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Library

FARM FORESTRY

BY
JOHN ARDEN FERGUSON, A.M., M.F.

PROFESSOR OF FORESTRY AT THE
PENNSYLVANIA STATE COLLEGE

FIRST EDITION
SECOND THOUSAND

NEW YORK

JOHN WILEY & SONS, Inc.

Lonpon: CHAPMAN & HALL, Limitep
1916

To Her
WHO LED ME TO
BELIEVE IT POSSIBLE
TO WRITE A BOOK
THAT MIGHT BE
OF SERVICE

PREFACE

TuIs book is an outgrowth of lectures delivered to Agri-
cultural students on Farm Forestry throughout several years.
It is written for study by students in Agricultural Colleges
and in High Schools.

In the preparation of the book the author owes much to
the many writers on subjects relating to the care and manage-
ment of the farm woodlot and the utilization of the products of
the woodlot. The Bulletins and Circulars issued by the United
States Forest Service, by Agricultural Experiment Stations
and by State Forestry Departments relating to these sub-
jects, are full of valuable material and are the chief sources
of information. The aim has been to bring together in avail-
able form ideas and principles already well known.

An appendix has been added containing several log tables
and volume tables, a basal area table, and other information,
nearly all taken from Bulletins of the United States Forest
Service. A simple method for finding the area of a farm
woodlot using the common compass has been described, and
a suggestive list of practicum exercises such as might be
included in a course on Farm Forestry. Photographs not
otherwise acknowledged were obtained from the United States
Forest Service.

The author wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness to the
following, all of whom made valuable suggestions and cor-
rections in the manuscript: R. C. Hawley, who read chapters
1-11; H. H. Chapman, who read Chapters 11-18, both of the
Faculty of the Yale Forest School; A. K. Chittenden, Pro-

vi PREFACE

fessor of Forestry at the’ Michigan Agricultural College, who
read Chapters 1-18, and to my associates on the Faculty of
the Department of Forestry, of The Pennsylvania State Col-
lege; C. R. Anderson, who made many valuable suggestions ;
R. R. Chaffee, who read Chapters 11-20; W. G. Edwards,
who helped in the preparation of the index, and G. R. Green,
who read and corrected the entire manuscript.

J. A. FEeRcuson.

CONTENTS

PAGE
CHAPTER I

THE ORIGIN AND USES OF THE WOODLOT ....... tiavelersaaleveseiees I
CHAPTER II

THE SPREE: 2.22 ies adhd ae nada aveke acsiere toes acsssceaass apauara opeus aie Buses Bone 10

CHAPTER III
THE Lire PROCESSES OF TREES AND THE NATURAL FAcToRS

THAT INFLUENCE THE LIFE OF TREES ........eeceecccees 20
CHAPTER IV
(EHES WOODLOP 203 ciecetis iiegeis od eaten eto a eats Sacawieeaen eames 29
CHAPTER V
Tue Lire History or TREES IN THE WOODLOT .............. 36
CHAPTER VI
ESTABLISHING A WoopLoT By ARTIFICIAL MEANS, EITHER BY
SEEDING OR PLANTING ...... cece cee ee cen nee eseenes 45

CHAPTER VII

TREES TO USE IN STARTING WOODLOTS ........++.eeeeeeeeee 56
CHAPTER VIII

TREES AND THEIR VALUE FOR PLANTING ........-eesceceeees 73
CHAPTER IX

NATURAL METHODS OF STARTING AND REPRODUCING A WOODLO1 97

CHAPTER X !
CARING FOR THE GROWING WOODLOT ..........0220eceeeee ++ 104
vii

viii CONTENTS

PAGE
CHAPTER XI
CARING FOR THE WoopLor STARTED FROM SPROUTS AND THE
ORDINARY FARM WOODLOT .......-eeeee cree seer eee 114
CHAPTER XII
PROTECTION OF THE WOODLOT ...........-.. 0202 - ee ences 126
CHAPTER XIII
WooDLoT MANAGEMENT ....... 0. 0c eee eet eee teen nee 138
CHAPTER XIV
THE PrRoDUCTS OF THE WOODLOT .............0eeeeeee seeee F45
CHAPTER XV
HARVESTING THE PRODUCTS OF THE WOODLOT ..........00. * 154
CHAPTER XVI
MARKETING THE PRODUCTS OF THE WOODLOT ...........+56- 163
CHAPTER XVII
THE CONTENTS OF LoGs AND TREES ..........--. 2.0 eeeeeees 170

CHAPTER XVIII
EsTIMATING THE TREES IN THE WOODLOT FOR BOARD FEET AND
POR CORD WOOD: “i josi-.. score? sicca orice sen siea) Soucy ei esac etae house eee a.oe 180

CHAPTER XIX
THE DIFFERENT PROPERTIES OF Woops

ee es 189
CHAPTER XX
Tur Use oF PERISHABLE Woops FoR FENCE Posts .........- 198
APPENDIX: enias sti eke ace earanieneaw@es mend eee eee 207
ENDEX os ates Aiwa eaten eee ee ee Od ee eee eee

FARM FORESTRY

CHAPTER I
THE ORIGIN AND USES OF THE WOODLOT

By the term Farm Woodlot is meant the tract of wooded
land which is maintained primarily to furnish fuel, posts, lum-
ber and other wood products for use on the farm. The term
is also used to denote larger tracts of forest land owned by
farmers which are cut from time to time to secure a revenue.

Farm Forestry treats of the growing of forest trees in the
woodlot and with the utilization of the products of the wood-
lot. It has to do with the starting of the trees from seed or
from sprouts, with the tending of the trees as they grow, sé
that they will put forth their best and fastest growth, and
with the harvesting and utilizing of the trees when ripe. It
aims to produce the greatest amount of valuable timber in the
shortest time possible. It accomplishes its purpose by growing
in the woodlot only fast growing kinds of trees, by growing
trees that will yield only a useful and valuable product, by
giving to each tree the right amount of space it needs for
growth and by protecting the trees from their many enemies.

Origin of the Farm Woodlot.—Most farm woodlots have
descended directly from the virgin forest which originally
covered so large a portion of the country. This virgin forest
has disappeared for the most part in the eastern part of the
country. Only isolated patches of the old timber remain.
These forests were cut to convert the trees into lumber or to

2 FARM FORESTRY

clear the land for agriculture. Usually not all the land de-
nuded of its trees to make farm land could be cultivated. On
nearly every farm area there were places here and there where
the soil was too thin or the land too rough or stony or too
steep to raise a farm crop. Those parts of the farm often
were not entirely denuded of timber or if cleared were allowed
to grow up again to forest trees, and so formed the woodlots.
In the older settled parts of the country farm woodlots have
been cut over many times and allowed to grow up again. In
New England some of the woodlots are said to be in the
seventh generation from the virgin forest.

Some farm woodlots have originated also from the aban-
doning of land once tilled. In the early days land would
sometimes be cleared and used for growing crops that later
would be found not suited for that purpose. Such lands were
abandoned and soon would grow up naturally to forest trees.
Farm woodlots also originate by planting trees or sowing the
seed of trees. In the central portions of the country, on the
prairies, where trees do not naturally reproduce themselves in
competition with the heavy grass, this is commonly the origin
of the farm wood)lot.

' Relation of Farm Forestry to General Forestry —Farm
forestry is a branch of the general subject of forestry. It com-
prises the principles of forestry that apply to the management
of the farm woodlot. Forestry in general has to do with the
management of all forest land. Many are apt to think of
forests as tracts of wooded land covering large areas, and to
think of forestry as applicable only to such extensive areas.
Yet a woodlot is forested land and the fundamental principles
of forestry that apply to a large timber tract, such as a Na-
tional or a State Forest, apply equally well to the farm wood-
lot. There is no owner of forest land who is better able to
practice forestry than the farmer on his woodlot. He has the
time to devote to the work in the winter and his efforts will
cost him nothing. The principles of forestry as they apply to

THE ORIGIN AND USES OF THE WOODLOT 3

the woodlot are easily learned and are simple in application.
One who understands the principles of growing and caring for
agricultural crops can readily comprehend the principles of
growing forest crops.

Agriculture and Forestry.—Forestry does not differ widely
from agriculture in its general purpose. They both have to
do with the growing of crops from the soil. The essential dif-
ference is in the kind of crop and in the time it takes to matyre
it. Forestry has often been defined as the branch of agricul-
ture that has to do with the growing of crops of forest trees.
Forestry and agriculture both deal with the establishing, tend-
ing and harvesting of crops. With agriculture these three
operations are usually accomplished in the same season or year.
With forestry many years must elapse between the time the
crops of trees are established and when they are ripe for the
ax. The same laws of nature however are relied on to grow
both kinds of crops.

Like agriculture, forestry can do nothing more than to bring
about the best conditions for the growth of the crop. It is
impossible to make farm crops or trees grow faster than
nature has determined they shall grow. All the farmer ac-
complishes by his careful tilling and preparation of the soil
is to bring about the-best conditions he can for the reception
and germination of the seed and the development of the crop.
Forestry aims to aid nature by giving to each tree the con-
ditions necessary for its best development.

An intimate relation exists between forestry and agricul-
ture in the use of the soil. If all the land on the farm were
fertile there would be little need for farm forestry. Usually
some portions of the land will be too poor to grow farm crops.
Forestry has to do with the utilization of such poor land. It
aims to grow a crop of forest trees where it is impossible
to utilize the land for other and more valuable farm purposes.
Forestry and agriculture thus go hand in hand in the use of
all the land on the farm. Agriculture is interested in the use

4 FARM FORESTRY]

of the fertile soil for the growing of valuable farm crops.
Forestry concerns itself with the use of the poor soil on which
the only profitable crop is forest trees.

The Value of the Farm Woodlot to the Country.—The area
of woodlot and idle land in the country owned by farmers is
very large. It was estimated in 1915-by the United States
Department of Agriculture to be not less than 200,000,000
acres. This is an area larger than all the National and State
Forests. It is larger than the states of Minnesota, Michigan,
Wisconsin and Maine. The proper use of this vast aggregate
area is of considerable importance not only to the owners but
also to the country. It is probable that this area may be some-
what reduced in future years. East of the Mississippi River
two-thirds of the farm woodlots lie in the South, where much
of the land at present timbered will eventually be cleared for
farm purposes as the country becomes more thickly settled.
In the older settled regions probably the greater part of the
fertile land is already being utilized for growing farm crops.
The woodlot land and the farm land are there pretty
definitely settled. It is probable that some of the poorer land
now being tilled may gradually be abandoned as it is found to
be more valuable for growing trees than for agricultural crops.
It will be many years before the land suited for agriculture
and that suited for forestry will be definitely determined. In
spite of changes that may occur the area in farm woodlots in
the country will always be large and the production of timber
on this area will be of great economic importance. It should
be used so as to contribute to the national wealth and prosper-
ity. The productive capacity of the 200,000,000 acres of farm
woodlots is enormous. It is estimated that if only fairly well
stocked with forest trees, that is about 3000 board feet to the
acre, the annual growth under forest practice would more than
equal the annual lumber cut of the entire country, which is
about 40 billion board feet. In other words the present area
of farm woodlots under proper care and forest management

THE ORIGIN AND USES OF THE WOODLOT 5

could supply the country indefinitely with lumber. The
present stand of timber on these woodlots is very large. It is
estimated to exceed 250 billion board feet of saw timber and
1¥% billion cords of cordwood. It is because of the great value
of the farm woodlot to the nation as well as to the individual
farmer that the woodlot problem is of importance.

Value of the Woodlot to the Farm.—A well stocked
thrifty woodlot enhances the value of the farm property.
Instances are not rare where farms have been purchased and
the sale of the products from the woodlot when cleared have
more than covered the cost of the farm. The woodlot serves
as a reserve fund on which the owner of the farm can call
at any time for financial backing. The purchase of fuel wood,
posts and other products means the throwing away of profits
on these necessary articles. In addition to this is the effort
and expense of hauling the material an increased distance.
Grown in the farm woodlot this material would cost nothing
except the annual taxes and the interest charges together
with the actual cost of getting the products out of the woodlot.
The profits would remain in the hands of the owner.

Woodlots on Fertile Soil—Where woodlots are grown on
fertile soil the point is soon reached where it may be more
profitable to do away with the woodlot and purchase wood
supplies than to maintain the woodlot. But if the woodlot is
increasing at the rate of one and a half to two cords per acre
per year, which will be possible on fertile soil with well stocked
woodlots of thrifty and fast growing trees, it often will
be more profitable to maintain the woodlot on fertile soil than
to grow an ordinary farm crop. In the central western states
where trees are not plentiful and fence posts must be brought
long distances at considerable expense for freight, plantations
of trees for growing fenceposts have often been found to
yield a higher annual profit than the same kind of land de-
voted to raising farm crops. As a rule the woodlot occupies
the poor soil on the farm, and on such soil the only profitable

6 FARM FORESTRY

crop is forest trees. On such situations the only thing that
would compete with the woodlot would be grazing. Even
where more might be made out of the soil in other ways, the
convenience of having wood material at hand whenever needed
is worth something to the farmer. The fact that a well stocked
woodlot is a valuable asset that is readily turned into money
or on which money can be borrowed in case of necessity, will
often outweigh other considerations in the confidence it gives
the owner.

The Size and Location of the Woodlot.—The size and lo-
cation of the woodlot will depend on several factors such as
the home need of the farm, the character of the land, and the
market for the material from the woodlot. Most farm wood-
lots are the result of the clearing of the land for farm purposes.
As the land was needed for field crops the forest was gradually
pushed back until the present farm woodlots have resulted.
So there is rarely a definite relation between the size of the
farm and the size of the woodlot. The woodlot is not the
result of planning and calculation and is not the result of the
study of the wood needs of the farm. Usually the woodlot
occupies the poorest land on the farm and is large or small
according to the amount of such land. It is held by many
that one-eighth of the farm should be in woodlot, which should
supply the farm with all wood products needed and also fur-
nish some products for sale to help pay for taxes, interest and
protection. While such an area of wooded land might be
sufficient for some farms, for others it might be too large or
too small. Because of the great variation in the rate of growth
in trees on different soils and situations, the area of woodlot
that will just supply the right amount of material would have
to be determined for each farm.

There is no definite relation between the location of the farm
woodlot and the farm buildings and fields. It is usually located
wherever the soil is too poor for cultivation. When the wood-
lot is on good soil, it will usually be found located at some

THE ORIGIN AND USES OF THE WOODLOT 7

distance from the homestead. The area lying immediately
around the home and the barn would be the first to be cleared
and the woodlot would usually occupy the land farther away.
Where woodlots are in the nature of windbreaks or shelter-
belts there is a definite relation of position in reference to the
buildings, pastures, fields or orchards that are to be protected.
This position will vary in different portions of the country de-
pending on the direction of the cold or drying winds, the
shelter belts being placed to windward of the area to be pro-
tected.
THE USES OF THE FARM WOODLOT

The Production of Wood Material for Farm Use.—The
woodlot should furnish each year all the wood needed on the
farm. It should provide fuelwood, fenceposts, poles, stakes
and lumber for repairing buildings.

The Production of a Revenue.—The woodlot should bring
in an income each year. Besides furnishing wood material
for use on the farm it should pay for taxes, interest on the
investment, and other expenses of the woodlot, by growing
some products for sale as sawlogs, ties, poles, firewood or
posts. Idle land should be planted to forest trees. No land
on the farm should be unprofitable.

Utilization of Teams and Help in Winter.—A good sized
woodlot will furnish work for both teams and help in winter
when it is often a problem to know how to employ them profit-
ably. Farming and lumbering make a good combination, the
one utilizing the teams and help when work is slack with the
other. It is easier to secure and keep good help when there
is work the year round.

Windbreaks and Shelterbelts for Protection Woodlots
often take the form of windbreaks or shelterbelts for protect-
ing the farmstead, the growing crops or the stock from the
wind. On the great plains some protection from the wind is
necessary. Trees are planted to windward of the area to be
protected either in a single row or in two or more rows. Be-

8 FARM FORESTRY

sides shelter they may furnish fuel, posts and other wood sup-
plies to the farm. Woodlots are often used to furnish pro-
tection to stock from the hot sun in summer and the cold winds
of winter.

Protection of the Water Supply and to Prevent Erosion to
the Soil.—Trees by their dense crowns protect the soil from
the hot sun’s rays and from winds and are often the direct
cause of the presence of springs. The removal of trees around
a spring has often been known to dry up the spring. The roots
of trees spreading in all directions serve to prevent the soil
from being’ washed away by rain or floods in spring. Erosion
can often be stopped by planting trees. Woodlots are often
maintained on land adapted to agricultural crops because of the
danger from erosion.

As a Sugar Bush.—In the North East where the hard maple
forms a large part of the woods, woodlots are often maintained
for the production of maple sugar. The tapping of the trees
does not injure the wood for lumber or any other purpose. A
considerable revenue results from a well stocked sugar bush.

As a Reserve Fund.—A well stocked woodlot is in the
nature of a reserve fund on which the owner can draw at any
time. It furnishes a basis for borrowing money when needed
or it can readily be turned into cash by cutting the trees and
converting them into lumber.

For Rejuvenating Wornout Land.—In some regions, es-
pecially in the South, wornout land is allowed to grow up to
forest trees. After the trees have grown to pole size the soil
will be found to be fertile again and can be tilled after the trees
have been cut. A woodlot if properly handled benefits and
enriches the soil by the accumulation of leaves and twigs
which decay and add fertility.

As Game Preserves.—Woodlots are the breeding places of
many birds that help to keep down destructive insects. The
cause of the great increase in insects and the damage they
do is said to be the killing of the birds.

‘soar} pyo Jo sdumys oy} Aq UMoys sv “4soIOJ UIBITA OY WOT] popuodsap ArOYoIY pur Yro Jo Jo[poom W

*
a

A woodlot of white pine twenty-two years old started artificially by
planting small trees.

THE ORIGIN AND USES OF THE WOODLOT 9

To Temper the Climate.—A woodlot has an influence lo-
cally on the climate. The air in the woodlot is cooler in summer
and warmer in winter than that outside. It is also warmer at
night and cooler in the daytime. These differences in tem-
perature have a tendency to set up local breezes that help to
moderate the extremes of weather. More rain falls in a
wooded region than in one not wooded.

Woodlots Have an Esthetic Value.—The esthetic value of
woodlots is hard to measure. A wooded region is more pleas-
ing to the eye than one without trees. There will be a greater
demand for farms where woodlots are cared for and this will
have an effect on the value of the farm. Well cultivated fields,
thrifty woodlots and good roads make the country side at-
tractive. A well kept woodlot adds greatly to the value of
farm property because of its appearance setting off the growing
crops. A farm should be made attractive and pleasant so that
anyone would enjoy living on it.

CHAPTER II
THE TREE

In order to manage a woodlot intelligently and successfully
it is necessary first to know something about the life and
structure of trees, and also to understand something of the
factors that influence their growth and development.

Trees are living organisms, that is, they carry on certain
life processes such as breathing, transpiration, digestion and
assimilation of food material. They are the highest type
of vegetation found on the earth, that is, they have the most
complex structure and life history of any plant growth. Trees
differ from herbs in having woody structure and perennial life
and from shrubs in developing single stems that elevate the
crowns above other forms of vegetation.

THE PARTS OF A TREE AND THEIR USES

The Roots.—A tree is made up of three main parts—roots,
stem and crown. The root system of a tree is composed of
larger and smaller roots, each serving a definite purpose.
They may be compared in form to the large and small branches
in the crown. The large roots tend to hold the tree firmly in
the ground and prevent its being blown over by the wind.
They conduct water and salts absorbed from the soil by the
smaller roots. These substances are absorbed by root hairs
that grow near the ends of the roots. As the roots grow and
force their way through the soil the root hairs die and are
replaced by new ones formed nearer the tips of the growing
roots. It is through these small root hairs, far out from the
stem of a tree, often beyond the ends of the branches, that a
tree takes in most of its food from the soil.

in abandoned field.

A woodlot of white pine seeded naturally on

cere
ore P
ee Tt ey

2 ait ae cs

A pine woodlot used for wood and for shelter.

THE TREE 11

The form of the root system varies with different species
of trees. Some trees, like most of the oaks, the hickory and
walnut, develop a tap root or single main root that grows
down deep into the soil. Such trees are naturally wind firm.
They are practically never uprooted. They will be broken off
above ground before they will be blown over. With many
other trees like the spruce and birch, the roots tend to spread
out laterally in the upper layers of the soil. Such trees not
having a firm hold on the ground are not windfirm. A third
form of root system is where several strong lateral roots
extend down obliquely deep into the soil like the maple and
beech. These are fairly windfirm trees. The degree of wind-
firmness varies in the same kind of tree according to the con-
ditions under which the tree is grown. Trees in the open are
rarely seen uprooted no matter what kind of a root system is
naturally developed. A tree is able to strengthen its root system
to withstand’the wind. Where trees grow closely together in
the forest they rely on each other for protection. Each tree
helps to hold the others up by preventing the wind from blow-
ing the tree over too far. Strong root systems are not devel-
oped. If such trees are thinned out suddenly, many of the
trees being removed, so that those left are deprived of their
former support, they will be apt to be blown over easily. If
such trees are thinned out through a series of years, the support
given by neighboring trees being gradually removed, the trees
left will thicken and strengthen their root systems and become
more and more wind firm, until finally they will be able to
stand alone in the heaviest winds.

A few trees will adapt their form of root system to the con-
ditions of the soil on which they grow. With a deep soil a
deeply penetrating root system is produced, while in more
shallow soil a more spreading roc: system is formed. This
is true of but few trees. In general it may be said that unless
the soil is deep enough for the development of the character-
istic form of root system, the growth of the tree will be slow

12 FARM FORESTRY

and its form more or less irregular or stunted. The root
systems of trees can be studied on those upturned by the
wind.

The Trunk, Stem or Bole.—The trunk of the tree sup-
ports and elevates the crown. It conveys water and salts ab-
sorbed by the roots to the crown and serves as a store house
for reserve food materials. The food manufactured by the
leaves in any year is not always completely used up in that
year for the growth of the tree or the ripening of fruit.
Usually more food is made than is needed. This excess of
food is stored in the tree over winter for use in the spring.
Seed years are brought about by the gradual accumulation of
reserve food materials in the tree.

From an economic standpoint the stem is the most valuable
portion of a woodlot tree. On its size and shape depend the
amount and kinds of wood products such as lumber, cordwood
and posts that can be obtained.

Each ‘species of tree has its characteristic form of stem.
Some trees produce naturally a long, cylindrical stem free of
branches, while others develop a short, tapering stem more or
less branched or crooked. Trees grown in the open usually
branch low down forming a thick, short trunk. The same
kinds of trees grown in the forest produce long, cylindrical
trunks often free of branches for many feet. The bark cover-
ing the stem is also characteristic of each species of tree in
markings, thickness and color. It serves as a protection
against cold, heat, mechanical injury and the entrance of
insects and disease. It is impervious to the passage of liquids
and so prevents the sap leaving the tree freely through the
branches or stem.

The Crown.—The crown is usually the most conspicuous
part of the tree. It is composed of branches and leaves to-
gether with buds, flowers and fruit. Many life processes are
carried on in the crown. By their almost endless divisions
the branches enable the tree to present a large extent of leaf

THE TREE 13

surface to the action of the sun and air. Unlike the roots
the branches have a more or less regular arrangement.

Each species of tree has its characteristic form of crown
and habit of branching. In the open the kind of tree can often
be told from the distance by the form of crown, as elm by its
vase shaped crown, maple by its oval crown, spruce by its
conical crown. The form of crown produced by a tree in the
woods differs from the form of crown produced by the same
kind of tree grown in the open. This is due to crowding by
neighboring trees, which restricts lateral development. The
form of crown developed under forest conditions is as charac-
teristic of the species as the form in the open. The form of the
crown varies also with the age of the tree. Trees in early life
have a more or less conically shaped crown due to rapid height
growth. In old age the crown widens out and forms a flat or
rounded top. There is an intimate relation between the size
of the crown and the extent of the root system. If for any rea-
son the one is not allowed its full development it will have a
corresponding effect on the other portion. This does not mean
that there is a definite connection between a particular root and
a certain branch. It is not true that when a root is cut off a
branch fed by that root dies. Neither is it true that the roots
on one side of a tree feed only the corresponding side of the
crown, and that by fertilizing the ground on one side of a tree
the crown can be made to extend in that direction. All the
roots of a tree help to obtain water and salts from the soil for
the use of the entire tree.

The leaves may be said to be the lungs and stomach of the
tree. In them are carried on respiration, transpiration, absorp-
tion of food from the air and the manufacture of food mate-
rials. The shape and size of leaves vary in different trees,
each kind of tree having a different form. They vary from the
broad, flat leaves of hardwoods to the long, needlelike leaves
of conifers or evergreen trees. Even on the same tree there
is considerable variation in the shape and size of leaves.

14 FARM FORESTRY

Trees that shed their leaves in the fall as do most hard-
wood or broadleaf trees are called deciduous trees. Those that
hold their leaves over winter as do most coniferous trees like
the pine, spruce and hemlock, are called evergreen trees. Some
evergreen trees retain their leaves for two years, others for
three or four years and others for longer periods. Evergreen
trees shed one year’s growth, the oldest, every year. There
are many evergreen broadleaf trees like the live oak and holly
and also several deciduous conifers like the larch and bald
cypress. The arrangement of leaves on the twigs is such that
the leaves will receive the greatest amount of sunlight. In
some trees the leaves are alternate on the twigs, in others in
pairs on opposite sides of the twigs, each successive pair
alternating in its position on the twig with the pair above. In
many species the leaves are arranged in whorls.

The winter period is the rest period in the life of trees.
Growth practically ceases in the early fall. Trees during the
winter period are in a dormant condition, but many of the
life processes including respiration and transpiration take
place the same as in summer, only in a much less active
manner.

The Buds.—Buds contain the embryo of the next year’s
twigs, leaves or flowers. They have regular arrangement on
the stem like the leaves. Buds are formed in the latter part of
the season’s growth after the leaves have matured and the
new twigs have about finished their growth. They are covered
with layers of scales for protecting the growing parts from the
cold and drying winds of winter. Buds are either terminal
or lateral. The terminal buds, when present, are for the pur-
pose of prolonging the branch the following spring. Lateral
buds occur in the axils of the leaf stalks. Some of them pro-
duce leaves in the spring and others produce flowers. Flower
buds can often be distinguished by their larger size and form.
Adventitious buds are formed under certain conditions from
the young, living wood of trees. When a tree is cut the sprouts

European larch grown in the open with room for the development of
the branches. Short trunks and wide spreading crowns result.

European larch plantation.
development of the side branches.
with long trunks and narrow crowns.

The crowded stand has prevented the
Rapid height growth results

THE TREE 15

that grow from the stump arise from adventitious buds. They
also give rise to the branches that start on the trunk of a tree
when it has been opened up to the light by the removal of
other trees or by pruning. Dormant buds are buds that do
not develop immediately after being formed. They lie just
beneath the bark and may wait many years before starting to
grow.

The Flowers of Trees.—Trees have flowers the same as
other plants that produce seed. Usually they are small and
inconspicuous and so are rarely observed. Some forest trees
are grown as ornamental trees because of their beautiful blos-
soms as the locust, the catalpa, the tulip, the black cherry and
horse chestnut. Flowers on trees give rise to the fruit or seed
by the process of pollinization the same as with flowering
plants. In some trees as with the black cherry the flowers are
perfect, that is, both pistils and stamens occur in the same
flower. Some trees like the pines, chestnut, and oaks have
the pistillate and staminate portions in separate flowers but
both kinds of flowers on ‘the same tree. Still others like
the cottonwood, tree of heaven, ashes and willows have these
flowers on different trees.

Fruit and Seed.—The fruit and seed are the result of the
fertilization and maturing of the pistillate flowers. Fruit and
seed vary greatly in form and size on different kinds of trees.
Some seed is very small and light and is easily blown about by
the wind such as poplar and willow seed, while other seeds
are large and heavy like the walnut and hickory. Some seed
has a fleshy covering like cherry, hackberry and cedar which
are eaten and scattered by birds.

CLASSIFICATION OF TREES ACCORDING TO SIZE
On a basis of size trees are often divided into:

a. Seedlings—young trees up to 4 feet in height.
b. Small saplings—trees from 4 feet to 10 feet in height.

16 FARM FORESTRY

c. Large saplings—trees from 10 feet in height until
they have reached a diameter of 4 inches 4% feet
from the ground.

d. Small poles—trees from 4 to 8 inches in diameter.

e. Large poles—trees from 8 to 12 inches in diameter.

f. Standards—trees from 1 to 2 feet in diameter.

g. Veterans—trees over 2 feet in diameter.

The Structure of Wood.—The roots, branches and stems
of trees are composed of wood. The structure of wood is not
simple like iron or gold, but like all organic material it is made
up of minute cells. These are somewhat similar in appearance
in cross section to the cells in honeycomb though many times
smaller. Usually they cannot be distinguished without the aid
of the magnifying glass. The walls of these cells are made up
of cellulose which is composed largely of carbon. In the living
state these cells are filled with a living substance called proto-
plasm. The cells are not all alike in wood even in the same
kind of tree, but differ in form and size and in the thickness of
cell walls. They also differ in their uses. Some cells conduct
food material to or from the crown, some store away reserve
food material until it is needed by the tree, some serve simply
to give strength to the woody tissue, while others have the
power of division into two or more cells and so produce growth
in trees. Water forms a large part of the wood of a growing
tree. Over half the weight will be composed of water chem-
ically combined, and in addition to this the tree will contain
from forty to sixty-five per cent of its dry weight of free
water. This free water largely evaporates when a tree is
cut, so that dry wood is much lighter in weight than green
wood. Well seasoned wood contains from ten to twelve per
cent of free water.

The Parts of the Stem of a Tree.—If the top of the stump
of a recently cut oak tree is examined, it will be found to be
made up of several parts. Around the outside will be ob-

THE TREE 17

served the bark. This is in two layers, an outer protective
corky layer and an inner, light colored, softer layer sometimes
called the bast. Inside the bark is a narrow, light colored por-
tion of wood called the sapwood, and inside this extending to
the center of the tree, a darker portion called the heartwood.
In the center of the tree in some species will be found the
pith. Running from the bark toward the center of the tree
narrow lines of woody tissue will be seen, some extending even
to the pith. These are the pith rays or medullary rays. In
some trees like the oak, beech and sycamore the pith rays are
very conspicuous. They give the silver grain to a board
when quarter sawed. They carry food from the bark to the
inner living portions of the tree, store reserve food material
and form a means of communication with the air. They are
present in great numbers in all kinds of wood, thousands oc-
curing to the square inch, though often so small as to be in-
visible without a strong magnifying glass. In some species
as in birch and cherry their terminations in the bark are often
conspicuously marked by rough spots called lenticles.

Between the bark and the sapwood is a layer of active living
cells, capable of division into other cells. This is called the
cambium layer. It is by the division of the cells in the cambium
layer that the trunk of a tree grows in diameter and the
branches and roots become larger. When first formed from
the cambium layer the cells are filled with protoplasm and re-
main alive as long as they are in the sapwood. In young trees
all the wood is sapwood. In time, varying in length with
different species, this sapwood begins to change to heartwood.
The cells lose the living protoplasm, become darker in color,
and the cell walls harder. They no longer conduct food
material to the crown. Heartwood is dead wood. It serves
no: purpose in the life of the tree except to give strength and
rigidity to the stem. There is no definite age at which sap-
wood changes to heartwood. It is a more or less irregular
process.

18 FARM FORESTRY

The outer layers of a tree thus form a shell of living tissue
over the dead inner portions of the roots, stem and branches.
Often trees are seen growing vigorously with a hollow trunk,
showing that the central portion of the tree has nothing to do
with the life of the tree.

DIAMETER GROWTH IN TREES

Annual Rings.—A careful examination of the bark, sap-
wood and heartwood will show each to be made up of layers
or concentric rings, one of which is produced each year. It is
possible to tell the age of a tree by counting the rings in the
wood. During the spring and early summer the cells in the
cambium layer divide and produce new cells. Wood cells are
produced on the inside of the cambium layer and bark cells
on the outside. The amount of bark produced is usually much
less than the amount of wood tissue. Over the whole tree—
roots, trunk and branches—is thus added each year a new
layer of wood and bark.

Spring and Summer Wood.—If an annual ring of oak
wood is examined it will be found to be made up of two layers,
a soft, open, lighter colored layer, the spring wood, and a dense,
hard, darker colored layer, the summer wood. In the spring
of the year a large amount of water is needed by most trees
to produce the new leaves and to supply the growing parts of
the tree. As a result the cells produced in the early part of
the growing season are large with thin walls. As soon as the
leaves have developed, a much less amount of water is needed
and the cells produced later in the season are smaller and
have thicker walls. This gives rise to what are known as
spring and summer wood. This difference in the texture of
the spring and summer wood produces the grain in wood and
separates one year’s growth from another. With tropical trees
this difference in the spring and summer wood does not exist.
There is no rest period in the growth of trees similar to our
winter, so there is continuous growth in the wood and no an-

Light affects the form of trees. Grown in the open a wide spreading
crown and short thick bole results.

——— —QOuter bark

Inner bark

Sapwood
—Heartwood

—Pith

—Medullary ray

—Cambiumn layer
—Annual ring
—Spring wood

—Summer wood

Diagram to show parts of the cross section of the trunk of a tree.

THE TREE 19

nual rings can be seen. The age of tropical trees cannot be told
by the annual rings. The size of the tree however will give
some indication of the age.

The width of the annual rings varies in different species.
The wider the annual rings the faster has been the growth of
the tree. In the same tree the width of the annual rings will
usually vary from year to year. A favorable, moist year will
produce a wide annual ring and a dry, unfavorable year a
narrow ring. In general trees grow slowly in diameter during
the first few years of their life. The rate then increases until
middle life when the trees usually produce their widest annual
rings. The rate of growth then falls off and in old trees the
width of the annual rings may be so small as not to be seen
with the naked eye.

Height Growth in Trees.—The growth of trees in height
and the growth of branches in length is produced by the
development in the spring of the terminal buds formed the
previous season. It is a kind of stretching process or the
filling out with water or sap of cells already formed in the
buds. New cells are also formed by cell division and the buds
quickly lengthen into twigs or shoots. These new shoots do
not grow in length after the first season. The next year they
will grow in thickness only. From the terminal bud formed
on the end of the twig a new shoot will be produced to in-
crease the length of the tree or branch. The growth of the
roots in length and thickness is much similar to the growth of
branches. It will thus be seen to be impossible for a fork in
the trunk of a young tree to rise as the tree grows older.
A fork once formed in a tree always remains at the same
height above the ground. The trunk of a tree does not stretch.
If this were not so, wire fencing nailed to a young tree would
gradually be carried upward.

CHAPTER III

THE LIFE PROCESSES OF TREES AND THE NATURAL
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE LIFE OF TREES

SINCE a tree is a living organism it must carry on certain
life processes. It must breathe, absorb and digest food, and
transport nourishment to the parts needing it. Many of the
life processes in trees are similar in kind to those in animals.

Breathing or Respiration—Breathing takes place through
minute openings usually on the under side of leaves called
stomata. The tree breathes in oxygen and breathes out car-
bonic acid gas the same as an animal. The oxygen is used in
carrying on the life processes of the tree. To some extent,
especially in the winter after the leaves have fallen, breathing
takes place through small openings or lenticles in the bark of
the trunk, branches or roots, the oxygen being conducted to
the inner portions of the tree along the medullary or pith
rays.

Absorption and Transpiration.—The food of trees is ab-
sorbed through the root hairs and through the leaves. The
food absorbed by the root hairs is water and dissolved mineral
salts, that absorbed by the leaves is carbonic acid gas from the
air. The water and mineral salts are carried up through the
new wood to the leaves. The salts are contained in the
ground in very weak solutions. In order that enough may be
brought up to supply the needs of a tree, a far greater amount
of water must be absorbed than is actually needed. The ex-
cess of water passes out through the stomata of the leaves as
water vapor.

THE LIFE PROCESSES OF TREES 21

This process is called transpiration. The action also helps
to cool the leaves as does perspiration in animals. Transpira-
tion takes place in winter through the lenticles of the bark.
The main part of the mineral substances taken up remains in
the leaves and young twigs when the water is transpired and
is returned to the soil when the leaves are shed or when the
trees are cut and the brush left to decay. When wood is
burned these mineral substances reappear as ash.

Digestion.—Carbonic acid gas forms the bulk of the food
of trees. -By the action of sunlight and chlorophyll, the green
coloring material of leaves, carbonic acid gas is decomposed
into oxygen and carbon. This process is called photosyn-
thesis. The carbon is retained and the oxygen exhaled into the
air. The carbon is then combined with the hydrogen and
oxygen of the water and with certain of the mineral salts
to form food substances like starch and sugar, which can be
utilized by the tree. In other words, the materials absorbed
through the roots and leaves must be digested in the leaves
before they become available as food.

Circulation.—Aiter food is thus prepared in the leaves it
is carried down through the inner, soft bark of the branches,
trunk and roots and then through the medullary rays into the
wood. Some of the food material as it is carried down the
tree is used at once in forming the annual rings, flowers,
fruit and other parts of the tree. Other portions are stored
away for starting the next year’s growth. The expression
“the rise and fall of sap” in trees is thus seen to have no
real meaning. Water and mineral salts are constantly being
taken into the tree through the root hairs and carried to the
leaves through the new wood or sap wood of the trunks and
roots. The process goes on in the winter time as well as
in the summer although very slowly. Because of the greater
transpiration from the tree in the summer due to the leaves,
there is actually more water in a tree in winter than in sum-
mer. After food material has been manufactured in the

22 FARM FORESTRY

leaves it is carried down through the soft or inner bark and
into the tree through the pith rays. The sap never passes
downward through the wood of the tree.

How Trees Reproduce Themselves.—Trees reproduce them-
selves principally by seeds and by sprouts. A few trees pro-
duce seed every year but most trees produce heavy seed crops
only every two or more years. Seed production requires a
large amount of food. This the tree stores up and after a
seed year most trees require some time to lay up sufficient food
to produce another crop. Trees in the open produce seed more
often and in greater abundance than trees in the woodlot owing
to the larger crowns. In the woodlot trees produce seed only
on the upper portions of the crown which are exposed to the
light. Usually a large part of the seed produced by trees is
infertile.

Most trees are very particular in regard to the character
of the seed bed or the ground on which the seed germinates.
Some trees like hemlock and yellow birch like a moist seed bed.
These trees are often found starting on rotting stumps or logs
or on moss. The seed of many other trees requires the mineral
soil for germination. Some, like the pitch pine, cedar and
gray birch will grow on dry soil in full sunlight. Others de-
mand shade for germination. Where the ground is too hard
and dry for the tender roots from the seed to penetrate, no
seedlings will be produced.

Trees vary in the arrangements for scattering the seed
and the distance to which the seed is sown. Light seeded trees
like ash, tulip, cottonwood and willow will scatter their seed
long distances in the wind, often a mile or more in heavy winds.
Many seeds have wings or other contrivances which cause the
seeds to whirl about as they fall or which hold them in the air
so that they are blown far from the seed trees. Trees with
heavy seed like oak, hickory and chestnut can sow their seed
only under their crowns, except as the falling seeds strike
branches and bound away from the tree or roll down a slope.

rn a
Wee
(Mo,

As
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One year old sprout from chestnut stump.

THE LIFE PROCESSES OF TREES 23

Squirrels and birds help to scatter the seeds of trees. Squir-
rels will carry nuts long distances from the trees that pro-
duce them and hide them in the grass or ground for winter use.
Such seeds are often forgotten and germinate and grow into
trees.

Usually hardwood trees reproduce themselves by sprouts
as well as by seeds. When a hardwood tree is cut down
sprouts start from the stump which in time grow into trees.
Some trees like the chestnut will produce hundreds of sprouts
from the same stump, while many other trees will produce but
a few. Trees from sprouts grow faster than those from seeds
during their early life, because they make use of the roots of
the old tree which are stored with food. Sprout trees are not
so long lived as trees from seeds and do not grow to so large
a size. They are also apt to become rotten at the base because
of disease communicated to them from the old rotting stumps.
Trees grown from seed, while they are of slower growth than
sprout trees for thirty to forty years, will finally overtake the
sprout trees and outgrow them. Trees sprout best in early
life. Old trees are apt to lose this sprouting ability. Trees
will sprout if cut at any time of the year. If cut in summer,
however, the sprouts produced will be winter killed, for the
wood will not have had time to harden before the early frosts
come. The time to cut trees for sprout reproduction is in
winter when they are at rest. Trees growing along fences can
often be killed by cutting them in summer. The sprouts pro-
duced will be frozen back the next winter. Sorouts will be sent
forth the following spring but they will not be vigorous. They
should be cut in summer and new sprouts obtained which in
turn will be killed in winter. In this way a stump can generally
be exhausted of its food and killed.

Some trees like the beech and wild plum reproduce them-
selves by suckers as well as by seeds and sprouts. These are
shoots that start from the roots. Still another method of
reproduction known as the vegetative method takes place in

24 FARM FORESTRY

some trees like the willow. If a branch is broken off from the
tree by the wind or by the weight of snow and ice, it will start
to grow if a portion of the branch becomes covered with earth.
Many trees like the willow and poplar can be reproduced by
making cuttings of the new twigs and planting them in the
ground. On high mountains or in the far north where the
summer season is too short to mature seeds, some trees will
reproduce themselves by layering. This takes place when a
branch of the tree touches the ground and produces roots.

NATURAL FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE LIFE OF TREES

Trees cannot live without heat, light, moisture and food.
These are often spoken of as factors of site. Site means the
location or situation, as bottomland, side hill, upper slope or
ridge. Trees vary in the amount of each of these factors de-
manded for their best growth. The kind of trees found in
any situation is determined by the presence or absence of
these factors in varying amounts. Some trees require more
heat than other trees. On a moist situation are not found the
same trees that grow on dry situations. Trees are seen grow-
ing beneath the shade of other trees, while others demand the
full sunlight. Some trees will not grow well unless they have
a fertile soil, while other trees will grow on poor soil. Trees
are often found growing where one or more of these factors
are not favorable to them. But they do not grow well under
such conditions. They will have very slow growth and be
more or less stunted and of poor form. The amount of each
of these different factors needed is not definite. There is a
maximum and a minimum amount of each which a certain
species of tree will stand. If the limit is exceeded either way
the tree will die. There is also an optimum amount for each
factor under which a tree will do its best. The factors often
supplement each other. On a deep, rich soil less moisture is
required than on a thin, poor soil. Less light is required where
the soil and moisture conditions are very favorable.

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THE LIFE PROCESSES OF TREES 25

The.action of the factors of site on tree life is very com-
plex and it is difficult to determine often just the amount of
each separate factor that is needed by a tree. Nearly all trees
will grow well under favorable conditions: Only a few will
live.where the conditions are not favorable. It must be re-
membered that a site favorable to one tree may be an un-
favorable site for another tree. The trees found growing
naturally in the same locality and on the same site do not
differ widcly in their demands. For this reason forests usually
are made up of a mixture of trees.

Heat.—Trees cover the greater portion of the earth from
the equator to the limit of tree growth in the polar regions.
Many trees grow luxuriantly in the hot climate of the Torrid
Zone. Provided there is enough moisture present, the extreme
heat of the sun in that region is not too great for certain kinds
of trees. Some of the largest known trees of the world are
found in the temperate climate, such as the redwood trees of
California. But as we pass into the colder regions of the
north trees which farther south grow to great height become
smalier and smaller until they are shrublike and finally disap-
pear. There is a line in the colder regions called the timber
line beyond which there is no tree growth. The same gradual
dwindling in size and the final disappearance of trees is
noticed in ascending a mountain. Trees which grow naturally
in a warm region will not grow in the colder regions of the
north. Trees that grow in the temperate climate will wither
and die under the hot sun of the warmer regions. There is an
optimum region for each tree—a certain portion of the country
where it will grow best. Much farther north or south it
will not thrive and will finally be crowded out of the forest
by other trees better suited to the conditions. The trees found
growing naturally in any portion of the country are probably
better suited to its climate than trees that grow elsewhere.
There is danger in planting a tree not native to a certain region.
Unless the climate where the trees are planted is similar to the

26 FARM FORESTRY

climate under which the trees naturally grow, they will not
thrive. Seed from trees that grow naturally in northern
regions produce trees that do well when planted farther south,
because they are less apt to be injured by late frosts in the
spring. Southern grown trees coming from a region of
longer growing season when planted farther north, do not
stop their growth in the fall in time to escape the early frosts,
and in the spring they are apt to start too early. There are,
however, many trees not native to a region which can be in-
troduced if found suited to the climate. Many foreign trees
do well in this country when they are planted where the climate
is similar to that of their native country.

Light.—The amount of light which is demanded by trees
varies with different species. Some are able to thrive beneath
the shade of other trees, while many demand the full sunlight
and grow only in the open. The former are spoken of as
tolerant trees, the latter as intolerant trees. Spruce, beech,
hemlock and dogwood are examples of tolerant trees. They
grow naturally in shady places as on the northern slope of a
hill, in a ravine or beneath taller trees. Aspen, jack pine and
tulip are examples of intolerant trees. They demand full
sunlight for their proper development. If they become over-
topped by other trees they will gradually die. Tolerant trees
will grow in full sunlight if started in the sun. Some species
like the white pine are tolerant in their youth but as the trees
grow older they become intolerant and demand full sunlight.
The seedlings of all trees will stand more shade than the older
trees. Seedlings of many intolerant trees are often found com-
ing up in woodlots. These will die later if the older trees are
not removed, or if there are not breaks in the canopy allowing
the sunlight to pass through. Trees growing under other trees
if removed and planted in the sun will die, and trees that have
started and grown naturally in the sunlight will die if taken
up and planted in shade. Trees are very sensitive to a sudden
change in the conditions under which they have lived.

THE LIFE PROCESSES OF TREES 27

Moisture.—Soil moisture is essential for tree growth. We
have seen that a very large percentage of the tree by weight
is water either chemically combined in the wood substance or
present as free water or sap. A tree transpires moisture con-
stantly through the leaves and through the bark in both sum-
mer and winter. For tree growth there must be present in the
soil a supply of moisture adequate to supply the tree with
water needed to carry on the life processes. Should the supply
fall below the minimum necessary the tree will die. If trans-
piration from a tree takes place faster than the roots can absorb
the moisture from the soil, the tree will dry out and die.
This often takes place in winter when the ground freezes be-
low the roots of the tree and excessive transpiration takes
place through the bark induced by very bright sun. The
death of the trees in this way is known as winter killing.
In transplanting large trees it is customary to cut back the
crowns so as to reduce the transpiration of moisture, until
the roots have a firm hold on the ground.

The presence of moisture in varying amounts in the soil
is’ probably the principal factor in the local distribution of
trees. Soil moisture more than any other factor determines
what trees will grow in a certain situation, as on a ridge,
on a slope or on bottomland. Many trees demand a large
amount of water in the soil and are found growing naturally
in or near swamps and on damp soil, while others seek the
driest situations. Some trees are very particular as to the
amount of moisture in the soil, they demand a certain amount
and will not grow if the amount is increased or diminished,
while others will grow under different moisture conditions.
The same tree is often found growing in the bottom-land
and on upper slopes and ridges, but it grows best where
the moisture conditions are most favorable to it. If a tree
that demands dry conditions is planted on a damp soil it will
soon die, and a tree that needs a moist soil will not live if
deprived of that moisture or planted on a dry soil. Because

28 FARM FORESTRY

a tree grows well in bottomlands or along streams is no reason
to believe that it will thrive when planted on a ridge, even if
the composition of the soil is the same.

Food.—Trees as well as other forms of organic life de-
mand food for carrying on their life functions. As we have
already learned trees absorb food through their leaves and
through their roots. They obtain a large portion of their
food from the air in the form of carbonic acid gas, the supply
of which is sufficient for all trees. They obtain mineral salts
and water from the soil through their smaller roots. The de-
mand made by trees on the soil varies with different species.
Some trees will grow on an almost sterile, sandy soil, while
others demand as rich and fertile a soil as do agricultural
crops. Pitch pine will grow on thin, dry soil on the tops of
ridges, while black walnut and catalpa demand the best of
soil conditions for good growth.

The canopy formed by the tree crowns.

CHAPTER IV
THE WOODLOT

A woopLot is a collection or stand of forest trees grown
together to produce wood for use on the farm. A forest is
sometimes defined as a collection of trees growing so closely
together as to interfere with the natural development of the
crowns. The natural form of crown in trees is observed on
those growing in the open. In a park the trees stand far
enough apart from one another so that the growth of the
crowns is not materially interfered with. Park trees are grown
for their shade and beauty. Woodlot and forest trees are
grown for the production of wood. Many farm woodlots
are of the park-like form due to one cause or another, but
usually forest conditions prevail.

In the woodlot the trees, standing closely together, crowd
each other. As they grow the sidewise development of the
crowns is restricted. The energy of growth becomes con-
centrated in the tops of the trees. The result is quick height
growth and the production of trees with small crowns but
with long, cylindrical boles free of branches—the ideal form
for a tree intended for use.

PARTS OF THE WOODLOT

It is possible to distinguish several parts to a woodlot—
the canopy, the region of the boles, the undergrowth, the forest
floor and the region of root development.

The Canopy.—The canopy is the covering of tree crowns.
Within the canopy the crowns of the trees do not usually
all stand at the same elevation. Some have their crowns

30 FARM FORESTRY

well above neighboring crowns spreading out in the sunlight.
These are called dominant trees. Other crowns occupy the
lower portion of the canopy, overtopped and shaded by those
above. These are the suppressed trees. Still other crowns
occupy a position between these two. They have their crowns
open to the light but they are narrow and restricted, due to
crowding by the taller, dominant trees. These are called
intermediate trees. Where the canopy is thick it prevents
excessive evaporation from the soil and serves as a protection
to the under portions from the drying effects of the wind and
sun and from the extreme cold of winter. Forest trees will
not grow well together unless the canopy is intact, so that the
floor is shaded from the sunlight, bringing about and main-
taining forest conditions. It keeps the air and soil moist be-
neath the trees and prevents a heavy growth of grass, weeds
and berry bushes, that would rob the trees of moisture and
food.

The Region of the Boles.—This comprises the space be-
tween the canopy and the undergrowth or forest floor. It
is occupied by the boles of the trees and is high or low
according to the distance the canopy is above the forest floor.
The air surrounding the boles has greater humidity than the
air outside the woodlot and is warmer in winter and cooler
in summer than the air in the open.

The Undergrowth—The undergrowth comprises seed-
lings, or reproduction as it is often called, of the trees in the
woodlot, together with bushes and shrubs. When the canopy
is thin or broken the undergrowth may have a beneficial effect
in protecting the forest floor from the sun and from the beat-
ing effects of rain and in preventing evaporation. But if the
undergrowth is too thick it may cause a reduction in the
growth of trees by absorbing large amounts of mineral food
and moisture from the soil. The future of the woodlot de-
pends on the young seedling trees in the undergrowth. Cut-
ting all the undergrowth, as is often done to open up the

growth.

e boles and the under

he region of th

humus.

| twigs fallen from the trees form the

Leaves anc

Vhe forest floor.

THE WOODLOT 31

woodlot, may cause the soil to deteriorate or may endanger
the future of the woodlot. No attempt should be made to
make a woodlot park-like. Forest trees grow best under wild
and natural conditions.

The Forest Floor.—The forest floor consists of the ground
cover of weeds and grass and the underlying mulch of more
or less decomposed leaves called the humus. Where the ground
cover is not thick, the weeds and grass being scattered here
and there, it does but little damage and may even have a
beneficial effect in helping to protect the soil and prevent
evaporation when the canopy is thin. But where this growth
is very thick, as is usually the case where there are but few
trees in the woodlot and the canopy is broken, it will absorb
moisture and nutriment from the upper layers of the soil
and so lessen the growth of the trees. It will also tend to
prevent new trees from starting or if any start. will suppress
them by their shade.

Beneath the ground cover and above the soil is an accu-
mulation of leaves and twigs called the humus. This is usually
in several layers. The upper layer is composed of leaves of
the last year pressed down by the snow and flattened by rain.
Underneath this is a matted layer of leaves partly decomposed.
These layers together are usually called the litter. Just above
the mineral soil is found a black, powdery substance, the result .
of the rotting of the leaves and twigs. This black powder
or humus mixes with the soil and where present in consider-
able amounts darkens it, often making it black like muck.
Humus acts as a fertilizer to the trees. It improves the soil
both chemically and physically. The decay of the leaves
and twigs sets free many salts which are immediately avail-
able as food for the tree. Being a vegetable substance,
the humus will absorb and hold water like a sponge, giving
it out gradually as needed by the trees.

The humus, or duff as it is often called, will vary in thick-
ness according to the conditions under which it accumulates.

32 FARM FORESTRY

The decomposition of the leaves and twigs is brought about
by bacteria'and fungi. Air, moisture and warmth in certain
amounts are essential for their action. Where one or more
of these factors are not favorable to the decomposition of the
leaves and twigs, humus will accumulate rapidly. In the cool
north woods under a dense canopy, the humus or duff is
often found over a foot in thickness. It accumulates rapidly
in cold, damp situations as on a northern slope, in a ravine
or beneath the dense shade of the forest. It does not accu-
mulate in an open stand of trees where the sun has a chance
to warm and dry the soil, bringing about conditions favorable
for the growth of the fungi and bacteria. It is the decompo-
sition of the leaves and twigs and the formation of the black,
powdery humus and the setting free of soluble salts that is
of advantage to trees—not the accumulation of the partially
decayed leaves in thick layers. Too thick an accumulation of
humus tends to make the soil sour because of the vegetable
acids set free. Opening up the forest canopy by the removal
of a few trees, allowing the sunlight to reach the floor, will
bring about a rapid reduction of the humus.

The Region of Root Development.—This comprises the
soil and the subsoil and the root systems of the trees. The
subsoil is of more importance in forestry than in agriculture.
It often determines the kind of tree that will grow. There
is scarcely any soil that will not support some kind of tree
growth. The depth and character are of great importance.
Where the soil is not of sufficient depth to allow the develop-
ment of the characteristic root form of trees, the growth of
the trees will suffer. This is especially true where trees that
naturally produce a tap root are grown on shallow soil. The
roots of a tree extend out in all directions as far as or farther
than the branches. In a woodlot the root systems of the differ-
ent trees interlace, until the soil and often the subsoil down to
the water table is completely filled with roots. Trees growing
too closely together constantly compete with each other for

THE WOODLOT 33

moisture and food from the soil. This interlacing of the
roots of trees is often of great value in preventing the soil
on steep slopes from being washed away by rains or floods.
A certain kind of soil may be more favorable to one kind of
tree than to another. The chestnut, while it will live and
develop on limestone soil is not able to compete naturally
on such soil against the oaks, and other trees associated with
them. These other trees are better adapted to the limestone
soil and so will crowd out the chestnut.

THE DIFFERENT KINDS AND FORMS OF WOODLOTS

Farm woodlots are of many kinds and forms. These are
the result of the method of treatment and the method of
cutting the trees. It would be difficult to find two woodlots
just alike or that have received the same treatment. All wood-
lots can be included, however, under a few general heads.

Kinds of Woodlots as to Species of Trees——-A woodlot
has a pure stand of timber if it contains but one kind of tree.
Such a woodlot would be hard to find. Nearly all woodlots
contain more than one kind of tree, although there are many
woodlots made up nearly of one kind. It is usual to consider
a wooodlot as having a pure stand if more than 80 per cent
of the trees are of one kind.

A woodlot has a mixed stand of timber if it is made up
of several kinds of trees, no one of which forms more than
80 per cent of the whole stand.

Kinds of Woodlots as to the Number of Trees Present.—
Woodlots are dense, open or fully stocked according to the
number of trees per acre. When a woodlot has just enough
trees on a given area so that the crowns of the trees meet
and fully cover and shade the ground, and so there is sufficient
crowding between the trees to produce rapid height growth
and trees of good form, the woodlot is said to be fully stocked.
If the trees are crowded so closely together that the crowns

34 FARM FORESTRY

are much restricted and the growth of the trees retarded,
the woodlot is said to be very dense or overcrowded. When
a woodlot contains a fewer number of trees than are needed
to shade the soil, the woodlot is said to be open.

Kinds of Woodlots Based on the Age of the Trees.—A
woodlot in which all the trees are of approximately the same
age is called an even-aged woodlot. When the woodlot con-
tains trees of many ages mixed in together it is called a many-
aged woodlot. Woodlots are also divided into mature, imma-
ture and overmature stands according to their development.
Second growth timber is so called to distinguish it from the
old mature trees, especially the old virgin trees, of which so
few remain. Such timber where the stand is not fully stocked
is apt to be very limby, due to the lower branches remaining
alive and hanging on the tree a long time before being pruned
off naturally.

Kinds of Woodlots Based on the Form of the Woodlot.—
A woodlot is said to have a regular stand of timber if all
the trees are of about the same height, the crowns of the trees
forming a single canopy. Where some of the trees are of
one height, their crowns forming a canopy, and the rest of
the trees form a second canopy at a different height, the wood-
lot is called a two-storied woodlot. Such a woodlot may
result from the trees being of two different ages widely sepa-
rated, and also may result from the trees having different
degrees of tolerance and rates of growth. An irregular stand
of trees or woodlot is one in which the trees are of different
heights, their crowns being mixed together, giving an irregular
appearance.

Kinds of Woodlots According to the Origin of the Trees.—
When the trees in the woodlot have all sprung from seed it
is called a seed forest or high forest. If the trees in the
woodlot come from sprouts, it is a sprout forest or coppice
forest. Where the woodlot is composed of both seedling trees
and sprout trees, it is a composite forest.

Seedlings and sprouts resulting from cutting out many of the trecs,

allowing sunlight to fall on the forest floor.

No attempt should be made to make a woodlot park like. Forest trees
grow best under natural and wild conditions.

THE WOODLOT 35

The Ideal Form of the Small Woodlot.—The ideal form
of woodlot for supplying a farm with wood products would
be one from which the owner could obtain at any time trees
of any size or kind needed. It should furnish the farm with
cordwood for fuel, sawlogs to yield lumber, fenceposts or rails
for building or mending fences, or small sticks for the tem-
porary mending of farm implements. It should contain trees
having heavy, hard wood suitable for fire wood, trees having
light, smooth, easily worked wood for construction purposes,
and trees having durable wood for fence posts. The woodlot
that would supply all these different sizes of trees at any time
would have an uneven aged mixed stand of timber. The trees
would be of many different kinds and of all sizes and ages.

Each of the different forms of woodlots will demand a
different treatment. In order to manage them properly one
must have a knowledge of how woodlots are established and
how they develop, and understand the laws according to which
trees grow together.

CHAPTER V
THE LIFE HISTORY OF TREES IN THE WOODLOT

THE life history of a tree growing in the woodlot among
other trees differs considerably from one growing alone in the
open. A tree growing by itself is not hindered in its natural
development. Its crown has freedom to expand in all direc-
tions and its roots can spread at will through the soil. It lives
as an individual. A tree growing in the forest, on the other
hand, has not this freedom of development. Its crown is
restricted by the crowns of other trees and its roots must
compete for space and food with the root systems of trees
growing near it. It is a member of a tree association and its
life is modified by the laws governing that association. What
these laws are can best be understood by tracing the develop-
ment of a stand of timber from infancy to old age through
the following stages:

(a) The seedling stage, the period before the canopy
closes. :

(b) The period of rapid height growth.

(d) The period of declining vigor in the trees.

(a4) The Seedling Stage-—During the seedling stage or
the earliest period in the life of a stand of timber the young
trees grow as individuals. If the trees have been planted
by man they are evenly spaced, possibly 5 or 6 feet apart.
If the young stand has been established by seed sown from
neighboring trees or from sprouts, the young seedlings will
not be so evenly spaced and may in places be more or less
bunched together. But in either case each little tree usually

Long,

chestnut trees.

among

the struggle for lght

result

The

clean, straight boles from rapid height growth and natural pruning.

THE LIFE HISTORY OF TREES IN THE WOODLOT 37

has all the space it needs for the expansion of its crown and
roots. As the little seedlings gradually grow in height they
also spread their crowns by extending the side branches. It
is not many years until the ground becomes shaded. With
the coming together of the crowns the sapling stage usually
begins.

(b) The Period of Rapid Height Growth—Until the
crowns of the little trees come together the soil is exposed:
to the sun and wind and to the beating and washing effect
of the rains, and is dry and hard and less fertile than if it
had been under cover. As a consequence the growth of the
trees is slow during the seedling stage. As soon as the ground
becomes shaded a forest floor begins to form. The soil be-
comes soft and light and because of the protection from the
sun it contains more moisture. The leaves from the trees
falling on the ground rot and begin the formation of humus,
which helps to enrich the soil. Grass and weeds which tend
to dry the soil disappear because of the reduced light. With
the formation of the forest floor and a bettering of the soil
conditions a change comes over the life of the stand, and the
young trees begin to grow rapidly in height. So we see that
the growing of trees together has a beneficial effect. Each
tree tends to help its neighbor by protecting it from the sun
and wind, and by helping to enrich the soil.

Trees growing thickly together in the forest not only have
a beneficial effect on each other, they also exert a harmful
effect in that they tend to modify the natural form and de-
velopment of each other.

When the crowns of the trees come together further ex-
pansion in a sidewise direction practically ceases and the
energy of growth becomes concentrated in the terminal buds
in the tops of the trees, where alone height growth takes place.
Each little tree now seems as though it were running a race
with its neighbors to secure the space and light above. The
contest is not an equal one. Some of the trees are naturally

38 FARM FORESTRY

able to grow faster than others, because their roots are better
developed, and so can secure more food and moisture from
the soil, or because they have found a better soil than the
trees about them, or because they are naturally hardier and
stronger trees than their neighbors, and so are able to grow
faster. As the trees become larger the demand for light and
space increases. It is not long before the trees begin to crowd
each other. Not only do they contend above for space and
light, but below the ground a struggle is going on between
the roots for food and moisture. Whenever a branch becomes
overtopped by a branch from a neighboring tree it is weakened
from loss of sunlight. The leaves on it are not able to manu-
facture as much food as before and do not transpire as much
water. Less and less amount of minera] food from the roots
is carried to them and a correspondingly greater amount is
carried to the healthy leaves above. The growth of the branch
gradually becomes slower, the leaves wither, and finally the
branch dies. Only those branches on which the leaves are
exposed to the light and are able to manufacture food can
live, and as fast as these become overtopped they will also die.

Tree Crown Classes.—As the trees continue to grow those
that make the fastest height growth soon outstrip their neigh-
bors. Not only have they ample room to send their tops up into
the air, but their crowns being above those of their neighbors
are able to spread out sidewise. They become the most vigor-
ous trees in the stand and are called the dominant trees. The
trees that have been overtopped by the crowns of their faster
growing neighbors fall behind, and their growth becomes very
slow because of lack of light. These are the overtopped or
suppressed trees. Those trees that are being crowded by their
more vigorous neighbors, but still have a portion of their
crown to the light, are called intermediate or codominant
trees.

The Struggle for Existence—The struggle that started
with the coming together of the crowns soon becomes very

THE LIFE HISTORY OF TREES IN THE WOODLOT 39

intense. It is a struggle for existence. Not all the trees that
started as seedlings can survive. As the trees continue to
grow larger, a smaller and smaller number of them can occupy
the space which all occupied before. Many of the weaker
ones must die. Those that fall behind in the struggle are
crowded out of the association. Not being able to secure the
sunlight on which their life depends, they are unable to manu-
facture food and so die. Only those that win out in the
struggle, owing to their faster growth, survive. It is a sur-
vival of the fittest. Those that live on are the survivors of
hundreds, sometimes of thousands, of competitors. They win
out in the struggle because they are better adapted to their
surroundings than their neighbors. The struggle is a con-
tinuous one. Even the dominant trees soon come into compe-
tition with other dominant trees as they continue to grow up
and spread out their crowns, and the struggle begins over
again between these trees with even greater energy.

Natural Pruning.—So we see that at the time the trees are
exerting a beneficial effect on each other, they are carrying
on a deadly struggle. But it is to this very struggle upward
for light and space that we owe the long, straight, slender
trunks of the trees in the woodlot. While the trees are grow-
ing rapidly in height the lower branches are dying because of
lack of sunlight. In this way the living crowns become con-
fined to the tops of the trees. On a growing tree in the open
side branches are able to expand in the sunlight and remain
alive and often clothe a tree to the ground. But in the forest,
as we have already seen, as soon as a branch is shaded from
the sun it dies because it can no longer manufacture food.
Not only*do the side branches die, but the tree finally throws
them off. This the tree accomplishes by compressing the dead
branch next the trunk by each succeeding annual layer of wood,
until finally it becomes so weakened at that point that it is
broken off by the wind or snow or falls off of its own weight.
This process is known as natural pruning. In this way a

40 FARM FORESTRY

long, clear trunk is finally produced. The succeeding layers
of annual rings laid on about the tree will cover over the
wound and in a few years there will be nothing to show that
a branch ever grew at that point. The branches, however,
will remain concealed in the tree and will form the knots that
appear when the trunk is sawed into boards.

During this period the tree grows faster in height than at
any other time, and before the large pole stage is completed
they will have nearly reached their total height. There is a limit
to the height to which trees will grow. Some species naturally
grow taller than others, but with every species there is a limit
beyond which the moisture from the soil cannot be raised.
When this point has been about reached there will be little
additional height growth.

(c) Period of Rapid Diameter Increase—After the trees
have passed the period of most rapid height growth begins
the period of rapid diameter increase. The diameter at first
small has increased gradually as the trees have developed
until with the completion of the rapid height growth the growth
energy of the trees becomes concentrated in the production
of wood material, and wide annual rings result.

Owing to the long, clean trunks that have resulted from
the rapid height growth and to the shade caused by the trees
growing closely together, the diameter growth put on annually
during this stage is of clear wood, and the trees increase
rapidly in value for lumber. It is the period of the greatest
vigor in the life of the trees. Seed production becomes very
large. The crowns of the trees become thicker and the ground
beneath the trees is shaded more than during the other periods.
Having reached their total height the tops of the cfowns are
no longer able to push upward, but the side branches begin to
grow and strive to reach the same height as the tops. The
crowns of the trees lose the more or less conical form which
they have had up to this time and begin to flatten out. Because
of this sidewise growth the competition between the trees

The period of rapid diameter growth.

The height growth completed.

ashington.

k in W

Western hemloc

The period of dechning vigor. Younger trees starting under the older
ones, to take their places when they fall.

THE LIFE HISTORY OF TREES IN THE WOODLOT 41

continues with even greater severity than before. Each tree
now Strives to spread more and more of its crown to the light
and many trees are crowded out and die.

(d) The Period of Declining Vigor in the Trees—This
last period is the mature stage in the life of the trees. Height
growth has practically ceased and the trunks are increasing in
diameter slowly. The sidewise competition of the crowns will
have nearly stopped and the number of trees in the final stand
will practically have been reached. As the crowns flatten out
they become thinner and allow more and more sunlight to
pass through to the forest floor. Grass, weeds and berry
bushes begin to come in. Seedlings which are able to endure
more shade than the older trees spring up beneath the trees.
These little trees are the children of the forest. It is on them
that the future life of the woodlot depends. When the old
parent trees die and fall to the ground or are harvested, these
young seedlings, which have been nourished and protected be-
neath their crowns, spring up and take their places, filling in
the spaces left in the canopy.

The trees are ripe for the harvest. If allowed to live longer
they will become attacked by insects and decay and be broken
by storms. As long as trees are growing vigorously in youth
they are usually able to withstand the attacks of enemies.
Because of the rapid diameter growth wounds are closed over
quickly and insects are not able to gain entrance. But with
the slower growth in old age, wounds remain exposed a long
time to the air. Fungi which cause rot in the wood gain en-
trance and the tree begins to decay. Owing to the weakened
condition insects attack the trees and burrow deep into the
wood. Storms break off the older branches which have become
brittle with age. Many trees that have become weakened by
disease are broken off or uprooted by the wind. Younger trees
grow up to occupy the place of those that have fallen. Soon
all the old trees will be gone, and a new forest, composed of
younger trees, will take possession of the soil.

CHAPTER VI

ESTABLISHING A WOODLOT BY ARTIFICIAL MEANS,
EITHER BY SEEDING OR PLANTING

Natural and Artificial Reproduction.—Woodlots are
started both artificially and naturally. They are started arti-
ficially by planting small trees grown for the purpose or by
sowing the seeds of trees. They start naturally from seed
sown by the trees themselves or from sprouts from the stumps
of trees that have been cut.

A field that has been abandoned wil] soon be covered with
trees started naturally from seed blown on the field or dropped
by animals or birds. Hardwood woodlots from which all the
trees have been cut spring up rapidly from sprouts. It is
common to see in woodlots that have not been grazed or
repeatedly burned by fire, young trees that have started from
seed, spring up beneath the older trees where there is sufficient
light. Nearly all our woodlots have been started naturally
either from seed or from sprouts.

There are but few woodlots in the country except on the
Great Plains and Prairies that have been started by man.
Yet artificial reproduction, as it is called, has many advantages
over natural reproduction. It is a sure way of starting a
woodlot, the trees will be such as the farmer wishes to grow,
the woodlot will be well stocked with trees from the start,
and the trees will be spaced evenly and at a proper distance
apart. Its chief disadvantage is in its greater initial cost.
Natural reproduction will often cost nothing. Reproduction
from sprouts is obtained at no cost to the owner. Natural re-

ESTABLISHING A WOODLOT 43

production by seeding means sometimes the leaving of a few
seed trees per acre to sow the seed, but the trees left are
usually those that will be of little value for timber, and often
they can be utilized later after the seed has been sown. Often
natural reproduction comes from trees surrounding the area
cut over. The principal objection to natural reproduction is
that the trees that result will be such as nature selects. They
will be the kinds that are able to get started whether they are
desirable species or not. Often the better kinds of trees are
crowded out because the conditions of the soil or the light
may be more favorable for the poorer kinds of trees. Unless
the owner by cutting out such trees determines what trees
shall be present in the final stand, the result will be a product
of nature, wild and irregular. Other objections are that the
reproduction is apt to be more or less bunched about the seed
trees or around the edges of the cut-over area, so that the
tract will not be fully or evenly stocked with trees. Yet
the natural method will be the one that will be used commonly
by woodlot owners except where new woodlots are started,
where there are no trees to sow the seed, as in the Prairie
region, or where new species are wanted.

STARTING A WOODLOT BY DIRECT SOWING OF THE SEED.

The Broadcast Method.—In the broadcast method the seed
gathered from trees is scattered evenly over the area to be
reproduced. Usually some preparation of the soil is made
before the seed is sown or otherwise the conditions must be
favorable, the soil being moist and loose so that the seeds will
not dry out before they start to germinate. Where prep-
aration of the soil can be made and the seed sown can be
covered in some way as by brush being drawn over the area
or by being raked or harrowed into the soil, good results can
be obtained. After a woodlot has been cut over and the min-
eral soil is more or less broken up and exposed from logs being
dragged out of the woods, success will often follow broadcast

44 FARM FORESTRY

seeding. The seed should be sown in the early spring. Seed-
ing on the snow as it melts will often give good results with
some species. Broadcasting after a fire when the leaves and
weeds have been burned and the mineral soil exposed has often
proved successful with some trees.

The Seedspot Method.—In the seedspot method the seed
is sown in prepared seed spots a foot or more square. The
soil is dug up and cultivated on these spots. The seed is then
sown and covered well with earth. The spots are usually
spaced 6 feet by 6 feet apart. Good results are usually ob-
tained by this method. Small seeds like pine, birch and elm
are very successfully planted in this way, about 20 to 30 seeds
being sown in each spot. Seed producing trees having tap-
roots like walnut, hickory, butternut, chestnut and oaks are
best started by sowing the seed where the trees are to grow.
With these larger seeds it is usual to plant 2 or 3 seeds in
each spot. More seeds are planted than trees are wanted to
allow for failures. All seeds are not fertile. Where several
trees come up on a seed spot they can be thinned out and the
extra trees planted where no trees have resulted. Small seeds
should be covered lightly and large seeds planted about twice
their diameter below the surface, and the soil well firmed
above them. Seed gathered from the ground in the spring
where they have been stratified naturally over winter can be
successfully planted in seed spots.

Seeding in Strips-or Furrows.—Instead of cultivating the
entire area previous to sowing the seed, strips across the
planting area several feet wide and spaced an even distance
apart are sometimes prepared by plowing or otherwise break-
ing the surface of the soil and the seed sown broadcast on these
strips. Often single furrows are turned by a plow six feet
or more apart and the seed sown on the exposed soil. Brush
drawn along the strips or furrows will cover smaller seeds
thus sown. With walnuts, butternuts and other large seed
the sods can be turned back into the furrow to cover the seed.

ESTABLISHING A WOODLOT 45

Large seeds are usually sown about 2 or 3 feet apart in the
furrow and the furrows run about six feet apart.

Direct seeding has the advantage of being rapid and cheap.
On the other hand the seed may be eaten by birds, squirrels,
mice or other rodents, or it may be infertile. The small seed-
lings that come up the first year may be crowded out or sup-
pressed by weeds, grass or other growth, unless they can be
cultivated. Direct seeding will succeed only under favorable
conditions. On poor sites and in unfavorable seasons it will
not prove successful. Reproduction by seedspots, however,
is a most practical method and one that can be carried out to
good effect in the woodlot. Where the conditions have been
favorable good results have been secured by direct seeding of
walnut, butternut, ash, silver maple, red and burr oak, black
cherry, and white, red, Scotch and pitch pine. In the West
large areas are sometimes broadcasted with seed of the conifer-
ous trees of the region, often with considerable success.

—
STARTING A WOODLOT BY PLANTING THE TREES

With most kinds of trees it is best to plant the seed in a
nursery and grow the seedlings for a year or two where they
can be given proper care and cultivation during the early
period. Strong and hardy little trees with stocky root sys-
tems can be obtained in this way that will usually grow when
planted even on poor situations.

Because it is believed large trees must be used that can be
produced only at great expense, is one reason why more wood-
lots are not started by planting. One or two year old seed-
lings that can easily be raised by the farmer on the farm are
the best trees to use for starting a woodlot or forest planting.
It would be of advantage to every farm to have a small forest
nursery for growing forest trees for starting forest plantings
and for filling in bare spots in the woodlot, and for growing
larger trees for planting along the road and about the house.

46 FARM FORESTRY

Such a tree nursery could well occupy a few rows in the
vegetable garden where the young trees will receive care and
cultivation.

COLLECTING SEEDS FOR PLANTING IN THE NURSERY

The seeds of forest trees for planting in the nursery can
be purchased from seed dealers at smal] expense, but it is in
many ways better to gather the seed from the trees when the
seed is ripe and to keep it over winter for planting in the
spring.

Seed can be gathered from trees in the open much easier
and faster than from trees in the woodlot, which bear seed
only on the tipper branches. Seed from trees grown in the
open will produce as good timber trees as will the seed from
forest grown trees. Usually small seed must be picked from
the trees before it is scattered, while heavy seed can be gath-
ered from the ground after it has fallen. Seed should not
be collected until it is ripe and should be obtained from thrifty
trees of good form and without disease. Seed produced by
very young trees is usually not fertile and seed from the lower
branches is apt to be less fertile than the seed from higher
branches. The first seeds to fall are usually not as good as
those that mature later.

The time when trees ripen their seed must be known. Some,
like the American elm, river birch, silver and red maple,
cottonwood, poplar and willow, ripen their seeds in the spring
or early summer. Seeds that mature early in the year will
not retain their vitality long, so the seeds of these species
should be gathered as soon as ripe and planted at once in the
nursery. By Fall the seedlings will have grown considerably
in height and many of them will be large enough for starting
forest plantings the following spring.

Most other species of trees mature their seed in the fall
of the year. Such seed could be planted at once were it not
for the danger of their being destroyed by squirrels or other

Photo by Author.

Seed can be gathered from the sycamore far into
the winter.

Photo by Author.

The small nursery. Growing catalpa and black locust in the garden.

Planting forest trees. One man digs the holes and the other plants

the trees.

ESTABLISHING A WOODLOT 47

rodents during the winter or of being washed out of the soil by
rain or thrown out by frost. Fortunately seed that matures late
in the year will retain its vitality over winter if properly stored.

Method of Storing Tree Seeds over Winter.—Seeds like
maple, ash, birch, tulip, catalpa, locust, coffee tree, and of
most of the evergreen trees, will retain their vitality over win-
ter where they are kept cool and dry. These seeds should be
gathered from the trees in the fall. Many of them hang on
the trees for some time after they ripen, often far into the
winter. The seed should be placed in cloth bags and hung up
where it will keep dry and be exposed to the outside air and
also be out of reach of rodents.

The seeds of many of our trees are apt to lose their vitality
if allowed to dry out over winter, such as walnut, hickory,
basswood, boxelder, sycamore, oak, chestnut, butternut, osage
orange and black cherry. These seeds must be kept moist
over winter by stratifying them. All seeds will keep their
vitality better if stratified over winter. This consists in mix-
ing the seed with moist sand in a box or burying them in a
pit in the ground. A layer of moist sand an inch or two deep
is placed in a box and a layer of seed is spread over it. With
large seed like the oak, hickory, walnut, etc., the layer of seed
should not be more than an inch deep, and with smaller seed
much less. The seed is then covered or mixed with moist
sand and another layer of seed spread over the sand and so
on until all the seed is stratified. Small seed can be folded in
cheese cloth and thus stratified between layers of moist sand.
The box should then be buried on a well drained slope, and
covered with about six inches of straw or leaves and the whole
covered with about six inches of earth. The box can be kept
in a cold cellar if the sand is kept moist. Freezing will not
injure the seed but will help to crack the shells and otherwise
hasten germination. Hickory, walnut, oak and other seed with
hard shells should especially be allowed to freeze. Where
stratified out of doors they should be left near the surface

48 FARM FORESTRY

for this purpose, the covering being made very thin. Care
must be taken not to let the seeds dry out or allow squirrels.
or other rodents to get at them. Where there is danger of
the seeds being destroyed the box or pit can be covered with
wire netting.

Treatment of Seeds before Storing.—The outer coatings
of seeds that are to be hung in bags over winter should be
thoroughly dried so as to prevent molding. They should be
spread out where they will dry in the wind but not in the sun.
Seeds that are produced in pods like locust, coffeetree, and
catalpa should be removed from the pods, and the outer husks
should be removed from hickory nuts, walnuts and butternuts.
The cones of tulip, birch, alder and evergreen trees should be
gathered and dried when the seed can easily be shaken or
beaten out. The fruit of osage orange, cherry and other pulpy
fruits should be placed in water and allowed to ferment.
The seed can then easily be removed from the fleshy covering
by stirring or beating, and spread out to dry.

Treatment of Seeds Before Planting.—Seeds that are
stored dry will germinate much quicker if they are allowed to
soak several hours in warm water. Seeds of ash, tulip, maple
and catalpa should be soaked for 3 or 4 hours in warm water
and should be planted at once and not allowed to dry out.
Hard seeds like coffeetree and locust should be placed in
very hot water and allowed to stand for several days. The
seed that swells should be planted at once and the rest given
another treatment in hot water. The seed of cedar is often
placed in lye for a short time to dissolve the waxy coating
which prevents germination sometimes for several years.

Planting the Seed in the Nursery.—The seed should be
planted in the nursery as early in the spring as possible. It
is usual to plant the seed in rows, which should be far enough
apart to allow for easy cultivation. Small seeds can be sown
broadcast like lettuce and covered lightly with fine soil. Acorns
and nuts should be sown two or three inches apart in the rows,

ESTABLISHING A WOODLOT 49

while catalpa, ash, maple, elm and locust should be spaced not
more than three-fourths of an inch apart. Seeds of low
fertility should be planted thickly. The tendency in plant-
ing seeds is to plant too deep. A covering of one-fourth to
one-half inch is sufficient for light seeds, three-fourths of an
inch to one inch for boxelder, tulip, black cherry, ash, maple,
locust and catalpa, and one and a half to two inches for chest-
nut, oak and other large seed. Seed should be planted deeper
on light soil than on heavy soil. The soil should be made
firm over the seeds so as to conserve the moisture, but should
not be packed hard. Where there is danger of the surface
drying out the seed bed should be thoroughly sprinkled after
the seeds are planted and covered with a mulch of leaves or
straw. This must be removed as soon as the seeds have
germinated.

Growing Trees from Cuttings.—Willows and poplars are
usually grown from cuttings. These can be made any time
after the leaves fall or before the spring growth begins. They
are usually made from the growth of the last year and cut
from eight to twelve inches long with a slanting cut. Where
made in the fall the cuttings should be bundled and buried
upright in moist sand in a cold cellar until spring. The cut-
tings can be started where it is desired to grow the trees or
they can be set out in the nursery in the spring in rows. They
should be planted several inches apart in the rows and planted
so that not more than one or two buds appear and the soil
packed firmly around them. After growing a year in the
nursery they can be set out in the woodlot. Basket willows
are started in this way, the cuttings being set permanently in
rows about 18 inches apart and about 8 inches apart in the
rows.

Tending the Nursery.—The seedlings should be cultivated
during the growing season the same as any garden crop. The
weeds must be kept down and the soil frequently loosened
with the cultivator or hoe to conserve moisture. During very

50 FARM FORESTRY

dry seasons the nursery rows should be moistened if it is seen
that the seedlings are suffering. Mulching between the rows
will be found to work well in many cases. The seedlings
should be protected during the first winter by mulching with
straw or leaves. The seedlings of broadleaf trees will be
large enough for planting the spring following the seeding.

Growing Evergreen Seedlings.—The raising of evergreen
seedlings is much more difficult than the raising of seedlings
of broadleaf trees. They must be shielded from the hot sun
during the first year and are likely to be killed by disease.
Where it is desired to grow evergreen seedlings it will be
better to purchase one or two year old seedlings from nursery-
men and set them out in the nursery to grow for a year or two
before planting.

The seed of coniferous or evergreen trees like pines,
spruces, firs, etc., are broadcasted on specially prepared seed-
beds usually made 4 feet wide and 12 or more feet long.
The soil is fertilized and worked with care so that it is the
same degree of fineness throughout. The seed is then sown
thinly over the surface at the rate of about an ounce to 5 or 6
square feet. The bed is then rolled and the seed just covered
by sifting fine dirt or sand over the bed. The beds are then
thoroughly soaked with water and covered with a mulch of
straw or leaves or other material until the seed has germinated.
The mulch is then removed and the bed covered with a lath
screen that allows half shade, elevated about a foot above
the beds. The great danger in growing coniferous seedlings
is that when the seedlings have come out of the ground they
are likely to be killed by the damping off fungus. This can
be controlled only with great care and attention, by removing
the screens and drying the surface soil when the fungus gets
started and digging out the portions of the bed affected. As
has been said, it is better to purchase one year old seedlings
from nurserymen and set out in rows in the nursery for a
year or two. They will cost about $2.00 or $2.50 per thousand.

Waste lund should be planted with forest trees. No land on the farm
should hie idle.

Ba PR

eer

{RESTS te ee:

Seem pe ere SRO

An even aged woodlot of white and Norway pine.

' ESTABLISHING A WOODLOT 51

Use of Wild Stock.—Seedlings of trees for planting can
often be dug up on the edges or in openings in the woods or
along roads and under trees in the open. This is known as
wild stock. If planted out at once the seedlings are not likely
to live, because seedlings grown naturally produce very spread-
ing root systems. When they are dug up a large portion of
the roots is destroyed. If planted in the nursery for a year
where they can be cultivated and cared for, new roots will
be formed, making a hardy tree that can safely be planted
out in the field or woodlot. Thousands of seedlings of trees
are often seen growing in this way that can be collected at
no cost except the labor of gathering them. It must be re-
membered in gathering wild stock that the conditions under
which a tree grows can not be changed suddenly or the tree
will die. Seedlings should not be dug from shady situations
and planted in the sun.

THE TIME OF PLANTING THE SEEDLINGS

The best time to start the planting is early in the spring,
as soon as the ground can be worked and before the spring
rains. Hardwood trees should be planted before the buds
have opened; evergreens before the new growth has started.
Fall planting is sometimes practiced, especially where the
moist season comes in the fall of the year instead of the spring.
Seedlings planted in the fall are in danger of being heaved
out of the soil by alternate freezing and thawing, and the roots
not having a good hold on the ground and being unable to
absorb moisture readily may be winterkilled. Planted in the
spring the seedlings begin to grow at once and get a hold on
the soil, and unless a very dry season follows the planting
most of the trees will live. Where the planting is started by
sowing the seed directly where the trees are to grow, the seed
is kept over winter, as has been described, and planted early
in the spring, but seed that ripens in the spring of the year
should be planted at once. Cloudy days should be chosen

52 FARM FORESTRY

for the work of planting. Transplanting is a shock to the
young trees and all conditions must be made as favorable as
possible.

Preparing the Soil—Better results will be obtained if
the planting site is thoroughly cultivated before setting the
trees. This is especially true in the Middle West where the
heavy grass sods will quickly kill out the little trees. Thor-
ough cultivation of the soil conserves moisture, facilitates the
planting of the trees, induces rapid growth, and increases the
proportion of successful trees. Where the soil is favorable
and where there is not a heavy sod of grass or cover of weeds,
preparation is not always necessary. In the eastern part of
the country with its moist climate it is rarely that cultivation
of the soil previous to planting is necessary. It is only where
the conditions are not favorable to tree growth that it would
be recommended.

Spacing the Trees in the Planting.—The distance apart
the trees should be planted will depend largely on the species
of tree used and on the character of the site to be planted.
Tolerant trees, or those that will stand considerable shade, can
be planted closer together than intolerant trees. Close plant-
ing should be used where the site is unfavorable. Fast-grow-
ing trees should be planted farther apart than slow-growing
trees. In general most trees should not be spaced farther apart
than 5 or 6 feet. The reason for planting the trees so closely
together is to get the ground covered as quickly as possible
by the crowns, so that the trees will protect the soil and each
other from the sun and from cold and drying winds, and
bring about forest conditions rapidly. Close spacing also
causes the early death of lower branches of the trees before
they become large. It causes rapid height growth in trees
and produces long and cylindrical trunks. Wide spacing usually
results in more branchy trees with thicker trunks. Where the
seedlings are planted among the stumps of trees or in brush a
wider spacing will often be necessary.

ESTABLISHING A WOODLOT

SPACING TO BE FOLLOWED IN FOREST PLANTATION

From Farmers’ Bulletin 711

Spacing in feet.

iz2by12| 8by8 7by7 6 by 6 5 by 5 4bys
Number of Trees Required per Acre
303 680 889 1210 1743 2178
Cotton- | Yellow Short leaf pine. | White pine. Hickory. Hard maple.
wood. poplar. | Chestnut. Red pine. White oak. Yellow birch.
Red gum.‘| Black locust. Red oak. Chestnut oak.| Beech.
Loblolly Bald cypress. Black oak. Burr oak. White spruce
pine. Black walnut. | Post oak. | Red spruce.
White ash. Red elm. Fir.
Basswood.

How to Plant the Trees.—The seedlings should not be
pulled up from the nursery, but should be lifted with a spade,
so as not to strip the tender bark from the roots. They
should be placed at once in pails with several inches of water
in them, so that the roots will be kept moist all the time. The
trees can also be placed in baskets, provided the roots are
kept covered at all times with wet moss and only one seedling
removed at a time for planting. When the planting site is at
a distance from the nursery the seedlings can be tied loosely
in bundles to facilitate handling them. The roots should be
puddled in thin mud, so that they will become coated, and the
bundles healed in or planted firmly in shallow trenches so that
the roots are well covered, until time to ship them. In ship-
ping, the roots should be packed firmly in wet moss, leaves,
straw or moist earth, so as to exclude air and keep the roots
moist. When the seedlings reach the planting site they should
be healed in as before until needed for planting. Great care
must be used with coniferous seedlings, for exposure of the
roots to the sun and wind, even for a few minutes, will usually
kill them. A seedling should not be lifted from the pail until
it is ready to be planted.

There are several methods of planting seedlings. In gen-

54 FARM FORESTRY

eral the seedlings should be set in the ground at about the
same depth that they stood in the nursery. The soil should be
pressed in against the roots as well as downward, so that no
air spaces will be left, and the roots placed as nearly as pos-
sible in a natural position. The earth should be made firm
about the trees.

With small trees the slit method is often used with success.
This consists in thrusting a spade or grub hoe in the ground
and working it back and forth so that a wedge-shaped hole is
made. The roots of the seedling are then inserted back of the
spade in the cleft thus formed. The spade is removed and
the earth pressed with the foot firmly against the plant. This
is a very rapid method and fairly cheap and successful where
the soil is not too dry or poor. Care must be taken to get
the roots deep down in the cleft. A folded root will usually
die.

The surest method is the individual hole method. The
grass and weeds are stripped off a spot about 12 to 18 inches
square with the grub hoe or mattock, a hole is dug in the center
and the tree planted by hand, the roots being spread out in
a natural position. Long straggly or broken roots should be
pruned off neatly. This is a slower and more expensive
method than the slit method, but it is more successful,
especially where the conditions are not very good. With larger
seedlings it is the only method that can be used successfully.

Trees are sometimes planted in plowed furrows. A furrow
is turned and the trees placed upright against the side. The
sods can then be thrown back in the furrow and pressed
against the trees by treading, or a second furrow can be made
to throw the sods against the roots. This is a rapid and
very cheap method, and in good soil has proved successful
with many kinds of trees, such as cottonwood, maple, ash, and
also with pine and spruce. It is especially applicable with
poplar and willow cuttings.

The usual method of planting is for the men to work in

ESTABLISHING A WOODLOT 59

crews of two. One man digs the hole with a mattock and a
second man follows planting the seedlings. A line of stakes
is sometimes set across the field to give the line of site. Where
several crews are planting together the first crew gives the line
and the other crews plant the trees in rows spaced an equal
distance apart. Usually no attempt is made to keep the rows
exactly straight.

The Cost of Planting.—Planting usually costs from $6.00
to $12.00 an acre, depending on the cost of seedlings and of
labor and the method of planting used. Two men should
plant from a half acre to an acre a day, depending on the
method of planting and the size of the seedlings and the char-
acter of the soil and the planting area. If the trees are raised
in the farm nursery or wild stock is used, and if the trees are
planted with the farm help, the cost of establishing the plan-
tation will be very small.

CHAPTER VII
TREES TO USE IN STARTING WOODLOTS

THE selection of the trees to plant in starting a woodlot
or forest planting is an important consideration. It may take
several years to show that trees are not adapted to a certain
region or situation or soil. The ordinary planter cannot afford
to experiment with trees. The loss of many years may result
from a wrong choice. Trees must be adapted to the conditions
under which they are planted or they will not thrive.

The following points should be considered in the selection
of the trees to plant:

Is the tree hardy in the climate where it is to be planted?
Many trees grow well within the natural range of their distri-
bution. Few trees will grow well far outside of the range.
This is because a tree cannot change its habits of growth to
conform to a new climate. Retaining its old schedule of
growth, it may leaf out too early in the spring or continue its
growth too late in the fall and so be frostbitten. Trees from
a region where the air is moist will not grow in a region of
dry air. Trees from the Pacific coast will not thrive in the
East because of this fact.

Is the tree adapted to the situation? Trees that will do well
in lowlands will not thrive when planted on upland regions.
Trees from high altitudes will not thrive in low land. In the
same region a matter of a few feet often determines the char-
acter and kinds of trees that will grow, because of a difference
in the moisture conditions. Exposure to wind and frost is an
important factor in tree life. In the same region the same trees

r=
er)
&
eI
2)
a

lanted, densely branc

ik, closely p

Single row of cottonwoods, as a windbre

TREES TO USE IN STARTING WOODLOTS 57

are rarely found growing on both a steep north and southern
slope.

Is the tree suited to the soil? Although soil does not affect
trees to the same extent as agricultural crops, the kind of soil
is important with many species. Some trees demand a moist
fertile soil and will not grow well on any other kind. Whether
the soil is limestone or of granite origin may determine in large
measure the kinds of trees that will grow.

Will the tree selected when grown serve the purpose de-
sired? Trees are grown in a woodlot for definite purposes,
either for lumber, or fuel or fence posts or other uses. Will
the form and size of the tree when grown and the character
of the wood be suited for the particular use for which it is
grown? Is the tree of fast enough growth to give the product
desired in a reasonable time? With trees that are suited to
the climate and situation, these questions become of prime im-
portance to the woodlot planter.

Are the trees subject to attacks by insects or disease?
There are certain kinds of trees that are known to be seriously
damaged and often killed by attacks of insects. There are also
trees that are subject to fungus diseases. Only those trees
that are able to withstand such attacks should be selected.

The Use of Trees Native to a Region.—Not all the trees
that grow naturally in any particular region are suited for
planting in woodlots. Many of them have too slow growth,
or do not grow to large enough size, or do not produce wood
that is of value for use on the farm. There are, however, no
better trees to plant in any region than those that grow nat-
urally in that region, provided they will give the product
desired. Such trees are suited to the climate and the con-
ditions. No mistake can be made in their use.

In choosing a native tree to plant on a particular site no
mistake can be made in following nature. The trees found
growing vigorously on a site similar to the one to be planted
should be selected. Trees will rarely do well on a site poorer

58 FARM FORESTRY

than that on which they naturally grow. On the other hand,
almost any tree will thrive under good soil and moisture con-
ditions.

The Use of Trees from Other Regions of the Country.—
There are many trees not native to a region but which grow
well in some other portion of the country that can safely be
planted. We often find growing around farm homes trees
not native to the region that have made good growth, and that
have shown that they are suited to the climate. Such examples
are worthy of notice. Where such trees give the product
desired they can safely be planted in the woodlot.

The Use of Foreign Trees.—There are many foreign trees
that have been long in use in this country in many regions
for ornamental purposes. Some of them have made good
growth and seem to be adapted to the climate. A number of
them have been used for forest plantings. Norway spruce,
European larch, Scotch pine, and Austrian pine have been
planted for this purpose. It is a question whether foreign
trees will in general prove as valuable as those that are native
to the country.

Trees have been planted experimentally for many years
in nearly every region, and the trees suited to the climate and
those that are not have been fairly well worked out. Infor-
mation in regard to the trees to plant can be obtained from
the State Forester or from the State Agricultural College.

ADVANTAGES OF MIXED PLANTATIONS

Mixtures are sometimes made of forest trees in planting,
often with greater success than where species are planted pure.

The advantages of planting two or more kinds of trees in
mixture are as follows:

1. It enables the production of more than one kind of
wood. Farmers need wood for construction purposes and
for fence posts, fuel, stakes, etc. There are but few species
of trees that will furnish 2 wood suitable for all these uses.

White pine used as a windbreak.

TREES TO USE IN STARTING WOODLOTS 59

A mixture of a coniferous tree giving a soft construction wood
and a hardwood suitable for fuel and fence posts would serve
the farm better than a single species.

2. Many trees have light foliage and when planted in pure
stands do not shade the soil sufficiently to keep out a rank
growth of grass and weeds. In this case a mixture of trees
will furnish greater shade and bring about and maintain better
forest conditions on the floor. Trees with light foliage are
often underplanted with more tolerant trees for these purposes.

3. Some trees should be spaced widely apart in order that
fast growth will be secured before the crowns of the individual
trees come together to form the canopy. Larch, cottonwood,
white pine and black walnut often do better with a wide spac-
ing. In this case the final yield can be considerably increased
and better forest conditions secured by filling in the spaces
between the trees after they are well started with some other
kind of tree.

4. Often a mixture of trees will lessen the expense of the
planting. Norway pine, European larch, white pine and many
other nursery grown trees are expensive. Transplants often
cost from $5 to $10 or more a thousand. In planting them a
cheaper tree called a filler can be used like the maple, either
planting the trees in alternate rows or planting first a maple
and then one of the other trees throughout each row. In
this way only half the usual number of the expensive tree will
be needed. The cheaper tree can be removed later in thin-
nings. Wild stock or seedlings that have been seeded naturally
can be used for this purpose.

5. A mixed stand is less apt to be badly damaged by: in-
sect attacks or fungus diseases. With pure stands insects and
diseases spread rapidly. In a mixed stand insects will repro-
duce less rapidly and insects and diseases will spread more
slowly from tree to tree than in pure stands. Should one
species be destroyed the other species, if hardy, will develop
and form the future stand.

60 FARM FORESTRY

The following mixtures, taken from Bulletin 153 of the
U. S. Department of Agriculture, should prove successful on
soils adapted to both species:

1. Cottonwood and silver maple.

2. Cottonwood and Norway spruce.

3. Cottonwood and white spruce.

4. Cottonwood and green ash.

5. European larch and red oak.

6. European larch and white pine.

7, European larch and white spruce.

8. European larch and Norway spruce.

g. White pine and Scotch pine.

10. White pine and Norway pine.

11. White pine and hard maple.

12. White pine and red oak.

13. Black walnut and white spruce.

14. Old open stands of black walnut underplanted with
white pine and of soft maple with white spruce.

Many Trees can be Widely Planted.—With the exception
of the Prairie region with its scanty rainfall and the northern
portions of the Lake States and the Spruce region of New
England with their severe winters, the climate throughout the
northern and eastern portions of the country does not differ
materially. Over the whole area there is sufficient rainfall to
support tree growth, and the growing season is long enough
to mature many species. Many of the species found growing
in the southern New England and Middle Atlantic states will
also be found growing in the Central Hardwood Region.
Because of these facts most of the trees found growing
naturally in one region will also be found on sites suited to
them in other regions or will have been widely scattered by
planting. There are but few trees that will do well only in
restricted regions in this part of the country. Catalpa is an
example of this. It grows naturally along the bottomlands
of the lower Ohio and Mississippi Rivers and is badly dam-

TREES TO USE IN STARTING WOODLOTS 61

aged by severe winters if planted far outside its natural range.
Over this region in general the question of the selection of the
trees to plant is not primarily one based on climate, but rather
on soil conditions or site or on the product desired. A third
factor often becomes of prime importance—that of the hardi-
ness of the tree to insect and fungous attacks. Often the
best tree to plant for a particular purpose cannot be used for
these reasons. For example, there is no better tree to plant
in the northern part of the region than the white pine for
lumber. The white pine weevil which kills the leaders of the
trees already makes the use of this tree impossible in many
places. It is also likely to be killed by the blister rust should
it become widespread. European larch, which furnishes a
wood particularly well adapted to farm purposes, being a
fairly durable wood and strong, cannot be used generally
because of the larch saw fly that defoliates the trees, thus
killing them. Black locust would be the best tree to plant by
farmers for fence posts and fuel were it not for the locust
borer which riddles the wood. Chestnut throughout its natural
range has probably been the most serviceable wood to farmers,
furnishing fence posts, fuei, poles and lumber. The chestnut
blight prevents its being planted or favored. It is unfortunate
that some of the best trees for the farm woodlot cannot be
advised for general use. Trees not hardy to insect and fungous
attacks should be planted only after thorough investigation of
conditions.

Trees to Plant for Lumber and Fence Posts.—For the
production of lumber, trees should be planted that have fast
growth and a soft, light, easily-worked wood, and one that
will not warp or twist excessively in use. In general the con-
iferous woods fulfill these conditions. Red pine, white pine,
Scotch pine, European larch, Norway spruce and white spruce
have been planted extensively. Douglas fir and western yellow
pine are also coming into use and may prove uf value. Among
the hardwoods there are many trees that furnish valuable

62 FARM FORESTRY

wood for lumber for one purpose or another—chestnut, white
ash, yellow poplar, red oak, black walnut, American elm, and
sugar maple are hardy trees and can be planted generally.
For fence posts a tree that furnishes a durable wood should
be selected. Red cedar, white oak, black locust and chestnut
have been valuable fence post trees. Red cedar and white oak
are of too slow growth to grow for this purpose and the black
locust and chestnut cannot be recommended for general plant-
ing because of the insects and diseases that attack them.
Catalpa has been planted generally, but has seldom been suc-
cessful. It succeeds only on the best of soil and moisture
conditions. European larch is subject to the saw fly. There
are but few other trees of durable woods that can be recom-
mended. Honey locust, coffeetree and osage orange have
durable woods and can be widely planted throughout the
region. Almost any tree could be grown for fence posts if
the wood were durable. Cottonwood is probably the fastest
growing tree that could be planted, but as fence posts the
wood will last but 2 or 3 years in the ground. Such wood
can, however, be given a preservative treatment, as explained
in a subsequent chapter. When so treated a perishable wood
will last much longer usually than the most durable of woods.

FOREST PLANTING IN EASTERN REGIONS

The Spruce Region.—This region comprises the northern
part of Maine, New Hampshire and Vermont, and the Adiron-
dack and Catskill Mountains of New York and the surround-
ing hilly lands. Red spruce is the predominant tree, growing
pure and in mixture with hardwoods and other conifers.
Beech, birch and maple are the chief hardwoods, and besides
the red spruce are found white and black spruce, hemlock
and balsam fir. The topography is rugged. In the northern
portion, because of the excellent natural reproduction of the
spruce, it will be relied on to reforest cutover areas. Where

TREES TO USE IN STARTING WOODLOTS 63

extensive burns have destroyed the trees planting will be
necessary. The native white spruce will do well planted in
pure stands. It is easily grown in nurseries. Three year old ,
transplants should be used spaced 6 feet by 6 feet. The Nor-
way spruce has been used extensively for this purpose. There
are many abandoned fields in the region on which it will be
advisable to plant spruce for pulpwood and lumber. The
southern portion of the region is hilly rather than mountain-
ous. The soils are much better, a large percentage being
devoted to agriculture. The forests are broken up into small-
sized areas, there being many farm woodlots. The same
species are found as in the northern portion, but in different
proportions, and in addition several trees occur that creep
up from the south, such as red oak, ash and basswood. Sugar
maple often forms a large part of the forest on the better
soils. It is often grown for the production of maple sugar.
Plantings should be made on the old fields, of which there
are a large number, and to fill in and restock wornout wood-
lots and those containing inferior species. The better kinds
of hardwoods native to the region can be used for planting
for cordwood and posts, and for lumber Norway pine, white
pine, white spruce and Norway spruce.

The White Pine Region of the Northeast.—This comprises
southeastern Maine, most of Massachusetts, northeast Con-
necticut and the central portions of New York and Pennsyl-
vania. White pine is the typical tree of the region, it being
in its optimum region. It is often found growing pure,
especially on the poorer soils, and is usually mixed with many
hardwood trees on the better soils as well as with other coni-
fers. The region contains a large percentage of agricultural
soils. In Pennsylvania there are many extensive and con-
tinuous mountain forests and much burned-over waste lands.
There are many abandoned fields, and a farm is rare that
does not have some land better suited for growing forest
trees than for farm crops. White pine would be the natural

64 FARM FORESTRY

tree for planting in the region. Owing to the white pine weevil
which kills the leaders of the trees, making them branchy and
bushy in form, and also because of the danger of the spread-
ing of the white pine blister rust, a recently introduced disease,
much similar in its effect to the chestnut blight, it should be
planted with caution. Where it can be grown there is probably
no tree that will give better results. The Norway or red pine
being a hardy tree and not as susceptible to insect and fungous
attacks can be used in place of the white pine. It grows nearly
as fast as the white pine and its wood is much similar in
character. It will also grow on drier situations. It should
be planted pure spaced 6 feet by 6 feet apart or mixed with
the white pine in alternate rows. Several foreign trees have
been used for plantings. Scotch pine has been advised for
the drier soils. Norway spruce and European larch have also
been used. Many of the native hardwoods can be planted
successfully where the conditions are favorable to them,
especially sugar maple, basswood, white ash, red oak, black
walnut, yellow poplar and cottonwood.

Southern New England and Middle Atlantic States.—
This is mainly a hardwood region. It is the meeting ground
of northern and southern trees, so that the forests and wood-
lots contain many species. Among the conifers found are
white, Norway and pitch pines, red cedar and hemlock, and
among the hardwoods sugar maple, birch, beech, many oaks,
white ash, chestnut, hickory, yellow poplar, basswood, walnut,
elm, and others of lesser importance. Woodlots are a valuable
source of timber supply. In general it is a region of many
markets for the products of the woodlot, and the planting and
care of woodlots should be profitable. For lumber Norway
pine, Scotch pine, white pine, white and European spruce,
and European larch have been recommended, and also cotton-
wood, yellow poplar, basswood, and red oak. For fence posts
black locust, where not subject to the borer, honey locust and
coffeetree have durable woods and can be used. Chestnut

TREES TO USE IN STARTING WOODLOTS 65

grows well in the region and would, of course, be the best tree
to plant were it not for the chestnut bark disease. European
larch can also be planted where not subject to the saw fly.

The Lake States Region.—This region occupies the greater
part of Michigan, Wisconsin and Minnesota. Magnificent
stands of white pine formerly grew in this region, and also of
Norway pine and jack pine. On the better class of soils many
hardwoods are found like sugar maple, yellow birch, white
ash, red oak, burr oak, basswood, poplar and paper birch.
Hemlock occurs mixed with other species, and there is also
some American larch and northern white cedar. There is a
very large amount of cut-over and burned land in the region
in need of reforestation. Probably only about Io per cent of
the whole region is under cultivation. Owing to the high value
of stumpage the planting of fast-growing trees is a commercial
proposition. It will be an important forest region in the future,
as it has been in the past. The trees native to the region
should be planted on the soils where they grow naturally;
white pine will grow well on the better class of sandy soils,
Norway pine on the drier soils and jack pine on the poorest
and driest of the sandy soils. Scotch pine seems to thrive
on most of these sites. The better class of hardwoods of the
region should be used on the hardwood soils for restocking
and improving the present stands in the farm woodlots. Black
locust, honey locust and coffeetree can also be planted for
fence posts. Catalpa has been used to some extent, but the
region is too far north for this species, the severe winters
killing back the new wood.

Tho Central Hardwood Region.—This region extends from
central New York State and western Pennsylvania south to
northern Alabama and west to Minnesota, Iowa, Nebraska
and Missouri. It has in general a level topography, but with
many steep slopes and deep ravines. It is typically a hardwood
forest region, the forest being made up of a great number
of broadleaf trees mixed in together. Red cedar is the only

66 FARM FORESTRY

coniferous tree that occurs extensivety. The soil and climate
are well adapted to the growing of trees. Owing to the many
wood-using industries in the region and the demand for wood
products of all kinds, timber is of value. Many individual
trees of good form and quality bring high prices for special
purposes. Much planting has been done for posts and lumber.
The woodlots of the region are for the most part in a culled
condition, most of the valuable trees having been removed.
Wornout woodlots should be restocked and plantings started
on all the poorer soils of the farm. The upland forests con-
tain oaks, hickory, sugar maple, white ash, yellow poplar, bass-
wood, walnut, cherry and birch. The lowland forest contains
elm, red maple, black ash, sycamore, willow and gums. Many
of these native species are of value for planting. Black locust
and catalpa have been used extensively for posts. White pine,
Norway pine, yellow poplar, red oak, black walnut and white
ash all should be of value in planting for lumber. White ash
and green ash will grow well and furnish lumber and wood for
general farm purposes and for handles.

The Prairie Region.—This region consists of three prin-
cipal divisions: the Western Prairie Region, including eastern
Montana, the Dakotas, south and western Minnesota and
northern Iowa; the Middle West, including southeastern South
Dakota, Iowa, Nebraska, Kansas, eastern Colorado and west-
ern Illinois; and the Southern Plains, including Oklahoma,
southwest Kansas, northwest Texas and eastern New Mexico.
This is not a region of natural tree growth except along the
watercourses, owing to the lack of rainfall. Where trees are
started in forest plantings, however, and cultivated until the
crowns shade the soil, so that forest conditions are established,
there should be no trouble in raising valuable stands of trees.
There are in general two planting sites in this region, namely,
the uplands, consisting of exposed rolling prairies and plains,
and lowlands or bottomlands and lower valley slopes.

The Northern Prairie Region.—On the uplands, plantings

TREES TO USE IN. STARTING WOODLOTS 67

should be in the nature of wind breaks or shelter belts located
along the northern and western boundaries of every 160 acre
farm and two extending from north to south at intervals of
60 rods from the west side. The species recommended for the
better class of soils are European larch, cottonwood, white
willow, Scotch pine and western yellow pine. On the poorer
soils or in very exposed situations, western yellow pine, Scotch
pine, white spruce, green ash, white elm, hackberry and box-
elder should thrive. Thorough cultivation is necessary until the
crowns shade the soil. The trees should be closely spaced so
as to bring this condition about as soon as possible. A spacing
of 4 by 4 feet for conifers and 5 by 5 feet for the slowly
growing hardwoods and 15 by 15 feet for cottonwood under-
planted with silver maple is advised.

On the lowlands better soil and moisture conditions are
found. All the species recommended for the uplands will do
well, especially cottonwood, European larch, Scotch pine,
silver maple, white willow, Austrian pine and white pine.
On the lowlands the: growing of trees for fence posts and fuel
is a commercial proposition at present.

The Middle West.—Plantings will be made primarily for
shelter belts and for the production of fence posts. On the
better upland soils hardy catalpa, European larch, cottonwood,
osage orange, white pine and white willow are recommended.
For the sandy lands in the western part of the region jack
pine, Scotch pine, Austrian pine and western yellow pine and
red cedar are the species advised, and on the better soils
honey locust, Russian mulberry, osage orange, red cedar,
western yellow pine, Austrian pine, Scotch pine, green ash
and white elm. On the lowlands in the region, hardy catalpa
and osage orange are the chief trees for fence posts and cot-
tonwood on short rotations for lumber, pulpwood, boxboards
and staves, and for fuel alone white willow and silver maple,
walnut and Kentucky coffeetree are also recommended. The
spacing used in plantings should not exceed 6 by 6 feet, and

68 FARM FORESTRY

on the poorer sites a closer spacing should be used. Cultiva-
tion of the soil is necessary during the first few years.

The Southern Plains——On the uplands the southern and
western sides of each quarter section should be protected by
shelterbelts from the dry southwestern winds with belts run-
ning east and west every 30 to 40 rods. In the more humid
eastern region cottonwood, green ash, Russian mulberry,
osage orange and white elm will thrive, and black locust where
it is not subject to the locust borer. In the very dry western
portion of the region there are no trees that are sure of success.
The following are recommended as being likely to succeed:
Green ash, white elm, osage orange, red cedar, black locust,
honey locust and Russian mulberry for fence posts and west-
ern yellow pine and cottonwood for lumber.

On the lowlands better conditions of soil moisture are
found. The most valuable species for planting are osage
orange, black locust, Russian mulberry and cottonwood for fuel
and lumber. As in the other parts of this region, thorough
cultivation of the soil is essential for success in starting
plantings. Mixtures of a few of the species will often do
better than where a single species is planted. This is because
of the denser shade that is formed. Under-planting the plan-
tations with the more tolerant species will prove of value.

Planting for Windbreaks.—Windbreaks are grown for the
purpose of protecting homes, cattle, orchards and fields from
the wind. In many regions this is essential. There is scarcely
a portion of the country that is not subject to severe winds.
Windbreaks planted about fields diminish soil erosion, me-
chanical injury to the soil and crops and evaporation from the
soil and plants.

Trees form one of the most effective means of protection
against winds. Where the protecting trees are in one or two
rows the term windbreak is applied. A shelter belt consists
of three or more rows but not wider than twice the ultimate

TREES TO USE IN STARTING WOODLOTS 69

height of the trees. Groves and sometimes forests are also
grown for protection from the wind.

The influence of a windbreak is proportional to its height
and density. The influence is appreciable for a distance equal
to five times the height of the trees in the windward direction
and fifteen or twenty times the height to leeward. The dis-
tance increases with the velocity of the wind.

Windbreaks have a somewhat damaging effect on crops,
due to the shade cast by the crowns of the trees, and also to
the sapping of the soil moisture by the roots. Species having
narrow crowns or light foliage and which do not extend their
roots far should be selected where the injury is likely to be
considerable.

Sapping the soil moisture by the roots of trees can be over-
come in large measure by very deep plowing each year to cut
off surface roots of the trees. Cultivating the soil near the
trees will tend to induce them to secure their food closer to
the trunks. Tap-rooted species like white pine, Norway pine,
oaks; hickories and maples can be used. Green ash, osage
orange and mulberry do not extend their roots far. Often
the value of the timber and other products, as well as the
protection secured, will more than repay any loss from the
crops.

The trees in windbreaks should be planted closely together
so that the branches will interlace and make an effective
shelter. The narrower the belt the closer the trees should be
planted. Trees with slender crowns can be planted closer than
those with wide-spreading crowns; slow-growing trees closer
than fast-growing species. In general the trees should not be
planted farther than 5 or 6 feet apart. The rows are often
spaced 5 to 6 feet apart and the trees in the rows spaced much
closer together.

In starting a windbreak the protection is desired as soon
as possible. To secure this a fast-growing tree should be
selected, even though it may not be a particularly desirable

70 FARM FORESTRY

tree for the purpose. Cottonwood will grow 25 feet in five
or six years on good soil. Silver maple and box elder are also
fast-growing trees. A windbreak can be planted using such
fast-growing trees and at the same time a more valuable tree
for the purpose can be planted which will take the place of
the other trees in time. A single row of trees planted along
the edges of fields will give good protection in many regions.
The trees should be underplanted so that when they begin to
shed their lower branches the smaller trees will fill in between
them. The large trees can be pruned of their limbs as the
lower trees increase in height. In this way the trees will fur-
nish valuable wood product as well as protection from the
wind.

In the Middle West cottonwood is the tree best suited for
windbreaks when planted on good, moist situations. It should
be planted in belts 125 to 150 feet wide running east and west
and should not be cut until about 45 years of age, at which
time the trees should be nearly go feet high. The belts should
be underplanted a few years after the cottonwood is started
with some more tolerant -tree, such as green ash, red oak or
the spruces. On the uplands and on the poorer situations
osage orange, green ash, honey locust, Scotch pine and Aus-
trian pine can be used.

On the northern prairies protection is necessary from the
cold north winds of winter and the hot, dry, chinook winds
that blow from the mountains in early spring. Windbreaks
should be planted across the northern and western boundaries
of each quarter section and one or two rows planted within,
the trees being planted in belts from 60 to 75 feet wide. On
good situations Scotch pine, Norway pine, Colorado blue
spruce and the Black Hills spruce are recommended, and on
the poorer situations western yellow pine, Scotch pine and
Black Hills spruce.

In the Lake States white pine is advised for windbreaks,
planted in belts running north and south, spaced 4 by 6 feet

Phsto by R. S. Maddox.

Black locust in gulley preventing erosion.

TREES TO USE IN STARTING WOODLOTS 71

apart. Norway spruce has also been used extensively, and
white cedar is a valuable species for this purpose planted 2
by 4 feet. On very sandy soils Scotch pine and Norway pine
should be used. Windbreaks are especially needed for orchard
protection.

In the Eastern States white pine, white spruce, Norway
spruce, white cedar and hemlock are recommended. Two rows
of Norway spruce make a good windbreak when planted about
8 by 8 feet apart and the trees alternated in the rows.

Planting to Prevent Erosion.—In many regions erosion is
one of the serious effects of denuding hillsides of tree growth.
It not only destroys the value of the soil by stripping off the
top layers and by gulleying, but the material washed away is
deposited in the streams, impeding navigation, and in times of
very high water and floods it may cover fertile lands with
gravel and stones, making them worthless. In many regions
forests should be maintained for soil protection. Tree plant-
ing on abandoned land on the farm is often a necessary opera-
tion to prevent erosion.

Gulleys formed in the soil from erosion can often be
stopped by planting trees and shrubs. To do this it is neces-
sary to hold the soil in place by some means until the trees get
a firm hold on the ground. Brush, logs, stumps and stones
can be used for this purpose. The head of the gulley is the
important point. If the headward gnawing can be stopped
the gulley can usually be controlled by planting. Brush should
be piled with the tops up stream and held in place by stakes.
Back of the dam formed trees and shrubs should be planted.
These should be of large size, so that they will not easily be
washed out of the ground. Black locust is one of the best
trees to plant, as it fills the soil with a network of roots and
will send up new trees from the roots. Willow is often used,
and any fast-growing tree like cottonwood should prove valu-
able. Shrubs planted along the edges of the gulley will pre-
vent its growing larger.

72 FARM FORESTRY

Raising Christmas Trees.—The raising of Christmas trees
is a profitable undertaking in many regions. Trees from 6
to 8 feet high are in greatest demand, and there is a good
market for smaller trees. [Especially well-formed specimens
are often sought by nurserymen for ornamental purposes. In
from 5 to 6 years after planting the trees an income should
be secured. There are many conifers that can be used for the
purpose. Spruce and fir are usually in greatest demand,
though many of the pines like white pine and Norway pine
are sold. On fairly good soil these trees should grow from a
half foot to a foot each year. Because the trees are to be
removed early in their life a close spacing can be used. Three
by three feet is often used for spruce and fir requiring 4840
trees to the acre. Faster-growing trees should be spaced 4
by 4 feet, requiring 2723 trees to the acre. Small trees for
planting can be purchased from nurserymen often for as low
a price as $2 to $3 a thousand.

CHAPTER VIII
TREES AND THEIR VALUE FOR PLANTING

White Pine (Pinus strobus)—The white pine is widely
distributed throughout the northeastern part of the country,
extending south to Pennsylvania and Jowa and along the
Appalachian Mountains to Georgia. It grows to large size,
often living 450 years and reaching 175 feet in height and
3 to 5 feet in diameter. It grows best on deep, light, moist
and sandy soils. It will, however, grow on nearly all situations
where there is sufficient moisture, from steep rocky slopes to
river bottoms that are well drained. The wood of white pine
is soft, light, straight grained and easily worked and will not
warp. It has been an important construction timber. More
lumber has been cut from white pine than from any other
species, and it was formerly used for more purposes than
any other wood. It is gradually becoming scarce and the
better grades are high in price.

The seedlings of white pine for planting, as with other
conifers, are difficult to grow without constant care and atten-
tion during the first few weeks. It is best to purchase 2-year-
old seedlings from a commercial nursery. They can often be
purchased for as low as $2 or $3 a thousand. They will
be large enough to plant on favorable sites and for under-
planting open stands of timber. Where the conditions are not
favorable, as where the grass or weeds grow high, the seed-
lings should be grown in the farm nursery for a year or more
before planting. In starting plantings the seedlings are planted
in rows 6 to 8 feet apart and spaced the same distance apart

74 FARM FORESTRY

in the rows, the distance depending on the conditions of the
soil and the situation. On the poorer sites the trees should be
planted closely together.

White pine grows in height at an average rate of about
a foot a year. Often a growth of several feet is made a year
on good soil. At 25 years of age under good conditions white
pine will vary in height from 25 to 30 feet, and in diameter
from 5 to 6 inches. The trees are badly damaged by the white
pine weevil, an insect that bores into the tip or leader and
kills it. This may cause a bushy or forked tree. The trees
are also subject to several diseases, especially to the blister
rust. For these reasons it must be planted with caution.
Although one of the fast-growing conifers and producing a
wood more valuable for many uses than any other tree, it may
be necessary to discontinue its use for forest planting because
of these enemies. It is common to mix the white pine with
some other tree, so that if the white pine fails the other tree
will form the future stand, a row of white pine alternating
with the other species. Norway pine is a good tree for this
purpose, as it grows nearly as fast as the white pine. European
spruce, European larch, red oak, white ash and hard maple
are other trees that can be used.

Norway or Red Pine (Pinus resinosa).—The natural range
of the Norway or red pine is along the northern border of
the country west to Minnesota and south to Pennsylvania.
It grows to be a tree 70 to go feet high and 2 to 3 feet in
diameter. It grows best on a sandy loam soil, well drained,
and of fair fertility, but it also thrives on poor, dry, sandy
soils. It is a hardy tree and not so susceptible to insect and
fungous attacks as is the white pine. It is propagated the
same as for white pine. It is often planted mixed with the
white pine. It grows well in pure stands. The wood is much
like white pine, though a little heavier and harder. At 30
years of age trees will reach 30 to 35 feet in height and from
5 to 6 inches in diameter. Being a native tree and not injured

TREES AND THEIR VALUE FOR PLANTING 75

seriously by insects or disease, Norway pine should hold an
important place in forestry in the future. It is propagated
as for white pine.

Jack Pine (Pinus divaricata)—Jack pine is a northern
tree extending south to northern New England, New York,
and the Lake States. It is most abundant on the sand plains
of Michigan, Wisconsin and Minnesota. It is a comparatively
small tree. Mature stands will not average more than 70 feet
high and 10 inches in diameter. Individual trees are found
100 feet high and 18 inches in diameter. Its importance lies
in the fact that it will grow well on poor, dry sands. It forms
a tap root that grows deep into the ground, making it possible
for the tree to stand very dry conditions. It is a very intol-
erant tree. It makes very rapid growth in youth. At 10 years
of age trees on poor soil are often 18 feet high. It will some-
times grow 3 feet a year at that age. Its growth slows down
later, so that at 60 years of age the trees are only 60 feet
high and from 5 to 8 inches in diameter. It has short life,
the average age of stands seldom exceeding 80 to go years.
It bears large quantities of seed every year. Cones are often
produced on trees at 5 years of age. The seeds are light
and are blown long distances by the wind. It quickly seeds
up burned over areas. The cones, which naturally open with
difficulty, are dried out by fire and open readily after it has
passed to scatter the seed. It can easily be propagated arti-
ficially by sowing the seed. The wood is soft, light and brittle,
but has many uses, including bed slats, boxes, ceiling, crates,
flooring, furniture and siding. It wil] be an important tree
locally in its natural range on soil too dry and sandy for other
species of trees to grow.

Scotch Pine (Pinus sylvestris).—Scotch pine is a native of
Europe and has been planted extensively in this country chiefly
for ornamental purposes. Many plantations of this tree have
been started. It grows to be a tree 70 feet high and 1%
to 3 feet in diameter, and may reach 120 feet in height and

76 FARM FORESTRY

3 to § feet in diameter. It makes rapid height growth for the
first 15 or 20 years, often 20 to 30 inches a year. It will grow
on all classes of soils, even dry sand, although it prefers deep,
well drained, sandy loam. It is very intolerant of shade.
The wood is comparatively soft, light, resinous, and light
reddish-brown in color. It is used for general construction,
lumber, railroad ties and poles. Two-year-old seedlings can
be purchased from nurserymen and planted in the farm
nursery for a year or two before being planted, except on very
favorable sites where the grass and weeds do not grow high,
when the two-year-old seedlings can be used. It should be
spaced about 6 by 8 feet, being rather intolerant. It is often
mixed with white pine in alternate rows. It is a very hardy
tree and free from diseases. It grows well on the sandy
soils of the Lake States, in the Prairie region, and on aban-
doned lands in New England. Trees planted in this country
have usually come from a mountain variety and do not grow
to large size. At about 20 years of age they become crooked
and yield but little timber. Unless a better variety of seed
can be secured some of our native species will prove better
in the long run.

White Spruce (Picea canadensis)—White spruce occurs
naturally throughout the northern tier of states to Montana
and crosses the continent and reaches the Pacific coast in
Alaska. It is a tree of the cold North. It is a tree of medium
size, a large tree of the species being 100 feet high and 30
inches in diameter. The wood is soft, light, and not very
strong. Like other spruces it is used for the manufacture of
paper pulp and for lumber and construction purposes. It
will grow under a wide range of soil and moisture conditions.
It is found on low land along streams and on the sides of
ridges and hills. It grows best in moist, well drained, sandy
loam soil. It is a very tolerant tree, the side branches remain-
ing on the trees many years producing knotty lumber, unless
grown in dense stands. Being a native tree and adapted to

TREES AND THEIR VALUE FOR PLANTING 77

many soils and situations, it is believed that the white spruce
will be an important tree in the future for planting for pulp
wood and lumber. In many places it is being planted for this
purpose. It is often used for windbreaks. It is readily grown
from seed in nurseries and easily handled. After the first
few years its growth is fairly rapid. It should be planted in
crowded stands, spaced about 4 feet by 4 feet apart. As with
the other conifers small seedlings can be purchased from
nurserymen and grown for a year or until large enough to
set out. On the more favorable sites 3-year-old transplants
will be large enough.

Norway Spruce (Picea excelsa).—This tree is a native of
Europe and Asia, but is hardy and grows well in the eastern
part of the United States. It has been planted extensively
for ornamental purposes and is often seen growing around
farm homes and in cemeteries and for windbreaks. In Europe
it grows to be a very large tree, often exceeding 125 feet in
height and 3 feet in diameter. It grows well on nearly all
situations, except a naturally dry soil. It will grow well in a
fresh shallow soil, whether fertile or not, and will thrive with
moderate amount of moisture. Because of its dense crown
it has been planted extensively for windbreaks in the Middle
West. The wood is light, soft, splits easily and does not warp.
It makes a good construction material, and is used for paper
pulp, masts, oars, and many other purposes. Two-year-old
seedlings can be purchased from nurserymen and planted for
a year or two in the farm nursery before planting. For lumber
the trees should be spaced about 4 or 5 feet apart. For wind-
breaks a wider spacing is better, often up to 12 feet by 12
feet. It is a good tree for underplanting old groves of cotton-
wood, walnut or other trees where the canopy is thin, being
a tolerant tree. Spruce trees grow slowly for the first few
years, but after that period is passed growth is fairly rapid.
Trees 30 years of age have often reached 50 to 60 feet in height
and 6 to 8 inches in diameter. Because of its being a foreign

78 FARM FORESTRY

tree it is probable that the native white spruce will in the end
be a better tree to plant. Trees at about 40 or 50 years of
age begin to grow ragged in the tops, showing that the tree
is not especially adapted to the climate.

European Larch (Larix Europea).—European larch is a
native of the northern part of Europe, growing in the cooler
and higher altitudes. It has been planted extensively in this
country for ornamental purposes, and also for posts and poles.
It is a fast grower, but seldom reaches more than a height
of 80 feet and a diameter of 2 to 3 feet. At 40 years of age
trees often reach 50 to 60 feet in height and 6 to 7 inches in
diameter. It is an intolerant tree, and so does not cast a
heavy shade on the ground or maintain good forest condi-
tions. It should be mixed with some other tree that will fur-
nish the necessary shade, as white pine, white spruce or red
oak. The larch should be spaced about 10 feet by 10 feet
and filled in with the other species. It requires a fresh, well
drained, moderately heavy soil. It does not do well on sand
or gravel or on wet situations. The wood is heavy, fairly
hard, and durable in contact with the ground. It would be
a good tree to plant for fence posts were it not for the danger
of the larch sawfly, which attacks and kills the trees by de-
foliating them. Seedlings for planting can be purchased from
nurserymen.

Red Cedar (Juniperus virginiana).—The red cedar is the
most widely distributed coniferous tree in the United States,
being distributed throughout the forests east of the Dakotas
and Texas. In the region of its best development it forms
pure forests, but it usually grows in association with a large
number of hardwood trees. It grows under almost any con-
dition of soil and moisture, from dry rocky ridges to fertile
bottomlands. It is particularly well adapted to the semi-arid
plains, where but few other trees will succeed. In the South
it sometimes grows 100 feet high and 3 feet in diameter, but
usually it does not exceed 30 feet in height. The growth is

TREES AND THEIR VALUE FOR PLANTING 79

naturally slow, but the rate varies with the conditions of the
soil. It takes from 1 to 15 years to grow an inch in diameter.
The height growth does not exceed a foot a year. The wood
is light, soft and of compact grain. It will take a high polish.
The wood is very durable, which makes it a valuable tree for
fence posts, poles, chests and railroad ties. The wood is used
in the manufacture of lead pencils. Its dense crown makes
it a good tree to plant for windbreaks on the Plains. It is
reproduced only by seed. Usually it takes two years for
germination. The seed should be collected when ripe, soaked
in warm water for several hours and stratified in moist sand
and planted in the fall, a year from the time they were gath-
ered, or kept until the following spring. They are difficult
to grow, owing to the damping off fungus. It will be better
to purchase small seedlings from nurserymen and set them
out for a year or two before planting. It should be planted
with light demanding trees like cottonwood and green ash.
It will grow more slowly than these trees and form an under-
story shading the ground from the sun. When planted in
pure plantations on dry uplands it should be spaced 4 by 4
feet apart. On better or more moist soils 4 by 6 or 8 feet is
best. It is often injured by fungus diseases and by insects.
American or White Elm (Ulmus Americana).—The
American elm is distributed widely throughout the eastern
part of the country east of the Rocky Mountains. It seldom
forms a large percentage of the trees in the forest. Mature
trees vary from 60 to 120 feet in height and from 2 to 8
feet in diameter. It grows best on deep alluvial soil with a
constant supply of moisture. It will, however, grow on fairly
dry soil. It is considered one of the hardiest trees for Prairie
planting, as it is able to endure the greatest extremes of
temperature and drought of the treeless west. It is grown
throughout its range as an ornamental and shade tree. The
wood is moderately strong, coarse grained, difficult to split,
not durable and liable to warp and check in drying. In young

80 FARM FORESTRY

trees the wood is very tough. It is used chiefly in the manu-
facture of agricultural implements and carriages and for
cooperage and saddletrees. It is propagated by seeds. These
ripen in May and should be collected from the ground and at
once planted in the nursery in drills 8 to 10 inches apart. The
seed should not be allowed to dry out. The young seedlings
can be transplanted when a year old. It can be grown in pure
stands or in mixture with hardy catalpa, ashes, locusts, coffee-
tree, black walnut, black cherry, red cedar and European larch.
It should be planted 4 to 6 feet apart. The tree is seriously
affected by insects, especially the elm leaf beetle and other
leaf destroyers and by borers that girdle the inner bark, killing
the trees. In many regions it can be grown only by con-
stantly combatting such insect pests.

Coffeetree (Gymnocladus dioicus)—The coffeetree is
widely distributed throughout the eastern part of the country.
It is nowhere abundant, occurring only as solitary individuals
among other hardwoods. Forest-grown trees make a height
of 60 to 100 feet and a diameter of 114 to 2 feet. Under very
favorable conditions the height growth for the first 30 to 4o
years often amounts to I to 2 feet a year, while the annual
diameter growth is about 1%4 to 1% inch a year. On poor
soil it is a slow-growing but long-living tree of small size.
The wood is heavy, moderately hard, very stiff, and of coarse
texture, and durable in contact with the soil. It shrinks and
checks considerably in drying, but works and stands well and
takes a high polish. It is used for cabinet work, rough lumber
and fence posts. It grows best on the richest bottomlands and
in moist ravines. It will grow, however, on the dry sandy
and gravelly soils of uplands. It is a hardy tree and will stand
the cold winters of Minnesota and the hot summers of Okla-
homa without injury. The comparatively large seed is pro-
duced in a pod which hangs on the tree often until far into
the winter. They should be collected and the seeds removed
and stored in a cool, dry place. Before planting in the spring

TREES AND THEIR VALUE FOR PLANTING 81

they should be placed in a pail of hot water and stirred for
15 minutes or more and then covered and allowed to stand
2 or 3 days. The seed that swells should be planted at once
and not allowed to dry out and the rest treated with hot
water. The seed should be planted in the nursery about 2 or 3
inches apart in rows 2 feet apart. They will be large enough
when I year old to transplant. It should be planted in mixture
with white elm, hackberry, oaks and ashes. If planted several
years previous to its associates it can be mixed with catalpa,
Russian mulberry or black locust. It is not known tc be sub-
ject to any serious insect or fungus diseases. It should prove
a valuable tree to plant for fence posts.

Cottonwood (Populus delioides)—The cottonwood grows
naturally throughout the Eastern portion of the country. It
grows best on alluvial soils along watercourses. It demands
moisture, but does not demand a rich soil. It grows to be a
tree 100 feet in height and 2 to 3 feet in diameter. The wood
is soft and light and difficult to split when dry. It is not strong
and decays rapidly in the ground. It can be used for construc-
tion purposes, where properly piled after sawing to prevent
warping. It is also used for packing boxes, wood pulp and
crates. It will grow fence posts in ten years, trees at that age
often reaching 6 to 8 inches in diameter breast height and
30 to 35 feet in height. The wood is not durable, but when
treated with creosote, posts will last at least twenty years.
Cottonwood has the fastest growth of the trees that are
commonly planted. Where the soil is suited to it trees 20
years of age will reach a height of 50 to 60 feet and a diameter
of 12 to 15 inches. A variety called the Norway poplar is
being used extensively for planting purposes. Cottonwood,
like willow, will start naturally from cuttings. These should
be made about 8 to 12 inches in length from the last year’s
growth. Seedlings of cottonwood can also be found growing
wild along streams. These can easily be transplanted. The
trees in plantations should be spaced about 12 by 12 feet

82 FARM FORESTRY

apart. It is best to underplant with some such species as
sugar maple. This will insure good forest conditions. The
cottonwood will produce lumber and the maple cordwood.
Basswood (Tilia Americana)—The basswood or linden
tree is distributed from Canada to Alabama along the moun-
tains and west to Minnesota and Texas. It grows to be a
tree 70 to 80 feet in height and 2 feet in diameter. It is suited
to deep, rich, bottomland soils, but will grow slowly on poor
upland soils. It is a hardy tree and moderately tolerant of
shade. It makes a fairly rapid growth. It is often subject
to attacks of insects and fungi. The wood is soft, light brown
in color, straight grained and easily worked, but is not very
durable. It is used for lumber, woodenware, carriage boxes,
trunks and paper pulp. Its flowers yield large amounts of
fine honey. It is reproduced by both seeds and sprouts. The
seed ripens in September or early October. It should be col-
lected and either planted at once or stratified in moist sand
over winter. It is a prolific sprouter, one of the best. Seed-
lings raised in the nursery can be set out when one year of
age. They should be spaced about 5 or 6 feet apart. It
will do fairly well in pure stands and also in mixture with
white or Norway pine, white ash, elm, maples and hickories.
Black Cherry (Prunus serotina).—This tree is common
throughout the eastern half of the United States. It grows
to be a tree 80 feet in height and 4 feet in diameter, but is
usually found about 60 to 70 feet high and 2 feet in diameter.
It will grow fairly well on dry situations, but on moist, well
drained, fertile soils it reaches its maximum development. It
grows well on well-drained bottomlands. Under favorable
conditions it is a rapidly growing tree. A growth of 25 feet
in height and a diameter breast height of 6 inches has been
obtained in ten years on very rich soil, but usually the growth
is much slower. The wood has a beautiful grain and color
and is in demand for making furniture. The heartwood
makes a good wood for fence posts, it being very durable.

TREES AND THEIR VALUE FOR PLANTING 83

The sapwood rots quickly. A small tree, being all sap, would
have to be treated with creosote to use for fence posts. The
cherries should be gathered in August or September, the pulp
removed by crushing or by mascerating in water, and the pits
stratified in moist sand over winter. The seed should be
planted in shallow drills in the spring about 2 inches apart.
The following spring the seedlings can be set out in the field.
The tree should be mixed with some other species, such as
white ash, black walnut, sugar maple, etc., rather than be
planted pure. At 20 years of age under favorable conditions
black cherry will reach a height of 25 to 30 feet and a diameter
of 5 to 6 inches.

Black Locust, Yellow Locust (Robinia pseudacacia) —
The natural range of the black locust is in the Eastern United
States along the Appalachian Mountains, but it has been
planted extensively all over the Eastern part of the country.
It does best on deep, well drained, fertile loam, but will grow
on almost any soil except a wet, heavy one. It grows exceed-
ingly well on limestone soil. It is a rapid-growing tree. On
good soil it will grow from 2 to 4 feet in height a year. The
wood is strong and very durable. It is well adapted to fence
posts, ties, insulator pins, etc. I*ence posts can be grown
in 20 years. At that age trees will average 5 to 6 inches in
diameter at breast height with a height of 40 to 50 feet. The
great danger in raising black locust trees is that they are
likely to be destroyed by the locust borer, which riddles the
wood of the trunk and branches. This insect attacks trees
of all sizes, and there seems to be no practical treatment or
remedy. It is claimed that the borer lives on the pollen of
the goldenrod, and when this does not run wild black locust
can be grown. Before starting a plantation of this species
the owner should determine whether or not the locust borer
is injurious to locust trees in his vicinity. The pods of locust
can be collected from the tree when dry, and hung in bags
over winter in the barn. Before planting the seed should be

84 FARM FORESTRY

removed from the pods and soaked in hot water. The seed
should be planted in rows in the farm nursery and the little
trees cultivated for a year. The following spring they will be
large enough to plant out in the field. Where it is impossible
to grow the black locust on account of the borer, the honey
or thorny locust can often be grown.

Black Walnut (Juglana nigra) —Black walnut grows well
in the Eastern portion of the country, especially throughout
the Central Hardwood Region. It grows to be a tree 110 feet
in height and 4 to 6 feet in diameter. Usually trees grow
from 70 to go feet in height and 2 to 214 feet in diameter.
It attains its best development in deep, rich bottomlands or
on fertile hillsides. It demands a moist, fertile soil. Black
walnut is not a very rapid grower, but in good soil the growth
is fairly rapid. It will take 60 to 80 years to grow to lumber
size. It begins to bear fruit at 12 to 15 years. Trees 20 years
of age on good soil have often reached a diameter growth
of 5 to 6 inches and a height growth of 20 to 25 feet. Under
the best conditions it often grows an inch in diameter every
year. The wood is heavy, hard, strong and of coarse texture.
It shrinks and warps moderately in drying. It has many
uses. The heartwood is very durable in contact with the
soil. It makes a fine fence post. Small trees, however, are
all sapwood and should be creosoted when used as fence-
posts.

For raising seedlings to plant the walnuts should be gath-
ered in the fall, freed from the outer husk and stratified in
moist sand over winter. The seed should be planted where it
is desired to have the trees grow, because of the deep tap root
produced. To prevent destruction by rodents the seed should
be treated with red lead before planting; 2 or 3 seeds should
be planted in each spot in the field so as to insure a full stand.
The seedlings can be thinned out after the first year. The trees
in the plantation should be spaced 6 to 8 feet apart. Being an
intolerant tree, older plantations should be underplanted with

TREES AND THEIR VALUE FOR PLANTING 85

a more tolerant tree, like white pine or Norway spruce or red
oak, to maintain forest conditions.

Box Elder (Acer negundo).—Box elder is distributed gen-
erally throughout the eastern part of the country, occurring
as scattered trees or groups among other hardwoods. It occurs
naturally in the deep, moist, soil of valleys and on the borders
of lakes and swamps, but it will grow on deep, sandy soil, and
will bear exposure and thrive on rocky slopes and on the semi-
arid prairies. It is a small tree, rarely exceeding 30 to 40 feet
in height and 1 to 2 feet in diameter. It is usually a rapidly
growing tree, but its growth depends largely on the character
of the soil. The wood is soft, weak, light, close grained, and
creamy white in color. Its principal use is for firewood, and
it is occasionally used for interior finish, woodenware, cheap
furniture and paper pulp. Maple sugar is sometimes made
from the sap. The seed is produced in great abundance.
They should be stratified in moist sand over winter, and
planted in the nursery an inch or more apart in rows 2 to 3
feet apart and covered with an inch of soil. The seedlings
often grow 10 to 14 inches high the first season. In planta-
tions the trees should be planted closely, about 4 by 8 feet
apart. It is often mixed with white elm, European larch,
green ash and black walnut. It is often planted for wind-
breaks because of its fast growth. Because of its brittle wood
the branches are often badly broken by ice and snow.

Chestnut (Castanea dentata).—The chestnut is distributed
from Maine to Michigan, south to Delaware and along the
mountains to Alabama, Mississippi and Arkansas. It reaches
a height of 120 feet and a diameter of 13 feet or more. Usually
at maturity the trees are 60 to 80 feet high and 3 to 4 feet
in diameter. It occurs singly or in groups or groves, and
seldom forms pure stands naturally over wide areas. It has
a more rapid growth than any of the more valuable hardwood
trees. It grows in height from 15 to 20 inches a year for
20 to 30 years. Sprouts grow much more rapidly, often 4 to 6

86 FARM FORESTRY

feet the first year, and in 20 to 25 years they are large enough
for poles and ties. After 30 years the rapid growth ceases.
In the end the trees from seed will reach a much larger size.
The rate of growth will vary with the nature of the soil. The
wood is light, fairly soft and rather coarse grained. It splits
and works easily, checks and shrinks considerably in drying,
and is very durable in contact with the ground. It is used
in cabinet work, cooperage, interior finish fence posts, tele-
graph and telephone poles and crossties. It is one of the
most useful of woods in its natural region of growth. It is
propagated by seeds and by sprouts from the stump. There
is probably no tree that sprouts better. It is easily managed
by the coppice system. The nuts should be gathered in the fall
and stratified in moist sand over winter, and planted in the
nursery a foot apart in rows that are 3 fcet apart and covered
1 to 2 inches deep. In one season the seedlings will be a
foot or more high and can be transplanted when one or two
years old. It is better to start the trees where the trees are
to be grown. The chestnut would be one of the best trees
to plant for lumber and fence posts if it were not for the
chestnut bark disease, which has killed the trees over a wide
area in the eastern portion of its range. Until the extent of
this disease is known and its spread ceases it cannot be advised.
It should be planted with caution.

_ Green Ash (Fraxinus lanceolata).—The green ash is dis-
tributed over the greater part of the United States east of the
Rocky Mountains, occurring singly or in small groups in the
forest. It is a medium-sized tree. A height of 80 feet and
a diameter of 24 inches is rarely exceeded. It grows best on
low, moist soil, but will grow under a wide variety of soil
and moisture conditions. It has the ability to thrive under
adverse conditions. It is one of the best trees for planting
on the arid plains of the Middle West. It is not a rapid grower,
but under average conditions will grow to fence post size in
15 to 20 years. It grows slowly in arid or semi-arid regions.

TREES AND THEIR VALUE FOR PLANTING 87

The wood is hard, heavy, strong, and rather coarse grained.
It is used for the manufacture of agricultural implements,
carriages, furniture, and often as a substitute for white ash.
It has a relatively high fuel value. Although the wood is not
very durable, it is often used for fence posts, especially where
other species are rare. It is reproduced by seed and by coppice
growth. The seed should be collected from the trees and
either kept dry over winter or stratified in moist sand. If
kept dry the seed should be soaked in water several hours
before planting. It can be propagated by sowing the seed
broadcast. The trees should be planted closely together, 4 by
4 feet, because the tree does not have a heavy foliage. It is
often mixed with hackberry, box elder, white elm, Scotch pine
and red cedar. It is sometimes planted for windbreaks.
Hackberry (Celtis occidentalis) —The hackberry is a tree
of wide distribution from Massachusetts to Oregon and from
Canada to New Mexico and Florida. It is found in the forest
in mixture with other species. In rich soil it grows to be a
tree 100 feet in height and 3 feet in diameter, but on ordinary
soil it is a much smaller tree. It is a long-lived tree and of
slow growth. It will live on almost any kind of soil and
with a very small amount of moisture. It will live where
almost any other tree would die. It is adapted for planting
in the arid regions of the Middle West. The wood is straig’ t
grained, light and elastic. It is used chiefly for fuel and the
‘manufacture of cheap furniture. It is not durable in contact
with the soil and has little strength. It is one of the best trees
to plant for windbreaks on land too dry for cottonwood in
Minnesota, North and South Dakota and northern Nebraska.
For this purpose it should be planted in double rows 3 feet
apart with the trees 4 feet apart in the rows. It is often
planted with light-foliaged trees like green ash and cotton-
wood to shade the soil. It is a tree adapted to mixed stands.
It seeds abundantly. The seed should be picked from the trees
in the fall of the year and stratified in moist sand. It should

88 FARM FORESTRY

be planted in the nursery in drills about an inch deep and
allowed to grow for 2 years before being transplanted. It
has few insect enemies or diseases.

Hardy Catalpa (Catalpa speciosa). —The natural range of
the hardy catalpa is a limited region in the Ohio and Mis-
sissippi valleys from Indiana to Arkansas. It has been widely
distributed by planting. It is subject to injury by severe
winters far outside of its natural range, which kills back the
last year’s growth. Its growth depends on the character of
the soil. It will succeed only on moist, well drained, deep, fer-
tile soil. When planted under other conditions it will not
thrive. It is not adapted to stiff clay soils nor to dry condi-
tions. It has been widely planted by farmers throughout the
east for fence posts, but with success only on most favorable
soils. It is not a tree for general planting. It succeeds well
in the Middle West where the conditions are adapted to it,
and often makes extremely rapid growth. A height growth
of 2% feet a year and a diameter growth of 4 an inch a year
are not uncommon for the first 15 or 20 years. It is a val-
uable fence post tree in many regions. It matures early and
makes a small to medium-sized tree. Owing to the fact that
it does not produce a terminal bud, it forms a very crooked
tree, and can be grown to fence-post size only by constant
pruning. The wood is soft, light, elastic, has fairly high fuel
value, and is very durable in contact with the ground. It
often lasts 30 to 40 years as fence posts. It reproduces freely
by seeds and by sprouts. The pods should be collected in the
late fall or winter and the seed hung in a dry, cool place.
Before planting the seed should be soaked 24 hours in water.
The seed has high germination per cent and is an easy tree
to grow in the nursery. The seedings should be planted
about 6 feet by 6 feet apart. After growing a few years the
trees are sometimes cut close to the ground and a single sprout
allowed to develop. This will often grow 8 to 10 feet the first

TREES AND THEIR VALUE FOR PLANTING 89

season. The tree is not usually subject to diseases, but is often
attacked by insects.

Honey Locust (Gleditsia triacanthos).—The natural range
of honey locust is from western New York and Pennsylvania
south to Georgia and west to eastern South Dakota and Texas.
It does not form pure stands, but is distributed throughout
the hardwood forest. It grows to be a tree 140 feet in height
and 6 feet in diameter, but usually is about 40 to 50 feet high
and 1 to 2 feet in diameter. The growth is fairly rapid.
On favorable sites it makes an annual height growth of 1 to 2
feet and an annual diameter growth of one-third to one-half
inch a year. Under less favorable conditions it takes 7 to 8
years to grow an inch in diameter. It is intolerant of shade.
It naturally produces large clusters of thorns along the trunk
and branches, but these can be removed. There is a thornless
variety of this species. Often in a grove of honey locust indi-
viduals will be found without them. The seeds of these
trees can be collected and grown. Those that produce seed-
lings with thorns can be thrown away and the thornless speci-
mens planted. The wood is heavy, hard, strong and coarse
grained, and fairly durable in contact with the ground. It is
used chiefly for fuel, fence posts and poles. It is useful for
hedges and windbreaks. The soils of the Plains and Prairie
region are well adapted to this tree. It will withstand very
dry conditions. It seeds abundantly and is easily propagated.
The pods should be collected from the ground and the seeds
removed and stored in a cool, dry place over winter, and
treated with hot water before planting in the spring. The
swollen seeds should be removed and planted at once and the
operation repeated with the remainder. The seeds should be
sown in moist, rich soil in the nursery and covered lightly.
They will grow a foot high the first year and will be large
enough to transplant to permanent situations the following
‘ spring. It should be planted closely together. Two by eight
feet is recommended for Prairie regions. For shelter belts

90 FARM FORESTRY

it should be planted 4 by 8 feet. It is often underplanted with
a more tolerant species of tree. The honey locust is not so
generally injured by the locust borer as is the black locust.
It should prove a valuable tree to plant for fence posts in many
regions.

Osage Orange (Toxylon pomiferon)—The natural range
of the osage orange is from the Arkansas River south through
southeastern Indian Territory to southern Texas. It has been
widely distributed by planting. It is sometimes called the mock
orange tree because of the shape and appearance of the fruit.
It is a very hardy tree. It adapts itself to a wide range of
soil and moisture conditions, and its ability to endure drought
makes it one of the best trees to plant in the Plains region.
It is hardy as far north as Massachusetts in the east and Iowa
and southern Illinois in the Central West. It does not form a
large tree. The usual rate of growth under good conditions
is one-quarter to one-third of an inch a year in diameter.
Height growth is slow after the first few years. It forms a
branchy tree and needs severe pruning to attain good form.
The heartwood is yellow in color, heavy, tough, hard and
strong. It is of value for cabinet purposes and for the manu-
facture of carriages, machinery and tool handles. The wood is
extremely durable in contact with the soil and the fuel value is
high. It has been planted extensively for hedges and wind-
breaks. The green “oranges” or fruit can be collected and the
seed separated by soaking in water until the pulp ferments.
The seed should be dried and stored in a cool, dry place over
winter. The seed germinates readily when planted. In start-
ing plantings the trees should be set closely together to over-
come the branchy nature of the tree. They are often planted
2 feet apart in rows 8 feet apart. It is often mixed with cot-
tonwood, black walnut and hardy catalpa on rich, moist soils
and with black locust, honey locust, white elm or green ash
on dry upland soils. The tree is usually free from serious
attacks either by insects or fungus diseases.

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TREES AND THEIR VALUE FOR PLANTING 91

Red Oak (Quercus rubra).—This is one of the largest
trees in the forests of the Northern States. Trees 150 feet
in height and 5 feet in diameter have been found. The trees
usually average 70 to go feet in height and 2 to 4 feet in
diameter. It occurs naturally scattered over the eastern part
of the country, running as far south as Georgia on the Appa-
lachian Mountains. It will grow well on all soils of medium
quality. It does best on bottomlands and lower slopes where
it gets some moisture in the soil. It will thrive on heavy clay
soils. The wood is heavy, hard, coarse grained and strong.
It is in demand for lumber in many regions. The tree makes
fast growth for an oak and it would be one of the best to
grow for fence posts and ties if the wood were more durable.
It absorbs creosote readily, however, and when treated will
make one of the most durable of posts or ties. The trees repro-
duce both from sprouts and from acorns. The acorns should
be planted in the field where the tree is to grow. Three acorns
should be planted in spots about 5 to 6 feet apart. The acorns
can be treated with red lead to prevent destruction by rodents.
This can be done by dampening the acorns and shaking in a
bag with a small amount of red lead. The acorns should be
planted about 1% to 2 inches deep. Under good conditions
as on bottomlands and lower slopes, red oak at 20 years of age
will reach a height of 25 to 30 feet and a diameter breast
height of from 3 to 5 inches, and at 4o years a height of
40 to 50 feet and 8 to 10 inches in diameter. Being a fairly
tolerant tree it should be of value for underplanting old stands
of timber and for mixing with European larch, white pine and
other trees.

Russian Mulberry (Morus alba tartarica).—The Russian
mulberry is a foreign tree that has proved successful in the
semi-arid regions, owing to its ability to endure almost any
amount of drought. It will grow on either sandy or clay soils.
It does not grow to large size, but under favorable conditions
produces very rapid growth. A growth of an inch in diameter

92 FARM FORESTRY

and 2% feet in height has been attained, though usually of
much slower growth. It is suited to the climate of southern
Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma and Indian Territory. It cannot
endure severe winters. It forms naturally a very low bushy
tree, and requires constant pruning to produce a good trunk.
The wood is heavy, hard, elastic, coarse grained, and moder-
ately strong. It splits easily and has high fuel value, and
makes a durable fence post. It is often used for windbreaks
and hedges. Its fruit furnishes food for birds. It reproduces
by seeds, by sprouts and by cuttings. The seed can be sepa-
rated by crushing and washing the berries. The seed can be
kept dry over winter, but it is better to stratify it in moist
sand. It should be planted 4 by 4 feet for lumber and 2 feet
apart for windbreaks.

Shagbark Hickory (Hicoria ovata).—Shagbark hickory
grows throughout the eastern portion of the country, scat-
tered throughout stands of other trees. It never forms pure
stands, though often occurring pure in clumps or groups. It
grows to large size, often reaching 130 to 140 feet in height
and 20 to 30 inches in diameter. It prefers a fresh, fertile
soil. It will grow on fairly dry soils, but for best growth it
demands some moisture. The wood of hickory is heavy, hard,
strong and tough. The wood is straight grained and splits
readily. It is used where toughness and strength is necessary,
as in vehicles, ‘handles, axes, automobile and wagon rims,
shafts and spokes. It has the highest fuel value of any North
American wood. The growth is rapid on good soil after the
first five years, a foot a year for 60 years often being made.
In diameter the average increase is an inch in 7 years. It has
long life, often living for 250 to 300 years. It isa fairly pro-
lific seed-bearer and is easily propagated by planting the nuts.
It is also a good sprouter in youth. The nuts should be strati-
fied in moist sand over winter and planted where the trees are
to grow, because the tree produces a deep taproot. Hickory is

TREES AND THEIR VALUE FOR PLANTING 93

often managed by the coppice system on short rotations for the
production of sprouts used for making handles and spokes.

Pignut Hickory (Hicoria glabra).—Pignut hickory is dis-
tributed throughout the eastern part of the country. It usually
occurs mixed in with other species. It often reaches a height
of 130 to 140 feet and 3 to 4 feet in diameter. It forms a very
strong taproot like the other hickories. It grows both on
clay and on sandy soil. It prefers a moist, fairly fertile soil.
It succeeds better on drier situations than the other hickories.
It grows at about the same rate as shagbark hickory, but con-
tinues rapid growth for a much longer period. It produces
the strongest and toughest wood of all the hickories. It pro-
duces seed in abundance, and since they are rarely edible,
natural reproduction is good. In addition it is the most vigor-
ous sprouter of all the hickories. It is propagated and managed
the same as the shagbark hickory. Owing to its ability to
endure fairly dry conditions, it is a valuable tree for planting
on many situations.

Sugar Maple (Acer saccharum).—This tree grows naturally
in the Eastern United States. It often reaches a height of
120 feet and a diameter of 4 to 6 feet. It prefers a fresh,
well-drained soil. It grows well on any rich soil. It will not -
thrive on poor, dry ground. The wood is heavy, strong,
dense and hard, but not durable in contact with the soil. It
absorbs creosote readily, however, and when treated posts
will last 15 to 20 years. The wood is in demand for many
purposes. The tree is grown extensively for the production
of maple sugar. Since the amount of sugar produced depends
on the extent of the leaf surface, the trees for sugar produc-
tion should be spaced wider apart than for the production of
wood. Six feet apart is the usual spacing for wood pro-
duction. The tree grows well in pure stands and can also be
mixed with other trees, such as white pine, red pine, European
larch, red oak, yellow poplar, etc. The trees are easily prop-
agated from seed. The seed should be gathered from the

64 FARM FORESTRY

trees and stored over winter by stratifying in moist sand. The
tree is rather slow-growing, but of long life. Under favorable
conditions of soil and situation at 30 years of age trees should
reach 35 to 40 feet in height and 6 to 8 inches in diameter
breast height.

Silver Maple (Acer saccharinum).—Silver maple is widely
distributed over the eastern portion of the country. It thrives
best on river bottoms. It is a moisture-loving tree and fails
when planted on dry uplands, but it wants a fairly well drained
soil. The tree grows rapidly, attains large size, but is short-
lived. It often grows a half inch in diameter a year. The
wood is neither strong nor durable. It is easily worked and
is sometimes used for flooring and furniture. It is used largely
for fuel. It is often planted for shelter belts because of this
fact, and also because of its fast growth. Because of its
brittle wood it is often broken by storms. It reproduces by
sprouts and seeds. The seed ripens in May or June and
should be planted immediately in drills in the nursery, the
seed being sown thick, for it is rather infertile. The seedlings
will grow I to 3 feet high the first season, and should be set
out the next spring. They should be spaced about 6 by 8 feet
apart. On dry situations it can be mixed with osage orange
or box elder. For moist situations it can be mixed with white
willow, cottonwood, white or black ash, black birch or walnut.
It is a hardy tree and comparatively free from insect pests
or fungus attacks.

White Ash (Fraxinus Americana).—White ash is native
to the Eastern United States. It is a tall, slender tree, reach-
ing a height of 100 feet and a diameter of 2 to 3 feet. It
prefers and makes its best growth on a rich, moist soil, such
as bottomland or lower slopes. It will grow, however, under
less favorable conditions. It will not grow in stagnant
water. The wood is of high economic value. It is hard,
strong, heavy, tough and elastic. It is used in the manufac-
ture of farm tools and for baskets, handles, interior finish

Chestnut trees killed by the chestnut bark disease.

TREES AND THEIR VALUE FOR PLANTING 95

and furniture. It is fairly durable in contact with the soil.
The rate of growth is rapid, but varies with the conditions
of moisture and situation. Seedlings can be started from seed
planted in the farm nursery. The seed should be gathered
in the fall and hung in a bag in the barn over winter. The
seed should be planted as early in the spring as possible, sown
thickly in drills half an inch deep. The seedlings will be ready
for planting the following spring. It can be planted pure or
mixed with other species such as European larch, black cherry,
black walnut, pine, etc. The trees should be spaced 6 by 6 feet
on favorable sites, but closer together on poorer sites. At 40
years of age on good soil white ash will reach a diameter
growth of 8 to Io inches and a height growth of 50 to 60 feet.
It can be planted for fence posts. When creosoted the posts
will last many years.

White Willow (Salix alba).—White willow was introduced
from the old world early in the settlement of the country.
It thrives throughout the northern and eastern parts of the
country and in most places has run wild. It reaches a height
of 80 feet and a diameter of 4 to 6 feet. It prefers a moist
or wet, rich, alluvial, sandy loam, but will thrive well on the
high, dry prairies of North Dakota and Minnesota. It is a
rapid-growing tree. It reproduces naturally from seed, but the
usual method of propagation is by cuttings from one to two-
year-old wood, made 8 to 10 inches long. These are planted
firmly in the ground so that only two buds appear above the
surface, and spaced 3 feet by 6 feet or 2 feet by 8 feet apart.
It is sometimes mixed with cottonwood. Weeds must be
kept out until the ground is well shaded by the crowns. The
wood is very soft, flexible and fairly strong. It is used for
cricket or baseball bats, in turnery and cooperage. The char-
coal is said to make the finest grades of gunpowder. It is
sometimes used for fence posts, although it has but little dura-
bility. When planted in dense stands it yields straight, light
poles for many purposes. It is also planted for windbreaks.

96 FARM FORESTRY

Because of its extensive root system it is well adapted for
holding the soil along streams and to stop erosion. Many
different kinds of insects live on the tree and often cause
considerable damage, and the wood is sometimes injured by
heart rot and other fungus diseases.

Yellow Poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera)—This tree is a
native of the Eastern United States and is hardy as far north
as Southern New England. It is comparatively free from
insects and disease. It has fast growth and high quality of
wood. The tree is known as yellow poplar, tulip poplar, and
when young as white wood. No other tree in the woodlot
produces such a clear, straight, cylindrical trunk. The tree
grows to be 125 feet in height and 3 to 6 feet in diameter
and is sometimes much larger.

Yellow poplar is exacting as to soil and moisture require-
ments for good growth. It demands deep, fertile, well-drained
soil with a constant and even supply of moisture. It does not
thrive on shallow, dry soils or on ridges or in standing water.

The wood is light, soft, tough, easily worked and of fine
texture, but not strong. The brownish yellow heartwood is
fairly durable. The wood is usually cut for lumber, and is
valuable for many purposes, such as construction, interior
finish, woodenware, crates, etc.

Yellow poplar can be raised from seed. The cones of seeds
should be collected from the trees and stored over winter by
stratifying in moist sand. The seed should be sown thickly
in rows, for the seed is very infertile. The seedlings should
be planted after one year growth. In planting it is best to
mix some other species, as white or red pine, European spruce
and European larch, because it does not do well when planted
alone.

Yellow poplar is one of the fastest-growing hardwoods on
good soil. At 40 years of age on good soil the diameter breast
height will be from 10 to 12 inches and the height from 60 to
70 feet.

CHAPTER IX

NATURAL METHODS OF STARTING AND REPRO-
DUCING A WOODLOT

Wooptots are reproduced naturally, as has been said, by
sprouts from the stumps of trees when cut and from seed
sown from trees. Most of our woodlots have been produced
naturally in one or the other of these ways, except in the
treeless regions. Natural methods of starting woodlots will
be the ones relied on by farmers where reproduction can be
secured, because they are much cheaper than artificial methods
and the new stand is started without any particular trouble
and often without expense or labor. In a region where trees
naturally grow there should be little difficulty in starting a
woodlot naturally from seed or from sprouts.

SECURING A NEW STAND OF TREES FROM SPROUTS AFTER THE OLD
TREES HAVE ALL BEEN CUT, CALLED THE SPROUT OR
COPPICE METHOD

Sprout or coppice growth is one of the most common
methods and one of the surest methods of naturally reproduc-
ing a woodlot. The trees are all cut and the new stand starts
from sprouts from the stunrps. This method is applicable to
broadleaf trees that sprout. Conifers or evergreen trees are
reproduced naturally only from seed. There are but few of
them that produce sprouts that grow to tree size such as the
redwood in the West and the shortleaf, loblolly and pitch pines
in the East. Some broadleaf trees will also start from sprouts
from the roots called root suckers, especially when the roots
have been injured or bruised. Poplar, beech, wild plum and

98 FARM FORESTRY

black locust are examples of trees that reproduce themselves
by root suckers as well as by sprouts.

Trees differ in their ability to produce thrifty sprouts.
Chestnut, black locust, willow, sugar maple, cottonwood, ca-
talpa and red oak are among the best sprouting trees. Hickory,
basswood, soft maple and ash also sprout well. Old trees
beyond 60 years usually lose their power of sprouting, so a
woodlot managed by this system must be cut early in life.
The trees should be cut in winter or early spring before the
new growth has started. If cut in summer sprouts will be
produced, but they will be killed by frost during the winter.
The stumps should be cut low so that the sprouts will not
easily be broken or blown off. The stumps should be cut
smoothly and in a slanting direction, so that they will shed
water and keep from decaying as long as possible. The bark
should not be injured or loosened from the stumps or the
sprouting ability will be lost.

Sprout trees grow faster in early life, but rarely reach as
large size as do trees that have started from seed. A sprout
woodlot is used to grow poles, railroad ties, fence posts and
cordwood. Sawlogs are usually grown from seed trees. After
three or four generations of sprouts have been produced from
the same stump, the trees produced will be less vigorous and
have slower growth and shorter life. For this reason better
trees will be produced from the stumps of seedling trees than
from the stumps of sprout trees. So young trees that start
from seed in sprout stands should be encouraged to grow to
renew the trees and to keep the woodlot thickly stocked.

Not all the sprouts that start from a stump should be
allowed to grow. Several of the best sprouts should be selected
and the rest either cut or broken off the stump, or the top of
each sprout broken to prevent further height growth. Later
the number of sprouts should be further reduced to not more
than two or three to each stump. Seedlings of trees are often
planted in sprout stands to fill in between the stumps, which

»
The stump of a large tree producing but a few sprouts.

White pine seedlings started naturally from seed.

STARTING AND REPRODUCING A WOODLOT 99

often stand far apart, so as to secure good density of trees.
When a woodlot is cut clean a few of the more vigorous trees
are often left to grow to large size while the new woodlot is
being established by sprouts. These trees are usually of seed-
ling origin and are allowed to grow until the new woodlot
is to be cut. In this way sawlogs can be produced as well as
smaller material. This is known as compound coppice.

A combination is sometimes made of sprout and seedling
reproduction called polewood coppice, that is applicable to
many woodlots. It is often used where there is not a good
market for small material. The trees are allowed to grow
to large size for making poles, piles, ties or lumber. Since
these trees when cut will have passed the period of best sprout-
ing capacity, a new stand would be difficult to obtain from
sprouts. If such a stand is cut clean a very open stand will
result. To secure a new stand the trees can be removed in
two cuttings. A heavy thinning is made so as to open up the
trees left standing to the light. Seed production will be stim-
ulated and when a seed crop has been secured and seedlings
result the remaining trees are cut. The new stand will be
composed of seedling trees and what sprout trees have started
from the stumps. Sometimes the woodlot is cut clean and
seedlings of trees are planted among the stumps with the same
result.

STARTING OR REPRODUCING A WOODLOT BY SEED SOWN FROM
NEIGHBORING TREES, THE CLEAR-CUTTING METHOD

Sometimes a woodlot is entirely cut off and no provision
is made for securing a new woodlot, but the trees standing
about the area are relied on to sow seed for starting
new trees. When coniferous trees are cut, like the pines
and spruces, or when broadleaf trees cut, are old and beyond
the age for producing vigorous sprouts, or where trees
are cut in summer and no vigorous trees result from the

100 FARM FORESTRY

sprouts put forth, a new woodlot must be started naturally
from seed. Some tree seed is blown long distances. Light
seeded trees on the edge of the area cut over will soon seed
up the ground with new trees, provided the area cut is not
too large and provided the soil is in good condition. A soil
packed hard by the grazing of many cattle or a soil that has
been repeatedly burned over, will not be in a good condition
to germinate seed. Cut-over areas are often seen growing
up to weeds and grass instead of trees, even when seed trees
are growing along the edge of the tract, because of the poor
condition of the soil. A field that has been abandoned will
soon grow up to forest trees because of the good condition of
the seed bed. Not only will light seeded trees seed up cut-
over areas, but heavy seeds like walnut, hickory, oak and
chestnut will be carried in by birds and squirrels. The squirrels
gather large quantities of such seed, and besides storing the
seed in their hoards in hollow trees and under logs, they will
carry large quantities out into the open and bury them. A
large part of this seed is never recovered and germinates and
grows into trees. So an area cut over will soon be covered
not only with trees having light seeds, but the trees having
heavy seeds will gradually be introduced. Finally, all the
trees that grow naturally in the region will be found growing
on the cut-over area. If the area cut over is too large, not
all of it will be seeded up satisfactorily with trees. Even where
the area is small and there are many trees surrounding it to
sow the seed, the reproduction may be too scattering in some
places and too thick in others. Seedlings from the tree nursery
should be planted wherever failures occur.

Sometimes the woodlot is cut off a strip at a time, the
strips being not more than once or twice as wide as the trees
are high. When the strip cut over is seeded with seedlings
from the neighboring standing timber a new strip is cut, and
so on across the woodlot. The first strip cut should run at
right angles to the prevailing winds and on the side of the

STARTING AND REPRODUCING A WOODLOT 101

woodlot away from these winds, so that the seed from the
trees left standing will be scattered over the cut-over strip.
This is known as the strip method of reproducing a woodlot.
Where single trees or groups of trees are cut from the wood-
lot, the area cut is soon seeded from the surrounding trees,
provided the soil conditions are favorable.

STARTING A WOODLOT BY LEAVING TREES IN THE CUTTING TO
SEED UP THE AREA, THE SEED-TREE METHOD

Often when a woodlot containing trees having light seeds
is cut clean, several large seed trees per acre are left to seed
up the area naturally to new trees. The number left will de-
pend on the kind of trees and on the distance to which the
seed is scattered. Usually two or three vigorous and wind-firm
trees are sufficient if left well scattered over the area. When
the trees are not naturally wind-firm, groups of trees are often
left so that the trees will protect each other from the wind.
This is known as the group seed-tree method. The seed-tree
method is applicable to trees that are wind-firm and that have
light, easily blown seeds that will germinate on clearings, like
pines, spruces, ash, tulip, poplar and maple. Heavy seeds like
walnut, oak, beech and chestnut do not scatter far, and this
method cannot be used satisfactorily with such trees.

The success of this as well as of other methods of natural
seeding will depend in large measure on the condition of the
seed bed. If the seed is sown from the trees soon after log-
ging and when the ground is torn up and exposed, natural re-
production will usually be successful. If grass and tall weeds
take possession of the area, reproduction will be hard to estab-
lish. Hogs are sometimes driven into a woodlot that is to be
reproduced naturally by seed to root up the ground and expose
the mineral soil.

102 FARM FORESTRY

STARTING A NEW WOODLOT BY REMOVING THE OLD TREES IN:
TWO OR MORE CUTTINGS, THE NEW STAND STARTING
NATURALLY FROM SEED SOWN BY THE TREES LEFT AND
UNDER THEIR SHELTER, KNOWN AS THE SHELTER-WOOD
SYSTEM.

According to this method about half the old trees are re-
moved at the first cutting. The trees to be cut are taken here
and there throughout the woodlot so as to break the canopy
uniformly and allow the sunlight to fall on the forest floor.
The trees left will soon start to grow vigorously after the
thinning, because the increased sunlight will enable the trees
to manufacture more food. The sunlight falling on the floor
will help to decay the leaves and twigs and furnish additional
food for the trees. The result will be a heavy crop of seed.
The seed falling on the ground under the shade and shelter
of the old trees will germinate, and soon the floor will be
covered with young seedling trees. The new stand may be
secured at once, or it may take several years to bring about,
depending on the seed crop. A woodlot does not produce
heavy crops of seed every year.

After the young seedlings are well started the rest of the
old trees are removed. Many of the seedlings will, of course,
be destroyed by the cutting of the old seed trees, but enough
should escape to prodti. a well-stocked stand. Sometimes
when the trees are very thick in the old stand and so are not
wind-firm, and the removal of trees around them would be apt
to cause them to be blown over, several light cuttings are made
instead of one heavy cutting, removing but few trees at a time.
In this way the trees left will gradually thicken and strengthen
their root systems and become wind-firm, and be able to with-
stand storms without falling before they have sown their seed.

In all these different methods it will often be found that
seedlings of trees have already begun to grow in the woodlot.
This is called advance reproduction and should not be injured.

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STARTING AND REPRODUCING A WOODLOT 103

Medium-sized trees, however, should not be left standing, for
they will grow a wide-spreading crown and occupy the space
several trees should occupy. Any advance reproduction present
should be saved from damage and allowed to develop with the
new seedlings obtained.

CHAPTER X
CARING FOR THE GROWING WOODLOT

WHETHER a woodlot is started artificially or naturally, it
will need care and attention throughout its life, if it is desired
to grow the greatest amount of valuable wood material in the
shortest time possible. Nature must be assisted in her efforts
by giving to each tree the conditions necessary for its best
growth and development. When a growing woodlot is left
entirely to nature the result will be what nature would be
expected to produce, a stand of slowly growing, irregular and
usually defective trees. A stand of growing timber is a crop
the same as any farm crop, and will need oversight and atten-
tion. If this is given the results are surprising, not only in
the character of the trees, but in the much shorter time it
takes to grow them.

Cultivation in a Forest Plantation.—Cultivation of the
ground around the trees after planting is advisable. It is neces-
sary in the treeless regions of the Prairies and Great Plains
and wherever the conditions for tree growth are not favorable.
Transplanting is a severe shock to trees and even under the
best of conditions many often die. With proper care and
cultivation during the first few years after planting a much
higher percentage will live. Cultivation of the soil will con-
serve the soil moisture, will prevent the growth of grass and
weeds, will help the trees to become established early, lessen
the mortality among the planted stock and shorten the rota-
tion. All these points are of particular importance where trees
are being grown for fence posts or other material for sale.
In the Eastern Region under more favorable conditions of

104

A young stand of hardwoods in which a cleaning should be made to

remove weed trees and to determine the trees that should grow.

CARING FOR THE GROWING WOODLOT 105

moisture and growth, cultivation of the trees helps them to
become established and hastens their growth during the first
few years. Field crops can be grown between the rows of
trees, so that the entire cost of cultivation need not be borne
by the tree crop. The number of cultivations a year and the
number of years the plantation should be cultivated will de-
pend on the rapidity of growth of the trees, the spacing used,
the character of the soil and situation and the climate. Culti-
vation of forest trees, as with fruit trees, should not be .con-
tinued late in the season for fear of the trees being winter-
killed. With late cultivation the wood of trees continues to
grow and remains soft and full of moisture. Freezing will
kill back such tender shoots. Cultivation should not be con-
tinued beyond midsummer. When the trees have been started
from seed sown by the trees they will seldom need cultivation.
The young trees starting from seed send out their roots in
all directions and become well established at once, so that
usually they can compete with the grass and weeds that grow
with them unless this material-becomes too high.

Cleanings in a Growing Woodlot.—A cleaning is a thin-
ning out of trees in a very young stand. Its object is to
improve the stand and to determine early in the life of the
stand the trees that are to grow. It is usually made before
the trees are 10 years old. Often the better kinds of trees
will be outgrown by inferior ones or be crowded by trees of
poor form, and unless these are removed they will interfere
with or cause the death of the better trees. Sprouts, because
they grow much faster than seedlings for the first few years,
will often overtop the seedlings and destroy them by their
shade. When the seedlings are wanted the sprouts inter-
fering with them should be removed. Often in natural repro-
duction the young seedlings will be bunched very closely
together in a dense growth. The removal of some of the
seedlings will greatly benefit the growth of those left.

A cleaning is made for the benefit of the young growing

106 FARM FORESTRY

trees and seldom results in a revenue to the owner, owing to
the small size of the material removed. The work of cleaning
can be carried on in the winter time. It will repay the owner,
in that the trees will grow faster and the poorer kinds of
trees will be removed, assuring a stand of desirable trees in
the future.

In making a cleaning only sufficient material should be re-
moved to accomplish the purpose desired. Sometimes a tree
overtopping a better tree can be broken off or bent to the
ground so that it will no longer injure the tree beneath. Some-
times the cutting of a single branch will release to the light
the tree being shaded. Only material should be removed that
is necessary, so that the cleaning should be made rapidly and
at little expense.

Pruning.—Pruning is the cutting of lower dead or living
branches from trees. The objects of pruning are to improve
the form of trees, to concentrate the growth in a single leader,
and to secure trunks clear of limbs, so that lumber free from
knots will be grown. Pruning would not be a practical opera-
tion over a large forest, but in a small farm woodlot or forest
planting it can often be done with great advantage to the trees
and profit to the owner. Pruning takes place naturally in the
woodlot where trees stand closely together. Young saplings
are often seen with long, clear boles, free of branches for many
feet. With intolerant trees this natural pruning takes place
rapidly. With tolerant trees the lower branches will remain
alive many years and will remain on the tree many years
after they have died.

In pruning limbs they should be cut off smoothly and as
close to the trunk as possible without tearing the bark. With
large limbs it is best to make an undercut first, so that the
limb in falling will not tear the bark of the tree. Limbs that
are dead and the wood brittle can be knocked off. The trunks
of the most vigorous trees in the woodlot should be pruned
of branches for from 16 to 20 feet, so that at least one good

CARING FOR THE: GROWING WOODLOT 107

pole or sawlog can be secured. In some cases only dead
branches are removed, but often lower live branches can be
cut to good advantage. Care must be taken not to reduce the
crown materially. In small fast-growing trees wounds will
grow over quickly before the wood begins to decay. If the
wounds are larger than a square inch or two in size they should
be painted with some good pairit until the wounds have been
covered with new bark. Coniferous trees usually cover over"
‘such wounds with pitch.

Thinnings Made to Increase the Rapidity of Growth of
Trees.—If as the trees in a woodlot grew the crowns did not
expand, the young woodlot could be left entirely to nature
just as a farmer leaves his wheat to grow by itself. He sows
a certain number of seeds to the square foot and he has
learned by experience that when planted so far apart indi-
vidual plants will not interfere with each other. But trees do
not grow as do wheat and other grains which grow for a
year only. The older a tree becomes and the higher it grows
the wider it attempts to spread its crown. A tree will grow
rapidly to a certain height only with a restricted crown. Unless
room is then given for the crown to spread sidewise the sub-
sequent height growth will be very slow. A thinning is made
in a young growing stand so that the density of the crowns
will be reduced and the trees left will be able to expand their
crowns, and so carry on rapid height growth. It is made for
the same reason that a farmer thins out his beets or other
vegetable crop. If he allowed all to grow that came up there
would be few beets produced. He thins out the plants so that
the few that are left evenly spaced will have room‘ to expand
and develop.

The competition between the trees in a young woodlot be-
comes very great when it is near the end of the large sapling
stage. So severe may be the struggle that the trees will often
cease to grow, all the energy of growth being used up in
contending with neighboring trees. Often a stand of young

108 FARM FORESTRY

trees which are grown too closely together will show scarcely
any growth for many years. This is because the crowns being
crowded are unable to manufacture sufficient food and the
roots are unable to absorb sufficient food and moisture for
rapid growth. A thinning is made to lessen this competition
or struggle between the trees. The trees to remove are those
with the smallest crowns or those that have fallen behind in
the struggle for existence. Not all trees have equal vigor or
grow at the same rate. Some will in time forge ahead of
their fellows, while others will lag behind. It is those that are
falling behind, the suppressed trees or badly crowded trees,
that should be removed in making thinnings, leaving the more
vigorous trees or dominant trees to grow. Where all the
trees seem to be growing equally well in a dense stand some
of them must be removed to give the crowns of those left
more room to develop. The tendency will be to remove too
many trees. Only enough trees should be taken out to liberate
a little the crowns of the trees left. In general the openings
should not be so large but that they will close again in from
3 to 5 years by the growth of the crowns remaining. The
struggle for existence must not be stopped entirely, for it is
this struggle that produces the long, slender boles of trees
in the woodlot. The size of the opening that can be made
will depend largely upon the rapidity of the growth of the
trees. Rapidly growing trees such as cottonwood or silver
maple should have their canopy opened up to a much greater
extent than slower-growing trees such as ash, oak and walnut.
In young stands the trees to be removed can be selected from
those that should remain by shaking the trees, so as the better
to see the crowns. By thinning out the trees lightly in this
way there can be accomplished in a short time what it would
take the trees themselves years to bring about, that is, the
death of the trees that gradually fall behind or the natural
thinning of the stand.

Subsequent Thinnings.—The trees left after the first thin-

A dense stand of timber in which a thinning has never been made. The
crowns of the trees are too narrow for the height, resulting in slow
growth. A thinning should be made to permit the crowns of the
trees left to expand.

The result of a thinning in a dense stand of lodge pole pine shown in
the increased width of the annual rings.

CARING FOR THE GROWING WOODLOT 109

ning will start to grow faster as soon as the crowns are liber-
ated. It will not be many years, owing to the spreading of
the crowns of these trees sidewise, before their crowns will
come together again and the crown canopy will be intact. The
trees will have grown considerably in height when this takes
place and this canopy will be many feet higher above the forest
floor than it formerly was. As soon as the crowns touch the
struggle starts over again between the trees. The time when
this new struggle begins after the first thinning will vary with
the kind of tree and the severity of the first thinning. In
general in about ten years after the first thinning another
struggle will have started. This older stand will live over
again the life of the younger stand. The more severe the fight
the slower will the trees grow. Soon some trees will begin
to forge ahead and others to drop behind. The tree crowns
again become separated into dominant, intermediate and sup-
pressed trees. If the struggle is allowed to go on the trees
will practically cease to grow, the energy being used up in
the struggle for existence. It is time another thinning was
made. The trees that have fallen behind and whose crowns
have been overtopped should be removed to give the better-
formed and taller trees more room to expand. Care must be
taken, as before, not to remove too many trees so as to break
the crown canopy too much. The struggle must continue for
the production of clean boles. Owing to the large size of the
trees when this second thinning is made the trees cut out can
be worked up into cordwood. A cleaning and the first thin-
ning rarely pay for themselves, as the material obtained is
small. They are made for the benefit of the growing timber.
The second and subsequent thinnings should pay for the time
and labor needed to make them in the cordwood obtained.
Throughout the life of the growing stand every ten or
fifteen years similar thinnings should be made. By relieving
the stand of the necessity of killing out the trees that fall
behind and by giving each tree the room it needs for its best

110 FARM FORESTRY

and fastest growth, much time can be gained, and trees will
grow to cordwood or standard size in a very much shorter
time than if they had been left to themselves. By making
thinnings in a dense stand of young trees we are helping
nature to do in a shorter time what she would ultimately bring
about unaided in a much longer time. By judicious thinnings
throughout the life of a stand of growing timber often as
much as twenty years can be cut off from the time necessary
to bring the trees through to maturity. When the trees are
finally mature and ready for the harvest but a few will be
left of the many that started. Those that survive and form
tre final stand will be fine specimens of trees, the survivors
in the struggle for existence.

Thinnings to Improve the Character of the Woodlot.—
Woodlots that have not received proper care will often be
found full of defective, ill-shapen and weed trees. A thinning
made to remove this material from the woodlot to benefit
the trees remaining is called an improvement thinning.

In removing this material from the woodlot care must be
taken not to remove too many trees at one time. As far as
possible the openings made in the canopy should be small,
so that the neighboring crowns will close over them in a few
years. The improvement should be a gradual one. The wood
needed for use on the farm should be selected from the poor
material year after year until it is all removed. A small
amount removed each year for several years will accomplish
the same result as many trees removed in one year, and their
removal in this way will be an advantage to the woodlot. If
too many trees are removed at one time the woodlot will de-
teriorate because of the exposure of the soil to the sun and
other elements. One of the first principles of growing forest
trees successfully, as we have learned, is in keeping the forest
floor dark, so that grass and weeds which dry and exhaust
the soil will not grow. If the canopy is broken too much
by the removal of too many trees in a growing woodlot those

The ordinary form of farm woodlot in need of an improvement thinning.

A stand of timber that has been properly thinned. The products of
thinning pay for themselves in the cordwood or other material
obtained.

CARING FOR THE GROWING WOODLOT 111

that remain will be apt to develop large limbs and the trees
become of poor form.

The trees to select for cutting in the woodlot in order to
improve its character are those that the woodlot can well do
without.

Large Limby Trees.—In nearly every woodlot large trees
with long limbs can be found that spread over a large space.
They are sometimes called wolf trees. They are usually of
slow growth, having passed the period of greatest vigor. Such
trees ought to be removed, for they occupy the space many
vigorously growing trees might occupy. Usually they are
allowed to grow from year to year because of the difficulty
of cutting them out and the labor necessary to work them up
into cordwood. The removal of such trees is of great ad-
vantage to a woodlot. It enables several trees to start and
grow in the place of the tree removed.

Defective Trees.—Often trees can be found whose crowns
have been badly broken by winds or snow or other causes.
Owing to the reduced size of the crowns these trees will have
but a slow growth and there is danger of decay entering the
trees through the broken parts. They should be removed to
make way for others.

Misshapen Trees.—The trees that should be encouraged to
grow in the woodlot are those with straight full boles. Such
trees should be kept to grow to large size. Trees with crooked
or gnarled trunks, or those that fork close to the ground, or
that have been struck by lightning or are otherwise misshapen,
should be cut before those of better form.

Stagheaded or Spiked-topped Trees.—Often trees will be
found with dead tops, due to one cause or another. These
have usually passed their prime. The dead tops show that
they are no longer growing vigorously. They should be re-
moved, to allow younger and faster trees to take their places.

Diseased Trees and Insect-infested Trees.—When trees
become weakened from any cause they become the prey of

112 FARM FORESTRY

insects and diseases. Such trees rarely make satisfactory
growth and they are also a menace to the trees around them,
because of the danger of the disease spreading. Trees that
have begun to decay or that are badly attacked by insects
should be immediately removed.

Weed Trees——Every woodlot contains many species of
trees that are of little value or of no use on the farm. These
are called weed trees, such as dogwood, ironwood, blue beech,
bird cherry or any kind of tree that does not serve some use-
ful purpose. These trees occupy space in which more useful
kinds of trees might grow.

Dead Trees.—Dead trees and limbs and fallen trees should
be utilized for cordwood. Such material often serves as the
breeding place for insects that may attack living trees. Where
such material is utilized before it begins to decay it will make
satisfactory fuel wood.

TREES THAT SHOULD NOT BE CUT, BUT SHOULD BE ALLOWED
TO REMAIN IN THE WOODLOT

No tree should be removed unless there is some good reason
for cutting it or unless it is needed for a special purpose, and
no tree of less value will serve that purpose.

In general, young, thriftily growing trees should not be
cut until mature. They are producing a high rate of interest
in the amount of wood laid on each year, and are increasing
rapidly in value.

In the ordinary farm woodlot of irregular form no tree
should be removed unless there are smaller trees beneath it to
grow up and occupy its place or unless some provision is made
for starting new trees. Many woodlots have large holes in
the canopy where trees were removed many years before.
Grass forming under the openings prevents young trees from
starting. Such openings should be planted with trees.

CARING FOR THE GROWING WOODLOT 113

A tree should not be removed if its shade is needed to pro-
tect the forest floor or if its removal would expose large areas
to the action of the sun and rain. Trees needed for sowing
seed should not be removed.

CHAPTER XI

CARING FOR THE WOODLOT STARTED FROM SPROUTS
AND THE ORDINARY FARM WOODLOT

Caring for the Sprout Woodlet.—The method of caring
for a growing woodlot started from sprouts does not differ
materially from the method of caring for a forest planting.
The same operations of cleaning, pruning, planting up and
thinning the stand as it develops are carried out.

Seedling trees of valuable kinds that have started among
the stumps should be favored in making a cleaning. As we
have already noted, sprouts from trees that have started from
seed make more vigorous trees than sprouts from trees that
started as sprouts, and that in time through several genera-
tions sprout trees may lose their sprouting capacity. Where
sprouts, even of the better kinds of trees, threaten to overtop
seedling trees of valuable species, the sprouts should be re-
moved or their growth otherwise impeded, as by breaking off
the leaders.

Where the stumps of the trees cut, stand far apart and
there are no seedling trees coming up to fill in the spaces be-
tween, trees should be planted. Planting of trees or the mak-
ing of seed spots is often a necessary operation in a sprout
stand. If such areas are not planted with valuable kinds of
trees inferior species will finally take possession of the soil
or the woodlot will not be well stocked with trees. In plant-
ing in a cut-over woodlot large stock must be used, so that
the roots will be well below the upper layers of the soil, which,
because of the large amount of humus, will dry out quickly.
Trees at least three or four years old should be used.

114

Young coppice growth of white and black oak. The stumps standing
far apart show the necessity of planting small trees to secure a
fully stocked stand.

Brush

Small trees left to grow to larger size and to sow seeds for a future crop.

piled so that it can be burned to lessen the fire risk. A continuous yield assured.

A well managed stand of timber.

THE WOODLOT STARTED FROM SPROUTS 115

In time the crowns of the different sprouts and of the trees
that have started from seed or that have been planted will
come together and form a crown cover or canopy. From then
on the life history of the sprout stand will be similar to that
of a forest plantation or even aged stand, and it should receive
the same treatment. As soon as the competition between the
trees becomes strong, a thinning must be made to release the
crowns of the better and more vigorous trees, and similar thin-
nings should be made throughout the life of the sprout stand
whenever needed.

CARING FOR A WOODLOT THAT HAS STARTED NATURALLY FROM
SEED SOWN BY TREES

When the woodlot has started from seed sown by neigh-
boring trees or from trees left for the purpose of sowing seed,
the resultant stand will be apt to be more or less irregular.
Near the seed trees the grouzid may be well covered with young
seedlings. If the seedlings stand 5 or 6 feet apart each way
the reproduction will be satisfactory, for that is as closely to-
gether as trees would ordinarily be planted in starting a forest
planting. Usually there will be many more. There will be
many areas where the seedlings will be far apart or where no
seedlings will have started. Such areas should be planted
with seedlings from the farm nursery. It is essential that the
woodlot be well stocked from the start if trees of good form
and of value for use are expected. Openings in a woodlot
usually persist. The ground becomes covered with a thick
sod or a mat of weeds and bushes, that prevent subsequent
seeding of trees.

A cleaning ordinarily must be made sooner in the life of
a naturally produced woodlot than in one in which the trees
are planted and evenly spaced from the start. This is because
wherever reproduction has been good the trees will stand
thickly together, often forming thickets through which it is
almost impossible to pass. The competition between the trees

116 FARM FORESTRY

in such dense stands begins early and should be stopped by
thinning out the less likely trees. In many woodlots before
the old trees are cut young seedling trees will get started be-
neath them and grow. Especially is this true where the trees
do not stand closely together allowing considerable light to
fall on the forest floor or where the trees are old and the
crowns thin. When the old trees are removed this advance
reproduction is present and will.start to grow under the stim-
ulation of increased sunlight. Where this advance reproduc-
tion is of desirable species and does not interfere too much
with the new reproduction it should be encouraged. Often
such advance reproduction is of poor species of trees, or be-
cause of its greater age and size it may interfere with or kill
out many seedlings of more valuable kinds. In this case the
advance reproduction should be cut out, liberating the seed-
lings beneath it. Such a cutting is known as a liberation cut-
ting. Where advance reproduction is of value for shading
or protecting the soil it should be allowed to remain.

When the young stand has grown up so that the crowns
meet and the floor is shaded the life of the woodlot as a
unit begins. Its subsequent treatment will be the same as
for planted stands. Thinnings must be made throughout its
life whenever the competition between the trees becomes too
strong or whenever it is desired to improve the character of
the stand.

CARING FOR THE ORDINARY FARM WOODLOT

The ordinary small woodlot differs in form from the even
aged woodlots that start from planting seedlings or that grow
from sprouts or from seed sown from trees soon after the
woodlot has been cut. The ordinary farm woodlot is com-
posed of trees of all sizes and ages mixed in together. It
does not have a single crown cover as do even aged woodlots.
The crowns of trees stand at all elevations, from those of one-
year-old seedlings to those of poles or veterans. We have

The

The result of lack of care and attention.

woodlot filled with old, defective, broken and dead trees.

The natural woodlot.

“ 4
+ Se
Zo Tene

Trees of all sizes and kinds

The ideal form of the small farm woodlot.

mixed in together.

THE WOODLOT STARTED FROM SPROUTS 117

learned that such a woodlot has an irregular form. It origi-
nates usually from the method of cutting the trees. Where
the woodlot is cut clean all trees being removed and the new
growth starts at once, an even aged stand results. If instead
of cutting all the trees at once the owner cuts out a few of
the larger trees year after year, an irregular woodlot will
result. When a large tree is removed there will be an opening
formed in the canopy. Little seedlings under the opening
will be stimulated to growth by the increased light and will
at once start to fill in the vacant space in the canopy. In
this way the woodlot will in time become filled with trees of
all ages.

Because the owner in cutting the trees makes a selection
of those to cut out, choosing certain ones from those surround-
ing them, this method of reproducing a woodlot is called the
selection system and the irregular forest that results is called
a selection forest. On large forests the owner may decide to
cut out all trees down to a certain diameter, saving for future
growth all the small trees below that diameter. This is also
a form of the selection method.

The future of the irregular form of woodlot depends, of
course, on the young seedlings that start to grow under the
old trees or in openings that are caused by the removal of those
trees. They are the children of the woodlot. If they are
destroyed year after year by fire or grazing or if they are
cut out thoughtlessly as the owner thinks to improve the wood-
lot, there will be no trees to grow up and take the place of
the older trees when they are removed. In no form of wood-
lot is it more necessary to take good care of the young growth
than in the irregular form. In all even aged woodlots after
the crowns of the trees are well up above the heads of cattle,
a little grazing may do no immediate harm to the trees, though
it would be better for the trees if grazing were excluded. But
where the maintaining of the forest capital and the future
of the woodlot depends on the young seedlings and saplings

118 FARM FORESTRY

that start each year in the woodlot, they must be protected and
encouraged.

Where there are no younger trees or seedlings beneath
the older trees and no seedlings start in the openings when
the trees are removed after waiting a few years, seedlings
of trees should be planted. Trees should be grown in the
farm nursery for this purpose and they should be of larger
size than required for planting in the open. They can be
allowed to grow to large size in the nursery, so that when
planted out they will soon grow to trees of value. Often
young seedlings can be taken from some other portion of the
woodlot and planted in the openings. Along the edges of
woodlots or around openings there are often many trees grow-
ing that will soon begin to crowd each other. Some of these
trees can be utilized for this purpose before they die. It
is usually necessary to plant trees in the woodlot to keep it
well stocked. By planting the trees or the seeds of trees is
the only way to obtain trees of valuable kinds. There are
many kinds of trees that are far better to grow in woodlots
than those many times found growing.

Ali the various cultural operations described for other
forms of woodlots can be carried out to good effect in the
irregular form. Where valuable kinds of trees are planted to
fill vacant spaces it may be necessary to cultivate the soil.
A thick, heavy sod sometimes grows in such situations. This
may deprive the trees set out of moisture and food before
they get a good hold on the soil and so they will die. Culti-
vating the trees will make them more sure of withstanding
the transplanting and will make them grow faster during the
first few years so they will keep ahead of the weeds. Clean-
ings are often necessary where many trees grow up together.
Where inferior trees begin to crowd or overtop more valuable
kinds they should be removed or their tops broken to retard
their growth. Often sprouts from the stumps of the trees
cut where very numerous will interfere with the growth of

The old trees should gradually be removed and

utilized and the woodlot restocked by planting trees.

The wornout woodlot.

THE WOODLOT STARTED FROM SPROUTS 119

each other and will need to be thinned out. Or the sprouts
that start may because of their faster growth begin to crowd
more valuable seedlings and should be removed. Thinnings
to increase the rate of growth of the older trees as well as
the younger trees where they stand too thickly should be made,
the trees that are falling behind being removed and the more
vigorous trees given more room for their development. Thin-
nings to improve the character of the stand should be made
every few years, the trees to cut for cordwood being chosen
from those the woodlot can well do without. There is no
owner of forest land who can practice forestry more inten-
sively or to better advantage than the farmer on this kind of
woodlot.

THE WORNOUT WOODLOT

Wornout woodlots are those in which the forest capital
or the number of trees has been greatly reduced from the
normal number that should be present. The trees stand far
apart and no longer shade the floor. Grass, weeds, berry
bushes and shrubs cover the ground. The trees are nearly
all old and more or less defective. Such a condition results
from removing too many trees year after year, from the
constant removal of the fastest growing and more vigorous
trees and leaving the poorer ones, or from grazing or fire
that have killed the young trees and so have destroyed the
future of the woodlot. Such a woodlot is of but little value
for a farm. The trees being large will not supply the many
kinds and sizes of material needed. It is often turned over
to grazing.

A wornout woodlot needs to be restocked by planting.
There is no other sure way of increasing the forest capital.
The ground among the trees might be fertilized and cultivated
and the trees thus stimulated to seed production and the soil
put in good condition to receive the seed when a seed year
is present. But it is difficult to renew a wornout woodlot by

120 FARM FORESTRY

natural reproduction. The trees are too old to produce seeds
abundantly. Should a seed year come, and it might be several
years before seed would be produced, the seed might be in-
fertile or be eaten by squirrels. The only practical and sure
method is to gradually remove the old trees as they are needed
for cordwood or other purposes and to plant trees of desirable
species that have either been raised in the farm nursery or
transplanted from some other woodlot. Seedlings can also
be obtained from nurserymen. It is not necessary to plant
the whole woodlot in one year. An acre or less planted each
year will soon cover the woodlot with young trees.

The planting of the seed of trees in the woodlot is one
of the best methods of keeping up the stock of trees. Seed
can be gathered in the fall of the year and either planted at
once by thrusting a stick in the ground and planting the seed
in the hole made or the seed can be stratified over winter
and planted in the spring. Many seeds can be gathered in
the spring of the year after the snow has disappeared, that
have been stratified naturally on the ground over winter.
Where squirrels are not numerous, acorns of the many species
of oak, walnuts, butternuts, hickory nuts, beech nuts and chest-
nuts can be gathered and planted in holes made in the ground.
Smaller seeds like maple, ash, yellow poplar and locust can be
gathered and planted in seedspots in the woodlot. Seed that has
been stratified naturally over winter will start to grow at once
as soon as the ground becomes warm. There is no more prac-
tical or effective way of starting trees growing in the woodlot.

THE GROWING OF BASKET WILLOWS

The growing of basket willows can be profitably carried
on by farmers who have land that is subject to inundation or
flooding by water. Such land is of little value for other pur-
poses. The basket willow industry has developed rapidly in
recent years and there has been a constant demand for willow
rods.

The basket willow showing the character of rods produced by the Lemley
willow.

THE WOODLOT STARTED FROM SPROUTS 121

The basket. willow is a variety of the willow family that is
especially adapted for this purpose. The common willows do
not yield rods of high grade. Most of those in use have been
imported from Europe. The willow is not a tree that demands
water. It grows best on rich, moist, well drained bottomlands.
It will thrive on land subject to inundation provided there is
good drainage. It will not grow well under swampy con-
ditions. If the land is flooded for long periods of time the
willow will not live. The species commonly planted are the
Welsh or purple willow, the Lemley, patent Lemley or Caspian
willow, the American green or almond willow and the common
white willow.

The basket willow is propagated by cuttings from one year-
old shoots cut into sections 10 inches to a foot long. These
are planted in rows in the willow bed or holt from 16 to 20
inches apart, the cuttings being spaced from 6 to g inches
apart in the rows. The cuttings are either forced into the
ground or set in holes made by a stick or sharp iron. They
are planted upright with the buds up so that only an inch
remains above the ground. Close planting retards the growth
of weeds and results in greater yield per acre and in straighter
and less branchy rods.

The land for a willow holt should be thoroughly cultivated
as for a field crop and limed and fertilized with wood ashes.
On land never flooded the soil should be deep and moist, but
need not be necessarily rich. If land is subject to overflow
it must be well drained. Such land does not need fertilizing.
Ordinary soil must be fertilized every 4 or 5 years. Cultiva-
tion is necessary, for the willow is very intolerant of shade
and is easily crowded out by weeds. Three or four hoeings
must be given the first year and two the second. Later the
willows will be thick enough to shade out the weeds.

The rods should be cut close to the stool. If cut below
the ground the rods will be brittle. If cut too far out from the
stool the rods will be apt to curve at the base. Rods to be

122 FARM FORESTRY

sold with the bark on must be smooth, tough, flexible, branch-
less and cylindrical, and the color of the bark must remain
a light brown. Usually the rods are peeled before being sold.
These must have the same general characteristics and must
remain white when peeled. In addition rods must have small
pith and straight grain to bring the highest prices. Peeling
is done either in the spring when the sap begins to flow and
the bark slips easily, or the rods are steamed to loosen the
bark. The rods for steam peeling are cut in the fall as soon
as the leaves have fallen. Where sap peeling is used the rods
are not cut until March.

After the rods are cut they are drafted or sorted into 4
or 5 height and quality classes. To do this they are placed
upright in a barrel and all those of a certain length are placed
together. The smallest rods usually bring the highest prices.
The care taken in sorting the rods will often determine the
price received. After being sorted the rods are tied in bundles
by grades and stood in shallow pits of water about 2 inches
deep. After standing for 2 to 3 weeks the ends of the rods
become covered with little roots and the rods with tender
green foliage. In this condition they are ready for peeling.
In peeling, the rods are first drawn through an instrument
called a brake, which bruises and loosens the bark. Strippers
then pull off the loosened bark. The rods are then bleached
in the sun and dried in the open air. They are then bundled
tightly in bundlés about a foot in diameter and stored in a dry,
dark place.

A fair holt will average 4 tons of rods to the acre after
the second year for 12 years. The first year rods are of little
value. The second year the holt will yield about half a crop.
The price varies with the kind, size and quality of willows
from 4 to 6 cents a pound. The cost of growing a crop of
willows will be about $50 an acre. An acre of willow will
also yield about a ton of bark which should be utilized. It
contains sufficient tannin to be put to commercial use. Abroad

THE WOODLOT STARTED FROM SPROUTS 123

the bark is used for making doormats, for bedding cattle and
for fodder. It sells for about $15 a ton.

MANAGING THE MAPLE SUGAR BUSH

In the northern states where the hard or sugar maple forms
a large percentage of the trees in a woodlot, the making of
maple sirup or sugar is an important spring industry. Many
farm woodlots are managed especially for this product.

Sugar maple is a forest tree and to grow well in a woodlot
requires forest conditions. The canopy must be kept intact
so that the sunlight will not fall on the forest floor, and the
ground must be covered with a layer of leaves and humus to
the exclusion of grass and weeds. The amount of sap pro-
duced by a tree is proportional to the extent of the leaf sur-
face. In the woodlot the best results will be obtained not by
a few trees with very wide spreading crowns, but by the largest
number of trees consistent with fully developed crowns. In
the “sugar bush” the trees should stand farther apart than in
the farm woodlot managed for the growing of wood products
alone, in order that good crown development will be secured.

Maple, being a tolerant tree, would naturally grow in un-
even aged stands containing trees of all sizes and ages. Such
a stand would be managed by the selection system, the old
trees being removed when mature and their places being taken
by younger trees that have developed beneath them. Ordin-
arily stands of the sugar maple are more even aged owing to
the trees having seeded in on a clearing or because of grazing
that has killed off the younger trees until all the trees are about
of the same size. Where such a stand is mature and the
trees stand far apart, small maple trees should be planted
among the trees and in the openings, and the mature trees
gradually removed. In young, even aged stands where the
trees stand closely together, they must be thinned out every
few years lightly, so as to induce crown development. Cer-

124 FARM FORESTRY

tain thrifty trees with good crowns can be selected for the
final stand and the trees around them when they begin to
crowd can gradually be thinned out. Heavier thinnings can
be made than in the woodlot where trees with long boles are
desired. At 40 years of age there should be about 100 trees
to the acre and the crowns should completely shade the forest
floor. It is seldom that sugar maple forms pure stands. It
is usually found in mixture with other trees. Where it is
desired to develop a sugar bush these trees should gradually
be removed by utilizing them for fuel and other purposes on
the farm and their places in the stand filled by planting the
sugar maple.

The sap season begins the middle of March and continues
to the third week in April. The season usually lasts about four
weeks. Trees vary in the amount of sap they will yield and
in the percentage of sugar in the sap. The amount depends
on the individual tree, and on the character of the soil and
the situation. It fluctuates with night and day and with a
change of temperature. Trees average about 12 gallons of
sap a year or about 3 pounds of sugar. The amount may be
much lower and individual trees have been known to yield
75 gallons of sap and to make 3034 pounds of sugar in a single
year. Sap usually contains about 3 per cent of sugar, but
it may run as high as 10 per cent. Moderate tapping does
not injure the trees or affect the growth or the quality of wood.

In tapping a tree the loose bark should be brushed away
so that pieces will not fall into the pail. The hole is bored
with a 3-inch or a 14-inch bit about an inch deep, directed
slightly upward so as to insure drainage. Small holes are used
so that they will close over in a year or two. The greater
part of the sap comes from the outer Io to 15 rings of the
wood, so that deep boring is unnecessary. Wooden spouts
are used, made from elder or sumach, the pith being forced
out with a stick or burned out with a hot iron. The pails for
collecting the sap should be covered to keep out bark, dirt,

THE WOODLOT STARTED FROM SPROUTS 125

snow or rain. Cleanliness is necessary to prevent souring or
spoiling of the sap.

The sap is usually boiled down in kettles in the woods or
in sheds built for the purpose. As impurities rise they should
be skimmed off. When the boiled down sap reaches a weight
of 11 pounds to the gallon, good sirup will be produced. It
should be dipped out and strained through flannel. It can be
put up either hot or cold. It is believed by many better to can
it cold and as soon as possible. For making sugar the sap
should be boiled down until it begins to “sugar off.” Old-
fashioned methods to determine this point are by pouring the
sirup on snow or by dipping in it a twig bent into a loop.
If it becomes waxy on the snow or if it forms an elastic film
on the loop, the sirup has boiled enough. It is then poured
into moulds to harden. It should be stored in a cool, dry cellar
or storeroom.

CHAPTER XII
PROTECTION OF THE WOODLOT

A woopLot must be protected from its enemies if it is
to be successful. Trees are attacked by disease and insects
the same as other forms of plant life, and they are subject
to injury from fire, storm, animals, and the acts of man.

Tree Diseases.—There are many kinds of diseases to
which trees are subject. The most common of them are caused
by fungi. These are low forms of plant life that cannot man-
ufacture food, being without chlorophyll, and so live on other
plant life. They live on the wood and other parts of a tree,
consuming the woody tissue and causing what is known as rot.
The fungous disease is spread by spores that are very light
and small and are carried through the air. Falling on the
exposed surface of wood the spores will begin to grow, forc-
ing their way into the tree and branching out in all directions
through the woody tissue. After the fungous disease is well
established in the tree it produces a fruiting body which is
often in the shape of a shelf-like bracket or of a toadstool.
Mushrooms and puffballs are the fruiting bodies of fungi.
The fruiting bodies vary in the different kinds of fungi from
a foot or more across to those barely visible. They vary in
color also from colorless to black or red, but never green.
From these fruiting bodies the spores are scattered by the
wind.

As long as the bark on a tree is intact it will protect the
tree from most kinds of fungi and decay. The spores may
enter a tree through a broken limb and work down through
the body of the tree, or they may enter through an injured

126

Fruiting bodies of roteproducing fungi on the stump of an oak tree.

ss the butt of a chestnut tree, showing how decay has entered

Section acro

fire scar.

e tree through a

PROTECTION OF THE WOODLOT 127

rcot. Usually rot starts in a tree as the result of the breaking
of the bark on the trunk by grazing animals, by accident or
because the inner living bark has been killed by fire or other
causes.

While most fungi grow on the stem and limbs of trees
some attack the leaves, others the living bark and others the
roots. Some fungi attack only the heartwood, in which case
the trunk may become hollow. Since the heartwood has
nothing to do with the life process of the tree, the wood being
dead, heart rot does not often kill a tree. Trees are often
seen growing vigorously with a hollow trunk. Heart rot de-
stroys the value of the tree for lumber or other useful pur-
pose and so weakens the tree that it is liable to be broken off
by a heavy wind. Some fungi attack the sapwood and the
cambium, the living layer of the tree. These fungi are most
dangerous to the life of trees and soon bring about their
death. The chestnut bark disease, which threatens the destruc-
tion of all chestnut trees, is of this character. It enters the
bark through a wound or even through the lenticles of the
bark. It spreads out and develops in the cambium layer,
forming a spot that gradually grows larger and larger until
the tree is girdled and killed. From the brown patches which
it forms on the surface of the bark the spores are spread.
The recently imported white pine blister rust is of much the
same character.

Little can be done when trees are attacked by fungi,
especially in a large woodlot. Because the disease is in-
side the bark, spraying will have no effect as it will not
reach the disease. Injections of so-called remedies, or boring
holes in a tree and filling with medicine or chemicals of dif-
ferent kinds will be of little or no value. The bark on trees
in the woodlot should be kept intact. Wounds caused by
pruning off branches or otherwise should be painted with a
good paint or tar to prevent the spores or seeds of the fungi
entering the wood. Fire that kills the inner bark at the base

128 FARM FORESTRY

of trees should not be allowed to run through the woodlot
and grazing animals should be excluded. Trees and limbs
attacked by the chestnut bark disease or other diseases should
be cut and the bark removed and burned. This will often
prevent the spread of the disease to other portions of the
tree or to other trees. Healthy, vigorously growing trees are
less apt to be attacked by rot because new wood closes over
wounds quickly. Anything that tends to induce health and
vigor in the trees will help to prevent decay.

Insects.—Insects are another cause of damage and often
of great loss to the woodlot. Every tree has its insect enemies
that live and prey on it every year. Ordinarily they do but
little damage. It is only when an insect becomes very numer-
ous and it begins to do considerable damage that our attention
is called to it. The destruction of birds is said to have been
one of the chief causes of the increase in insect pests in recent
years. So numerous have the insect pests of trees become in
some regions that trees can be grown only by constantly fight-
ing their insect enemies, by spraying the leaves with poison,
destroying the eggs of insects, burning their nests, and in
other ways.

Insects kill trees by defoliating them or eating the leaves,
by sucking the juices through the leaves or bark, or by gird-
ling the inner living bark. Some insects live only in the dead
wood or heartwood of a tree or only on dead trees, while
others attack only living trees. Some live only on one tree
or a few trees, while others live on many kinds.

It is only by becoming acquainted with the life history
of insects that they can be combated intelligently and success-
fully. Insects that spend the winter in webs in the trees like
the brown tail moth or fall web worm can be destroyed by
cutting off the webs and burning them or by burning the webs
with a long-handled torch. Each web of the brown tail
moth will contain from 500 to goo caterpillars. The gipsy
moth lays its eggs in yellowish clusters in crevices in the bark,

PROTECTION OF THE WOODLOT 129

along fences or in other places. These egg masses each
containing 400 to 500 eggs can be destroyed by wetting them
with creosote. Both of these insects have done great damage
to the woodlots in New England and are likely to spread.
The white pine weevil which attacks the tip shoots of the
white pine trees, especially the young trees in plantations, can
be killed by cutting off the infested leaders in the late summer
and burning them. The weevil lays its eggs on the leader and
the young develop in the growing twig. Leaders that are
attacked begin to change color in the late summer. They
should be cut at once and destroyed before the weevils escape.
Caterpillars can be prevented from climbing trees by binding
a band of sticky fly paper around the trunk of the tree. Insects
that eat the leaves of trees can be destroyed by spraying the
leaves with a poison solution, such as 1o pounds of arsenate
of lead dissolved in 100 gallons of water. Insects that suck
the juices from leaves and bark can be killed by a contact
poison which will smother them, such as kerosene emulsion,
soap and water, tobacco extract, or lime and sulphur wash.
When trees become badly infested with insects that have bored
beneath the bark, the trees should be cut and the bark burned.
Boring insects can be cut out with a knife where an especially
valuable tree is attacked, or carbon bisulphide can be injected
into the burrow and the opening immediately plugged with
putty or soap.

Dead trees and rotting branches and stumps are often the
breeding places of insects that later may attack living trees.
The woodlot should be kept free of such material by utilizing
it for cordwood. The tops of trees cut should be utilized
in this way or piled and burned. Many methods for combat-
ing insects can be carried out only on the small woodlot.
They would not be practical with large forest areas. Where
insects are destroying large portions of forests the only prac-
tical remedy is to cut all the trees in the infested area.

It is sometimes possible to combat an insect attack by

130 FARM FORESTRY

cutting from the woodlot the trees on which the particular
insect feeds and encouraging the more resistant kinds. In
starting a woodlot by planting only those trees should be used
that are not subject to insect attacks. It is impossible to grow
the black locust in many parts of its range because of the
attacks of the locust borer that riddles the wood of the trees.
It is said that this insect lives on the pollen of the goldenrod
and that where this is destroyed locust trees can be grown.
There is no practical method of combating many kinds of
insects.

Fire——Fire is one of the worst enemies of the woodlot.
It not only injures large trees but it destroys the young trees
and seedlings on which the future of the woodlot depends,
and also destroys the favorable conditions of the forest floor
and soil. It is often thought that a surface fire passing through
a woodlot consuming the fallen leaves does scarcely any dam-
age to the larger trees. This is because the crowns of the
trees are elevated high above the fire and the bark on old
trees is usually thick. A surface fire may be hot enough to
scorch and kill the living cambium layer lying just beneath
the bark without the tree showing scarcely any outward evi-
dence of injury. The damage done to trees after a fire often
does not become evident for many years. When the cambium
layer is killed by being scorched, growth will cease over that
portion of the trunk of the tree and decay of the wood will
soon set in. The cause of so many large trees being rotten at
the base is usually surface fires that have killed the cambium
layer. Fungi gaining entrance through the dead bark spread
out in the wood often rotting the heartwood for long dis-
tances. When stich trees are cut they must be butted off
many feet to get above the decay. On level land trees are
injured most from a surface fire on the leeward side cr the
side away from the direction from which the fire comes.
The direction in which a fire burned and usually the place
where the fire started can often be determined by this means.

The effect of fire and wind on a stand of western white pine. The trees
are all dead. The humus and the roots of the trees have been
burned, causing the trees to be blown over by the wind.

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PROTECTION OF THE WOODLOT 131

Tife injury to the trees by surface fires can be shown imme-
diately after the fire by removing the outer bark. If the inner
bark looks brown or scorched the fire has killed the cambium
or growing layer at that point. A fire in a woodlot always
does great damage to the surface roots of trees.

It is sometimes held that a fire is an advantage to a young
stand of growing timber, in that it will kill a few of the trees
and the rest will grow all the faster because of the greater
room in which to spread their crowns. A thinning is often
needed in a thick stand of young trees, but fire does not exer-
cise an intelligent choice as to the trees to be removed. The
trees killed are those most susceptible to damage by fire, as
those with thin bark or that contain a great amount of water.
It may happen that these trees are of the better kinds and that
those that will withstand fire the best are the poorest kinds
of trees in the woodlot. Fire passing through the woodlot
will often in this way bring about a change in the species
and cause the woodlot to deteriorate in character.

It is in the destruction of the young seedlings and sapling's
and of the seeds lying in the humus ready to germinate that
the greatest injury is done to the farm woodlot. The woodlot
can get along without the older trees. It is natural for them
finally through old age or disease to die and fall to the ground.
But a woodlot cannot get along without the younger trees.
As has been said, these are the children of the woodlot, and
if they are continually killed off by fire or other causes there
can be no future to the life of the woodlot.

Fire passing repeatedly over the ground destroys the humus
and breaks down the crumbly character of the soil, making it
hard, much like a pavement. This prevents the circulation
of the air in the soil, which is necessary for root develop-
ment. It tends to prevent the entrance of moisture, the water
running over the surface instead of sinking into the ground.
It prevents the new tender roots that start from germinating
seeds from entering the soil, and so prevents the reproduction

132 FARM FORESTRY

of the trees. The destruction of the humus or the decayed
leaves and twigs lessens the moisture holding capacity of the
soil. Such conditions are not favorable for the growth of
trees, but encourage the growth of weeds.

Protecting the Woodlot from Fire-—Where woodlots are
portions of larger forest areas some means must be taken to
prevent fires spreading to them. Woodlots that are isolated,
being surrounded by cultivated fields, are not usually subject
to fires. If fire starts it is due to carelessness in most cases.
The watchfulness of the owner is the surest safeguard against
fires. Ifa fire can be discovered early before it has become of
large size it usually can be extinguished easily. Where it is
possible to do so there is no better means of protecting a
woodlot than to run a few furrows around it with a plow.
This will stop an ordinary, slowly moving surface fire. It
also gives a base from which to back fire against a rapidly
approaching fire. In back firing, a fire is lighted along a pre-
pared line, path or road running at right angles across an ap-
proaching fire, and is allowed to burn back against the fire,
consuming the inflammable material. This is a most effective
means of combating a rapidly moving and hot fire. Fire lanes
are sometimes made by turning furrows several yards or rods
apart and burning off the inflammable material: between. Such
fire lanes are comparatively inexpensive and are very effective.
They can be run along railroads and the material between
the tracks and fire lane burned. They can be constructed
in the same way along a highway where there is danger of fire
being started accidentally. It is not always possible to plow fire
lines owing to the nature of the soil. In this case lines can
be raked or hoed clear of all inflammable material such as
leaves, twigs, weeds and grass, and all branches and fallen
trees removed. Regular roads and existing logging roads,
trails and streams can also be utilized as fire lines.

Woodlots can be divided by fire lines into blocks. If fire
starts in one block the lines will prevent it spreading to other

PROTECTION OF THE WOODLOT 133

portions. Farmers often delay too long making provision for
preventing fire. A fire line ceases to be a fire line when it
becomes covered with dry leaves and other material. Even in
that condition they will serve, however, as trails along which
men can move in fighting a fire. Experienced men often will
not enter the woods to fight fire unless along a trail that
will also lead them out of the woods in case of danger. Lines
should be opened up through large woods for this purpose.
The ground in a woodlot should be kept clear of all inflam-
mable material. Dead tops and fallen limbs as well as the
slash after logging should be worked up into cordwood and
the rest piled and burned.

A surface fire passing through a woodlot often can be
beaten out by the use of wet sacks or branches of trees.
Where sand or dirt can be had it can be thrown from a shovel
on a fire with good effect. Water where it can be obtained
is probably the best means of fighting fires in the woodlot.
A pail of water and an ordinary force pump will put out
many jeet of fire or lay it so low that it can easily be beaten
out. In some regions where woodlots are of value fire ex-
tinguishers are used and work well. In thickly settled regions
fire engines and trucks equipped with fire fighting tools are
held in readiness to go to woodlot fires and extinguish them.

Where fire burns down below the surface and runs in dry
humus where it has accumulated in thick layers, trenches must
be dug down to the mineral soil around the fire to keep it
from spreading. Such a fire is called a ground fire. It burns
slowly destroying the humus and soil and causing great dam-
age by burning the roots of trees causing them to fall over
in the first wind.

The time to fight a large fire is at night when the dew
has dampened the humus and foliage and the fire buras low
and slowly. Under the drying and warming action of the
sun the woods become dry and wind is apt to rise or change
suddenly. A fire in the daytime usually burns too hot and

134 FARM FORESTRY

too fast to be attacked by beating it out. A fire in a small
woodlot can usually be stopped by raking the leaves and other
dead material from in front of the fire or by beating out the
flames.

Grazing.—In a mature, even aged woodlot where the trees
are large and the canopy is far removed from the heads of
cattle and where reproduction of the trees is not looked for
or desired, the grazing of a few head of cattle can do but
little immediate harm to the standing trees. It is overgrazing
that does harm. But in a recently established forest planting,
or in a young growing woodlot, or in the ordinary farm wood-
lot composed of trees of all sizes and ages, or where repro-
duction of the trees in the woodlot is desired, grazing must
be excluded.

Animals do damage in several ways when grazing in a
woodlot. The result of their action is much similar to that
produced by fire. The young seedlings and saplings are eaten
and destroyed, the ground is packed hard by the constant
trampling of the cattle, making it impervious to water; the
surface roots of trees are exposed and injured, and the bark
on larger trees is rubbed off or gnawed exposing the wood to
decay. Different kinds of animals affect the woodlot dif-
ferently. Sheep cut into the soil with their sharp hoofs,
pulverizing it and injuring the surface roots of the trees and
seedlings. Horses and cattle destroy large numbers of young
trees by trampling. Damage is done to the trees by browsing
on the young growth, by biting off buds, leaves and shoots, and
by gnawing and rubbing off the bark. Horses reach higher
and are fonder of leaves than cattle, and because of their iron
shoes they do greater damage. Sheep have their heads low,
but they eat close and are exceedingly harmful to the wood-
lot. Goats prefer the leaves and bark of trees to other forage.
They should never be allowed in the woodlot. Goats and sheep
are often used to clean up brush land because of the damage
they do to young trees and sprouts. From 3 to 5 goats to

PROTECTION OF THE WOODLOT 135

the acre will usually clear out all the tree growth in a single
season. Hogs root up the soil and eat the young succulent
roots of trees. They are sometimes driven into the woodlot
to expose the mineral soil so that the seed from the trees will
germinate better.

There is much truth in the old saying that it is impossible
to grow trees and animals on the same ground. Where it is
necessary to run cattle in the woodlot for protection from the
hot sun in summer and from the cold winds of winter, the
woodlot should be divided, a portion being fenced off and
devoted to this purpose and the rest of the woodlot used for
growing trees.

Storms.—Considerable damage is done to trees in the
woodlot by storms causing windfall and breakage. Trees in
the woodlot protect each other from the wind. Standing
closely together, the crowns prevent the wind blowing the
trees over so far that they will be uprooted or broken off.
Great care must be used in thinning a woodlot not to suddenly
remove sO many trees in one spot that the tree crowns will
be separated from one another so far that windfall or breakage
will result. Windfall is especially likely to occur in moist
situations, where the trees naturally grow shallow root sys-
tems. It is well to maintain a mantle or protecting hedge
to the woodlot to keep the wind from getting in under the
trees. Trees on the outer edges of the woodlot should be
allowed to grow branches low down on the trunks, and shrubs
and smaller trees should be encouraged to grow. It is a mis-
take to open up the edge of a woodlot by pruning up the trees
and by removing the young growth and shrubs found. Such
a protective mantle prevents the cold winds of winter from
injuring the trees by freezing and cracking open the trunks.
It prevents the hot winds of summer from drying up the soil
under the trees and also helps to prevent windfall and
breakage.

The Owner.—Probably the worst enemy of the woodlot

136 FARM FORESTRY

is the owner himself. By his lack of judgment as to the trees
to cut for fuel, always selecting the most vigorously growing
and best formed trees and leaving the poor ones, the woodlot
becomes filled with old, crooked and misshapen trees. By
giving no thought to the trees that start to grow in the space
left by the removal of a tree, allowing nature to fill in the
opening with any tree that happens to come up, the woodlot
often becomes filled with weed trees that have little use on the
farm. Only by the removal of the weed trees and by favor-
ing and planting trees of good species can an owner secure
trees in the woodlot that will be of use. Many woodlots after
years of cutting are in a culled condition, all the valuable
species having been removed. The kinds of trees that could

‘ not be sold were left to sow the seed for the future woodlot.

Many woodlots formerly filled with useful and valuable trees
now contain only inferior kinds of trees. The surest way
to secure valuable trees in the woodlot is to plant them when-
ever a tree is removed.

By not growing his trees closely enough together the
trees become limby and grow short trunks. By not thinning
out the trees as they gradually grow larger he permits the
trees to expend most of their energy in fighting neighboring
trees rather tharf in rapid height and diameter growth. By giv-
ing to each tree the amount of light and space it needs by
frequent and light thinnings, removing the weaker and in-
ferior species the owner can greatly increase the annual yield
of the woodlot. Too many farmers leave the growing of
their trees to nature. Nature’s methods are usually not profit-
able and in the woodlot she will often grow but one-fourth
or less of the amount of wood product that can be grown by
proper care and attention. By not making provision for trees
to grow up to take the place of those removed, breaks occur
in the canopy causing a loss in yield. By not encouraging the
fastest growing species that will serve his purpose, he pro-
duces annually but a small part of the wood product he might

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erry

Grazing is injurious to the trees in the woodlot. Dead limbs in the
tops of the trees show lack of vigor.

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A protective mantle to the woodlot protects the trees from cold and
dry wind.

PROTECTION OF THE WOODLOT 137

obtain. By not protecting the woodlot from fire and grazing
he is destroying the future of the woodlot and injuring the
present stand of trees. Insects and fungi, because of his
neglect, use up a large percentage of the product.

As has been said, a woodlot will respond to good treatment
and the owner can by giving a little attention to the growing
trees, and protecting them from their enemies, make a wood-
lot a source of income as well as have it furnish the farm with
all the wood desired.

CHAPTER XIII
WOODLOT MANAGEMENT

Conception of the Woodlot as Forest Capital.—The trees
in the woodlot can be considered as forest capital from which
an income is to be derived or the same as money in the bank
at interest. The amount of wood that is laid on the trees
in a year, the annual growth, is the interest on the forest
capital. If the amount of wood produced by each tree every
year is large, owing to rapid growth, a high rate of interest
will be earned by the woodlot.

Unless the trees in the woodlot are fast growing species
of trees and unless they are given the proper amount of space
for their best and most rapid development by means of thin-
nings, a low rate of interest must be expected. Like any other
business, the returns from the woodlot will depend on the kind
and amount of capital in the business, and also on how that
capital is handled.

The Amount of Timber to Remove Annually from the
Woodlot.—It is important to know the amount of timber that
can be removed annually from the woodlot without detriment
to the forest capital. It is a common saying that a farmer
cannot use his woodlot and have it too. This is because as
soon as he begins cutting in the woodlot it is not many years
before the woodlot is in a wornout condition, the trees stand-
ing far apart and grass and weeds covering the forest floor.
This results from not knowing the amount that can safely be
removed each year. In this case instead of cutting the interest
only, the owner has been cutting into the forest capital. The
amount that can safely be cut from the woodlot each year

138

This kind of woodlot can yield but a small annual income.

WOODLOT MANAGEMENT 139

is the amount that grows each year or the interest earned by
the forest capital. If more is cut the woodlot will soon run
out.

A cord per acre per annum is an old measure of the
growth of the ordinary woodlot. There are, however, few
woodlots that grow at that rate. Most of them produce but
half a cord or less per acre every year. In cutting it will
not be safe to figure on a high yield, Raising the yield is
the problem of the farm woodlot. With a well stocked stand
of fast growing trees that are given the proper room for their
best growth by means of thinnings, a cord per annum and
more should be produced. The yield should be placed at a
certain amount and if the owner finds that after cutting a
few years the woodlot is becoming thin, a less amount should
be removed annually. If, on the other hand, the woodlot is
becoming overstocked with large trees, a larger amount can
safely be removed.

Size of the Woodlot.—Whether a woodlot will supply a
farm with all the wood products needed will depend primarily
on the size of the woodlot. It is often said that one-eighth
of the farm should be in a woodlot and that area should
supply the farm for all time with all wood products needed,
and also furnish some material for sale. The area that should
be in farm woodlot, however, is not definite. The annual in-
come from an acre of wooded land will depend on the species,
whether it has slow or fast growth; on the soil, whether it is
suited to the tree grown; on the moisture content of the
soil, whether it is wet or dry; on the aspect or exposure to
winds or storms, and on the topography, whether the ground
is level or a steep slope, and on which way it faces. All these
factors and others will affect the growth of trees. Even the
same tree will not grow at the same rate in the same region
if the character of the soil varies or the moisture in *he soil
differs in amount. The annual growth must be determined
for each particular woodlot and the size figured accordingly.

140 FARM FORESTRY

If the woodlot is found to be too small to supply the farm
with all wood products needed its boundaries should be ex-
tended by planting trees, or wood products should be pur-
chased.

Regulating the Cuttings in the Woodlot so as to Secure
an Equal Annual Yield—One of the objects of woodlot
management is to so arrange or regulate the cuttings that
an equal amount of wood can be removed from the woodlot
year after year or periodically without lessening the forest
capital. In other words, to put the woodlot on a business basis
with a sustained ‘annual yield.

One of the means of accomplishing this object in a wood-
lot where the stand of timber is fairly uniform throughout
is by the area method. This consists in dividing the woodlot
into as many equal areas as the trees are years old when
mature and cutting one part each year. The age at which the
trees are cut is known as the rotation. The rotation will vary
with the product desired, whether it be sawlogs, poles, ties,
posts or cordwood. Even with the same product the age at
which the trees will be large enough to cut for a certain
product will vary with the rate of growth of the trees. The
faster the trees grow the lower the rotation can be made.

The age at which the trees are to be cut having been
established, the woodlot is divided into that number of equal
parts and the timber on one of them is cut each year. As
soon as the trees have been cut reproduction is established
by seedlings or from sprouts and a new stand of timber
started. In this way by cutting one area a year the entire
woodlot is finally cut over and the cut-over areas reproduced.
At the end of the rotation or the time it takes to cut through
the woodlot, the trees on the first area cut will be old enough
and large enough to harvest. The owner starts and cuts
through the woodlot again. Each year the timber on one area
becomes mature and is cut and reproduction is established.*

* The rotation can also be divided into periods of 5 or Io years

WOODLOT MANAGEMENT 141

In this way the woodlot is placed on a financial basis the
same as any other business. It produces a known income every
year. The value of the woodlot can be figured on a basis of
the income.

This represents the method of management of forests in
countries where forestry has been practiced many years. It
gives an idea of what forestry really is, a business of growing
crops of trees. There are many other methods of regulating
the annual cut in woodlots or forests to secure a sustained
yield. These can be found described in books relating to
general forestry.

TAXATION OF WOODLOTS

Woodlots in most states are subject to the general property
tax. Each year the assessors appraise the value of the trees
together with the land, and the owner pays the tax annually
on this valuation. No one objects to paying a just tax on
property, but a tax out of proportion to the value of the
property is unjust. A mature stand of timber that is being
held for a rise in the value of stumpage is probably justly
taxed by this system. But often the tax on such timber has
been made a burden. Overtaxation on mature timber has
been common in many regions, the assessors figuring to get
all out of the timber possible before it is cut. This has been
a chief cause of the slashing of many of our forests.

But a growing stand of timber, on the other hand, is in the
nature of a crop and should pay a tax only when the crop
is harvested, and not year after year while the crop is growing
and producing no revenue. When the crop brings in an
income then the tax should be collected. The land should pay

each and the woodlot divided into as many parts as there are periods
in the rotation. Then the timber on one part would be cut during
each period and reproduction established. When the woodlot is cut
through the timber on the first part cut would be large enough to
harvest.

142 FARM FORESTRY

its just tax each year on the basis of its productive capacity
the same as plowland, and the timber should pay its tax when
cut. The paying of a tax each year during the life of a grow-
ing crop of trees makes the total tax paid out at the time the
timber is cut, out of all proportion to the actual value of the
timber, especially since the money paid out each year must
run at compound interest up to the time the crop is harvested.

Many of the states have given some attention to the taxa-
tion of growing timber. In some of them legislation has been
passed by which growing timber is placed in a separate classi-
fication for purposes of taxation. The plans differ in many
respects, but all advocate that the land should be assessed
on a basis of its earning capacity and that the timber should pay
a yield tax when harvested. In New York State the timber
when harvested pays a yield tax of 5 per cent of the value of
the crop. Michigan lays a tax of 5 per cent on forest planta-
tions when mature, Massachusetts 6 per cent, and Vermont,
Connecticut and Pennsylvania 10 per cent, with different pro-
visions for forests already established. In Pennsylvania the
land must be classified by the State Forestry Department as
auxiliary forest reserves, and thereafter the land cannot be
assessed for purposes of taxation at a higher valuation than $1
per acre. The state compensates school and road districts for
the loss of revenue by paying into the local funds for each of
these purposes state moneys at the rate of 2 cents per acre
on land so classified. Vermont, Massachusetts and Connecti-
cut provide for a valuation of the land separately from the
timber and when this valuation has been made it must stand
for a long term of years. There are many variations in the
details of the laws, but they all agree in embodying the prin-
ciple of a tax on the yield separate from a tax on the land.
In some states reforested lands are exempted from the pay-
ment of taxes for a certain number of years, while in others
bounties and rebates are given.

Damages.—When timber in a woodlot is injured by fire

WOODLOT MANAGEMENT 143

or other causes damages can be collected. The usual measure
of damages in such cases is the difference between the value
of the timber before the damage and the value after the dam-
age. The valuation of trees in woodlots for the purpose of
determining damages is usually based on the amount of cord-
wood it will cut. Before the courts generally if the trees
are not large enough to cut for cordwood they have no value.
A future value of young forest trees is not recognized.

If a young apple orchard is burned soon after it is set out
and before it has begun to bear fruit, damages can be col-
lected far in advance of the cost of the establishment of the
orchard plus the interest and taxes and other expenses to date.
The courts recognize a value in a young orchard that is based
on the expectation of the owner of harvesting crops of apples
in the future. This value is sometimes called the expectation
value. A young colt has but little value in itself. It does no
work and is a constant expense. Ii killed the owner can, how-
ever, collect damages based on the future value and useful-
ness of the animal. The same reasoning does not yet apply to
young stands of timber. A value based on the future returns
or the expectation value is not recognized. The expectation
value would be the future sale value discounted back to the
time of the fire minus any future expenses. There is no rea-
son why such a value should not be recognized and allowed.
That it is not is due to the fact that the principles involved
are not thoroughly understood.

In addition to the damage to the present stand of trees
and to the future growth, there is also a damage to the soil
resulting from the burning of the humus that has been many
years accumulating and which acts like a fertilizer to the
trees. Future crops will grow much slower because of the
loss of humus in the soil.

Often damages to trees do not become evident at once.
After a winter or spring fire in which trees have been injured
badly so that they have been completely girdled, they will

144 FARM FORESTRY

often leaf out in the spring and grow vigorously and there
will be no evidence of serious damage having been done.
The same trees will die in midsummer. They leaf out in the
spring owing to the large amount of food material and moisture
stored in the trunks of the trees. As soon as the stored food
has been used up and the moisture withdrawn the trees will
die. If the bark is peeled away from the lower part of a
tree after a fire the damage, if any, can be shown by the
scorched color of the cambium layer or inner bark. Trees
only partly girdled are badly damaged because of the death
of the cambium layer, which subjects the wood to attacks by
fungi and insects that may render a large portion of the
tree unfit for use.

CHAPTER XIV
THE PRODUCTS OF THE WOODLOT

THE chief products of the woodlot, besides material used
on the farm, are sawlogs, lumber, poles, ties, posts, mine tim-
bers, cordwood, etc.

Sawlogs.—There is usually a good demand for sawlogs
by local sawmills. The woodlot owner should know what
kinds of logs and what lengths can be marketed and the value
of such logs. Often the butt log, as with hickory, is worth
more than the upper logs. A special market should be sought
wherever possible. Perfectly sound logs are in demand for
many purposes. Logs of black walnut are in demand for gun
stocks, black cherry for furniture, ash for tool handles, willow
for gunpowder, white oak for quarter-sawed stock, tulip
poplar and others for veneers. Nearly every kind of wood
has a use for which it is adapted, and for which a high price
is paid for good stock.

The standard lengths of logs are 12, 14 and 16 feet. Short
logs are often cut 8 and Io feet long, and logs longer than 16
feet for special purposes. It is the rule to cut logs a few
inches longer than the length of material to be manufactured,
to allow for bruising the ends in skidding the logs out of the
woods and also for squaring the ends of lumber. Logs should
not be left long in the woods after being cut. If it is not
possible to saw them into lumber at once or deliver them to
the mill they should be skidded out to an open area and piled
on skidways. Painting the ends of logs or coating with tar
will prevent checking or splitting of the ends.

Lumber.—Lumber is cut from nearly all species of trees

145

146 FARM FORESTRY

and has a value according to the species and quality. A good
local market is often found among neighboring farms and
small towns. Special orders for local house or barn construc-
tion can be filled. The product of local sawmills is not in
demand in general competition with the product from large
sawmills, because most of the product manufactured is of poor
quality. Because of the light weight of the sawmill machinery
and lack of skill on the part of the sawyer in keeping his mill
in condition and in the sawing of the lumber, the material is
not uniform. One board or stick may be a little wider or
thinner than another. Boards are often sawed thicker on one
end than on the other. Carpenters like to use a product that
is uniform throughout and that does not vary. The product
of large mills is in demand for this reason. Yet many port-
able sawmills turn out an almost perfect product.

Boards sawed from the same log do not all have the same
value. Those sawed from the outer portions of the log will
usually be clear, without defects or knots. The farther into
the center of a log a board is cut the more knots and imper-
fections it may have. Boards and other lumber is graded
according to the number, size and location of the defects con-
tained. The more perfect the lumber and the freer from
defects the higher the grade and the higher the price the lumber
will bring. Lumber is sometimes sold as it comes from the
mill, all grades mixed in together, called the mill run. Where
lumber is to be sold by grades a knowledge of grades is neces-
sary. Often an experienced grader can be employed, if not
the owner should make a study of the chief grades of different
kinds of lumber so as to be able to sort the boards. Standard
grades for lumber have been established and are in use and
can be secured through the State Forester. The lower grades
have but little or no market value. They are called culls.
These can be used about the farm as needed or cut up for
firewood and kindling. More can usually be made by sorting

THE PRODUCTS OF THE WOODLOT 147

the boards according to the defects and kinds and selling by
grades than by selling the mill run.

The value of lumber will also vary according to the way
it is sawed from the log. Boards cut from the side of a log
have what is called flat grain. The annual rings of wood
will pass through the board at a greater angle than 45 degrees.
Boards cut running from the edge toward the center of the
log will have the annual rings more or less vertical to the
surface of the boards. Such logs are called rift-sawed or
quarter-sawed boards. In quarter-sawed boards the medul-
lary rays will pass through the board from edge to edge. With
woods that have large. medullary rays, as white and red oak,
cherry and sycamore, the medullary rays where they come to
the surface of the board and are cut across by the saw, will
give the figured grain which is in so great demand for furni-
ture and decorative purposes. The name quarter-sawed
boards comes from the early practice of first cutting the log
into quarters before the quarter-sawed stock was cut. Quar-
ter-sawed boards shrink less and wear better than flat grained
boards, and so are of especial value for flooring.

It is often necessary to keep lumber several weeks or
months after it has been sawed before a sale is made or for
the purpose of seasoning the wood. The lumber should be
sorted as nearly as possible by grades, and the different kinds
and sizes piled by themselves neatly in the lumber yard. This
should be located in an open area where there is a good circu-
lation of air and good drainage. The lumber should not be
piled on the ground, but should be raised a foot or more on
crosspieces. The edges of the boards should not touch each
other and between every two tiers of boards well-seasoned
slats should be placed every few feet to permit the air to
circulate freely. The front and rear cleats should be laid
flush with the ends of the boards to prevent checking, and
cleats should be laid one above another to keep the boards
from bending. With woods that have a tendency to warp

148 FARM FORESTRY

the cleats should be placed every 2 or 3 feet, and with woods
like pine and spruce they can be placed much wider apart.

Poles.—There is a demand for poles in nearly all regions
for telephone and telegraph lines and by street railroads and
electric power lines. The kinds of wood used for poles will
vary in different regions. Usually a strong, light and soft
wood is demanded, but use is made of the species that grow
in any region, for it is not practical to ship poles any great
distance because of their weight.

The price paid for poles will vary with the species. The
value of poles of the same kind of wood will depend largely
on the length and condition. Often it will be found possible
to secure a greater profit from poles than from sawlogs or
ties. A farmer should be able to figure such problems. Poles
should be cut according to specifications. Poles are usually
classified by 5 foot lengths beginning at 20 feet and running
up to 60 or more feet, with a top diameter of .7 inches for the
smallest poles. There exists in many regions a good market
also for piles. They are used for foundations for wharves,
quays, bridges, retaining walls, etc. Converter poles find a
ready market near smelter plants.

Poles and piles should be cut only when there is a mar-
ket at hand, for they deteriorate rapidly. If poles cannot be
marketed they should be peeled and skidded out of the woods
to an open spot where the air circulates freely and rolled on
skids so that they will be well off the ground. Poles should
not be piled one on top of the other, but should be one layer
deep, and they should be laid several inches apart to insure
good seasoning.

Cross-Ties.—Where there is a demand for ties they are
a valuable product of the woodlot. They are either hewn out
in the woods or the logs are hauled to the sawmill and sawed
to proper form and size. There are several grades and sizes
of ties, from the highest grades used in the main lines of rail-
roads to the small and short ties used in mines. A woodlot

THE PRODUCTS OF THE WOODLOT 149

owner should have in mind the grades and sizes of ties for
which there is a market in his region and manufacture them
accordingly. Formerly only hard, durable woods were used
for ties, such as white oak, locust, etc. Owing to the growing
scarcity of the more durable woods many other kinds of woods
are in demand. The process of treating wood with creosote
to prolong its life in contact with the ground has made possible
the use of many perishable woods for ties, such as hard maple,
beech and birch.

It may be possible, owing to the location of the woodlot
or the market, that logs made into ties will yield far more
than when sawed into lumber. Such facts can be determined
only by careful investigation of the conditions. The aim
should be in cutting the trees in the woodlot for sale to manu-
facture the products that will yield the greatest profit.

Fence Posts.—Fence posts are cut in different lengths ac-
cording to the demands of the user. The standard post is 7
feet long. The size around will vary often with the use. Line
posts, for example, need not be as strong as corner posts.
Usually larger posts are in demand for it is believed that
they will last longer in the ground before rotting off. Posts
should be large enough so that they will have sufficient heart-
wood to furnish the strength desired when the sapwood
decays, for the sapwood of all kinds of posts will decay
quickly.

Many kinds of woods are used for fence posts. The
length of life of posts will depend primarily on the durability
of the wood. Some kinds of posts will last but two or three
years in the ground before rotting off, such as hickory, soft
maple and birch, while others will last many times as long,
as locust, cedar and chestnut. The more durable the wood
the greater the value of the posts. By giving fence posts a
preservative treatment with creosote the most perishable woods
can be made to last many times as long as they ordinarily
would. This process is described in a subsequent chapter.
Posts should not be left lying on the ground after being cut,

150 FARM FORESTRY

but should be set on end or piled in open piles so that they
will season well.

Mine Timbers.—In the neighborhood of mines there is
usually a good demand for mine timbers. These vary from
heavy props and supporting timbers to small sticks but 3 or 4
inches in diameter called lagging, used to keep earth and rock
from falling into the mine between the props. Many mine ties
are also used. These are much smaller in size than the or-
dinary ties used in railroads. Wood is used in mines in
preference to other material, because it will give way slowly
when subject to great weight, gradually splintering and crack-
ing, giving the miners warning of the moving rock and a
chance to get away. Wood decays very rapidly in mines
owing to the damp conditions so it must be replaced often.
Durable woods are in greatest demand but where these are
scarce almost any strong wood is accepted.

Cordwood.—Fuel wood is usually cut into 4-foot lengths
and piled in stacks 4 feet high and 8 feet long. Such a stack
occupies 128 cubic feet. A cord foot is one-eighth of a cord
or a pile 4 feet high, 4 feet wide and 1 foot long. Surface
feet as applied to cordwood is the number of square feet
measured on the side of a stack. Pulpwood is sometimes cut
in 5-foot lengths, in which case a stack 4 feet high and 8
feet long will contain 160 cubic feet. Wood is also cut in
shorter length, as 15 or 18 inches for stove wood, or 2 to 3
feet long for other purposes. A cord of such wood is a stack
4 feet high and 8 feet long. It is often called a short cord.
In selling a short cord the price is made proportional to the
length of the pieces.

The amount of solid wood in a cord will vary with many
factors. The more important ones are as follows:

The Form of the Sticks—If the wood is straight and
smooth, such as body wood or trunk wood, the pieces will
lie closer and a cord will contain more wood than if the pieces
are crooked, branched or forked, such as limb wood.

Cordwood is one of the chief products of the woodlot.

THE PRODUCTS OF THE WOODLOT 151

The Method of Stacking —Where the wood is thrown on a
pile without much order, some pieces being crossed, less wood
will be contained in a pile than if the pieces are regularly
stacked. In measuring stacked cordwood it is customary to
deduct a certain amount from the measurement if the wood
is not carefully piled.

Whether the Wood is Large or Small.—The smaller the
pieces of wood the more space they will occupy. A cord of
wood swells by splitting the pieces. Large wood stacks closer
than small wood. It is customary to split large pieces into
smaller ones for fuel wood. This permits of better drying
of the wood.

In general a standard cord will contain about 90 cubic
feet of solid wood. Large, smooth, straight wood, such as
pulpwood, will contain often as high as 100 cubic feet per
cord, while a pile of small crooked wood may contain but 30
to 40 cubic feet or less.

Cordwood for sale should be piled neatly and regularly.
It should not be stacked in the woods but should be hauled
out to an open place and stacked where the sun and wind
will quickly season the wood. It should be stacked on sticks
run lengthwise of the pile and not on the ground. Rank vege-
taticn should not be permitted to grow up around it, for it
will keep the lower part of the stack moist and subject to
decay. Cordwood is supposed to be made of green wood, cut,
piled and seasoned. If too much dead wood is mixed in with
the green wood the cordwood will have a dull appearance and
will bring a lower price.

Very often special markets can be found for cordwood,
especially near large towns. Selected pieces of hickory or
oak cut to proper length for burning in fireplaces and well
seasoned will bring more than the same wood cut and stacked
in the usual way. Many wood-using industries purchase wood
of certain sizes cut and piled in cords. Woods vary in the

152 FARM FORESTRY

amount of heat given off in burning. In general the heavier
the wood the more heat it will give out.

Other Products.—There are many other products furnished
by farm woodlots most of them however, supplying only a
local demand. More can often be made by supplying these
special markets than from the ordinary products. In the
vicinity of pulp mills soft wood like spruce, poplar, aspen,
hemlock and pine are usually in demand. Acid factories and
distillation plants require large quantities of wood like beech,
birch and maple. Wood is in demand in many regions for
wagon stock, tight and slack cooperage, and for making furni-
ture and chairs. The bark of trees especially of hemlock and
chestnut oak is in demand for tanning leather. Sometimes
more can be made out of the bark of a tree than out of the
wood.

The future of the forest is destroyed.

The results of destructive lumbering.

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CHAPTER XV
HARVESTING THE PRODUCTS OF THE WOODLOT

THE object of maintaining a woodlot is the utilization of
the wood products. It is seldom that a woodlot is grown for
sentimental or esthetic purposes alone. There is no reason,
however, why if properly cared for a woodlot cannot be orna-
mental as well as serve a useful purpose. A woodlot is for
use primarily. When a tree is ready for the ax it should be
cut. Forestry does not mean preserving trees, it means pre-
serving the life of the forest growth. As we have already
learned, forestry is the growing of successive crops of trees.
This implies the harvesting of the crop when it is ripe. In
forestry the trees would be cut when ripe the same as in
lumbering; but forestry differs from destructive lumbering
in that in cutting the timber the future life of the forest is
provided for. In destructive lumbering the trees would be
cut without any thought for the future, the object being to
convert the standing trees into lumber and money in the
quickest time and cheapest way. The result is generally a bar-
ren waste, due to fire and the destruction of young trees and
seedlings. According to forestry methods, on the other hand,
the trees would be cut not only to utilize them to the best ad-
vantage, but also with the future of the forest in view. The
trees would be cut so that a new crop would spring up after
the old trees are removed.

THE AGE AND SIZE AT WHICH TREES SHOULD BE CUT

The age and size at which a tree becomes ripe for the ax
will depend on the purpose for which the tree was grown or
153

154 FARM FORESTRY

the purpose for which it can best be utilized. If trees are
grown for fence posts they are ripe and should be cut when
they reach fence post size. If a fence post is wanted from
a woodlot a tree suitable for the purpose should be selected
and cut, provided it is not needed by the woodlot for protec-
tion to the soil or for seeding up the ground with seedlings,
and provided it will not serve a better purpose later if allowed
to grow larger, and also provided there are no poorer trees
that will serve the purpose just as well, The aim should be to
utilize each tree for that purpose for which it is best suited.
Trees often are cut from the woodlot without any thought
as to their fitness for any definite use. If a tree will make a
good sawlog it should be kept until lumber is needed, and
not cut for cordwood because the wood is straight grained
and easy to split. If a tree has a wood that is suited for a
particular purpose and for which there is a high demand it
should not be cut for another purpose.

When trees are cut from the woodlot for sale they should
be utilized when they will yield the highest returns in money.
The size and age will vary in different regions with the con-
ditions. Often trees cut when small and grown several short
rotations by coppice will bring in a larger revenue than if held
before cutting an equal time until they. become large in size.
Small second growth hickory, for example, is in demand for
spokes and ax handles. It is often grown on short rotations
for this purpose. As soon as the sprouts become large enough
they are cut and sold. Chestnut and red oak coppice are grown
on short rotations often of eight to twelve years to produce
small sticks or lagging for use in mines. More can often be
obtained in this way where there is a good market than if
the trees were allowed to grow to large size before cutting.

As we have seen trees grow slowly at first, but soon begin
a rapid height and diameter growth that continues to middle
life or through the pole stage in some species, after that the
rate of growth decreases until in an old tree the annual rings

Felling a tree with the crosscut saw.

‘sasioy Aq spoom ay} Jo yo sso] JUIPpEIS

HARVESTING THE PRODUCTS OF THE WOODLOT 155

are very narrow. In general trees should be harvested when
they are financially ripe, or before the slower growth of old
age begins. When the increased value of a larger product or
its usefulness will make up for the loss due to the slower
growth, trees should be allowed to grow to large size. When
a tree becomes over mature in the woodlot because of the very
slow growth wounds are not covered over quickly and the
exposed wood is soon attacked by fungi and begins to decay.
Trees in the woodlot should be harvested while the wood is
sound.

Cutting Trees from the Woodlot.—The products from the
small woodlot for farm use and for sale are usually harvested
by the owner himself. He goes into the woods each winter
with his help and cuts out such material as is needed. In
cutting a tree an undercut is made with the ax on the side
of the trunk, to determine the direction the tree is to fall and
to keep the tree from splitting and kicking back. This should
be cut about 2 inches deep in coniferous trees, and in hard-
woods it should extend to the center of the tree. It should
be made as low down on the trunk as possible. It is more
difficult to saw a low stump than a high one, but much good
wood is thrown away in cutting high stumps. The added ma-
terial will more than repay any extra exertion necessary. Low
stumps sprout better than high ones, and in growing trees
from sprouts this is an important consideration.

The cross-cut saw is then used to saw the tree through
from the opposite side. The bark should be chipped off
round the tree where the saw will cut so that it will not impede
the motion of the saw. The saw should be started about 2
inches above the notch and drawn back and forth with a
regular, smooth swing. It should not be forced hard against
the wood, but allowed to run freely in contact with it. If the
kerf is sawed parallel to the notch the tree will fall in that
direction. If one corner of the notch is sawed across before
the other the tree will have a tendency to swing away from

156 FARM FORESTRY

the severed corner. If the tree settles back and pinches the
saw, wedges made from hardwood or iron are driven into the
kerf back of the saw. This lifts the tree off the saw and helps
to throw the tree in the desired direction. It is dangerous to
attempt to throw a tree against a strong wind. As soon as
the tree starts to move the saw should be drawn out of the
kerf. There is danger in standing directly behind a tree that
is falling, because it is apt to jump or kick back many feet.
Standing near the stump one can readily judge the direction
the tree is falling. It is safer to stand near the stump and
to move back a few feet to avoid the jumping of the trunk
than to run without looking. Often limbs broken off the tree
or from neighboring trees will fall both before and after
the tree is down, and should be looked out for.

After the tree is down the limbs are chopped off with
the ax smooth with the trunk and the lengths of the prod-
ucts desired are marked off. This should be done with care
so that the most possible can be made out of the tree. Usually
the butt log in a sound tree contains the best material. If the
butt is found to be decayed it must be cut or butted off. It
is best to measure the entire length of the merchantable part
of the trunk and then decide how it can be worked up to the
best advantage. Defects can be sawed across so that they
will come at the ends of logs. If the trunk has a crook it is
possible to reduce its effect by cutting at the middle of the
bend. A long log will usually bring a better price than twa
short logs of equal length. The lengths of the logs are
determined usually by the market or the product desired. The
whole trunk of the tree should be utilized and not part left
in the woods. The upper log though full of knots can often
be made into a tie or fence post. The products having been
marked off they are cut by means of the cross-cut saw.

The logs must then be dragged or skidded out to the
roads. This is done by horses, a chain being looped about
the large end of the log or fastened to tongs. Often the

HARVESTING THE PRODUCTS OF THE WOODLOT 157

edges of the log are beveled off or “nosed” to prevent them
catching on stones or roots. Sometimes when there is snow
the end of the log or of several logs are raised on a single
sled and chained fast, the other ends dragging on the ground.
The logs are skidded out to the road and either piled on skid-
ways, from which they are rolled on to the wagons or sleds,
or they are loaded from the ground. In this case two stout
poles or,skids are cut from the woods and laid against the
side of the wagon or sled, and the logs rolled up them by
means of a chain fastened to the wagon, passed under and
over the log and back over the wagon to the horses. When
the sled or wagon is loaded the logs are held in place by a chain
and hauled out to the mill.

After the logs have been removed the rest of the tree
should be manufactured into cordwood, fence posts or ties.
All the tree of any value for sale or for use on the farm
should be utilized in some way. Where there is danger from
fire the branches should be piled and later on burned before
the dry season begins.

CARE NEEDED IN CUTTING TREES FROM THE WOODLOT .

The removal of a tree from the woodlot naturally causes
considerable damage to surrounding trees and especially to
the young trees and seedlings. Some damage cannot be helped,
but it can be reduced to a minimum by proper care as to the
direction the tree is to fall. With the use of a wedge a tree
can be caused to fall in any desired direction, unless it is a
badly leaning tree. It should be made to fall so that the
crown will slip between the crowns of other trees so as not
to break them. It should fall away from valuable young
growth and if possible toward an open space. When a tree
is to be felled it is usual to cut away all the young growth,
seedlings and saplings, about the tree, so they will not inter-
fere with the free swing of the ax. The ax is a dangerous

158 FARM FORESTRY

instrument even to an experienced chopper, especially if it
catches on a branch of a young tree and springs back. All
precautions should be taken, but as little cutting should be
done as possible. It is on these young trees and seedlings
that start under the shade of the larger trees that the owner
must rely to fill in the vacant spaces caused by the trees re-
moved. Often a fine young sapling can be bent down and
held in place by a forked stick driven into the ground until
a tree has been cut. The sapling can be straightened up later
without injury. The growth of many years can be destroyed
thoughtlessly by a single slash with the ax.

In logging or skidding logs from the woodlot a little care
will prevent useless breakage, bending and trampling of young
growth. All the logs from a certain part of the woodlot
can be dragged out over the same path often with much less
effort and with less damage to the woodlot than where each
log is skidded out over a separate path. When the trees in
the woodlot are sold to lumbermen they should be made to
protect young growth as much as possible. The owner should
formulate and have carried out by written contract such rules
in regard to the trees to cut and the methods of logging used
as will tend to protect young trees and seedlings and benefit
the future stand of timber. By this method it is possible to
sell only certain material from the woodlot and to avoid the
skinning of the land. The owner can have the defective and
diseased trees and the trees of inferior species removed as
well as those of high quality. If the inferior trees are left
to grow and scatter seed and the better kinds cut, the future
stand will be of less value than the present timber. The owner
can stipulate that with the better kinds of trees those above
a certain size only shall be cut, and that inferior trees shall
be removed down to a low diameter limit. It is rarely that
trees of less than Io inches in diameter at breast height have
any special value. They usually cut only a small amount of
low grade lumber. The lumberman does not figure on paying

SSE

The portable sawmill outfit in the woodlot.

Hewing out ties in the woodlot.

HARVESTING THE PRODUCTS OF THE WOODLOT 159

much for them. He gets out of them whatever he can. Trees
of that size, however, are growing rapidly, and will grow more
rapidly after the trees around them have been removed open-
ing up the crowns to the light. A lumber operation in a wood-
lot should be made to result ultimately in the establishment
of a better stand of trees than the old timber.

Harvesting the Crop from a Large Woodlot.—When a
woodlot is to be cut clean or when many trees are to be cut
from a large woodlot there are two general methods that
can be followed by the owner. The operation can be carried
on by the owner himself or the timber can be sold to a lum-
berman and removed by him. Where the owner carries on
the operation he can haul the product to a local sawmill and
sell it or have it sawed into lumber; he can purchase a port-
able sawmill and do his own sawing, or he can have a portable
mill brought on his tract to saw the timber. Which one of
these several methods would be best to use could be deter-
mined only by a careful study of the conditions on each wood-
lot and of the market. If there is a good and ready market
for the sale of all products from the woodlot, the owner
can usually make more profit if he is a skillful operator by
carrying on the operation himself and selling the products.
If the market is dull and lumber and other products are hard
to dispose of, it may be better to sell the stumpage outright
to a lumberman who has made a study of markets and can
usually dispose of the products at a profit. The advantage to
the owner of carrying on the operation himself is that he
can employ his help profitably throughout the winter, he can
exercise care not to injure young growth unnecessarily or to
break young trees or strip them of branches in felling other
trees, he can leave the younger trees to grow to larger size,
or he can leave seed trees to seed up vacant areas. It is not
necessary for him to skin the land. He can cut and sell
what he wishes and leave the rest. He can practice forestry
in the cutting of the timber.

160 FARM FORESTRY

If a lumberman purchases the timber and carries on the
logging operation he will probably give little thought to the
future of the woodlot. His efforts will be directed toward
removing the trees and young timber at the least possible ex-
pense. Having purchased the entire tract he will cut out every-
thing that will yield him a profit. Many woodlots never re-
cover from the destructive methods often practiced by lumber
operators.

Lumbering, however, is a business in itself and requires
expensive machinery, skill and efficiency in operating, and
ability to dispose of the products. With most woodlot owners
it will usually be best to dispose of the timber on the stump
to a practical lumberman, making such stipulations in the con-
tract as are necessary to protect the future of the woodlot.

COST OF HARVESTING PRODUCTS FROM THE WOODLOT

No definite figures can be given as to the cost of harvest-
ing the products from the woodlot. There are many factors
that will affect the cost of the different parts of an operation.
For example, the cost of cuttg down trees will vary with
the species of tree. It takes a longer time to cut down and
saw up an oak tree than a pine tree, because of its harder
wood. It will cost more to get logs and other products from
a woodlot that is on a steep slope or that is rocky or covered
with brush than from a woodlot on level land, clean and open.
The distance necessary to haul the products to the mill or
market will vary with different woodlots. The skill. of the
workmen in the woods, the cost of labor, the climate and
the size of the operation are other factors that must be con-
sidered.

The following data, taken from the second Report of the
State Forester of Kentucky, will give some idea of the cost
of different operations in the woods:

HARVESTING THE PRODUCTS OF THE WOODLOT 161

.COST OF LOGGING (HARDWOODS)

Cost per 1000 Bd. ft.

Low. High. Avge.
Felling and cutting into logs............-.....-- $ .75 | $1.75 | $1.25
Skidding (often omitted or included with hauling
expenses) (including swamping)................ 2.00 | 4.00 | 3.00
Hauling, 1 trip a day *:

TOGO LECT PEE OAM. oo saveiniessigssl so iced soya sh nude Seeraiatennce 2.00 | 4.00| 3.00
800 feet per load... . 2.22... eee eee 2.50 | 5.00 | 3.00
600 feet per load. ... 2... eee eee ee ' 3.33 | 6.67 | 5.00
4oo feet per load... 6.6... 0 eee eee eee 5.00 | 10.00] 7.50
200 feet per loads: osiecnyiaeveuages asa es 10.00 | 20.00 | 15.00

LOadine sy 225252202 eeeducuiine yo ewes sirens RM os Mes 1.00 .50

MANUFACTURE AND HANDLING OF LUMBER

Cost per 1000 Bd.ft.

Low. High. Avge.
Sawing and stacking. ............... 0.0. e eee eeee $3.00 | $4.00 | $3.50
Planing and finishing.....................-.000- 1.00 | 2.00] 1.50
Handling lumber in yard (including grading and
loadin gis 22s ef cies tae ulens vee e wee oanlelan 1.00] 1.00] 1.00
Hauling, x trip a day *:
(1000 board-feet per load). .................... 2,00 | 4.00] 3.00
Loading On Catsics cok ico discainn va vena eae es -50 | 1.50] 1.00

COST OF TIE PRODUCTION
(For 7Xo9 tie; 68 tie one-fifth less)

Cost per Tic.

Low. High. Avge.
Cutting and hewing ties...................-..04. $ .12 | $ .18 | $ .15
Cutting and sawing ties by portable mill.......... Bs .20 .18
Hauling, 1 trip a day *:
LO’ MES ie vee cecerss Sate ea Hag ere eee 20 40 30
16 HES sng en ineee ksd Key SaewN ee hee oes 15 30 23
20 TIES... sence ee ed ee eee eee ee ye ee ees eee -10 20 15
Loading OM Catses.c0cee dis sadneane veges oes sate 03 05 04

* For more than one trip a day divide these amounts by the number of trips per
day. For less than one trip a day multiply these amounts by the number of days
per trip.

162 FARM FORESTRY

COST OF POLE AND PILE PRODUCTION
(35-feet length, 6 inches top)

Cost per Pole or Pile.

Low. | High. | Avge.

Cutting and trimming........... deed A Anlpa ted seater a ate $ .20 | $ .40 | $ .30
Hauling, 1 trip a day f:

9 poles’ per 1040). ....43 soc eeeueeeeeunene sess 66 | 1.33 | 1.00

A poles: per loa sii. cicno hs ous FOG Siawwee ek ns -50 | 1.00 +75

5 poles per load. ............... 002s eee eee eee -40 .80 .60

Loading OnyCaTrs. ie 2cck cleo sted s ek he eeteleuslen hes .O5 115 -10

+ For more than one trip divide these amounts by the number of trips.

COST OF PRODUCING MATERIAL PER CORD

Cost per Cord.

Low. High. Avge.
Cutting (per stacked cord of 4-foot wood)......... $ .75 | $1.25 | $1.00
Hauling; 1 trip aidays: ic. eee pa ed enceeestotn s 2.00 | 4.00] 3.00

ready to be hauled out of the woodlot.

Peeled poles,

CHAPTER XVI

MARKETING THE TIMBER AND THE PRODUCTS OF
THE WOODLOT

THERE are several methods of selling the trees standing
in the woodlot, or the stumpage, as it is called. The common
method is to sell the timber by the boundary for “a lump sum”
or “by the lot” or “on the stump.” A sawmill man goes
through the woodlot usually without the owner being aware
of the fact, and estimates the timber. He records every saw-
log, pole, tie, post or other product that he can cut from it.
He figures carefully and closely just what profit can be made
from the woodlot. He then offers the owner a certain sum
for the entire tract. Knowing nothing as to the quantity of
material in his woodlot and less about the value of the dif-
ferent kinds of woods or their use for special purposes, the
offer may seem large to the owner and he accepts it. Such
a sale is always in the interest of the purchaser. Lumbermen
figure on at least a 25 per cent leeway. There is rarely any
competitive bidding for the timber. The purchaser makes his
own bargain.

A second method is to sell the stumpage according to an
estimate made by some competent forester or practical woods-
man who is acceptable to both buyer and seller. This is a
method in common use. Where the estimator is reliable and
has good judgment in regard to allowing for defects and rot
in trees, and is a careful and skillful worker, this method is
a fairly satisfactory one. It gives the least trouble to the
woodlot owner. Where restrictions are made as to the kinds
and sizes of trees to be cut, some supervision will be neces-

163

164 FARM FORESTRY

sary. In this case it will be better to have some competent
person go through the woodlot and mark all the trees to be
removed.

‘The only safe and equitable way of selling timber is to
have the purchaser pay for the material as it is cut and re-
moved from the woodlot or as delivered at the mill, so much
per piece or per unit amount, the method of logging and the
price for each kind of material to be agreed on beforehand in
writing. The products of the woodlot would be measured by
the woodlot owner and the purchaser, or by a log scaler ac-
ceptable to both parties, and by the use of a certain log scale
or other unit in general use. This is the method of selling
timber used by the United States Forest Service. An esti-
mate is made of the timber before the sale, to serve as a basis
for making a bargain and setting a price on the timber. The
material is paid for, however, according to the scale sent in
by the government scaler, who determines the number of
‘board feet in every log by a log rule and measures the number
or lengths of all sticks of timber removed.

THE STUMPAGE VALUE OF TIMBER

The stumpage value of timber in a woodlot will depend on
several factors which will vary for different regions and
conditions.

On the Amount of Standing Timber in the Region. —
The stumpage price of timber has gradually risen as the old
virgin timber has been cut. In regions where much of the
old timber still remains the stumpage price is low, as in the
South, where the stumpage price of timber is often as low
as $1 per thousand board feet. In the Lake States nearly all
the virgin pine stands have been cut and stumpage values
for good white pine timber run as high as $15 per thousand.

On the Demand for the Timber.—Where there is a ready
market for the sale of the products of the woodlot, the stump-

MARKETING THE PRODUCTS OF THE WOODLOT 165

age price will be high. Often individual trees of good form
and quality bring a very high price, as in the Ohio Valley,
where owing to the scarcity of timber and the necessity of
freighting logs from the Appalachian Region, trees in the
farm woodlot are in great demand by wood-using industries.

On the Nearness to Market.—The length of the haul
directly affects the stumpage price. If but one trip can be
made to market a day standing timber will be worth less than
where two trips a day can be made.

On the Species of Trees and the Condition of the Timber.—
-Not all trees have equal commercial value. The woods of
some species have many uses while the woods of other kinds
of trees are of little if any value. Where trees are adapted
to a special use the stumpage price will be high. Sound timber
brings a higher price than defective, diseased or insect-infested
timber.

On the Amount of Timber Per Acre and the Extent of
the Tract.—The more timber there is in a woodlot the better
price it will bring. This is owing to the fact that the more
timber that can be hauled over the same log road or that can
be sawed by the same set-up of the sawmill, the less the expense
in manufacturing the lumber.

On the Logging Cost.—The greater the cost of logging a
tract the lower the stumpage price will be. With the same
kind and character of timber the stumpage price will be less
on steep rocky land than where the logging conditions are
better.

On Whether all the Timber is to be Sold or Some Re-
served.—Where seed trees are to be left to seed up the area
or small trees below a certain diameter limit are to be left to
grow to larger size, the stumpage price will be less than where
all the timber is sold. This is not only due to the smaller
amount of timber to be logged, but also because of the care
that must be taken in felling trees and in logging not to injure
the trees left.

166 FARM FORESTRY

On the Length of Time Allowed to Cut the Timber.—The
shorter the time allowed, the lower the stumpage price will
be. Purchasers of woodlots will often buy the trees and hold
them indefinitely without cutting, waiting for a rise in the
stumpage price. More has often been made from a rise in
stumpage price than from the profit in manufacturing the
material into lumber.

In every region and locality the stumpage price is deter-
mined by these different factors and is a more or less fixed
amount for the same kind of timber. Stumpage prices do not
fluctuate rapidly. In spite of changes that may have occurred,
there has been a gradual rise in the value of standing timber
since the early days, and the price will undoubtedly continue
to rise as timber becomes scarcer. In many regions the valu-
able timber now lies in the farm woodlot and its value is
bound to increase in the future. No woodlot owner should
sell his timber until he knows that he is getting all that the
timber is worth.

HOW TO FIND THE STUMPAGE VALUE OF TIMBER

The stumpage value is found by subtracting from the sell-
ing price of the manufactured product, the cost of logging
and the cost of manufacturing, and also the depreciation on
the sawmill, the logging outfit and equipment, and the
profit. The profit is often figured at 25 per cent of the log-
ging and manufacturing costs. This can be expressed in a
formula:

Stumpage price=selling price—(cost of logging++
cost of manufacturing + depreciation) —profit.

On a portable sawmill operation in the northern Appala-
chian Region the stumpage value was figured as follows:

SIOWIP] WO Sot} pur ‘sajod ‘poomps1oy

“qoyIvur oy} 07 poeddtys aq 07 Apvar syoTpoom

‘

Measuring stacked cordwood.

MARKETING THE PRODUCTS OF THE WOODLOT 167

Bd. Ft. per M.
Cost of logging, including hauling to the mill.. $ 4.00
Cost of manufacturing, including handling,

hauling to cars and loading................ 8.00
Profit 25 per cent of costs............e eee eee 3.00
Total expenses ........... 2. cece ee eee ee $15.00
Selling price for mill run.................... $20.00
Total €xpenseés svssss.ceeeves wie eeeeeesecces 15.00
Stumpage price ................02e eee $ 5.00

MARKETING THE PRODUCTS OF THE WOODLOT

The problem of marketing the products from the woodlot
is similar in many respects to that of marketing agricultural
products from the farm. I{.the markets are good it is a simple
matter, if not, the same difficulties are met. The products
are not ordinarily sufficient in amount to attract the attention
of the large buyers, and owing to the character of the material
much of it being of comparatively little value in proportion
to its weight, it cannot be shipped far. The market available
to the woodlot owner is usually a local one, and the demand
is soon satisfied. In addition to this, as far as sawed material
is concerned, is the prejudice against the product of the port-
able sawmill, because of the lack of uniformity in size, thick-
ness and quality.

Sawmill men are able to overcome many of the difficulties
met by the woodlot owner. Buying and selling the products
of woodlots is a business with them. They make a study of
the market conditions and know all the users of wood products
and the wood-using industries within striking distance, and
have a knowledge of the kinds and quality of materiai each
one needs. They make a study of the prices offered for dif-
ferent products and manufacture the material accordingly,

168 FARM FORESTRY

and can usually sell to their own advantage. Cutting many
tracts in the same region they can store the material until
they have enough to make a sale and a shipment often to a
distance. They can sort the sawed material and accumulate
sufficient amounts in different grades to sell for special pur-
poses and so secure a much greater profit than if they sold
the mill run or the lumber as it leaves the tail of the mill,
all grades and kinds mixed in together, as must usually be
done by the woodlot owner. Being skilled in the sawing of
lumber and the care and adjustment of machinery, they can
produce as uniform and as well manufactured a product as
the larger mills.

Woodlot owners in the same region by combining their
efforts can overcome many difficulties in regard to manufac-
turing and selling their products. A sawmill can be purchased
in common or a reliable sawmill man can be induced to locate
in the region. The cutting of the trees and the hauling of
the material to the mill can be carried on under a competent
“woods boss,” the woodlot owners with their help forming the
different crews. The sawmill man should be an expert in
studying and searching out the best markets for the different
products.

Woodlot owners should not be in a hurry to harvest and
, market their timber. They should know before selling that
they are getting the best price possible for all the different
kinds of material in the woodlot. Trees are not perishable
material like many farm products and they increase in value
by their annual growth. In addition to this is the constant
rise in the value of the stumpage. Time should be taken to
make a complete study of the various markets, the require-
ments of each, and the prices paid for the different products.
Trees should not be sold when the market is down, but should
be held for more favorable conditions.

The same is true of the products of the woodlot. They
should be marketed only when a fair price can be obtained.

MARKETING THE PRODUCTS OF THE WOODLOT 169

The sawed products can be graded and stacked in the yard
and held for a good market. Most sawmill operators fail
not because of inability to manufacture good material, but.
from the failure to secure good markets and a profit on the
material sold. A lumber operation should be handled only
as a business. The plans and contract should be drawn up
and submitted for consideration to some competent authority.
Information in regard to the selling of timber and products
from the woodlot can be obtained free of charge from the
State Forester or from the Forestry Department of the Agri-
cultural College. All the available information in regard to
the users of wood products should be obtained from these
sources and also from the United States Forest Service,
Washington, D. C.

THE CONTRACT OR AGREEMENT

Before entering into an agreement for the sale of timber
the woodlot owner should discuss with the purchaser all the
important features of the work in the woods, the methods to
be employed, the disposal of the products, and the financial .
side of the operation. Their agreement should be put in the
form of a contract to be signed by both parties. Even in a
small sale much trouble and often financial loss can be avoided
by putting the terms in writing.

A sample form of timber sale contract has been: drawn
up by the United States Forest Service, Washington, D. C.,
for the use of woodlot owners. This can be secured free of
charge. It covers all the different methods of selling timber
from the woodlot and puts into proper form the different
points that should be included in a contract for the proper
carrying out of the operation and the protection of the future
of the woodlot.

CHAPTER XVII
THE CONTENTS OF LOGS AND TREES

Units for Measuring Wood.—The Board Foot.—The board
foot is a board 1 foot square and 1 inch thick. It is the
common unit for buying and selling lumber in Canada and
the United States. It is also used for measuring the amount
of lumber that can be sawed from logs and trees. As applied
to lumber and squared timber it is a measure of the solid
contents. If a board contains 60 board feet it means that
the actual contents of the board is 60 board feet. If a log
is said to contain 60 board feet it means that 60 board feet
can be sawed out of the log. The contents in board feet
of lumber and squared timbers is found by multiplying the
length in feet by the width in feet, by the thickness in inches.
In measuring lumber no allowance is made for defects, but
the material is classified into grades according to the number,
size and character of the defects. With inch boards the con-
tents in board measure is the same as the number of square
feet of surface, and is often spoken of as surface measure.
The number of board feet that can be sawed from logs is
shown in log tables.

Cord Measure.—Firewood, pulp wood and other material
sawed into short lengths or bolts, as excelsior wood, spool
wood, novelty wood, etc., are usually measured by the cord.
Cordwood is usually cut into 4-foot lengths. A cord of such
wood will be a stack 4 feet high, 4 feet wide and 8 feet long.
It will contain 128 cubic feet. A short cord is one in which
the pieces are cut shorter than 4 feet. Stove wood is some-
times cut 14 to 18 inches long.

170

THE CONTENTS OF BOGS AND TREES 171

The Relation Between Board Feet and Cordwood.—No
definite relation exists between the cord and the number of
board feet it contains. The number will vary with the char-
acter of the wood, the method of piling used and other factors.
In general for ordinary sized wood a cord is said to contain
about 550 board feet of wood.

The Cubic Foot.—The cubic foot has never come into gen-
eral use in this country for measuring wood, although it is
the best unit for measuring the volume of logs, for it gives
the entire contents of the logs. It is being used at the present
time for measuring pencil wood, wagon stock and other valu-
able hardwoods, especially imported woods. Pulpwood is fre-
quently measured by the cubic foot. In many countries of
Europe and in the Philippine Islands the cubic meter is the
standard measure for finding the contents of logs and timber.
The cubic contents of trees is used by foresters in estimating
the contents of a stand of timber for cordwood and in scien-
tific work.

Linear Measurement.—Many products of the woodlot are
measured by the length in feet instead of by the contents.
Poles, mine props and piles are usually measured and paid for
by the piece or by linear measurement. Ties, fence posts and
many other products are often bought and sold by the piece
according to size.

Finding the Volume of Logs.—Cubic Afeasure—There are
two methods in common use for finding the contents of
jogs.

In one method the log is considered as a cylinder with a
base corresponding to the diameter at the middle of the log.
The volume is found by measuring the diameter at the middle
of the log accurately and finding the area of the base in square
feet. This, multiplied by the length of the log in feet, will
give the cubic contents of the log. (Basal area tables cor-
responding to different diameters will be found in the appen-
dix.)

172 FARM FORESTRY
‘Expressed as a formula:

V=B,XL

in which V is the volume of the log in cubic feet. B, is the
area of the middle cross-section of the log in square feet.
L is the length of the log in feet.

A more accurate method, but requiring one more measure-
ment, is to average the basal areas of the small and large ends
of the log and then multiply by the length of the log. The
average diameters at the top and bottom of the log are meas-
ured accurately and the corresponding basal areas in square
feet are found from the basal area tables. These are added
together and divided by two to get the average basal area.
The result is multiplied by the length of the log in feet to
get the cubic contents of the log.

Expressed as a formula:

in which V is the volume of the log in cubic feet. B and b
are the areas in square feet corresponding to the diameters
of the two ends of the log. JL is the length of the log in
feet.

Board Measure-—The number of board feet that can be
sawed from logs of different diameters and lengths is shown
in tables called log scales or log rules. A log table or rule
is a tabulated statement of the contents in board feet of logs
of different diameters and lengths. Knowing the diameter of
the small end of a log inside the bark and the length of the
log, the number of board feet contained in the log can be
found from a log rule. There are over forty such rules in
common use, often differing widely in the number of board
feet given for logs of the same size. The amount of lumber
that can be sawed from a log of a certain size is not definite.

THE CONTENTS OF LOGS AND TREES 173

It will vary with many factors, such as the thickness of the
saw, the efficiency of the machinery, the skill of the sawyer,
the thickness of the boards sawed, the defects in the logs and
others. This will account in some measure for the many rules
in existence.

Log rules are constructed in several ways, some by math-
ematical formulz some by diagrams of the small ends of logs,
some are based on actual experience at the mill in sawing
boards from logs, and others by correcting existing log rules
to fit local conditions.

The following log rules are in most general use in the
eastern part of the country:

The Scribner Rule—The Scribner rule was constructed
by the use of diagrams. It is the oldest rule in general use.
Circles were drawn the size of the small ends of logs of dif-
ferent diameters and in these circles the inch boards that
could be sawed from them after allowing for waste in sawing
were mapped out. From these the number of board. feet
that could be sawed from logs of different lengths were found.
The results for logs of different diameters and lengths were
then arranged in a form of a log table.

A modification of this rule, called the Scribner Decimal
Rule, has been made by dropping the unit figures and round-
ing the values to the nearest tens. This is the log rule adopted
by the United States Forest Service for timber sales on the
National Forests. The Scribner Rule is said to give very.
fair results for logs below 28 inches in diameter, but for logs
above the results are too low.

The Doyle Rule-—The Doyle Rule is based on the follow-
ing mathematical formula: Deduct 4 inches from the diam-
eter of the log inside the bark to allow for slab, square one-
quarter of the remainder and multiply this result by the length
of the log in feet. This rule gives very low results for small
logs, and above 36 inches in diameter the values given are too
large. This is because the width of the slab removed by the

174 FARM FORESTRY

formula is the same regardless of the size of the log. Too
much allowance is made for small logs and not enough for
large logs. Yet this rule is in more general use throughout
the country than any other. The mill cut will often overrun
the values given by Doyle Rule by 25 per cent.

The Doyle-Scribner Rule—A combination of the Doyle
and Scribner Rules, known as the Doyle-Scribner Rule, is in
common use for measuring hardwoods. In this rule the figures
of the Doyle Rule are used for small logs under 28 inches
in diameter, and above 28 inches the Scribner Rule is used.
Since the Doyle Rule gives low results for small logs and
the Scribner Rule gives low results for large logs, this rule
is evidently unfair to the one selling timber.

The International Log Rulc.—Several attempts have been
made to construct a standard log rule that will state with fair-
ness to both buyer and seller the contents of logs. Such a
log rule is the International Rule, which is based on a mathe-
matical formula checked by actual experience in sawing out
boards from logs. Several log rules will be found in the
Appendix.

Considerable confusion often arises in measuring the con-
tents of logs through the use of different log rules by the buyer
and seller. The log rule to be used should be specified in the
contract to be drawn up for the sale of the timber.

Scaling Logs.—The measuring of logs to find the contents
in board feet by means of a log rule is called log scaling.
For convenience in the woods the log rule is printed on a
wooden stick about 4 feet long, called a scale stick. By means
of the scale stick placed across the small end of a log inside
the bark the width rounded to the nearest inch is noted. Oppo-
site the inch mark will be read in line with the proper length
of log the number of board feet or the scale of the log.

A log rule is constructed to give the contents of perfect
logs without crook or other defects. If defects occur in logs
the scale as given in the log rule must be discounted to allow

‘sjoajep Joyo puv sjouy jo
uorzsod pue rJajovreyp ‘ozis ‘roquinu ey} Aq peuturteyap ourd moped usayynos Ul Sepeiny

THE CONTENTS OF LOGS AND TREES 175

for them, otherwise the values will be too high. What is
wanted in scaling logs is the number of board feet that can
actually be sawed out of the logs. No rule can be given for
deducting for defect in logs. It is a matter of judgment.
If it is believed only half the log will cut sound wood, only
half the scale should be recorded. Much can be learned as
to allowing for defects by watching logs sawed at the mill,
and watching the number of board feet thrown out because
of a certain sized defect. Crook is often allowed for by
reducing the diameter of the log by enough to square up the
log.

Rule of Thumb for Finding the Contcnts of Logs in Board
Feet.—The following rule of thumb is a very simple method
of determining without the aid of a log rule the contents of
logs in board feet. For logs that are 16 feet in length, sub-
tract 4 inches from the diameter of the small end inside the
bark and square the remainder. It gives the contents in board
feet of logs according to the Doyle Rule. For example, if a
16-foot log is 14 inches in diameter the rule will work as fol-
lows: Four inches subtracted from 14 inches leaves 10 inches,
and 10 squared gives 100 the number of board feet in the log.
If a log is 12 feet long, or any length other than 16 feet, apply
the rule as though the log were 16 feet long, then take the part
of the scale that the length of the log is of 16. If the log
is 12 feet long three-quarters of the scale of a 16-foot log
of that diameter is used. If a log is 8 feet long one-half the
scale is taken.

Finding the Volume of a Tree.—The Cubic Contents.—
The usual form of a tree is a paraboloid or a cone with slightly
bulging sides. The only way to find the actual solid contents
of an entire tree would be by displacement of water, cutting
the tree into parts and placing them in a tub of water and
measuring the amount of water in cubic feet displaced or
that runs out. It would be almost impossible to measure
the limbs and twigs accurately in any other way. Such a

176 FARM FORESTRY

high degree of accuracy is not necessary in measuring a stand-
ing tree for purposes of estimating the contents. When the
entire tree is considered as a paraboloid it means that if the
twigs and limbs were all squeezed up together they would
carry up the solid trunk of the tree with a gradual taper to
the tip.

If the solid contents of a cone is found by multiplying
the area of the base by one-third the height, then the volume
of the tree, which is a little larger than the cone, will be found
by multiplying the area of the base in square feet measured
at breast height by one-half the total height of the tree.

Expressed as a formula:

_BxXH

in which B is the area of the base of the tree in square feet
corresponding to the diameter measured at breast height, and
#7 is the total height of the tree.

The Volume of a Standing Tree in Board Feet.—The
volume of a standing tree in board feet can be found by
dividing the merchantable trunk of the tree into logs by the
eye, estimating the top diameters inside the bark of each
log and finding the board feet from a log table or by applying
the rule of thumb for board feet in logs. The result of the
different logs added together will give the estimate in board
feet in the tree.

A rule of thumb well known among timber estimators for
finding the volume of the merchantable length of trees in
board feet is to subtract 60 from the square of the estimated
diameter inside the bark at the middle of the merchantable
length of the tree and multiply the remainder by .8. The
result will be the number of board feet in the average 16-foot
log in the tree. This number is then multiplied by the number

THE CONTENTS CF LOGS AND TREES 177

of 16-foot logs in the tree, which will give the board-foot
contents in the tree.

Volume Tables.—Foresters make use of volume tables in
estimating large tracts of timber. These give at once the
contents of a tree either in board feet or in cubic feet or other
unit when the height and diameter of the tree are known.
The diameter is always measured at breast height and is the
average of the largest and smallest diameters at that point
if the tree is not round. The height may either be the total
height of the tree or the merchantable length of the trunk.
Each volume table will specify which to use. The simplest
form of volume table is based on diameter alone. Volume
tables give average results, for the figures in volume tables
are found by averaging together the volumes of a large num-
ber of trees of the same height and diameter that have been
cut down and measured. They are intended for estimating
only a large number of trees. They are not to be used for
measuring the contents of an individual tree. Volume tables
give very accurate results when used for estimating large
stands of timber.

Measuring the Diameters of Trees—-The diameters of
trees are always measured at breast height or four and a half
feet above the ground. This point will be well above the flare
or swell usually found at the base of a tree. The trunks of
most trees are not perfectly round in cross-section, so that
two measurements are always taken at right angles to each
other and the average diameter used.

The instrument used for measuring diameters of trees
is a wooden calipers. These can be purchased for a few dol-
lars. For estimating a small woodlot two carpenter’s squares
placed end for end and the arms against the tree will measure
the diameter with great accuracy. Wooden calipers can easily
be made.

Measuring the Heights of Trees.—The heights of trees are
measured by instruments called hypsometers. These are of

178 FARM FORESTRY

several forms and are known by different names. A simple
one is the clinometer, which when sighted at the tip of a tree
from a distance of 100 feet will read directly the height of
the tree.

There are several methods for finding the heights of trees
without instruments. One of the simplest methods is to meas-
ure the length of the shadow cast by the: tree and the length
of the shadow cast by a 10-foot pole set perpendicularly in
the ground. When the length of the shadow cast by the tree

Y x -C

is multiplied by the length of the pole and the product divided
by the length of the shadow cast by the pole the result will
be the height of the tree. The heights of trees can be found
in this way only when they stand in the open.

A staff about 4 feet long, one end held to the eye and
grasped at arm’s length and then held vertically in front of
the eye, can be used in measuring the height of trees. A posi-
tion is found out from the base of the tree where the top of
the tree will be seen just over the top of the pole and the base
of the tree over the hand. The distance the observer is then
away from the tree will be the height of the tree.

THE CONTENTS OF LOGS AND TREES 179

The height of a tree can also be found by the use of two
staffs. The observer moves away from the tree about 50 to
75 feet until he can see the top and base of the tree. A staff
6 to 8 feet high is then set upright at this point (# in dia-
gram). A few feet farther away from the tree a second staff
about 4 feet in height is set at (y). The observer now looks
from the top of the staff (y) at A across the first upright
staff (+) to the top of the tree (B) and an assistant marks
on the staff (4%) the point (D) where this line crosses. The
observer now looks from (A) to the bottom of the tree and
the assistant marks on the staff (#) the point (Z) where this
line crosses.

The distance AC or from the eye of the observer to the
foot of the tree multiplied by DE the length marked on the
staff (+) and this product divided by AE, the distance from
the eye of the observer to the staff (x), will give the height
of the tree.

Height of tree: BC ~Aexee

(For AC the distance ye on the ground can be measured,
and for AL the distance yx on the ground can be measured.)

CHAPTER XVIII

ESTIMATING THE TREES IN THE WOODLOT FOR
BOARD FEET AND FOR CORDWOOD

For many years it was thought impossible to learn how
to estimate the contents of standing trees without years of
practical experience in the woods. The early estimators were
men who had first worked in timber helping to cut down trees
and saw them into logs. Through years of observation of
tracts of timber before they were cut and a subsequent knowl-
edge of the amount of lumber each tract sawed out at the
mill, their judgment became trained so that they were able
to guess with a fair degree of accuracy as to the contents of
the timber standing on a particular tract. These men were
sometimes called timber lookers, for about all they did was
to pass through the timber and look it over and then to state
the amount of lumber or cordwood that it would produce.
They were often also called timber cruisers, for they made
their way about through the timber by means of a compass,
as a ship is cruised through the water. Some of these early
timber estimators were held in high repute for their ability
to state with considerable accuracy the contents of forests.
But usually the results were far from being right. These
early methods were good enough when standing timber had
but little value and was often sold by the acre. When timber
became scarce and the stumpage value had risen so that even
individual trees in the woods had a value, the old methods
of timber estimating were no longer acceptable. In purchas-
ing timber men no longer cared to risk their money on a
guess by a timber looker. Methods of estimating having some

180

ESTIMATING THE TREES IN THE WOODLOT i181

scientific basis were then devised. These give with assurance
when carefully carried out the contents of stands of timber
usually within at least 5 per cent to 10 per cent of the actual
amount. Most of these methods can be used without previous
experience in the woods.

In estimating timber no effort is made to measure the trees
exactly. This could be done only at great expense by cutting
the trees down or climbing into them. An estimate, not the
exact contents of the trees is desired. A timber estimate is
made usually to give a basis for determining the stumpage
price or the value of the standing timber and for figuring
on the best method of cutting the trees and getting the logs
out of the woods. Settlement for the logs cut is usually made
by measuring the actual amount of material removed from the
woodlot.

There are many methods of timber estimating in use at
the present time. Each timber estimator chooses the method best
suited to the timber, the object of the estimate, and the time and
money at his disposal. These methods will be found described
in books on Forest Mensuration and in books on General
Forestry, a list of which is given in the Appendix. From
these many methods a few have been selected which are simple
in theory and easy to apply, and which can easily be carried
out by the farmer in the woodlot. Although these methods
are simple and easily learned they are among the most accu-
rate known. Where carried out skillfully and carefully they
will give with considerable certainty the contents of the timber.

Value of Timber Estimating to the Farmer.—Every wood-
lot owner should be able to estimate the contents of the trees
in his woodlot. He should know how much lumber the trees
will produce when sawed and also how many cords of wood
or how many poles, ties and other products. Without such
knowledge in selling his product he usually is dependent on
guess work or on the estimate made by the purchaser. A
knowledge of the forest capital contained in his woodlot will

182 FARM FORESTRY

enable him to figure the amount that he can cut safely each
year from the woodlot.

ESTIMATING A SMALL WOODLOT FOR LUMBER IN BOARD FEET

In estimating a woodlot for board feet only that portion
of each tree is considered that will make saw logs. The tops
and limbs can, of course, be used for cordwood or other pur-
poses. What is desired is a knowledge of how many board
feet of boards can be sawed from the sawlogs contained in
the trees. The number of ties, posts and other products, in
addition to the sawlogs, can of course be determined at the
same time the estimate is made for board feet if desired.

In estimating a small woodlot for board feet each tree is
considered by itself, and when it has been estimated it should
be marked or chalked in some way, so that it will not be.
measured again. The standing tree to be estimated is divided
into logs by the eye into even foot lengths, and into 16-foot
lengths as far as possible. The top of the first 16-foot log,
or butt log, can easily be found by using a 10-foot pole. When
held by an assistant 6 feet above the ground, or the top of
the stump, the top of the pole will indicate where the first
16-foot log will end. The lengths of the logs above can be
estimated by the eye with considerable accuracy when stand-
ing about 50 to 75 feet from the tree. In this way the number
of logs that can be cut from each tree and their lengths can
be found. The diameter of the small end of each log inside
the bark must be known as well as the length. The diameter
of the butt lot can be measured accurately by nailing a cross-
piece marked plainly in inches on the upper end of the 10-foot
pole. When held by the assistant so that the cross-piece is
16 feet above the stump, the observer can readily count the
number of inches in diameter of the top of the log. The
meastirement must be inside the bark. Very few trees except
old trees have a bark 16 feet above the stump that is more

ESTIMATING THE TREES IN THE WOODLOT _ 183

than a half inch thick. For most trees an inch should be sub-
tracted from the diameter outside the bark to allow for the
thickness of the bark. The diameters inside the bark at the
tops of the logs above the butt log must be estimated by the
eye. The upper logs are much smaller usually than the butt
log. The first log or butt log in a tree is the important log
in estimating and will be found to contain a much larger
amount of board feet than any log above. If the diameter
of the butt log is measured accurately the diameters of the
upper logs can safely be estimated by the eye. A knowledge
of the diameters of upper logs as compared with butt logs
can be obained by measuring trees that have been cut or blown
down by the wind.

When the length and top diameter of a log is known its
contents in board feet can be found from a log table or by
the simple rule of thumb already described: for logs that are
16 feet in length, if 4 inches are subtracted from the top diam-
eter and the result squared it will give the number of board
feet in the log according to the Doyle Rule, and for logs of
other than 16-foot lengths they are figured as though 16 feet
long and the part of the scale taken that the length of the
log is of 16 feet.

In estimating the contents of each log in board feet in this
way it should be noted whether the logs are perfect or not.
Log rules and the rule of thumb mentioned give results for
perfect logs. Most logs have imperfections and allowance
must be made for them. No rules can be laid down for doing
this, but any one with good judgment can make a fairly accu-
rate deduction.

In this way the board feet should be found for each log
in the trees in the woodlot. The total board feet will be the
estimate for the tract. In tallying the board feet for the logs
those that are of the same species of trees can be kept together
so that the final result will give an estimate for each kind of
wood.

184 FARM FORESTRY

The following form can be used for recording the data
for each log estimated. A separate form can be made out
for each species, or a column can be added to indicate the
species :

Species. | Diameter | Length | Condition of log. | Board-feet in log after

of log. | of log. Defects, crook, allowing for defects.
etc. Amount to
deduct.

At the same time the logs are being recorded in each tree,
the estimator, if it is desired, can record the number and
sizes of ties, or fence posts or other products that are con-
tained in the trees, and also the number of poles and their
lengths. A complete estimate should give the amount and
kinds of all material that can be cut from the woodlot.

ESTIMATING A LARGE WOODLOT FOR BOARD FEET

To estimate each tree in a large woodlot in this way would
require a great deal of time and labor. It is possible to pick
out several sample acres that are representative of the entire
woodlot if the trees are fairly uniform, and find the average
board feet per acre. Then by multiplying by the number of
acres in the woodlot an estimate for the entire woodlot will
be obtained. (A simple method of finding the number of acres
in a woodlot is described in the Appendix.) Great care and
judgment must be used in selecting the sample acres to be
estimated. They should neither be located in the best portion
of the timber nor in the poorest. The sample acres should be
average acres. Not less than 4 or 5 acre plots should be
estimated for a 20-acre woodlot to secure a good result. The
number of board feet on all the sample plots estimated added
together and then divided by the number of sample acres
measured will give the average number of board feet per
acre. Square acre plots can be laid out 208 feet on a side.

ESTIMATING THE TREES IN THE WOODLOT 185

Smaller plots can be used where the timber is very uniform.
A square half-acre plot measures 147 feet on a side and a
quarter-acre plot 104 feet on a side.

Circular plots can also be used. They are laid out more
quickly than square plots. A circular plot covering a quarter-
acre in extent will have a radius of 59 feet. This will be
the most practical size of plot to use. Choosing a certain tree
for the center of the circular plot or setting a stake, the radius
distance is measured from the center out in several directions.
Small pieces of paper fastened in the bark of trees will help
to indicate the boundary line. Eight or ten such measurements
made from the center and well distributed about the circle will
mark the line sufficiently for the estimate. Sometimes but a
single sample plot is used for estimating an ordinary wood-
lot, but usually the estimates on several such sample plots
are averaged together. These plots can be laid off here and
there in timber that appears to represent the average of the
stand,.or they can be laid out at regular intervals throughout
the woodlot, so that when averaged together they will give
an average of the entire woodlot.

The process of estimating the trees on these sample acres
can be the same as for the method described for the small
woodlot. Each tree on a sample acre is estimated by itself,
divided into logs, and the number of board feet in each log
found from a log table or by the rule of thumb. Care must
be taken as before in making allowance for defects in the logs
or the estimate will be too high.

Where a quick estimate is wanted the estimator can, after
sizing up the trees on the plot, pick out a tree by eye that he
believes to be the average sized tree of all the merchant-
able trees on the plot. The contents of this tree can easily
be figured, and when multiplied by the number of trees on
the plot the product will be the estimate for the plot. The
result will be more accurate if instead of one average tree
several are selected, and the contents of the average tree found

186 FARM FORESTRY

by averaging together the contents of all of them. The accu-
racy of the estimate will, of course, depend on the skill used
in picking out the average trees.

With very large tracts of timber volume tables are used
instead of log tables. These give the contents of trees in board
feet when their heights and diameters are known. All the
trees on the tract can be estimated or only those on sample
acre plots or on measured strips run in parallel directions
across the tract. Volume tables for several species will be
found in the Appendix. Many others are given in the Wood-
men’s Handbook, Bulletin 36, U. S. Forest Service, and in
books relating to general forestry.

ESTIMATING A SMALL WOODLOT FOR CORDWOOD

In estimating a small woodlot for cordwood each tree is
estimated by itself, as in the case with board feet. When a
tree has been estimated it. should be marked in some way
so that it will not be considered a second time. If all the
trees are marked on the same side it will be easier to keep
track of them.

To obtain the cords of wood in a woodlot the cubic feet
contained in all the trees are first found. The total cubic
feet in the trees divided by 90, the average number of cubic
feet of solid wood in-a cord of wood, will give the estimate
of the number of cords of wood in the woodlot.

The number of cubic feet in a tree including the larger
branches is found, as already explained, by considering the
entire tree as a cone with slightly bulging sides and finding
the volume in cubic feet by multiplying the basal area in
square feet corresponding to the diameter of the tree measured
at breast height by one-half the total height of the tree in feet.

The diameters are measured accurately to tenths of inches
outside the bark, for the whole tree is used for cordwood. If
a tree is not perfectly round the average of the largest and

S in a very dense

Forestry students estimating the contents of the tree

stand of pine.

ESTIMATING THE TREES IN THE WOODLOT 187

smallest diameters is taken. The corresponding basal areas
in square feet are found from the basal area table. The total
height of each tree is found by the use of a hypsometer or
by one of the other methods described in a previous chapter.

The data obtained for the different trees can be recorded
in a table as follows:

Diameter of tree at| Total height of] Basal area in square | Number of cu-
breast-height in in-| tree in feet. feet from basal area} bic feet in
ches and tenths. table. tree.

A different form can be made out for each species of tree
if it is desired to keep the species separate or another column
can be added to indicate this. The total cubic feet in all the
trees added together and this result divided by go will give
the estimate for the woodlot.

ESTIMATING A LARGE WOODLOT FOR CORDWOOD

In a large woodlot instead of estimating each tree in the
woodlot, which would be a very long operation, sample acre
plots as described for estimating for board feet can be laid
off in the woodlot and the average number of cords per acre
on the woodlot obtained. This multiplied by the number of
acres in the woodlot will give the estimate for the entire tract.
Square sample acre plots or circular plots can be laid off in the
woodlot located in timber that will be an average of the timber
in the woodlot, and each plot estimated by itself and the aver-
age for the woodlot obtained.

Volume tables can also be used in estimating a large wood-
lot for cordwood. Knowing the diameters and heights of
trees the contents can be found from prepared volume tables.
These give the contents of trees in cubic feet and sometimes
in cords of wood.

CHAPTER XIX
THE DIFFERENT PROPERTIES OF WOODS

As we have already learned, wood is not simple in its
structure, but is made up of many very small cells. The
cells differ in different woods and even in the same wood
there may be several kinds of cells each serving a different
purpose. The different kinds and arrangements of cells give
rise to the different properties in woods. The reason why one
wood is soft and another hard, or why one wood is strong
and another weak is because each has a different structure.
Often in the same kind of tree the wood will vary in its prop-
erties when grown in different situations and when grown at
different rates. Even in the same tree the properties of the
wood will vary in different parts of the stem. The heartwood
will have different properties from the sapwood and the
wood of the butt log from the wood of the top logs, the wood
from the quickly grown sapling of the abandoned field from
that of the slowly grown forest tree. Even the manner in
which the wood was sawed from the log and the method of
drying and seasoning will influence the behavior and quality
of the wood. However, these differences in the same kind of
wood are not very pronounced.

In the selection of a wood for a particular purpose its prop-
erties must be known. Woods often bring a high price because
of their adaptability for some special use and for which no
other wood will serve the purpose as well. There are no
trees that produce worthless wood. Even some of the so-called
weed trees in the woodlot, such as dogwood and ironwood,
have special uses for which they are of value.

188

THE DIFFERENT PROPERTIES OF WOODS 189

For the ordinary uses of woods it is seldom that fine dis-
tinctions are made. There are many woods that can be used
for construction purposes, such as pine, spruce, hemlock, fir
and cottonwood; nearly any hardwood will make strong and
serviceable furniture; fence posts are used of any of our more
durable woods. Many wood-using industries, on the other
hand, demand woods that have special properties that fit them
for their particular purpose, such as for pencils, musical in-
struments, aeroplanes, shuttles, etc. In this case, where defi-
nite qualities are demanded, a special inspection of each stick
must be made.

It is not on any one quality that the value of a wood for
use depends, but often on a combination of many qualities.
For the use of the carpenter and builder a wood that is soft
to work and to nail and fairly stiff and that is abundant and
cheap is desired, a combination found in the coniferous woods.
The furniture maker demands a wood that is strong, hard and
tough, that will not dent easily, that will take a high polish,
often of good color and grain, and that will not warp and
twist when once in place. For the carriage builder a wood
must be strong, hard and elastic. It must have a long fiber
to give toughness and strength, and for spokes must be evenly
and easily split. Ability to resist shocks and to hold spikes
are demanded for woods for railroad ties, and a durable,
light, soft wood for poles. Often the color of wood or its
odor will give it a special value, provided it has the other
qualities requisite as for some kinds of furniture, interior
trim and novelties. The quality of responding to and enforc-
ing a musical note gives some kinds of wood a value for
musical instruments.

It is only within recent years that a systematic study has
been made of the properties of different woods and their fit-
ness for special purposes. The U. S. Forest Service has es-
tablished a Woods Products Laboratory at Madison, Wiscon-
sin, where woods are tested for their properties and the

190 FARM FORESTRY

value of woods for different purposes determined. Formerly
the knowledge had of woods came from their use alone and
often erroneous ideas in regard to woods were held, as for
example, the idea that the heartwood of hickory was inferior
to the sapwood for use for making wagon spokes. Many
woods have been found to be adapted for different uses that
were formerly considered worthless, and many new uses have
been found for our common woods.

THE DIFFERENT PROPERTIES OF WOODS

Weight, hardness, strength, durability, elasticity, tough-
ness, heat production, color, odor and taste are some of the
properties of woods that make them valuable for use.

Weight.—The weight of different woods varies greatly.
Cork oak of the Southern swamps is lighter than cork, weigh-
ing not more than one-fifth as much as water. Ironwood
weighs a third more than water. The wood substance itself
is heavier than water, weighing one and one-half times as
much. In the form of wood, however, because of the large
amount of air enclosed in the cells, the weight of a piece of
wood is usually much less than the weight of the same volume
of water. Most of our commercial woods when dry weigh less
than water, weighing from one-half to three-fourths as much.
The weight of wood depends on the wood substance itself and
the amount of water contained. Only a few of our woods
will float when first cut. Most coniferous woods will float
when green and a few of the lightest hardwoods, like cotton-
wood. This often enables them to be floated or driven down
streams to the sawmill. All woods weigh much lighter when
dry and seasoned than when green and full of water. Some
woods lose over half their weight in drying.

Woods show a great variation in density, even in the same
species of tree and also from the same tree. This variation
depends on the rate of growth, quality of the locality in which
the tree was grown, age of the tree, the part of the tree from

THE DIFFERENT PROPERTIES OF WOODS

191

which the wood was cut, and the amount of resinous material

in the cell.

WEIGHTS

TABLE SHOWING RELATIVE WEIGHTS oF ComMON Woops

Very Nes Heavy Woods. | Medium Weight. | Light Woods. Mery Lighe
Hickory Ash Western pine Red pine White pine
Oak Elm Pitch pine Cypress Spruce
Persimmon Cherry Sweet gum Hemlock Fir
Osage orange | Birch Soft maple Chestnut Cedar
Black locust | Beech Sycamore Butternut | Poplar
Blue beech Walnut Sassafras Tulip Willow

Sour gum Catalpa
Honey locust Buckeye
Tamarack

Hardness.—Hardness is resistance offered by wood to hav-

ing the fibers pushed apart or indented. It depends principally
on the density of the wood. Woods having cells that have
thick walls as in hickory are harder than those whose cell
walls are thin as in pine. Hardness is a property essential
in furniture, so that it will not become indented easily by
blows. A floor should be hard as well as strong for the same

TaBLE SHOWING HARDNESS OF THE Common Woops

Very Hard Woods. | Medium Hard Woods. Soft Woods. ae
Hickory Ash Chestnut White pine
Dogwood Oak Tulip poplar Willow
Ironwood Elm Sweet gum Cedar
Sugar Maple Beech Southern and Redwood
Sycamore Cherry Western yellow
Black locust Birch pine
Persimmon Blue beech Larch
Osage orange Honey locust Basswood

Soft maple Hemlock
Holly Cottonwood
Spruce
Fir

192 FARM FORESTRY

reason. Strong woods are usually hard woods, and soft
woods do not have much strength. Heavy wood is harder
than light wood, especially is this true in the same kind of
wood. The wood of the butt log is harder than that of the
upper logs, the dark summer wood of the annual ring is
harder than the light colored spring wood.

Durability.—Different kinds of woods vary in their dura-
bility or the resistance offered to decay when subjected to
moist conditions. The question of the durability of woods
is of importance to farmers because of the necessity of using
woods in contact with the soil, as for posts, poles, stakes,
sills, for silos and other purposes. Some woods are very
durable while other woods soon decay when kept moist. Just
what makes one wood more durable than another is not
known. It is believed that during the change from sapwood
to heartwood certain tannins, gums and resins are deposited
in the walls of the cells along with coloring material which
tend to preserve the wood. It may be that more of these
substances are deposited in some wood than in others, or that
these substances vary in kind. As a general rule dark colored
woods are the more durable, as black walnut, mahogany, red
wood, red cedar and locust. Light colored woods are usually
perishable, like cottonwood, willow, birch and sycamore. Out-
side of this fact there seems to be but little relation between
the physical properties of different woods and their dura-
bility. For example, it might be imagined that heavy woods
would be more durable than light woods, but hickory and hard
maple, two of our heaviest hardwoods, are not durable, while
catalpa and cedar, two of our lightest woods in weight, are
very durable. Neither are all soft woods perishable, for cedar,
redwood and catalpa are all soft woods, With the same kind
of wood, however, the heavier and harder the wood the more
durable it will be. That is, a heavy piece of pine is more
durable than a light piece.

The time of year when a tree is cut is often said to have

THE DIFFERENT PROPERTIES OF WOODS 193

a marked influence on the durability of the wood. Many claim
if posts are cut in winter, when the “sap is down,” they will
be more durable than if cut in summer. In the winter time
the wood of trees contains large amounts of starches and
sugars and other food materials stored in the wood. So a
post would naturally be more durable if cut in summer than
in winter. There is no meaning to the expression when the
“sap is down,” for the sap never moves down the wood of
the tree as we have learned, and there is actually more moisture
in a tree in winter than in summer, because of the less trans-
piration taking place from the tree. If cut in winter posts
dry out slowly and do not season check so deeply as when
cut in summer. This may have some effect on the durability.
It is claimed by many that well seasoned posts will be more
durable than posts set green. Some claim, also, if a post is
set upside down it will last longer than if set with the large
end in the ground. In all probability these will have little
effect on the durability of the wood. Posts cut early in the
spring are easier to peel than if cut at any other time.

The following table shows the relative durability of some
of the common woods:

Very Durable. Durable. Perishable. Very Perishable.
Black locust White oak White elm Cottonwood
Red cedar Cherry Beech Willow
Cypress Larch Hickory Aspen
Redwood Honey locust Hard maple Black gum
Catalpa Black walnut Red gum Jack pine
Sassafras White ash Box-elder
Osage orange Hemlock Soft maple
Chestnut Spruce

Yellow birch
Soft maple
Sycamore
Basswood

Strength—Strength in wood varies with the density or

weight.

Light woods lack the strength of heavy woods.

194 FARM FORESTRY

Within the same kind of wood the strength will vary with the
density. With woods that form large pores in the spring,
like oak, chestnut and hickory, the wood from fast-growing
trees is stronger than from slow-growing trees. This is be-
cause of the greater percentage of hard, strong summer wood.
The amount of spring wood will remain the same in these
woods whether the wood grows fast or slowly. In the fast-
growing wood the increase will almost entirely be made up
of the summer wood. Second growth hickory is preferred to
the forest grown wood for wagon stock because of this fact.
It is stronger because of the faster growth. With conifers, on
the other hand, the faster the growth the weaker the wood.
In a fast-growing conifer there is a greater percentage of
spring wood which is much softer and weaker than the sum-
mer wood. In conifers fast growth means a large growth
in the spring wood. Since summer wood is darker than spring
wood, the darker the wood in the same species, leaving out
of account resin content, the stronger it will be. In selecting
a strong piece of pine, then, a dark-colored piece that has
narrow annual rings should be chosen.

With hard woods that do not produce large spring pores
like tulip, poplar, maple and birch rapidity of growth has little
effect on the strength or durability of wood.

Defects in boards or timbers decrease the strength, such
as knots, checks, splits, etc. Clear lumber is stronger than
knotty material. With timbers the position of the defect
has some influence on the strength. A timber laid so that the
defect is near the top when set will be stronger than the same
timber set with the defect below. This is because in a timber
subject to a stress the upper half of the timber will be subject
to compression, while in the lower half of the timber the
fibers will have a tendency to be pulled apart, being subjected
to a tension. The manner of sawing lumber from logs and
the direction of the annual rings passing through the wood
will also influence the strength.

THE DIFFERENT PROPERTIES OF WOODS 195

Elasticity.—Elasticity is the property possessed by many
woods so that when bent out of shape they will spring back
to their former position. Elasticity is essential where woods
are subject to strains that tend to change their shape. The
rims and spokes of a buggy wheel, the thills and tongues of
wagons, an ax handle, a bow, oars to a boat, all must be
made of woods that have elasticity. If woods are bent too
far out of shape they will not return exactly to their former
positions, but will have a permanent set.

TABLE OF ELASTICITY OF THE Common Woops

Woods with Considerable Elasticity. Woods with Little Elasticity.
Yew Cottonwood
Larch Birch
Hickory Maple
Osage orange Elm
Lance wood Alder
Ash Walnut
Red cedar Yellow pine
Fir Tulip poplar
Locust Beech
Chestnut
Spruce
White pine
Oak

Flexibility Flexibility is the property some woods pos-
sess by which it is possible to bend them without their break-
ing. Hickory is flexible, pine is brittle. It depends largely
on toughness in the wood or the ability of the fibers to hold
together. Young shoots are more easily bent than old wood,
moist wood than dry wood. When wood that is green or
that has been moistened by steaming or soaking is bent and
then dried in that position, it will always tend to retain
its new shape. The rims of buggy wheels, hoops, shafts,
shinny sticks, the curved handles to canes and umbrellas are
examples of woods that have been bent and dried in position.
Lumber that has been dried flat will usually not warp. Boards

196 FARM FORESTRY

are often weighted down or clamped to prevent their warping
in drying.

Toughness.—A property desired in many woods that are
subject to sudden shocks so that they will recover from
them is toughness. The rims and spokes of a wagon are
subject to many sharp blows in every mile, an ax handle
is jarred with every stroke, a trunk must stand many bumps
and blows in the course of a journey. A wood that shatters
easily or that breaks instead of resisting a blow will not serve
these purposes. A tough wood must be strong and pliable
and not weak and brittle. Basswood, hickory and ash are
examples of tough woods.

Fuel Value of Woods.—In general the heavier the wood
the greater will be its fuel value. All woods do not burn in
the same way. Chestnut, larch and hemlock crack in the fire
and emit sparks, while hornbeam, birch and alder burn with
a particularly quiet flame. With coniferous woods the larger
the quantity of resinous material in the wood, other things
being equal, the greater the fuel value. Fat pine or light
wood is wood that has a large amount of resinous material.
Dry woods burn much better than wet woods and send out
more heat. This is because with wet woods much of the heat
will go to evaporate the moisture in the wood. It is claimed
that 5.2 pounds of dry wood is equivalent in the amount of
heat produced to one pound of hard coal.

TABLE OF FUEL VALUE OF ComMMON Woops

Best. Good. Moderate Poor.
Hickory Ash Chestnut White pine
Beech Birch Hemlock Cottonwood
Hornbeam Sugar maple Catalpa Aspen
Locust Elm Box-elder White spruce
White oak Black walnut Butternut White fir

Soft maple

Color.—Color adds to the
purposes and is an aid in identifying woods.

value of wood for decorative

The color of

THE DIFFERENT PROPERTIES OF WOODS 197

woods varies from the deep black of the heartwood of per-
simmon to the almost white wood of holly. When wood is
first formed from the cambium layer it has but little color
and is called sapwood. Later the wood becomes darker,
changing to heartwood. The change in color is due to the
infiltration of various coloring materials, oils, gums, tannins,
etc., in the walls of the cells of the wood, the color varying
with the kinds and amounts of these materials.

Odor and Taste.—Nearly all woods have a characteristic
odor and taste. In some, like red cedar, sandalwood and cam-
phorwood the odor adds to their value. Rotting wood also
has an odor that is characteristic of the species, as has also
the smoke of burning woods. Many woods have a pronounced
taste—willow a bitter taste, chestnut an astringent taste.
The taste and odor of woods also aid in their identification.

CHAPTER XX

THE USE OF PERISHABLE WOODS FOR FENCE POSTS
BY TREATING WITH CREOSOTE

In many regions the question of a future supply of fence
posts is becoming a serious one. Trees yielding durable woods
have been plentiful in the past, but the time has come when
many of them are too scarce and too high in price to be
utilized generally by farmers. White oak, formerly one of
the chief post woods, is becoming too valuable for other pur-
poses to be utilized for fence posts. The supply of chestnut
is sure to be greatly depleted by the chestnut blight, if not en-
tirely wiped out. Locust for fence posts is now hard to obtain
and in some sections the price is almost prohibitive. Cedar has
long since ceased to be a fence post material except locally.
Its use for making pencils and for boxes and chests has raised
the value of the wood too high for general use. Walnut,
one of the most durable of woods, has become very scarce.

Because of this condition substitutes for the wooden posts
are being sought. Many posts of iron and concrete are being
made and used, but their cost is usually high. Concrete posts
can be made for about 25 cents each. But even at that price
they will not come into general use. A fence post to be
practical must be cheap. In foreign countries where wood is
too valuable and scarce to be utilized for fence posts, farmers
have learned for the most part to do without fences. Rota-
tions are so worked out that the pasture lot is not considered.
Permanent pastures are established and the cattle confined to
them. It is doubtful if the American farmer will soon get
along without fences.

198

Photo by A. S. Kiiodes.

Plant for creosoting fenceposts made of two discarded gasolene steel
barrels.

USE OF PERISHABLE WOODS FOR FENCE POSTS 199

Every woodlot contains trees large enough and strong
enough that could be used for fence posts if it were not for
the fact that the wood rots easily and quickly when put in
the ground. Soft and hard maple, box-elder, ash, elm, beech,
poplar, sycamore and other trees would be as serviceable as the
best of cedar or locust if the wood were durable. Many of
these trees, too, are fast growers. Cottonwood will grow to
fence post size in 15 years or less, ash in 20 years, maple in
20 years, red oak in 25 years.

How can the trees that commonly grow in woodlots, but
which do not produce durable woods, be utilized for fence
posts? Can wood be made durable?

Wood decays because of the destruction of the cells by
low forms of plant life called fungi, as has already been
explained. When the spore of the fungus plant falls on
moist wood it will start to grow. It sends out filaments into
the wood consuming the fibers and causing decay. Like other
forms of plant life, fungi require for their development heat,
air, food and moisture. The reason a fence post decays most
quickly at the surface of the ground is because there the
conditions are most favorable for the growth of the fungi.
Below the surface a post rots very slowly because of insuf-
ficient air, and above the surface the post rots slowly because
the post dries out quickly after a rain. Any wood in con-
tact with the ground or placed where it will be kept constantly
moist will in time decay. If the fungus is deprived of any
one of the factors of growth mentioned it cannot live and th
wood will not decay. If wood is kept dry it will not decay,
A table made even of a very perishable wood like birch or
hickory will last indefinitely if kept in the house. Wood con-
stantly covered with water cannot decay because of the lack
of air for the development of the fungus plant. Bog oak logs
are dug from the swamps in Ireland, where they have lain
for centuries, and made into furniture. Wood decays very
slowly in cold regions, because fungi need warmth. Wood that

200 FARM FORESTRY

has been poisoned, so that the fungus is deprived of its food
supply, will never decay as long as the poison remains in the
wood. The methods of preserving wood are based on this
principle of depriving the fungus plant of its food by poison-
ing the wood. This is the only factor that can be controlled
practically in fence posts.

How the Life of Fence Posts can be Lengthened.—The
drier a post is kept the longer will be its life. Draining the
surface water away from a post will help to prolong its life.
Piling stones, ashes or gravel around a post will help to drain
away moisture and will keep down the weeds and grass that
spring up about a post keeping the base moist and so subject to
decay. Sometimes posts are set in cement or concrete. Because
of the shrinking and swelling of wood with moisture this is not
an effective method. The cement is cracked by the swelling of
the posts and in dry times the posts will shrink and will not
completely fill the cavity in the cement allowing the spores of
fungi to be washed down between the wood and the cement.
Coating a post with cement has the same objection.

It is possible to prolong the life of fence posts by pre-
venting the entrance of fungi. Charring the ends of posts will
cover them with a layer of charcoal through which the fungus
can force its way only with difficulty. It also hardens the
wood and may produce changes in the composition. In char-
ring wood the danger lies in the wood checking badly and
splitting open. The posts must be well seasoned. The charred
portion must extend 8 to 10 inches above the surface of the
ground when the posts are set. Wood that is kept well painted
does not easily decay, because the layer of paint keeps out
the fungus. If wood is wet when painted, however, it makes
the wood especially liable to dry rot should that fungus gain
entrance. Tar, pitch and various kinds of oils and other sub-
stances can be used for coating fence posts with considerable
success. Surface coatings are of but temporary value. They
are easily worn or broken off subjecting the wood to decay.

UST OF PERISHABLE WOODS FOR FENCE POSTS 201

The most effective method of preserving fence posts is
without doubt by destroying the food value, so that the fungus
cannot live in-it. The substances most commonly used for
this purpose are poisonous salts, like copper sulphate, corrosive
sublimate and zinc chloride, and oils such as crude oil and
creosote. The use of salts for preserving fence posts is of
value only in regions of scanty rainfall. In a moist climate
salts are easily leached out of the wood. Creosote, which is
a product of the distillation of coal tar, is the most important
wood preservative. It not only poisons the wood so that fungi
cannot live in it, but, being an oil, it tends to exclude moisture.
Most of the patented wood preservatives on the market have
creosote as their base. It can be obtained through hardware
dealers.

METHODS OF TREATING FENCE POSTS WITH CREOSOTE

There are three methods of treating fence posts with creo-
sote, the brush method, the dipping method and the open tank
method.

The Brush Method of Treating Fence Posts.—The brush
method consists in painting the posts with creosote. The
posts are thoroughly dried and seasoned so that the creosote,
which is applied hot, will be absorbed by the wood. The
creosote is painted on the posts with an ordinary paint brush,
and at least two coats should be given each coat being allowed
to sink into the wood before another is applied. While the
brush method will prolong the life of posts somewhat it is
not an effective method because the creosote does not sink
deeply into the wood and is easily leached out, and it is im-
possible to get the creosote into all cracks and season checks
and defects, through each of which the fungus can gain en-
trance to the wood. The life of all timbers used in contact '
with the ground or where subject to damp conditions can be
lengthened many years by this method.

202 FARM FORESTRY

The Dipping Method.—In this method the creosote is
placed in a tank or barrel and the ends of the posts are dipped
in the creosote. This is a more effective method than the brush
method, but the creosote will not penetrate the wood very far.
Both ends of the posts are sometimes dipped and often the
tops of posts that have been treated by the open tank method
are treated by dipping.

The Open Tank Method.—In the open tank method the
posts are placed in a tank with creosote and heated to near
the boiling point for several hours and then allowed to cool
down in cold creosote. When the posts are heated in hot
creosote the air inside the posts expands and a large part of
the moisture in the wood is changed to steam and driven off.
There is an outward pressure set up in the posts. After the
posts have been heated for some time in hot creosote, if they
are immediately placed in cold creosote, or if left to cool
down in the creosote, the heated air inside the posts will con-
tract and the steam will change to water forming a partial
vacuum inside the wood. By atmospheric pressure the creo-
sote will be forced deeply into the wood to take the place of
the air and moisture forced out of the wood in heating. This
forms a shell of creosoted wood about the post, all cracks,
defects and season checks being filled. In some kinds of woods
the creosote will sink an inch or more into the wood.

Preparation of the Posts for Treatment.—The posts should
be thoroughly seasoned or air dried before treatment, as the
presence of much moisture in the wood tends to prevent the
entrance of the creosote. The posts should be piled loosely
in some place out of the sun, but where the air will circulate
freely, for several months. If piled in the sun the posts are
apt to season check badly. The better the posts are seasoned
the easier will be the treatment and the deeper the penetra-
tion. All the bark should be removed, especially the papery
inner bark, as this prevents the creosote from entering the
wood. Usually only about 40 inches of the lower end of the

USE OF PERISHABLE WOODS FOR FENCE POSTS 203

post is treated. This will bring the creosoted portion of the
post 6 to 8 inches above the ground when the posts are set.
It is at the surface of the ground where the fastest decay
takes place. Unless the wood is very perishable it is not usual
to treat the tops of the posts, but it can easily be done by
inverting the posts in the tank when one end has been treated.
Merely dipping the tops in hot creosote or using the brush
process will have a very favorable effect. When the tops are
not to be treated it is well to bevel them off so that they will
shed rain.

Where posts are to be given a preservative treatment it is
possible to use a much smaller post than is generally used.
A post 5 inches in diameter is large enough and strong enough
for most line fences. In using small posts a considerable sav-
ing of creosote can be made. Round posts are much preferred
for the process, because sapwood will take the preservative
much more readily than heartwood.

Equipment Necessary.—For treating a few fence posts
each year a very satisfactory tank can be made from a dis-
carded gasolene drum or barrel of sheet steel. The top should
be cut out and the tank set up on bricks or stones, so that a
fire can be built beneath. A stovepipe connected with the
firebox will aid in giving a draft and carry the smoke away.
-An outfit of this kind at the most should cost but a few dol-
lars. Such a tank will hold from eight to ten fence posts,
4 or 5 inches in diameter. Creosote being inflammable, the
tank should not be set up near buildings.

Carrying out the Treatment in a Single Tank.—The
creosote, which at ordinary temperatures is sometimes not in
a liquid form, should be heated in the tank to about the boil-
ing point. A very high temperature will tend to weaken the
wood and a large amount of the creosote will be evaporated.
The tank should then be filled with fence posts. Sufficient
creosote should be used to cover at least the lower 40 inches
of the posts. After heating for several hours the fire should

204 FARM FORESTRY

be drawn and the posts left in the tank until cool. The posts
will then be treated.
Two runs of posts can easily be treated in a day on the
farm without interfering with the regular work. The tank
can be filled with posts in the morning and a fire built that
will last about two or three hours before burning out. The
posts after being treated will cool down during the day and
by night will be treated. A new run of posts can be put in,
heated as before for two or three hours and allowed to cool
down over night. In cold weather the tank will cool down fast
enough to start a new run at noon. In this way three runs
of eight or ten posts each can be treated without much effort
every day.

The Two-Tank Method.—Where a large number of posts
are to be treated the treatment can be given more quickly
and economically by using two tanks. The posts are heated
as before for several hours in hot creosote in the heating tank
and then immediately transferred to a second tank containing
cold creosote to cool for about an equal period. The result
will be the same as when only one tank is used.

It is possible for farmers in the same region to cooperate
in the purchase of a fence post treating outfit, thus reducing
the initial cost. In this way larger equipment can be purchased
and the work handled in a more economical way.

Length of Treatment.—The length of time necessary to
heat the posts in hot creosote and to coo] them in cold creosote
to secure satisfactory penetration of the wood will vary with
different kinds of wood. Some woods absorb creosote readily
and are easily treated, while other woods require a long treat-
ment. In general posts should be heated for from four to five
hours in hot creosote and cooled an equal length of time. The
depth of penetration can be known by cutting into a treated
post. The more creosote a post absorbs and the deeper the
creosote penetrates into the wood the longer the post will
last, or, in other words, the longer the creosote will remain

USE OF PERISHABLE WOODS FOR FENCE POSTS 205

in the wood before being leached out by the rain. The greater
the absorption, however, the greater the cost. To a farmer
using his own time the cost of the creosote is the only real
expense connected with the treatment. Pitch pine posts of the
same size will absorb from 1 to 8 pounds of creosote, depend-
ing on the length of treatment, making the cost of creosote
alone from about 2 cents to 16 cents. The quantity of creosote
absorbed can be controlled by varying the length of time the
posts are heated in hot creosote and cooled in cold creosote.
A penetration of a half inch is sufficient for most kinds of
posts. What is desired is a shell of creosoted wood about the
posts that will remain for years and prevent the entrance of
fungi. The heaviest treatment will, of course, give the best
results,

Willow, soft maple, cottonwood and box-elder, common
woods that last but 3 or 4 years in the ground or less untreated,
will last 20 to 25 years or longer when treated at a cost of about
10 cents for both top and butt treatment. They should be
heated for about 5 hours in hot creosote and cooled from 5
to 10 hours, with the exception of cottonwood which absorbs
the treatment readily, and should be given a short treatment.
It should be heated not more than 2 hours. Ash and red oak
will last about 6 to 7 years in the ground untreated, and when
given a treatment by heating for 6 or 7 hours in hot creosote
and cooling for 10 to 12 hours, they should last 25 years or
more.

ADVANTAGES OF TREATING FENCE POSTS WITH CREOSOTE

1. It permits the use of material the farmer has in his
own woodlot that is not used at present because of the perish-
able nature of the wood.

2. By a preservative treatment the life of posts can be
lengthened many times. Posts that last but 3 or 4 years can
be made to last 20 to 25 years, thus saving not only the cost
of new posts but the cost of replacing.

206 FARM FORESTRY

3. Smaller posts can be used when treated with creosote.
Large posts are usually used because they will stand longer
before decaying.

4. The cost of a post from the woodlot creosoted is much
less than the cost of a durable post.

APPENDIX

SUGGESTED LIST OF PRACTICUM EXERCISES
THAT COULD BE GIVEN IN CONNECTION WITH
A COURSE IN FARM FORESTRY.

I. Tree study and identification. As many exercises as
possible should be devoted to the study and identification of
trees. The following method of conducting such exercises
has been found to be satisfactory.

If the exercises are to start in the fall of the year study
the hardwoods first and the conifers later in the winter; the
opposite method should be followed in the spring. Take the
students out to the tree to be studied and have them take notes
on the following points:

1. Name, common and scientific.

2. Location of tree, open or forest grown, kind and char-
acter of soil and situation.

3. General form and appearance.

4. Method of branching.

5. Trunk diameter at breast height, clear length of bole
and total height of tree (approximate).

6. Crown-width and length of crown, general shape and
appearance, character of shade cast.

7. Bark color and characteristic markings.

Have each student secure a small branch with characteristic
leaves and buds, and either study sitting around the tree or
take to the class room. All observations made should be re-

207

208 APPENDIX

corded by each student in notebooks, under the following
heads, to be followed with each tree studied:

1. Twig.

2. Bud.

3. Leaves.

4. Fruit or seed.

1. Starting with the twig the instructor asks for observa-
tions on the twig. Have each member of the class study the
twig and tell whatever is observed. Bring out the following
points: size, color, thickness, smoothness, shiny or dull, mark-
ings, lenticles, annual nodes, leaf scars, etc.

2. Next take up the bud in the same way and bring out
the following points: size by measuring, shape—conical,
round, one-sided, long, short, pointed, blunt, scales, hairs,
resin, sticky, smooth, where placed on the twig, and arrange-
ment, comparison of terminal and lateral buds.

3. Then the leaf is observed. The following points should
be brought out: Size and variation in size, general shape;
lobes—number and form, round, sharp, color above and
below, thickness; veins—arrangement, prominence, how far
they extend, hairs above and below; stem—length, shape, how
fastened to leaf and twig. With conifers the number of years
the leaves remain on the trees should be noted.

4. The fruit and seed should be obtained where possible
and studied in the same way, especially the form, size, shape,
etc. Old seeds can usually be found on the ground under the
trees.

After two or three trees have been examined in this way
the method will be clear to both students and instructor.
There is no better training for the observation. A tree studied
in this way will never be forgotten. Do not allow one or two
students to make all the observations. Only three or four trees
should be examined in a practicum period. A few trees well
studied are better than many trees skimmed over.

After studying the specimens, the leaf, twig, buds and

APPENDIX 209

fruit can be drawn in the notebook free hand or by tracing
the outline and filling in the detail by free hand, or the leaves
can be dried between newspapers or regular drying boards
and mounted. The instructor will supplement the notes with
general remarks about the use of the tree for ornamental or
forestry purposes and the value and uses of the wood. The
woods of trees can be studied in much the same manner.

II. Heights of trees.—By the two-staff method. By com-
paring the length of the shadow of the tree and the length of
the shadow of a pole of known length.

Record diameter at breast height and height of each tree
measured as well as the name of the species.

III. Contents of individual trees—In board feet by the
use of the ro-foot pole and crosspiece and rule of thumb,
and compare results by applying the Doyle and Scribner rules.

BXH

In cubic feet by the formula

IV. Estimating timber—Lay off one-sixteenth of an acre
either in a square plot 52 feet on a side setting stakes at the
corners, or by circular plots with 2914 feet radius, marking the
trees on the edge of the circle. Use larger plots if time allows.

In board feet.—Estimate all the trees on the plot above 8
inches in diameter. Use 10-foot pole and crosspiece to get
diameter and length of the butt log, estimate the diameters
and lengths of upper logs. Apply rule of thumb and also log
tables. Multiply the result by 16 to get the estimate for an
acre.

In cordwood.—Find diameter outside the bark at breast
height and total height, of all trees on the plot above a certain

diameter, about 6 inches. Apply formula to each tree.

Multiply the estimate of the plot by 16 to get stand per acre.
V. Find area of woodlot. It will be better to lay off a
small tract on level, open ground and find the area.

210 APPENDIX

VI. Lay off an acre or half-acre plot. Make a list of all
trees on the plot and find the percentage of the different
species by dividing the number of trees of a certain kind by
the total number of trees on the tract.

VII. Make a list of trees found growing only in the open,
intolerant trees, and a list of those found growing under the
shade of other trees, tolerant trees.

VIII. Note for different species of trees the time when
the buds begin to swell in the spring, the time when the leaves
are fully developed, the time of blossoming, the time when
the leaves fall, and the time when the seed is ripe.

IX. Lay off a sample plot in the woodlot and have students
write a description of the plot, kinds and percentages of trees,
size and height of trees, condition of the trees, whether injured
by fungus diseases or insects, the undergrowth, the reproduc-
tion, forest floors and the humus.

X. Have students mark with chalk or otherwise the trees
that should be removed to increase the growth of the trees
left or to improve the character of the woodlot.

XI. Have students study the market conditions, the prod-
ucts that are in demand and the prices of each delivered.
Information can be secured from portable sawmill men, from
lumber dealers, and from those that utilize the products or
purchase them.

XII. Estimate all the products in a woodlot, or those in
a certain portion, and figure what profit can be made by har-
vesting and selling the products.

XIII. Study the reproduction of trees in the woodlot to
find under what conditions of soil and light the seeds germi-
nate and the seedlings develop the best.

XIV. Visit a portable sawmill and scale logs with different
log rules before they are sawed, and measure the amount of
lumber that is actually sawed out of the logs, and compare the
results. Determine the loss due to defects in logs.

XV. Visit a woodlot that has been heavily grazed and

APPENDIX ‘211

another that has been recently damaged by fire, and note the
injury to the trees and the forest floor.

XVI. Make a list of trees found growing in bottom lands,
on lower and upper slopes and on ridges.

METHOD oF FINDING THE AREA OF A WOODLOT BY THE USE
OF AN ORDINARY COMPASS

Farm woodlots are usually more or less rectangular in out-
line or at least have straight sides, and areas should not be
difficult to find. There are many ways of finding areas of
tracts of land. The one described is one of the simplest
methods and can be carried out with the ordinary compass
reading from 0 to 360 degrees, that can be purchased for a
small sum. A tape for measuring the sides of the woodlot
is also necessary, although a stout string or a wire carefully
measured can be used. Although a simple method, the one
described, if carried out carefully, will give very accurate
results. ’

The compass is set up at one corner of the woodlot (marked
A in the diagram) so that the direction of one side can be
seen. It is not necessary that the compass should set exactly
on the corner. It should be placed where the direction of the
side of the woodlot can be seen. The compass is for giving
the direction of the side of the woodlot and nothing more.
The compass should be set level, with the hand or pointer
when at rest lying exactly over the point marked north. It
will be found to be more convenient to set the compass on
the ground rather than on a post or other elevation.

A string is now stretched over the compass in the direction
of the side of the woodlot to be measured (AB), so that it
passes directly over the center of the compass or the pin hold-
ing the needle. With an assistant holding the end of the
string in the direction of the line to be run, and the other
end held a short distance the other side of the compass, the
direction of the side of the woodlot can be judged accurately.

212 APPENDIX

The compass is then read from the center out to the edge
of the compass in the direction of the line to be measured
and the number of degrees where the string crosses noted.
The distance AB or the side of the woodlot should then be

Compass reads 260°
o

_ EY
linch Compass reads 348°

measured accurately in feet from corner to corner. The meas-
urements can be recorded in a table as follows:

Line Degrees Distance
AB 108 527 feet
BC 348 450 feet
CD 260 387 feet
Ete.

The compass is now set up at the corner B in the same
manner as before, so that the needle on the compass will

APPENDIX 213

point exactly over the north point or zero point when at rest.
The string is then stretched in the direction of the second side
of the woodlot (BC) passing accurately over the center of the
compass and the number of degrees noted. The side (BC) is
then measured accurately in feet. The line BC, the number of
‘degrees, and the distance are then recorded in the table. At
each succeeding corner the same method should be followed.
The direction of the line is found by means of the compass and
string, and the distance measured accurately,

A map is now made of the woodlot from the data in the
table. The method of drawing the map is similar in many
respects to the measuring of the woodlot. The same processes
are gone through with on paper. The same compass could
be used, but it will be found more convenient to use a pro-
tractor such as is shown. A thin piece of paper can be laid
over this protractor and traced and cut out for use.

In drawing the map the top of the paper is considered north
and should be so marked. Then the bottom of the paper will
be south, and the right hand edge east, and the left hand edge
west. In drawing the map it is often a help to lay the paper
on the table so that it lies in a north and south direction.

A point is now selected on the paper and marked 4, to
correspond with the first corner of the woodlot. A north and
south line and an east and west line are now drawn through

214 APPENDIX

the point lightly as shown in the diagram. These correspond
with the same points on the compass.

Using the data given in the table the direction of the line
AB, or the first corner of the woodlot to the second corner,
is 108 degrees. There are 360 degrees around the circle of a

or 360°
N

W-270

S-180°

compass. From north to east as drawn on the paper through
the point 4 there are go degrees. This will leave 18 degrees
over to make the 108 degrees. Place the protractor so that
it will lie between the east and south lines and count off 18
degrees and mark the point +. The line AB or the first side
of the woodlot will pass from the point 4 through this point x.

APPENDIX 215

From the table the length of the side AB is 527 feet. Using a
ruler divided off into inches and tenths of inches and consider-
ing each inch on the ruler to be roo feet, lay off on the line
Ax extended, 5.27 inches. Mark this point B. The line AB
will now represent the first side of the woodlot.

Through the point B as before draw a north and south line
and an east and west line and proceed to map the side BC
of the woodlot. From the table the direction as found by the
compass is 348 degrees and the distance 450 feet. Proceeding
as before from north to east is go degrees, from north to
south is 180 degrees and from north around to west is 270
degrees. To find 348 degrees it will be necessary to pass 78
degrees beyond the west toward the north. Place the pro-
tractor so that it will lie between the north and west points
as shown in the diagram and count off 78 degrees from the
west point and mark the point on the paper +. The line BC
will pass through this point + from the point B. Now with
the ruler as before, allowing 100 feet to the inch, measure off
4.5 inches for the 450 feet and mark the point C.

Through the point C draw the east and west lines and
north and south lines and lay off 260 degrees as noted in
the table for the next line. This will necessitate passing 80
degrees beyond the south point. Lay the protractor between
the south and west points and count off 80 degrees. The
line BC will pass through the point found. Measure off 3.87
inches for the 387 feet and mark the point D. In like manner
all the corners and sides of the woodlot are plotted on the
paper.

When the last line is plotted, if the end of the line as drawn
falls very close to the point A or the starting point, the work
was well done. If the points do not come closely together
some mistake was made either in the field work or in drawing
the map, and the work should be done over again. Otherwise
the last line should be drawn from the last corner to A, so that
the map will close.

216 APPENDIX

After the map is drawn and closed the area must be found.
Using one side of the woodlot or map as a base, as shown in
the diagram, mark it off in inches, carrying the line out if
necessary beyond the map. At each inch mark erect lines
perpendicular to the base line. Then divide these lines off
into inches from the base line and draw lines through them
parallel to the base line, thus dividing the entire map into
square inches.

Each square inch represents an area 100 feet by 100 feet

fam
ee
N

and contains 10,000 square feet. In the diagram there are 9
complete square inches, making 90,000 square feet. The areas
of the imperfect squares must now be found. Divide each of
these squares into quarters as shown, each of which will be
50 feet by So feet, containing 2500 square feet. Cross off
every perfect quarter inch square. There are Io of these in
the diagram, making 25,000 square feet. Now divide each
imperfect quarter inch square into quarters. These will be
25 feet by 25 feet each containing 625 square feet. In the
diagram there are 25 of these perfect, making 16,875 square
feet. The imperfect squares remaining around the edges of the

APPENDIX 217

map can now be combined to make perfect squares. For exam-
ple, number 2 can be combined with number 6 to make a per-
fect square, and number 3 with number 5. Proceed in this way
until the entire area of the map has been accounted for. The
sum of all the different squares in the map will give the area
of the woodlot in square feet. If this sum is divided by 43,560,
the number of square feet in an acre, the number of acres
in the woodlot will be found.

Bulletins and Circulars giving information on Farm For-
estry.—Publications of the State Forestry Department and of
the State Agricultural College on the establishment of farm
woodlots and their care and protection, the kinds of trees to
plant, the wood-using industries of the state, and the market-
ing of woodlot products.

Bulletins and Circulars of the United States Forest Service,
a list of which can be obtained from the U. S. Department of
Agriculture, Washington, D. C. The following relate to Farm
Forestry and can be obtained from the Superintendent of
Public Documents, Washington, D. C., by sending a postal
money order for the amount:

U. S. Forest Service Bulletins:

36 Woodman’s Handbook ............. ccc cence eees $0.25
42 Woodiot Handbook for owners of woodlands in
southern New England .................-0006- 15
76 How to grow and plant conifers in the Northeastern
States. gassed ian pecan ee tee Ome .10
78 Wood Preservation in the United States.......... .I0
86 Windbreaks, their influence and value............ 30
U. S. Forest Service Circulars:
61 How to transplant forest trees...........-....06. $0.05 .
69 Fence post trees ... 6... cece eee eee e eee eeee 05
96 Arbor Day, suggestions for its observance........ .05

99 Suggestions for forest planting on the semi-arid
DIAITS® (Gs ctavadar asain eed ovdoo tp weil barat alaraier tus Seeds aed .05

218 APPENDIX

117 Preservative treatment of fence posts............. 05
145 Forest planting on the western Prairies........... 05
195 Forest planting in the Northeast and Lake States... .05

U. S. Department of Agriculture:

Bulletin 153—Forest planting in the Eastern United
SHALES sesuepsut auseen baa cee oases acibsct bidbarechaceaes oetaceuneentares wks $0.10

Year Book, Department of Agriculture:

Separate No. 651—The farm woodlot problem........ $0.10
Farmers’ Bulletin:
134 Tree planting on rural school grounds............ $0.05
173 Primer of Forestry, Part I ...............--0-- 05
358 Primer of Forestry, Part I] ................... 05
228 Forest Planting and Farm Management........... 05
423 Forest nurseries for schools..............--.+--- 05
582 Uses for chestnut timber killed by bark disease.... 05
622 Basket willow culture........... 0.00... cece eee .05

715 Measuring and marketing woodlot products...... £05

219

TABLES

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220 TABLES
TABLE 3.—AREA OF CIRCLES IN SQUARE FEET
Diam. | Area || Diam.| Area || Diam.| Area Diam Area || Diam.| Area
Ins, Sq.ft. Ins. | Sq.ft. Ins. | Sq.ft. Ins. Sq.ft Ins. Sq.ft.
1.0 | .005 || 13.0 | 0.92 || 25.0 | 3.41 B78 7-47 || 49.0 | 13.10
1.5 | .O12 |} 13.5 | 0.99 |} 25-5 | 3-55 || 37-5 7-67 || 49.5 | 13.37
2.0 | .022 || 14.0 | 1.07 || 26.0 ] 3.69 |] 38.0 7.88 |i 50.0 | 13.64
2.5 | .034 |] 14.5 | 1.15 || 26.5 | 3.83 || 38.5 8.08 |] 50.5 | 13.91
3.0] .049 || 15.0 | 1.23 || 27.0 | 3.98 |] 39.0 8.30 || 51.0 | 14.19
3.5 | .067 |] 15.5 | 3.31 || 27.5 | 4.12 |] 30.5 8.51 |] 51.5 | 14.47
4.0 | .087 || 16.0 | 1.40 || 28.0 | 4.28 |] 40.0 8.73 || 52.0 | 14.75
4.5 | .111 || 16.5 | 1.48 || 28.5 | 4.43 || 40.5 8.95 |} 52.5 | 15.03
5.0 | .136 || 17.0 | 1.58 || 29.0 | 4.59 |] 41.0 9-17 || 53.0 | 15.32
5-5 | -165 || 17.5 | 1.67 || 29.5 | 4.75 |] 41-5 | 9.39 || 53-5 | 15.50
6.0 | .196 || 18.0 | 1.77 |] 30.0 | 4.91 || 42.0 9.62 || 54.0 | 15.90
6.5 | .230 |} 18.5 | 1.87 || 30.5 | 5.07 |} 42.5 9-85 || 54.5 | 16.20
7-0 | .267 |] 19.0] 1.97 |] 31.0 | 5.24 |] 43.0 | 10.08 || 55.0 | 16.50
7.5 | -307 || 19.5 | 2.07 || 31.5 | 5.41 43.5 | 10.32 || 55.5 | 16.80
8.0 | .349 || 20.0 | 2.18 || 32.0 | 5.59 |] 44.0 | 10.56 || 56.0 | 17.10
8.5 | .304 || 20.5 | 2.29 || 32.5 | 5.76 || 44.5 | 10.80 || 56.5 | 17.41
9.0 | .442 || 21.0 | 2.41 || 33-0 | 5.94 || 45.0 | 11.04 |] 57.0 | 17.72
9-5 | .492 |] 21.5 | 2.52 || 33.5 | 6.12 |! 45.5 | 11.29 || 57.5 | 18.03
10.0 | .545 |/ 22.0 | 2.64 || 34.0 | 6.30 |} 46.0 | 11.54 || 58.0 | 18.35
10.5 | .60r |} 22.5 | 2.76 || 34.5 | 6.49 || 46.5 | 11.79 || 58.5 | 18.67
11.0 | .660 |} 23.0 | 2.89 |} 35.0 | 6.68 || 47.0 | 12.05 || 59.0 | 18.99
II.§5 | .721 || 23.5 | 3-0f || 35.5 | 6.87 || 47-5 | 12.26 |] 59.5 | 19.31
12.0 | .785 || 24.0 | 3.14 |] 36.0 | 7.07 || 48.0 | 12.57 || 60.0 | 19.63
12.5 | .852 || 24.5 | 3-27 || 36.5 | 7-27 || 48.5 | 12.83 || 60.5 | 19.96

TABLES

TABLE 4—WHITE PINE
SOUTHERN New HAMPSHIRE
From the Woodman’s Handbook, U. S. Forest Service

221

HEIGHT OF TREE (FEET).

Diameter,
Breast- 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
high.
VoLtuME (BoarpD FEET)

Inches

Beste tt 8 12 15

6... 13 20 23 27 29

| oe 18 28 | 34] 30 44

Bees ete 4 24 36) 45 53 62

Qesacaes 32 44 56 69 81 93
Oss sex 41 53 70 85 | 102 | 119 | 138
Iti oust [sees 63 84 | 103 | 126 | 147 | 168
TPs vine lees 73 | 100 | 125 | 151 | 177 | 200 228 | 245
T3oid son Sal aessa tae 84 | 117 | 148 | 180 | 210 | 238 270 | 293
TAS cP ene ca nall saahene 95 | 137 | 173 | 210 | 243 | 277 312 348
er ... | 105 | 158 | 200 | 241 | 282 | 321 362 | 406
TO hecesin les yeas, pete 181 | 230 | 277 | 323 | 370 4IS 47°
Me hectare estas aimee 209 | 261 | 313 | 368 | 421 471 540
DS tiie (atsiaie ]easteben 238 | 207 | 352 | 411 | 475 531 610 | 688
TQ ices s eae reer 270 | 336 | 393 | 460 | 530 598 | 682 763
ZO stein ae) || sei vy |e ata 302 | 379 | 436 | 506 | 583 660 | 750 | 840
BE icateesn feel aes wea: | 42 480 | 553 | 634 720 | 820 | 918
Q2iemass lente [eave woe | wars. 522 | 507 | 681 779 887 990
23 ercciacd| Oat eae ans eae well eo By. 566 | 639 | 727 834 | 958 | 1065
QA cusicchiin Hey “ia. Mibcae ok [eee A seen RE acuoecke 674 | 769 889 | 1030 | 1135
GE rcireyansh Ye (uk dis Uhy Panis dl ccdsigantd| ae aveesa, Maenacess 706 | 809 942 | I105
BOs oiesaians 1180

sealed fase Sep [en banal stalo ced acaahoan 737 | 846 904
igo iW eeetaeoneHlRS teh etalon tieirec ss bereegetecsent ecu eel wee. | 1046

222 TABLES

TABLE 5—RED OR NORWAY PINE
From The Woodman’s Handbook, U. S. Forest Service

HEIGHT OF TREE (FEET).
Diameter, :
Breast-high. 60 #8 #0: oe #00)
VotuME (Boarp FEET).
Inches.
Doatatvaninin oiecoseknes 17 24
Sigua wierd silane 29 38 50
Oveeihee ee ties 44 53 68 81 94
LOp cian tina ss he 2 61 72 88 104, 119
DL Aion cuieten 222 80 92 110 130 148
5 ORO RIE ey Te 100 114 136 159 180
BBG se eincsneicesteres seas 120 138 160 189 214
Tp aanenteneecuiasna: 140 164 189 222 250
ES sone scans phetadagael S25 190 220 257 292
I Oh antes tees oer bios 252 296 340
1 iy (Panera eres tae tong vee 334 394
DSi cee adie ae bens sage 372 450
TABLE 6.—SPRUCE
VotuME TABLE IN BoarRD FEET
From The Woodman’s Handbook, U. S. Forest Service
HEIGHT IN FEET.
Diameter, =
Brescichiek. ap 50 bo 70 80
Votume (Boarp Feet).
Inches.
ie det tile tiec ys at 18 25 30 35
Ciccie SEBO R RAE 29 38 45 53
Oucsuuvaseriares 42 53 61 7I
TO jisisouadigie se heisas 58 07 78 OL
Pi cheh Eee oamed 76 84 04 110
TO eevee Ra NET ake gO 100 12 130
Tac deldivsts mie aecesynie apes 113 130 151
LA sudire a sleet ancvers eee 129 148 172 194
Thier tenis be bichiots sarin 166 195 219
TOneaeeeerTee Ue rec ares 186 219 245
5 ty eer Creer si peas 208 244 275
TO isies Getetar ake ssn hone Aste 272 305
TQ o0b Mite ieee arson abcd sarees 308 343
DD 5 es eee wee saiaty aan 346 400

TARLES

TABLE 7.—SPRUCE
VoLuME oF UNPEELED PuLP Woop 1n Cusic FEET, SouTHERN NEW
HAMPSHIRE
From The Woodman's Handbook, U. S. Forest Service

Diameter,

HEIGHT OF TREE (FEET)

Breast-high. 40 Bo ee i eo ed
Votume (Cusic FEET)
Inches.

Rive cont state 1.9 225 3.0

(eee eee 2.45 4x2 5 2 6.4

SS tee Soa tis 5.0 6.2 7-5 9.0

Oise uicsehaderniace 6.6 8.4 10.0 Tr.7

Oi pceiaiieNtes 8.5 10.8 12.7 14.8

TO wee pealernbe ol Mth ean aos 13.5 15.6 18.0

TP. parang ercpiraswidel| ek Seost den ces 10.5 18.8 21.5

LDie cries sheeeatden| a aes weet 19.5 22.3 25.4

T Sh haigateeten dae ctmcesian esas 26.0 20.5 34.5

TAs tie | eS tena le dmiaiaiteras 30.0 34.0 39-5
TGicaseause: |aowat witb aegeian 34.5 38.5 44.0

TOsd4 0s eyrdnsls beeen eres 39.0 43-5 49.0

DP e cikasiecia ola a Pees eee nae 43-5 49.0 55.0 63.5
TB esses ance) Sohes Bae se See aS 48.0 54.5 61.0 70.0
TO) 2iiitasivsul vewe tice eee dens 53.0 60.5 67.5 77.0
BO i, hs totivbawwall wits 8a eckea lish suede laasoa 58.0 67.0 74.5 83.5
DD goaspesismaccsbanotl nace diated an as Ganbabyaahdateee| at rake reel hO 74.0 82.0 90.5
ee pee et er me ares iene eM ven S| nee at eee 81.5 89.0 98.0
DB Parax tcpbay i Gale ee 56 At | OS NREL oR eis 88.5 96.5 106.0
BA ose eca eg brian soar reis| inn georges Y| ah piacnacnn 95-5 104.5 114.0
Qo cec tes weal nna: ce seliee aekoge yl Avebes ya 102.0 112.0 123.0
20's 5 scbrie-hsdis] eee OE Se | A eee A aad Se eg 109.0 120.0 131.5
DF sc scunk Shetya| Poses seas MAL Wane ar elle Sele eta 128.0 140.0
Dias a suestansatin ie Gants 6 Ode hens Reena sAntonel] aus Beh OSL AS SS MES 135.5 148.5

224 TABLES

TABLE 8.—HEMLOCK IN BOARD FEET
From Report N. H. Forest Commission for 1906-7

TotaL HeIcHT oF TREE (FEET)
Diameter,
Breast-high.
30 40 50 60 70
Inches.
ele ethers hie eee ae 5
Dog h wise enmity 8S 10 20 30 42
Caster ger eure 17 28 39 50
Oeissainmnee: 26 36 49 60
MONS 4 Suing} : 36 46 59 71 86
TMi Saareadn Aestiahet 47 58 72 86 103
| rer 60 72 86 103 123
MG iich sta Dohmaare a walt Maton aleand 88 104 124 148
TAL mse o: a aesn-daeg. > | ayes 107 125 147 173
Tb tease nebeasiles it Remieae ane ei 126 148 172 204
TOR eset ee 3 Res 148 171 200 240
ee eee 2 penal heaton 107 233 281

TABLES 225

TABLE 9.—BEECH IN PENNSYLVANIA, VOLUMES IN CUBIC FEET
From Bulletin 285, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture

TotaL HEIGHT oF TREE (FEET)
eres : 70 80 90 100 110
VotumE oF Locs INcLUDING BaRK (CuBIC FEET)
Inches.

Sues tsa Ants 8.8 10.1 II.3
Ole sdebscvastne th usseeetin ed 11.4 13.0 14.6
TOe erences 14.3 16.4 18.4 20
Tl gasaeegs e ones 17.7 20.0 23.0 25
Pvcieveere cues 21.0 24.0 28.0 31 34
T3ifeue skeet Koes 20.0 29.0 33.0 37 4o
Tevet caus 30.0 34.0 39.0 43 47
PS cave eee RNs 35.0 40.0 45.0 50 55
MO eS c2e nie Sek caisar webs FESR 46.0 52.0 57 63
FP 6s Vos AR DES Ghul eae eek 52.0 58.0 65 a1
TOSS cca, f shat vavsanoeee: Piatt eaeaeh hoes 58.0 65.0 72 80
LOM aye as henns see eee) sorteane cern ge 64.0 72.0 80 88
20s i dcctste-4 8 reso ae | howaernuoen ess 70.0 79.0 88 96
DE ststireavacecantirtvis UNtee] tds he ances [epee AR 86.0 95 105
DD vise atend wa se cptarieds [ania erene-wit wheter malauioale 92.0 103 113
Pico ee ne cies aceasstht [inihe koa por a earn BURRS 99.0 IIo 122
2A inact dana wegen Aime more. ewes sea aan 106.0 118 130
DS saa re ears c tales ghet [tarcaeatens ee ee ahceans 3 x II3.0 125 138
20s cwaetne spel cemsce ta Allene canon ie mcrae eee 133 146
DT ea Bis gets dp ai thE! “sacneps nities b SAR NER GAS Sine ee LES I4I 155
BOI oso 8 ese 8 eeasehen | dsutscnes asill vsjgied Conan] agua Rad 149 164
DON Says tas Cas fe ous |e MRD | Raed het All eases nthe 157 173
BON lasses lunatic cn siya ich [ e ayetaiasvelee vet aif dbebdeh soetuse nce aweialseee SU 164 181

226 TABLES
TABLE 10.—VOLUME OF CHESTNUT IN CUBIC FEET
From Bulletin 96, U. S. Forest Service
HEIGHT OF TREE (FEET)
Pecan 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
VOLUME

Inches, Cu.ft. | Cu.ft. | Cu.ft. | Cu.ft. | Cu.ft.| Cu.ft. | Cu.ft. | Cu.ft.
TOM serait salGhah de legis 2 ee 10.5 | 12.5 | 14.5 16.6 17.8 19.0
TDi suse ecisees ese ||| exeas 12.8] 15.3 | 17.9 20.7 22:15 24.3
TQecialn seas el este Mate ead 15.4 | 18.4 | 21.5 | 25.0 27.4 | 30.0
Gist sedate ele | ied telat es 18.2 | 21.7} 25.2 29.1 32-1 35-3
Ties eee ate Wo Midas tl ee aa [sae 25.0 | 29.2 | 33.8 37-7 41.3
Dp iipel ps Sao saadele| | Sic Meealiteeg Set Bee esd 28.8 | 33.6] 38.8 43-4 | 48.0
13 ssh Sede: oenea raat: [et tkeetaall adeneeiea |e ga 32.6 | 38.1 44.0 49.5 55.0
Saget ee Bags ot ao eat kee al ng a 36.5 | 42.71) 49.5 56.0 | 63.0
ST Othe ASUA SS sia es ghee easier ad 40.5 | 47-4] 55-5 63.0 | 70.5
RO Aes Seh As8.bctauae [ep lsenercn le Senet aati w 44.3 | 51.4 | 61.5 70.0 79.0
DO) sisi a's aa ace eecnaia eee latnePendel eat NN. 49.0] 58.5] 68.5 78.0 | 88.0
Desc Atevigncn eed < jayig | a numer beWatetealleaertten sl aeela ale 65.0] 75.5 86. 97.0
22avinsastaumien |Pesmdyllemseadel memes eae ane 71.0 | 83.0 | 95.0 | 106.5
Decide Sys otis |aow ae ape ternal eae aA ae § 78.0 | o1.0 | 104.0 | 117.0
Dies ci bo 2 tao. | wists thes tel hate eed sed be a ete 85.5 | 99-5 | 114.0 | 128.0
Ds at nan a gir eeeaeme toh pi [ec crnad ce meat [aa tacts 93-0 | 108.5 | 124.0 | 140.0

TABLES

TABLE 11—VOLUME OF CHESTNUT IN LUMBER

From Bulletin 96, U. S. Forest Service

227

HEIGHT OF TREE (FEET)

Diameter, Breast-high. 50 60 70 80 90
VOLUME IN Boarp FEET
Inches Bd.ft. Bd.ft. Bd. ft. Bd.ft Bd.ft.
Ondauittiviadshuntin caeweraden ganas Io 15 22

TO ies cecew ones Ayes 4 4 hake 26 32 40 48 56
Tiara LAS EO waN Seach a 42 50 58 69 80
D2 iss sopra ace dscsuavd So wana wees Masters 58 68 78 92 107
TS cspecerons seacuandyai aia ac tncae Gus leviedestnkediea 74 87 100 116 133
TA creo Nasiatatescher in that tpiatre eek cuseeeeia tes 92 107 122 141 160
DG hsdvidtiieeasrn ten fta ipgecidin wawamantetd aces IIo 127 147 168 190
TOs sioritcsta cacti e's sence eruae das hE ARS 129 I50 172 196 222
Tp Sen al acng Psu pae gene | eer es 174 200 226 255
TS rowsntecsmntas any cee yeas Mn seal ee 198 227 257 291
Orie see yeh oes Weel ae tas 223 257 292 328
QO ieceroerernedn shee wow esast a abaletsledall ey eae 250 288 327 368
BL et aitichcdiererart's he oie Sed BA A PEA ROR EE 276 318 363 409
DE scarssopariensntnacgs tod Qe din Ala fe puss cimraeel | SoS Oe 305 350 400 451
BB ches auepanehivach dd eto danas Gmaeereneel| Stet 333 385 440 493
BA, aide chdvausutnctetor ata giaysnavh decteaahtentadllta Sha cick 363 420 479 538
Di stri ital aanig enact aides Sid saad atte atge lated Mn uated 396 457 520 583

228 TABLES

TABLE 12—vOLUME OF RED, BLACK, AND SCARLET OAK, IN
CUBIC FEET
Taken from U. S. Forest Service Bulletin 96

HEIGHT oF TREE (FEET)
aia 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
VoLuME

Inches. Cu.ft. | Cu.ft. | Cu.ft. Cu. ft Cu.ft. Cu.ft. | Cu.ft.
Does oat 2 2 gre a 0.3 0.4
BY carts tin ea rets 2nd Mesa gs sas 0.9 1.0
As secre eae ude Ip Ce Buigind 1.5 2.0 2.6
Sine Bcieculacaiacs IIT eh tates 2.4 2.9 3.6
On eetcomenanee ht doxconee Ml teakelaey 4.2 5.0 6.0
Tc totcee ech insstisteteatiter | WAR ESAAAA| sBtnctancase 5-7 6.6 7.6 8.9
Dis aiaed eapanasanees Gonder," Mesase eects Mare a ces V0 8.5 10.2 12.0
OQuGe a ecueimane. [it gacveaky ates 8.7 10.9 13.0 15.2 17-3
DOe snes ao eau. a. Ph Ap aera 4 10.5 £3u0 E57 18.4 21.0
TIS 22 cus teehe: fs eSeAIS Ses ee 13.0 16.0 19.0 22.1 25.2
fee yreiescwtada| are toyleoy: 16.4 | 19.7 22.8 26.2 29.3
TBitesveseachocall aoe teehee ee 21.0 | 24.3 27-7 31.0 34.3
TA Roh Si, ewes) deerme eyeoe Se 25.3 29.0 32.6 360.3 40.0
DG see natead oh2e| oe tek eee eceneucaiae 30.2 | 34.2 38.1 42.0 | 45.8
T Ok secravacidave tsb todo cea tea patie ilesee 36 40.0 | 44.1 48.2 52-4
Tiscetees gid cose ceaiancs tod [tS oo eaacvncst pneaoreeety [Ce daee ten Peet a adloee Ghee 54.6 59.1
H Biss etnies cider: caren acs olnrca en sesers |p tiara dnaeted| ote ay aera se. | eneteadodeng Povedeaeleeats 61.0 66.0
TQ eciosbirlivin alae e sind nual d gree 2 ercacleeaaep alae gece [ered ob alllaa lan geo 68.0 74.0

TABLES

229

TABLE 13.—VOLUME OF RED, BLACK, AND SCARLET OAKS IN
LUMBER

‘Taken from U. S. Forest Service Bulletin 96

HEIGHT oF TREE (FEET)

Diameter, Breast-high 50 60 70 80
VOLUME
Inches. Bd.ft. Bd.ft. Bd. ft Bd.ft.
Oss vio: 1 ed irene anes 14 17 21
TOG so 2b Say ore e's ogee 24 30 38 49
TLid hee Goh creases aeanees 35 45 56 68
2s 2c eek wentphives aoe tee ke oe 48 60 15 89
BS ie 2eSc8 nn GU Asa dees fake 62 a7 04 113
TAs cae task ania Nees as dane tstandeaah 78 96 117 140
STG ais hices vatee eaesasmacariat aancespiastasageants 95 117 I4I 168
TO ies tecee eee eatatincrsei tee acento II4 140 168 198
DF cae dd dw isan ne aaa en ek Bbawese deem edesys 195 229
TO. ene esige Seande wees aeteseeels cna ied Wovens 224 263
TOw 2 fe teat semaine ae eh een wall al ee ll oe went 254 300

230 TABLES

TABLE 14.—VOLUME OF WHITE AND CHESTNUT OAK, IN
CUBIC FEET
From Bulletin 96, U. S. Forest Service

HEIGHT OF TREE (FEET)
Diameter, on si 6 50 66 is 80 Total
Breast-high. 3 4 id Basis.
VoLUME
Inches. Cu.ft. | Cu.ft. | Cu.ft. | Cu.ft. | Cu.ft. | Cu.ft. | Cu.ft. | Trees.
Dis suotstea his aiaieciecse 0.3 0.4 26
Bis ss of a iaba ance toa [baleen 0.9 1.0 55
re eer ee ee 1.5 20 2.6 54
Sora giana tstaaeeliaaet cae 2.4 2.9 3.6 46
Ougandeeriaeduus lysate ws ae 4.2 5:0 | 6.0 38
Ps Lobe eat BASES Ae SERIA REA 5-7 6.6 7.6 8.9 36
Oe sh RG EE EE OS alee HBR awe 74 8.7 | 10.3 | 12.2 Io
Olissaes aay Sas ree okee eal hates 9-3 | 11.1 | 13.5 | 16.0 | 18.9 2
TOs faces auagaltuds moult Ltaitenea fee woe 11.2 | 13.7 | 16.5 | 19.5 | 22.6 3
LE carrer ae te eras Creer! eee mete 13.3 | 16.5 | 19.8 | 23.2 | 26.8 14
2h ah eats acha acne te acetate Mtr coe 15.7 | 19.3 | 23.4 | 27.2 | 31-4 I
Tie cht td eden tide | aside Agee eae 82 | eaeeccas 22.4 | 26.9 | 31.5 | 36.3 2
TA ea terse cua owen a) Sea wad leanne 25.9 | 31-0 | 36.3 | 41.6 I
BS caanars wanireein| hence sae es fagatieen aaron an 35-5 | 41.7 | 48.1
IOs tdaaseigass piaeelen Joffe 40.5 | 47.5 | 55.0
Total ccs enalevtics tll see ces Ascael eins eee ese eases aan 293

Volumes include stem and topwood, with bark, up to a mini-
mum diameter of 2 inches. Average stump heights vary from
6 inches for small trees to 21 inches for large ones.

TABLES 231

TABLE 15.—WHITE OAK

VoLuME IN Boarp FEET BY THE DovyLE-ScRIBNER RULE, SOUTHERN APPA-
LACHIAN REGION

From the Woodman’s Handbook

HEIGHT oF TREE (FEET)
Been 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
VoLuME (BoarD FEET)
Inches

TAG 2k cece aay its 55 70 go 115
TES, ccaeh Seansendee eka 80 95 115 140
BO de sruthoOnceiue ests 100 115 140 165 195
IG ick Acapeagotoeuaninics 125 140 165 195 225
1S bay eateries 150 165 190 225 260
TOS nasa merges 175 190 220 255 295
20s Gh eeeheeeees 200 215 250 285 335 400
OTe skies od a acu: 225 245 280 320 375 450
QO cop hae cedictes 250 275 310 355 415 495
DB erect ae annesees |} 280 305 340 390 455 545
BAS iecsiinr ie Gis acd 305 335 375 425 500 595
IDG ioe act ts Gumestagets 335 305 410 465 545 645
BO ites isis tosh este Beto] hte ett 400 445 505 590 695 865
Ds ter oie co peagunin oe mena ae 435 480 545 635 750 920
DB in arde mincsity aorssern ease hee ORIEN 470 520 585 685 805 980

232 TABLES

TABLE 16—SUGAR MAPLE IN PENNSYLVANIA, VOLUMES IN
CUBIC FEET
From Bulletin 285, U. S. Department of Agriculture

TotaL HEIGHT oF TREE (FEET)
Beene 70 80 90 100 IIo
VoLuME oF Locs INcLUDING BARK (CuBIC FEET)
Inches.

TOM sica pea taytwslunkae 13.6 15.6 17.5 19.5

leit ewmeamceaae eee 16.7 19.1 21.0 24.0
TiQacnniengeunagiriten potent ae 20.0 23.0 26.0 29..0 32
Tiss sedate: a aawer 24.0 27.0 31.0 34.0 37
Thnetiw dae eee 28.0 32-0 36.0 40.0 44
UGica eee n baie Rie 32.0 37-0 42.0 46.0 51
TOs sce Paante and ead secdleeaweeasene 43.0 48.0 53.0 59
Tie ated cade a cuioaseas Gah lees 49.0 55-0 61.0 67
TOinclige > Dorsal Gee Bell) eeeeae 55-0 62.0 69.0 76
LO seat cess co titinctute Make sao IO sees aee 62.0 70.0 78.0 85
ZO syiteSuieantslin a Sabet toa ensue RUS Ane ORE: 69.0 78.0 87.0 95
BU aia Weise uted tdi eel) amv R Gn aekie|| abdeumaatale 89.0 96.0 106
DBE! & Ba eiccies Wiea nats i ristntonseled| ee ata Ai tas tal ic eae 4 96.0 106.0 117
BBE sith tekaanenbsasiate dig! | Sagsetatsan sat |iaxaemantenbeaa 104.0 116.0 128
DA od aiecs cea ee Rides Seas | oe erngreese rl a cepa > 113.0 126.0 139
25 tiie ahead ncing. |e one has haw es 122.0 136.0 149
ZO resis cians Breaths [las ea SeG.4 wh. & hamctiniabe ays ioe ssieane 145.0 160
Qin unin Bence datese | s"suvuvacis | Baa eetes| Blakes a 155.0 171
DB erga a ca ewemretunires | aiid exes alls ahomoel| 2 ew eere oA 164.0 181

TABLE 17.—SECOND GROWTH SUGAR MAPLE, VOLUMES IN
BOARD FEET
From Bulletin 176, Vermont Agri. Exp. Station

Diameter, Breast-high. 50 60 70 80
Inches. Bd.ft. Bd.ft. Bd.ft. Bd.ft.
Poh be SG Se AAS EEA een EE AEE 18 18 18 36
Biecanschnshey os Beo cash ibatilasae Gh apoReewsudiees 24 36 42 42
O Saleniididace da hehbt tutte OavNt gacuitcds 42 50 62 74
RO ntarast i ni teteshyacd baksteetiyeagntniedbaeentateneel Rad, cssinihadnees 68 74 82
DT xsicyniehis. fv siiece eas rake Meelie sh endioe] Boe aperionsearte go go 96
DO fiestas gaged waonala ee aw aatlatll ge ocr pale 100 126 126
PZeed vos hse P APEC Rhee TAS eS 118 144 160
Tf cals eee teas a3 BG haa Gla ses cate leeenee nd 180 186

TABLES 233

TABLE 18.—SECOND GROWTH YELLOW POPLAR
VoLUME IN BoarD FEET BY THE SCRIBNER RULE, Farmrax County, VA.
From Woodman’s Handbook, U. S. Forest Service.

HEIGHT OF TREE (FEET)

Bee. 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
VoLtuME (Boarp FEET)
inches.

Mi daeneotg rice evans 2 7 I2 16

Bis eksaska sae 8G 5 II 17 23 29

Qianindioonieese sae 9 ca 25 32 AI 48
TOs vicarage gad 15 25 35 45 56 67 78
Bothy cuanamnunin ste are 22 36 48 61 714 88 100
TO oy caspase ei ee 32 50 65 80 04 110 123
DBo ails uscied wa tnlmn unte 66 84 IOI 117 134 148
Ido g easier ula ee hed nei 106 124 142 160 177
US isa seer tis Pee ess leeds 129 150 172 Igt 212
(Ok se ndtacieces I Sees eters Meee se 179 202 225 250
EP sade ale ecagnasvnss eel onside andes |Sasaerers sal ago Roe 210 236 264 288
TO) conan d qpedutateed| Pause Salta have Uaw de Sulina saes 274 304 328
MQ a gsd cscs wh tidoeasionay Ioauetinier dca lel auibussts ucivas| ietanend AISo| huss Se 318 346 374
BOS s AS icettencataial eyeuebacdl oad heastens ce eoalie nest ehe allie wrtet tore aptacnaa ae 395 428

BOOKS ON FORESTRY

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IDENTIFICATION OF THE ECONOMIC WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES—

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MANUAL OF THE TREES OF NORTH AMERICA exclusive of Mexico—Charles

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HANDBOOK OF THE TREES OF THE NORTHERN U. S. AND CANADA, EAST

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Charles: Henry: Sm We sc... wisiseesene encore seceve rand Syevecdseiterd sale Wh doce Baw ble Cisiavele exe aaah 3.60
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THE LONGLEAF PINE IN VIRGIN FOREST—G. Frederick Schwartz.......... 75
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THE PRINCIPLES OF HANDLING WOODLANDS—Henry Solon Graves....... 1.50
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MANUAL FOR NORTHERN WOODSMEN—Austin Cary ......... SAN ay Ble ah es 2.12
BARM. FORESTRY —Altred AkGrmaG v0.6 concwad eve waw signees dae ubad ¥oyod ad voce a 67
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THE PRESERVATION OF STRUCTURAL TIMBER—Howard F. Weiss......... 3.00
THE PRACTICAL LUMBERMAN—By Bernard Brereton (third edition)........... 1.50
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SPECIES

COMMON

Ash, 15, 22, 45, 47, 98, 145, 199
green, 60, 86
white, 62, 94

Aspen, 26

Basswood, 98
Becch, 17, 23, 26, 97, IOI, 120, 152,
198

Birch, 11, 44, 47, 152, 192, 194
gray, 22
river, 46
yellow, 22

Blue beech, 112

Box elder, 85, 199

Butternut, 44, 45

Catalpa, 15, 28, 47, 60, 98
hardy, 88
Cedar, 22, 198
red, 62, 78, 192
Cherry, black, 15, 45, 82, 145
Chestnut, 15, 22, 23, 33, 44, 62, 85,
98, 101, 120, 154, 198
Coffeetree, 62, 80
Conifers, 14
Cottonwood, 15, 22, 60, 62, 81, 98
189, 192
Cypress, bald, 14

Dogwood, 26
Douglas fir, 61

235

INDEX

NAMES

Elm, 13, 15, 44, 46, 62, 198
white, 79
Evergreens, 14, 47, 51

Fir, 50 189

Hackberry, 87
Hardwoods, 13, 14, 23
Hemlock, 22, 26, 189
Hickory 11, 22, 44, 98, 120, 154
pignut, 93
shagbark, 92
Holly, 14

Ironwood, 112

Larch, 14
European, 59, do, 61, 62, 78
Locust, 15, 47, 149, 192, 198
black, 60, 62, 83, 97, 98
honey, 13, 89, 91

Mahogany, 192

Maple, 152, 1
hard, 8, 47, 60, 123, 199
red, 46
silver, 46, 60, 94, 101
soft, 199
sugar, 93, 98, 123

Oaks, 11, 15, 16, 17, 22, 44, IOI
burr, 45

236

Oaks, live. 14
red, 45, 60, 62, 91, 154
white, 62, 145, 149, 198
Osage orange, 62, go

Pines, 15, 44, 50, 101, 189
jack, 26, 75
loblolly, 97
pitch, 22, 26, 45, 97
red, 59; 61, 74
Scotch, 45, 60, 61, 75
shortleaf, 97
western yellow, 61
white, 45, 59, 60, 61, 73

Poplars, 46, 49, 97, 192, 199
yellow, 62, 145, 194

Redwood, 25, 97, 192

SPECIES INDEX

Russian mulberry, 91

Spruce, 11, 13, 26, 50, 111
Norway, 60, 61, 77
white, 61, 76

Sycamore, 17, 192, 199

Tulip poplar, 15, 22, 26, 47, 96, Tol,
145, 194

Walnut, 11, 44, 45, 101, 120, 198
black, 28, 60, 84, 145, 192
butternut, 120

White pine, 40, 59, 69, 61, 73

Wild pulm, 23, 97

Willow, 15, 22, 23, 46, 49; 98, 145, 192
white, 95

Yellow poplar, 96, 145, 194

GENERAL INDEX

Abandoned lands, 2
Absorption, 13, 20
Adventitious buds, 15
Age of a tree, 17

to cut, 140
Agriculture and forestry, 3
Annual cut of woodlot, 138
Annual growth, 138
Annual income, 139
Annual rings, 18, 19, 40, 154
Annual yield, 140
Appendix, 207
Area of circles, 220
Area of woodlot, 209

by compass, 211

Bark, 17°
Basket willow, 120
Bast, 17
Board foot, 169, 209
Board measure, 169, 172
Bole, 12
region of, 30
Broadcast sowing, 43
Browntail moth, 128
Buds, 14
adventitious, 15
dormant, 15
Bulletins, list of, 217

Cambium layer, 17
Canopy, 29

Carbon bisulphide, 129

Care of trees in cutting, 157
Central Hardwood Region, 65
Christmas trees, 71

Circulars, list of, 218
Circulation, 21

Cleanings, 105, 115

Climate, 9, 56

Clinometer, 178

€ollection of seed, 46

| Golor of wood, 196

Contract for selling, 158, 169
Coppice, 34, 154
compound, 99
method of, 97
Contents of trees, 209
Cord, 139, 150
Cord measure, 170
Cord wood, 150, 209

Cost of harvesting the woodlot, 160

Cost of logging, 151
Cost of manufacture, 161
Creosoting, 149, 198
brush method, 201
dipping, 202
open tank, 202
Crossties, 148
Crown, 12, 29, 36, 37, 40, 108
Cubic contents, 175
Cubic foot, 171
Cubic measure, 171

Cultivation of forest plantation, 104
237

238

Cuttings, 49, 120
clear-cutting, 99

Damage suits, 141
Damage to woodlot by owner, 135
Damping off, 50
Diameters of trees, 177
Digestion, 21
Distillation of wood, 152
Durability, 192
of fence posts, 198

Elasticity, 195
Erosion, planting to prevent, 71
Estimating timber, 180, 209
cordwood, 186
for large woodlot, 184
for small woodlot, 182

Farmers’ bulletins, list of, 218
Farm forestry practicums, 207
Factors of site, 24
Fence posts, 5, 7, 60, 62, 89, 149,
154, 198
charring of, 200
trees to plant for, 62
Fire, 130
protection from, 132
Firewood, 146, 170
Flexibility of wood, 195
Forest capital, 138
Forests defined, 29
high forests, 34
Forest floor, 31
Fruit, 15
Fuel value of woods, 196
Fuel wood, 7, 61, 89, 92, 94, 107
Fungi, 41, 50, 61, 126, 130, 200

Game preserves, 8
Grazing, 117, 134
injury by, 127

GENERATJ, INDEX

Great Plains, 42
Ground cover, 31
Growth, annual, 138
height, 19, 40
in diameter, 40
period of, 37
rapidity of, 107
Gullied lands, planting of, 71
Gypsy moth, 128

Hardness of wood, 199

Hardwoods, time of planting, 51
woodlots, 42

Harvesting the woodlot, 153

Heartwood, 17

Heights of trees, 177, 209

Holt, 122

Humus, 31

Hypsometer, 177

Insects, 41, 61, 128

Lake States, 60, 76
region, 65
Leaves, 12, 13
Life processes of trees, 20
Light, 26
Location of woodlot, 6
Log rules, Doyle, 173, 219
Doyle-Scribner, 174
International, 174
Scribner, 173, 219
Logging costs, 165, 167
Lumber, 145
grades of, 146
seasoning of, 147
trees to plant for, 61
Lumbering, 160

Maple sugar, 93
management of sugar bush, 120

GENERAL INDEX

Mine timber, 160
Moisture, 27

Natural factors influencing life of
trees, 24

New England, z, 60, 76

Nursery practice, 45, 48, 49

Odor of wood, 197
Owner of weodlot, damage by, 135

Pith rays, 17
Plantations, 58
mixed, 58
Planting, 45, 48
cost of, 55
how to plant, 53
spacing for, 52, 53
time of, 51
Poles, 147
converter, 147
Portable sawmill, 159
Practicum or laboratory exercises,
207
Prairies, 42, 60, 65, 76
Preservative treatment, 62
Products of the woodlot, 145
estimating, 180, 184, 210
Protection, erosion, 8
fire, 132
storms, 41
water supply, 48
Pruning, artificial, 106
nafural, 39
Pulpwood, 170

Relation of Farm Forestry to General
Forestry, 2
Rejuvenating worn out lands, 8
Reproduction, 210
advance, 102
artificial, 42

Reproduction by sprouts, 23
by suckers, 23 :
natural, 42
vegetative method of, 23
Respiration, 13, 20
Rodents, 47
Root development, region of, 32
Root systems, 11, 13, 32
Roots, 10
Rotation, 140, 154

Sample plots, 210
Sap, 12
season for maple sap, 124
Sapwood, 17
Sawlogs, 145
Sawmill (portable), 159, 210
Scaling logs, 147
Second growth, 34
Seed, 15, 23, 26, 42, 44
collection of, 46
freezing of, 47
production of, 22, 40
selection of, 46
storing of, 44, 47, 48
stratifying of, 47
time of ripening, 46
vitality of, 47
years, 12
Seed tree method, ror
Seeding, 43, 44
in strips, 44
Seedlings, 26, 31, 45, 50
evergreen, 50
mixture, 60
planting direct, 45
Seed spots, 44
Selection system, 117
Shelter belts, 7, 68
Shelterwood system, 102
Site, factors of, 24

239

240 GENERAL INDEX

Soil, cultivation of, 104
depth of, in planting, 49
fertile, 5
mineral, 43
moisture, 26
preparation of, 43, 51
Sprouts, 15, 23, 42
caring for sprout woodlot, 114
method of management, 97
sprout forest, 34
Spruce region, 62
Squirrels, 23, 46
Stem of tree, 12
Storms, 135
Strength of wood, 193
Strip system, 199
Structure of wood, 16, 188
Stumpage value of timber, 164
Suckers, 23

Tanning, 152
Taste of wood, 197
Taxes, 7, 141
Tending Nursery, 49
Thinnings, 105, 107
frequency of, 109
subsequent thinnings, 108
to improve character of woodlot,
IIo
Ties, cost of production, 161
Tolerance, 26
Toughness of wood, 196
Transpiration, 13, 20
Transplants, 59
Treating posts, 62
Tree, classification of, 15
codominate, 38
dead, 112
defective, 111
diseased, 111
dominant, 30, 38, 108

Tree, intermediate, 30, 38
large, limby, 111
life history, 36
misshapen, III
nursery, 46
reproduce, 22, 23
spacing of, 52
stag headed, 111
suppressed, 30, 38
tropical, 19
weed, 112
Tree diseases, 126
Trunk, 12
United States Forest Service, 186
bulletins, 217
circulars, 218
Undergrowth, 30
Use of trees native to a region, 57
Use of foreign trees, 58

Value of farm woodlot, 4, 5
esthetic value, 9
Volume of a tree, 175
Volume table, 177
beech in cubic feet, 225
chestnut in board feet, 227
chestnut in cubic feet, 226
hemlock in board feet, 224
red, black, and scarlet oak, board
feet, 229
cubic feet, 228
red or Norway pine, board feet, 222
second growth yellow poplar, $33
spruce, board feet, 222
cubic feet, 223
sugar maple in board feet, 232
sugar maple in cubic feet, 232
white and chestnut oak, cubic feet,
230
white oak, board feet, 231
white pine, board feet, 221

GENERAL INDEX 241

Weight of wood, 180 Woodlot, 1, 2, 5, 6, 26, 33, 34, 210
Wild stock, 51, 590 care of, 144, 115, 116
seedlings, wild, 51 esthetic value, 9
Windbreak, 7, 68 ideal form, 35
influence of, 69 size of, 139
species for, 69 - worn out, 119
Wood, spring, 18 White pine weevil, 61, 74
summer, 18 blister rust, 61, 74
Wood decay, 199 region, 62

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