunj — Indian vnllow.

MaMbalesbvar and banks of streams on the Gh4ts.

THYMELACE^.
Lasiosvphon eriocephalv/m — Bdmeta.

One of the commonest shrubs about Mahdbaleshvar ; cold weather.
Flowers yellowish. " The inner part of Lagetta lintearia, a shrub
belonging to this order is the beautiful Lace bark," so called because
when macerated and stretched laterally it assumes the appearance
of coarse lace, twisted and knotted ; it was formerly employed in
making the slave whips used by negro drivers (Lind., Veg. King.)
LAURACE^.
Litscea fuscata — Pisa.

A small tree ; leaves narrow-pointed, lighter beneath. Berries bright
red when ripe. The commonest tree at Mahdbaleshvar after the
jdmbhvl.
The species of this order are all more or less aromatic and fragrant.
Foremost among them are Cinnamon and Cassia. Some species'
yield an abundance of camphor, especially in the roots of " Cinna-
monum.'' I'he camphor of commerce is obtained from the wood,
branches, and leaves of Camphora officinarum, by means of dry
distillation. It is chiefly produced in Formosa and is called Chinese
camphor." (Lind., Veg. King.),

SAHTALACEiE.
The sandalwood tree, Santalum album, is fairly common in Sdtara
compounds. ' It never grows to any size, or large enough to pro-
duce the well-known scented wood.

ELCEAGNAOE^.
Mlceagnus latifoUa — Ambgul.

A large, climbing shrub ; leaves silvery and shining beneath. Fruit
size of an olive ; edible ; common on the Sahyddris.
EUPHORBIACE^.2
JEin/phorhia nivula.

Mchdbaleshvar. Common ; the so-called cactus.
Ewphorhia neriifolia — Then:

The milkbush, coramonly used as a hedge plant on the plains. It
grows to a good height.
Ev/phorhia acaulis.

Stemless. Leaves spotted, as if with blood. P^nchgani.

> The poplar and aspen belong to this order. " A crystallizable principle called
salioiae has been obtained from Salix helis, which, according to Majindie, arrests the
progress of fever with the same power as sulphate of quinine" (Liudley, Veg. King.).
A ci-ystal of salicine is a beautiful sight under the Polariscope. Excellent cricket
bats are made from the wood of Salix alba.

2 The above is a very scanty list of Euphorbiacese of Sdtdra. This order contains a
very great number of species most of which are harmful. They generally secrete an
acrid milky juice. The croton oil, a most violent drastic, is prepared from the seeds
of Croton tiglium. A species of croton is commonly used as a hedge plant around
and near villages, and many of our ornamental pot plants belong to the same genus.
The " Poinsettia," the Tallow tree, the Tapioca plant, the Indian Bottle tree (Siphonia
elastica), and Casoarilla, belong to this order.

Decoau-l

SlTlRA.

643

Ev^hcrbia rothiana.

A smooth herbaceous plant common at Mah4baleshvar in cold weather.
Euphorbia hiiixi.

Annual ; hairy ; a weed ; Satara.
Euphorbia paroijlora.

Annual, smooth ; a weed ; Sdtdra ; in rains.
Acah/pha indica.

A weed ; flowers collected in a cup-shaped, toothed invelucre ; Sd,td,ra
fields. Bains.
Somnoia ripaiia.

A willow-like shrub ; spikes of flowers red. Common in beds of
rivers along with the Tamarisk. HelvAk. Hot weather.
Crozophora plicata.

A hoary erect plant, common near river banks ; cold weather. Plains.
" Bark very tough." Dalz.
Emblica officinalis — Avla.

A tree. Leaves numerous, very small, giving it the appearance of an
acacia. Fruit about the size of a large chen-y ; yellowish. The
wood is hard and durable particularly under water ; the bark is
strongly astringent and is employed in the cure of diarrhoea. The
fruit is made into pickles." (D. & G.)
liicmiis communis — Erandi.

The castor-oil plant, cultivated in the plains. A handsome red-
stemmed variety is often to be seen forming a fringe to sugarcane
fields. The smaller variety Tiki ; the ordinary one appears to yield
the most oil.
Phyllanthus lanceola/rim.

A tree, wood hard and durable. Gh&ts.

UETIOACE^-
Trema Wightii — Qhol.

A small tree with graceful foliage at the foot of the Sahyddris.

Pd,nchgani Ghat.
To this order belong the Vad, Pimpal, and Pimpri, and Ndnd/rvk, so

much used in the SAt^ra districts for avenue trees.
The Wad or Banian is Ficus bengalense ; Pimpal Ficiis religioswm ;

Pipri Ficus pseudotjela, and Nindruk Ficus retusa. This last is a very

umbrageous thickly-leaved tree, more suitable than the others for

avenues.
To this order belong also the Fig and the Mulberry ; the former fruit

apparently does not do well in the Sd,t4ra district ; the mulberry is

chiefly to be found as an occasional arboreous shrub near bungalows.

AU the species secrete a milky fluid. The India rubber of India is

furnished by "Fiaus elastica."

ARTOCAEPAOE^.

This order gives the Jack-fruit tree, Artocarpus integrifolia. It is.
found on and near the Ghats, but does not flourish inland. The
wood is excellent ; it was at one time greatly used for making' fur-
niture, but it has been completely superseded by blackwood. Tho
Bread-fruit tree is "Artocarpus incisa."

SMJLACEM.
Smilax ovaUfolia.

MahcLbaleshvar ; common after the rains. A creeper with sharp-
prickles, large 5 - 7 ribbed leaves, and umbels of red smooth berries.
The natives make a decoction from the roots.
LOEANTHACE^.

The Loranths, which are parasites or epiphytical plants like the mis-
tletoe only having showy flowers and generally larger leaves, are
fairly well represented on the Sahyadris. L. cimeatus and L.
ohtusaiViB are met with at Mahabaleshvar.

Appendix A
Botany.

[Bombay Gaietteer.i
644: DISTRICTS.

Appendix A. ENDOGENS.

Botany,

LILIACE.S].

Asparagopsis sarmentosa.

Flowers wMte ; berries red, sometMng like an exaggerated asparagus
in full growtt. Hills.
Urqpetalv/m momtamim.

Pdnohgani. Flo-wers snow-drop like ; sweet-scented. September.
Methonica svpeiha.

Plains. KolhSpur Khind. A very handsome orange-flowered plant.
Ledebcmria maaulata.

Sdtdra. Flowers like those of a tiny hyacinth. Leaves spotted. Rains.
At least two varieties of Aloes are commonly grown in the district
which are serviceable as hedges and also valuable as a source of
fibre. Aloe fibre is becoming more appreciated yearly and consider-
able quantities are sent to Bombay.

COMMELYNACB^.

Several small plants of this order appear in the rains on the plains,
chiefly of the genus Cyanotis. The beautiful blue of the long-
coloured petals, and the hairy stamens of some are noteworthy.
Cyanotis cristata is very common. 0. tuberosa is also to be met
with.

AEOIDE^.

To this order belongs the snake-lily of Mahdbaleshvar " Arisaema
murraya." In gai'dens varieties of Caladiums do well iu the rains.
At Mah4baleshvar there is a very caladium-like plant found grow-
ing on the stems or in the hollows of trees, the Eemusatia vivipara

ORCHIDACE^.i

f —

Many species are represented on the gh&ts, among them JSrides
crispa and JE. Imdleyana, the latter with its pallidly purple flowers
appearing just before the rains. The following are also met with :
Dend/robiwm barbatidym,.

Cold weather. Flowers cream or nankin-coloured. Very common
about Helvak. It is leafless when flower-bearing.
Eria braccata.

Flowers large, white in June ; the pseudo bulbs are enclosed in a net-
like sack. Branches of trees ; leaves 2.
HabeTiaria rotundifolia.

Little white ground orchid. June. A pretty little plant ; leaf solitary.
It is also common in the plains later on. The tubercules are said
to be the source of a common kind of Sdlam misri a highly nutri-
tive substance.
Habenaria longieakarata.

Hendoshi. September ; 2-3 feet high. Handsome flowers : white.
Platanfhera braehyphylla.

Flowers small greenish white ; leaves 2. Mahabaleshvar.
Platanthera Susannce.

The giant orchis. Floiif^ers very large, white. Koyna valley. Rains.
This orchis is 3 to 4 feet high.

MUSACE^.
Mma ornata.

The wild plantain. Sides of rooky hills on the Grhdts. This is one
of the first plants to show fresh growth after the burning of grass
in the hot weather. The cultivated plantain, of which there are
many varieties, is M. sapientum.

• Vanilla is the dry food of an orchid "Vanilla planifoila." The plant is a Mexican
one.

Deccan.l

sAtIra.

645

ZINGIBEBAOE^.

Glohba maraniina.

Flowers slender bright, yellow. Mahabaleshvar. Eains.
Zirmber macrostachyvm,.

Flowers white ; middle lobe- marked with purple lines. Mahabaleshvar.
(Graham).
Cwcuma cavlirm.

Coma white. Flowers yellow (a white variety also). One of the com-
monest under-plants at Mahabaleshvar. The leaves appear above
ground just before the rains. From the tubers a kind of arrowroot
is made, samples of which can be purchased from the Chinamen at
Mahabaleshvar, where at one time it was hoped to have popularised
the manufacture. The arrowroot of commerce is made from the
tubers of a West Indian plant " Maranta anndinacea " a plant
belonging to another Order Marantacea which includes the Cannas
or Indian shot plants of Indian gardens. The making of arrowroot
from the tubers of the various Indian Curcumas should be taught
the hill people extensively.

In the late famine, the tubers, of which there is an inexhaustible
supply, would have furnished food for thousands. Mr. East, First
Assistant Collector, made some attempt to develop the manufac-
ture.

The order of Ginger-worts provides many valuable aromatic and
stimulating products such as Ginger from the roots of Zingiber
officinale, Gralangale from ' Al^inia galanga' Halad or turmeric,
the spice that gives such flavour to curries and cardamoms, the
seeds of various ElUttarias. Turmeric is grown in garden land in
the Satdra districts.

AMARYLLIDACE^.

Crirmm Sosixwghii.

Flowers large, white.
Lily."

Mahabaleshvar. June. " The Mahabaleshvar

Ottalia indiea.

Flowers white.

HYDEOCHARIDACB^.

Tanks near S^tdra ; floating plant.
PALMACE^.

There are not many plants of this tribe in S^t^ra upland district.
However, the " Caryota urens" is to be seen in most of the
Koyna valley forests.' It is a large tree and produces a good quan-
tity of toddy. " Phoenix acaulis " is to be met along with the wild
plantain on the hill sides. The date is the dried fruit of Phosnix
daciilifera. In the Helvak forests the cane Calamus rolang is to be
met with, whilst in garden land the cocoanut and arecanut palms
are fairly common, more however as ornamental trees than useful
ones. These require a softer air; the cocoanut indeed never flourishes
away from the immediate vicinity of the sea.

PANDANACE^.

Screw-pine hedges are to be seen near villages in the district, but are
not very common ; probably the plant is Fandarms fwcatus. The
fruit is something like the pine-apple.

CYPERACE^ Airo GRAMINE^.

Of these two Orders no list can be given for want of sufficient notes.
The well-known EarydU or Dwoa is Cynodon dactylon. The
bamboo which is but a gigantic grass grows on the Gh&ts; Bambusa
arundo is probably the one most met with.

Appendix A

, BOTANT.

[Bombay Gazetteert
646 DISTRICTS.

Appendix A. FILICES.

Botany. As many as thirty different ferns are said to be found at Mahabale-

slivar, where the commonest kinds are the Bracken (Pteris aquUina),
identical with the English plant ; the Silver Fern (Gheilanthes fa/ri'
nosa) ; the Osmunda on the banks of the Yenna. Various " Asple-
niums," " Aspidiums," Adder's tongues, Golden andParsley ferns, and
many others.

On the fort at S^tira Indian maiden hair (Adiantum lunulatum),
Hare's foot and the Palm fern (Asplenium radiatum) are common.
In river beds near the eastern spurs of the Ghats the European
maiden hair (Adiantum capillus Yeueris) is to be found.

Club mosses are common on the SahyAdris in the raias, and Lichens-
and Mosses offer a large field for investigation.

Button mushrooms are found near Sd,td,ra in the rains.

Decoan]

sAtAra,

647

APPENDIX B.

LIST OF THE PElNOIPAL MAHABALESHVAE PLANTS.'

With the exception of orchids and ferns, the list comprises the plants
on the hill only. " The hill " has been considered to extend as far as the
seventieth mile on th,e Panchgani road, the thirtieth mile on the Sdtdra
road, and the seventy-third mile on the road to Ddsgaon. Lingmalla,
Elphinstone Point, and Arthur's Seat are included. As orchids and ferns
from the Koyna valley are constantly offered for sale at Mahdbaleshvar,
the list of these plants includes those of the Koyna valley ;

1. Tkees.

Botanical Name.

Native Name.

Remarks.

Flacourtia ramontohi

Tdmbat

CoiHmon.

Pittosporum floribundam .

Yekadi-

Rare.

Elseocarpus oblonga

KAsu

At Lingmalla.

Evodia roxburghiana

!s ot common.

Mappia foetida

GAnera

Very common. The flowers
very fetid.

Nephelium longanum

Wumb ...

Bare.

Pygeum Gardneri

Not common.

Terminalia chebula^

Hirda

Common. Supplies the
myrobalans of commerce.

Appendix B.

MahIbaleshvak
Plants.

' Supplied by Dr. T. Cooke, Principal of the Poona College of Science.

2 The myrobalan tree is found throughout the Sitira district, but in special abundance
in the Mah^baleshvar forests, the hill soil apparently being well suited to its growth.
The fruit, the chebulic myrobalan of oorameroe, is about the size of a damson, though
more pointed at one end, of a deep green colour, and contains a hard seed ; when dry
it becomes blackish and very hard and shrivelled. It is not edible in its natural state,
but when mixed wiih the Beheda and Avla the powder is taken as a stomachic and
mild aperient. The fruit is much valued in tanning and dyeing and finds a good
market in Bombay for export to Europe, It is also used in outlying districts in
making an ink which is stronger and more lasting than the usual country ink. The
best is prepared in the following manner : Six pints of clear water are added to two
pounds of the nuts coarsely powdered, and allowed to macerate for two days in s,
closed iron vessel which should occasionally be shaken. On the third day the
contents are pressed and filtered, four pints of water are added to the filtrate, and the
whole is warmed by a gentle heat, stirring all the time. When ebullition sets in, four
tolds of sulphate of iron are added and the boiling is continued till the surface becomes
light blue and the whole is reduced to between three and four pints exclusive of the
precipitate. It should now be gradually cooled stirring all the time, strained through
a clean piece of calico, and put into stoppered bottles. During the six following days
the bottles should be placed daily in the sun for about four hoars ; on the sixth day
two or three ounces of dilute gum are added to give it a proper consistency. Ink
thus prepared is more suitable for European pens than for the reed pen used in
native writing. Up to the year 1877 the Hirda nuts in the MahAbaleshvar forest were
left to the people who jrathered and brought them for sale to a few dealers at
MahAbaleshvar. After this it was considered that the villagers would bo as much
benefited by giving the produce of the whole reserve to a contractor, who, in his own
interest, would pay them a fair price for the quantity brought in and also prevent
Other dealers from interfering. In 1877 the contract fetched £86 (Rs. 860) and in
1878 £61 (Ks. 610), In 1879 the nuts were bought by the Forest Department and

[Bombay Gazetteer

648

DISTRICT

Appendix B-

BoTASioAL Name.

Native Name.

Remarks.

MAHi.BALESHVAE

Plants.

Tbbes — continued

Eugenia jambolana

JdmbiU

The commonest tree on the hill.

Eugenia caryophylloea

Not common. Found in water-
courses.

Memeoylon edule

Anjau

Very common.

Randia dumetorum

Ghela

Ditto.

Canthium umbellatum

Not common.

Sideroxylon tomentosum

Kiimbai"."

Ditto.

Symploeos Beddomei

•Ditto.

Olea dioica

P^r Jtobiil ...

Rare.

Litsoea f ugcata

Pisa

The commonest tree on the hill
next to the JAmbhul.

Litscea tomentosa (var glabres-

Not common.

cens).

Briedelia retusa

Ascina

Rare.

Phyllanthus lanceolaria

Bhoma

Very common.

Morua atropurpurea

SMtdt

Cultivated.

Fious glomerata

Umbar

Common.

Eicus cordifolia

Asit

Rare.

Ficus earicaoides

Not common.

Salix tetrasperma

WAUunj'.'.'.

The Indian willow. Grows near
, water.

2. Shrubs.

Clematis wightiana

Moryel

Common ; twining.

Coooulus macrocarpus

Watenyel

Rare ditto.

Cy olea peltata

PMel

Common ditto.

Capparis spiuosa

The Caper plant. Rare.

Capparis longispina

Kolisra

A common bush.

Sida carpinif olia

Not common.

Triumfetta rhomboidea

Pretty common.

Toddalia aouleata

Not common.

Glycoamis peutaphylla

Rare.

Murray a Kcenigii

Kaddi-nim

Ditto.

Atalantia monophylla ...

MAkar

Common.

Gy mnosporia rothiana

Yenkli ..,

Tolerably common.

Zizyphus rugosa

Turan

Common : fruit edible.

Scutia indiea

Chimat

Common : armed with strong
hooked thorns.

Vitis lanceolaria

Common.

Leea sambucina

Rare.

AUophyllus Cobbei

Tipan

Common.

Crotolaria Leachenaultii

Dingala

A very common broom-like shrub
with yellow flowers.

Indigof era pulchella

Nirda

Not very conbmon.

Aty losia lin eata

RdnTiir

Tolerably common.

Elemingia strobilifera

Not common.

Acacia iutsia

Ditto.

resold at a considerable profit. The quantity bought at two places within the
MahAbaleshvar forests was seventy -two tons (74 kkandia 14 mans and 18 pdilis)
and the cost £149 (Rs. 1490). At first the nuts were bought at l^d. for nine pounds
(I a. per pdili). When they became rather scarce and somewhat dry the rate was
raised to l^d. (one anna) ; and towards the end of the season, when the nuts were
dry and hard, l^d. (IJ anna) was given. This departmental working is popular with
the gatherers as they are always sure of a market. The whole supply was bought at
public auction by a trader from Mahdd at about Ifrf. the pound (Rs. 49 the khamdi)
leaving to the Forest Department a profit of about £240 (Rs, 2400). Dr. MoConaghy,

Seccan]

sAtAra.

649

Botanical Name.

Native Naug.

Remarks.

Appendix B.

MahAbaleshvar.
Plant?,

Rubus lasiocarpus

Cultivated. The MahAbaleahvar

raspberry.
Rare.

Rubus rugosus

Wendlaudia notoniana

Kara, At Lingmalla.

Vangueria edulis

Alu

Not common— fruit edible.

Pavetta indica ...

PApat

Very common.

Psychotria trunoata ...

Very rare.

Moesa indica

Atki

Common.

Embelia ribes ...

Ambilgli

Ditto.

Jasminium arborescena

Kuaar

A very common climber.

Ligustnim nilgherryense

Common— The Indian privet.

Rauwolfia densiflora

Rare— at Lingmalla.

Gymneraa sylvestre

Kavli

A common twining ahrub.

Ditto montana

Not very common.

Hoya pallida

Ambri ...

Common.

Solanum indicum

Ditto.

Ditto giganteiitn

Ditto.

Ditto denticulatum

Not very common.

Brugmansia Candida ...

Cultivated : common in hedge*

on the roadside.

Aayatasia violacea

Very common.

Strobilanthus callosus

KArvi

Ditto

Barleria terminalis

Not common.

Lepidagathia cuspidata

Very common.

Callicarpa cana

Aiaar

Common.

Vitex negundo

Nirgund

Not common.

Pogostemon purpurieaulis

PAngli

Very commom.

Colebrookia ternifolia

BAman

Common.

Laaioaiphon eriocephalum
Elceagnua latifolia

KAmeta

Very common.

Ambgul

Ahandsome climber ; fruit edible.

Loranthua obtuaatua

Bilndgal

Common on trees.

Ditto elaaticus

Ditto

Ditto.

Ditto cuneatus

Ditto

Ditto.

Ditto loniceroidea

Ditto ...

Ditto.

Viacum augulatum

Rare. The Indian mistletoe.

Osyria wightiana

Lotal

Common.

Euphorbia nivula
Homnoia riparia

Not common.

Rare : in beds of streams.

Trema VVightii

Ghol

Rare.

Debregeascea longif olia
Smilax ovalifolia

Kapsi

Gotyel

Not very common.
A common climber. Young
shoots eaten.

Asparagopais sarmentoaa

Common. Climbing thorny shrub.

3. Hbkbs, excluding Orchids, Feme, and Grasses.

Argemone mexicana , ..

Nasturtium officinale . . .
Cardamine subumbellata

Polygala persicarioefolia
Portulaca oleracea

Liuum mysorense
Oxalis comiculata
Irapatiens inconspicua

Ditto Dalzellii
Ditto balsamina

« 1282—82

Ghol-biji

Wundri

Tirda

Ditto ..
Ditto

The Mexican thistle, common in

cultivated land.
Water cress. In streams.
Common in October on roadside

walls.
Rare.
A Common weed in cultivated

ground.
Very common in cold season.
A weed : at Lingmalla.
Common : in cold season

Ditto
Ditto

ditto,
ditto.

650

[Bombay Gazetteer,

DISTEICTS.

Appendix B.

Mahaealesftvae
Plants.

Botanical Name.

Nati?e Name.

Herbs — continued.

Impatiens puloherrima

Tirda ...

Ditto acaulis

Crotolaria vestita

Ditto triquetra

Ditto nana

Smithia blanda

Ditto humilis

Ditto setulosa

Ditto purpurea

Desmudium parviflorum

Phaseolus triuervius ...

Vigna vexillata

Alavndi ...

Cylista scariosa

E^nghevda

Bry..phyllum calycinnm

Ammania floribunda

Trioosanthei palmata

Kaundal...

Zehneria umbellata

Gomdtti ...

Ditto baiieriana

Waroli . . .

Begonia crenata

Mollugo hirta

Hydroootyle asiatica

I'impinella mouoioa

Heraoleum conoauenae

Panda ...

Oldeulandia corymbosa

Anotis carnosa ..

Eubia cordifolia

Itta

Centratherum tenue

Lampracijoenium microcepha-

lum.

Adenoon iudicum

■Vernonia divergens

BundAr ...

Senecio Grahami

Sunkl ...

Gynura simplex

Aggeratum conyzoides

Adenostemma viscoaum

Diorooephala latifolia

Spilanthes acmella

Coayza striota

Artemisia parviflora

Davna ...

Blumea glomerata

BombArti

Onapbalium albo-luteum

Vicoa cernua

Bidens pilosa

Tricholepis glaberrima

Lactuca heyneana

Lobelia uicotianaefolia

Ddval ...

Wahlenbergia gracilis

Cephalostigina flexuosum

Swertia decussata

Kaori

Exaoum Lawii

Canscora diflfusa

Paraoarynm malabaricum

Nlsurdbi

Ditto celestinum

Ditto

Paracaryum lambertianum

Ditto

Not common.

On wet rocks, not common.

Common.

Do.

Do.
Common.

Very common in cold season.
Not common.
Rare,
Common.

Very common in the cold season,
The MahAbaleshvar sweetpea :

common.
Common.
Not common.
Common on wet rooks.
Common. Fruit used in cattle

Common.

Ditto,
Very common in October.
A common weed.
Not common.

Very common in November.
Common in October. Eaten as a

potherb.
Very common in October,

Ditto.
Common. The root supplies a

kind of madder.
Common, cold season.

Ditto " ditto.

Ditto ditto.

Not very cominon.
Common, cold season.
Common,
Not common.
Common, cold season.
Not common.
Rare.

Very common.
Very common at Llngmalla.
Common,

Ditto.
Not common.
Rare.
Common.
Tolerably common. Cold season.

Ditto.
Rare,

A common weed.
Not common at MahAbaleshvar;

common on hill above Panch-

gaui ; used as a febrifuge.
Very common in cold season.
Not common.

Not very common.
Very common— known as the
Mah^baJeshvar forget-me-not.
Rare.

Deccan-I

sItIra.

G51

BoTASioAL Name.

Native Name.

Appendix. B.

Eemarks.

MahAbalkshvar.

Plants.

Herbs — continued.

Porana malabarioa

Bhavri

. Common in cold season.

Solanum nigrum

Kingiini

. Not common.

Datura fastuosa

. Dhotra

Ditto.

Limnophila gratioloides

Ditto.

Herpestis monniera

Common in wet ground.
Not common.

Boniiaya veroniocefolia

Striga orobancMoidea

Common iu cold season.

Sopubia dephinifolia

Not common.

Utrioularia coerulea

Common in wet ground.

Ditto albo-coerulea

Not common.

Hygrophila serpyllum

Tolerably common in moiat
ground.

Blepharis aspen-ima

Common in cold season.

Justicia procumbena

Ditto ditto.

Eungia parvii3ora

Not very common.

Dioliptera bivalvis

Not common.

Haplaiithus verticillaris

Ditto.

Clerodendron serratum

Rare.

Ajnga distich a

Common.

Pleotanthrua Wightii

Very common.

Dysophylla gracilis

Common in cold season.

Ditto myosmoides

Not common.

Micromeria malcolmiana

The Mahibaleshvar peppermint ;
on the banks of the Yenna.

Salvia plebeia

Not common.

Leucas oiliata

Burumbi

Very common.

Ditto stelligera

Ditto

Ditto.

Celosia argentea

.. •■■

Not common.

Achy ran thes aspera

Serrata

Common.

Polygonum glabrum

Common in damp places.

Ditto rivulare

Not so common.

Ditto cMnense

Very common.

Ditto olegans

Not common.

Ditto nepalense ...

Very common.

Piper sylvcestre

R4n Miri

Common.

Ditto Hookeri

Ditto

Not common.

Euphorbia rothiana

Dudhi

Very common.

Ditto acaulis

Rare.

Tragia involuorata

Kulthi'"!'.!

Very common, a stinging plant.

Girardina heterophylla

Aghd,da

Not common : a formidable plant,
stings severely.

SpKtgerbera scabrell a

Not common.

Elatostemma oppositifolia

Common in cold season.

Burmannia triflora

Bare.

Curcuma caulina

Chawar

The Mahdbaleshvar arrowroot
plant. Very common.

Zinziber macrostachyum

Nisan

Not common.

Diosoorea triphylla

Shendary el

Not very common.

Cyanotis axillaris

Common.

Ditto longifolia

Not very common.

Coiumelina communis

Common.

Ariscema Muraryii

The cobra lily, common.

Eemusatia vivipara

Rare at Mah^baleshvar ; common
on trees in the Koyna valley.

Cryptoooryne Eoxburghii

Banks of the Yenna.

Fimbristylis aestivalis ...

[n beds of streams.

Carex indioa

IJommon,

Crinum asiaticum

Nagddn

Ditto,

Crinum brachyneraa

Ditto

Ditto.

Ledebouiia maculata

(

Common in the rains.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

652

DISTRICTS.

Appendix B.

M AHXeALESH VAR

Plants.

Botanical Name.

Native Naub.

Okchids found on the Hill and in the Koyna Valley.

Oberonia reo n rva
Ditto lindleyana ...

Microstylis Eheedii
DendrobriRm harbatulum
Ditto lawiamim
Ditto ramosisBimum

Ditto Maeroei ...
Dendrobrium humile ...
.brides maculosa
Ditto lindleyana

Habenaria Candida
Ditto trinervia . . .

Platanthera Busannoe ...
Ditto bracbyphylla

Cirrhopetalum fimbriatum

Eria braccata ...

Rare.

Rare in MahAbaleBhvar : common

in the Foyna valley.
Oommon in the Koyna valley.
Not common.

Ditto.
Very common in the Koyna

valley.
Common in the Koyna valley.
Rare.

Not very common.
The commonest orchid in Mah4-

baleshvar.
Common in the rains.

Ditto.
Very rare.

In the rains common.
Common in the Koyna vaHey..
Rare.

¥s,Ksa found on the Hill and in the Koyna Valley.

Pleopeltis membranacea

On trees, common..

Ditto linearis

Ditto ditto.

Adiantum luuulatum

Common,

Ditto capillus veneris

Rare.

Cheilanthes farinosa ...

Very common. The silver fern.

Pteris aquilina

......

Very common. The bracken.

Ditto quadriaurita

Very common.

Ditto pelluoida

Koyna valley, not common.

Asplenium planicaule

Common.

Ditto trapeziforme

Rare.

Athyrium filix femina

Very common in October.

Ditto falcatum

Not common.

Aspidium cicutarium

Very common— known as the oak
fern.

Nephrodium moUe

Common.

Acrostiohnm variabile ...

Not oommon, grows on wet rocks.

Osmunda regalis

Common on the river Yenna.

Lastrsea coehleata

Very common in the Koyna
valley .

Ditto.

Psecilopteris terminans

Acrophorus immersua

On trees near Bella Vista, know*
as the golden fern.

Lygodium aoandens

Rare.

Principal Grasses.

Arundinella pumila.

Ditto spicata.

Ditto striota.
Setaria glauca.
Cynodon dactylon .

Bathratherum molle .
Eragrostis unioloides.
Anthisteria cymbaria.
Panicum prostratum.
Isachne miliacea.

The Curcuma caulina from which arrowroot has been obtained grows
freely at Mahabaleshvar and for miles along the tops of the hills. For

Deccau.]

SlTlRA.

653

many years the Chinese ticket-of-leave men sold it to the Commissariat
and to the P4rsis who use arrowroot largely. Judging from the market
value, five to six pounds to the rupee, it is very inferior to West Indian
arrowroot which is the produce of a different plant. In 1876-77, when the
famine pressed heavily on the surrounding villages, a few of the poorer
classes were induced to try arrowroot but they raised objections and never
took it so long as any other food was procurable. In 1878 from 500 to
600 pounds were prepared by a European resident at a cost of 5| pounds
for the rupee. Samples were sent for analysis to Messrs. Treacher and Co.,
Phillips and Co., and Kemp and Co. The colour and taste were
pronounced good, but it was found deficient in nutritive properties, and
in the end the owner was obliged to sell it at eight pounds the rupee.
The preparation is simple. A labourer can gather from four to five large
basketsful in a day at a cost of l^d. (1 anna) the basket. The root is
scraped, washed, and reduced to a pulp by rubbing on a grater. Pounding
in a mortar has been tried but found to smash the globules of which the
root is composed. After being reduced to a pulp the arrowroot is washed
in large flat basins or half barrels which must be well cleaned so as not to
give any taste. To clean it thoroughly twelve to fifteen washings are
necessary. The sediment should be stirred each time fresh water is added.
During the first washing the water is muddy, and a dark scum settles on
the top of the sediment. This scum gradually disappears with each
washing, but the washing must be continued until the sediment is pure
white and the water is not discoloured. Care should be taken when
emptying the water not to disturb the sediment. When the washing is
complete, the aiTowroot dries into a hard cake, which is easily removed and
afterwards pounded into powder. Each basket yields from three to four
jjounds of pure arrowroot.

Appendix B.

Mahabaleshvar
Plants.

[Bombay Q-azetteer,

654

DISTRICTS.

APPENDIX 0.

Appendix C.

Camps.

Sdtdra.

Koregaon.

Wdi.

Jdvli,

CAMPS.i
The district has 105 camps of which four are in the Sdtdra sub-division,
nine in Koregaon, nine ia Wdi, ten in Javli, twelve in Kardd, thirteen in
Valva, twenty-four in Patan, five in Tasgaon, seven in Khdndpur, seven
in Khatav, and five in Mdn.

In the Sdtara sub-division Tasgaon, eight miles south-east near the
Sdtara-Rahimatpur road, is a good camp. Parli, five miles west of Satara,
has a tolerable camp close to the village. Shendre four miles south-west
adjoining the mail road, and Vaduth five miles north-east on the old
Poena road, are excellent camps.

In Koregaon itself the best is Kumtha an excellent camp in hard soil
two miles north. Lhdsurne, two miles west, is a magnificent grove of
mangoes and palms and in beauty yields to none in the district, but has
the drawback of being on black soil. It is a good starting point for
Jalandar hill. Kinhai, the village of the Pant Pritinidhi, is an excellent
camp and starting point for visiting fort Nandgiri and the north-east of
the sub-division. Deur, twelve miles north of Koregaon, has a travellers'
bungalow and a mile north of the village a large mango grove forming an
excellent camp. For the north of the sub-division Pimpoda Budrukh is a
tolerable camp close to the Wdi-Adarki pass road ; a better camp but less
accessible is Sonke, a mile north of the road. Ohavneshvar, three miles
west of Sonke, is a pleasant resort in the hot weather, south of the
Khdmatki pass. Udtare ten miles, and Panchvad eight miles south-east
of Wdi, are fair camps. Yairdtgad and the big tree at Mhasve can be
conveniently visited from Panchvad.

At Wai are a fair camp and a travellers' bungalow. The situation of
the camp on the river is picturesque but there is some danger of fever in the
cold season. The western part of the sub-division is hilly and carts run
as far as Asre nine miles north-west up the valley. Tolerable shade can
be had here for small hill tents. It is a good starting point for a visit to
Kenjalgad fort three miles north-west, and Kamdlgad fort four miles north-
east. Up the Jor valley there is a tolerable little camp at Partdvdi
thirteen miles west. Pdnchgani the hill station has an excellent travellers'
bungalow. Five miles south-east of Wai is a beautiful mango grove at
Kavtha, the best camp for visiting the south-east of the sub-division.
North of the Khdmatki pass in the Khanddla petty division ■ the best
camps are, for Khanddla itself Ajnuj two miles west. The east of the
petty division is badly ofi" for camps. At Ahire four miles east of
Kiandala is a good grove but very near the village. In the west there
is an excellent camp at Lohom seven miles west of Khanddla and Shirval
camp ten miles north cannot be surpassed.

At Medha the head-quarters is a decent travellers' bangalow. For the
Kuddl valley the large banian tree at Mhasve ten miles north-east of
Medha forms an excellent camp. For the Ghdts in the neighbourhood
of Malcolm Peth, Moleshvar five miles south-east, and Avkdli five miles
east, are the best. For Pratdpgad and the western Koyna valley the Vdda

1 Mr. J. W. P. Muir-Maokenzle, C. S.

Deccan.]

SATARA.

655

or Ambenali bungalow is excellent. Going down the Koyna, for Makrand-
gad or the Saddleback, Kasrud is a capital grove three miles south-west.
From thence eighteen miles south-east is Bamnoli a fair camp only and
five miles south of Bamnoli is Tambi with a tolerably big tree giving
shade to hill tents and the best starting point for Vasbta^fort. Dare
two miles west of Bamnoli, is a fair camp for the Amboli pass ; Kolghar
four miles north-east of Biimnoli, is an excellent grove in the shoulder of
the hill between Bamnoli and Medha, and Kds five miles south-east of
Bamnoli with its new tank and irrigation bungalow, is a delightful resort
in the hot weather.

In the north twenty miles north of Karad is Atit with a travellers'
bungalow. Umbraj , ten miles north-west of Karad, has a pleasant bungalow
belonging to the Public Works Department. The adjoining village of
Shevde has an excellent dense grove of mangoes but in rather a breezeless
situation and damp in the cold weather. Belavde taraf Haveli has a
nice grove six miles north of Earad and a quarter of a mile south
of the mail road. Talbid a mile north, and close under, Vasantgad has a
magnificent mango grove which however is difficult to reach, the mile
of cross country track being very rough. Karad itself has a camp on
the west bank of the Koyna river. The shade is thin and the camp not
desirable. The travellers' bungalow is also unfortunately very dusty.
A convenient camp for Karad is Jakhinvidi, four miles south, with good
shade, and adjoining the chief Buddhist caves. For the Vdng valley
Kolevddi, nine miles west-south-west of Kariid, is a perfect camp and for
Kille and its neighbourhood Vond, though small, is a first rate camp.
At the extreme south good shade can be found at Malkhed on the mail road
nine miles from Karad. On the left bank of the Krishna there is an
excellent camp at Masur for the north-east and Shenoli ten miles
south-east of Karad for the south-east of the sub-division. Shenoli is a
good starting point for a visit to Machhindragad fort one mile south.

At the extreme north of the Vilva sub-division is K^segaon with an
excellent Assistant Collector's bungalow. Nerla, three miles south-east of
Kasegaon, has a travellers' bungalow and a tolerable camp. Peth has, half a
mile south of the town, a pleasant shady but rather small camp. Islampur,
four miles south-east of Peth, has, close by the road but well outside the
town, an excellent mango grove. Ashta, twelve miles south-east of IsMmpur,
has good shade but a very dusty camp which should be avoided. Oonvenient
for work at Ashta is BAgni four miles south-west with an excellent grove.
For the south of the sub-division Yelur, nine miles south of Peth and a mile
west of the Kolhapur road, has a very good camp. For the Shirala petty
division Biur, about two miles south-west of Shirala, has a nice little
camp and Kokrud, ten miles further up the VArna valley on the Kolhapur
frontier, has an excellent shade. For the hills Arle and Peth Lond and
Rundhiv (the old village site) and Shivdeshvar have good camps.

For the Td,rli valley Nune, one mile east of Tirla, has a small but
shady grove. Up the valley shade can be had for a small tent at
Murudh about six miles north-west of T^rla as far as which carts can
penetrate with difficulty. The Ohiiphal valley is badly off. The usual
camp is at Chaphal six miles east of Patan but it is not good. Upon the
hills above the T^rli valley, Jalu six mUes west, and Pabulvadi hamlet in
the village of Vajroshi and on the Tarla-Patan road, are decidedly good
camps. For the Koyna valley, the first camp is Malharpeth with good
shade on the banks of the Koyna well situated. At Pdtan itself is
excellent shade but the camp has a drawback in the proximity of
the hundreds of carts which rest here on their way to Chiplun.

Appendix C

Camps,

Kardd.

Vdlva.

Pdtan,

[Bombay Gazetteer,

656

DISTRICTS.

Appendix C.

Camps.
PAtan.

Tdsgaon.

Khdruipwr.

Khatdv.

Three miles south-west is a fine grove at Yerad charmingly situated.
But tiis camp should be avoided after April when . the yearly fair
takes place to the poisoning of the air and water in the neighbourhood.
Helvak, thirteen miles west of Patan, has a bungalow belonging to the
Public Works Department. The accommodation for tents is poor, and
better can perhaps be found at Rasdti a village half a mile north.
Proceeding up the Koyna valley good shade is found at Mirgaon four
miles and at Devgad eight miles north of Helvak. Devgad is within
easy reach of Tambi in the Javli sub-division. North-west of Pdtan, for
the Kera valley, Mvkhane, eight miles north-west of Pdtan is a delightful
camp in a sacred grove on a ledge of the hill side. People usually
direct officers to the groves in the valley below. Inquiry therefore should
be made for the sacred grove or ban to the south of the village. On the
corresponding ledge of the western slope is fair shade at Gojegaon. Good
hill camps are at Karvat six miles west-north-west of Patan and Ghanbi
three miles north of Karvat. On the hills west of Helvak Torna, three
miles north-west, contains a capital little grove deliciously high and cool.
In the south of the sub-division Mala has a fair camp on the ridge of the
Sahyddris. Pinchgani, eight miles south-west of PAtan on the way to
Mala, is a capital camp. Prom Mala twelve miles east lead to Palshi a
fine camp at the head of the VAng valley. Paneri, three miles south-east
of Palshi, is a fair camp. A delightful march of twelve miles south-east
along the hill plateau brings to Nivi, a small but pleasant camp. Five miles
more over roughish country lead to a sacred grove in a hamlet of Kdlgaon
village. This grove makes a nice camp but is inaccessible. For the Yang
valley Gudhe or ICutre, from four to eight miles north of Kdlgaon, give
the best shade.

Tasgaon itself has very fair shade in a grove immediately to the south
of the town. There are fair camps also at Visapur six miles north, Palus
nine miles north-west, Akhalkop nine miles west, Bhose nine miles south-
east, and Ndgaj, for the extreme east of the sub-division about thirty miles
north-east.

For the north-west of the Khdnapur sub-division there is an excellent
camp at Up41e about twelve miles north-west of Vita to be distinguished
from the neighbouring village of Updle Khurd. For the west, Kadegaon
on the Kardd-Bijapur road, about twelve miles west of Vita, is an excellent
camp. About six miles south-east of Kadegaon, Vangi has a small bungalow.
Vadgaon, four miles south-west of Vangi, has a fine camp within easy hail
of the interesting temples of Devrdshta. Vita itself is well provided with
shade ; the spot to choose is not the tempting grove just outside the eastern
gate, but a long line of lofty mangoes further distant. Khandpur village,
twelve miles east of Vita, has a good shade in a grove a quarter of a mile
west ; but the place is sometimes infested with mosquitoes. Immediately
north of the town, adjoining a well, is a more desirable spot. Seven miles
north-east of Vita, Lengre has a fair camp, the only tolerable one in the
north-east of the sub-division.

KhatAv has plenty of good camps. In the west Pusegaon, on the
SAtara-Pandharpur road, is fair and close to Vardhangad fort and the large
Nher irrigation tank. Khdtgun, three miles east of Pusegaon, has an
irrigation bungalow. In the north Budh, about twenty miles north-west
of Vaduj, and Diksal, three miles north-west o£ Budh, have excellent groves.
DiksAl is the best point from which to visit the fort of TAthavade six miles
to the north-east. Vaduj the head-quarter station has a very pleasant
camp. In the south-east the Mayni irrigation bungalow is almost the
only tolerable piedaterre. In the south-west Pusesdvli about fifteen

Deccan]

SATARA. 857

miles south-west of Vaduj has a small bungalow and a good grove for Appeudix C

tents. _ —

Camps.

M&n is very badly off for trees. Pingli, four miles south-east of Mdn.

Dahivadi, has a fair camp. The shade is good but the adjacent sugar-
cane cultivation and a stream-bed close by are sometimes unpleasant.
Shingn^pur in the north-east, thirteen miles north-east of Dahivadi, is
one of the places best worth a visit in the district. The camp is excellent
but the place is off the line of march for district officers. Mhasvad has
only a few straggling mangoes. Varkute in the south-west has one large
tree under which a tent can go and is the best camp for that part of the
sub-division. Palshi, five miles east of Dahivadi, has a tolerable shady
ground for tents. There are no good camps elsewhere, a fact that greatly
adds to the unpleasantness of this sub-division, the only really disagreeable
part of the district.

B 1282—83

[Bombay Gazetteer,

658

DISTEICTS.

APPENDIX D.

Appendix D.

Dasaex

Peocessioi^

(p. 565).

DASARA PROCESSION.

The great feature of the Dasara festival at S4t4ra during the times o'
the late Mahdr^as of Satdra was the procession on the tenth or great day
of the month of A'shvin or September - October. For nine days prior
to this, religious ceremonies in honour of AmbAbdi, the goddess of Tuljdpur,
were performed day and night, with but a few hours' intermission, in a
large wooden booth, being a permanent erection in the inner quadrangle
of the Rang Mahdl or residence of the MahAraja. This deity seems to
have been one of the favourite objects of devotion of the Bhonsle family,
and enjoyed the monopoly of the Dasara ceremonies. The utsav or
celebration commenced daily by singing from nine in the morning till
noon. Then, for the space of an hour daily, the Bahurupis, a troop of
male actors, danced and amused the devotees by appearing in a variety
of characters and dresses. Following this came dances performed by
troops of dancing girls or NdiJcins. Then, towards night, sacred sermons or
Mrtans in honour of the deity were repeated and explanations of them
given by learned Shdstris or divines ; and when these ceased, somewhere
about the hour of midnight, the praises of the deity were sung until early
dawn. During these nine days also numbers of BrAhmans, as many as would
come, were fed in the Rang Mahdl, and a distribution of uncooked food
was made to persons of other castes at the Raja's storehouses and at
other convenient places.

All these ceremonies and festivities, however, culminated on the tenth
day with the grand procession of the Rdja and his chiefs and followers.
Immediately before setting out on this the Maharaja, with his own hand,
killed, or rather struck the first blow at the Dasara buffalo, a sacrifice
to Amb&bii, This procession in which in the time of Prat4psinh, the last
Raja but one (1818-1839), as many as seventy-five elephants often appeared,
left the Rang MahAl so soon as the heat of the day had passed, and
proceeded at a slow pace along the upper road, which now leads nearly
direct from the subsequently erected palaces to the post-office, to the
Poyi-ohe Nike, immediately above the present post-office, the road on
either side being lined with the Mah^rdja's troops. The procession was
headed by the so-called Dhakta Mahar^j Sh^hdji or Appa Sdheb, the
younger brother of Pratapsinh, who, in contradistinction, was known as
the 'Thorla Mahdraj and his followers, next to him came the Thorla
Mah^rAj himself and his followers, then the Pritinidni, then the AkaUsotkar,
then the Sachiv, then the Nimb^lkar, then the Daphlekar, and finally
Shaikh Miri of Wai. Besides the Mahdrija's own suite and the private
suites of each of these chiefs, the majority of them were bound to furnish
a contingent of cavalry svdrs to the Maharija. The Aialkotkar furnished
100 of these svdrs, the Nimbdlkar seventy-five, the Daphlekar fifty, and
Shaikh Miri twenty, and all of these svdrs took part in the procession.
In the rear of all these chiefs and their suites followed the principal
citizens according to their rank and privileges on elephants and horses,
in carriages or litters and with or without an umbrella or torch-
bearer ; and these so swelled the length of the procession that its head
often reached the Poyi-che Nake, a distance of nearly two miles, before

Deccan]

Si.TlRA.

the rear had started the spur running east from S4tara hill fort, the
whole being crowded with the general mass of sightseers, who had no right
to take part in the procession. As the royal party passed slowly on, the
troops who had lined the road* filed off, and, by a quick march, the
majority reached the neighbourhood of the Pohi-che N4ke before the
royal party, who proceeded by a lower road, and were there drawn up
in line in readiness for its reception. Meantime, elephants and an escort,
had been sent on to the Residency, and, as the royal procession reached,
the Pohi-che Nake, the Resident on his elephant and attended by his
escort also- arrived at the spot. Then followed an exchange of salutes,
the Mahirdja's troops saluting first, twenty-one guns and five volleys, the
British troops, also drawn up on the spot, responding. After this, there:
was a brief exchange .of courtesies, followed by a.fresh exchange of salutes,
and then the Resident and his party turned homewards, while the proces-
sion proceeded to encircle the maiddn below, where, according to a custom,
of the day a large branch of the dpta or Bauhinia racemosa and of the shami
or Prosopis spicegera had been set up. These trees are still worshipped
and then felled, and all who desire take small twigp and distribute the
leaves to their friends, saying in so doing " This is gold." Having
performed this ceremony, which indeed formed the real object of the proces-
sion, it proceeded homeward and, as darkness came on, torches were lighted,
and, the weirdness of the scene intensified. After the return, it was
customary for the chiefs and all other loyal citizens to present najars
to the MaharAja, his brother, and his wife. The first class sarddrs usually
presented a ncyar of five gold mohars to the elder Mahdraj, and a similar
gift to his wife, and a single gold mohar to the younger Mahdraj, and the
crowd usually tendered a najar of 2s. (Re. 1) each but never_a smaller
coin. All were expected to ofier something to the elder Maharaj, but,
only their particular followers tendered najars to the Rani and the
younger Mahdraj ; all the sums thus tendered were credited to the private
accounts of the recipients. In return for these gifts poshdk or dress of
honour was distributed, either on the same day or previously. The dress
of honour given to first class sarddrs consisted of five articles, including
a turban or pdgoti, a scarf or dupeta, a piece of satin or brocade, and two
pieces of fine linen. The dress of honour given to second class sarddrs.
consisted of three and a half articles including a tu.rbaft, ascaj-f, a piece of;
fine linen and half a piece of brocade. Other persons only got two articles,
a turban and a scarf, others again received the dress of honour on alter-
nate years or every third year. Servants and riienial dependants received
usually only a turban. A dress of honour was also sent at this festival
to the Resident, and through him to the Governor of Bombay, and in
return the Resident sent similar presents to the Mah4rd,ja at Christmas.
After the receipt of the najars, ajl attended the ceremonies at the booth,
and the festival was wound up by a general distribution of cocoanuts.
In the days of Pratapsinh all the residences of the jdgirddrs and sarddra
were situated at the bottom of SAtdra hill fort along the road now leading
from the post-office to the tunnel. From the east first came the
residence of the Akalkotkar, next the Rang Mahd,l where the Mahdriija
himself lived, then the old addlat which was the Peshwa's residence until
the time of Shahu's reign, then the Sachiv's mansion or vdda, beyond that
came the Daphle's pdga and to the extreme west the vdda of the Pratinidhi
of which now no trace remains. The NimbAlkar never had a residence at
S&t&rsb.

The Mabdrdja's guns and his Mogldi cavalry were quartered near the
site of the present jail. His body-guard consisting of 200 cavalry were

Appendix Dk

Basaba
Feocession.

[Bombay Gazetteer,

660

DISTRICTS.

Appendix D.

Dasara
fsocessiox.

accommodated in the present risdla, the head-quarters of the mounted
police and the infantry were quartered near the Rang Mahdl. Sh^hdji
or Appa Siheb removed the troops to the Genda Mahal.

In the days referred to the greater portion of the town of Sdtdra
including all that part to the north of the present upper road to the palaces
was mostly open country. This portioiL of the present town was not
completely built over until after Sh^^ji Mahdraj had been set up by the
British Government.

INDEX

AbAji Purandhare : Bdldji Vishvanath's friend,

254, 258.

Acquisition : 320.

Adil SMhis: Bijdpur kings (1489-1686); hold
Sitira.; revolt of Saif Ain-ul-Mulk ; Ibrdhim
Adil Shd,h's (1534-1557) defeat at Min; Adil
Shihi institutions ; Maritha chiefs under them;
Shiviji's rebellion; BijApur captured (1686) by
the Moghals, 228-246.

Afzul Zhin : murdered (1659) at Prattogad,
234-237.

Agdshiv : hill, 11.

Age Details: 43-44.

Agrarian Eiots (1874-1875): 187-188.

Ahmadnagar: intended (171O) capital of the
Maritha empire, 255.

Akhalkop : town, temples, fair, 447-44S.

Alienated Villages : (1883), 327-328.

Almshouse : Frere, 567 - 568.

Ambd,di: crop of, 165.

Ambenala : See FitzGerald pass.

Amilddrs : old revenue collectors, 229-230.

Andhrabhrityas : see Sh^takamis.

AnnAjipant ; takes (1705) S&Ura from the Mo-
ghals, 253.

Annexation : of SAt^ra (1848), 313-316.

Antdji Rdje Shirke : native head of the SAtAra
poUce (1857), 317.

Anvad : gorge, 202.

Appa Sdheb : ex-R4ja of NAgpur, intrigues (1837)
with PratApsinh, 311.

Arable area: 149-150.

Arbitration Courts : 398.

Area: 1.

Arthur's Seat : MahAbaleshvar Point, 503-504.
Asht Fradhd,ns : Shiviiji's eight chief officers,

243-244.
Ashta : town, 448-449.
Aspect: 2-5.
Assessed Taxes : 404.

Atdrs : Musalmto perfumers, 135.
Aundh : village, action near (1714), 257 ; temple,
449^450; state, 2, 621 - 622.

Aurangzeb.: Delhi Emperor (1658-1707) takes
(1686) Bijdpur ; settlement of the country under
Bijdpur ; his mode of warfare favourable to the
Mardth^s ; mismanagement of the country ; exe-
cution of SambhAji (1689) ; fall of Kdygad (1690) ;
Mardthds gain strength ; the Moghals take Va-
santgad, S4td,ra, and Parli (1700) ; fall of Chandan-
Vandan and Pdndugad ; decay of the empire ;
death, 246-253.

Azam Shdh : Aurangzeb's son, in S&Ura, (1700),
250-251.

Azam Tdra : name given (1700) to Sdtdra fort»
251, 575.

Babington Point : MahAbaleshvar, 506.

Bdgbdns : Musalmdn fruiterers, 139.

Bdgui : village, MusalmAn remains, 451.

Bahddunrddi : village, fort, 450-451.

Bahdr : Mardthds in (1742), 285.

Bd,he : village, temple, fairs, 452.

Bahmanis : Kulbarga kings (1347 - 1489), 225 -
227.

Bahule : village, temple, fairs, 452-453.

Baji Ghorpade : Mudhol chief (1653), 232-233.

Bijirav I. : second Peshwa (1721-1740) ; sets out
with an army for KhAndesh ; his schemes for the
conquest of MAlwa ; Holkar and Sindia officers in
his army ; his character ; his ambitious scheme of
conquest ; is opposed by the Pratinidhi ; his in-
cursions in MAlwa ; Nizim-ul-Mulk's fears at the
spread of the Mar&tha power ; war with Trim-
bakrdv DAbhdde in Gujarat ; Raghuji Bhonsle ;
wars in the Konkan ; BdjirAv's money difficulties ;
receives assignment of the revenue of the districts
south of the Chambal; defeats the Moghals
near Delhi ; NAdir ShAh sapks Delhi ; B&jir&v
receives khillat from the Delhi Emperor; his
critical situation ; his arrangements with Raghuji
Bhonsle ; treaty of Mungi-Paithan ; his death,
267-283.

BAjirdv IL : last Peshwa (1796- 1817), circum-
stances attending his accession ; treaty of
Bassein ; state of the country ; orders BApu
Gokhale [to chastise ParashurAm Shrinivds, the

C62

INDEX.

Pratinidhi ; his advisers ; Trimbakji Denglia's
insurrectiou ; BdjirAv's disloyalty ; battle oLKir-
kee ; his defeat and pursuit ; SAtdra surrendered
to the British ; Mr.. Elphinstone's manifesto, 298-
305.

Bdjri : crop of, 160.

£akar Easdbs : mutton-butchers, 139 - 140.

Silaji Avji : Shivdji's Prabhii clerk, 244.

BAlAji BdjirAv : third Peshwa (1740-1761) ; office
contested by Bdpuji N^k Bdrdmatikar ; success
of BdlAji ; his money difficulties ; his plans for
the government of MAlwa ; receives a grant by
which the territory conquered from the Portu-
guese is conferred on him ; BAllji in North India
and MAlwa ; his rivalry with Eaghuji Bhonsle;
expedition into the Kamdtak ; his intrigues
about Shdhu's succession ; his conduct towards
SakvarbAi, Shdhu's widow ; his usurpation of au-
thority ; removes the capital to Poona ; EAm Ed,ja
is confined in Sdtdra ; TArAbdi's attempts to divert
the power from the Konkani Brdhmans ; DamAji
GdikwAr is defeated by BAlAji ; Bdldji efifects a
settlement with T^^bdi ; management of the
country ; battle of Pdnipat ; BAUji's death, 283 -
295.

BiUji Gangidhar Sathe : Mr., 51 note l, 194

note 1.

B&l&ji Vishvanith : first Peshwa (1714-1720) ;
accountant of Shrivardhan in Janjira ; writer
under Dhaniji ; is viewed with jealousy by
Dhandji'a son Chandrasen ; his flight ; his con-
cealment in Pdndugad; is released; is again
imprisoned by Damdji Thordt ; is released by
Shdhu ; leads an army against KAnhoji Angria ;
settlement with Angria ; is appointed Peshwa
(1714) J releases the Pant Sachiv then Thordt's
prisoner ; receives lands in Poona ; his scheme of
usurpation ; assists the Syed brothers in their
scheme of deposing the emperor Peroksher ; visits
Delhi ; receives three imperial grants for Shdhu ;
settlement of the country ; hia death, 254-2.66.

Balance Sheet : 403-405,

Bimnoli : village, 453.

Bdmnoli-Gheridategad : SahyAdri spur, 6,

Banks : 178.

Banpuri : village, temple, 453-454.

Bdpu Gokhale: Maritha general (1807-1818),
299-301,302,303.

Bdpnji Naik Biramatikar : banker, 283-287.

B^rgirS : MarAtha riders, 240-241.

Barley : crop of, 163.

Bavdhan ■• village, temples, 454.

Bhairavgad = hill-fort, 5, 10, 454 - 455.

Bhipshah = bill, 12.

BhangiS = nightsoil-men, 110.

Bhdrgavrdm = Bifiriv I.'s (1721 - 1740) spiritual

adviser, 466,
BhAskarpant : Berdr minister (1742), 285, 287.
Bhits : bards, 115 - 116.
Bhavd.ni : ShivAji's sword, 238, 249, 509, 567 ;

ShivAji's guardian goddess, 238, 546.^
Bhav^nrav = Pratinidki (1763), 296.
Bh&va Phdn = dargdh of, 598.
Bhilavdi = town, 455.

Bhois : fishers, 105 - 106.

Bhopalgad' bill-fort, 8; taken (1679) by the

Moghals, 245 ; fort details, 455 - 456.
Bhdr : state, 2, 617-618; seat of intrigue (1857)»

317.
Bhose : village, cave temple, 456-457.
Bhushangad ; hill-fort, 12, 457.
Bhutyd^S : spiritmen, 116- 117.
Bills : exchange, 178 - 179.
Birds: 39-42.

Births and Deaths : 420 - 422.
Birthplace Details,: 43.
Beggars: 115-124.

Belddrs : quarrymen, 80.
Bengal: Mar^this in (1745), 287.
Blankets : weaving of, 222-223.
Bogda : gorge, 204.
Bohords: Musalmdn traders, 137.
Boles : Colonel (1818), 302 - 303-.
Bombay Point : Mahdbaleshvar, 505.
Bopardi = village, temple, 457 -"458..
Borgaon : village, 458.

Borrowers: 184-186.
Boundaries : l.
Brdhmans : 51 - 56.
Brereton : Mr. C, 194 note Iv
Bridges : 209 - 210.
Bnilding Stone : 29 - 30.

Bungalows : travellers', 211 - 212:
BurudS : bamboo-workers, 80 - 81.
Butcher's Island : political prisoners couHned iii-
(1857), 318-319,580..

Camps: SAtAra District, 654;- 657.

Canals : 151 - 156.

Capitalists: 178.

Carnac ; Sir James, Governor of Bombay (1839 -

1841), 311.
Carriers : 218.
Castor Seed ; crop of, 165..
'Cattle Disease : 418 - 420.
Cavalry : Shiv^ji's, 240 - 241.
Caves : 456, 463-465, 466, 477-480, 489, 510,

522, 536, 540 - 541, 550, 588, 589,.613.
Census Details : 43 - 45.
Central Belt ; aspect of the, 3 - 4.

INDEX.

663

Cesses : 349.

Cbdmbhdrs: leather-workers, 81-83.

Chandan-Vandan : Mahidev hill spur, 7 ; twin-
forts, 10; taken (1701) by the Moghals, 252;
taken (1707) by Shdhu, 253; fort details, de-
scription, history, 458 - 460.

Chanda Siheb : imprisoned in Sdt^ra (1741), 283,
284 note 1, 574, 577.

Ghdnd Bibi : imprisoned (1679) in SAt^ra, 229, 574.

Chandli : hill, lO.

ChandrarAv More: JAvli chief (1653), 230-231,
232-233, 470.

Chandrasen Jddhav : M.ara,tha general (1709),
254 - 256.

Changes = territorial, 320.

Chaphal : village, temple, fair, 460-461.

Chavegaon ■ village, trade centre, 215, 461.

Chauth : Mard,tba exaction, 250, 256, 260, 261,
265, 268, 270, 271, 273, 278, 285, 287,

Chikhli : canal, 154 - 155.

Chiknrde: village, temple, 461.

CMmangaon : village, temple, 461.

Chimniji Apa: BAjirdv's (1721 - 1740) brother,
267, 276, 277, 280, 282 - 283,284.

Chinkilichklldll : see Niz^m-ul-Mulk.

CMtp^Vans : see Konkanasths.

CMtrakathis : picture showmen, 117.

CMtnrsiag : Shdhu II. 's (1777 - 1810) brother, 299,
532.

Cholera : 385, 386, 387, 388, 389.

Christians : 147.

Cinchona Plantation : Mahdbaleshvar, 508 - 509.

Civil Courts: (1870-1883), 395-396.
Civil Suits : (1870 - 1882), 396 - 398.
Clay : 30.

Clan Surnames : Mar^tha, 75 - 76.
Climate : 18 - 19, 416, 553 - 556.
Clouds : 18.

Communities : 48 - 50.

Condition : of the district (1803-1805), 299.

Copper and Brass : working in, 220.

Cotton : crop, of, 165 - 166, 381 note 1.
Crafts : 220 - 223.

Craftsmen : 79 - 97.

Criminal Classes : 400.

Crop Details: 159-168.

Currency: 179.

Customs : birth, marriage, pregnancy, death, 60 ■
61, 62-6,3, 64-75, 77-79, 80, 82, 84, 85, 86-
87, 89-92, 93-94, 97, 99-101, 102, 103, 104,
107 - 108, 109, 111, 112, 113 - 115, 116, 119, 122,

128 - 135.

Dabir : MarAtha foreign minister, 243.

DAddji Kondadev : Shiv4ji's teacher (1645), 242.

D4du Narsu Kile : land settlement of (1429), 226.

Dahivadi ■■. village, 461 - 462.

Dakshina: charities, 274.

Dalsingars : see Kdraujkars.

Damdji Gaikwir : second in command under

DAbhMe (1720), 266 - 267, 291 -293.
Damdji Thorit : lawless ruffiaoa (1714), 257-258.
Daphlipur : state, 2, 624.
Daphles : chiefs of Jath, 232.
Dasara Procession : 658 - 659.
Ddud Khan Panni : Moghal Viceroy of the

Decoan (1709), 254-255.
Ddtegad: hill-fort, 10, 462-463.
Delhi : B^jirdv defeats the Moghals near (1736),

279.
Depressed Classes: 109-115.

DeshasthS : BrAhmans, 51.

Deshpande : Hiv Bahadur N. Q., 120 note 1.

Deur : action near (1713), 256 ; (1818), 303 ; village,

463.
Devak : wedding guardian, 80, 94.
Devgiri Yadavs : Hindu dynasty (1170 - 1310),

224, 225.
Devr d,shta : village, temples and cells, tradition ,

463-465.
Devrukhds ; Brdhmans, 51-52.
Dhanaji Jddhav: MarAtha general(1707), 253, 254.
Dhangars : cowherds, 104 - 105 ; in the Mardtha

army, 250.
Dhavads : MusalmAn iron smelters, 140 - 141.
Dhdvadshi : village, 466.
Dhobis : Muaalmin washermen, 141.
Dhobis' Fall : MahAbaleshvar, 507.
Dhom : holy village, temples, 466 - 467.
Dhondphodd,S : Musalm^n quarrymen, 141.
DhorS : tanners. 111.

Dildwar Ehdn: imprisoned (1592) in SAtdra, 22 9.
Disarming : of the district (1857), 319.
Discipline : Shiv^ji's military, 242.

Dispensaries : 417.

Divashlkhurd : village, cave, fairs, 466.
Dog : ShAhu's fondness for a, 519 note 2.
Domestic Animals : 36-38.
Dravids : Brdhmans, 52.
Dress: Hindus', 47-48.
Durdi Sarai : convention of (1738), 279.
Durga Devi : famine (1396 - 1407), 226.
Durgising : Sen^pati's adopted (1857) son, 317-
319.

Dyeing : 222.

Earthnut : crop of, 165.

Eastern Belt : aspect of the, 4-5.

Elphinstone : Mr. Mountstuart, resident at
Poona, 300 - 301 ; his manifesto, 303-305; de-
scription of Sdt^ra, 306 note 1 ; condition of Sdtdra
(1826), 309.

664

INDEX.

Elphinstone Point = Mah^baleshvar, 503.
Excise : revenue, 403.
Exports : 219-220.

P.
Pairs: 217-218.

Palkland Point : Mahiibaleshvar, 506.
Family gods : 64, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 85, 86, 88,

89, 92, 93, 96, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 107, 109,

110, 111, 113, 116, 117, 123, 124.
Family stocks : 92.
Famines : 168 - 177.

Feroksher : Delhi emperor (1712-1719), 260-262.
Ferries : 14, 212.
Field tools : 150-151.
Field trees : 36.
Fish : 39.
Fishers: 105-106.
FitzG-erald pass : 201.

Food : Hindus', 47.

Forests: ranges, sta£E, description, demarcation,

timber trade, forest tribes, finance, 31 - 36,
Fort Establishment : SMvdji's, 242.
Frere: Sir Bartle, resident (1848), 312-313;

almshouse, 567 - 568.
Fu miture : household, 46.

Gdda ; gorge, 202.

6di Kasabs : beef butchers, 138 - 139.

Ganesh : footpath, 202 ; gorge, 205.

G^rudis: jugglers, 142.

Gavandis : MusalmAn bricklayers, 141 - 142.

Gavlis : cow-keepers, 105.

Geology : 16.

Ghadshis : musicians, 97-98.

Ghdsddna : forage money, 250, 256.

Ghera Khelanja : see Kenjalgad.

Ghisddis : tinkers, 83.

Ghorpades : -chiefs of K^pshi and Mudhol, 231,

257, 283-284.
Gingelly Seed : crop of, 164.
Ginji : fall of (1698), 250.
Girls' Schools : 4io.

Goa : PratApsinh'simtrigues.in (1837), 310-311.
Golaks : BrAhmans, 52.
Gold and Silver : working in, 220.
Gondhlis : dancers, 117.
Gondoli ; canal, 153 - 154.
GopAls : beggars, 117- 118.
Goptuithpant : AfzulkhAn's agent, 235-236.
Gorakhndth : grove at^ShirAla, 587.
Gorges: 202-206.
GosiviS : beggars, 118.
Govardhans = see Golaks.
Govindrd/V • Pratdpsinh's minister (1835), 309-

310.

Gram : crop of, 163. ,

Grant DuflF: Captain, resident at SAtdra (1824),

305, 308.
Gujaritis : Brdhmans, 53. .
Gujardit VdniS : traders, 57 - 58.
Gunvantgad : SahyMri spur, 7 ; hill-fort, 10, 468.
GftraVS : priests, 98- 101.

Haibatrdv Nimbdlkar ; MarAtha noble (1714),

256, 258.
Hailstorms : 27.

Haj^ins : Husalmdn barbers, 142 - 143.
Harli : footpath, 202.
Hasan Gangu: Bahmani king (1347-1358), 225-

226.
Hatgegad Arle : SahyAdri spur, 6.
Heat: 25-27.
Heber : Bishop, on the condition of SAtdra (1825),

309.
Helvak: survey, 379-380; village, trade, 468-

469.
Hetkaris : Shivd,ji's infantry, 239.
Hills : 5-12.

Himmatrdv ;' Jdvli Rdja's minister (1653), 233.
Hoards: 180- 181.

Holars : musicians, 101 - 102.

Holdings: ISO.

Holidays : 64.

Holkar : origin of the family, 268 ; is given a

share in the revenue of Mdlwa (1750), 291.
Horse-breeding : 37.
Hospitals : 416.

Houses : 45 - 46 ; investment in, 179.
Human sacrifices : 54, 574.
Husbandmen : 63 - 79, 148 . 149.

IbrAhim Adil Shd,h I : Bijdpur king (1534 -
1557), 228-229.

Imperial grants : received by Shdhu (1720),
262 - 263.

Imports: 218-219.

Indm villages : MarAtha system of conferring,
264-265.

Industries : see Crafts.

Infantry : ShivAji's, 239.

Infirm People : 417 - 418.

Institutions : Bahmanis', 227 note 5 ; Adil
ShAhis', 229 - 230 ; ShivAji's, 239 - 244.

Instruction: staff, cost, instruction, private
schools, girls' schools, readers and writers, school
returns, town and village schools, libraries, lite-
rary societies, newspapers, 409 - 415,

Interest : rates of, 183 - 184.

INDEX.

665

Investments : 179 - 180.

Iron : working in, 220 - 221.

Iron-smelting : 28 - 29.

Islimpur : lake, 158 ; trade centre, 215. See Urun.

Jagpdlrdv : Phaltan chief, 231.

jails: 402.

Jains : traders, 58.

JakhinvAdi : see Kardd.

Jalmandir : water-pavilion, 566.

Jal Sam5,dh: water-death,' 255 note 1.

Jiln-Vasantgad : SahyAdri spur, 6.

Jangams : Lingdyat priests, 59, 118 - 119.

Jangli- Jaygad : Sahy^dri fort, 5, 469.

Janjira : besieged (1735) by Bdjirdv, 277.

Jath : State, 2, 622 - 624.

Jivli : origin of the chiefs of, 230 - 231 ; murder
(1653) of the chief of, 233; captured (1653) by
Shivdji, 233 ; survey, 369 - 372 ; sub-division de-
tails, boundaries, area, aspect, climate, water,
soil, stock, holdings, crops, people, 423 - 425 ;
village, history, 469 - 470.

Jhd.rds : Musalmdn dust-sifters, 143.

Jire Padhdr : hiU, ii.

Joshis : astrologers, 119.

Judicial system : ShivAji's, 243.
JnnjMrrdv Ghdtge : MdlAvdi chief , 231.
Justice : Mardtha administration of (1749 - 1848),

390-393.
Jviri : crop of, 160 - 161.

Kadegaon : village, 470-471.

Kadepnr: village, temple, 471.

Eahir-Kirpa = Sahyidri spur, 7.

£aikidis : basket-makers, 108.

Ealdigars : MusaUnin tinsmiths, 136.

£^le: yiUage, school, 471.

Kdlgaon- Jakinvidi = Sahy^dri spur, 7.

Kalusha ; Sambhdji's favourite (1680 - 1689), 246,

247.
Kalydngad : see Nandgiri.
Kamilgad : SahyAdri spur 5 - 6 ; hill fort, 9, 471,

509 - 510.
Eananjs : Br^hmans, 53.
Kanerkhed : village, 471.
Kinhoji Angria = KoUba chief (1690 - 1731), 257,

277.
Eanjiris : weaving brushmakers, 83 - 84,
Ki.nys = Brdhmans, 53.

Karid : trade centre, 215 ; survey, 375 - 378 ; sub-
division details, boundaries, area, aspect, climate,
soil, stock, holdings, crops, people, 425 - 427 ;
town details, description, temples, fort, step- well,
B 1282—84

mosque, inscriptions, trade, flood (1844), caves,
history, 472 - 480.
KarahAkada : old name of Karid, 224, 480.
Karhdd : see Kardd.
KarhAdds : Br^hmans, 53 - 54.
KAranjkarS : fountain makers, 84 - 85.
KarnAtak : Mardtha expedition in (1740), 283 ;

(1746), 287.
KasArs : bangle makers, 85.
Kdsegaon : village, 480-481.
Kdsts: BrAhmans, 54.
Kate's Point : Mahdbaleshvar, 506.

Kayasth Prabhus : writers, 57.
Kelkar : Eav Bahadur Y. M., 76 note 2.
Kelvili-Sonipur : SahyAdri spur, 6.
Kenjalgad = hill fort, 9, 481 - 482.
KhdmatM : pass, 7, 201.

Khinipur = survey, 361'- 363 ; sub-division details,
boundaries, area, aspect, climate, water, s6il, stock,
■ holdings, crops, people, 427 - 4,30 ; town, 482.
Khanderiv Ddbhide : Maritha general (1716),

260, 266.
Khandoba's temple : at PAl, 529-532.
Ehatiy : survey, 356 -358 ; sub-division details,
boundaries, area, aspect, climate, water, soil,
stock, holdings, crops, people, 430 - 432 ; village,
temple, 482 - 483.
Khitgun : village, fair, 483 ■ 484.
Ehillat : dress of honour, 281 note 1.
Ehinds : see Gorges.
Ehokada : hill village, II.
Kikli : village, temple, 484 - 485.
Einhai : village, temple, 485 - 486.
Eirkee : battle of (1817), 301.
Kole : village, fair, 486.

Eolhdpur : Shdhu's war in (1709), 254 ; partition
. treaty with (1730), 273.
Eolhatis : tumblers, 119-120.
Eolis : fishers, 106,
Eomtis : traders, 58 - 59.
Eonkanasths = BrAhmans, 64 - 55.
Eoral : gorge, 203.

Eoregaon = battle of (1818), 302 ; survey, 359 -
361; sub-division details, boundaries, area, aspect,
climate, water, soU, stock, holdings, crops,
people, 432 - 434 ; town, 486 - 487.
Eosbtis '• weavers, 85 - 86.
Eoyna : river, 15.

Krishna = river, 13 - 14 ; canal, 155 - 166.
Krishnar5,V Ehatdvkar: BrAhman plunderer

(1713), 257, 483.
Euddli : river, 14.
Kulkiji : hill, 12.
KultM : crop of, 163.
Eumbhirli : pass, 202.
Eumbhto : potters, 86-87.

666

INDEX.

Eunbis : husbandmen, strength, distribution,
house, food, dress, character, holidays, religion,
customs, community, 64-75.

Kunial : village, caves, 465, 487 - 488.

Kurli : ShivAji's general NiUji Kdtkar's victory at
(167S), 245,

Kusrud" village, caves, 489.

Labourers : i^ - 108.

Lakes: 154, 156-158.

Land: investment in, 179-180; mortgage of, 188-
189 ; acquisition of, 320 ; territorial changes,
320-321; staff (1884), 321-322; tenures, 322-
328 ; alienated villages (1883), 327-328 ; adminis-
trative history before British rule (1848), 329 -
343;the British (1848-1851), 343-350; cesses,
349; Bunrey (1853-1863), 350 -.383; survey
results, 383-384;seaBonreports (1849-1883), 384-
389 ; revenue, 389, 403.

Land assignments : to Maratba officers, 265.

Language Details : 43.

Leather: working io, 223.

Libraries : 414-415.
Licence-tax : returns, 178.
Limestone : 30.

Liagdyat Vinis : traders, 59 - 60.
Linseed : crop of, 164.
Literary Societies : 415.
Local Funds: 406-407.

Locusts : 385 388.

Lodwick : Colonel, resident at Sdtdra (1835),
309-310 ; monument, at Mahibaleshvar, 504-505.
Lodwick Point : S3e Sidney Point.
Lobdre : see W^i.
Lobars : blacksmiths, 87 - 88.
Lonaris : cement makers, 88.

MacDonald : Major (1817), 300.

Macbhindragad : hill-fort, 11, 308,489-490.

Mad'aris : see G^rodis.

]!Iddhavrd,V I- : fourth Peshwa (1761 - 1772), his
minority ; Raghun4thrAv assumes chief control ;
Kaghun^thrAv's unpopular measures ; Mddhav-
r^v's reforms ; complete usux-pation of power by
the Konkani Brdhmans, 295-297.

Magistracy: 399-400.

MabAbalesbvar : hUl station, 9; description,
roads, geology, water, climate, gardening, ani-
Bjals, population, Chinese convicts, Malcolmpeth,
history, management, market, buildings, Beckwith
monument, bungalows, points, waterfalls, cin-
chona plantation, excursions, tejnples, 490 ■ 513,

JlahAdev: hilU, 7-8.

|£ab&wats = Musalm^n elephant drivers, 137.

Mahimandangad : fort, 513.
Mahimangad : hill-fort, 12 ; description, history,
513-515.

Mahiinangad-Panhdla : MahAdev hill spur, 8.
MAhmud Gdwan : Bahmani minister (14C3-1481),

Mabuli : village, oI<l temple, 515.

ffidhuli : village, Sir John Malcolm at (1817), 301 ;

BdjirAv at (1818), 302 ; temples, 516-51:9.
Main waring : Mr. H., 31 note l.
Maize: crop of, 163.

Makrandgad : Sahyidri fort, 5, 9, 509, 519 - 520.
Mala : village, 520.
Mdldvdi : village, 520-521.
Malcolm : Sir John, on the condition of Sdtira

(1824), 309.

Malcolmpeth: trade-centre, 214. See Mahi-
baleshwar.

Malis : gardeners, 79.

Malik Eifur: AU-ud-din's general (1290-1312),
225 note 1. • '

Malik-ul-Tujd.r : Daulatdbdd governor (1429),

226-227.
Mallikirjun : hill, ll; caves, 521 -523.

Mdlwa : Bdjiriv's expedition in (1724), 267 ;
Udd,ji PovAr's incursion, 268 ; Bajirav's second
expedition (1725), 270; Chimniji Apa in (1730),
274; ceded (1738) to Bd-jirAv, 279 ; BdUji asks
the government of (1741),284, 285; divided
between BTolkar and Sindia, 291.

Man: military post (1464), 227; under Saif
Ain-ul-mulk (1551), 228 -229; subdivision details,
boundaries, area, aspect, climate, water, soil,
stock, holdings, crops, people, 434-436.

Management : of the country under the Adil
ShAhis (1489 - 1686), 229-230 ; under the Moghals,
246 -248 ; under B^liji the first Peshwa (1714),
259 note 1; under B^liji the third Peshwa
(1740-1761), 295; under MadhavrAv the fourth
Peshwa (1761-1772), 296.

Manbbdvs: beggars, 120-122.

Mandap : gorge, 203.

Mandhardev : hill, 523 - 524.

Mines : chiefs of Mhasvad, 231, 527.

MAnganga : river, 16.

MangS : depressed classes. 111 - 112.

Manifesto : Mr. Elphinstone's (1818), 303-305.

Mantri : private record keeper in the MarAtha
government, 243, 244 note 1 ; history of the
family, 599 - 600.

Manure : 159.

Mauydrs : Musalmdn bangle sellers, 135.

Mardthds : husbandmen, 75-79.

Maratba Vdnis : traders, 60.

Markets: 216-217.

Marriage Details : 44-45.

INDEX.

667

Marriage god : 62.

]!Ii,rwd,ris : Brihmana, 55; traders, 60- 61 ; money-
lenders, 181.

Masur : town, Paraahur^m Pratinidhi confined in
(1806), 299 ; surrendered (1818) to the British,
308, 524.

Math : crop of, 164.

Mivlis : Shivdji's infantry, 239.

Miyni : lake, 154; survey, 358 - 359 ; village, 524.

Medha : town, 525.

Mehmans : MusahnAn tradera,. 138.

MhArS : village messengers, 112-115.

Mhasvad ; lake,, 156 - 157 ;. trade centre-, 215 ;
town, market, temples, fair, 525 - 527.

Minerals : 28-31.

Ministers : ShivAji's, 243 - 244 ; Shdhu's, 259.

Mokasdiars •• head revenue collectors, 230.

Momia3 . MusalmAa weavers, 144.

Monastery : MAnbhdv, 120- 121.^

Moneylenders : 181 - 183.

Moore ■• Mr. J. G.,24.

Morgiri : see Gunvantgad.

Moro Trimal Pingle : ShivAji's minister, builder
of PratApgad(1656), 234, 243^

Mortgages : 188-190.

Movements : 50-51.

Mug : crop of, 164,

Muhammad SMll : Bahmani king (1358-1375),

226..
Muir'Maokenwe : Mr. J. W. P., 28 note 1, 31

note 1, 48 note 1, 148 note 1, 178 note 1,. 194

note 1, 447 note 1.
Mukhya Sradhan : head manager of the Mardtha

government, 244 note 1.
Mukris : Musalman deniers, 138.
Mungi-Paithan : treaty of (1740), 282.
Municipalities : 407 - 408.
Murray : Dr., Civil Surgeon (1848), 313.
Musalm^ns : strength, settlement, appearance,

houses, food, dress, character, calling, religion,

customs, divisions, 124 - 147.
Musicians : 97 - 102.
Mutinies: inSdtira (1857), 316-319.
MuZumd^r : see Pant Amdtya.
Myrobalans : forest product, 35, 647'note'2..

Nadir Shah : his invasion of India (1739), 280.
Nagirjis : Musalmdn kettle drummers, 144 - 145.
Ndlba-nds ■ MusAlman farriers, 136.
Nina Padnavis : Poona Minister (1774-1800),

298 - 299.
Nandgiri : hill-fort, 10, 527-528.
Nirdyan Povar : supposed incarnation of (1830),

543.
^iv&JSiax&V : fifth Peshwa (1772-1773), 297.

Nauras Td,ra ; name given (1700) to Parli fort,

251, 538.
Nerla :; town, 528.
Newspapers : 415.
Nhd,vis : barbers, 102.
Nher :. village, 528 - 529.
Nigdi : village, 529,
Niger seed : crop of, 165.
Nimb : town, action near (1751), 293, 529i-
Nimsod : village, 529.
Nira : river, 16.
Nizam ShAhis : Ahmadnag^ir Musalma,n. rulers

(1489 - 16.36), 227 note 5..
Niiatn-ul-mulk : Moghal Viceroy of the Deocan

(1714), 256-257; independent ruler (1720- 1748),

266,267,270-271,272, 273,274,275,279, 280,

281, 282, 284,

N.yayadhish : superintendent of justice in the

MarAtha government, 243 - 244.
Nyd.yashdstri . expounder of Hindu law in the

Maritha government, 243.

Occupation ; 45.
Offences : 401 - 402.
Ornaments : 180.

OtS.ris : casters 88 - 89.

Ovans : Coloneli.Kesident at S&tiXB, (1836), 310v
311.

P.
Fakh£lis : MusalinAn water carriers, .145 - 146;
Pdl : hill, 11 ; village, Khandoba's temple, fair,

history, 529 - 532.
Palaces : SAt^ra, 567.
Palshd.3 : BrAhmans, 55.
Falshi : village, 532..

PAlU Md,l : site of a Moghal' camp, 528 - 529.
Palus : village, 5.32.
Panchdyart : village council, 390, 392.
Fanchgaui : health-resort, description, water-
supply , climate, management, high school, nur-
series, 532 - 534.
Pdnda.Vgad : fort taken (1701,)- by the- Moghalg,
252 ; BaUji VishvanAth's concealment (1713) at,.
256; taken (1817) by Trimbakji Denglia, 300;
descrij-tion, history, caves, 534-536.
Panditrd.V : expounder of Hindu law under the

Mardtha government, 244 note 1.
PindavvAdi : village, 534.
Pdndugad : see PAndavgad.
Pdnipat : hattle of (1760), 295.
Pant Amitya ; superintendent of finance of the

Maritha government, 243 - 244.
Pant Sachiv : geoeral record-keeper of the MarA-
tha government, 244 note L ; his conduct at the
time of the mutinies (1857), 317 - 319.
Pardeshis ; labourers, 107.
Parita ; washermen, 102 - 104.

668

INDEX.

Parli : hill-fort, 6, 10 ; surprised by Shivftji (1673),
244; captured (1700) by the Moghals, 251 ; fort,
details, description, RAmdAs Sv^mi, temples, his-
tory, 536 - 539.

Pdr Pdr : village, temples, history, 539.

Parashurdm Bhd,u : of Td,sgaon (1790-1799).
297 - 299.

Parashurd,m Narayan Angal : Satdra banker
and temple-bnilder (1710), 452, 511 note 1, 542.

Parashurdm Shrinivds : Pratinidhi (1806), 299 -
300.

Faraslltirdm Trim'bak : Mardtha commander
(1690 - 1700), 249 - 251, 252 - 253, 255, 266.

PArsis : 147.

Pasarni : pass, 201.

Passes : Sahyddri, 5 ; Mahddev hill, 7 ; details of,
201 - 206.

Patau : sub-division details, boundaries, area, as-
pect, climate, water, soil, stock, holdings, crops,
people, 436 - 438 ; town details, 539 - 540.

Patdne Prabhus : writers, 57.

Pdteshvar : hill, caves, 540 - 542.

PdtharvatS : stone-dressers, 89 - 92.

Patvekars : tassel-makers, 92.

Patvegars : MusalmAn silk tassel-twisters, 146.

Peas : crop of, 164.

Peddlers : 218.

Peshwa ; head manager of the Mardtha govern-
ment, 243.

Peth : town, trade, fair, 542 -543 .

Peth Par • village, 539.

Phaltau : state, 2 ; origin of the chiefs of, 231 ;
reduced by Shivaji (1665), 238 ; 619 - 621.

Pimpoda Budrnkh : village, scene of a supposed
incarnation, 543.

Pingli : village, 543.

Pilljd,ris : Musalmdn cotton teasers, 146.

Plough : of land, 150.

Plunder : Shivd,ji's system about the disposal of,241.

Points : Mahd,baleshvar, 503 - 506,

Police : 400 - 401.

Poona -. Mardtha capital moved to (1750), 291.

Portuguese : wars with the (1739), 279 - 280.

Post Offices : 213.

Pottery : 221.

Prabhus = writers, 57 ; ShivAji's partiality to, 232.

Prachitgad : Sahyidri fort, 5, 11 ; taken by Chi-
turslng a Gosdvi (1816), 300 ; fort details, history,
543-545.

Pratipgad : Sahyddri fort, 5, 9 ; built (1656) by
Shivdji, 234; Afzulkhdu murdered at (1659), 234-
237 ; surrendered (1818) to the British, 308 ; 509 ;
fort details, history, 545 - 547.

Pratapsiuh : seventh Sdtdra Rdja (1810-1839), suc-
ceeds Shdhu, 300; is imprisoned in Vdsota (1817),
301 ; ia restored ; his character ; fall of Vdsota and

other forts ; a conspiracy put down ; enters into a
treaty with the British ; condition of the country j
his disloyalty ; plot of his minister with two men
of the British regiment ; appointment of a com-
mission ; his intrigues in Goa and with Appa
Sdheb the ex-Edja of Ndgpur ; is found guilty
and deposed ; agitation in his favour, 305 - 312 ;
justice under, 390 - 391.

Pratinidhi : creation of the office of, 249.

Prices : 190-192, 376 note 1.

Pritzler : General, in Sdtdra (1818), 302.

Private Schools : 409.

Prydgji Prabhu': commandant of the fort of
Sdtdra (1700), 251.

FusesdiVli : trade centre, 216 ; town, 547- 548.

Bigho Ballil : ShivAji's agent who murdered

the Jdvli Edja (1653), 233.
Raghuji Bhonsle : Sena Siheb Subha (1735), 276,

280, 281, 282, "283, 285, 286- 287, 290 - 291.
Raghund.thrd.V : his unpopular measures (1762),

296,
Raghnnd.th Svami : religious teacher, 529.
Kagi : crop of, 162.
Rahimatpur : trade centre, 214; town details,

mosque, inscriptions, 548 - 549.

Railways = 207 - 208.

RainfaU: 20-25.

Rijiirdm : ShivAji's son; becomes regent (1689-
1700) on Sambhdji's death ; makes Ginji his head-
quarters ; fresh arrangement of state offices ; his
two officers Rdmchandrapant and Parashurdm
Trimbak ; is besieged in Gingi ; fall of Ginji
(1698) ; Rdjdrdmin Kolhdpur and Sitdra ; makes
SdtAra the seat of government ; his raid against
Jdlna ; is pursued by Zulfikdrkhdn ; dies at Sinh-
gad of exhaustion, 249 - 252.

Rdjpuri : village, oaves, 550.

Rala : crop of, 163.

Rdmchandra : Y^dav king (1271 - 1310), 225
note 1,

Rimchandrapant Bdvdekar : Mardtha com-
mander (1690 - 1705), 249-253, 255.

RdniddiS SvAmi : ShivAji's spiritual teacher (1608 -
1681), 10, 238, 245, 460, 537, 538.

Rd,m Raja: fifth SAtira king (1749-1777); his
obscure life, circumstances attending his acces-
sion ; usurpation of authority by^Bdldji Peshwa
(1740 - 1761); goes to SAngola to quiet a disturb-
ance ; renounces a\X\% power to BdlAji ; ia
kept a prisoner ; Tdribdi's attempts to stir
him up ; his extreme weakness ; his prison life ;
TArdbdi's harshness towards him; his death,
288 - 297.

Ram Shastri : (1773), 296.

INDEX.

669

Rdmoshis : unsettled tribes, 108- 109.
KanduUdkhd,!! : BijApur officer, (1650), 548 - 549.
Rangdris : dyers, 92-93, 143 - 144.
RangO BApuji : Prat^psinh's agent (1857), 317 -318.
Ranzan : gorge, 205.

Rishtrakutas : Hindu dynasty (760- 973), 224.
RdstiAs : Mardtha nobles, 298-299.
Rats : 388.

Rials : tape makers, 93.

Rav NAik Nimbilkars : Plialtan chiefs, 231.
Rdygad : taken by the Maghals (1690), 249.
Readers and Writers : 410.
Reda : gorge, 205.

Reforms : Shdhiji's (1839-1848), 312.
Registration: 398-399.
Relief Act : Deccan Agriculturists', 188.
Renavi : village, temple, 549 - 550.
Rest-houses : 212.
RevAgiri : hUl, 12.
Revan Siddh ■. a saint, 549 - 550.
Rev4ri Canal: 151-152.

Revenue : Mardtha arrangements for the collec-
tion of, 263 - 265 ; 389.
Revenue arrangements : Shivdji's, 242.

Rice : crop of, 162.

Rivers: 12-16.

Road Metal : 30.

Roads: 194-201.

Robbers' Caves : Mahdbaleshvar, 510.

Rohira : captured by Shivdji (1653), 234.

Rose : Mr., Collector (1857), 316-319.

Sadashiv BhAu : Bdldji Peshwa's cousin (1746 -
1760), 287, 292.

Sadashivgad : hill fort, 8, 11 ; surrendered to the
British (1818), 308 ; fort details, temple, fair, 511.

Sadashiv Khanderiv : Bhor Kdrbhdri (1857),
319.

Saddleback : see Makrandgad.

Safflower : crop of, 165.

SahyMri: hills, 5-7.

Sahydidri Belt : aspect of the, 3.

Saif Ain-ul-llulk : Bij.1pur general (1551), 228-
229.

Sajjangad : see Parli.

Sakvirbdi: Shdhu'swife, 288-290.

Salis : weavers, 93.

Sdilpi : pass, action near the top of (1817), 301 -
302.

Salt: 30-31.

Sambhdji (1680 - 1689) : Shivdji's son ; his rebel-
lion against his father ; succeeds his father ; puts
his stepmother and the members of the Shirke
family to death; decay of Bhivdji's system of

management ; influence of his favourite and minis-
ter Kalusha ; ruin of the country ; looseness of the
army discipline ; is surprised at Sangameshvar by
the Moghals ; his insolence ; execution, 245 - 249.

Sambhdji : Rdja of Kolhdpur (1712), 255, 257,
272, 273.

Sand : 30.

Sangam Mihnli : see Mdhuli.

Sangars : wool-weavers, 93 - 94.

Sdngola : disturbance in (1750), 292.

SantAji G-horpade : Kdpshi chief (1690), 249.

Santoshgad : see Tdthdvade.

Sardeshmukhi : Mardtha exaction, 253, 256, 260,
261, 265, 268, 270, 271, 272, 273, 278, 287.

Sardeshpdndegiri : Mardtha exaction, 278.

Sarnohat : chief captain of the Mardtha army,
243.

Sassoon Point : Mahdbaleshvar, 506.

SAtdra : hill, 10 ; reservoir 157 - 158 ; trade centre,
214; building of the fort of, 226; under the
Bahmanis (1357- 1489), 226 - 227 ; fort used as a
prison, 244 ; taken (1673) by Shivdji, 244 ; cap-
tured ( 1 700) by Aurangzeb, 250 - 25 1 ; taken ( 1 705)
by the Mardthds, 253 ; "taken (1707) by Shdhu,
254 ; Tdrdbdi imprisoned (1730) in, 273 ; Kdnhoji
Bhonsle imprisoned (1734) in, 276 ; Chanddsdheb
imprisoned (1741) in, 283 ; ceases (1750) to be
the Mardtha capital, 291 ; Kdm Edja (1750) im-
prisoned in, 292 ; disturbance (1798) at, 298-299;
surrendered (1818) to the British, 303; circum-
stances attending the annexation of, 313- 316;
survey, 367- 369; sub-division details, boundaries,
area, aspect, climate, water, soil, stock, holdings,
crops, people, 438 - 440 ; town details, description,
climate, soil, drainage, divisions and sub-divi-
sions, population, roads, houses, management,
municipality, water-supply, markets, gardens,
objects, fort, history, 551 - 580.

Sati : widow-burning, suppression of, 312.

Sd.va : crop of, 162.

Savdshis : Brdhmans, 55.

Saving Classes : 179.

School : returns, 411 - 413.

Seasons : 17 ; reports, 384 - 389.

Seuapati : chief captain of the _Mardtha army,

244 note 1.
Servants : 102 - 104.
Service : mortgage, 189 - 190.
Settlement: of Shdhu's territory (1720), 263-

266.
Shihdji Bhonsle : Shivdji's father, Kardd (1637)

under, 232.
ShAhdji : eighth Sdtdra Edja (1839 - 1848), Ha

loyalty ; his reforms ; adopts a son ; his death,

312-313 ; justice under, 391 - 394,

670

INDEX.

SMhu : Aurangzeb's prisoner (1690); the emperor's
partiality to him, 249 ; is released on the death
of Aurangzeb (1707); is opposed by TAribdi;
becomes king (1708 - 1749) ; ministerial changes ;
war with Kolhapur ; his authority upheld by
the Moghal viceroy of the Decoan ; his two wives ;
Pant Sachiv's party supports him ; BiMji
VishvanAth ; NizAm-ul-Mulk favours the cause
of his rival Sambhiji of Kolhapur; Biliji Vishva-
nith is appointed Peshwa; his ministers; his
character ; Syed Husain Ali Khin, the Moghal
governor of the Decoan, is friendly to ShAhu ;
sends B^laji to assist the Syed brothers in their
attempt to depose the emperor Feroksher ; re-
ceives three imperial grants from Delhi ; settle-
ment of the country by the Brahman ministers ;
his military officers ; Bijirdv's ambitious scheme
of conquest ; NizAm-ul-Mulk's plans for weaken-
ing the MarAtha power ; Niz&,m-ul-mulk out-
witted by Bd,jirAv ; Marilthis in GujarAt and
Mdlwa ; partition treaty with Kolhipur ; Raghuji
Bhonsle Sena SAheb Subba ; wars in the Koukan ;
Mardthds in North India ; expeditions into the
Karndtak ; Brihman inauence at Sitira ; Sh4-
hu's ecoentricity and wit ; Brdhman intrigues
about his successor ; his death, 253 - 290.

Shd.hu II. (1777 - 1810) : his parentage ; allows
(1792) the Peshwa to assume the title of Vakil
ul-mutlak ; is made an instrument by Sindia for
suppressing the Brihmanical ascendancy ; is im-
prisoned by Nd,na Fadnavis ; raises a disturbance ;
his death, 297 - .300.

Shdha : PratApsiuh's adopted son (1857), 317, 319.

Shankraji Malhir: Syed Husain All's clerk
(1716), 260.

Shankraji Narayan : Pant Sachiv (1710), 255,

618.
Shdtakaruis : Hindu dynasty (b.c. 90- a.d. 300),

224.
Shenris : Brihmans, 56.

Shepherds: 104-105.

Shewau: Mr. A., 181 note 1.

Shikhar-ShmgnApur : hill, 11.

ShiledarS = self- horsed Maritha cavaliers, 240 -
241.
IllSShinipiS : tailors, 94-95.

Shingnapur : holy village, temples, fair, 580 - 587.

Shirala : town, grove, fair, 587 - 588.

Shirval : village, caves, 588.

ShirzskhAn : Moghal general (1686), 246 - 247.

Shivaji: founder of the MarAtha empire (1627-
1680); his success in the Kookan and near Poena ;
his share in the murder of the JAvli RAja ; cap-
turesJAvli; surprises Bohira fort ; builds (1656)
Prat4pgad ; murders (1659) Afzulkhin ; surprises
(1659) Vaaantgad fort ; his religious observances ;

Ramdds Svdmi ; reduces Phaltan and scales the fort
of Tilth vad; internal management; his infantry and
cavalry ; his management of forts ; revenue ar-
rangements ; his judicial system ; eight minis-
ters ; surprises Parli ; takes SAtdra, Chandan-
Vandan, PAndugad, Nandgiri, and TAthvad, and
builds a chain of forts ; invasion of the Madras
KarnAtak ; his death, 232 - 245, 470.

Shopkeepers : 218.

Sidis I Janjira chiefs, 277.

Sidney Point : Mahdbaleshvar, 504.

Sikalgars : Musalmsln armourers, 146.

Silahiras : Kolhdpur kings (1058 - 1210), 224.

Sindi^S : origin of the family, 268 ; given (1750)
a share in the revenue of Millwa, 291 ; in-
trigues at the accession of Bdjirdv (1796-1817),
298.

Smith : General (1817 - 1818), 300 - 303-

Snakes : 39.

Soil: 149.

Solaknath : hill, 12.

Soudrs : goldsmiths, 95 - 96.

Soyardbai : EdjArd,m's mother, put to death by

Sambhdji (1680), 245.
Spies : Shivd,ji's system of, 240.
Sports : Dasara, 565-566, 658 -659.
Staff : administrative (1884), 321 - 322,
States : SAtAra, 2, 617 - 624.
Stock: 150.

Stone-cutting : 221.
Sub-Divisions : l, 423 - 446.
Sugarcane crop of, 166 - 168.

Sultani Khdtiks : see Bakar KasAbs.

Sumant : foreign minister of the Mardtha govern-
ment, 244, note 1.

Surnames: 58,61, 64,75,80, 83, 88,92, 93, 103,
107.

Surnis: general record-keeper of theMardtha gov-
ernment, 243.

Survey: TAsgaon, Khativ, MAyni, Koregaon, KhA-
ndpur, WAi, Satdra, Jdvli, Tdrgaon, Kardd,
Helvdk, Vdlva, (1853 - 1863), 350- 383 ; results,
383 - 384.

SutirS : carpenters, 96.

Svarijya : imperial grant for home-rule, 262, 265.

Syed Husain Ali : Moghal governor (1715) of the
Decoan, 260, 261.

Tai Telin : mistress of Parashurdm Shrinivds Prati-

nidhi(1807), 299 -300; 469.
Tdkiri : village, cave, temple, fair, 589.
T5.mbats : Musilmdn coppersmiths, 146 - 147.
TAmbi : village, 589.
Tdmbolis : betel-sellers, 61 - 63.
Tamkane : village, caves, 589.
Tiniji Mdlusre : Shiv^ji's friend (1659), 236.

INDEX.

671

Td.r&bdi : ^^islvdin's widow ; becomes regent of
her son ShivAji on the death of her husband RAjA-
rAm, 252 ; admits Edmohandrapant to a large
share of power and opposes ShAhu'a claims, 253 ;
her two forts PanhAla and VishAlgad in KolhApur
reduced by Shdhu (1709), 253 ; Phond Sdvantof
Vddi and the Pant Sachiv maintain her cause
(1710),255 ; on the death of her son she is removed
from the administration by RS.mohandrapaut
11712), 255 ; imprisoned in SAtdra (1730), 273 ;
sets up RAm RAja on the death of ShAhu
. (1749), 288-291, her rupture with BAUji, 291 ;
her attempts (1751) to wrest the power from the
Konkani Brahmaas, 293 - 294 ; her reconciliation
with BAldji (1753), 294- 295 ; her satisfaction at
the Mardtha defeat at PAnipat, 295.

Tarbiyatkhdn : Moghal commander (1700), 251.

Tdrgaon : survey, 372 - 375 ; village, 590.

Tdrla : village, temple, 590.

Tirli : river, 14 - 15.

T^Sgaon : trade centre, 216 ; territorial changes
(1777), 297 ; war preparations at (1790), 297 ;
attacked (1798) by the Kolhdpur chief, 299;
survey, 351 - 356 ; sub-division details, boundaries,
area, aspect, climate, water, soil, stock, holdings ,
crops, people, 440 - 442 ; town detaUs, temples,
history 590 - 593.

Tithav^de : hill-fort, 11 ; captured by Shiviji
(1665), 238; taken by the Moghals (1689), 249;
fort details, temple, history, 593 - 597.

TiygllAt : track, 203.

TelangS = Br^hmans, 56.

Telegraph Oflaces : 213.

Telis : oilmen, 96 - 97.

Temples : Kardd, 473 ; MahAbaleshvar, legend,

fairs and festivals, 310 - 513 ; Mahuli, 515-519;

S4t^a, 569 ; Shingndpur, 581-586.
Tenures : 322 - 328.

Territory : extent of Shahu'a (1728), 265.
Thacker : Major (1817), 301.
ThakurS : labourers, 107 - 108.

Thermometer Readings : 26 - 27.

Tirguls : Brihmans, 56.

TirmaliS: beggars, 122.

Tobacco : crop of, 166.

Tolls : 208.

Town Schools : 413 - 414.

Tracks: bullock,; 200- 201 ; cart, 206 and notes

1-3.
Trade Centres: 213 -216.
Traders: 57-63.
Traffic: pass, 196 note 2.-
Trichinopoly : surrendered to the Mardthds

(1741), 283.
Trimbakji Denglia ■• his insurrection (1817), 300.

Trimbakrdv D^bhMe : Mardtha general (1730),

267, 273-274.
Tunnel : SAtira memorial, 560.
Tur : «rop of, 163.

Uchlas : pickpockets, 122 - 123.

Uddji Chavhdn : plunderer (1714), 257.

Udaji Povd.r : Maritha officer (1720), 268.

Udid : crop of, 164.

Urabraj : trade centre, 215; village, 597.

Unsettled Tribes : 108 - 109.

Urmodi : river, 14.

Urun-Isldmpur : town, BhAva Phdn's Dargdh,

fair, the Mantris, 597-600.

Vaccination : 418.

VadirS : earth-diggers, 97.

Vaduj : town, 600.

VAghnakhs : tiger's claws with which ShivAji
murdered (1659) Afzulkhdn, 236 and note 1.

Vdhdgaon : gorge, 202.

Vaidus : drug hawkers, 123 - 124.

Vairitgad : SahyAdri spur, 6 : hill-fort, 9 ; fort
details, the great banian tree at the foot of, 601,

Vakil-ul-Mutlak : Peshwa's title, 298.

Vilva : Sultto Muazzam at (1685), 246 ; surren-
dered to the British (1818), 308 ; survey, 380 -
383 ; sub-division details, boundaries, area,
aspect, climate, water, soil, stock, holdings,
crops, people, 442 - 444 ; town, history, 601 - 602.

Vd,man Pandit : Maratha poet (1673), 534.

Vandan : hill-tort, 9 ; BajAba Purandhare impri-
soned in (1788), 297.

VAnis : GujarAt, 57 - 58 ; Lingdyat, 59 • 60 ; Mari-
tha, 60; MArwAr, 60-61.

VanjAris : caravanmen, 109.

Vdnknis : private record-keeper in the Mardtha
government, 243.

Varandha : pass, 201.

Vardhangad : hill-fort, 12, 461 ; fort details,

history, 602-604.
Vardhangad-Machhindragad : MahAdev hill

spur, 7-8.
Virna : river, 15.
VArUgad: hill-fort, 11 ; fort details, history, 604 -

606.
Vasantgad ; hUl-fort, 7, ll ; surprised (1659) by

Shiviji, 238 ; taken (1699) by Aurangzeb, 250 ;

taken (1706) by the MarAthAs, 253 ; action near

(1807), 300 ; Trimbakji Denglia imprisoned in

(1815), 300 ; surrendered to the British (1818),

308, 461.
Vasna: river, 16.
Vdsota : hill-fort, 9 ; captured by ShivAji (1653),

233; taken by TAi Telin, Parashur4m Prati-

672

INDEX.

nidlii'a mistress (1807), 299-300; Pratdpsinh
(1810 - 1839) imprisoned at (1817), 301 ; siege of
(1818), 306 - 307 ; fort details, history, 606 - 608.

VAsudeVS: beggars, 124.

Vd.tega'On : village, temples, 608 - 609.

Vena : see Yenna.

VenkAji : SliiMji's adopted son, 313,

Vidal: Mr. G., 39.

Villages : 45 ; police, 400 ; schools, 414.

Virdtnagari : old name of WAi, 224 note 3, 614.

Vita: trade centre, 216; town, 609-610.

Wages : 190.

WAi : trade centre, 213-214; military post (1464),
227 ; under a BijApur mokdsdddr (1648), 232 ;
Shirzekhdn the Moghal general defeated at
(1686), 247 ; surprised by R4mchandrapant( 1696),
250 ; Ntoa Fadnavis in (1795), 298 ; survey, 363 -
367; sub-division details, boundaries, area, aspect,
climate, water, soil, stock, holdings, crops, peo-
ple, 444 - 446 ; town details, description, temples,
old bridge, caves, history, 610-615.

Waite : Sir Nicholas, Governor of Bombay (1708),
254.

Waterfalls : MahAbaleshvar, 506 - 507.

Water-supply : 16, 151 - 158.

Weaving : cotton, 222.

Weights and Measures : 192-193.

Wells : 158.

Western Chalukyas : Hindu dynasty (a.d. 550

760), 224.
Wheat : crop of, 162.
Widow Marriage ; ceremony, 90.
Wild Animals : 38 - 39.
Winds : 18.

Wit : Shdhu's, 288 note 2.
Wood: working in, 221.
Woodash ; tillage, 159.
Writers : 56 - 57.

Y.
Yashvant Malhd,r Chitnis : 319.
Tavteshvar : hill, village, temple, 551, 562, 615.
Yelur : village, 615-616.
Tenna : river, 14 ; falls at MahAbaleshvar, 506

507.
Yerad : village, temple, 616.
Yerla : river, 15 ; canals, 152 - 153.
Yusuf Adil Shdh : first Bijdpur king (1489 •
1510), 227-228.

ZulfikS,rkhin : Moghal general (1700), 252-255

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Full text of "Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency"

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