Plants poisonous to live stock

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CAMBRIDGE AGRICULTURAL MONOGRAPHS

PLANTS POISONOUS TO
LIVE STOCK

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
C. F. CLAY, Mawacer
Honvon: FETTER LANE, E.C.
€vinburgh: 100 PRINCES STREET

London: H. K. LEWIS AND CO. Lrv., 136, GOWER STREET, W.C.
Bonton: WILLIAM WESLEY AND SON, 28, ESSEX STREET, STRAND
fhe Bork: G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS :
Bombay, Calcutta and fAabtas: MACMILLAN AND CO., Lrp.
Torents: J. M. DENT AND SONS, Lr.
Tokpo: THE MARUZEN-KABUSHIKI-KAISHA

All: rights reserved

a Reddish-brown to reddish-purple “‘Java’’ Beans (Phaseolus lunatus); 6 ‘“‘Red Rangoon”
Beans (P. lunatus); c¢ ‘Large White’ Beans (P. lunatus); d Castor Oil Beans
(Ricinus communis); e “Indian Peas” (Lathyrus sativus), from Bombay; f Ergot
(Claviceps purpurea), from Spain. All natural size.

PLANTS POISONOUS TO
“LIVE STOCK

BY
pore”

HAROLD C.” LONG, B.Sc. (Edin.)

of the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries
Author of Common Weeds of the Farm and Garden

Cambridge :
at the University Press

1917

ct.

58
617

Ley
{4 !7Ta

326957

PREFACE

M in the case of a previous volume, Common Weeds of the Farm

and Garden, the preparation of this handbook was undertaken
because of the great lack of readily available and reliable information
on the subject in English scientific literature. Many of the facts were
known to a few interested persons, but many others were so scattered
here and there in technical reports and journals that they were scarcely
known even to expert chemists and botanists. The bringing of this
information together in some sort of order has involved considerable
labour extending over several years, but if the volume be found helpful
to those for whose use it has been prepared I shall feel more than
gratified.

That the subject is of importance is fully realised by farmers and
veterinary surgeons alike, for the annual loss of stock due to poisonous
plants, though not ascertainable, is undoubtedly considerable. It was
felt that notes on mechanical injury caused by plants and on the
influence of plants on milk might usefully be included, as in some
degree related to poisoning; this has therefore been done. On the
other hand, a number of cultivated plants (e.g. Rhus, Wistaria) which
are poisonous have not been included because exotic and hardly likely
to be eaten by stock. Fungi generally also find no place in the volume,
as they are sufficiently extensive to deserve a volume to themselves,
and are far less readily identified than flowering plants.

The dividing line between plants which are actually poisonous
and those which are only suspected is far from clear, but a division
was considered desirable for the convenience of the reader, and an
endeavour has been made to give a sound but brief statement as to
the present information on plants poisonous to live stock in the United
Kingdom, with symptoms, toxic principles, and a list of the more
important references to the bibliography in relation to each plant
included in Chapters 1 to vi (the numbers corresponding with the
numbers in the Bibliography).

Regarding symptoms it is to be regretted that in many cases they
appear to be the result of injections of the toxic extracts, and not
observations made after natural poisoning by ingestion of the plants.

vi Preface

- Further, there may frequently be doubt as to the identification of the
plant suspected of causing poisoning; indeed, in some cases it is
possible that the identification rests on the vetermary surgeon or
the stockman thinking a certain plant is the cause. The most
complete and systematic account of European poisonous plants is
that of Cornevin (1887), and references to poisonous plants in the
ordinary literature are heavily indebted to him. In so far as the
toxic principles of the plants are concerned, however, his book is in
many instances no longer reliable.

The chemical formulae, quoted for the use of students and research
workers, have been checked by consulting works by the following
authors, the reference to the bibliography being given in brackets:
Henry (128), Dunstan (76), Allen (4), Haas and Hill (114), Thorpe (240),
Van Rijn (252), Kobert (161), Esser (81), and Beilstein (16).

Apart from the literature consulted I desire to acknowledge my
great indebtedness to the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries for kind
permission to make use of official records; to Mr F. W. Garnett,
M.R.C.V.S., for kindly reading the proofs from the veterinary stand-
point; to very many Experiment Stations, State Departments of
Agriculture, and other authorities in Australasia, America and the
Continent of Europe, for assistance given and literature sent; to
Sir David Prain and members of the staff at Kew for much friendly
advice, and aid in consulting the Kew library; to Sir James Dobbie
for permission to spend some time at the Government Laboratories
to consult certain volumes; to Mr T. H. Middleton, C.B., Dr E. J.
Russell, Professor W. Somerville, Sir Stewart Stockman, Professor
T. B. Wood, and others, for information and many helpful suggestions;
to my friend Mr W. A. Whatmough, B.Sc. (Lond.), for many sugges-
tions and kindly reading the proofs; and to my colleague Mr W. R.
Black for invaluable help in preparing notes, checking data and reading
proofs. To all these, and many others who are not mentioned by
name, I tender my sincere thanks.

For any shortcomings I crave the indulgence of my readers, only
requesting that they be friendly enough to Spare a moment to call
my attention thereto.

H. C. LONG.

SURBITON,

October, 1916.

CHAP.

IL

Il.

III.

VII.

CONTENTS

IntRoDUCTION ‘ ; P P :

What is a Poisonous Plant? Harm done by Poisonous
Plants. Circumstances in which Poisoning occurs. Effect of
Soil, Climate and Cultivation on the Toxic Properties of Plants.
Variation in the Poisonous Parts of Plants. Eradication of
Poisonous Plants. Treatment of Poisoned Animals. Tests
with Suspected Plants. Legal Aspect of Plant Poisoning. The
Toxic Principles of Plants.

RaNuUNCULACES. PapavERACEH. CRUCIFERS. CARYOPHYLLACEZ.
HYPERICINEE. GERANIACEE

CELASTRACEZ. RuaamNnacke@. Papmionacr#@. Rosaceae. Cv-
CURBITACEZ. UMBELLIFERZ

ARALIACE®. CAPRIFOLIACER. Composirm. Ericacrm. Primv-
LACEH. OLEACESH. CONVOLVULACEH. SoLANACEZ

ScROPHULARINEZ. PonyGonacr#. THYMELACEZ. EUPHOR-
BIACERH. AMENTACES. CONIFERH. AROIDED

Diosconmpes. Luisacem. Gramine&. EQuisetacem. Friuiczs,
Funet

PLANTS SUSPECTED OF BEING POISONOUS

Tue Errects oF PLants oN Mink. PLANTS WHICH CAUSE MEcHant-
caL INJURY

CLASSIFICATION OF PoTsONS

BIBLIOGRAPHY .

InpDEx

Photograph of three varieties of Phaseolus beans, of Castor

PAGE

103

106
114

Oil Beans, Indian Peas, and Ergot : - 5 . Frontispiece

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION.

What is a Poisonous Plant? As will be shown later, so-called
“poisonous” plants differ widely in “degree of harmfulness,” and it is
highly probable that under ordinary conditions many of the plants
commonly reputed to be poisonous are really almost or quite harmless.
It is possible, however, that a plant usually unsuspected may on
occasion prove noxious—for example, Nepeta Glechoma (p. 96), in-
cluded as suspected of poisoning horses. For these reasons, no line of
demarcation can be drawn to separate actually poisonous plants from
those which are suspected or are almost certainly quite harmless; and
a large number of species is included in Chapter vii as suspected, many
of them, however, being almost certainly more or less poisonous in
certain circumstances. In many cases it is practically impossible to come
to any conclusion as to the degree of toxicity of a plant, owing to the
want of exact information. Many plants are quite harmless except
when affected by fungi, moulds, etc.

A really poisonous plant may be defined as one a small quantity
of which when eaten induces some form of indisposition with irritant,
narcotic, or nervous symptoms, with serious or even fatal consequences
either immediately or by reason of cumulative action of the toxic
property.

Harm done by Poisonous Plants. A perusal of the following
pages will afford convincing proof that the question of the general
“wholesomeness” of wild plants is worthy of serious consideration
by all who are interested in the practice of agriculture. Still more
important is a satisfactory knowledge of the extent to which plants
are actually poisonous—that is, sufficiently injurious when eaten in
small or large quantities to induce more or less severe indisposition,
illness or death, with the consequent losses which such bring in their
train—loss of milk and meat production in the case of cattle, of meat
and wool production in sheep, of power in the horse, of expenditure
in. attendance and veterinary treatment generally, and possibly total
loss by death of the animals concerned.

Ls 1

Q . Introduction [cH.

The losses due to Poisonous Plants in Great Britain happily
afford no comparison whatever with the immense losses sustained in
some other countries, such as the cases of lupine poisoning mentioned
at p. 29, but deaths are sufficiently numerous to make it certain that
financial losses are in the aggregate very heavy. In this connection
it may suffice to refer to the many cases of yew poisoning, the losses
due to Umbellifers (pp. 36-42), and the instance reported in the Stafford-
shire Weekly Sentinel in relation to meadow saffron and water hemlock
(p. 80). Further, it appears to be extremely likely that many losses
due to unascertained causes are really due to plant poisoning. For
this reason veterinary surgeons will be well advised always to consider
this possibility and, if need be, to obtain the services of a trained botanist
to survey the farm or field involved, with the object of deciding whether
poisonous plants are present.

Circumstances in which Poisoning occurs. It may be assumed
that many plants are to a considerable extent protected from
animals by the fact that they have an unpleasant odour, are acrid or
bitter to the taste, or are actually toxic in character, just as others
assume such protective devices as spines. In a state of nature animals
appear to avoid instinctively such plants as are toxic or “unwholesome,”
and to be less readily poisoned than are domesticated animals living
under artificial conditions. Indeed, it has been remarked that farm
stock reared in a locality where certain poisonous plants abound are
much less likely to be injured by these plants than animals imported
from a district where they do not occur.

The individuality of stock is also a factor which may be responsible
for poisoning, some animals having what may be described as a depraved
appetite for unusual and unappetising food plants. It would appear
that animals are often tempted to eat dark-green plants of luxuriant
growth which are soft and succulent. This is especially true when the
plants are young and tender, particularly as regards sheep, which,
however, usually avoid tall, old rank-growing and coarse herbage—
unless absolutely pressed by hunger. Cattle, however, are not so par-
ticular, and will commonly eat large coarse-growing plants.

Sheep have been observed to be particularly variable in their choice
of food plants, not only individually in the flock, but from day to day.
Chesnut and Wilcox remark! that “there seems to be no way of account-
ing for the appetite or taste of stock. This statement is perhaps

+ «The Stock-Poisoning Plants of Montana,” V. K. Chesnut and E. V. Wilcox.
Bul. No. 26, U.S. Dept. Agric., Div. Bot., 1901.

1] Introduction 3

especially true of sheep. We have often observed sheep eating greedily
on one day plants which they could scarcely be persuaded to eat on the
following day on the same range.” In the case of one flock of sheep on a
foothill range at an altitude of 4,600 ft. “a few of the sheep were observed
eating large quantities of wild sunflower (Balsamorhiza sagittata), a few
ate freely of false lupine (Thermopsis rhombifolia), some confined their
attention largely to the wild geranium, while others ate false esparcet
(Astragalus bisulcatus) almost exclusively. Two sheep were seen eating
the leaves of lupine, and about fifty ate a greater or less quantity of
Zygadenus venenosus, while the majority of sheep in the band fed
exclusively upon the native grasses on the range.”

Horses also have been known to acquire in America a depraved
appetite for horsetail and loco-weed.

The different species of live stock are often quite differently affected
by poisonous plants, some being very susceptible to a given plant while
others may be little or not at all susceptible. One species (e.g. the pig)
may readily vomit the poison of a plant which is emetic, while another
(e.g. the horse) may be unable to do so and hence be the more seriously
injured. The variability of the different classes of live stock in this
respect is frequently brought out in Chapters 1 to vi. Poisonous
effects may also vary with the individuality and age of animals of the
same species.

At certain periods of the year—e.g. in early spring, and during dry
summers,—there may be a scarcity of green herbage, and this may
induce animals to eat any green plants which are especially early,
including poisonous ones, which they would otherwise refuse.

In some cases poisonous plants which do not lose their toxic pro-
perties on drying (e.g. meadow saffron) may be included in hay, and
hence find their way to stock in such a form that they may not be dis-
tinguished. It has been found, however, that some poisonous plants
or parts of them are refused by stock when mixed with good herbage
in hay. Care should be exercised that poisonous plants are not included
with hay or green fodder, and in cases of poisoning all forage should be
examined.

Animals may also be poisoned by certain toxic seeds (e.g. corn
cockle) fed to them with cereal grains, in feeding stufis generally, or in
the refuse seeds from the sources mentioned. Here again judgment
is necessary, and it is probably advisable on all counts to burn the
weed seeds and similar refuse from the sources mentioned. Poisonous
seeds imay occur in low quality feeding stuffs, and poisonous seeds of

1—2

4 Introduction [OH.

foreign origin are occasionally sold for food purposes owing to the
mistaken idea that they are a valuable addition to the ration (e.9. the
poisonous “Java” beans). In any case in which an animal is believed
to have been poisoned purchased feeding stufis should always be con-
sidered as a possible source of injury and be submitted to examination.

Clippings and trimmings from gardens and shrubberies have proved
a more or less common cause of live stock poisoning, such material
being too often carelessly thrown out for animals to pick over. In
such circumstances it may quite easily happen that the animals get
yew, daphne, privet, thododendron, azalea, solanums, and other
plants of a poisonous character. For this reason it is better to destroy
such trimmings, etc., by burning them, or by adding them to the com-
post heap as the case may be.

A further source of poisoning must be noted here—fleshy and para-
sitic fungi (toadstools, rust fungi), moulds and similar organisms.
Many toadstools are directly poisonous when eaten, but the microscopic
organisms are probably in themselves harmless, though taken with food
which they are responsible for injuring (bad hay, cakes, etc.), the
poisoning being due to the changed and damaged feeding stufis, or
possibly to poisonous principles directly elaborated by the micro-
scopic fungi. Fungi and related organisms cannot be dealt with in
this volume, but it may at least be said that the use of mouldy hay
and similarly affected feeding stuffs is attended with some danger,
which is not yet very clearly defined.

Effect of Soil, Climate and Cultivation on the Toxic Properties of
Plants. In general, wild poisonous plants are richer in either alkaloids
or glucosides than the same species when cultivated, though there are
exceptions. In many cases it is found that plants vary considerably
in toxicity, or the percentage content of the poisonous principle, accord-
ing to soil, light, moisture, etc. Solanaceous plants in particular vary
in this way, and one or two instances may be given as examples.
Solanum nigrum varies so much that it has been regarded as harmless
im one country and quite poisonous in another (p. 52).

Experiments conducted at the Arlington Experimental Farm,
Virginia, showed that in 24 first-year plants of Atropa Belladonna
grown in 1910 the alkaloid contents of the leaves varied from 0-334 to
0-700 per cent., and averaged 0-547 per cent. In 1911 the alkaloid
contents (usually the average of five pickings) of the leaves of 59 plants
varied from 0-306 to 0-766 per cent., and averaged 0-532 per cent. In
1912 the alkaloid contents (commonly the average of 5 pickings) ‘of the

~

1] Introduction 5

leaves of 57 plants varied from 0-352 to 0-768 per cent., and averaged
0-545 per cent. In individual plants at a single picking the highest
alkaloid content in 1911 was 0-925 and the lowest 0-200, and in 1912
the highest was 0-882 and the lowest 0-292. (Jour. Agric. Res., 1. 2,
Nov., 1913.)

The variation in the percentage of poisonous principle was well
shown in several papers read at the International Congress of Applied
Chemistry held at Washington and New York in 1912 (see Chemist and
Druggist reports). For example, Carr stated that at the Wellcome
Materia Medica Farm, Dartford, Kent, the effect of manuring on medi-
cinal plants has been tested for some years, and the effect of the more
common fertilisers on Atropa Belladonna was shown by the following
table :— -

Percentage of Alkaloid

in Dry Stem and Leaf
1906 | 1907 | 1910 | 1911 | 1912
Fertiliser Time of Possess 3rd | 4th Ist | 2nd | 3rd
Application year’s | year’s | year’s | year’s | year’s
plants | plants | plants | plants | plants
Main crop o%e —_ _ 0-54 | 0-34 | 0-61 | 0-59 | 0-68
Farmyard manure March 50 loads | 0:54 | 0-34 | 0-61 | 0-53 | 0-71
Nitrate .-|March & April | 2 cwt. 0-52 | 0:23 | 0-54 | 0-46 | 0-64
Calcium cyanamide Do. 1 cwt. — — | 0-69 | 0-49 | 0-75
Basic’slag we Do. 2 cwt. 0-61 | — | 0-65 | 0:56 | 0-84
Superphosphate Do. 5 owt. 0-46} — | 0-81 | 0-49 | 0-76
Potash me Do. 5 ewt. 0-61 | 0:40 | 0-75 | 0-53 | 0-69

In considering these results it must be remembered that the soil
is naturally suited to the plant, and the percentage of alkaloid obtained
without added fertilisers is already high. The low figures obtained
in 1907 were probably due to the seasonal conditions. Atmospheric
conditions have a modifying influence.

It was also shown that the Belladonna root of commerce varies
greatly in alkaloid strength. “In a number of analyses made of com-
mercial roots, variations from 0-27 to 0-69 per cent. have occurred.
The average of twenty-one analyses of German and Austrian commercial
roots was 0-40 per cent. Other observers have recorded similar results.
Chevalier (Compt. Rend., 1910, 150, 344) gives the following figures for
Continental roots: French, 0-300 to 0-450 per cent; Austrian, 0-251 to
0-372 per cent.; Italian, 0-107 to 0-187 per cent. Henderson has

6 Introduction (CH.

shown the average of thirty samples of foreign root to be 0-3 per cent.
It is interesting to observe that the average of nine samples of root
grown at Darenth is 0-54 per cent. In order to determine whether
this variation was due to collecting at different times of the year, roots
from the same plot, derived from second year’s plants, which were sown
at the same time, were dug up at intervals and dried. The following is

a record of the analysis of these samples :—

March, 1911 = ea .. 0°56 per cent.
May, 1911 .. a ae 2g “PED a5
June, 1911 .. we a .. O53 4, »
August, 1911 ss a .- O50 4, >»
December, 1911 .. a ine 0-59 4, 2

«“ The amount of variation throughout the year is thus seen to be very
small.”

Dunstan (Bul. Imp. Inst., 1905) has shown that Hyoscyamus muticus
grown in India yielded 0-3 to 0-4 per cent. of hyoscyamine, but that
the same species grown in Egypt produced 0°6 to 1-2 per cent.

According to Esser no coniine is found in Convum maculatum growing
in the far north. The same authority says that the root of Hyoscyamus
niger is quite free from toxic properties in winter.

Variation in the Poisonous Parts of Plants. As will be shown
in succeeding chapters, many plants (e.g. meadow saffron) are poisonous
in all their parts, though the amount of the toxic substance may differ
according as to whether the seeds, leaves, stem or roots are severally
considered. In other cases one part of the plant alone is toxic (e.g. the
seeds, as in corn cockle). Further, some species vary in the percentage
of the toxic substance in the leaves before and after flowering.
Frequently the root is the most toxic portion of the plant. This pomt
may be usefully recollected in relation to poisoning of live stock, which
are in general affected by the foliage or ripe seeds.

Eradication of Poisonous Plants. Wherever poisonous plants are
found, particularly in quantity, where they are liable to be eaten by
live stock, an attempt should be made to eradicate them. They may
be simply dealt with as weeds as may be necessary according to the
species concerned. When any difficulty is experienced in regard either
to determination of the species or to methods of eradication the advice
of the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries (Whitehall Place, London,
S.W.) should be requested. Stock should at once be removed from
a suspected pasture, which should be immediately and thoroughly

1] Introduction 7

examined by a competent botanist. Harmful plants should be eradi-
cated and their place filled by better herbage.

Treatment of Poisoned Animals. This volume makes no pretensions
to deal with the veterinary treatment of cases of plant poisoning.
Whenever poisoning is suspected the services of a veterinary surgeon
should be sought without delay; the text books at his disposal will aid
him in the treatment of any case which presents unusual difficulties.
The symptoms indicated in the following pages, together with the
possible discovery of a suspected plant, may be utilised in diagnosis.

Tests with Suspected Plants. The action of plants on animals
may be ascertained (1) by observing the effects in cases in which it has
been established that the plants have been eaten, or (2) by direct experi-
mental feeding of animals with the plant. In the first case the results
may be accurate and satisfactory if observations have been made
from the outset.

As regards (2) the results may or may not be satisfactory according
as the plan pursued is sound or otherwise. For example, it cannot be
considered altogether reasonable and satisfactory to extract the prin-
ciples. present in the plant, inject them into the blood stream, and con-
clude from any ill effects that the animal may exhibit that the plant is
poisonous, since the substance extracted may be poisonous under such
conditions but little or not at all harmful when the plant is eaten in the
small quantities commonly taken by animals. Again, it cannot be
held satisfactory to feed an animal on a heavy and exclusive diet of the
suspected plant for a considerable period. The real test would, in
general, consist in a feeding trial in which the suspected plant occupied
a place in the ration in reasonable quantity—such a quantity as might
well be taken in natural circumstances, in view of its relative abundance
in regard to other food available; and if considered likely that the plant
would be eaten daily it may be fed regularly for some days. Should
such a test prove negative it may generally be held that the plant is not
poisonous, or only so in exceptional circumstances.

Legal Aspect of Plant Poisoning. There is clearly some legal
liability in regard to poisonous plants which may, by hanging over a
boundary, cause injury to a neighbour’s stock. The only cases known
to the author are in relation to the yew. In the case of Crowhurst v.
Amersham Burial Board (48 L. J., Ex. 109; 4 Ex. D., 5) a Burial
Board was held liable for the loss of a horse poisoned by eating leaves
of a yew tree planted in the cemetery owned by the Board, the tree
having grown through and over their fence and projected on to the

8 Introduction [cH. I

meadow occupied by the plaintiff. In Ponting v. Noakes (63 L. J. B.
549; (1894) 2 Q.B., 281) the defendant was not held liable for the death
of a horse which ate off the branches of a yew tree, because the tree did
not extend up to or over the plaintifi’s boundary, though it overhung
a ditch, the edge of which was the boundary, and was hence accessible
to the plaintiff's stock. ;

The Toxic Principles of Plants. The poisonous substances in
plants may be grouped either (1) according to their physiological effects
on certain organs; (2) according to the principal outward and perceptible
symptoms caused; or (3) in accordance with their chemical relationships.

In regard to (1) the poisons may be nerve, heart, blood-poisons, etc.
(2) The poisons may be acrid, narcotic, or both. Acrid poisons are those
which cause irritation or inflammation of the digestive tract (Euphorbia,
Ranunculus, Daphne, etc.); narcotic poisons affect only or chiefly the
brain (Agrostemma, Papaver, Atropa) or chiefly the spinal cord (Clavt-
ceps purpurea, Lolium temulentum); acrid-narcotic poisons induce to
a greater or less extent the symptoms of both the foregoing groups
(Taxus, Colchicum, Cicuta, Solanum, etc.).

(3) As the accounts of the individual plants will show, the toxic
principles of many plants are not yet well understood, either as regards
chemical constitution or symptoms caused. Many poisons may be driven
off by heat (boiling, drying), and some plants may thus be rendered
harmless.

Most of the toxic principles of our native poisonous plants are
Alkaloids or Glucosides. The former all contain nitrogen, differ con-
siderably in molecular constitution, and are usually combined with
widely distributed organic acids. In the pure state they are colourless
and usually stable, crystalline or amorphous solids, or readily volatile
liquids; they usually have a burning taste. In general the same base is
confined to species of the same order—e.g. Solanine to the Solanacee.
The alkaloids include the most powerful poisons.

The term “Glucoside” indicates a group of substances which by
the action of an acid or enzyme are split up into a sugar (grape sugar,
galactose or rhamnose) and other substances (alcohol, aldehydes, acids).
They have a bitter taste and are generally readily soluble in water.
Related to the glucosides are also the Saponins, remarkable for the
fact that they induce an exceedingly frothy condition in water; the
prussic acid yielding compounds or cyanogenetic glucosides (e.g.
Amygdalin and Phaseolunatin) also belong to this' group. Other
substances will be mentioned in the succeeding chapters.

CHAPTER II
RANUNCULACEZ.

Traveller’s Joy (Clematis Vitalba L.). The extent to which
this species is poisonous is not clear, though all parts are stated to be
poisonous, acrid and narcotic, while the juice tends to blister the skin.
It is remarked by Cornevin that it is less poisonous in spring, when the
ass and goat browse on it to a considerable extent without serious
trouble, than later, when it cannot be eaten without danger.

Toxic Principle. Traveller’s Joy appears to contain strongly
poisonous substances which have not been closely investigated.
Greshoff found a Saponin in the leaves!. The poison is dissipated
by heat.

Symptoms. When eaten in quantity the young shoots are diuretic,
violently purgative, causing dysentery, and in rare cases death.
Applied to the exterior it is irritating and even vesicatory. (Cornevin.)

REFERENCES.
63, 81, 101, 130, 161, 233.

Anemone (Anemone sp.). Both our native species of Anemone
appear to be more or less poisonous in character: the Wood Anemone
or Wind Flower (A. nemorosa L.), and also the Pasque Flower (A.
Pulsatilla L.). These plants, the former of which grows in woods and
damp shady spots in fields, and the latter on chalk downs and lime-
stone pastures, may on occasion be taken by stock in early spring, when
green herbage is not too plentiful, but deaths appear to be rare, even if
they have occurred. All parts of the plants contain a toxic principle,
which is volatile and destroyed by drying.

Toxic Principle. The toxic substance is stated to be Anemone-
camphor (oil of Anemone) which imparts a bitter taste to the plants,

1 Kobert states that various species of Clematis, Ranunculus, Anemone, and also
Caltha palustris and Trollius europaeus, contain Anemonal or Pulsatilla-camphor,
which causes strong local irritation, burning and swelling in the mouth, vomiting,
intestinal inflammation, etc.

10 Ranunculacez [cH.

and itself gives rise in the plant to Anemonic acid and Anemonin
(C,>H,0,), @ very poisonous, narcotic substance, stated to be neither
a glucoside, nor an alkaloid, but a ring ketone with the properties of
an acid anhydride. _

Symptoms.—The symptoms recorded by Cornevin in the poisoning
of animals by the fresh plants are nausea, coughing, vomiting (if pos-
sible), stupefaction, muscular tremors, and violent colic, accompanied
at times by hematuria and always by diarrhwa and dysentery. There
are pronounced respiratory and heart troubles.

Pott confirms the symptoms of hematuria, diarrhea, and inflam-
mation of the stomach and intestines in the case of A. Pulsatilla when
fed in the green condition. According to Esser, the plant poison affects
the spinal cord and the brain, the symptoms being similar to those
produced by Aconitum Napellus.

REFERENCES.
16, 63, 81, 191, 197, 198, 213, 233, 240.

Buttercups (Ranunculus sp.). A number of species of Ranunculus
are acrid, irritant or severely poisonous, as the case may be. There
are variations in the poisonous character according to the season, and
some parts of the plant are more toxic than others. At the time the
young shoots develop in the spring but little of the poisonous principle
is present, and some (eg. R. Ficaria) are not then poisonous, but a
larger quantity of the poisonous principle forms later, and some species
are especially dangerous at the time of flowering, after which the toxicity
decreases with the maturity and state of dryness of the plant. The
flowers are the most poisonous, and then the leaves and stem. It does
not seem to have been demonstrated that the seeds of any species are
dangerous, though Henslow states that the fruits of some species, when
green, appear to be most intensely acrid.

Some species of Ranunculus are especially harmful (R. sceleratus,
R. Flammula, and R. bulbosus), while others are less so (R. lingua, R.
Ficaria, R. acris). The toxic principle is volatile, and buttercups are
easily rendered innocuous by drying or boiling—so much so that when
dried in hay they may be regarded as a nourishing food for stock, and
are readily eaten. Indeed, R. repens is scarcely, if at all, injurious even
when green, though a case of fatal poisoning to sheep said to be due to
this species was reported in the Veterinarian in 1844. Fresh R. aquatilis
is held to be quite harmless, and has been used as a fodder. “Along
the banks of the Hampshire Avon, and other places in the same neigh-

| Ranunculacezx 11

bourhood, it is used by the peasantry as fodder. They collect it in
boats and give it to their cows and horses, allowing the former about
twenty to thirty pounds a day. One man is said to have kept five
cows and a horse, with little other food but what they could pick up on
the heath, using no hay but when the river was frozen. Hogs eat it
and will live upon it alone until put up to fatten.” (Johnson and
Sowerby—Useful Plants of Great Britain.)

R. sceleratus L., or Celery-leaved Buttercup, is probably the most
toxic species, and it is stated that in man a single flower may cause
poisonous symptoms resembling those due to Anemone and Colchicum.
It is considered especially dangerous to cattle, and has caused many
losses: among its French names are Mort aux Vaches, and Herbe sar-
donique. Poor people have been known to eat the young shoots when ,
boiled, heat dispelling the poison.

R. Flammula L., the Lesser Spearwort, has repeatedly proved fatal
to horses and cattle.

R. bulbosus L., the Bulbous Buttercup, is somewhat variable in
toxicity, and is least dangerous after the flowers have dropped their
corolla, and the bulb-like rootstock is most harmful in autumn and
winter. The flowers are the most dangerous part.

R. Ficaria L., Lesser Celandine, varies in toxicity with locality and
season, being most harmful at the flowering period. It is stated that
wood-pigeons eat the roots with avidity, and that the young shoots
have been eaten as a salad in Germany, as they are not toxic. An”
English veterinary surgeon (Flower) recorded that three heifers were
poisoned by it (Vide Cornevin).

R. acris L., Acrid Buttercup or Tall Crowfoot, is a frequent cause of
poisoning in cattle, and Cornevin says it is perhaps the species which
causes the most accidents.

Toxic Principle. The buttercups contain an acrid and bitter juice,
the chemical properties and composition of which are not well known,
but it is believed that the substance is identical with the Anemonin of
the Anemone sp. (q.v.). Beckurts isolated Anemonin and Anemonic
acid from R. acer. Pott, however, states that the poisonous species
contain the two alkaloids Aconitine and Delphinine.

Siuptoms. The buttercups are acrid, burning and narcotic, causing
irritation of the mucous membrane, with inflammation of the intestinal
tract.

Cornevin shows that R. sceleratus induces gastro-enteritis, colic,
diarrhea with excretion of black foul-smelling feces, vomiting when

12 Ranunculacex [ CH.

possible, falling-off in milk yield.in cows, nervous symptoms, reduction
in pulse, and stertorous respiration, dilation of the pupils, enfeebled
condition, difficult mastication, spasmodic movements of the ears,
lips, etc.,—followed in serious cases by convulsions, sinking of the eye
in its socket, possibly stoppage, and death in 6 to 12 hours after con-

vulsions first appeared.
In the horse symptoms substantially similar to the above have been

recorded (Lander).

In cows, Pott records hematuria, and reddish or bitter milk.

Sheep after eating R. repens have been noticed to fall suddenly in the
field; their eyes rolled, and some animals showed dizziness, and died
with the head inclined over the left flank (Lander).

REFERENCES.
47, 63, 81, 112, 130, 140, 145, 170, 203, 204, 205, 213, 233, 235.

Marsh Marigold or King-Cup (Caltha palustris L.). Like the
species of Ranunculus, the Marsh Marigold is to some extent poisonous
in character, and both animals and man have suffered. Cattle have
died from eating it, and Miiller records the poisoning of many horses,
one of which died. In general, animals refuse it, but may possibly eat
it when pressed with hunger in times of scarcity of green herbage.
Cornevin states that it has little or no acrid properties when very young,
but that it is toxic by the time of flowering—acridity increasing with age.

Toxic Principle. The toxic character of the Marsh Marigold has
not been fully investigated, though the presence of an alkaloid has been
determined, and A. B. Smith states that the toxic properties are due
to the alkaloid Jervine (C,,H3,0,N2H,O) and the glucoside Helleborin
(CygH4204). On drying—e.g. in hay—the plant becomes harmless, as in
the case of most species of Ranunculus.

Symptoms. Cornevin records that cattle have died from inflamma-
tion of the digestive tract, and gives the symptoms as those of Ranun-
culus poisoning. There seem to be digestive troubles, diarrhoea, and
loss of milk production, even (according to Rusby) when fed with hay.
In the horse, there is colic, bloating, and inflammation of the bladder,
while the urine is dark red. According to Cornevin, the symptoms are
similar to those produced by Ranunculus sp. Pammel quotes Fried-
berger and Fréhner as stating that the plant causes hematuria. Five
persons who ate it as a herb were “seized with violent sickness and pain

11] Ranunculacez 13

in the abdomen, followed by diarrhcea and general edematous swelling
over the whole body,” but they recovered (Johnson and Sowerby).

REFERENCES.
63, 81, 140, 190, 203, 213, 233.

Hellebores (Helleborus sp.). Two poisonous species of hellebore
may on occasion be taken by live stock, though rarely—Stinking
Hellebore (H. fatidus L.) and Green Hellebore (H: viridis L.). The
much esteemed Christmas Rose (H. niger) is also toxic, but unlikely to
be eaten by stock. In no case should trimmings of these plants from
shrubberies, etc., be thrown to stock—cows have died from eating such
trimmings. The two species first mentioned are equally toxic, all parts
are poisonous, and drying does not render them innocuous. Cornevin
records that animals have been killed by H. fatidus, and says that
92 oz. of the fresh root or 240z. of the dried root are poisonous doses to
the horse, while 120 to 150 grains are fatal to sheep. It was recorded
in 1847 (Veterinarian) by Mayer that a horse was fatally poisoned
through eating five half-pints of the chopped-up leaves of this species
in two days in a bran mash. In regard to this species also Johnson
and Sowerby write: “The Bear’s-Foot has been used as a vermifuge
ever since the days of Hippocrates, notwithstanding its dangerous
qualities. Every part of the plant is a violent cathartic, but far too
uncertain in the degree of its action to be safely administered.”

Toxic Principle. Both species contain the poisonous glucosides
Helleborin (CygH4.0,), a highly narcotic and powerful poison; Helle-
borein (CygH,,0,;); and the alkaloid Jervine (C.g,H3,0,N2H,0).

Symptoms. The Hellebores are cathartic, narcotic, and drastically
purgative. Stupor is followed by death with spasms in the case of
H. viridis (Pammel). In general there is in the horse and ox bloody
purgation, salivation, attempts to vomit, and excessive urination,
according to Lander, who cites Mayer as noting violent straining and
the discharge of frothy mucus, but no effort to vomit, the heart action
resembling that observed in Digitalis poisoning, showing periodic in-
tervals of arrest in systole.

Miiller gives the symptoms in cattle and sheep after eating the leaves
as loss of appetite, nausea, and even vomiting, salivation, grinding of
teeth, wind, colic, bloody diarrhcea, decrepitude, giddiness, loss of
sensation, convulsions, and not seldom death.

Affected cows are stated to give bitter milk which has purgative
effects (Pott).

14 Ranunculacez [CH.

The poisoning of two cows by H. viridis came under the notice of
Cornevin. There was observed loss of appetite, diarrhcea, tenesmus,
violent attempts to evacuate, which after 5 or 6 days resulted only in
the expulsion of glareous blackish matter; to the end the pulse was
slow and intermittent. The heart beats were weak, and after 5 or 6
beats there was a stop equal in duration to at least a beat and a half.
A remarkable fact was the very gradual loss of condition, while the milk
secretion was maintained until the last day. In one case death occurred
after 12 days and in the other after 28 days.

REFERENCES.
63, 81, 130, 140, 170, 190, 203, 205, 213, 233, 254.

Larkspur (Delphinium Ajacis Reich.). In the United States of
America certain species of Larkspur are exceedingly harmful to live
stock, and it has been said that “with the exception of the Loco weeds
there is probably no poisonous plant on the cattle ranges of the West
that has caused such heavy losses to stockmen as has larkspur” (Far.
Bul. 53, U. S. Dept. Agric.). -D. Ajacis is the only British species,
occurring in cornfields in Cambridgeshire, Sussex and elsewhere, and,
like the Continental species D. Consolida, must be regarded as poisonous
and fatal to cattle, while horses and sheep may also suffer. Sheep and
goats, however, appear to resist the poison unless taken in considerable
quantity. Wilcox fatally poisoned a yearling lamb within an hour of
administermg per os the extract from less than 1 oz. of the dried leaves
of an American species. The seeds are the most dangerous part of the
Larkspur, and should never be ground up with wheat should the two
plants grow together. The seeds of D. Staphisagria are used in
medicine.

Toxic Principle. The species D. Ajacis has been little studied, but
D. Consolida and D. Staphisagria contain the alkaloids Delphinine
(C3,;H490,N), very poisonous and having a bitter taste; Delphisine
(C;,H490;N), which is extremely poisonous; Delphinoidine (Cy.HggN,07),
which is poisonous; and Staphisagrine.

Symptoms. The seeds are stated to be emetic and purgative, and
D. Consolida is stated by Pott to be an acute narcotic poison to horses
and cattle. In general the symptoms appear to resemble those produced
by Aconitum (p. 15). There is salivation, vomiting, colic, convulsions,
and general paralysis (Miiller).

REFERENCES.
16, 63, 93, 128, 130, 190, 203, 204, 205, 213, 233.

11] Ranunculacex 15

Monkshood (Aconitum Napellus L.). The extremely poisonous
character of this plant has been recognised since ancient times, and it
is mentioned by Pliny, Dioscorides, etc. It is not common in the wild
state in Britain—chiefly occurring in some Welsh and one or two West
of England counties—and is not very liable to cause poisoning of live
stock in Britain. Cases of poisoning of horses, cattle, sheep and pigs
have been recorded on the Continent, however (Cornevin), and cows died
in Victoria. Linneus says that it is fatal to cows and goats when they
eat it fresh, but that when dried it does no harm to horses. Medical
works record many cases of human poisoning, particularly in cases
where the root has been mistaken for horse radish—from which, however,
it markedly differs. The leaves at first taste insipid and then sharply
burning; the root when fresh smells like the radish and has a slightly
sweetish taste, which is succeeded by characteristic tingling of the
tongue and a sensation of numbness in the mouth.

Toxic Principle. Monkshood is very poisonous, and though all
parts are toxic the root is the most dangerous, and next the seeds and
leaves. The plant seems to vary in toxicity with age and climate,
being but slightly active when very young, most active just before
flowering, and at the minimum of activity when the seeds ripen. The
cultivated form is stated to be much less poisonous than the wild one.
Drying removes a part of the toxic substance, and boiling removes most
of it. The plant contains the toxic alkaloid Aconitine (C,,H,,NO,,),
and also Aconine (Cp;HggNO,). The root contains 0-17 to 0-28 per cent.
of Aconitine, but the leaves and flowers less.

Symptoms. The chief symptoms are those of depression, and are
manifested through the nervous system and the circulatory and
respiratory organs. Tetanic symptoms are also present. There is loss of
appetite, salivation, inflammation of the mucous membrane of the mouth
and jaws, grinding of teeth, nausea and vomiting, great restlessness and
colic; the animal groans and walks with an uncertain gait owing to
bodily weakness, giddiness and paralysis of hind feet or of all limbs;
there is also a notable slackening in the pulse, breathing becomes difii-
cult, consciousness is lost and the pupils are dilated. Death ensues in
most cases within a few hours, and after convulsions.

Kaufmann (quoted by Cornevin) observed in the horse champing
of the jaws, salivation, fibrillous contraction of the muscles of the ole-
cranon, then of the buttocks, then of the whole body. The intestinal
pains were shown by the blows of the animal’s hind feet under and at
the back of the belly. There was also observed an intense and painful

16 Ranunculacez, Papaveracex [cH.

contraction of the muscles in the inferior cervical region, the hyoid
and the abdomen; an increased sensibility; repeated evacuations;
at first congestion, then great paleness of the mucous membranes;
diminution in the volume of the arteries; faint whinnyings at the
moment of the contraction of the muscles of the neck, shoulders and
stomach; muscular rigidity of the posterior limbs; uncertain gait;
laboured breathing; and finally paralysis of motion, respiration and
senses.

Lander in giving similar symptoms for the horse notices also choking
movements of the cesophagus, eructation of frothy matter, dilatation
of pupils and low temperature.

Kaufmann gives the poisonous doses of powdered root for the horse
and dog as 13 to 14 oz. and oz. respectively.

REFERENCES.
4, 16, 63, 78, 81, 128, 130, 153, 161, 170, 203, 205, 213, 233.

PAPAVERACEZ:.

Poppies (Papaver sp.). Poisoning by the two common poppies
(P. Rhoeas L. and P. dubium L.) is not common, but Cornevin says that
the former is poisonous in all its parts, and sufficiently so to cause acci-
dents every year. Animals may be affected by eating the plant when
mixed with green fodder, or by ingesting the seeds and capsules with
waste material after the winnowing and grading of cereals. Stock,
however, will most likely reject the plants, owing to their unpleasant
odour and taste, but cattle have been poisoned by eating unripe heads
of P. Rhoeas when the plant was mixed with clover and sainfoin.
P. dubium has caused poisoning of horses, cattle and pigs.

Toxic Principle. Both species contain the alkaloids Morphine
(CyHjgNO5) and Rheadine (C,,H,,NO,), which are present in the milky
juice of the plant. The latter, which was isolated by Hesse, is believed
to have no narcotic effects. The toxic principle is not destroyed by
heating, and the plant is therefore poisonous both in the green state
and when dried in hay.

Symptoms. It is remarked by Cornevin that cattle poisoned by
P. Rhoeas at first exhibit symptoms of excitement, shown by continual
movement, by pawing of the soil or litter, increased respiration and more
rapid pulse; this is followed by stoppage of the digestive functions
sometimes a little swelling of the eyelids, and coma, one affected animal

11] Papaveracex 17

appearing to sleep while standing, remaining motionless, and if forced
to move walking in an unsteady manner. Finally, the animal falls,
and if a fatal result is likely (which is unusual) it remains stretched on
the ground; respiration becomes slower, the temperature falls, and after
a few convulsive movements death occurs owing to asphyxia.

Miiller notes excitement, wildness of look, dilatation of pupil, con-
vulsions; then coma, Joss of sensation and symptoms of depression
replace those of excitement. There is salivation, bloating, constipation,
and in many cases also bloody diarrhea. Death, however, is rare.

Pott gives stupidity, retention of urine, colic, with sickness and
diarrhcea, convulsions, and epileptic symptoms, the animals falling
over and rolling.

REFERENCES.
4, 16, 63, 128, 190, 205, 213, 262.

Greater Celandine (Chelidonium majus L.). This common plant
exhales an unpleasant odour, and when bruised or broken shows the
presence of a yellowish acrid juice, which becomes red immediately on
exposure to the air. It is an old medicinal drug plant, but is dangerous,
being emetic and purgative, with a strongly irritating effect on the
digestive tract. Animals are but rarely likely to take it, and no record
of the death of domesticated animals has been found.

Toxic Principle. Among the substances contained in the Greater
Celandine may be mentioned the bitter alkaloid Chelidonine (Cy>H,gNO,
+ H,0), which, especially occurring in the root, does not appear to be
poisonous, or is of feeble activity ; the alkaloid Chelerythrine (C.,H,,NO,),
which is poisonous; and Protopine (C.)H,NO,;). It is stated by
Cornevin that the toxic substance is not removed on drying, but Pott
(1907) remarks that the dried plant is harmless to animals, the poisonous
alkaloid being volatile and disappearing on drying.

Symptoms. The action of this plant is acrid, irritant and narcotic,
emetic and purgative. Esser remarks that when Chelerythrine is intro-
duced on the nasal mucous membrane it causes violent sneezing, and
taken internally causes vomiting. Miiller says that poisoning of
domesticated animals is not recorded, but that according to old accounts
500 grammes (about 1 Ib.) of the fresh plant eaten by the horse will at
most cause slight diabetes.

REFERENCES.
16, 63, 81, 128, 141, 190, 203, 205, 218.

t

18 Cruciferz [CH.

CRUCIFERZ.

Charlock (Brassica Sinapistrum Boiss.), also known as B. Sinapis
Visiani and Sinapis arvensis L., may be regarded as harmless in the
young state, but liable to cause injury after flowering, when the
seeds have formed, when it may occasion serious accidents if eaten by
live stock. A case in which rape cake containing the seeds of charlock
caused poisoning was recorded in 1875 (Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc.). The
seeds only are dangerous.

Towic Principle. The seeds contain minute quantities of volatile
Oil of Mustard or Allyl-isothiocyanate (CzH;NCS), the alkaloid Sinapine
(C,gH»,NO;), and the alkaloidal glucoside Sinalbin.

Symptoms. Ingestion of the seeds may cause inflammation of the
stomach and intestines (with loss of appetite, wind, colic, and diarrhea) ;
inflammation of kidneys (difficult, excessive or bloody urination); and
nervous symptoms, with great exhaustion, uncertain gait, paralysis of
limbs and in isolated cases convulsions (Miiller).

Pott also records increased. salivation.

In the horse Cornevin records great depression, difficult and ac-
celerated respiration, yellowish mucus and convulsive cough. A
characteristic symptom is the emission of frothy liquid through the
nostrils (as much as 10 litres in one hour). Death often occurs from
asphyxia in a fit of coughing.

In cattle, cake containing the seeds caused inflammation of the
intestines, exhausting diarrhoea, and unquenchable thirst.

The cultivated Mustards may: induce similar effects, and Lander
records the following symptoms as caused by Brassica nigra:—In the
horse, bronchial symptoms, marked by difficulty in breathing and the
discharge of great quantities of yellowish frothy matter from the nose;
in cattle, uneasiness, restlessness and intense colic, with frantic rushing
about and mania, ending in exhaustion, falling, struggles and collapse;
in a recent case there were dullness, coldness, some tympany, laboured
respiration, staggering and falling, and in fatal cases, immobility and
a semi-comatose condition.

REFERENCES.
4, 16, 63, 76, 127, 170, 190, 205, 213, 219.

Wild Radish (Raphanus Raphanistrum L.). As in the case of
charlock, the seeds of wild radish are very acrid, and susceptible of intro-
ducing intestinal troubles if eaten by animals when mixed with cereals.

0] Cruciferz, Caryophyllacex 19

Garlic Mustard (Alliaria officinalis Andrz.) and Treacle Mustard
(Erysimum cheiranthoides L.). The seeds are stated to have properties
similar to Brassica Sinapistrum (p. 18) owing to a pungent oil; and
when eaten in quantity to induce poisoning, inflammation of the diges-
tive tract and of the kidneys, as well as nervous symptoms (Miiller).

CARYOPHYLLACEZ:.

Soapwort (Saponaria officinalis L.). This plant is more or less
poisonous, but is rarely, if ever, eaten by stock, and no recorded case of
the poisoning of stock has been met with.

Toxic Principle. The whole plant, especially the root, contains the
poisonous glucosidal Saponin (C,gH2g019)4, a peculiar substance which
causes intense frothing when stirred in water.

Symptoms. No symptoms of animal poisoning by the plant are
recorded, but the action of Saponin in the blood stream is to induce
dissolution of the red cells, with stupefaction and paralysis, as in the
killing of fish by poisoning. It also causes vomiting and purging.
Taken by the mouth it causes inflammation of the alimentary tract,
the contents of which are fcetid and mixed with blood.

REFERENCES.
16, 63, 76, 81, 203, 235.

Corn Coekle (Agrostemma Githago L.). This well-known plant of
corn-fields must be regarded as poisonous, though experiments and
reports as to its effects on the different classes of live stock vary widely.
Though a poisonous principle is found in nearly all parts of the plant,
the plant in the green state appears to be innocuous, and is in any case
rarely likely to be eaten fresh by stock, which probably refuse it on
aecount of its hairy character. The seeds, however, are by no means
harmless. ‘They are rather large, and somewhat troublesome to separate
from cereal grains. When ground up with wheat they both discolour
the flour and impart a grey tint and disagreeable odour to bread made
from it. Further, flour containing a considerable quantity of cockle
must, owing to the poisonous character of the latter, be held to be unfit
for consumption. Fatal results have followed the use of bread contain-
ing Corn Cockle. The toxic principle therefore is not destroyed by
heating, even in an oven in baking.

9-9

as

20 Caryophyllacez [ CH.

As regards domestic animals, Corn Cockle seeds have frequently
been mixed with feeding stuffs and have caused many deaths. Cornevin’s
experiments in feeding calves, pigs and fowls led to fatal results. He
was able to say that the amounts of cockle flour necessary to cause death

were :—

Calf sic os ecdee ee 0-25 Ib |

2 Si cara eee ee 7 per 100 Ib. live weight.
i P 55 |

Fowl .........--- 0-25 ,,

Among other cases, Kornauth and Arche found that in their feeding
trials pigs were not killed, but albuminoid metabolism was diminished
and fat production increased. In 1893 pigs died in Germany with
symptoms of acute poisoning, when fed on tailings containing six per cent.
of cockle. In 1903-4 experiments showed that with the cow, sheep,
pig and goat, cockle is not poisonous when fed in amounts usually found
in feeding stuffs. Millspaugh gives a case in which two calves died on
being fed with two lots of 144 oz. each of wheat flour containing 30 per
cent. and 45 per cent. of cockle seeds. About 1892 Nevinny concluded
that six grammes of cockle seed consumed in 1200 grammes of bread
were beyond doubt poisonous in effect, and that the sale of grain or
flour containing it should be forbidden. Kobert held that the sale of
feeding stuffs containing cockle should be forbidden by law. An
extensive study of this question was made by Pesch, who concluded
that “Under certain conditions Corn Cockle is injurious to domestic
animals. The amount of the poisonous substance in the seed is variable,
depending probably upon the season and the soil. Animals become
accustomed to it, so that amounts of seed which at first cause sickness,
later have no injurious effect. The susceptibility of animals to the
poison varies both with the species and the individual. Young animals
are more readily affected than older ones. It is believed that rodents
and sheep are not susceptible, and, as far as is known, grown cattle are
only slightly or not at all affected by the poison. Calves, swine, horses,
and especially dogs, are more or less susceptible. Concerning birds
and fowls there is some doubt.”

Though animals are reputed to become tolerant of the poison if the
cockle is only taken in small regular doses, yet there appears to be a
chronic form of poisoning due to this cause and termed Githagism, while
there is an acute poisoning due to the ingestion of large quantities of
the seeds which may cause death in 24 hours or less.

Ir] Caryophyllacez 21

It is clear that the evidence is quite sufficient to warrant the state-
ment that the ingestion of more than a very small quantity of cockle
seed is dangerous, and the consumption of even small quantities should
be avoided. Thus care should be taken to remove the seeds from cereal
grains.

Toxic Principle: The dangerous substance contained in cockle
seeds is the glucoside variously known as Githagin, Saponin, Agrostemmin,
Sapotoxin, Agrostemma-Sapotoxin, or Smilacin (Cy,H_g0,9),. This prin-
ciple appears to occur chiefly in the seeds, which contain up to 6-56 per
cent., but it has been found in small quantities in other parts of the
plant. It is very freely soluble in water, in which it froths like soap
when shaken up, and it has a sharp taste and no odour.

Symptoms. A sufficient quantity of the toxic substance may cause
nervous debility and dysentery—according to Chesnut “intense irrita-
tion of the digestive tract, vomiting, headache, nausea, vertigo, diarrhea,
hot skin, sharp pains in the spine, difficult locomotion, and depressed
breathing. Coma is sometimes present and may be followed by death.
In animals chronic diarrhoea and gradual depression.”

The chronic form, which occurs when small doses are repeated over
a long period (practically the only form found in human beings, but
never in animals, except perhaps in the pig) is characterized by gradual
wasting away, loss of breath, loss of strength, chronic diarrhea, and
nerve troubles, death taking place in marasmus and decline. The
active principle acts as an irritant on the digestive tract, causing colic,
diarrhea and enterorrhagia.

Cornevin describes the symptoms in the acute form of the poisoning
in the case of horses, cattle, pigs and dogs.

In the horse, if a small quantity only is taken, there is yawning,
heavy colic, stamping and evacuation of rather soft feces. If larger
quantities are taken, the symptoms, which commence in about an
hour, are salivation, frequent yawning and turning of the head, colic,
pale mucus, hurried and weak pulse, rise in temperature and accelerated
respiration. Some time later there are muscular tremors succeeded by
pronounced rigidity, and the feces are diarrheic and fetid. The
animal lies down, and getting up is painful; it falls into a kind of coma,
stretches itself to the utmost, and death takes place without convulsions.

In cattle, the symptoms observed one hour after eating are restlessness,
salivation, and grinding of the teeth. Excitement and colic are followed
sometimes by coughing, this state lasting from five to eight hours. There
is then a period of coma, characterized by permanent decubitus,

22 Caryophyllaceae, Hypericinee [cH.

repeated fcetid diarrhcea, hurried and plaintive respiration, accelerated
and gradually weakening pulse, a gradual loss of motor and sensory
powers, and a progressive decline in temperature. Death occurs in
twenty-four hours.

In the case of pigs, the animal grunts, lies down and remains thus
with its snout embedded in the straw. There is vomiting, more or less
violent colic and diarrhea, the evacuation consisting of bad-smelling,
spumous fecal matter. At times there are clonic contractions. Young
pigs are most susceptible.

Pott cites cases in which abortion was a feature of the poisoning,
both in cows and pigs. The results of numerous experiments which
he quotes (among others some carried out for the Prussian Ministry of
Agriculture) are very contradictory, a small quantity causing death in
some animals, while others of the same species were left unharmed by
large quantities. He ascribes this to the very variable proportions of
the poison present in the seeds.

REFERENCES.

4, 16, 28, 46, 52, 53, 63, 76, 81, 82, 144, 161, 172,
184, 190, 203, 205, 213, 249.

HYPERICINEZ:.

St. John’s Wort (Hypericum perforatum L.). There appears to be
no record of poisoning of live stock by this plant in Britain, but Cornevin
records that it injured breeding mares fed on lucerne containing it in
large proportion. Drying in converting into hay did not render it
innocuous. It is only poisonous if eaten in considerable quantity, and
in general animals are not likely to eat much of it voluntarily, owing to
its resinous odour when crushed, and a bitter and slightly saline taste.

Toxic Principle. The poisonous properties of St. John’s Wort have
not been fully investigated, but it is stated to contain an oil and an
acrid bitter resin. Ewart says that it “contains an oil whose medicinal
value was formerly highly esteemed; but this oil, and the woody nature
of the plant, render it somewhat injurious in fodder.” Summers says
(Journ. Agric. 8. Australia, Sept. 1911, p- 144) that “it is reported to
be decidedly injurious, causing horses who eat it to break out in sores,

while milk cows have a tendency to dry off owing to its effect on the
system.”

11] Hypericinee, Geraniacex 23

Symptoms. In mares, dullness, sinking of head, loss of appetite,
slackening of pulse and respiration, dilatation of pupils, defective sight,
and lips purple (Miller).

REFERENCES.
63, 82, 117, 190, 203.

GERANIACEZE.

Wood Sorrel (Oxalis Acetosella L.). Though rarely likely to be
eaten by stock this plant must be mentioned here, as it is considered
dangerous on account of its high content of oxalates, which may cause
serious illness and diarrhcea, and in the case of sheep even be fatal. Pott
says that the milk of cows eating it is with difficulty converted into
butter.

REFERENCE.
213.

CHAPTER III
CELASTRACEZ:.

Spindle Tree (Euonymus europeus L.). According to Cornevin
the spindle tree is poisonous in all its parts, especially the fruits, which
are emetic and strongly purgative. Sheep and goats have been injured
from eating the leaves, and children have suffered from eating the fruits.

Toxic Principle. This plant does not appear to have been closely
studied from the toxicological point of view; contrary to the state-
ments generally made in the literature Van Rijn remarks that this species
does not contain the doubtfully classed Huonymin.

Symptoms. Ingestion of the plant induces symptoms and lesions
such as are due to violent vegetable purgatives.

REFERENCES.
63, 81, 205, 252.

RHAMNACEZE.

Buckthorn (Rhamnus Catharticus L.) and (R. Frangula L.). The
berries of both species are toxic and purgative, but both are uncommon
and rarely eaten by stock.

Toxic Principle. The berries and bark contain the glucosides
Frangulin (Cy:H_ 0.) and Rhamnetin (C,gH,.0,).

Symptoms. The berries are purgative, and there is some danger
from large quantities, which may induce super-purgation. The leaves
are astringent and may arrest milk secretion (Cornevin). Miiller states
that the inflammation of the stomach and intestines may terminate
fatally.

REFERENCES.
4, 63, 76, 190, 203.

CH. IT] Papilionacesx 25

PAPILIONACEZ:.

Laburnum (Cytisus Laburnum L.). The well-known and much
admired Laburnum must be regarded as one of the most poisonous
species of British plants. By numerous experimental researches
Cornevin proved that all parts of the plant are poisonous—root, wood,
bark, leaves, flowers, and seeds, especially the seeds. In his experiments
the horse, ass, sheep, goat, dog, cat, fowl, duck and pigeon, were utilized,
seeds being given. He found that 80 centigrammes per kilogramme
live weight would be necessary to kill a horse (say 1 Ib. for an animal of
1200 Ib. live weight), 60 centigrammes per kilogramme live weight to
kill an ass (say 6 oz. for an ass weighing 600 lb.); and 6 grammes in the
case of a fowl (say 0-4 oz. for a fowl weighing 44 lb.). The sheep and
goat he was not able to kill, as they refused the food after a certain
point; the dog and cat he was not able to kill because they so readily
vomited; and the duck and pigeon vomited with extreme facility.

Many cases of the poisoning of children have occurred through the
ingestion of the flowers and seeds. In 1908 a case was recorded by
the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, in which two horses were
alleged to have been poisoned in North Wales by laburnum seeds, a
very small quantity of which was found in their stomachs after
death.

Miiller states that in Dalmatia goats which had eaten Cytisus Weldeni,
though themselves uninjured, produced milk which was poisonous to
man.

Toxic Principle. All parts contain the toxic alkaloid Cytisine
(C,,H,,N,0), said by Moer and Partheil to be identical with Ulexine;
it is found in the seeds to the extent of 1-5 per cent. Cornevin states that
the root, wood and bark are nearly constant in toxicity, but that the
leaves and pods present remarkable seasonal variations owing to the
migration of the poison into the seeds. The toxic property is not
destroyed by drying of the plant.

Symptoms. Laburnum poisoning is of the acrid, narcotic type, with,
in man, nervous symptoms, abdominal pain, vomiting, purging, tetanic
spasms and convulsions.

Cornevin’s observations show that the symptoms occur in three
consecutive stages,—(1) excitement, (2) coma and inco-ordination of
movement, and (3) convulsions. The order of the appearance, their
duration, and the association of each with the others depend upon
the susceptibility of the animal and the quantity ingested. Thus the

26 Papilionacee [CH.

symptoms of excitement may be present alone if only a small quantity
is eaten; the duration of the symptoms in this case is never considerable,
and the normal is gradually regained. In general, however, the symp-
toms are associated in pairs; thus when an average quantity is fed there
is excitement and coma but no convulsions; when large quantities are
fed the first stage is suppressed or is so short as to be almost imperceptible,
the coma and convulsions being present simultaneously. As regards
temperature, there is, in stage (1) a rise, in stage (2) a drop, and in stage
(3) a rise again near death. In stages (2) and (3) there is a slackening
of respiration, the arterial tension is raised, there is an increase in the
number of pulsations and a modification of the rhythm. In stage (3)
near death there is a lowering of the arterial tension, and the pulsations
become gradually less perceptible, but with a uniform rhythm; there
is a slackening in respiration, and by the time this finally ceases the heart
beats have become imperceptible.

When horses, asses or mules have eaten a small quantity of the seeds
or leaves, there is simply yawning and uncertain gait, these symptoms
lasting for two hours, and the normal being regained after urination.
Considerable (but not fatal) quantities cause unsuccessful attempts at
vomiting, sometimes opisthotonos in asses, sweating, muscular tremors,
and then a deep coma which may last 15 hours. Fatal quantities cause
yawning, sexual excitement, accelerated and noisy respiration, wheezing,
muscular tremors followed by contractions which commence in the
posterior limbs and spread to the anterior limbs, facial contractions,
staggering and copious sweating. A rapid fall in temperature follows,
but there is a slight rise during the period of convulsions; the pulse is
at first quicker and stronger, but the number of beats rapidly comes
back to the normal, to rise again shortly before death; the rhythm of
the pulse is at first regular (in groups of 2, 3 or 4) but becomes irregular
again just before death. The animal at length falls, and cannot get up,
the nostrils are distended, the mouth is wide open, respiration becomes
gradually slower, and death takes place in great agony.

In cases of poisoning of horses and asses noticed by Pott animals
that could not vomit died very quickly. The symptoms were excitement,
nausea, coma, slower breathing, convulsions, paralysis of the motor
nerves, and finally cessation of the action of lungs and heart.

Rumimants are much less susceptible than horses. | Cornevin’s
attempts at poisoning failed through their refusal of the plant. Miiller
observed in a case of cattle poisoning, bloating, paralysis of the limbs
{especially fore limbs), sleepiness, dilatation of pupils, and later salivation,

mi]. Papilionacer 27

nausea, coma and occasional convulsive movements of the muscles of
the extremities. These symptoms persisted through several days and
then disappeared.
REFERENCES.
4, 16, 63, 64, 81, 128, 144, 161, 190, 205, 213.

Broom (Cytisus Scoparius Link.). This very plentiful and widely
distributed plant is undoubtedly to some extent poisonous, though
perhaps only feebly so in the quantities likely to be eaten by domestic
animals. Blyth records 400 cases of poisoning from it, however.
Very hungry animals might eat too much of it, and hence show symptoms
of poisoning.

Toxic Principle. The plant contains the alkaloid Cytisine(C,,H,,N,0) ;
also the volatile alkaloid Sparteine (C,;H,,N,), a single drop of which,
according to Blyth, killed a rabbit, which showed symptoms similar
to those of nicotine poisoning.

Symptoms. Taken in sufficient quantity broom induces narcotic
poisoning, with symptoms resembling those caused by Coniine, with
central nervous paralysis.

Cornevin gives the symptoms as similar to those due to C. Laburnum.

REFERENCES.
4, 16, 82, 128, 203.

Indian Peas (Lathyrus sativus L.). A type of poisoning that
deserves attention here is that known as Lathyrism, since it is due to
the consumption of peas of the genus Lathyrus, the most dangerous
being the “Indian Pea,” L. sativus. The peas of this plant (see Frontis-
piece) are small and dark-coloured, and are imported largely from India
and other countries under the general name of Mutter peas, a name which
they share with the ordinary pea Pisum sativum. In addition to the
seeds of this species the seeds of two South European and North
African species—L. Cicera and L. Clymenum—have commonly caused
poisoning both in man and in animals, not infrequently leading to
fatal results. Horses, cattle, sheep and pigs have been affected—
horses particularly so—and many cases have been recorded in the
veterinary journals since 1885. Very heavy losses have occasionally
resulted from the use of the raw peas as a food for stock. For
example, in 1884 Messrs. Leather of Liverpool had 35 out of 74 cart
horses ill through eating Indian peas at the rate of 3 to 4]b. per head
per day. Of the 35 no less than 19 died, and 2 were slaughtered, while

28 Papilionacex [CH.

14 recovered. In the famous Bristol Tramways case (1894) 123 out of
800 horses became ill owing to being fed on the peas of L. satwus, and
many died. There are few records of harm to cattle, sheep and pigs,
and Watt quotes Don to the effect that pigeons lose their power of
flight by feeding on the peas. Very large quantities of the peas are used
for feeding purposes, and the fact that the losses are not larger is
probably because the peas only comprise a small proportion of the
ration or are cooked before use.

After boiling or roasting the peas appear to be less harmful, as they
are eaten in India when cooked, or ground into flour and converted into
bread—though Cornevin states that drying and cooking does not
destroy the toxicity, while boiling for some time showed that at any
rate part of the toxic substance passed into the water, which became
toxic and caused death, the boiled seeds losing the greater part of their
poisonous property and not causing accidents when the water was
rejected. MacDougall states that as far as experimental evidence was
available (1894) it seemed to show that boiling the seeds before use
renders them innocuous.

Lathryism usually only supervenes when the use of the peas for food
is prolonged, and the peas are taken in considerable quantity, but
it is possible that there is wide variation in the toxicity of different
samples, owing to differences in soil, climate, and other factors. In man,
Lathryism is stated to be common in Spain, Italy, Russia and India,
owing to continued use of bread from flour of the three species of Lathyrus
mentioned above. It is said especially to affect males.

Toxic Principle. Nothing certain as to the poisonous properties is
known, attempts to isolate the toxic substance having failed (Kobert),
though Smith gives it as prussic acid, apparently indicating a cyano-
genetic glucoside. This, however, can hardly be so, as the poison is
cumulative, and may not show its effects for weeks or months, or, in
man, even years—according to the quantity of peas eaten.

Symptoms. Lathyrism is only produced when the ration consists
largely of the pea for a considerable period (see above); in the horse
fed exclusively on the pea, the tenth day; but when one or two quarts
are given daily, only towards about the 80th day. Moreover, the malady
may declare itself as long as fifty days after the cessation of the pea
feeding (Lander).

In general Lathyrism is marked by paralysis of the lower extremities
in man and the hind limbs in animals, owing to the degeneration of the
muscle fibres, and possibly to affection of the nerves. In horses there

mm] Papilionacez 29

is paralysis of the hind limbs, dyspnea and roaring—with paralysis of
the recurrent laryngeal nerve, and transverse myelitis. The horse
thus shows weakness of the hind quarters, staggering in the effort to
stand, difficulty in breathing, abnormally fast and irregular pulse, open
mouth, distended nostrils. Tracheotomy often gives almost immediate
relief.

Lander mentions in cart horses grinding of teeth, and convulsive
movements of the eyes, recalling epilepsy. In one outbreak there was
thick wind, staggering gait, weakness of hind quarters, and general
’ signs of intoxication; and sudden violent attacks of laryngeal paralysis
and dyspncea during which there was palpitation, frothing, tongue
protruded, eyes staring, bluish tint of buccal membranes, and palpita-
tion. Paroxysms sometimes proved fatal.

An attack among 125 lambs is mentioned by Cornevin. The lambs
could not stand on their fore legs and were obliged to go down on their
knees. On setting them up again, they were only able to keep up while
motionless or moving slowly. There was loss of sensibility in the front
members. In spite of this the eye was alert, they were attentive to
everything that went on around them, and were easily frightened.

In pigs paralysis of posterior members has been observed.

In cattle there was staggering, blindness, and stiffness of the lower
joints. In sheep and pigs there was also paralysis of the hind limbs.

REFERENCES.
63, 82, 137, 170, 179, 190, 203, 205.

Yellow Vetchling (Lathyrus Aphaca L.). To what extent this
vetchling is poisonous to stock is not clearly known, but it is cultivated
in India as a fodder for cattle. The seeds, however, are not altogether
safe when ripe, and MacDougall says “The seeds and pods have been
known to be used in soup in their young state and without harm resulting,
but the ripe seeds are narcotic and cause sickness and headache.”

Lupines (Lupinus sp.). Different species of Lupinus have been
found to cause poisoning of live stock, more particularly sheep, which,
when fed largely on lupines, develop a chronic type of poisoning known
as Lupinosis, or poisoning may be acute and rapid in its effects, as in the
United States. Records of large numbers of sheep being affected at
a time date from 1872, in various parts of the German empire. In
Europe by far the most harmful species is the Yellow Lupine (L. luteus),
which has been the cause of heavy losses of sheep, though horses, cattle
and goats may also be affected. The Blue Lupine (L. angustifolius)

30 Papilionacee [CH.

and White Lupine (L. albus) may also be toxic. L. luteus has caused
lupinosis in Germany since 1860, and Cornevin states that in 1880 no
less than 14,138 out of 240,000 sheep fed upon it (or 5-89 per cent.) died.
Of 44 horses affected 11 died.

It must not be thought that all crops of lupine are poisonous, as
lupines are extensively grown on the Continent for fodder purposes and
are usually harmless. Even where Lupinosis occurs, considerable
quantities of the lupine must be ingested to cause poisoning. The
toxicity appears to vary according to soil and certain indefinite con-
ditions, and sometimes even a kilogramme (2-2 lb.) of the plant would
suffice to killasheep. Poisonous symptoms may sometimes be observed
after asingle meal. Desiccation does not render the plant innocuous, the
seeds and hay being poisonous.

In the United States species of Lupinus have caused great loss. In
1898 no fewer than 1,150 of a flock of 2,500 sheep died from eating one
species; one sheep farmer lost 700 sheep from the same cause; and
1,900 out of 3,000 sheep died from Lupine poisoning in Montana in 1900.
Lupine hay is found to be less harmful to horses and cattle, and Chesnut
and Wilcox suggest that this is possibly because as a rule they avoid
the pods, while sheep eat them. Lupines in America are very rapid
in their action on sheep, which may often die in one-half to three-quarters
of an hour after eating a quantity of the pods. Further, there is evidence
that sheep may gradually become immune to the poison by eating
Lupines regularly, since sheep fed regularly on hay nearly half lupine were
unaffected, but others eating the same hay for the first time died in
considerable numbers. The lupines are certainly far the most dangerous
when they bear ripe seeds—cut and made into hay before the pods form
they are much less dangerous.

In regard to L. luteus Lander says: “According to the German
authorities a daily ration of 1 pound of the whole plant, 2 pound of
empty pods, or } pound of seeds, will produce poisoning.”

Various means have been tried to render Lupines harmless, and
success is stated to follow heating with steam under a pressure of 2 to
23 atmospheres.

Toxic Principle. A very full account of Lupine poisoning is given
by Pott, and from this a brief summary may be made. Siewert and
Wildt (1879) found two substances very like the alkaloids of Conium
maculatum—one like Coniine and the other like Conhydrine, the former
only being proved to be very poisonous. Baumert states that in L.
luteus there are only two bitter alkaloids, Lupinine (CyyH,,ON) and

mm] Papilionacez 31

Lupinidine = Sparteine (C,,H,,N,). Many investigators (e.g. Kiihn at
Halle) held that lupinosis was not identified with the presence of lupine
alkaloids. Then, in 1883, Arnold and Schneidemiihl caused the disease
(lupinosis) in sheep with lupines freed from all alkaloids, and they
isolated from the seeds a substance they named Lupinotozin, which
they found to be poisonous. The nature of the poison cannot yet be
said to be fully understood. The Lupine does not always appear to be
poisonous—only under certain conditions which are not too well defined.
One farmer had Lupines on the same soil for twelve years without ill
effects when fed to sheep, and then of 450 sheep 120 were severely ill,
and 80 died; they had had unthrashed Lupine, not quite ripe, to the
extent of one-fourth of the ration. It is held to be definitely established
that the presence of this poison is due in turn to the presence of a
saprophytic fungus; when the fungus is absent or only present in small
quantity the lupine is not at all or only slightly poisonous.

Symptoms. The disease is either acute or chronic aecording to the
amount of poison ingested. Most writers describe the disease in sheep,
but symptoms given vary somewhat.

In the acute form sheep become ill suddenly. There is loss of
appetite, dyspnoea, intense fever, hematuria, circulatory and digestive
troubles, grinding of teeth and trembling, which may pass into spasmodic
contractions. Vertigo is sometimes present. Jaundice then appears
and is evidenced by the yellow colour of the mucous membranes. Tume-
faction of the eyelids, lips and ears is common, but not invariably present.
Micturition is frequent, but not abundant, and the urine contains
albumen; the excrements are few and dry. There is collapse, and loss
of condition progresses rapidly, death occurring on the fourth to the
sixth day after the commencement of the illness.

In the chronic form the interstitial hepatitis predominates. Tume-
faction of the head may also appear as in the acute form. Digestive
troubles indicate chronic gastro-enteritis. This condition lasts for from
15 to 20 days, during which the cephalic cedeme are eliminated by
gangrene and the animals remain listless and without appetite. The
illness in. sheep is grave, and affected animals are rarely completely
cured. The mortality in other species does not seem to be less than in
sheep. (Cornevin.)

In describing the acute form of lupinosis Pammel adds that the
initial temperature may be as high as 104° to 106° F., but that it is
intermittent and gradually falls just before death. The pulse may
reach 130 per minute and the respirations 100. A bloody froth may

32 Papilionacez [CH.

issue from the nostrils. Animals apparently prefer the recumbent
position, extend the head on the ground, and seem entirely oblivious
to all surroundings. At first there is consttpation, but later diarrhwa
may set in and the excreta be tinged with blood. In the chronic form
the symptoms are not so violent. Jaundice may be entirely absent,
and emaciation and anemia may be the chief signs.

Chesnut and Wilcox record a case in which two sheep were each
given 150 medium-sized pods of a native lupine, and seemed to like them.
In 45 minutes, however, they became frenzied and died an hour later.
They give the symptoms as practically the same as those caused by
European species of Lupinus; acute cerebral congestion, with great
mental excitement, the sheep rushing about and butting into things;
following is a stage characterized by irregularity of movement, violent
spasms, and falling fits; in most cases collapse and death occur within
half-an-hour to an hour and a half; the pulse is strong and regular; the
convulsions resemble to some extent those caused by strychnine; the
excretion of the kidneys is much increased and sometimes bloody. In
post-mortem examination the kidneys are found affected, the lungs
slightly congested, the cerebral membranes in all cases congested, and
in violent cases small blood vessels are ruptured in different parts of

the body.
REFERENCES.
4, 16, 20, 21, 42, 57, 63, 69, 82, 93, 128, 161,
166, 170, 190, 203, 213.

‘‘ Java” Beans (Phaseolus lunatus). Though not native to Great
Britain, the so-called Java Beans have been imported in considerable
quantities for stock feeding, and in the past nine years have caused the
death of a large number of animals. For example, in March, 1906, the
Board of Agriculture and Fisheries published an account of the poisoning
of animals by these beans at eight centres; at six of the centres 133
cattle were involved and 43 died. The beans are of varying origin, and
pass under the name of Java beans, Rangoon beans, Burma beans,
Lima beans, and Paigya beans. They are considerably different in
colour according to origin, the Java beans being pale brown to almost
black ; Rangoon, Burma or Paigya beans smaller, plumper, and lighter
in colour (“red Rangoon beans” are pinkish with small purple splotches,
and ‘‘white Rangoon beans” are pale cream); and Lima beans are
much larger than the last-named and pale cream or white in colour (see
Frontispiece).

Tt has long been known that beans of certain forms of Phaseolus

| Papilionacez 33

lunatus are poisonous, and the fact is noted by Church (Food Grains of
India, 1886), and by Watt (Dictionary of the Economic Products of
India, 1889-96). The coloured forms, and particularly the wild forms,
are the most dangerous, the white types being in general safe for
stock feeding. Some forms have a general similarity to butter beans
and haricots, and have hence been favourably regarded by farmers, but
it is a sound plan to purchase under a guarantee beans with such names
as those given.

Toxic Principle. It was shown in 1903 (Proc. Roy. Soc., Vol. 72)
that the seeds of P. lunatus, uncultivated in Mauritius, contained a
cyanogenetic glucoside, Phaseolunatin (C,9H,,0,N). This glucoside,
under favourable conditions, such as are present when the beans are
moist, masticated and ingested at the temperature of the animal body,
gives rise to prussic acid, which is the direct cause of poisoning. The
seeds of the wild forms yield, like bitter almond seeds, considerable
quantities of prussic acid, while the cultivated forms resemble sweet
almonds in yielding only traces of the acid, or none at all. Deter-
minations of the yield of prussic acid by various investigators show
percentages of from 0-027 to 0-137 in Java beans, and 0-004 to 0-02
in Burma beans. The largest proportion therefore occurs in the coloured
beans, while the white forms contain much less or none at all, and may
be generally regarded as safe for stock.

Symptoms.—The symptoms given by Damman and Behrens (Veter-
inary Journal, 1906) were vertigo, tympany, and falling, with death in
most cases. Mosselmann (Vet. Jour., 1908) observed the symptoms
due to the ingestion of a small quantity of the beans by six head of
cattle. They were: great excitement, salivation, swelling, slight
diarrhcea, quick pulse and respiration, muscular spasms, and paralysis
of the hind quarters in one instance; all recovered rapidly.

REFERENCES.
5, 38, 76, 77, 107, 109, 125, 129, 144, 255.

Castor Oil Plant (Ricinus communis L.). The beans (see Frontispiece)
of this exotic are toxic, and poisoning is only likely to occur if they are
sold in error as a feeding stuff, or from the use for feeding purposes of
the press-cake after the extraction of the well-known castor oil, a pur-
gative commonly used medicinally, of which the beans contain about
50 per cent. According to Cornevin four seeds suffice to cause accidents
in man, eight lead to very grave results, and beyond that number death
may ensue. Pigs and poultry have been poisoned by the seeds, and

L. 3

34 Papilionacez, Rosacex [ CH.

M. Audibert (near Beaucaire) reported the death of 80 sheep from eating
the press-cake, which is stated to have more pronounced. properties
than the oil. It has been found as an impurity in linseed cake and maize
meal. (Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc., 1892.)

Toxic Principle. The toxic properties of the bean are due to Ricin,
a toxin which is similar to bacterial toxins, and the activity of which is
destroyed by heating to 100°C. The beans also contain the alkaloid
Ricinine (CgH,0,N,), the toxic properties of which are regarded as doubt-
ful. (See Deane and Finnemore, Yearbook of Pharmacy, 1905, p. 473.)

Symptoms. These usually appear some days after the ingestion of
the beans or press-cake. There is generally purging. Broad observed
in an affected horse loss of appetite, shivering, cold extremities, dejec-
tion, abdominal pain, constipation, temperature 103° F., pulse 70, and

death in about three days.
REFERENCES.
4, 16, 66, 73, 128, 205.

ROSACEZ.

Cherry Laurel (Prunus laurocerasus L.). This exceedingly com-
mon ornamental shrub has caused the poisoning of numerous cattle and
sheep on the Continent, but is apparently less harmful in Great Britain
—and in any case animals are not much given to eating the foliage of
this shrub, the strong smell of the leaves when bruised affording a warn-
ing of its unwholesome character. Gerlach recorded the intoxication
of 25 sheep. Bibbey also records the poisoning of 15 sheep by
laurel, some of them dying (Farmer and Stockbreeder, Jan. 29, 1912).
On the other hand, Henslow wrote of his cows that they “completely
ruined a long laurel hedge adjoining the field in which they lived;
but this abnormal food did no harm either to themselves or the milk
they produced.”

Tome Prinevple. So long ago as 1803 Schrader showed that the
cherry laurel contains a substance yielding prussic acid. The leaves
contain the cyanogenetic glucoside Prulaurasin (C,,H,,O,N), and an
enzyme-emulsin which, by its action on the cyanogenetic glucoside,
induces the formation of prussic acid, which is the actual cause of
poisoning. The percentage of the glucoside appears to be greatest
about July and August. By a microchemical examination Peche has
clearly localised hydrocyanic acid compounds in the leaf parenchyma.
Symptoms. In poisoning by Cherry Laurel there is bloating
inability to rise, loss of sensation, difficult breathing, convulsions an

m1] Rosacex, Cucurbitaces 35

dilatation of pupils, and the results may be fatal if unattended to,
prussic acid being formed.

In the case of poisoning of ewes Aggio observed (Veterinary Journal,
1907) loss of appetite, vomiting, and inability to rise, followed by
several deaths. In 1871 Adsetts described (Veterinarian, 1871) symp-
toms of poisoning in the horse: indistinct and feeble pulse; congested
mucous membranes, difficult respiration, uneasiness, prostration,
coldness of the extremities, loss of appetite, constipation, diminished
urination, and acute pain, eventuating in death in three days. In sheep
Bibbey observed salivation, grinding of teeth, brain symptoms,
paralysis in the back, coma, and death.

REFERENCES.
4, 16, 73, 76, 81, 128, 129, 130, 132, 170, 205, 232, 254, 255.

CUCURBITACEZ:.

Bryony (Bryonia dioica L.). This widely distributed hedge
climber, which produces large quantities of scarlet berries, is a highly
irritant plant, with an unpleasant odour and a nauseous juice. The
large fleshy tuberous rootstocks have caused the poisoning of whole
families who have eaten them in mistake for turnips and parsnips. The
berries may tempt children, and cases of poisoning have occurred.
Cornevin estimated that 15 berries would cause the death of a child and
40 that of an adult. No deaths of domestic animals have been observed
in searching the literature, but animals may possibly eat it along the
hedgerows at times when grass is scarce. Pigs might possibly eat
sufficient of the rootstock, or poultry of the berries, to cause poisoning.

Toxic Principle. The plant contains the bitter and poisonous
glucoside Bryonin (Cy,H4gQo).

Symptoms. The symptoms are those resulting from inflammation of
the stomach and intestines, together with convulsions. According to Cor-
nevin consumption of the plant promotes sweating, and causes a livid hue,
nausea, diuresis and abundant painless, watery defecation, to which are
added in cases of poisoning nervous symptoms of stupor and tetanic con-
vulsions. There may be super-purgation or a suppression of defecation.

Lander states that 2 lb. of fresh or 6 to 8 oz. of dried root given to
horses did not cause purging, but there was abdominal pain, loss of
appetite, accelerated breathing, fever, dullness and copious urination.

Cases may end fatally.

REFERENCES.
73, 76, 81, 141, 170, 233.

o—2

36 Umbellifere . [CH.

UMBELLIFERZS.

Cowbane or Water Hemlock (Cicuta virosa L.). This plant is
undoubtedly exceedingly poisonous, and fatal cases have occurred in
both man and farm live stock. It has been mistaken by man for parsley,
celery or parsnip, with fatal results, many persons having succumbed.
to it. The rootstock is attractive to children on account of its sweetish
taste. Pott says that either fresh or dry it is poisonous to all animals
when only a small quantity is eaten, and often causes rapid death.
Sheep and goats appear to be less readily affected than other domestic
animals, and cattle to be most sensitive. The loss of eleven animals in
Brittany was noted in the Veterinarian in 1877, and a number of cattle
died in Ireland (Veterinary News, 1911), death in both cases being due to
Cowbane. It is clearly dangerous to grazing animals which have easy
access to it, especially if ordinary herbage is scarce. Hedrick (Canada)
is quoted as stating that a piece of the root about the size of a walnut
is sufficient to kill a cow in about fifteen minutes; and Miiller says that
the quantity of dried plant sufficient to kill a horse appears to be about
1lb. According to Kanngiesser the mortality in human poisoning due
to this plant amounts to 45 per cent. of the cases.

Toxic Principle. The poisonous character of Cowbane has not
been fully investigated, and the toxic principles are given as the alkaloid
Cicutine, with Oil of Cicuta, and Cicutoxine. The last is a bitter resinous
substance classed by Cushny in the picrotoxin group; it occurs in the
dry root to the extent of 3°5 per cent. The toxicity is stated to vary
with season and climate; the rootstock is most poisonous in spring.

Symptoms. In man the yellow poisonous juice in the rhizome induces
epileptic convulsions, followed by death. The cicutoxine gives acrid
narcotic symptoms quickly followed by fatal results. The symptoms
usually appear within two hours, and death ensues in half-an-hour
to several hours. The symptoms which appear in an hour or so are
given as loss of appetite, salivation, vomiting (in swine), nausea, colic
(in horse), bloating (in cattle), diarrhcea, irregular pulse and heart,
dilatation of pupils, rolling of eyeballs, vertigo, reeling in circles, twisting
of neck, falling down, automatic movement of limbs, opening and
shutting of mouth, and death, usually with convulsions, in from half
an hour to an hour after first manifestation of symptoms.

_For cattle, Lander gives hurried respiration, collection of froth at the
mouth and nostrils, and tympanites. The limbs are extended and
alternately stiffened and relaxed.

Mi] Umbellifere 37

In his description of the symptoms Esser states that swallowing is
difficult, the tongue is stiffened, there is salivation, and death takes
place after loss of consciousness and convulsions.

REFERENCES.
31, 73, 81, 123, 141, 151, 170, 190, 203, 205, 213, 233, 238.

Water Parsnip (Siwm latifolium L.). The leaves and especially
the root of this species are regarded as poisonous, and the plant is
described as “poisonous” by Strasburger.

According to Miiller the symptoms resemble those produced by
Cherophyllum (p. 40). After eating the roots cows showed symptoms
of excitement, leading, in some instances, very quickly to death. The
milk, according to Cornevin, is of a disagreeable flavour.

The related S. angustifolium has also been mentioned as objectionable.
As regards the toxic principle these plants have not been closely studied,
and it is not possible to give detailed symptoms.

REFERENCES.
73, 81, 190, 235.

Water Dropwort (Oenanthe crocata L.). This weed of marshes,
ditches, and similar wet spots, has been a frequent cause of loss of stock.
Cases of fatal human poisoning have also occurred, owing to the leaves
having been mistaken for celery and the rootstock for parsnips. Several
cases of the poisoning of cattle have been recorded in the veterinary
journals, and sheep and cattle died on a farm near Bristol (Jour. Roy.
Agric. Soc., 1898). Horses have also been poisoned. Johnson and
Sowerby (1861) record the poisoning of 17 convicts near Woolwich,
the leaves and roots being eaten in mistake for celery and parsnips
respectively. Nine suffered from convulsions and became insensible;
one died in five minutes, a second in a quarter of an hour, a third in an
hour, and a fourth a few minutes later, while two more died during the
next few days.

Cornevin says that this plant causes the poisoning of animals every
year—they eat it willingly, showing an enfeebled instinct owing to
domestication. The plant is poisonous in all its parts, the root being
the most toxic, and drying does not destroy the toxic property. Cornevin
gives the following quantities of the fresh root as necessary to poison
various animals :—

38 Umbelliferse (on.

Horse ........... 0-100 per cent. of the live weight.
OR coche Aaee ees 0-125 n ” ”
Sheep ........... 0-200 & ” ”

Pig ce pocr i ace a es 0-150 ” ” ”
Rabbit .......... 2-000 a .

Holmes described Oenanthe crocata as the most dangerous and
virulently poisonous of all our native plants (Pharm. Jour., 1902).

Other species of Oenanthe are also poisonous in a less degree—
eg. O. fistulosa L., and O. Phellandrium Lamk.

Toxic Principle. Poehl (1895) obtained from the root of this species
an amorphous neutral product which he designated Oenanthotozin. The
latest investigation is that by Tutin, who examined entire dried plants
collected in early spring, and the experiments confirmed the conclusion
arrived at by Poehl, that the toxic principle is a neutral resin. A dark-
coloured, viscid resin, insoluble in water, and equal to 3 per cent. of the
weight of the plant, was extracted, and it is stated that the neutral
portions of the petroleum and ether extracts of this resin represent the
toxic principle of the plant. As there is no evidence of the homogeneity
of this product, and it is probably complex in character, it was given no
name or formula. The fact that it has poisonous properties was ascer-
tained by administering the various products to guinea pigs per os.

Symptoms. In poisoning by O. crocata the symptoms generally
appear very quickly, and in serious cases death may follow in from one
hour to a few hours. In Tutin’s experiments on guinea pigs the extracts
referred to above rendered the animal hypersensitive in two to four
hours, while marked convulsions, with trismus soon appeared; the
heart-beat became very noticeably slow and the convulsions persisted
until death ensued. There is great restlessness, difficult breathing,
convulsions, loss of sensation, blindness and stupefaction (Miller);
Lander says the symptoms recall hemlock poisoning, with the addition
of green foetid diarrhea.

In cattle, one hour after eating, there is depression and accelerated
respiration; the conjunctive are injected, the eye turns in its orbit,
the pulse is weak but rapid, and there is foaming. Later, there is
colic, and spasmodic contractions of limbs and jaws. If the quantity
ingested is sufficient to cause death, the animal falls, but still moves
its limbs. There is bellowing, contraction of pupils, insensibility, and
death in convulsions—or, if not fatal, cattle may remain paralysed.

In the horse, the appearance of the symptoms and the course of the
‘illness are much more rapid and the nervous symptoms are accentuated.

m1] Umbelliferx 39

If the pig has consumed only a small quantity it soon gets rid of
the Poison by vomiting; but if the quantity is considerable there is
no vomiting and death is as rapid as with cyanide poisoning (Cornevin).

REFERENCES.
10, 14, 73, 81, 141, 146, 170, 190, 205, 209, 213, 235, 246.

Fool’s Parsley (Aethusa Cynapium, L.). Much has been written
about the toxic properties of this weed of cultivated fields, principally
because, owing to the fact that the foliage has often been mistaken or
misused for parsley and the roots for radishes (!), it has been the cause
of human poisoning, though it seems to be one of the least active of the
poisonous Umbellifers. Its poisonous character is undoubted, but it
is unlikely to cause the poisoning of stock, which seem to refuse it.
Some authors regard it as strongly poisonous, but others as more or
less harmless. Johnson and Sowerby cite a case in which a child of
five years old died within an hour after eating the root, and a second
death (in Germany) within twenty-four hours from the use of the leaves
in soup.

The most complete account of this plant is that by Power and Tutin,
issued from the Wellcome Chemical Research Laboratories in 1905.
Many authors since 1807 are cited as writing of its poisonous properties,
and of cases of poisoning, two of which terminated fatally. Miller
(1807) says that “most cattle eat it, but it is said to be noxious to geese.”’
Bentley and Trimen write that “in all recorded experiments with it on
animals, it has had poisonous effects.” Dr. John Harley (1876 and
1880), after experiments on a child and adults, concluded that the plant
was absolutely free from the noxious properties attributed to it. In
1904, however, a case of severe poisoning by it was recorded (Brit.
Med. Jour., July 16, 1904, p. 124).

Toxic Principle. This has for many years been stated to be the
alkaloid Cynapine. For their investigation Messrs. Power and Tutin
collected the plant round London in July and August, with the fruits
still green, and after thorough chemical examination found 0-015 per
cent. of an essential oil of rather unpleasant odour; 0-8 per cent. of
resinous substances; and an exceedingly small amount of a volatile
alkaloid having the peculiar characteristic odour of Conwne. The amount
of hydrochloride of the alkaloid obtained showed that if the base were
Coniine it would correspond to only 0-00023 per cent. of Coniine in the
plant. In a degree this confirms the statement by Walz (1859) that
the fruit “contains a volatile base> very similar in odour and chemical

r

40 Ombellifere [cH.

behaviour to Coniine, and probably identical with it.” The investi-
gators suggest that the alkaloid is Coniine, and the small amount would
justify the opinion, but there may be variation in toxic property accord-
ing to stage of development and climate. The authors conclude that
“it cannot be considered improbable that under favourable conditions
of growth, the proportion of alkaloid may be increased to such an extent
as to impart to the plant the poisonous properties ascribed to it.”

Symptoms. In a child which died, there were abdominal pain, a
feeling of sickness, and a tendency to lockjaw, and death supervened
within an hour; and in a German case, vomiting, diarrhoea, lockjaw,
and death in 24 hours. (Johnson and Sowerby.) The plant causes
convulsions and stupor, with nausea and vomiting (Henslow).

The symptoms observed in cows are loss of appetite, salivation, fever,
uncertain gait, and paralysis of hind limbs. (Miiller).

Pott refers to a case which occurred in Guernsey among horses.
Animals with white muzzles and feet had diarrhcea, while other horses
remained healthy. All white places on the body were badly inflamed.
Pammel states that the plant causes stupor, paralysis and convulsions
in domestic animals.

REFERENCES.
45, 73, 81, 121, 130, 141, 190, 203, 213, 214,

Chervils (Chaerophyllum sp.). No investigation of these plants
appears to have been undertaken, but C. sylvestre L., though eaten by
some animals, including the ass and the rabbit, is stated by a German
observer (vide Cornevin) to have caused the death of pigs. Miiller
states that according to the literature both cows and pigs have been
poisoned, even fatally, by C. temulum L. The plants have a strong
odour and acrid taste.

Toxic Principle. This, if any, appears to be unknown, though
Miiller (1897) says that C. temulum contains in all its parts the little
known Chaerophyllin (? alk.).

Symptoms. The pigs referred to above as having died were said to
show paralysis, dilated pupils, and enteritis, and to refuse food. Post-
mortem examination showed acute gastro-intestinal inflammation.
In the case of cows there are similar symptoms.

REFERENCES.
73, 190.

mm] Umbelliferz 41

Hemlock (Conium maculatum L.). This plant, famous from ancient
times as extremely poisonous, has a fetid, disagreeable odour—a mousy
smell—especially noticeable when the plant is bruised. It has caused
human poisoning in three ways: the seeds have been eaten in error for
anise, the leaves for parsley, and the roots for parsnips.

Animals rarely appear to eat this plant, but cases have been recorded.
It is stated that in the United States many domestic animals have been
killed by it; and Ewart says that it is responsible for poisoning a number
of cows in Victoria. Goats are believed to be largely immune to the
poison, or are less harmed than other animals, and sheep are stated to
eat the plant with impunity, though cases of poisoning are recorded.
Johnson and Sowerby state that horses have occasionally swallowed
considerable quantities without apparent effect, while Cornevin remarks
that to cause death a horse would need to eat 4 to 54 lb. of the fresh
plant, or a cow 83 to 11 Ib.

Hemlock is probably most dangerous to live stock in the spring,
when green herbage is least plentiful and the young shoots of hemlock
are fresh and short. Chesnut says that the root is nearly harmless in
March, April and May, but dangerous later, especially in the first year
of growth; but Esser states that it is only poisonous in the spring.
The foliage is more poisonous before flowering than after, when the
poisonous principle passes to the fruits, which are more poisonous before
ripening (three quarters ripe) than afterwards. Pott remarks that
after eating hemlock cows give milk with a bad taste.

Toxic Principle. Early in summer the toxic principle appears to
be chiefly contained in the foliage, but later in the fruit, particularly
when still green. Among the substances contained in hemlock are the
toxic alkaloid Coniine (C,H,,N), the poisonous Coniceine (C,H,;N),
Conhydrine (CgH,,NO), the alkaloid Methylconiine (CyHyN), Pseudo-
conhydrine (C,H,,ON). Coniine may be described as an oily, colourless,
quite volatile liquid, quickly turning brown on exposure to the air, and
giving a mousy odour to the whole plant. The amount of Coniine in
the fresh leaves is given (Pammel) as 0-095 per cent., but in the ripe
seeds 0-7 per cent. English fruits contain much more of the total
alkaloids than imported fruits. Owing to the volatile character of the
poisons hemlock largely loses its toxicity when dried in hay, and is there-
fore the less likely to prove injurious to domestic animals.

Symptoms. Hemlock is a dangerous narcotic plant. Even the
smallest quantities may cause inflammation of the digestive organs,
paralysis and death. The general symptoms are salivation, bloating,

42 Ombellifere [CH. II

dilatation of pupils, rolling of eyes; laboured respiration, diminished
frequency of breathing, irregular heart action; loss of sensation, con-
vulsions, uncertain gait, falling, and at the end complete paralysis.
Death occurs after a few hours. The poison acts on the motor nerve
endings, causing paralysis, dyspncea resulting from paralysis of the
pectoral nerves, and acceleration of the heart from that of the in-
hibitory fibres of the pneumogastric.

Small quantities cause in the horse a little prostration, yawning,
acceleration of pulse, dilatation of pupils and sometimes muscular spasms
of the neck and shoulders. Large quantities cause nausea, unsuccessful
attempts to vomit, gritting of teeth, accelerated respiration and dyspnoea,
and muscular tremors commencing in posterior members and spreading
to anterior members and spine. ‘There is next difficulty of locomotion,
sweating (but not continual), falling, paraplegia, then paralysis, loss
of feeling, lowering of temperature, rapid pulse, increasingly difficult
respiration, and death from stoppage of respiration.

With cattle there is ptyalism, cessation of digestion, bloating, con-
stipation, weakness and stupor. Pregnant cows have been observed
to abort; the milk of cows has an unpleasant flavour. There are
bloody evacuations in some instances in the case of the ox. In cows
Chesnut says that there was “loss of appetite, salivation, bloating,
much bodily pain, loss of muscular power, and rapid, feeble pulse.”

In sheep the abdomen is tucked up, the animal has a dazed appearance,
there is dilatation of pupils, unsteady gait, the hind limbs being dragged,
coldness, and death after a few convulsive movements.

In the pig there is prostration and inability to move, coldness, slow
breathing, livid mucous membranes, imperceptible pulse, paralysis,
particularly of the posterior members, and no convulsions.

REFERENCES.
4, 16, 52, 53, 73, 81, 82, 91, 128, 141, 161, 203, 205, 213, 238.

CHAPTER IV

ARALIACEZ:.

Ivy (Hedera Helix L.). The berries of the Ivy are said to be largely
eaten by certain birds (e.g. blackbirds, thrushes, wood-pigeons), but
have poisoned children. The plant has long been said to be poisonous,
but no definite case of poisoning of live stock has been discovered;
possibly farm live stock would need to eat a considerable quantity for
serious effects to be induced. Indeed, when keep is short, it is quite
common in some districts to see Ivy strewed on the fields for cattle
and sheep to eat, and it is very frequently given to sick animals by
country people (Garnett).

Loxte Principle. This has not been closely studied, but ivy contains
a bitter principle which is strongly cathartic, emetic and purgative.
Ivy contains a poisonous glucoside Hederin (C,H 9,015) and a resin
(Gummi hedere).

Symptoms. As suggested above, it is doubtful whether animals
have been poisoned by Ivy. Symptoms given appear to refer to
children, and consist in sickness, diarrhea, nervous symptoms, excite-
ment at first, then convulsions and paralysis (Miiller). Sickness and
purgation (Esser).

Cornevin states that the symptoms are complex, emeto-purgative
effects being present, with nervous symptoms resembling those of
intoxication, viz. excitement, then coma, convulsions, uncertain gait,
and stertorous respiration.

REFERENCES.
73, 76, 81, 130, 208, 240.

CAPRIFOLIACEZ.

Common Elder (Sambucus nigra L.) and Dwarf Elder (S. Hbulus
L.). These two plants are usually avoided by stock, no doubt in view
of their odour, more particularly in the case of the latter species. The
bark, leaves and berries of both species were noticed by Cornevin as
having pronounced purgative properties, and the berries of S. Hbulus
as having poisoned turkeys. Esser remarks that the use of S. Ebulus by

44 Caprifoliacee, Composite [ CH.

country folk as a purgative has caused fatal poisoning. The leaves of
8. nigra have caused severe irritant poisoning in a child. _

Toxic Principle. Some doubt exists as to the poisonous principle
of the Elders, the leaves of which contain Sambunigrin (Cy4H,,0,N),
a cyanogenetic glucoside; the alkaloid Sambucine; and a purgative
principle. According to Cornevin drying reduces the toxicity but does
not destroy it. i

Symptoms. Thesymptoms are not very definite, but small quantities
cause purgation, while large quantities induce depression and violent
emetic and cathartic effects, with diarrhea, abundant diuresis and
acceleration of pulse. The leaves of S. Hbulus have caused vomiting,
obstinate constipation and enteritis in a boy, and in the case of another
boy the flowers caused vertigo and headache.

REFERENCES.
4, 73, 81, 203, 233.

COMPOSITZ.

Tansy (Tanacetum vulgare L.). Live stock are most unlikely. to
eat this plant, as it is bitter and acrid. Cattle appear to have been
poisoned by it in Germany, Kobert’s opinion being that death had
resulted from tansy. There have also been many serious cases of
human poisoning.

Toxic Principle. Tansy contains the bitter, volatile and poisonous
Oil of Tansy.

Symptoms. Tansy Oil has been employed as an abortifacient, and
produces convulsions, violent spasms, frequent and feeble pulse, and
paralysis of the heart and lungs, inducing a condition similar to that
observed in rabies.

Pammel cites cases of the action of the oil from the plant on dogs.
According to Pott the tansy imparts a bitter taste to the milk of cows
which eat it.

REFERENCES.
161, 208, 204, 213.

Ragwort (Senecio Jacobea L.). No suspicion appears to have
been focussed on Ragwort in Britain, but it must be recorded here as
the cause in Canada of the Pictou cattle disease, or hepatic cirrhosis,
a somewhat fatal disease which has caused much loss during the last
few years. In New Zealand also the same disease has been experienced,
and has caused considerable mortality among sheep. In one case sheep

Iv] Compositz 45

were closely pastured on about 4000 acres with the object of eradicating
the too prevalent weed, but after a year losses ensued. Gilruth con-
cluded that if the weed does not monopolise the ground, sheep may,
with few exceptions, eat it daily without suffering ill effects. Cattle
and horses avoided it when possible.

It may be remarked that in Britain feeding the young shoots off
with sheep, which seem to like the plant, is regarded as the best plan
of reducing Ragwort in grass land. So far there seems to be no record
of injury from this cause.

In South Africa cirrhosis of the liver in cattle (locally termed Molteno
cattle sickness) has been traced to S. latifolius, 8 to 10 lb. of which in
daily feeds of 2 to 6 oz. caused death in about six weeks. Another
species, S. Burchellii, is similarly poisonous, } lb. daily for four days
having killed an ox on the fifth day; at Molteno half the quantity
proved fatal. Both species are fatal to cattle and horses.

Toxic Principle. As regards S. Jacobea nothing appears to be known
as to any toxic principles, though an alkaloid has been isolated by Watt
(1911), but not fully described. The South African S. latifolius, how-
ever, was examined at the Imperial Institute, and two new crystalline
alkaloids were isolated—Senecifoline (C,gH,,0gN) and Senectfolidine
(C,,H,;0,N)—1-20 per cent. being present in the plant before flowering
and 0-49 per cent. after flowering.

Symptoms. As they may to some extent serve as a guide in relation
to possible Ragwort poisoning in Britain the symptoms observed from
poisoning by the South African species may be given: Severe and
strained purging: feces yellowish to dark brown; cows cease to give
milk; abdominal pain, groaning; animal may go mad and charge any-
one approaching, or lie with outstretched head, drooping ears, staring
coat, and dull glaring eyes; death usual within three days from com-
mencement of purging. The post-mortem shows an inflamed fourth
stomach; hardened condition of the liver, often dull grey with spots
in the interior; expanded gall bladder, with dull yellow viscid bile.

REFERENCES.
43, 128, 195, 260.

Wild Lettuce (Lactuca sp.). Just how far the two species L.
scariola L. and L. virosa L. are really poisonous is not clearly known,
and it is probable that to be seriously harmful to farm live stock they
would need to be ingested in considerable quantity, and this they never
seem to be. They are certainly not actively poisonous, though Bailey

46 Compositae, Ericacez (CH.

and Gordon say that “we have been informed that this European plant
—now a national pest—is sometimes eaten by cattle, on whom it has been
observed to have had an injurious effect.”

Toxic Principle. Authorities differ as to the substances to which
the toxic property, if any, is to be attributed. According to Ludwig
the milky juice, known as Lactucarium, includes Lactucone, Lactucin,
and Lactucic Acid, the second of these being the narcotic substance.
Nearly half the weight of Lactucarium (a form of dried juice) consists
of the tasteless inodorous Lactucone or Lactucerin (C,4H,,0), and the
bitter taste is due to Lactupicrine, Lactucin and Lactucic Acid. In
the leaves of L. virosa, Dymond found traces of Hyoscyamine or
a similar substance (Jour. Chem. Soc., 1892, Vol. 61, p. 90).

Symptoms. Intoxication is produced similar to that caused by
poppy heads; the narcotic effects are dominant (Cornevin).

REFERENCES.
11, 73, 81, 130, 213, 240.

ERICACEZ:.

Rhododendron (Rhododendron sp.). The literature points to there
being no doubt as to the poisonous character of a number of species
of Rhododendron, and indeed most species are suspected. Animals do
not appear to eat Rhododendrons very extensively, but both English
and Belgian veterinary surgeons have published records of poisoning
of sheep and goats by R. ponticum. Suspected cases were recorded in
the Journal of the Board of Agriculture (1907 and 1914); three cases
of cattle poisoning in the Veterinary Record (1900, 1906, and 1907); one
of calves in the Veterinarian (1859); and three of sheep-poisoning—one
in the Veterinary Journal (1906), and two in the Veterinarian (1865); but
these cases were not all fatal. The death of 19 out of 21 cross-bred
Scotch lambs due to eating R. ponticum was reported by C. T. Baines
in the Journal of the Land Agents Society (Aug. 1914, p. 373). The
plant was eaten after a heavy fall of snow. Chesnut includes R. mazi-
mum as one of the thirty most poisonous plants of the United States.
According to Cornevin, R. ferruginewm causes frequent poisoning of
animals which graze on the plateaux where it grows—especially sheep
and goats, the latter providing the most victims, as they willingly
browse the young shoots and leaves. R. californicum is said to be
poisonous to sheep in Oregon. R. Chrysanthum, the leaves of which

Iv] ; Ericacez 47

have been used in Russia and Germany for rheumatism, has caused
poisoning in man. R. punctatwm and R. hirsutum appear to be not less
poisonous.

Both leaves and flowers are narcotic, and even the honey in the
flowers is regarded with suspicion. The following quotations are not
without interest :—

“In these regions (Tungu) many of my goats and kids had died
foaming at the mouth and grinding their teeth, and I have discovered
the cause to arise from their eating the leaves of Rhododendron cinna-
barinum (“ Kema Kechoong,” Lepcha; Kema signifying Rhododendron) ;
this species alone is said to be poisonous, and when used as a fuel it
causes the face to swell and the eyes to inflame, of which I observed
several instances.” (Hooker, Himalayan Journals, ii. p. 150).

“Rhododendron arboreum becomes plentiful at 5000 to 6000 feet
(East Nepal), forming a large tree on dry clayeyslopes. . . . . In
the contracted parts of the valley the mountains often dip to the river-
bed in precipices of gneiss under the ledges of which wild bees build
pendulous nests looking like huge bats suspended by their wings; they
are two or three feet long and as broad at the top whence they taper
downwards; the honey is much sought for except in spring, when it is
said to be poisoned by Rhododendron flowers just as that eaten by the
soldiers in the retreat of the Ten Thousand was by the flowers of R.
ponticum.’’ (ic. 1. p. 200).

Toxic Principle. The leaves and flowers contain a bitter poisonous
glucoside, Andromedotoxin (C,H; 90,9), Which has been regarded as
more poisonous than Aconitine. Other glucosides found in Rhododen-
drons are Ericolin (Cy4H5g0o;), Arbutin (Cy.H,,0,), and Rhododendrin
(C,¢H.0,), but it is not clearly shown whether these are poisonous
when ingested; Kobert, however, includes the two former among
cerebro-spinal poisons.

Symptoms. In the case of goats Cornevin records intense pain,
diarrhea, discomfort, gritting of teeth, salivation, and frequently
vomiting; while there is reduced lactation, trembling, spasms, vertigo,
loss of power, and death. Lander notes similar symptoms in cattle
and sheep.

According to Eve (Veterinary Record, 1907), a reddish colour was
observed in the milk of a cow poisoned by Rhododendron.

REFERENCES.
4, 16, 53, 63, 73, 76, 81, 144, 161, 170, 203, 205,
211, 212, 213, 231, 252, 264.

48 Ericacex, Primulacex (cH.

Azalea (Azalea sp.). A suspected case of poisoning was recorded
in the Journal of the Board of Agriculture in 1907. No British record
of poisoning has been found. Various species of Azalea (A. pontica,
A. indica, A. arborescens, A. nudiflora, etc.) are stated to be very poison-
ous to all animals which browse on them in the East. Cuttings should
never be thrown down where they can be eaten by stock.

Towic Principle. Little work has been done on these plants, but
they are believed to contain Ericolin, Arbutin, and Andromedotoxin as
in the case of rhododendrons (p. 47).

Symptoms. Azaleas appear to be narcotic, and to produce symptoms
resembling those caused by Lolium temulentum (Cornevin).

REFERENCES.
73, 144, 190, 205.

PRIMULACEZ.

Scarlet Pimpernel (Anagallis arvensis L.). Unless it occurs in
very considerable quantity this little plant is unlikely to -be eaten to
an extent sufficient to cause definite poisonous symptoms, as it is a corn-
field weed. It may be taken, however, if animals are allowed to run
over stubble. Sheep are said to refuse it in general, but have died from
eating it (see below).

There seems to be no doubt that if eaten in sufficient quantity it has
@ poisonous action, having an irritant action on the digestive tract—
the intestines—as well as producing narcotic effects. Strasburger notes
it as “slightly poisonous”; Bailey says “a dog is stated to have been
destroyed by making it swallow three drachms of the extract,” while
according to Hyams the fluid extract in 4 drachm doses is fatal to dogs
(the size of the dog is not mentioned!); at the Veterinary School at
Lyons horses were intentionally killed by administering a decoction of
the plant; in America Chesnut notes it as suspected of killing-a horse;
Ewart says it “has been reported to render the chaff from oat crops
infested by the weed unpalatable to stock”; and Gilruth states that
a year or two ago it was responsible for the death of a large number of
sheep in Victoria, apparently acting as a narcotic poison (Amer. Vet.
Rev., July, 1913, p. 383.). On the Pacific coast the plant is known
as “Poison Weed.” Grognier and Orfila are stated to have put its
poisonous properties beyond doubt.

Iv] Primulacex, Oleacex, Convolvulacee 49

Toxic Principle. The plant contains the glucoside Cyclamin
(CyoH 34049), and a saponin-like substance (Pammel). Van Rijn says
it contains two glucosides.

Symptoms. The plant has an irritating effect on the intestines and
a stupefying effect on the nervous system. Cornevin states that it is
never taken by the larger domestic animals in quantity sufficient to
cause poisoning.

REFERENCES.
10, 73, 82, 190, 203, 235, 252.

OLEACEZ.

Privet (Ligustrum vulgare L.). The facts as to the poisonous
character of Privet are by no means clear, but Taylor records a case
in which three children who ate the berries were attacked by violent
purging, and a boy and girl died. Turner observed a case in which
horses died after eating Privet.

Toxic Principle. The Privet is stated to contain the poisonous
glucosides Ligustrin and Ligustron, not mentioned by Van Rijn, who
says it contains Syringin (C,,H,,0,), while Pammel (1911) adds the
bitter glucosidal principle Syringopicrin (CygH240,7).

Symptoms. In horses Turner observed loss of power in the hind
limbs, with a pulse of 50, temperature 102° F., slightly injected mucous
membranes, and dilated pupils, with death in 36 to 48 hours. The
berries are stated by Miiller to cause sickness and diarrhea.

REFERENCES.
130, 190, 203, 233, 252.

CONVOLVULACEZ.

Bindweeds (Convolvulus sepium L. and C. arvensis L.). The
creeping rootstocks and foliage, as well as the seeds, are held to be more
or less poisonous if eaten in quantity, and as long ago as 1872 Olver
recorded (Veterinarian, 1872) that pigs which ate freely of Convolvulus
died. These species, when eaten in considerable quantity, appear to
be cathartic and purgative, causing symptoms resembling those due to
jalap.

REFERENCES.
82, 141, 190, 203, 254.

50 Solanacez [cH.

SOLANACEZE.

Thorn Apple (Datura Stramonium L.). This species is an escape
from cultivation, but on occasion occurs plentifully in gardens, and if
allowed to seed may escape to arable fields and find its way to stock,
though it does not appear to have done so in Britain. . Several species
of Datura are recognized as virulent poisons in North America, where
they are known as Jimson Weeds. All parts are poisonous, especially
the seeds, which have a somewhat sweetish taste, and have frequently
caused accidents to children who have eaten them. Cases are recorded
in the United States in which cattle have been poisoned by eating the
leaves of young plants in hay. Live stock, however, usually avoid the
plant, which has an unpleasant odour and taste, while the seeds are
enclosed in thorny capsules. Walsh states that the seeds are very
fatal to young ostriches. Drying does not destroy the toxicity.

Toxic Principle. The Thorn Apple is usually stated to contain the
highly poisonous narcotic alkaloid Daturine, but this appears to be a
mixture of the two alkaloids Hyoscyamine (C,,H,30,N) and Atropine
(C,,H,,0,N), which, together with the alkaloid Scopolamine, or Hyoscine
(C,,H,,0,N), have been found in the plant, the principal constituent
being Hyoscyamine. In some analyses as much as 0-33 per cent. of
Atropine has been found in the seeds, and 0-2 per cent. in the leaves
(Pammel). The three alkaloids occur together to the extent of 0-48 to
3°33 per cent. in the leaves, 0-43 per cent. in the flowers, and 0-1 per
cent. in the root, Hyoscyamine predominating (Esser). An investigation
conducted at the Imperial Institute (Bul. Imp. Inst., 1911) showed

the amount of alkaloids in European specimens to be:—_ —-
Seeds .. 0°21 to 0-48 per cent.
Leaves .. up to04 x
Stems .. average 0:22 ,,
Roots .. average 0-17 A

Symptoms. The general effect of Datura poisoning appears to re-
semble that of Atropa Belladonna, but is by some considered more rapidly
effective. There is paralysis, dilatation of the pupils, suspension of
secretion and of the inhibitory fibres of the vagus, leading to rapid action
of the heart (Lander). Poisoning may terminate fatally. Pammel
quotes Winslow as stating that two grains of Atropine produce mild toxic
symptoms in the horse; cattle are as susceptible as horses, though
herbivora are not so easily influenced as carnivora. Chesnut gives the

Iv] Solanacex 51

following symptoms: “Headache, vertigo, nausea, extreme thirst, dry,
burning skin, and general nervous confusion, with dilated pupils, loss of
sight and of voluntary motion, and sometimes mania, convulsions, and
death.” Walsh gives the toxic symptoms in ostriches as staggering gait,
spasmodic jerking of the neck, stupor, and death in a comatose state.

REFERENCES.
4, 10, 16, 39, 52, 53, 73, 81, 92, 128, 141, 170, 208, 213, 260.

Henbane (Hyoscyamus niger L.). The poisonous character of Henbane
is well known, but the plant is by no means common (except in Ireland),
though found in parts of England, Scotland, and Wales. Poisoning
of live stock may occasionally occur, but the disagreeable odour is
likely to prevent all but abnormal or very hungry animals from touching
it. The seeds are eaten by birds, apparently without injury, but
poisoned chickens which ate the ripe seeds in Montana. Cornevin records
that cows have been poisoned by eating the plant when given mixed with
other herbage. There are numbers of cases of children having been
poisoned by eating the seeds. The root has also caused accidents by
being taken for other herbs, and the young shoots and leaves have been
used in error as a vegetable. A case was reported in the press in 1910 in
which 25 men and women visitors at a Davos pension suffered from the
effects of eating the root of Henbane given in error for horse-radish, or
mixed with it. All suffered from strange hallucinations, ‘but with
prompt and careful treatment all had recovered in twelve hours. Kann-
giesser says that poisoning by this plant very seldom terminates fatally.

Welsby records a case in which animals were poisoned in a field in
which Henbane was grown for medicinal use some years before (Veterinary
Record, 1903). According to Rodet and Baillet (wide Cornevin) small
quantities of the seeds are in some countries mixed with the food of
fattening stock; if true that fattening is promoted, it is probably due
to the inducement to quiet and repose caused by the narcotic properties
of the seeds. .

Toxic Principle. Poisoning by Henbane is due to the alkaloids
Hyoscyamine (Cy,H,,NO,) and the closely related Hyoseane, or Scopola-
mine (Cy,H,,0,N). The glucoside Hyoseypicrin is also found *in
Henbane. The poisonous property is not eradicated by drying or
boiling. The leaves of Henbane grown in Europe contain from 0-04 to
0-08 per cent. of total alkaloid, and the seeds 0-06 to 0-10 per cent.

(Bul. Imp. Inst., 1911).
4—2

52 Solanacex [CH.

Symptoms. Henbane is an anodyne, and hypnotic. The symptoms
resemble those caused by Atropa Belladonna (p. 58). The important
differences (Cornevin) are that there is here abundant salivation and
no dryness of the mouth asin Atropa. There is dilatation of the pupils ;
and mydriasis, which is dissipated more slowly than in Belladonna
poisoning.

Further differences in the action of the two poisons are given by
Winslow (via Pammel): The tetanic stage succeeding spinal paralysis
observed in Atropine poisoning does not ensue with Hyoscine. The latter
alkaloid slightly depresses and slows the heart and does not paralyse the
vagus terminations, nor depress the motor and sensory nerves or muscles.
The circulation is but slightly influenced, and vasomotor depression
only occurs in the later stage of lethal poisoning. Death occurs from
paralysis of the respiratory centres. Poisoning in animals is exhibited
by loss of muscular power, slowing and failure of respiration, stupor,
and asphyxia. The pulse may be infrequent, the pupils are dilated,
and the skin is moist rather than dry.

The following symptoms in animals are given by Welsby: Nervo-
muscular exaltation, eyelids and irides much dilated, eyes amaurotic
and very bright, pulse full, temperature normal, respiration difficult
and hurried, profuse salivation, muscles of neck and extremities in a
state of tetanic rigidity, considerable abdominal distension, stercoraceous
and renal emunctories entirely suspended, death.

Tn a cow there was observed, two hours after eating, dilatation of
pupils, the conjunctive were injected, and the carotids beat violently.
There were general convulsions, loud respiration, salivation, and purga-
tion. According to Pott the milk of affected cows is of an unpleasant
taste.

REFERENCES.

4, 16, 39, 57, 68, 73, 81, 128, 141, 151, 157,
161, 190, 203, 205, 213, 257.

Garden Nightshade (Solanum nigrum L.). This species is de-
scribed as “one of the widest spread weeds over every part of the globe,
except the extreme north and south; varying so much in warmer
regions as to have been described under more than forty names” (Ben-
tham and Hooker). In the same way there can be no doubt that,
though it must always be regarded as poisonous, this plant varies con-
siderably in toxicity according to soil, climate, and general condition
of growth. For this reason the plant may sometimes be eaten in con-

Iv] Solanacex 53

siderable quantities without ill effects, while in other cases it will
undoubtedly prove poisonous.

Children have been poisoned by the berries, but may on occasion
eat them with no other ill effect than a stomach ache, or, if eaten in
excess, sickness and purging. The berries “have even been used instead
of raisins for plum puddings with no effects out of the ordinary” (Ewart).
The plant has also been used in Queensland and elsewhere as a substitute
for spinach. In several cases the plant has proved fatal. Gohier gave
3 kilogrammes (64 lb.) of the green plant to a horse and observed no
serious symptoms. Cases of poisoning are recorded for calves, sheep,
goats and pigs (Chesnut and Wilcox). According to Lehmann, Schraber
and Haller, the berries are poisonous to ducks and chickens. Over
thirty years ago the death of a number of cattle in Victoria was recorded
as being due to poisoning by this weed.

Though cases of poisoning of stock are rare, partly perhaps because
the plant is a weed of arable land and partly because animals are likely
to avoid it unless starved, Solanum nigrum must be regarded as a poison-
ous plant, any examples of which may prove toxic. The downy and
more prostrate form has been considered the most poisonous.

The “Wonderberry,” said to be a hybrid between Solanum guineense
and S. villosum, which are probably varieties of S. nigrum, cannot in
England be distinguished from the last named, the fruits of which appear
to be edible in some countries and poisonous in others. Greshoff found
that fruits of the “Wonderberry” contained more Solanine than the
wild English S. nigrum or the Canadian form known as the “Huckle-
berry,”’ and hence they should not be eaten.

Toxic Principle. The Garden Nightshade, in particular the berries,
contains the alkaloidal glucoside Solanine, of which the formula is
considered doubtful. Solanine is readily converted into sugar and the
poisonous Solanidine. It was isolated from the berries in 1821, and
though decidedly active in sufficient quantity is not a violent poison.
A small quantity of Solanine is present in the stem and berries, but
these are probably less poisonous than green potatoes (p. 54).

Symptoms. The symptoms of poisoning are apparently much the
same in man and animals: “Stupefaction; staggering; loss of speech,
feeling, and consciousness; cramps and sometimes convulsions. The
pupil is generally dilated.”

REFERENCES.
4, 10, 11, 16, 17, 52, 53, 57, 73, 81, 82, 128,
141, 161, 203, 235, 240.

54 Solanacex [oH.

Bittersweet (Solanum Dulcamara L.). Some doubt exists in regard
to the toxic character of this common denizen of the hedge-row, some
persons regarding the berries as harmless and others as poisonous.
Possibly the plant varies in toxicity. Floyer states that 30 berries
killed a dog. Though stock rarely touch the plant there seems to be
no doubt that it is poisonous, stem, leaves, and berries containing
the toxic alkaloid found in S. nigrum and the potato (q.v.), and it
is especially possible that poisoning may follow the ingestion of the
berries. Johnson and Sowerby (1861) say that the leaves are narcotic,
causing nausea and giddiness, and that the fruit is equally harmful,
though no fatal cases then seemed to be recorded. Gillam records
(Vet. Record, 1906) a case of poisoning of sheep. An anonymous writer
in the Mark Lane Express (July 24, 1911) states emphatically that this
plant is very poisonous, and that he has known 14 per cent. of the sheep
on a farm to be killed by it in a year, while his veterinary surgeon had
had 40 cases that season, some proving fatal.

Toxic Principle. Like S. nigrum, the stems, leaves, and berries of
Bittersweet contain Solanine. The berries are stated by Esser to contain
0-3 to 0-7 per cent. of Solanine. The stems also contain the glucoside
Dulcamarin (CogH_,0,9), which imparts a bitter taste to the plant, but
which has not been fully studied.

Symptoms. In the case recorded by Gillam (see above) the symptoms
observed in sheep were small intermittent pulse, temperature 104° F.,
quickened respiration, staggering gait, dilated pupil, and greenish
diarrhoea. The symptoms appear to be the same in the case of cattle
(Farmer and Stockbreeder, July 10, 1911).

REFERENCES.
4, 16, 40, 50, 52, 73, 81, 141, 147, 203, 213, 257.

The Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.). Though potato haulm is
more or less commonly utilised on the Continent as a green fodder,
and has been so used in England, yet there are good grounds for the
general belief that it is not a suitable food for stock. The tubers may
in general be eaten with impunity, but, under certain conditions, cannot
be regarded as blameless, since they have caused serious injury. There
are certainly records of injury to man from eating Potatoes, and accidents
with animals have occurred more commonly. “Greened” tubers, and
tubers with young shoots appear to be the chief cause of accidents, and,
as regards live stock, usually when fed raw.

Cornevin knew of no case of poisoning in man, and considered that

Iv] Solanacezx 55

this was probably because man (1) eats only the part poorest in the toxic
principle (see below), (2) does not eat the skin, (3) always cooks the
tubers, and (4) rarely subsists only on potatoes for a considerable time.
He found accidents among animals, however, not rare. In fact, elimina-
ting cases possibly due to changes caused by weather, cryptogams, and
ferments, he found poisonings every year unquestionably due to Solanine,
chiefly among cattle. Cows will eat the haulm without trouble in times
of scarcity of green fodder, but to the detriment of their health if such
feeding is prolonged.

Macfadyen showed some time since that old sprouted Potatoes,
even after boiling, are poisonous to horses. In 1896 eleven horses died
from eating in most instances small quantities of spoiled and somewhat
sprouted Potatoes, and two test-horses fed on the Potatoes died. In
this case, however, it was conjectured that the poison was probably
some organic substance generated by the bacteria or fungi growing on
the Potatoes.

Chesnut and Wilcox (1901) recorded the death of six pigs due to
eating sprouted uncooked Potatoes; after cooking the potatoes did not
cause poisoning. With sufficient boiling most of the poison appears
to remain behind in the water and might be thrown away.

Cases of poisoning of stock by Potatoes appear to have occurred
more or less frequently in Germany. Two such cases were noted in the
Berliner Tierdratliche Wochenschrift in 1909, in one of which 64 cows
developed symptoms of poisoning after being fed on a large quantity of
raw tubers, while in the other instance two cows became ill after
eating Potato parings—which, as shown below, contain more Solanine
than the “flesh.”

In the case of two children who died, F. W. Stoddart, Public Analyst
of Bristol, after a post-mortem in one case, gave a very guarded opinion
that death was probably due to Solanine poisoning, due to eating raw
Potato peel, but was not confident. A most interesting case of severe but
not fatal poisoning is described in The Lancet (1899). No less than
56 soldiers in Berlin were badly affected, until the supply of Potatoes
was stopped, but the men recovered.

Pammel (1911) states that some persons cannot eat Potatoes because
poisonous to them, but such persons must be extremely rare, and
hypersensitive to minimum quantities of Solanine, which is almost
if not quite absent in the “flesh” of Potatoes.

Toxic Principle. The Potato plant, like the other species of Solanum
mentioned above, contains Solanine, which occurs not only in the

56 Solanacex [ CH.

haulm, but in the flowers and fruits, and in the peel of the tubers.
Solanidine also occurs ready-formed in the young sprouts of potatoes to
the extent of 1:5 percent. (Allen). In the case of the soldiers poisoned in
Berlin analysis demonstrated the presence of Solanine to the extent of
0-038 per cent. in boiled tubers and 0-024 per cent. in raw tubers, and
on an average every man who fell ill had 0-3 gramme of the alkaloid, a
sufficient quantity to produce toxic results. Esser (1910) states that in
midsummer the haulm contains 0-0925 per cent. of Solanine but late
in summer only 0-0374 per cent. In the tubers the alkaloid occurs in
the inner layers of the peel to the extent of 0-0124 per cent., red or pink
varieties containing rather more than yellow sorts. The same authority
says that damp soils tend to a higher percentage of Solanine than dry
soils!, and that nitrogenous manuring as compared with potash tends
to an increase of Solanine. In fresh spring shoots 1-5 per cent. of the
alkaloid has been found, and the percentage is especially high in tubers
which have been “greened” by long exposure to light. As already
stated it is the greened tubers which appear to be the chief cause of
accidents. Tubers with young shoots are richer in poisonous alkaloids
than those which have not yet been sprouted; such tubers when fed
raw to stock may on occasion induce poisoning, unless fed only in small
quantities.

Writing in 1887 Cornevin remarked that Solanine, though neither
very active nor very abundant in Potatoes, nevertheless causes accidents,
as it is cumulative, or, to be more exact, is eliminated slowly.

Symptoms. In poisoning by potato haulm, Cornevin records con-
stipation, loss of appetite, rise in temperature, accelerated circulation,
normal respiration, salivation, tumefaction of eyelids, eyes watery, con-
junctive injected, and hair erect. The skin is covered with scabs which
exude matter, the skin being cracked. These scabs are found especially
on the scrotum of male cattle and the udder of female cattle, but also
in the caudal region and round the anus. An examination of the mouth
shows places on the upper jaw which are devoid of mucus and are
purulent at the centre, the mucus round the edges being swollen. The
posterior members are similarly but not so badly affected. Movement
of these members seems to cause the animal much pain. Defecation
is frequent, the faeces being liquid and dark in colour. The animals are
recumbent for a considerable time with the posterior members stretched
out. In the worst cases there is pronounced emaciation.

1 On the other hand, potatoes grown in a dry sandy soil are stated to contain
more Solanine than those grown in other soils.

Tv] Solanacex 57

According to Friedberger and Frohner (vide Pammel) animals

affected by potato tops show symptoms resembling those of foot-and-
mouth disease.
; According to Pott the berries cause colic and foul smelling diarrhea
in cattle. A German veterinary surgeon after feeding the green plant
observed symptoms of delirium, paralysis, and flatulence. In other cases
trembling and uncertain gait, with paralysis of the spinal cord, have
been observed in cows. .

In poisoning by tubers there is depression, loss of appetite, cessation
of lactation, gritting of teeth, profound prostration, with a remarkable
somnolence, but no dilatation of the pupils. The animals remain re-
cumbent, with closed eyes, and refuse togetup. Respiration is somewhat
retarded, and the pulse is small and accelerated. There are digestive
disturbances, tympanitis, diarrhoea succeeds constipation, and there
is vomiting (where possible). The poisoning is usually fatal.

Where a large quantity of sprouted Potatoes has been fed the pros-
tration becomes paraplegia, with loss of sensibility, stupefaction, and
death. Where there is prolonged ingestion of a large quantity of un-
sprouted tubers there is prostration, intestinal irritation, rapid emacia-
tion and death in marasmus after an illness of from one to three weeks
(Cornevin).

Pott states that potatoes diseased with wet rot, when fed raw,
cause digestive troubles, bloating, diarrhoea, abortion, and decrease in
milk yield, with fatal results in some cases. Potatoes diseased with
dry rot cause constipation in sucking pigs, and a “fishy” butter from
cow’s milk.

Lander notices two cases of poisoning of horses by tubers. In the
first case the symptoms were a small and weak pulse, normal tempera-
ture and loss of co-ordination in movements; complete loss of appetite,
excessive thirst, but inability to drink; mydriasis, stertorous breathing,
suspension of peristalsis, and slight tremors over the crural muscles.
In the second case there was a rapid and feeble pulse, temperature
103° F., intense congestion of the mucous membranes, and very feetid
diarrhcea, terminating fatally.

In poisoning of horses after receiving large quantities of raw Potatoes,
Pott records boil-like swellings on the skin, loss of hair, diarrhcea, in-
flammation of the stomach and intestines, skin irritation, and swollen
fetlocks and hocks.

In reference to the horses mentioned above (p. 55) it is stated that
an affected animal seems dull, and dies within twelve hours after being

58 Solanacex [CH.

first observed, without evincing any sign of pain. The first symptoms
in ten cases were weakness and loss of power over the limbs.

In cows the symptoms (Miiller) are loss of appetite, bloating, diar-
theea, staggering, dilatation of pupils, convulsions, loss of sensation and
paralysis. In many cases, however, these symptoms do not appear,
but instead there are outbreaks on the skin of the hind legs similar to
those in foot-and-mouth disease. Pott mentions abortion as a symptom.
After the ingestion of green Potato parings by dairy cows he remarks
catarrh of the stomach and intestines, and bad milk and cheese; con-
sumption of diseased Potato parings resulted in the flow of hard mucus
from the mouth, the legs being badly swollen, and covered with scabs,
and the mouth and body covered with boils. Symptoms of paralysis
were noticed after feeding dirty Potato parings to four cows and four
bulls, and one cow died.

In the case of the cows already referred to (p. 55) as poisoned in
Germany, it was remarked as a noticeable feature in both instances that
there was the appearance of eczema on the hind limbs, causing lameness.

A case in which pigs were fed on uncooked, sprouted Potatoes is
noticed by Chesnut and Wilcox; there was slowly progressing paralysis,
which became complete after about 24 hours, increased salivation, and
a regurgitation of the stomach contents. According to Pott death
may result in pigs. The symptoms given by Lander for poisoning in
pigs are loss of appetite, dullness, exhaustion, imperceptible pulse,
watery diarrhoea, low temperature and comatose condition.

In the case of the poisoned soldiers the symptoms were those of
acute gastro-enteritis; rise in temperature to 103° F.; headache,
colic, diarrhoea, general debility; in some cases vomiting, in others
nausea only; several men fainted, and one had convulsions; the
majority were drowsy and apathetic; but all recovered.

REFERENCES.

4, 16, 19, 57, 73, 81, 128, 130, 141, 170, 190,
196, 203, 204, 205, 213.

Deadly Nightshade (Atropa Belladonna L.). This plant has long
been known to be exceedingly poisonous, all parts containing a
toxic principle. Both man and domestic animals may be poisoned,
though the latter are very unlikely to touch the plant. As regards man,
children are most likely to be affected, owing to the attractive character
of the large bright black berries. Domestic animals appear to be rarely
poisoned and are less affected than man, and in any case the susceptibility

Iv] Solanacezx 59

of various species—and even individuals of the same species—is very
variable. Human beings are most susceptible, followed by the cat-and
dog; the horse is much less so; and the pig, goat, sheep, and rabbit
are little susceptible to poisoning, even on eating the root—the- most
poisonous part (Cornevin). Gohier and others have given over 2 lb.
of the green plant to horses without ill effects, and this repeated on three
days did not cause marked pathological troubles. Hertwig considered
large ruminants to be more sensible than horses to the action of Bella-
donna. It appears to be agreed that small ruminants are very slightly
susceptible to this plant. Birds are considered almost insensitive,
while rabbits may be fed for weeks on the leaves without poisoning, as
also sheep, goats, and pigs. Horses and cattle are more sensitive but
nevertheless resistant. The poison is no doubt quickly removed by the
kidneys, since ordinary injection of Belladonna causes the usual symp-
toms. It is stated that the flesh of rabbits and birds which have eaten
the plant and have been slaughtered apparently healthy is poisonous
to man.

One berry can induce symptonis of human poisoning, and a child
died after eating only three berries. Mortality in human cases of
poisoning by Belladonna is given by Kanngiesser as 10 per cent. |

Toxic Principle. Deadly Nightshade is the source of drugs widely
used in medicine, and its properties as regards man have been exten-
sively studied. The principal substance present is the alkaloid Hyos-
cyamine (C,,H,,0,N), readily converted into Atropine (Cy,H,,0,N);
Scopolamine or Hyoscine (CyH,,0,N), and in smaller quantity Apo-
atropine, and Belladonine are also present.

All parts of the plant contain the toxic alkaloids, but in unequal
degree. The total quantity of the alkaloids is largest in the roots
(0-4 to 1 per cent.), which in the fresh state contain no Atropine, but
only Hyoscyamine; the leaves and fruits contain less of the alkaloids,
and cultivated plants have been found to be poorer (0-26 per cent.) than
wild (0-4 per cent). The root has been found to be five times as toxic
as the berries. Drying does not destroy the poisonous properties.

Symptoms. In quantities which are not fatal the symptoms are
nausea, dilatation of pupils, muscular weakness, stumbling, falling, and
rising only to fall again. These are followed by vertigo, frenzy, and
coma (more rarely). There is a slight slackening in respiration, and an
increase in the rapidity of the heart’s action. Dysury and constipation
are observed.

In fatal quantities the symptoms are more intense and make their

60 Solanacez [CH. IV

appearance more rapidly. The nausea is accompanied by vomiting,
and there is almost complete loss of sight. Sensitiveness is at first
increased but later diminishes and gradually disappears; complete
incoordination of movements; increase in the heart’s action but a
gradually weakening pulse; stertorous, painful respiration; decrease
in temperature. There is repeated urination at the commencement
of the poisoning, and then dysury. At the approach of death there are
muscular trembling and clonic contractions. This phase of convulsions
is short but very clear in some cases: other cases do not leave the deep
coma in which they are plunged (Cornevin).

In regard to cattle, the following symptoms are given by Miiller:
Injury to sight, dilatation of pupils, constipation, later bloody evacua-
tions, pain in hind limbs, rapid pulse, difficult breathing, restlessness,
frenzy and finally paralysis.

REFERENCES.
4, 16, 61, 73, 81, 128, 138, 143, 151, 157, 161, 190, 205.

CHAPTER V

SCROPHULARINEZE.

Foxglove (Digitalis purpurea L.). The Foxglove has been recog-
nized as poisonous for centuries, and one of its trivial names is Dead
Men’s Bells—a name suggestive of the consequences of taking it. It is
the source of the well-known drug; and cases of human poisoning have
been very common, though by no means always fatal—indeed, Esser
says “seldom resulting in death.” Animals are not known to touch
this plant, but it may possibly be included in rough meadow hay, though
only one case, in which two cows and a horse became ill after eating hay
containing dry foxgloves, has come to notice (Veterinary Record, 1906).
Cornevin, however, experimented on animals, and found the following
amounts of fresh leaves capable of causing death in the animals specified :—

Horse .. 120-140 grammes (4 to 5 oz.)

Ox -. 160-180 ss (5°5 to 6°5 oz.)
Sheep .. 25- 30 3 (0-88 to 1 02.)
Pig -. 15 20 * (0°5 to 0:7 oz.)

The weight of dried leaves would be only one-fourth of these figures.

All parts of the foxglove are poisonous, but especially the seeds, and
the leaves are more active before than after the flowering period. Culti-
vated varieties are stated to be less toxic than the wild species. The
effects of poisoning may terminate fatally in a few hours, or if small
quantities are taken regularly the poison may be cumulative and induce
chronic poisoning.

Toxic Principle. The foxglove contains several poisonous gluco-
sides, investigated by Kiliani, Schmiedeberg, Cloette, Bourquelot,
Herzig, and others. The following substances are toxic: Digitalin
(Cy5H 5g 014 Of CygHsg014) in the seeds and leaves ; Digitonin (Cs4H e208
or CsgHo40og) in the seeds; Digitalein, only in small quantity ; Digitoxin
(Co4H540,,) in the leaves; and Digitin. The toxic property of the
foxglove is not lost on drying or boiling.

62 - Scrophularinee [cH.

Symptoms. Digitalis is an active heart poison, and causes nausea,
pressure in the region of the stomach, with diminished pulse, darkening
of the field of vision, dizziness, buzzing in the ears, and usually dilated
pupils.

According to Pammel the symptoms in animals are dullness, lassi-
tude,: loss of appetite, nausea, flatulence, diarrhoea; infrequent, full
pulse (reduced 6-10 beats in the horse); and contracted pupils. In
fatal cases these symptoms are followed by severe colic and tympanites ;
rapid, feeble, dicrotic, irregular or intermittent pulse (120-140 in horses),
while the heart may be heard and felt beating wildly and strongly, and
a systolic blowing murmur can frequently be detected. This is due to
mitral or tricuspid regurgitation caused by irregular contraction of the
columne carne. The pulse is imperceptible because of the failure of

-the heart to fill the vessels. The extremities are cold, the eye is pro-
truding, and salivation occurs. Bloody diarrhoea is very often present
and the urine may be suppressed. The breathing finally becomes diffi-
cult and death ensues within a few hours, or as late as several days.

The following account of the symptoms of poisoning in various
animals is collected by Lander :—

Horses. On the first day sleepiness, swollen eyelids, dilated pupils,
injected conjunctive, considerable swelling in submaxillary space;
respiration normal, temperature 103-5° F.; pulse full, between 65 and
75, very intermittent, being occasionally normal; the second heart
sound frequently obliterated. On the next day laboured breathing,
head immensely swollen, tongue greatly enlarged and protruding, pulse
80 and most erratic, temperature very slightly up, great restlessness.
Respiration became more difficult and stertorous, tongue and buccal
membranes livid, jugular standing out.

A mare experimentally poisoned showed on the third day dullness
and loss of appetite; fourth day nauseated; nose, mouth, and ears cold;
abdomen blown, with colicky pain, and occasional pawing; pupil
somewhat contracted, pulse firm at axilla and heart, but not perceptible
at jaw; at 4.30 p.m. she was down, much pained, and attempting to
roll; pulse 82, but unequal; fifth day, pulse, imperceptible at jaw,
about 120; respiration 25, and very much laboured: lips retracted
and saliva dripping from the mouth; enormous abdominal tympanites,
and much pain; rapid sinking: died siath day.

Cows. Fed erratically, breathed hard, lay down after feeding.
Pulse almost imperceptible, contracted pupil, and excessive urination.

Pigs. Languid and sleepy: refused to eat or drink, attempting to

Vv] Scrophularinee, Polygonacex 63

vomit and repeatedly passing small quantities of feces. Urination was
scanty and strained.

In a case of poisoning among horses to which Miiller refers the animals
had an exhausted appearance, there was loss of appetite, increasing
thirst, often also colic, and later diarrhoea, urination often in great

quantity, and staggering. Some of the animals died after a few days in
convulsions.

REFERENCES.

4, 16, 73, 76, 79, 81, 161, 170, 187, 190, 203,
204, 205, 213, 229, 252, 257.

Lousewort (Pedicularis, sp.). Two species of lousewort are involved,
P. palustris L. and P. sylvatica L., and though both are regarded as
poisonous the extent to which they are so is not well known. They
have an unpleasant smell and sharp taste, and are in general refused by
all classes of stock. P. sylvatica may be eaten when young (Cornevin).
Lindley says that both plants are acrid, but are eaten by goats. P.
palustris is regarded by Pott as an acutely poisonous plant, especially
for sheep. A decoction of these plants was formerly used against lice,
and hence the trivial name.

Toxic Principle. Very little appears to be known about the poison-
ous principle, but, like Rhinanthus and Melampyrum, they have been
found to contain the glucoside Rhinanthin (see p. 96).

Symptoms. The plants are held to be emetic and purgative; to
cause inflammation of the digestive tract, and to cause anemia in cattle.
Brugmann stated (vide Cornevin) that if, pressed by hunger, animals
eat P. palustris, the first consequence is hematuria. Miiller also notes
hematuria.

REFERENCES.
78, 76, 81, 190, 203, 213.

POLYGONACEZ:.

Docks (Rumez sp.). In general it is probable that but little harm
is done by species of Rumex, but owing to the fact that Common Sorrel
(R. Acetosa L.) and Sheep’s Sorrel (R. Acetosella L.) contain acid oxalates
they may on occasion prove injurious. Instances have been recorded
in which children have suffered from eating the leaves of the former
species in considerable quantity, and both species have been accused

64 Polygonacezx [ CH.

by veterinary surgeons of poisoning horses and sheep, some sheep even
dying. Pammel states that the Curled Dock (R. crispus L.) induces
nausea, watery brown feces, copious urination, dry spasmodic cough,
and perspiration; but no record of the death of animals has been found.

In regard to R. Acetosella it is stated that in the horse a condition
may be produced resembling drunkenness, with vacillating gait, saliva-
tion, muscular tremors, dilatation of pupils, relaxation of sphincters,
and a feeble, slow, and intermittent pulse: then convulsive contraction
of lips, retraction of the eyeball, accelerated and stertorous breathing,
extreme dilatation of the nostrils, tetanic contraction of the muscles of
the neck, back, and limbs, abundant sweating and falling. In bad cases
after a period of extreme exhaustion, these symptoms are repeated, and
death occurs in convulsions (Cornevin).

The acid oxalates seem especially harmful to sheep, causing loss of
appetite, exhaustion, small and scarcely perceptible pulse, rapid breath-
ing, and constipation, and in many cases severe diarrhea, uncertain gait,
and sometimes death (Miiller).

The milk of affected cows is with difficulty made into butter (Pott).

REFERENCES.
73, 141, 190, 203, 233.

Polygonum sp. Several species of Polygonum are said to have
poisonous properties. The chief among them is Buckwheat (P. Fago-
pyrum), the grain of which is widely grown as a food for both man and
live stock. This plant, particularly the flowers, has given rise to a
well-known rash in man, cattle, sheep, and pigs, with congestion and
tumefaction—especially of the head and ears. There is also nervous
disturbance, with agitation and hallucination—sheep, for example,
may butt against objects. The affection of the nervous centres may
lead to fatal results, which have followed in cattle, sheep, and pigs.
Little is known of this so-called Fagopyrism, but after analytical and
spectroscopical researches on the colouring matter of the tegument Kurt
concluded that it is due to the chlorophyll.

Persicaria (P. Persicaria L.) and Water-pepper (P. hydropiper L.)
are also stated to be harmful, though the former has been considered
a nutritious plant and has been given to horses and cattle as a green
food.

Both species, however, are said to cause a tash, and to contain
injurious narcotic substances. Persicaria is stated by Miiller to have
caused inflammation of the bladder and the digestive tract in pigs, and

v] Polygonacezx, Thymelacex 65

Water-pepper to have caused hematuria; fatal results have followed.
Pott records similar symptoms. In regard to Persicaria it should be
noted that it varies considerably in general form, and may possibly
vary also in acridity. Bentham and Hooker state of P. hydropiper
that “the whole plant is more or less acrid or biting to the taste.”

REFERENCES.
17, 19, 73, 190, 204, 213.

THYMELACEZ:.

Mezereon (Daphne Mezereum L.) and Spurge Laurel (D. Laureola
L.). Both of these species are acrid and poisonous, and cases of the
death of horses due to the spurge laurel are recorded by Lander. In
general, however, animals will not eat the plants, and indeed, in one of the
cases mentioned by Lander the dried leaves were administered for
worms. Should they touch these plants most animals would probably
refuse them on account of their bitter taste. The berries are tempting
to children, and Pratt says “Death has resulted from eating but a few
of these berries (D. Mezereum); and Dr Christison relates a case of
a child, in Edinburgh, who died from eating them, while another is
recorded by Linnaeus of a young lady to whom twelve of the berries
were given as a medicine in intermittent fever, and who soon died in
consequence of their corrosive poison. Four berries produced thirst,
sense of heat in the mouth and throat, and also fever, in a man who ate
them; and they are proved to be poisonous to dogs and foxes.” Blyth
states that 30 grammes (1 oz.) of the powdered bark is a lethal dose for
a horse, but smaller doses of the fresh leaves may be deadly (Pammel).

Toxic Principle. All parts of these plants are acrid and poisonous,
especially the bark and berries. They contain the bitter, astringent,
and poisonous glucoside Daphnin (CgpH340j3—or Cy;H,.0, according
to Van Rijn), an acrid resin (Mezerein), and a vesicating fatty oil. (Pott
remarks that Daphnin is believed to be harmless, but that Mezerein has
poisonous effects.) Drying does not destroy the poisonous property.

Symptoms. The Daphnes are severely purgative, cause burning
in the mouth and throat, and in severe cases have narcotic effects and
give rise to convulsions.

Lander gives the symptoms as intense colic, constipation, followed
by dysentery and copious evacuations of feces streaked with mucus,

blood, and intestinal epithelium. Drowsiness between the spasms.

L. 2

66 Thymelacex, Euphorbiacez [cH.

According to Miiller there is inflammation of the stomach and
intestines (with colic, vomiting, severe diarrhoea, passing of blood),
inflammation of the kidneys (with strangury, bloody urination), and
in many cases nervous symptoms (weakness, giddiness, and convulsions).

In a case observed by Lander, in the horse, there was abdominal
pain, staggering gait, anxious countenance, laboured breathing, pulse
80, temperature 103-2° F., bowels normal. On the following day there
was excessive purgation, pulse 120, temperature 104-2° F., and death
occurred at mid-day.

REFERENCES.
73, 76, 81, 130, 141, 170, 190, 203, 213, 216, 240.

EUPHORBIACEZ.

Spurges (Huphorbia sp.). Many species of Spurge must be regarded
as acrid, purgative, and poisonous. Live stock are not likely to touch
them, owing to the acrid effect of the milky juice on the mouth.

The Caper Spurge (#. Lathyris L.) contains an acrid, emetic, and
highly purgative milky juice, and the fruits have commonly been
employed by country folk as a purge, and also as a pickle, though they
are dangerous and should not be so used. Pratt records a case in which
five women ate the pickled fruits with boiled mutton, and all suffered
severe pain and burning in the stomach, and showed other symptoms
attendant on irritant poisoning—and though all recovered the illness
was severe. Used in this manner, indeed, they have given rise to
serious cases of human poisoning. Only very young animals are said
to eat it, but cattle in the United States are said to be “quite resistant
to its influence, but they are sometimes overcome.” According to
Chesnut goats eat this plant extensively, and it is said that their milk
then possesses all the venomous properties.

Petty Spurge (£. Peplus L.) is somewhat similar to the Caper Spurge
in poisonous properties, and fatal poisoning has occurred through a boy
eating it.

Sun Spurge (HZ. Helioscopia L.) is similarly poisonous to the pre-
ceding species. It has caused fatal poisoning to a boy who ate it. In
Germany cows were poisoned through pasturing in stubble in which
the plant was growing, but there were no deaths.

Toxic Principles. The milky juice of these spurges contains highly
acrid poisonous substances, which have not been individually and fully
investigated. Drying may reduce the toxicity but does not eliminate it.

v] Euphorbiacee 67

Symptoms. As regards E. Lathyris Chesnut says that on the skin
the juice causes redness, itching, pimples, and sometimes gangrene,
The seeds when eaten inflame the mouth and stomach, cause vomiting
and intense diarrhwa, and if the illness is serious, nervous disorders,
unconsciousness, collapse, and death.

The Huphorbias have an acrid effect on the mouth, and severe
poisoning may follow their use as aperients—burning mouth, swelling
tongue, stomach pains, cold skin, vertigo, fainting or syncope, and
even death in two or three days (Esser).

Similar symptoms are given by Cornevin, who states that the
Euphorbias have an irritating effect on the mucous membrane, especially
at the back of the mouth. In from three quarters of an hour to two
hours after eating the plant, or even longer, there is painful vomiting,
followed by diarrheic evacuations, with a lowering of the temperature.
If the quantity ingested has been sufficient there appear also nervous
symptoms, vertigo, delirium, muscular tremors, and respiratory and
circulatory troubles which disappear after abundant sweating if the
poisoning is not fatal. If it is fatal the symptoms of superpurgation
and enteritis predominate, but are accompanied by nervous symptoms
and circulatory disorders.

Miiller gives in addition loss of appetite, piteous whining (in goats),
groaning, colic and tympanites; and Pott, bloating, fever, palpitation
of the heart, and loss of consciousness. Cows gave a reddish or sharp-
tasting milk. Milk of affected goats caused diarrhea in human beings.

REFERENCES.
19, 52, 58, 73, 81, 82, 130, 141, 190, 213, 216.

Dog’s Mercury (Mercurialis perennis L.) and Annual Mercury
(M. annua L.). These two species may be taken together as they have
similar poisonous properties, and closely resemble one another, though
the former is a perennial and the latter an annual. The plants have a
somewhat unpleasant odour, and live stock are not likely to take them
unless pressed for readily available green food. The loss of one cow and
severe illness of four others was recorded by Blackhurst in the Veterin-
ary Journal in 1896; Giissow mentioned the loss of cows in the Farmer
and Stock Breeder Yearbook, 1907; the loss of horses fed on herbage
cut from a hedge and containing M. perennis was recorded in the
Journal of the Royal Agricultural Socvety in 1898; the loss of sheep was
recorded by Henslow. As regards man, Ray records a case in which
a family of five persons suffered severely from eating M. annua fried

5—2

68 Euphorbiacee [ CH.

with bacon. Fishermen ate it with soup and all were seriously ill an
hour later, with symptoms of irritant narcotic poisoning; two children
died the next day. Cornevin saw M. annua used, after boiling, as a
food for pigs, without ill consequences, in the east of France. This is
believed to be due to the poison being volatile and destroyed by heat
or boiling; hence in hay the plant is harmless, though Pott says that
even in hay stock avoid. it.

Toxic Principle. The poisonous properties are said to be due to
Mercurialine, Oil of Euphorbia, a volatile toxic alkaloid. Esser states
that the stem and leaves of M. annua contain Trimethylamine, which
may perhaps be a decomposition product of Choline, a poisonous base.

Symptoms. Both plants are emetic and dangerously purgative,
causing irritant and narcotic symptoms. Veterinary observation has
shown that the poison is cumulative, and that it is usually after the weed
has formed part of the food for 7, 8, or 10 days that symptoms first
appear. In the case recorded by Blackhurst (see above) the cows
suffered from inflammation of the digestive tract, with severe purging
and loss of blood. The secretion of milk entirely stopped. One cow
died, but three recovered in about four days. The fifth was not con-
valescent for three weeks and then had a permanently curved and in-
jured neck, the muscles being subsequently found rich in fibrous tissue,
and the last three joints partially anchylosed. Rabbits were tested by
feeding two on the leaves, two on the stems and roots, and two on the
ground seeds mixed with oatmeal; the first two were unaffected, but
the other four died in a few hours, showing drowsiness and suffering,
while the post-mortem showed gastritis.

The digestive and urinary tracts are affected. There is indigestion
with slight bloating, then colic of varying intensity, and at first diarrhoea
which may give place later to constipation; hematuria; micturition is
frequent, painful, and the urine is blackish and bloody; dullness, weak-
ness, loss of appetite and refusal of food; the heart beats very strongly,
the pulse is rapid, and the mucous membrane of the eye is reddish-
yellow in colour. There is no modification of respiration (Cornevin).

According to Miiller, however, the symptoms at first include consti-
pation and later severe and bloody diarrhea.

In cattle Pott states that M. annua causes inflammation of the
stomach and intestines, bloody urine, paralysis of bladder, fcetid diarrhea,
abortion, and bluish coloured milk deficient in fat. Miiller states that
there is occasionally blood in the milk. According to Lander there is
in cows excessive bloody purgation, cessation of lactation, temperature

v] Euphorbiaceer, Amentacesx 69

105° F., pulse 90, and increased respiration. The illness is protracted
over several weeks, the animals being comatose after the first symptoms.

REFERENCES.
73, 81, 112, 130, 146, 170, 190, 205, 213, 255.

Box (Buxus sempervirens L.). Farm live-stock may occasionally
have the opportunity of browsing on box, or clippings may be thrown
to them with other green herbage from gardens. Care should be taken
that clippings are otherwise disposed of. All parts of the plant are
bitter and have been proved to be poisonous. The bitter taste tends
to prevent animals eating sufficient of the plant to cause serious injury.
Pigs have died a day after eating the leaves. Horses also were killed
by eating 750 grammes (1:6 lb.) of the foliage.

Toxic Principles. Fauré found in the bark and leaves of box the
toxic alkaloid Buzine, but it was believed that there were other toxic
substances, since analysis showed the leaves to be less rich in Buxine
than the bark, while they are three times as active. Other substances
occurring in box are Parabuxine, Buxinidine, and Parabuxinidine.

Symptoms. Small amounts have an emetic and purgative action;
with average amounts, there are, in addition, nervous symptoms, lame-
ness, muscular tremors, vertigo, then a period of coma. Large amounts
cause death with intense abdominal pains, dysenteric flux, tenesmus,
convulsions, respiratory and circulatory troubles.

Pigs are chiefly affected after eating the leaves, exhibiting great
thirst, uncertain gait and delirium, while death occurs within twenty-
four hours.

Pott gives the general symptoms as sickness, diarrhoea, giddiness,
stupefaction, convulsive movements, and colic.

REFERENCES.
4, 16, 73, 128, 190, 205, 213, 235.

AMENTACEZ.

The Oak (Quercus sp.). Injury to stock from the Oak has been due
in the first place to the leaves, and in the second to the acorns. In
regard to the leaves no injury appears to have been recorded in Britain,
but Cornevin devotes attention only to poisoning by the leaves, which
in special circumstances have caused serious accidents to animals which

70 Amentacez [cH.

have eaten them. In France, cattle taken to the forests for grazing pur-
poses browse on the young shoots and leaves of the oak, and after some
days there arises a trouble long known as Mal de Brow or Maladie des
Bois, which may end fatally, sometimes even in 24 hours (see Symptoms
below). A case was also reported from Nebraska in 1903, ten head of
cattle having apparently died from eating oak leaves, the trimmings
from trees. The stomachs were full of the leaves, and the intestines
had the appearance of being burned in places. There was no evidence
of impaction, When the cut branches were removed no more cattle
were lost.

Serious losses have been caused through the ingestion of acorns. by
young cattle not over about two years old, the years 1808, 1870, 1884,
and 1900 being especially noteworthy in this respect. Cattle over three
years old have seldom been affected, while sheep and pigs, if not immune
to “acorn poisoning,” are but slightly affected. Miiller, however,
states that horses, cattle, sheep, and goats are affected; 9 quarts
(10 litres) taken in four days were sufficient to cause poisoning in the
case of a bullock.. It is believed by some observers that half-ripe acorns
—e.g. acorns which may drop owing to drought—are more injurious
than thoroughly ripened acorns.

Some authorities appear to be of the opinion that “acorm poisoning”
is not actually poisoning, but a serious form of indigestion. If this be
so the symptoms must be regarded as exceedingly severe. There is
no doubt that “acorn poisoning” is not well understood, but a great
deal has been observed and written on the subject, and there is clear
evidence that acorns may reasonably be held to be poisonous. It must
be pointed out, however, that the poisoning does not usually follow on
the consumption of acorns in small quantities, but is commonly due to
full meals of acorns taken in periods when there is a dearth of herbage.
By proper preparation and storage acorns have been converted into
a most useful food for horses, cattle and sheep (Jour. Bd. Agric., Sept.
1914 and Feb. 1916, and Leaflet No. 291 of the Bd. Agric., The Food
Value of Acorns, Horse-Chestnuts and Beech Mast). In Germany
it has been found that acorns fed to fowls caused diminished egg-
laying, which finally ceased, while the yolks of eggs laid were dis-
coloured a dirty brown (Jour. Bd. Agric., Dec. 1915, p. 902).

Toxic Principle. The facts as to acorn poisoning and oak-leaf
poisoning are not clearly known, and the actual toxic substance is
similarly not certainly known. It is probable, however, that it consists
of Tannin, or substances which give rise to Tannin.

vi Amenitacez 71

Symptoms. In relation to Maladie des Bois due to leaves, Cornevin
gives the symptoms as loss of appetite; less (and more difficult) rumina- .
tion; constipation, which increases; lying down, animals looking at.
their flank as in colic, followed by rising and attempts to urinate, with
passing of rosy-coloured liquid in jets; loss of milk’ production, which
may drop to nothing; fever, trembling, enfeebled condition.

Three or four days after the commencement of illness rumination
is completely suspended; there is stamping of the feet, colic, retracted
stomach, pulse hard, heart agitated, accelerated respiration, violent
muscular shocks, and frequent urination. The urine is always dark
in colour, but varies from clear red to dark black, nut-brown being usual.
Cases are only serious when a foetid, frothy, and abundant dysentery
succeeds constipation, in which case there is rapid emaciation and death.

Usually the course of the illness is not rapid; but occasionally there
is immediate and bloody urination with violent colic and sometimes
intestinal hemorrhage, death occurring in 24 hours.

In poisoning by acorns there is progressive wasting, entire loss of
appetite, diarrhcea, discharge of an excessive quantity of pale urine,
sore places inside the mouth, discharge from the nostrils, and also from
the eyes, which are always sunken, giving the animal a peculiar haggard
expression. There is no fever; on the contrary, the temperature is com-
monly below normal, though in some cases stated to be above normal:

Miiller remarks on the severe constipation, followed by dysenteric
diarrhcea, caused by acorns, especially when eaten in the half-ripe
condition, horses, cattle, sheep, and goats being affected.

The experimental poisoning of a young steer and a young sheep by
fully ripe acorns was described in 1871 (Jour. R.A.S.E., 1871). In the
steer the symptoms were a semi-conscious condition, weak pulse, pallid
membranes, cold surface of body, torpid bowels, slow breathing, twitch-
ings. of muscles, and a disposition to maintain a recumbent position.
Inflammation was entirely absent. The symptoms increased in severity
day by day; there ensued a copious flow of colourless urine; a muco-
purulent discharge from the eyes and nostrils. No impairment of health
followed the feeding of acorns to the sheep.

Thorburn (Veterinary Journal, Feb., 1902) mentions loss of appetite,
grunting, disinclination to move, prostration, icy coldness of extremities,
very rapid emaciation (this sometimes was particularly noticeable),
pulse very small and weak (in some cases almost imperceptible), tem-
perature high (105° to 107° F.,) and constipation succeeded by watery

diarrhoea.

72 Amentacex, Conifere . (CH.

Brookes and Yeomans described (Veterinary Journal, 1912) an
,, instance in which 30 animals were affected and 9 died. The chief
symptoms were a dull and depressed appearance, entire absence of
appetite and rumination, a weak feeble pulse, subnormal temperature
and disinclination to move. Three cases showed a mucous and blood-
tinged discharge from the nostrils and anus, and these all died, one
eight days after being seen and the other two the day afterwards.
Obstinate stoppage was noticeable in all cases, and the feces were inky
black, stinking and very thick. Yeomans observed similar symptoms
of acute digestive disturbance; later the eyes had a sunken appearance,
diarrhoea set in, the feces being dark coloured, offensive and blood-
stained. The temperature was at first normal and later subnormal,
and in fatal cases death took place in from 3 to 7 days.

REFERENCES.
4, 13, 20, 26, 29, 70, 73, 130, 144, 190, 240, 255.

CONIFERZE.

The only Conifer which commonly causes poisoning of live-stock is
the Yew, but injury might more frequently occur were it not for the fact
that Conifers generally are unpleasant to the taste, and are hence avoided
by stock. Many species, however, contain Tannin, Resins and Gums,
Volatile Otls, and an acrid substance which may cause inflammation of
the digestive and urinary tracts, while Tanret found in the young shoots
of Picea the bitter glucoside Picein (C,,H,,0,H,O); Kawalier and Thal
found the intensely bitter glucoside Pinipicrin (CopH5,0,,) in Pinus
sylvestris, Thuja occidentalis and Juniperus Sabina; and Kubel isolated
Coniferin or Abietin (CgH220,), a slightly bitter glucoside found in
Abies excelsa, A. pectinata, Pinus strobus, Larix europea and other
conifers. It is not clear, however, whether these substances are at all
poisonous. It is quite possible that if eaten in quantity the foliage of
some Conifers may induce poisonous symptoms and even death in the
animals concerned. It is noteworthy, however, that according to Pott
the needles of Picea excelsa, Abies pectinata, Larix europea, and Pinus
8p. are, in the mountainous districts of Steiermark, Karnten, and Tyrol,
extensively fed to cattle and sheep, usually as a supplementary food,
either fresh or dried and ground up—chiefly perhaps as an appetiser,
and in small quantities as a dietetic; J uniperus sp. are similarly utilised
in some districts. It is not known to what extent the foliage may be

v] Coniferex 73

fed without harmful consequences, but Pott states that large quantities
can cause hematuria and similar effects, and hence only small quantities
should be used, and even so may impart a bad flavour to the milk of cows.
All green needles frequently cause digestive troubles.

A case has recently (January, 1916) been reported to the author in
which a Douglas Fir was cut down and a small branch about 4 ft. long
was flung over into a field. Two sheep nipped off the bark and nearly.
died, but both: vomited and recovered. The farmer reporting this
experience recalls that over 30 years ago, after a gale, a lot of trees
were blown down in a small plantation, and in severe weather the sheep
ate the bark to such an extent that 80 of them aborted, while of the
ewes which did not eat the bark none aborted, so that it would appear
that the bark of Scotch Fir and Spruce was to blame for the loss.

The foliage of the Yew (see below) is well known to be danger-
ously poisonous to stock, and has caused many losses.

In regard to Cupressus the only cases of poisoning which have been
traced are recorded in The Journal of the Board of Agriculture (October,
1905). These cases were reported as follows :—

“Two instances have recently come before the Board in which the
death of cattle has been attributed to the poisonous effects of Cupressus
macrocarpa and C. nootkatensis. In one case four bullocks died, and on
the internal organs being forwarded by the owner to the Royal Veterinary
College, Professor McFadyean reported that from the inflamed condition
of the fourth stomach and from the description of the symptoms he had
little doubt that the cause of death was irritant poison. Some pieces
of Cupressus macrocarpa were found in their stomachs, and in default
of any other explanation it was suggested that this plant might have
some poisonous properties.

“In another case three heifers are stated to have suffered from
irritant poison; one of them died, but the other two recovered on removal
to another field. The veterinary surgeon in this case also attributed
the death to a Cupressus (C. nootkatensis) growing by the side of the field.

“The Board have no information as to the poisonous properties of
these two species, nor can any record be found of any similar case which
would tend to confirm the suspicion that they are poisonous to cattle.”

REFERENCES.
4, 16, 76, 144, 213, 252.

Yew (Tazus baccata L.). As stated above, the Yew is the only
British conifer that is likely to prove seriously poisonous to live stock.

74 Coniferx [CH.

It has unfortunately caused the death of many horses and cattle, while
asses, mules, deer, pigs, rabbits, and pheasants have also been poisoned.
Many cases of fatal human poisoning have also occurred. For example,
the poisoning of a horse, and of cattle, horses, and deer were mentioned
respectively in 1885 and 1893 (Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc.). “Through eating
the poisonous leaves of a Yew tree, four cross-bred cattle were found
dead in a shrubbery at Elmswell, near Driffield” (Daily Mail, 13th Dec.,
1913). Many cases of poisoning and death of animals due to eating the
foliage direct from the trees have been recorded in the veterinary journals
—e.g. the death of 15 cattle in The Veterinary News, 7th Dec., 1912.
Tegetmeier recorded the death of pheasants due to Yew leaves and seeds
(The Field, 11th Nov., 1893). On the other hand many cases have been
recorded in which fatal results have not followed the ingestion of the
leaves, and it appears that the lower branches of Yew trees in parks are
constantly cropped by cattle without ill effects. (Trans. Chem. Soc.,
1902; Jour. Bd. Agric., 1903).

The bark, leaves, and seeds are all poisonous, the leaves usually being
the parts eaten. Henslow states that of 32 cases of Yew poisoning 9
were due to the berries and the remainder to the leaves, while 20 of the
32 cases were fatal. In 1879 R. Modlen published a circumstantial
account of children poisoned at Oxford by the fruits, and demonstrated
that the arillus or scarlet mucilaginous cup surrounding the ripe seed
is not poisonous, but that the seeds are so. Apart from idiosyncrasy
of appetite stock are perhaps more likely to eat the dark green foliage
of the Yew in winter or during scarcity of green fodder than at other
times. The old leaves or shoots are the most poisonous parts.

By experiments with autumn and winter leaves Cornevin found that
the following quantities would be necessary to kill various animals :—

Horse .. on 2 0:2 Ib. per 100 Ib. live weight.
Ass and Mule ees 0-16 Ib. es ie

Cow and Sheep be 1-0 Ib. s Fe

Goat .. oa Se 1-2 Ib. 33 ts
Pig. i te 0-3 Ib. 5 s
Rabbit a ‘6 2-0 Ib.

” ”

Other authorities, however, quote much lower quantities as necessary
to kill the horse and ox, and Pott says that in the case of horses 150 to
180 grammes (0-33 to 0-4 Ib.) is sufficient to cause death in one-quarter
to one-half an hour, without previous symptoms. Eaten by an animal
on a full stomach a small quantity of Yew may cause little or no
dangerous results.

v] Coniferzx 75

Toxic Principle. The researches of Marmé pointed to the alkaloid
Taaine (CyH;2:NO,5) as the toxic substance. Later investigations of
Thorpe and Stubbs confirmed this view, and it is generally agreed that
this substance is the toxic principle, though doubts as to its being the
only poison have been expressed. Taxine has a bitter taste, is a heart
depressant, and may cause death from suffocation. The yew also
contains a considerable quantity of Formic Acid, and the acrid,
irritant volatile Oil of Yew. Fs

Thorpe and Stubbs (Trans. Chem. Soc., 1902) found in the fresh
leaves of the common Yew from 0-1 to 0-18 per cent. of Taxine. In an
investigation of the Irish Yew (J. baccata var. fastigiata) Moss found
Taxine present as follows :—

Leaves from female tree, fresh ws as 0-596 per cent.
2 2 ” ” ” . o- 0-623 ”
Seeds from fruit of same tree .. re ew 0-079 3
Another female tree—leaves .. te ee 0-323 3
58 9 >» seeds .. és ag 0-082 _

In the leaves of the male common Yew Moss found 0-082 per cent.
of Taxine, or less than one-half the quantity found by Thorpe and
Stubbs.

Symptoms. The Yew is irritant and narcotic, and the poison is
not cumulative, but on the other hand rapidly effective, so that animals
may die apparently suddenly, no previous symptoms having been
observed.

When small quantities only have been taken the closest attention
is necessary to discern the symptoms, which simply consist in a little
excitement with a slight rise in temperature.

With larger (but not fatal) quantities the first symptom, excitement,
is more pronounced and is followed by nausea, and (where possible)
vomiting. There is a pronounced slackening of respiration and circula-
tion, the pulse being small, slow, and difficult to perceive, and the
movement of the flanks very slow; sensibility is diminished. There
is a fall in temperature, the skin and extremities being cold. The head
is lowered, the eyes are closed and there is decubitus. In some cases
pregnant animals have aborted. In the horse there are muscular tremors
and frequent urination. In cattle and sheep rumination is suspended
and there is more or less pronounced tympanites, with eructation,
nausea, and sometimes vomiting. Pigs bury the head in the litter and
sleep, their sleep being interrupted from time to time by nausea and
groaning; or the animals rise, stagger about, and lie down again.

76 Conifere, Aroidex [cH.

With fatal quantities the foregoing symptoms may be followed by
coma, with death in two hours or more after the poisoning, but more
generally and usually in horses, asses, and mules (but also in cattle)
there is no period of coma, the excitement is less pronounced and often
unobserved, and death appears very sudden. The animals stop, shake
their heads, respiration is modified, there is falling, and death (sometimes :
with convulsions) results from cessation of the heart’s action (Cornevin).

The symptoms given by Miiller are roaring, torpidity, stupefaction,
laboured breathing, convulsions and death in from ten minutes to an
hour in the worst cases; or where the course of poisoning is slower,
there is salivation, nausea, vomiting, bloating, retardation of pulse and
respiration, great giddiness and stupefaction, diabetes and hematuria.

The rapidity of the poisoning is confirmed by cases noted in the
veterinary journals. Lander shows that the effects often only appear
in cattle when chewing the cud; whilst quietly chewing, they drop as
if shot. In some examples the animal died while eating the plant, or
was found to have fallen and died suddenly and without evidence of
a struggle. The animal in some cases will stop suddenly whilst working,
start blowing and trembling, stagger, fall on its haunches, then on its
side, and die quietly. Death occurs in about five minutes with symptoms
resembling apoplexy. A colt died after 16 or 17 hours; the plant was
taken on a full stomach, but paralysis of the alimentary system with
stoppage of digestion immediately ensued.

Tn the case of pheasants there was acute inflammation of the small
intestines (Tegetmeier).

REFERENCES.

4, 16, 49, 73, 81, 84, 100, 128, 130, 141, 144, 161,
170, 189, 190, 205, 213, 239, 240, 256.

AROIDEZ:.

Cuckoo Pint (Arum maculatum L.). The well-known Cuckoo
Pint, or Lords and Ladies, is to be regarded as highly poisonous, and
children have died from eating the berries. Animals have exceptionally
eaten the plant, but no record of death has been found, as it does not
appear to be taken in sufficient quantity. Cornevin records that pigs
have eaten the roots, and suffered in consequence, though the results
were not fatal. All parts of the plant are poisonous, though the viru-
lence is lost on drying. The plant is acrid, and emits a disagreeable

v] Aroidex 77

smell when bruised. In Gerarde’s Herball the following passage occurs:
“The most pure and white starch is made from the rootes of the Cuckow-
pint; but most hurtfull for the hands of the laundresse that hath the
handling of it, for it choppeth, blistereth, and maketh the hands rough
and rugged, and withall smarting.” In Dorset the tuber-like corms
have been macerated in water, dried and powdered, and eaten under
the name Portland Sago or Portland Arrowroot, the poisonous property
being dissipated.

Toxic Principle. The Cuckoo Pint does not seem to have received
much attention in this connection, but the poisonous principle is believed
to be a Saponin.

Symptoms. The juice acts as an irritant when in contact with
the mucous membrane. When a pig has eaten several roots rich in
sap, the mouth and tongue redden and tumefy, there is salivation, and
swallowing is difficult on account of the inflammation at the back of the
mouth. Introduced in small quantity into the digestive tract it acts
as an irritant and purgative, and sometimes causes vomiting. Severe
intestinal pains, excitement, some muscular contraction of the limbs,
rocking of the head, and superpurgation with tenesmus are also symptoms
which have been observed. The intestinal pains continue for some days
and the appetite is small. Cornevin states that animals never take a
sufficient quantity to cause fatal poisoning, but according to Lander,
if a dangerous quantity is taken, convulsions, exhaustion, and death
from shock may possibly follow the foregoing symptoms.

A case in which a horse was poisoned through a wound being washed
with a decoction of arum leaves is cited by Miiller. There was much
local swelling, trembling, and rapid breathing, and the heart beat
strongly; the animal died on the third day.

REFERENCES.
73, 81, 130, 143, 170, 190.

CHAPTER VI

DIOSCORIDEZ.

Black Bryony (Tamus communis L.). The stem and foliage of
Black Bryony are apparently harmless, being browsed by sheep and
goats with impunity, but the scarlet fruits are decidedly poisonous and
the starchy root is acrid and purgative.

Toxic Principle. This is probably the glucoside Bryonin, which
occurs in Bryonia dioica (p. 35).

Symptoms. Cornevin, in citing experiments on animals, states that
small quantities of the fruits cause uneasiness, somnolence, and difficult
locomotion. Larger quantities cause vomiting, intestinal pains, and-
paralysis of hind quarters. Death is rapid. Miiller, however, remarks
that paralysis of the hind quarters and convulsions may result from small
quantities, large quantities causing in addition inflammation of the
stomach and intestines.

REFERENCES.
73, 190.

LILIACEZ.

Herb Paris (Paris quadrifolia L.). Owing to its habitat—damp
woods—it is unlikely that stock will eat this plant, but it may be possible
where fields border open woods in which it grows. No records of stock
poisoning have been met with, but cases of poisoning in man are
recorded, one due to eating a considerable number (30 to 40) of the
berries, and symptoms of poisoning in a child four years of age who had
eaten a few berries. In smaller quantities they are very poisonous to
poultry. All parts are stated to be poisonous, especially the berries.
Fatal poisonings are nil, or very rare if recorded.

Toxic Principle. Walz isolated the glucoside Paridin; and Esser
states that the toxic property is due to a Saponin,—the bitter irritant
glucoside Paristyphnin (CsgH,,01,), which is convertible into Paridin
(C,4H2,0, + 2H,O) and sugar.

CH. VI] Liliacezx 79
e

Symptoms. The plant is emetic, purgative, intensely acrid, and
narcotic. Poisoning up to the present only appears to have been re-
corded in fowls, the symptoms being intense local inflammation, narcotic
effects, vomiting, colic, diarrhea, stupefaction, convulsions, and para-
lysis (Miiller).

REFERENCES.
4, 16, 73, 76, 81, 130, 141, 190.

Lily-of-the-Valley (Convallaria majalis, L.). This beautiful plant
is only likely to induce poisoning of domestic animals at very rare
intervals, as it occurs wild in only a few woods from Moray southwards,
being, however, abundant in some districts. All parts are stated
to be poisonous, especially the flowers. It has an acrid, bitter taste.
Few cases of poisoning are recorded. Sheep and goats are believed to
eat the leaves with impunity. The extract is so poisonous that four
drops injected into the blood stream sufficed to kill a dog in ten minutes
(Cornevin). The leaves have been known to kill geese and fowls.

Toxic Principle. All parts of the plant contain the bitter poi-
sonous glucoside Convallamarin (C.3H4,05), the glucoside Paridin
(C,,H,,0, + 2H,O), and the glucoside Convallarin (C3,H,.0,,;)—the
first a dangerous purgative, and the last a cardiac poison resembling
Digitalis. Convallamarin is a very poisonous crystalline substance,
with at first a bitter and afterwards a sweetish taste.

Symptoms. The action of this plant on the animal organism is not
yet clearly known, but it is stated to have marked emetic and purgative
action. Taken in moderate quantities a period of retardation of the
heart and lung action is followed by a period in which the heart action
is intermittent, and there are stoppages in respiration, and vomiting.
Taken in large quantities, the first of these periods is extremely short,
the pulse soon becomes rapid and small, respiration is quickened, and
the heart action ceases (Cornevin).

Pott observes that the leaves cause stupefaction, convulsions, and
death after a few hours in the case of geese. He cites a case in which ten
fowls ate the leaves and nine died.

REFERENCES.
52, 73, 76, 81, 190, 203, 205, 213.

Meadow Saffron (Colchicum autumnale L.). The Meadow Saffron,
Autumn Crocus, or Naked Ladies, as it is variously named, occurs in

80 Liliacex [cH.

meadows in many districts in England and Wales. All parts are poison-
ous, both in the green state and when dried, as it possibly may be, in
hay. It has caused extensive losses of live stock, and the greatest care
should be taken to eradicate it from grass land. The leaves and seed-
vessels are produced in spring, and the flowers from August to October
—and it is at these two periods that cases of poisoning by this plant
are most frequent, though, as stated, it may be included in hay. Many
horses, cattle, and pigs have been killed by Meadow Saffron, though
cattle commonly avoid it. Sheep and goats are believed to be very
slightly affected. Children and fowls died at Schorren (Canton Berne)
from eating the seeds, and there have been many cases of human poison-
ing due both to eating the seeds and the bulbs. In Staffordshire,
Mr. J. C. Rushton reported some years ago! that in one year a
farmer lost seventeen milking cows; in 1908 he lost seven calves;
and in 1909 he lost a number of sheep and cows. It was then discovered
that the field in which the animals grazed contained “any quantity of
Meadow Saffron and Water Hemlock,” and this was the cause of the
losses. Horses and cattle are more commonly poisoned than other
domesticated animals. Johnson and Sowerby record the case of a woman
who ate the corms in mistake for onions at Covent Garden, and died; and
state that deer and cattle have been killed by the leaves. Kanngiesser
notes that this species is the most toxic of German plants, and that in
cases of human poisoning the mortality is 90 per cent., children being
chiefly affected. Cornevin’s experiments showed that 8 to 10 grammes
of green leaves per kilogramme of live weight—say 3 to 5 lb. for
an average cow—was sufficient to kill ruminants; while 30 centi-
grammes of corms per kilogramme of live weight sufficed to kill pigs—
say 43 oz. for a pig of 200 Ib. live weight. Barret and Remlinger
(Veterinary Journal, 1912, p. 306) record the sudden illness of 31 out
of 51 cattle, and 5 of them died.

The toxic principle is cumulative, that is, small quantities of the
plant eaten regularly may result in poisoning, owing to the poison being
slowly eliminated by the kidneys. Indeed, cases have been recorded
in which the poison has been secreted and eliminated in the milk of. cows
and so has caused poisoning of both calves and infants.

Powe Principle. Meadow Saffron contains in all parts the acrid,
poisonous alkaloid Colchicine (C.,H,;NO,) stated by Esser to occur to the
extent of 0-2 per cent. in the corms, 0-4 to 0-6 per cent. in the seed coats,
but only traces in the leaves. Hertel obtained 0°38 to 0°41 per cent. of

1 Staffordshire Weekly Sentinel, Aug. 21st, 1909.

v1] Litiacexe 81

alkaloid from the seeds, Farr and Wright from 0°46 to 0°95 per cent.,
and Carr and Reynolds 0°12 to 0°57 per cent.; the U.S. Pharmacopeia,
1905, required a Colchicine content of 0°45 per cent. in the seeds, and
0°35 per cent. in the corms (Allen).

Symptoms. After small, but not fatal doses there is loss of appetite,
suppression of rumination, salivation, light colic, diarrhoea and voiding
of small quantities of urine. Blood has been observed in the milk of
affected cows. Larger and fatal quantities cause total loss of appetite
and sensation, stupefaction, loss of consciousness, dilatation of pupils,
unsteady gait, and even paralysis of limbs, sweating, severe colic, and
bloody diarrhoea, strangury and bloody uration; rapid, small, and
finally imperceptible pulse, laboured breathing; and death in from
one to three days. Where recovery takes place it is very slow (12 to
14 days according to Cornevin).

Cornevin draws attention to the fact that, as the symptoms do not
occur until several hours after ingestion, by which time the poison must
be partly distributed, the poison is very dangerous and difficult to combat,
attempts at vomiting or evacuation, whether spontaneous or caused
therapeutically, having little chance of ridding the organism of the
poison. Cornevin’s account of the symptoms shows that at first there
is abundant salivation, with constriction of the throat, and dysphagia;
then nausea with vomiting; colic; abundant, repeated and diarrhceic
evacuations, which at the end become dysenteric with painful tenesmus ;
abundant urination; short, accelerated and difficult respiration, with
inco-ordination in the thoracic and abdominal movements. The cir-
culatory functions are modified only in fatal cases, when the pulse is
small and intermittent towards the end. There is finally a notable drop
in temperature, shown by the coldness of the skin. Death occurs
in from 16 hours to 6 days after ingestion. During the last few
hours the animals are stretched at full length and are incapable of
getting up. There may be prolapsus of the rectum; the eye is
deeply sunk; sensibility is deadened and death is due to stoppage of
respiration.

In the horse, there are spasmodic movements of the hind-quarters
and excessive excitement of the urinary genital organs. In cattle there
is cessation of rumination, grinding of teeth, dryness of muzzle, ptyalism,
groaning, painful colic, dysentery, deeply sunken and watery eyes,
anus wide open, and evacuation of very foetid, blackish, glareous matter
round the excrement. In cows there may be suppression of milk, and
abortion. In the pig there is abundant salivation and vomiting, and

L. 6

82 Liliacex, Graminex [ CH.

the animal keeps its snout buried in the litter. There is also extremely
foetid diarrhcea, with dysentery.
REFERENCES.

4, 16, 27, 73, 81, 128, 130, 141, 148, 151,
190, 192, 203, 217, 255.

GRAMINEZS.

Darnel (Lolium temulentum L.). The grass known as Darnel, of
the same genus as rye-grass, has been recognized for centuries as a
harmful species, and it is considered by some authorities that it is really
the tares of Scripture which the enemy sowed among the wheat. Its
effect on eyesight was known to the ancients?, and its objectionable
character was noted by Shakespeare :—

““Want ye corn for bread?

I think the Duke of Burgundy will fast

Before he’ll buy again at such a rate:

*Twas full of darnel: Do you like the taste?”

—1 Henry VI, Act III, Se. 2.

Its effect when mixed with flour was also referred to by Gerarde (1597):
“The new bread wherein Darnell is, eaten hot, causeth drunkenness;
in like manner doth beere or ale wherein the seede is fallen, or put into
the mault.”

Before the seeding stage is reached Darnel seems to be quite suitable
as a food for stock, only the seed or grain being poisonous, and this not
invariably so. The chief danger perhaps is that the grain may not be
thoroughly removed from cereal grains, and may thus find its way into
bread or cereal stock foods. Though it has caused many cases of human
poisoning, fatal results seem to be rare: Dr. Taylor could record no
fatal case up to 1859. Darnel mixed with barley caused the poisoning
of pigs (Veterinarian, 1842). Johnson and Sowerby (1861) state that
Darnel has in several cases proved fatal to horses and sheep. The same
authorities quote a case in which 80 inmates of Sheffield Workhouse
were attacked by violent vomiting and purging from the use of oatmeal
containing Darnel. At the Veterinary School at Lyons a horse was

1 E.g. Ovid says “Let the fields be clear of darnel that weakens the eyes.” In
Plautus’ comedy, The Braggart Soldier, one servant says to another, ‘“‘’Tis a wonder
that you are in the habit of feeding on darnel with wheat at so low a price.”
**Why so?” “Because you are so dim of sight.” [Agric. Jour. Union of S. Africa,
Jan. 1914, p. 82.]

v1] Graminex 83

killed by giving it 2 kilogrammes (4-4 1b.) of Darnel. Cornevin concluded
that the amounts of Darnel necessary to kill certain animals would be
as follows :-—

Horse .. a oe 0-7 lb. per 100 Ib. live weight.
Ruminants .. ws 1/5 to 1-8 Ib. per 100 Ib. live weight.
Poultry aa ae 1:5 to 1:8 Ib. i »

Dog .. ae it 1-8 Ib. ” ”

He found pigs very little affected. As regards man 30 grammes
(1 02.) of the flour appear to be about the most that can be taken without
showing dangerous symptoms.

The presence of Darnel flour in flour of the cereal grains may be
determined by an examination of the starch granules, which are given by
Cornevin as only 5 to 8u in diameter (compared with 25 to 45,4 for
rye), simple in general, but sometimes in groups of 2 to even 5, poly-
hedral or partly rounded, with a nucleus or fusiform nucleal cavity,
and readily coloured blue with iodine; they resemble those of maize but
are only about one-eighth the size.

Toxie Principle. The grains only are harmful, and contain the
narcotic alkaloid Temuline (C,H,,N,O), which Hofmeister showed to
be a strong nerve poison, and which is said to occur to the extent of
0-06 per cent. in the seeds. Other authorities impute the toxic property
to Loliine, while Smith states that the toxic principle is Picrotoxin. In
relation to the grain fungal hyphe have usually been found, though not
invariably, 20 to 30 per cent. of the plants sometimes being free from
it. The fungus (Endoconidium temulentum) is propagated vegetatively
by means of mycelium. It appears to live symbiotically in the maturing
grain, and perhaps to a slight extent renders possible the assimilation
of nitrogen from the atmosphere; but Freeman observed that though
generally stimulating to the Darnel, it is occasionally injurious to it.
Esser sums it up by saying that according to most authorities who have
investigated Darnel the fungus alone contains the toxic substance—
the Temuline—and hence the grains in which the fungus does not
occur should be harmless. The fungus is found in Darnel grain in all
countries—Chile, Brazil, S. Africa, Persia, Spain, France, Sweden,
Germany, etc. So far as can be ascertained there have been no feeding
experiments to determine the difference in toxic character between
fungus-infested and fungus-free grains. The dangerous properties are
said to be most pronounced in wet seasons.

Symptoms. In France Darnel is called Ivraie, because, when brewed

with barley, it acts as a narcotic intoxicant.
6—2

84 Graminezx, Equisetacez [ OH.

Darnel poisoning induces giddiness, drowsiness, uncertain gait, and
* stupefaction (Miiller), and, in the older animals, vomiting, convulsions,

loss of sensation and death (Pott).

The symptoms in the horse are dilatation of pupils, vertigo, uncertain
gait, and trembling. The animal falls, the body is cold and the extremi-
ties are stiff, respiration is laboured, the pulse is slow and small, and there
are convulsive movements of the head and limbs. There is rapid en-
feeblement, and death may occur within thirty hours.

In pigs, foaming, convulsions and paralysis have been observed;
the stomach and intestines were inflamed and the lungs congested.

REFERENCES.

4, 16, 73, 81, 106, 128, 130, 141, 190, 203, 204,
205, 213, 233, 235, 254.

EQUISETACEZ.

Horsetails (Equisetum sp.). A very great deal has been written
on the subject of Equisetosis or Eguisetum poisoning, and even
at the present day opinion is divided as to which species are
poisonous and to what extent. From the time of Linneus there has
been uncertainty as to the species, which has generally been given as
E. arvense. Two German papers, by Weber and Lohmann tespectively,
published by the German Agricultural Society in 1903 and 1904, have
done much to remove doubt on the matter, but cannot be said to have
settled the question absolutely. These two papers seem to have been
overlooked by some recent writers on the subject, but Lohmann’s
appears to be the most authoritative paper yet written. Both are
referred to below.

It seems to be definitely proved that certain species of Hguisetum
really are poisonous, hesitating statements notwithstanding. Chesnut
and Wilcox state that there are cases of poisoning of both horses and
sheep by E£. arvense in the United States, though they are not common,
and the opinion is expressed that “the plant, if deleterious, is evidently
so only on account of its harsh scouring action in the mouth and intes-
tinal tract.” On the other hand Rich and Jones record poisoning of
horses by E. arvense in hay, but while adding that horses seem to develop
a depraved appetite for the weed, they state that they have no evidence
that horses grazing upon the green plant are poisoned. Giissow’s
experience has been that cattle do not suffer any inconvenience at all

vI] EHquisetacex 85

from this species, or only very slight disturbance of the digestive organs,
but that horses are conspicuously subject to fatal poisoning by it.
Examination of hay on which a considerable number of poisoned horses
were fed revealed in every case the presence of HE. arvense. When the
food was changed, horses, if not too seriously affected, made rapid
recovery. (Treatment suggested is to change to easily digested food,
give a sharp purgative, and follow by small doses of nux vomica
three timesa day.) Pammel says that in recent years a disease of horses
in Vermont has been attributed to hay and fodder containing the weed ;
that it is proved by experiment that when ingested in sufficient quantity
E. arvense is capable of causing fatal poisoning in horses, and is at times
the cause of extensive losses; and that young horses are most susceptible,
while grain-fed horses are less susceptible than others. He adds that
sheep are supposed to be slightly affected, but cattle eat hay in which
it occurs in large proportion with impunity.

Coming to the two German reports, it is stated by Weber (1903)
that E. palustre contains a specific poison for cattle and other rumi-
nants, but sheep and goats are able, owing to their fine muzzles, to
separate it in fodder, and hence suffer less. Horses and pigs, he says,
seem to suffer very little. Young animals and stock, from districts
where the species does not occur, suffer more than those from places
where it occurs—the latter appearing to learn early to avoid it.

Lohmann conducted feeding experiments with guinea-pigs with
E. arvense, E. palustre, E. pratense, E. sylvaticum, E. maximum, and
E. heleocharis (not British). He also fed E. arvense and E. palustre to
horses, cattle, sheep, pigs, and geese in considerable quantities for many
days on end; and made experiments with aconitic acid on guinea-pigs
and horses. The feeding experiments with guinea-pigs showed that of
the species named only E. palustre and to a less extent E. sylvaticum are
poisonous plants (to guinea-pigs). With the large domestic animals the
experiments showed Z. arvense to be a harmless plant, and E. palustre
to be really injurious to cattle but avoided by other stock. Lohmann
considers that the many statements in the literature agree in part with
this result, and that the divergent observations may be traced to various
causes, among which perhaps an abnormal chemical composition of the
weed fed plays a principal part.

In this connection, however, the American results must be carefully
borne in mind, and Z. arvense must not too hastily be regarded as
blameless. ;

Toxic Principle. It was for some years believed that the apparent

86 Equisetacez [ CH.

toxic symptoms induced by Horsetails were due to Silica or to Aconitic
acid—the latter a substance found by Matz and Ludwig. The conclu-
sion come to by Weber, however, was that the poisoning by E. palustre
is of an organic character, not due to silica. The young shoots, which
contain little silica, were found in general to be.much more poisonous
than the old plants, which contain much silica. It was long since found
by Wiggers that dried plants of E. palustre contained 8-88 per cent. of
silica, but all species contain this substance in greater or less degree,
and it varies considerably in amount, even in the same species. The
feeding experiments conducted by Lohmann, with certain species of
Equisetum, and the observed symptoms of illness after the consumption
of some of them, particularly H. palustre, serve to show that the ill
effects are neither to be attributed to greater or less digestibility, nor
to the silica present. Neither are the aconitic acid and other organic
substances, in part found in previous investigations, responsible for the
poisoning. However, an active compound named Equisetine, a substance
belonging to the alkaloid group, was isolated; this occurs usually,
perhaps only, in £. palustre, at any rate in sufficient quantity to be
dangerous to animals. Lohmann then, following up the investigations
of Paucerzynski, Matz, Meyer, Weber and others, ascertained definitely
that HE. palustre contains an alkaloidal nerve poison, to which the name
Equisetine was given, and the experiments were held to decide that this
is the poisonous substance in this species. (As stated above, E. arvense
was held to be harmless.)

Symptoms. At first, excitement and anxiety, followed by uncer-
tainty of movement, reeling and staggering; paralysis of hind limbs
at least, falling, possibly general paralysis, insensibility to external
irritants, unconsciousness, and coma. Pulse accelerated, appetite at
first normal, but in course of time great disturbance of nutrition; sugar
in the urine. Course sometimes very acute, death occurring in a few
hours, but sometimes protracted (two to eight days), and at times even
chronic (one to several weeks).

In cattle, after excessive eating, continuous diarrhea is character-
istic, with paralysis; while, if the food be persisted with, cachexia and
hydremia combined with weakness bordering on paralysis make their
appearance (Friedberger and Fréhner, via Pammel). In addition to
cachexia, Pott also mentions colic, stoppage, bloody urination, abortion,
and loss of teeth.

Young animals appear to succumb sooner than older ones, while
gtain-fed animals are more resistant than others. Referring to E.

vi] Equisetacex, Filices 87

arvense Pammel says it produces paralysis of the rear extremities, and
when death occurs spasms are noted. In relation to the poisoning of
horses by the same species in hay Rich and Jones note unthriftiness,
the animal appearing thin and the muscles wasted. In from two to
five weeks, according to the age of the horse and the manner of feeding,
the animal begins to lose control of the muscles, and there is swaying
and staggering, though the eye is bright and the appetite good. If the
plant is regularly ingested the horse loses the power of standing, becomes
nervous, struggles to rise, the legs become more or less rigid, and at
times all the muscles of the body seem convulsed. Even in this condi-
tion one well-nursed patient lived two weeks. The horses are generally
willing to eat, although unable to rise, but become sore and tired from
struggling, finally dying from exhaustion. Life is much prolonged by
turning from side to side three or four times in twenty-four hours, thus
preventing congestion. The pulse is slow till near the end, when it
is rapid and weak; the temperature is below normal at first, but when
the animal is down there is fever; the extremities are usually cold;
and the lining membrane of the mouth, nose, and eye becomes pale.

Of Equisetum sp. Stebler and Schroeter say that they induce diarrhea
in cattle, which become poor, and in cows the milk yield is checked or
ceases. Weber also refers to the effect on milk yield of E. palustre,
which he says causes the milk of affected cows to become watery, poor
in fat, and gives rise to a greasy, unappetising butter, while the yield
may soon quite fail.

REFERENCES.
2, 20, 57, 111, 176, 203, 204, 218, 220, 221, 222, 237, 260, 261.

FILICES.

Bracken (Pteris aquilina L.). The Bracken, Brake Fern, or “ Fern”
is of very considerable importance to farmers for four reasons: (1) It
is a most pernicious weed; (2) it forms an excellent litter for stock
and treads down into good manure; (3) it is said to have been success-
fully converted into silage; but (4) it has been accused of poisoning
cattle.

In regard to possible poisonous properties, it must be said that the
facts are at present somewhat uncertain, but a number of authorities
clearly regard the Bracken as poisonous. (a) Miiller (1897) records the
poisoning of horses which ate it for some weeks with chaffi—and some

‘88 Filices, Fungi [cH.

died. (6) Chesnut and Wilcox (1901) say that cases of poisoning of
horses and cattle have been reported from England and a few localities in
the United States. (c) Pott states that when eaten in quantity by
cattle Bracken causes hematuria, and in horses nervous symptoms
(brain trouble), sometimes with fatal effects. (d) Pammel also remarks
on the believed poisonous character of this plant. (e) In view of its
suspected poisonous character feeding experiments were conducted by
the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries with a large quantity of Bracken,
but the results were negative, yielding no experimental proof of the
plant being poisonous. One animal—a heifer—consumed 60 Ib. of
Bracken between Aug. 14 and Aug. 20, and after two meals containing
about 30 Ib. of Bracken showed only symptoms of indigestion. After
the 60 lb. there were no symptoms of illness. It has been thought
possible that the so-called Bracken poisoning is due to Potentilla Tor-
mentilla (q.v.).

In 1893 Storrar dealt with the question and expressed the view that
any disorder due to Bracken was probably not a toxic effect but 4
digestive trouble simply (Jour. Comp. Path., 1893).

Toxic Principle. Continental authorities say that Bracken contains
the poisonous Pteritannic acid, which is identical with the Filicic acid
of the Male Fern (Aspidium filiz-mas).

Symptoms. In the cases of horses which died Miiller gives the symp-
toms as timidity, slower movement or action, loss of balance, dilated
pupils, reddening followed by yellowing of the conjunctive, and slowing
of the pulse.

Pammel notes Bracken as an astringent and anthelmintic, and also
says it causes enteritis, spasms, and paralysis.

REFERENCES.
10, 25, 57, 190, 203, 204, 213.

FUNGI?.

Ergot (Claviceps purpurea). This fungus, parasitic on rye and a
number of grasses, has long been known to induce distinct poisonous
effects on man and domestic animals when ingested in sufficient quantity.

Ergot must be regarded as a cause of abortion in cows, though
somewhat divergent views have been expressed as to the facts, some

1 Poisonous parasitic fungi generally are not dealt with in this volume, but

ergot is included because it is widely distributed and perhaps the best known, while
its effects have been fully studied.

vr] Fungi 89

authorities considering the belief well founded, while others consider
that there is little ground for it. It is quite clear, however, that when
taken in sufficient quantity Ergot induces serious poisoning of domestic
animals. Horses have died in two or three days from eating ergoted
hay and wild rye. Extensive outbreaks of ergotism have occurred in
the United States, and serious losses have been recorded in the Central
and Western States. Ewart remarks that “a comparatively small
number of fresh Ergot grains suffice to injure or kill a horse, cow, or
sheep.” The effects of the poisoning of animals will be found under
Symptoms below.

Toxic Principle. Ergot of rye is used in medicine. It contains
0-20 to 0:25 per cent. of Ergotinine. In the British Pharmaceutical
Codex, 1911, the grains (sclerotia) of Ergot (see Frontispiece) are
described as longitudinally furrowed, 1 to 4 cm. long, slender, curved,
tapering to both ends; they break with a short fracture, and are
somewhat triangular in transverse section; they have a characteristic
and disagreeable odour and taste, are dark violet to black in colour,
and whitish within. Ergot contains the physiologically active alkaloid
Ergotoxine or Hydroergotinine (C35H4,0,6N;), also known as amorphous
Ergotinine, and, when formerly obtained in an impure state, as
Cornutine and Ecboline. It is the hydrate of the crystalline base
Ergotinine (C3;H390;N,). There are also other physiologically active
constituents derived from amino-acids.

_ Symptoms. In man Ergot has induced two types of epidemic ergotism,
caused by the prolonged use of ergoted rye bread. The two forms are
rarely or never found together. One is a gangrenous form characterized
by agonizing pain in the extremities, followed by dry gangrene of the
peripheral parts of the body. The second type of ergotism is much
more rare—a nervous epidemic characterized by paroxysmal epileptiform
convulsions.

Owing to the fact that at the outset ergotism causes irritation in the
hands and feet it is termed “ Kribbelkrankheit” in Germany. :

The three substances noted above as isolated by Kobert are stated
to cause poisoning—the first producing inflammation of the serous and
mucous membranes, disintegration of the red blood cells, and widespread
ecchymoses; the second excites the central nervous system and causes
general convulsions; and the last induces gangrene.

In one case a horse ate ergoted hay: next day the left hind leg was
stiff, and moist with cold sweat; on the second day it was badly swollen
and gangrene of all the tissues became apparent, and after the skin of

90 Fungi [cH.

the leg and a considerable part of the muscular tissue had sloughed off
the animal died on the third day. In other cases horses showed symp-
toms twenty-four hours after eating ergoted hay: fatigue, indisposition
to work, cold sweat, particularly on the neck, paralysis of the tongue and
muscles concerned in swallowing, and then generalized paralysis, very
slow and deep respiration, subnormal temperature, normal pulse at first
and then weaker till scarcely distinguishable, death in six or eight hours
(Chesnut and Wilcox).

According to Pammel ergotism manifests itself among animals
chiefly in the chronic form, the poison being acquired in small amounts
and accumulation taking place slowly. Two distinct forms of the disease
are recognized, the spasmodic and gangrenous. “Symptoms referable to
the digestive tract, such as nausea, vomiting, colic, diarrhcea, or consti-
pation occur in both forms. Pregnant animals very frequently abort.”

“In the spasmodic type of the disease, symptoms due to over-
stimulation of the central nervous system appear. These are tonic
contraction of the flexor tendons of the limbs, anesthesia of the ex-
tremities, muscular trembling, general tetanic spasms, convulsions and
delirium. Death usually occurs from secondary causes.”

“Gangrenous ergotism is characterised by coldness and anesthesia
of the extremities, followed ultimately by dry gangrene of these parts.
The effects of this dry gangrene are often very serious and amount to
sloughing of the feet, tips of the ears, tip of the tail, shedding of the hair,
teeth, etc. Death takes place from exhaustion.

“Acute poisoning is characterized by vomiting (in dogs), profuse
salivation, dilatation of the pupils, rapid breathing and frequent pulse.
The animal cries out, has convulsive twitchings, staggering gait, para-
plegia, intense thirst and coma, terminating in death.”

In an extensive outbreak of ergotism in the United States in 1884
Law and Salmon reported as a prominent symptom ulceration of the
mucous membrane of the tongue and mouth cavity, this and lesions
on the extremities giving the appearance of foot-and-mouth disease.
Affected animals showed weakness, dullness, and paralytic conditions
of certain groups of muscles. When in pregnant animals the uterus is
acted upon, labour pains occur, and the foetus is expelled. The straining
in those cases is often very painful and may be so severe that prolapsus
of the uterus or even the rectum is the result. When Ergot produces
gangrene, it usually affects the extremities, like the lower parts of the
legs, the ears, tail or teats in cattle, and the comb, wattles, toes, wings
or tongue of poultry. It is preceded by redness, coldness, and painful

v1] Fungi 91

swelling of the parts affected. After a while sensibility of the dying
region is lost and the line of demarcation between it and the living
tissue becomes manifest. The dead portion commonly dies and is cast
off. In some cases the gangrene is accompanied by symptoms of a
septic nature.

“The possible result of the poisoning depends largely on the amount
of Ergot taken and on the severity of the symptoms produced thereby.
When small amounts are taken and only a slight dullness or digestive
disturbance results the outlook may be quite favourable. Even Ergot
abortion with rather severe symptoms usually is followed by recovery,
but in the gangrenous cases, fatal terminations are common. The
animals which through this cause have lost one or more parts are not
only crippled, but septic or embolic complications may lead to a fatal
termination. Paralytic cases do not permit of a favourable prognosis,
especially if muscle groups containing important functions are involved.”

(N. Dakota Exp. Sta. Rept.)

REFERENCES.
1, 4, 13, 16, 35, 57, 81, 82, 128, 154, 161, 203, 242, 251.

CHAPTER VII

PLANTS SUSPECTED OF BEING POISONOUS.

A very large number of plants have at various times been suspected
of possessing poisonous properties and causing harm to live stock.
Of these it is quite probable that many are in practice entirely harmless,
but some must be included as possibly deleterious, complaints having
been made which vary in gravity from a slight irritation to causing
death.

Purging Flax (Linum catharticum L.). It is perhaps doubtful
whether this plant is really poisonous unless taken in considerable
quantity by animals—as it is quite unlikely to be. It may, however,
be included here, as it is stated to contain a glucoside which is purgative
and which on fermentation yields prussic acid.

Furze or Gorse (Ulex europeus L.). In view of the fact that
Gerrard isolated from the seeds of Gorse the alkaloid Ulexine, which is
identical with Cytisine (p. 27) and that the alkaloid is also contained in
less quantity in the bark of young shoots, this plant has been suspected
of possessing toxic properties. Experiments (179)! with the alkaloid
definitely showed it to be a nerve and muscle poison, 3 miligrammes
having lolled a chloroformed cat with convulsions in three minutes,
though the animal could be kept alive as long as artificial respiration
was kept up. As, however, Gorse has long been used very widely and
in considerable quantities as a fodder the percentage content of the
alkaloid must in general be exceedingly small, and no harmful effects
need be feared from the consumption of the cut and bruised plant.
Possibly the seeds might prove injurious if eaten in quantity.

Melilot (Melilotus sp.) may at times cause injury. Ewart (82) writes:
“All the species contain Cumarin, a volatile odoriferous principle, which in
excess produces a disinclination to locomotion, paralysis and ultimately
fatal symptoms. No harm is to be apprehended if the amount present
does not exceed 10 per cent. of the herbage.”

Silver Weed (Potentilla Anserina L.). This well-known and elegant
little weed is scarcely likely to be eaten to any extent by farm stock,

1 Reference to Bibliography.

cH. vo] Plants suspected of being Poisonous 93

though it may possibly be taken occasionally on roadsides. It has not
been proved to be poisonous, but Pott states that it has a strongly
constipating effect (213).

Tormentil (Potentilla Tormentilla L.). In relation to supposed.
bracken poisoning (see p. 87) in regard to which experiments were
conducted by the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, Tormentil occurred
in several instances with the bracken in localities where this plant was
reported to cause poisoning. Two feeding experiments in which the
weed was fed to heifers gave negative results. Ina further case, however,
4 or 5 lb. were collected froma field where sick animals were grazing, and
fed to a heifer; it appeared to be the cause of rise of temperature (to
106° F.), diarrhoea, and the passing of a considerable quantity of blood
in the feces for three days, after which the animal improved. It was,
however, slaughtered, and lesions were found similar to those found in
animals dying in the field from so-called bracken poisoning. Though
the plant was suspected, results generally were not held to prove that
it was the cause of poisoning (25). According to Van Rijn the root of
Tormentil contains a considerable quantity of Chinovic acid (CspH4,0, 2).

Wall-Pepper (Sedum acre L.) is regarded as emetic and purgative,
but to lose the harmful properties on drying.

Sundews (Drosera sp.) are reputed to be poisonous to sheep, but
no evidence has been found.

White-Rot or Marsh Penny-Wort (Hydrocotyle vulgaris L.) is stated
to have caused inflammation of the digestive tract, and hematuria;
and to contain a toxic substance Vellarin (213).

Wild Parsnip (Pastinaca sativa L.). This plant has often been sup-
posed to be poisonous, but Pammel shows that in Iowa the plant is
quite harmless, as it appears to be in Britain.

Devil’s-Bit (Scabiosa succisa L.) is stated by Moir to have caused
injury to cattle in one instance (Vet. Record, 1899), causing salivation,
gritting of the teeth, twitching of facial muscles, and slightly protruded,
abraded, swollen and sensitive tongue. An experiment on cattle showed
the plant to induce violent inflammation of the mouth and tongue.

All-Heal (Valeriana officinalis L.) is not likely to be eaten by stock
in sufficient quantity to cause poisonous symptoms, though it is stated
to contain the poisonous Valerianic acid and Oil of Valerian. According
to Chevalier (vide Henry) this plant contains an alkaloid not yet fully
characterised.

Canadian Erigeron (Erigeron canadensis L.), sporadic in England, is
suspected in America. It contains an oil, chiefly a terpene (CyoH,,).

94 Plants suspected of being Poisonous [oH.

It has an acrid taste, causes smarting of the eyes, soreness of throat,
aching of extremities, and colic; and irritation to people handling it (203).
Mayweeds (Anthemis sp.). It is not at all clear whether these
plants are more than irritant in character, and they are so very common
and widely distributed that there would probably be more evidence if
they were poisonous. A. Cotula is regarded as suspected by Smith and
Halsted, while Ewart says that it is obnoxious to stock on account of
its unpleasant flavour, and if eaten by them in time of scarcity is apt
to give their flesh, milk, or butter an unpleasant flavour. Giissow
states that this species blisters the mouth and nostrils of animals. In
his investigations at Kew, Greshoff found that the seeds of A. Cotula
and A. arvensis contain much hydrocyanic acid. (He further found that
the cyanogenetic glucoside from A. aetnensis Schouw. and A. chia L.
belongs to the amygdalin type, giving off hydrocyanic acid and benz-
aldehyde on hydrolysis. “The strong odour of benzaldehyde may
even be observed on grinding the seeds with water. Species of Anthemis
contained from 0:15 down to 0-03 per cent. of hydrocyanic acid.”’)

Cat’s-Ear (Hypocheris radicata L.). No record of poisoning of
Cat’s Ear has been found, but it may be mentioned here, since Ewart
says of it: “It contains a bitter, milky sap, which makes it unpalatable
though not entirely poisonous. . . . . . An exclusive diet of this
weed could not help but injure stock eventually.”

Dodders (Cuscuta sp.), when parasitic on clovers and fed as fodder
or hay, have been suspected of causing digestive troubles in horses and
cattle in the United States. Miiller records a case of poisoning of young
pigs by C. europea, with inflammation of the intestines and nervous
symptoms. Barbey determined the presence of the glucoside Cuscutin
in C. Epithymum.

Viper’s Bugloss (Echium vulgare L.) is suspected of being poisonous;
according to Friedberger and Frohner it causes slavering (see also
Cynoglossum).

Hound’s Tongue (Cynoglossum officinale L.). To what extent this
plant is actually poisonous is not clear, but with some other members
of the order (Echium vulgare, Anchusa officinalis), it contains the two
alkaloids Consolidine and Cynoglossine—the former of which paralyses
the central nervous system and the latter the peripheral nerves.
(Greimer, 1900: vide Henry).

According to Hooker, Hound’s Tongue is narcotic and astringent,
and Smith includes it as a simple vegetable irritant, causing nausea and
purging. No records of actual poisoning of animals have been found.

vit} Plants suspected of being Poisonous 95

Broom-rape (Orobanche minor Sutt.) has been suspected, and
according to Boitel is liable to cause violent colic when it occurs in
considerable proportion in clover and is ingested with it (73). On the
other hand, in a case noted by Stapledon, in which Broom-rape
(O. minor) had completely overrun the aftermath on a farm near
Fishguard, two-year-old cattle devoured the plant with apparent
relish and cleared off most of it in a few days after being turned in.
The farmer stated that he saw no trace of colic or other ill effects.
(Jour. Bd. Agric., September, 1916.)

Great Mullein (Verbascum Thapsus L.). Though it does not
appear to be touched by farm live-stock the Great Mullein must be
mentioned here. The leaves and flowers have been used medicinally
as an emollient and pectoral, while the seeds possess narcotic properties
and serve to stupefy fish (73). Pammel states that the plant causes
irritation, but is probably not very poisonous to stock.

Toadflax (Linaria vulgaris Mill.). Cornevin describes Toadflax as
acrid and poisonous, but says that stock reject it, and he could record
no accidents to animals. In his full and excellent account of this weed,
Kraus says it is regarded as poisonous, or suspected of being so, but
that according to most accounts it is not harmful to cattle (168).
Leunis regards it as suspicious on account of its acridity. Some
German authorities say it is willingly eaten by cattle, but it is generally
believed to be avoided, and owing to its disagreeable odour and acrid
taste this view is probably correct. The plant has not been exhaustively
studied, and while Smith gives the toxic principle as Oil of Snapdragon
and the resin Gratiolin, it may be observed that Toadflax contains the
glucoside Linarin (Cg4H5¢0.0)-

Figworts (Scrophularia nodosa L. and S. aquatica L.). These
plants are not likely to be eaten by animals, but Cornevin states that
the former is strongly emetic and purgative, and that in excess it may
cause superpurgation ending in death. Miiller says that the two
species have respectively caused poisonous symptoms in a cow and a
sheep; in the case of the cow there were loss of appetite and symptoms
of paralysis. From S. nodosa Walz extracted a bitter, crystalline
substance, Scrophularine.

Yellow Rattle (Rhinanthus Crista-gallr L.). When grass land is
put under the plough Yellow Rattle present may re-appear in a cereal
crop as a semi-parasite, and its seeds may later be ground up with the
grain, imparting a reddish or violet-brown colour and an unpleasant
taste to the flour and even bread made from it. It is strongly suspected

96 Plants suspected of being Poisonous [ cH.

of being poisonous, like Pedicularis and Melampyrum, but it is by no
means clear how far it may prove harmful to stock. It is believed by
some people to impart a bad taste to the butter made from the milk
of cows grazing on infested pastures. Lehmann ate without harm
35 grammes (about 1} oz.) of the seeds made into a cake and
cooked; and during four days he gave a rabbit 1238 grammes
(2-7 Ib.) of the fresh plant with half-ripe seeds, without apparent
injury (73).

In some poor pastures it occurs in excessive quantity, and would
appear to be only very slightly poisonous, or would have attracted
wider attention. It is possibly only poisonous after being eaten for
a prolonged period, as in the case of Lolium temulentum, and Lathyrus
sativus. The seeds contain the bitter-sweet glucoside Rhinanthin
(CygH;2029), Which is suspected of having poisonous properties.

Cow-Wheat (Melampyrum arvense L.). It seems clear that Cow-
Wheat is at least not poisonous unless eaten in very considerable quan-
tities—amounts in fact which in practice are most unlikely to be eaten.
The seeds may occur in cereal grains, and hence be ground up into meal.
As they are said to contain a glucoside analogous to Rhinanthin, have
a bitter taste and peculiar odour, and impart a violet coloration to
flour, their presence in cornfields is most undesirable. According to
Pammel this plant induces sleepiness and colic.

Ground Ivy (Nepeta Glechoma Benth.) is, according to Schafiner,
poisonous to horses. It contains a volatile oil and bitter principle, as
also does Catmint (N.Cataria). In a case which came before the Board
of Agriculture and Fisheries in 1906 three horses became ill with
symptoms of poisoning, and the only weed found in the lucerne they
were getting was Ground Ivy, and this was suspected but not proved to
be the cause. In a further case, reported in 1909, eleven horses were
believed to have been poisoned by this weed, and in one of the dead
horses scarcely any food but Ground Ivy was found, and to it the
veterinary surgeon in attendance attributed death. During preceding
years several horses had died in the locality (Ely), owing, it was believed,
to poisoning by the same weed. The losses, however, were not proved
to be due to this plant.

In the Veterinary Journal (October, 1914, p. 515) poisoning of
horses by this weed was noted (after Ferenczhazsy in the Recueil de
Médecine Vétérinaire). The author observed nine cases of intoxication
due to the weed, though it is stated that it “has occasioned no trouble
in cattle and sheep that consumed it.” The symptoms in horses were

vu] Plants suspected of being Poisonous 97

“anxious look, dyspncea, salivation, sweating, dilatation of the pupils,
cyanosis, signs of pulmonary oedema.” Two horses died. In 1913
similar cases were observed by other owners, and terminated fatally.

Hooker states that N. Glechoma is “bitter and aromatic, formerly
used for beer, occasionally for tea.”

Orache (Atriplex sp.). So far as known these plants are not poison-
ous, but it may be stated that Greshoff found the seeds of five species,
and the leaves of two species, to contain a Saponin.

Nettles (Urtica sp.). Nettles are not generally regarded as poisonous
otherwise than as causing painful nettle rash on the bare skin, but
Urtica dioica L. is stated to have caused the death of dogs (Berliner
Tierérztliche Wochenschrift, 1909).

Yellow Flag (Iris Pseud-acorus L.). The wild Flag was noted by
Linnzus as dangerous to cattle, but no case of actual poisoning has
been found in the literature. The plant is stated to have marked emetic
and purgative properties, and Cornevin remarks that in Belgium intense
gastro-enteritis is attributed to it. It contains the glucoside Iridin
(CogH 6043).

Narcissus sp. Various Narcissi (e.g. N. pseudo-narcissus, N. poeticus,
and others) have been regarded as irritant to the hands. They would
rarely if ever be eaten by live-stock in Britain, but it is stated that
on the Continent many poisonings of cattle, goats, and pigs have been
recorded, not infrequently ending in death after two or three days.
The Narcissi are strongly narcotic, emetic, and purgative, and cause
dilated pupils. Pott states that they cause inflammation of the digestive
tract, and convulsions, sometimes with fatal results; and according
to Pammel N. poeticus induces intense gastro-enteritis. N. pseudo-
narcissus contains the alkaloid Narcissine (C,gH,,0,N), which with
cats causes nausea and purgation (Henry).

Common Fritillary (Fritillaria Meleagris L.). The Fritillary or
Snake’s Head occurs only in a few places in England, and truly wild
perhaps only rarely in southern and eastern counties—not in Scotland or
Ireland. No definite case of poisoning has been found in the literature,
but the plant is stated to be poisonous. It contains the bitter
alkaloid Imperialine (C,;Hg9NO,), which is a heart poison.

Bog Asphodel (Narthecitum ossifragum Huds.) has by some been
regarded as a poisonous plant, and Miiller says that the poisoning of
cows has been recorded, and also that a cat died after drinking the milk
of an affected cow. The toxic property is believed to be the glucoside
Narthecin.

L. vi

98 Plants suspected of being Poisonous [cH. va

Molinia caerulea, Moench. A short account by Pott shows that
when forming the principal part of moorland pasture grasses, and hence
extensively eaten, this grass causes brittleness of the bones of stock,
and in sheep chlorosis and wool eating. It also induces hematuria,
but if free from parasitic fungi (e.g. Claviceps microcephala) and not
covered with microscopic, sharp crystals, is quite harmless if only eaten
as @ secondary or incidental fodder. This grass seems to be very poor
in lime (Immendorf, 1898), and Schulze and Castoro found the internodes
of the stem to contain a considerable quantity of a pentosan (Xylan).
It is poor in nutritive constituents. The harm done is due perhaps in
part to this fact, and in part to more or less accidental or occasional
constituents (as 0-046 per cent. of lead oxide in a case of the var. altissima
near some lead works). Plants said to be occasionally similarly harmful
are Juncus sp., Nepeta Glechoma, and Hieracium Pilosella.

CHAPTER VIII

THE EFFECTS OF PLANTS ON MILK.

A number of poisonous plants have a considerable influence on the
milk yield of animals which eat them, reducing it in volume or in fat
content, or imparting to it an unpleasant flavour which renders it unfit
for human consumption, and even affecting the butter made from it.
Other plants not actually poisonous also affect milk by “tainting” it,
and must therefore be considered harmful otherwise than as mere weeds,
Still others affect milk by causing it to be stained with blood, and in
some cases the toxic principle of the plant concerned is even stated
to have rendered the milk poisonous. It will be useful to give here
a brief account of milk-affecting plants, though it is probable that
there may be others which are not mentioned.

The plants best known in this connection are the Garlics (Allium
oleraceum L., A. ursinum L., A. vineale L., and others), which impart
to milk a strong “oniony” flavour. These plants also seriously affect
the flesh of animals which eat them, even rendering it unfit for con-
sumption. A case came before the author several years ago in which
a, considerable number of sheep had eaten a quantity of Allium ursinum,
which was growing in a field in which they had been grazing for some
days. The meat was so strongly tainted that, as the owner (a butcher)
stated, it was quite unfit for sale. The only thing to be done was to
pasture the sheep elsewhere for a time.

Pott notes that species of Ranunculus give rise to reddish or bitter
milk (Mélkereizeitung, 1897), while Caltha palustris causes loss of milk
production in cows.

Ranunculus repens imparts a strong unpleasant flavour to the milk
of cows that have eaten it, and the butter made from such milk is dis-
tinctly bitter in taste (Giissow).

Ranunculus sceleratus causes a falling-off in milk-yield. (Cornevin.)

Alliaria officinalis Andrz, imparts an oniony flavour to milk.

7—2

100 The effects of Plants on Milk [cH.

Achillea Millefolium L. is stated to impart its bitter taste and strong
odour to dairy products when eaten by cows. It contains an alkaloid,
Achilleine (CygHgg0,;N,) having a peculiar odour and bitter taste.

Chrysanthemum Leucanthenium has also been suspected of imparting
a bad flavour to butter.

According to Pott the milk of cows eating Oxalis Acetosella is with
difficulty converted into butter. ;

The poisonous principle of Colchicum autumnale is stated to find its
way into the milk of animals consuming it, and Miiller states that the
milk of goats which have eaten it has caused the poisoning of infants.

Miiller states that a cat died after drinking the milk of a cow suffering
from poisoning by Narthecium ossifragum.

Mercurialis annua is said to cause milk to be thin, “blue,” and poor
in fat; while in a case already mentioned (p. 68) M. perennis entirely
stopped the secretion of milk.

According to Chesnut, goats may eat quantities of Euphorbia Lathyris,
and it is said that their milk then possesses the poisonous properties of
the plants. Ingestion of other Euphorbias appears to have the same
effect.

Cornevin remarks that Melampyrum arvense is considered to influence
cows to produce more milk.

According to some authorities species of Hquisetum check milk
production or cause it to cease, and E. palustre is stated by Weber to
cause the milk of affected cows to become watery, poor in fat, and give
rise to a greasy and unappetising butter, while the yield may soon quite
fail.

The ingestion of the foliage of the oak (Quercus sp.) is stated by
Cornevin to induce Maladie des Bois, with reduction or entire loss of
milk production (see p. 69). Acorns have also affected milk production,
and a case is recorded (The Dairy, 1913) in which it is stated that cheese
made from the milk of cows which had fed on acorns developed a
sharp acid flavour when about four weeks old, though the texture was
good. It is not clear, however, how it was proved to be due to the
acorns.

In one case recorded a reddish tinge was observed in the milk of a
cow suffering from Rhododendron poisoning (p. 46), and in general
reduced milk production appears to occur.

In addition to the foregoing, there is good authority for saying that
the following plants may impart a disagreeable flavour to milk, and in
many cases the butter made from it :—

vur]

Plants which cause Mechanical Injury

Anthemis arvensis L.
Anthemis Cotula L.

(Corn Chamomile).

(Stinking Mayweed).

Artemisia Absinthium L. (Wormwood).
Conium maculatum L. (Hemlock).
Hyoscyamus niger L. (Henbane).
Matricaria Chamomilla L. (Wild Chamomile).
Pinguicula vulgaris L. (Butterwort).
Senebiera didyma Pers. (Lesser Wartcress).

Sium angustifolium L.
Sium latifolium L.
Tanacetum vulgare L.
Thlasyi arvense L.

(Lesser Sium).
(Water Parsnip). °
(Tansy).

(Penny Cress).

101

(See also Index “ Milk, plants affecting,” p. 117.)

PLANTS WHICH CAUSE MECHANICAL INJURY.

There are a number of plants which, while not necessarily physio-
logical poisons, may induce injuries of a severe character when taken
by animals, and by causing festering may bring about septic poisoning.
For example the sharp pointed fruits of Stipa pinnata and Nardus stricta
may cause injury to the skin and mouth, piercing the palate and causing
inflammation, and when eaten may even perforate the wall of the
intestine and cause death; and the awned glumes of species of Bromus
or the spikelets of Hordeum may injure the gums, causing inflammation,
ulceration, sores, the formation of pus, and loss of teeth. The Bromus
and Hordeum, also, together with over-matured “heads” of Trifolium
incarnatum, may give rise to phytobezoars or balls in the stomach of
horses and cattle (60, 119). The sharp pointed fruits of Erodvwm
cicutarium may cause local irritation by working into the wool of sheep.
Aira caespitosa may also cause injury to the mouth of stock.

A case is recorded in New South Wales in which cattle and horses
ate Shepherd’s Purse (Capsella Bursa-pastoris). The cattle were
unaffected, but the horses scoured, though most of them soon recovered
when removed from the cultivated paddock containing the weed. Two
young horses, however, showed signs of colic, became bloated, and
died. It was then found that they contained balls of fibrous material
(one weighed 1 lb. 93 oz.) which consisted to the extent of nearly 50 per
cent. of fibres from Shepherd’s Purse, and death was due to simple

mechanical obstruction of the bowel (155).
Chickweed (Stellaria media) has been found to cause digestive disorder

102 Plants which cause Mechanical Injury [ou. vi

in lambs and sheep when eaten in large quantities (48), and has caused
the death of many a lamb. It would appear to be due entirely to the
formation of large lumps of the weed in the stomach, and subsequent
fermentation (Farmer and Stockbreeder, Mar. 16, 1908).

According to Cornevin, Black Bindweed (P. Convolvulus L.) may
prove injurious, owing to the occurrence of the hard, trigonous, and
pointed “‘seeds”’ in cereal grains. Galtier published facts which show
that oats which contain too many of the “seeds” may, by prolonged
use, occasion a more or less serious enteritis, which is sometimes fatal,
particularly when the grain is fed to greedy horses which scarcely grind
their food (73). The fruits or “seeds” of Knot-weed (Polygonum
Aviculare L.) may similarly prove injurious, and probably the seeds
of other plants. .

CHAPTER IX

CLASSIFICATION OF POISONS.

The classification of poisonous plants according to their effects is
a somewhat difficult process, since more than one prominent symptom
may be produced by the same plant. Two classifications, however,
may be given as examples, the first that of Blyth, and the second that
of A. B. Smith. These must be regarded as essentially applicable to
human beings, though serving more or less as a guide in case of poisoning
of farm live-stock.

Blyth’s Classification (after Pammel).

A.—Poisons causing death immediately or in a few minutes: Prussic acid,
eyanides, oxalic acid, and occasionally strychnine.

B.—Irritant Poisons, with symptoms chiefly pain, vomiting, and purging: Ergot,
digitalis, colchicum, yew, laburnum.

C.—Irritant and Narcotic Poisons, with symptoms of an irritant nature, with
more or less cerebral indications: Oxalic acid or oxalates.

D.—Poisons more especially affecting the Nervous System :

1. Nagcorics.—Symptoms: insensibility, which may be preceded by more
or less cerebral excitement. Opium.

2. Deuimrants.—Delirium, for the most part, a prominent symptom: Bella-
donna, hyoscyamus, stramonium, and other Solanaceae, Lolium temu-
lentum, Oenanthe crocata, poisonous fungi.

3. ConvuLstves.—Almost every poison has been known to produce convulsive
effects, but the only true convulsive poisons are the alkaloids of the

strychnine class.
4. CompLex Nervous Paenomena.—aAconite, digitalis.

A. Bernhard Smith’s Classification.

A.—Poisons acting on the Brain.
1. Naxcotics.—Symptoms: Giddiness; dimness of sight; contracted pupils;

headache; noises in the ears; confusion of ideas, and drowsiness, passing
into insensibility.
British Plants included : Papaver somniferum.

104 A Classification of Poisons [CH.

2. Decimerants.—Symptoms : Spectral illusions; delirium; dilated pupils;
thirst and dryness of the mouth; incoordination. Occasionally, though
rarely, there are paralysis and tetanoid spasms.

British Plants included: Datura Stramonium, Hyoscyamus niger,
Solanum Dulcamara, Solanum nigrum, Atropa Belladonna, Lolium
temulentum.

3. Inzpriants.—Symptoms: Excitement of cerebral functions and of the
circulation; loss of power of coordination and of muscular movements,
with double vision; leading to profound sleep and deep coma.

British Plants included: Pinus pinaster, Pinus larix, Artemisia
maritima, Artemisia Absinthium.

B.—Poisons acting on the Spinal Cord.

Conxvutstves.— Symptoms : Clonic (intermittent) spasms, extending from
above downwards. Opisthotonos very violent; but trismus (lock-jaw)
rare. Swallowing spasmodic. Death, usually, in less than three hours,
or rapid recovery.

British Plants included : none.

C.—Poisons acting on the Heart.

1. DeprEssants.—Symptoms: Vertigo; vomiting; abdominal pain; con-
fused vision; convulsions; occasional delirium; paralysis; syncope;
sometimes asphyxia.

British Plants included : Conium maculatum, Cytisus Scoparius.

2. AstHENIcs.—Symptoms: Numbness, and tingling in the mouth; ab-
dominal pain; vertigo; vomiting; purging; tremor; occasional de-
lirium; paralysis; dyspnoea, ending in syncope.

British Plants included : Pranus laurocerasus, (Phaseolus lunatus—
imported cattle food), Lathyrus aphaca, Rumex Acetosa, Aconitum
Napellus, Actaea spicata, Delphinium consolida, Digitalis purpurea,
Convallaria majalis, Colchicum autumnale.

D.—Vegetable Irritants.

1. Pureatives.—Symptoms: Abdominal pain; vomiting and purging;
cramps; strangury and tenesmus, followed by collapse, and sometimes
accompanied by drowsiness, and slight nervous symptoms.

British Plants included : Sambucus nigra, Sambucus Ebulus, Helle-
borus viridis, Helleborus foetidus, Caltha palustris, Linum catharticum.

2. ABORTIVES.—Symptoms : Nausea; vomiting; stupor; polyuria; some-
times tenesmus. Abortion may or may not occur; coma.

British Plants included : Juniperus Sabina (cultiv. in Britain), Clavi-
ceps purpurea; Ruta graveolens (cultiv. in Britain).

3. Ingrrants with Nervous Symproms.—Symptoms: Abdominal pain;
vomiting and purging; dilated pupils; headache; tetanic spasms;
occasional convulsions; sometimes rapid coma.

British Plants included : Oenanthe crocata, Oenanthe Phellandrium,
Oenanthe fluviatilis, Cicuta virosa, Aethusa Cynapium, Sium angusti-
folium, Taxus baccata, Cytisus Laburnum, Paris quadrifolia, Mercurialis
perennis.

Ix]

A Classification of Poisons 105

4, Sovweie Irerrants.—Symptoms : Burning pain in the throat and stomach;

thirst; nausea; vomiting; tenesmus; purging; dysuria; dyspnea
and cough occasionally. Death through shock; convulsions; exhaus-
tion; or starvation due to injury to throat or stomach.

British Plants included : Arum maculatum, Daphne Laureola, Daphne
Mezereum, Narcissus moschatus, Narcissus poeticus, Scilla bifolia,
Galanthus nivalis, Hyacinthus nonscriptus, Fritillaria meleagris, Cle-
matis Vitalba, Anemone nemorosa, Anemone appenina, Ranunculus
aquatilis, R. Flammula, R. Ficaria, R. auricomus, R. sceleratus, R. acris,
R. bulbosus, Aquilegia vulgaris, Bryonia dioica, Ligustrum vulgare,
Asarum europzum, Saponaria officinalis, Valeriana officinalis, Agro-
stemma Githago, Doronicum Pardalianches, Impatiens noli-me-tangere,
Erysimum cheiranthoides, Cynoglossum officinale, Arctostaphylos Uva-
ursi, Tamus communis, Euonymus europeus, Rhamnus catharticus,
Glaucium luteum, Roemeria hybrida, Papaver Rhoeas, Chelidonium
majus, Sedum acre, Sedum album, Drosera rotundifolia, Linaria vulgaris,
Iris Pseudacorus, Iris foetidissima, Buxus sempervirens, Crocus sativus,
Euphorbia Peplis, E. pilosa, E. Helioscopia, E. platyphylla, E. hiberna,
E. portlandica, E. Paralias, E. Peplus, E. exigua, E. Lathyris, E. amyg-
daloides, Urtica dioica, U. urens, U. pilulifera, Viseum album, Lepidium
latifolium.

5. Suwete IRRITANTS WHEN TAKEN IN LarGE Quantitres.—Symptoms :

Burning pain in throat and stomach, vomiting; purging; difficulty in
swallowing. Recovery usual.
British Plants included ; Sinapis alba, and &. nigra.

TS OU ge bo

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Sci. Progress, No. 1, July, 1906.
Heznstow. Rev. G. Poisonous Plants in Field and Garden, 1901.
__— The Uses of British Plants traced from Antiquity to the Present Day,

1905.

110

132.
133.
134.
135.

136.
137.
> 138.

139.
140.

141.
142.

143.
144.

145.

146.
147.
148.
149,
150.
151.
152.
153.
154.
155.
156.
157.
158.
159.
160.
161.
162.
163.
164.

165.
166.
167.
168.
169.
170.
‘171.

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INDEX

Abies excelsa 72

— pectinaia 712
Abietin 72

Achillea Millefolium 100
Achilleine 100

Aconine 15

Aconitic acid 86

Aconitine 11, 15

Aconitum Napellus 10, 14, 15, 103, 104
Acorns 70-72, 100

Actaea spicata 104

Aethusa Cynapium 39, 104
Agrostemma Githago 3, 6, 8, 19, 105
Agrostemma-Sapotoxin 21
Agrostemmin 21

Atra caespitosa 101

Ali-Heal 93, 105

Alliaria officinalis 19, 100
Allium sp. 99
‘Ally ecthueyaniake 18
Amentacee 69

Amygdalin 8, 94

Anagallis arvensis 48
Anchusa officinalis 94
Andromedotoxin 47, 48
Anemonal 9

Anemone sp. 9, 11

— appenina 105

— nemorosa 9, 105

— pulsatilla 9

— Wood 9
Anemone-camphor (oil of anemone) 9
Anemonic acid 10, 11
Anemonin 10, 11

Annual Mercury 67
Anthemis aetnensis 94

— arvensis 94, 101

— chia 94

— Cotula 94, 101
Apoatropine 59

Aquilegia vulgaris 105
Araliacer 43

Arbutin 47, 48
Arctostaphylos Uva-ursi 105
Aroideer 76

Artemisia Absinthium 101, 104
— maritima 104

Arum maculatum 76, 77, 105
Asarum europeum 105
Asphodel, Bog 97, 101
Aspidium filiz-mas 88

Astragalus bisulcatus 3

Atriplex sp. 97

Atropa Belladonna 4, 5, 8, 50, 52, 58, 103,
104

Atropine 50, 59

Autumn Crocus 2, 3, 79-82, 100, 104

Azalea sp. 4, 48

— arborescens 48

— indica 48

— nudifiora 48

— pontica 48

Balsamorhiza sagittata 3
Beans 4, 32, 33, 104
Belladonine 59

Belladonna, see Deadly Nightshade
Bibliography 107
Bindweeds 49, 102°
Bittersweet 54, 104

Black Bindweed 49, 102
— Bryony 35, 78, 105
Bog Asphodel 97, 101

Box 69, 105

Bracken 87, 93

Brake-fern 87, 93

Brassica nigra 18

— Sinapistrum 18, 19
Bromus 101

Broom 27, 104
Broom-rape 95

Bryogenin 35

Bryonia dioica 35, 78, 105
Bryonin 35, 78

Bryony 35, 78, 105
Buckthorn 24, 105
Buckwheat 64

Burma beans 32
Buttercups 8, 10-12, 99, 105
— Acrid 10, 105

— Bulbous 10, 11, 105
— Celery-leaved 10, 11, 99, 105
Butterwort 101

Buxine 69

Buxinidine 69

Buzxus sempervirens 69, 105

Caltha palustris 9, 12, 99, 104
Canadian Erigeron 93

Caper Spurge 66, 67, 100, 105
Caprifoliaceez 43

Capsella Bursa-pastoris 101

Index 115

Caryophyllacee 19 Cupressus macr
Castor Oil Plant 33 sepia tang .
oe sag
Celandine, Greater 17, 105 —_— pecieee al as
— Lesser 10, 11, 105 Cuscutin 94
Celastracer 24 Cyclamin 49
Celery-leaved Buttercup 10, 11, 99, 105 Cynapine 39
Chaerophyllin 40 Cynoglossine 94
Chaerophyllum sp. 37, 40 Cynoglossum officinale 94, 105
— sylvestre 40 Cytisine 25, 27, 92
—_ temulum 40 Cytisus Laburnum 25, 27, 104
Chamomile, Corn and Wild 101 — Scoparius 27, 104
Charlock 18 — Weldeni 25
Chelerythrine 17
Chelidonine 17 Daphne sp. 4,8
Chelidonium majus 17, 105 — Laureola 65, 105
Cherry Laurel 34 — Mezereum 65, 105
Chervils 40 Daphnin 65
Chickweed 101 Darnel 8, 48, 82-84, 96, 103, 104
Chinovie acid 93 Datura Stramonium 50, 103, 104
Choline 68 Daturine 50
Christmas Rose 13 Deadly Nightshade 4, 5, 8, 50, 52, 58, 103,
Chrysanthemum Leucanthemum 100 104
Cicuta virosa 2, 8, 36, 104 Delphinine 11, 14
Cicutine 36 Delphinium Ajacis 14
Cicutoxine 36 — Consolida 14, 104
Classification of Poisons 103 — Staphisagria 14
Claviceps microcephala 98 Delphinoidine 14
— purpurea 8, 88-91, 103, 104 Delphisine 14
Clematis Vitalba 9, 105 Devil’s-Bit 93
Cockle, Corn 3, 6, 8, 19, 105 Digitalein 61
Colchicine 80 Digitaline 61
Colchicum sp. 8, 11, 103 Digitalis purpurea 61, 103, 104
— autumnale 2, 3, 79-82, 100, 104 Digitin 61
Composite 44 Digitonin 61
Conhydrine 30, 41 Digitoxine 61
Coniceine 41 Dioscoridee 78
Conifere 72 Docks 63, 64
Coniferin 72 Dodders 94
Coniine 30, 39, 41 Dog’s Mercury 67, 68, 100, 104
Conium maculatum 6, 30, 41, 101, 104 Doronicum Pardalianches 105
Consolidine 94 Dropwort, Water 37, 103, 104
Convallamarin 79 Drosera sp. 93
Convallaria majalis 79, 104 — rotundifolia 105
Convallarin 79 Dulcamarin 54
Convolvulaces 49 Dwarf Elder 43, 104
Convolwulus sp. 49, 102
— arvensis 49 Ecboline 89
— sepium 49 Echiwm vulgare 94
Corn Chamomile 101 Elder, Common 43, 104
Corn Cockle 3, 6, 8, 19, 105 — Dwarf 43, 104
Cornutine 89 Endoconidium temulentum 83
Cowbane 2, 8, 36, 104 Equisetacee 84
Cow-Wheat 96, 100 Equisetine 86
Cress, Penny 101 Equisetum sp. 3, 84-87, 100
Crocus, Autumn 2, 3, 79-82, 100, 104 — arvense 84, 85, 86, 87
Crocus sativus 105 iim om ielecehorss Be
Crowfoot, Tall 10, 11, 10. — maxmu
Crucifere 18 — palustre 85, 100
Cackoo Pint 76, 77, 105 = ee hae

i 5 — sy
ae Ergot 8, 88-91, 103, 104

116 Index

Ergotinine 89 Helleborin 12, 13
Ergotism 89 Helleborus sp. 13
Ergotoxine 89 — fetidus 13, 104
Ericaceer 46 — niger 13
Ericolin 47, 48 — viridis 13, 14, 104
Erigeron, Canadian 93 Hemlock (see also Water Hemlock) 6, 30,
Erigeron canadensis 93 41, 101, 104
Erodium cicutarium 101 Henbane 6, 51, 101, 104
Erysimum cheiranthotdes 19, 105 Herb Paris 78, 104
Esparcet, False 3 Hieracium Pilosella 98
Euonymin 24 Hordeum 101
Euonymus ewropeus 24, 105 Horsetails 3, 84-87, 100
Euphorbia sp. 8, 66, 67 Hound’s Tongue 94, 105
— amygdaloides 105 Huckleberry 53
— exigua 105 Hyacinthus nonscriptus 105
— Helioscopia 66, 105 Hydrocotyle vulgaris 93
— hiberna 105 Hydroergotinine 89
— Lathyris 66, 67, 100, 105 Hyoscine 50, 51, 59
— Paralias 105 Hyoscyamine 6, 46, 50, 51, 59
— Peplis 105 Hyoscyamus sp. 103
— Peplus 66, 105 — muticus 6
— pilosa 105 . — niger 6, 51, 101, 104
— platyphylla 105 Hyoscypicrin 51
— portlandica 105 Hypericinex 22
Euphorbiacee 66 Hypericum perforatum 22
Hypochaeris radicata 94
Fagopyrism 64
Ferns 87, 88 Impatiens noli-me-tangere 105
Figworts 95 Imperialine 97
Filices 87 Tridine 97
Filicic acid 88 Iris foetidissima 105
Flag, Yellow 97, 105 — Pseud-acorus 97, 105
Flax, Purging 92, 104 Ivraie 83
Fool’s Parsley 39, 104 Ivy 43
Formic acid 75 — Ground 96
Foxglove 61, 103, 104
Frangulin 24 Java beans 4, 32, 104
Fritillaria Meleagris 97, 105 Jervine 12, 13
Fritillary, Common 97, 105 Jimson Weed 50
Fungi 88 Juncus sp. 98
Furze 92 Juniperus Sabina 72, 104
Galanthus nivalis 105 King-cup 12 99, 104
Garden Nightshade 4, 52, 54, 104 Knot-weed 102
Garlic Mustard 19, 100 Kribbelkrankheit 89
Garlics 99
Geraniacee 23 Laburnum 25, 27, 103
Geranium, Wild 3 Lactuca scariola 45
Githagin 21 — virosa 45, 46
Githagism 20 Lactucarium 46
Glauctum luteum 105 Lactucerin 46
Gorse 92 Lactucic acid 46
Graminee 82 Lactucin 46
Gratiolin 95 Lactucone 46
Great Mullein 95 Lactupicrine 46
Ground Ivy 96 Larix europea 72
Gummi hedere 43 Larkspur 14, 104
Lathyrism 27, 28
Hedera Helix 43 Lathyrus Aphaca 29, 104
Hederin 43 — Ctrcera 27
Hellebore, Green 13, 14, 104 — Clymenum 27
— Stinking 18, 104 — sativus 27, 96

Helleborein 13 Laurel, Cherry 34, 104

Index

Laurel, Spurge 65, 105
Lepidium latifolium 105
Lettuce, Wild 45

Ligustrin 49

Ligustron 49

Ingustrum vulgare 4, 49, 105
Liliacezs 78
Lily-of-the-Valley 79, 104
Lima beans 32

Linaria vulgaris 95, 105
Linarin 95

Linum carthaticum 92, 104
Loco-weed 3

Loliine 83

ariel temulentum 8, 48, 82-84, 96, 103,
Lords and Ladies 76, 77, 105
Lousewort 63, 95

Lupines 29

— Blue 29

— False 3

— White 30

— Yellow 29

Lupinidine 27, 31

Lupinine 31

Lupinosis 29-32
Lupinotoxin 31

Lupinus sp. 29-32

— albus 30

— angustifolius 29

— luteus 29, 30

Mal de Brou 70

Maladie des Bois 70, 100

Male Fern 88

Marsh Marigold 12, 99, 104

Marsh Penny-Wort 93

Matricaria Chamomilla 101

Mayweeds 94, 101

Meadow Saffron 2, 3, 79-82, 100, 104

Mechanical injury, plants causing 101

Melampyrum sp. 63, 95, 96

— arvense 96, 100

Melilot 92

Melilotus sp. 92

Mercurialine 68

Mercurialis annua 67, 68, 100

— perennis 67, 68, 100, 104

Mercury, Dog’s and Annual 67, 68, 100,
104

Methylconiine 41

Mezerein 65

Mezereon 65, 105

Milk, plants affecting 99, 100, 101
— Achillea Millefohum 100

— Acorns 100 :

— Alliaria officinalis 100

— Allium sp. 99

— Anthemis sp. 94, 101

— Artemisia Absinthium 101

— Caltha palustris 99

— Chrysanthemum Leucanthemum 100
— Colchicum autumnale 80, 81, 100

117

Milk plants affecting (cont.):
— Conium maculatum 42, 101
— Cytisus Weldeni 25
— Equisetum palustre 87, 100
— Euphorbia sp. 67
— — Lathyris 100
— Helleborus sp. 13, 14
— Hyoscyamus niger 52, 101
— Hypericum perforatum 22
— Matricaria Chamomilla 101
— Melampyrum arvense 100
— Mercurialis annua 68, 100
— — perennis 68, 100
— Narthecium ossifragum 97 100
— Oxalis Acetosella 23, 100
— Pinguicula vulgaris 101
— Quercus sp. 71, 100
— Ranunculus sp. 99
— Rhododendron 47, 100
— Rumex sp. 64
— Senebiera didyma 101
— Senecio latifolius 45
— Sium angustifolium 101
— — latifolium 37, 101
— Solanum tuberosum 57
— Tanacetum vulgare 44, 101
— Thlaspi arvense 101

Molinea caerulea 98

Monkshood 10, 14, 15, 103, 104

Morphine 16

Mullein, Great 95

Mustard, Garlic 19, 100
— Treacle 19

Naked Ladies 2, 3, 79-82, 100, 104

Narcissine 97

Narcissus sp. 97

— moschatus 105

— poeticus 97, 105

— pseudo-narcissus 97

Nardus stricta 101

Narthecin 97

Narthecium ossifragum 97, 100

Nepeta Cataria 96

— Glechoma 1, 96, 98

Nettles 97, 105

Nightshade, see Deadly Nightshade and
Garden Nightshade

Oak 69-72, 100
Oenanthe crocata 37, 103, 104
— fistulosa 38

— fluviatilis 104

— Phellandrium 38, 104
Oenanthotoxin 38

Oil of Cicuta 36

— Euphorbia 68

— Mustard 18

— Snapdragon 95

— Tansy 44

— Valerian 93

— Yew 75

Oleacer 49

118

Orache 97
Orobanche minor 95
Ozalis Acetosella 23, 100

Paigya beans 32
Papaver sp. 8, 16

— dubium 16

— Rhoeas 16, 105

— somniferum 103
Papaveracee 16
Papilionacer 25
Parabuzine 69
Parabuxinidine 69
Paridin 78, 79

Paris quadrifolia 78, 104
Paristyphnin 78
Parsnip, Water 37, 101
— Wild 93

Pasque Flower 9
Pastinaca sativa 93
Peas, Indian 27, 96

— Mutter 27
Pedicularis sp. 63, 95
— palustris 63

— sylvatica 63

Penny Cress 101
Penny-Wort, Marsh 93
Persicaria 64

Petty Spurge 66, 105
Phaseolunatin 8, 33
Phaseolus lunatus 4, 32, 104
Picea sp. 72

Picein 72

Picrotoxin 36, 83
Pimpernel, Scarlet 48
Pinguicula vulgaris 101
Pinipicrin 72

Pinus larix 104

— pinastre 104

— strobus 72

— sylvestris 72

Pisum sativum 27
Poison Weed 48
Polygonaceez 63
Polygonum Aviculare 102
— Convolvulus 102
— Fagopyrum 64

— hydropiper 64, 65
— Persicaria 64, 65
Poppies 8, 16, 103, 105
Potato 54-58

Potentilla Anserina 92
— tormentilla 88, 93
Primulaceez 48

Privet 4, 49, 105
Protopine 17
Prulaurasin 34

Prunus laurocerasus 34, 104
Pseudoconhydrine 41
Pieris aquilina 87, 93
Pteritannic acid 88
Pulsatilla-camphor 9
Purging Flax 92, 104

Index

Quercus sp. 69-72, 100

Radish, Wild 18
Ragwort 44
Rangoon beans 32
Ranunculacee 9

Ranunculus sp. 8, 9, 10, 12, 99

— acer il

— acris 10, 11, 105

— aquatilis 10, 105

— auricomus 105

— bulbosus 10, 11, 105
— Ficaria 10, 11, 105
— Flammula 10, 11, 105
— lingua 10

— repens 10, 12, 99

— sceleraius 10, 11, 99, 105
Raphanus Raphanistrum 18
Rhamnaceze 24
Rhamnetin 24

Rhamnus Catharticus 24, 105
— Frangula 24

Rheadine 16

Rhinanthin 63, 96
Rhinanthus sp. 63

— Crista-galli 95
Rhododendrin 47
Rhododendron sp. 4, 46, 100
— arboreum 47

— californicum 46

— Chrysanthum 46

— cinnabarinum 47

— ferrugineum 46

— hirsutum 47

— maximum 46

— ponticum 46, 47

— punctatum 47

Ricin 34

Ricinine 34

Ricinus communis 33
Roemeria hybrida 105
Rosacez 34

Rumex Acetosa 63, 104

— Acetosella 63

— crispus 64

Ruta graveolens 104

St John’s Wort 22
Sambuca Ebulus 43, 104
— nigra 43, 104
Sambucine 44

Sambunigrin 44

Saponaria officinalis 19, 105

Saponins 8, 9, 19, 21, 77, 78, 97

Sapotoxin 21

Scabiosa succisa 93
Scarlet Pimpernel 48
Scilla bifolia 105
Scopolamine 50, 51, 59
Scrophularia aquatica 95
— nodosa 95
Scrophularine 95
Scrophularinee 61

Index 119

- Sedum acre 93, 105 Thermopsis rhombifolia 3
— album 105 Thlaspi arvense 101
Senebiera didyma 101 Thorn Apple 50, 103, 104
Senecifolidine 45 Thuja occidentalis 72
Senecifoline 45 Thymelacese 65
Senecio Burchelit 45 Toadflax 95, 105
— Jacobea 44 Tormentil 88, 93
— latifolius 45 Traveller's Joy 9, 105
Sheep’s Sorrel 63 Treacle Mustard 19
Shepherd’s Purse 101 Trifolium incarnatum 101
Silica 86 Trimethylamin 68
Silver Weed 92 Trollius europeus 9
Sinalbin 18
Sinapine 18 Ulex europeus 92
Sinapis alba 105 Ulexine 25, 92
— arvensis, see Brassica sinapistrum Umbellifere 2, 36
— nigra -105 Urtica sp. 97
Sium angustifolium 37, 101, 104 — dioica 97, 105
— latifolium 37, 101 — pilulifera 105
Sium, Lesser 101 — urens 105
Smilacin 21
Snake’s Head 97 Valeriana officinalis 93, 105
Soapwort 19, 105 Valerianic acid 93
Solanacee 4, 8, 50, 103 Vellarin 93
Solanidine 53, 56 Verbascum Thapsus 95
Solanine 8, 53, 54, 55, 56 Vetchling, Yellow 29, 104
Solanum Dulcamara 54, 104 Viper’s Bugloss 94
— guineense 53 Viscum album 105
— nigrum 4, 52, 54, 104
— tuberosum 54-58 Wall-Pepper 93, 105
— villosum 53 Wartcress, Lesser 101
Sorrel, Common 63, 104 Water Dropwort 37, 103, 104
— Sheep’s 63 — Hemlock 2, 8, 36, 104
— Wood - 23, 100 — Parsnip 37, 101
Sparteine 27, 31 — Pepper 64, 65
Spearwort, Lesser 10, 11, 105 White-Rot 93_
Spindle Tree 24, 105 Wild Chamomile 101
Spurge Laurel 65, 105 — Geranium 3
Spurges 66, 67, 100, 105 — Lettuce 45
Staphisagrine 14 — Parsnip 93
Stellaria media 101 = a oe ,
Stinking Mayweed 101 — Sunilower
Stipa inate 101 Wind Flower 9, 105
Sundews 93 Wonderberry 53
Sunflower, Wild 3 Wood Anemone 9, 105
Sun Spurge 66, 105 — Sorrel 23, 100
Syringin 49 Wormwood 101
ingopicrin 49
i Xylan 98
Tamus communis 35, 78, 105
Tanacetum vulgare 44, 101 Yellow Flag 97
Tannin 70 — Rattle 95 '
Tansy 44, 101 — Vetchling 29, 104
Taxine 75 Yew 2, 4, 7, 8, 72, 73-76, 103, 104
Taxus baccata 2, 4,7, 8, 72, 73-76, 103, 104
Temuline 83 Zygadenus venenosus 3
Terpene 93

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