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arte, ROSA BoNHEuR.
A TYPICAL HORSE, FROM A PAINTING BY THE WORLD’S GREATEST ANIMAL PAINTER.
THE
SUCCESSFUL > STOCKMAN
AND
MANUAL OF HUSBANDRY.
Editor-in-Chief,
ANDREW A. GARDENIER, Pu. D.,
Author of Standard Physiology, Standard Physician’s Manikin, Anatomical Study, etc.
Assistant Editors,
H. D. GILL, V. St, Dean New York College of Veterinary Surgeons.
Hon. F. R. GILBERT, Judge of Supreme Court of New Youk.
The King-Riehardson Co.
Springfield, Mass.
RIcHMOND. Des Moines. INDIANAPOLIS. San Jost.
DALLas. TOLEDO.
1901.
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year eighteen hundred and ninety-nine,
BY THE KING-RICHARDSON COMPANY,
In the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.
eH ne ha
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
THE HORSE.
Management in Sickness and Health.
Diseases and How to Cure Them.
CHAPTER I.
MANAGEMENT AND CARE.
PAGE.
Intelligence Required. Our Domestic Animals. First Requisites. Box-
Stall. Good Bed. Clothing. Remove Shoes. Food. Bran Mash.
Linseed Mash. Bread Mash. Fresh Water Important. Hand Rub-
bing. Cold Water Bathing of the Legs. Steaming. How to Make
Poultices. Blisters. Antiseptics. Deodorizers. Hot Water Bathing.
Slings. Bandages. Rarey’s System of Throwing or Casting. How
to Give Medicine. Electuaries. Injections. Giving a Ball. Making
a Ball. Giving Liquids. General Advice... ..........0..005. 23
CHAPTER II.
FEEDING AND CARE,
General Requisites. Watering Horses When Warm. The Quantity of
Water Required. Kinds of Food. Digestion of Two Kinds. Feed
Oats After Hay. Common Error. Horse Has a Small Stomach.
Ten Pounds of Hay a Day. Description of the Value of the Various
Grains, Roots, and Dried and Green Grasses............ 36
vI. TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER III. PAGE.
DRUGS AND MEDICINE, THEIR DOSES AND EFFECTS.
Time Required for Drugs to Take Effect. Explanation of the Effect
of Drugs. Doses of Medicine According to Age. How Often to
Give Medicine. Table of Drugs. Their Doses and External and
Internal Action. Common Names for a Few Drugs..........
CHAPTER IV.
THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS.
Description of the Alimentary Canal. Diseases of the Teeth, Mouth,
Gullet and Csophagus, Stomach, Intestines, Liver, Intestinal
Worms, Classification of the Causes That Produce Colic.......
CHAPTER V.
THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS.
Description of the Organs of the Thoracic Cavity. Diseases of the
Nostrils, Nasal Chambers, Sinuses, Pharynx, Larynx, Wind-
Pipe, Bronchi, Bronchial Tubes, Air-cells, Pleura, Etc......
CHAPTER VI.
THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS.
Description of the Heart, Arteries, and Veins. Inflammatory Dis-
eases. Functional and Organic Diseases of the Heart. Diseases
of the Arteries, Veins, and the Lymphatic System.........
CHAPTER VII.
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.
Divisions of the Nervous System. Functions of the Various Parts.
Inflammation of the Brain. Mad Staggers. Sunstroke. Spasm of
the Thigh. Lock-Jaw. Hydrophobia. Electric Shock. Etc... 1
CHAPTER VIII.
THE URINARY ORGANS.
Diabetes Insipidus. Saccharine Diabetes. Bloody Urine. Poisoning
by Albuminoids. Inflammation of the Kidneys. Spasm of the
Bladder. Inflammation of the Bladder. Urinary Calculi. Ete. . 1
41
49
73
OI
13
TABLE OF CONTENTS. : VII.
CHAPTER IX. PAGE.
GALLS AND BRUISES.
Abscesses or Boils Caused by Contusion. Bruises and Their Treat-
ment. Chafing by the Harness, and Saddle or Collar Galls. Etc. 125
CHAPTER X.
GENERAL DISEASES.
Influenza, Pink-Eye or Epizooty. Strangles. Distemper or Ca-
tarrhal Fever. Pleuro-Pneumonia. Horse-Pox, and Rabies. ... 131
CHAPTER XI.
GLANDERS OR FARCY.
Glanders and Farcy the Same Disease. Can be Communicated to
Man. Chronic Farcy. Chronic Glanders. Acute Farcy Glanders. 151
CHAPTER XII.
EXTERNAL EVIDENCES OF MANY DISEASES.
The Common Names Given to Deformities. Their Causes Produc-
ing Many Familiar Diseases. Lack of Conformation. ..... 163
CHAPTER XIII.
KNEE, FETLOCK, ANKLE, AND FOOT.
Anatomical Description of the Parts. Physiological Functions.
Faults of Formation. Interfering. Cocked Ankles. Wind Galls.
Quittor. Corns. Sand-Cracks. Ringbone. Splint. Spavin. Etc. 169
CHAPTER XIV.
THE SKIN.
Structure of the Skin. Cracked Heels or Scratches. Nettle Rash or
Surfeit. Horny Sloughs or Sitfasts. Warts. Congestion with
Pimples. Animal and Vegetable Parasites. Fistula. Etc... . 227
CHAPTER XV.
SHOEING.
Why Necessary. Common Errors. Preparing the Foot for the Shoe.
The Shoe. Finishing Touches. Winter Shoeing. Special Shoeing. 242
° CHAPTER XVI.
THE TEETH.
Age as Indicated by the Teeth. Alterations in the Teeth. Temporary
Teeth. Permanent Teeth. Parrot Mouth. Bishop-ing. Etu. ... 255
VIII. TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CATTLE DEPARTMENT.
THE VARIOUS BREEDS.
PAGE.
The Short-horns. Their Characteristics. Climate Adapted to the
Short-horns, The Herefords. Asa Dairy Cow. Asa Working
Ox. As a Beef Animal. Aberdeen-Angus. Characteristics.
The Devons. Description. The Ayrshires. As a Dairy Cow.
Asa Beef Animal. The Jerseys. Their Characteristics. The
Red Polls. The Holsteins and their Characteristics. ........ 271
DISEASES.
Mtomatitis. Sore Throat. Choking. Hoven, Tympanitis, or Bloat-
ing. Indigestion. Colic. Loss of Cud. Diarrhea. Dysentery.
White Scours. Inflammation of the Bowels. Worms. Jaundice.
Liver Diseases. Peritonitis. Pleurisy. Pneumonia. Bloody
Urine. Contagious Abortion. Mange or Itch. Lousiness. Etc. 298
GENERAL TOPICS.
Dehorning Cattle. Use of the Separator. How to Take Care of
Milk. The Aeration of Milk. Birth and after-birth........ 335
SHEEP HUSBANDRY.
THE VARIOUS BREEDS.
Descriptions of the Southdowns, the French Merinoes, the Cheviots,
the American Merinoes, the Shropshires, the Black-Faced Scotch,
the Oxford-Downs, the Hampshire-Downs, the Dorsets, the Lin-
colns, the Leicesters, the Cotswolds, and the Cross-Bred Sheep . . 351
DISEASES.
Constipation or Costiveness. Diarrhea. Dysentery. Inflammation
of the Bowels. Hoven. Cold or Catarrh. Bronchitis. Inflam-
mation of the Lungs. Influenza. Congestion of the Liver.
Inflammation of the Liver. Poisoning by Sheep Laurel. Injur-
ious Effects of Plaster and Lime. Inflammation of the Bladder.
Inflammation of the Brain. Water on the Brain. Staggers.
Contagious Foot-Rot. Common Foot-Rot or Gravel. The Sheep
Gad-fly. The Sheep Louse. Scab Insect. Castration. Tape
Worms. Spasmodic Colic. Constipation in Lambs. ........ 375
TABLE OF CONTENTS, 1X,
SWINE HUSBANDRY.
THE VARIOUS BREEDS.
PAGE.
The Berkshires. Their Characteristics. Quality of Meat. Matur-
ity. The Suffolks. Their Characteristics. The Essexes. Their
Characteristics. The Poland-Chinas. ‘Their Characteristics. ‘The
Victorias. The Durocs. The Cheshires, or Jefferson County
Swine. Jersey Reds. Chester Whites. Vorkshires....... 393
DISEASES AND GENERAL SUBJECTS.
Mange. Recipe for Mange Ointment. Pigs Losing Their Tails.
Inflammation of the Brain, or ‘‘Blind Staggers.’’ Diarrhea.
Constipation. Lice. So-Called ‘‘Hog Cholera. Etc. Curing
and Preserving. Sows Eating Their Pigs. Swine Breeding. .. 408
POULTRY DEPARTMENT.
THE VARIOUS BREEDS.
Special Advantages and Disadvantages of the Andalusians, Brah-
mas, Cochins, Leghorns, Brown Leghorns, Game, White Ply-
mouth Rocks, Dominiques, Langshans, Dorkings. Classification
of the Characteristics of the Various Breeds. .......... 419
DISEASES.
Causes. Crop-bound. Gapes. Roup. Common Cold or Catarrh.
Bronchitis. Disorders of the Egg Organs. Cramp. Consump-
tion. Diphtheria. Bumble-Foot. Apoplexy. Feather Hating.
Cholera. Diarrhea. Etc., Etc. . 2... cee eee eee eee eee 432
GENERAL SUBJECTS.
Suitable Place in Which to Keep Fowls. Building a Hen-house.
Crowding of Fowls. ‘The Most Profitable Breed to Keep. Etc. 438
THE POTATO.
ITS ENEMIES.
Late Blight or Downy Mildew. Early Blight or Leaf-Spot Disease.
Bacterial Blight. ‘Treatment of Diseases of the Potatoes. Po-
tato Scab. ‘Treatment. Caution. Bordeaux Mixture. How
to Prepare Carbonate of Copper... 6. - ee eee eee eee 443
X. TABLE OF CONTENTS.
STANDARD RECEIPTS.
PRACTICAL AND VALUABLE REMEDIES.
PAGE,
Liniments and Pain Killers. Ointments. Plasters and Blisters.
Poultices. How to Produce Sweating. Emetics. Worm Rem-
edies. Cough Remedies. Medicated Syrups. Medicinal Essen-
ces. How to Measure Medicine. To Prevent Contagion and
Blood Poisoning. Accidents and Emergencies. Paints and Var-
nishes. Whitewash and Kalsomine. To Remove Stains and
Grease Spots. Harness and Leather. Boots and Shoes. Clean-
ing and Polishing. Paste, Glue, and Mucilage. Wagon ‘Tires
and Fence Posts. Annoying Insects. Rats and Mice. Preserv-
ing and Salting Meat. Fruit and Vegetables over Winter. Soap
Making. Cider, Vinegar, and Wines. Miscellaneous. ...... 447
FRUIT CULTURE.
INJURIOUS INSECTS AND GENERAL SUBJECTS.
Budding. Grafting. Insects Injurious to Plants. The Codling
Moth. Rose Beetle. Tent Caterpillar. Woolly Louse of the Ap-
ple. Flat Headed and Round Headed Apple Tree Borer. Amer-
ican Procris. Plum Curculio. Canker Worm. Various Other
Insects. The Latest Insect Destroyers. Concise Directions for
Spraying Cultivated Plants. Howandwhento Spray....... 531
LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
LEGAL FACTS IMPORTANT TO ALL.
Contracts. How to do Banking Business. Line Fences. Road
Fences. Damage by Vicious Animals such as: Bulls, Horses, and
Dogs. Damage to Property by Animals-at-Large. Rights of
Drainage Surface Water. Line Trees... ........... 563
GLOSSARY.
EXPLANATION OF SCIENTIFIC TERMS........ 607
PREPAwGE.
HIS work has been prepared to meet the requirements of the
busy men of our country, who have felt the need of a reliable
systematic work which would aid them to properly. care for
their domestic animals in health and sickness and give them practical
and valuable knowledge on other general subj ects in a condensed
form ready for reference or use. They have looked in vain for a simple
and authentic treatise on the causes, symptoms, prevention, and cure
of the diseases with which their domestic animals are so often afflicted.
The works now on the market are for the use of practitioners of med-
icine or are merely compilations by unscientific and unprofessional wri-
ters, whose works are misleading and dangerous. Most of the diseases
can be easily detected and properly treated by the intelligent farmer and
stock-owner, and it is the aim of this work to assist them in their study
and aid them in fully understanding the principle of the application of
the various remedies and their effects.
In order to prepare a work practical in all its details, much time has
been spent conferring with the intelligent farmers and stock-raisers, in
the various parts of our country, regarding the contents of a work to
meet their approval. Every suggestion has been faithfully carried out
and we hope that our work will meet with the hearty approval of the
American public. This experience and observation among the practical
and experienced stock men leads to the belief that a practical work of
this kind will be a great benefit to every owner of domestic animals.
Most of the special features of this work are the result of the recom-
mendations of successful farmers and stock-raisers. To them we feel
thankful for their generous aid.
Care has been taken to have the language so simple as to be readily
xii PREFACE.
understood by even the humblest reader. . Scientific words are ex-
plained, and the directions have been carefully and simply worded.
The remedies are as far as possible those that can be easily procured,
prepared, and administered. Ina work of this kind it has sometimes
been necessary to use unfamiliar words, and phrases, so in order
that all may be thoroughly understood, a glossary has been prepared
in which the words not familiar in every day life have been thoroughly
explained.
In the veterinary department will be found the causes producing the
diseases, so that knowing the cause the disease may be avoided. That,
‘‘An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure,’’ has been kept in mind
throughout the book. Great care has been taken to accurately explain
THE SYMPTOMS so that the disease may be properly located, and there-
fore know WHAT TO Do.
Acting upon the belief that no one man, nor any half-dozen men know
all there is worth knowing on a subject so extensive, we have freely
drawn from such able authors and practitioners as Drs. Law, Salmon,
Trumbour, Liautard, Kneidecker, and Dickson, whose ability and
standing in their profession and their specialities cannot be doubted.
Special charts or MANIKINS OF THE BODY OF THE HORSE
AND COW have been prepared, also one of the KNEE, FETLOCK,
ANKLE AND FOOT. By the study of these MANIKINS, which
have never before been given to the public, an accurate knowledge of
the construction of the bodies of the various animals, the location of the
various organs and their functions can be accurately learned. A thorough
study, and thereby an accurate knowledge of the construction, location,
and uses of the various parts of the body will aid very much the ability
to quickly judge the various diseases.
In conclusion, let us hope that those who attentively study these pages
and accurately follow out the suggestions and directions hereby given,
may by their increased success, profit, and pleasure, feel warranted in
giving the work their fullest endorsement. If this proves to be the case
the labor has not been in vain.
THE EDITOR.
5.
POINTS
OF THE HORSE.
= ae "Pap,
Copvetghted 1896
by A, Gardener. ~
OF MUSCLES.
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THIS
MANIKIN
Andrew A. Gardenier, Ph.D.,
_ EXPRESSLY FOR
THE SUCCESSFUL STOCKMAN
AND
MANUAL OF HUSBANDRY.
‘The King-Richardson Co.,
SPRINGFIELD, MASS.
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EXPLANATORY KEY
MANIKIN OF THE HORSE.
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16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24,
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
Face.
Nostril.
Upper Lip.
Lower Lip.
Zygomatic ridge.
Cheek.
Hollow above the eye.
Maxillary joint.
Forelock.
Nape of neck or poll.
Crest or mane.
Throat.
Withers.
Back.
Loins.
Side of chest.
Breast.
Floor of chest.
Abdomen.
Flanks.
Prepuce or Sheath.
Shoulder.
Point of shoulder.
Arm.
Elbow.
Fore-arm.
Knee. :
Cannon-bone or shank.
Fetlock-joint.
Pastern.
Coronet.
Heel.
Hoof.
Chestnut.
Haunch.
Croup.
Hip-joint.
Upper thigh.
Stifle.
Lower thigh.
Hock.
Chestnut.
Root of the tail.
Hair of the tail.
THE MUSCLES.
1, Transverse muscle of nose,
2. Zygomatic.
3. Sphincter muscle of nose.
4, Elevator of upper lip.
5 Wing of nostril.
6. Muscle of eyelids.
7. Masticator muscle.
8. Depressor muscle.
9—10. Temporalis muscle.
11. Splenius.
12. Trapezium.
13, Serratus magnus.
14. Levator humeri.
15. Sterno-maxillaris.
16. Latissimus dorsi-
MANIKIN OF THE HORSE.
17. Antea spinatus.
18. Postea spinatus.
19. Teres externus.
20. Triceps extensor brachii.
21. Latissimus dorsi.
23. Intercostal muscles.
23. Oblique abdominal external.
24, Coraco-brachialis.
25. Extensor metacarpi magnus.
26. Anterior extensor of phalanges.
27. Extensor suffraginis.
28. Anterior extensor of phalanges.
29. External flexor of metacarpus.
30. Extensor of phalanges.
31. Extensor suffraginis.
32. Flexor perforatus.
33. Flexor perforans.
34. Suspensory ligament of fetlock.
35. Internal flexor of metacarpus.
36. Ligament.
37. Rectus abdominis.
38. Gluteus maximus.
39. Superficials.
40. Muscle of fascia lata.
41, Biceps abductor femores.
42. Semitendinosis.
43, Semimembranosus.
44.—45. Biceps abductor femores.
46. Oblique flexor of phalanges.
47. Gastrocnemius.
48. Perforatus, superficial.
49. Flexor of perforatus.
50. Perforatus, deep.
51. Lateral extensor of phalanges.
52, Anterior extensor of phalanges.
53. Flexor of metatarsus.
54. Tendon Achilles.
55, Oblique tiexor of phalanges.
56. Muscles draw tail downward.
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM.
Main artery or aorta.
Aorta, anterior portion.
Aorta, posterior portion.
Left coronary artery.
Bwhr
17.
26.
Left sub-clavian artery.
Superior cervical artery.
Vertebral artery.
Carotid artery, beginning of
Thoracic artery, internal.
Thoracic artery, external.
Cervical artery, inferior.
Carotid artery, right.
Jugular vein.
Carotid artery, bronchial branch.
Thyro-laryngeal artery.
Branches to larynx.
Branches to esophagus.
Auricular.
Occipital.
Retrograde,
External maxillary.
Maxillary artery, lower lip.
Maxillary artery, upper lip.
Artery of nose.
Artery of face.
Artery of angle of the eye.
Temporal artery.
Auricular artery.
Axillary artery, muscular artery
Axillary artery colateral of elbow
Epicondylvid.
Anterior radial artery.
Posterior radial artery.
Interosseous, or trunk artery.
Digital artery.
Radio-palmar.
Latent artery of foot.
Perpendicular artery of foot,
Anterior artery, coronary cushion
Posterior ‘ se te
Circumflex artery of coronary.
Preplantar artery.
Plantar ungual artery.
Semilunar anastomis.
Intercostal arteries, fourteen pair
Bronchial arteries to lungs.
Esophageal.
Diaphragmatic.
Lumbar arteries.
Abdominal arteries.
55.
58.
95.
98.
MANIKIN OF THE HORSE.
Tlio cecal.
Gastric artery.
Splenic artery.
Mesenteric, anterior.
Arteries of small intestines.
Branches to small intestines.
Anterior branch of posterior mes-
enteric.
Posterior branch of posterior mes-
enteric.
Arteries of the kidneys.
Artery of posterior bowels.
Branch of posterior mesenteric.
Spermatic artery.
Tliac artery.
Pelvic artery.
Coccygeal, inferior.
Caudal arteries.
Gluteal arteries.
Tlio-lumbar artery.
Pudic, external artery.
Obturator.
Pudic, internal artery.
Abdominal aorta, terminal portion
lliac artery, external.
Testicular small, (in females uter-
ine anterior).
Pudic external, (in females mam-
mary uterine artery).
Abdominal, posterior.
Femoral or crural.
Femoris profunda artery.
Saphena artery.
Popliteal artery.
Tibial artery, anterior.
Tibial artery, posterior.
Tibial recurrent artery.
Plantar artery.
Pedal artery.
Digital arteries.
Pulmonary artery.
Vena cava, anterior.
Jugular vein.
Dorsal vein.
Vena azygos.
Esophageal.
21
100. Bronchia.
101. Vena cava, posterior.
102. Iliac veins.
103. Hepatic veins.
104. Portal vein circulation.
105. Portal vein.
106. Circulation of hoof.
THE BONES.
1. 1 Prime to 18 prime, ribs,
1. Upper jaw bone.
2. Lower maxillary.
3. Occipital.
4. Parietal.
5. Frontal.
6. Upper tusk found only in smaez
7. Superior maxillary.
8. Upper molars.
11. Nasal bone.
12. Lachrymal.
13. Lower tusk.
14. Zygomatic.
15. Lower molars.
18. Atlas.
18—24. Cervical vertebra,
25—43. Dorsal vertebra.
48. Lumbar.
49—54, Sacrum.
54—73. Cocygeal vertebra.
74, Sternum.
76. Illium.
77. Os magnum.
78. Elbow joint.
79. Elbow joint.
80. Radius.
81. Trapezium.
82. Cuneiform bone.
83. Lunar bone,
84. Os magnum.
85. Unciform.
86. Metatarsal.
88, Sesamoid.
89. Os suffraginis.
90. Os Corono.
91. Coffin bone or Os pedis.
22
92.
94,
96.
98.
99.
100.
102,
103.
104.
105.
106.
107.
108.
109.
“10.
MANIKIN OF THE HORSE.
Scapula. 93. Head of Femur.
Pelvis. 95. Pubis.
Femurs, 97. Scaphoid bone.
Tibula
Tibia.
Calcis.
Large scaphoid bone.
Small scaphoid bone.
Cuneiform.
Splint bone.
Metatarsal.
Sesamoid bone.
Os suffraginis or large pastern.
Os corona or small pastern.
Coffin bone or Os pedis.
DIGESTIVE ORGANS.
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Cerebrum.
Cerebellum,
Medulla oblongata.
Spinal cord.
Section of cervical vertebra.
Section of dorsal veterbra.
Section of sacral vertebra.
Coceygeal vertebra.
Ligamentum nuche.
Turbinated bones.
Pharynx.
Entrance to larynx.
Thyroid gland.
Bronchi and their division.
Front lobe of lung.
Palate with ridges.
Molars.
Tongue.
Thoracic cavity.
Tendinous portion of diaphragm.
Muscular portion of diaphragm.
37.
53.
Left ventricle.
Right ventricle.
Pulmonary artery.
Common aorta.
Right auricle.
Right ventricle, interior.
Left auricle, interior.
Tendine chorde of tricuspid valves
Left auriculo-ventricular valves.
Right auriculo-ventricular valves.
Tending chord# of auriculo-ven-
tricular valves.
Opening of pulmonary vein into
left auricle.
Biliary duct.
Hepatic vein.
Posterior vena cava.
Duodenum.
Tleumn.
Lower portion cf colon.
Upper portion of colon.
Pelvic portion of colon.
Upper portion of colon,
Pelvic portion of colon.
Pelvic portion of rectum.
Anus,
Left ureter.
Right ureter.
Scrotum.
Spermatic cord.
Location of penis.
Location of vagina.
Abdominal cavity,
Pelvic cavity.
On flap. Vagina.
Young in position vefore birtm
Unbilical cord.
Walls of uterus.
Chorion.
THE HORSE.
CHAPTER I.
Management and Care in Sickness.
INTELLIGENCE REQUIRED, OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS, FIRST’ REQUISITES,
BOX STALL, GOOD BED, CLOTHING, REMOVE SHOES, FOOD, BRAN
MASH, LINSEED MASH, BRAD MASH, FRESH WATER IMPORTANT,
HAND RUBBING, COLD WATER BATHING OF THE LEGS, STEAMING,
HOW TO MAKE POULTICES, BLISTERS, ANTISEPTICS, DEODORIZERS,
HOT WATER BATHING, SLINGS, BANDAGES, RAREY’S SYSTEM OF
THROWING OR CASTING, HOW TO GIVE MEDICINE, ELECTUARIES,
INJECTIONS, GIVING A BALL, MAKING A BALL, GIVING LIQUIDS,
GENERAL ADVICE.
KEEPER of animals in a menagerie is required to study the
habits of the animals and the conditions under which they live
and thrive in their native wilds, before he is allowed to have full
control of their feeding and care. These conditions must be du-
plicated as far as practical. ‘The Polar bear must be supplied with ice,
and food as nearly like that which he would feed upon, if he should be
returned to his native land, as possible. But how many of our stock
owners place the care of valuable animals in the hands of the entirely
ignorant. It requires an intelligence far superior to that which is usual-
ly found in our ordinary stable-hand, to properly care for our domestic:
animals.
Our Domestic Animals have for so many generations been under
conditions entirely contrary to their nature, that even they have changed
somewhat in their habits and requirements. Our climate is far different
from that in which they are found in their native state. The use to
which man has put the noble horse is to blame for most of his diseases.
In his native state the diseases which we find so troublesome are
entirely unknown. ‘The sooner sickness is recognized and the proper
remedies used, the sooner the animal will be restored to health. But to
24 THE HORSE.
recognize disease it is obviously necessary to know the animal when
well. If nothing is known regarding the natural pulse, how can one
expect to know whether the heart beats regularly and natural or not.
Study the condition of the animal in health as to pulse, number of res-
pirations, color and quantity of the excretions, and remember if these
change there has come a time to be specially observant of the actions of
the animal, so as to determine the cause. Should these changes be the
result of disease, determine its nature and be governed accordingly. A
quick recognition of an ailment and promptness in treatment will the
sooner restore health and less will be the liability of death and loss.
First Requisites. Provide the animal with plenty of pure, fresh
air, always avoiding draughts. Make the stall as comfortable as possible;
cool in summer and warm in winter. Keep the temperature as nearly
55° to 60° as possible. See that the drainage is good, and the place dry.
Box Stall. <A box stall not less than ten feet square is best, and
should be provided with a low half-door over which the animal may droop
his head if so inclined. Windows in the stall should be darkened when
animals have nervous diseases or eye troubles.
Good Bed. Provide plenty of fresh, clean straw or saw-dust. Some
practical men prefer to have a bed made of old straw, which has been
carefully collected and dried. The reason for this is, that it makes a
softer and yet a more compact bed, and there are no stiff ends of new
straw to annoy and irritate the sick animal.
Clothing. Woolen blankets in winter and linen sheets in summer
should always be used. Have them loosely fastened on, if a surcingle
is used, do not have it tight. Air the clothing everyday, but cover the
animal with some other clothing during the airing.
Remove Shoes. If a horse is liable to be sick for any length of
time, or is seriously ill remove all the shoes as it will be much more com-
fortable for the auimal.
Food. Care and skill are needed in preparing the food, regulating
the diet, and tempting the appetite of the sick. The food should be
simple, nutritious, and easy of digestion. Change food often and give
it in small quantities frequently. Food is rendered more easily digest-
ible by being cooked. Give some green food whenever it can be pro-
cured. Scald all grains such as corn, oats, barley, bran and middlings,
by pouring on boiling water. Then cover and allow to steam till cold,
then feed. It is always best to have the grain ground, it being more
easily digested.
MANAGEMENT AND CARE. 25
Mashes. What are commonly known as MASHES are very useful in
feeding sick horses and cattle, but they should be fed in small quantities
and carefully prepared. Feed a mtash from the tub in which it is
mixed, because if placed in the manger the part remaining behind often
sours, and renders all that is put in the manger thereafter unfit to be
used.
Bran Mash. Mix two quarts of bran with enough boiling water to
cover, add salt, stir thoroughly and allow to cool.
Linseed Mash. Boil a half pound of unground flaxseed in two
quarts of water until it is reduced to about three pints. Pour this over
bran instead of water and mix.
Bread Mash. Soak a loaf of bread, broken into pieces, in fresh
milk until it is soft and can be made fine; stir and mix.
Fresh Water. Water should always be within reach of the ani-
mal, especially if there is any fever. A small quantity of powdered
alum added to a pint of water will purify it by precipitating the
impurities. Some animals seem to be given to scouring, to such, water
should be given in small quantities, and frequent; or what is a better
plan leave water always before such animals. Animals watered at inter-
vals drink much more than when always supplied. A smaller quan-
tity of water taken into the system lessens the secretions of the internal
organs and decreases the tendency to scour.
Hand-Rubbing. Rubbing the legs is very useful to relieve any
fullness caused by overwork or strain, or the lack of exercise. The
friction excites the blood-vessels and absorbents to greater action.
Gentle hand rubbing of the skin and sponging of the nostrils
with weak vinegar and water is many times very refreshing to the
sick.
Cleanliness. A stall that has been occupied by a sick animal
should be thoroughly cleaned, washed with a hot antiseptic solution, and
whitewashed before another animal is allowed to occupy it. The sheath
should always be carefully cleaned at the beginning of any serious sick-
ness, and occasionally thereafter if the trouble lasts any length of time.
Cold Water Bathing of the Legs. Cold water bathing is of
much benefit in many cases. The cold reduces inflammation and tends
to brace up weakened structures. After each cold bath the parts
should be dried and bandaged. Cold applications should not be repeated
ottener than three times a day.
Steaming. Take a clean grain bag not too large around at the
26 THE HORSE.
opening and fasten two strings, one on each side near the top, so that
it can be fastened to the animal’s head after its nose is placed in the bag.
In the bottom of the bag make some holes, fill the bag partly full of
clean hay. Upon this pour some boiling water, and as soon as the hay
is saturated put the animal’s nose in the bag and fasten in place over the
animal’s head. As soon as the steam stops rising, more boiling water
should be added till the steaming has lasted an hour.
Poultices. While these can be easily applied to man and easily
fastened in place, it is much more difficult to do so in the case of the
horse or cattle. A poultice to be of any good must remain moist, and
therefore it has to be made large and thick. Again the poultice must
be fastened on, but care must be taken that it is not so tightly tied as
tostop the circulation of the blood. Useastrip of cloth two or three
inches wide to tie on the poultice instead of strings.
In order to prevent the substance from which the poultice is made,
from sticking to the hair, they should be placed in a bag made of strong
thin material. Another way is to spread the poultice on a thick piece
of cloth and then cover the part to be placed to the skin with two thick-
nesses of mosquito netting. Various irritants, disinfectants, anodynes,
etc., may be mixed with the poultice or spread upon the surface.
How to Make a Poultice. A poultice to be used simply for
warmth is best made of bran mixed with hot water. One intended for
softening or ‘‘bringing to a head’’ should be of equal parts of moist
bran, flax-seed meal and olive oil. A very good one may be made of
turnips or carrots mixed with bran. For asore that does not seem to
do well a flax-seed poultice is best. Ifthe sore is painful, tincture of
opium may be poured over the surface of the poultice. In inflammation
of the foot, to soften the horn, saturate oakum with heavy crude petro-
leum and apply to sole and wall of the hoof.
Blisters. A mark or scar the result of a blister is needless, if the
blister is properly applied and cared for after removal. The part to be
blistered should have the hair closely clipped or shaved off. As soon as
the blister has sufficiently drawn remove it, wash the sore and rub over
the place some sweet oil. Be careful not to break or remove the loose
skin, let it come off of itself. Ifthe only purpose of the application is
to produce simple irritation, remove the irritant as soon as sufficient
redness appears and after washing apply the oil.
Antiseptics. In cases of wounds it is often the case to find that
poisonous germs existing in the air are absorbed, and the wound does
MANAGEMENT AND CARE. 27
not heal properly because of the germs producing putrefaction in the
injured tissue. Blood-poisoning may follow the absorption of these mi-
croscopic organisms. Certain agents have the power of destroying these
poisonous germs and are known as ANTISEPTICS.
How to Use Antiseptics. Some of the most valuable antisep-
tics are among the DEADLIEST POISONS, even in very smu quantities.
They should always be used, but with care. COoRROSIVE-SUBLIMATE
(bichloride of mercury) is the most valuable known. It isin the form
of small white granules, and is very poisonous. It is used by dissolving
three grains ina pint of hot water. This solution is used in washing
and cleansing the wound. Carbolic acid, salicylic acid, blue vitriol, iodo-
form, sugar, and alum, are all among the antiseptics.
Disinfectants are agents which have the power of destroying or
neutralizing infectious matter which is the product arising from an ani-
mal having a contagious disease, and a variety of other sources, as sew-
ers, cess-pools, decaying matter, etc. Disinfectants are used in solid
forms or in solution.
A Few Disinfectants. Fresh air and cleanliness are the first.
To aid these we have:
BRIMSTONE (roll sulphur) for fumigation;
CopPERAS, (sulphate of iron) one and one half pounds dissolved in a
gallon of water, to be used in cess-pools, sewers, and to be thrown over
any infected matter;
CoMMON SALT and SULPHATE oF ZINC, four ounces of each to a gal-
lon of water, is valuable to wash all blankets that have been used on a
sick animal;
CORROSIVE-SUBLIMATE, sixteen grains to a quart of water, is used to
mix with the nasal discharges in case of glanders. The amount should
equal the amount of discharge.
Deodorizers. ‘There are very offensive odors around many a stable
and out-house. There are substances which are capable of destroy-
ing or masking these odors and are known as deodorizers. They
may or may not have the power of destroying contagious matter. The
simple deodorizers are chloride of zinc and chloride of lime.
Hot Water Bathing. To be useful, hot water applications should
be continued for two hours at a time. The water not warmer than 105°
or hardly as hot as the hand will bear. Do not let the water get cool,
but keep up the temperature by adding hot water. The water should
not be applied directly to the part affected but applied by a swab or
28 THE HORSE.
sponge a little above the affected parts. After the parts are sufficiently
bathed, cover them with cloths, woolen being by far the best If you
have not the time to bathe properly with hot water, wrap the parts in
flannel and wet with hot water. Then be sure to cover well with thick
woolen covering over which put rubber cloth to retain the heat.
Some pieces of an old rubber coat or gossamer will be found useful.
Slings. Occasionally it is necessary to put an animal in a sling.
The animal seems to dread to lie down, and remains standing until al-
most exhausted, which retards the cure. To prepare a sling therefore is
sometimes necessary. ‘Take sail-cloth or some other very strong cloth,
a piece long enough to reach around the body of the animal, and wide
enough to reach from the front legs to the back of the sheath. Prepare
two stout sticks two feet longer than the cloth is wide and have them
round. About the sticks wind the cloth, one stick at each end and with
the cloth, wound around twice; nail very strong; to each stick fasten a
a strong rope. ‘This rope should be fastened to each end of the stick
which extends beyond the cloth. Now fasten to each rope the block
aud tackle which have previously been fastened to stout floor timbers
overhead and then attaching the same the animal may be raised high
enough to REST. Never allow a horse to hang in slings, because press-
ure on the chest walls will cause suffocation.
Bandages. ‘To hold poultices and blisters in place bandages are
often necessary. ‘They are not easily held in position but with a small
amount of ordinary calculation and plenty of bandages a poultice or blis-
ter can be held in any position on the animal.
Rarey’s System of Throwing or Casting. Occasionally a horse
having never been treated to any unusual handling, is very difficult to
manage. Medicines have to be given and operations performed making
it often necessary to resort to throwing or casting the horse. ‘The direc-
tions given by the veteran horse trainer Rarey have never been improved
upon so we give them in full.
“Everything that we want to teach the horse must be commenced in
such way as to give him an idea of what you want him to do, and.
then be repeated till he learns it perfectly. ‘To make a horse lie down,
bend his left fore-leg and slip a loop over it, so that he cannot get it down.
Then put a surcingle around his body, and fasten one end of a long
strap around the other foreleg just above the head. Place the other
end under the surcingle, so as to to keep the strap in the right direction;
take a short hold of it with your right hand; stand on the left side of
MANAGEMENT AND CARE. 29
the horse; grasp the bit in your left hand, pull steadily on your strap
with the right; bear against his shoulder till you cause him to move.
As soon as he lifts his weight, your pulling will raise the other foot, and
he will have to come to his knees. Keep the strap tight in your hand,
so that he cannot straighten his leg if he rises up. Hold him in his po-
sition, and turn his head toward you; bear against his side with your
shoulder, not hard, but with a steady, equal pressure and in about ten
minutes he will lie down. As soon as he lies down, he will be complete-
ly conquered and you can handle him as you please. Take off the
straps and straighten out his legs; rub him lightly about the face and
legs with your hand the way the hair lies; handle all his legs; and after
he has lain ten or twenty minutes let him get up again. After resting
him a short time, make him lie down as before. Repeat the operation
three or four times, which will be sufficient for one lesson. Give him
two lessons a day; and after you have given him four lessons, he will lie
down by taking hold of one foot. As soon as he is broken to lie down
in this way, tap him on the opposite leg with a stick when you take
hold of his foot, and in a few days he will lie down from the mere mo-
tion of the stick.
In practicing the foregoing method upon a colt, he should be first ac-
customed to be handled, and taught to be led easily. In approaching
a spiteful or vicious horse, you had better make your advances with a
half open door between you and him ; gradually make his acquaintance
and teach him that you do not care for his open mouth; but a regular
biter must be gagged with a wooden bit made for the purpose, so large
that he cannot close his mouth.
Of course there is no difficulty in handling the leg of a quiet horse or
colt, and by constantly working from the neck down to the fetlock, you
may do as you please. But many horses, and even colts, have a most
dangerous trick of striking out with their fore-legs. There is no better
protection against this than a cart wheel. The wheel may either be used
loose, or the animal may be led to a cart loaded with hay, when the
horse-tamer can work under the cart through one of the wheels, while
the colt is nibbling the load.
Having, then, so far soothed a colt that he will permit you to take up
his leg without resistance, take a strap, pass the tongue through the
loop under the buckle so as to form a noose, slip it over the near fore-
leg and draw it close up to the pastern-joint, and then with leg doubled
upon itself, put strap around the leg and fasten the leg up. But
30 THE HORSE.
you must not be rash in lifting the leg, and employ but little.
force in doing so. It is better to wait until he lifts it willingly by
the use of gentle means. Do not get out of temper if you have to make
a dozen ineffectual attempts to raise it. The near fore-leg being se-
curely strapped, and the horse, secured from biting, if necessary, with
the wooden bit, you willthen make him hop about, as before stated.
This he will learn to do easily. The trainer, must however, take care to
keep behind his horse’s shoulder and walk in a circle, or he will be like-
ly to be struck by the animal’s head or strapped up leg.
A horse can hop on three legs for two or three miles, if you give him
his own time, and no plan has ever been tried that has been equal to
this for curing a balky horse. After you have tired him out pretty well
in this manner, you proceed to make him lie down, which process re-
quires considerable patience and skill. For this purpose take a longer
strap, and making a loop with it put it round the off fore-leg. With a
very quiet horse this can be easily done; with a wild or vicious horse
you may have to make him step into it ; at any rate, when once the off-
fore-leg is caught in the noose it must be drawn tight round the pas-
tern-joint. Then put a stout glove on your right hand, pass the strap
through the belly part of the surcingle, take a firm hold of it with your
gloved right hand, standing close to the horse behind his shoulders, and
with your left hand take hold of the near rein; by pulling the horse
gently to the near side he will be almost sure to hop; if he will not, he
must be led. The moment he lifts up his left off fore-foot, you must
draw up the strap tightly and steadily. The horse will then go down
on his knees, because if you hold the strap tight he will not be able to
stretch out his feet again. As soon as a horse recovers from his as-
tonishment at being brought to his knees, he begins to resist ; that is he
rears up on his hind legs, and springs about in a manner that will some-
times alarm the trainer. During these struggles you must not try your
strength against the horse's strength, but merely follow him about, hold-
ing the strap just tight enough to prevent him from putting out his fore-
leg. As long as you keep CLOSE TO HIM, and BEHIND HIS SHOULDERS,
you are in very little danger. The bridle in the left hand must be used
like steering lines, by pulling to the right or left as occasion requires ;
the horse, turning on his hind legs, may be fatigued by being forced to
walk backwards. The strap passing through the surcingle keeps, or
ought to keep, the trainer in his right place ; he is not to pull or in any-
way fatigue himself any more than he can help, but, standing upright,
MANAGEMENT AND CARE. 31
simply follow the horse about, guiding him with the bridle so he will not
precipitate himself against the side of the stable or room in which you are
exercising him. When held and guided properly, he will soon sink
down. Corn-fed horses will hold out longer than grass-fed ones, and the
most energetic horse will not struggle more than ten or fifteen minutes.
Usually at the end of eight minutes violent struggling, the animal sinks
forward on his knees, sweating profusely, with heaving flanks and shak-
ing tail. If he resists, he may be forced by the bit to walk backwards
and forwards, but this is generally unnecessary, as by pushing gently at
his shoulder or by pulling steadily the off-rein, you can get him to fall,
in the one case on the near side, in the other on the off-side; but this assist-
ance should be.so slight that the horse will not attempt to resist it.
The horse will often make a final spring when you think he is quite
beaten ; but at length he slides over, and lies down, panting and ex-
hausted, on his side. If he is a pretty spirited animal take advantage
at the moment to tie up the off fore-leg to the surcingle, as securely as
the other, in a slip-loop knot.
Now let your horse recover his wind, and then encourage him to
make a second fight. It will often be more stubborn than the first.
The object of this tying-up process is that he shail thoroughly exhaust
without hurting himself, and that he shall come to the conclusion that
it is you who, by your superior strength have conquered him, and that
you are always able to conquer him.
Under the old rough ridin r system, the most vicious horses were oc-
casionally conquered by daring men with firm seats and strong arms,
who rode and flogged them into subjection; but these conquests were
temporary, and usually personal; with every stranger the animal would
begin his game again.
One advantage of this system is, that the horse is allowed to exhaust
himself under circumstances that render it impossible for him to strug-
gle long enough to do himself any harm. It has been suggested that a
blood vessel would likely be broken or apoplexy produced by the exer-
tion of leaping from the hind legs; but up to the present time no acci-
dent of any kind has been reported.
Treatment of the Horse After He is Down. If the horse
has fought hard in going down, he will then lie perfectly still, and you
can gentle him, scrape the sweat off, and rub him down, smoothing the
hair of his legs, and drawing the fore one straight out. In this position
you have the opportunity of making him perfectly familiar with you,
32 THE HORSE.
and the more you fondle him and reconcile him to you the better. His
head, tail, and legs should now be handled with freedom, caressing and
talking to him all the while. If he has hitherto resisted shoeing, hand-
le all his legs with a view to accomplish it, and if he attempts to resist,
continue till you subdue him, speaking to him with a voice of authority.
If he is a bad kicker you may be obliged to confine his fore-legs; and
with them tied, you may spend an hour in handling his legs, tapping
the hoofs with your hammer—all this to be done in a firm, measured.
soothing manner; only now and then if he resists, cry as you paralyze
him with the ropes, Whoa, in a determined manner. It is by this con-
tinued soothing and handling that you establish confidence between you
and the horse. After patting him as much as you deem needful, say
for ten minutes or a quarter of an hour, you may encourage him to rise.
Some horses will require a good deal of helping, and it may be necessary
to draw out their fore-legs before them. ‘The handling of colts in this
condition, particularly requires caution. A colt tormented by flies will
kick forward nearly up to the fore-legs. If a horse, unstrapped, at-
tempts to rise, you may easily stop him by taking hold of a fore-leg and
doubling it back to the strapped position. If by chance he should be
too quick, don’t resist, for it is an essential principle of this system nev-
er to enter into a contest with a horse unless you are certain to be victo-
rious. In all these operations you must be calm, and never in a hurry,
or in a passion.”’
HOW TO GIVE MEDICINE.
Electuaries. A medical compound of powders, or other ingredients,
mixed with honey, or syrup, and made a little thicker than honey, is
called an electuary. These are easily given by rubbing on the tongue
or teeth, from which the animal at once licks them, and swallows them
with the saliva.
When necesssary to give only a very small quantity of medicine it
may be dropped or poured upon the tongue.
Injections. Several instuments have been made with the false no-
tion that it is best to force liquids into the intestines of the animal. Ex-
perience has shown that the best instrument to be used for this purpose
is a Gamgee’s funnel. It isa straight tin tube about a foot long, ta-
pered and rounded off at the smaller end, bent at the opposite end at
right angles. This end supports a funnel about a half dozen inches
deep and as many across. Always thoroughly oil before using, and af-
MANAGEMENT AND CARE. 33
ter entering the instrument pour the liquid into the funnel. The liquid
from the funnel will by the force from its own weight gradually find its
way into the rectum. Every owner of horses and cattle should provide
himself with such an instrument. Of course in case such an instrument
is not at hand, the old way may be resorted to, namely; the bladder tied
to a hollow elder stick.
Giving a Bali. ‘To one who has never given a ball, a few directions
may not be amiss. ‘The method described by Gamgee is easily learned
by following his directions, as follows: First, ‘‘turn the animal from the
manger with a halter on, held by an assistant. Attempting to give a
ball to a horse tied up in a stall has before this proved a fatal experi-
ment to the operator. Second; it is extremely dangerous to resort to
twitching with awkward horses, as our power in keeping the mouth
open depends on the moderate stretch on the tongue, which is not felt
or cared for by a horse severely punished by atwitch on his ear. Third;
stand on the off side of the horse’s head, with a cloth in the left hand
to wipe the mouth, should there be, as in some cases an excess of saliva
to interfere with holding the tongue; the left hand is placed on the
horse’s crest, while the right is put into the angle of the mouth, the
tongue is seized gently, wiped if necessary, grasped with the left hand
and drawn downwards. Some compress the tongue against the left
side of the lower jaw, bringing it between the molar (back) teeth on
that side. Others drag the tongue out of the mouth, and hold it firmly.
It is very important to hold it so that, in any movement the horse may
take, there is a point of support for the hand against the lower jaw.
Pulling on the tongue may give unnecessary pain, make a horse rest-
less, and in tossing his head about, the tongue may be severely lacer-
ated. Fourth; the ball, which has been ready all the time in the waist-
coat pocket, or grasped by the lips of the operator, is seized, and avoid-
ing unnecessary hustle and hurry, it is carried up the middle of the
mouth and dropped on the back of the tongue; at the same instant
the tongue is quietly let loose, and as the horse draws it back,
the ball is held in the back part of the mouth, from which it can-
not come except by a fit of coughing; as soon as the hands are with-
drawn, the mouth is kept closed, and the left side of the neck watched
to see the ball pass down the cesophagus; this may occur before looking
round to the neck, so that, after waiting a little, if the ballis not seen
the horse should be caused to drink a little water. It is well to always
give a drink after giving a ball, as itis disagreeable to leave an animal,
34 THE HORSE.
and when your back is turned to have the ball coughed into the manger.
In morbid conditions of the system, and in the unnatural manner in
which the ball is given, the passages are not well moistened and lubui-
cated, and it may be some time before the ball enters the stomach
through the cardiac orifice.” .
Making a Ball. The old way of making a ball is to mix the ingre-
dients with a little molasses, honey or syrup so as to form a stiff dough,
adding if necessary, enough ground flax seed or bran to give it the re-
quired size, which is about that of a man’s thumb. ‘There are now to be
had in nearly every drug-store gelatine capsules, which are much nicer in
every way. ‘Those having many horses to care for, would do well to keep
a supply on hand.
Giving Liquids. In the absence of a drenching horn use a soda-
bottle. The following rules if followed will be found to be practical.
‘First, hold the horse’s head up at a moderate height, so that the line
of the face is horizontal. Second, allow sufficient movements of lips,
tongue, cheeks, and jaws, so as not to interfere with the first act of
swallowing. To draw the tongue forcibly outward is very injurious, for
if the tongue is stretched it does not aid in pressing back the fluid
which gravitates as the tongue is pulled upon, and the larnyx and phar-
nyx advance, the animal may be choked. ‘Third; if the animal makes
an effort to cough, rather lose the draught than risk the danger of suf-
focation, which so readily occurs if fluid is suddenly thrown over the
tongue. Fourth; entice efforts of swallowing should the horse obsti-
nately hold the liquid in his mouth. This is done by rubbing the side
of the neck, along the cesophagus.
Holding the Horse. The following from F. O. Kirby gives the
best known methods: ‘The methods of holding horses during the giving
of liquids are various, but the most important ones are three. In the
first place, by ropes and pulleys a horse’s head is pulled up from a beam
or other high object in a stable or shed. This is very objectionable,
especially in a vicious horse; and we have never found it to answer
better than the method of introducing a rope-noose over the upper jaw.
This noose is fastened to a stick, or slipped over a stable-fork prong, and
a man can then hold up the head of the heaviest horse and follow him
in his movements. It requires management. I do not like the fork,
as it is a dangerous instrument, and prefer an ordinary twitch. In the
third method the man holds the head up and gives the medicine. It is
the most simple and useful method. It only requires one person, whe
MANAGEMENT AND CARE. 35
holds the tongue, places his thumb round the lower jaw, and with his
fingers causes the horse to open his mouth whilst the draught is poured
out of the horn or bottle with the right hand.”
General Advice. An owner of stock should keep on hand some of
the more common, and useful drugs so as to be ready for emergencies,
He should also be provided with a few of the most useful surgical instru-
ments. Do not wait till some animal is sick before studying the symp-
toms of the various diseases. Assoon as you learn that an animal in
tne neighborhood is sick, go and look at it. It is not necessary for you
to offer any advice in the matter, but by observation and reading you
will soon be able to determine the disease as soon as seen. If you
know the disease for a certainty and also the remedy, there is no reason
why ~ith careful nursing you cannot cure it, if capable of being cured,
as well as any one. A veterinarian has to study and observe for three
years before he is considered capable to recognize all the various dis-
eases; so do not be discouraged, if you have to spend some time before
you feel sure as to the trouble. Each effort will make you more confi-
dent and proficient. Study the pulse of the various anima‘s and count
the respirations. Remember it is only by careful study that you can
succeed.
Ee
z 2B)
o_O ERG SON
CHAPTER 11.
Feeding and Care.
GENERAL REQUISITES, WATERING HORSES WHEN WARM, QUANTITY OF
WATER REQUIRED, KINDS OF FOOD, DIGESTION OF TWO KINDS, FEED
OATS AFTER HAY, COMMON ERROR, HORSE HAS A SMALL, STOMACH,
TEN POUNDS OF HAY A DAY, STRAW, CHAFF, GRAINS, WHEAT, RYE,
BRAN, CORN, LINSEED, POTATOES, BEETS, CARROTS, GRASSES.
EEDING and care of an animal have much to do with its gen-
eral health. Animals not at hard work and running in well wat-
ered pastures, are seldom ill, but horses confined in stables and
fed and watered, and worked according to the notions of the care-
taker, are very liable to diseases of various kinds. As much pains
should be taken to feed, water, and care for the animal properly, in
health as would be taken to cure it, if sick.
Watering Horses When Warm. There is a common notion
among users of horses, that if a horse is warm he should not be allowed
to drink, many claiming that the ‘‘first swallow’’ of water either ‘‘foun-
ders” the animal or produces colic. This is not true. It does not mat-
ter how much heated the horse may be, it is always safe to give him a
half-dozen swallows of water. If this water is given just before being
put in the stable, the animal should be immediately supplied witha few
pounds c hay, and should not be fed grain until the animal has rested
about an hour. ‘The danger is not in the ‘‘first swallow’’ but is always
due to the large quantity which the animal will take when warm, if al-
lowed to drink without restraint. Over one-half of the digestive dis-
orders are undoubtedly caused by improper feeding and watering, hence
one can readily see the importance of a proper understanding of these
subjects.
Quantity of Water Required. When horses can get water when-
near they wish it, they never drink enough at one time to injure them.
FEEDING AND CARE. 37
Where the horse is dependent upon his attendant for water, he common-
ly requires about eight gallons a day. ‘This will vary with the class of
food, if green food is used a portion of this is supplied and a less quantity
needed than when fed on dry hay and grain. The horse should be
watered at least three times a day when idle and oftener when at work.
Remember always to water before feeding.
Kinds of Food. Since the horse is fed in this country on hay,
grass, oats, corn, wheat, rye, and roots one might conclude that the
horse could not be fed on any other kind of food ‘The following from
Loudon’s Encyclopedia is of interest :
‘In some barren countries horses are forced to live on dried fish, and
even on vegetable molds; in Arabia, on milk, flesh-balls, eggs, and
broth. In India horses are variously fed. The native grasses are judged
very nutritious. Few, perhaps no oats are grown; barley is rare ard
not often fed to horses. In Bengal a plant, something like the tare, is
used. On the western side of India a sort of pigeon-pea forms the ordi-
nary food, with grass while in season, and hay all the year around. In
the West Indies maize, guinea corn, sugar-corn-tops, and sometimes
molasses, are given. In the Mahratta country salt, pepper, and other
spices are made into balls, with flour and butter, and these are sup-
posed to produce a spirited animal and give it a fine coat. Broth made
from sheep’s head is sometimes given.”’
Digestions of Two Kinds. In the horse as well as in man di-
gestion takes place in the stomach and intestines. The food after pass-
ing into the stomach undergoes a change before passing out to the small
intestines where the process of digestion is finished. The change taking
place in the stomach is called, stomach digestion, and that in the in-
testines, intestinal digestion.
Feed Oats After Hay and Straw. The time required for
stomach digestion varies with the different foods. Hay and straw are
digested and pass out of the stomach more rapidly than oats or other
grain. If oats are fed first, and are followed by hay, the hay soon pass-
ing onward into the intestines will carry along with it oats that are not
yet prepared for intestinal digestion thus causing a loss of food. An-
other reason for feeding hay first, (more particularly if the horse is very
hungry or tired from over work) is that it takes more time to masticate
the hay and the horse cannot bolt it down as it would grains. Water
should not be given soon after feeding, as it washes the food from the
stomach before it has had time for proper stomach digestion,
38 THE HORSE.
Common Error of Feeding. An error that produces many dis-
orders of the digestive system, is TO FEED TOO SOON AFTER A HARD
DAY’S WoRK. A very small quantity of hay may be given but grain
should not be fed within less than an hour.
Horse has a Small Stomach. An examination of the ANA-
TOMICAL MANIKIN OF THE HORSE as found in the beginning
of this book, shows that the horse has a very small stomach iu pro-
portion to his size. ‘This proves to us that the horse should be fed in
small quantities and often. ‘The disproportion between the size of the
stomach and the amount of water usually given at one time shows plain-
ly that the horse should always be watered before feeding. Feed at
least three times a day, and not wholly on concentrated food. Bulky
food must be given to detain the food in its passage through the small
intestines, so that it can be thoroughly digested and the nutriment ab-
sorbed.
Ten Pounds of Hay a Day. A horse that is fed twelve quarts of
oats a day, or other grain in proportion, should be allowed ten to twelve
pounds of good timothy hay a day. Do not keep horses that are at light
work, entirely on hay, if you do they will soon become ‘‘pot-bellied,”’
fall off in flesh, and will not thrive. Even colts unless fed with some
grain, grow up long, lean, ana gawky, and never make as good horses
as those accustomed to grain.
Hay ‘The best hay for horses is timothy. Hay from six months
to a yea: and a half old is best. It should be of a greenish color, crisp,
clean and fresh. New hay is hard to digest, produces ‘‘slobbering’’
and sometimes diarrhea. Mow-burnt hay produces disorders of the
kidneys and bowels. Musty or moldy hay has often been said to pro-
duce that peculiar disease variously known as cerebro-spinal-meningitis,
putrid sore throat, or choking distemper.
Straw. The straws are not extensively fed in this country. and
when used at all they should be cut and mixed with hay, and ground or
crushed grains. Wheat, rye, and oat straw are the ones most used, and
of these oat straw is the most easily digested and contains the most
nourishment. Pea and bean straw are occasionaily fed to horses, the
pea being preferable according to most writers.
Chaff. Wheat and rye chaff should NEVER be used as a food for
horses. The beards frequently become !odged in the mouth or throat
and are productive of more or iess serious trouble. In the stomach and
intestines they often serve as the nucleus of the ‘‘soft concretions”’
FEEDING AND CARE. 39
which are to be described when treating of obstructions of the digestive
tract. Oat chaff, if fed in quantities and mixed with cut hay or corn-
fodder, is very much relished by horses. It is not to be given in large
quantities, as a troublesome and sometimes fatal diarrhea follows the
practice of allowing horses or cattle free access to a pile of oat chaff.
Grains. Oats takes precedence of all grains asa food for horses, as
the ingredients neccessary for the complete nutrition of the body exist
in them in the best proportions, Oats are besides more easily digested
and a larger proportion absorbed and converted into the various tissues
of the body. Care must be taken in selecting oats. According to
Stewart the best oats are one year old, plump, short, hard, clean, bright,
and sweet. New oats are indigestible. Kuiln-dried oats are to be re-
fused as a rule, for even though originally good this drying process in-
jures them. Oats that have sprouted or fermented are injurious and
should never be fed. Oats are to be given whole or crushed ; whole in
the majority of instances, crushed to old horses and those having de-
fective teeth. Horses that bolt their food are best fed upon crushed
oats and out of a manger large enough to permit of spreading the grain
inathin layer. ‘The average horse requires, in addition to the allow-
ance of hay above spoken of, about twelve quarts of good oats daily.
‘The best oats are those cut about one week before being fully ripe. Not
only is the grain richer at this time in nutritive materials, but there is
also less waste from ‘‘scattering’’ than if left to become dead ripe.
Moldy oats, like hay and straw, not only produce serious digestive dis-
orders, but have been the undoubted cause of outbreaks of that dread
disease in horses, characterized by inability to eat or drink, sudden
paralysis, and death.
Wheat and Rye. ‘These grains are not to be used as food for
horses except in small quantities, bruised or crushed, and fed mixed
with other grains or hay. If fed alone, in any considerable quantities,
they are almost certain to produce digestive disorders, laminitis ‘‘foun-
der,’’ and similar troubles. They should never constitute more than
one-fourth of the grain allowance, and should always be ground or
crushed.
Bran. ‘The bran of wheat is the one most used, and its value as a
feeding stuff is variously estimated. It is not to be depended upon if
given alone, but may be fed with other grains. It serves to keep the
bowels open. Sour bran should not be given. It disorders the stom-
ach and intestines and may even produce serious results.
40 THE HORSE.
Corn. ‘This grain is not suitable as an exclusive food for young
horses, as it is deficient in salts. It is fed whole or ground. Corn on
the cob is commonly used as the food for horses affected with ‘‘lampas.”’
If the corn is old and is to be fed in this manner it should be soaked in
pure, clean water, for ten or twelve hours. Corn is better given ground,
and fed in quantities of from one to two quarts at a meal mixed w*th
crushed oats or wheat bran. We must be very particular in giving corn
to a horse that is not accustomed to its use. It must be commenced in
small quantities and very gradually increased. There is no grain more
likely to produce acute indigestion than corn if these directions are not
observed.
Linseed. Ground linseed is occasionally fed with other foods to
keep the bowels open and to improve the condition of the skin. It is of
particular service during convalescence, when the bowels are sluggish in
their action. Linseed tea is very often given in irritable or inflamed
conditions of the digestive organs.
Potatoes. These are used as an article of food for the horse in
many sections. If fed raw and in large quantities they often produce
indigestion. ‘Their digestibility is favored by steaming or boiling. They
possess, in common with other roots, slight laxative properties.
Beets. These are not much used as food for horses.
Carrots. These make a most excellent food, particulariy during
sickness. ‘They improve the appetite and slightly increase the action of
the bowels and kidneys. They possess also certain alterative properties.
‘The coat becomes smooth and glossy when carrots are fed. Some vet-
erinary writers claim that chronic cough can be cured by feeding carrots.
Carrots may be considered as very beneficial if fed regularly in small
quantities.
Grasses. The natural food of the horse is grass. There are many
varieties and they vary much in value. Some are almost without value
as food and are only eaten when there is nothing else obtainable, while
others are positively injurious or even poisonous. None of the grasses
are sufficient to keep the horse in condition for work. Horses ¢hus fed
ate ‘‘soft,’’ sweat easily, purge, and soon tire on the road or when at
hard work. ‘To growing stock grass is of great value, and there is no
doubt that it acts as an alterative when given to horses that have
been fed on hay and grain. ‘To such it should be given in small quanti-
ties at first. If the horse is turned to grass for a time each year it gives
the stomach and intestines a chance to undergo rest and recuperate.
CHAPTER III.
Medicines, Their Doses and Effects.
TIME REQUIRED FOR DRUGS TO TAKE EFFECT, EXPLANATION OF
THE EFFECT OF DRUGS, DOSES OF MEDICINE ACCORDING TO AGE,
HOW OFTEN TO GIVE MEDICINE, TABLE OF DRUGS, THEIR DOSES,
AND EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL ACTION.
UCH attention and study should be given to the quantity of a
drug or medicine that should be administered and how often the
dose should be repeated. ‘The effect that should be expected
from the medicine and the time that should elapse before the
result should be noticeable. One not having accurate knowledge is
often through impatience tempted to repeat a dose before the medicine
has had time to operate, and thus an overdose is the result, which is
often more dangerous in its results, than the disease it is given to cure.
To aid in the better understanding of the effects of drugs and of the
table herein annexed which gives the action and doses of the various
medicinal substances, the following explanation of the usual terms used,
is given.
EXPLANATION OF THE EFFECT OF DRUGS.
Absorbent—that which takes up or absorbs.
Alterative—that which changes the conditions and functions of
organs.
Anaesthetic—that which causes the loss of feeling or sensation.
Anodyne—that which sooths or diminishes pain.
Antacid—that which kills the effect of acids.
Anthelmintic—used to kill or expe! worms.
Antiperiodic—stops or holds back the return of spasms in periodic
diseases.
42 THE HORSE.
Antiseptics—stop or hold back the decay of tissues.
Antispasmodic—that which prevents or lessens cramps.
Aperient—used to gently open the bowels.
Aromatic—a strong smelling stimulant used to dispel wind and allay
pain.
Astringent—that which causes contraction.
Carminative—a warming stimulant.
Cathartic—used to freely open the bowels.
Caustic—that which will destroy tissues.
Cholagogue—causes an increase in the secretion of bile.
Demulcent—a soothing substance which protects irritated surfaces.
Deturgent—a substance which cleanses the skin.
Diaphoretic—a remedy which increases the secretion of sweat.
Discutient—a local application which removes the congestion of in-
flamed parts, and the skin covering them.
Disinfectant—that which destroys contagious matter.
Diuretic—increases the secretion of urine.
Ecbolic—that which causes contraction of the womb.
Emetic—that which induces vomiting.
Emollient—a substance which softens and relaxes the parts to
which they are applied.
Excitant—a stimulant when applied locally.
Expectorant—that which aids in removing the secretions from the
air-passages.
Febrifuge—lessens fevers and lowers temperature.
Laxative—a mild physic.
Narcotic—produces sleep and allays pain.
Refrigerant—that which diminishes heat.
Sedative—that which exerts a soothing effect upon the system,
Soperific—another name for a narcotic.
Stimulant—that which temporarily excites the nervous system or
the circulation.
Sialogogues—that which increases the secretion of saliva.
Stomachic—an improver of digestion.
Tonic—that which improves digestion and nutrition.
Vermifuge—a substance used to kill and expel worms.
A reference to the above explanation will readily explain the effects of
the drugs as given in the table.
FEEDING AND CARE. 43
DOSES OF MEDICINE ACCORDING TO AGE.
Horse. Ox. SHEEP & SWINE Docs. Dose.
3 years 2 years I year 6 months I part
1 to 3 years 6 months |9to1r2months/3 to 6 months) 4% “
gto18months}6to12months)/5 tog ‘‘ tto3 “ yw
5tog “ 3to6 ‘* 3to5 * 20to 30days|% ‘
ims (ay «
1 to 3 1 to 3 1 to 3 toto 20 “ |1-16 ‘
The foregoing table may serve as a guide to the proportionate amount
of medicine to be given at the various ages. This refers to animals that
are of ordinary size for their ages. Allowance should be made in case
the animal is much under or over size. It is well also to make some al-
lowance where the animal is of an exceedingly nervous temperament.
A study of the effect of various diseases upon the action of medicine is
very important. It will be found that in many diseases of the brain and
spinal cord, and in some diseases of the stomach, a much larger quantity
than usual of purgative medicines are necessary. On the other hand,
in severe cases of low fevers and influenza, much less than the usual
dose may prove fatal. ‘Thus it canbe seen that a careful study of the
effect of medicine under various conditions is very essential.
HOW OFTEN TO GIVE MEDICINES.
Alteratives—may be given once or twice a day.
Purgatives—should not be repeated under twenty-four hours, even
in severe cases, and in ordinary cases not under forty-eight hours.
Tonics—should be given two or three times a day.
Stimulants—if found necessary may be repeated after three, hours.
Anodynes—may be repeated after an hour.
Ecbolics—may be repeated after forty-five minutes.
Febrifuges—or medicine to reduce temperature and allay fevers,
should be given as often as every two or three hours in severe cases, and
as often as three times a day in mild cases. Aconite, belladonna, the
various forms of ammonia, spirits of nitre, and the solutions of the ni-
trate and chlorate of potash, are the most common of the febrifuges.
44
THE HORSE.
Table of Medicinal Substances, Their Doses and Action.
AGENT.
DOSE.
Arabic, gum
Acetic acid
Arsenious acid
Acid, muriatic, dil.
or
Acid, hyd. chl., dil.
Acid, nitrie, dil, 1-5
Acid, sulphuric, dil.
Aconite, tincture
Aconite, extract
Adeps (Lard)
Aloes, extract
Alum
Alum, burnt
Ammonia aqua
Am. spirit aromatic
Arsenic
Arsenic, iodide
Borax
Belladonna extract,
Carbolic acid
Camphor
Ad lib.
1 to 3 drams
2 to 7 grains
1 to 3 fluid drams,
1 to 2 fluid drams,
1 to 2 fluid drams,
10 to 20 drops.
15 to 20 grains.
4 to 8 fluid drams.
2 to 4 drams.
Dust freely.
¥% to 1 fluid dram
¥% to1 fluid dream
1 to 5 grains.
2 to 10 grains,
1 to 2 drams.
ACTION.
INTERNALLY. EXTERNALLY.
Demulcent
Antiseptic
Astringent and
Rubefacient
Tonic Caustic
Tonic Antiseptic
and
Tonic Caustic
Tonic Caustic
Tonic Caustic
Sedative Sedative
Sedative |.......
Sa aes Emollient
Purgative |.......
Astringent | Astringent
ae RE Escharotic
Stimulant
and Stimulant
Antacid
Antacid fo... ..,
Alterative
amd flee.g. Brae cehid
Tonic
Alterative
ANG i iatob bbe te
Tonic
Bay satay tas hy 6 Detergent
Narcotic Sedative
Caustic
Bb ee te and
Antiseptic
Narcotic Discutient
1 to 3 drams.
FEEDING AND CARE.
45
Table of Medicinal Substances, Their Doses and Action.
ACTION.
AGENTS cau <ikwa sis ao ee ae ee DOSE.
INTERNALLY. EXTERNALLY.
Stimulant
Cantharides and To Blister |5 to 15 grains.
Diuretic
Chloride of lime. Antiseptic Antiseptic 2 to 4 drams.
Chamomile Tonic ... ey, .. {2 to 4 drams.
Cayenne Pepper Carminative | Rubefacient |r1o to 20 grains.
Caraway Carminative |------- 2 to 4 drams.
Cascarilla bark Menten | lkxea Sele ainis 2 to 4 drams.
Catechu extract Astringent [+--+ +: - I to 2 drams.
Chloroform Anaesthetic |------- ‘ to 2 drams.
Diaphoretic |--- +--+: > 1 to 2 drams.
Colchicum and
Laxative |---+-+-+-- I to 2 drams.
Collodion |,,,,,., Adhesivé 9 js aca ee ee
Copaiba, balsam of |Diuretic |... .--- ¥% to 1 ounce.
Antiseptic Caustic ¥ tor fluid dram.
Creasote and and
Tonic Antiseptic ¥% to 1 fluid dram.
Chalk, prepared Antacid Absorbent 2 to 4 ounces.
Croton oil Purgative Irritant 20 to 30 drops.
Astringent Erodent 1 to 2 drams.
Copper, sulphate of and and
Tonic Excitant 1 to 2 drams.
Calomel Cathartic Bate, GSE Boe ¥% to 2 drams.
Corrosive sublimate | Alterative Caustic 5 to Io grains.
Digitalis Narcotic |......-. 1 to 2 drams.
Ergot Parturient |....... 2 to 4 drams.
Ether Antispasm Refrigerant |q to 6 fluid drams.
Flax seed Demulcent |[|....... Ad lib.
Gentian Tories | teu ueylen'e'A 2 to 4 drams.
Gentian, tincture Tonic |... +25 ¥% to 1 fluid ounce.
Ginger Tonic | sei avuces 2 to 4 drams,
46 THE HORSE.
Table of Medicinal Substances, Their Doses and Action.
ACTION. > :
AGENT: 4a e.9 aig claire's DOSE.
INTERNALLY. EXTERNALLY.
Glycerine Nutrient Emollient 4 to 6 ounces.
Henbane, extract of | Narcotic Sedative 1 to 2 drams.
Narcotic
Henbane, tincture and Sedative 1 to 2 ounces.
Anodyne
Glandular Glandular
Iodine and and 5 to 10 grains.
Excitant Excitant
Astringent
Tron, sulphate of and |e ae al er he 2 to 4 drams.
Tonic
Alterative
Iron, iodide of and; I awa al as % to1 dram.
Tonic
Linseed oil Laxative Emollient ¥% to 1 pint
Mercury, bichloride | Alterative Caustic 5 to Io grains.
Alterative io te 20 grains.
Mercury, chloride and
Cathartic |. ..... ¥% to 2 drams.
Magnesia Antacid y% to I ounce.
Magnesia, sulphate |Laxative |....... ¥% to 1 pound.
Antiseptic
Myrrh and ‘Traumatic 2 to 4 drams.
Tonic
Nut-galls Astringent | Astringent 2 to 4 drams.
Nitrate of silver |. ...... Caustie: op ne el Ses
Demulcent
Olive oil and Emollient 1 to 1% pint.
Laxative
Narcotic
Opium and, lk a ee . |I to 2 drams.
Antispasm
DRUGS AND MEDICINES 47
Table of Medicinal Substances, Their Doses and Action.
ACTION.
AGENT: = Sv soe Gee a as ae DOSE.
INTERNALLY. EXTERNALLY.
Narcotic
Opium, tincture of and Anodyne ¥% to 2 fluid ounces.
Antispasm
Petroleum Stimulant Stimulant 2 to 4 ounces.
Stimulant
Pimemta (allspice) aid, etken Res 2 to 4 drams.
Tonic
Pitch, Burgundy |....... Rubefacient |. .......0..
Pitch. (Tar) fee ew Rubefacient |... ......
Potash. tee ee ts Catistie: | ft ae daui che hte
Antacid
Potassium carbonate ANG, fide Geode Se Ss 2 to 4 drams.
Diuretic
Potassium, chlorate |Stimulant(?)|....... 1 to 2 drams.
Febrifuge Refrigerant
Potassium, nitrate and and 2 to 4 drams.
Diuretic Antiseptic
Quinine Tonie |.x grees ¥y to1 dram.
Resin Diuretic a ee ¥% tot dram.
Sabina .... .. . | Irritant ae eo ech teas
Antacid
Soap and Stimulant ¥% to 2 ounces
Diuretic
Antacid
Sal-soda and 2 to 4 drams.
Diuretic
Soda sulphate
(Glaubers salt)| Diuretic [|.....-.-- ¥% to 1 pound.
Diuretic
Spirit of nit. ether. and. | xe dwaws 1 to 2 fluid ounces.
Antispasm
Sulphur, iodide Alterative Detergent ¥% to 1 dram.
48 THE HORSE.
Table of Medicinal Substances, Their Doses and Action.
ACTION.
AGENT? Wes Soh Sebtdueae Gad DOSE.
INTERNALLY. EXTERNALLY.
Strychnine a reach eee ee eee mre 1 to 3 grains.
Laxative
Sulphur and Detergent 1 to 4 ounces.
Alterative
Nauseant
Tartar, emetic and Irritant ¥% tor dram.
Diaphoretic.
Turpentine Diuretic Digestive ¥% to 1 ounce.
Diuretic ||... ....., 2 to 4 fluid drams.
Tupentine oil Antispasm | Irritant 3 to 6 fluid ounces.
Cathartic f|....... ¥% to 1 pint
Zinc, acetate |....,., Astringent |. |...
Zine, carbonate |,,...., Astringent ., | |...
Caustic
Zinc, chloride |......, ts | (he ene ene
Antiseptic
Zinc, oxide - 2 ee ee | RBETINgeNt fp
Astringent | Erodent
Zinc, sulphate and and I to 2 drams.
Tonic Astringent
Common Names for a Few Drugs.
Tincture of Opium Laudanum.
Sulphate of Iron . Copperas.
Mercury, bichloride . Corrosive Sublimate.
Mercury, mild chloride Calomel.
Sulphate of Zinc
Cantharides
Nitrous Ether
Argentum Nitrate
White Vitriol.
Spanish Fly,
Sweet Spirits of Nitre.
Nitrate of Silver.
CHAPTER IV.
THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS.
Their Diseases and How to Cure Them.
DESCRIPTION OF ALIMENTARY CANAL, DISEASES OF THE TEETH,
DISEASES OF THE MOUTH, DISEASES OF THE GULLET AND G{SOPHAGUS,
DISEASES OF THE STOMACH, DISEASES OF THE INTESTINES, DIS-
EASES OF THE LIVER, INTESTINAL, WORMS.
HE process carried on by the various organs of the alimentary
canal thereby changing the form and character of the food, in or-
der that it may be absorbed into the blood as nourishment is known
as digestion. The organs whose functions it is to perform this
work are known as the digestive organs. The first portion of the ali-
mentary canal is the mouth, where are found the teeth for making the
food fine and mixing it with the saliva from the salivary glands which
open into thisorgan. By mixing the saliva with the food, dry sub-
stances become soft, are easily swallowed, and more easily digested.
This saliva has another very important duty and that is, that by aid of a
peculiar ferment called ptyalin, the starchy substances found in hay,
grain, and roots are changed to maltose, then by taking on water further
change to grape sugar. The digestion carried on in the stomach is
called gastric digestion or stomach digestion, that in the small intestines
intestinal digestion. The large intestines are used principally in ab-
sorbing the liquid coming from the small intestines and carrying off the
refuse matter after the nourishing portion has been absorbed by the villi
5° THE HORSE.
which are processes or projections which line the small intestines, the
greater number being found in their upper half. Whenever any portion
of this wonderful canal does not properly perform its duties, there is a
waste of food, and a lack of proper nourishment of the body. The fol-
lowing are the diseases to which this portion of the body is liable to-
gether with the treatment as given by Dr. Charles B. Michener, V. S.
Inspector of Bureau of Animal Industry and Professor of Pathology and
Obstetrics at New York College of Veterinary Surgeons. An authority
that cannot be questioned.
DISEASES OF THE TEETH.
Cutting Teeth. From birth to the age of five years, the young
horse is cutting his teeth. During this time two sets have made their
appearance, the first or milk teeth and the second or permanent teeth.
More difficulty is experienced in cutting the latter, and the mouth
should be frequently examined, in order to see if one or more of the
milk teeth are not remaining too long, causing the second teeth to grow
in crooked, in which case the first teeth should be removed by the for-
ceps. Also, see if the second teeth are causing little red tumors on the
gums, if so make incisions through the gums down to the coming teeth.
There is atendency among farmers and veterinarians to pay too little
attention to the teeth of young horses. Percival relates an illustration
of this which is best told in his own words:
“‘T was requested to give my opinion concerning a horse, then in his
fifth year, who had fed so sparingly for the iast fortnight, and so
rapidl, declined in condition in consequence, that his owner, a veterin-
ary surgeon, was under no light apprehension about his life. He had
himself examined his mouth, without having discovered any defect or
disease ; though another veterinary surgeon was of opinion that the
difficulty or inability manifested in mastication, and the consequent
“cudding,’’ arose from preternatural bluntness of the surfaces of the
molar teeth, which were, in consequence filed, but without beneficial re-
sults. It was after this that I saw the horse; and I confess I was, at
my first examination, quite as much at a loss to offer any satisfactory in-
terpretation as others had been: While meditating, however, after my
inspection, on the apparently extraordinary nature of the case, it struck
me, I had not seen the tusks. I went back into the stable and dis-
covered two little tumors, red and hard, in the situation of the inferior
tusks, which when pressed gave the animal great pain. I instantly took
DISEASES OP THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 51
out my pocket-knife and made crucial incisions through them both,
down to the coming teeth, from which moment the horse recovered his
appetite and by degrees his wonted condition.’’
Irregular Teeth. In large cities there is a class of ‘‘veterinary
dentists’ and it is a fashion to call these humbugs and have the teeth
regularly ‘‘floated’’ or ‘‘rasped.’? In some instances rasping is benefi-
cial, but in most cases it is entirely unnecessary. The rubbing or grind-
ing surface of the horse’s teeth should be rough, hence rasping them
down fiat and even is injurious, Remember that the upper jaw is a
little wider than the lower and hence the teeth do not fit exactly one
over the other and after a sharp ridge is left unworn on the inside of the
lower molars and the outside of the upper molars, it may excoriate,
(lacerate or cut) the tongue or lips. This condition can readily be felt
and these sharp cutting ridges when found should be rasped down by a
guarded rasp. Any one can do this without the aid of a veterinarian.
In some instances the first or last molar tooth is unnaturally long, owing
to the absence of its fellow on the other jaw opposite. If this is the
case, call a veterinarian who has the necessary forceps or chisel for
cutting it.
Decayed Teeth. When a tooth is decayed it is quite common to
find the tooth, corresponding to the decayed one, on the opposite jaw
very much lengthened, sometimes so much that the mouth can not be
perfectly closed. Such teeth also need a veterinarian with proper tools.
In all cases where horses ‘‘quid’’ their food, or where they are slobber-
inz, or show pain when chewing their hay or grain, which is shown by
their holding their head to one side when chewing, the teeth should be
examined. If as in most cases these symptoms are due to sharp corners,
or edges these must be removed by the rasp. If decayed teeth are
found or any other serious difficulty call an expert.
Toothache. ‘This is very rare in the horse, and usually is caused
by a decayed tooth. It is only found in the molar teeth. The horse
will show pain while drinking cold water, or while eating. They will
sometimes suddenly stop chewing, throwing the head to one side, and
slightly open mouth. They act as if some sharp body had punctured
the mouth. If these symptoms appear, examine the horse for some for-
eign body, and if not found carefully examine each tooth. If you are
not able to do this with the hand in the mouth, you can in most in-
stances discover the aching tooth by pressure from the outside. The
horse will flinch when the sore tooth is pressed upon.
52 THE HORSE.
What to Do. ‘The only thing that can be done in most cases, is to
take the tooth out, and this should only be attempted by the veteri-
narian.
Parrot-mouth. ‘This is a deformity of the mouth that interferes
with the teeth fitting properly one over the other, hence hindering
proper mastication and thus indirectly digestion. In a parrot-mouth
the upper incisors (front cutting teeth) project in front of and beyond
the lower ones. ‘The teeth of both jaws become unusually long, as
they are not worn down by friction. Horses having parrot-mouths find
it very difficult to eat grass if not cut for them.
What to Do. Littlecan be done, except to frequently examine the
mouth and if the teeth of the lower jaw become so long that they bruise
the ‘‘bars’’ of the upper jaw, they must be shortened by the rasp or saw.
Horses with this deformity should never be left entirely at pasture.
DISEASES OF THE MOUTH.
Lampas. The mucous.membrane (skin) covering the hard palate
(roof of the front part of upper jaw) occasionally becomes swelled and
projects in a more or less prominent ridge just back of the upper front
teeth (incisors.) This is called lampas. In rare instances, particularly
while teething, there is congestion and swelling of this part of the roof
of the mouth sufficient to interfere with feeding. In one instance only
in the extensive practice of Dr. Michener has he found a:case where the
swelling was so.extensive as to have it caught between the front teeth
when the horse attempted to eat.
What to Do. If the swelling is very bad a resort to scarifying
should be had, being careful not to cut deeply into the structures. A
wash of strong alum water may also be beneficial. Burning of the
lampas, so often recommended, is cruel and unnecessary, it should
never be permitted, as it often causes serious results to follow.
Notr.—It is a quite common opinion among owners of horses and
stablemen that lampas is a disease that very frequently exists. In fact
whenever a horse fails to eat, and if he does not exhibit very marked
symptomis of a severe illness, they say at once ‘“‘he has the lampas.’’ It is
almost impossible to convince them of their error, yet in a practice of
fifteen years Dr. Michener has never seen but two or three cases of what
is called lampas that gave the least trouble, or that called for any treat-
ment whatever. It may be put down, then, as more of a disease of the
stableman’s imagination than of the horse’s mouth.
DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 53
Inflammation of Lining of the Mouth. This is scientifically
called stomatitis. It is an inflammation of the mucous membrane lin-
ing the mouth, and is produced by irritating medicines, foods, or other
substances. The symptoms are swelling of the mouth, which is hot and
painful to the touch; copious discharge of saliva; mucous membrane
reddened; sometimes ulcers appearing.
What to Do. The treatment is simple, soft feed alone often being
all that is necessary In some cases it may be advisable to use a wash
of chlorate of potash, borax or alum, about one-half ounce to a pint of
water. Hay should be fed steamed, and all other foods in soft condi-
tion.
Inflammation of the Tongue. The true name is glossitis and
is very similar to stomatitis, generally exists with it and due to same
causes. The treatment is the same. If it is caused by injuries to the
tongue which are severe enough to produce lacerations or abcesses, call
an expert.
Excessive Saliva. Ptyalism or salivation isan excessive secretion
of saliva. Often seen as a symptom of irregular teeth, inflammation of
mouth or tongue, or use of such medicines as lobelia, and mercury. Some
foods produce it, as clover, particularly second crop ; wheat chaff or corn-
cobs lodged in the mouth. When cause is removed, usually the trouble
ends. Alum water may be applied to the mouth with a sponge.
Pharyngitis. This is inflammation of the lining of the pharynx
(back part of the mouth). Generally accompanied by stomatitis, glos-
sitis, or laryngitis. When mostly confined to pharnyx, there are fever
symptoms, difficulty in swallowing ; soreness over larnyx (large ring of
windpipe); increased flow of saliva ; difficulty of swallowing liquids and
cough only when trying to drink.
What to Do. Give chlorate of potash in half ounce doses three or
four times a day. Mix with licorice root powder and honey and give
with a strong spoon or wooden paddle. Borax or alum in same size
doses may be given suspended in warm water, if the chlorate of potash
is not handy.
Paralysis of the Throat. Thisis properly called Paralysis of the
Pharnyx, and is one of the most stubborn diseases of the horse. The
horse is unable to eat ; manger contains saliva and frothy food that has
returned through the nose ; horse has anxious countenance ; pulse, respi-
ration, and temperature, at first about the same as in health; animal
tries to eat or drink but unable to do so; if water is offered the animal
54 THE HORSE.
will try to drink by the hour, and apparently does so, but the water in
the pail does not lower ; food returns through the nostrils or is dropped
from the mouth quidded. There is no apparent obstruction and no
symptoms except that the parts are flabby to the touch.
What to Do. ‘Treatment is very unsatisfactory. Apply some blis-
ters behind and under jaw. Swab mouth frequently with alum or chlorate
of potash, one ounce to a pint of water, by means of sponge on end of
stick. Strychnine is the best thing to be used to overcome this paralysis,
and should be given in one-grain doses three or four times a day. This
medicine should be given as a hyperdermic injection deep into the
pharnyx. Asa rule the external blister, frequent swabbing as above,
and a nerve stimulant are all that can be done.
Abscesses in the Pharnyx. Symptoms resemble laryngitis or
distemper. If breathing is interfered with, which increases, and with-
out swelling or only slight and increasing fullness there may be an ab-
scess in this location. About all that can be done, is to hurry the ripen-
ing of abscess, by steaming with hops, or hay. If the abscess can be felt
through the mouth call a veterinarian to open it.
DISEASES OF THE GULLET.
Choking. The mechanical trouble of choking is quite common. It
is often caused when the animal is suddenly startled while eating apples
or roots, and we should never suddenly approach or put a dog after
horses or cows that are feeding upon such substances. If left alone they
rarely choke, but if startled they try to swallow before the food is proper-
ly masticated and choking is the result. Choking also arises from horses
bolting their food, hence avoid narrow deep grain mangers. Wheat
chaff is also a frequent source of choke. Whatever the object causing
the choking it may lodge in the upper part of the cesophagus (pharynegeal
choke) in the middle part (cervical choke) or close to the stomach
(thoracic choke). The symptoms will vary according to position of the
body causing the choke.
Pharyngeal Choke. The object is lodged in upper portion of the
cesophagus. Animal in great distress; hurried breathing; frequent
cough; sweating; trembling or stamping of fore-feet. Abdomen rapidly
distend with gas. The object can usually be felt in the upper part of
the throat, and can be removed by the hand.
Cervical Choke. The object is lodged anywhere between the
throat-latch and the shoulder. The object can be both seen and felt.
DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 55
Symptoms not so severe ; animal occasionally draws himself up ; arches
his neck ; and sometimes utters a loud shriek ; expression anxious, and
attempts at vomiting made; abdomen full. Soften or lubricate the ob-
struction by pouring oil or mucilaginous drinks, as flax-seed tea, down
the gullet. Endeavor to move object by gentle pressure with the hands.
If oats or chaff, gently squeeze the lower portion trying to loosen a little
at a time. Work at least an hour before giving up, then if a failure, use
the probang. ,
Thoracic Choke. Symptomis less severe, yet similar to above, and
if choke is not found between throat-latch and shoulder, it is
probably lower down. It can be successfully treated by means of the
introduction of oils and mucilaginous drinks and the probang.
Probang and How to Use It. In the absence of the regular in-
strument, which must always be flexible and finished with a smooth cup-
shaped extremity, use an inch hose. Keep mouth open with a gag of
wood, head slightly raised and extended. The probang carefully guided
by the hand into the upper part of the gullet and gently forced down
until the obstruction is reached. Pressure then should be gradual and
firm. Do not use too much force, keep up a firm pressure until you feel
the object moving, after which you are to follow it rapidly to the
stomach. Never allow a whip-stalk or shovel handle to be used.
DISEASES OF THE STOMACH.
Stomach Staggers or Gorged Stomach. Properly named im-
paction. The stomach is so filled and distended that it loses all power
of contracting upon its contents. It is occasioned by too largea feed
after a long fast, or when animal has gotten loose and gained access to
grain bin and eaten ravenously. The small stomach of the horse and
inability to vomit will account for its frequent occurence. The animal
is dull and heavy, or drowsy; slight colicky symptoms are observed,
which are continuous; rarely lies down; carries head extended and low;
nearly touching the ground. Dullness increases; eyes are partially closed,
vision impaired; thrusts head against side of stall; paws or even climbs
with fore-feet. Breathes less frequently than in health; the pulse slow and
sluggish. All symptoms increase rapidly in severity; soon becomes de-
lirious; cold sweat on body; trembles violently; slobbers out a sour fer-
menting mass, staggers from side to side, and plunges till he drops
dead.
56 THE HORSE.
Treatment. This is very unsatisfactory. Give a purgative of Bar-
badoes aloes, one ounce. ‘Then try to stimulate the walls of the stom-
ach to contract by giving cayenne pepper, one-half ounce, or Jamaica
ginger one-half ounce. Give rectum injections of two ounces of turpen-
tine into eight ounces of linseed oil.
Tympanitis of the Stomach. This is of frequent occurrence yet
not treated separately in works on veterinary medicine. Causes and
symptoms similiar to the last, yet distinct enough to enable the careful
observer to tell one from the other. In tympanitis the distension is
caused by gas instead of by food. This corresponds to “‘hoven’’ in cat-
tle and is due to overloading the stomach with young growing herbage,
clover in particular, or feeding extra meal immediately before a hard
journey. The flanks are distended with gases and the horse tries to
retch or vomit.
What to Do. Treatment must be prompt and energetic. Some
antacid must be given. Asit usually occurs on the road and probably
some distance froma drug store, hasten to the first house. Get com-
mon BAKING SODA and give two to four ounces as quickly as possible.
One-half ounce of cayenne pepper or two ounces of black pepper may
be added to this with advantage, as it serves to aid the walls of the
stomach to contract and expel the gas. Any medicine that will check
or stop fermentation, or absorb the gas may be given, as for example:
charcoal in any amount; chloride of lime, one-half ounce; or carbonate
of ammonia, one-half ounce. A physic of one ounce of aloes or one
pint of linseed oil should be given to unload the stomach. Learn this
lesson from these attacks—that when an animal is expected to do an un-
usual amount of work it will be best done on its usual amount of
feed. Don’t be so humane (?) as to extra feed just before the journey,
but wait until your journey’s end, and even then don’t feed until the
animal is thoroughly rested. Many a faithful animal has been killed by
the kindness of its master.
Rupture of the Stomach. This usually occurs as a result of en-
gorged or tympanitic stomach, and there is no treatment that can be of
any use whatever. Could one be sure that this is the trouble it would
be best to destroy the animal at once, but there is always au uncertain-
ty, as it may be only a very severe case of engorged or tympanitic stom-
ach and the animal may recover, hence give powdered opium in one
dram doses every two or three hours in addition to remedies as recom-
mended for tympanitis.
DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 57
Gastritis. This is an inflammation of the mucous membrane lining
the stomach. Symptoms not well marked and are generally due to me-
chanical irritation or irritating or corrosive poisons in large quantities.
There is a feverish condition, colicky pains, and intense thirst. When
poisons have produced gastritis there will be other symptoms according
to the poison swallowed.
Lead Poisoning. ‘This occurs near paint works, near newly paint-
ed buildings and fences, and where paint kegs are left in the fields, and
where water runs through new lead pipes. Lead poisoning produces
labored breathing, abdominal pains, partial paralysis, tottering gait,
convulsions, and death.
What to Do. Give thirty to sixty drops of sulphuric acid in a
half gallon water. Follow with or precede if not ready at hand, either
milk, white of eggs, oil of any kind, flaxseed, gruel or tea. If the poi-
son is due to long taking of small quantities of lead or from water flow-
ing through new lead pipes, give from one-half toa pound of Epson
salts. Iodide of potassium in one dram doses, twice a day are of much
service. If much pain is manifest, give three to five grain doses ot
. morphine, two or three times a day.
Arsenic Poisoning. When the poison is arsenic there will be
symptoms of abdominal pain, nausea, purging accompanied by an offen-
sive odor, staggering gait, quickened breathing, paralysis of hind ex-
tremities. Poisoning from arsenic is most common where sheep have
been dipped in arsenical baths to cure ‘‘scab’’ and then run on pas-
ture without first drying their wool. Arsenic is thus deposited on the
grass and is eaten by animalsin the pasture. Give oil, milk, white of
eggs, and flaxseed gruel or tea. Powdered opium in one-half dram
doses two or three times a day may be given to allay the pain and in-
flammation. Care should be observed in feeding for a time, giving only
soft and easily digested foods.
Notrr.—Gastritis may also occur from poisoning by copper, corrosive
sublimate, and some vegetable poisons.
Stones in the Stomach. Gastric concretions, calculi (stones) in
the stomach have been most found in millers’ horses. A small piece of
mill stone or other substance forms a centre around which is gathered
in layers the stony substances which abound in their feed, (sweepings
from the mill floor). ‘There are few symptoms exhibited that will lead
us to suspect calculi and probably none by which we can unmistakably
assert its presence. There is a depraved capricious appetite; a disposi-
58 THE HORSE.
tion to eat any thing within reach. ‘They sometimes have repeated at-
tacks of colic, which recover abruptly; and the animal assumes a
position to relieve pain—sitting on haunches, o: standing with front feet
on an elevation. ‘There is no effective remedy, all that can be done is
to give physic to move the bowels, to relieve pain, and to combat the
inflammation.
Bots—lLarvee of the Gad-fly. There are so many wrong opin-
ions concerning the bot and the harm it is supposed to do the horse, that
we give it considerable space. Of the many insect parasites and other
tomentors of the horse, mule, and other solipeds, the gad-fly is of the
most importance. Cobbold, who it the best authority on the subject,
says:
‘‘The common gad fly attacks the animal while grazing late in the
summer, its object being not to derive sustenance, but to deposit its
eggs. This is accomplished by means ofa glutinous excretion, causing
the ova (eggs) to adhere to the hairs. The parts selected are chiefly
those of the shoulder, base of the neck, and inner part of the fore-legs,
especially about the knees, for in these situations the horse will have
no difficulty in reaching the ova with its tongue. When the animal
licks those parts of the coat where the eggs have been placed, the mois-
ture of the tongue, aided by warmth, hatches the ova, and in something
less than three weeks from the time of the deposition of the eggs the
larvee have made their escape. As maggots they are next transferred
to the mouth and ultimately to the stomach along with food and drink.
A great many larvee perish during this passive mode of immigration,
some being dropped from the mouth and others being crushed in the
fodder during mastication. It has been calculated that out of the many
hundreds of eggs deposited on a single horse scarcely one out of the
fifty of the larvee arrive within the stomach. Notwithstanding this
waste the interior of the stomach may be completely covered (cuticular
portion) with bots. Whether there be few or many they are anchored
in this situation chiefly by means of two large cephalic hooks. After the
bots have attained ‘perfect growth they voluntarily loosen their hold and
allow themselves to be carried along the alimentary canal until they es-
cape with the feces. In all cases they sooner or later fall to the ground
and when transferred to the soil they bury themselves beneath the sur-
face in order to undergo transformation into the pupa condition. ” Hay-
ing remained in the earth for a period of six or seven weeks, they final-
ly emerge from their pupal-cocoons as perfect dipterus (winged) :asects
DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 59
the gad-fly. It thus appears that bots ordinarily pass about eight
months of their lifetime in the digestive organs of the horse.”’
The species just described infest chiefly the stomach and duodenum
(small intestine leading from the stomach.) ‘The idea, almost univer-
sally obtained, that bots often cause colicky pains is wrong. It is com-
mon to hear by-standers declare that almost every horse with the ‘‘belly
ache’’ ‘‘has the bots,’’ and their treatment is varied and heroic. Dr.
Michiner says in his practice he has never known bots to be the cause of
any disturbance. The opinion that ‘‘bots have eaten through the
stomach’’ when the stomach is found ruptured is also an error. Bors
ARE HARMLESS. Even if they were not, there are no medicines that af-
fect them ; neither acids, nor alkalies, nor anthelmintics (worm medi-
cines) nor anodynes cause them to become loose and pass out the body.
To prevent them watch for their eggs on the legs and different parts of
the body in the late summer and autumn, scrape them off and burn
them. It is useless to try and remove them, they go at their appointed
time during May and June.
Indigestion. This is the name applied to all conditions where from
any cause digestion is imperfectly performed. ‘The trouble called in-
digestion is not severe enough to produce colic, yet it is troublesome and
the most frequent of all digestion disorders. The seat of the trouble
will vary. ‘Teeth are often at fault, examine for sharp irregular edges
or decayed teeth, (see remedies suggested under teeth.) The principal
seat however of the trouble is the stomach or the small intestines.
Whenever the secretions from these organs are excessive or deficient
dyspepsia or indigestion must follow. It is often caused from ‘‘bolt-
ing’’ the food (then get larger manger and spread out feed) or winter-
ing on hard dry hay or corn-stalk, and other bulky and not very
nutritive food ; irregular feeding or over feeding. Indigestion is shown
by irregular appetite, refusing food at one time and at others eating
ravenously ; appetite depraved ; bowels irregular; one day loose and
bad smelling, the next bound; grain often passed through whole ; hay
passed in balls ; animal passes wind having a sour odor ; skin hard, dry,
and tight (hide bound).
What to Do. After observing all that has been said regarding
feeding under its special head if no improvement is seen, give a physic,
aloes one ounce or linseed oil one pint. There is usually a tendency to
gas which distends stomach and bowels, for which use the following
alkaline treatment. Baking powder, powdered ginger, powdered gen-
60 THE HORSE.
tian, four ounces each, mix and give heaping tablespoonful twice a day
before feeding. This powder is best given by dissolving the above dose
in a half pint of water and given as a drench.
DISEASES OF THE INTESTINES.
Spasmodic or Cramp Colic. Commonly called gripes. It is
that form of colic produced by contraction, or spasm, of a portion of the
small intestines. It is caused by indigestible food ; foreign bodies, as
nails or stones in the bowels; large drinks of cold water when the ani-
mal is warm ; driving a heated animal through deep streams ; cold rain ;
draughts of cold air ; etc.
Study the Symptoms. Study carefully the symptoms to dis-
tinguish this from other forms of colic requiring quite a different treat-
ment. Spasmodic colic always begins suddenly. If feeding, the horse
stops suddenly, stamps impatiently, looks backward, then resumes feed-
ing, to be followed by pawing, suddenly lying down, rolling, and getting
up. Then an interval of ease, and the animal eats again and appears
well. Then the pain returns increasing in severity only to pass off for
atime. ‘The intervals of ease getting shorter and shorter. Animals
with this kind of colic show the most severe pain; they throw them-
selves down; roll over and over; jump up; whirl about; drop down again;
paw or strike with the front feet ; steam and sweat ; make frequent at-
tempts to pass urine with partial erection. Only a small quantity of
water passed at a time, because the bladder being so frequently emptied,
THERE IS BUT LITTLE WATER TO PASS. The attempts to urinate are
often thought to be sure symptoms of kidney and bladder trouble. Re-
member diseases of the bladder or kidneys are very rare. ‘The stomach
and intestines are diseased a thousand times, where the kidneys or blad-
der is once. The attempts to pass water and failure to do so are not
enough to warrant the decision that the animal has ‘‘trouble with his
water,’’ neither should a statement be made that the horse has kidney
disease, even if it yields or sinks when pinched over the loins. Try this
pressure on any horse, and nearly all will yield; this is rather a sign of
health than a symptom of disease.
Keep in mind the conditions to which the animal has been subjected ;
the suddenness of the attack ; the intervals of a lessening of pain (grow-
ing shorter as the case progresses); the severe pain ; the temperature and
pulse getting natural during the intervals of pain ; the frequent attempts
DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE @RGANS. 61
to pass urine ; if a male, the erections, etc.; and there is but little danger
of mistaking this for any other form of colic.
What to Do. The pain being due to spasms or cramps of the
bowels, medicines should be given to overcome these spasms, viz.: anti-
spasmodic. The best remedy is one ounce of chloral hydrate in a half-
pint of water. Another remedy quite common and effectual is two
ounces each of sulphuric ether and laudanum in half-pint of linseed oil.
Still another remedy may be composed of two ounces each of sulphuric
ether and alcohol in eight ounces of water. If nothing else is at hand
give one half pint of whiskey in hot water. If the animal is not
relieved in an hour repeat the dose.
Keep the body very warmly clothed and try to get the animal to per-
spire. Blankets dipped in very hot water to which a small quantity of
turpentine has been added, should be fastened around the belly and coy-
ered with dry blankets ; the belly may be rubbed with stimulating lini-
ments or mustard water. The difficulty of keeping the hot blankets in
place while the horse is violently moving about during the spasms of
pain forces them in most cases to be abandoned. If the cramp is due to
irritants in the bowels, a cure is not complete till the offending irritant
is removed, and a cathartic consisting of one ounce of aloes or one pint
of linseed oil should be given. Injections into the rectum of warm soapy
water, or salt and water, aid the cure. The injection or enema should
be lukewarm and from three to six quarts given ata time. Exercise
will aid the action of the bowels in this and similar colicky troubles,
but severe galloping or trotting should be avoided.
Wind Colic. Sometimes called tympanitis or bloat. The most
frequent causes of this form of colic are sudden changes of food; too
long fasting and then food given while the animal is very tired ; new
hay or grain ; large quantities of green food; food that has soured in
the manger or mixing tub; indigestible food; irregular teeth ; crib-
biting ; in fact anything that interferes with digestion.
Symptoms. This colic is not so suddenly developed, nor are the
symptoms so severe, as in spasmodic or cramp colic. The animal is at
first dull, paws slightly, may or may not lie down. The pains are con-
tinuous ; the belly enlarged, and when struck in front of the haunches a
drum-like sound is heard. If not soon relieved the symptoms are ag-
gravated and in addition there is difficult breathing ; profuse sweating ;
trembling of hind legs ; animal sighs when breathing ; staggers from
side to side; and, finally, plunges forward dead. The distinguishing
62 THE HORSE.
symptom of flatulent or wind colic is the bowels filled with gas, which
is detected by the bloated appearance and the drum-like sound when
struck in front of the haunches.
Treatment for Wind Colic. The treatment for wind colic differs
very much from the treatment for spasmodic or cramp colic. Gases
have been formed and alkalies are used to neutralize them and they
must be promptly given. Give baking-soda (bicarbonate of soda) in
doses of two to four ounces. If this fails give chloride of lime in half-
ounce doses, or the same quantity of carbonate of ammonia, every half-
hour till relieved. Charcoal may be given in large quantities. Relax-
ants and antispasmodics are beneficial in this form of colic, and as
chloral-hydrate is a relaxant and antispasmodic and also an anti-ferment
and pain-reliever it is particularly well adapted in the treatment of wind
colic. Give in doses of one ounce in a half-pint of water. A physic
should always be given in flatulent colic as early as possible, the best
being aloes in doses of oneounce. Injections into the rectum of turpen-
tine one totwo ounces, mixed with linseed oil eight ounces, may be
given to stimulate the peristaltic movement of the bowels to aid in the
expulsion of the gases.
Wind colic is more fatal than spasmodic and requires prompt and per-
sistent treatment. It is unsafe to predict results, some mild cases going
on to speedy death, and some severe ones responding easily to treat-
ment. Do not give up your efforts till you are sure the animal is dead.
Blankets wrung out of hot water and renewed every five or ten minutes
will do much to afford relief.
Impaction of the Large Intestines. This is a very common
bowel trouble, and one if not recognized and properly treated results in
death. It is caused by over-feeding especially of grain, and is most
common where rye is fed either alone or with other grain; old, hard,
dry hay, or stalks when largely fed; lack of water; want of exercise ;
etc.
Symptoms. There is abdominal pain, which may disappear for a
day or so to return again. The feces passes more frequently but in
small quantities and dry; the ‘‘belly’’ is full, but has no drum-like
sound; the animal paws and then looks back at his side. The most
characteristic sign is the horse lying flat on his side, head and legs ex-
tended, occasionally raises his head to look at his flank; he remains on
his side often from ten minutes toa quarter of an hour. The animal
rises at times, walks about the stall, paws, look at his sides, backs up
DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 63
against the stall which he presses with his tail, and then lies down on
his side again stretching out his legs. The pulse is littie changed at
first, being full and sluggish; later if condition is aot improved, the
pulse becomes rapid and feeble.
The Treatment. ‘This consists in efforts to produce movements of
the bowels. A cathartic is to be given, care being taken to give a full
dose. Powdered aloes, one ounce ; calomel two drams ; and powdered
nux vomica one dram should be given. In place of this linseed oil
one pint and fifteen drops of croton oil may be used. Some give Epsom
salts one pound with one-quarter pound of common salt claiming this
makes the animal thirsty and the water of which it will drink large
quantities will soften the hardened mass in the large intestines thus
favoring its expulsion. Remember it takes from twenty to thirty hours
before a horse responds to a physic, and under no circumstances should
the dose be repeated in less time. If aloes have been given and have
failed to operate, follow at the proper time with oil or some different
cathartic. Give the animal all the water he will drink. The action of
the physic may be aided by giving every three or four hours, one-half
ounce of tincture of belladonna, or one-half dram of nux vomica. In-
jections into the rectum should be given every hour using at least six
quarts at a time and varied; give first soapy water, then salt and water,
then one ounce of turpentine mixed with eight ounces of linseed oil.
Rubbing or kneading of the ‘‘belly,’’ putting on stimulating liniments
or strong mustard water will at times favor the expulsion of the harden-
ed mass. When relief is not obtained it runs into inflammation of the
bowels, and death follows.
Constipation or Costiveness. This is a common disease in the
adult horse, particularly in the foal. Many colts die every vear from
failure on the part of the attendant to note the coniior of the powels
soon after birth. Whenever the foal fails to pass feces or shows signs
of colicky pains, immediate attention must ve given. A few injections
of soapy water in the rectum to break down any hardened mass 1s
usually all that is necessary. If this is not effective, a purgative must
be given. Oils are the best for these young animals, and two to four
ounces of castor oil should be given. The foal should always get the
first of it mother’s milk, as this milk, for a few days, possesses decided
laxative properties. Constipation in adult horses is usually the result of
feeding on dry, innutritious food, scanty water supply, or lack of ex-
ercise. Usually a change to light, sloppy food linseed gruel or tea,
64 THE HORSE.
with plenty of exercise is all that is required. Sometimes two-dram
doses of extract of belladonna three times a day will be necessary, or
daily handful doses of Epsom salts in the feed.
Intussusception or Invagination. ‘This is a slipping of a por-
tion of the intestine into another portion immediately following, like a
partially turned glove finger. It may occur at any part, but most com-
mon in the small intestines. This is most likely to occur in horses that
are suffering from spasm of the bowels. It may occur during the ex-
istence of almost any abdominal trouble, as diarrhea, spasmodic colic,
inflammation of the bowels, etc. ‘There are no symptoms by which it
can be positively known. If there is severe straining it should be given
attention, particularly if accompanied by colicky pains and constipation.
In some cases the horse recovers and if this is suspected, call a veterin-
arian, he may beable to relieve the animal.
Twisting of the Bowels or Gut-tie. Volvulus or gut-tie is
a somewhat common accident, and occurs quite frequently from the
violent manner in which the horse throws himself about when affected
with spasmodic colic. The symptoms are the same as those of obstruc-
tion of the bowels and should be treated in the same manner.
Diarrhea. Moldy or musty food, stagnant water, diseased teeth,
eating irritating substances, feeding on low, marshy pastures and ex-
posure during cold nights, will produce this disease. It is more often a
symptom of some other disease; rather than an organic disease.
Diarrhea may exist as a complication of other diseases, as pneumonia
and influenza or during disease of the liver. The symptoms are fre-
quent liquid stools, with or without abdominal pains.
What to Do. ‘Treatment at times is very simple, but requires the
utmost care and judgment. If due to faulty food and poor water,
change them. If due to some irritant in the intestines, give one pint of
linseed oil. If however purging continues, it may be checked by giv-
ing wheat flour in water, starch water, white-oak bark tea, or half dram
doses of sulphuric acid in one-half pint of water two or three times a
day. Powdered opium, two drams; subnitrate of bismuth, one ounce;
repeated three times a day, gives good result. Horses that scour on the
road, should be watered and fed as long as possible before driving, If
there is much bloating or flatulency during diarrhea, baking soda in
doses of from two to four ounces often cures. If the discharges are very
offensive in odor this can be remedied by giving one ounce of sulphite
of soda or half a dram of carbolic acid in water, morning and night.
DISEASES OP THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 65
Superpurgation. This is the name given to that diarrhea or flux
induced by and following the action of a physic. It is accompanied by
irritation or even inflammation of the bowels, and is always of a serious
character. In rare cases it follows an ordinary dose of physic. It is
usually the result of too large a dose of physic; to giving physic to hors-
es suffering from pneumonia, influenza, or other debilitating diseases;
to riding or driving a horse when purging; to exposure or draughts of
cold air, or giving large quantities of cold water while physic is operating.
There is always davger of superpurgation if a physic is given a horse
suffering from diseases of the respiratory organs. When physic is given
always feed the animal on sloppy food or mashes, until the physic be-
gins to operate; clothe the body with a warm blanket; keep out of
draughts. After physic has thoroughly operated, the purging can gen-
erally be stopped by feeding dry oats and hay. If it does not stop give
flax-seed tea, oatmeal or wheat-flour gruel. If these are not satisfactory
in result, give one-half dram doses of sulphuric acid in one-half pint of
water twice or three times a day. Ifthe animal has become weakened,
give brandy in doses of from two to four ounces, with milk and eggs
four or five times aday. ‘‘Founder’’ is a frequent result of this disease,
and should be guarded against by removing shoes and standing the
horse on moist sawdust or some similiar bedding.
Dysentery or Bloody Flux. This disease is characterized by
coffee-colored or bloody discharges, liquid, and very offensive in odor
and passed with much tenesmus (straining). It is rare in the horse.
Symptoms. The first symptom is a chill which will probably pass
unnoticed. ‘The discharges are offensive and for the most part liquid,
although it is common to find lumps of solid fecal matter floating in tke
liquid portion; sheds of mucous membrane and blood are passed; there
is much straining, and, occasionally, symptoms of abdominal pain; the
animal lies downa great deal; pulse is quickened and the temperature
raised. ‘The appetite may remain fair, but in spite of this the horse
continues to lose flesh, and becomes a sorry looking object. Thirst is a
prominent symptom. Death usually follows in from one to three weeks.
What to Do. Care and feeding is more to be depended upon than
any drugs or medicine. First the horse should be placed in a warm,
dry, well ventilated stable; the skin is to receive attention by frequent
rubbings and the body should be well blanketed and the legs bandaged.
Water pure and given in stall quantities; the food should be light and
easily digested. As to medicine give first a light dose of castor oil,
66 THE HORSE.
about one-half pint to which add two ounces of laudanum. The veget-
able and mineral astringents may also be given. Starch injections con-
taining laudanum often afford great relief. Strength should be kept up
by milk punches, eggs, beef tea, oat-meal gruel, etc. In spite of the
best of care arid treatment, dysentery proves fatal oftener than it comes
to a successful ending.
Inflammation of the Bowels or Enteritis. This is an inflam-
mation of the mucous membrane lining the bowels. This inflammation
may extend and effect the muscular and also the serous coats. The dis-
ease is rare unless it is caused by irritants or corrosive poisons, or follow-
ing invagination or twisting of the bowels.
How to Know Enteritis. Fever symptoms mark, from the out-
set, all attacks. The lining of nose, mouth, and eyes are congested and
reddened, the mouth is hot and dry, respirations are increased, pulse is
hard and rapid, temperature is raised to 103° or 105°. Colicky pains
are continuous. Horse keeps moving; paws; lies down carefully; and
will often turn himself upon the back, remaining in that position for
some time; thirsty, and asa rule the bowels are sluggish or inactive,
but when due to irritant foods or medicine purging may be present.
The inflammatory pulse; position of horse when down; coldness of ears
and legs; high temperature; continuous pain, which is increased upon
pressure, will enable the careful observer to safely diagnose a case of
inflammation of the bowels.
What to Do. Rely principally upon opium internally. Give one
to two drams of powdered opium every three or four hours. One dram
extract of belladonna should be added to the above doses of opium.
Calomel in one dram doses to be given twice a day is recommended. Do
not as arule give purgatives or enemas; and keep the bowels as quiet
as possible. Hot blankets applied to the belly and counter-irritants to
abdomen are useful. Give linseed tea, oatmeal gruel, and starch water.
Avoid solid food, especially if hard dry and indigestible. If when the
inflammation has subsided, the bowels do not act, encourage action by
walking the horse and give injections into the rectum. Should these
fail then give oil.
Apoplexy of the Large Bowels. By some called muco-enteri-
tis. This is much more common and most rapidly fatal of the bowel
diseases. It is most common in heavy draught horses. It seems to be
induced by the same causes that produce enteritis. Post-mortem ex-
amination reveals extensive clotting of blood between the mucous and
DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 67
muscular coats of the large bowels; and thickened walls sometimes two
or three inches in thickness.
Symptoms. There is arapid and very weak pulse; profuse perspi-
ration; severe and persistent pain, labored respiration, and a paleness of
the mucous membrane of the anus. A peculiar, anxious expression ex-
ists that, when once seen is always remembered to denote this disease.
Toward the last the horse sighs, breathes loudly, staggers and pitches
about, and dies in a state of delirium. ‘They rarely live more than ten
or twelve hours, and often die inside of six.
What to Do. The case has usually advanced so far, before noticed
‘that treatment is of no avail. The best common remedy is white-oak
bark tea given in large and frequent doses. Tannic acid, one dram or
fluid extract of ergot, one ounce is more desirable if at hand, and should
be given every half-hour till four or five doses have been administered.
Apply blankets to body, wrung out of Hor water, in which turpentine
has been sprinkled; mustard water should be applied with sharp rub-
bing to the legs.
Peritonitis. This is an inflammation of the membrane lining the
cavity and covering the viscera contained in the cavity below or back of
the diaphragm, and known as the abdominal cavity. Peritonitis is
often caused by injuries to the abdomen such as wounds, blows, kicks,
and is still more common following the operation of castration.
Symptoms. ‘This disease is usually preceded by a chill; the animal
does not care to move, and if forced to do so, moves with a stiff or sore
gait; paws with front feet and may strike belly with hind ones; lies
down very carefully; stands most of the time; walks uneasily about.
Generally constipated. Pressure on belly, causes sharp pain, and the
horse will usually bite, strike, or kick at you if so used; the body is
tucked up; and the feet, legs, and ears are cold. Temperature reaches
102° to 104°. ‘The pulse is almost enough in itself to determine the
disease; it is quickened, beating seventy to ninety times a minute, and
HARD and WIRY.
What to Do. Treat similiar to enteritis. Powdered opium one or
two drams, with calomel, one-half dram, should be given every two,
three, or four hours. These constitute our main dependence in this dis-
ease. Extensive mustard plasters or even mild blisters over the belly
are very beneficial. NEVER give purgatives during the disease. Should
it be necessary to move the bowels it may be done by gentle enemas,
This is seldom necessary.
68 THE HORSE
DISEASES OF THE LIVER.
Horse Has No Gall Bladder. ‘The liver in the horse is rarely
the seat of disease. There is a difference in the anatomical arrangement
of the liver in the horse from that of man. It isa very common thing
to hear some local ‘‘horse-doctor’”’ say that a horse ‘‘has disease of his
gall bladder.’’ Truly a little learning is a dangerous thing, and this
local ‘“‘horse doctor’ thus unwittingly exposes his ignorance, as the
horse has no such organ. Diseases of the liver in horses are very
obscure and generally remain unnoticed till death. There are a few
symptoms when present, that should make us examine the liver care-
fully. These are yellowness of the lining of the mouth, nose and eyes;
and the condition of the dung, it being light in color and pasty.
Inflammation of the Liver. This disease is technically known
as hepatitis, and may assume an acute or chronic form.
Symptoms. The distinguishing characteristics are dullness; evi-
dence of internal pain, but not of a severe type; constipated and clay
colored dung balls; scanty and high colored urine; and general fever
symptoms. Lies down on left side; looks towards the right side; which
upon close inspection will be found to be enlarged over the posterior
ribs, (see location of liver in manikin) where pain is manifested if pres-
sure is used. The symptoms of this trouble are very obscure, especially
the chronic form, and even with the experienced veterinarian it is mere
‘“guess-work.’’
What to Do. Give first one ounce of Barbadoes aloes or some
other physic. Apply a large blister to the right side, extending from a
little back of the girth backward to the last rib, and about fifteen inches
wide, midway between the middle and back of belly. Four to six
quarts of blood may be drawn from the jugular vein, (see location of
same on manikin) if taken in the early stages of the disease. After
physic operates, saline medicines to act on the liver should be given.
One ounce doses of saltpeter or muriate of ammonia, three or four times
a day are beneficial. Feed the horse sparingly and principally on bran
mashes. If recovery takes place, which is somewhat doubtful, give the
animal regular exercise and light food.
Jaundice, the Yellows or Icterus. This is the result of the bile
being absorbed into the blood. It is not a disease, but asymptom of dis-
order of the liver, or a plugging of the bile duct. The nose, lips and eyes
will be yellowish instead of the pale pink color of health; the urine is
DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 69
saffron-colored; the excrement dirty gray in color; and generally consti-
pation is present.
What to Do. Endeavor to get rid of the excess of bile in the sys-
tem, and this is best accomplished by giving purgatives that act on th-
liver. Calomel, two drams; with aloes, seven drams should be iven.
Glauber salts in handful doses, once or twice a day for a week is also cf-
fective May-apple (podophylin), rhubarb, castor oil, and other cathar-
tics that act upon the first or small bowels, may be given. Avoid hard,
dry, bulky foods and see that the bowels are kept open.
Gall-Stones, or Bilary Calculi. These are rarely found in the
horse, but occasionally they occupy the hepatic ducts, giving rise to
jaundice and colicky pains. There are no symptoms by which gall
stones can be positively determined; but if a horse has repeated symp-
toms of wind colic, accompanied with violent pains, and that during or
following these attacks there is evidence of jaundice, a good guess is that
the animal has gall-stones. ‘There is not much that can be done except
to give medicine to overcome pain, and trust that these formations may
pass out of the ducts into the bowels, where they will not occasion any
trouble, on account of their small size.
INTESTINAL WORMS.
Description of the Common Kinds. Although there are sev-
eral kinds of worms found in the intestines of horses, it will be sufficient
to refer to three or four of the most common ones. Weak and debilita-
ted and young horses are most frequently afflicted.
Lumbricoid. This isa worm four to twelve inches in length, al-
though some have been seen over thirty inches long. In form it is
much like the common earth-worm (fish-worm). ‘These worms are
white or reddish in color, and vary in thickness from a wheat straw toa
lady’s finger, being thickest at the middle and growing. smaller toward
both ends. They are found singly and in groups, and live chiefly in the
small intestines.
Pin-Worm. This is avery common variety of worm and they are
found mostly in the large intestines. They are semi-transparent;
thread-like in form; and measure from one to two inches in length.
Tape-worm. ‘This is a white, flat, thin, broad, jointed worm.
The head is found at the smaller end of the worm. ‘Tape-worms of the’
horse sometimes measure from twenty to thirty feet in length.
70 THE HORSE.
Symptoms of Intestinal Worms. Slight colicky pains at times
are noticed or there may be only switching of the tail ; frequent passages
of manure; slight straining ; itching of the anus ; and rubbing of the
tail or rump against the stall or fence. The horse will be in poor con-
dition; does not shed his coat; is hide-bound and pot-bellied ; the ap-
petite is depraved—licking the walls ; biting the wood-work of the stalls ;
licking parts of his body ; eating the ground ; and very fond of salt. The
bowels are irregular, constipated, then diarrhea being noticed. Some
place much dependence on the itching of the upper lip, as shown by the
horse frequently turning it up and rubbing it upon the wall or stall.
The one symptom, that should always be looked for, and one that will
not deceive, is seeing the animal pass the worms in the excrement.
How to Expel Worms. Remedies to destroy worms are most
effective if given after a long fast, and then followed by a physic to
carry off the worms. The best worm medicines are santonine, turpen-
tine, tartar-emetic, infusion of tobacco, and bitter tonics. ‘To destroy
tape-worms, areca nut, male-fern, and pumpkin seeds are best. If the
long round worms are being passed, give twice daily, for three or four
days, a drench composed of turpentine, one ounce, and linseed oil, two or
three ounces, to be followed on the fourth day by one ounce Barbadoes
aloes.
If pi1-worms are seen, use injections into the rectum, of infusions of
tobacco or infusion of quassia chips one-half pound to a gallon of water,
once or twice daily for a few days, and follow by a physic. Remem-
ber intestinal worms are mostly seen in horses that are in poor condition;
and an important part of our treatment is to improve the appetite and
powers of digestion. This is done by giving the vegetable tonics.
One-half ounce of Peruvian bark, gentian, or quassia is to be given in
the food twice a day. Unless the system is toned up, the worms will
rapidly accumulate again, even though they may all seem to have been
expelled by the worm medicine.
Note. — The following powders are very effectual in removing intestinal worms.
After giving twelve of these powders as directed, give with the last dose one ounce
ot turpentine and four ounces of linseed oil.
1 ounce Ferri. Sulphate.
1 ounce Tartar Emetic,
lL ounce Carbo. Lig,
2 ounces Areca Nut.
Mix and divide into twelve powders, and give one night and morning.
THE HORSE. 71
CLASSIFICATION OF THE CAUSES THAT PRODUCE
THE VARIOUS KINDS OF COLIC.
Whenever a horse presents symptoms of abdominal pain (pawing,
lying down, rolling, etc.) it has been the custom from time immemorial
to call it colic. Asa great number of different diseased conditions in
the abdominal cavity cause such symptoms the treatment should there-
fore be varied.
Many of these diseases of course cannot be clearly differentiated
during life, although we are able to notice characteristics which are in a
measure peculiar to certain diseased conditions which enable us to make
a positive diagnosis.
The statistics show that ten to twenty per cent. of horses affected
with colic die, and that forty per cent. of the deaths of horses are due to
this trouble.
Certain medical compounds have been put upon the market as specifics
for colic. This is what makes the treatment of colic unsatisfactory and
increases the mortality. The classification of the causes of colic is as
follows:
1st. Food colic.
(a) Over feeding colic.
(b) Colic due to damaged or improperly prepared food.
(c) Starvation colic.
2d. Colic caused by obstruction to the gut.
(a) Colic due to impaction of dried, woody food in the large in-
testine of adult horses. The retained uncomium or the in-
gested straw and hay of the foal.
(b) Mechanical obstructions, such as twisted gut, intussusception
rupture, and tumours.
3d. Colic due to paralysis of the intestine.
4th. Colic due to plugging of the blood vessels of the intestines.
(Thrombosis and embolism).
5th. Nervous colic, due to exposure, fatigue and other causes. (Spas-
modic colic).
6th. Colic due to worms.
7th. Colic due to foreign bodies in the intestines, such as stones
‘calculi), sand or dirt.
The chief danger is the accumulation of gas from which relief should
72 THE HORSE.
be given promptly and practically as possible, for the following reasons:
1st. ‘To avoid rupture of the stomach, intestine, and diaphragm.
2d. To prevent suffocation.
3d. To prevent the effect of the absorption of gases.
4th. To permit healthy intestinal movement and prevent paralysis.
sth. To relieve pain.
6th. To prevent intestinal displacement.
The most prompt and safe way to remove gaseous distention is to use
trochar and canula, and plunge this into the highest part of the right
flank. This of course should be done by a skillful veterinarian.
ie aig ee : at .
SHIRE MARE, “8LOSSOM II."
(QUIE FROPEDTY OP THE EARL OF ZLLESMERR WOBSLEY KRALL MANONESTER, “BRED BY JOUN DOPPER NORTASIDR WEITTCRSEA
CHAMPION MARE AT SHIRE HORSE SHOW, LONDON. 1888
CHAPTER V.
RESPIRATORY ORGANS.
Their Diseases and How to Cure Them.
DESCRIPTION OF ORGANS OF THORACIC CAVITY, DISEASES OF THE NOS-
TRILS, THE NASAL CHAMBERS, THE SINUSES, THE PHARYNX, THE
LARYNX, THE WIND-PIPE, THE BRONCHI, THE BRONCHIAL TUBES,
AIR-CELLS, PLEURA, AND DIAPHRAGM.
ESPIRATORY organs are those that are used for, or aid in
breathing. Some of the organs are used almost entirely in the
process of breathing, while others serve a double function. The
taking or drawing inof the air into the lungs is called inspiration.
The side walls and front of the chest move upward and outward forming
a vacuum and the air rushes in to fill the cavity. The sending of air
out of thelungs is called expiration. This is ordinarily accomplished
by the weight of the chest, which sinks down, displacing the air.
Description of the Respiratory Organs. The organs aid-
ing in respiration nay be classed as follows:
NOSTRILS—the nasal openings, the place where the skin gradually
changes to mucous membrane;
NASAL CHAMBERS—the cavities through which the air passes to
the head. These chambers are completely separated, the right from the
left, by partitions of cartilage;
SINUSES—the compartments which communicate with the nasal
chambers and are lined with a continuation of the same membrane;
74 THE HORSE.
PHARYNX—the back part of the mouth and above the first rings of
the gullet. It is common to the functions of respiration and digestion;
LARYNX—the complicated structure situated at the top of the wind-
pipe, and just back of the root of the tongue. It may be considered a
box which opens into and is continuous with the wind-pipe:
WIND-PIPE OR TRACHEA—the air tube consisting of rings of
cartilage which extends downward from the larynx to opposite the
fourth or fifth dorsal vertebra;
BRONCHI—the two parts into which the wind pipe divides. The
one going to the right lung is called the right bronchus, the one to the
left lung is the left bronchus;
BRONCHIAL TUBES—the division of the bronchi which penetrate
and carry air to all parts of the lungs;
AIR-CELLS—the small recesses at the end of the bronchial tubes.
‘These are separated from each other by a delicate membrane, between
the layers of which lies the plexus formed by the pulmonary artery.
The blood is thus exposed to the air on two surfaces;
LUNGS.—the bronchial tubes, the air-cells and plexus together make
up what is commonly called the lungs. There are two divisions, one
on the right and the other on the left;
PLEURA—the thin double membrane that surrounds the lungs.
One layer of this membrane is attached to the lungs, the other to the
chest wall. This membrane secretes a fluid to lubricate their: surfaces
as they move one upon another;
DIAPHRAGM.—the muscular division which separates the heart,
lungs, and large blood vessels from the stomach, liver, and intestines.
It is the muscle of inspiration.
Causes of Diseases of Respiratory Organs. These organs
are more liable to disease than the organs connected with any other
functions of the body, and as nearly all are the results of carelessness it
is well to know and study causes. In the spring and fall when anima's
are changing coats, there is a tendency to contract disease, and care
should be taken at these periods to prevent other exciting causes.
Avoid badly ventilated stables.
Avoid taking horse from pasture and putting in too warm a stable,
Avoid cold, close, damp stables as well as hot, close, and foul
ones.
Avoid changing from a hot to a cold stable.
DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 75
Avoid stables not well ventilated or not well cleaned.
Avoid allowing an overheated horse to dry by letting the hair dry
by evaporation. Rub the horse dry.
Avoid letting a horse (especially if warm or covered with sweat)
stand in a draught. Walk the horse till cool.
Avoid prolonged or fast work, when animal is out of condition.
Avoid leaving horses, that have been out in cold rains, to dry by
evaporation. Rub them dry.
Avoid leaving on horse blankets that have become moist from the
sweating animal. ‘Take them off and put on dry ones.
DISEASES IN THE HEAD.
Catarrh or Cold in the Head. Catarrh meansa discharge of
fluid from the mucous membrane. Catarrh is at first a congestion fol-
lowed by inflammation of the mucous membrane lining the nasal cay-
ities. It usually extends into the sinuses of the head, and sometimes
to the membranes of the larnyx and pharynx, causing sore throat. The
nasal duct which leads from the eyes to the nose is lined with the same
membrane, and often the congestion and inflammation extends to the
eyes as shown by their redness and flowing of tears.
Symptoms. ‘The mucous membrane is at the beginning of the at-
tack, dry and congested; much deeper pinkish-red or red than natural;
then a watery discharge makes its appearance; the eyes may become af-
fected, and tears flow on the cheeks. ‘The animal has some fever which
may be easily detected by placing the finger in the mouth, as the feel-
ing of heat coming to the finger will be greater than the natural; the
animal may be dull; frequently emitting a sort of sneezing snort, but
does not cough unless the throat is affected; very often forces air
through his nostrils as if he was ‘‘blowing his nose.’’ A few days after
the attack the discharge changes from a watery to a mucilaginous state,
and is of a yellowish-white color.
Notre.—To become quite expert in ascertaining the changes of
temperature in the horse, it is only necessary to place the finger often
in the mouths known to be healthy.
How to Cure. ‘This disease is not serious, but if left to go its
own way, it may run into a dangerous complication and should receive
prompt attention. Have the horse inhale steam about fifteen minutes
at a time, four or five times a day, as suggested under MANAGEMENT
76 THE HORSE.
AND CARE. Pay particular attention tothe diet. Feed bran mashes,
scalded oats, linseed gruel, and grass if in season. If constipation ap-
pears, relieve the animal by injections (enemas ) of warm water into the
rectum, three or four times a day. But under no circumstances give
physic.
To simple cases the above is all that is necessary, but if appetite is
gone and the animal appears dull, give three times a day three ounces
of the solution of acetate of ammonia and two drams of powdered chlor-
ate of potash, diluted with a pint of water.
When the inflammatory symptoms subside and the appetite does not
return give two ounces each of the tincture of gentian and spirits of
nitrous etherin a pint of water as a drench, every night and morning for
several days. If after ten days the discharge continues, give one dram
of powdered sulphate of iron three times a day.
Chronic Catarrh. This is an inflammation of some part of the
membrane affected by a common cold which has become persistent.
The sinuses of the head are the usual seats of the trouble, and it is mani-
fested by a more or less continuous discharge of a thick, white or
yellowish-white matter from one or both nostrils.
Symptoms. The long-continued discharge just mentioned will in-
variably indicate the disease. Exercise great caution in examining
these cases to distinguish them from glanders. This disease is neither
dangerous nor contagious, although at times it is dificult to cure. The
discharge may be irregular, quite large quantities being discharged at
times, while at others scarcely any.
Treatment. The animal should have nutritive food and regular
light exercise. ‘The food should be placed in a box on the ground, and
the hay where the head must be lowered to eat it. For eight days give
one of the following powders night and morning; sulphate of iron, three
ounces; powdered nux vomica, one ounce; mix and make into sixteen
powders. Then for the next eight days, give night and morning one of
the following: sulphate of copper, four ounces; powdered gentian, six
ounces; mix and divide into sixteen powders. After this give one dram
of iodide of potassium dissolved in a pail of drinking water, one hour
before each meal. A blister over the face is often of much benefit.
The ordinary fly blister plaster of the drug store mixed with one-third
its weight of lard is very efficient. As a disinfectant sprinkle
chloride of lime about the stall, and a small quantity may be placed in
the manger under the hay.
DISEASES OP THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 77
Inflammation of the Pharynx. In the back part of the pharynx
is the canal through which the food and water pass to the stomach.
Inflammation of the pharynx is a complication of other diseases, viz: in-
fluenza, strangles, etc., and is probably more or less complicated with
inflammation of the larynx. ‘The treatment is the same as for inflamma-
tion of the larynx, which is next described.
Laryngitis or Sore Throat. The mucous membrane lining the
larynx is so highly sensitive that the smallest particle of food, which
happens to drop into it will cause it to contract and violent coughing en-
suses, which is continued until the foreign matter isejected. Inflamma-
tion of the larynx is a serious and sometimes fatal disease and as before
stated, is usually complicated with inflammation of the pharynx, con-
stituting what is generally known as ‘“‘sore throat.’’
Symptoms. A cough is first noticed followed by the difficulty in
swallowing. In many cases the difficulty in swallowing isso great that
the water, and occasionally the food, is returned through the nose.
The mouth is hot and saliva dribbles from it. The glands between the
lower jaw bones and below the ears may be swollen. Pressure on the
larynx induces a violent fit of coughing. The head is more or less
‘poked out;’’? membrane in the nose becomes red; discharge from nos-
trils soon appears. As the disease advances, the breathing may assumea
more or less noisy character; sometimes a rasping snore is given with
each breath; and the breathing becomes hurried.
How to Cure Sore Throat. In all cases steam the nostrils as
advised for ‘‘cold in the head’’ or catarrh. In bad cases keep up the
steaming for hours, or until relief is gained. Have a fresh bucketful
of boiling water every fifteen or twenty minutes. In each bucketful of
water put a tablespoonful of oil of turpentine, which will be carried
along with the steam to the affected parts. In mild cases, steaming the
nostrils every two hours will suffice.
The body should be blanketed, and bandages applied to the legs.
The feed should consist of soft food, such as, bran mashes, scalded oats,
linseed gruel, and grass if in season. Fresh water should be before the
animal all the time. Constipation (if it shows itself) must be relieved
by injections of warm water three or four times every twenty-four
hours.
A liniment made of olive oil, two ounces; solution of ammonia, one
ounce; and tincture of cantharides, one ounce; should be thoroughly
rubbed-in, about the throat from ear to ear, and about six inches down
78 THE HORSE.
over the windpipe and in the space between the lower jaws. Apply this
liniment once a day for two or three days.
If the animal can swallow without much difficulty, give the following
as a drench, to be repeated every six hours: fluid extract hyoscyamus,
one dram; powdered chlorate of potash, two drams; molasses, two
ounces.
Should great difficulty be experienced in breathing, do not attempt to
give drenches, but persevere in steaming the nostrils, and dissolve two
ounces of chlorate of potash in every gallon of water given. Even if
this is not swallowed and returned through the nose it will be of bene-
fit as a gargle to the pharynx.
If breathing begins to be loud, relief is sometimes afforded by giving
as a drench two ounces of jaborandi in half a pint of water. If this
benefits, repeat the dose five hours after the first. This will cause a
free flow of saliva from the mouth within a half hour.
Roaring This is caused by an obstruction to the free passage of the
air in some parts of the respiratory tract. This is really a symptom of
some ailment and not a disease of itself. ‘There are many causes that
may induce temporary, intermitting or permanent noisy breathing; but
in nine out of every ten cases of chronic roaring, the cause is paralysis
of the muscles of the larynx. A skilled veterinarian who is able to de-
termine the cause of the trouble, may be able to benefit, but the result
is doubtful.
Norg.—An animal that isa roarer should never be used to breed
from, no matter how valuable the stock. This taint is transmittible,
and the offspring is born with a predisposition to this trouble.
High Blowing. This is a noisy breathing that is decidedly a nasal
sound, and must not be confounded with ‘‘roaring.’? ‘Tbe sound is pro-
duced by the action of the nostrils. This is a habit and not an un-
soundness. In “‘roaring’’ when the animal is put to severe exertion the
sound increases, in ‘“‘high blowing’’ the sound ceases.
Whistling. This is one of the sounds made by a ‘‘roarer’’ and
therefore needs no further notice, except to state that this sound may be
made during an attack of severe ‘‘sore throat’’ and will pass away with
the disease that causes it.
Thick Wind. This is another term which ls applied to a disease,
which is only a symptom. The great majority of horses called ‘‘thick
winded’’ belong either to the‘‘roarers’’ or have the ‘‘heaves.’’? Occa-
sionally a mare heavy with foal, or horses excessively fat are affected
DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS, 79
with heavy breathing that may be caled ‘“‘thick wind.’’ In the one
nature will cure; while in the other there is needed a light diet that will
lessen the fat, and plenty of exercise.
Guttural Pouches. There are two sacks not included in the organs
of respiration, that are near the pharynx and larynx. They are peculiar
to solipeds and their use is unknown. In health they contain air, but
sometimes pus collects in them, causing considerable interference with
respiration,
Symptoms. Swelling on the side below the ear and an intermittent
discharge of matter from one or both nostrils, especially if head is low-
ered. The swelling is soft, and if pressed upon, matter will escape
from the nose, if head is lowered.
What to Do. Turn the animal out to grass or feed from the
ground. In addition give the tonics recommended for ‘‘nasal gleet’’ or
as it is more properly called chronic catarrh.
DISEASES WITHIN THE CHEST.
How to Detect the Diseases Within the Chest. It is nec-
cessary to study the horse in health, as to pulse and respiration, to be
able to distinguish the change so as to recognize disease. Study care-
fully the MANIKIN OF THE HORSE, soas to be abie to locate the
organs.
Where to Take the Pulse. By this is meant the beating of
the arteries which correspond in number and character to the beating of
the heart. The artery usually selected for ‘‘taking the pulse’ is the
submaxillary artery where it winds around the lower jaw-bone. On
the inner side of the jaw-bone the artery may be readily felt and to
“take the pulse’’ should be pressed against the bone. The number of
beats in a minute; the regularity or irregularity; the strength or feeble-
ness; and other peculiarities may be easily noted. ;
Number of Pulse Beats per Minute. In the healthy horse the
average number of beats in a minute is about forty. But in different
horses will vary from thirty-five to forty-five. In the low-breed large
lazy horse it will not be more than thirty-five, while in the highly-
bred nervous animal it may reach forty-five. Work and excitement
increase the number of pulsations. If the pulse of a horse be taken
while standing quietly in the stable, it will be less frequent than when
at pasture
80 THE HORSE.
Peculiarities of the Pulse. A little study of the following will
aid much in the determination of the various peculiarities of the pulse.
If the pulse beats fifty-five or more times in a minute while the horse is
is at rest, it is an evidence that fever is present.
FREQUENT PULSE—is one that beats an increased number of
times in a minute.
INFREQUENT PULSE—is the reverse.
QUICK PULSE has reference to the time occupied by each separate
pulse. The beat may strike the finger either quickly or slowly. The
pulse may beat forty quick pulsations in a minute, or forty slow
ones.
INTERMITTING PULSE—is one in which a beat is occasionally
omitted. The beat which is omitted may come at the end of some
given number of pulsations, when it is called regularly intermittent.
LARGE PULSE—is one that seems to feel fuller and seems to strike
the finger over a larger space than usual.
SMALL PULSE—means the opposite.
FEEBLE PULSE—is one in which the artery is easily pressed down
and conveys the idea of emptiness.
HARD PULSE—“is one that causes the feeling of hardness or resis-
tance. The artery feeling full and the pulse beating with force;
DOUBLE PULSE—is one in which the beat seems to give two rapid
beats at once.
The pulse may include the character of two or more of the foregoing
classes. ‘Thus a horse may have a quick, intermitting, feeble pulse, etc.
Temperature. The temperature of the healthy horse is slightly
above that of man, ranging from 994° to 101%° F. The average is
about 100° F. High surrounding temperature and exercise as well as
digestion will increase the animal temperature. The most accurate way
of taking temperature is by introducing a self-registering thermometer
into the rectum. ‘The thermometer should remain in three or four min-
utes before it is removed.
Respiration. The character of breathing is much changed by dis-
ease. These peculiar characteristics are very essential in determining
the location and nature of a disease.
Respirations Per Minute. In health, standing quiet, the horse
breathes from twelve to fifteen times a minute; work or excitemeut in-
creases the number.
DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 8r
Kinds of Respiration. The following terms are used in explain-
ing the various characteristic breathings.
QUICK BREATHING—tefers to an increased number of respira-
tions per minute, which may be due to exercise or disease.
DIFFICULT BREATHING—is always the result of something ab-
nornal, and it is often a perfect guide to the trouble.
STERTORIOUS BREATHING—is not to be confounded with diffi-
cult breathing. It is more of a snore-like breathing, and is due to a re-
laxation of the palate, and not to disease of this part. It is generally
associated with brain disease, when the consequent derangement of the
nervous functions causes the relaxation of the soft palate.
ABDOMINAL BREATHING—is when the ribs are kept nearly
stationary, and the abdominal muscles assist in breathing to a greater
extent than is natural. The ‘‘belly’’ is seen to work like a bellows. In
pleurisy, owing to the pain caused by moving the ribs, abdominal
breathing is always present.
THORACIC BREATHING—is the opposite of abdominal breathing,
that is the ribs rise and fall more than usual, while the abdomen re-
mains fixed. This is due to abdominal pains, such as peritonitis, etc.
IRREGULAR BREATHING—is shown to good advantage in
heaves, and often in acute diseases during their critical stage.
Secretions. During the first days of an inflammatory disease no-
tice carefully the secretions. In acommon cold, there is first dryness,
then watery discharge, followed by thick mucus. In pleurisy the
membranes are at first dry, which can be easily determined by putting
the ear against the chest over the affected part and there will be heard
the dry rubbing sound, like two pieces of paper rubbing one against the
other.
Cough. The surface being congested there is usually an effort as if
to remove some source of irritation in the respiratory track.
The DRY COUGH is heard during the first stages of a disease of the
respiratory organs. In pleurisy the cough is a dry one, and the animal
tries to suppress it.
The MOIST’ COUGH is heard when the secretions have been re-es-
tablished. Cough is but a symptom—the effect of a disease. Roaring,
heaves, pleurisy, and pneumonia have each a cough peculiar to the
affection.
Detecting Disease by Sound. Auscultation is the term ap-
plied to the detecting. of diseases of the organs within the chest by
82 THE HORSE.
listening to the sounds. Generally the ear is placed directly against the
part but occassionally an instrument called the stethoscope is used.
The ear is best for horses. First, get accustomed to the sounds in a
healthy horse, which can be done by practice only. Then more patience
and practice with your sick animals and you will be able to distinguish
signs of disease and their indications.
Percussion. ‘This term in the practice of medicine means striking
some part cf tue body to determine the condition of the internal organs.
If the wall of a cavity is struck the sound is easily distinguished from
that emitted when a solid substance is knocked npon. ‘This method of
examination requires practice with the healthy as well as with the un-
healthy animal. ‘
Bronchitis. This is an inflammation of the bronchial tubes. The
mucous membrane lining the tubes may alone be affected or it may ex-
tend to the whole structure. When confined to the largest tubes it is less
serious than when the smaller ones are affected.
Symptoms. The animal appears dull; appetite wholly or partially
lost; head hangs; the breathing is much quickened; the cough, at first
dry, and having somewhat the character of a ‘‘barking cough’’ is suc-
ceeded in afew days by a moist rattling cough; the mouth is hot; the
visible membranes in the nose are red; the pulse frequent, hard, and
quick in the first stages, but as disease advances becomes smaller and
more frequent. Ina few days a whitish discharge from the nostrils,
which may be tinged with blood may make its appearance. ‘The ribs
rise and fall more than is usual, which proves the animal has not the
pleurisy. The horse persists in standing throughout the attack. Urine
decreased in quantity and darker in color than usual.
Bronchitis affecting the smaller tubes is one of the most fatal diseases,
while that of the larger is never serious. It is an extremely difficult
thing for the non-expert to discriminate between the two forms, and also
he will have difficulty in distinguishing between bronchitis and pneu-
monia.
Treatment. Put animal in well ventilated box-stall. Cover body
with blanket. Hand rub legs till warm, then apply flannel band-
ages from hoof to knees and hocks. If the legs cannot be made
wari by rubbing apply liniment recommended for ‘‘sore-throat.’? Rub
in thoroughly and then put on bandages. Rub the same liniment over
side of chest, and that part of the side occupied by the lungs as indi-
cated by the MANIKIN OF THE HORSE. Repeat application to
DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 83
the chest in about five days. If applied oftener it will be apt to irritate
the animal too much and make him restless.
Compel animal to inhale steam. In each gallon of water put a table-
spoonful of oil of turpentine. In serious cases give steam every hour,
and in any case the oftener it is done the greater will be the benefits.
Three times a day, give as a drench; solution of acetate of ammonia,
three ounces; spirits of nitrous ether, two ounces; bicarbonate of po-
tassium, one-hadf ounce; water one pint. Care must be used in drench-
ing. If it makes animal worse, don’t persist, but give instead one-half
ounce of bicarbonate of potassium in every bucketful of water the ani-
mal will drink. Keep cold water before him all the time.
If the horse is prostrated and has no appetite, give tne following
drench: spirits of nitrous ether, two ounces; rectified spirits, three
ounces; water, one pint. Repeat dose every four or five hours, if it ap-
pears to benefit.
If the horse is hard to drench give the following ball: pulverized car-
bonate of ammonia, three drams; linseed meal and molasses sufficient to
make the whole into a stiff mass; wrap it with a small piece of tissue
paper and it is ready to give. This ball may be repeated every four or
five hours. Do not let this ball break in the mouth as it will make the
mouth sore, and prevent the animal from eating.
If constipated give enemas of warm water. Do not bleed the animal.
When the symptoms have abated and nothing remains of the disease
except the cough and a white discharge from the nostrils, all medicines
except the following tonic treatment should be discontinued. Give the
following mixture: pulverized sulphate of iron, three ounces; powdered
gentian, eight ounces; mix well together and divide into sixteen pow-
ders. Give a powder every night and morning mixed with bran and
oats if the animal will eat it, or shaken with about a pint of water and
administered as a drench.
If cough remains for so long a time as to lead you to think it will be-
come chronic, say three or four weeks after the horse is apparently well,
apply the liniment above recommended to the throat and well over the
wind-pipe and breast. Also give one dram of iodide of potassium dis-
solved in a bucketful of drinking water, one hour before each meal for’
two or three weeks if necessary.
Chronic Bronchitis. This is due to same causes as the acute-
form, or may follow it. Chronic bronchitis may change into the acute
form by a very slight cause. Its course is slower, less severe, and not’
84 THE HORSE.
accompanied with as much fever as acute. The general symptoms are
the same and the non-expert is apt to say, ‘“‘the horse has a touch of
bronchitis;’’ but as the animal does not improve he at last is forced to
commence treatment.
What to Do. Do not work the animal. Rest is necessary if a
cure is desired. Give the same general treatment prescribed for the
acute form. If the animal is not benefitted to a marked degree, give
the following: powdered nux vomica, three ounces; powdered arsenic,
seventy grains; powdered sulphate of copper, three ounces; mix to-
gether and divide into thirty-six powders. Give a powder mixed with
bran and oats every night and morning.
If all other treatment fails, try the following: hydrocyanic acid
(Sheller’s strength), twenty minims; nitrate of potassium, three drams;
bicarbonate of soda, one ounce; water, one pint. This dose should be
given every morning and evening for one or two weeks, if necessary.
Congestion of the Lungs. Inflammation of the lungs is always
preceded by congestion, or we may say congestion is the first stage of
inflammation. Congestion is an excess of blood in the parts affected.
Congestion may exist as an independent affection, and is generally
caused by over-exertion when the animal is not in a fit condition to un-
dergo more than moderate exercise.
Symptoms. If the animal is taken ill on the road, he will slacken
his pace, show a desire to stop, and may stagger and even fall. The
nostrils will be dilated; the flanks heaving; the countenance haggard;
and every other appearance ot suffocation will be evident. If the
symptoms do not appear until returned to the stable the horse will be
found with his head down; legs spread out; eyes wildly staring or dull
and sunken; breathing rapid and almost gasping; body covered with
sweat, which may soon dry, leaving legs and ears cold; breathing both
thoracic and abdominal; the chest rises and falls and the flanks are
powerfully brought into action. If pulse can be felt at all, it will be
very frequent, often reaching one hundred or more a minute. ‘The ani-
mal may tremble all over, and if the ear is placed against the side of
chest, a loud murmur or perhaps a fine crackling sound will be
heard.
Treatment. If taken on the road, do not attempt to return to the
stables. If in the stable give plenty of pure air. If weather is warm,
open air is best. Let the animal stand still; he has all he can do to get
enough pure air to sustain life. If possible set three or four men at
DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 85
o
work, rubbing body and legs, until the skin feels natural. Do not let
the men stop short of a good vigorous rubbing.
Rub over the cold part of the legs the same liniment used in bronchi-
tis, but do not put it on the chest.
The medicines needed are diffusible stimulants. Give two ounces
each of spirits of nitrous ether and alcohol, diluted with a pint of water,
every hour till relief is afforded. But if it takes too long to get this
medicine, give a quarter of a pint of whiskey ina pint of water every
hour, or the same quantity of brandy. An ounce of tincture of arnica
in a pint of water every hour for four or five hours, may be used, if the
last can not be obtained.
If none of these remedies are at hand give two ounces of oil of turpen-
tine, shaken with a half pint of milk. This will be of benefit till the
better remedies can be obtained. A tablespoonful of aqua ammonia
(hartshorn), diluted with a pint of water, and given every hour, may
be of service in saving life when nothing else can be obtained in time.
Great care must be used after the animal has commenced to improve,
as this disease may be followed by pneumonia. Provide comfortable
stall, avoid draughts, and keep the animal blanketed and legs bandaged.
Apoplexy of the Lungs. This is another term for congestion of
the lungs. When there is bleeding from the lungs during their con-
gested state it iscalled PULMONARY APOPLEXY.
Pneumonia or Lung Fever. This is an inflammation of the
lungs, in which the air cells are the parts principally affected, although
the minute branches of the bronchial tubes are always inflamed to a
greater or less degree.
Symptoms. The first symptoms of pneumonia when a primary dis-
ease, is a chill, more or less prolonged, which in most cases is overlook-
ed, or not seen. ‘The breathing becomes more rapid; the animal hangs
his head and has a very dull appearance; the mouth is hot and has a
sticky feeling to the touch; the heat conveyed to the finger, indicates
fever; if thermometer is used, the temperature will be found to reach
103° F., or higher; pulse beating from seventy to one hundred or more
per minute; character of pulse varies very much, it may be hard or
feeble, large or small, intermitting, etc. There is usually a dry cough
from the beginning, which changes in character as the disease alvances;
if pleurisy sets in the cough will be peculiar to that affection, that is,
cut short in the endeavor to stop it.
The appetite is usually poor, but the desire for water is greater, par-
86 THE HORSE.
ticularly at the beginning of the disease. The legs are cold; the bowels
more or less constipated; the passages being covered with a slimy
mucus.
Treatment. The general treatment is the same as for bronchitis.
Give animal plenty of fresh, cold drinking water. Blanket the body.
Rub legs till warm, then put on bandages from hoof up as far as they
are cold. If hand-rubbing does not make legs warm, put on liniment
recommended in the treatment of bronchitis. At least twice a day the
bandages should be removed and the legs well rubbed, and bandages
again applied.
Over the affected side apply the liniment recommended for ‘‘sore-
throat,’’ and if necessary it may be repeated after five days. Do not
use mustard. Do not clip off the hair and rub in powerful blisters.
Hot applications to the side of the chest are beneficial if the articles
necessary to use to apply them are handy. Do not useaconite. Do not
give physic. If the animal is constipated, relieve it by an allowance of
laxative food, such as scalded oats, bran and linseed mashes, and grass
in season. If this does not relieve, give an injection of about a quart
of warm water three or four times a day. If the animal has no desire
for this food, let him eat anything that he cares for. Make hay tea by
pouring boiling water over good hay into a bucket and allow to cool.
Remove the hay and allow to drink as much as desired. If the animal
will drink milk, it may be supported for days, by giving three or four
gallons of sweet milk, into which may be stirred three or four fresh eggs
to each gallon of milk.
The following drench should be administered every six hours: solution
of acetate of ammonia, three ounces; spirits of nitrous ether, one ounce;
bicarbonate of potassium, three drams; water, one pint. Use great care
in drenching.
If the horse gets very much weakened, use stimulants of a more pro-
nounced character, as follows: rectified spirits, three ounces; spirits of
nitrous ether, two ounces; water, one pint. If benefit is derived repeat
every four or five hours. Or give six ounces of whiskey with a pint of
water instead.
When animal improves and the fever has left, give the tonic medicines
advised in bronchitis.
Pleurisy. This isan inflammation of the double membrane (the
pleura) which surrounds the lungs. In health this membrane moves
upon itself with every breath, and secretes a fluid (called serum) for
DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 87
lubricating its walls. This keeps the surfaces always moist and smooth.
In pleurisy the membrane first becomes congested, the surfaces getting
dry and roughened. ‘This dry condition is followed after a time by the
membrane throwing off more fluid than usual. ‘This fluid accumulates
in the space between the lungs and the walls of the chest, causing
‘“‘dropsy of the chest’’ or hydro-thorax.
Symptoms. This disease usually commences witha chill, which is
often overlooked. ‘The animal does not move or turn around. When
compelled to do so, he grunts or groans with pain. The animal stands
stiff; the ribs are fixed, that is has abdominal breathing; both fore-feet
and elbows may be turned out; the animal may be restless, and act asif
he had a slight colic; may lie down, but does not remain long.
After the membrane begins to secrete the excessive fluid mentioned
above, a furrow will be found running along the lower part of the chest,
from behind the elbow to the flank; this is due to the endeavor of the
animal to keep the ribs fixed in as near as possible an unmovable
position. Every movement of the chest causes severe pain, therefore
the cough is peculiar; it is short and comes as near no cough as the ani-
mal can make it.
The breathing is hurried, the mouth hot, the temperature being raised
from 102° or 103” to 105° F. The usual fever symptoms, such as cos-
tiveness, and scanty and dark-colored urine are present. ‘The pulse
is frequent, perhaps seventy or more a minute, and is hard and wiry.
If the ribs are struck with the knuckles, there will be some spot,
more or less extended where the blows cause more or less pain. The
animal may grunt or groan every time it is struck. By listening at the
side you will come to a place where there will be distinguished a sound
very much like that produced by rubbing two pieces of coarse paper to-
gether. In many cases the friction is so great that it can be felt by
placing the hand over the diseased part. When the dry state is suc-
ceeded by the secretion of fluid, the sound disappears.
If the quantity of the fluid is large, the large amount retards the pro-
cess of absorption to a great extent. In some cases the symptoms
manifest a serious state. The pulse becomes more frequent; the breath-
ing more hurried and labored; flanks work like bellows; the nostrils
flap; the eyes stare wildly; countenance expresses anxiety; and general
signs of breaking up are plain. After a short time swellings appear un-
der the chest and belly and down thelegs. Pleurisy is most often con-
fined to the right side.
88 THE HORSE.
Treatment. This is quite similar to the treatment of bronchitis and
pneumonia, but as pleurisy is so apt to be complicated with either of
these diseases the treatment may be considered as merely an addition to
the treatment for these ailinents. The kot applications applied to the
chest as suggested in the treatment for pneumonia are very beneficial,
and should be kept up wile the symptoms show the animal to be in
pain.
The liniment should not be applied till the symptoms of pain, have
somewhat subsided, then rub it well over the affected part. Apply every
other day till several applications have been made. From the beginning
the following drench should be given every six hours: solution of the
acetate of ammonia, three ounces; spirits of nitrous ether, one ounce; bi-
carbonate of potassium three drams; water one pint.
If the pain seems very severe in the beginning of the attack, causing
the animal to lie down or paw; give the following drench; tincture of
opium, two ounces; raw linseed oil, twelve ounces. If the pain con-
tinues the opium may be repeated after four hours.
Should the case after ten or twelve days not progress favorably, it is
due to the excessive fluid not being absorbed; hence effort must be
made to excite absorption. Apply the liniment over the lower part of both
sides and the bottom of the chest, and give the following drench three
times a day, for a week, if it appears necessary and of benefit; tincture
of perchloride of iron, one ounce; tincture of gentian, two ounces; water
one pint. Also give one dram of iodide of potassium dissolved in the
drinking water one hour before feeding, every night and morning for a
week or two.
If tapping of the chest is neccessary it should be done, before the
strength of the animal is lowered beyond recovery, and it is best to call
a veterinary to perform the operation.
Pleuro-Pneumonia. When an animal is affected with pleurisy
and pneumonia combined, which is often the case, it is called PLEURO-
PNEUMONIA. At the beginning only one of the affections may be
present, but the other soon follows. The symptoms of both diseases are
present, but usually that of pleurisy, is the most prominent. The course
of treatment is the same as recommended for pneumonia and_pleurisy
when they occur repeatedly. Thensymptoms of both diseases are pres-
ent, but usually that of pleurisy is the most prominent. ‘The course of
treatment is the same as recommended for pneumonia and pleurisy when
they occur separately. The symptoms will be the guide whether it is
DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 89
best to give laudanum and oil for the pain if the pleurisy is very severe.
Do not give it unless absolutely necessary to relieve the pain.
Broncho-Pleuro-Pneumonia. This is the name given when
bronchitis is present with pleurisy and pneumonia. It is not a common
occurrence It is impossible for a person not an expert to determine
this combination with certainty, as the apparent symptoms are the
same a pleuro-pneumonia.
Broncho-Pneumonia. This is a common complication. Either
the bronchitis or the pneumonia may be first. The treatment is the
same as for the diseases when separate.
Heaves—Broken Wind—Asthma. The popular mind is much
confused with regard to the nature of ‘‘heaves.’’ Many horsemen apply
this name to all ailments when the breathing is noisy or difficult. This
disease is thought to be due to spasm of the small circular muscles that
surround the bronchial tubes. This continued affection leads to a
paralysis of these small circular muscles, and is thought to be one of
the first stages of the disease. There is good foundation for the
opinion of some emminent veterinarians, that the cause of this trouble
is due to a lesion of the pneumo-gastric nerve. This trouble is al-
ways, connected with some disorder of the digestive organs.
How to Know the Heaves. Nearly every experienced horse-
man is able to detect this disease. The cough which is present in this
disease is peculiar; the sound is short, and something like a grunt.
When the air is drawn in, it appears to be done in the same manner as
in health, but when expelled, the lungs having lost most of their power
of contracting, the great change in breathing is then very plainly seen.
The abdominal muscles are brought into play; those about the flank
contract, then pause a moment, then complete the act of contracting,
thus making a double bellows-like jerky motion with every breath. A
wheezing noise is heard when the animal is exerted, and the same can
be heard to a less degree when the animal is at rest, if the ear is put
against the chest.
Indigestion is always present; the animal has a depraved appetite,
often eating dirt and soiled bedding instead of the clean food in the
manger; they often overload the stomach; the animal often gets ‘‘pot-
bellied;’’ wind of an offensive odor often passes: attacks of colic may
occur and they are usually fatal; the bowels are often loose; and the
animal can not perform much work, as the muscles are soft. Never let
a day go by without giving light exercise.
go THE HORSE.
What to Do. When this disease is once settled there is no cure
for it. ‘The treatment must be such as to rélieve the symptoms, which
are ready to return any time, if the animal overloads the stomach or is
given food of a bad quality. Proper attention to the food is necessary.
Clover hay and bulky food generally have much to do with the cause of
the disease, and therefore should be omitted. Moldy or dusty hay, or
fodder of any kind is very injurious. Hay should be fed only once a
day, and then only in small quantities. Always water before feeding;
never directly after; slightly dampen hay, fodder, and oats to allay the
dust; do not work the animal under an hour after a meal; turning to
pasture gives relief; carrots, potatoes, or turnips chopped fine and mix-
ed with the oatsor corn makes a good diet.
Arsenic is the only medicine that is considered by the best authori-
ties as of any value, and this only palliates the symptoms. Use the so-
lution of arsenic in hydrochloric acid, which should be purchased at a
drug-store because it isthen of uniform strength. Each ounce of this
solution should contain about four and one-half grains of arsenic. For
about two weeks, mix with the bran or oats three times a day, a table-
spoonful of this solution; then for the next two weeks give the same
dose only twice a day; then once a day for a month. If bowels are cos-
tive, give one pint of raw linseed oil, once or twice a month. Medicine
is only secondary; the food is of the greatest importance. Never breed
from animals having the ‘‘heaves.’’
Norre.—If buying a horse of one of the ‘‘smart’’ individuals, a care-
ful examination should be made for the purpose of detecting the heaves.
These ‘‘jockeys’’ by keeping the stomach and intestines empty, and
giving depressing medicines, manage to hide the symptoms of heaves
for a short time. To detect the heaves, give the horseall the water he
will drink, and then have him ridden or driven up a hill, or on a heavy
road. This will bring out the peculiar breathing, common to the
heaves. The giving of arsenic to suppress the symptoms is one of their
favorite tricks.
Chronic Cough. A cough of this character may succeed acute
disease of the respiratory organs, such as laryngitis, bronchitis, and
pueumonia. It isa symptom and not a disease, therefore the proper’
treatment is to find the cause of the trouble and cure that disease if pos-
sible. Chronic cough accompanies the ‘‘heaves,’’ chronic bronchitis,
and chronic roaring. It is a symptom of chronic indigestion and
worms.
DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. gi
Pleurodynia. A rheumatism of the intercostal muscles, (muscles
between the ribs). The symptoms toa non-expert are similiar to pleu-
risy. It is distinguished from pleurisy on account of lack of fever,
cough, and friction sound is absent when the ear is applied over the
lungs. The tieatment is the same as for rheumatism of the other
parts.
Wounds Penetrating the Walls of the Chest. It is well
to calla veterinarian immediately as the treatment of wounds of this
character require professional skill, and even that as soon as possible.
Thumps or Spasm of the Diaphragm. This disease is often
thought to be palpitation of the heart. While it is true ‘‘palpitation of
the heart’’ is occasionally called thumps, yet the disease we here deal
with is of a very different character. The diaphragm is the essential
organ of respiration and the spasmodic or irregular contractions of it
produce what is known as hiccoughs in man. Thumps in horses are
identical with hiccoughs in man, although the peculiar noise is not made
in the throat in all cases.
This affection should be easily distinguished from palpitation of the
heart. ‘The whole body is affected by the ‘‘jerky motion”’ and it is not
confined to the region of the heart. Place one hand over the heart and
the other near the middle of the last rib, and the ‘‘jerky motion’’ will
be felt under the last rib and will have no connection with the beating
of the heart.
What to Do. Since the trouble is produced by the same causes
that bring on congestion of the lungs, the same remedies should be
used that, have been recommended for that disease. If not relieved
death usually results from congestion of the lungs, and it is often seen
in connection with that disease.
Rupture of the Diaphragm. Examinations of the bodies after
death, show a great many cases of rupture of the diaphragm. It is the
general opinion that this happens after death, and is caused by gases
which arise as the result of the decomposing remains. It is possible to
happen before death but there are no symptoms by which it can be de-
termined.
- CHAPTER VI.
CIRCULATORY ORGANS.
Their Diseases and How to Cure Them.
DESCRIPTION OF THE HEART, ARTERIES, AND VEINS, INFLAMMATORY
DISEASES, FUNCTIONAL AND ORGANIC DISEASES OF THE HEART, DIS-
EASES OF THE ARTERIES, DISEASES OF THE VEINS, DISEASES OF THE
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM.
ONDERFUL as it seems with our present knowledge, it is only
a few centuries ago that Harvey discovered the circulation of the
blood. Since that time it has been discovered that their is still
another system of circulation in the body intimately connected
with the blood vessels. That is known as the lymphatic or absorbent
system and consists of a series of tubes which absorb and convey to the
blood certain fluids. These tubes lead to sac-like structures called iym-
phatic glands, through which these fluids pass on their way to the right
lymphatic vein and thoracic duct. These lymphatic glands contain
lymph which is on its way to the larger trunks undergoing a sort of fil-
tration.
The Heart. Nearly in the center of the chest isa hollow, cone
shaped muscular organ called the heart. Its average weight is between
six and seven pounds. It extends from near the third to the sixth rib,
having the base of the cone near the third rib, and extending downward,
backward, and toward the left side. It is suspended from the spine by
the large blood-vessels and held in position by the sac in which it is con-
94 THE HORSE.
tained being fastened to the breast-bone (sternum). ‘The sac in which
the heart is contained is called the pericardium (peri=around, cardium
=the heart). This is a membrane of a fibrous, dense nature, which is
lined with a delicate serous membrane, of which there are two layers,
the inner one closely fastened to the heart, the outer to the fibrous sac.
There is a space between them in which is founda small amount of
serum, which is secreted by this serous membrane for the purpose of
lubricating the surfaces, which rub against each other every heart beat.
How Divided. The heart is divided into four cavities, having two
on the right side which contain the venous (blue) blood, and two on the
left which contain the arterial (red) blood. It is so divided that the
cavities on the right side have no communication with those on the left,
but the two cavities on either side are connected by valves. The upper
cavities are called AURICLES from their supposed resemblance to a dog’s
ear. ‘The one on the upper right side is called the right auricle, the one
on the left, the left auricle. The cavities at the lower part of the heart are
called ventricles, taking the names right ventricle and left ventricle accord-
ing to location.
Action of Heart. The right side of the heart receives the dark
blue blood from the VENA CAvA. It is received into the right auricle,
where it passes through the TRICUSPID valve into the right ventricle. It
is there forced out into the lungs through the pulmonary artery. The
blood here gives up its CARBON-DIOXIDE, takes on OXYGEN, and re-
turns to the left auricle, through the pulmonary vein. The blood, now
of a bright scarlet hue, passes through the BICUSPID VALVES into the left
ventricle, from which: it is forced out through the aorta into the arteries,
by which it is distributed over all parts of the body.
Movements of the Heart. When the heart closes to force out
the blood, the movement is called sysToLE, and when expanding,
DIASTOLE, There is a pause following such expansion. Hence the
heart takes a rest after each beat. This amounts to several hours per
day.
Functions of Blood-vessels. The blood-vessels carry blood to
and from the various parts of the body. They are divided into three
classes: THE ARTERIES AND ARTERIOLES, carrying blood from the heart;
the CAPILLARIES, bring the blood into close relation with the tissues;
and the VEINS, carrying the blood back to the heart.
Arteries. These are hollow tubes carrying blood to the capillaries,
which are situated in all parts of the body. ‘he arteries contain no
DISEASES OF THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS. 95
valves, but consist of three layers. The inside one forms a smooth sur-
face for the blood to pass over, the outside one an elastic layer, while be-
tween them is a muscular layer which regulates the amount of blood re-
ceived by each part. This coat is necessary, as it is manifest that the
heart cannot regulate the supply of blood sent to each portion of the
body.
Capillaries. The capillaries are interposed between the ends of the
arteries and the beginning of the veins and not only carry blood, but,
owing to the construction of their walls, they enable the blood to come
in intimate relations with the tissues. By the blood thus coming so in-
timately connected with the tissue, it is enabled to deposit nourishment,
give up its oxygen, and take in return what has been chemically united.
They take from the blood the nourishment, and give it off as a fluid
known as LyMpH, whose function is to irrigate and nourish.
Veins. In most veins are valves which flap back against the side as
the blood flows onward toward the heart. Thus the blood cannot be
forced backward by any cause. The walls of veins are not so thick,
strong, or elastic as are those of the arteries—the strength and elasticity
not being needed, as the blood simply flows through the veins and is not
forced through as it is in the arteries. The blood is aided in its course
through the veins by a contraction of the voluntary muscles, indirect
action of the valves in the veins, and by suction produced by the move-
ments of the thorax in breathing.
Pulse. Atcertain portions of the body arteries come near the sur-
face. If the finger be placed over these blood-vessels a beating can be
felt. These beats are caused by the heart forcing the blood into the
arteries. Each pulse represents a heart beat.
Character of the Pulse. This has been described under the
chapter DISEASES OF THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS.
INFLAMMATORY DISEASES OF THE HEART.
General Structures. There are three parts to the heart that are
liable to inflammation. From the names of these structures the names of
the diseases are derived. Myocardium is the muscular structure of the
heart; endocardium is the serous membrane lining the heart; and peri-
cardium is the sac surrounding the heart.
Myocarditis. An inflammation of the muscular structure of the
heart. This is rarely detected without being connected with inflamma-
tion of the endocardium or pericardium. The causes are over-exertion
96 THE HORSE.
or heart strain, influenza, rheumatism, etc. Since it is not recognized
unless involved with one or the other of the above mentioned diseases,
and the symptoms and treatment are so closely connected with those
diseases, it will suffice to describe them under those ailments.
Endocarditis. This is an inflammation of the serous membrane
lining the heart. It is often found in general rheumatism which involves
the serous membrane.
Symptoms. The most prominent symptoms which characterize this
disease are a staggering gait with painful movement of the fore-legs; a
constant irregularity of the heart’s action; but there will be equality of
strength regardless of the rapidity of the beating of the heart. In the
chronic form there is generally a persistent palpitation with irregularity
of the rapidity of the heart beats. This disease may be ushered in by a
chill, with sudden and marked rise in temperature. The pulse rapidly
decreases in strength or may become irregular, while the heart beats
more or less tumultuously. In early stages soft blowing sounds may be
heard by placing the ear over the heart on the left side, which corres-
pond in number and time to the heart’s beating. In nearly all
cases there is partial suppression of the urine. In fatal cases death often
occurs about the fourth or fifth day.
What to Do. The most reliable medicine known to control the ir-
ritability of the heart, is the tincture of digitalis in twenty-drop doses,
repeated every hour. After the desired action upon the heart is obtained
the dose may be repeated every two or three hours, or as the case re-
quires. Fluid extract of convallaria majalis, in two-dram doses, will
quiet the tumultuous action of the heart where digitalis fails. Avoid
bleeding; cold applications around the chest or over the heart; blistering;
and stimulating applications to the chest. Chlorate of potash, in two-
dram doses given in drinking water every four hours for the first five or
six days, and followed by the nitrate of potassium, in half-ounce doses
for a week, or until the urine becomes very profuse. Where rheuma-
tism is present give two-dram doses of salicylate of soda instead of the
chlorate of potash. Iodide of potassium in one-dram or two-dram doses
should be given early in the disease, and may be repeated two or three
times a day for several weeks.
Absolute rest and warm stabling, with comfortable clothing, are
necessary.
Pericarditis. This is an inflammation of the sac into which the
heart is enclosed. It may be caused by cold and damp stabling, expos-
DISEASES OF THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS. 97
ure and fatigue, from wounds caused by broken ribs, etc. It is usually
associated with an attack of rheumatism, influenza or pleurisy.
Symptoms. This disease shows itself abruptly by a brief stage of
chills accompanied by evidence of pain in moving; a short painful cough,
rapid and short breathing; and high temperature, with a rapid and hard
pulse. The fever, with corresponding pulse, is highest in the evening
and lowest in the morning. In the early stages the pulse is regular in
beat; later the heart-beat becomes muffled, and may be doubled. By
placing the ear against the left side of the chest behind the elbow a rasp-
ing sound may be heard, corresponding in number to the heart-beat. Be-
tween the second and fourth days this sound disappears and by striking
on the surface over the heart, there will be found an increased dullness.
In the acute form of this disease the animal may die in a few days, but
in the chronic form the case progresses much more slowly.
What to Do. ‘In acute or subacute pericarditis the tincture of
digitalis and tincture of aconite root may be mixed, taking equal quan-
tities, and give twenty to thirty drop doses every hour till the pulse and
temperature become reduced. Bandages should be applied to the legs; if
they are very cold, tincture of capsicum should be first applied; the body
should be warmly clothed in blankets to promote perspiration. When
the suffering from pain is very severe, two ounces of tincture of opium may
be given once or twice a day; nitrate of potassa, half an ounce, in drink-
ing water, every six hours; after the third day, iodide of potassa, in two-
dram does, may be substituted. Hot packs to the chest in the early
stages of the disease may give marked relief, or smart blisters may be
applied to the sides of the chest with benefit. If the disease becomes
chronic, iodide of iron and gentian to support the strength will be indi-
cated, but the iodide of potassa, in one or two-drain doses, two or three
times a day, must not be abandoned so long as there is an evidence of
effusion or plastic exudate accumulating in the pericardial sac. Where
the effusion is great and threatens the life of the patient, tapping, by an
expert veterinarian, may save the animal.”
FUNCTIONAL AND ORGANIC DISEASES OF HEART.
Palpitation of the Heart. This is a tumultuous and usually an
irregular beating of the heart. It may be caused by indigestion, sudden
excitement, excessive speeding, etc. (See ‘‘Thumps’’). Study care-
fully the difference in the symptoms of the two diseases.
a
98 THE HORSE.
Symptoms. The heart beats may be violent enough to jar the whole
body, and often it may be heard quite a distance from the animal. The
jar will correspond to the beating of the heart. This disease can usually
be traced to the cause, which may be avoided or overcome in the future.
Rest, a mild stimulant, or a dose or two of tincture of opium or tincture
of digitalis will generally give relief. It must be regarded as a symp-
tom when organic.
Enlargement of the Heart. Hypertrophy of the heart, or car-
diac enlargement frequently follows an increased demand for propelling
power.
Symptoms. In addition to the usual symptoms manifested in or-
ganic diseases of the heart, there isa painful and heavy pulsation at each
heart beat. ‘These pulsations are regular. When full andstrong at the
jaw, there is a tendency to congestion of the capillary vessels, but if
small and feeble an obstacle to the escape of blood may be suspected.
Treatment. If the cause can be discovered and removed it should
be done. Hydrocyanic acid in thirty drop doses twice a day, may re-
lieve muscular irritability. Give general tonic, avoid overwork or ex-
citement as well as bulky food.
DISEASES OF THE ARTERIES.
Inflammation of the Artery. This disease is rarely observed in
the horse as a primary disease. It may extend only to the inner coat
or it may involve all of the layers of which there are three.
Symptoms. There will be a painful swelling along the inflamed
vessels, throbbing pulse, coldness of the parts fed by the inflamed
artery.
Treatment. Give one-dram doses of the carbonate of potassium
mixed with four ounces of liquor acetate of ammonia, every six hours.
Feed scalded bran enough to produce loosening of the bowels. Put on
applications of hot water or hot hop infusions.
DISEASES OF THE VEINS.
Phlebitis. Inflammation of veins may be confined to a limited por-
tion of a vein or it may attack the vein for a long distance, occasionally
extending from a limb or foot to the heart.
DISEASES OF THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS. 99
Symptoms vary according to the extent and the severity of the in-
flammation. ‘The vein is usually swollen and thickened so as to resem-
ble an artery.
What to Do. Apply a smart blister over the affected part; open
any abscess that may be formed; give animal complete rest; and keep
bowels loose with bran mashes. When fever runs high give half-ounce
doses of nitrate of potassium, in the drinking water, which may be
changed in two or three days for dram doses of the iodide of potassium.
Give animal carbonate of ammonia, one dram, and powdered gentian
three drams every six hours should the animal show great weakness.
Varicose Veins. Otherwise named varix, and dilatation of veins.
This disease is the result of weakening of the coats of the veins from in-
flammatory diseases. The vein which lies near the surface on the inside
of the hock-joint is sometimes affected. This is sometimes due to the
pressure of a spavin. It is occasionally seen in stallions as dilatation of
the cord of the testicles. Piles or hemorrhoidal veins are occasionally
met with, principally in horses which run at pasture.
Treatment. Piles may often be reduced by astringent washes—tea
made from white oak bark ora saturated solution of alum. Stallions
having enlarged testicular chord should wear suspensory bags, when ex-
ercised.
DISEASES OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM.
Inflammation of the Lymphatic Structures. This inflamma-
tion usually effects a hind-leg, very seldom a fore-leg. This application
is sudden in its attack, exceedingly painful, accompanied by a high tem-
perature, and great general disturbance.
Symptoms. Usually commences with a chill, rise in temperature,
and some uneasiness; in a short time it is followed by lameness in one
leg and swelling on the inside of the thigh. The limb is very tender to
the touch; the animal perspires; the breathing is accelerated; pulse hard
and quick; and the temperature may reach 106° F. ‘The bowels become
constipated; urine becomes scanty; symptoms on-the increase for about
two days, then stationary for same time; the fever then lowers; swelling
goes down and becomes less painful. ‘Theswelling seldom all leaves the
leg; there is left behind a permanent enlargement, and attacks return
occasionally.
bere) THE HORSE.
Elephantiasis. In severe cases the skin loses its hair in patches,
the limb remains more or less enlarged due to a fibrous growth, which is
known by the name of Elephantiasis.
What to Do. Externally; bathe the leg every ten or fifteen minutes
for six or eight hours with vinegar and water, equal parts, to which add
two ounces of nitrate of potassium to each gallon of the mixture. At
the end of the bathing; dry with woolen cloths and bathe with camphor-
ated soap liniment. Internally; give tincture of digitalis and aconite root,
equal parts of each, thirty drops every hour until the fever and pulse
become reduced Half-ounce doses of nitrate of potassium in the drink-
ing water every six hours; bran mashes; and complete rest. This treat-
ment if used early in the attack very often brings about a remarkable
change within twenty-four hours.
DISEASES OF THE MUSCLES.
Lameness of the shoulder, caused by violent muscular contraction in
starting heavy loads, jumping, slipping on smooth, icy roads or barn
floors, is of frequent occurrence. The external symptons are not usually
very well marked, and errors often occur’ by mistaking this trouble for
other affections. The lameness is not intermittent but continued. It is
more marked when the bones are diseased together with the muscles.
When the animal moves the shoulderblade (92) and the bone of the upper
arm (77) are sometimes almost immovable, and when walking the entire
mass of muscle is displaced by being dragged forward without either
flexion or extention. In many cases there is a certain amount of swell-
ing, and in other cases instead there is muscular atrophy. This is com-
monly called ‘‘Sweenied.’’ It is not itself a cause of shoulder lameness,
although this condition may interfere with perfect action ‘‘Sweenied’’
shoulders are more often caused by diseases below the fetlock than to
affections above the elbow.
Give the animal plenty of vest. Warm wet blankets are of great
service, and in addition put on camphor, belladonna, or liniments.
Later it may be necessary to use the blistering compound on page 162,
and finally, when necessity demands it, the firing iron and the seton.
The great essential condition of cure, and the one that will help pre-
vent a relapse, is vest, irrespective of any other prescriptions with which
it may be associated.
CHAPTER VII.
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.
Its Diseases and How to Cure Them.
DIVISIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM, FUNCTIONS OF THE VARIOUS
PARTS, INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN OR ENCEPHALITIS, MAD STAG-
GERS OF THE OLD WRITERS OR MENINGITIS, SUNSTROKE OR HEAT
EXHAUSTION, SPASM OF THE THIGH, INFLAMMATION OF THE MEM-
BRANES SURROUNDING THE SPINAL CORD, LOCK-JAW, HYDROPHOBIA,
ELECTRIC SHOCK, ETC.
ITUATED within the body having the brain as a center is a won-
derfully complex system of nerves, which is almost entirely
controlled by the will of the animal. Besides this there is
another set, independent of this system, which regulates the beat-
ing of the heart, and all other movements over which the will has but
little or no control. ‘The latter consists of numerous small centers, call-
ed ganglia, extending in two great chains from the head to the tail, on
each side of the back-bone, and closely connected with the other system
by a peculiar communication. They are usually considered and defined
as follows:
Divisions of the Nervous System. There are two divisions of
the nervous system, the CEREBRO-SPINAL or that presiding over animal
life, and the sympathetic, that regulating organic life.
102 THE HORSE.
Structure. It is composed chiefly of two structures; the gray,
originating impulses and receiving impressions, and the white, conduct-
ing impressions.
Cerebro-spinal System. This consists of the BRAIN, SPINAL
GANGLIA, CRANIAL NERVES, and SPINAL NERVES.
Membrane Surrounding the Brain. The membrane which
lines the skull constituting an interior periosteum is called the DURA
MATER; beneath this is a delicate membrane called the ARACHNoID, and
still beneath this is another membrane, which even dips into the con-
volutions of the underlying brain. ‘This is called the pia mater. ‘These
three divisions taken together are called the meninges.
Divisions of the Brain. The divisions of the brain are the
CEREBRUM, CEREBELLUM, PONS VAROLII and MEDULLA OBLONGATA.
Functions of the Cerebrum. ‘‘The cerebral hemispheres are
the organs by which perception is carried on and from which motor im-
pulses are given out. They contain the organ of the will; they possess
memory, or the means of retaining impressions of sensible influences.’’
(HARE. )
Functions of the Cerebellum. ‘‘It is absolutely insensible to
irritation and may be cut away without any signs of pain; its removal
from the body or destruction by disease is generally unaccompanied by
loss or disorder of sensibility. Animals from which it is removed can
see, hear, and feel pain to all appearance as perfectly as before. It
governs the coordination of movements, and while irritation of the cere-
bellum produces no movements at all, remarkable results are produced
by removing part of its substance. As portion after portion of it is cut
away the animal gradually loses the power of springing, walking, stand-
ing, or preserving its equilibrium. If laid upon its back it cannot re-
cover its normal posture but struggles to get up, and if a blow is threat-
ened tries to avoid it, but fails to do so. According to Gowers, the
middle lobe of thecerebellum governs equilibrium by means of afferent
fibres from the semi-circular canals and the ocular muscles and also the
muscles of the legs.’”’ (HARE).
Function of the Pons Varolii. ‘It contains a large number of
nerve fibres both transverse and longitudinal, and is a conductor of im-
pressions from one part of the spinal axis to another. Concerning its
functions as a nerve centre little or nothing is certainly known.”
(HaRE).
DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 103
Medulla Oblongata. This is the prolongation of the spinal cord,
extending from the spinal cord to the pons (bridge) Varolii.
This part of the brain is very large in the horse; it is pyramidal in
shape, the narrowest part joining the cord.
Spinal Cord. This occupies the cavity of the backbone. It ex-
tends from the brain down to the last vertebra. It is protected by the
same membranes as the brain, but in the brain the gray matter is on the
outside, while in the spinal cord the gray matter is within. It is divided
into halves and these again subdivided into two parts. It contains
two nerves of motion and two of feeling. The nerves of motion are the
ones which carry the orders of the mind to the different organs, while
the nerves of feeling bring back impressions which they receive.
Spinal Nerves. These are forty-two or forty-three in number,
arise each by two roots, a superior or sensory and an inferior or motor.
The nerves originating from the brain are twenty-four in number, and
arranged in pairs, which are named first, second, third, etc., counting
from before backward. ‘They also receive special names, according to
their functions, or the parts to which they are distributed, viz:
1. Olfactory. 5. Trifacial. g. Glosso-Pharyngeal.
2. Optic. 6. Abducens. 10. Pneumogastric.
3. Oculo-motor. 7. Facial. 11. Spinal-Accessory.
4. Pathetic. 8. Auditory. 12. Hypoglossal.
INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN TISSUES AND
ITS MEMBRANES.
Encephalitis. Inflammation of the brain is caused by exposure to
extreme heat or cold; excessive continued excitement; direct injuries to
the brain; and sometimes appears as a result of influenza, pyeemia, and
poisons that directly affect the brain matter.
Symptoms. Acute inflammation may commence by an increased
sensibility to noises, with more or less nervous excitability, contraction
of the pupil of the eyes, and a quick hard pulse. These symptoms are
not always present in acute attacks. There will follow twitching of the
muscles, convulsive or spasmodic movements, eyes wide open with
shortness of sight. ‘The animal becomes afraid to have his head handled.
Convulsions and delirium will develop, with inability of muscular con-
104 THE HORSE.
trol, often followed by stupor and coma. When the membranes are
much implicated convulsions and delirium with violence may be expect-
ed, but where the brain substance is principally affected, stupor and
coma will be the most prominent symptoms. When the brain sub-
stances is principally affected the pulse will be soft or depressed with
sometimes a dilation of pupils and deep, slow, stertorous breathing; but
if the membranes are implicated the pulse will be quick and hard. The
animal may become very violent early in the disease, and by rearing up,
striking with the fore-feet or falling over do himself great injury, but
usually the animal maintains the standing position, propping himself
against the manger, until he falls from inability of muscular control.
Treatment. See treatment under head ‘‘General Treatment for In-
flammation of the Various Brain Structures.’’
Meningitis or Mad Staggers of the Old Writers. This is
an inflammation of the cerebral envelopes. It is caused by excess of
heat or cold, wounds of the skull and its contents, rheumatism, influ-
enza, rupture of the blood-vessels of the membrane surrounding the
brain.
Symptoms. In an attack of the acute form the symptoms are often
very violent. The animal has violent pains in the head which is indi-
cated by the animal flying back in the halter; plunging forward or run-
ning ahead, without regard to any obstructions; the pulse is very rapid;
the breathing accelerated or panting; the pupils of the eyes contracted;
the muscles of the body quivering. These symptoms may develop in a
few minutes or in a few hours. If the animal does not get relief, spasms
or stiffness of the muscles along one or both sides of the neck or back will
become evident; the head will be held up higher than usual; the eye-balls
will be drawn back in their sockets; the eye-lids twitch; convulsions and
furious delirium will soon appear, followed by coma (insensibility) and
death.
During the whole course of the disease the least noise will seem to
bring on violent paroxysms (spasms), which are very marked during
the disease. Between these paroxysms there are quiet moments in which
the animal seems dull and drowsy. ‘he urine is frequently forced out
in spurts and great efforts are made to effect passage of the bowels.
In the SUB-ACUTE form the symptoms develop more slowly and are
less marked by violence. In such attacks the animal may suffer for a
week or longer and ultimately recover.
DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 105
In meningitis the temperature varies from 103° to 107° F., according
to the severity of the disease.
Do not confound the violent symptoms of this disease with hydropho-
bia (rabies). In hydrophobia the animal directs his violence toward
some object or upon himself; but in this desire there is only the evidence
of severe pain, in the head. Meningitis may be distinguished from en-
cephalitis and cerebritis by there not being any marked symptoms of
paralysis of local parts or of coma till near the approach of death.
Teatment. See treatment under head ‘‘General Treatment for In.
flammation of the Various Brain Structures.’’
Cerebritis. Inflammation of the brain substance has many causes.
Those that produce either of the two last, together with cystic and cal-
careous tumors, thrombi, urzemic poisoning, etc.
Symptoms. When notin connection with other diseases this disease
is seldom recognized during life. It is always confined to some specific
portion of the brain, and the symptoms vary according to the part affect-
ed. The treatment as given below will be all that can be usually done.
As it would not be recognized except by an expert it is unnecessary to
give a list of the symptoms.
General Treatment for Inflammation of the Various
Brain Structures. ‘‘When the animal is found in the first stages of
the disease, where the animal is unnaturally excited or has stupor with
high temperature and quickened pulse bleed from the jugular vein.
Especially in acute meningitis, bleeding is imperatively demanded. The
finger should be kept on the pulse, and the blood allowed to flow until
there is a marked fluttering or softening of the pulse. As soon as the
animal recovers somewhat from the shock of the bleeding, the following
medicine should be made into a ball or dissolved ina pint of warm water
and be given at one dose: barbadoes aloes, seven drams; calomel, two
drams; powdered ginger, one dram; tincture of aconite, twenty drops.
The animal should be placed in a cool, dark place, as free from noise
as possible, and cloths wrung out of hot water placed on his head. Re-
new frequently for twelve hours. When the animal becomes thirsty
half an ounce of saltpeter may be dissolved in his drinking water every
six hours. Inject warm water into the rectum to aid the action of the
physic. Norwood’s tincture of veratrum viride, in twenty drop
doses, should be given every hour, and one dram of solid extract of
belladonna every four hours, until the symptoms become modified and
the pulse regular and full.
106 THE HORSE.
If this treatment fails to give relief the disease will pass into the ad-
vanced stages, or if the animal has been neglected in the early stages
the treatment must be supplanted with the hypodermic injection of er-
gotin, in five grain doses, dissolved in a dram of water every six hours.
The limbs may be poulticed above the fetlocks with mustard. Cold
water or ice-bags should now take the place of the hot water cloths on
the head. Warm blanketing, to promote perspiration, to be used in all
cases in which there is not much perspiration.
“Tf the disease becomes chronic—encephalitis or meningitis—use alter-
atives and tonics, with such other treatment as special symptoms may
demand. Iodide of potassium in two dram doses should be given twice
a day, and one dram of calomel once a day, to induce absorption.
Tonics, in the form of iodide of iron in dram doses, to which is added
two drams of powdered hydrastis, may be given every six or eight
hours, as soon as the active fever has abated. In all cases, after the
disappearance of the acute symptoms, blisters (cantharides ointment)
should be applied behind the poll. When paralytic effects remain after
the disappearance of all other symptoms, sulphate of strychnia in two
grain doses, in combination with the other tonics, should be given twice
a day, and be continued until it produces muscular twitching. Many of
the recoveries will, however, under the most active and early treatment,
be but partial, and in all cases the animals become predisposed to subse-
quent attacks. A long period of time should be allowed to pass before
the animal is exposed to severe work or great heat. When the disease
depends upon mechanical injuries they have to be treated and all causes
of irritation to the brain removed. If it is due to stable miasma,
uremic poisoning, pyzemia, influenza, rheumatism, toxic agents, etc.,
they should receive prompt attention for their removal or mitigation.’’
Sunstroke or Heat Exhaustion. The term ‘‘sunstroke’’ is ap-
plied to troubles caused by exposure to the direct ray’s of the sun for
hours, when the animal has not received proper care in feeding, water-
ing and rest; and also when caused by the action of great heat, com-
bined with other disturbing elements such as dryness of the air, and an
unusual accumulation of electricity.
Symptoms. Generally comes on suddenly. The animal stops,
drops his head; begins to stagger; and soon falls to the ground insensi-
ble. The breathing is stertorious; the pulse is slow and irregular; cold
sweats cover the body; and the animal dies without becoming con-
scious.
DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 107
Previous to the other symptoms coming on the animal often requires
urging for some time; the perspiration is checked; the animal becomes
weak in his gait; the breathing hurried or panting; the eyes watery and
bloodshot; nostrils dilated and highly reddened, assuming a dark,
purple color; the pulse rapid and weak; the heart bounding.
What to Do. Apply ice or very cold water to the head and along
the spine. Give six ounces of whiskey or half an ounce of carbonate of
ammonia in a pint of water. Injections into the rectum of ginger tea,
moderately strong, or weak ammonia water may benefit. Brisk friction
of the limbs, using spirits of camphor when possible, will often yield
good results. The stimulant should be repeated in one hour if the pulse
has not become stronger and slower.
If the animal is suffering from heat exhaustion instead of sunstroke
use the same treatment, only use hot water on the cloths instead of cold.
In either case as the animal gets better give as a tonic during con-
valescence: sulphate of iron, one dram; gentian, three drams; red
chincona bark, two drams; mix and give in the feed morning and even-
ing.
How to Prevent. In very hot weather, keep wet sponges or light
sunshades on the head while at work, or sponge the head with cold
water as often as possibie during the day. Do not over feed; water
often; keep stables cool and well ventilated. If an animal seems weak
and exhausted from work or disease, give tonics.
Spasm of the Thigh or Cramp of the Hind Leg. Horses
standing on sloping plank floors, or subject to severe exercise are liable
to this disease.
Symptoms. The leg becomes rigid, and efforts to bend it are unsuc-
cessful; it is cold; there is not much pain manifested, unless efforts are
made to change position of the leg. The cramp may be of short dura-
tion, or it may continue for several days. This ‘‘cramp’’ is often taken
for a dislocation of the stifle-joint. In dislocation, the foot is extended
backward, and the horse being unable to advance it, drags the foot be-
hind him. An examination of the joint will also show a change of
form.
What to Do. Rub the cramped muscles with liniment composed
of soap liniment four parts and chloroform one part. Compulsory
movement usually causes the muscles to relax very quickly. Therefore
take animal out and force him to run or trot. Sometimes a single crack
of the whip or a smart blow will cause relaxation, Should this fail, the
108 THE HORSE.
liniment may be used along the inside of the thigh, and chloroform,
ether, or laudanum given internally. One ounce chloral hydrate will
relieve the spasm when given internally, but the cramp may return very
quickly after the effect has passed off.
Spinal Meningitis. This is an inflammation of the membranes
surrounding the spinal cord. It may be the result of irritating proper-
ties of blood poisons, exposure, all forms of injury to the spine, rheuma-
tism, ete.
Symptoms. May be introduced by a chill; a rise in temperature;
general weakness; or shifting of the legs. Soon a painful, spasmodic
twitching of the muscles set in, followed by a hardness of muscles along
the back-bone, when the animal will move very stiffly and evince great
pain in moving; evidences of paralysis develop; either holds the urine,
or it runs away without effort; and marked fever at the beginning of the
attack, together with spinal symptoms. This disease generally becomes
seated and is then principally known by a paralysis back of the seat of
the disease. The whole or only portions may be paralyzed.
Treatment. Put along the spine, bags filled with broken ice, to be
followed later by strong blisters. Control fever by giving twenty-drop
doses every hour of Norwood’s tincture of veratrum viride, until the de-
sired effect is obtained. One dram of the fluid extract of belladonna, to
control pain and the flow of blood to the meninges may be given every
five or six hours till the pupils of the eyes become much enlarged. If
the pain is very severe inject hypodermically five grains’ of sulphate of
morphine. Keep the animal as free from excitement as possible. If the
urine is retained in the bladder it must be drawn off every six hours.
In very severe attacks the animal dies in a few days. If the animal
grows better give two-dram doses of iodide of potassium in the drinking
water, morning and evening. Also once a day give one-dram of nux
vomica and twice a day same dose of iodide of iron.
Cerebro-Spinal-Meningitis. This disease is very apt to attack
every animal in a stable, although it is conceded by good authority that
it is neither contagious nor infectious. It seems to be connected in some
way with the food or general surroundings. In many cases the disease
has broken out in various localities, where portions of the same lot of
oats, hay, and brewers grains have been fed.
Special Precautions Necessary. If this disease breaks out ina
stable, remove all the animals at once. Provide them with clean, well-
ventilated, well drained stables elsewhere, and give each animal one-
DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 109
dram or the extract or half an ounce of the tincture of belladonna, twice
a day for several days as a preventive. Clean the old stable thoroughly
from all matter, throw over it some chloride of lime, and give the stable
a coat of whitewash in which four ounces of carbolic acid has been
dissolved in every gallon. Let the stable dry thoroughly.
Symptoms. There are three grades of attack into which the
symptoms may be divided.
FIRST GRADE. In the most rapidly fatal cases, the first indica-
tions are usually a weak, staggering gait; part or total loss of power to
swallow; eyesight is poor; muscles twitch and slight cramps may be
noticed; soon followed by paralysis of the whole body; inability to
stand; sometimes a delirium in which the animal goes through a series
of movements as if trotting or running; the delirium becomes violent,
and the animal may seriously bruise himself in his struggles, but a deep
sleep usually renders him unconscious till he dies, which usually follows
in from four to twenty-four hours, from the beginning of the first
symptoms. ‘The pulse is variable during the disease; it may seem al-
most gone at times; then very rapid and irregular; the breathings
generally quick and catchy. When this severe and rapidly fatal form
appears, it may not be possible to determine it from encephalitis, only
from the fact of other animals in the same stable or neighborhood being
similarly affected.
SECOND GRADE. This is in not so severe a form as the last.
The first noticable symptom is a difficulty in swallowing; a slowness in
the chewing of the food; and a weakness which may be first noticed by
a loss of strength of the tail, the animal being unable to switch it or
offer any resistance if you raise it up over the croup. The pulse is
generally a little slow; no evidence of pain; breathing unchanged;
temperature little less than in health; bowels may be constipated. If
the result will terminate favorable, there will be no change of symp-
toms for two or three days, after which gradual improvement. But if
the termination will be death, immediately following the stationary con-
dition the animal may lose its power to swallow, and the weakness in
gait becomes more and more noticable; then sleepiness or coma may ap-
pear; the pulse depressed, slow and weak; stertorous breathing; unable
to stand; and some rigidness of the spinal muscles or partial cramp of
the neck. Death follows in such cases in from four to six days.
THIRD GRADE. In this last or mildest form, the inability of
voluntary control of the limbs becomes but little marked; the power of
IIo THE HORSE.
swallowing while lessened is never entirely lost; the animal has no
fever, pain or unconscious movements. The animal will begin to im-
prove about the fourth day and recover.
When changes for the better take place the symptoms usually leave
in the reverse order in which they came on, but local paralysis may re-
main-for some time.
Treatment. ‘‘In the worst class of cases treatment is very seldom
successful, and it is dangerous to attempt to give medicine by the mouth
because the animal cannot swallow. Cold shower baths may possibly
induce revulsive action in connection with stimulants into the rectum,
four to six ounces of whisky in two pints of milk; the breathing of
ammonia vapor from a sponge wet with dilute aqua ammonia may bring
the animal to consciousness.
In the second class of cases the treatment recommended by Professor
Large consists in giving a cathartic composed of one ounce of aloes and
the giving of one to two drams of the solid extract of belladonna, alter-
nated every three hours with thirty drops of tincture of aconite root,
and the application of blisters to the neck, spine, and throat. When
the animal is unable to swallow, one-fourth-grain doses of sulphate of
atropia may be hypodermiically injected under the skin every four, six,
or eight hours, as the case may demand. ‘The atropia is a heart stimu-
lant, increases capillary circulation, and quiets pain and excitability.
When the most prominent symptoms abate give such food as the animal
may be able to eat; keep fresh, cool water constantly before him; sup-
port him in slings if necessary; clean stabling and plenty of fresh air are
of the utmost importance.”’
Lock-Jaw or Tetanus. ‘This disease is specially shown by
spasms which affect the muscles of the face, neck, body, and limbs and
all the muscles supplied by the cerebro-spinal nerves.
Symptoms. ‘The first indication of this disease is difficulty in chew-
ing and swallowing; an extention of the head; and a membrane called
the haw,. protruding over the inner part of the eye. This haw will turn
farther over the eye if the nose is lifted. The animal is not able to open
the jaws to their full extent, and the effort to do so will produce spasms
of the muscles of the jawand neck. The muscles of the neck and along
the spine become rigid and the legs are moved as if they were stiff.
The least noise throws the animal into increased spasm of all the affect- .
ed muscles. The tail is usually raised and held without moving; the
bowels constipated; the temperature and pulse not much changed.
DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. III
These symptoms in an acute attack become rapidly worse till the muscles
become hard—in a state of rigid spasm—with a tremble continuously
running through them; cold sweat breaks out on the body; breathing
becomes painful; jaws are set; eye-balls drawn back; lips drawn tightly
over the teeth; nostrils enlarged; and the animal showing extreme
agony till death comes.
In the sub-acute cases the jaws are never entirely locked; the muscles
are not so rigid; the nerves not so excitable. There is some stiffness of
the neck or spine, which is shown when the animal is turning or mov-
ing; the haw is turned over the eye-ball when the nose is lifted. All
symptoms gradually increase for about ten days and then gradually di-
minish under careful treatment, or otherwise they go on to the most
severe type and end in death.
Tetanus may be mistaken for spinal meningitis, but the peculiarity of
the spasm-locked jaw; the peculiarity of spasms due to swallowing; the
haw over the eye; and the eye-balls drawn back into the head should
easily note the difference.
Treatment. Put the animal ina dark box stall without bedding,
as far away from other horses as possible; cover with sheet in fly time;
keep every noise away from the animal.
Give at once aloes, six to eight drams; mixed with solid extract of
belladonna, two drams. Give in form of ball; but if the animal is too
much excited or can not swallow, mix it with two ounces of olive oil
and throw on the back of the tongue with asyringe. If the jaws are set,
or nearly so, do not try to give medicine by the mouth. In such cases use
hypodermic injection under the skin of one-quarter of a grain of atropia;
and five grains of sulphate of morphia; dissolved in one dram of pure
water. Repeat often enough to keep animal under its influence all the
time. Good results may be obtained by injecting per rectum the fluid
extract of belladonna and of cannabis indica, of each one dram, every
four or six hours. ‘This may be diluted with a quart of milk. If un-
able to swallow liquids give rectum injections of oatmeal gruel and milk.
This will help sustain the strength of the animal. Good results may be
obtained by putting woolen blankets over the upper part of the head
and neck and the greater part of body, and keeping them wet with very
warm water. Continue this for several hours at a time.
Hydrophobia or Rabies. Thisis the result of a bite from a rabid
animal—generally a dog or a cat. ‘The disease follows the bite in from
three weeks to three months—very rarely in twelve or fourteen days.
112 THE HORSE.
Prevention. When it is positively known that an animal has been
bitten by a rabid animal, immediately, cauterize the wound with a red-
hot iron. This may destroy the poison before it is taken up by the
blood.
Symptoms. The first evidences of the disease may be excitability
and viciousness. The approach of a person, causes the animal to kick,
strike, or bite at any object near him. "Often the animal will bite his
own legs or sides, tearing the skin. The eyes are staring and blood-
shot; ears held up; and the head erect. In some cases the animal wiil
continually rub and bite the wonnd caused by the rabid animal. ‘This
symptom may precede all others. ‘The furious symptoms appear spas-
modically; at other times the animal is quiet and may eat and drink,
although swallowing becomes painful near the end.
Rabies may be mistaken for lock-jaw. In that disease there is rigid-
ness of the muscles of the jaws or stiffness of the neck or back very
early in the attack, and the animal shows no signs of viciousness.
Treatment. As soon as the nature of the disease is ascertained the
animal should be killed.
Electric Shock. Since electric wires are becoming so common,
the accidents arising from coming in contact with them is of frequent
occurence, and has the same effect upon the animal system as a shock
of lightning. ‘There are two degrees of electric shock; the one killing
directly and the other producing temporary insensibility, from which re-
covery is possible. In the latter case the animal is usually insensible;
the respiration slow, labored or gasping; the pulse slow, feeble, and ir-
regular; and the pupils dilated and not sensitive, or they may be con-
tracted and sensitive. ‘The temperature is lowered. There may be a
tendency to convulsions or spasms. ‘The predominating symptoms are
extreme heart and respiratory depression.
Treatment. Sulphate of atropia should be given hypodermically
in one quarter grain doses every hour or every two hours until the
heart beats are strengthened, the number and fullness of the breathing
increased and consciousness returns. Stimulating injections into the
rectum may also be useful in aiding the circulation; for this purpose
whisky or ammonia may be used.
CHAPTER VIII.
THE URINARY ORGANS.
Their Diseases and How to Cure Them.
DIABETES INSIPIDUS, EXCESSIVE URINE, SACCHARINE DIABETES, GLY-
COSURIA, BLOODY URINE, POISONING BY ALBUMINOIDS, ACUTE IN-
FLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS, SPASM OF THE NECK OF THE BLAD-
DER, INFLAMMATION OF THE BLADDER, URINARY CALCULI, ETC.
HESE organs to a large extent are the sanitary scavengers and
purifiers of the system. It is through their action that most of
the products of normal cell-life are carried off. The body is a
great chemical laboratory and within it is carried on wonderful
changes, which renew the tissues of the body as well as destroy those
that are worn out. These chemical changes produce many poisons that
will cause disease if left within the body. To remove these poisons,
with the aid of the skin, is the function of the urinary organs. The
kidneys are the organs which separate from the blood the substance by
which the nitrogen of the decomposed or worn out tissue is given off.
This subtance is called UREA. Most of the other secretions of the body
are useful in various ways, as the bile from the liver and the gastric fluid
from the stomach are used in digestion, and the perspiration is a means
of cooling the body by evaporation, but the secretion of the kidneys can-
not be utilized in any other process and hence must be removed from
the system.
Kidneys. These glands are two in number, one lying on each side
of the vertebrae just forward of the loins. The left kidney, weighing
114 THE HORSE.
twenty-three ounces, is shaped like a French bean (SEE MANIKIN
OF THE HORSE) and extends from the loins forward to beneath the
heads of the last two ribs. The right kidney (SEE MANIKIN OF
THE HORSE) is the shape of the heart of cards, and extends from
the loins forward beneath the head of the last rib. Each kidney consists
of these distinct parts :
a. The external or vascular part, in which the blood-vessels form
elaborate capillary network within the globe-like sac’s which form the
beginnings of the secreting tubes.
b. The internal part, made up in the main of the blood-vessels, lymph-
atics, and nerves extending between the notch on the inner border of
the kidney to and from the outer vascular portion, in which the secretion
of urine is almost exclusively carried on.
c. A large sac-like reservoir in the centre of the kidney into which all
the urine tubes empty their secretions. From this reservoir there leads a
tube, called the ureter, which carries off the urine to the bladder. There
are two of these tubes, one from each of the kidneys, and they open by
a valve-closed orifice into the roof the bladder just in front of the neck.
Action. ‘The arteries which carry the blood to the kidneys are called
RENAL arteries, and the veins which carry the blood from the kidneys to
the large veins leading to the heart are called RENAL veins. The kid-
neys do not act constantly but alternate in their action. ‘The blood
passes into the kidneys through the arteries, it then reaches the capil-
laries of the kidneys which have the power of removing the watery part
of the blood containing urea. The blood is then taken up by the small
veins and carried to the renal veins.
Bladder. ‘This is a reservoir which receives the urine from the kid-
neys through the arteries, and holds it until the distension is sufficient
to cause its voluntary discharge. Circular muscular fibers surround the
neck of the bladder which keep it closed, and looped muscles extending
in all directions forward from the neck around the unopen end of the
bladder empty it by contracting. A dilatable tube (urethra) extends
from the neck of the bladder backward on the floor of the pelvis. Inthe
male the urethra extends through the penis toits free end, where it
opens through a conical papilla of a pink color. In the full grown
female the urethra is nor far from an inch in length, and it is surrounded
by the circular muscular fibers which closes the neck of the bladder. It
opens directly in the middle line of the floor of the vulvas about four and
one-half inches from its outside opening.
DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. II5
Changes in the Urine. In health the urine of the horse is of a
deep amber color and it has a strong odor. On a feed of grain and hay
it may show a uniform transparency, while on grass there is an abundant
white deposit of lime. There is scarcely an important organ of the
body that can suffer derangement without its showing in the urinary
system. Therefore, the condition and changes found in the urine, while
_they may not mark a direct disorder of the urinary system, they serve as
an indication of a disturbance of some organ, and these changes are often
a great help in determining the character of a disease. ‘The action of
the skin and the action of the urinary system are closely allied. In
summer when there is profuse sweating, the quantity of urine is less-
ened, but in winter when there is but a small quantity of liquid exhaled
through the skin, the urine is increased in quantity. This action of the
skin and kidneys usually balance and keep within the limits of health,
but the quantity of urine may become so small that there is not enough
liquid to properly hold in solution and éarry off the solids, and then
crystalize and form stone and gravel.
A disordered liver may produce an excess of biliary coloring-matter
and stain the urine, or may cause an excess of acid (hippuric) and allied
products which being less soluble than the normal product of tissue
change (urea) favor the formation of stone.
A disorder which causes a decrease in the functions of the lungs may
cause an excess of acid (hippuric) and allied bodies, or of oxalic acid or
sugar in the urine, which will irritate the kidneys even if they do not
produce solid deposits in the urinary passages.
A disease of the nervous system, especially those that affect the base
of the brain and spinal cord, may induce a urinary disorder prominent
among them are diabetes, albumenaria, and chylous urine.
A disease that causes imperfect nutrition or a destruction of the bony
tissues, causes a deposit of phosphates of lime and magnesia, in the
urine. This may lead to the formation of stone and gravel.
An extended inflammation or an acute fever will lessen the liquids of
the urine, while tle solids (waste products) are increased, and the over-
charged urine is irritating tothe urinary organs, or the waste products
not being taken out by the action of the kidneys will poison the system.
Feeding green vegetables covered with hoar-frost or furnishing an ex-
cess of food rich in phosphates (wheat bran, beans, pease, vetches, len-
tils, rape-cake, cotton-seed cake) or a privation of water which entails a
concentrated condition and high density of the urine may irritate the
116 THE HORSE.
kidneys. Exposure in cold rain or snow storms, cold draughts of air,
and damp beds are liable to further disorder an already overworked or
irritable kidney.
Examination of the Urine. In some cases the changes of the
urine are the only signs of disease that can be detected. Of these
changes the following may be looked for :
CoLor—White from deposits of salts of lime; brown or red from blood-
clots or coloring matter; yellow or orange from bile or blood-pigment;
pale from excess of water. In giving medicine remember santonin makes
it red; senna and rhubarb, brown; tar and carbolic acid, green.
Density—The horse’s urine may be 1.030 to 1.050, but it may greatly
exceed this in diabetes and may sink to 1.007 in diuresis.
CHEMICAL, RE-ACTION—as ascertained by blue litmus or red test papers.
The horse on vegetable diet has alakline urine turning red test papers
blue, while in the sucking-colt and the horse fed on flesh or on his own
tissues (in starvation or abstinence during disease) it is acid, turning
blue litmus red.
ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS—as when glairy from albumen coagulable by
strong nitric acid and boiling, when charged with microscopic casts of
the uriniferous tubes, with the eggs or bodies of worms, with sugar,
blood, or bile.
In ITs SALTS—which may crystalize out spontaneously, or on boiling,
or on the addition of chemical re-agents.
Saccharine Diabetes or Glycosuria. ‘This disease is also called
Diabetes Mellitus and Inosuria. This is primarily a disease of the nerv-
ous system or liver rather than of the kidneys, but since the most prom-
inent symptom is the sweet urine it may be treated under this head. Its
CAUSES are varied, but are chiefly disorder of the liver and disorder of the
brain. One of the most prominent functions of the liver is the formation
of glycogen, a principle allied to grape-sugar, and the passing of it
into the blood for further oxidation. This is a constant function of
the liver, but in health the resulting sugar is chemically destroyed in the
circulation and does not appear in the urine. On the contrary, when
the supply of oxygen is defective, as in certain cases of the lungs, the
whole of the sugar does not undergo combustion and the excess is given
off by the kidneys. Also in certain forms of enlarged liver the amount
of sugar produced is more than can be disposed off in the natural way,
and it appears in the urine. A temporary sweetness of the urine often
occurs after a hearty meal on starchy food, but this is due altogether to
DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 117
the superabundant supply of the sugar-forming food, and last for a few
hours only, and has no significance. In many cases of fatal glycosuria
the liver is found to be enlarged, or at least congested, and it is found
that the disorder can be produced experimentally by agencies which
produce an increased circulation through the liver. Certain chemical
poisons also cause saccharine urine, notably woorara, strychnia, morphia,
phosphoric acid, alcohol, ether, chloroform, quinia, ammonia, and arsenic.
Symptoms. ‘These are ardent thirst and profuse secretion of a pale
urine of a high density (1.060 and upward), rapid loss of condition,
scurfy, unthrifty skin, costiveness or irregularity of the bowels, indiges-
tion, and the presence in the urine of a sweet principle, grape-sugar, or
inosite, or both. ‘This mav be most promptly detected by touching the
tip of the tongue with a drop. Sugar may be detected simply by add-
ing a tea-spoonful of liquid yeast to four ounces of the urine and keeping
it lightly stopped at a temperature of 70° to 80° F., for twelve hours,
when the sugar will be found to have been changed into alcohol and
carbon dioxide. ‘The loss of density will give indication of the amount
of sugar transformed; thus a density of 1.035 in a urine which was
formerly 1.060 would indicate about fifteen grains of sugar to the fluid
ounice.
Inosite or muscle-sugar, frequently present in the horse’s urine, and
even replacing the glucose, is not fermentable. Its presence may be in-
dicated by its sweetness and the absence of fermentation, or by Gallois’
test. Evaporate the suspected urine at a gentle heat almost to dryness,
then add a drop of a solution of mercuric nitrate and evaporate carefully
to dryness, when a yellowish residue is Jeft that is changed on further
cautious heating to a deep rose-color, which disappears on cooling and
re-appears on heating.
In advanced diabetes, dropsies in the limbs and under the chest and
belly, puffy, swollen eyelids, cataracts, catarrhal inflammation of the
lungs, weak, uncertain gait, and drowsiness may be noted.
Treatment. This is most satisfactory in cases dependent on some
curable disease of liver, pancreas, lungs, or brain. Thus, in liver disease,
a run at pasture in warm weather, or in winter a warm, sunny, well-
aired stable, with sufficient clothing and sulphate of soda, one ounce
daily as a laxative, and carbozate of potassium, one-fourth ounce as an
alkali, may benefit. ‘To this may be added mild blistering, cupping, or
even leeching over the last ribs. Diseases of the brain or pancreas may
be treated according to their indications. The diet should be mainly
118 THE HORSE.
albuminous, such as wheat-bran or middlings, pease, beans, and milk.
Indeed, an exclusive milk diet is one of the very best remedial agencies.
It may be given as skim milk or butter-milk, and in the last case com-
bines an anti diabetic remedy in the lactic acid. Under such an exclu-
sive diet recent and mild cases are often entirely restored, though at the
expense of an attack of rheumatism. Codeine, one of the alkaloids of
of opium, is strongly recommended by Dr. Tyson. The dose for the
horse would be three grains thrice daily. In cases in which there is
manifest irritation of the brain bromide of potassium, four drams, or
ergot, one-half ounce, may be resorted to. Bitter tonics (especially nux
vomica, one-half dram) are useful in improving digestion and general
health.
Excessive Secretion of Urine, or Diabetes Insipidus. This
disease is also known as diuresis or polyuria. It consistsin an excessive
secretion of a clear, watery urine of a low specific gravity (1.007) with
a correspondingly ardent thirst, a rapidly advancing emaciation, and
great loss of strength and spirit.
Causes. It may be caused by any agent, medicinal, alimentary, or
poisonous, which unduly stimulates the kidneys; the reckless adminis-
tration of diuretics, which form such a common constituent of quack
horse-powders; acrid diuretic plants in grass or hay; new oats still im-
perfectly cured; an excess of roots or other very watery food; a full
allowance of salt to animals that have become inordinately fond of it;
but, above all, feeding on hay, grain, or bran which has not been prop-
erly dried and has become musty and permeated by fungi. ‘Thus hay,
straw, or oats secured in wet seasons and heating in the stack is espec-
ially injurious. Hence this malady, like (sleepy staggers), is wide-
spread in wet seasons, and especially in rainy districts.
Symptoms. The horse drinks deep at every opportunity and passes
urine on every occasion when stopped, the discharge being pale, watery,
of a low density, and inodorous; in short, it contains a great excess of
water and a deficiency of the solid excretions. So great is the quantity
passed, however, that the small amount of solids in any given specimen
amounts in twenty-four hours to far more than the normal, a fact in
keeping with the rapid wasting of the tissues and extreme emaciation.
The flanks become tucked up, the fat disappears, the bones and muscles
stand out prominently, the skin becomes tense and hidebound, and the
hair erect, scurfy, and deficient in luster. The eye becomes dull and
sunken, the spirits are depressed, the animal is weak and sluggish,
DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 119
sweats on the slightest occasion, and can endure little. ‘The subject
may survive for months, or he may die early of exhaustion. In the
slighter cases, or when the cause ceases to operate, he may make a
somewhat tardy recovery.
Treatment. This consists in stopping the ingestion of the faulty
drugs, poisons or food, and supplying sound hay and grain free from all
taint of heating or mustiness. A liberal supply of boiled flaxseed in the
drinking water at once serves to eliminate the poison and to sheath and
protect the irritated-kidneys. Tonics like sulphate or phosphate of iron
(two drams morning and evening) and powdered gentian or Peruvian
bark (four drams) help greatly by bracing the system and hastening
repair. To these may be added agents calculated to destroy the fungus
and eliminate its poisonous products. In that form which depends on
musty food nothing acts better than large doses of iodide of potas-
sium (two drams), while in other cases creosote, carbolic acid (one
dram), or oil of turpentine (four drams) properly diluted, may be
resorted to.
Poisoning by Albuminoids or Hemoglobinuria. Also known
as azoturia or anazoturia. This is commonly supposed to be a disease
of the kidneys, because the prominent symptoms are ropy and dark-
colored urine and loss of control over the hind limbs; but it is rather a
disease of the liver and blood-forming functions. This disease is never
seen at pasture, rarely when the animal has constant daily work. It is
connected with high feeding, especially food rich in nitrogen, such as
oats, beans, and cotton-seed meal, and is made to show itself by taking
the horse from the stable and subjecting it to work. The poison does
not seem to be diffused, when starting, as the horse is usually lively
and spirited, but within the first quarter or half mile it usually
succumbs.
This disease is peculiar to solipeds. In all others the portal veins have
no communication with the vena cava (SEE MANIKIN OF THE
HORSE) except through the capillaries of the liver, but in the solipeds
there is a persistence through life of a condition common to foetal mam-
mals, of several good-sized veins leading directly from the veins of the
stomach and intestines (portal veins) into the posterior vena cava and
heart. By the accelerated breathings there seems to be drawn directly
into the blood the stored up nitrogenous matter in an imperfectly oxi-
dized condition, thus rendering the blood unable to retain the healthy
functions of the nerve centers and muscles.
120 i THE HORSE.
Symptoms. Inthe milder forms this affection may appear as a
laineness in one limb, from indefinite cause, succeeaing to some sudden
exertion and attended by a dusky-brown color of the membranes of the
eye and nose and some wincing when the last ribs are struck. The
severe forms come on after one or two days of rest on a full ration, when
the animal has been taken out and driven one hundred yards or more.
The fire and life with which he had left the stable suddenly give place
to dullness and oppression, as shown in heaving flanks, dilated nostrils,
pinched face, perspiring skin, and trembling body. The muscles of the
loins or haunch become swelled and rigid, the subject moves stiffly or
unsteadily, crouches behind, the limbs are carried half doubled, and he
soon drops, unable to support himself. When down, the body and limbs
are moved convulsively, but there is no power over the movement in the
muscles. The pulse and breathing are quickened, the eyes red with a
tinge of brown, and the urine, if passed, is seen to be highly colored,
dark brown, red, or black, but it contains neither blood clots nor glob-
ules. The color is mainly due to haemoglobin and other imperfectly
elaborated constituents of the blood.
It may end fatally in a few hours or days, or a recovery may ensue,
which is usually more speedy and perfect if it has set in at an early
stage. In the late and tardy recoveries a partial paralysis of the hind
limbs may last for months.
Prevention. ‘To avoid this serious affection, restrict the diet and
give daily exercise when the animal is not at work. A horse that has
had one attack should never be left idle for a single day in the stall or
barn-yard. When a horse has been condemned to absolute repose on
good feeding he may have a laxative (one-half to one pound Glauber
salts), and have exercise, beginning with a short walk and increasing
day by day.
Treatment. In mild cases give a laxative, graduated daily exercise,
and a daily dose of saltpeter (one ounce). Sudden attacks will some-
times promptly subside if taken on the instant and the subject kept still
and calmed by a dose of bromide of potassium (four drams) and sweet
spirits of niter (one ounce), ‘The latter has the advantage of increasing
the secretion of the kidneys. In severe cases, as a rule, it is desirable to
begin treatment by a full dose of aloes (four to six drams) with the
above-named dose of bromide of potassium, and this latter may be con-
tinued at intervals of four or six hours, as may be requisite to calm the
nervous excitement. Fomentations with warm water over the loins are
DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 121
always useful in calming the excitable condition of the spinal cord,
muscles, liver, and kidneys, and also in favoring secretion from the two
latter. On the second day give diuretics, such as saltpeter, one-half
ounce, and powdered colchicum, one-half dram, to be repeated twice
daily. A laxative may be repeated in three or four days should the
bowels seem to demand it, and as the nervous excitement disappears
any remaining muscular weakness or paralysis may be treated by one-
half dram doses of nux vomica twice a day and a stimulating lini-
ment (aqua ammonia and sweet-oil in equal proportions) rubbed on the
torpid muscles.
During the course of the disease friction to the limbs is useful. When
the patient can not stand he must have a thick, soft bed, and should
be turned from side to side at least twelve hours. As soon as he
can be made to stand he may be helped up and even suprpoRTED in
a sling.
Chronic Inflammation of the Kidneys. Chronic inflamma-
tion of the kidneys is more commonly associated with albumen and casts
in the urine than the acute form, and in some instances these conditions
of the urine may be the only prominent symptoms of the disease.
‘Though it may follow blows, injuries, and exposures, it is much: more
commonly connected with faulty conditions of the system, such as indi-
gestion, heart disease, lung or liver disease, imperfect blood formation or
assimilation. In short, it is rather the attendant on a constitutional in-
firmity than on a simple local injury.
It may be associated with various forms of diseased kidney, as shrink-
age (atrophy), increase (hypertrophy), softening, red congestion, white
enlargement, etc., so that it forms a group of diseases rather than a
disease by itself.
Symptoms. There may be stiffness, weakness, and increased sensibil-
ity of the loins, and modified secretion of urine (increase or suppression )
or the flow may be natural. Usually it contains albumen, the amount
furnishing a fair criterion of the gravity of the affection, and microscopic
casts, also most abundant in bad cases. Dropsy shown by swelled legs,
is a significant symptom, and if the dropsy takes place along the lower
line of the body, or in chest or abdomen, the significance is increased.
A scurfy, unthrifty skin, lack-luster hair, inability to sustain severe
or continued exertion, poor or irregular appetite, loss of fat and
flesh, softness of the muscles, and pallor of the eyes and nose are
equally suggestive. So are skin eruptions of various kinds. Any
122 THE HORSH.
one or more of these symptoms would warrant an examination of
the urine for albumen and casts, the finding of which signifies renal
inflammation.
Treatment. This is not always satisfactory, as the cause is liable
to be maintained in the disorders of important organselsewhere. If any
such disease of another organ or function can be detected, that should
be treated first or simultaneously with this affection of the kidneys. In
all cases the building up of the generai health is important. Hence a
course of tonics may be given (phosphate of iron, two drams; nux vom-
ica, twenty grains; powdered gentian root, four drams, daily), or sixty
drops of sulphuric acid or nitro-muriatic acid may be given daily in the
drinking water. If there is high temperature of the body and tender-
ness of the loins, fomentations may be applied, followed by a mustard
pulp as for acute inflammation, and even in the absence of these symp-
toms the mustard may be used with advantage at intervals of a few days.
In suppression of urine, fomentations with warm water or with infusion
of digitalis leaves is a safer resort than diuretics, and cupping over the
loins may also benefit. To apply a cup shave the skin and oil it; then-
take a narrow-mouthed glass, rarify the air within it by introducing a
taper in full flame for a second, withdraw the taper and instantly apply
the mouth of the glass to the skin and hold it closely applied till the
cooling tends to form a vacuum in the glass and to draw up the skin,
like a sucker.
As in the acute inflammation, every attention must be given to secure
warm clothing, a warm stall, and pure air.
Bloody Urine or Heematuria. Bloody urine in the horse is
usually the result of injuries, as sprains and fractures of the loins, lacera-
tions of the sub-lumbar muscles, irritation caused by stone in the kid-
ney, ureter, bladder, or urethra. Bloody urine may occur with acute
congestion of the kidney, with tumours in its substance, or diseased
growth in the bladder. The presence in the food of acrid diuretic plants
may lead to the escape of blood from the kidney. ‘The horse is not as
predisposed to Bloody Urine as the ox or sheep, the reason is that there
is greater plasticity of the horse’s blood in connection with the larger
quantities of fibrine. If the blood comes from the kidneys it is likely to
be found diffused through the urine, while if it comes from the bladder
or urinal passages it-is usually present in blood clots. Again if the
blood comes from the kidney, the microscope will reveal minute cylin-
drical blood clots surrounding blood-globules. ‘The location of the in-
DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS, 123,
jury may be better ascertained by observing whether there is sprain of
the loins, stone, or tumour of the bladder or urethra.
Treatment. Since the disease is mainly due to direct injury, the
cause should be removed if possible, and then general and local syptics
should be applied. Irritants in the food must be avoided; if from sprain,
give it proper treatment; if stone in the bladder or urethra it should be
removed. Give freely of slippery-elm or linseed tea, and doses of the
following : three drams of tincture of chloride of iron; one-half dram of
the acetate of lead; one-half dram of tannic acid; or one ounce of the oil
of turpentine. If the bloody discharge is considerable in quantity apply
cold water to the loins and keep the animal very quiet.
Acute Inflammation of the Kidneys or Acute Nephritis.
The inflammations of the kidneys have been variously divided according
to their varying symptoms and conditions, but for ordinary utility it is
sufficiently extended to divide into AcuTE and CHRONIC.
CausEs. The causes of inflammation of the kidneys are varied and the
congestion may be the result of any of the following :
1. Altered and irritant products passing through the kidneys during
inflammation of other organs, and during fevers. The inflammation
may last during the existence of the cause, or may continue and become
aggravated.
2. The blood-pressure being thrown back on the veins and kidneys as
a result of heart disease.
3. The escape of urine from the kidney being prevented by disease of
the ureter or bladder, thereby causing increased fullness in the pelvis and
tubes of the kidney.
4. When urine is detained in the kidneys from any cause, it becomes
decomposed and produces ammonia and irritants.
5. The advance of bacteria from the bladder to the kidney through
the ureter.
6. The receiving into the body with hay or other fodder acrid or irri-
tating plants, including fungi.
7. The absorption of cantharidine from a surface blistered by Spanish
flies, (cantharides); the reckless giving of diuretics; the presence of cal-
culi (stones) in the kidney; exposure to cold and wet; and blows on the
loins or sprains.
8. Liver disorders which throw on the kidneys the work of excreting
irritating products.
124 THE HORSE.
Symptoms. ‘These are more or less fever; stiffness of the back and
a straddling gait with the hind legs; evident difficulty in lying down and
rising; the animal will sometimes groan with pain if compelled to walk
in a circle; arching of the loins and tucking up of the flanks; looking
back at the belly as if there were colicky pains, and tenderness of
the loins to pinching, especially just beneath the bony process six
inches from the median line, (See manikin for location of kidneys, and
also page 60 the last four lines of Srupy or SYMPTOMS. )
Urine is passed frequently, a small quantity at a time, of a high color,
and sometimes mixed with blood or even pus. Under the microscope it
shows microscopic casts. The legs tend to swell from the foot up, also
the dependent parts beneath the belly, and chest, and effusions of liquid
may occur within the chest or abdomen. In the male animal the alter-
nate drawing up and relaxation of the testicles in the scrotum are sug-
gestive, and in small horses the oiled hand introduced into the rectum
may reach the kidney and ascertain its sensitiveness.
Treatment. This consists in removing any cause that may be recog-
nized. Then, if the suffering and fever are high, two or four quarts of
blood may be abstracted from the jugular vein; in weak subjects unless
in high fever this should be omitted. Next relieve the kidneys as far as
possible by throwing their work on the bowels and skin. A pint of cas-
tor oil is less likely than either aloes or salts to act on the kidneys. Tro
affect the skin a warm stall and heavy clothing may be supplemented
by dram doses of Dover’s powder. (Dover’s Powder consists of sixty
grains ipecac in No. 60 powder, sixty grains powdered opium, four
hundred eighty grains sugar of milk in No. 30 powder). Boiled flaxseed
may be added to the drinking water, and also thrown into the rectum as
an injection, and blankets saturated with hot water should be persistently
applied to the loins. This may be be followed by a very thin pulp of
the best ground mustard made with tepid water, rubbed in against the
direction of the hair, and covered up with paper anda blanket. This
may be kept on for an hour, or until the skin thickens and the hair
stands erect. It may then be rubbed or sponged off and the blanket re-
applied. When the action of the bowels has been started it may be kept
up by a daily dose of two or three ounces of Glauber salts.
During recovery a course of bitter tonics (nux vomica one scruple,
ground gentian root four drams), should be given. The patient should
also be guarded against cold, wet, and any active exertion for some time
after all active symptoms have subsided.
CHAPTER IX.
GALLS AND BRUISES.
Their Effects and How to Avoid Them.
ABSCESSES OR BOILS CAUSED BY CONTUSION, BRUISES AND THEIR
TREATMENT, CHAFING BY THE HARNESS, AND SADDLE OR COLLAR
GALLS, ETC.
ouNDs and bruises often produce inflammation as a result of the
injury of the affected part. If the wound is a puncture of some
joint as the hock, fetlock, or knee, often there is discharged
a thin, whitish or yellowish fluid, called joint-oil, or joint-water.
If it is a bruise it often causes abscesses or the accumulaticn of pus. If
it is caused by a continued rubbing, (chafing) it often leads to sores
that are hard to heal, and even when healed the hair often grows in
white or there is left a calloused condition of the skin.
Abscesses. These consist of accumulations of pus within circum-
scribed walls, at different parts of the body, and may beclassed as acute,
and cold or chronic abscesses.
Acute abscesses follow as the result of local inflammation in glands,
muscular tissue, or even bones. ‘They are very common in the two
former. ‘The abscesses most commonly met with in the horse (and the
ones which will be here described) are those of the salivary glands,
occurring during the existence of “‘strangles’’ or ‘‘colt distemper.*’
The glands behind or under the jaw are seen to slowly increase in size,
becoming firm, hard, hot, and painful: At first the swelling is uni-
formly hard and resisting over its entire surface, but in a little while
126 THE HORSE.
becomes soft (fluctuating) at some portion, mostly in the center. From
this time on the abscess is said to be ‘‘pointing’’ or ‘‘coming to a head,”’
which is shown by a small elevated or projecting prominence, which at
first is dry, but soon becomes moist with transuded serum. The hairs
over this part loosen and fall off, and in a short time the abscess opens,
the contents escape, and the cavity gradually fills up—heals by granu-
lations.
Abscesses in muscular tissue are usually the result of bruises or inju-
ries. In all cases where abscesses are forming we should hurry the
ripening process by frequent hot fomentations and poultices. When
they are very tardy in their development a blister over their surface is
advisable. It isacommon rule with surgeons to open an abscess as
soon as the pus can be plainly felt, but this practice can scarcely be rec-
ommended to owners of stock indiscriminately, since this little operation
frequently requires an exact knowledge of anatomy. It will usually be
found the better plan to encourage the full ripening of an abscess and
allow it to open of itself. This is imperative if the abscess is in the re-
gion of joints, etc. When open, we must not squeeze the walls of the
abscess to any extent. They may be very gently pressed with the fin-
gers at first to remove the clots (inspissated pus) but after this the ori-
fice is simply to be kept open by the introduction of a whalebone probe,
should it be disposed to heal too soon.
If the opening is at too high a level another should be made into the
lowest portion of the abscess. Hot fomentations or poultices are some-
times required for a day or two after an abscess has opened, and are
particularly indicated when the base of the absess is hard and indu-
rated. As a rule, injections into the cavity of abscesses are not in-
dicated, though in cases of serous abscesses (if one may be allowed
such latitude of terms), as cysts of the elbow, knee, etc., astringent in-
jections (sulphate of zinc, fifteen grains to the ounce of water) are
required to cause adhesions of the walls of the cavity and prevent it
from refilling. If abscesses are foul and bad-smelling their cavities
must be syringed with a weak solution of carbolic acid or other an-
tiseptics.
Cold abscess is the term applied to those large, indolent swellings that
are the result of a low or chronic form of inflammation, in the center of
which there is a small collection of pus. These are mostly met with at
the base of the neck and in front of the shoulder joint. The swelling is
diffuse and of enormous extent, but slightly hotter than surrounding
GALLS AND BRUISES. 127
parts, and not very painful upon pressure. There is a pronounced stiff-
ness, rather than pain, evinced upon moving the animal. Such ab-
scesses have the appearance of a hard tumor, surrounded by a softer
cedematous swelling, involving the tissues to the extent of a foot or
more in all directions from the tumor. ‘This diffused swelling gradually
subsides and leaves the large, hardened mass somewhat well defined.
One of the characteristics of cold abscesses is their tendency to remain
in the same condition for a great length of time. There is neither heat
nor soreness; no increase nor lessening in the size of the tumor; it re-
mains statu quo. If, however, the animal should be put to work for a
short time the irritation of the collar causes the surrounding tissues to
again assume an cedematus condition, which, after a few days’ rest, dis-
appear, leaving the tumor as before or but slightly larger. Upon care-
ful manipulation we may discover what appears to be a fluid deep seated
in the center of the mass. The quantity of matter so contained is very
small (often not more than a tablespoonful) and for this reason it can not
in all cases, be detected.
Cold abscesses are mostly, if not always, caused by the long-contin-
ued irritation of a loose and badly fitting collar. There is a slow in-
flammatory action going on, which results in the formation of a small
quantity of matter, inclosed in very thick and but partially organized
walls, that are not as well defined as is the circumference of fibrous tu-
mors, which they most resemble.
Treatment. he means recommended to bring the acute abscess
“to a head’’ are but rarely effectual with this variety; or, if successful,
too much time has been occupied in the cure. We must look for other
and more rapid methods of treatment. These consist in, first of all,
cirefully exploring the tumor for the presence of pus. The incisions
must be made over the softest part, and carried deep into the tumor (to
its very bottom if necessary), and the matter allowed to escape. After
this, and whether we have found matter or not, we must induce an active
inflammation of the tumor in order to promote solution of the thick
walls of the abscess. This may be done by inserting well into the in-
cision a piece of oakum or cotton saturated with turpentine, carbolic
acid, tincture of iodine, etc., or we may pack the incision with powdered
sulphate of zinc and keep the orifice plugged for twenty-four hours.
These agents set up a destructive inflammation of the walls. Suppura-
tion follows, and this should now be encouraged by hot fomentations
and poultices. The orifice must be kept open, and should it be dis-
128 THE HORSE.
posed to heal we must again introduce some of the agents above
described. A favored treatment with many, and it is probably the
best, is to plunge a red-hot iron to the bottom of the incision, and
thoroughly sear all parts of the walls of the abscess. This is to be
repeated after the first slough has taken place, if the walls remain thick-
ened and indurated.
' Itis useless to waste time with fomentations, poultices, or blisters in
the treatment of cold abscesses, since, though apparently removed by
such methods, they almost invariably return again when the horse
is put to work. Extirpation by the knife is not practical, as the
walls of the tumor are not sufficiently defined. If treated as above
directed, and properly fitted with a good collar after healing, there will
not remain any track, trace, or remembrance of the large, unsightly
mass.
Bruises. These are nothing but contused wounds, where the skin
has not been ruptured. There is often considerable solution of continuity
of the parts under the skin, subcutancous hemorrhage, ete., which may
result in local death (mortification) and slough of the bruised part. If
the bruise or contusion is not so severe, very many cases are quickly
cured by constant fomentation with hot water for from two to four
hours. The water should be allowed, about this time, to gradually be-
come cool and then cold. Cold fomentation must then be kept up for
another hour or two. Dry the parts thoroughly and quickly, and bathe
them freely with camphor one ounce, sweet oil eight ounces. <A dry,
light bandage should then be applied, the horse allowed rest, and, if
necessary, the camphorated oil may be repeated for two or three days.
If, however, the wound is so severe that sloughing must ensue, we must
encourage this by poultices made of linseed meal, wheat bran, turnips,
onions, bread and milk, or hops. Charcoal is to be sprinkled over the
surface of the poultice when the wound is bad smelling. After the
slough has fallen off the wound is to be dressed with antiseptic washes
of carbolic acid, chloride or zinc, permanganate of potash, etc.. If
granulating (filling up) too fast, use burnt alum; or aiz-slaked lime.
Besides this local treatment we find that the constitutional symptoms of
fever and inflammation call for measures to prevent or control them.
This is best done by placing the injured animal on soft or green food.
A physic of Barbadoes aloes, one ounce, should be given as soon as por
sible, after the accident. Sedatives, as tincture of aconite root, fifteen
GALLS AND BRUISES. 129
drops every two or three hours, and ounce doses of saltpeter twice or
three times a day, are also to be administered.
When the symptoms of fever are abated, and if the discharges
from the wound are abundant, the strength of our patient must
be supported by good food and tonics. One of the best tonics is as fol-
lows: Powdered sulphate of iron, powdered gentian, and powdered gin-
ger, of each four ounces. Mix thoroughly and give a heaping table-
spoonful twice a day on the feed, or as a drench.
Chafing by the Harness and Saddle or Collar Galls. Wounds
or abrasions of this description are very commonly met with during the
spring plowing, particularly in ‘‘new ground,”’ or from ill-fitting saddles
or collars at any time of the year. Collars too large or too small are
equally productive of this trouble. In the spring of the year, when the
horse has been unused to steady work for some months, the skin is
tender and easily abraded. The horse, from being wintered on a scanty
allowance of grain, is soft, sweats easily; and if the collar and shoulders
are not properly attended to, chafing of the skin is almost sure to fol-
low. The harness should be repaired, cleaned, and oiled before using,
and the collar in particular should be thoroughly cleansed after every
days’ use. The shoulders are to be frequently washed with cold water,
and afterward bathed with white-oak bark tea, alcohol, or other
astringents. Should ill-feeling or badly made harness or saddles gall
a horse, they must be refitted at once, or laid aside for other and
better ones.
Treatment. The remedy for such abrasions is simple and effective
if the cause be removed without delay. The parts must be thoroughly
bathed in soapy water, allowing the lather to remain on the abraded
surface. There are many remedies for harness galls. Among them
may be mentioned alcohol, one pint, in which are well shaken the whites
of two.eggs, a solution of nitrate of silver, ten grains to the ounce of
water; sugar of lead or sulphate of zinc, twenty grains to an ounce of
water; carbolic acid, one part in fifteen parts of glycerine, and so on
almost without end. Any simple astringent wash or powder will
effect a cure provided the sores are not irritated by friction. If the
animal must continue his work the harness must be padded or
chambered.
Lacerated and Contused Wounds. These may be described
together, although there is of course this difference, that in contused
wounds there is no break or laceration of the skin. Lacerated wounds,
130 THE HORSE.
however, are as a rule also contused; the surrounding tissues to a greater
or lesser extent. While such wounds may not appear at first sight to
be lacerations and contusions, when extensive, are always to be re-
garded as dangerous. Many horses die from septic infection or mor-
tification as a result of these injuries. We find in severe contu-
sions an infiltration of blood into the surrounding tissues; disorgan-
ization and mortification follow, and involve often the deeper-seated
structures,
In wounds that are lacerated the amount of hemorrhage is mostly
inconsiderable; even very large blood vessels are thus torn apart without
inducing a fatal result. The edges of the wound are ragged and uneven.
These wounds are produced by some blunt object, as where a horse runs
against fences, board piles, the corners of buildings, or where he is
struck by the pole or shafts of another team, falling on rough, irregular
stones, etc.
Treatment. In Jacerated wounds great care must at first be exer-
cised in examining or probing to the very bottom of the rent or tear to
see if any foreign body be present. Very often splinters of wood or bits
of stone or dirt are thus lodged, and unless removed prevent the wound
from healing; or if it should heal the wound soon opens again, discharg-
ing a thin, gluey matter that is characteristic of the presence of some
object in the parts. After a thorough exploration these wounds are to
be carefully and patiently fomented with warm water to which has
been added carbolic acid in the proportion of one part to one hundred
of water. Rarely, if ever, are stitches to be inserted in lacerated wounds.
The surrounding tissues and skin are so weakened in vitality and
structure by the contusion that stitches will not hold; they only
irritate the parts. It is better to endeavor to secure coadaptation by
means of bandages, plasters, or collodion. One essential in the treat-
ment of lacerated wounds is to secure a free exit for the pus. If
the orifice of the wound is too high, or if the pus is found to be
burrowing in the tissues beneath the opening, we must then make a
counter opening as low as possible. This will admit of the wound being
thoroughly washed out, at first with warm water, and afterwards in-
jected with some mild astringent and antiseptic wash, as chloride af
zinc, one dram to a pint of water. A depending opening must be main-
tained until the wound ceases to discharge. Repeated hot fomentations
over the region of lacerated wounds afford much relief and should be
persisted in.
CHAPTER X.
GENERAL DISEASES.
Their Causes, Symptoms and Treatment.
INFLUENZA, PINK-EYE OR EPIZOOTY, STRANGLES, DISTEMPER OR
CATARRHAL FEVER, PLEURO-PNEUMONIA, HORSH-POX, AND RABIES.
MONG the diseases to which horse flesh is heir, there are a few
that may be better classed as general diseases than as diseases of
any set of organs. While their symptoms show that one set of
organs may be more affected by the diseases than another it has
been the custom among veterinarian writers to class them as general
diseases. Among these may be mentioned inflammations that are gen-
eral in their attacks, and a few of our contagious diseases. If the in-
flammation is confined to one class or organs or one organ of the class it
has been described under its proper head.
Influenza, Pink-Eye, or Epizooty. This is a contagious and
infectious specific fever of the horse, ass, and mule, with alterations of
the blood, stupefaction of the brain and nervous system, great depres-
sion of the vital forces and frequent inflammatory complications of the
important vascular organs, especially of the lungs, intestines, brain, and
lamine of the feet. One attack usually protects the animal from future
ones of the same disease, but not always. An apparent complete recov-
ery is sometimes followed by serious sequelz of the nervous and blood-
vessel systems. The disease is very apt, under certain conditions of the
atmosphere or from unknown causes, to assume an epizootic form, with
tendency to complications of especial organs, as, at one period the lungs,
at another the intestines, etc.
132 THE HORSE.
In 1766 it first attacked the horses in North America, but is not des-
cribed as again occurring in a severe form until 1870-1872, when it
spread over the entire country, from Canada south to Ohio, and then
eastward to the Atlantic and westward to California. <t is now a per-
manent disease in our large cities, selecting for the continuance of its
virulence young or especially susceptible horses which pass through
the large and ill-ventilated and uncleaned dealers’ stables and assumes,
from time to time an enzootic form, as from some reason its viru-
lence increases, or as from reasons of rural economy and commerce
large numbers of young and more susceptible animals are exposed to its
contagion.
As one attack is self-protective, numbers of old horses, having had an
earlier attack, are not capable of contracting it again; but, aside from
this, young horses, especially those about four or five years of age, are
much more predisposed to be attacked, while the older ones, even if
they have not had the disease, are less liable to it. Again, the former
age is thatin which the horse is brought from the farm where it has
been free from the risk of contamination, and is sold to pass through
the stables of the country taverns, the dirty, infected railway cars, and
the foul stockyards and damp dealers’ stables of our large cities.
Want of training is a predisposing cause. O.erfed, fat young horses,
which have just come through the sales’ stables, are much more sus-
ceptible to contagion than the same horses are after a few months of
steady work.
The atmosphere is the most common carrier of the infection from sick
animals to healthy ones, and through it it may be carried for a consider-
able distance. The contagion will remain in the straw bedding and
droppings of the animal, and in the feed in an infected stable, for a con-
siderable time, and if these are removed to other localities it may be
carried in them. It may be carried in the clothing of those who have
been in attendance on horses suffering from the disease. The drinking
water in troughs and even running water may hold the virus and be a
means of its communication to other animals even at a distance. Brick
walls, old woodwork, and the dirt which is too frequently left about the
feed boxes of a horse stall, will all hold the contagion for some days, if
not weeks, and communicate it to susceptible animals when placed in
the same locality
Terminations. The termination of simple influenza may be death
by extreme fever, with failure of the hearts’ action; from excessive
GENERAL DISEASES. 133
coma, due generally to a rapid congestion of the brain; to the poisonous
effects of the debris of the disintegrated blood corpuscles; to an asphyxia,
following congestion of the lungs; or the disease terminates by subsi-
dence of the fever, return of the appetite and nutritive functions of the
organs, and rapid convalescence; or, in an unfortunately large number
of cases, the course of the disease is complicated by local inflammatory
troubles, whose gravity is greater in influenza than it is when they oc-
cur as sporadic diseases.
Symptoms. After the exposure of a susceptible horse to infection
a period of incubation of from five to seven days elapses, during which
the animal seems in perfect health, before any symptom is visible.
When the symptoms of influenza develop they may be intense or they
may be so moderate as to occasion but little alarm, but the latter con-
dition frequently exposes the animal to use and to the danger of the ex-
citing causes of complications which would not have happened had the
animal been left quietly in its stall in place of being worked. The dis-
ease may run its simple course as a specific fever, with alterations of the
blood, or it may become at any period complicated by local inflammatory
troubles, the gravity of which is augmented by developing in an animal
with an impoverished blood and already irritated and rapid circulation
and defective nutritive and reparative functions.
The first symptoms are those of a rapidly developing fever, which
becomes intense within a very short period. ‘The animal becomes de-
jected and inattentive to surrounding objects; stands with its head down
and not back on the halter as in serious lung diseases. It has chills of
the flanks, the muscles of the croup, and the muscles of the shoulders,
or of the entire body, lasting from fifteen to thirty minutes, and fre-
quently a grinding of the teeth which warns one that a severe attack
may be expected. The hairs become dry and rough and stand on end.
The body temperature increases to 104°, 104%°, and 105°F., or even
in severe cases to 107°F., within the first twelve or eighteen hours.
The horse becomes stupid, stands immobile with its head hanging, the
ears listless, and it pays but little attention to the surounding attendants
or the crack of a whip. The stupor becomes rapidly more marked, the
eyes become puffy and swollen with excessive lacrymation, so that the
tears run from the internal canthus of the eye over the cheek and may
blister the skin in its course. The respiration becomes accelerated to
twenty-five or thirty in a minute, and the pulse is quickened to seventy,
eighty, or even one hundred, moderate in volume and in force. There is
134 THE HORSE.
great depression of musctlar force; the animal stands limp as if excess-
ively fatigued. There is diminution, or in some cases total loss, of
sensibility of the skin, so that it may be pricked or handled without
attracting the attention of the animal. On movement, the horse stag-
gers and shows a want of coordination of all of the muscles of its limbs.
The senses of hearing, sight, and taste are diminished, if not entirely
abolished. The visible mucous membranes (as the conjunctiva), from
which it is known as the ‘‘pink eye,’’ and the mouth and the natural
opening become of a deep saffron, ocher, or violet-red color. This latter
is especially noticeable on the rims of the gums and is a condition not
found in any other disease, so that it is an almost diagnostic symptonn.
If the animal is bled at this period the blood is found more coaguable
than normal, but at a later period it becomes of a dark color and less
coaguable. There is great diminution or total loss of appetite with an
excessive thirst, but in many cases in cold-blooded horses the animal
may retain a certain amount of appetite, eating slowly at its hay, oats,
or other feed.
Complication of the Lungs. If at any time during the course
of the fever the animal is exposed to cold or draughts of air, or in any
other way to the causes of repercussion, the lungs may be affected. In
the majority of cases; however, after three, four, or five days of the
fever, the congestion of the lungs commences without any exposure or
apparent exciting cause. This is due to the alteration of the blood,
which allows a more easy osmosis of the blood into the surrounding tis-
sues and to the checking of the capillary blood vessels, produced by the
increased rapidity and force of the circulation. Unless this congestion
of the lungs is relieved at once it is followed by an inflammatory product,
a fibrinous pneumonia. The pneumonia, while it is in its essence the
same, differs from an ordinary pneumonia at the commencement by an
insidious course. The animal commences to breath heavily, which be-
comes distinctly visible in the heaving of the flanks, the dilation of the
nostrils, and frequently in the swaying movement of the unsteady body.
The respirations increase in number, what little appetite remained is lost,
the temperature increases one to two degrees, the pulse becomes more
rapid, and at times, for a short period, more tense and full, but
the previous poisoning of the specific disease has so weakened the tis-
sues that it never becomes the characteristic full, tense pulse of a simple
pneumonia.
On percussion of the chest dullness is found over the inflamed areas;
GENERAL DISEASES. 135
on ausculation at the back of the neck over the trachea a tubular mur-
mur is heard. ‘The crepitant rales and tubular murmurs of pneumonia
are heard on the sides of the chest if the pneumonia is peripheral, but
in pneumonia complicating influenza the inflamed portions are frequently
disseminated in islands of variable size and are sometimes deep seated,
in which case the characteristic auscultory symptoms are sometimes
wanting. From this time on the symptoms of the animal are those of
an ordinary grave pneumonia, rendered more severe by occurring in a
debilitated animal. After resolution, however, and absorption into the
lungs convalescence is rapid, and recovery takes place perhaps more
quickly than it does in the simple form of the disease. There isa cough,
at first hacky and aborted, later more full and moist, when we have a
discharge from the nostrils which is muco purulent, purulent, or hem-
orrhagic.
As in simple pneumonia, this discharge may be ‘‘rusty,’’ due to cap-
illary hemorrhages. We find that the blood is thoroughly mixed with
the matter, staining it evenly instead of being mixed with it in the
form of clots. At the recommencement of the complication the animal
may be subject to chills, which may again occur in the course of
the disease, in which case, if severe, an unfavorable termination
by gangrene may be looked for. If gangrene occurs, ushered in
by severe chills, a rapid elevation of temperature, a tumultuous
heart, a flaky discharge from the nostrils, and a fetid breath, the
symptoms are identical with those which occur in gangrene complicating
other diseases.
Complication of the Brain. At any time during the course of
the disease, at an early period if the fever has been intense from the out-
set, but more frequently after three or four days in ordinary cases, a
congestion of the brain may occur. The animal, which has been stupid
and immobile, becomes suddenly restless, walks forward in the stall
until it fastens its head in the corner. If in a box stall and it becomes
displaced from its position, it follows the wall with the nose and eyes,
rubbing against it until it reaches the corner and again fastens itself.
It may become more violent and rear and plunge. If disturbed by the
entrance of the attendant or any loud noise or bright light, it will stamp
with its fore-feet and strike with its hind-feet, but is not definite in fix-
ing the object which it is resisting, which is a diagnostic point between
meningitis and rabies, and which renders the animal with the former
disease less dangerous to handle. If fastened by a rope to a stake or
136 THE HORSE.
post the animal will wander ina circle at the end of the rope. It wan-
ders almost invariably in one direction, either from the right to left or
from left to right in different cases, which is dependent upon a greater
congestion of one side of the brain than the other. The pupils may be
dilated or contracted, or we may find one condition in one eye and the
opposite in the other.
The period of excitement is followed by one of profound coma, in
which the animal is immobile, the head hanging and placed against the
corner of the stall, the body limp, and the motion, if demanded of the
animal, unsteady. Little or no attention will be paid to the surrounding
noises, the crack of the whip, or even a blow on the surface of the body.
The respiration becomes slower, the pulsations are diminished, the coma
lasts for variable time, to be followed by excesses of violence, after
which the two alternate, but if severe the period of coma becomes longer
and longer until the animal dies of spasms of the lungs or of heart
failure. It may die from injuries which occur in the ungovernable at-
tacks of violence.
Treatment. While the appetite remains the patient should have a
moderate quantity of sound hay, good oats and bran; or even a little
fresh clover, if obtainable, can be given in small quantities. With the
first decided symptoms of fever the antipyretics are indicated, of which
we have a variable choice. Bleeding in this disease is a questionable
treatment, and is only to be employed at the very outset of the disease.
In large, strong horses of a sanguinary temperament an abstraction of a
few quarts of blood will frequently diminish the stupefaction, lower the
temperature, slow the pulse and respiration and, render the course of the
disease shorter by twelve or twenty-four hours. In some cases, how-
ever, bleeding seems to increase the amount of depression, and it should
never be used after the deep ocher color of the mucous membranes show
that an extensive disintegration of the blood corpuscles has taken place.
Derivatives, in the form of essential oils and mustard poultices, baths of
alcohol, turpentine and hot water, after which the animal must be im-
mediately dried and blanketed, serve to wake the animal up from the
stupor and relieve the congestion of the internal organs.
This treatment is especially idicated when complication by congestion
of the lungs, intestines, or of the brain is threatened. Quinine and sali-
cylic acid in dram doses will lower the temperature, but too continuous
use of quinine in some cases increases the after depression. Aconite is
especially indicated, as in addition to its action on the circulation it seems
GENERAL DISEASES. 137
to be almost a specific in certain cases in relieving the congestion of the
brain and the nervous symptoms produced by the latter. Iodide of pot-
ash reduces the excessive nutrition of the congested organs and thereby
reduces the temperature; again, this drug in moderate quantities is a
stimulant to the digestive tract and acts as a diuretic, causing the elimi-
nation of waste matter by the kidneys. Antimony, in guarded doses of
one-half dram to one dram, repeated not more than two or three times,
will reduce excessive fever, and can be used with special advantage at
the first appearance of complications, but it must be used with care, as
it is an irritant to the digestive tract and may produce an intestinal com-
plication, causing a severe diarrhea. Small doses of Glauber salts and
bicarbonate of soda, used from the outset, stimulate the digestive tract
and prevent constipation and its evil results.
In cases of severe depression and weakness of the heart, digitalis can
be used with advantage. At the end of the fever, and when convales-
cence is established, alcohol in one-half pint doses and good ale in pint
doses may be given as stimulants, to these may be added dram doses of
turpentine.
In complication of the intestines camphor and asafetida are most fre-
quently used to relieve the pain cavsing the colics; diarrhea is also re-
lieved by the use of bicarbonate of soda, nitrate of potash, and drinks
made from boiled rice or starch, to which may be added small doses of
laudanum.
In complication of the lungs iodide of potash and digitalis are most
frequently indicated, in addition to the remedies used for the disease
itself.
Founder occurring as a complication of fever is difficult to treat. It
is, unfortunately, frequently not recognized until inflammatory changes
have gone on for some days. If recognized at once, local bleeding and
the use of hot or cold water, as the condition of the animal will permit,
are most useful, but in the majority of cases the stupefied animal is un-
able to be moved satisfactorily or to have one foot lifted for local treat-
ment, and the only treatment consists in local bleeding above the cor-
onary bands and the application of poultices.
For congestion of the brain large does of aconite and small repeated
doses of mercury form the ordinary mode of treatment. During con-
valescence small doses of alkalines may be kept up for some little time,
but the greatest care must be used, while furnishing the animal with
plenty of nutritious, easily digested food, not to overload the intestinal
138 THE HORSE.
tract, causing constipation and consecutive diarrhea. Special care must
be taken for some weeks not to expose the animal to cold.
Strangles, Distemper or Catarrhal Fever. This is an infectious
disease seen most frequently in young animals, and usually leaving an ani-
mal which has one attack protected from future trouble of the same kind.
It appears as a fever, lasting for a few days, with formation of matter or
pus in the air tubes and lungs, and frequently the formation of abscesses
in various parts of the body, both near the surface and in the internal
organs. It usually leaves the animal after convalescence perfectly
healthy and as good as it was before, but sometimes leaves it a roarer, or
is followed by the development of deep-seated abscesses which may
prove fatal.
Causes. The cause of strangles is infection by direct contact with
an animal suffering from the disease, or indirectly through contact with
the discharges from an infected animal, or by means of the atmosphere
in which an infected animal has been. ‘There are many predisposing
causes which render some animals much more subject to contract the
disease than others. Early age, which has given it the popular name of
colt-ill, offers many more subjects than the later periods of life do, for
the animal can contract the disease but once, and the large majority of
adult aud old animals have derived an immunity from previous at-
tacks. At three, four, or five years of age the colt, which has been at
home, safe on a meadow or a cozy barnyard, far from all intercourse with
other animals or sources of contagion, is first put to work and driven to
the market town or county fairs to be exposed to an atmosphere or to
stables contaminated by other horses suffering from disease and serving
as infecting agents. If it fails to contract it there, it is sold and shipped
in foul, undisinfected railway cars, to dealers’ stables, equally unclean,
where it meets many opportunities of infection, If it escapes so far, it
reaches the time for heavier work and daily contact on the streets of
towns or large cities, with numerous other horses and mules, some of
which are sure to be the bearers of the germs of this or some other infec-
tious disease, and at last it succumbs.
The period of the eruption of the last permanent teeth, or the end of
the period of development from the colt to an adult horse, at which time
the animals usually have a tendency to fatten and be excessively full-
blooded, also seems to be a predisposing period for the contraction of this
as well as of the other infectious diseases. Thoroughbred colts are very
susceptible, and frequently contract strangles at a somewhat earlier age
GENERAL DISEASES. 139
than those of more humble origin. Mules and asses are much less sus-
ceptible and are but rarely affected. Other animals are not subject to
this disease, but there is a certain analogy between it and distemper in
dogs. After exposure to infection there is a period of incubation of the
disease, lasting from two to four days, during which the animal enjoys
its ordinary health.
Symptoms. The horse at first is a little sluggish if used, or when
placed in its stable, is somewhat dejected, paying but moderate atten-
tion to the various disturbing surroundings. Its appetite is somewhat
diminished in inany cases, while in some cases the animal eats well
throughout. Thirst is increased, but not a great deal of water is taken
at one time. Ifa bucket of water is placed in the manger, before the
patient, it will dip its nose into it and swallow a few mouthfuls, allow-
ing some of it to drip back, and then stop, to return to it in a short time.
The coat becomes dry and the hairs stand on end. At times the horse
will have chills of one or the other leg, the fore-quarters or hind-quarters,
or in severe cases of the whole body, with trembling of the muscles, dry-
ness of the skin, and its hairs standing on end.
If the eyes and mouth are examined the membranes are found red-
dened to a bright rosy color. The pulse is quickened and the breathing
may be slightly accelerated. At the end of a couple of days a cough is
heard and a discharge begins to come from the nostrils. This discharge
is at first watery; it then becomes thicker, somewhat bluish in color, and
sticky, and finally it assumes the yellowish color of matter and increases
greatly in quantity.
At the outset the colt may sneeze occasionally and a cough is heard.
The cough is at first repeated and harsh, but soon becomes softer and
moist as the discharge increases. Again the cough varies according to
the source of the discharge, for in light cases this may be only a catarrh
of the nasal canals, or it may be from the throat, the windpipe, or the
air-tubes of the lungs, or even from the lungs themselves. According
to the organ affected the symptoms and character of cough will be
similar to those of a laryngitis, bronchitis, or lung fever caused by
ordinary cold.
Shortly after the discharge is seen a swelling takes place under the
jaw, or in the intermaxillary space. This is at first puffy, swollen,
somewhat hot and tender, and finally becomes distinctly so, and an ab-
scess is felt, or having broken itself the discharge is seen dripping from
asmall opening. When the discharge from the nostils has fully devel-
140 THE HORSE.
oped the fever usually disappears and the animal regains its appetite,
unless the swelling is sufficient to interfere with the function of the
throat, causing pain on any attempt to swallow. At the end of four or
six days the discharge lessens, the soreness around the throat dimin-
ishes, the horse regains its appetite, and in two weeks has regained its
usual condition.
Old and strong horses may have the disease in so light a form that the
fever is not noticeable; they may continue to eat and perform their or-
dinary work as usual and no symptom may be seen beyond a slight dis-
charge from the nose and a rare cough, which is not sufficient to worry
any but the most particular owner. But, on the other hand, the disease
may assume a malignant form or become complicated so as to become a
most serious disease, and even prove fatal in many cases. Inflammation
of the larynx and bronchi, if excessive, will produce violent, harsh
coughing, which may almost asphyxiate the animal. The large amount
of discharge may be mixed with air by the difficult breathing, and the
nostrils, the front of the animal, manger and surrounding objects be-
come covered with a white foam. The inflammation may bein the lung
itself (lobular pneumonia) and cause the animal to breathe heavily,
heave at the flanks, and show great distress. In this condition
marked symptoms of fever are seen; the appetite is lost, the coat is dry,
the horse stands back in his stall at the end of the halter strap with his
neck extended and his legs propped apart to favor its breathing.
This condition may end by resolution, leaving the horse for some time
with a severe cough, or the animal may die from choking up of the
lunge (asphyxia).
The swelling under the jaw may be excessive, and if the abscess is
not opened it burrows toward the throat or to the side and causes
inflammation of the parotid glands and breaks in annoying fistu-
las at the sides of the throat and even up as high as the ears.
Roaring may occur either during a moderately severe attack from
inflammation of the throat (larynx), or at a later period as the re-
sult of continued lung trouble. Abscesses may develop in other parts
of the body, in the poll, in the withers, or in the spaces of loose tissue
under the arms, in the fold of the thigh, and, in entire horses, in the
testacles.
During the course of the disease or later, when the animal
seems to be on the road to perfect recovery, abscesses may form in the
GENERAL DISEASES. 141
internal organs and produce symptonis characteristic of disease of those
parts.
Delirium. Roaring, plunging, wandering in a circle, or standing
with the head wedged in the corner of the stall, indicates the collection
of matter in the brain. Sudden and severe lung symptoms, without
previous discharge, point to an abscess between the lungs, in the medi-
astinum; colic, which is often continuous for days, is the result of the
formation of an abscess in some part of the abdominal cavity, usually
in the mesentery.
Pathology. The lesions of strangles are found on the surface of
the mucovs membranes, essentially of the respiratory system and in
the loose connective tissue fibers of the internal organs and glands, and
consist of acute inflammatory changes, tending to the formation
of matter. The blood is unaltered, though it is rich in fibrine,
and if the animal has died of asphyxia it is found dark colored and un-
coagulated when the body is first opened. If the animal has died while
suffering from high fever the ordinary alterations throughout the body,
which are produced by any fever not attended by alteration of blood,
are found.
Treatment. Ordinary light cases require but little treatment be-
yond diet, warm mashes, moistened hay, warm coverings, and protec-
tion from exposure to cold. The latter is urgently called for, as lung
complications, severe bronchitis, and laryngitis are often the results of
neglect of this precaution. If the fever is excessive the horse may re-
ceive small quantities of Glauber salts (handful three times a day), as
a laxative, bicarbonate of soda or niter in dram doses every few hours,
and small doses of antimony, iodide of potash, aconite, or quinine.
Steaming the head with the vapor of warm water poured over a bucket
of bran and hay, in which belladonna leaves and tar have been placed,
will allay the inflammation of the mucous membranes and greatly ease
the cough.
The swelling of the glands should be promptly treated by bathing
with warm water and flaxseed poultices, and as soon as there is any
evidence of the formation of matter it should be opened. Prompt
action in this will often save serious complications. Blisters and irri-
tating liniments should not be applied to the throat. When lung com-
plications show themselves the horse should have mustard applied
to the belly and to the sides of the chest. When convalescence be-
gins great care must be taken not to expose the animal to cold,
142 THE HORSE.
which may bring on relapses, and while exercise is of great advantage it
must not be turned into work until the animal has entirely regained its
strength.
Anthrax. This is a severe and usually fatal contagious disease
chracterized by chills, great depression and stupor of the animal, and a
profound alteration of the blood, due to destruction of the red blood cor-
puscles. It is caused by the admission into the animal body of bacteria,
or low order of living organisms, or their spores, known as the
“bacillus of Davaine’”’ or ‘bacillus anthracis.’’
It affects all animals exposed to its contagion. ‘The herbivora are
especially susceptible in the following order: the sheep, the ox, and the
horse. The Guinea pig, the hog, the rabbit, mice and other animals
die quickly from its effects. Man, the dog, and other omnivora and
carnivora may be attacked by it in a constitutional form as fatal as in the
herbivora, but fortunately, in some cases, develop from it only local
trouble, followed by recovery.
The direct cause of anthrax is always contagion or infection of a pre-
viously sound animal, either directly from a diseased animal or through
various media which contain excretions or the debris from the body of a
previously infected animal.
Outbreaks often occur at the time of the first rains after a dry season.
During the latter the earthworm goes deep in the ground in search of
moisture; it finds the spore which has been washed there in past
years, swallows it, and brings it to the surface, when the rain furnishes
the moisture which drives the worm itself from its deeper home. The
virus is carried with the wool from infected sheep and remains in it
through the process of manufacture into cloth. The spores remain in
the hides of animals which have died of anthrax and retain their vitality
throughout months of soaking in the tanners’ pits, the working of the
harness-maker or the cobbler and after the oiling of the completed
leather. The dried spores in the dust from any of these products may
be carried by the atmosphere.
Symptoms. The symptoms of anthrax develop with extreme rapid-
ity; they are frequently so sudden that it appears but a few minutes for
the animals to have passed from a condition of perfect health to a dan-
gerously diseased one. The horse is dejected and falls into a state of
profound stupor, attended by great muscular weakness. The feeble,
indolent animal, if forced to move, drags its legs. There are severe
chills, agitation of the muscles, symptoms of vertigo, and at times col-
GENERAL DISEASES. 143
icky pains. The mucous membranes turn a deep ochre or bluish-red
color. ‘Ihe body temperature is rapidly elevated to 104° and 105° F.
‘Yhe breathing is increased to thirty or forty respirations in the minute
and the pulse is greatly accelerated, but the arteries are soft and almost
imperceptible, while the heart-beats can be felt and heard, violent and
tumultuous. In other words, it resembles a very severe case of influ-
enza, except in regard to the heart’s action. The symptoms last but
two, three, or four days, at most, when the case usually terminates
fatally. An examination of the blood shows a dark fluid which is not
clot, and which remains black after exposure to the air. After death
the bodies putrify rapidly and bloat up; the tissues are filled with gases
and a bloody foam exudes from the mouth, nostrils, and anus, and fre-
quently the mucous membranes of the rectum protrude from the latter.
The hairs detach from the skin. Congestion of all the organs and tis-
sues is found, with interstitial hemorrhages. The muscles are friable
and are covered with ecchymotic spots. This is specially marked in
the heart.
The black, uncoagulated and incoaguable blood shows an iridescert
scum on its surface, which is due to the fat of the animal dissolved by
the ammonia, produced by the decomposed tissues. The serum oozes
out of every tissue and contains broken-down blood, which, when ex-
amined microscopically, is found to have the red globules crenated and
the leucocytes granular. A high power of the microscope also reveals
the bacteria in the shape of little rod-like bodies of homogeneous texture
with their brilliant spores.
The lymphatic ganglia are increased four, five, six, or ten times their
natural size, enlarged by the engorgement of blood. The spleen shows
nodulated black spots containing a muddy blood, which is found teem-
ing with the virus. The mucous membranes of the intestines are con-
gested and brown; the surface of the intestines is in many places de-
nuded of its lining membrane, showing fissures and hemorrhagic spots.
The liver has a cooked appearance; the kidneys are congested and fria-
ble; the urine is red; the pleura, lungs, and the meninges are congested
and the bronchi of the lungs contain a bloody foam.
‘The symptoms are those which are found in any disease witha rapidly
decomposing blood.
Treatment The treatment of anthrax was entirely useless and in-
effectual until within a comparatively few years. The curative treat-
ment, for which almost every drug in the pharmacopceia has been used,
144 THE HORSE.
was without avail, except, perhaps, the use of iodine, injected in the
circulation in as large quantities as could be tolerated by the system.
This treatment gives good results in the human being, but requires too
much personal attention to be economical in animals when the disease
occurs in epidemic form, although it may be used in the horse when oc-
curring in an animal of great value.
The prophylactic treatment formerly consisted in the avoidance of
certain fields and marshes which were recognized as contaminated dur-
ing the months of August and September and had been occupied the
years in which the outbreaks usually occurred. It underwent, however,
a revolution after the discovery by Pasteur of the possibility of a pro-
phylactic inocculation which granted immunity from future attacks of
the disease equal to that granted by the recovery of an animal from an
ordinary attack of the disease.
This treatment consists in an artificial cultivation of the virus of an-
thrax in broths, jellies, or other media, and in the treatment of it by
means of continued exposure to the atmosphere or to a high temperature
for a certain length of time, which weakens the virus to such an extent
that it is only capable of producing an ephemeral fever in the animal in
which it is inoculated, and which yet has retained a sufficient amount of
its power to protect the animal from inoculation of a stronger virus. The
production of this virus, which is carried on in some countries at the
expense of the government and is furnished at a small cost to the farm-
ers in regions where the disease prevails, in this country is made only in
private laboratories.
Inflammation with Pustules. This is often wrongly named
“farcy buds.’’ In this affection the individual elevations on the in-
flamed skin show in the center a small sac of white, creamy pus,
in place of the clear liquid of a blister. They vary in size from a
millet seed to a hazel nut. The pustules of glanders (farcy buds)
are to be distinguished by the watery contents and the cord-like
swelling, extending from the pustules along the line of the veins,
and those of boils by the inflammation and sloughing out of a core
of the true skin. The hair on the pustule stands erect, and is often
shed with the scab which results. When itching is severe the parts
become excoriated by rubbing, and, as in the other forms of skin
disease, the character of the eruption may become indistinct. Old
horses suffer mainly at the root of the mane and tail, and about the
GENERAL, DISEASES. 145
heels, and suckling foals around the mouth, on the face, inside the
thighs, and under the tail.
Pustules like eczema are especially liable to result from unwholesome
food and indigestion, from a sudden change of food, above all from dry
to green food. In foals it may result from overheating of the mare and
allowing the first milk after she returns, or by milk rendered unwhole-
some by faulty feeding of the dam. If a foal is brought up by hand
the scouring and decompositions in the milk derange the digestion
and cause such eruption. Vetches and other plants affected with honey-
dew and buckwheat have been the cause of these eruptions on white
portions of the skin. Disorders of the kidneys or liver are common
causes of this affection.
Treatment. Apply soothing ointments, such as benzoated oxide of
zinc, or vaseline with one dram oxide of zinc in each ounce. Ora wash
of one dram sugar of lead or two drams hyposulphite of soda in a
quart of water may be freely applied. If the skin is already abraded
and scabby, smear thickly with vaseline for some hours, then wash
with soapsuds and apply the above dressings. When the excoria-
tions are indolent they may be painted with a solution of lunar caus-
tic, two grains to one ounce of distilled water. Internally counteract
costiveness and remove intestinal irritants by the same means as in
eczema, and follow this with one-half ounce doses daily of hyposul-
phite of soda, and one-half ounce doses of gentian. Inveterate cases
may often be benefited by a course of sulphur, bisulphite of soda,
or arsenic. In all the greatest care must be taken with regard to
food, feeding, watering, cleanliness, and work. In wet and cold sea-
sons predisposed animals should, as far as possible, be protected from
wet, mud, snow, and melted snow, above all from that which has been
melted by salt.
Fever. This isa general condition of the animal body in which
there is an elevation of the animal body temperature, which may be only
a degree or two or may be 10° F. The elevation of the body tempera-
ture, which represents tissue change or combustion, is accompanied by
an acceleration of the heart’s action, a quickening of the respiration, and
an aberration in the functional activity of the various organs of the
body. These organs may be stimulated to the performance of excessive
work, or they may be incapacitated from carrying out their allotted
tasks, or in the course of a fever the two conditions may both exist, the
146 THE HORSE.
one succeeding the other. ‘To fever as a disease is usually added chills
as an essential symptom.
Whether the cause of the fever has been an injury to the tissues,
as a severe bruise, a broken bone, an inflamed lung, or excessive
work which has surcharged the blood with the waste products of
the combustion of the tissues, which were destroyed by produce force;
or the pullulation of the ferments of influenza in the blood which
destroy the red blood corpuscles; or the presence of irritating mate-
rial, either in the form of living organisms or of their products,
as in glanders or tuberculosis, the general train of symptoms are the
same, only varying as the amount of the irritant differs in quantity, or
when some special quality in them has the specific action on one or an-
other tissue.
There is in fever at first a relaxation of the small blood ves-
sels, which may have been preceded by a contraction of the same
if there was a chill, and as a consequence there is an acceleration
of the current of the blood. There is then an elevation of the per-
ipheral temperature, followed by a lowering of tension in the ar-
teries and an acceleration in the movement of the heart. These con-
ditions may be produced by a primary irritation cf the nerve centers,
or the brain from the effects of heat, as is seen in thermic fever or
sunstroke, in which trouble the extremes of symptoms may some-
times be seen alternating with a very short period, to be counted scarcely
by hours.
There are times when it is difficult to distinguish between the exist-
ence of fever as a disease and a temporary feverish condition which is
the result of excessive work. Like the condition of congestion of the
lungs, which is normal up to a certain degree in the lungs of a race
horse after a severe race, and morbid when it produces more than
temporary phenomena or when it causes distinct lesions, fever, or as
it is better termed a feverish condition, may follow any work or other
employment of energy in which excessive tissue change has taken
place, but if the consequences are ephemeral, and no recognizable lesion
is apparent, it is not considered morbid. This condition, however, may
predispose to severe organic disturbance and local inflammations which
will cause disease, as an animal in this condition is liable to take
cold, develop a lung fever or a severe enteritis, if chilled or other-
wise exposed.
Fever in all animals is characterized by the same general phenomena,
GENERAL DISEASES. 147
but we find the intensity of the symptoms modified by the species of
animals affected, by the races which subdivide the species, by the fami-
lies which form groups of the races, and by certain conditions in indi-
viduals themselves. For example, a pricked foot in a thoroughbred
may cause intense fever, while the same injury in the foot of a Clydes-
dale may scarcely cause a visible general symptom. In the horse, fever
produces the following symptoms:
The normal body temperature is elevated from one to nine degrees.
A temperature of 102° or 103° F. is moderate, 104° to 104° F. is high,
and 105° F. and over is excessive.
This elevation of temperature can readily be felt by the hand placed
in the mouth of the animal, or in the rectum, and in the folds between
the hind legs; it is usually appreciable at any point over the surface of
the body and in the expired air emitted from the nostrils. ‘The ears
and cannons are often as hot as the rest of the body, but are sometimes
cold, which denotes a debility in the circulation. The pulse, which in
a healthy horse is felt beating about forty-two to forty-eight times in
the minute, is increased to sixty, seventy, ninety, or even one hundred.
The respirations are increased from fourteen or sixteen to twenty-four,
thirty, thirty-six, or even more. With the commencement of a fever
the horse usually has its appetite diminished, or it may have total loss
of appetite, if the fever is excessive. There is, however, a vast differ-
ence among horses in this regard. With the same amount of elevation
of temperature one horse may lose its appetite entirely, while others,
usually of the more common sort, will eat at hay throughout the course
of the fever and will even continue to eat oats and other grains. ‘Thirst
is usually increased, but the animal desires only a small quantity of
water at a time, and in most cases of fever a bucket of water with the
chill taken off should be kept standing before the patient, who may be
allowed it whenever the animal desires. The skin becomes dry and the
hairs stand on end. Sweating is almost unknown in the early stage of
fevers, but frequently occurs later in their course, when an outbreak of
warm sweat is often a most favorable symptom. The mucous membranes,
which are most easily examined in the conjunctiva of the eyes and inside
of the mouth, change color if the fever is an acute one; without altera-
tion of blood the mucous membranes become a rosy or deep red color at
the outset; if the fever is attended with distinct alteration of the blood,
as in influenza, and at the end of two or three days in severe cases of
pneumonia or other extensive inflammatory troubles, the mucous mem.
148 THE HORSE.
branes are tinged with yellow, which may even become a deep ochre in
color, the result of the decomposition of the blood corpuscles and the
freeing of their coloring matter, which acts as a stain. At the outset of
a fever the various glands are checked in their secretions, the salivary
glands fail to secrete the saliva, and we find the surface of the tongue
and inside of the cheeks dry and covered with a brownish, bad-smelling
deposit. The excretion from the liver and intestinal glands is dimin-
ished and produces an inactivity of the digestive organs which causes a
constipation. If this is not remedied at an early period the undigested
material acts as an irritant, and later we may have it followed by an
inflammatory process, producing a severe diarrhea.
The excresion from the kidneys is sometimes at first entirely
suppressed. It is always considerably diminished, and what urine
is passed is dark in color, undergoes ammoniacal change rapidly,
and deposits quantities of salts. At a later time the diminished ex-
cretion may be replaced by ai excessive excretion, which aids in
carrying off waste products and usually indicates an amelioration of
the fever.
While the ears, cannons, and hoofs of a horse suffering from fever are
usually found hot, they may frequently alternate from hot to cold in
their temperature, or be much cooler than they normally are. This lat-
ter condition usually indicates great weakness on the part of the circu-
latory system. It is of the greatest importance as an aid in diagnosing
the gravity of an attack of fever and as an indication in the selection of
its mode of treatment, to recognize the exact cause of a febrile condi-
tion in the horse. In certain cases, in very nervous animals in which
fever is the result of nerve influence, a simple anodyne, or even only
quiet with continued care and nursing, will sometimes be sufficient to
dimitish it.
When fever is the result of local injury the cure of the cause produces
a cessation in the constitutional symptoms: when fever isthe result of a
pheumonia or other severe parenchymatous inflammation, it usually lasts
for a definite time, and subsides with the first improvement of the local
trouble, but in these cases we constantly have exaceerbations of fever
due to secondary inflammatory processes, such as the formation of small
abscesses the development of secondary bronchitis, or the death of a
limited amount of tissue (gangrene).
In specific cases, such as influenza, strangles, and scepticaemia, there
is a definite poison contained in the blood-vessel system, and carried to
GENERAL DISEASES. 149
the heart and to the nervous system, which produces a peculiar irritation,
usually lasting for a specific period, during which the temperature can be
but slightly diminished by any remedy.
In cases attended with complications, the diagnosis becomes at times
still more difficult, as at the end of a case of influenza which becomes
complicated with pneumonia. The high temperature of the simple in-
flammatory disease may be grafted on that part of the specific trouble,
and the line of causation of the fever between the two, frequently a
narrow one is yet an important one, as upon it depends the mode of
treatment.
Any animal suffering from fever, from any cause, is much more sus-
ceptible to attacks of local inflammation, which become complications of
the original disease, than are animals in sound health. In fever we have
the tissues and the walls of the blood vessels weakened, we have an in-
creased current of more or less altered blood, flowing through the ves-
sels and stagnating in the capillaries, which need but an exciting cause
to transform the passive congestion of fever into an active congestion
and acute inflammation. These conditions become still more distinct
when the fever is accompanied by a decided deterioration in the blood
itself, as is seen in influenza, septicsemia, and at the termination of severe
pneumonias.
Fever, with its symptoms of increased temperature, acceleration of
the pulse, acceleration of respiration, dry skin, diminished secretions,
etc., must be considered as a symptom of organic disturbance.
This organic disturbance may be the result of local inflammation or
other irritants acting through the nerves on nerve centers; alterations of
the blood, in which a poison is carried to the nerve centers, or direct ir-
ritants to the nerve centres themselves, as in cases of heat stroke, in*ury
to the brain, etc.
Treatment. ‘The treatment of fever depends upon its cause. As
nerve irritation enters into the etiology of fever in all cases, one of the
important factors in treatment is absolute quiet. This may be obtained
by placing a sick horse in a box stall, away from all other animels
and extraneous noises, and sheltered from excessive light and draughts
of air. Anodynes, belladona, hyposcyamus, and opium, act as antipy-
retics simply by quieting the nervous system. As an irritant ex-
ists in the blood in most cases of fever, any remedy which will favor the
excretion of foreign elements from it will diminish this cause. We
therefore employ diaphoretics to stimulate sweat and excretions from
150 “HE HORSE.
the skin; diuretics to favor the elimination of matter by the kidneys:
cholagogues and laxatives to increase the action of the liver and intes-
tines, and to obtain from these important organs all the waste material
which is aiding to choke up and congest their rich plexuses of blood ves-
sels. As the heart becomes stimulated to increased action at the outset
of a fever, and increases it by pumping an augmented quantity of blood
through the whole body, we employ cardiac depressants to diminish the
force of this organ. Among these, antimony, aconite, veratrum viride,
and iodide of potash are the most important. The increased blood pres-
sure throughout the body may also be diminished by lessening the
quantity of blood. This is obtained in many cases with advantage by
direct abstraction of blood, as in bleeding from the jugular or other
veins, or by derivatives, such as mustard, turpentine, or blisters applied
to the skin; or setons, which draw to the surface the fluid of the blood,
thereby lessening its volume, without having the disadvantage found
in bleeding, of impoverishing the elements of the blood.
When the irritation which is the cause of fever is a specific one, either
in the form of bacteria (living organism), as in glanders, tuberculosis,
influenza, septiceemia, etc., or in the form of a foreign chemical element,
as in rheumatism, gout, heemaglobinuria, and other so-called diseases of
nutrition, we employ remedies which have been found to have a direct
specific action on them. Among the specific remedies for various dis-
eases are counted quinine, carbolic acid, salicyclic acid, antipyrine, mer-
cury, iodine, the empyreumatic oils, tars, resins, aromatics, sulphur, and
a host of other drugs, some of which are ap Hoc and others of which are
theoretical in action. Certain remedies, like simple aromatic teas, vege-
table acids, as vinegar, lemon juice, etc., alkalines in the form of salts,
sweet spirits of niter, etc., which are household remedies, are always
useful, because they act on the excreting organs and ameliorate the
effects of fever.
Pleuro-Pneumonia. See page 88.
Rabies or Hydrophobia. See page 111.
CHAPTER XI.
GLANDERS OR FARCY.
A Contagious Constitutional Disease.
GLANDERS AND FARCY THE SAME DISEASE, CAN BE COMMUNICATED
TO MAN, CHRONIC FARCY, CHRONIC GLANDERS, ACUTE FARCY
GLANDERS.
LANDERS is a contagious constitutional disease of the horse, ass,
and mule and is readily communicable to man, sheep, goat, dog,
cat, rabbit, and Guinea pig. It runs a variable course until it
produces the death of the animal affected with it. It is charac-
terized by the formation of neoplasms of connective tissue, or tubercules
which degenerate into ulcers from which exudes a peculiar discharge.
It is accompanied by a variable amount of fever according to the rapidity
of its course. It is subject to various complications of the lymphatic
glands, of the lungs, of the testicles, of the internal organs, and of the
subcutaneous connective tissues.
Glanders was imported into America at the close of the last century,
and before the end of the first half of the present century had spread to
a considerable degree among the horses of the Middle and immediately
adjoining Southern States. This disease was unknown in Mexico until
carried there during the Mexican war by the badly diseased horses of
the United States Army. During the first half of the present century a
large school of veterinarians and medical men protested against the con-
tagious character of this disease, and prevailed by their opinion to such
an extent against the common opinion that several of the governments
152 THE HORSE.
of Europe undertook a series of experiments to determine the right be-
tween the existing parties.
At the veterinary school at Alfort, and at the farm of Lamirault in
France, several hundred horses which had passed examination as sound
had placed among them glandered horses under various conditions. The
results of these experiments proved conclusively the contagious character
of the disease.
Etiology. ‘The contagious nature of glanders, in no matter what
form it appears, being to-day definitely demonstrated, we can recognize
but one cause for all cases, and that is contagion by means of the specific
virus of the disease.
In studying the writings of the old authors on glanders, and the works
of those authors who contested the contagious nature of the disease, we
find a large number of predisposing causes assigned as factors in the de-
velopment of the malady.
While a virus from a case of glanders if inoculated into an animal of
the horse family will inevitably produce the disease, we find a vast differ-
ence, in the contagious activity of the products of different cases of
glanders. We find a great variation in the manner and rapidity of the
development of the disease in different individuals, and we find that the
contagion is much more apt to be carried to sound animals under certain
circumstances than it is under others. Only certain species of animals
are susceptible of contracting the disease, and while some of these con-
tract it as a general constitutional malady, in others it only develops as
a local sore.
In acute glanders the contagion is found in its most virulent form, as
is shown by the inevitable inaction of susceptible animals inoculated with
the disease; while the discharge from chronic glanders and farcy may at
times be inoculated with a negative result; again, in acute glanders, as
we have a frce discharge, a much greater quantity of virus-containing
matter is scattered in the neithborhood of an infected horse to serve as a
contagion to others than is found in the small amount of discharge of
the chronic cases.
The chances of contagion are much greater when sound horses, asses,
or mules are placed in the immediate neighborhood of glandered horses,
drink from the same bucket, stand in the next stall, or are fed from the
same bales of hay or straw which have been impregnated by the saliva
and soiled by the discharge of sick animals. The contagion must term-
inate by direct contact of the discharges of a glandered animal with the
GLANDERS OR FARCY. 153
tissues of a sound one, either on the exterior or when swallowed mixed
with food into the digestive tract.
Glanders is not infectious in the old acceptation of the word. Renault
made a large number of experiments, forcing sound horses to breathe the
expired air of glandered horses for an honr and a half a day for seven
days, by means of a tube of canvass, and was unable to produce the
disease in any case.
The stable attendants serve as one of the most common carriers of the
virus. Dried or fresh discharges are collected from the infected animal
in cleaning, harnessing, feeding, and by means of the hands, clothing,
the teeth of the currycomb, the sponge, the bridle, and halter, are car-
ried to other animals.
An animal affected with chronic glanders in a latent form is moved from
one part of the stable to another, or works hitched with one horse and
then with another, and may be an active agent in the provocation of
disease without the cause being recognized.
Glanders is found frequently in the most hidden forms, and we recog-"
nize that it can exist without being apparent; that is, it may affect a
horse for a long period without showing any symptoms that will allow
even the most experienced veterinarian to make a diagnosis. An old
gray mare belonging to a tavern keeper was reserved for family use
with good care and light work for a period of eight years, during which
time other horses in the tavern stable were from time to time affected
with glanders without an apparent cause. The mare, whose only
trouble was an apparent attack of heaves, was sold to a huckster, who
placed her at hard work. Want of feed and overwork and exposure
rapidly developed a case of acute glanders, from which the animal
died.
In a recent case a coach horse was examined for soundness and passed
as sound by a prominent veterinarian, who a few months afterwards
treated the horse for a skin eruption from which it recovered. Twelve
months afterward it became hidebound, with a slight cough and a slight
eruption of the skin, which was attributed to clipping and the rubbing
of the harness, but which had nothing suspicious in its character. The
horse was placed on tonics and put to regular light driving. In six
weeks it developed a bronchitis without having been specially exposed,
and in two days this trouble was followed by a lobular pneumonia and the
breaking of an abscess in the right lung. Farcy buds developed on the
surface of the body and the animal died.
154 THE HORSE.
Public watering troughs and the feed boxes of boarding-stables and
the tavern stables of market towns are among the most common recip-
ients for the virus of glanders, which is most dangerous in its fresh
state, but cases have been known to be caused by feeding animals
in the box or stall in which glandered animals had stood more than a
year before.
The horse, the ass, and the mule, are the animals which are the most
susceptible to contract glanders, but in these we find a much greater re-
ceptivity in the ass and mule than we do in the horse. In the ass and
mule in almost all cases the period of incubation is short and the disease
develops in an acute form. We find that the race of horse infected in-
fluences the character of the disease; in full-blooded, fat horses, of a
sanguinary temperament, the disease usually develops in an acute form,
while in the lymphatic, cold-blooded, more common race of horses, the
disease usually assumes a chronic form.
In the dog the inoculation of glanders may develop a constitutional
disease with all the symptoms which are found in the horse, but more
frequently the virus pullulates only at the point of inoculation, remain-
ing for some time as a local sore, which may then heal, leaving a per-
fectly sound animal; but while the local sore is continuing to ulcerate,
and specific virus exists in it, it may be the carrier of contagion to other
animals. In man we find a greater receptivity to glanders than in the
dog, and in many unfortunate cases the virus spreads from the point
of inoculation to the entire system and destroys the wretched mortal by
extensive ulcers of the face and hemmorrhage, or by destruction of the
lung tissue; in other cases, however, most fortunately, glanders may
develop as in the dog, only in local form, not infecting the constitution
and terminating in recovery, while the specific ulcer by proper treat-
ment is turned into a simple one. In the cat species glanders is more
destructive than in the dog. The’point of inoculation ulcerates rap-
idly and the entire system becomes infected. A pack of wolves in the
Philadelphia Zoological Garden died in ten days after being fed with the
meat of a glandered horse. The rabbit, Guinea pig and mice are spec-
ially susceptible to the inoculation of glanders, and the recent discover-
ies in regard to this disease have made these animals most convenient
witnesses and proofs of the existence of suspected cases of the glanders
in other animals by the results of successful inoculations.
A litter of kittens lapped the blood from the lungs of a glandered
horse on which an autopsy was being made, and in four days almost
GLANDERS OR FARCY. 15§
their entire faces, including the nasal bones, were eaten away by rapid
ulceration. ‘Tubercles were found in the lungs.
The sheep and the goat are both capable of developing the disease.
The goat is more susceptible and frequently develops it by means of
the digestive tract, from its habit of eating droppings, rags, ete which
are found in the neighborhood of the stall.
Horned cattle and barnyard fowls are absolutely exempt from attacks
of glanders, whether the virus is given to them by the digestive tract or
inoculated into their tissues.
The previous reference to the existence of glanders under the two
forms more commonly differentiated as glanders and as farcy, and our
reference to the various conditions in which it may exist as acute,
chronic and latent, show that the disease may assume several different
phases. Without losing sight for a moment of the fact that all of these
varied conditions are identical in their origin and in their essence, for
convenience of study we may divide glanders into three classes: CHRONIC
FARCY, CHRONIC GLANDERS, and ACUTE FARCY GLANDERS.
Chronic Farcy. In farcy the symptoms commence by formation
of little nodes on the under surface of the skin, which rapidly infringe
on the tissues of the skin itself. These nodes, which are known as
farcy ‘‘buds’’ and farcy ‘‘buttons,’’ are from the size of a bullet to the
size of a walnut. They are hot, sensitive to the touch, at first elastic
and afterwards become soft; the tissue is destroyed, and infringing on
the substance of the skin the disease produces an ulcer, which is known
asachancre. The ulcer is irregular in shape, with ragged edges which
overhang the sore; it has a gray, dirty bottom and the discharge is
sometimes thin and sometimes purulent; in either case it is mixed with
a viscious, sticky, yellowish material like the white of an egg in con-
sistency, and like olive oil in appearance. The discharge is almost diag-
nostic; it resembles somewhat the discharge which we have in greasy
heels and in certain attacks of lymphangitis, but to the expert the spe-
cific discharge is characteristic. The discharge accumulates on the hair
surrounding the ulcer and over its surface and dries, forming scabs
which become thicker by successive deposits on the undersurface until
they fall off, to be replaced by others of the same kind; and the excess
of discharge may drop on the hairs below and form similar brownish
yellow crusts. ‘The farcy ulcers may retain their specific form for 4
considerable time—days or even weeks; but eventually the discharge
becomes purulent in character and assumes the appearance of healthy
156 THE HORSE.
matter. ‘The surface of the gangrenous bottom of the ulcer is replaced
by rosy granulations, the ragged edges beveled off, and the chancre is
turned into a simple ulcer which rapidly heals.
The farcy buttons occur most frequently on the sides of the lips,
the sides of the neck, the lower part of the shoulders, the inside of
the thighs, or the outside of the legs, but may occur at any part of
the body.
We have next an inflammation of the lymphatic vessels in the neigh-
borhood of the chancres. These become swollen and then indurated
and appear like great ridges underneath the skin; they are hot to the
touch and sensitive. The cords may remain for a considerable time and
then gradually disappear, or they may ulcerate like a farcy bud itself,
forming elongated, irregular, serpentine ulcers with a characteristic, dirty,
gray bottom and ragged edges, and pour out a viscious oily discharge
like the chancres themselves.
The essential symptoms of farcy are the above; the button, the chan-
cre, the cord, and the discharge. We have in addition to these symp-
toms a certain number of accessory symptoms, which, while not diag-
nostic in themselves, are of great service in aiding the diagnosis in cases
where the eruption takes place in small quantities, and when the ulcers
are not characteristic.
Epistaxis, or bleeding from the nose without previous work or other
apparent cause, is one of the frequent concomitant symptoms in glan-
ders; and such a hemorrhage from the nostrils should always be re-
garded with suspicion. The animal with farcy frequently develops a
cough, resembling much that which we find in heaves—a short, dry,
aborted, hacking cough, with little or no discharge from the nostrils.
With this we find an irregular movement of the flanks, and on auscul-
tation of the lungs we find sibilant or at times a few mucousrales. An-
other common symptom is a sudden swelling of one of the hind legs; it
is suddenly found swollen in the region of the cannon, the enlargement
extending below to the pastern and above as high as the stifle. This
swelling is hot and painful to the touch, and renders the animal stiff and
lame. On pressure with the finger the swelling can be indented, but
the pits so formed soon fill up again on removal of the pressure. In
severe cases we may have ulceration of the skin, and serum pours out
from the surface, resembling the oozing which we have after a blister or
in a case of grease. This swelling is not to be confounded with the
stocking in lymphatic horses, or the cedema which we have in chronic
GLANDERS OR FARCY. 157
heart or in kidney trouble, as in the last the swelling is cool and not
painful and the pitting on pressure remains for some time after the lat-
ter is withdrawn. It is not to be confounded with greasy heels. In
these the disease commences in the neighborhood of the pastern and
gradually extends up the leg, rarely passing beyond the neighborhood
of the hock. The swollen leg in glanders almost invariably swells for
the entire length in a single night, or within a very short period.
When greasy heels are complicated by lymphangitis we have a condition
very much resembling that of farcy. The swelled leg in farcy is fre-
quently followed by an outbreak of farcy buttons and ulcers over its
surface. In the entire horse the testacles are frequently swollen, hot
and sensitive to the touch, but they have no tendency to suppura-
tion. The acute inflammation is rapidly followed by the specific
induration which correspond to the local lesions in other parts of the
body.
Chronic farcy in the ass and mule is an excessively rare condition,
but sometimes occurs.
Chronic Glanders. In chronic glanders we have the same train
of inflammatory phenomena, varying in appearance from those of chronic
farcy only by the difference of the tissues in which they are located.
In chronic glanders we have first the tubercle, which is a small
node from the size of a shot to that of a small pea, which forms
in the mucous membranes of the respiratory tract. This may be
just inside of the wings of the nostrils or on the septum which di-
vides the one nasal cavity from the other and be easily detected, or they
may be higher in the nasal cavities on the turbinated bones, or they
may form in the larynx itself, or on the surface of the trachea or deep
in the lungs.
The tubercles, which are first red and hard and consist of new con-
nective tissue, soon soften and become yellow; the yellow spot breaks
and we have a small ulcer the size of the preceding tubercle, which has
a gray, dirty bottom and ragged edges and is known asa chancre. This
ulcer pours from its surface a viscious, oily discharge similar to that
which we have seen in the farcy ulcer. The irritation of the discharge
may ulcerate the lining mucous membrane of the nose, causing serpen-
tine gutters with bottoms resembling those of the chancres themselves.
If the tubercles have formed in large numbers we may have them caus-
ing an acute inflammation of the Schneiderian membrane, with a ca-
tarrhal discharge which may mark the specific discharge, or that which
158 THE HORSE.
comes from the ulcers and resembles the discharge of strangles or simple
inflammatory diseases. ;
The eruption of the ulcers and discharge soon cause an irritation of
the neighboring lymphatics; and in the intermaxillary space, deep
inside of the jaws, we find an enlargement of the glands, which
for the first few days may seem soft and cedematous, but which
rapidly becomes confined to the glands, these being from the size
of an almond to that of a small bunch of berries, exceedingly hard
and nodulated. ‘The enlargement of the glands is found high up on
the inside of the jaws, firmly adherent to the base of the tongue. It is
not to be confounded with the swelling, puffy, cedematous, and not to
be separated from the skin and subcutaneous connective tissues,
which we find in strangles, in laryngitis, and in other simple inflamma-
tory troubles.
These glands bear a great resemblance to the hard, indurated glands
which we find in connection with the collection of pus in the sinuses;
but in the latter disease the glands have not the nodulated feel which
they have in glanders. With the glands we find indurated cords, feel-
ing like balls of tangled wire or twine, fastening the glands together.
The essential symptoms of glanders are the tubercle, the chancre, the
glands, and the discharge. With the development of the tubercles on
the respiratory tract, according to their number and the amount of
eruption which they cause, we may have a cough which resembles that
of a coryza, a laryngitis, a bronchitis, or a broncho-pneumonia, accord-
ing to the location of the lesions. In .chro:i: glanders we have the
same accessory symptoms which we have in chronic farcy, the hem-
orrhage of the nose, the swelling of the legs, the chronic cough, and in
the entire horse the swelling of the testacles.
On healing, the chancres on the mucous membranes leave small,
whitish, star-shaped scars, hard and indurated to the touch, and which
remain for almost an indefinite time. ‘The chancres heal and the other
local symptoms disappear, with the exception of the enlargement of the
glands, and we find these so diminished in size that they are scarcely
perceptible on examination. During the subacute attacks, with a mini-
mum quantity of local troubles, in chronic glanders and chronic farcy,
the animal rarely shows any amount of fever, but does have a general
depraved appearance; it loses flesh and becomes hide bound; the skin
becomes dry and the hairs stand on end. There is cachexia, however,
which resembles greatly that of any chronic, organic trouble, but is not
GLANDERS OR FARCY. 159
diagnostic, although it has in it certain appearances and conditions
which often render the animal suspicious to the eye of the expert veter-
inarian, while without the presence of local lesions he would be unable
to state on what he has based his opinion.
Acute Glanders. In the acute form of glanders we have the
symptoms which we have just studied in chronic farcy and in chronic
glanders in a more acute and aggravated form.. We have a rapid out-
break of tubercules in the respiratory tract which rapidly degenerate ito
chancres and’ pour out a considerable discharge from the nostrils. We
have a cough of more or less severity according to the amount and site
of the local eruption. We have over the surface of the body swellings
which are rapidly followed by farcy buttons, which break into ulcers; we
have the indurated cords and enlargement of the lymphatics.
Bleeding from the nose, sudden swelling of one of the hind-legs, and
the swelling of the testicles are apt to precede an acute eruption of the
glanders. As the symptoms become more marked the animal has diffi-
culty of respiration, the flanks heave, the respiration becomes rapid, the
pulse becomes quickened, and the temperature becomes elevated to 103°,
104°, or 105” F.
With the other symptoms of an acute fever the general appearance
and station of the animal is that of one suffering from an acute pneu-
monia, but on examination, while we may find sibilant and mucous rales
over the side of the chest, and may possibly hear tubular murmurs at
the base of the neck over the trachea, we fail to find the tubular murmur
or the large area of dullness on percussion over the sides of the chest
which belongs to simple pneumonia.
Cases of chronic farcy and glanders, if not destroyed, may live in a
depraved condition until the animal dies from general emaciation and
anzemia, but in the majority of cases, from some sudden exposure to
cold, it develops an an acute pneumonia or other simple inflammatory
trouble which starts up the latent disease and the animal has acute
glanders.
In the ass, mule, and plethoric horses, acute glanders usually termi-
nates by lobular pneumonia. In other cases the general symptoms may
subside. The symptoms of pneumonia gradually disappear, the tem-
perature lowers, the pulse becomes slower, the ulcers heal, leaving small
indurated cicatrices, and the animal may return to apparent health, or
may at least be able to do a small amount of work with but a few symp-
toms of the disease remaining in a chronic form. During the attack of
160 THE HORSE.
acute glanders the inflammation of the nasal cavities frequently spreads
into the sinuses or air cells, which are found in the forehead and in front
of the eyes on either side of the face, and cause abscesses of these cavi-
ties, which may remain as the only visible symptom of the disease. An
animal which has recovered from a case of acute glanders, like the an-
imals which are affected by chronic glanders and chronic farcy, are
apt to be affected with emphysema of the lungs or the heaves, and
to have a chronic cough. In this condition they may continue for a
long period, serving as dangerous sources of contagion, the more so
because the slight amount of discharge does not serve as a warning
to the owner or driver as profuse discharge does in the more acute
cases.
With good care, good food, and good surroundings and little work,
an animal affected with glanders may live for months or even years in an
apparent state of perfect health, but with the first deprivation of food,
with a few days of severe hard work, with exposure to cold or with the
attack of a simple fever or inflammatory trouble from other causes, the
latent seeds of the disease break out and develop the trouble again in an
acute form.
Treatment. Fully the entire list of drugs in the pharmacopceia
has been tested in the treatment of glanders. Good hygienic sur-
roundings, good food, with alteratives and tonics, frequently ameliorate
the symptoms and often do so to such an extent that the animal would
pass the examination of any expert as a perfectly sound animal. But
while in this case the number of tuberclus of the lungs, which are in-
variable there, may be so few as not to cause sufficient disturbance in
the respiration as to attract the attention of the examiner, they exist,
and will remain there almost indefinitely with the constant possibility of
a return of acute symptoms.
In several celebrated cases horses which have been affected with
glanders have been known to work for years and die from other causes
without ever having had the return of symptoms; but, allowing that
these cases may occur, they are so few and far between, and the danger
of infection of glanders to other horses and to the stable attendants is so
great, that no animal which has once been affected with the disease
should be allowed to live.
In all civilized countries, with the exception of some of the states in
the United States, the laws are most stringent regarding the prompt
declaration on the part of the owner and attending veterinarian at the
GLANDERS OR FARCY. 161
first suspicion of a case of glanders, and they allow a liberal indemnity
for the animal. When this is done, in all cases the animal is destroyed
and the articles with which it has been in contact are thoroughly disin-
fected. When the attendants have attempted to hide the presence of the
disease in a community, punishment is meted to the owner, attending
veterinarian, or other responsible parties.
Several states have passed excellent laws in regard to glanders, but
with few exceptions these laws are not carried out with the rigidity with
which they should be. In other states where an indemnity is allowed on
declaration on the part of the owner, the appraisement of the animal is
not fairly made. If the owners of infected animals are to be encouraged
to declare the presence of the disease in order to protect their neighbors
from the danger of contagion they should be paid, not what the animal
affected with the disease is considered worth, when it is valueless, but
the one-half or two-thirds of what would be its market value without the
disease, and the community should share the loss which the owner should
make in order to protect others.
Splint. Splint is usually found on the inside of the leg, but occa-
sionally it appears on the outside. It most commonly is found on the
fore legs, but not always. It shows itself as a bony enlargement on
the canon bone (see manikin), between the knee and fetlock. A
splint does not always cause lameness but if it does it usually can be
removed. It comes from external bruises, or concussion due to unbal-
anced tread. Any astringent lotion may bring about good results.
Sometimes it is well to paint the inflamed spot once or twice a day with
the tincture of iodine. If the lameness continues under these treatments
it must be followed by other and more severe methods ; therefore use a
cantharides blister as described on page 162.
162
SOME SPECIAL
Blister.
There are two classes of blisters; one is
principally a counter-irritant, while the
other is an absorbent, and is used to re-
duce the size of thickened flesh, etc.
‘This latter always contains iodine or some
preparation of iodine, as biniodide of
mercury, commonly known as the red
iodide of mercury, For counter-irritants
and for blister in spavin, sprain, etc. —
1dram.
I ounce,
Cut hair off with shears and rub the
above in well. Allow to remain on for
forty-eight hours; then wash off and
grease. Keep the animal’s head tied, so
that the blistered parts cannot be bitten.
The absorbent blister should be applied
in the same manner. It is made as fol-
Cantharides blister...... .......
Vaseline. oes, ases eeeeide acces
lows:
Red iodide of mercury. ..... ... 1dram.
Vaseline............ . Tounce.
Mix well before applying. This is often
successfully used in splint. This may be
left on and allowed to peel off. Keep
parts oiled after the third day. It is also
the best one to be used in ringbone.
Wind Puffs.
These troublesome blemishes may be
remedied by using the cantharides blister
as above directed. But wind puffs are
very liable, after a time, to reappear.
Gentle hand-rubbing, three times a day,
fifteen minutes at a time, is often very
successful in reducing enlargements.
Bandaging or painting with tincture of
iodine once a day is often very effectual.
Spavin. ;
Remember that one of the symptoms of
spavin is the horse points his foot while
standing, and drives out of his lameness.
Firing and blisters are the simplest reme-
THE HORSE.
INSTRUCTIONS.
dies. Cunean or tarsal tenectomy is a
satisfactory treatment. This consists of
severing the.cunean tendon, which passes
over the inside of the hock bone, and re-
quires several weeks’ absolute rest.
Hoof Ointment.
This is one of the best ointments for
softening and making the hoof tough and
keeping it in condition:
Cosmoline............. 00. eeee 12 pounds,
RESID sc aiesesiais Saleen were anes I pound,
Ol turpentitie uacsca cee ou Ppl,
Charcoal, powdered........... 4 ounces,
Melt the cosmoline and resin and then
add the turpentine and charcoal.
Curb.
This can be successfully treated by blis-
tering with the red iodide of mercury
blister, as previously recommended. Do
not wash off or grease, but keep horse
from biting.
Thoroughpin.
There is now in the market, and to be
had of all dealers in horse goods, « truss
that is very successful in removing this
blemish.
Bog Spavin. i
The truss is also very useful in remov-
ing bog spavin.
Is the Lameness in the Foot ?
It is often difficult to determine whether
a horse is lame in the foot or not. The
following plan determines that fact: In-
ject with a hypodermic syringe a ten per
cent. solution of cocaine over the nerves
leading to the foot where they pass over
the fetlock joint on either side of the leg.
Wait about fifteen minutes, and if the
horse goes sound the lameness is in the
foot; if he does not, the lameness is above
the ankle,
SOME SPECIAL
Leg and Body Wash.
Goulard’s extract of the strength of one
ounce to four ounces of extract to a pint
of water makes a good wash.
Weak Stifle.
Blister the parts well with cantharides
blister, applied as before recommended.
Itis not necessary to clip hair. If pre-
ferred, use the following liniment, which
will blister:
Aqua ammonia, .... ... .. . 2 ounces.
Ove Olleccas 4 cokw sieenowe 2 ounces.
Tincture cantharides...... .... 2 ounces,
Shake well every time before applying.
To Make Hair Grow.
The best preparation for stimulating
the growth of hair is —
Fluid extract jaborandi......... I ounce.
Tincture cantharides,... ....... I ounce,
Soap liniment, op csseiveswaw va, 6 ounces,
Mix, and apply once a day with light
friction. If the roots of the hair are de-
stroyed or dead, nothing will make the
hair grow.
Blood Out of Condition.
Horses sometimes break out in fever
patches, sores or swellings. They lack
life and ambition, and their coat is un-
even. Give
Hypo-sulphite soda.......... 8 ounces.
Nux-vomica 1¥% ounces,
Mix, make into twelve powders, and
give one powder in feed three times a
day.
Sometimes it is advisable, to remove
humors from the blood, to give the follow-
ing treatment:
Give one-half ounce doses. of hypo-
sulphite soda twice a day for two weeks;
then follow for a couple of weeks with
one-half ounce doses of Fowler’s solution
of arsenic twice a day.
If the horse has sores, apply once aday
Salicylic acid... .......... I ounce,
Boracic acid .. .... rT ounce.
Tincture iodine.. é I ounce.
Glycerine. ...... cs.ceenseee vee 16 ounces.
INSTRUCTIONS. 163
Rheumatism.
Animals with rheumatism sometimes
start out sound, but go lame before going
far, and may go sound again before re-
turning. They become weak in the joints
and oftentimes stumble. Sometimes in
driving they lift one knee higher than
the other. There is not, as a rule, any
swelling or soreness to be found. Give
three times aday. This disease is often
very obstinate, and where a remedy is
effectual in one case it may not be so in
another. If the above does not fulfill the
requirements after a two weeks’ trial, give
Iodide of potash 2drams.
three times a day for the same length of
time. Then, if necessary, return to first
treatment.
Scratches.
In this disease the blood is out of con-
dition, and the treatment for ‘BLoop
Our OF CONDITION’’ should be given.
Then apply a bandage to the leg, moist-
ened with the following solution:
Sugar of lead................... ounce.
Glycerine...... A 6 ounces.
WAtO Racor siicin anaemia want I pint.
Apply same to the sore parts also. If
this does not bring about the desired re-
sult, apply Citrine Ointment once a day.
Do not work the animal till the cracks
are all healed.
Cough Mixture.
The following is one of the best reme-
dies for coughs and colds that can be pro-
cured. A bottle of it should be on hand
in every stable:
Tincture of camphor........... 2 ounces.
Muriate of ammonia........... 2ounces.
Chlorate of potash... ....... . 20unces,
FL. ext. licorice ....... ......4. 2 ounces.
Fl. ext. belladonna,........ ... 1 ounce.
SYTUD cecste alain sama saeetene 1 pound.
Mix, and apply one ounce to the horse’s
tongue twice a day.
THE HORSE.
164
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CHAPTER XII.
EXTERNAL
EVIDENCES OF DISEASE.
Location and Name of Various Diseases.
e
e
THE COMMON NAMES GIVEN TO DEFORMITIES, THEIR CAUSES PRO-
DUCING MANY FAMILIAR DISEASES, LACK OF CONFORMATION.
1.— BLInD EYE. There is often a continuous flow of tears over the cheek accom-
panying a blind eye. 2.—Gorrre. An enlarged thyroid gland. 3.— ENLARGED
JUGULAR VEIN. This is often the result of bleeding, when improperly done.
4,.— SWOLLEN PAROTID GLAND, Caused by undue pressure from] throat-latuh.
5.— Bone Tumor. Caused by a blow on the jaw bone, by striking against the pole
of a wagon or manger. 6.— SALIVARY FISTULA. A fistula of the duct that leads
from the parotid gland to the mouth. 7.— FISTULA OF THE UPPER JAw. Caused
by an ulcerated tooth. 8.— FISTULA OF THE LOWER JAW. Caused by an ulcerated
tooth. 9.—FLABBY LIP. Caused by partial paralysis. 10.— EXCESSIVE SALIVA.
Caused by a wound or swelling of the tongue. 11.—Mucus. A discharge from
the nose. It may be caused by acute or chronic catarrh, or in glanders. 12.— Lop
EAR. Some horses have ears so large that they drop from theirown weight. 13.—
HARE EAR. 14.— POLL EVIL. A common name for a running sore on the back of
the neck, often caused by the horse striking the part against a low ceiling. It is
also the result of a boil which has not properly healed. 15.—Farcy Bups.
Enlarged lymphatic glands. They are found on various’parts of the body. See
numbers 21 and 49. 16.—MANGE ORItTCH. These are skin diseases which often
ceuse the animal to rub against the manger or fences till the hair and mane are all
rubbed off. 17.— DEFORMED NECK. Sometimes called Ewe neck. The neck
curves downward instead of upward. 18.—FistuLa. Caused by the wound from
improper bleeding, failing to heal. 19.—FISTULOUS WITHERS. An abscess caused
by a bruise from which there is a chronic discharge. 20.—Sway Rack. A back
that is very hollow. 21.—Farcy Bups. Swelling of the lymphatic system.
22.— ABscEsS. Geuerally caused by bruise. 23.— ENLARGEMENT OF THE KNEE.
The result of sprains or bruises. 24.— ENLARGED TENDONS. Caused by sprains.
The tendons and their sheaths thicken at the back of the legs and cause lameness.
25.— SPLINT. Caused by an unnatural fluid being thrown off, between the common
and splint bones, which gradually turns to bone. 26.— FRONT SWELLING.
27.—-DEFORMED PASTERN. A long low pastern throws the fetlock too low, and
makes the animal subject to sprains. 28.— RIDGEIN THE HOOF. This is the result
of fever in the coronet. A ridge or wrinkle in the hoof shows that the coronet at
some previous time was injured or was effected with fever, and the hoof in growing
out shows the result the same as the nail on a man’s finger shows the result of an
injury to the root of the nail. 29.—GaLL. Caused by interfering. 30.— Ox
166 THE HORSE.
Foor. A bulging out of the hoof in the front part of the foot, the result of disease
of the coffin joint. Some horses are born with this peculiar form of the hoof, which
is called ‘‘ ox foot” from its resemblance to the hoof of the ox. 31.— QUARTER-
crAcK. Caused by the nutrition of the hoof not being normal. The fibres of the
hoof become brittle and the hoof splits. 32.—Mup Fever. This is an inflamma-
tion in the skin, caused by driving the animal through mud and cold water. The
leg swells, and the skin soon becomes scabby. It is not an uncommon thing for the
hair to fall out. 33.—Sritt Foot. Result of diseases around the heels or quar-
ters. 34,— CONTRACTED HOOF. Caused by disease or standing in the stable on a
hard floor. 35.—SADDLE GALL. Caused by uneven pressure of the saddle.
36.—SHoE Bort. A tumor caused by the horse lying on the shoe. 37.— MAL-
LENDERS. An inflammation of the skin behind the knee, where the skin folds in
doubling up the leg. The inflammation causes the skin to become dry and hard,
and the knee becomes enlarged. 38.—Srirrast. At first a simple saddle gall, but
if not properly attended to, becomes chronic, when it is called sitfast. 39.—SNAKE
BACK. A rough, uneven back over the croup. It is sometimes called ‘‘ eel-back.”
40.— PoINTED HIP. It is this kind of a hip that is so liable to be knocked down.
41.—NAvVEL RUPTURE. The intestines extend downward through the navel open-
ing, which is unclosed. 42.— INGUINAL RUPTURE. The intestines extend down-
ward through the abdominal rings and inguinal canal. Im stallions they extend
downward into the scrotum. 43.— ATROPHY OF THE MUSCLES. This is caused by
disease or a bruise, or from long standing lameness, causing a wasting away of the
muscles from disease. 44.—DROOPING RUMP. A deformity. 45.— RAT Tat.
The hair having dropped off, from disease of the tail. 46.— MANGE, OR ITCH.
These are skin diseases which often cause the animal to rub against the manger or
the fences till the hair is rubbed of from different parts of the body. 47.— FLANK
HERNIA. The intestines extending outward through the abdominal wall at the
flank. 48.—SrirLe. A sprain, kick or puncture at this point may cause stifle
lameness. If the patella is out of position (dislocated) the horse is said to be stifled.
49.—Farcy Bubs. Enlarged lymphatic glands. 50.— BIG SPAVIN. A distension
of the synovial sac, causing lameness. 51.— BONE spavIN. A bony tumor of the
hock joint. 52.—SaLLENDERS. An inflammation of the skin, behind the hock
joint, where the skin folds in the bending of the foot backwards. The inflamma-
tion causes the skin to become hard and dry, and causes lameness. 53.— FRONT
BURSAL SWELLING. A soft puffy swelling in front of the fetlock, caused by inflam-
mation of the bursal. 54.—SAND-cRACK. Sameas a quarter crack, only this comes
in front. 55,.—Hoor witn ripgEs. This indicates former inflammation of the
coronet, as explained under No. 28. 56,— WEAK THIGH. Small from faulty
formation. 57,—CAPPED Hock. An enlargement on the point of the hock. It is
often caused by a bruise from a kick in the stall or pasture. 58. —THOROUGHPIN.
A puffy enlargement at the upper aud back part of the hock joint, often appearing
on both the inside and outside, 59.—CuRB. An enlargement at the back of the
hock, usually the result of a sprain. 60.—BLOooD spavIN. An enlargement of the
vein at the hock, caused by a bony tumor pressing upon it. 61.— WIND GALLS.
Soft swellings filled with secretion of the joints, called synovial fluid. 62, — ENn-
LARGED LEG. Caused by neglect or the disease known as elephantiasis. 63. —
GREASE HEEL. A skin disease that gives off an offensive discharge. 64. — Qurt-
tor. A fistula of the quarter, the opening above the coronet. 65, — FLAT-FOOT.
The hoof is too flat and large.
Be
THIS
MANIKIN
IS PREPARED BY
Andrew A. Gardenier, Ph.D.,
EXPRESSLY FOR
THE SUCCESSFUL STOCKMAN
AND
MANUAL OF HUSBANDRY. —
The King-Richardson Co,,
SPRINGFIELD, MASS.
§
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CHAPTER XIII.
KNEE, FETLOCK, FOOT, &c.
Their Diseases and How to Cure Them.
ANATOMICAL DESCRIPTION OF THE PARTS, PHYSIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS,
FAULTS OF FORMATION, INTERFERING, COCKED ANKLES, WIND
GALLS, QUITTOR, CORNS, SAND-CRACKS, RINGBONE, SPLINT, SPAVIN,
BTC., ETC.
O FOOT, NO HORSE, is as true to-day as when the old aphor-
ism first fell from the lips of man. Domestication of the ancient
“companion of the wind,’’ has caused him to be put to many
uses, and the constant reproduction of hereditary defects has
changed him into a very short-lived piece of machinery, which is often
out of repair.
The horse, as a domestic animal, is of all the animal tribe the largest
sharer with his master in his liability to the accidents and dangers which
are among the incidents of civilized life. _ While travelling he may pick
up a nail from the road, or slip upon an icy street. No matter where
this faithful animal is, there is no hour when he is not in danger
of incurring injuries which may demand the best skill to repair.
To detect and cure diseases of the organs of locomotion as well as the
diseases of the other parts of the body, it is necessary to have a knowl-
edge of the construction and functions of the parts which may be under
consideration. ‘Therefore, as a guide to a better understanding of the
fetlock, ankle, and foot, we give the anatomical structures and physio-
logical functions of their various parts.
170 THE HORSE.
For a thorough understanding of the parts described consult the
MANIKIN OF THE HORSE on pages 17 to 22, and the MANIKIN
OF THE FETLOCK, ANKLE, AND FOOT, just preceding this
chapter.
Bones. ‘The bones of the fetlock and foot constitute the skeleton on
which the other structures are built, and comprise the lower end of the
cannon bone (the metacarpus in the fore-leg and the metatarsus in the
hind-leg), the two sesamoid bones, the large pastern or suffraginis, the
small pastern or coronet, the coffin bone or os pedis, and the small sesa-
moid or navicular bone.
Cannon Bone. This bone extends from the knee or hock to the
fetlock, and is cylindrical in shape, and stands nearly or quite perpen-
dicular. In the fore-leg it is called the metacarpus and in the hind-leg
the metatarsus. They correspond with the bones in the palm of the
hand and the ball of the foot in man.
Sesamoid Bones. These occur in pairs, are small, shape resem- -
bling a three-faced pyramid, and are set behind the fetlock joint, at the
upper end of the large pastern or suffraginis, having the Bee of .the
pyramid downward.
Suffraginis, or Large Pastern. This is a very compact bone,
set in slanting direction downward and forward, and extends from the
cannon bone to the coronet or small pastern.
Coronet, or Small Pastern. ‘This is a short, cube-shaped bone,
set between the suffraginis and coffin bone, in the same slanting
direction.
Coffin Bone. ‘This forms the end of the foot and is shaped like the
horny box in which it is enclosed.
Navicular Bone. This is short, flattened above and below, and is
attached to the coffin bone behind.
All of these bones are covered on the surfaces with a cartilage which
goes to make up the joints, while the portions between are covered with
a fibrous membrane called the periosteum.
Joints. The joints of the legs are of especial importance, since any
interference with their function very largely impairs the value of the
animal for most purposes. As the joints of the foot and ankle are at the
point of greatest concussion they are the ones most subject to injury and
disease.
There are three of these joints—the fetlock, pastern, and coffin,
They are made by the union of two or more bones, held together
KNEE, FETLOCK, ANKLE, AND FOOT. 171
by ligaments of fibrous tissue, and are lubricated by a thick viscid
fluid, called synovia, which is secreted by a special membrane inclosing
the joints.
Fetlock. This joint is made by the union of the lower end of the
cannon and the upper end of the Jarge pastern bones, supplemented by
the two sesamoids, so placed behind the upper end of the pastern that
the joint is capable of a very extensive motion. ‘These bones are held
together by ligaments, only one of which (the suspensory) demands spe-
cial mention.
Suspensory Ligament. This ligament starts from the knee, ex-
tends down behind the cannon, lying between the two splint bones, until
near the fetlock, where it divides and sends a branch on either side of
the joint, downward and forward, to become attached on the sides of the
extensor tendon at the lower end of the pastern bone. As it crosses the
sesamoids on the posterior borders of the fetlock it throws out fibers,
which hold it fast to these bones.
Pastern Joint. This is made by the union of the ,two pastern
bones.
Coffin Joint. This is made by the union of the small pastern, coffin,
and small sesamoid or navicular bones, the latter being set behind and
beneath the joint surface of the coffin bone, in such a way as to largely
receive the weight of the large pastern.
Tendons. ‘There are three tendons which serve to move the bones
of the foot one on another. Two of these bend the joints, while the
other extends or straightens the column bones.
Flexor Pedis Perforans. ‘This is the deep flexor of the foot,
passes down behind the cannon bone, lying against the suspensory liga-
ment in front, crosses the fetlock joint in the groove made by the union
of the two sesamoids, and is attached to the bottom of the coffin bone,
after covering the navicular, by a wide expansion of its fibers. It is
the function of this tendon to flex the coffin bone and with it the
horny box.
Flexor Pedis Perforatus. This is the superficial flexor of the
foot and follows the course of the preceding tendon, and is attached to the
middle of the ankle. The function of this tendon is to bend the foot at
the fetlock.
Extensor Pedis. This runs down the front of the leg and is at-
tached on the most prominent point of the coffin bone, and has for its
function the straightening of the bones of the ankle and foot.
172 THE HORSE.
The bones, ligaments, and tendons are covered by a loose connective
tissue, which gives a symmetry to the parts by filling up and rounding
off, and all are protected by the skin and hoof.
Skin of the Fetlock and Ankle.. This is generally character-
ized by its thickness and the length of its hairs, especially around the
hind parts of the fetlock joint in certain breeds of horses. The
most important part of this envelope is that known as the coronary
band.
Coronary Band. This consists of that portion of the skin which
secretes the horn by which the wall of the hoof is made. This horn
much resembles the nail which grows on the fingers and toesof man. It
is composed of hollow, cylindrical tubes, extending from the coronary
band to the lower border of the hoof, which are neld together by a tena-
cious opaque matter.
Hoof. This is a box of horn, consisting of a wall, sole, and frog, and
coutains, besides the coffin, navicular, and part of the small pastern
bones, the sensitive laminz, plantar cushion, and the lateral cartilages.
The sole of the foot incloses the box on the ground surface, is shaped
like the circumference of the foot, except that a v shaped opening is
left behind for the reception of the frog, and is concave on the lower
surface. The sole is produced by the velvety tissue, a thin membrane
covering the plantar cushion and other soft tissues beneath the coffin
bone. ‘The horn of the sole differs from the horn of the wall, in that
its tubes are not straight, and from the fact that it scales off in pieces
over the whole surface.
Frog. This is a triangular shaped body, divided into two equal parts
by a deep fissure, extending from its apex in frontto the base. It fills
the triangular space in the sole to which it is intimately attached by its
borders. The horn of the frog is produced in the same manner as the
sole, but it differs from both the wall and sole, in that the horn is soft,
moist, and elastic to a remarkable degree. It is the function of the frog
to destroy shock and prevent slipping.
Sensitive Laminzee. These are thin plates of soft tissue covering
the entire anterior surface of the cofin bone. ‘They are present in great
numbers, and by fitting into corresponding grooves on the inner surface
of the horn of the wall the union of the soft and horny tissues is made
complete.
Plantar Cushion. ‘This is a thick pad of fibrous tissue, placed be-
hind and under the navicular and coffin bones, and resting on the sole
KNEE, FETLOCK, ANKLE, AND FOOT. 173
and frog, for the purpose of receiving the downward pressure of the column
cf bones and to destroy shock.
Lateral Cartilages. These are attached, one on either side, to the
wings of the coffin bone by their inferior borders. They are thin plates
of fibro-cartilage, and their function is to assist the frog and adjacant
structures to regain their proper position after having been displaced by
the weight of the body while the foot rested on the ground.
Joints. The contact of two or more bones so arranged, that they
move one upon the other either more or less is called a joint. In the
movable joints at the point of articulation are ligaments whose office is
the holding of the bones in position. ‘Thereisasa result of the moving of
one part upon the other a certain amount of friction, and to insure easy
play and smooth movement of its parts nature has arranged a yellow,
oily, or glairy lubricant, called synovia, the last somewhat resembling
the white of an egg.
This fluid is deposited in a containing sac, and the serous membrane
which forms the lining is the secreting organ. ‘This membrane is of a
very sensitive nature, and while it lines the inner face of the ligaments
it is attached only upon the edges of the bones without extending upon
their length or between the layers of cartilage, which lie between the
bones and their articular surfaces.
So long as the bones, the muscles and their tendons, the joints with
their cartilages, their ligaments and their synovial structure; the nerves
and the blood vessels which distribute to every part, however minute,
are exempt from disease, and pathological change, the function of mo-
tion will continue to be performed with perfection and efficiency.
But on the other hand, let any element of disease become implanted
in one or several of the parts destined for combined action, any change
or irregularity of form, location or action occur in any portion of the
apparatus, any obstruction of vital power take place, any interference
with the order of normal nature, any loss of harmony and lack of bal-
ance, and the result is LAMENESS.
Description of the Manikin. The outside plate on the right of
page 168, shows the part of the leg between the knee and the fetlock
joint in a healthy condition. The second plate of this series shows
a DIFFUSE SPLINT, bony growth with a diffuse base, in which, the bone
has permanently assumed greater size. This is a serious difficulty on
account of the deformity interfering with the movement of the cord
which passes behind it, thereby becoming a source of continual irritation
and consequently permanent lameness.
174 THE HORSE.
The next plate of this series shows the simple splint, in which there
is only a single bony growth. The horse by being called to perform
tasks beyond his strength has strained his muscles and torn apart the
fibres which unite the bones at their juncture.
The last plate of this series shows the simple splint on the bone with
the muscles, cords, and tendons removed. Here can be plainly seen the
smaller cannon bone which during the youth of the animal is more or
less articulated, but which as the horse matures, becomes firmly joined
by a rigid union and the turning into bone of their inter-articulate sur-
faces. By straining, this union becomes divided and as a consequence
local irritation develops. *
The outside plate of the series in the center, shows the hock with the
skin removed. ‘The bones which are surrounded by ligaments, tendons,
and muscles correspond to the bones of the human ankle. The bone
at the upper part is the tibia, the one at the lower the cannon bone,
(metatarsus) while between them hidden by the ligaments and muscles
are the os calcis, astragalus, cuboides, navicular, and the outer and the
inner cuneiform bones.
The second plate of the center series shows a blood-spavin and a bone-
spavin. The blood-spavin being the one indicated near the tibia (the
highest on the plate) and is always found in front and a little inward of
the hock ‘This is always round, smooth and well marked, and on the
outer surface running from below upwards, will be found a vein which
is more or less enlarged. It is from this conspicuous blood-vessel that
the tumor is named. It is the dilatation of the articulate synorial sac
and differs from thoroughpin in location and part affected. See thor-
oughpin.
The last plate of the series, shows a badly spavined hock. The bone
has enlarged and become a fixed condition which there is no known
method of removing.
The exterior plate at the left shows a sound foot and fetlock. ‘The
wall of the hoot is shown below and the periople (coronary band) just
above. The ligaments of the joints are shown above and below, and
the extensor tendon in front and the flexor tendon on the back of the
fetlock is shown beginning near the top and extending downward to the
hoof.
The second plate at the left shows a low ring-bone and a high ring-
bone. The low ring-bone is found on the lower portion around the up-
per border of the foot. The high ringbone forms a large bunch on the
upper part of the coronet quite close to the fetlock joint.
* For the treatment of splint, see page 161.
KNEE, FETLOCK, ANKLE, AND FOOT, 175
Faults of Formation. A large percentage of the horses have
feet which are not perfect in formation, and as a consequence of these
imperfections they are especially predisposed to certain injuries and
diseases.
Flat Feet. This is that condition in which the sole has little or no
convexity. It is a peculiarity common to some breeds, especially heavy,
lymphatic animals raised on low, marshy soils. It is confined to the
fore-feet, which are generally broad, low-heeled, and with a wall less
upright than is seen in the perfect foot.
In flat-foot there can be little or no elasticity in the sole, for the
reason that it has no arch and the weight of the animal is received
on the entire plantar surface as it rests on the ground instead of on
the wall. For these reasons such feet are particularly liable to
‘ruises of the sole, corns, pumiced sole, and excessive suppuration
when the process is once established. Horses with flat foot should be
shod with a shoe having a wide web, pressing on the walls only, while
the heels and frog are never to be pared. Flat-foot generally has weak
walls, and as a consequence the nails of the shoe are readily loosened
and the shoe cast.
Clubfoot. This is applied to such feet as have the walls set nearly
perpendicular. When this condition is present the walls are high,
the fetlock joint is thrown forward, or knuckles, and the weight of the
animal is received on the toes. Many mules are clubfooted, especially
behind, where it seems to cause little or no inconvenience. Clubfoot
‘may be cured by cutting the tendons in severe cases, but as a rule spe-
cial shoeing is the only measure of relief that can be adopted. ‘The toe
should not be pared, but the heels are to be lowered as much as possible
and a shoe put on with a long projecting toe piece, slightly turned up,
while the heels of the shoe are to be made thin.
Crooked Foot. ‘his is that condition in which one side of the
wall is higher than the other. If the inside wall is the higher, the an-
kle is thrown outward, so that the fetlock joints are abnormally wide
apart and the toes close together. Animals with this deformity are
‘‘pigeon-toed,’’ and are liable to interfere, the inside toe striking the
opposite fetlock. If but one foot is affected, the other being perfect,
the liability to interfere is still greater, for the reason that the fetlock of
the perfect leg is more near the center plane.
When the outside heel is the higher the ankle is thrown in and the
toe turns out. Horses with such feet interfere with the heel. If but
176 THE HORSE.
one foot is so affected, the liability to interfere is less than where both
feet are affected, for the reason that the ankle of the perfect leg is not
so near to the center line. Such animals are especially liable to stumb-
ling and to lameness from injury to the ligaments of the fetlock joints.
The deformity is to be overcome by such shoeing as will equalize
length of walls, and by proper boots to protect the fetlocks from
interfering.
Interfering. An animal is said to interfere when one foot strikes
the opposite leg, as it passes by. The inner surface of the fetlock joint
is the part most subject to this injury, although it may happen to any
part of the ankle. It is more common in the hind than in the fore legs.
Interfering causes a bruise, which is generally accompanied by broken
skin. It may cause lameness, dangerous tripping, and thickening of the
injured parts.
Causes. Faulty formation is the usual cause of interfering. When
the bones of the leg are so united that the toe of the foot turns in
(pigeon-toed), or when the fetlock joints are close together and the
toe turns out, when the leg is so deformed that the whole foot and
ankle turn either in or out, interfering is almost sure to follow. It may
happen, also, when the feet grow too long; from defective shoeing;
rough or slippery. roads; from the exhaustion of labor or sickness; swell-
ing of the leg; high knee action; fast work, and because the chest or
hips are too narrow.
Symptoms. Generally, the evidences of interfering are easily de-
tected, for the parts are tender, swollen, and the skin broken. But very
often, especially in trotters, the flat surface of the hoof strikes the fetlock
without evident injury, and attention is directed to these parts only by
the occasional tripping and unsteady gait. In such cases proof of the
cause may be had by walking and trotting the animal, after first paint-
ing the inside toe and quarter of the suspected foot with a thin coating
of chalk, charcoal, mud, or paint.
Treatment. When the trouble is due to deformity or faulty forma-
tion it may not be possible to overcome the defect.
In such cases, and as well those due to exhaustion or fatigue, the fet-
lock or ankle boot must be used. In many instances interfering may be
prevented by proper shoeing. The outside heel and quarter of the foot
on the injured leg should be lowered sufficiently to change the relative
position of the fetlock joint, by bringing it further away from the center
KNEE, FETLOCK, ANKLE, AND FOOT. 177
plane of the body, thereby permitting the other foot to pass by without
striking.
A very slight change is often sufficient to effect this result. At the
same time the offending foot should be so shod, that the shoe sets well
under the hoof at the point which causes the injury. The shoe should
be reset every three or four weeks.
When the cause has been removed cold water bandages to the injured
parts will soon remove the soreness and swelling, especially in recent
cases. If, however, the fetlock has become calloused from long-contin-
ued bruising, a Spanish fly blister over the parts, repeated in two or
three weeks’ time if necessary, will aid in reducing the leg to its natural
condition.
Knuckling or Cocked Ankles. Knuckling isa partial disloca-
tion of the fetlock joint, in which the relative position of the pastern
bone to the cannon and coronet bones is changed, the pastern becoming
more nearly perpendicular, with the lower end of the cannon bone rest-
ing behind the center line of the suffraginis, while the lower end of this
bone rests behind the center line of the coronet. While knuckling is
not always an unsoundness, it nevertheless predisposes to stumbling and
to fracture of the pastern.
Causes. Young foals are quite subject to this condition, but in the
great majority of cases it is only temporary. It is largely due to the
| fact that, before birth, the legs were bent; and time is required, after
- birth, for the ligaments, tendons, and muscles to adapt themselves to the
function of sustaining the weight of the body.
Horses with erect pasterns are very prone to knuckle as they grow
old, especially in the hind legs. All kinds of heavy work, particularly
in hilly districts, and fast work on hard race-tracks or roads are exciting
causes of knuckling. It is also seen as an accompaniment to that faulty
formation called club-foot, in which the toe of the wall is perpendicular
and short, and the heels high, a condition most often seen in the mule,
especially the hind feet.
Lastly, knuckling is caused by disease of the suspensory ligament, or
of the flexor tendons, whereby they are shortened, and by disease of the
fetlock joints.
Treatment. In young foals no treatment is necessary, unless there
is some deformity present, since the legs straighten up without inter-
ference in the course of a few weeks’ time. When knuckling has com-
menced, relieve the tendons and ligaments by proper shoeing. Prepare
178 THE HORSE.
the foot for the shoe by shortening the toe as much as possible, leaving
the heels high; or if the foot is prepared in the usual way the shoe
should be thin in front, with thick heels and high calks. For the hind
feet a long-heeled shoe with calks seems to do best. When possible, the
causes of knuckling are to be removed, but since this can not always be
done, the time may come when the patient can no longer perform any
service, particularly in those cases where both fore-legs are affected, and
it becomes necessary either to destroy the animal or secure relief by
surgical interference. Insuch cases the operation is beyond the skill of
the ordinary horseman, and an expert should be consulted.
Over-reaching. An over-reach is where the shoe of the hind foot
strikes and injures the heel or quarter of the fore foot. It rarely hap-
pens except when the animalis going fast, hence is most common in
trotting and running horses. In trotters the accident generally happens
when the animal breaks from a trot to a run. The outside heels and
quarters are most liable to the injury.
Symptoms. The coronet at the heel or quarter is bruised or cut,
the injury in some instances involving the horn as well. Where the
hind foot strikes well back on the heel of the fore-foot (an accident known
among horsemen as ‘‘grabbing’’) the shoe may be torn from the fore-foot
or the animal may fall to his knees. Horses accustomed to over-reaching
are often “‘bad breakers,’’ for the reason that the pain of the injury so
“excites them that they can not readily be brought back to the trot-
ting gait.
Treatment. If the injury is but a slight bruise cold water ban-
dages applied for a few days will remove all of the soreness. If the
parts are deeply cut more or less suppuration will follow, and, as a rule,
it is well to poultice the parts for a day or two, after which cold baths
may be used, or the wounds dressed with tincture of aloes, oakum, and
a roller bandage.
When an animal is known to be subject to over-reaching, he should
never be driven fast without quarter-boots, which are specially made for
the protection of the heels and quarters.
If there is a disposition to ‘‘grab’’ the forward shoes, the trouble may
be remedied by having the heels of these shoes made as short as pos-
sible, while the toe of the hind foot should project well over the hind
shoe. When circumstances will permit of their use, the fore-feet may be
shod with the tips instead of the common shoe, as described in the treat-
ment for contracted heels.
KNEE, FETLOCK, ANKLE, AND FOOT. 179
Calk Wounds. Horses wearing shoes with sharp calks are liable
to wounds of the coronary region, either from tramping on themselves,
or on each other. These injuries are most common in heavy draught
horses, especially on rough roads and slippery streets. The fore-feet
are more liable than the hind ones, and the seat of injury is commonly
on the quarters. In the hind-feet the wound often results from the
animal resting with the heel of one foot set directly over the front of the
other. In these cases the injury is generally close to the horn, and often
involves the coronary band, the sensitive laminz, the extensor tendon,
and even the coffin bone.
Treatment. Preventive measures would include the use of boots to
protect the coronet of the hind-foot, and the use of a blunt calk on the
outside heel of the fore shoe, since this is generally the offender where
the fore-feet are injured. If the wound is not deep and the soreness
slight, cold-water bandages and a light protective dressing, such as car-
bolized cosmoline, will be all that is needed. Where the injury is deep,
followed by inflammation and suppuration of the coronary band, lateral
cartilages, sensitive laminee, etc., active measures must be resorted to.
In these cases cold, astringent baths, made by adding two ounces of
sulphate of iron to a gallon of water, should be used, followed by poul-
tices if it is necessary to hasten the cleansing of the wound by stimu-
lating the sloughing process. Where the wound is deep between the
horn and skin, especially over the anterior tendon, the horn should be
cut away so that the injured tissues may be exposed. The subsequent
treatment in these cases should follow the directions laid down in the
article on toe-cracks.
Frost Bites. Excepting the ears, the feet and legs are about the
only parts of the horse liable to become frost-bitten. The cases most
commonly seen are found in cities, especially among car horses, where
salt is used for the purpose of melting the snow on curves and switches.
This mixture of snow and salt is splashed over the feet and legs, rapidly
lowering the temperature of the parts to the freezing point. In moun-
tainous districts where the snowfall is heavy and the cold often in-
tense, frost bites are not uncomnion even among animals running
at large.
Symptoms. When the frosting is slight the skin becomes pale and
bloodless, followed soon after by intense redness, heat, pain, and swell-
ing. In these cases the hair may fall out and the epidermis peel off, but
the inflammation soon subsides, the swelling disappears, and only an in-
creased sensitiveness to cold remains.
180 THE HORSE.
In cases more severe, irregular patches of skin are destroyed, and after
a few day’s time slough away, leaving slow-healing ulcers behind. In
the cases produced by low temperatures and deep snow the coronary
band is the part most often affected.
In many instances there is no destruction of the skin, but simply a
temporary suspension of the horn-producing function of the coronary
band. ‘The fore-feet are more often affected than the hind ones, and for
some reason the heels and quarters are less often involved than the front
part of the foot. The coronary band becomes hot, swollen and painful,
and after two or three days’ time the horn separates from the band and
slight suppuration follows. For a few days the animal is lame, but as
the suppuration disappears, the lameness subsides; new horn, often of an
inferior quality, is produced by the coronary band, and in time the cleft
is grown off and complete recovery is effected. The frog is occasionally
frost bitten and may slough off, exposing the soft tissues beneath and
causing severe lameness for a time.
Treatment. Simple frost bites are best treated by cold fomentations
followed by applications of a five per cent. solution of carbolized oil.
When portions of the skin are destroyed their early separation should
be hastened by warm fomentations and poultices. Ulcers are to be
treated by the application of stimulating dressings such as carbolized oil,
a one per cent. solution of nitrate of silver or of chloride of zinc, with
pads of oakum and flannel bandages. In many of these cases recovery
is exceedingly slow. The new tissue by which the destroyed skin is re-
placed always shrinks in healing, and as a consequence unsightly scars
are unavoidable. Where the coronary band is involved it is generally
advisable to blister the coronet over the seat of injury as soon as the
suppuration ceases, for the purpose of stimulating the growth of new
horn. Where a crevasse is formed between the old and new horn, no
serious trouble is likely to be met with until the cleft is nearly grown
out, when the soft tissues may be exposed by a breaking off of the partly
detached horn.
But even where this accident happens final recovery is secured by
poulticing the foot untila sufficient growth of horn protects the part
from injury.
Sprain of the Fetlock. Sprain of the fetlock joint is most com-
mon in the fore-legs, and as a rule affects but one at atime. Horses
doing fast work, as trotters, runners, steeple-chasers, hunters, cow-
ponies, and those that interfere, are particularly liable to the injury.
KNEE, FETLOCK, ANKLE, AND FOOT. 181
Causes. Horses knuckling at the fetlock, and all those with diseases
which impair the powers of locomotion, such as navicular disease, con-
tracted heels, side bones, chronic laminitis, etc., are predisposed to
sprains of the fetlock. It generally happens from a misstep, stumbling,
or slipping, which results in the joint being extended or flexed to excess.
The same result may happen where the foot is caught in a rut, hole ina
bridge, or in a car track, and the animal falls or struggles violently.
Direct blows and punctured wounds may also set up the inflammation
of the joint.
Symptoms. The symptoms of sprain of the fetlock vary with the
severity of the injury. If slight there may be no lameness, but simply
a little soreness, especially when the foot strikes on uneven ground, and
the joint is twisted a little. In cases more severe the joint swells, is hot
and puffy, and the lameness may be so intense as to compel the animal
to hobble on three legs. While at rest the leg is flexed at the joint
affected, and the toe rests on the ground.
Treatment. If the injury is slight, cold-water bandages and a few
days’ rest are sufficient to effect recovery. In cases where there is
intense lameness, swelling, etc., the leg should be placed under a con-
stant stream of cold water, as described in the treatment for quittor.
When the inflammation has subsided a blister to the joint should be
applied.
In some cases, especially in old horses long accustomed to fast work,
the ligaments of the joints are ruptured, in whole or in part, and the
lameness may last a long time. In these cases the joint should be kept
completely at rest; and this condition is best secured by the application
of the plaster of Paris bandages, as in cases of fracture. As a rule,
patients take kindly to this bandage, and may be given the freedom of
a roomy box or yard while wearing it. If they are disposed to tear it
off, or if sufficient rest can not otherwise be secured, the patient must be
kept in slings. :
In the majority of instances the plaster bandage should remain on from
two to four weeks. If the lameness returns when the bandage is re-
moved, a new one should be put on. The swelling, which always re-
mains after the other evidences of the disease have dissappeared, may be
largely dissipated and the joint strengthened by the use of the firing
iron and blisters.
A joint once injured by a severe sprain never entirely regains its
original strength, and is ever after particularly liable to a repetition of
the injury.
182 THE HORSE.
Thrush is a disease characterized by an excessive secretion of un-
healthy matter from the cleft of the frog. While all classes of horses
are liable to this affection, it is more often seen in the common draft
horse than other breeds, a fact due to the conditions of servitude and not
to the fault of the breed. Country horses are much less subject to the
disease, except in wet, marshy districts, than are the horses used in
cities and towns.
Causes. The most common cause of thrush is the filthy condition
of the stable in which the animal is kept. Mares are more liable to con-
tract the disease in the hind-feet when the cause is due to filth, while
the gelding and stallion are more likely to develop it in the fore-feet.
Hard work, on rough and stony roads, may also induce the disease, as
may a change from dryness to excessive moisture. ‘The latter cause is
often seen to operate in old truck horses, whose feet are constantly
soaked in the bath-tub for the purpose of relieving soreness. Muddy
streets and roads, especially where mineral substances are plentiful, ex-
cite this abnormal condition of the frog. Contracted feet, scratches, and
navicular disease predispose to thrush, while by some a constitutional
tendency is believed to exist among certain animals which otherwise pre-
sent a perfect frog.
Symptoms. At first there is simply an increased moisture in the
cleft of the frog, accompanied by an offensive smell. After a time a
considerable discharge takes place (thin, watery, and highly offensive),
changing gradually to a thicker uniform matter, which rapidly destroys
the horn of the frog. Only in old and severe cases is the patient lame
and the foot feverish, (cases in which the whole frog is involved in the
diseased process).
Treatment. Thrushes are to be treated by cleanliness, the removal
of all exciting causes, and a return of the frog to its normal condition.
As a rule, the diseased and ragged portions of horn are to be pared away,
and the foot poulticed for a day or two with boiled turnips, to which may
be added a few drops of carbolic acid or a handful of powdered charcoal
to destroy the offensive smell. The cleft of the frog and the grooves on
the edges are then to be cleaned and well filled with dry calomel, and the
foot dressed with oakum and a roller bandage. If the discharge is pro-
fuse the dressing should be changed daily, otherwise it may be left on
for two or three days at a time. Where a constitutional taint is sup-
posed to exist with swelling of the legs, grease, etc., a purgative fol-
lowed by dram doses of sulphate of iron, repeated daily, may be pre-
KNEE, FETLOCK, ANKLE, AND FOOT. 183
scribed. In cases where the growth of horn seems too slow, a Spanish
fly blister applied to the heels is often followed by good results. Feet in
which the disease is readily induced may be protected in the stable with
a leather boot. If the thrush is but a sequel to other diseases a perma-
nent cure may not be possible.
Wind-galls. Joints and tendons are furnished with sacs containing
a lubricating fluid.called synovia. When these sacs are overdistended,
by reason of an excessive secretion of synovia, they are called wind-
galls. They form a soft, puffy tumor about the size of a hickory nut,
and are most often found in the fore-leg, at the upper part of the fetlock
joint, between the tendon and the shin-bone. When they develop in
the hind-leg it is not unusual to see them reach the size of a walnut.
Occasionally they appear in front of the fetlock on the border of the
tendon. The majority of the horses are not subject to them after colt-
hood is passed.
Causes. Wind-galls are often seen in young, over-grown horses,
where the body seems to have outgrown the ability of the joints to sus-
‘tain the weight. In cart and other horses used to hard work, in trotters
with excessive knee action, in hurdle racers and hunters, and in most
cow-ponies there is a pre-disposition to wind-galls. Street-car horses
and others used to start heavy loads on slippery streets are the ones
most apt to develop wind-galls in the hind legs.
Symptoms. The tumor is more or less firm and tense when the
foot is on the ground, but is soft and compressible when the foot is off
the ground. In old horses wind-galls generally develop slowly and
cause no inconvenience. If they are caused by excessive tension of the
joint the tumor develops rapidly, is tense, hot, and painful, and the ani-
mal is exceedingly lame. The patient stands with the joint flexed,
walks with short steps, the toe only being placed on the ground. When
the tumor is large and situated upon the inside of the leg it may be in-
jured by interfering, causing stumbling and inflammation of the sac.
Rest generally causes the tumor to diminish in size, only to fill up
again after renewed labor. In old cases the tumors are hardened,
and may become converted into bone by a deposit of the lime
salts.
Treatment. The large, puffy joints of suckling colts, as a rule, re-
quire no treatment, for as the animal grows older the parts clean up, and
after a time the swelling entirely disappears.
When the trouble is due to an injury, entire rest is to be secured by
184 THE HORSZ.
the use of slings and a high-heeled shoe. Cold water douches should
be used once or twice a day, followed by cold water bandages, until the
fever has subsided and the soreness is largely removed, when a blister is
to be applied.
In old wind-galls, which cause more or less stiffness, some relief may
be had by the use of cold compress bandages, elastic boots, or the red
iodide of mercury blisters. Enforced rest until complete recovery is
effected should always be insisted on, as a too early return to work is
sure to be followed by a relapse.
Bruise of the Frog. When the frog is severely bruised the in-
jury is followed by suppuration beneath the horn, and at times by par-
tial gangrene of the plantar cushion.
Causes. A bruise of the frog generally happens from the animal
stepping on a rough stone or other hard object. It is more apt to take
place when the animal is trotting, running, or jumping than when he is
at a slower pace. A stone wedged between the branches of the shoe
in the cleft of the frog, or between the sides of the frog and the shoe,
and remaining for a time, produces the same results. A cut through the
horny frog with some sharp instrument or a punctured wound with a
blunt pointed instrument may also cause suppuration and gangrene of
the plantar cushion. Broad, flat feet, with low heels and fleshy frog,
are most liable to these injuries.
Symptoms. Lameness, severe in proportion to the extent of the
bruise and the consequent suppuration, is always an early symptom.
When the animal moves the toe only is placed to the ground, or the
foot is carried in the air and the patient hobbles along on three legs.
When he is at rest the foot is set forward with the toe resting on the
ground and the leg flexed at the fetlock joint. As soon as the pus finds
its way to the surface the lameness improves. If the frog is exam-
ined early the injured spot may usually be found, and if no open-
ing exists the collection of pus may be detected working its way
toward the heels. The horn is felt to be loosened from the deeper tis-
sues, and if it is pared through, a thin, yellow, watery and offensive pus
escapes. In other cases a ragged opening is found in the frog, leading
down to a mass of dead, sloughing tissues, which are pale green in color
if gangrene of the plantar cushion has set in. In rare cases the coffin
bone may be involved in the injury and a smail portion of it may become
carious.
KNEE, FETLOCK, ANKLE, AND FOOT. 185
Treatment. If the injury is seen at once the foot should be placed
in a bath of cold water with the object of preventing suppuration. If
suppuration has already set in the horn of the frog, and of the bars and
branches of the sole if necessary, is to be pared thin, so that all possible
pressure may be removed and the foot poulticed. As soon as the pus
has loosened the horn, all the detached portions are to be cut away. If
the pus is discharging from an opening near the hair the whole frog, or
one-half of it will generally be found separated from the plantar cush-
ion, and is to be removed with the knife. After a few days’ time the
gangrene portion of the cushion will slough off under the stimulating
effects of the poultice, and under rare circumstances only should the
dead parts be removed by surgical interference. Where the slough is
all detached the remaining wound is to be treated with simple stimulat-
ing dressings, such as tincture of aloes or turpentine, oakum balls, and
bandages as directed in punctured wounds. ‘The lameness having sub-
sided, and a thin layer of new horn having grown on the exposed parts,
the foot may be shod, the frog covered with a thick pad of oakum, held
in place by pieces of tin fitted to slide under the shoe, and the animal
returned to slow work.
Rupture of the Suspensory Ligament. Sprain, with or with-
out rupture, of the suspensory ligament, may happen in both the fore
and hind-legs, and is occasionally seen in horses of all classes and at all
ages. Old animals, however, and especially hunters, runners, and trot-
ters, are the most subject to this injury, and with these classes the seat
of the trouble is nearly always in one, or both, the fore legs. Horses
used for heavy draught are more liable to have the ligament of the hind-
legs affected.
When the strain upon the suspensory ligament becomes too great
one or both of the branches may be torn from their attachments
to the sesamoid bones; one or both of the branches may be torn
completely across; or the ligament may rupture above the point of
division.
Symptoms. ‘The most common injury to the suspensory ligament
is sprain of the internal branch in one of the fore-legs. The trouble is
proclaimed by lameness, heat, swelling and tenderness of the affected
branch, beginning just above the sesamoid bone and extending obliquely
downward and forward to the front of the ankle. If the whole ligament
is involved the swelling comes on gradually, and is found above the fet-
lock and in front of the flexor tendons. The patient stands or walks
186 THE HORSE.
upon the toe as much as possible, keeping the fetlock joint flexed so as
éo relieve the ligament of tension.
When both branches are torn from their attachments to the sesamoids,
or both are torn across, the lameness comes on suddenly and is most
intense; the fetlock descends, the toe turns up and, as the animal at-
tempts to walk, the leg has the appearance of being broken off at
the fetlock. These symptoms, followed by heat, pain, and swelling
of the parts at the point of injury will enable any one to make a
diagnosis.
Treatment. Sprain of the suspensory ligament, no matter how
mild it may be, should always be treated by enforced rest of at least a
month, and the application of cold douches and cold water bandages,
firmly applied until the fever has subsided, when a cantharides blister
should be put on and repeated in two or three weeks’ time, if neces-
sary. When rupture has taken place the patient should be put in
slings, and a constant stream of cold water allowed to trickle over
the seat of injury until the fever is reduced. In the course of a
week or ten days’ time a plaster of Paris splint, such as is used
in fractures, is to be applied and left on for a month or six weeks.
When this is taken off blisters may be used to remove the remain-
ing soreness; but it is useless to expect a removal of all the thicken-
ing, for in the process of repair new tissue has been formed which will
always remain.
Corns. A corn is an injury to the living horn of the foot, involving
at the same time the soft tissues beneath, whereby the capillary blood-
vessels are ruptured and a small amount of blood escapes, which, by
permeating the horn in the immediate neighborhood, stains it a dark
color. If the injury is continuously repeated the horn becomes altered
in character, the soft tissues may suppurate, causing the disease to
spread, or a horny tumor may develop. Corns always appear in that
part of the sole included in the angle between the bar and the outside
wall of the hoof. In many cases the laminz of the bar, or of the wall,
or of both, are involved at the same time.
Three kinds of corns are com monly recognized (the dry, the moist,
and the suppurative), a division based solely on the character of the
conditions which follow the primary injury.
The fore-feet are almost exclusively the subjects of the disease, for
two reasons: first because they support a greater part of the body;
secondly because the heel of the fore-foot during progression is first
KNEE, FETLOCK, ANKLE, AND FOOT. 187
placed upon the ground, whereby it receives much more concussion
than the ‘heel of the hind-foot, in which the toe first strikes the
ground,
Causes. It may be said that all feet are exposed to corns, and that
even the best feet may suffer from them when the conditions necessary
to the production of the peculiar injury are present. ‘The heavier breed
of horses generally used for heavy work on rough roads and streets
seems to be most liable to this trouble. Mules rarely have corns.
Among the causes which lead to corns may be named high heels,
which change the natural position of the bones of the foot; contracted
heels, which partly destroy the elasticity of the foot; long feet, which
by removing the frog and heels too far from the ground, deprive them
of necessary moisture, weak feet, or those in which the horn of the wall
is too thin to resist the tendency to spread. Wide feet with low heels
are always accompanied by a flat sole whose posterior wings either rest
upon the ground or the shoe.
Improper shoeing either as a direct or a predisposing cause, produces
many corns. One of the most serious as well as the most common of
the errors in shoeing is to be found in the preparation of the foot for the
shoe. Instead of seeking to maintain the strength of the arch the first
thing done is to weaken it by paring away the sole; the mutilation does
not end here, for the frog is also largely cut away. ‘This permits an ex-
cessive downward movement of the contents of the horny box, and at
the same time removes the means by which concussion of the foot is
destroyed. There is also faulty construction of the shoe and the way it
is adjusted to the foot. An excess of concavity in the shoe, by extend-
ing it too far back on the heels, high calks, thin heels which permit the
shoe to spring, short heels with a calk set under the foot, and a shoe
too light for the animal wearing it or for the work required of him, are
all to be avoided as causes of corns. A shoe so set as to press upon the
sole, or one that has been on so long that the hoof has overgrown it
until the heel rests upon the sole and bars, becomes a direct cause of
corns. Small stones, hard dry earth, or other objects which collect be-
tween the sole and shoe is often the cause of corns. Lastly, a rapid gait
and excessive knee action, especially on hard roads, predispose to this
disease of the feet.
Symptoms. Usually a corn causes enough pain to cause lameness.
It may be intense as seen in suppurative corn, or it may be a slight sore-
ness, such as that which accompanies dry corn. It is by no means un-
188 THE HORSE.
usual to see old horses having chronic corns, apparently so accustom J
to the slight pain which they suffer as not to limp at all; but these
animals are generally very restless; they paw their bedding behind them
at night, and in many instances they refuse to lie down for any length-
ened rest. The lameness of this disease, however, can hardly be said to
be characteristic, for the reason that it varies so greatly in intensity:
but the position of the leg while the patient is at rest is generally the
same in all cases. The foot is so advanced that it is relieved of all
weight and the fetlock is bent until all pressure by the contents of the
hoof is removed from the heels. In suppurative (festered) corn the
lameness disappears as soon as the abscess has opened. When the in-
jured tissues are much inflamed, as may happen in severe and recent
cases, the heel of the affected side, or even the whole foot is hot and
tender to pressure. In dry corn, and in most chronic cases, all evidences
of local fever are often wanting. It is in these cases that the patient
goes well when newly shod, for the smith cuts away the sole over the
seat of injury until all pressure by the shoe is removed, and lowers the
heel so that the concussion is reduced toa minimum. Ifa corn is sus-
pected the foot should be examined for increased sensibility of the inside
heel. Tapping the heel of the shoe with a hammer and grasping the
wall and bar between the jaws of a pinclers, with moderte pressure,
will cause more or less flinching if the disease is present. For further
evidence the shoe is removed and the heel cut away with the drawing
knife. As the horn is pared out not only the sole in the angle is dis-
colored, but, in many instances, this insensible laminze of the bar and
wall adjacent are also stained with the escaped blood. In moist and
suppurative corns this discoloration is less marked than in dry corn and
may even be entirely wanting. In these cases the horn is soft, often
white, stringy or mealy, as seen in pumiced sole resulting from founder.
When the whole thickness of the sole is discolored and the horn dry and-
brittle it is generally evidence that the corn is an old one and that the
exciting cause has existed continuously. A moist corn differs from the
dry corn in that the injury is more severe, the parts affected are more
or less inflamed, and the horn of the sole in the angle is undermined by
a citron-colored fluid, which often permeates the injured sole and lam-
inze, causing the horn to become somewhat spongy.
A suppurative corn differs from the others in that inflammation ac-
companying the injury ends in suppuration. The pus collects at the
point of injury and finally escapes by working a passageway between
KNEE, FETLOCK, ANKLE, AND FOOT. 189
the sensitive and insensitive laminee to the top of the hoof, where
an opening is made by the separation of the wall from the coronary band
at or near the heels. This is the most serious form of corns, for the
reason that it may induce gangrene of the plantar cushion, cartilaginous
quittor, or caries of the coffin bone.
As in all other troubles, the cause must be discovered if possible, and
removed. In the great majority of cases the shoeing will be at fault.
While sudden changes in the method of shoeing are not advisable, it
may be said that all errors, either in the preparation of the foot, in the
construction of the shoe, or in its application, may very properly be
corrected at any time. Circumstances may, at times, make it impera-
tive that shoes shall be worn which are not free from objections, as, for
instance, the shoe with a high calk; but in such cases it is considered
that the injuries liable to result from the use of calks are less serious than
those which are sure to happen for the want of them.
For a sound foot, perfectly formed, a flat shoe, with heels less thick
than the toe, and which rests evenly on the wall proper, is the best. In
flat feet it is often necessary to concave the shoe as much as possible on
the upper surface, so that the sole may not be pressed upon. If the
heels are very low the heels of the shoe may be made thicker. If the
foot is very broad and the wall light toward the heels, a bar shoe, rest-
ing upon the frog, will aid to excessive tension upon the soft tissues
when the foot receives the weight of the body. A piece of leather
placed between the foot and the shoe serves to largely destroy con-
cussion, and its use is absolutely necessary on some animals in that they
may be kept at work.
Lastly, among the preventive measures, may be mentioned those
which serve to maintain the suppleness of the hoof. The dead horn
upon the surface of the sole not only retains moisture for a long time,
but protects the living horn beneath from the effects of evaporation, and
for this reason the sole should be pared as little as possible. Stuffing
the feet with flaxseed meal, wet clay, or other like substances; damp
dirt floors or damp bedding of tan-bark, greasy hoof ointments, etc., are
all means which may be used to keep the feet from becoming too dry
and hard.
As to the curative measures which are adopted much will depend upon
the extent of the injury. If the case is one of chronic dry corn, with
but slight lameness, the foot should be poulticed for a day or two and
the discolored horn pared out, care being taken not to injure the soft
190 THE HORSE
tissues. The heel on the affected side is to be lowered until all pressure
is removed, and, if the patient’s labor is required, the foot must be shod
with a bar shoe or with one having stiff heels. Care must be taken to
reset the shoe before the foot has grown too long, else the shoe will no
longer rest on the wall but on the sole and bar.
In moist corns cut them out. If there is inflammation present, cold
baths and poultices should be used; when the horn is well softened and
the fever allayed, pare out all of the diseased horn, lightly cauterize
the soft tissues beneath, and poultice the foot for two or three
days. When the granulations look red dress the wound with oakum
balls saturated in a weak solution of tincture of aloes or spirits of cam-
phor, and apply a roller bandage. Change the dressing every two or
three days until a firm, healthy layer of new horn covers the wound,
when the shoe may be put on, as in dry corn, and the patient returned
to work.
In suppurative corns the loosened horn must be removed so that the
pus may freely escape. If the pus has worked a passage to the coronary
band, and escapes from an opening between the band and hoof, an open-
ing must be made on the sole, and cold baths, made astringent with a
little sulphate of iron or copper, are to be used for aday or two. When
the discharge becomes healthy the fistulous tracts may be injected daily
with a weak solution of bichloride of mercury, nitrate of silver, etc., and
the foot dressed as for the operation for moist corns.
Contracted Heels. Contracted heels, or hoof-bound as it is some-
times called, is a common disease, especially among horses kept on hard
floors in dry stables, and in such as are subject to much saddle work.
It consists in shrinking of the tissues of the foot, whereby the lateral
diameter of the heels is diminished. It affects the fore-feet principally,
but is seen occasionally in the hind-feet, where it is of less importance
for the reason that the hind-foot strikes the ground with the toe, and,
consequently, less expansion of the heel is necessary than in the fore-
feet where the weight is first received on the heels, and any interference
with the expansibility of this part of the foot interferes with locomotion
and gives rise to lameness.
Usually but one foot is affected at a time, but when both are diseased
the change is greater in one than in the other. Occasionally but one
heel, and that the inner one, is contracted; in these cases there is less
likely to be lameness and permanent loss of the animal’s usefulness.
According to the opinion of some of the French veterinarians, hoof-
KNEE, FETLOCK, ANKLE, AND FOOT. IgI
bound should be divided into two classes—total contraction, in which
the whole foot is shrunken in size, and contraction of the heels, when
the trouble extends only from the quarters backward.
Causes. Animals raised in wet or marshy districts, when taken to
towns and kept on dry floors, are liable to have contracted heels, not
alone because the horn becomes dry but because fever of the feet and
wasting away of the soft tissues result from the change. Another com-
mon cause of contracted heels is to be found in faulty shoeing, such as
rasping the wall, cutting away the frog, heels, and bars; high calks and
the use of nails too near the heels. Contracted heels may happen also
as one of the results of other diseases of the foot; for instance, it often
accompanies thrush, side-bones, ring-bones, canker, navicular dis-
ease, corns, sprains of the flexor tendons, of the sesamoid and
suspensory ligaments, and from excessive knuckling of the fetlock
joints.
Symptoms. In contraction of the heels the foot has lost its circular
shape, and the walls from the quarters backward approach to a straight
line. The ground surface of the foot is now smaller than the coronary
circumference; the frog is pinched between the inclosing heels, is much
shrunken, and at times affected with thrush. The sole is more con-
cave than natural, the heels are higher, and the bars are long and nearly
perpendicular. The whole hoof is dry, and so hard that it can scarcely
be cut; the parts toward the heels are scaly and often rigid like the
horns of a ram, while fissures, more or less deep, may be seen at the
quarters and heels following the direction of the horn fibers. When the
disease is well advanced lameness is present; in the earlier stages there
is only an uneasiness evinced by frequent shifting of the affected foot or
feet. Stumbling is common, especially on hard or rough roads. In
most cases the animal comes out of the stable stiff and inclined to walk
on the toe, but after exercise he may go free again. He wears his shoes
off at the toe in a short time, no matter whether he works or remains in
the stable. If the shoe is removed and the foot pared, in old cases a
dry, mealy horn where the sole and horn unite, extending upward in a
narrow line toward the quarters.
Treatment. First of all, the preventive measures must be consid-
ered. The feet must be kept moist and the horn be prevented from
drying out by the use of moist sawdust or other damp bedding; by occa-
sional poultices of boiled turnips, linseed meal, etc., and the use of
greasy hoof ointments to both the sole and walls of the feet. The wall
192 THE HORSE.
of the foot should be spared from the abuse of the rasp; the frog, heels,
and bars are not to be mutilated with the knife, nor should calks be
used on the shoe except when absolutely necessary. The shoes should
be reset at least once a month, to prevent the feet from becoming too
long, and daily exercise must be insisted on.
As to curative measures a diversity of opinion exists. A number of
kinds of special shoes have been invented, having for an object the
spreading of the heels, and perhaps any of these, if properly used, would
eventually effect the desired result. But a serious objection to most of
these shoes is that they are expensive and often difficult of make and
application. ‘The following method of treatment in these cases is not
only attended with good results, but is inexpensive, if the loss of the
patient’s services for a time is not considered a part of the question. It
consists, first, in the use of poultices or baths of cold water for a few
days until the horn is thoroughly softened.. The foot is now prepared
for the shoe in the usual way, except that the heels are lowered a little,
the frog remaining untouched. A shoe called a ‘‘tip’’ is made by cut-
ting off both branches at the center of the foot and drawing the ends
down to an edge. The tapering of the branches should begin at the
toe, and the shoe should be of the usual width, with both the upper and
lower surfaces flat. This tip is to be fastened on with six or eight small
nails, all set well forward, two being in the toe. With a common foot
rasp begin at the heels, close to the coronet, and cut away the horn of
the wall until only a thin layer covers the soft tissues beneath. Cut
forward until the new surface meets the same two and one-half to three
inches from the heel. The same sloping shape is to be observed in cut-
ting downward toward the bottom of the foot, at which point the wall is
to retain its normal thickness. The foot is now blistered all around the
coronet with Spanish fly ointment, and when this is well set the patient
is to be turned to pasture in a damp field or meadow. The blister should
be repeated in three or four weeks, and, as a rule, the patient can be
returned to work in two or three months’ time. The object of the tip
is to throw the weight on the frog and heels, which are readily spread
after the horn has been cut away on the sides of the wall. The internal
structures of the foot at the heels, being relieved from excessive pressure,
regain their normal condition if the disease is not of too long stand-
ing. ‘The blister not only tends to relieve any inflammation which
may be present, but it also stimulates a rapid growth of healthy
horn, which, in most cases, ultimately forms a wide and normal heel.
KNEE, FETLOCK, ANKLE, AND FOOT. 193
Canker. Canker of the foot is a disease due to the rapid reproduc-
tion of a vegetable parasite. It not only destroys the sole and frog, but
by setting up a chronic inflammation in the deeper tissues, prevents
the growth of a healthy horn by which the injury might be re-
paired. Heavy cart horses are more often affected than those of any
other class.
Causes. The essential element in the production of cankers is of
course the presence of the parasite; consequently the disease may be
called contagious. But, as in all other diseases due to specific causes,
the seeds of the disorder must find a suitable soil in which to grow be-
fore they are reproduced. It may be said, then, that the conditions
which favor the preparation of the tissues for a reception of the seeds
of this disease are simply predisposing causes.
The condition most favorable to the development of cankers is damp-
ness—in fact, dampness seems indispensable to the existence and growth
of the parasite; for the disease is rarely, if ever, seen in high, dry dis-
tricts, andis much more common in rainy than in dry seasons. Filthy
stables and muddy roads have been classed among the causes of canker;
but it is very doubtful if these conditions can do more than favor a prep-
aration of the foot for the reception of the disease germ.
All injuries to the feet may, by exposing the soft tissues, render the
animal susceptible to infection; but neither the injury nor the irritation
and inflammation of the tissues which follow, are sufficient to induce the
disease.
For some unknown reasons horses with lymphatic temperament,
thick skins, flat feet, fleshy frogs, heavy hair, and particularly with
white feet and legs, are especially liable to canker.
Symptoms. Usually, canker is confined to one foot; but it may at-
tack two, three, or all of the feet at once; or, as is more commonly seen,
the disease attacks first one then another, until all may have been suc-
sessively affected. When the disease follows an injury which has ex-
posed the soft tissues of the foot the wound shows no tendency to heal,
but, instead, there is secreted from the inflamed parts a profuse, thin,
fetid, watery discharge, which gradually undermines and destroys the
surrounding horn, until eventually a large part of the sole and frog is
diseased. ‘The living tissues are swollen, dark-colored, and covered at
certain points with particles of new, soft, yellowish, thready horn,
which are constantly undergoing maceration in the abundant liquid se-
cretion by which they are immersed. As this escapes to the sur-
194 THE HORSE.
rounding parts it dries and forms small cheesy masses composed of the
partly dried horny matter, exceedingly offensive to the sense of smell.
When the disease originates independently of an injury, the first evi-
dences of the trouble are the offensive odors of the foot, the liquid secre-
tion from the cleft and sides of the frog, and the rotting away of the
horn of the frog and sole.
In the earlier stages of the disease there is no interference with local
motion, but later the foot becomes sensitive, particularly if the animal
is used on rough roads, and, finally, when the sole and frog are largely
destroyed the lameness is severe.
Treatment. Since canker does not destroy the power of the tissues
to produce horn, but rather excites them to an excessive production of
an imperfect horn, the indications for treatment are to restore the parts
to a normal condition when healthy horn may again be secreted. In my
experience, limited though it has been, the old practice of stripping off
the entire sole and deep cauterization, with either the hot iron or strong
acids, is not attended with uniformly good results.
I am of -the opinion that recovery can generally be effected as surely
and as speedily with measures which are less heroic and much less pain-
ful. True, the treatment of canker is likely to exhaust the patience,
and sometimes the resources, of the attendant; but after all success de-
pends more on the persistent application of simple remedies and great
cleanliness than on the special virtues of any particular drug.
First, then, clean the foot with warm baths, and apply a poultice con-
taining powdered charcoal or carbolic acid. A handful of the charcoal,
or a table-spoonful of the acid, mixed with the poultice serves to destroy
much of the offensive odor. The diseased portions of horn now to be
carefully removed with sharp instruments, until only healthy horn bor-
ders the affected parts. The edges of the sound horn are to be pared
thin, so that the swollen soft tissues may overlap their borders. With
sharp scissors cut off all the prominent points on the soft tissues, shorten
the walls of the foot, and nail on a broad, plain shoe. The foot is now
ready for the dressings, and any of the many stimnlating and drying
remedies may be used. Whichever is selected at the outset, it will be
necessary to change frequently from one to another, until all may be tried.
The list from which a selection may be made comprises wood tar, gas
tar, petroleum, creosote, phenic acid, sulphates of iron, copper and zinc,
chloride of zinc, bichloride of mercury, calomel, caustic soda, nitrate of
silver, chloride of lime, carbolic, nitric, and sulphuric acids.
KNEF, FETLOCK, ANKLE, AND FOOT. 195
In practice I prefer to give the newly shod foot a bath for an hour or
two in a solution of the sulphate of iron, made by adding two ounces of
powdered sulphate to a gallon of cold water. When the foot is removed
it is dressed with oakum balls, dipped in a mixture macs or Barbadoes
tar, one part; oil of turpentine, eight parts, to which are slowly added
two parts of sulphuric acid, and the mixture well stirred and cooled.
The diseased parts being well covered with the balls, a pad of oakum,
sufficiently thick to cause considerable pressure, is placed over them, and
all are held in place by pieces of heavy tin fitted to slip under the shoe.
The whole foot is now encased in a boot or folded gunny sack, and the
patient turned into a loose, dry box. When they are removed all
pieces of new horny matter, which are not firmly adherent must be
rubbed off with the finger or a tent of oakum. As the secretion dimin-
ishes dry powders may prove of most advantage, such as calomel, sul-
phates of iron, copper, etc. The sulphates should not be used pure, but
are to be mixed with powdered animal charcoal in the proportion of one
of the former to eight or ten of the latter. When the soft tissues are
all horned over, the dressings should be continued for a time, weak solu-
tions being used to prevent a recurrence of the disease. If the patient
is run down in condition, bitter tonics, such as gentian, may be given in
two-dram doses, twice a day, and a liberal diet of grain allowed.
Side-Bones. A side-bone consists in a transformation of the lateral
cartilages found on the wings of the coffin bone into bony matter by the
depositing of lime salts. The disease is a common one, especially in
heavy horses used for draft, in cavalry horses, cow-ponies, and other
saddle horses, and in runners and trotters.
Side-bones are peculiar to the fore-feet, yet they occasionally develop
in the hind. feet where they are of little importance, since they cause no
lameness. In many instances side-bones are of slow growth, and being
unaccompanied by acute inflammation, they cause no lameness until
such time as, by reason of their size, they interfere with the action of
the joint.
Causes. Side-bones often grow in heavy horses without any ap-
parent injury, and their development has been attributed to the over-
expansion of the cartilages caused by the great weight of the animal.
Blows, and other injuries to the cartilages, may set up an inflammatory
process which ends in the formation of these bony growths. High-
heeled shoes, high calks, and long feet are always classed among the
conditions which may excite the growth of side-bones. They are often
196 THE HORSE.
seen in connection with contracted heels, ringbones, navicular diseases,
punctured wounds of the foot, quarter crack, and occasionally as a sequel
to founder.
Symptoms. In the earlier stages of the disease, if inflammation is
present, the only evidence of the trouble to be detected is a little fever
over the seat of the affected cartilage and a slight lameness. In the
lameness of side-bones the toe of the foot first strikes the ground and the
step is shorter than natural. The subject comes out of the stable stiff
and sore, but the gait is more free after exercise.
Since the deposit of the bony matter often begins in that part of the
cartilage where it is attached to the coffin bone, the diseased process
may exist for some time before the bony growth can be seen or felt.
Later on, however, the cartilage can be felt to have lost its soft elastic
character, and by standing in front of the animal a prominence of the
coronary region at the quarters can be seen. Occasionally these bones
become so large as to bulge the hoof outward, and by pressing on the
joint they so interfere with locomotion that the animal becomes entirely
useless.
Treatment. As soon as the disease can be determined active treat-
ment should be adopted. Cold water bandages are to be used for a few
days to relieve the fever and soreness.
The improvement consequent on the use of these simple measures often
leads to the belief that the disease has recovered; but witha return to work
the lameness, fever, etc., reappears. For this reason the use of blisters,
or better still the firing iron, should follow on the discontinuance of the
cold bandages.
But in many instances no treatment will arrest the growth of these
bony tumours, and as a palliative measure neurotomy must be resorted
to. Generally this operation will so relieve the pain of locomotion that
the patient may be used for slow work; but in animals used for faster
driving or for saddle purposes the operation is practically useless. Years
ago a number of cavalry horses at Fort Leavenworth that were suf-
fering from side-bones, were unnerved and the records show that in less
than seven months’ time all were more lame than ever. Since a predis-
position to develop side-bones may be inherited, animals suffering from
this disease should not be used for breeding purposes unless the trouble
is known to have originated from an accident.
Ringbone. A ringbone is the growth of a bony tumour on the
ankle. This tumour is in fact not the disease, but simply the resuit
KNEE, FETLOCK, ANKLE, AND FOOT. 197
affected by an inflammatory action set up in the periosteum and bone
tissue proper of the large and small pastern bones.
Causes. Injuries, such as blows, sprains, overwork in young unde-
veloped animals, fast work on hard roads, jumping, etc., are among the
principal exciting causes of ringbones. Horses most disposed to this
disease are those with short upright pasterns, for the reason that the
shock of locomotion is but imperfectly dissipated in the fore-legs of these
animals. Improper slozing, such as the use of high calks, a too great
shortening of the toe and correspondingly high heels; predispose to this
disease by increasing the concussion to the feet.
Symptoms. The first symptom of an actively developed ringbone
is the appearance of a lameness more or less acute. If the bony tumour
forms on the side or upper parts of the large pastern its growth is gen-
erally unattended with acute inflammatory action, and, consequently,
produces no lameness or evident fever. These are called false ringbones.
But when the tumours form on the whole circumference of the ankle, or
simply in front under the extensor tendon, or behind under the flexor
tendon; or if they involve the joints between the two pastern bones, or
between the small pastern and the coffin bone, the lameness is always
severe. These constitute the true ringbone. Besides the lameness the
ankle of the affected limb presents more or less heat, and in many in-
stances a rather firm, though limited, swelling of the deeper tissues over
the seat of the inflammatory process. ‘The lameness of ringbone is char-
acteristic in that the heel is first placed on the ground when the disease
is in a fore-leg, and the ankle is kept as rigid as possible. In the hind-
leg, however, the toe strikes the ground first when the ringbone is high
on the ankle, just as in health; but the ankle is maintained in a rigid po-
sition. If the bony growth is under the front tendon of the hind-leg, or
if it involves the coffin joint, the heel is brought to the ground first. In
the early stages of the disease it is not always easy to diagnose ring-
bone; but when the deposits have reached some size they can be felt and
seen as well.
The importance of a ringbone of course depends on its seat, and often
on its size. If it interferes with the joints, or with the tendons, it may
cause an incurable lameness even though small. If it is on the sides of
the large pastern, the lameness generally appears as soon as the tumour
has reached its growth and the inflammation subsides. Ewen where
the pastern joint is involved, if complete anchylosis results, the patient
may recover from the lameness with simply an imperfect action of the
foot remaining, due to the stiff joint.
198 THE HORSE.
Treatment. Before the bony growth has commenced, the inflam.
matory process may be cut short by the use of cold baths and wet
bandages, followed by one or more blisters. If the bony deposits have
begun, the firing iron should always be used. Even where the tumours
are large and the pastern joint involved, firing often hastens the process
of anchylosis, and should always be tried.
Where the lower joint is involved, or where the tumour interferes with
the action of the tendons, of course recovery is not to be expected. In
many of these latter cases, however, the animal may be made service-
able by proper shoeing. If the patient walks with the toe on the ground
the foot should be shod with a high-heeled shoe and a short toe. On
the other hand, if he walks on the heela thick-toed and thin heeled shoe
must be worn.
Since ringbone is considered to be one of the hereditary diseases no
animal suffering from this trouble should ever be used for breeding
purposes.
Spavin. This affection, popularly termed BONE SPAVIN, is a disease
of the hock joint. The general impression is that in a spavined hock,
the bony growth should be seated on the front and internal of the joint,
and this is partially correct, as such a growth will constitute a spavin in
the most correct sense of the term. But an enlargment may appear on
the upper part of the hock also, or possibly a little below the inner side _
of the lower extremity of the shank bone, forming what is known as a
HIGH SPAVIN; or, again, the growth may form just on the outside of the
hock and become an OUTSIDE or EXTERNAL SPAVIN. And, finally,
the entire under surface may become the seat of the bony deposit, and
involve the internal face of al the bones of the hock, and this again is a
BONE SPAVIN. ‘There would seem, then, to be but little difficulty in
comprehending the nature of a bone spavin, and there would be none
but for the fact that there are similar affections which might confuse if
careful and intelligent examination is not made.
The hock may be spavined, while to all outward appearance it still
retains its perfect form. With noenlargement tangible to sight or touch
the animal may be disabled by an occuLT SPAVIN, which has resulted
from a union of several of the bones of the joint, and it is only those
who are able to realize the importance of its action to the perfect fulfill-
ment of the full power of action of the hind leg, who can comprehend
the gravity of the trouble. No diseases, if we accept those acute inflam-
matory attacks upon vital organs to which the patient succumbs at once,
KNEE, FETLOCK, ANKLE, AND FOOT. 199
are more destructive to the usefulness and value of a horse than a con-
firmed spavin. Serious in its starting, serious in its progress, it it a
trouble which, when once established, becomes a fixed condition which
there are no known means of dislodging. The inflammation of the
periosteum which it nearly always follows, is usually the effect of some
cause operating upon the complicated structure of: the hock, such as a
sprain which has torn a ligament insertion and lacerated some of its
fibers; or a violent effort in jumping, galloping, or trotting, to which the
victim has been compelled by the torture of whip and spur while in use
by a sporting owner, under the pretext of ‘“‘improving his breed’’; or the
extra exertion of starting too heavy a load; or an effort to recover his
balance from a misstep; or slipping upon an icy surface; or sliding with
worn shoes upon a bad pavement, and other kindred causes. Further
there are families of horses in which this condition has been transmitted
from generation to generation, and animals otherwise of excellent forma-
tion rendered valueless by the misfortune of inherited spavin.
The evil is of the most serious character for other reasons, among
which may be named the slowness of their development and the de-
termined growth. Among the signs that may be mentioned as indi.
cating this condition is a peculiar posture assumed by the patient whit.
at rest, and becoming at length so habitual that it can not fail to suggest
the action of some hidden cause. ‘The posture is due to the action ol
the abductor muscles, of the lower part of the leg being carried inward, and
the heel of the shoe resting on the toe of the opposite foot. Then an
unwillingness may be noticed in the animal to move from one side of the
stall to the other. When driven he will travel stiffly, and with a sort of
sidelong gate between the shafts, and after finishing his task and resting
again in his stall, will pose with the toe pointing forward, the heel
raised, and the hock bent. Some little heat and considerable amount of
inflammation soon appears. ‘The slight lameness which appears when
backing out of the stall ceases to be noticeable after a short distance
of travel.
A minute examination of the hock will then begin to reveal the exist-
ence of a bony enlargement which may be detected just at the junction
of the hock and the cannon bone, on the inside and a little in front, and
evident to both sight and touch. This enlargement or BONE SPAVIN
grows rapidly and persistently and soon acquires dimensions which render
it impossible to doubt any longer its existence or its nature. The argu-
ment obtained by some that because these bony deposits are frequently
200 THE HORSE.
found on both hocks they are not spavins, is wrong. If they are dis:
discovered on both hocks, it proves that they are not confined to a
single joint.
The peculiar lameness of bone spavin, as it affects the motion of the
hock joint, presents two conditions. In one class of cases it is most pro-
nounced when the horse is cool, in the other when he is at work. The
first is shown by the fact that when the animal travels the toe first
touches the ground, and the heel descends more slowly, the motion of
bending at the hock taking place stiffly, and accompanied by a dropping
of the hip on the opposite side. In the other case the peculiarity is that
the lameness increases as the horse travels; that when he stops he seeks
to favor the same leg, and when he resumes his work soon after he steps
much on his toe, as in the first variety.
As with sidebones, though for a somewhat different reason, the di-
mensions of the spavin and the degree of the lameness do not seem to
bear any relation, the greatest lameness at times accompanying a very
small growth. But the distinction between the two varieties of coor, and
WARM may easily be determined by remembering the fact that in a ma-
jority of cases the first, or CooL, is due to a simple exostosis, while the
second is generally connected with disease of the articulation, such as
ulceration of the articular surface.
It is seldom that the advantage of an early knowledge of a spavin ex-
isting can be secured, and when the true nature of the trouble has be-
come apparent it is usually too late to resort to the remedial measures
which, if duly forewarned, might have been employed. But for the loss
of the time wasted in the treatment of purely imaginary ailments very
many cases of bone spavin may be arrested when starting and their vic-
tims preserved for years of comfort for themselves and valuable labor to
their owners.
To consider a hypothetical case: An early discovery of lameness has
been made; that is, the existence of an acute inflammation has been de-
tected. ‘The increased temperature of the parts has been observed, with
the stiffened gait and the peculiar pose of the limbs and the question is
asked, ‘‘What is to be done?’’ Even with only these very doubtful
symptoms (doubtful with the non-expert) direct your treatment to the
hock in preference to any other joint, since of all the joints of the hind
leg it is this which is most liable to be attacked, a natural result from its
peculiarities of structure and function. And in answer to the query,
“What is to be done?’’ we should answer REST, (emphatically, and as
KNEE, FETLOCK, ANKLE, AND FOOT. 201
an essential condition, REST.) Whether only threatened, suspected, or
positively diseased, the animal must be entirely relieved from labor, and
it must be no partial or temporary quiet of a few days. In all stages
and conditions of the disease, whether the spavin is nothing more than
a simple inflammation, or whether accompanied by a complication, there
must be rest until the danger is over. Less than a month’s quiet ought
not to be thought of, the longer the rest, the better.
Good results may be expected fromm local applications. There are va-
rious applications which cool the parts, the astringents which lower the
tension of the blood vessels, the warm fomentations which aid the cir-
culation in the congested capillaries, the liniments of various composi-
tion, the stimulants, the opiate anodynes, the sedative preparations of
aconite, the alterative frictions of iodine, recommended and prescribed
by one or another. The best are counter-irritants, for the simple rea-
son, among many others, that they tend by the promptness of their ac-
tion to prevent the formation of the bony deposits. The lameness will
often yield to the blistering action of cantharides, in the form of
ointment or liniment, and to the alterative preparations of iodine or
mercury. And if the owner of a spavined horse really succeeds in
removing the lameness, he has accomplished all that he is justified in
hoping for; beyond this let him be well persuaded that a ‘‘cure’’ is
impossible.
For this reason, be on guard against the patented ‘‘cures’’ which the
traveling horse doctor may urge upon you, and withhold your faith
from the circular of the agent who will deluge you with references and
certificates. It is possible that nostrums may in some instances prove of
service, but the greater number of them are capable of producing only
bad effects. ‘the removal of the bony tumor can not be accomplished
by such means, and if a trial of these unknown compounds should be
followed by nothing worse than the forming of one or more ugly, hair-
less spots, it will be well for the horse.
Rest and counter-irritation, with the proper medicines, constitute,
then, the prominent points in the treatment designed for the relief of
bone spavin. Yet there are cases in which all the agencies and methods
referred to seem to lack effectiveness and fail to produce satisfactory re-
sults, Hither the rest has been prematurely interrupted, or the blisters
have failed to rightly modify the serous infiltration, or the case in hand
has some hidden characteristics which seem to have rendered the disease
neutral to the means used to cure it. An indication of more energetic
202 THE HORSE.
means is then presented, and free cauterization with the fire-iron be-
comes necessary.
At this point a word of explanation in reference to this oper-
ation of fireing may be appropriate’for the satisfaction of any
who may entertain an exaggerated idea of its severity and possible
cruelty.
The operation is one of simplicity, but is nevertheless one which, in
order to secure its benefits, must be reserved for times and occasions of
which only the best knowledge and highest discretion should be allowed
to judge. It is not the mere application of a hot iron to a given part of
the body which constitutes the operation of firing. It is the methodical
and scientific introduction of heat into the structure with a view to a
given effect upon the diseased organ or tissue. The first is one of the
degrees of mere burning. The other is scientific cauterization, and is a
surgical manipulation.
Either firing alone or stimulation with blisters is of great effi-
cacy for the relief of lameness from bone spavin. Failure to pro-
duce relief after a few applications and after allowing a sufficient
interval of rest, should be followed by a second, or, if meeded, a
third firing.
Blood Spavin and Thoroughpins. The complicated arrange-
ment of the hock joint, and the powerful tendons which pass on the
posterior part, are lubricated with the product of secretion from one ten-
dinous synovial and several articular synovial sacs. One large articular
sac contributes to the lubrication of the shank bone (the tibia) and the
bones of the hock proper (the astragalus). The tendinous sac lies back
of the articulation itself, and extends upwards and downwards in the
groove of that joint through which the flexor tendons slide. ‘The dila-
tation of this articular synovial sac is what is denominated blood spavin,
the term thoroughpin being applied to the dilatation of the tendinous
capsule.
BLooD SPAVIN is situated in front and a little inward of the hock;
the THOROUGHPIN is found at the back and on the top of the hock. The
former is round, smooth, well defined, presenting on its outer surface,
running from below upwards, a vein which is more or less prominent as
the bursa is more or less dilated, and it is from this conspicuous blood
vessel that the tumor derives its name. The thoroughpin is also
round and smooth, but not so regularly formed, on each side and a
little in front of the tendons in that part of the hock known as the
KNEE, FETLOCK, ANKLE, AND FOOT. 203
‘‘hollows,’’ immediately back of the posterior face of the tibia or
shank bone.
In their general characteristics these tumors are similar to windgalls,
and one description of the origin, symptoms, changes, and treatment
will serve for all equally, except that it is possible for a blood spavin to
cause lameness, and thus to involve a verdict of unsoundness in the pa-
tient, a circumstance which will of course justify its classification by
itself as a severer form of a single type of disease.
The treatment and the means employed should be (RxEs‘, of course)
with liniments, blisters, etc., and EARLY, DEEP, and well-performed
CAUTERIZATION. There are, besides, commendatory reports of a form
of treatment by the application of pads and peculiar bandages upon the
hocks, and it is claimed that the removal of the tumors has been affected
by their use. But experience with this apparatus has not been ac-
companied by such favorable results as would justify indorsement of
the flattering representations which have sometimes appeared in its
behalf.
Stringhalt. The characteristic symptom of this disease is the spas-
modic bending, more or less violent, of the hock, sometimes to the ex-
tent of striking the abdomen with the fetlock of the affected leg, and at
others only sufficient to lift it a few inches from the ground, but always
with the same sudden, uncontrollable jerk. The habit is not affected by
the gait of the animal, and whether trotting, walking, or merely turn-
ing around, it is all the same. It does not seem to be influenced by the
horse’s age, young and old being troubled the same. Its first appear-
ance sometimes is very slight. It has been noticed in animals when
backing out of the stable and ceasing immediately after. In some ani-
mals it is best seen when the animal is turning around on the affected
leg, and is not noticed when he moves straight forward. That this pe-
culiar action interferes with quickness of motion and lessens a horse’s
claim to soundness can not for a moment be denied.
Veterinarians are yet in doubt in respect to the cause of this trouble,
as well as to its nature. ‘They know not whether it results from disease
of tlie hock, of an ulcerative character; whether it springs from a mal-
formation; whether it is purely a muscular or purely a nervous lesion,
or a compound of both. Stringhalt still continues to be the puzzle of
the veterinarian.
Various experiments in the line of treatment have been tried, but
none have been crowned with satisfactory results. Perhaps some un-
204 THE HORSE.
designated disease of the hock is responsible for it, and in the present
state of knowledge the best prescription that can be devised is the safe
and economical one of rest, a long rest in a pasture, where unmolested
nature shall be permitted to bring about any necessary change that
may be appropriate to the case.
Interfering. The results from interfering are not often very serious.
However violent the blow may be it is rarely that complications of a
troublesome nature occur. The chief evil attending it is a liability to
be followed by a thickened skin for a callous which is an eyesore and a
a blemish. The remark than ‘‘an animal which has interfered once is
always liable to interfere,’’ is often confirmed and sanctioned by a re-
currence of the trouble.
A point in which there is a resemblance between this trouble and others
which we have considered is in its yielding to the same treatment. In-
deed the prescription of warm fomentations, soothing applications, and
astringent and resolvent mixtures, in a majority of cases, is the first that
occurs all through the list. If the swelling assumes the character of a
serous collection, pressure, cold water and bandages will contribute to
its removal. If festering seems to be established, and the swelling as-
sumes the character of a developing abscess, the hot poultices of flaxseed
or of boiled vegetables and the use of basilicon, or propuleum, oint-
ments containing preparations of opium or belladonna, recommend
themselves by their general usefulness and the beneficial results which
have followed their application, not less in one case than in another.
When an abscess has formed and is ripening, it should be carefully but
fully opened to let out the pus. If it is a serous cyst, some care is neces-
sary in emptying it, and the possibility of the extension of the inflam-
mation to the joint must be taken into consideration. When the cavities
have been emptied and have closed by filling up with granulations
(scabs), or if, not being opened, the contents have been reabsorbed, and
there remains in either case a plastic scab and a tendency to the callous
organization that may yet exist, blisters under their various forms, in-
cluding those of cantharides, mercury, and iodine should then be used
chiefly in the early stages, as it is then that their effects will prove most
satisfactory. The use of the actual cautery, with fine points, penetrating
deeply throughout the enlargement, has when employed in the early
stages, nearly always hastened recovery with complete absorption of the
thickening.
KNEE, FETLOCK, ANKLE, AND FOOT. 205
Founder or Laminitis. This in its simple form is inflammation
of the sensitive laminze which cover the outer and upper surface of the
coffin bone. The lamine consist of five or six hundred very fine folds,
which are profusely supplied with blood-vessels and nerves.
This inflammation is of a character similar to that which attends in-
flammation of the skin and mucous membranes, producing no constitu-
tional disturbances except those dependent upon the local disease. In
severe cases it hasa strong tendency to destroy destructive disorganization
of the tissues affected.
Causes. These are wide and variable and may be divided into PRE-
DISPOSING and EXCITING.
PREDISPOSING CAUSES. A predisposing cause exists to an ex-
tent in those animals unaccustomed to work, particularly if they are in-
active, and in aJl those that have had previous attacks of the disease, for
the same rule holds good here that we find in so many diseases: i. e.,
that one attack impairs the activity of the affected tissues and thus
renders them more subject to a subsequent inflammation.
Unusual excitement by causing an excessive blood supply, bad shoe-
ing, careless paring of the feet by removing the sole support, as well as
high-heel calkings without corresponding toe pieces, must be included
under this head.
EXCITING CAUSES. ‘These are many and varied, the most com-
mon are rapid changes of temperature, over exertion, exhaustion, in-
gestion of various foods, purgatives, and metastasis.
1. RAPID CHANGE OF TEMPERATURE. Thisactsas an excitng cause of
laminitis in precisely the same way as they act to produce disease in other
tissues, the result of these variations of temperature showing itself upon
those parts which are particularly liable to the changes from some loss
of their natural disease-resisting powers.
This change of temperature may be induced by drinking large quan-
tities of cold water while in an overheated condition. Here the internal
heat is rapidly reduced, the neighboring tissues and blood-vessels con-
strained, and the blood supply to these organs greatly diminished, while
the quantity sent to the surface is correspondingly increased. In many
of the cases which result from this cause there has not been sufficient labor
performed to impair the powers of the laminz, yet it seems that laminitis is
more readily induced than congestion or inflammation of the skin or other
surface organs because of the impossibility upon the part of the laminze
to relieve themselves of the threatened congestion by the general safety-
206 THE HORSE.
valve of perspiration. A cold wind or relatively cold air allowed to play
upon the body when heated and wet with sweat has virtually the same
result, for it arrests evaporation and rapidly cools the external surface,
thereby determining an excess of blood to such organs and tissues as are
protected from this outside influence. In many instances this happens
to be some of the internal organs, as the lungs, where the previous work
has been rapid and their activity impaired; but in numerous other in-
stances the blood is forced toward the feet, and that it so depends upon
two facts; first, that these tissues have been greatly excited and are
already receiving as much blood as they can accommodate consistently
with health; secondly, even though these tissues are classed with those
of the surface, their protection from outside influence by means of the
thick box of horn around them renders them in this respect equivalent to
internal organs.
Again, a limited local action of cold excites this disease, as seen from
driving through water or washing the feet or legs while the animal is
warm or just in from work. Here a very marked reaction takes place
in the surface tissues of the limbs, and passive congestion of the foot re-
sults from an interference with the return flow of blood, which is being
sent to these organs in excess. These are more apt to be simple cases
or congestion, soon to recover, yet they may become true cases of
laminitis.
2. OVER-EXERTION. Heavy pulling or rapid work, even when there is
no change for immoderate concussion, occasionally results in this disease,
although in the majority of instances exhaustion is a conjunctive
cause, for over-exertion can not be long continued without inducing
exhaustion.
3. EXHAUSTION. However produced, this is nearly as prolific a
source of laminitis as is concussion, for when the physical strength has
been greatly impaired, even though but temporarily, some part of the
economy is rendered more vulnerable to disease than others, and it is
not strange that in many instances it should be those parts still
called upon to perform their function of maintaining the weight of the
body and their activity has been exhausted. It is to this cause we
must ascribe those many cases which we see following a hard day’s
work, where at notime has there been over-exertion or immoderate
concussion.
The same cause exists where one foot has been blistered, or where one
limb is incapacitated from any other reason; for the opposite member
KNEE, FETLOCK, ANKLE, AND FOOT. 207
being called on to do double duty, soon becomes exhausted, and conges-
tion followed by inflammation, resultsasa matter of course. Where one
foot only becomes laminitic, it is customary to find the other or cor-
responding member participating at a later date, not always because of
sympathy, but because the transfer of all the functional performance to
the one foot proves within itself a sufficient exciting cause.
4. INGESTION OF VARIOUS FooDS. Why it is that certain kinds of
grain will cause laminitis does not seem to be clearly understood. Cer-
tainly they possess no specific action upon the laminze, for all animals
are not alike affected, neither do they always produce these results in
the same animal. In the case of some of these ailments, where their in-
jestion causes a strong tendency to indigestion, the consequent irritation
of the alimentary canal may be so great as to warrant the belief that the
laminze are affected through sympathy. In other instances there is no ap-
parent interference with digestion, nor evidence of any irritation of the
mucous membrane, yet the disease is in some manner dependent upon
the food in question for its inception. Barley, wheat, and sometimes
corn are the grains most prolific in the production of this disease. With
some horses there appears to be a particular susceptibility to the influence
of corn. In such instances the feeding of this grain for a few days will be
followed by inflammation of the feet, lasting from afew days’ totwo
weeks’ time. In these animals, to all appearances healthy, the corn
neither induces colic, indigestion, nor purging, and apparently no irrita-
tion whatever of the alimentary canal.
5. PURGATIVES. Fortunately purgative medicines but rarely become
the exciting cause of inflammation of the laminz. ‘That it is then the
result of a sympathetic action upon the part of the tissues affected is no
doubt more than hypothetical, for when there it no derangement of the
alimentary canal existing a dose of cathartic medicines will at times bring
on severe laminitis; and that, too, before purgation commences.
6. Merasrasis. Most if not all the older authorities were agreed
that metastatic laminitis is a reality. That such a condition ever does
exist outside the imagination certainly awaits the proving. ‘That lam-
initis may and ofttimes does exist as a concurrent disease with numerous
others is unquestionably true, but to believe an inflammation can be
almost momentarily transferred from organ to another, no matter how
remote, is to destroy all belief in our knowledge of the pathology of this
complicated process. It is possible that the induction of laminitis, dur-
ing the course of some other disease, may serve to arrest the further in-
208 THE HORSE.
vasion of healthy tissue by the primary process, or that it may exert a
remedial influence upon the first disease, but it can not and does not at
once remove that inflammation and obliterate its lesions, for the products
of any inflammation, however simple, require a certain time for their re-
moval, and it is impossible that the products of inflamed lung tissue can
be immediately removed and the inflammation in whole transferred to
the laminze. Metastatic laminitis, then, is nothing more nor less than
concurrent laminitis, and as such presents little if any peculiarity
outside the imperfectly understood exciting cause, and the practitioner
who allows the acute symptoms of the laminitis to mislead him, simply
because their severity has overshadowed those of the primary disease,
may lose his case through unguarded subsequent treatment. This form
of laminitis is by no means commonly met with, but when seen will
usually be found in conjunction with pneumonia, according to Youatt
with inflammation of the bowels and eyes, and according to Law and
Williams sometimes with bronchitis.
7. Concussion. ‘This acts as a producer of this disease by the local
overstimulation which it occasions, the excessive excitement being fol-
lowed by an almost complete exhaustion of the functional activity
of the laminated tissues, the exhaustion by congestion, and event-
ually by inflammation. But congestion here, as in all other tis-
sues, is not necessarily followed by inflammation; for although the
principal symptoms belonging to true laminits are present, the con-
gestion may be relieved before the processes of inflammation are
fully established. This is the condition that obtains in the many gso-
called cases of laminitis, which recover in from twenty-four to forty-
eight hours’ time. These are the cases which should be called conges-
tion of the lamine.
Prevention. To guard against and prevent disease, or to render an
attack less serious than it otherwise would be, is the highest practice of
the healing art. In a disease so liable to result from the simplest causes
as laminitis, and especially when the best judgment may not be able to
know the extent of the disease-resisting powers of the tissues which are
liable to be affected, or of what shall constitute an over-excitement, it is
not strange that horse owners find themselves in trouble from uninten-
tional wrong-doing. If the disease was dependent upon specific causes,
or if the stability of the tissues were of a fixed or more nearly determi-
nate quality, some measures might be adopted that would prove gener-
ally preventive. But when we recall the fact that predisposing causes
ENEEH,+FETLOCK, ANKLE, AND FOOT. 209
are so prevalent and often cannot be remedied, that what is but general
work in one instance may incite disease in another, that what is food
to-day may to-morrow prove detrimental to health, and that necessary
medical interference may cause a more serious trouble than that which
was being treated, the troubles to overcome are plain. Yet there are
some general rules to be observed that will in part serve to prevent the
development of an unusual number of cases. In the first place all the
predisposing causes named must be removed where possible, and when
this is impossible unusual care must be taken not to bring into operation
an exciting cause. Fat animals should, under no circumstances, have
hard work, and if the weather is warm or the variation of temperature
great they should have but slow, gentle labor until they become used to
it, and the tissues hardened.
Green horses should always have moderate work for the same reason,
and particularly when changed from the farm and dirt roads to city
pavements. The increased jarring, changed conditions and artificial
living, will be active causes of disease under such circumstances. Army
horses just out of winter quarters, track horses with insufficient prepar-
ation, and farmers’ horses put to work in the spring, are among the
most susceptible classes, and must be protected by work that is easy and
gradual. If long marches or drives can not be avoided then the load
must be as light as possible and the animal must have frequent rests.
This allows the laminze to regain their impaired activity and thus will
withstand much more.work without danger. And then it permits the
driver to easily detect an oncoming attack; it thus prevents working
after the disease begins and renders treatment much more effective by
cutting the process short at the stage of congestion.
All animals when resting immediately after work should be protected
from cold air or draughts. If placed in a stable that is warm and with-
out draught no covering is necessary; if cold, or if there is a draught
blankets should be used until the excitement and exhaustion of the labor
performed have entirely passed away. It is still better that all animals
coming in warm from work be ‘‘cooled off’’ by slow walking until the
sweat has dried and the circulation and breathing returned to the nor-
mal. Animals stopped on the road even for a few moments should
always be protected from rapid change of temperature by blankets. If
it can be avoided horses that are working should never be driven or
ridden through a stream or pool of water. Where necessary they should
be cooled off before passing through, and then kept exercising until com-
210 THE HORSE.
pletely dried. The same rule is to be observed with regard to washing
the legs in cold water when the animal is just in from work, for, although
it is practiced extensively and usually without damaging results, it often
proves the cause of a most acute attack of founder. Regarding shoeing
as a predisposing cause, unusual changes in the manner of supplying the
shoe should not be hastily made.
If a plane shoe has been worn, high heels or toes must not be substi-
tuted at once, but the change, if necessary, should gradually be made,
so that the different tissues may adapt themselves to the change they
are called upon to bear. If, on the other hand, such changes are imper-
ative, as is sometimes the case, then the work must be reduced in quan-
tity and quality that it can not excite the disease.
Experience alone will determine what animals are liable to suffer
from this disease through the influence of the different foods. When
an attack can with any certainty be ascribed to any particular food, it
should always be withheld unless in the smallest quantities. Horses
that have never been fed upon Indian corn should receive but a
little at a time at first, and always mixed with bran, oats, or other
food, until it is known that no danger exists. Corn is much more
liable to cause laminitis in warm than in cold weather, and for this
reason it should always be fed with care during spring and summer
months.
When an animal is excessively lame in one foot the other or opposite
member should have the shoe early removed and cold water frequently
applied. At the same time the slings should be used if the subject re-
mains standing. Horses should under no circumstances be overworked;
to guard against this, previous work, nature of roads, state of weather,
and various other influences must be carefully noted. Watering while
warm is a very bad habit, and unless the animal is accustomed to it, it is
apt to result in some disorder, ofttimes in laminitis.
Symptoms. Laminitis is characterized by a number of symptoms
so well marked as scarcely to be misunderstood by the observer. ‘They
are nearly constant and only modified by the number of feet affected,
the cause which has induced the disease, and the previous condition of
the patient. They may be divided into general symptoms, which are
‘shown in all cases of the disease, subject to variations and special symp-
toms, or those which serve to show which feet are affected and the com-
plications which may arise.
GENERAL. Usually the first symptoms that would indicate the
KNEE, FETLOCK, ANKLE, AND FOOT. 2ui
disease is an interference with locomotion produced by congestion of the
sensitive membrane. Occasionally the other symptoms are presented
first. With the development of the lameness the pulse will be found
quicker, full, hard, and striking the finger more strongly; the tempera-
ture soon rises several degrees above the normal, reaching sometimes
106° F., although it generally ranges between 102%4° and 105” F. The
respirations are rapid and panting in character, the nostrils being widely
dilated, and the mucous membranes highly colored. The facial expres-
sion is anxious and indicates the most acute pain, while the body is
more or less covered with sweat. At first there may be a tendency to
diarrhea, or it may appear later, particularly as the result of the medi-
cines used. The urine is high colored, scant in quantity, and of in-
creased specific gravity, owing to the water from the system being elim-
inated by the skin instead of the kidneys. The appetite is impaired
and sometimes entirely lost, while the thirst is greatly increased.
The affected feet are hot and dry to the touch. They are relieved
as much as possible from bearing weight. Rapping them with a
hammer or compelling the animal to stand upon one affected member
causes intense pain, while the artery of the fetlock throbs beneath the
finger.
SPECIAL. Liability to affection varies in different feet according to
the exciting cause. Any one or more of the feet may become the sub-
ject of this disease, although it appears more often in the fore-
feet than in the hind ones, a fact owing to the difference of function,
i. e., that the fore-feet are the basis of the columns of support, receiving
nearly all the body weight during progression and consequently most of
the concussion, while the hind-feet at such times become simply the
fulcrums of the levers of progression, and are almost exempt from
concussion.
Treatment. In cases of simple passive congestion of the laminz,
the body should be warmly clothed and warm drinks given to draw the
blood in increased quantity to these parts so as to direct it from the feet;
at the same time the feet should be placed in warm water so as to in-
crease the return flow of blood. In the course of half an hour the feet
may be changed to cold water, which serves as a tonic to all the tissues,
and kept there until recovery is completed. If the constitutional symp-
toms demand it, diuretics should be given. Half-ounce doses of salt-
peter, three times a day in the water, answers the purpose. In cases of
active congestion the warm water foot baths shouid be omitted and cold
212 THE HORSE.
ones substituted for the commencement. Subacute laminitis demands
the same treatment with laxatives if there is constipation, and the addi-
tion of low-heeled shoes. The diuretics may need to be continued for
some time and their frequency increased. Regarding acute Laminitis,
what has been called the ‘‘American treatment’’ is so simple and withal
so efficient that it is‘to be remarked other countries have not adopted it.
Since the disease is a local one, unquestionably the remedies used should
be applied in the immediate neighborhood of the affected parts, or if
drugs are administered internally, they should have some specific local-
ized action. And such are the claims made for the above-named
method of treatment. It consists solely in the exhibition of large doses
of nitrate of potash and the continued application to the feet and ankles
of cold water.
Three to four ounces of saltpeter in a pint of water, repeated
every six hours, is the proper dose, and the laminitis frequently
subsides inside of a week’s time. These large doses may be contin-
ued for a week without danger; never under any circumstances will
the kidneys be irritated to excess or other unfavorable effects be
produced.
The feet should either be kept in a tub of water at a temperature of
35° to 50° F. (it may be lowered if desired), or if the animal is lying
down swabs should be used and wet every half hour with the cold
water. The water not only keeps the horn soft and moist, but acts
directly upon the inflamed tissues by reducing their temperature,
thereby increasing their vitality and disease-resisting qualities, and at
the same time by toning up the coats of the blood vessels dimin-
ishes the supply of blood and limits the exudation. Furthermore, cold
has also an anesthetic effect upon the diseased tissues and relieves
the pain.
Aconite may be given in conjunction with niter where the heart is
greatly excited and beating strongly. ‘Ten-drop doses repeated every
two hours for twenty-four hours is sufficient. The practice of giving
cathartics is dangerous, for it may excite superpurgation. Usually the
niter has sufficient effect upon the constipation to relieve it, yet if it
should prove obstinate laxatives may be carefully given. Bleed-
ing, both general and local, should be guardad against. ‘The shoes
should always be early removed and the soles left unpared.
Paring of the soles presents two objections. First, while it may tem-
porarily relieve the pain by relieving pressure, it at the same time
KNEE, FETLOCK, ANKLE, AND FOOT. 213
allows of greater exudation, which may more than counterbalance the
good effects. Secondly, it makes the feet tender and subject to bruises
when the animal again goes to work. The shoes should be replaced when
convalescence sets in and the animal is ready to take exercise. Exer-
cise should never be enforced until the inflammation has subsided, for
although it temporarily relieves the pain and soreness, it serves to main-
tain continued irritation, increases the exudation, and prolongs the
recovery.
If, at the end of the fifth or sixth day, prominent symptoms of recov-
ery are not apparent, apply a stiff blister of cantharides around the cor-
onet and omit the niter for about forty-eight hours. As soon as the
blister has drawn well the feet may again receive wet swabs. If one
blister does not suffice to remove the soreness, as is the case sometimes,
especially where periostitis is present, it may be repeated, or the actual
cautery applied. The same treatment should be adopted where side
bones form or inflammation of the coronet bone ensues. When the
sole breaks through and exposes the coffin bone and soft tissues,
the feet must be carefully shod with thin heels and thick toes where
there is any tendency to walking on the heels, and the sole well
protected with appropriate dressing and pressure over the exposed
parts. When there is turning up of the toe, blistering of the coro-
net in front, carefully avoiding the quarters and heels, sometimes
stimulates the growth of horn, but as a rule judicious shoeing is
the only treatment that will keep the animal in a condition to do light,
slow work.
Where suppuration of the laminze is profuse it is better to destroy
your patient at once and relieve his suffering, but if the suppuration is
limited to a small extent of tissue, especially of the sole, treatment as
in acute cases may induce recovery and should always be tried. If from
bed-sores or other causes septicaemia or pyzemia is feared, the bisulphite
of soda in half-ounce doses may be given in conjunction with tonics and
other treatment indicated in these diseases. Regarding enforced encum-
bency the propriety of insisting upon it in the majority of cases is doubt-
ful because as a rule the animal assumes whatever position gives com-
fort. There can be no doubt that recumbency diminishes the amount
of blood sent to the feet, and that the suffering is greatly relieved while
in this position, so that the experiment of forcing the patient to lie
down may be tried, yet should not be renewed if it thereafter persists in
standing.
214 THE HORSE.
Where the animal stands, or where constant lying indicates it,
to prevent extensive sores, the patient should be placed in slings,
and the weight supported in this manner to the relief of the
feet. When all four feet are affected it may be impossible to use
slings, for the reason that the patient refuses to support any of his
weight on his feet and simply hangs in them. Lastly, convalescent
cases must not be returned to work too early, else permanent recovery
may never be effected.
Peditis. This is the term which Williams applies to that serious
complication of laminitis where not only the laminze but the periosteum
and the coffin bone are also the subjects of the inflammatory process.
Neither is this all, for in some of these cases of peditis acute inflamma-
tion of the ‘‘coffin joint’? is present, and occasionally suppuration of
the joint. A mild form of periostitis, iu which the exudation is in the
outer or looser layer of the periosteum only, is a more common condi-
tion than is recognized by practitioners generally, and the intimate
contiguity of structures is the predisposing cause, the disease either
spreading from the original seat, or the complication occurs as one
of the primary results of the exciting cause. In the severer cases
where the exudate separates the periosteum from the bone, suppu-
ration, gangrene, and superficial caries are common results; where
infiltration of the bone tissues is rapid the blood supply is cut off
by the pressure upon the vessels and death of the coffin bone ensues.
Grave constitutional symptoms mark these changes and soon prove
fatal.
In the mild cases of periostitis it is by no means easy to determine its
presence positively, for there are no special symptoms by which it may
be distinguished from pure laminitis. In the majority of the acute cases,
though, which show no signs of improvement by the fifth to seventh
day, it is safe to suspect that periostitis is present, particularly if the coro-
nets are very hot, the pulse remaining full and hard, and the lameness
acute. In the fortunately rare cases where the bone is affected with
inflammation and suppuration, the agony of the patient is intense; he
occupies the recumbent position almost continually, never standing for
more than a few minutes at a time, suffers from the most careful hand-
ling of the affected feet; maintains a rapid pulse and respiration, high
temperature, loss of appetite and great thirst. It is in these cases the
patient continually grows worse, and the appearance of suppuration at
the top of the hoof in about two weeks after the inception of the dis-
KNEE, FETLOCK, ANKLE, AND FOOT. 215
ease proves the inefficiency of any treatment that may have been
adopted and the hopelessness of the case. These patients die usually
between the tenth and twentieth days, either from exhaustion or pyzemic
infections.
Sand-crack. A longitudinal (up and down) division in the fibers of
the wall of the hoof, is called a sand-crack. It is usually found either
on the inside in the fore-feet when it is called a quarter-crack, or in
front in the hind-feet when it is usually named toe-crack.
The toe-crack is most likely to be complete (that is extending from
the coronary band to the toe), while the quarter-crack is nearly always
incomplete, at least when of comparatively recent origin. Sand-cracks
are most serious when they involve the coronary band in the injury.
They may be complicated at any time by bleeding, inflammation of the
lamineze, suppuration, gangrene of the lateral cartilage and of the ex-
tensor tendon, caries of the coffin bone, or the growth of a horny tumor
known as a keraphyllocele.
Causes. Relative dryness of the horn is the principal predis-
posing cause of sand-cracks. Excessive dryness is perhaps not a
more prolific cause of cracks in the horn than alternate changes from
damp to dry. It is claimed that these injuries are more common in
mountainous countries. Animals used to running at pasture when
changed to hard, dry floors are more liable, especially to toe-cracks, than
those accustomed to stables. Small feet, with thick, hard hoofs, and
feet which are excessively large, are oftener affected with sand-cracks than
those of better proportion. A predisposition to quarter-crack exists in
contracted feet, and in those where the toe turns out or the inside quarter
turns under.
Heavy shoes, large nails, and nails set too far back toward the heels,
together with such diseases as canker, quittor, grease and suppura-
tive corns must be included as occasional predisposing causes of
sand-cracks.
Fast work on hard roads, jumping, and blows on the coronet, together
with calk wounds of the feet, are accidental causes of quarter cracks in
particular. ‘Toe-cracks are more likely to be caused by heavy pulling on
slippery roads and pavements or on steep hills.
Symptoms. The fissure in the horn is ofttimes the only evidence of
the disease; and even this may be accidentally or purposely hidden from
casual view by mud, ointments, tar, wax, putty, gutta-percha, or by the
long hairs of the coronet.
216 THE HORSE.
Sand-cracks sometimes commence on the internal face of the wall, in-
volving its whole thickness, excepting a thin layer on the outer surface.
In those cases the existence of the injury may be suspected from a slight
depression, which begins near the coronary band and follows the direc-
tion of the horny fibers, but the trouble can only be positively diagnosed
by paring away the ontside layers of horn until the fissure is exposed.
In toe-cracks the walls of the fissure are in close apposition when the
foot receives the weight of the body, but when the foot is raised from
the ground the fissure opens. In quarter-crack the opposite is true, and
the fissure closes when the weight is removed from the foot. Asa rule
sand-cracks begin at the coronary band, and as they become older they
not only extend downward, but they also grow deeper. In old cases,
particularly in toe-crack, the horn on the borders of the fissures loses its
vitality and scales off, sometimes through the greater part of its thick-
ness, leaving behind a rough and irregular channel extending from the
coronet to the end of the toe.
In many cases of quarter-crack, and in some cases of toe-crack as well,
if the edges remain close together, with but little motion, the fissure is
dry, but in other cases a thin, offensive discharge issues from the crack
and the ulcerated soft tissues, or a fungus-like growth, protrude from
the narrow opening. i
When the cracks are deep and the motion of their edges considerable,
so that the soft tissues are bruised and pinched with every movement,
a constant inflammation of the parts is maintained and the lameness is
severe.
Ordinarily, the lameness of sand-crack is slight when the patient
walks; but it is greatly aggravated when he is made to trot, and the
harder the road the worse he limps. Furthermore, the lameness
is greater going down hill than up, for the reason that these
conditions are favorable to an increased motion in the edges of the
fissure.
Treatment. In so far as preventive measures are concerned but lit-
tle can be done. ‘The suppleness of the horn is, of course, to be main-
tained by the use of ointments, damp floor, bedding, etc. ‘The shoe is
to be proportioned to the weight and work of the animal ; the nails hold-
ing it in place are to be of proper size and not driven too near the heels ;
sufficient calks and toe-pieces must be added to the shoes of horses
working on slippery roads, and the evils of jumping, fast driving, etc.,
are to be avoided.
KNEE, FETLOCK, ANKLE, AND FOOT. 217
When a fissure has made its appearance, means are to be adopted
which will prevent it from growing longer or deeper; and this can only
be done by arresting all motion in the edges. The best and simplest
artificial appliance for holding the borders of a toe-crack together is the
Vachette clasp. These clasps, and the instruments necessary for their
application, can be had of any of the more prominent makers of veterin-
ary instruments. These instruments comprise a cautery iron with which
two notches are burned in the wall, one on each side of the crack, and
forceps with which the clasps are closed into place in the bottom of the
notches and the edges of the fissure brought close together. The clasps
being made of stiff steel wire are strong enough to prevent all motion in
the borders of the crack. Before these clasps are applied the fissure
should be thoroughly cleansed and dried, and, if the injury is of recent
origin, the crack may be filled with a putty made of two parts of gutta
percha and one part of gumiammoniac. ‘The number of clasps to be used
is to be determined by the length of the crack, the amount of motion to
be arrested, etc. Generally the clasps are from one-half to three-quar-
ters of an inch apart. The clasps answer equally as well in quarter-
crack if the wall is sufficiently thick and not too dry and brittle to with-
stand the stain.
In the absence of these instruments and clasps a hole may be drilled
through the horn across the fissure, and the crack closed with a thin
nail made of tough iron, neatly clinched at both ends. A plate of steel
or brass is sometimes fitted to the parts and fastened on with short
screws; while this appliance may prevent much gaping of the fissure,
it does not entirely arrest motion of the edges for the simple reason that
the plate and screw cannot be rendered immobile.
In all cases of sand-crack the growth of horn should be stimulated by
blistering the coronary band. In simple quarter-crack recovery will
often take place if the coronet is blistered, the foot shod with a ‘‘tip,”’
and the patient turned to pasture.
The shoe, in toe-crack, should have a clip on each side of the fissure
and should be thicker at the toe than at the heels. The foot should be
lowered at the heels by paring, and spared at the toe, except directly
under the fissure where it is to be pared away until it sets free from the
shoe.
Navicular Disease. Navicular disease, often called ‘‘navicular
arthritis’? by the English, is an inflammation of the sesamoid sheath, in-
duced by repeated bruising or laceration, and complicated in many cases
218 THE HORSE.
by inflammation and caries of the navicular bone. In some instances
the disease undoubtedly begins in the bone, and the sesamoid sheath
becomes involved subsequently by an extension of the inflammatory
process.
The thoroughbred horse is more commonly affected with the disease
than any other, yet no class or breed of horses is entirely exempt. The
mule, however, seems rarely, if ever, to suffer from it. For rea-
sons which will appear when considering the causes of the disease
the hind feet are not liable to be affected. As a general rule but one
fore-foot suffers from the disease, but if both should be attacked the
trouble has become chronic in the first before the second shows signs of
the disease.
Causes. To understand fully how navicular disease may be caused
by conditions and usages common to nearly all animals, it is necessary
to recall the peculiar anatomy of the parts involved in the process and
the functions which they perform in locomotion. Jt must be remem-
bered that the fore-legs largely support the weight of the body when the ©
animal is at rest, and that the faster he moves the greater is the shock
which the fore-feet must sustain as the body is thrown forward upon
them by the propelling force of the hind-legs. This shock could not be
withstood by the tissues of the fore-feet and legs were it not that it is
largely dissipated by the elastic muscles which bind the shoulder to the
body, the ease with which the arm closes on the shoulder blade, and
the spring of the fetlock joint.
But even these means are not sufficient within themselves to protect
the foot from injury, and so nature has further supplemented them by
placing the coffin joint on the hind part of the coffin bone instead of di-
rectly on top of it, whereby a large part of the shock of locomotion is
dispersed before it can reach the vertical column, represented in the can-
non, knee and arm bones. A still further provision is made by placing
a soft, elastic pad (the frog and plantar cushion) at the heels to receive
the sesamoid expansion of the flexor tendon as it is forced downward
by the pressure of the coronet bone against the navicular. Extraordin-
ary as these means may appear for the destruction of shock, and ample
as they are when the animal is at a slow pace or unweighted by rider or
load, they fail to completely relieve the parts from concussion and ex-
cessive pressure whenever the opposite conditions are present.
The result, then, is that the coronet bone forces the navicular hard
against the flexor tendon, which, in turn, presses firmly against the na-
KNEE, FETLOCK, ANKLE, AND FOOT. 219
vicular as the force of the contracting muscles lifts the tendon into place.
It is self-evident, then, that the more rapid the pace and the greater the
load, the greater must these contending forces be, and the greater the
liability to injury. For the same reason horses with excessive knee
action are more likely to suffer from this disease than others, concussion
of the foot and intense pressure on the tendon being common attendants
upon their usage.
Besides these exciting causes must be considered those which predis-
pose to the disease. Most prominent among these is heredity. It may
be claimed, however, that an inherited predisposition to navicular disease
consists not so much in a special susceptibility of the tissues which are
involved in the process as in a vice of conformation which, as is well
known, is likely to be transmitted from parent to offspring. The faults
of conformation most likely to be followed by the development of navic-
ular disease are an insufficient plantar cushion, a small frog, high heels,
excessive knee action, and contracted heels. Finally, the environments
of domestication and use, such as dry stables, heavy pulling, bad shoe-
ing, punctured wounds, etc., all have their influence in developing this
disease.
Symptoms. In the early stages of navicular disease the symptoms
are generally very obscure. When the disease begins in inflammation
of the navicular bone the animal points the affected foot while at rest,
a time before any lameness isseen. While at work heapparently travels
as well as ever, but when placed in the stable one foot is set out in front
of the other, resting on the toe, with fetlock and knee fixed. After a
time, if the case is closely watched, the animal takes a few lame steps
while at work, but the lameness disappears as suddenly as it came and
the driver doubts if the animal was really lame at all. Later on the
patient hasa lame spell which may last during a greater part of the
day, but the next morning it is gone; he leaves the stable all right, but
goes lame again during the day. In time he has a severe attack of
lameness, which may last for a week or more, when a remission takes
place and it may be weeks or months before another attack supervenes.
Finally, he becomes constantly lame, and the more he is used the greater
the lameness.
In the lameness from navicular disease the affected leg always takes
a short step, and the toe of the foot first strikes the ground, so that the
shoe is most worn at this point. If the patient is made to move back-
wards the foot is set down with exceeding great care, and the weight
220 THE HORSE.
rests upon the affected leg but a moment. When exercised he often
stumbles, and if the road is rough he may .fall on his knees. If he is
lame in both feet the gait is stilty, the shoulders seem stiff, and if the
patient is made to work he sweats profusely from the intense pain. Early
in the development of the disease a careful examination will reveal some
increased heat in the heels and frog, particularly after work; as the dis-
ease progresses this becomes more marked until the whole foot is hot to
the touch. At the same time there is an increased sensibility of the
foot, for the patient flinches from the concussion of a hammer lightly
applied to the frog and heels, or from the pressure of the smith’s pin-
cers. The frog is generally shrunken, often of a pale reddish color, and
at times it is affected with thrush. If the heels are pared away so that
all the weight is rece:ved on the frog, or if the same result is attained by
the application of a bar shoe, the animal is excessively lame. The mus-
cles of the leg and shoulder shrink away, and often tremble as the animal
stands at rest. After months of lameness the foot is found to be shrunken
in its diameter and apparently lengthened; the horn is dry and brittle
and has lost its natural gloss, while circular ridges, developed most to-
ward the heels, cover the upper part of the hoof. When both feet are
affected the animal points first one foot then the other, and stands with
the hind-feet well forward beneath the body so as to relieve the fore-feet
as much as possible from bearing weight. In old cases the wasting of
the muscles and the knuckling at the fetlock become so great that the
leg can not be straightened, and locomotion can scarcely be performed.
The disease generally makes a steady progress without inclining to re-
covery—the remission of symptoms in the earlier stages should not be
interpreted as evidence that the process has terminated. ‘The compli-
cations usually seen are ringbones, side-bones, thrush, contracted heels,
quarter-cracks, and fractures of the navicular, coronet, and pastern
bones.
Treatment. Buta few cases of navicular disease recover. In the
early stages the wall of the heels should be rasped away as directed in the
treatment for contracted heels, until the horn is quite thin; the coronet
should be well blistered with Spanish-fly ointment, and the patient
turned to grass in a damp field or meadow. After three or four weeks’
time the blister should be repeated. This treatment is to be continued
for two or three months. Plane shoes are to be put on when the patient
is returned to work. In chronic cases the animal should be put to
slow, easy work. ‘To relieve the pain, neurotomy may be performed—
KNEE, FETLOCK, ANKLE, AND FOOT. 221
an operation in which the sense of feeling is destroyed in the foot by
cutting out pieces of the nerve at the fetlock. This operation in nowise
cures the disease, and since it may, be attended with serious results can
only be advised in certain favorable cases, to be determined by the
veterinarian.
Quittor. This is a term applied to various affections of the foot
wherein the tissues which are involved undergo a process of degenera-
tion that results in the formation of a slough, followed by the elimination
of the diseased structures by means of a more or less extensive sup-
puration.
Causes. Bruises and other wounds of the coronet are often the cause
of cutaneous quittor, yet there can be no question but that in the great
majority of these cases the disease develops without any known cause.
For some reason, not yet satisfactorily explained, most cases happen in
the fall of the year. One explanation of this fact has been attempted in
the statement that the disease is due to the injurious action of cold and
mud. This claim, however, seems to lose force when it is remembered
that in mauy parts of this ccuntry the most mud, accompanied by freez-
ing and thawing weather, is seen in the early spring-time without a cor-
responding increase of quittor. Furthermore, the very serious out-
breaks of this disease in the mountainous regions of Colorado, Wyoming,
and Montana, are seen in the fall and winter seasons, when the weather
is the driest. It may be claimed, and perhaps with justice, that during
these seasons when the water is low, animals are compelled to wade
through more mud to drink from lakes and pools than is necessary at
other seasons of the year, when these lakes and pools are full. Add to
these conditions the further fact that much of this mud is impregnated
with alkaline salts, which, like the mineral substances always found in
the mud of cities, are more or less irritating, and it seems fair to conclude
that under certain circumstances mud may become an important factor
in the production of quittor.
Symptoms. Lameness, lasting from one to three or four days, nearly
always precedes the development of the strictly local evidences of quittor.
The next sign is the appearance of a small, tense, hot, and painful tumor
in the skin of the coronary region. If the skin of the affected foot is
white the inflamed portion will present a dark red or even a purplish ap-
pearance near the center. Within a few hours’ time the ankle, or even
the whole leg as high as the knee or hock, becomes much swollen. The
lameness is now so great that the patient refuses to use the foot at all,
222 THE HORSE.
but carries it in the air if compelled to move. As a consequence the op-
posite leg is required to do the work of both, and if the animal persists
in standing a greater part of the time it, too, becomes swollen. In many
of these cases the suffering is so intense during the first few days as to
cause general fever, dullness, loss of appetite, and increased thirst.
Generally the tumor shows signs of suppuration within forty-eight to
seventy-two hours after its first appearance; the summit softens, a fluctu-
ating fluid is felt beneath the skin, which soon ulcerates completely
through, causing the discharge of a thick, yellow, bloody pus, con-
taining shreds of dead tissue which have sloughed away. The sore is
now converted into an open ulcer, generally deep, nearly or quite circular
in outline, and with hardened base and edges. In exceptional cases
large patches of skin, varying from one to two and one-half inches in
diameter, slough away at once, leaving an ugly superficial ulcer. These
sores, especially when deep, suppurate freely; if there are no compli-
cations they tend to heal rapidly as soon as the degenerated tissue has
softened and is entirely removed. When suppuration is fully established
the lameness and general symptoms subside. Where but a single tumor
and abscess form, the disease progresses rapidly and recovery, under
proper treatment; may be effected in from two to three weeks’ time; but
when two or more tumors are developed at once or where the formation
of one tumor is rapidly succeeded by another for an indefinite time, the
sufferings of the patient are greatly increased, the case is more difficult
to treat, and recovery is more slow and less certain.
Treatment. ‘The first step in the treatment of an outbreak of quit-
tor should be the removal of all exciting causes.
Watering places, accessible without having to wade through mud, are
to be supplied. Carefully cleanse the feet and legs as soon as the
animal returns from work. Warm water should be used to remove the
mud and dirt, after which the parts are to be thoroughly dried with soft
cloths.
The means which are to be adopted for the cure of cutaneous quittor
vary with the stage of the disease at the time the case is presented for
treatment. If the case is seen early, that is, before any of the signs of
suppuration have developed, the affected foot is to be placed under a
constant stream of cold water, with the object of arresting a further
extension of the inflammatory process. ‘To accomplish this put the pa-
tient in slings in a narrow stall having a slat or open floor. Bandage
the foot and leg to the knee or hock, as the case may be, with flannel
KNEE, FETLOCK, ANKLE, AND FOOT. 223
bandages loosely applied. Set a tub or barrel filled with cold water
above the patient and by the use of a small rubber hose of sufficient
length make a syphon which will carry the water from the bottom of
the tub to the leg at the top of the bandages. The stream of water
should be quite small, and it is to be continued until the inflammation
has entirely subsided or until the presence of pus can be detected in the
tumor. When suppuration has commenced the process should be aided
by the use of warm baths and poultices of linseed meal or boiled turnips.
If the tumor is of rapid growth, accompanied by intense pain, relief is
secured and sloughing largely limited by a free incision of the parts.
The incision should be vertical and deep into the tumor, care being taken
not to entirely divide the coronary band. If the tumor is large more
than one incision may be necessary.
The foot should now be placed in a warm bath for half an hour or
longer and then poulticed. The bleeding produced by the cutting and
encouraged by the warm bath is generally very copious and soon gives
relief to the overtension of the parts.
In other cases it will be found that suppuration is well under way, so
that the center of the tumor is soft when the patient is first presented
for treatment. It is always good surgery to relieve pus whenever its
presence can be detected; hence in these cases a free incision must
be made into the softened parts, the pus let out and the foot
poulticed.
By surgical interference the tumor is now converted into an open sore
or ulcer, which, after it has been well cleaned by warm baths and poul-
tices applied for two or three days, needs to be protected by proper dress-
ings. The best of all protective dressings is made of small balls of
pledgets of oakum, carefully packed into the wound and held in place
by a roller bandage four yards long, from three to four inches wide,
made of common bedticking and skillfully applied. The remedies which
may be used to stimulate the healing process are many, and as a rule
they are applied in the form of solution or tinctures.
The solution of bichloride of mercury one part, water five hundred
parts, with a few drops of muriatic acid or a few grains of muriate of
ammonia added to cause the mercury to dissolve. The balls of oakum
are wet with this solution before they are applied to the wound.
Among other remedies which may be used, and perhaps with equally
as good results, will be noted the sulphate of copper, iron, and zinc, five
grains of either to the ounce of water; chloride of zinc, five grains to the
224 THE HORSE.
ounce; carbolic acid, twenty drops dissolved in an equal amount of glye-
erine and added to one ounce of water, and the nitrate of silver, ten
grains to one ounce of water.
If the wound is slow to heal it will be found of advantage to change
the remedies used every few days, for after a time a remedy
seems to lose its stimulating effect upon the slow-growing granu-
lations.
If the wound is pale in color, the granulations transparent and glis-
tening, the tincture of aloes, tincture of gentian, or the spirits of cam-
phor may do best.
When the sore is red in color and healing rapidly an ointment made
of one part of carbolic acid to forty parts of cosmoline or vaseline is all
that is needed.
If the granulations continue to grow until a tumor is formed, which
projects beyond the surrounding skin, it should be cut off with a sharp,
clean knife, the foot poulticed for twenty-four hours, after which the
wound is to be well cauterized daily with lunar caustic and the bandages
applied with great firmness.
The question as to how often the dressings should be renewed
must be determined by the condition of the wound, etc. If the
sore is suppurating freely it will be necessary to remove the dress-
ing every twenty-four or forty-eight hours. If the discharge is small
in quantity and the patient comfortable the dressing may be left on
for several days; in fact, the less often the wound is disturbed the
better, in so long as the healing process is healthy. When the sore
commences to skin over the edges should be lightly touched with
the lunar caustic at each dressing. The patient may be given a little
exercise daily, but the bandages must be kept on until the wound is en-
tirely healed.
Various Forms of Quittor. When not only the skin and sub-
cutaneous tissties are involved but also the tendons of the leg, and the
ligaments of the joints it is called TENDINOUS QUITTOR.
When the skin and subcutaneous tissues on some part of the coronet
followed by a slough and the formation of an ulcer it is called a curTaA-
NEOUS QUITTOR.
The most common form is called the SUBHORNY QUITTOR. It is gen-
erally seen in but one foot at a time, and more often in the fore-feet
than in the hind ones. It nearly always attacks the inside quarter, but
may affect the outside quarter, the toe, or the heel, where it is but of
KNEE, FETLOCK, ANKLE, AND FOOT. 225
little consequence. It consists in the inflammation of a small part of the
coronary band and adjacent skin, followed by sloughing and more or
less suppurration, which in most cases extends to the neighboring
sensitive laminz.
HOW TO DETECT THE SEAT OF LAMENESS.
In conducting an examination to detect the seat of lameness, the ani-
mal should be unblanketed, and held by a plain halter in the hands of a
man who knows how to manage his paces, and preference should be given
to a hard road for the trial. Heis to be examined from various posi-
tions—from before, from behind, and from each side. Watching him as
he approaches, as he recedes, and as he passes by, the observer should
carefully study that important action, the DROPPING OF THE BODY upon
one extremity or the other, and this can readily be detected by attend-
ing closely to the motions of the head and the hip. The head drops on
the same side on which the mass of the body will fall, dropping towards
the right when the lameness is in the left fore-leg, and the hip dropping
in posterior lameness, also off the sound leg, the reverse of the conditions;
of course, producing reversed effects. In other words, when the animal
in trotting exhibits signs of irregularity of action, or lameness, and this
irregularity is accompanied by dropping or nodding the head, or depres-
sing the hip on the right side of the body, at the time the feet of the right
side strike the ground, the horse is lame on the left side. If the dropping
and nodding are on the near side the lameness is on the off side.
But in a majority of cases the answer to the first question relating to
the lameness of a horse is, after all, not a very difficult task. There are
two other problems in the case more difficult of solution and which often
require the exercise of a closer scrutiny, and draw upon all the resources
to settle satisfactorily. That a horse is lame in a given leg may be
easily determined, but when it becomes necessary to pronounce upon the
query as to what part, what region, what structure, is affected, the easy
part of the task is over, and the more difficult and important, because
more obscure portion of the investigation has commenced, except, of
course, in cases of which the features are too distinctly evident to the
senses to admit of error. It is true that by carefully noting the manner
in which a lame leg is performing its functions, and closely watching the
motions of the whole extremity, and especially of the various joints
which enter into structure; by minutely examining every part of the
226 THE HORSE.
limb; by observing the outlines; by testing the change, if any, in tem-
perature and the state of the sensibility, one may be guided to a correct
localization of the seat of trouble, but one must catefully refrain from
the adoption of a hasty conclusion, and above all, assure himself that he
has not failed to make the foot, of all the organs of the horse the most
liable to injury and lesion, the subject of the most thorough and minute
examination of all the parts which compose the suffering extremity.
The greater liability of the foot than of any other part of the extrem-
ties to injury from causualities, natural to its situation and use, should
always suggest the beginning of an inquiry, especially in an obscure
lameness at that point. Indeed the lameness may have an apparent
location elsewhere, when that is the true seat of the trouble, and the
person who, while examining his lame patient, discovers a ringbone, and
satisfying himself that he has encountered the cause of the disordered
action suspends his investigation without subjecting the foot to a closer
scrutiny, may deeply regret his neglect at a later day, when regrets will
avail nothing towards remedying the injury which has ensued upon his
partial method of exploration. But, as in human experience, there are
instances when disease will deliver their fatal messages, while leaving no
mark and making no sign by which they might be identified and classi-
fied, so that it will happen that in the humbler animals the onset and
progress of mysterious and unrecognizable ailments will at times baffle
the best veterinarian skill, and leave our burden-bearing servants to suc-
cum to the inevitable, and suffer and perish in unrelieved distress.
Shoe Boil. If fluid has formed (known by soft elastic feeling) open
the part, and with a syringe inject tincture of iodine. If fluid has not
formed use tincture of iodine externally twice daily. Treat capped hock
and capped knee with same external treatment ; never open.
Nail in the Foot. Cut away hoof to allow exit of pus, apply
turpentine, then a linseed meal poultice, hot. Rest. Apply tar
ointment or tow and tar before working the horse.
CHAPTER XIV.
THE SKIN.
Its Diseases and How to Cure Them.
Its Parasites and How to Destroy Them.
STRUCTURE OF THE SKIN, CRACKED HEELS OR SCRATCHES, NETTLE-
RASH OR SURFEIT, HORNY SLOUGHS OR SITFASTS, WARTS, CON-
GESTION WITH PIMPLES, ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE PARASITES, FIS-
TULA, ETC.
HE skin consists primarily of the superficial layer, the cuticle or
epidermis without blood vessels; and the deep layer, the corium,
dermis or true skin, which has many blood vessels. ‘The cuticle
is made up of cells placed side by side and more or less modified
in shape by mutual compression and by surface evaporation and drying.
The outside layer consists of the cells dried in the form of scales, which
fall off continually and form dandruff. The deeper layer is formed of
somewhat rounded cells with large central nuclei, and in colored skin
containing numerous pigment granules. These cells have prolongations
or branches by which they communicate with each other and with the
superficial layer of cells in the true skin beneath. ‘Through these they
receive nutrient liquids for their growth and increase, and through these
liquids absorbed by the skin, may be passed on into the vessels of the
true skin beneath.
The TRUE SKIN or DERMIS hasa framework of interlacing bundles of
white and yellow fibers, large and coarse in the deeper layers, and fine
in the superficial where they approach the cuticle. Between the fibrous
bundles are left interspaces which, like the bundles, become finer as they
approach the surface, and inclose cells, vessels, nerves, glands, gland
ducts, hairs, and in the deeper layers fat.
228 THE HORSE.
The superficial layer of the dermis is formed into a series of minute
conical elevations or papilla, projecting into the deep portion of the
cuticle, from which they are separated by a very fine transparent mem-
brane. ‘This papillary layer is very richly supplied with capillary blood
vessels and nerves, and is at once the seat of acute sensation and the
point from which the nutrient liquid is supplied to the cells of the cuticle
above. It is also at this point that the active changes of inflammation
are especially concentrated.
The HAIRS are cuticular products growing from an enlarged papilla
lodged in the depth of a sack, hollowed out in the skin and extending to
the deepest layers. The hair follicle is lined by cells of epidermis,
which at the bottom are reflected on the papilla and become the root of
the hair. The hair itself is formed of the same kind of cells firmly ad-
herent to each other by a tough substahce, and overlapping each other
like slates on a roof in a direction towards the free end.
The SEBACEOUS (OIL) GLANDS are branching tubes ending in follicles
or sacks and opening into the hair follicles, lined by a very vascular
fibrous net-work representing tle dermis, and an internal layer of cells
representing the mucous layer of the cuticle. Their oily secretion
gives gloss to the hair and prevents its becoming dry and brittle,
and keeps the skin soft and supple, protecting it at once against
undue exhalation of water and undue absorption when immersed in
that medium. Besides those connected with the hair follicles there
are numerous isolated sebaceous glands, opening directly on the sur-
face of the skin, producing a somewhat thicker and more odorous
secretion.
The swEAT GLANDS of the horse, like those of man, are composed of
simple tubes, which extend down through the cuticle and dermis in a
spiral manner, and are coiled into balls in the deeper layer of the true
skin. In addition to their importance in throwing offensive waste pro-
ducts out of the system, these glands tend to cool the skin and the en-
tire economy of the animal through the evaporation of their watery
secretion.
Cracked Heels or Scratches. ‘This usually sets in with swell-
ing, heat, and tenderness of the hollow of the heel, with erections of the
hairs and redness (in white skins), with stiffness and lameness, which
may be extreme in irritable horses. Soon slight cracks appear trans-
versely, and may gain in depth and width, and may even suppurate.
More frequently they become covered at the edges or throughout by
THE SKIN. 229
firm incrustations resulting from the drying of the liquids thrown out,
and the skin becomes increasingly thick and rigid. A similar condition
occurs behind the knee and in front of the hock (malanders and saland-
ers), and may extend from these points to the hoof, virtually incasing
that side of the limb in a permanent incrusting sheath. Besides a heavy
lymphatic constitution, which predisposes to this affection, the causes
are overfeeding on grain, altered unwholesome fodder, close, hot, dirty
stables, constant contact with dung and urine and their emanations,
working in deep, irritant mud; above all, in limestone districts, irrita-
tion by dry limestone or sandy dust in dry weather on dirt road, also
cold draughts, snow and freezing mud, washing the legs with caustic
soap, wrapping the wet legs in thick woollen bandages which soak the
skin and render it sensitive when exposed next day, clipping the heels,
weak heart and circulation, natural or supervening on overwork, imper-
fect nourishment, impure air, lack of sunshine, chronic, exhausting, or
debilitating diseases, or functional or structural diseases of the heart,
liver or kidneys. These last induce dropsical swelling of the limbs
(stocking), weaken the parts, and induce cracking. Finally the cica-
trix of a pre-existing crack, weak, rigid, and unyielding, is liable to re-
open under any severe exertion, hence rapid paces and heavy draft are
active causes.
In treatment the first step is to ascertain and remove the cause when-
ever possible. If there is much local heat and inflammation a laxative
(five drams aloes, or one pound Glauber salts) may be given, and for the
pampered animal the grain should be reduced or replaced altogether by
bran mashes, flaxseed, and other laxative, non-stimulating food. In
the debilitated, on the other hand, nutritious food and bitter tonics may
be given, and even a course of arsenic (five grains arsenic with one dram
bicarbonate of soda daily.) When the legs swell exercise on dry roads,
hand-rubbing, and evenly applied bandanges are good, and mild astrin-
gents, like extract of witch-hazel may be applied and the part subse-
quently rubbed dry and bandaged. If there is much heat but unbroken
skin, a lotion of two drams of sugar of lead to one quart of water may
be applied on a thin bandage, covered in cold weather with a dry
one. The same may be used after the cracks appear, or a solution
of sulphurous acid solution one part, glycerine one part, and water
one part, applied on cotton and well covered by a bandage. In case
these should prove unsuitable to the particular case, the part may be
smeared with vaseline one ounce, sugar of lead one dram, and carbolic
acid ten drops.
230 THE HORSE.
Nettlerash, Surfeit or Urticaria. This is an eruption in the
form of cutaneous nodules, in size from a hazel nut to a hickory nut,
transient, with little disposition to the formation of either blister or pos-
tule, and usually connected with shedding of the coat, sudden changes
of weather, and unwholesomeness or sudden change in the food. It is
most frequent in the spring and in young and vigorous animals (good
feeders). The swelling embraces the entire thickness of the skin and
terminates by an abrupt margin in place of shading off into surrounding
parts. When the individual swellings run together there are formed ex-
tensive patches of thickened integument. These may appear on any
part of the body, and may be general; the eyelids may be closed, the lips
rendered immovable, or the nostrils so thickened that breathing becomes
dificult and snufhing. It may be attended by constipation or diarrhea,
or by colicky pains. The eruption is sudden, the whole skin being
sometimes covered in a few hours, and it may disappear with equal
rapidity or persist for six or eight days.
Treatment. This consists in clearing out the bowels by five drams
Barbadoes aloes, or one pound Glauber’s salts, and follow the operation
of these by daily doses of one-half ounce powdered gentian and one ounce
Glauber's salts. A weak solution of alum may be applied to the
swellings.
Horny Sloughs or Sitfasts These are circumscribed sloughs of
limited portions of the skin, the result of pressure by badly-fitting har-
ness, or by irritating masses of dirt, sweat, and hairs under the harness.
They are most common under the saddle, but may be found under collar
or breeching as well. The sitfast is a piece of dead tissue which would
be thrown off but that it has formed firm connections with the fibrous
skin beneath, or even deeper with the fibrous layers (fascia) of the mus-
cles, or with the bones, and is thus bound in its place as a persistent
source of irritation. The horn-like slough may thus involve the super-
ficial part of the skin only, or the whole thickness of the skin, and even
of more of the structures beneath. The first object is to remove the
dead irritant by dissecting it off with a sharp knife, after which the sore
may be treated with simple wet cloths or a weak carbolic acid lotion,
like a common wound. If the outline of the dead mass is too indefinite,
a linseed-meal poultice will make its outline more evident to the oper-
ator. Ifthe fascia or bone has become gangrenous the dead portion
must be removed with the horn-like skin. During and after treatment
the horse must be kept at rest or the harness must be so adjusted that
no pressure can come near the affected parts.
THE SKIN. 231
Warts. These are essentially a morbid outgrowth of the superficial
papillary layer of the skin and of the investing cuticular layer. They
are mostly seen in young horses, about the lips, eyelids, cheeks, ears,
beneath the belly, and on the sheath, but may develop anywhere. ‘The
smaller ones may be clipped off with scissors and the raw surface cauter-
ized with bluestone. he larger may be sliced off with a sharp knife,
or if with a narrow neck they may be twisted off and then cauterized.
If very vascular they may be strangled by a waxed thread or cord
tied around the neck, at least three turns being made round and
the ends being fixed by passing them beneath the last preceding turn
of the card, so that they can be tightened day by day as they slacken
by shrinkage of the tissues. If the neck is too broad it may be trans-
fixed several times with a double-threaded needle and then be tied in
sections. Very broad warts that cannot be treated in this way may be
burned down to beneath the surface of the skin with a soldering bolt at
a red heat and any subsequent tendency to overgrowth kept down by
bluestone.
Congestion, with Small Pimples or Papules. In this affec-
tion there is the general blush, heat, etc., of erythema, together with a
crop of elevations from the size of a poppy-seed to a coffee-bean, visible
when the hair is reversed or to be felt with the finger where the hair is
scanty. In white skins they vary from the palest to the darkest red.
All do not retain the popular type, but some go on to form blisters
(eczema, bullee), or pustules, or dry up into scales, or break out into
open sores, or extend into larger swellings (tubercles). The majority,
however, remaining as pimples, characterize the disease. When very
itchy the rubbing breaks them open, and the resulting sores and scales
hide the true nature of the eruption.
The general and local causes may be the same as for erythema, and in
the same subject one portion of the skin may have simple congestion
and another adjacent papules. As the inflammatory action is more pro-
nounced, so the irritation and itching are usually greater, the animal
rubbing and biting himself severely. This itching is especially severe
in the forms which attack the roots of the mane and tail, and there the
disease is often so persistent and troublesome that the horse in rendered
virtually useless.
The bites of insects often produce a papular eruption, but in many
such eases the swelling extends wider into a button-like elevation, one-
half to an inch in diameter. ‘The same remarks apply to the effects of
the poison ivy and poison sumac.
232 THE HORSE.
In papular eruption first remove the cause, then apply the same gen-
eral remedies as for simple congestion. In the more inveterate cases
use a lotion of one-half ounce sulphide of potassium in two quarts
water, to which a little Castile soap has been added. Or use a wash
with one-half ounce oil of tar, two ounces Castile soap, and twenty ounces
water.
ANIMAL PARASITES OF THE SKIN.
Mange or Ascariasis. ‘This affection is due to the irritation of
the skin, caused by the presence of a nearly microscopic acarus or mite.
‘The disease varies, however, according to the species of acarus which
infests the skin, so that we must treat of several different kinds of
acarlasis.
The parasite is SARCOPTES EQUI. ‘The disease is called SARCOPTIC
ASCARIASIS. This is the special sarcoptes of the horse, but under
favorable conditions it can be transmitted to ass and mule, and even to
man, and may live indefinitely on the human skin. ‘The mite is nearly
microscopical, but may be detected with a magnifying lens among mov-
ing scurf taken from the infected skin. Like all sarcoptes, it burrows
little galleries in and beneath the scurf skin, where it hides and lays its
eggs and where its young is hatched. It is therefore often difficult to
find the parasite on the surface, unless the skin has been heated by a
temporary exposure to the sun or in a warm room. Even then it may
be needful to tie the scab on the human arm tilla prickling is felt, when
the acrus will be found in the center of a minute capule by its bite. Like
other acari this is wonderfully prolific, a new generation of fifteen indi-
viduals beingpossible every fifteen days, so that in three months the off-
spring of a single pair may produce a generation of one million five hund-
red thousand. ‘The sarcoptes have less vitality than the non-burrowing
acari, as they die in an hour when kept in dry air apart from the skin at
a heat of 145° F. They live twelve to fourteen days apart from the
skin in the damp air of a stable. Ona piece of damp hide they lived till
the twenty-fourth day, but were dead on the twenty-eighth.
The symptoms are an incessant, intolerable, and increasing itching of
some part of the skin (head, mane, tail, back, etc. ), the horse inclining
himself toward the hand that scratches him, and moving his lips as if
himself scratching. ‘The hairs may be broken and rubbed of, but the
part is never entirely bald as in ring-worm, and there may be papules or
THE SKIN. 233
any kind of eruption or open sores from the energy of scratching. Scabs
of any thickness may form, but the special features are the intense itch-
ing and the discovery of the acarus.
Treatment. This consists in the removal of scabs by soapsuds,
and, if necessary, a brush, and the thorough application of tobacco one
and one-half ounce and water two pints, prepared by boiling. This
may be applied more than once, and should always be repeated after
fifteen days, to destroy the new brood that may have been hatched in the
interval. All harness and stable utensils should be similarly treated;
blankets and rubbers may be boiled, and the stalls should be covered
with a whitewash of quicklime, containing one-fourth pound of chloride
of lime to the gallon.
Grubs in the Skin. This malady is caused by the GruBs (Hyro-
DERMA SILENUS), getting under the skin. This ft deposits its embryo
on or in the skin of the horse, as the Hypoderma bovis does in the ox,
and the resulting larvee pass the winter in little rounded sacks beneath
the integument, furnished with a central opening, through which the
mature larva escapes in early summer and develops into a fly. In dis-
tricts where they exist the grubs should be pressed out of the skin and
destroyed in the course of the winter.
Grubs on the Skin, or Fly-Blow. The following flies, among
others, deposit their eggs on open sores or on wet filthy parts of the
skin, where their larvee or grubs give rise to serious trouble: Lucilia
Ceesar (blue bottle), Lucilia hominivorax (screw-worm fly), Musca
vomitoria (meat-fly), and Sarcophaga carnaria (flesh-fly.) Tio prevent
their attacks wet, filthy hair should be removed and wounds kept clean,
and rendered antiseptic by a lotion of carbolic acid one part, water fifty
parts; by a mixture of one ounce oil of tar in twenty ounces sweet oil,
or some other antiseptic. If the grubs are already present they should
be picked off and one of these dressings freely applied.
Flies. A number of flies attack horses and suck their blood, pro-
ducing great annoyance, and in some instances death. These insects
not only suck the blood, but also often instil an acid poison into the skin,
and in exceptional cases transfer infectious germs from animal to animal
by inoculation.
Various devices are resorted to, to prevent the attacks, as to sponge
the skin with a decoction of walnut or elder leaves, of tobacco, to dust
with Persian insect powder, to keep a light blanket or fly-net on the
horse, to close doors and windows with fine screens and destroy by py-
234 THE HORSE.
rethruth atty flies that have gained admission, to retnuve all manure heaps
that would prove breeding places for flies, to keep the stalls clean, deo-
dorized by gypsum and to spread them in trays of dry chloride of lime.
For the poisoned bites apply ammonia, or a solution of one part of car-
bolic acid in twenty parts of sweet oil or glycerine, or one-fourth ounce
bicarbonate of soda and one dram of carbolic acid in a quart of water
may be used.
Stings of Bees, Wasps and Hornets. These are much more
irritating than the bites of flies, partly because the barbed sting is left
in the wound, and partly because of the amount and quality of the
venom. When a swarm attacks an animal the result may prove fatal.
‘Treatment consists in the application of wet clay, or of a lotion of soda
or ammonia, or of carbolic acid, or of sugar of lead two drams, lauda-
num one ounce, and water one pint. The embedded stings should be
extracted with fine forceps or even with the finger nails.
Flea, or Pulex. The flea of man and those of the dog and cat,
when numerous, will bite the horse and give rise to rounded swellings
on the skin. To dispose of them it is needful to clear the surroundings
of the grub-like larvee as well as to treat the victim. ‘The soil may be
sprinkled with quicklime, carbolic acid, coal tar or petrolum; the stalls
may be deluged with boiling water and afterward painted with oil of
turpentine and littered with fresh pine sawdust, and all blankets should
be boiled. The skin may be sponged with a solution of one part car-
bolic acid in fifty parts water. Dogs, cats, and pigs should be dressed
with the same lotion, or, better removed from the vicinity of the
stable.
The chigoe (Pulex penetrans) of the Gulf coast is still more injurious,
because it burrows under the surface and deposits its eggs to be hatched
out slowly with much irritation. ‘The tumor formed by it should be
laid open and the parasite extracted. If it bursts so that its eggs es-
cape into the wound, they may be destroyed by introducing a wire at a
red heat.
Lice, or Pediculi. Two kinds of lice attack the horse, one of
which is furnished with narrow head and a proboscis for perforating the
skin and sucking the blood, and the other (the broad-headed kind) with
strong mandibles, by which it bites the skin only. Of the bloodsuckers
one is common to horse and ass and another to horse and ox, while of
the non-sucking lice one species attacks horse and ox and a second ox
andass. The poor condition, itching, and loss of hair, should lead to
THE SKIN. 235
suspicion and a close examination will detect the lice. They may be
destroyed by rubbing the victifn with sulphur ointment, or with sul-
phuret of potassium four ounces, water one gallon, or with tar water,
or the skin may be sponged with benzine. The application should be
repeated a week later to destroy all lice hatched from the nits in the
interval. Buildings, clothes, etc., should de treated as for fleas.
Chicken Lice. This parasite, Sarcoptes mutans, belongs to
chickens, but can live on the skin of the fox and horse as well. A
troublesome mange may therefore at times be traceable to the proximity
of a chicken roost. The general symptoms and treatment are essen-
tially the same as for sarcoptis equi.
Itch or Mange. The Dermatodectis equi produces the most frequent
mange in horses, and as the parasite only bites the surface and lives
among the crusts under the shelter of a hair, it is very easily discovered.
It reproduces itself with equal rapidity, and causes similar symptoms to
those produced by the sarcoptes. The same treatment will suffice and is
more promptly effectual. The purifying of the stable must be more
thorough, ‘as the psoroptis will survive twenty to thirty days in the moist
atmosphere of a stable, and may even revive after six or eight weeks
when subjected to moist warm air. Infested pastures will therefore prove
dangerous to horses for that length of time, and with rubbing posts, etc.,
should be secluded.
Foot Mange. This acarus attacks the heels and lower parts of the
legs, especially the hind ones, and may be present for years without ex-
tending upon the body. Like the psoroptis, it lives on the surface, on
the hairs and among the scabs. It gives rise to great itching, stamping,
rubbing of the one leg with the other, and the formation of papules,
wounds, ulcerous sores, and scabs. The intense itching will always
suggest this parasite, and the discovery of the acarus will identify the
disease. ‘Treatment is the same as for the sarcoptes, but may be con-
fined to the legs and the parts with which they come in contact.
Poultry Ascariasis. This is a large-sized acarus, though usually
miscalled ‘‘hen louse,’’ and the disease ‘‘poultry-lousiness.’? ‘The mite
lives in the hen manure and adjacent woodwork, but temporarily passes
on to the skin of man, and of the horse and other quadrupeds, when oc-
casion serves. It causes much irritation, with the eruption of papules
or vesicles and the formation of sores and scabs. The examination of
the skin is usually fruitless, as the attacks are mostly made at night and
the effects only may be seen during theday. ‘The proximity of hen ma-
236 THE HORSE.
nure swarming with the acri explains the trouble, and the removal of
this and a whitewashing with quick lime with or without chloride of
lime will prevent future attacks. The skin may still require bland oint-
ments or lotions, as for congestion.
Autumn Mange. This parasite is often called the Harvest Bug,
misnamed Jigger (Chigoe), a brick red acarus, visible to the naked eye
on a dark ground, and living on green vegetation in many localities. It
attacks man, and the horse, ox, dog, etce., burrowing under the skin and
giving rise to small papules and intolerable irritation. ‘This continues
for two or three days only if no fresh acari are received, but will last un-
til cold weather sets in if a fresh colony is received every day. Horses
at pasture suffer mainly on the lower part of the face. If kept indoors
the disease will disappear, or if left at pasture a weak tar water or solu-
‘ion of tobacco may be applied to the face.
VEGETABLE PARASITES OF THE SKIN.
Ringworm or Tinea Tonsurans. This is especially common in
young horses coming into training and work, in low-conditioned colts in
winter and spring after confinement indoors and during shedding of the
hair, in lymphatic rather than nervous subjects, and at the same time in
several animals that have herded together. The disease is common to
man, and among the domestic animals, to horse, ox, goat, dog, cat, and
in rare instances to sheep and swine. Hence it is common to animals of
different species and their attendants suffering at once, the diseases hav-
ing been propagated from one to the other.
In the horse the symptoms are the formation of a circular scruffy
patch where the fungus (tricophyton tonsurans) has established itself,
the hairs of the affected spot being erect, bristly, twisted, broken, or
split up and dropping off. Later the spot first affected has become en-
tirely bald, a circular row of hairs around this are erect, bristly, broken,
and split. ‘These in turn are shed and a new row outside passes through
the same process, so that the extension is made in a more or less circu-
lar outline. ‘The central bald spot covered with a grayish scruff and
surrounded by a circle of broken and split hairs, is characteristic. Ifthe
scruff and diseased hairs are treated with caustic potash solution and put
under the microscope the natural cells of the cuticle and hair will be
seen to have become transparent, while the groups of spherical cella and
THE SKIN. 237
branching filaments of the fungus stand out prominently in the sub-
stance of both, dark and unchanged. ‘The eruption usually appears on
the back, loins, croup, chest, and head. It tends to spontaneous recov-
ery in a month or two, leaving for a time a dappled coat from the spots
of short, light-colored hair of the new growth.
The most effective way of reaching the parasite in the hair follicles is
to extract the hair individually, but in the horse the mere shaving of
the affected part is usually enough. It may then be painted with tinct-
ure of iodine twice a day for two weeks. Germs about the stable may
be covered up or destroyed by a whitewash of freshly burned quicklime,
the harness, brushes, etc., may be washed with caustic soda, and then
smeared with a solution of corrosive sublimate, one-half dram and water
one pint. The clothing may be boiled and dried.
Matting of the Mane and Tail. This is known as Plica Po-
lornica, and the parasite is ‘I'ricophyton Sporuloides. In this malady
the mane and tail of the horse as well as the hair of men, is associated
with numerous spores of a tricophyton, and is rationally treated by cut-
ting off the hair and applying tincture of iodine or a solution of corro-
sive sublimate four parts to one thousand parts of water.
Favus or Honeycomb Ring-worm. It is caused by a para-
site called Achorion Schonleini. Mengin and Goyau who describe this
in the horse, say that it loses its characteristic honeycomb or cup-shaped
appearance, and forms only a series of closely aggregated, dry, yellow-
ish crusts the size of hemp seed on the trunk, shoulders, flanks, or
thighs. They are accompanied by severe itching, especially at night.
The cryptogam, formed of spherical cells with a few filaments only,
grows in the hair follicles and on the cuticle, and this a crust often
forms around the root of a hair. Like the other cryptograms, their
color, as seen under the microscope, is unaffected by acetic acid, alcohol,
ether, or oil of turpentine, while the cells are turned bluish by iodine.
For treatment, remove the hair and apply tincture of iodine or corrosive
sublimate lotion, as advised under ‘‘Matting of the Mane and Tail.’’
Parasitic Pityriasis. ‘This is caused by the parasite Microsporon
Furfur. It attacks the horse’s head where the harness presses, and
leads to dropping of the hair, leaving bald patches covered with a bran-
like scruf, without any eruption, heat, tenderness, swelling, or rigidity
of the skin. A lotion of carbolic acid, one dram; and water, two and
one-half ounces, is usually applied to effect a cure.
238 THE HORSE.
WOUNDS OF THE SKIN.
Fistule. The word fistula is properly applied to sinuous pipes ot
ducts leading from cavities to the surface of the body, through which a
discharge is constantly taking place. They are lined by a false or
adventitious membrane, and show no disposition to heal. Fistulze
may then exist at any part, but the name has come to be com-
monly accepted as applicable only to such discharges taking place
from the withers, and we shall refer to this location when using the
term.
Poll evil is a fistula upon the poll, and in no sense differs from fistu-
lous withers except as to location. The description of fistula will apply
then, in the main, to poll evil as well. Fistule are particularly liable
to occur at either of these locations from the disposition of the muscles
and tendinous expansions, which favor the burrowing of pus and its
retention. Fistule follow as a result of abscesses, bruises, wounds, or
long continued irritation by the harness. Among the more common
causes of fistula of the poll (poll evil) are chafing by the halter or heavy
bridle; blows from the butt end of the whip; the horse striking his
head against the hayrack, beams of the ceiling, low doors, etc. Fistu-
lous withers are seen mostly in those horses that have thick necks as
well as those that are very high in the wither; or, among saddle
horses, those that are very low on the withers, the saddle here riding
forward and bruising the parts. They are often caused by bad-fitting
collars or saddles, by direct injuries from blows, and from the horse roll-
ing upon rough or sharp stones. In either of these locations, ulcers of
the skin, or simple abscesses, if not properly and punctually treated
may become festula. The pus burrows and finds lodgment deep
down between the muscles, and only escapes when the sinus be-
comes surcharged or during motion of the parts, when the matter is
squeezed out.
Symptoms. These of course will vary according to the progress
made by the fistula. Following an injury we may often notice sore-
ness or stiffness of the front legs, and upon careful examination of
the withers we will see small tortuous lines running from the point
of irritation downward and backward over the region of the shoul-
der. These are superficial lymphatics, and are swollen and painful
tothe touch. In a day or two a swelling is noticed on one or both
sides of the dorsal vertebrze, which are hot and painful and rapidly en-
THE SKIN. 239
larging. The pain may at this time subside somewhat, the stiffness
disappear, but the swelling continues and increases in size. It fluctu-
ates upon pressure, and either opens or its contents become inspissated,
dry up, leaving a tumor that gradually develops the common character-
istics of a fibrous tumor. When the enlargement has opened we should
carefully examine its cavity, as on its condition will wholly depend our
treatment. :
Treatment. In the earliest stages, when there is soreness, enlarged
lymphatics, but no well-marked swelling, the trouble may be frequently
aborted. To do this requires both general and local treatment. A
physic should be given, and the horse receives one ounce of powdered
saltpeter three times a day in his water or feed. If the fever runs high,
twenty drop doses of tincture of aconite root every two hours may be
administered. Locally we will find much relief by pouring cold water
from a height upon the inflamed spot for an hour at a time three or
four times a day. Cooling lotions, muriate of ammonia, or saltpeter and
water, sedative washes, as tincture of opium and aconite, cloroform lini-
ment, or camporated oil are also to be frequently applied. I have seen
a number of cases presenting these initial symptoms of fistula thus
aborted that required no other treatutent than the avoidance of the orig-
inal cause.
When, however, the formation of pus is inevitable, this must be hur-
ried as much as possible. Hot fomentations and poultices are to be con-
stantly used, and as soon as fluctuation can be plainly felt the abscess
wall is to be opened at its lowest point. In this procedure lies our hope
of a speedy cure. If the parts are so laid open by the knife that the
pus must escape as fast as it is formed, and where there is left no possi-
bility of its burrowing between the muscles, forming pockets or sinuses,
the parts rapidly and permanently heal without any mediation whatever,
as though we had been dealing with a simple abscess of the withers, and
not a true fistula at all.
Attention is again called to the foregoing directions to the necessity
of probing the cavity when opened. If upon a careful examination with
the probe we find that there are no pockets, no sinuses, but a simple,
regular abscess wall, the indication for treatment is to make an opening
from below so that the matter must all escape. Rarely is anything more
needed than to keep the orifice open and to bathe or inject the parts
with some simple antiseptic wash that is not irritant or caustic. A low
opening and cleanliness constitute the essential and rational treatment.
240 THE HORSE.
If caustics are inserted, they cause sloughing of healthy tissues and favor
the formation of sinuses by producing sloughs below the point of incis-
ion. If the abscess has existed for some time and has not opened, its
walls become thickened, the pus granular or inspissated, then, after an
opening has been made by the knife and the contents washed and
squeezed out as much as possible, the plan of treatment is materially
different. ‘There is enormous thickening of the walls, which must be
destroyed and sloughed out by caustics. The best plan here is to make
the first incision in the highest point of the swelling, introduce a piece
of caustic potash (fused) one to two inches in length, carefully plug the
opening with oakum or cotton, and secure the horse so that he can not
disturb the parts by rubbing or biting them. The skin of the shoulder
and entire leg must be thoroughly greased with lard or oil in order to
prevent the caustic (should it escape) from excoriating the skin over
which it flows. ‘Twenty-four hours after the introduction of the caustic
the plug is to be removed and hot fomentations applied. As soon asthe
discharge is again established we must make another opening with the
knife or seton needle as low as possible, and keep this open with a seton.
The object of making the first incision on top is to insure the retention
of the caustic until it has attacked the entire inner surface of the cavity.
If this is done the caustic causes sloughing of every portion of the dis-
eased parts, leaving a healthy granulating surface underneath, which
only requires that the depending orifice be kept open and the cavity
washed out with a weak antiseptic solution once or twice a week to
effect a cure. .
In many cases of fistula there is more than one sinus or pipe that must
be explored, laid open with the knife if possible, or opened through its
bottom by means of a sharp seton needle, passing a tape through the
openings, and retaining it in this position for some time. If the pipes
are directed straight downward between the shoulder blade and the spine
it is difficult or impossible to make a counter opening, and the case be-
comes serious or intractable. Caustic solutions must now be injected
carefully into the sinuses with the hope of reaching every diseased part.
Probably the best is granular chloride of zinc, one ounce toa half pint
of water. This should be injected three times during one week, after
which a weak solution of the same, or the sulphate of zinc, is to
be occasionally injected. Pressure must be applied from below, and en-
deavors made in this manner to heal the different pipes from the bottom.
Should the bones of the withers or the shoulder blade be diseased the.
THE SKIN. 241
complication is again serious and these must be scraped or portions of
them removed. Ia cases where the tumor is large and hard, yet not
defined so as to admit of extirpation with the knife, make a shallow
incision under the skin, over the center of the tumor, and, inserting
twenty to thirty grains of powdered arsenic wrapped in a single layer
of tissue paper, let it remain. In about ten days a deep slough
with an ugly granulating wound will have taken place, but this will
gradually close as healing progresses. Finally, as will be seen, the dis-
order is generally curable though requiring patient treatment. The
sinuses must be opened at the extremity and kept open, the first treat-
ment being caustic injections or applications applied once or twice; then
mild astringent antiseptic washes. These complete the cure. Where
the sinuses are so directed that counter openings cannot be made the
case is generally hopeless.
Should the fistule break out after having healed it is caused by
particles of diseased tissue remaining, and should a small abscess form it
should be injected with a solution of sulphate of zinc, twenty grains to
the ounce of water, every second or third day until entirely healed.
Grease. This is a filthy disorder indicating neglect. Its pre-
vention is easier than its cure. A white leg is more subject to the
disorder than one of another color. Cutting the hair from the heels of
the animal and thus exposing them is another cause of Grease. The
earliest symptoms are enlargement of the legs with fevered skin;
the hairs seem to stand on end and project straight outward. Then the
part begins to exude a thick, oily moisture; this gives the disease its
name. ‘The secretion is very offensive. This is accompanied by lame-
ness.
The treatment consists of thorough cleansing with warm water and
Castile soap and a thorough saturating with the following solution :
3 pint of Animal Glycerine,
4+ ounce Chloride of Zinc,
6 quarts Water.
This should be applied by saturating heavy cloths and laying them
upon it, constantly changing the cloths until the surface is thoroughly
cooled. Should the trouble have reached the ulcerating stage substi-
tute the following stronger solution :
1 pint of Permanganate Potash or Phosphoric Acid and
6 quarts of Water applied in the same way.
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CHAPTER XV.
SHOEING:,
Its Advantages and Its Disadvantages.
WHY NECESSARY, COMMON ERRORS, PREPARING THE FOOT FOR THE
SHOE, THE SHOE, FINISHING TOUCHES, WINTER SHOEING, SHOEING
FOR A SPECIFIC PURPOSE.
ILLIAM DICKSON, the able veterinarian of the State Farmers’
Institute of Minnesota, has the following to say on this impor-
portant subject :
ee “It has sometimes been asserted that the history of every horse
is a record of human endeavor to mar his utility. While the accuracy
of such a sweeping assertion may fairly be called into question, there are
undoubtedly respects in which the horse in domestication is very often
the victim of his owner’s ignorance, indifference, or even mistaken kind-
ness, and in no particular is this more strikingly conspicuous than in the
ordinary treatment of organs so vitally essential to his usefulness as his
feet. No portion of the horse’s economy has suffered so many wrongs,
or as a natural consequence endured so much uncalled-for suffering, as
his feet, and to shoeing a very large proportion of these evils is, beyond
all doubt, directly or indirectly referable.
Unfortunately, under certain conditions, shoeing is an almost una-
voidable consequence cf the horse’s domestication, and, although we
may have no wish to uphold the traditional methods, we are driven to
the conclusion that an artificial protection of some kind for the horse’s
foot is very frequently one of the penalties which civilization exacts,
244 THE HORSE.
That the ordinary iron shoe is the best and least hurtful means that
could be devised, I am reluctant to admit; but, so far, even American
ingenuity has failed to develop anything better suited to the purpose.
That the system of horseshoeing, as it is practiced, even in the most
skillful hands, is detrimental to the foot, no one who is conversant with
the facts will venture to deny. Asa matter of physiological fitness the
shoe and its mode of attachment are utterly indefensible. Each time a
horse isshod (every nail driven) means so much injury to the foot. The
better the job the less that injury is; but there is no such thing as an
absolute immunity from an evil which must always exist in inverse ratio
to the skill displayed in the execution of the work.
These is, however, at least one very large and important class of horses
to which shoes are by no means an habitual necessity, namely, our agri-
cultural horses. The nature of their work, the pace at which they are
required to perform it, and the character of the ground over which they
ordinarily move, all unite to render artificial protection for their feet,
save under exceptional circumstances, altogether uncalled for. When
this is so, and when it is conceded that shoeing is, even under the most
favorable circtimstances, an evil (although in some cases a necessary
one), a frequent cause of disease, and therefore a direct source of loss,
it isa matter of deep regret that such a large majority of our farm
horses, the very mainspring of our agricultural existence, should be
needlessly subjected to a mutilation which curtails the period of their
natural efficiency and too often renders their life thus shortened one
long-continued agony.
Far too many blacksmiths are ignorant alike of the anatomy, physiol-
ogy, and economic relation of the parts, they mutilate, and they cut
and carve as whim, prejudice, or time-honored custom dictates. Disas-
ter, it may be slowly, but surely, follows, and all too often the dumb
creature’s suffering foots the bill.
Foremost among them is the insane habit of trimming the frog and
thinning out the sole till it visibly yields to the pressure of the operator’s
thumbs. The frog is nature’s cushion and hoof-expander; by its elas-
ticity it wards off concussion from the less elastic portions of the struc-
ture, and by its resilience assists in maintaining the natural state, but
the drawing-knife’s touch is fatal to it. Once cut and carved and de-
prived of pressure, those very acts cause it to shrink, dry, and harden,
and at once lose those very attributes which constitute its usefulness to
the foot. Robbed of its elasticity and resilience, it is incapable of dis-
SHOEING. 245
charging its allotted functions—both as a cushion and as an expander it
is a dead failure; indeed, it is worse, as in its altered character it is now
a menace instead of a protection, a bane rather than a boon to the foot
that wears it.
The destruction of this important factor having been thus accomplished
the operator probably next turns his attention to the sole, which, by all
traditions of the craft, must be pared down until only a thin film of soft,
partially formed horn is left to protect the living structures within
against injury from the substances with which the foot necessarily comes
in contact. Nor does the mischief stop here. The sole itself, or what
is left of it, consists now of soft, moist, half-formed horn, which dries
and skrinks on exposure to the air, and thereby entails a further and a
still more serious injury on the foot.
There seems to be a fascination about this work of destruction, and
the incompetent workman next addresses himself to the self-imposed
task of improving upon nature by removing the bars and what he calls
‘“‘opening”’ the heels, a process which, in plain language, means opening
a road for them to close over. On this poor, maimed foot a shoe, often
many sizes too small, is tacked, and the rasp is most likely called into
requisition to reduce the foot to fit the shoe; for although it is appar-
ently of little moment whether the shoe fits the foot, it is indisputably
necessary that the foot should, somehow or other, be got to fit the shoe,
and horseshoeing, like other arts, must needs sacrifice on the altar of
appearances. It is sad that art and nature should so often be at vari-
ance, and that what satisfies the one should outrage the demands of the
other.
The foot is now shod and protected from undue wear, to be sure, but
at what a sacrifice! Robbed of its cushion, its natural expander; its
jateral braces removed; its sole mangled and its natural repair arrested;
the hair-like fibers which make up the horny wall crushed, deflected,
and their nutritive function impeded by an unnecessary number of nails;
robbed by the rasp of its cordial layer of natural varnish, which retains
the moisture secreted by the economy, the strong walls become dry and
weakened, and the foot is in a very sorry plight indeed. ‘To some this
picture may seem overdrawn, but it is nevertheless a matter of daily
occurrence.
Of course, even among agricultural horses, there are individuals which
can not work unshod; but these are exceptional cases. Then again, in
winter, when the usual snowfall is wanting, most horses’ feet will re-
246 THE HORSE.
quire protection; but nowadays an owner has himself to blame if he sub-
mits to having the work done in that wrong-headed and ridiculous man-
ner, which has called into existence such a long list of diseases and
misery.
The horse’s foot is, after all, a good deal of what we make it, and if
our horses, from their colthood up, had their feet more carefully attended
to, and especially were they invariably to stand while in confinement
or some material less deleterious to the hoof than dry wooden flooring,
from which the foot suffers no irritation whatsoever, and by which it is
moreover depleted of its natural moisture, their feet would, in the per-
iod of the animals’ active usefulness, be found to be better shaped,
harder, less brittle, and in every way better suited for the work required
of them.
There is one instrnment which I should like to see, if possible, omitted
from the shoeing outfit of every farrier, and that is the drawing-knife.
If our blacksmiths would use their knives less and their heads more in
the execution of their very important and by no means easy duty, our
horses would be the better for it, and so would their owners. ‘There is
no great inystery surrounding the subject, and the application of ordin-
ary common sense, in lieu of the barbarous routine which has been so
long handed down from generation to generation untilit has actually be-
come a portion of the blacksmith’s creed, would go a long way towards
obviating many, if not most, of the cruel wrongs to which our horses’
feet are day by day needlessly subjected.
The outside, or horny wall, and that portion of the sole which is in
immediate contact with it, on which the shoe should rest, are the only
portions of the foot which require to be interfered with in preparing the
foot for the shoe, and all the trimming that is necessary can and ought
to be effected by means of the rasp. The frog and sole should on no
pretext whatever be meddled with, save to the extent I have indicated.
Their presence in their entirety, and in their natural state, is essentially
necessary to the well-being of the foot, and neither brooks the touch of
the steel.
There may be differences of opinion among authorities as to minor de-
tails in shoeing, but there is at all events one issue on which it is satis-
factory to know that there is absolute unanimity; one practice which all
alike utterly condemn; and that is the irrational treatment of the frog
and sole, to which I have already alluded.
Sufficient care is not always given to shortening the hoof so that its
SHOEING. 247
angle should conform exactly to the inclination of the limb. It would
be misleading to lay down any arbitrary degree of obliquity. The angle
differs in different cases; and the natural bias of the superimposed struc-
tures is the only safe guide to follow. More than one instrument has
been devised for ascertaining the correct degree of obliquity, some of
them simple and efficacious; but an inspection of the foot in profile is
usually the best way of deciding. Too muchimportance can not possibly
be attached by the workman to this and the succeeding step, namely,
leveling the ground surface of the foot, as the slightest departure from
exactitude here renders whatever amount of care he may devote to the
completion of his work worse than useless. The very smallest deviations
from the perpendicular causes diastrous consequences not only on the
foot but on the entire limb. In the foot itself, when the weight is borne
unevenly, the lowest parts receive an undue share; the pressure re-
tards the growth of new horn, and the foot in consequence becomes
weakened, distorted, and deformed.
The Shoe. The shoe should be as light as the weight of the animal
and the nature of the work he is expected to perform will admit.
Heavy shoes not only burden the animal which is condemned
to wear them, for there is truth in the old adage, ‘‘an ounce at the toe
means a pound at the withers;’’ but they also increase the concussion
inseparable from progression, so even in the trotter, whose work is meted
, out to him with judicious care, although the weight doubtless accom-
plishes the work for which it was intended, it is a draft at usury on
the horse’s future soundness, which that animal is bound to take up at
maturity.
The legitimate mission of the shoe is to prevent undue wear of the
walls, and a light shoe will do this quite well as a heavy one; it is more-
over entirely erroneous to suppose that a heavy shoe necessarily wears
longer than a light one, as experience proves the contrary, in many in-
stances, to bethecase. Even among our mammoth draft horses, whose
shoes must of course be made with reference to the weight they have to
bear and the inordinate strain to which they are subjected when the
animal which wears them is at work, I am not prepared to admit that it
is by any means necessary to add to the concussion to which his feet are
unavoidably subjected, by several pounds of unyielding iron on each
foot, when shoes weighing half as much would serve the purpose equally
well. The lamentably short career of our city draft horse, which is
usually determined by foot lameness of one kind or another, is largely
248 THE HORSE.
attributable, to the aggravated amount of battering on hard pavements
which his needless weight of shoes causes.
The upper surface of the shoe should be perfectly level. If the plane of
the webinclines from outward inward, it greatly adds to the unavoidable
tendency to contraction which shoeing invariably entails, and there is a
wealth of unwisdom in most of the clumsy attempts at mechanically
spreading the heels by making the inclination in the contrary direction.
It would seem to be unnecessary to say that the shoe should be so
shaped as to conform exactly to the natural tread of the foot, yet there
is a very common practice of using a shoe of uniform shape, often less
in circumference, if such a term is permissible, than the foot on which
HIND-FOOT AND FORE-FOOT WITH SHOE PROPERLY ADJUSTED.
it is to be nailed, and then rasping down the foot to fitit. It is easier
to make the foot to fit the shoe than it is to make the shoe to fit the
foot; a stroke or two of the rasp effects the former, but it is a far more
arduous undertaking to modify the size and shape of the shoe. The
outcome of this pernicious practice is disastrous in the last degree, more
especially so in a dry climate like ours, as the walls thus robbed of their
natural covering permit the moisture of the foot rapidly to evaporate,
and the horn fibers, which make up the outside walls, instead of being
compactly knit together, readily disintegrate, and in the course of a
shoeing or two those very portions in which the nails should take firm
hold possess little more adhesion than a bundle of broom corn. If the
shoe fitted as it should, a touch of the rasp under each clinch would be
SHOEING. 249
all that was necessary, and even this much might advantageously be
dispensed with.
Fitting. In many countries what is called hot-fitting, that is to say,
after the foot has been trimmed and leveled, momentarily applying the
shoe at a red heat to the foot, is generally practiced to the almost entire
exclusion of any other method, and the system is not only found to an-
swer, but receives the indorsement of the most competent authorities.
The climatic conditions which render the practice open to objection in
this hemisphere fortunately enable us to dispense with a procedure
against which there exists in the minds of many horse-owners a not un-
reasonable prejudice, which, however, is directed at the abuse rather
than the intelligent application of a proceeding not necessarily hurtful
SHOE OF PROPER SHAPE, WELL AD- SHOE AND NAILS TOO LARGE. NAILS
JUSTED AND PROPERLY NAILED TOO MANY AND DRIVEN TOO DEEP
ON A THREE-YEAR-OLD HORSE SHOE SET BACK TOO FAR. HOOF
SHOD FOR THE FIRST TIME. RASPED AWAY TOO MUCH.
in itself. The advantage conferred by hot-fitting consists in the fact
that a more accurate accommodation is by this means more readily ob-
tained than by any other method, and the contact between hoof and shoe
can thus be made more intimate and enduring. It moist climates it is
only by means of hot-fitting that a set of shoes can be made to remain
on for a reasonable length of time; but in no part of this country have
I found any difficulty of this nature; indeed, on the contrary, shoes are
usually allowed to remain on too long, especially in the agricultural
districts.
It has frequently occurred to me, when in the discharge of my
duties as veterinarian to the Farmers’ Institute of Minnesota, I have
remonstrated with some local blacksmith at the number of gigantic
nails he employed in affixing a shoe, that I have been assured that
250 THE HORSE.
did the shoe not remain on for several months his employer would
be dissatisfied and would transfer his custom elsewhere. Nothing
could be more short-sighted nor more unreasonable than such conduct.
The hoof of the horse is in shape a truncated cone with the base
downwards; as it grows the circumference of the base consequently in-
creases, and the shoe fitted when it was newly put on after a time be-
comes too small. It would be just as reasonable for a horse-owner to
buy his little boy a pair of shoes which just fitted him when he was six
years old, and then expect him to wear them until he was twelve, as it
is for him to require his dumb servant, who can not protest against the
infliction, to wear his shoes for months in succession without resetting.
A badly fitting shoe is toa horse as painful as a tight boot is to his
owner, and under no circumstances should shoes be permitted on more
than a month or five weeks at the outside; many animals require to be
reshod even more frequently. It is only when an owner lets his stingy-
ness overcome his reason that he allows himself to follow a penny-wise
and pound-foolish policy, which can only result, as such policies invari-
ably do, in a loss.
Nails. The fewest nails, and these of the smallest size, that will
keep the shoe on for the proper length of time, is a rule that should
never be departed from. The nail holes should not be punched too fine,
that is, too near the outside edge of the web of the shoe (this is a very
common failing of ‘“keg shoes’’) if punched coarser the nails will take
a thicker and lower hold of the walls, and in this way obviate their hav-
ing to be driven so high up as to approach dangerously near the sensi-
tive structures. Two of the commonest errors in shoeing are using too
many nails and these of an altogether unnecessary size, and then driving
them too high up into the walls. Ifa perfectly level bearing has been
obtained (as ought to be the case) it is astonishing how few and how
small nails will hold the shoe firmly in its place; but let the fitting be
carelessly done, then, no matter how the shoe may be nailed on, but a
short time elapses ere the clinches open and the shoe works loose. When
we bear in mind that the wall of the hoof consists of a number of hair-
like tubes cemented together, and that each tube is one of an infinite
number of minute canals, which diffuse throughout the horn a fluid that
nourishes and preserves it, it will be readily understood that each nail
driven into the wall deflects those little tubules, probably absolutely
closing those with which it comes into actual contact and hurtfully com-
pressing those lying half way between the nails, thus impairing if not
SHOEING. 251
destroying their utility and cutting off the supply of material necessary
to the foot’s existence. If we could dispense with nails altogether our
horses’ feet would be better off. This, unfortunately, we apparently
can not do, but we have it in our power to minimize an evil which, at
present, at all events, we can not entirely avoid.
There is one shoe, without some allusion to which an essay of this
kind would be incomplete, namely, the ‘‘Charlier shoe,’’ invented some
years ago by M. Charlier, a well-known veterinarian surgeon of Paris,
France, which has never, in my opinion, received either the attention or
trial its merits deserve. Common sense and science alike indorse it, and
were the system to become generally known in this country I venture to
assert that there is an extremely large number of cases in which it would
be found bcth appropriate and beneficial. For this reason I will briefly
describe it. The shoes used are about one-third the weight of an ordin-
ary shoe, and less than one-half the width. In preparing the foot for
shoe and sole, frog and bars are left, as they ought to be, absolutely
untouched, and a groove is cut, by means of a knife specially designed
for the wall, not high enough to reach above the sole level, and less than
the thickness of the wall in depth. Into this groove a narrow but thick
band of iron is sunk and nailed to the foot by means of four to six con-
ical-headed nails, the heads being countersunk in the shoe. The advan-
tage of this method of shoeing is that the frog, bars, and a portion
of the sole come to the ground exactly as if the foot were unshod, and
one and all participate in weight-bearing as it was obviously intended
they should, while the wall is protected from wear by the small rim of
iron let into its ground surface.
I have used both the Charlier shoe and the tip in this country as well
as in the East Indies, and I am perfectly satisfied that in many respects
they are superior to any other model. They are infinitely lighter, the
nails are smaller and fewer in number; all steps in the right direction;
but the dominant superiority of the device consists in the fact that the
frog obtains pressure to the extent contemplated by nature, and in
the case of the Charlier tip particularly the exercise of its double
function as a buffer and dilator is absolutely untrammeled in any way
by the shoe.
Finishing Touches. When the shoe has been fitted, the nails
driven, drawn up, and clinched, there should be nothing left to be done.
Very frequently, however, it is just at this stage that the incompetent
workman, in the most uncalled for manner, inflicts serious and lasting
252 THE HORSE.
injury on the foot. If the wall has not been sufficiently reduced in lev-
eling the foot, or if the shoe used is too small, the rasp is required to re-
duce the projecting parts. Often, indeed, when there is not even this’
pretext, the whole surface of the foot is subjected to its relentless touch.
No procedure could well be devised which would be more hurtful to the
foot. In its natural state the entire hoof, from the coronet to the sole
level, is covered by a fine coating of natural varnish, thickest at the up
per margin and gradually becoming thinner asit descends. Under cover
of this beneficent curtain the new horn is secreted and protected until it
has attained maturity. The moisture secreted by the animal economy,
necessary to the perfection of the horn, is retained within it, and the
prejudicial influences of alternating drought and moisture are set at de-
fiance. Ina very dry atmosphere like ours it is of great importance
that this beautiful shield should be preserved and fostered, and no name
is bad enough for a custom which, to serve no good purpose, robs the
foot of a necessary protection which it is beyond the power of art to imi-
tate or replace.
Winter Shoeing. The subject of winter shoeing presents, in many
sections of the country, fresh difficulties, for now the shoe is required,
in the case of all classes of horses, to discharge a double duty; to afford
foot-hold as well as guard against undue wear. Various patterns of shoes
have fron time to tine been invented to meet this double requirement, but
the commonest of all, fashioned with shoe and heel calks or calkins, is,
faulty though it be, probably, all things considered, the one which best
suits the requirements of the case. It should, however, never be lost sight
of that the shorter, the sharper, and the smaller the calkins are, so long
as they answer the purpose which called them into existence, so much
the better for the foot that wears them. High calkins, while they con-
fer no firmer foot-hold, are potent means of inflicting injury both on the
foot itself and the superincumbent limb at large. It is only from that
portion of the catch which enters the ground surface that the horse de-
derives any benefit in the shape of a foot-hold, and it must be apparent
to the meanest capacity that long calkins, which do not penetrate the
hard, uneven ground, are so many levers put into the animal’s possession
to enable if not compel him to wring his feet, rack his limbs, and inflict
untold tortures on himself.
I have laid particular stress on this subject, as I am of opinion that
the presence of navicular disease, a dire malady from which horses used
for agricultural labor should enjoy a practical immunity, is traceable
SHOEING. 253
largely to the habitual use, during our long winter months, of needlessly
large calkins, only fractional parts of which find lodgment in the: earth
or ice during the progression. When a horse is shod with the exagger-
_ ated calkins to which I have alluded, the toe and heel calks are, or ought
to be, the same height, to start with, at all events. Very often, how-
ever, they are not, and even when they are, the toe calk wears down on
animals used for draft purposes far more rapidly than its fellows at the
heel. The result is that the toe is depressed while the heel is unnatu-
rally raised.
The relative position of the bony structures within the foot is altered,
and the navicular bone, which is not one of the weight-bearing bones, is
brought within the angle of incidence of both weight and concussion,
influences which it was never contemplated it should withstand, and
which its structure precludes its sustaining without injury. The bone
becomes first bruised and then diseased; the tendon, to which it was in-
tended it should act as a pulley, which passes over and is in constant
contact with it, before long also becomes implicated, and what is
technically known as navicular arthritis is thus engendered and de-
veloped.
Shoeing for a Specific Purpose. Thanks to the amount of at-
tention which every detail that could possibly tend to the more perfect
development of that paragon of horseflesh, the American trotter, has re-
ceived at the hands of all classes of men, the matter of shoeing for specific
purposes has made greater progress in America than in any other country
on the face of the globe, and that is a department of the farrier’s art
which is justly entitled the highest eulogium that can be bestowed
upon it.
The different styles of shoes which have been devised are marvels of
ingenuity, and many of them are admirably effective as remedial agents
of faulty gaits and uneven action. Their number is infinite, but as,
many are applicable only, or in a large measure, to horses used for
speed purposes only, any attempt at classification or detailed description
would be out of place in a work of this kind. When intelligently ap-
plied a considerable number are, however, potent auxiliaries in miti-
gating in some cases the results of natural defects of conformation
amongst animals whose lot is cast in the humbler if more useful fields of
horse enterprise. Among these are the scoop-toed or roller-motion shoe
for the fore-feet and the shoe for the hind-feet, which, while they obvi-
ate ‘‘forging’’ or ‘‘clicking,’’ a habit hurtful to the horse and singularly
254 THE HORSE.
annoying to his driver, do not in any way tend to inflict injury on the
feet or limbs. The scooped or rolled toe confers a mechanical advan-
tage, enabling the animal to get over his toes more promptly and thus
remove the front foot from the stroke of the hind extremity, while the
lengthening of the branches of the hind shoes, by increasing the ground
surface, retards the flexion and extension of the hind limbs.
The common practice of increasing the weight of the outside web of
the hind shoes, to open the action, is equally harmless and efficacious
when not carried to extremes.
There are many other styles of shoes, the product of American in-
genuity, for which probably equal merit might be claimed, but there are
others, which, while they may cure or mitigate the special defect against
which they are directed, only do so at the expense of some other por-
tion of the structure. It has many a time furnished food thought to the
writer, that, in this great commonwealth, while there are such a large
number of artificers who make horse-shoeing a profession, who offer
such convincing testimony of a vast amount of careful thought and pa-
tient study of at least some of the principles of their very important pro-
fession as many of these devices afford, the bulk of such work should be
permitted to fall into the hands of a set of incompetent, ignorant, and
ofttimes unprincipled bunglers, who prey upon the credulity of their
employers and inflict upon the most generous of all our dumb servants an
amount of injury which curtails the period of his usefulness and results
in his premature decadence at an age when he ought to be still in
his prime.
In the meantime it behooves us to make the most of the means within
our power. Our horses are national property. Surely, therefore, it is
time that the possibility of a great national economy was recognized, and
some legislation formulated which would require an established standard
of attainment in a class of workmen to whose care property of such
value is habitually intrusted, and upon whose proficiency, or the reverse,
so much of its utility or comparative worthlessness depends, while it,
at the same time, provided for some means of practical instruction which
contemplated raising the science of horse-shoeing above the baneful in-
fluences of ignorance and traditional routine, to that position to which
importance to us as a people justly entitles it.’’
CHAPTER XVI.
tie: WEE TE.
Age as Indicated by the Teeth.
ALTERATIONS IN THE TEETH, CLASSIFICATION OF THE TEETH, TEM-
PORARY TEETH, PERMANENT TEETH, PARROT MOUTH, BISHOP-
ING, ETC., ETC.
HE principal guide in determing the age of a horse, up to the sixth
year, consists in the structural alteratives that take place in the
teeth. The mouth of the horse at that age is said to become com-
plete and thereafter the age can only be approximately determined
by the effects of wear, in altering the shape of the teeth, by the receding
of the gums and their characteristic signs.
Many circumstances, however, often contribute to modify the effect of
wear on the teeth, and also to increase and decrease the action of time in
other respects. Therefore, after six years old, an approximately correct
opinion can only be formed by those who have given the subject some
attention, thought and trouble.
Classification. The teeth in the anterior (front) part of the jaw
are called the incisors and are six in number in each jaw, when the
mouth is complete. In the males, in the intermediate rear of these, on
each side in each jaw, there is usually added one peculiarly pointed tooth
called a tusk. ‘The back teeth are called molars or grinders and when
complete are twenty-four in number, twelve above and twelve below. A
supplementary molar known as a ‘‘wolf’s tooth’’ sometimes appears in
either jaw.
Back-teeth, or Molars or Grinders. At birth the foal usually
has two, sometimes three, temporary molars in each jaw. When about
256 THE HORSE.
‘
one year old another molar, a permanent tooth, appears and before two
years of age, a fifth molar, also a permanent tooth, shows itself.
When about two and a half years old the two front temporary molars
give way to permanent teeth, and between three and four years of age
the remaining, or third, temporary molar also .s replaced by a permanent
tooth. About this time the last or sixth perma 1ent molar begins to ap-
pear. ‘Thus at about four years of age so far as the nuinber of molars is
concerned the mouth is completed, there being six permanent molars on
each side both above and below, or twenty-four in all.
These changes are a very good index of the age of the horse up to the
period when they are completed, that is four years old. The molars are,
however, seldom referred to, because it is somewhat difficult to examine
them. Yet, whenever there is a doubt as to the age indicated by the
front teeth (incisors), it is a good place to look for verification. After
four years of age they are not a good indication of age.
A ‘‘Wolf’s’’ tooth sometimes appears in either jaw. Such teeth do not
often cause trouble, but if they do, they can be easily removed with a
pair of pincers, as they are not deep seated.
Incisors or Front Teeth. The front or anterior teeth are six in
number in each jaw, when the mouth is complete. In the male on each
side in the immediate rear there is usually added a very peculiarly pointed
tooth called a tusk. Though there are two sets of incisors, a temporary
set and a permanent set, yet there is only one set of tusks. They usually
begin to make their appearance when the horse is about four years of
age, yet they are not usually fully developed till the last permanent in-
cisor is more or Jess up. The incisors in the upper jaw are considerably
longer and larger than those in the lower jaw.
Temporary and Permanent Incisors. There are well marked
signs by which the temporary or milk teeth can be distinguished from
the permanent ones. The temporary teeth are smaller, whiter, and have
more distinct necks. They are smooth on their outsides, and grooved
inside. ‘The fangs of the teeth are small and they have but little attach-
ment tothe gums. They are arranged in something like a half circle,
in a plump, fleshy, round jaw.
Permanent teeth are larger, broader and wider in their necks, grooved
externally and smooth internally, and not so white as the milk teeth.
The discoloration is due to the juices and other matters connected with
the teeth lodging in the grooves. The external grooving enables the ani-
mal to geta better grip on herbage, which is not necessary for the sucking
THE TEETH. 257
colt which feeds on its mother’s milk and on young and more tender food
than does the adult horse. ‘The circular form of the position of the teeth
is less in the adult horse than in the colt, and gradualiy grows less as the
horse grows old, until in old age the incisors are arranged in nearly a
straight line.
Temporary Teeth. The foalis born with his teeth in a rudimentary
state in the gums. During the first ten months the different temporary
incisors appear.
Yearling. The yearling has complete in all six incisors in each jaw.
The teeth show but little wear and the corner teeth are mere shells, hav-
ing inner walls, and all the teeth are close together.
Two-Years-Old. At this age the inside walls of the corner Heath
have grown up level with the outer wall. The center teeth show con-
siderable wear and appear smaller than in the yearling on account of the
increase in the size of the jaw. They have become somewhat wider
apart at their necks.
Three-Years-Old. The horse sheds the two center teeth a few
mouths before he is three years old and they are replaced by permanent
ones. ‘Thus the jaw at three years of age contains two centre permanent
teeth and two temporary teeth in each side.
Four-Years-Old. A few months before four years old the horse
sheds the two next milk teeth, which are replaced by permanent ones.
Thus at four years of age the jaw contains four permanent teeth and one
milk tooth on each side.
Five-Years-Old. The remaining milk teeth are shed a short time
before the horse becomes five years of age and are replaced by permanent
ones. ‘The jaw is now complete, but the corner teeth are shells, having
no inner walls. ‘The absence of this wall distinguishes the five from the
six-year-old mouth.
Six-Years-Old. The inner wall of the corner permanent teeth have
by this time grown up level with the outer wall. The mouth now being
complete in incisors, and no further structural changes take place in
them. Asa general rule, the upper temporary teeth fall out sooner than
the lower ones.
Up to six years of age, since there are structural changes, there can
be but little doubt as to the age of the horse. High feeding encourages
growth of the teeth as well as of other parts of the body, therefore
thoroughbreds are somewhat more forward in their mouths than half-
‘breed animals.
258 THE HORSE.
The Mark. ‘There is a very peculiar hollow extending, when the
tooth first comes up, about a half an inch down the temporary and rather
deeper down the permanent. This is known as the mark or Infundi-
bulum. Up to the age of six there is no use spending time in studying
these marks, not because they do not show some indication of age, but
because the structural changes detailed above are more reliable.
After six years have been reached, recourse must be had to the indi-
cations given by the marks and other slight, but gradual alterations
which take place in the form of the teeth.
The Construction of the Tooth. The tooth as it originally ap-
pears consists of four walls of enamel. ‘The remainder of the tooth con-
sists chiefly of dentine, less hard than enamel, and more like ivory. A
small quantity of crusta petrosa is also found on the outside.
This hollow affords lodgement for the debris of the food and only a
short time after it makes its appearance it looks black. As the tooth
wears down the hollow of course disappears, but the surface of the den-
tine immediately below the original hollow, being a somewhat soft ma-
terial, has become stained for some distance down. ‘Therefore the black
mark remains. With the further wear of the tooth in time this stained
portion wears away, and the mark is then out. It is at this age when
artificial marks are burned into the tooth te deceive the inexperienced.
The time required for this mark to wear out varies with the class of
food on which the animal has been fed, therefore it is not an exact guide,
yet it may be relied upon to a greater or less degree as an indication
of age.
General Rules as to the Mark. Between three and five years
old the marks are very plain in all the permanent incisors. At six the
marks are wearing out of the two centre teeth, which came up at three
years old. They are plain in the two next, and perfectly fresh in the
two corner teeth.
Seven-Years-Old. At this age the marks from the center teeth
have worn away and those in the two next are wearing out, and are dis-
tinct and plain only in the corner teeth.
Eight-Years-Old. Here we find the marks as described have dis-
appeared from all but the corner teeth in which they are becoming in-
distinct. ‘The faint outlines are to be seen and they will be found to
be very elliptical.
Nine-Years-Old. At this age there are not usually any marks
found in the teeth. Faint outlines are still seen being most pronounced
in the corner teeth.
THE TEETH. 259
Over Nine Years Old. Fora couple of years after the true marks
have disappeared there will still be found a trace of the enamel in the
form of astar. ‘This enamel lined the bottom of the original hollow and
underlaid it for some distance. As the teeth wear this star decreases in
size. At twelve or thirteen years of age the last traces of the enamel
have usually disappeared even from the corner teeth but it may remain
some time longer.
Effect of Different Kinds of Feeding. The time required for
the teeth to wear down depends much upon the natural hardness of the
teeth and the kind of food on which the horse is fed. Grass-fed horses
usually retain the marks a couple of years longer than those fed on hard
food. Again in horses where the upper teeth overlap the lower jaw, the
marks will remain many years.
Horses that bite the manger, wear down their teeth very rapidly, and
lose the marks very early. Horses feeding on salt marshes and on grasses
which have been washed by the sea lose the mark quickly.
Bishop-ing. There is a practice among some dishonest horsemen of
trying to imitate the marks by the use of caustic or the hot iron. The
fraud is easily detected, because, though it is easy to maké a BLACK
mark in the center of the teeth, yet it is impossible to put in the walls
of pearly enamel which surrounds the natural mark.
Fang-Hole or Secondary Mark. There is a secondary mark
which may or may not appear at nine years of age. A slight trace
usually appears at that age in the center teeth and of course later in the
other teeth. If it shows at allit is a good sign that the horse has
reached at least twelve years of age. There is no actual hole because
with advancing years the upper part of the original cavity has become
filled with a kind of dentine, which is more yellow than the true mater-
ial of which the body of the tooth consists. This affords no true index
to age and is mentioned to caution the mistaking of this for ‘‘the mark.’’
The enamel of the mark it will be remembered is pearly white, while
the mark of this secondary fang-hole is brownish yellow.
Further Changes. At nine it will be seen the ‘‘marks’’ entirely
fail as an indication of age and indeed at seven and eight are not always
to be depended upon. After this age the best indications of age are
given in the gradual alterations in the shape of the teeth from wear’ and
in closing the mouth. The teeth are broad (extending from corner to
corner of the mouth) in the young horse and gradually grow thin toward
their necks and fangs. In very old horses there is often a marked space
between the teeth.
260 THE HORSE.
Shape of the Teeth. The teeth as they diminish in lateral breadth
they increase in proportionate thickness from front to back.
At six and up to eight the teeth are all broad laterally at their upper
surfaces.
’ At nine, when the marks fail, the two center teeth have become some-
what triangular.
At ten the two next show similiar signs.
At eleven, the two corner teeth have become somewhat triangular.
At twelve, the triangularity has increased in all the teeth, and con-
tinues to increase until in very old horses the depth from front to rear
exceeds the lateral width.
: From these facts the reader will perceive that after six years old, i. e.,
after the structural changes in the mouth are completed, it is impossible
to lay down any one single definite rule by which the age can be ascer-
tained. Still, witha little trouble and attention there is no real difficulty
in acquiring a knowledge of the horse’s age up to a comparatively late
period of his life.
Such a knowledge is always valuable to an intending purchaser.
Horses of eight or nine years old are still in their prime; but from want
of knowledge of the means of ascertaining the real age and from very
natural distrust of what the owner may tell them, the public are very
shy of buying such horses; and consequently they may generally be ob-
tained at prices below their real value.
THIS
IS PREPARED BY
Andrew A. Gardenier, Ph.D.,
EXPRESSLY FOR
THE SUCCESSFUL STOCKMAN
!
AND
MANUAL OF HUSBANDRY.
‘The King-Richardson Co.,
SPRINGFIELD, MASS.
afi
oe
SWhintc= Reinhardt:
5
ANATOMICAL
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DIGESTIVE APPARATUS.
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ANATOMICAL DIVISIONS.
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28.
EXPLANATORY KEY
—To—
THE COW.
MANIKIN OF
Frontal crest.
Horns.
Forehead.
Bridge of the nose.
Upper lip.
Nostrils.
Root of the ear.
Cheek.
Ear.
Throat.
Nape of the neck.
Dewlap.
Withers.
Back.
Loin.
Breast.
Walls of the chest.
Belly.
Flanks.
Upper part of flank.
Rump.
Haunches.
Root of tail.
Tail.
Tuft.
Perinzum with lacteal shield.
Udder.
Shoulder.
Point of shoulder.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34,
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44,
45.
46.
47.
48.
i
PSLEBNQaroOd Ee
Fore-arm.
Elbow.
Knee.
Shin, metacarpal bone.
Fetlock joint with dew-claws
Pastern.
Coronet.
Hoop.
Hip-joint.
Upper thigh.
Stifle-joint.
Lower thigh.
Hock.
Point of Hock.
Shin, metacarpal bone.
Fetlock joint.
Pastern.
Coronet.
Hoofs.
THE MUSCLES.
Circular muscle of eye.
Eyelid.
Middle abductor of ear.
Inferior abductor of ear.
Superior abductor of ear.
Elevator of lip and nose.
Elevator of upper lip.
Pyramid muscle of nose.
Zygomaticus.
Lacrymalis.
268
MANIKIN OF THE COW.
11. Depressor muscle of upper lip.
12. Sinews of sterno maxillaries.
13. Masseter.
14. Sterno maxillaries.
15. Abductor of ear.
16—17. Muscle of head and neck.
18. Part of sterno maxillary.
19. Great pectoral.
20. Auterior pectoral.
21. Inferior elevator of shoulder bone.
22. Trapezium.
23. Trapezium,
24, Long brachial extensor, anterior.
25. Long brachial extensor, posterior.
28. Triceps extensor brachii, external
head.
29. Triceps extensor brachii, great
head.
3u. Scapular ulnaris.
31. Latissimus dorsi.
32. External oblique abdominal.
33. Serratus magnus.
34. Rectus.
35. Metacarpus extensor, the great.
36. Digitalis extensor, common.
37. Digitalis extensor, external.
40. Flexor of foot.
41, 43 to 47. Tendons.
42. Deep flexor of toes.
48, Annular ligament of fetlock.
50. Inner hoof extensor, sinew.
51. Gluteus maximus.
52. Vagina femoris.
53. Femoris, rectus.
54. Femoris, biceps.
55. Biceps, posterior portion.
56. Semitendinosus,
57. Gluteus.
58, Caudal curvator.
59—60. Pedis flexors.
61. Abductor.
62. Peroneus.
63. Soleus.
64. Gastrocnemius.
65. Extensor communis.
66—67.
68.
Extensor.
Tendon of Achilles.
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM.
1. Aorta
2. Anterior aorta.
3. Posterior aorta.
4. Left inominate artery.
5. Left coronary artery.
6. Right inominate.
8, Left carotid.
9. Right carotid.
10. Arteries which supply windpipe
11. Parotid gland artery.
12. Pharyngean artery.
13. Occipital artery.
14. External artery.
15. Lingual,
16. Facial.
17—18. Coronary arteries,
19. Lower dental.
20. Upper labial.
21. Temporal.
22. Lower eyelid.
23. Anterior intercostal.
24. Oblique cervical.
25. Deep cervical.
26. Vertebral.
27. Pectoral, exterior.
28 Pectoral, interior.
29. Radial.
30. Mctacarpal major.
31. Metacarpal minor.
32. Diaphragmatic.
33. Bronchial.
34. Intercostal, ten pairs of,
36. Coelic axis.
37. Anterior mesenteric.
38. Renal.
39. Spermatic.
40. Posterior mesenteric,
41. Lumbar, six pairs.
42, Pelvic.
43. Arteries of the thigh.
MANIKIN
44. Sacrum.
45. Abdominal.
46. Spermatic.
47. Abdominal integument
48. Posterior circumflex.
49. Obturator.
50. Femoral.
51. Tibial.
52. Metatarsal.
53. Tarsal.
54. Plantar.
55. Hypogastric.
56. Ilio lumbar.
57. Caudal.
58. Muscular.
59. Obturator, muscular branches.
60. Obturator.
61. Internal pudic.
62. Vena cava vein,
63. Jugular vein.
65. Posterior vena cava vein.
66. Portal vein.
68. Divisions of portal vein.
BONES.
1. 1 prime to 13 prime, ribs.
1. Horns.
2. Frontal protuberance.
3. Frontal bone.
4. Temporal bone.
5, Zygomatic bone.
6. Lower maxillary.
7. Malar.
8. Cavity for eye.
9. Lacrymal.
10. Upper maxillary.
12. Nasal bone.
13. The eight incisors.
14. Six upper molars.
15. Six lower molars.
16. Occipital.
17. Atlas.
18. Axis.
19—23. Cervical vertebra.
24—37.
Dorsal vertebra.
OF THE COW.
38—43, Lumbar vertebra.
44. Sacrum.
45—64. Coccygeal vertebra.
65—66. Pelvis.
67. Os pubis.
68. Ball and socket hip joint.
69. Sternum.
70. Scapula.
71. Shoulder joint.
72. Humerus.
73. Ulna.
74. Elbow joint.
75 Radius.
76. Cuneiform bone.
77. Polygonal bone.
78. Lunar.
79. Magnum.
80... Scaphoid.
81. Semi lunar.
82. Sphenoid bones.
83. Metacarpal.
84. Sesamoid.
85. Pastern.
86. Coronet.
87. Navicular.
88. Hoof.
89. Femur.
90. Patella.
91. Stifle joint.
92 Tibia.
93. Hock joint.
94, Calcis.
95. Astragalus.
96. Scapho-cuboid.
97—98. Cuneiform bones.
269
DIGESTIVE APPARATUS
1. Cerebellum.
2. Cerebrum.
3. Pons Varolii.
4, Medulla Oblongata.
5. Spinal Marrow.
6—6 Cervical vertebra.
7—17. Dorsal vertebra.
8—8; Lumbar vertebre.
270 MANIKIN OF THE COW.
9. Sacrum.
10—10 Coccygeal.
11. Ligamentum nuche.
12. Turbinated bones.
13. Pharynx.
14. Glottis.
15. Thyroid gland.
16. Palate.
17. Mouth with six molars.
18. Tongue.
19. Bronchi and divisions.
20, Left auricle.
21. Right auricle.
22. Right ventricle, interior.
23. Aorta.
24. Left ventricle, interior.
25. Right ventricle, exterior.
26. Left ventricle, exterior.
27. Diaphragm, tendinous portion.
28. Diaphragm, muscular portion.
29. Gall-bladder.
30. Bile duct of gall-bladder.
31—33. Lobes of the Liver.
34—35. Bile ducts of liver.
36. Posterior, vena cava, entrance.
37. Portal vein, opening.
39—40.
41. Vagina.
42. Bladder.
Ureter, ducts from kidneys.
43.
45.
46.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
76.
Opening of urethra.
Uterus.
Abdominal cavity.
Milk collecting ducts.
Milk-sinus.
Duct of teat.
Neck of uterus.
Mouth of uterus.
Umbilical cord.
Young in position before birth.
Cotyledons.
Ilium.
Duodenum.
Pylorus.
Fold of fourth stomach.
Leaves of second stomach.
Meshes and cells of 2d stomach.
Opening into second stomach.
Opening of esophagus into the
stomach.
Supports of paunch.
Front portion of paunch.
Middle portion of paunch,
Papille of paunch.
Mesentery.
Jejunum,
Rectum.
Anus.
Colon.
CATTLE.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE VARIOUS BREEDS.
Their Diseases and How to Cure Them.
ome
DISCUSSIONS ON, SILOS AND ENSILAGE, THE USE OF
THE SEPARATOR, AND THE CARE OF MILK.
A DESCRIPTION OF AERATING MILK.
EAT cattle have been the useful and cherished companions of
mankind from the earliest date of history. The great regard and
esteem the ancients had for this useful animal is shown by the fact
that Moses on his return from Mt. Sinai found the Israelite wan-
derers worshipping a golden calf. The Egyptians worshipped an ox,
Apis, the magnificent tomb of which has been recently discovered. Job,
in his days of prosperity, was the owner of one thousand yokes of oxen.
Homer, who lived eighteen hundred years before the Christian era,
wrote of the noble bullocks with ‘‘golden knobs on the tips of their
horns.
In the modern world there has been great improvement in the dis-
tinctive characteristics of cattle. By gradual and natural progress each
nation throughout western Europe has developed a grade of cattle dis-
tinctly its own. The Moors of Spain raised cattle from which descended
the savage and headstrong bulls used in the arena of bull-fights and
picadores. The islands south of England have produced the Jerseys,
the Alderneys, and the Guernseys, while Holland has given us the
large, noble Holstein or Dutch cattle, and England has produced for her
beef-loving lords the Durhams.
272 CATTLE.
The North American continent, from the Atlantic on the east to the
Pacific on the west, and from the great lakes on the north to the Gulf
of Mexico on the south, with its vast low-lands, prairies, and mountain
regions, furnishes a diversified climate, each section fitted for some
breed of cattle, with characteristics specially suited for its climate.
The various soils and elevations of America furnish choice foods, and
to be successful in cattle raising it is only necessary to choose varieties
of cattle best adapted to the positions they are to occupy, and the uses
demanded of them. In selecting a herd for profit, there is to be consid-
ered, whether beef, butter, cheese, or milk is to be the production, and
then to select from the various herds that are best adapted for the de-
sired product, that variety that will do best in the climate and on
the kind of food the easiest and cheapest to produce.
The Short-Horns. It is asserted by historians that the Danes in-
troduced cattle into Northumbria, Durham, and York, the north-eastern
counties of England, long before William the Norman conquered the
Heptarchy. Southern Denmark, Jutland, and Holstein, possessed a
breed of cattle, that the Danes shipped to England in exchange for
other products raised on the Isle of Great Britain. It is supposed by
the majority of writers on early English agriculture and cattle, that the
short-horns are descendants of the cattle so introduced, and that
for several centuries they inhabited only the most eastern part of
England.
In the agricultural progress of the country, these cattle received much
attention, and they improved much in form, flesh, and general appear-
ance. The animals were coarse in form and flesh, but they possessed
great aptitude to fatten, and within their high, broad carcasses were ele-
ments that caused them to improve when brought under careful man-
agement and given shelter, and good food.
These animals had improved by the year 1740, so that a Mr. Mill-
bank, of Barningham, dressed a five year old ox that weighed two
thousand one hundred pounds in the four quarters, and had besides, two
hundred twenty-four pounds of rough tallow; and a cow of the same
stock, which weighed fifteen hundred forty pounds. These weights are
recorded and it will be noticed that they nearly equal those of the pres-
ent time.
The improvement of the English short-horn has gone on, until now,
as a producer of beef, they stand in the front ranks of all the bovine
races in Great Britain, and also in portions of the adjacent continent,
CATTLE. 273
and in the English colonies of Australia and Canada, where the soil and
climate are peculiarly adapted to their support. They are the heaviest
beef cattle that are received into the London markets and they mature
at an early age. It is claimed that they excel when bred for milkers,
but we believe this is not supported by any authority other than the
statements of the short-horn breeders and speculators.
The introduction of the short-horns into America seems to be shad-
owed in mystery. Either those who brought this class of cattle into the
country before the Revolution did not deem the fact of sufficient impor-
tance for record, or there were none introduced for the first authentic
record dates back only to their introduction by a Mr. Miller into Vir-
ginia just after the close of the war. In 1797 a few of the descendants
were taken into Kentucky. Various importations were made through
the first half of the eighteenth century, until in 1856 America had as
fine a bred stock of short-horns as could be found in England itself.
The English Herd Book commenced in the year 1822, while the
American Herd Book commenced in 1846. These books contain the
records of over ninety thousand bulls and cows. ‘This breed of cattle
extends over a greater territory in the United States than any other
foreign breed.
Characteristics. There are two classes of short-horns, one classed
as flesh-producing, the other as dairy.
The class of short-horns that are noted for their flesh-producing qual-
ities are those that have yielded to their natural tendency of taking on
flesh. Because of this predisposition the English breeders began to
breed for the production of flesh. They gave abundant food from early
calf-hood till fully matured. Thus these animals grew rapidly, ma-
tured early, and had great rotundity of body. The English breeders
were encouraged in their production of this class of animals on account
of the demand of the markets for beef, and the great desire of the breed-
ers for cattle of this class for importation.
The modern short-horn breeders in America appear to care but little
for the production of milk, so that the flesh-producing class has been
brought to greater perfection in this country than the dairy class.
The early importations of short-horns into the United States were
those chiefly for milking purposes, and agricultural publications of fifty
years ago record remarkable yields of milk and butter. But the short-
horus are naturally beef-producers and will succeed best assuch. Nature
leads toward beef-production and the efforts of the breeders have been
CATTLE.
274
“TING NAOH -LXOHS
CATTLE. 275
largely in that direction. Exhorbitant prices were paid tor years for
good specimens of this class of stock for special importation into
America.
A first-class short-horn has a head with a fine yellowish, nut-brown,
or black muzzle; broad forehead; full, bright eyes; lean cheeks; con-
cave or dishing face; short horns, standing wide, gracefully spreading
out at the base, and then turning upward with a still further spread.
The horns show no black except at the tips. The ear is of a moderate
size, thin, and moves with a quick motion, and the throat is clean, with-
out dewlap. ‘The neck sets well into the shoulders and breast, and with
a slight pendulous hanging of the skin, just at the brisket. The shoul-
ders are full and wide at the tops and nearly straight; the shoulder
points are full and wide; the brisket projects well forward, and is broad
and low; the arm tapers to the knee; and the leg has a fine bone ending
in a well rounded foot. The ribs are full and round, and run back well
towards the hips; the loins are full and level; the rumps long and wide;
the tail set on a level with the back, and is small and tapering; the
thighs full and heavily fleshed; the twist wide; the flank low and full;
and the hock or gambrel joint, standing straight, or nearly so.
Colors. The well bred short-horn varies in color from a pure white
to a deep red, and intermixtures of these colors which produce the light
roan, with white predominating over the red; the red roan, with the red
more prominent than the white; and red or white mixed or spotted in
every conceivable manner. Some breeders think that short-horns of
pure white are less hardy than the reds, but statistics do not bear them
out in their prejudices.
Flesh. Asa beef animai they are superior in producing large quan-
tities of beef, but it is not so tender and juicy, nor of so fine a grain as
found in the Devons, the Galloways, or the Highlands.
Climate Adapted to the Short-Horns. Experience has shown
that the short-horns will thrive well in cold climates, even doing wellas
far north as 45° of latitude, (on a line with the northern boundary of
New York State). Of course in the colder latitudes the cattle must
have good protection in winter. It is soil and feeding that makes the
animal thrive, and with shelter in inclement weather, and a fairly tem-
perate climate good results may be expected.
This breed of animals while profitable in the beef producing portions of
America, are being superseded by the milk producers in the east. Beef
can be shipped long distances to market, but milk should be produced
276 CATTLE.
near enough to the market, that it may be received and placed on sale at
least within ten or twelve hours after milking. Therefore the short-
horns will be found most profitable at such distances from our great
cities that it is impossible to ship milk profitably to their markets.
The Herefords. This is a valuable herd of cattle, although but
comparatively little known in America. The Herefords are named after
a county in south-western England which is adjacent to Wales. These
cattle are of very ancient ancestry, but have been very much improved
within the last century.
The Condivg. Qewleman:
HEREFORD BULL, ‘‘LEATHER STOCKING.”’
The color of this breed has a peculiar history as to its changes and
markings. One hundred years ago they were deep red—almost brown,
in color ; now they are usually red, with white faces, throats, bellies,
and sometimes backs. About the time of King John of England (A.D.
1200) they were all white with red ears, and Maude de Brehos, against
whose husband King John was highly incensed, in order to soften the
wrath of the mighty king and thereby saving the life of her husband,
presented to the queen, the wife of King John, four hundred cows ang
one bull, all white with red ears,
CATTLE. 277
Lewis F. Allen, in his admirable book ‘‘ American Cattle,’’ gives the
only good description of these cattle that can be found. History is very
silent regarding the Herefords, but Mr. Allen had excellent opportuni-
ties for close and almost daily observation of a herd of imported Here-
fords. We append his description, which is as follows :
“‘In our researches among English authorities, we find less said of the
Hereford, its history and breeding, than almost any other well-known
breed. Youatt devotes but four pages to them, knowing little of them
himself, and having not much information from others. What we have
: THE ‘‘ROYAL,’’ FIRST PRIZE HEREFORD COW.
gleaned from English accounts is chiefly in fugitive papers and maga-
zines, by sundry writers and breeders; but more fortunately for the pre-
sent purpose, we have had several years’ close and almost daily observa-
tion, in a herd of imported Herefords and their descendants which were
kept near us, as well as of occasional observation of other importations,
which have given us a more intimate knowledge of them than volumes
of books, without such personal observation, could have done.
‘‘ Perhaps we cannot convey a better description of the Hereford than
to say : give a Devon a quarter more size, somewhat more proportionate
278 CATTLE.
bone and horn, a trifle shorter leg and longer body, a little coarser in
every part, and you have a good Hereford in all excepting color.
‘* As useful cattle the Herefords are a good breed. We are aware
that their introduction into the United States has not been, in compari:
son with some other breeds, successful in popularity or extended distri-
bution ; but that fact decides nothing as to the positive merits of the
stock itself. Partiality, prejudice on the part of our cattle breeders, or
pre-occupation of the ground by other breeds which meet the general
approbation, may keep them for a time in the background ; but their
actual merits once known, they will have a fair trial and achieve a sub-
stantial success.
‘Like the Devon, we place the Hereford under three distinct heads;
and first,
As a Dairy Cow. In this virtue she has little reputation, either in
England or America. We have found no English authority, except a
rare instance or two, which gives her much creditasa milker. Possibly
this may have arisen from the fact that the Hereford districts are graz-
ing, and not dairy. The milk is rich, but too little of it—not much
more than to rear her calf in good condition. She dries early.
‘“ Tf she ever was a milker before her modern improvement began, the
milking faculty has been sacrificed for a ready tendency to flesh, which
has been obtained in a high degree in her race. We have seen a dozen
of them milked through three or four successive seasons, and the yields
were such as would be unsatisfactory to a modern dairyman. Now and
then a fair milker turned up, but they were in a minority of numbers;
taken together they were less than ordinary for the season. We will
not therefore discuss this question further, but pass to another quality
as ylelding greater pleasure in the relation.
As a Working Ox, ‘‘ The Hereford is the peer of any other and
superior to most. Large, long, muscular, well developed in form, noble
and stately in carriage, he suggests all that need be found in an honest,
true worker. At full maturity—say six years old—he girts seven feet
behind the shoulders, in ordinary condition, to the Devon’s six feet, and
is every way the more powerful, if not quite so quick oractive. A team
of two, three, or four yokes of Herefords, under the control of a good
driver, for ‘a long pull, a strong pull, and a pull altogether,’ is the per-
fection of bovine strength and majesty. The joints of the ox are well
knit, his sinews strong, his shoulders slant well to the yoke, and he
carries his load well, be it at the plow, the cart, or the wagon. He is
CATTLE. 279
kindly, intelligent, honest in his labor. We have seen them from half
to three-quarters blood, crossed from the common cow, and up to thor-
ough bred, all of great excellence as draught beasts, well matched, and
admirable in all their points. The Hereford blood is strong in marking
its descent. From the bulls which were kept in our neighborhood
eighteen years ago, crossed upon cows which run on the adjacent com-
mons, in their summer pasturage, we now, in their progeny, to later
generations, frequently see cows and oxen but a quarter, an eighth, or
sixteenth in blood—got by scrub bulls—that show strong Hereford
marks in form and color.
‘“'Where hay and pasturage are cheap, and the farmer has a taste for
the business, it must be a profitable investment to obtain a thorough
bred Hereford bull, cross him on well selected native red cows, and rear
and break steers for the markets where good working oxen are in de-
mand. ‘The strong blood of the bull will give uniformity in shape and
color, so that the steers may be easily matched, and if not wanted for
the yoke, they are equally valuable, as other Cattle, for feeding and the
shambles.
As a Beef Animal, ‘‘The Hereford is superior. They feed
kindly, are thrifty in growth, mature early—at three and four years old
—and prove well on the butchers’ block. We are aware that they have
not now a general popularity in the great cattle breeding regions of
our Western states. Few of them have been introduced there, and
those, perhaps, not in the right hands to push them to the best advan-
tage. We could wish for them a fairer trial; but the prejudice against
the cows as milkers, and the lack in their taking appearance as a highly
* distinctive race, in comparison with the more taking shorthorns, have
kept them back in public demand. Their time has not yet come; and
it may be, that in the right hands, and with a more critical observation
among our cattle breeders and graziers, they may achieve a reputation
as a grazing beast, equal to some now considered their superiors.
‘‘In their native counties in England, they still hold a high rank, and
at the prize shows in the London markets compete successfully with
other improved breeds. With all the deficiencies which the advocates
of other breeds allege against them, the Herefords still maintain their
reputation among the English breeders, who hold on to them with a
pertinacity which shows an unabated confidence in their merits and
profit as a true grazier’s beast. We might show recorded tables of their
trials, in England, with shorthorns, and the relative profits of their feed-
280 CATTLE.
ing for market, in which the Herefords gained an advantage on the
score of economy; but as the trials were uot from birth to slaughter, and
the comparative early advantage of each breed were omitted in the ac-
count, a repetition of the tables here would not be conclusive.
Herefords in America. ‘‘ Within the past twenty years numerous
importations of good Hereford cattle have been made into both the
United States and Canada, and scattered chiefly into the Western States
and Territories for crossing orf the native cows and rougher Texan ones
The Gary
ABERDEEN-ANGUS BULL, ‘‘LINDOLPH.’’
for beef raising, as well as breeding in their pure blood. They com-
mand ready sales and good prices, are rapidly rising in public favor and
will add largely to the better qualities of beef production. They have
a Herd Book record of their own, and may be counted as having taken
an established position in the broad grazing districts of the country.
“Tt is doubtful whether in early maturity for the shambles they will
equal the short-horns, now so universally prevalent, but as they are ac-
tive in movement, may better suit some localities where the lymphatic
281
CATTLE.
temperament of the short-horns will not so well enable them to range
over wide distances to gather their forage.
Taken altogether the Here-
fords are a good breed of cattle, and will undoubtedly maintain a high
position among our bovine varieties.”
There
The native polled cattle of Aberdeen and
Aberdeen-Angus.
Angus have early development of rapidly fattening properties.
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ABERDEEN-ANGUS, BLACK HEIFER, ‘‘EMPRESS,’’ WEIGHT 1600.
SWEEPSTAKES AT FAT-STOCK SHOW,
ENGLAND.
BIRMINGHAM,
The small
were rather puny creatures, always thin in flesh, and were very badly
were originally two classes, one large and another small.
Of the larger kind about one-half were jet black, excepting the
udder, which was usually white and often the whole underline was
used.
282 CATTLE.
white. They could not stand starvation like the small polls, and with
a better treatment they gave a heavier yield of milk.
There is no record of any systematic combination of the two races,
but as the stock raisers of those days saw no special advantage in keep-
ing any herd absolutely pure from generation to generation, the natural
conclusion is that their blood was more or less intermingled.
Formerly, in Aberdeen and Angus the breed embraced a variety of
colors as well as the difference in size. Some were brindled (dark red
and black stripes alternately); others were red; some brown; and a few
‘‘ silver-colored yellow.’’ But systematic breeding has relegated to the
back ground all shades of color, excepting the black.
These cattle, as now found, are large, scarcely inferior in weight to
any in the country. At a casual glance they seem smaller than the
average shorthorn, but when the lever of the scale is examined the dif-
ference is less than what at first sight it was thought to be, and often-
times the lever causes all differences to disappear.
The Aberdeen-Angus cattle are lengthy, deep, wide, even porportion-
ate, and very cylindrical. The head of the polled male is not large and
is handsome, and it is neatly set on the neck; the muzzle is fine; the
nostrils wide; the eyes mild, large, and expressive; the poll high; the
ears of fair size, lively, and well covered with hair; the throat clean,
with no development of skin and flesh beneath the jaws, which are not
heavy; the neck quite long, clean and rising from the head to the
shoulder-top and surmounted by a crest.
In the Paris Exhibition it carried off every single honor for which it
was entitled to compete, and in the British show yards, both fat stock
and breeding, it has attained a leading position. In a strictly butcher’s
point of view, it has very seldom to yield to any other race of cattle.
Its superiority over other herds, for the butcher’s purpose, lies mainly
in the excellent quality of beef, and in the high percentage of dead
meat to live meat. The carcass is usually lined with fat of the finest
quality, while in the density and quality of the carcass itself this breed
can easily claim first place. Some place the small Devon breed alongside
if not even with the Aberdeen-Angus, but that is the only breed that
will yield so large a percentage of dead meat to live weight.
This breed is specially adapted for crossing with short-horns. Indeed
the very best beef-producing animal in the world is a cross between a
short-horn bull and a polled Aberdeen-Angus cow.
CATTLE. 283
The Galloways. The cattle that are now known as the Aberdeen-
Angus were originally quite universally called the Galloways. They,
according to many authorities, originated in the Lowlands in the extreme
south-eastern part of Scotland, taking their name from the ancient king-
dom or province of Galloway. ‘They have for many years been bred and
improved in Aberdeen and Angus, and have gradually taken unto them-
selves a ‘‘ new name.’’
The Devons. ‘This race of cattle is divided into two classes, and
are called in England, North Devons and South Devons. The South
Devons are somewhat larger, coarser, and less thought of than are the
North Devons. Our description shall be confined to the North Devons
as they are the ones the have been most largely introduced into
America.
Some authors claim that this breed of cattle were known in England
at the time of the invasion of Cesar, 55 B. C. ‘They have characteris-
tics that have never been produced by any other breed or by the inter-
mixture of any other breeds. This would seem to prove that they date
far back to an ancestry, unlike any of the other strains of blood.
They have been the object of careful breeding for centuries, and dur-
the past century no grade of cattle has received greater attention.
They bear the distinction of being the only breed of cattle in which it
is impossible to detect infusion of the blood of other breeds. Efforts
have been made to improve them ‘‘as Devons’’ but as yet no foreign
blood has been found that adds to their excellence or beauty. Their
breeders for centuries have been men of rare judgment and sagacity,
and have been very painstaking, and to this fact must be attributed
their purity of blood and great perfection.
The Devons are of medium size. A full grown ox will tip the scales
between fourteen and sixteen hundred. The bulls will weigh from ten
to twelve hundred, while the average cow will weigh about nine hun-
dred. When fatted, they of course will weigh considerably more, these
weights being the average weight for animals in ordinary condition.
Description. ‘The Devons have a head that is rather short, witha
slightly dishing face, that gracefully tapers toward a fine, clean, yel-
low muzzle. ‘Their eyes, which are sorrounded by a ring of yellow or
orange colored skin, are bright and prominent. Their horns which
are cream colored with black tips, may be considered as rather long for
the size of the animal, but they are graceful in their setting. The ears
284 CATTLE.
are lively in action and well set. Their necks are clean and without
dewlaps, and are on a level with the head and shoulders. Their fine,
open, shoulders are on a level with the back, and slant somewhat like
the shoulders of a horse. Their neck-veins are smooth and full, and
their full briskets project well forward. Their arms are delicate and
the legs below the knees are small and terminate in a brown and some-
what striped hoof. Their backs are straight from the shoulders to the
root of the tail. Their ribs form the framework of a full chest and as
they set well back toward the hips, they give the belly a snug and neat
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appearance. Their hips are wide and on a level with the back. They
have full loins and their thighs are well fleshed, the lower part thin and
tapering toward the hock. The space between the thighs is well let
down and open. Their tails are tapering and end with a brush of white
hair. They are invariably of a cherry red, and the skin under the hair
is of a rich cream color. The hair is silky and lays in waves over most
of the body.
As a Beef Animal. For the fineness of its flesh and the delicacy
of its flavor, the Devon is not surpassed by any variety of cattle. In
growth and size it matures nearly as soon as the famous short-horn, and
yields under good feeding nicely marbled, (lean and fat intermixed), fine
CATTLE. 285
grained, juicy meat. They are good feeders, fatten quickly, and the
quality of their flesh is such that American butchers always prefer the
Downs for their market.
They are not large animals, but their flesh is laid on in the choicest
parts. In America their small size seems to be their great objection,
hence the animal is not largely bred. They would prove profitable in
hilly and mountainous sections, where the large, heavy cattle find it diffi-
cult to gather the grasses.
DEVON HEIFER, ‘‘JENNY,’’ 10562,
As a Dairy Animal. The Devon does not give a large amount of
milk, but the quality is first-class, yielding per gallon almost as much
butter as the Jersey. Originally they perhaps produced more milk than
tiey do at the present time, for the breeders of this valuable breed of
cattle worked toward a finer form, and heavier carcass, or the best beef
laid on in the most profitable parts. She is fairly well fitted for a dairy
cow, if bred in that direction, for she is easy to keep, has a good
disposition, and is easily managed. Her udder is small, soft and
tidy, and is well covered with silky hair, and her clean, tapering teats
are easily drawn.
286 CATTLE.
As a Working Ox. ‘‘For his inches’ there is no other horned
beast that can draw so heavy a load. He is not so large as the Here-
fords and many other cattle, but his great strength, moderate size and
activity makes him of special value on light, sandy soils, and on hilly
roads. On the road and at the plow they are equal to the ordinary
duties, and they will cover a mile or turn a long furrow quicker than the
slow walking, heavier breeds.
The Ayrshires. Ayrshire is the finest dairy county in Scotland,
and extends along the Firth of Clyde and the North Channel. This is
the former home of the Ayrshire cattle, but how they originated is a
matter of dispute; all that is certainly known about this now valuable
breed is that in 1730 there was no such breed in Ayrshire, or in that
vicinity. But we leave its origin to be fought over by historians, know-
ing that even if able to trace out its ancestry it would not add any qual-
ities nor enhance its value as a milk cow.
As a Dairy Cow. Mr. Aiton, who is considered the best of au-
thority on the Ayrshires, has the following to say regarding their quali-
ties as a dairy animal:
‘‘The excellency of a dairy cow is estimated by the quantity and the
quality of her milk. The quantity yielded by the Ayrshire cow is, con-
sidering her size, very great. Five gallons daily, for two or three
months after calving, may be considered as not more than an average
quantity. Three gallons daily will be given for the next three months,
and one gallon and a half during the succeeding four months. This
would amount to more than eight hundred fifty gallons; but, allowing
for some unproductive cows, six hundred gallons per year may be con-
sidered as the average quantity obtained annually from each cow.
The quality of the milk is estimated by the quantity of butter or
cheese that it will yield. Three gallons and a half of this milk will yield
about a pound and a half avoirdupois, of butter. An Ayrshire cow may
be reckoned to yield two hundred fifty-seven English pounds per annum,
or about five pounds per week all the year round, beside the value of the
butter-milk and her calf.
When the calculation is formed, according to the quantity of cheese
that is usually produced, the following will be the result: twenty-eigh,
gallons of milk, with the cream, will yield twenty-four pounds of sweet
milk cheese, or five hundred fourteen pounds avoirdupois per annum, be
side the whey and the calf.
This is certainly an extraordinary quantity of butter and cheese, ana
CATTLE. 287
fully establishes the reputation of the Ayrshire cow, so far as the dairy
is concerned.”
As a Beef Animal. Mr. Rankin, a high authority, who thor-
oughly tested the Ayrshires on his own farm, the soil of which was of
an inferior quality, has this to say regarding the Ayrshires as beef
cattle :
‘The fattening properties of the Ayrshire cattle we believe to be a
little exaggerated. They will feed kindly and profitably, and their meat
Sac % Withe -
AYRSHIRE COW, ‘‘DELLA PENDER.’’
will be good. They will fatten on farms and in districts where others
could not be made to thrive at all, except partly or principally supported
by artificial food. They unite, perhaps, to a greater degree than any
other breed, the supposed incompatible properties of yielding a great
deal of milk and beef.
On their natural food, of poor quality, they give milk abundantly and
long, and often until within a few days of calving. In their own coun-
try, a cow of a fleshy make, and which seldom proves a good milker,
may be easily raised from five hundred sixty to seven hundred pounds,
288 CATTLE.
and bullocks of three years old are brought to weighfrom seven hundred
to eight hundred forty pounds. There isa lurking tendency to fatten
about them, which good pasture will bring to light; so that when the
Ayrshire cow is sent to England she loses her superiority as a milker,
and begins to accumulate flesh. On this account it is that the English
dealers who purchase the Ayrshire cows, generally select the coarsest
animals they can find, in order to avoid the consequence of the change
of climate and food. It is useless to exaggerate the qualities of any cat-
tle, and it cannot be denied that even in this tendency to fatten when
their milk begins to fail, or which often causes it to fail, the Ayrshires
must yield to their forefathers, the Highlanders, and also to their neigh-
bors, the Galloways, when put on a poor soil; and they will be left con-
JERSEY BULL.
siderably behind their short-horn sires, when transplanted to luxuriant
pastures. It will be long, perhaps, before they will be favorites with
the butchers, for the fifth quarter, (the tallow), will not usually weigh
well in them. Their fat is mingled with the flesh, rather than separated
in the form of tallow; yet this would give a more beautiful appearance
to the meat, and should enhance its price to the consumer.’’
Description. The shape of the Ayrshire cattle most approved are
as follows:
The head—small, but rather long and narrow at the muzzle; the eye
—small, but smart and lively; the horns—small, clear, crooked, and
CATTLE. 289
their roots at considerable distance from each other; the neck—long and
slender, tapering towards the head, with no loose skin below; the shoul-
ders—thin; the fore-quarters—light; the hind-quarters—large; the
back—straight, broad behind, the joints rather loose and open; the car-
cass—deep, and pelvis capacious, and wide over the hips, with round
fleshy buttocks; the tail—long and small; the legs—small and short,
with firm joints; the udder—capacious, broad and square, stretching
forward, and neither fleshy, low hung nor loose; the milk veins—large
and prominent; the teats—short, all pointing outwards, and at consider-
able distance from each other; the skin—thin and loose; the hair—soft
and woolly. ‘The head, bones, horns, and all parts of least value, small;
and the general figure compact and well proportioned.
JERSEY Cow.
The Jerseys. Just off the coast of Normandy, in the British
Channel, are the small islands, Jersey, Guernsey, and Alderney, each
noted for its own breed of cattle. While these islands are in close prox-
imity tc each other and the cattle have a general likeness to each other,
there is still enough difference in them to make each a distinctive
breed.
These breeds are simply ‘‘ milking’’ breeds, and they should never
be bred for any other purpose. The cows are prized for the marked
richness and deep yellow color of their milk and their deep yellow butter.
The Jerseys give only moderate quantities of milk, eight to sixteen
290 CATTLE.
quarts per day, in the best of the season, but the milk is remarkably
rich in cream and butter.
They have the power of imparting to the grades descending from
them the Jersey quality and color of milk. Thus Jersey bulls can be
used to advantage in crossing with common cows.
These breeds are now kept in many parts of the New England and
Middle States, and their milk is preferred by the dealers to that of any
other breed.
Under extraordinary stimulants of food and forcing, some Jersey cows
are said to have produced enormous yields of butter, not only for a week,
but for a whole season. A record, said to be authentic, shows nearly a
half ton of butter in a single year. The Jerseys are thus described by
Lewis F. Allen in ‘‘ American Cattle: ’’
‘Beginning with the head—the most characteristic feature—the
muzzle is fine, the nose either dark brown or black, and occasionally a
yellowish shade, with a peculiar mealy, light-colored hair, running up
the face into a smoky hue, when it gradually takes the general color of
the body: the face is slightly dishing, clean of flesh, mild and gentle in
expression; the eye clear and full, and encircled with a distinct ring of
the color of the nose; the forehead bold; the horn short, curving inward,
and waxy in color, with black tips; the ear sizable, thin, and quick in
movement. The whole head is original, and blood-like in appearance—
more so than in any other of the cattle race—reminding one strongly of
the head of our American elk. The neck is somewhat depressed—would
be called ‘‘ ewe-necked’’ by some—but clean in the throat, with moder-
ate or little dewlap; the shoulders are thin and somewhat ragged, with
prominent points running down toa delicate arm, and slender legs be-
neath; the fore-quarters stand rather close together, with a thinnish yet
well developed brisket between; the ribs are flat, yet giving sufficient
play for good lungs; the back depressed from a straight line; the belly
deep and large; the hips tolerably wide; the rump and tail high, the loin
and quarter medium in length, the thigh thin and deep; the twist wide,
to accommodate a clean, good-sized udder; the flanks medium; the
hocks, or gambrei joints, crooked; the hind legs small; the udder capa-
cious, square, set well forward, and covered with soft, silky hair; the
teats fine, standing well apart, and nicely tapering; the milk veins prom-
inent. On the whole she is a homely, blood-like, gentle, useful little
housekeeping body, with a most kindly temper, loving to be petted, and,
like the pony with the children, readily becomes a great favorite with
CATTLE. 291
those who have her about them, either in pasture, paddock, or stable.
The colors are usually light red, or fawn,- occasionally smoky grey, and
sometimes black, mixed or plashed more or less with white. Roan
colors, and a more rounded form, are now and then seen among them,
but are not muclhi fancied.”’
The Guernseys. This breed is very much like the Jerseys in form
and characteristics, but they are about one-third larger, somewhat
rounder and symetrical, and produce a larger quantity of milk. They
have a superior tendency to flesh and as good dairy qualities as the
Jerseys. They are being largely introduced in our country, and they
are highly prized by those who have adopted them for dairy purposes.
Red Polls. These cattle have for many years been extensively bred
and used for both dairy and beef production, in the county of Norfolk,
in England, and have been known for many years as Norfolk Polled
Cattle.
There were hornless cattle in Suffolk County which adjoins Norfolk,
but these cattle, like those of Norfolk, originally were of all shades of
color. The breeders of both counties succeeded after nearly a half
a century of careful attention in giving them uniformity of color, but
those of Suffolk bred toward a ‘‘dun’’ color and these cattle for
years were known as ‘‘Suffolk Duns;’’ while the breeders of Norfolk
bred towards a handsome red, and these are to-day the ‘‘Red Polls.’’
The Red Polls are of medium size, and are a very handsome red.
They are hardy and thrifty; fatten easily; mature early; very quiet dis-
position; easily handled; good milkers; (equal to Ayrshires); fawn-like
head and limbs; and a well rounded form. Their flesh is of best
quality.
‘These cattle closely resemble the renowned Devons, and if it were not
for the fact that they are without horns, it would not be a hard stretch
of imagination to believe them Devons, even if size and characteristics
were taken into consideration. A mature steer will reach sixteen or
eighteen hundred pounds gross weight and they make very profitable
beef cattle.
As a dairy cow, and in this particular they are of most value, she is a
fine, well-formed animal with a good development of the milk produc-
ing faculties. Her udder is broad and shapely, and the teats well
spread. With good feeding and care the average ‘‘Red Polls’’ will
yield thirty to forty pounds of rich milk per day, and of course since
the milk is rich there will be a good amount of butter produced.
292 CATTLE.
It is considered by many to be of great advantage to have a breed
of polled cattle because they can not injure other animals by the vicious
use of the horns. ‘Those dairymen who object to cattle with horns can
by procuring a pure-bred ‘‘Red Poll’’ effectually breed off the horns of
his calves. A large percentage will be without horns owing to his
strong blood.
These animals have a herd book of their own and are being
imported into this country in considerable numbers. ‘They have arrived
at the point where all the large and well established cattle-shows and
agricultural fairs are offering premiums for best animals of this variety,
equal in amount to those paid for other breeds.
The Holsteins. The introduction and distribution of cattle was
very much the same as the coming of the inhabitants. Certain portions
of our land were held by the Spaniards, and to this day in the native
cattle of that section will be found some of the characteristics of the
Spanish herds. The English brought their short-horns and the Dutch
settlers of New York brought their first cattle from Holland. These
cattle for many years followed the Dutch settlers along the Hudson and
up the Mohawk, and they became the chief stock of those sections.
This breed of cattle has been greatly improved since 1800. Their
native country is largely given up to the dairy interests, and it was but
natural that the animals that gave the inhabitants their income should
receive special care in development.
The greatest points of excellence are their milking qualities, coupled
with large size, and a very compact massive frame, capable of making
good beef. The oxen are very strong animals, and they can be turned
into profitable beef at the end of a couple of season's labor.
‘They are almost invariably black and white in color, spotted, pied, or
mottled in picturesque inequalities of proportion over the body, no two
cattle being marked alike. The horn is short, and the hair short, fine,
and silky. The lacteal formations in the cow are wonderful, thus giv-
ing them prominence in the dairy.
This breed is not well known to the cattle breeders ana grazers, and
as they become better known they will without doubt become important
factors in the dairy interests of our country.
CATTLE. 293
To give an idea of what they will produce, we append an account of a
herd which was imported into this country in 1861.
“A four years old bull girts seven feet ten inches; his length is
eight feet seven inches; height, four feet eleven inches; weight, twenty-
four hundred sixty-five pounds.
The four imported cows, each seven years old, have an average weight
of thirteen hundred twenty-five pounds. The weight of a past two years
old heifer is twelve hundred forty pounds. A past yearling heifer
weighed nine hundred sixty pounds; and the weight of six calves, at an
average of eight months, reared in the usual way, without forcing, was
an average of five hundred seventy-six pounds each.
The milking qualities of the breed may be judged by the following
memoranda: one of the imported cows, when six years old, dropped a
calf on the 15th of May, weighing one hundred and one pounds; and
from the 26th of May to the 27th of July, by a careful and exact record,
gave four thousand eighteen pounds fourteen ounces of milk. The
largest yield in any one day, was seventy-six pounds five ounces, (35%
quarts.) In ten days she gave seven hundred forty-four pounds twelve
ounces, or an average of nearly seventy-four and one-half pounds per
day. She gave a good flow of milk during the season, continuing to the
24th of May following, and on the succeeding day dropped twin heifer
calves, which weighed one hundred fifty-five pounds. The amount of
cream produced from this cow’s milk, in a vessel specially prepared for
measuring it, produced twenty-two and seven-tenths of the milk, as
tested by an accurate examination. ‘The nutritive qualities of the milk
were also tested by a thorough chemical analysis, and found to be excel-
lent. It was also rich in its caseine, or cheese making properties. Six
days’ milk of this cow were set for cream, and the produce was seven-
teen pounds fourteen ounces of good butter—nearly three pounds per
day; and it is claimed by her owner that she is not the very best cow of
the herd.
These results show not only the remarkable productions of the cow,
but the accurate and pains-taking care of the proprietor of the herd, in
testing their ability at the pail. Of what the food given to the cow
was composed, we are not informed We are to presume, however,
it was of the best, as every cow should have, to test to the utmost,
her lacteal faculties.
Within the last twenty-five years large importations of Holstein, or,
as some now term them, Friesan cattle have been made into the United
294 CATTLE.
States, chiefly or altogether for milk production. Hundreds of them in
herds, more or less in numbers, are kept in several of our Northern and
Western States, with decided approval by their owners and propagators,
as superior milk-producers. Although about equal to tnem in size, they
lack the rotundity and fullness of the short-horn in shape, are coarser
in the bone, less graceful in outline of anatomy, larger consumers of
forage, yet no doubt compensating for this latter demand in the full flow
of milk they yield.
Birth. In the birth of calves the fore feet appear first, the head
resting on the fore legs, the back upward. After delivery always feel
for a second calf.
Twins are quite frequent. They sometimes lie in opposite directions
(see manikin of cow). ‘Twins are small and seldom is there any
difficulty at birth. When they become ‘‘fixed’’ in the passage, tie a
rope about the fore legs of first calf, and hold tightly to it, while
the second is gently forced back into the uterus. This will allow the
first calf to be removed normally, and subsequently the second one.
Retained After-birth. If after-birth is not expelled in forty-eight
hours, the hand should be gently passed into the uterus, and the after-
birth very carefully separated from the sixty or seventy cotyledons
to which it is attached. Should bleeding result, dash cold water over
the loins. If it be serious give two ounces fresh ergot of rye.
After removal of after-birth wash the uterus with chlorinated lime,
twenty-five per cent. solution. Give gentle physic. Plenty of good
gruel,
Obstructed Teats. Caused by minute tumors or milk stones in
canal of teat. Pass a silver or other probe. A clean, oiled knitting
needle will do. Boil all instruments before inserting in teat.
How to Retain Calf Bed. Insert a long necked quart bottle in the
vagina, running it in backward, tie a cord to the cork made of wood,
then make with a small knife blade two holes, one in each lip of
the vulva vagina, and tie the string in the holes, which will hold the
bottle firmly in place, thus retaining the calf bed. Leave two or three
days, or until inflammation has subsided.
CATTLE.
295
SPECIAL INFORMATION.
Sore Teats, Cracks and
Warts.
When teats become sore and crack,
caused by sucking or improper milking
use the following ointment:
ARSC HIG a. nor chasis ctreranadinwhaeae eat
Balsam of tolu. .-
Sulphate of zine... ease
1 ounce,
5 grains,
5 grains,
When warts are troublesome, clip them
off with sharp scissors and burn their
roots with a solid pencil of lunar caustic.
This is best done previous to parturition.
White Lotion.
The surface of wounds of horses and
cattle should be dressed twice a day with
the following lotion. A bottle of this
should always be on hand to aid in heal-
ing and disinfecting cuts and wounds:
I ounce,
6 drams.
1 quart.
Mix lead and zinc in quart bottle, put
on half the water, shake till dissolved,
then add remainder of water.
Wounds.
The first consideration in dressing a
wound is cleanliness. Sponge the wound
with a two per cent. solution of carbolic
acid. Never bring sponge in contact
with wound, but wring out just above the
wound and let the water trickle over the
injured part. Then dress with ‘‘ White
Lotion.’’ In cool weather dress with
Oxide of zinc ointment..--..-...- 4 ounces.
Compound tincture of benzoin .. 2 drams.
Mix thoroughly and keep the box securely
covered,
Proud Flesh.
If this appears do not interfere with it
until after the acute stage of inflammation
has passed. Then if it continues treat
with a solution of sulphate of copper (blue
stone or blue vitriol) and water.
Caked Udder or Garget.
This congestion generally. disappears
in two or three days’ It is greatly
hastened by the sucking of a hungry calf,
and the kneading it gives the udder with
its nose. Strip the udder carefully four or
five times a day. and if necessary to ward
off or allay inflammation bathe with warm
water for twenty minutes at a time, every
time the udder is stripped. See Mam-
mitis.
Mammitis.
This differs from the above, as it is not
a disease of parturition, but is caused by
injury to the udder, exposure to cold or
wet, or overfeeding. Oftentimes only
one quarter may be affected. Feed the
animal sparingly, foment the affected
part as above, and if the animal has
general fever, give every four hours ten
drops of tincture of aconite or belladonna.
Horn Distemper.
There is no such disease known among
the veterinarians. What is generally
called ‘‘ Horn Distemper’’ is Dyspepsia
or Indigestion. Give the animal a laxa-
tive in a quart of gruel.
I2 ounces,
T ounce,
rT ounce.
After the laxative has operated, if the
appetite is irregular give one-half ounce
of gentian, night and morning,
The method of splitting the tail and
putting in salt and pepper, or pouring
some drug in the ear, or boring the horn
and putting in any substance whatever is
cruel and unscientific. If the animal has
simple ‘‘cold in the head” steam the same
as described on page 25, under Steaming.
296
Casting the Withers.
This is the result of the womb failing
to contract after calving. The womb is
turned outside in and protrudes through
the vagina and hangs from the vulva.
The womb is easily distinguished from
the protruding vagina by the presence
over its surface of a large number of
mushroom-like bodies, each two or three
inches in diameter and attached by a
narrow neck. The following illustration
will enable this condition to be readily
recognized.
If the eversion is only partial or even
complete, if taken before the womb be-
comes gorged with blood or inflamed, it
is often easily returned to its normal
position.
Place the cow so that she stands one
foot higher behind than before. Strain-
ing should be checked by pinching the
cow's back. Take a sheet, and having it
held by two men, sustain the everted
womb and slowly raise it to the level of
the vulva. Sponge clean with cold water,
and finally it may be sponged over with
laudanum or with a weak solution of car-
bolic acid (1 dram to t quart of water).
The closed fist having been greased
with vaseline may now be planted in the
rounded part of the largest horn and.
pushed so as to turn it back within itself
and carry it on through the vagina, the
other hand being used mcanwhile to as-
sist in pushing the different masses in
succession within the lips of the vagina.
If the straining cannot be stopped by
pinching the back, it may be checked by
CATTLE,
giving two ounces of laudanum or one
and one-half ounces of chloral hydrate.
Fifteen to twenty minutes are usually
sufficient to cause the return of the womb,
provided straining is prevented by pinch-
ing the back or otherwise.
RETENTION of the is the next
point, and this is most easily accomplished
by the means of a rope truss. Take two
ropes one inch in diameter and eighteen
feet long, and double each of them. Lay
them so that one bend lies above the
other about eight inches, the double ends
extending in opposite directions. Twist
each end of the one rope twice about the
other so as to form an opening when
drawn tight. Tie a strap or rope or use
a horse collar around the neck, and a
surcingle about the body. Place the rope
truss on the animal so that the opening
left in the rope will surround the vulva,
the two ascending ropes on the right and
left of the tail, and the descending ones
down inside the thighs, one on each side
of the udder. See illustration.
womb
Extend the ropes under the body and
tie to the surcingle and collar. Those on
the back should be twisted about each
other and also tied to the surcingle and
collar. These ropes should be drawn so
lightly that the rope ring is made to press
firmly all around the vulva without risk
of getting out of place. This should be
worn for several days. Variations of the
ting about the vulva are found ina nar-
CATTLE.
row triangle of iron, or leather put around
a piece of wood cut to the right shape,
these devices being held in place by ropes
fastened to the surcingle and collar same
as above.
Milk Fever.
This disease while peculiar to the cow,
seldom attacks any of the common stock,
and is chiefly confined to the improved
and highly fed animal. It occurs only at
or near the time of calving. The blood is
extremely dense. The red corpuscles
are reduced in size. If water is added
to blood. reducing its density, .he cor-
puscles increase in size, but if salt is
added to blood, increasing its density, the
corpuscles decrease in size; hence the
smallness of the corpuscles prove the
density of the blood.
This disease never occurs with the first
calving, rarely in the second, and usually
after easy calving in which there has been
but little loss of blood, proving that ab-
straction of blood is demanded, provided
the animal is seen before going down.
From four to six quarts may be taken.
As the blood is withdrawn its place is
taken by liquids drawn from all parts of
the body, and thus the blood is diluted.
Give the animal plenty of water to drink.
It is a good practice to give a strong dose
of purgative medicine as follows:
Epsom salts ...------------------ 2 pounds.
Carbonate ammonia... -- ¥% ounce.
Nux vomicay. +: voscceeoscsecees ¥% dram.
Injections of warm water (three quarts),
with soap or oil, may be beneficial. Ice
water or bags of ice on the head are of
great value in cases where the horns,
ears, and head are very hot and the eyes
red and swollen. In such cases large
and frequent doses of tincture of aconite
(20 drops every four hours) are indicated.
Keep the head of the cow, ued above the
297
level of the body by passing a rope over
a beam above.
If the body is very hot wrap the whole
body in blankets saturated with cold
water.
Cases often recover rapidly and are a
surprise. A cow insensible only a few
hours before is found up and eating.
Others recover more slowly and require
careful attention, and restricted feeding
followed by a daily dose of saltpetre and
nux vomica for several days.
‘For such fatal disease prevention is of
far more consequence than treatment.
Among the efficient preventives may be
named a spare diet for a week before
calving and at least four days after. A
free access to salt and water is most im-
portant, as the salt favors drinking and
the water serves to dilute the rich and
dense blood. A dose of epsom salts (one
to two pounds) should be given twenty-
four hours before calving is due, so that
it may operate at or just before that act.
In case calving has occurred unexpectedly
in the heavy milker, lose no time in giv-
ing the purgative thereafter. If epsom
salts are not at hand use saltpetre (one
ounce) for several days. If the udder is
greatly engorged before calving it may
be milked for several days before, and
should be not less than thrice a day after.
A hungry calf is a good auxiliary, but for
a very heavy milker the new-born calf
gives but very imperfect relief, and must
be supplemented by the hand of the
milker. Daily exercise is also of im-
portance. In summer an open shed or
shady grove is better than a close, stuffy
stall. A rich pasture (clover especially),
in May, June, or July, is to be carefully
avoided. Better keep the cow indoors on
dry straw with plenty of salt and water
than to have access to such pastures,
It is safest to avoid breeding again fror
a cow that has once suffered,”
298 CATTLE.
DISEASES OF CATTLE AND THEIR REMEDIES.
Almost all the diseases of cattle, arise either from exposure to wet and
cold weather; from their food being of a bad quality; or deficient in
quantity; or from being changed too suddenly from poor, unwholesome
keep, to rich pasture.
Cattle in their native state are almost free from diseases, but man,
breeding with some particular object in view, has often weakened the
constitutions of the breed, and that, together with their manner of feed-
ing and care, make them liable to disease. The following general facts
are appended to show the class of food and the manner of feeding that
may cause disordered digestion and other diseases.
Coarse, fibrous hay overtaxes the digestive powers, irritates the mucous
surface of the stomachs and bowels, and may cause an inactive condi-
tion of the stomachs, or may lead to dysentery from its effect on
the bowels.
Timothy hay, while good feed for horses, when fed to cattle that do
not have much exercise, will lead to constipation. Hay fed to cattle
should contain clover on account of its laxative effect, because this will
aid in keeping the bowels in a natural condition.
Finely ground food, such as corn-meal and middlings, should not be
fed alone. They form in large balls in the stomach and resist the
action of the digestive fluids, often causing very severe attacks of
indigestion. Feed all finely ground grains on cut hay.
Hay badly cured or often exposed to rain while drying, is innu-
tritious, and may produce inflammatory diseases of the stomach and
bowels.
Ergot in hay, will produce gangreen of the extremities. If there is
a suspicion that there is ergot in the hay, feed roots to the cattle, as
they counteract in a measure the effect of the ergot.
Rusty straw and musty oats will produce disease if fed to cattle.
Smut on corn diminishes its nutritive qualities and cattle fed on
it lose in weight, sometimes ending in inflammation of the fourth
stomach,
Frozen turnips and potatoes produce dangerous attacks of indigestion
when eaten by cattle.
Grass wet by cold dew or rain, or covered with hoar-frost, is danger-
ous to cattle.
Eating in excess in luxurient pastures will produce indigestion.
CATTLE. 299
Therefore when cattle are first turned into such pasture, let them remain
only a short time each day, until they have become accustomed to the
richer and more tempting herbage.
Too cold or too warm water may lead to weakened digestive
organs. Ice water, or very cold water often produces cramps in the
fourth stomach.
Mixing salt in the food is not considered expedient, as more may be
given than the animal demands, thus causing undue thirst. Better
have rock salt within their reach, so that they can get what nature
demands.
DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS.
Stomatitis. This is an inflammation of the mucous membrane of
the mouth. The membrane of the mouth may become inflamed by
cattle eating some irritating substance, by eating acid plants, or little
vesicles may form in the mouths of calves when they are affected with
indigestion, constituting what is termed aphtha.
Symptoms. The saliva dribbles from the mouth, and when it is
examined the surface of the tongue and other parts of the mouth will
appear red and inflamed. When young animals are affected with the
form of disease termed aphtha small red elevations will be observed on
the tongue and other parts of the mouth, having little white points on
their centers, which consist of the epithelium of the mncous membrane
raised into vesicles. These white patches are succeeded by ulcerated
surfaces, which are exposed by the shedding of the white patches of
epithelium.
Treatment. When there is merely a reddened and inflamed condi-
tion of the mucous membrane of the mouth, it will suffice to syringe it
out several times a day with four ounces of the following solution :
alum, one ounce; water, two pints. When the edges of the tongue and
other parts of the mouth are studded with ulcers, these should be painted
over once a day with the following solution until the affected surface is
healed : iodoform, sixty grains; ether, one ounce. When indigestion is
associated with an ulcerated condition of the mouth, that disorder re-
quires separate treatment.
Sore Throat or Pharyngitis. This is an inflammation of the
mucous membrane lining the pharynx. It is frequently associated
with laryngitis and bronchitis, and sometimes with pleurisy.
300 CATTLE.
Symptoms. ‘The muzzle is dry, the saliva dribbles from the corner
of the mouth; the animal either does not swallow, or swallows with dif-
ficulty; occasionally the liquids which it attempts to take come back in
part through the nostrils, and the animal holds its neck in a stiff,
straight position, moving it as little as possible. The eyelids are half
closed, the white of the eye is bloodshot, and the animal occasionally
grinds its teeth. When it attempts to eat hay or grass, after masti-
cating the food the animal drops it out of its mouth, as if to avoid
the pain of swallowing, and also evinces pain when pressure is applied
on the pharynx externally, and tries to prevent such pressure being
applied.
Causes. Pharyngitis is produced by a sudden cooling of the
surface of the body, as when cattle are exposed to a cold wind or a
cold rain.
Treatment, The throat should be syringed three times a day with
an ounce of the following solution :
1} drams Nitrate of Silver.
1 pint Water.
Bland and soothing drinks, such as linseed tea, oatmeal and water,
should occasionally be offered. Diet should consist of soft food, such as
bran mashes with a little linseed meal mixed in them. The upper part
of the throat and the space between the jaws should be well rubbed once
a day with the following liniment :
4 ounces Aqua Ammonia, (Stronger).
4 ounces Olive Oil.
4 ounces Oil of Turpentine.
Under the above treatment the inflammation of the throat will gradu-
ally subside and the animal will be able to swallow as usual in five or six
days. During its treatment the sick animal should be kept in a com-
fortable stable.
Choking. This accident usually happens from attempting to swal-
low toc ‘arge an object, such asa turnip, potato, beet, or an apple or
pear, though in rare cases choking may occur from bran, chaff, or some
other finely divided food lodging in and filling up a portion of the gul-
let. This latter form of the accident is most likely to occur in animals
that are greedy feeders.
Symptoms. The symptoms will vary somewhat according to the
part of the gullet or throat in which the obstruction is located. In most
cases there is a discharge of saliva from the mouth; the animal coughs
CATTLE. 301
frequently, and when it drinks the water is soon ejected. These symp-
toms, however, are not always present.
Pharyngeal Choke. It is always advisable to put a gag in the
animal’s mouth, and while the head is held in a horrizontal direction by
two assistants to pass the hand into the pharynx, and when any foreign
body is found in the pharynx to withdraw it gradually and steadily.
When the substance is lodged in the upper part of the gullet pressure
should be made by an assistant in an upward direction while the oper-
ator passes his hand into the pharynx, and if the assistant cannot by
pressure dislodge the substance from the gullet the operator may by
passing his middle finger above and partly behind the substance, grad-
ually slide the object into the pharynx and then withdraw it by the
mouth.
Cervical Choke. The presence of an obstructing substance in the
cervical portion of the gullet may be ascertained by passing the hand
along the left side of the neck, when a hard and painless swelling will
be found to indicate the presence of the foreign body. In such cases we
must endeavor by gentle and persevering pressure with the thumb and
two next fingers to slide the obstructing substance gradually upward to
the pharynx. To facilitate this it is well to give the animal a wine-
glassful of olive oil before the manipulations described are commenced.
When the substance has been brought into or nearly into the pharynx,
then the mouth gag should be used, the tongue drawn partially forward
with the left hand, and the right should be passed forward into the
pharynx so as to withdraw the obstruction. When bran or chaff causes
the trouble it is best to give a small quantity of oil to lubricate the walls
of the gullet and then by gentle and persevering pressure to endeavor to
separate and divide the mass and then to work it downward toward the
stomach. ‘This will be assisted by pouring small quantities of oil and
water down the animal's throat. It is not advisable to use the probang
to push down any soft material such as oats or chaff, as this generally
condenses and renders firmer the obstructing substance by pressing its
particles or elements together, so that it forms a solid, resisting mass
which can not be moved.
In some cases the foreign body can not be dislodged from the neck by
pressing and manipulating that part externally. In such an event we
must resort to the use of the probang, or if the foreign body is lodged
in that part of the gullet which passes through the thorax or chest,
there is no way of removing an obstruction so situated except by using
302 CATTLE.
the probang. Before passing the probang a gag is introduced into the
animal’s mouth, and the gag should have an aperture at each end from
which a strap passes and is buckled at the back of the head below the
horns. The probang should then be oiled, and the head and neck being
held in a straight line by two assistants, the tongue must be partly
drawn out of the mouth, the probang cautiously passed along the roof
of the mouth into the pharynx and then into the gullet, through which
it is passed down. If resistance is met, gentle and continuous pres-
sure must be employed, under the influence of which the agent
will generally in a short time pass into the stomach. A probang is
a flexible instrument, and adapts itself to the natural curvature of
the gullet, so that if it is used cautiously there is not much risk of
injury.
Hoven, Tympanites, or Bloating, This disease is character-
ized by swelling of the left flank, and is caused by the formation of gas
in the rumen or paunch. (See Manikin of Cow).
Causes. Tympanites may be caused by any kind of food which pro-
duces indigestion. | When cattle are first turned into young clover they
eat so greedily of it that tympanites frequently results; turnips, potatoes,
and cabbage may also cause it; middlings and cornmeal also frequently
give rise toit. An excessive quantity of any of the before-mentioned
foods may bring on this disorder; or it may not be due to excess but to
eating too hastily. Sometimes the quality of the food is at fault. Grass
or clover wet by dew or rain frequently disorders digestion and brings
on tympanites; frozen roots or pastures covered with hoar-frost should
also be regarded as dangerous. When food has been eaten too hastily,
or when it is cold and wet, the digestive process is imperfectly performed
and the food contained in the paunch ferments, during which process
large quantities of gas are formed. The same result may follow when a
cow is choked, as the obstruction in the gullet prevents the passing up
of gas from the stomach, so that the gas continues to accumulate until
tympanite results.
Symptoms. The swelling of the left flank is very characteristic, as
in well-marked cases the flank at its upper part rises above the level of
the backbone, and when struck with the tips of the fingers emits a DRUM-
LIKE sound. The animal has an anxious expression, moves uneasily,
and is evidently distressed, If relief is not obtained in time it breathes
with difficulty, reels in walking or in standing, and in a short time falls
down and dies from suffocation. The distention of the stomach may
CATTLE. 303
become so great as to prevent the animal from breathing, and in some
instances the case may be complicated by rupture of the stomach.
Treatment. In urgent cases the trocar should be used immediately,
for when the distention of the stomach has become extreme there is no
trying the remedial effect of medicine. The trocar is a sharp-pointed
instrument encased in a sheath, which leaves the sharp point of the tro-
car freer. In selecting the point for using the trocar, a spot equally dis-
tant from the last rib, the hip bone and the transverse processes of the
lumbar vertebrze must be chosen. (See Manikin of Cow). Here an
incision about three-quarters of an inch long should be made through
the skin, and then the sharp point of the trocar being directed down-
ward, inward, and slightly forward, is thrust into the paunch. The
sheath of the tocar should be left in the paunch as long as any gas con-
tinues to issue from it. If the canula or sheath of the tocar is removed
while gas is still forming in the paunch and the left flank becomes con-
siderably swollen it may be necessary to insert it again. Observe the
canula closely, and if gas is found to be issuing from it, do not remove
it. In order to be certain on this point, place the palm of the hand
about two inches above the mouth of the canula, when, if the gas is
issuing, the current of gas can be felt coming against the skin. It is
occasionally necessary to keep the canula in the stomach for several
hours. When this is necessary a piece of stout cord should be passed
round the neck of the canula immediately below the projecting rim, and
then be passed round the animal’s body and tied ina secure knot. The
rim surrounding the mouth of the canula should be in contact with the
skin. When the canula is secured as described it may remain in the
stomach over night. It is sometimes necessary to keep it in that posi-
tion for two days. But whenever the person in charge of the cow is
satisfied that gas has ceased to issue from the canula it should be
removed.
The canula is only to be employed in extreme or urgent cases, though
everyone who has had experience in treating indigestion in cattle will
realize that he has saved the lives of many animals by its prompt appli-
cation. When the tympanic animal is not distressed, and the swelling
of the flank is not great, it is best to resort to the administration of in-
ternal medicine. ‘Iwo ounces of aromatic spirits of ammonia should be
given every half hour in a quart of cold water, or half an ounce of
chloride of lime may be dissolved in a pint of tepid water, and the dose
repeated every half-hour until the bloating has subsided. It is generally
304 CATTLE.
necessary to give a dose of purgative medicine after bloating has sub-
sided, as animals frequently show symptoms of constipation after
attacks of indigestion. When the bloating is not too great gentle walk-
ing exercise will facilitate the removal of the gas.
Indigestion of the Third Stomach. This has been called Grass
Staggers, Dry Murrain, and Wood Evil. The fact that there has been
so many different names applied to this disease indicates that those who
have written concerning it are by no means agreed as to its nature and
cause. Among sympathetic writers, however, there seems to be a
general agreement that the seat of the disease is in the third stomach, as
they have followed one another faithfully in describing that part as the
sole seat of trouble.
Causes. Want of exercise predisposes to this disease, or food which
is coarse or indigestible may after a time produce this condition. Food
which possesses astringent properties and tends to check secretion may
also act as an exciting cause. Food in excessive quantity may also lead
to disorder of digestion and to this disease. It is very likely to appear
toward the end of protracted seasons of drought, therefore a deficiency
of water must be regarded as one of the conditions which favor its
development.
Symptoms. Diminished appetite, rumination irregular, tongue
coated, mouth slimy, dung passed apparently not well digested and
smelling badly, dullness and fullness of the flanks. It is also frequently
stated that on pressing the fist below the short ribs on the right side the
third stomach will be found as a hard sort of mass in that situation.
The disease may in some cases assume a chronic character in addition
to the foregoing symptoms; slight bloating or tympanites of the left
flank may be observed; the animal breathes with effort, and each alter-
nately hot and cold; rumination ceases; the usual rumbling sound in the
stomach is not audible; the passage of dung is almost suspended; and the
animal passes only a little mucus occasionally. The patient falls away
in flesh and becomes weaker, as is shown by one frequently finding it
lying down. When the animal falls into this weak and exhausted con-
dition the disease frequently terminates fatally.
Occasionally the brain becomes disordered, no doubt from the de-
ranged condition of the stomach reaching the brain through the reflex
action. There is weakness and an unsteady gait, the afflicted animal
does not appear to take notice of and will consequently run against ob-
stacles. After a time it falls down and gives up to violent and disordered
CATTLE. 305
movements. This delirium is succeeded by coma or stupor, and death
ensues.
Treatment. Aromatic and demulcent draughts should be given to
produce a soothing effect on the mucous lining of the stomachs and to
promote digestion. Two ounces of chamomile flowers should be boiled
for twenty minutes in a quart of water, and the infusion on cooling
should be given to the affected animal. This should be repea.ed about
three times a day. When constipation is present the following purga-
tive may be administered: sulphate of magnesia, one pound; Barbadoes
aloes, half an ounce; powdered ginger, one pound; powdered nux
vomica, one dram; fluid extract of belladonna, half an ounce. The
different powers contained in this prescription should be stirred up in
two quarts of lukewarm water, then the fiuid extract of belladonna
and the dose administered. After this purgative has acted, if there is
a lack of appetite, and the animal does not ruminate regularly, give the
following tonic and antacid preparation to promote digestion, which is
imperfectly performed in such cases: powdered gentian, three ounces;
powdered bicarbonate of potash, three ounces; powdered ginger, three
ounces; powdered capsicum, one ounce. Mix and divide into twelve
powders. Give one of these powders, shaken up with half a pint of
whiskey aud a pint of water, three times a day before feeding. The
diet must be rather laxative and of a digestible character after an attack
of this form of indigestion. Food should be given in moderate quanti-
ies, as any excess by overtaxing the digestive functions may bring on a
relapse.
Colic, or Indigestion from Cold Water. This disorder is pro-
duced by drinking copiously of cold water, which arrests digestion and
produces cramp of the fourth stomach, probably of the other stomachs,
and also of the bowels. It is frequently observed in working oxen dur-
ing hot weather. ,
Causes. It is not customary for the ox to drink much water at once.
In fact he usually drinks slowly, and as if he were merely tasting the
water, Jetting some fall out at the corners of his mouth at every mouth-
ful. He drinks much less in proportion to his size than the horse, and
when fed on green food or at pasture he may pass several days without
drinking. It would, therefore, seem to be contrary to the habits of the.
ox to drink largely. But we find that during hot weather, when he
has been working and is consequently very thirsty, if he drinks a large
quantity of cold water he is immediately taken with a very severe colic.
306 CATTLE.
It often affects milch cows quite severely in winter, when they are let
out of a warm stable to be watered. Cows which are fed largely on dry
hay drink copiously, like the working ox, and become affected in pre-
cisely the same manner. But the secretion of milk in the cow is usually
much diminished after such attacks. In such cases they are seized with
a chill or fit of trembling before the cramps come on.
Symptoms. ‘There is some distension of the abdomen, but no accu-
mulation of gas. As the distension and pain occur immediately after
the animal has swallowed the water there can not be any doubt as to the
exciting cause. Cruzel, in speaking of the treatment of this disease,
says it is customary among French farmers to walk or even trot the ox
up and down, and that as a result of this treatment the water passes
from the fourth stomach into the bowel, from which it is soon passed off
not much changed, except that it is slightly colored by the substances
with which it has come in contact in passing through the bowel.
Diarrhea then appears to be a favorable termination of this affection.
Treatment. The treatment above described should be adopted in a
modified form. It is obviously dangerous to trot an animal whose
stomach and bowels are largely distended with water, but it appears
rational to walk the animal about for ten minutes before administering
medicine, as this allows time for a portion of the contents of the stomach
to pass into the bowel, and renders it safer to give medicine. In many
cases the walking exercises and the diarrhea bring about a spontaneous
cure of this disorder, but as in some instances the cramps and pains of
the stomachs persist, give one ounce of sulphuric ether and one ounce of
tincture of opium, shaken up with a pint of warm water, and to repeat
the dose in half an hour if the animal is not relieved. In an emergency
when medicine is not to be had, half a pint of whisky may be substituted
for medicine, and should be given mixed with a pint of warm water; or
a table-spoonful of powdered ginger may be administered in the same
way as the remedies already mentioned.
Loss of Cud. It is very common among farmers, when a cow or
ox is ailing, to say that the sick animal has fost its cud. If it is meant
that the animal does not ruminate or chew the cud, and that it con-
sequently must be sick, no fault can be found with the expression. In
most cases, however, the remark is not intended to convey the idea that
the animal does not ruminate, but that the loss the cud is a disease in
itself. Loss of cud is a symptom of suspended rumination, and
is not a disease, and shows that the animal’s digestive functions are
CATTLE. 307
not performed as regularly as usual. It is a symptom of a great many
diseases, and when its existence is detected, it should lead the observer
to try and discover other symtoms, so that on those he may base a
correct opinion as to the nature of the disease from which the animal
suffers.
Diarrhea. ‘This results either from increased action of the muscu-
lar coat of the intestines, an unusually liquid state of their contents, or,
generally from both of these conditions combined.
Causes. The exciting causes of diarrhea may be thus arranged:
Irritation of the intestines by food taken in excess, or of improper qual-
ity, and this especially applies to soft, watery, green, food; excessive
secretions, especially bile; impure water and water drunk in excess;
mechanical congestion of the intestinal vessels; acute or chronic inflam-
mation of the bowels. It may be a symptom of other diseases which de-
pend on the presence of an animal poison in the blood, as may be ob-
served in Texas fever and contagious pleuro-pneumonia. Causes of a
more general character, viz.; exposure to changes of temperature, either
excessive heat or cold may produce it.
Symptoms. ‘The animal is dull, places its feet well under the body,
arches its back, and shows thirst. Passages from the bowels are fre-
quent, at first consisting of thin dung, but as the disease continues they
become watery and offensive smelling, and may even be streaked with
blood. Frequently this malady is accompanied by fever, great de-
pression, loss of strength, rapid loss of flesh, and it may terminate
in death.
Treatment. When the disease depends on irritating properties of
the food which has been supplied to the animal it is advisable to give a
mild purgative, such as a pint of castor or linseed oil. When the secre-
tions of the bowels are irritating an ounce of carbonate of magnesia and
half an ounce of tincture of opium should be shaken up in a quart of
linseed tea and given to the animal three times a day until the passages
present a natural appearance. When there is debility, want of appetite,
no fever, but a continuance of the watery discharges from the bowels,
then an astringent may be given. or such cases we have found the
following serviceable:
6 ounces Powdered Galls,
2 ounces Powdered Gentian.
Mix and divide into twelve powders. ‘Three times a day give one of
these powder until the passages present a natural appearance. Each
308 CATTLE.
powder should be mixed with a half pint of whiskey and a pint of
water When diarrhea is a symptom of a malady characterized by the
presence of a blood poison, the treatment appropriate to such disease
must be applied.
Dysentery. This disease begins with inflammation of the mucous
membrane of the colon, though the disease may extend to the caecum
and sometimes to the rectum. It is also popularly known in this coun-
try by the names of bloody flux and red murrain.
Causes. Feeding cattle on hay which has been made during a wet
season, musty oats, or any forage which is largely infested with parasitic
growths. Hay or coarse grass containing a large proportion of woody
fiber, pastures which have been inundated, and the vegetation growing
on low, marshy, localities may set up irritation of the mucous membrane
which terminates in dysentery. Water containing a large proportion of
organic matter may also occasion this disease. The passages or excreta
of animals suffering from the disease are to be regarded as contain-
ing an infective element, and should immediately be disinfected, burned,
or buried.
Symptoms. The animal eats slowly, ruminates less frequently than
when in good health, and walks slowly. Sometimes there are indica-
tions of colicky pains. As the disease advances, the animal ceases to
eat and ruminate, the muzzle is dry, the eyes sunken, the cough rough,
and the skin dry and adherent or hidebound. ‘The bowels act regularly
and the passages are thin, black, colored or grayish; the passages then
become frequent, fetid, and are streaked with blood. This disease does
not run a rapid course, and when it proves fatal the mucous membrane
of the bowels will be found thickened and reddened at some parts, show-
ing ulceration at some other points, and on some portions of its surface
covered with a layer of mucus.
Treatment. When symptoms of dysentery are first observed, a
pound of sulphate of magnesia should be mixed with four quarts of tepid
water, and then two drams of sulphuric acid should be gradually added
to this mixture. This should be given at one dose, and it is important
that it should be administered at an early stage of the disease, as it not
only serves to remove irritating materials from the bowels, but it has an
astringent and sedative effect on the mucous surfaces and lessens the
congestion. The food should be soft and easy of digestion, and may
consist of grass, boiled or pulped roots, and nutritive drinks, such as
linseed tea, hay tea, etc. When the purgative before mentioned has
CATTLE. 309
unloaded the bowels and stomachs to some extent, the following powder
should be given three times a day, mixed in a quart of linseed tea:
powdered ipecacuanha, one ounce and a half; powdered opium, half an
ounce; mix and divide into twelve powders. When the foregoing pre-
paration is not found effectual, oil of turpentine may be given in half-
ounce doses three times a day in a quart of new sweet milk, and among
other remedies which may be employed we may mention sulphate of
copper, which should be given in dram doses, combined with twenty
grains of opium and mixed with at least a quart of linseed tea. Nitrate
of silver may also be given in ten grain doses mixed or dissolved in a
pint of distilled water. These latter remedies are especially efficacious
in their effect on the ulcerations on the surface of the intestine, but it is
not advisable to use them in an early stage. Whatever remedy is
employed in treating dysentery, it should be given mixed in a consider-
able quantity of liquid, as in this way it brings the medicinal agent in
contact with a large portion of the mucous surface of the diseased bowel.
In addition to the treatment recommended, the diseased animal must be
kept warm and comfortable, and great attention must be paid to its gen-
eral comfort.
White Scour in Calves. Sucking calves are subject to a form of
diarrhea known as white scour, gastric catarrh or diarrhea, and indiges-
tion.
Causes. Calves which suck their dams are not frequently affected
with this disease, though it may be occasioned by their sucking at long
intervals and thus overloading the stomach and bringing on indiges-
tion. Calves which are separated from their dams and which receive
considerable quantities of cold milk at long intervals are liable to
contract this form of indigestion. Calves fed on artificial food, which
is sometimes used as a substitute for milk, also frequently contract it.
Symptoms. The milk which passes into the fourth stomach be-
comes curdled and acts as an irritant on the surface of the stomach and
bowels, so that a catarrhal condition of their mucous surface is set up.
The passages have a thin, yellowish white appearance and become very
frequent. The calf becomes dull, whisks its tail as if in pain when-
ever there is a passage from the bowels, loses appetite, becomes
weak, and unless the disease is checked, dies in a few days from
exhaustion.
Treatment. The calf should have from one to two ounces of castor
oil and a table-spoonful of laudanum. A mild dose of purgative medi-
310 CATTLE.
cine is given to remove the curdled milk from the stomach and bowels,
The object of the subsequent treatment is to allay the irritation of the
stomach and bowels and to restore the digestive functions. We recom-
mend the following to be compounded and divided into twelve powders:
powdered rhubarb, one and one-half onnces; carbonate of magnesia,
three ounces. One of these powders should be given four times a day;
each powder to be shaken up with two wine-glassfuls of new milk, to
which two tea-spoonfuls of whiskey should be added. A little fresh
milk should be given five or six times a day, or the calf allowed to suck
about six times a day, but the quantity should be limited. In applying
treatment the mother should always be examined as to the condition of
her health, diet, etc., as the disorder may sometimes be traced to some
disease or mismanagement affecting the mother.
Inflammation of the Bowels, or Enteritis. Inflammation of
the bowels must be held to signify in a general way inflammation of all
parts of the mucous membrane of the bowels, though in some forms of
what may properly be termed enteritis, we find that the mucous, muscu-
lar, and serous coats of the bowels are involved, while in other cases
only a limited portion of the mucous membrane of the bowel is
affected.
Causes. This disease occurs at all seasons of the year, but most
frequently at times when there are great variations of temperature.
Hard and long-continued work may operate as a cause in the case of
oxen. Eating such food as musty hay and oats, forage containing acid
plants, the leaves of trees infested with caterpillars, grass which has
commenced to ferment after cutting, dusty hay, and grass covered with
hoar frost may also give rise to enteritis. Drinking copiously of ice-
cold water may also produce it. Exposure to a cold, damp wind or any
influence which suddenly chills the surface of the body may operate asa
cause.
Symptoms. Dryness of the muzzle, diminished appetite, partial or
total cessation of rumination (see Loss of Cud), symptoms of colic which
are indicated by restlessness. The animal lies down and gets up fre-
quently, looks round at its flank, raises its tail, paws with its front feet,
and strikes with its feet at the abdomen. After a time the symptoms of
acute pain subside, and the animal lies down, but does not appear to be
free from pain, turns its nose around on the flank and does not eat nor
ruminate. When injections are given they are soon ejected from the
the bowel, the passages are dry, glistening, and coated with mucus.
CATTLE. 311
Gas is frequently passed, frequent attempts to urinate are made, but
only a small quantity of urine is passed at a time. Enteritis comes on
suddenly and usually runs a rapid course, death taking place in four or
five hours in fatal cases. When the aniinal has not been long exposed
to those conditions which produce the disease, recovery may take place
in a comparatively short time; in exceptional cases, however, when the
acute stage of the disease has subsided it may assume a chronic and lin-
gering form.
Treatment. When the animal is seen at an early stage of the dis-
ease it should be bled to the extent of from two to four quarts. Theage
and condition of the animal must of course be taken into consideration
in estimating the quantity of blood which should be abstracted. Half-
ounce doses of laundanum should be given several times a day, mixed in
a quart of linseed tea.
Constipation. Constipation is rather to be regarded as a symptom
of disease than a disease in itself. We frequently observe it in a partu-
rition fever, in that form of indigestion which is termed impaction of the
third stomach, and as a result of gut-tie, invagination, twisting and
knotting of the bowels. In order to remove the constipation the treat-
ment must be applied to remove the causes which give rise to it. Calves
sometimes suffer from constipation immediately after birth, and the
meconium feces that accumulate in the bowels before birth is not passed,
as is usually the case in calves. The cause of the disorder is supposed
to be that the dams of such calves have been fed too exclusively
on dry food before the calf’s birth. In such cases give an ounce of
castor oil shaken up with an ounce of new milk. The mother’s milk
is the best food to prevent a recurrence of the constipation, as it
contains a large amount of fatty matter which renders it laxative in
its effects.
Intestinal Worms. We may state that cattle are less infested with
intestinal parasites than any other species of domestic animal, and that
it is rarely necessary to apply treatment for the removal of those para-
sites. Two different kinds of tapeworm and four species of roundworm:
have, however, been found in the intestines of the bovine species. Ar
examination of the passages is the only certain method of determining
the existence of worms in the bowels.
Treatment. To remove the tapeworms give an ounce of oil of male
fern three times a day in a pint of milk for three days in succession, and
then on the fourth day give a pint of castor oil. For roundworms give
312 CATTLE.
two drams of sulphate of iron three times a day, mixed in a little oats
and middlings, and after continuing treatment for three days give a pint
of castor oil as before described. Oil of turpentine may be given in
doses of one ounce with milk, or santonine in dram doses in feed, to be
followed by an oily purgative as described. In treating calves, which
are more apt to be infested with worms than full-grown cattle, reduce
the doses to one-fourth or a third.
Jaundice, the Yellows, or Congestion of the Liver. When
jaundice exists there is a yellow appearance of the white of the eyes, ana
of the mucous membrane of the mouth. A similar aspect of the skin
may also be observed in animals which are either partly or altogether
covered with white hair. Jaundice is then merely a symptom of disease
and ought to direct attention to ascertaining, if possible, the cause or
causes which have given rise to it. A swollen condition of the mucous
membrane of that part of the bowel called the duodenum may produce
jaundice, as that mechanically closes the orifice of the biliary duct. In
constipation there is an inactive or torpid condition of the bowel, and the
bile which passes into the intestine may be absorbed and cause the yellow
staining of jaundice. Jaundice is one of the symptoms of Texas fever
and depends on the congested condition of the liver existing in that
disease. It may also arise from the presence of parasites or gallstones in
the ducts, forming a mechanical obstruction to the onward flow of bile.
It may also arise from injury to the nervous system impeding the func-
tions of the nerves supplied to the liver, and checking or diminishing
the secretion of bile. This form of jaundice is, so far as we know, un-
known in cattle. The conditions under which jaundice most commonly
calls for treatment are when cattle have been highly fed and kept in a
state of inactivity. Atsuch a time there is an excess of nutritive ele-
ments carried into the blood, which is associated with increased fullness
of the portal vein and hepatic artery. When continued high feeding has
produced this congested state of the liver, the functions of that organ
become disordered, so that a considerable portion of the bile, instead of
being excreted and passing into the intestine is absorbed by the hepatic
veins.
Symptoms. This disease occurs most frequently among stall-fed
cattle. Pressure along the margin of rhe short ribs on the right side
produces puin; the appetite is poor and the animal shows hardly any in-
clination to drink; the mucous membranes of the eye and mouth are
yellow; the urine has a yellow or brown appearance; the animal lies
CATTLE. 313
down much and moves with reluctance, moans occasionally and has a
tottering gait. The ears and horns are alternately hot and cold; in cows
the secretion of milk is much diminished, and that which is secreted has
a bitter taste ; sometimes the animal has a dry, painful cough and pre-
sents a dull, stupefied appearance.
Treatment. In such cases it is advisable to produce a free action of
the bowels, so as to remove the usually congested condition of the
portal vein and liver. For this purpose we recommend the administra-
tion of the following dose: sulphate of soda, sixteen ounces; fluid ex-
tract of taraxacum, half an ounce. ‘The sulphate of soda is dissolved by
stirring it up in two quarts of tepid water. The extract of taraxacum is
mixed in with it, and the mixture should be administered at one dose.
When a purgative effect has been produced, a dram of sulphate of cin-
chonidia, half an ounce of flu l extract of taraxacum and an ounce of
spirits of nitrous ether may be shaken up in a pint of water, and given
night and morning for several days in succession. This treatment may
be assisted by giving occasional injections of warm water and soap. The
diet should be laxative and moderate in quantity, and may consist of
coarse bran mash, pulped roots, grass in the season and hay in moderate
quantity.
Inflammation of the Liver, or Hepatitis. This isa more ad-
vanced stage of the disease already described. Hepatitis is frequently
restricted to a special part of the liver, and the rest of the organ outside
the area of inflammation may continue comparatively healthy.
The gland cells are the seat of inflammation, and the formation of an
abscess or abscesses is a usual result.
Symptoms. The symptoms are somewhat obscure, and their real
significance 1s frequently overlooked. This may be accounted for by
the fact that only a part of the liver is affected and that by the continu-
ance of congestion in that organ the affected parts gradually undergo
those changes which are characteristic of inflammation. The most
prominent symptoms are yellowness of the white of the eye and of the
membrane lining the mouth; the appetite is poor; the body presents an
emaciated appearance, but there is frequently fullness at the lower part
of the abdomen. ‘The gait is weak, and the animal lies down more than
usual, and while doing so frequently has its head turned round resting
on the side of its chest.
Treatment. Half a pound of sulphate of soda and half an ounce
of fluid extract of taraxacum should be mixed with two quarts of tepid
314 CATTLE.
water, and this should be given night and morning until a relaxed condi-
tion of the bowels is produced, as the object is not to cause a strong pur-
gation, but a laxative effect which should be continued for some days.
The diet should be similar to that which has been recommended in
speaking of congestion of the liver. After the treatment with laxatives
has been continued for several days, a dram of sulphate of cinchonidia
and a dram of nitro-muriatic acid should be shaken up in a quart of cold
water, and this dose should be given three times a day until the animal
has regained its strength. Oil of turpentine should be rubbed in well
once a day over the region of the liver. The skin on which it should be
applied extends from the false ribs on the right side to six inches in
front of the last one, and from the backbone to twelve inches on the
right side of it. Extreme heat and pasturing animals on low lying
ground are conditions favorable to the production of this disease.
Dropsy of the Abdomen or Ascites. In this disease there isa
serous or watery effusion in the cavity of the abdomen.
Causes. When old animals are worked and fed on innutritious food
they become what is termed anemic; or, in other words, their blood be-
comes impoverished and dropsy is a common result of such treatment.
An innutritious and insufficient treatment will produce the same effect
in young animals. The exposure of cattle to sudden changes of temper-
ature and the chilling effect of cold and wet acting on the skin may de-
velop this disease. It is one of the results of peritonitis, and may also
arise from acute or chronic inflammation of the liver, such as is of com-
mon occurrence when flukes are present in the liver in large numbers.
When dropsy depends on disease of the liver it develops very grudually,
and this may also be said in regard to it when its occurrence is asso-
ciated with an insufficient amount of nutriment having been supplied to
the animal.
Symptoms. A gradual increase in the size of the abdomen at its
lower part, while the flanks become hollow; pallor of the mucous mem-
brane of the mouth and eye; weak and sluggish gait; want of appetite,
and irregularity in ruminating. On percussion or tapping the surface
of the abdomen with the fingers a dull sound is produced. If the hand
and arm are oiled and passed into the rectum as far as possible, on mov-
ing the hand from one side to the other, the fluctuation caused by the
presence of fluid in the abdomen may be felt.
Treatment. The diet should be nutritious, and in those cases
where we have merely to deal with anzemia (the bloodless state) arising
CATTLE. 315
from insufficient diet the nse of tonics and diuretics, at the same keeping
the skin warm, will bring about a gradual absorption of the fluid con-
tained in the abdomen. One of the following powders should be mixed
with the animal’s food three times a day; or, if there is any uncertainty
as to its being taken in that way, it should be mixed with syrup, so as
to form a paste, and smeared well back on the animal’s tongue with a
flat wooden spoon: carbonate of iron, three ounces; powdered gentian,
three ounces; powdered nitrate of potash, three ounces. Mix and divide
into twelve powders. The administration of purgatives which promote
a watery discharge from the mucous surface of the bowels, also tends,
by diminishing the serum of the blood, to bring about absorption and a
gradual removal of the fluid contained in the abdomen. Large doses
should not be given, but moderate doses should be administered morning
and night, so as to produce a laxative effect on the bowels for some days.
To attain this end the following may be used: sulphate of soda, eight
ounces; powdered ginger, half an ounce; mix in two quarts of tepid
water, and then give at one dose.
DISEASES OF THE PERITONEUM.
Peritonitis. Peritonitis may be divided into certain varieties, ac-
cording to its mode of causation: (1) Traumatic, when the disease arises
from wounds penetrating the abdomen; (2) Idiopathic, when the disease
arises from exposure to cold and wet. The second variety of peritonitis
occurs chiefly among working oxen, and it may here be mentioned that
in those animals the membrane which lines the abdomen and covers the
outer surface of the bowels is apt to become congested by sudden chill-
ing of the skin, which empties its rich network of small blood-vessels
to a large extent, so that the blood must accumulate in some part of the
interior of the body.
Causes. When a working ox has been warmed up and is sweating
during hard work he may have to stand some time exposed to cold wind
or to a cold wind, which soon chills the surface of his body. When
cattle are driven through rivers or into ponds, so that their bodies hecome
wet, and they afterward lie on the ground when the air is cold, sucn
exposure may produce peritonitis. Wounds penetrating the abdomen
may also cause it.
Symptoms. A continuous or occasional shivering; the animal lies
down, but appears uneasy; it frequently turns its head towards its bellv
316 CATTLE.
and lows plaintively; pressure on the flanks produces pain; has no appe-
tite; muzzle is dry and no rumination; while standing, its legs are placed
well under its body; pulse small and hard. The evacuations from the
bowelsare dry and hard. If this disease is complicated by the presence
of inflammation of the bowls the pain is more severe am the animal is
more restless. The skin is cold and dry in the early stage of this disease,
but in a more advanced stage this condition may be succeeded by heat
of the skin and quick breathing. The fits of trembling, uneasiness,
small and hard pulse and tension of the left flank are symptoms the
presence of which should enable one to reach the conclusion that peri-
tonitis exists.
Post-mortem Appearance. The membrane lining the abdomen
and covering the surface of the bowels is reddened to a greater or less
extent, and there is usually considerable serous or watery fluid collected
in the abdomen.
Treatment. When we have to do with the traumatic form of peri-
tonitis, as when the horn of another animal has been thrust through the
abdominal walls, this lesion must be treated in accordance with direc-
tions before given, but the general treatment must be similar to that
which follows: peritonitis resulting from castration or from pariturition
fever must also be treated in connection with the special conditions which
give rise to it, as the general treatment of this disease must be modified
to some extent by the exciting cause.
The body should be warmly clothed, and it is advisable, when prac-
ticable, to have a blanket which has been wrung out of hot water placed
over the abdomen, then covered by several dry blankets, which are
maintained in position by straps or ropes passing round the body. The
wet blanket must be changed as it cools, the object of treatment being
to warm the surface of the body and to determine as much blood to the
skin as possible. When the matter of clothing the body has been
attended to the aim of treatment must be: (1) to obtain rest for the
affected parts; (2) to subdue inflammation and fever; (3) to sustain the
animal’s strength. The first indication is to give a dose of laudanum
or powdered opium. An ounce and a half of the first or a dram of the
second may be given in a pint of tepid water, and if the pain is not per-
ceptibly allayed the dose should be repeated in two hours. It is danger-
ous to give purgatives in peritonitis, as they stimulate the movements of
the bowels, increase the suffering, and aggravate the disease. ‘Tincture
of aconite should be given in ten-drop doses every two hours for the pur-
CATTLE. 317
pose of reducing fever and inflammation. Curzel strongly recommends
bleeding for this purpose, but it should only be applied when the pulse
is strong and when the animal is in good condition, and it should be
borne in mind that it cannot have any beneficial effect, but the reverse,
if inflammation has existed for two days. The diet should consist of
laxative food and drinks, such as linseed tea. If peritonitis assumes
chronic form the diet should be nutritious, such as hay, corn-
stalks, linseed cake, grass, etc., and iodide of potassium should be given
in dram doses dissolved in a pint of water three times a day.
DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF RESPIRATION.
Laryngitis—Sore Throat. Laryngitis consists of an inflamma-
tion of the mucous membrane lining the larynx. It may be either a
primary or a secondary disease, complicated or uncomplicated. In the
‘majority of cases it is due to some form of exposure, a sudden change
from warm to cold surroundings, or exposure to cold surroundings, or
exposure to cold storms. It may also arise from inhaling irritating
gases. It may be the result of external violence. In an acute attack
of laryngitis there is an elevation of the temperature, pain on pressure
over the region of the larynx, violent paroxysms of coughing, dificult
and noisy respiration. ‘The nostrils are dilated, the nose extended, and
the animal has a frightened expression. There is marked difficulty in
swallowing.
Treatment, This consists of fomentations and hot applications over
the throat. Stimulating liniments, mustard, or other forms of counter
irritation, may be applied in severe cases. Hot inhalations should be
frequently resorted to, and often afford much relief to the suffering ani-
mal. In this disease medicines should be given as far as possible in the
form of electuaries (soft solid), on account of the difficulty of degluti-
tion. Large drafts of medicine have a tendency to produce violent spells
of coughing, and in this way retard recovery. The subjoined formula
for an electuary will be found to answer the purpose in ordinary cases:
chlorate of potassium, pulverized, eight ounces; fiuid extract of bella-
donna, two ounces; powdered opium, one ounce; powdered licorice root,
eight ounces; syrup, sufficient quantity, and mix. At frequent inter-
vals place a small table-spoonful of the mixture on the tongue or back
teeth. Or the following may be used instead:
318 CATTLE.
Aloes, powdered opium, and gum camphor in equal parts. Mix. Rub
an ounce on the molar teeth every four or five hours. The bowels should
be kept open and the diet should be such as the patient can easily swal-
low. Warm sloppy mashes, boiled oatmeal gruel, linseed tea, and the
like, are the most suitable substances. If suffocation is threatened
during the course of the disease tracheotomy should be performed with-
out delay.
When the disease assumes a chronic form strong counter irritation is
indicated. A cantharides blister may be applied, or the following oint-
ment may be used: biniodide of mercury, one part; lard, six parts.
Mix. In some cases it will be found necessary to repeat the above
application.
Pleurisy. ‘This disease consists of an inflammation of the serous
membrane lining the chest cavity and enveloping the lungs. It rarely
occurs as an independent disease, but is generally complicated with
pneumonia. It may be circumscribed or diffused, unilateral or double.
It arises from exposure to cold and wet, as with pneumonia and bron-
chitis. It occasionally is caused by a penetrating wound.
Symptoms. In the first stagethereis great pain, due to the dry
and inflamed surfaces of the pleura rubbing together. This gives rise
to the friction murmur. The temperature ranges from 104° to 105° F.
The pulse is small, quick, frequent, and hard. The respirations are
abdominal, the breathing being taken in short jerking inspirations and
emitted in long expirations. The cough is sharp, suppressed, and pain-
ful. Preasure in the intercostal spaces gives rise to pain, the animal
flinching and giving a grunt. The muzzle is dry and hot, the mouth
slimy, and secretions scant. The symptoms increase in severity as the
disease advances, and in the second stage effusions are poured out into
the thoracic cavity. The pulse becomes soft and remains frequent and
small. The elbows are turned out, and the animal has a diagnostic
grunt. On percussion a dull sound as high up as the fluid has risen in
the chest, and on ausculation there is absence of all respiratory murmur
below this line.
Treatment. Give the same general care as recommended in bron-
chitis or pneumonia. Iu the early stages give a febrifuge to reduce the
fever, as directed for pneumonia. For relief of the cough give electuary
formula, which will be found in the treatment of laryngitis. The bowels
must be kept relaxed and the kidneys secreting freely. In the stage of
effusion give the following three times daily: tincture of digitalis, one
CATTLE. 319
ounce; iodide of potassium, thirty to sixty grains; mix. Apply strong
counterirritant to chest and put seton in dewlap. If collapse of the lung
is threatened a surgical operation is sometimes performed, termed para-
centesis thoracis, which consists in puncturing the chest cavity and
drawing off a part of the fluid. The instruments used are a small trocar
and canula, which are introduced between the eighth and ninth ribs.
Draw the skin forward so that the external wound may not correspond
with the puncture of the chest, to prevent the entrance of air. Only a
portion of the fluid should be removed. The animal gets immediate re-
lief, but it is generally only temporary, as there is a tendency for the
fluid to accumulate again.
Pneumonia. This is an inflammation of the lung substance. It is
divided into three different forms, viz: first, croupous; second, catarrhal;
and third, intestinal pneumonia.
The causes of pneumonia in general are the same as those of the
various other inflammatory diseases of the respiratory tract. It mostly
follows congestion of the lungs, but may in rare cases have a parasitic
origin.
Symptoms. In the first stage, that of congestion, the disease is
usually ushered in by a chill, although this may not always be observed
by the attendant. This is followed by an elevation of temperature,
usually 105° to 106° F., or it may be even higher. The respirations are
quick and shallow; the nostrils are dilated; the pulse is full and hard.
Cough may or may not appear in this stage. The nose is hot and dry;
the tongue sometimes protrudes and is slimy; the coat is staring, and
the skin dry and harsh. The urine is usually diminished in quantity,
high colored, and the bowels constipated. The animal stands with the
forelegs wide apart to facilitate respiration.
In the second stage the temperature generally drops one or two de-
grees, and respiration is performed with much difficulty. The cough is
frequent and painful. The animal still stands with the forelegs wide
apart and the elbows turned outwards. If it assumes the recumbent
position it rests on the sternum. All secretions are more or less sus-
pended, particularly the milk in cows. The animal has a haggard
appearance, and the pulse becomes small and wiry at this period. The
extremities are hot and cold alternately: and no sound on ausculation
will be heard, except it be a slight wheezing or whistling noise. On
percussion dullness over the diseased lung is manifested, indicating
consolidation The lung has now assumed a liver-like appearance.
320 CATTLE.
In the third stage, if the disease is going to terminate favorably, the
cough becomes loose; the animal improves; the appetite returns, and
the symptoms above detailed rapidly subside. But if, on the other
hand, resolution is not progressing, the lung substance is broken down,
is heavy, and will sink in water. In fatal cases the breath has a pecu-
liar fetid, cadaverous odor, and is taken in short gasps; the horns, ears,
and extremities become cold and clammy, and the pulse is imperceptible.
On ausculation, when suppuration is taking place and the lung structure
is breaking down, a bubbling or gurgling sound caused by the passage
of air through pus, will be heard.
Treatment. Good hygienic surroundings and good nursing are
essential in connection with the medical treatment. The probability of
cure depends largely on the extent of the lung tissue involved, as well
as on the intensity of the inflammatory process. In the early stage,
when the fever is high, give febrifuges. If the pulse be strong and
full, aconite (Fleming’s tincture, two to five drops every four or five
hours) may be given for a short time, but should be discontinued as soon
as the fever begins to abate. Aconite is a valuable drug in the hands of
the intelligent practitioner, but my experience leads me to believe that
not infrequently animals are lost by its injudicious use. For in many
febrile conditions it is positively contra-indicated, owing to its action
upon the heart. Ina plethoric animal, with a strong bounding pulse,
bleeding may be resorted to instead of administering aconite. If the
bowels are constipated give calomel, one to three drams, which acts as
a cathartic and a febrifuge, In the second stage diffusible stimulants
are required, viz: spirits of nitrous ether, two ounces; spirits aromatic
ammonia, one ounce. Mix and give in grtel three times daily. If
the above is not at hand, give an alcoholic stimulant. Half a pint
of brandy or whisky may be given in a quart of gruel three times
daily. In some cases carbonate of ammonia, two to five drams, has
been found beneficial. Most practitioners apply counterirritants exter-
nally, such as mustard plasters, turpentine, and ammonia liniment.
or cantharides.
Bronchitis. Bronchitis is an inflammation of the mucous membrane
of the bronchial tubes. When a primary disease it is generally the result
of what is commonly known as ‘‘catching cold.’”’ It may be secondary
to or complicated with many of the diseases of the respiratory system.
It may also be caused by breathing irritating gasses, or by the introduc-
tion of foreign bodies into the bronchial tubes, which sometimes result
CATTLE. 321
from injudicious and careless drenching when the larynx is in a tem-
porarily relaxed state. It may be acute or chronic, and is divided ac-
cording to the seat of the inflammation into bronchitis proper, where the
large tubes are affected, or capillary bronchitis, where the smaller tubes
are affected.
Symptoms. Loss of appetite, elevation of temperature, generally
104° to 105° F. ‘The inspiration is incomplete, short, and painful, and
the expiration is prolonged. The pulse is increased in frequency, and
is hard. A characteristic and painful cough is present, but it is spas-
modic and incomplete.
Treatment. The animal should be placed in a light, well ventila-
ted box, and the bowels kept in a soft condition by enemas, etc. Avoid
violent purgatives. The body should be kept warm by blanketing. In
the early stages give three times daily, a draft composed as follows:
2 drams Extract Belladonna,
4 fluid ounces solution Acetate of Ammonium,
3 pint Water.
In the latter stage of the disease substitute the following formula,
which may be given twice daily:
3 drams Carbonate of Ammonium,
2 fluid ounces solution of Hydruchlorate of Strychnine,
1 fluid ounce Spirits of Nitrous Ether,
3 pint Water.
In some cases the following is preferable to either of the above, and
may be given in a pint of linseed tea every four hours:
1} ounces Spirits Nitrous Ether,
2 ouuces Spirits Aromatic Ammonia,
2 drams Powdered Camphor.
The food should be light and nutritious.
Bronchitis is liable to assume a chronic form if not properly treated
in the earliest stage. Remedial treatment is of little value when the
disease becomes chronic.
DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS.
Bloody Urine. This is also called Red Water, Moor-ill, Heema-
turia, and Hemaglobinuria. It is a common affection among cattle in
certain localities, above all on damp, undrained lands, and under a back-
ward agriculture. It is simply bloody urine or hematuria when the
blood is found in clots, or when under the microscope the bluod globules
322 CATTLE.
can be detected as distinctly rounded, flattened discs. It is smoky urine
—hezaglobinuria—when no such distinct clots nor blood discs can be
found, but merely a general browning, reddening or blackening of the
urine by the presence of dissolved blood-coloring matter. The bloody
urine is the more direct result of structural disease of the kidneys or
urinary passages (inflammation, stone, gravel, tumors, hydatids, kidney
worms, sprains of the loins), while the stained urine (hzemaglobinuria )
is usually the result of some general or more distant disorder in which
the globules are destroyed in the circulating blood and the coloring
matter dissolved in and diffused through the whole mass of the blood and
of the urine secreted from it. As in the two forms, blood, and the ele-
ments of blood, escape into the urine, albumen is always present, so that
there is albuminuria with blood-coloring matter superadded. If due to
stone or gravel, gritty particles are usually passed, and may be detected
in the bottom of a dish in which the liquid is caught. If due to fracture
or severe sprain of the loins it is likely to be associated not only with
some loss of control over the hind limbs, and with staggering behind,
but also with a more or less perfect paralysis of the tail. The blood-
stained urine without red globules results from specific diseases, Texas
fever, anthrax, and from eating irritating plants (broom, savin, mer-
cury, hellebore, ranunculus, convolvulus, colchicum, oak shoots, ash,
privet, hazel, hornbeam, and other astringent, acrid, or resinous plants,
etc.). The Maybug or Spanish fly taken with the food or spread over
a great extent of skin as a blister has a similar action. Frosted turnips
or other roots will bring on the affection in some subjects. Among con-
ditions which act by the direct destruction of the globules in the circu-
lating blood may be named an excess of water in that fluid; the use of
water from soils rich in decomposing vegetable matter, and containing
alkaline salts, especially nitrites, and the presence in the water and food
of the ptomaines of bacteria growth—hence the prevalence of ‘‘ red-
water’? in marshy districts and on clayey and other impervious soils;
hence, too, the occurrence of bloody urine in the advrnced stages of
several contagious diseases. Some mineral poisons, such as iodine,
arsenic, aud phosphorous taken to excess may cause hematuria, and
finally the symptoms may be the mere result of a constitutional predis-
position of the individual or family to bleeding. Exposure of the body
to cold or wet will cause the affection in some predisposed subjects.
The specific symptom of bloody or smoky water is a very patent one.
It may be associated with fever or not, with the presence or absence of
CATTLE. 323
abdominal tenderness on pressure, with a very frothy state of the milk
or even a reddish tinge, with or without marked paleness of the mucous
membranes and general weakness. When direct injury to the kidneys
is the immediate cause of the disease the urine will be passed often, in
small quantity at a time, and with much straining, When there is
bloodlessness (a watery blood) from insufficient nourishment, fever is
absent and the red water is at first the only symptom. When the active
cause has been irritatant plants, abdominal tenderness, colics. and other
signs of bowel inflammation are marked features.
Treatment. This will vary according as the cause has been an irri-
tant operating on asubject in vigorous health or a malarious poison act-
ing on an animal deficient in blood and vigor. In the first form of red-
water a smart purgative (one pound to one and a half pounds Glauber
salts) will clear away the irritants from the bowels and allay the co-
existent high fever. It will also serve to divert to the bowels much of
the irritant products already absorbed into the blood, and will thus pro-
tect the kidneys. In many such cases a liberal supply of wholesome,
easily digestible food will be all the additional treatment required. In
this connection demulcent food (boiled flaxseed, wheat bran) is espe-
cially good. If much blood has been lost, bitters (gentian, one-half
ounce) and iron (sulphate of iron, two drams) should be given for a
week. :
For cases in which excess of diuretic plants have been taken, it may
be well to replace the salts by one to two pints olive oil, adding one
ounce laudanum and two drams gum caphor. Also to apply fomenta-
tions or a fresh sheepskin over the loins. Buttermilk or vinegar, one-
half pint, or sulphuric acid, sixty drops in a pint of water, may also be
employed at intervals as injections. In cases due to sprained or frac-
tured loins, to inflamed kidneys, or to stone or gravel, the treatment will
be as for the particular disease in question.
In hematuria from anaemia (watery blood), whether from insufficient
or badly-adjacent rations, or from the poisonous products of fermenta-
tion in impervious or marshy soils, the treatment must be essentially
tonic and stimulating. Rich, abundant, and easily digestible food must
be furnished. ‘The different grains (oats, barley, wheat, bran, rye) and
seeds (rape, linseed, cotton-seed) are especially called for, and may be
given either ground or boiled. As a bitter, sulphate of quinine one-half
dram, and tincture of muriate of iron two drams, may be given ina pint
of water thrice a day. In some cases one or two tea-spoonfuls of oil of
324 CATTLE.
turpentine twice daily in milk will act favorably, but quinine and iron
are to be preferred.
But in this ancemic variety prevention is the great need. The drain-
age and cultivation of the dangerous soils is the main object. Until this
can be accomplished young and newly-purchased cattle, not yet inured to
the poisons, must be kept from the dangerous fields and turned only on
those which are already drained naturally or artificially. Further, they
should have an abundant ration in which the local product of grass, hay,
etc., is supplemented by grain or other seeds. Another point to be
guarded against is the supply of water that has drained from marshes
or impervious soils, rich in organic matter, as such is charged with
nitrites, ptomaines, etc., which directly conduce to the disorder. Fence
out from all such waters, and supply from living springs or deep wells
only.
CONTAGIOUS ABORTION.
Causes of Contagious Abortion. When an aborting cow is
placed in a herd that has hitherto been healthy, and shortly afterwards
miscarriage becomes prevalent in that herd and continues year after
year, in spite of the fact that ail the other conditions of life in that herd
remain the same as before, it is manifest that the result is due to con-
tagion. When a bull, living in a healthy herd, has been allowed to
serve an aborting cow, or a cow from an aborting herd, and when the
members of his own herd, subsequently served by him abort in consid-
erable numbers, contagion may be safely inferred. Mere living in the
same pasture or building does not convey the infection. Cows brought
into the aborting herd in advanced pregnancy carry their calves to the
full time. But cows served by the infected bull, or that have had the
infection conveyed by the tongue or tail of other animals, or by their
own, or that have had the external genitals brought in contact with
wall, fence, rubbing post, litter, or floor previously soiled by the infected
animals, will be liable to suffer. The Scottish abortion committee found
that when healthy, pregnant cows merely stood with or near aborting
cows they escaped, but when a piece of cotton wool lodged for twenty
minutes in the vagina of the aborting cow was afterwards inserted into
the vagina of a healthy, pregnant cow or sheep, the latter invariably
aborted within a month. So Roloff relates that in two large stables at
Erfurt, without any direct intercommunication, but filled with cows fed
CATTLE. 325
and managed in precisely the same way, abortion prevailed for years in
the one, while not a single case occurred in the other. Galter finds
that the virus from the aborting cow causes abortions in the sow, ewe,
goat, rabbit, and guinea-pig; and that if it has been intensfied by pass-
ing through either of the two last-named animals, it wil! affect also the
mare, bitch and cat.
The precise germs or germ causing abortion have not yet been demon-
strated Leyond question. Twenty years ago Franck, of Munich, drew
attention to a chain form of cells (Leptothrix vaginalis) as the efficient
cause. The Scottish Commission have isolated in gelatin cultures five
different bacteria obtained from the vaginal mucus of the aborting cow,
and Nocard, of Alfort, speaks of a germ existing abundantly between
the womb and fetal membranes of aborting cows which was never found
in the healthy.
Symptoms of Abortion. In the first two or three months of
pregnancy no symptoms may have been observed, and unless the aborted
product is seen the fact of abortion may escape notice. Some soiling of
the tail with mucus, blood, and the waters may be observed, or the udder
may show extra firmness, and in the virgin heifer or dry cow the pres-
ence of a few drops of milk may be suggestive, or the fetus and its mem
branes may be found in the gutter or elsewhere as a mere clot of
blood or as a membraneous ball in which the forming body of the
fetus is found. In water the villi of the outer membrane float out,
giving it a characteristically shaggy appearance.
In advanced pregnancy abortion is largely the counterpart of parturi-
tion, so that a special description is superfluous. The important thing
is to distinguish the early symptoms from those of other diseases, so
that the tendency may be arrested and the animal carried to full
time if possible. A cow is dull, sluggish, separate from the herd,
chewing the cud languidly, or there may be frequent lying down
and rising, uneasy movements of the hind feet or of the tail, and
slightly accelerated pulse and breathing, and dry muzzle. The im-
portant thing is not to confound it with digestive or ordinary disorder,
but in a pregnant cow to examine at once for any increase of mucus
in the vagina, or for’ blood or liquid there or on the root of the tail;
for any enlargement, firmness, or tenderness of the udder, or in dry
cows milk, and above all for any slight straining suggestive of labor
pains.
In many cases the membranes are discharged with the fetus; in
326 CATTLE.
others, in advanced pregnancy, they fail to come away, and remain
hanging from the vulva, putrefying and falling piecemeal—finally re-
sulting in a fetid discharge from the womb. According to the size
of the herd contagious abortions will follow one another at intervals of
one to four or more weeks, in the order of their infection or of the re-
currence of the period of activity of the womb which corresponds to the
occurrence of heat.
Prevention. Weakness and bloodlessness are to be obviated by
generous feeding, and especially in aliments, (wheat bran, rape cake,
cotton seed, oats, barley, beans, peas, etc.), rich in earthy salts, which
will also serve to correct the morbid appetite. This will also regenerate
the exhausted soil if the manure is returned to it. In the same way the
application of ground bones or phosphates will correct the evil, acting in
this case through the soil first and raising better food for the stock. The
ravages of worms are to be obviated by avoiding infested pastures, ponds,
streams, shallow wells or those receiving any surface leakage from land
where stock go, and by feeding salt at will, as this agent is destructive
to most young worms.
The tendency to urinary calculi in winter is avoided by a succulent
diet (ensilage, steamed food, roots, pumpkins, apples, potatoes, slops),
and by the avoidance of the special causes named under Gravel. Fur-
nishing water inside the barn in winter in place of driving once a day to
take their fill of ice-cold liquid will obviate a common evil. Putrid and
stagnant water are to beavoided. Sudden changes of food are always
reprehensible, but much more so in the pregnant animal. Let the change
be gradual. So with what is spoiled or unwholesome.
In case of prevalence of ergot in a pasture it should be kept eaten
down, or cut down with a mower, so that no portion runs to seed. In
case of a meadow the grass must be cut early before the seeds have filled.
The most dangerous time appears to be between the formation of the
milky seed and the full ripening. Vet the ergot is larger in proportion
to the ripeness, so that the loss of potency is made up in quantity. The
ripe seed and ergot may be removed by threshing and the hay safely fed.
It may also be noted that both ergot and smut may be safely fed in
moderate quantity, provided it is used with succulent food (ensilage,
roots, etc.) or with free access to water, and salt is an excellent acces-
sory as encouraging the animal to drink. Both ergot and smut are
most injurious in winter when the water supply is frozen up or accessi-
ble only at long intervals. The ergoted seed when threshed out can
CATTLE. 327
not be safely sown, but if first boiled it may be fed in small amounts
or turned into manure. The growth of both ergot and smut may be
to a large extent prevented by the time-honored Scotch practice of
sprinkling the seed with a saturated solution of sulphate of copper
before sowing.
Fields badly affected with ergot or smut may be practically renewed
by plowing up and cultivating, for a series of years under crops (turnips,
beets, potatoes, buckwheat, etc.), which do not harbor the fungus, and
which require much cultivation and exposure of the soil. Drainage and
the removal of all unnecessary barriers to the free action of sunshine and
wind are important provisions.
Other precautions concerning separation from cows in heat, a proper
construction of stalls, the avoidance of carrion and other offensive
odors, protection from all kinds of mechanical injuries, including over-
driving and carrying by rail in advanced pregnancy, the exclusion of
all irritants, or strong purgatives and diuretics from food or medicine,
and the guarding against all causes of indigestion and bloating have
been sufficiently indicated under Causes. For protection of the womb
and foetus against the various causes of disease available methods are not
so evident. For cows that have aborted in the last pregnancy chlorate
of potash, three drams daily before the recurrence of the expected abor-
tion, is often useful. Prevention of contagious abortion will naturally
come within this treatment.
Treatment of Contagious Abortion. So far as this differs from
the treatment of sporadic abortion, it consists in the free use of germi-
cides and disinfectants.
1. Scrape aad wash the back part of the stall and gutter and water
it with a solution of five ounces sulphate of copper (bluestone) in one
gallon of pure water. Repeat this cleaning and watering at least once
aweek. ‘This should in all cases be applied to every stall where an
aborting cow has stood and to those adjacent. To treat the whole in the
same way would be even better, as it is impossible to say how many of
the cows harbor the germ. ‘This is more needful that in three or four
years, if the aborting cow is kept on, she becomes insusceptible and
carries her calf to full time. A cow may therefore be infecting to oth-
ers though she no longer aborts herself.
2. Dissolve one dram corrosive sublimate, one ounce each of alcohol
and glycerine, and shake up in a gallon of water to use as an injection
into the vagina and a wash for the parts about the vulva and root of
328 CATTLE.
the tail. Being very poisonous, it should be kept in a wooden barrel
out of the way of animals or children. Every morning the vulva, anus,
the back of hips, and root of tail should be sponged with this liquid,
and this is best applied to the whole herd.
3. When any case of abortion has occurred the fetal membranes must
be removed by the hand without delay, and together with the fetus de-
stroyed by burning, or buried deeply, and the stall should be cleansed
and watered with the proper solution. ‘Then the womb should be
washed out with one and one-half gallons of corrosive sublimate solution
injected through a rubber tube introduced to the depth of the womb
and with a funnel in its outer elevated end. This should be repeated
daily for a week. In the case of the other cows of the herd one injec-
tion of the same kind should be made into the vagina, after which they
need only have their external parts and tail washed with the solu-
tion daily.
Asa certain number of the cows will harbor the germ in the womb
when treatment is started, it is not to be expected that the abortions
will cease at once, but by keeping up the treatment the trouble may be
gotten rid of in the following year. As an aborting cow is usually of
little use for the dairy, it is best to separate and fatten her and apply
treatment to remaining cows. In this as in other delicate manipulations,
the stockowner will consult his own interest by employing an accom-
plished veterinarian, and avoiding such as have not had the privilege of
a thorough professional education. In addition to the above the removal
of all manure and contaminated litter and the immediate sprinkling of
the surface with the sulphate of copper solution is called for. Drains
should no less be thoroughly rinsed and disinfected. Mill ing stools and
other implements may be treated in the same way, or with carbolic acid
or boiling water. Great care should be taken to guard against bull or
cows from an aborting herd or district; streams even may be suspected
if there is an aborting herd near by and higher up on that stream.
Cows sent to bull from an aborting herd are to be denied, and workmen
that have attended on such a herd should be made to wash and disinfect
their clothes and persons.
Duration of Pregnancy. From extended statistics it is found
that the average duration of pregnancy in the cow is two hundred
eighty-five days. A calf born at the two hundred fortieth day may
live, and a case is reported by Deitrichs of a calf born on the three hund-
red thirty-fifth day, and another by the AMERICAN JOURNAL OF
CATTLE. 329
MEDICAL SCIENCE as born on the three hundred thirty-sixth day.
It is the general observation that in the majority of prolonged pregnan-
ties the offspring is male. Lord Spencer found a preponderance of
males between the two hundred ninetieth and the three hundreth
days, but strangely enough all born after the three hundredth day under
his observation were females. It might be reasonably inferred that while
the prevailing tendency is to carry the males overtime, yet that the
smaller and comparatively much less developed female sometimes fails
to stimulate the womb to contraction until very far beyond the regular
date.
DISEASES OF THE SKIN CAUSED BY PARASITES.
Mange or Itch. This is a disease of a local nature, due to a mite,
which induces irritation and incrustation on the surface of the body gen-
erally. It is always contagious, requiring for its development the trans-
plantation of the parasites or their eggs from the diseased to the healthy
animal. ‘This disease is not very common among cattle in this country,
while in some countries it prevails as an epizootic. Poor hygiene seems
to favor the extension of the disease, and it is claimed that weakened
cattle are more predisposed to harbor the parasite than strong, healthy
ones. It is also more prevalent in winter than in summer, and in the
latter season sometimes entirely disappears.
Cattle are afflicted with two varieties of these parasites. They belong
to the class (Arachnidz); genera, [Psoroptes (Dermatodectes)] which
simply bite and hold on to the skin; and [Chorioptes (symbiotes)] liv-
ing together in large families, and not piercing further than the cuticle
in search of food.
Dermatodectes communis, is the most frequent one met in cattle. It
lives on the surface of the skin, and gives rise to much irritation by bit-
ing. It generally chooses the regions of the the shoulder and root of
the tail for its habitation. From these localities it gradually extends by
increase in numbers, causing intense itching and great distress in the
affected animal. From the irritation of the skin papular nodules appear,
which develop into vesicles filled with fluid aud rupture. The drying
of the exuding fluid forms crusts, and these are liable to be followed by
ulceration. ‘The hairs may project up through the crust or fall out.
In chronic cases the skin becomes thickened and almost insensible, dry,
and wrinkled. As it is easy to confound this disease with eczema, our
330 CATTLE.
sole dependence for a correct diagnosis rests upon the discovery of the
parasite, or, at least, upon positive evidence of contagion The acari
can be detected upon the hair and surface of the epidermis by the aid of
an ordinary magnifying glass, or they may be seen with the naked eye
as minute white points moving about when the infested animal stands in
full glare of the sun on a warm day.
Treatment. It is of the utmost importance to cleanse the skin,
removing crusts, etc., before the parasites can be effectually eradicated.
For this purpose use soft soap and water, and give the animal a thor-
ough scrubbing, especially in regions where the skin has been rubbed.
If the crusts are not all removed by the first washing, apply sweet oil to
soften them. They may then be washed off the following day. To
kill the mites apply thoroughly with a brush the following mixture.
1 ounce Creolin,
1 ounce Oil of Tar,
4 pint Soft Soap,
4 pound Sulphur,
1 pint Alcohol.
Wash it off in two days with soap and water. Three or four days
later a second application should be made to destroy all remaining
acari. It is essential that the stable or stalls where the affected
cattle have been should be cleansed and whitewashed, or saturated
with sulphuric acid, one pint to three gallons of water.
Lousiness. The lice of cattle are of two kinds, the suctorial lice,
which are found only upon mammals; and biting lice, which attack both
mammals and fowls. Those belonging to the first variety are the short-
nosed ox-louse, and the long-nosed ox-louse. ‘The short-nosed ox-louse
is larger and the harder to exterminate. It infests almost exclusively
the neck and shoulders, and those parts are frequently worn bare by the
animal in its efforts to rid itself of these tormentors. The full grown
females of the short-horned ox-louse are from one-eighth to one-fifth of
an inch long, and fully half that in width, while the males are slightly
smaller. The males have a broad, black stripe running forward from
the end of the body to near the middle of the abdoman; the females
have no indication of this stripe. The true pumping organ, consists of
aslender, piercing tube which may be greatly extended in order to
reach the blood of the infested animal.
The females deposit their eggs on the hair, attaching them very near
the skin by means of an adhesive substance. ‘The long-nosed ox-louse
CATTLE. 331
is the most familiar to cattlemen. ‘The body is about an eighth of an
inch long, and not more than one-third of that in width. The head is
very long and slender, and no eyes are visible. In color there is little
difference in the two species.
There is but one species of biting lice known to occur on cattle, the
Trichodectes scalaris. This is very common on cattle. It is very dis-
tinct from the suctorial species in appearance, and this is readily recog-
nized by all observers, for it is generally called ‘‘the little red louse,’’ in
contrast with the blue louse. They are also less injurious than the
former.
The biting louse possesses a mouth provided with biting and cutting
jaws. They attack the animal along the spine, hips, ramp, and some-
times the neck and head.
Symptoms. Lousiness generally becomes manifest in winter and
towards spring, when the animal is found to rub the infested portions of
the body, occasionally to such an extent as to produce excoriations of
the skin. It then becomes thin in flesh and debilitated. A close
examination will reveal the true state, and prompt attention is ad-
visable.
Treatment. The treatment does not vary for the three species,
although the short-nosed louse is the most difficult to destroy. Take a
half pound of Cocculus Indicus (fish berries,) for each animal, pound
fine, then add two quarts of vinegar, and set it on the stove to simmer
for anhour. Apply this thoroughly by rubbing it well into the hair
over the infested region. This will not injure the skin or sicken the
animal, and it remains effective long enough to kill all the young lice as
they are hatched from the nits. Prof. Riley's kerosene emulsion is also
vefy effective, and is made as follows: kerosene, two gallons; common
or whale oil soap, one-quarter pound; water, one gallon. Heat the solu-
tion of soap and add it boiling hot to the kerosene; churn the mixture
for five or ten minutes. Dilute the emulsion with eight parts of water,
and apply it to the animal bya thorough rubbirg. Fifty animals can
be treated with ten gallons of the liquid.
Ticks or Ixodes. There are several species of ticks that attach
themselves to cattle. The most common in this country is the Booph-
ilus bovis. They are most numerous on uncultivated land, prairies,
and woodland. ‘They attach themselves to cattle on the thighs, flank,
and neck, where they fill themselves with blood and then drop to the
ground. They bore into the skin and cause considerable irritation of
332 CATTLE.
the parts. ‘They may be destroyed by the application of oil or grease
which kills them by stopping up their breathing pores. When they are
carelessly pulled off by hand the head sometimes breaks off and remains
in the skin, causing a suppurating sore and possibly septic infection of
the animal.
Fleas or Chigres. The common flea, (pulex irritans), penetrates
the cuticle with a pair of very sharp lancets attached to its head, and
draws blood from the animal. ‘They become annoying to cattle when
they are present in great numbers, and cause a diminution of milk.
The chigre, (Sarcopsylla penetrans), met with in some of the western
States, burrows beneath or within the skin, and deposits its eggs, caus-
ing the animal to rub the parts. A small vesicle may form, succeeded
occasionally by the formation of a small ulcer.
Treatment. When fleas or chigres cause much annoyance to cattle
it can be prevented by moistening their skin every morning with tobacco
juice or carbolic-acid water, made in the proportion of one ounce of the
acid to two quarts of water.
Venomous Stings. These may be inflicted by scorpions, tarantu-
las, wasps, bees, hornets, etc. Occasionally an animal may be stung by
a wasp or ‘‘bumble-bee’’ and owing to some peculiar state of the blood of
the animal the injured skin will swell and form a painful enlargement.
If stung by a swarm of bees the animal may become very sick and pros-
trated. The external application of sugar of lead water, one ounce to
the pint, will usually relieve the pain and swelling. When the animal
suffers constitutionally, two drams of carbonate of ammonia or four
ounces of whisky should be administered every two hours until the ani-
mal rallies from the shock.
Flies and Mosquitos. ‘These may become dangerous to cattl@'in
sections where malignant anthrax prevails, as they may be the carriers
of poison from the diseased or dead animal to the healthy one.
The tsetse fly, (GLOSSINA MORSITANS), is very destructive to cattle,
their sting causing death in many cases. Maggots hatched. from the
eggs deposited by flies upon wounds frequently are very annoying to the
animal, and retard the healing process. The maggots from the screw-
worm fly, (LUCILLIA MACELLARIA), burrow in wounds and cause in-
creased inflammation, and have been known to cause the death of cattle.
When maggots or screw-worms appear on wounds of the skin, be they
deép or superficial, no time should be lost in getting rid of them. ‘The
application of turpentine or carbolized water, (one ounce to a pint),
CATTLE. 333
should be used to destroy the vermin, and the wound afterward covered
with tar to keep the flies away.
Ringworm. Ringworm is an affection of the skin, due to a vege-
table parasite. One of these parasltes affects the hair and the outside
layer of the skin, and is highly contagious, being readidly transmitted
from one animal to another. ‘This fungus consists of spores and fila-
ments. ‘The spores being the most numerous, are round, nucleated, and
seldom very much in size. ‘They are very abundant in the hair follicle.
The filaments are articulated, waving, and contain granules. The dis-
ease is productive of changes in the root and shaft of the hair, rendering
them brittle and easilly broken off.
The other is due to another fungus. This enters the hair follicle and
involves the cuticle surrounding it, small crusts from which increase ir
diameter and thickness and then become elevated at their margin, form-
ing a cup-shaped scab, the FAvUS cup, which gives the disease its dis-
tinctive character. The number of these cups varies from a few to many
hundreds. ‘The hairs involved become brittle and broken, fall off with
the crusts, leaving small bald patches. The crusts are of a pale or sul-
phur yellow color at first; as they grow older they turn darker, or to a
brown color. This form of ringworm has a peculiar odor, resembling
that of mice or musty straw. It is occasionally communicated to cattle
by man, mice, cats, etc., all being subject to this disease.
Treatment. Remove allcrusts by washing with soap and water,
then apply acetic acid, sulphur ointment, or nitrate of mercury ointment,
once a day. Cleanse the stable and whitewash it to destroy the spores
scattered by the crusts.
PROSTRATION.
Sunstroke or Prostration from Heat. Owing to the fact that
cattle are seldom put to work at which they would have to undergo
severe exertion, especially in collars, they are not frequently prostrated
by the extreme heat of the summer months. When at pasture they se-
lect the coolest places in the shade of trees, etc., when the heat becomes
oppressive, and thereby avoid, as much as possible, the effects of it. But
nevertheless cases are not uncommon when cattle suffer from the so-
called sunstroke.
Cattle that have been kept up for the purpose of fattening, When
driven some distance in very hot weather, are the most liable to be pros-
334 CATTLE.
trated, but it must be remembered that it is not really necessary for the
animal to be exposed to the rays of the sun, as those confined in hot,
close places may suffer. This often happens in shipping, when they are
crowded together in cars.
Symptoms. The premonitory signs are those of exhaustion—dull-
ness, panting, frothing at the mouth, tongue hanging out, irregular
gait, uneasiness, palpitation, when, if the circumstances which tend
to the prostration are not mitigated, the animal staggers from side to
side, falls, struggles for awhile, and then gradually becomes quiet, or the
struggles may continue, with repeated but ineffectual efforts to regain a
standing position. In serious cases the attack may be very sudden, un-
consciousness occurring without any distressing premonitory symptoms.
The less serious form is known to the colored cattle-drivers as ‘‘overhet’’
(overheated).
Treatment. At first, when not very serious, removal to a quiet,
sheltered place, with a few days on a reduced diet, is all that need be
done. When the animal has fallen, apply cold water or ice to the head;
rub the body and limbs with cloths or wisps of straw, and continue the
rubbing for a considerable time. If the power of swallowing is not lost
(which may be ascertained by pouring a little cold water into the mouth),
give three drams of liquor ammonia fort., diluted with a quart of cold
water. Be very careful in drenching the animal when lying down. Re-
peat the drench in a half hour, and an hour after the first one has been
given. Instead of the ammonia, a drench composed or three ounces of
spirits of nitrous ether in a pint of water may be given, if more con-
venient, but in all cases the ammonia drench is preferable. If uncon-
sciousness continues, su that a drench cannot be administered, the same
quantity of ammonia and water may be injected with a syringe into the
rectum. The popular aqua ammonia, commonly called “hartshorn,”’
will do as well as the liquor ammonia fort., but as it is weaker than the
latter, the dose for a cow is about one ounce and a half, which should be
diluted with a quart of water before it is given to the animal, either asa
drench or an enema. When ammonia cannot be obtained quickly, two
ounces of oil of turpentine (spirits of turpentine), shaken with a pint of
milk, may be injected into the rectum, and will act beneficially until the
ammonia is prociired.
As soon as the animal is able to rise, it should be assisted and moved
to the nearest shelter. AI the cold water it will drink should be allow-
ed. The ammonia or spirits of nitrous ether drench should be adminis-
CATTLE. 335
tered every three hours so long as there is much failure of strength.
The diet should be limited for several days; bran slops and a little grass.
When signs of returning strength are presented, twelve ounces of Epsom
salts dissolved in a quart of warm water may be given in those cases
which have been down and unconscious, but do not give it while much
weakness remains, which may be for several days after the attack. It is
hardly necessary to mention that when an animal is suffering from heat
prostration, bleeding should not be resorted to as a remedial measure.
The writer is well aware of the fact that they are often slaughtered
by butchers to save further trouble and probable loss.
DEHORNING CATTLE BY USE OF CHEMICALS.
The Farm Superintendent, L. H. Adams, of the Experimental Sta-
tion of the University of Wisconsin, makes the following report:
“So far as the information of the Station goes, to Mr. John March, of
Shullsburg, Wis., belongs the credit of preparing the first compound
successfully used in preventing the growth of horns on calves. The
preparations sold by Mr. March and also that of Lewis and Bennet, of
Bloomington, Wis., have been tried at the Station with satisfactory re-
sults. ‘They were tried on a number of calves at different ages, during
the fall of 1889, with a view of obtaining defirite knowledge as to the
manner and proper age for application.
It was found in a majority of instances that the best results were
reached when the compound was applied as soon as it was possible to
locate the little horn button on the calf’s head, which usually can be
done when it is but three or four days old. From our experience it
would seem that the dehorning compound should be fresh and the con-
tents of the bottle well mixed before using; otherwise only partial suc-
cess may be reached. The hai: should be clipped from about the em-
bryo horn with scissors, and the chemical applied with the rubber cork,
wet with the fluid and rubbed hard over the button until it has penetra-
ted the horn germ. When the germ has become soft, having an in-
flamed appearance, sufficient material has been applied. Care should
be taken that no fluid runs down the call’s head, for the material is
very caustic.
In our tests, in several instances, the fluid was applied to but one
horn button, the other being left untreated. The effect usually was to
stop growth of one liors, while the other grew naturally. The calves
336 CATTLE.
were sold to a farmer not far distant, who agreed to keep them until
grown that we might see the effect of the treatment. At two years of
age, the left horn to which the compound was applied, had not devel-
oped. The right horn developed naturally, while the left side of the
head to which the chemical was applied has not only failed to develop
the horn, but even the heavy base which grows out from the skull to
support it. This failure to develop not only the horn but its natural
support, raises the query whether a hornless race of cattle could not be
developed by using the dehorning compound for a number of gen-
erations.
In advertisements of chemical fluids it is often claimed that the appli-
cation is painless, but our observations do not coincide with any such
statement. ‘The application of a fluid powerful enough to destroy so
large a surface as the button on the calf’s head, must produce a great
deal of pain, and the calves show this by nervous movements of the
head and attempting to rub the irritated spot. From our experience in
applying the liquid, we believe it should be used on as young calves
as possible, since the older the calf grows the more it seems to suffer
when the horns are removed.”’
The question of dehorning all cattle is a question of expediency and
must be justified by the expectation of benefit on the part of the owner.
The practice has grown popular in many parts of the country. When
the operation is performed on cattle where horns are grown, it should
be done with a fine-toothed saw, and by sawing the horn off close
enough to include a little of the skin and hair around its base.
Chapped Teats. These may be caused by anything which irritates
them. ‘The powerful sucking of the calf, the sudden chilling of the
teat in winter after the calf has just let it go, or after the completion of
milking with a wet hand; contact with cold water, or stagnant, putrid
water, or with filth or irritants when lying down; slight congestions of
the skin in connection with overstocking, and, indeed, any source of
local irritation may cause chapping. ‘This may be slight or extend into
great gaping sores and induce retention of milk or even mammatis.
Soothing applications of vaseline, or a combination of equal parts of
spermaceti and oil of sweet almonds, may be applied. If healing is
tardy add ten grains balsam of Peru to the ounce of ointment. If the
irritation is very great, wash first with a solution one dram sugar of
lead in one pint of water, and then apply benzoated oxide of zinc
ointment.
CATTLE. 337
MILKING.
Simply drawing the milk from the cow is not the whole process of
milking. It is far too common a practice to drive cows into a filthy
yard, filled for several inches with mud and drippings, and not a shed
for shelter, even in bad weather.
Well regulated dairy cows should always be driven into their stables
or sheds, and secured in stalls for milking. Thus the animal is under
control and secure from annoyance from her neighbors. A quantity of
water and a cloth should always be at hand to clean the udder and teats
before milking. Allow no noise or loud talking, no scolding, nor fret-
ting among the milkers. ‘Teach the cows that the milkers are their
friends and they will confide in their kindness.
USE OF THE SEPARATOR IN THE DAIRY.
The separator has gone through the experimental stage, and has been
io thoroughly tested that the results can no longer be considered as sim-
ply experiments.
Prof. H. H. Wing, of the Agricultural Department, of Cornell Uni-
versity has the following to say on this important question:
“Tf we look at the market reports we shall see that butter is classed
on the market as ‘‘creamery’’ and ‘‘dairy’’ butter. The first implying
that it is butter made up in a factory built for the purpose, from the
milk of a greater or less number of individual owners; and the second
that is butter made up on the farm from the milk produced on the farm.
If we study the reports further we shall find that in general the quota-
tions are much higher for the creamery than for the dairy butter; this
has given rise to an impression quite generally held that in some myste-
rious way the butter made at the factory is better than it is possible for
butter to be that is made on the farm.
Now, this is entirely erroneous. Not only is it perfectly possible to
make as good butter on a farm as can be made at a factory, but it is a
matter of no great difficulty and does not require an expensive or elabo-
rate equipment. The principles that govern the manufacture of good
butter are the same in either case. Their observance will result in good
butter on the farm just as sure as their neglect will result in bad butter
in the factory. That this is so is seen in the fact that numerous private
dairymen, having recognized these principles, are getting more for their
338 CATTLE.
butter, made up in a small way in a private dairy, than is given for the
very best grades of creamery butter. Indeed, from the fact that the
private dairymen can control the cows, their feed and care and the milk
from the time it leaves the cow until the finished product goes to mar-
ket, he should be able to make a finer and more uniform product than
the factory man, who can not control these important conditions. Not-
withstanding the possibilities of the case, the facts are, that to-day the
great mass of butter made on farms is sold for a less price than that made
at creameries. et us look for a moment at some of the reasons for this
condition of affairs.
In the first place, there is a large amount of butter made on farms that
is not good to begin with, and justly should not bring any more than it
usually does. ‘This sort of butter is made where the cows and butter-
making are a sort of side issue of the farm, while the milk and butter
must await the demands of all the other farm and housework before they
receive attention. It is made where the maker is ignorant, careless and
dirty. The cows are milked at the convenience of the hired man, and
the milk is strained and put into the creamer at some indefinite time
thereafter when the hired girl gets ready. Sometimes the cream is re-
moved in twenty-four hours and sometimes not for four days. In hot
weather the cream gets too sour and in cold it sometimes never gets sour
at all. It is churned sometimes at a temperature too low, but often too
high, and never twice alike. The buttermilk is not completely removed,
salt is added by guess, and it is worked by main strength till the dairy-
maid gets tired. During the whole process it associates more or less
intimately with the cooked and uncooked food in the family pantry,
and the wonder is not that it is bad, but that it is so good as it is.
Secondly, some farm dairy butter sells at a low price, not because it
is in itself bad, but because it is made to suit the maker and not the cus-
tomer. A study of the kind of butter liked best in one’s market is
quite as essential to high prices as a knowledge of the principles under-
lying good butter-making. Again a large amount of first-class farm
dairy butter is spoiled on the way to market, through contact with poor
butter of all degrees, and by association with ‘‘choice family groceries’’
in the cellar of the country store.
Another great disadvantage that farm dairy butter has on the market
is that it is not made in large enough quantities at a time, so that the
maker can afford to spend time and money in looking up and holding
the best class of customers, but must depend upon commission men in
CATTLE. 339
the general market. It is in this respect that the creamery justly en-
joys a great advantage over the private dairyman, by being able to guar-
autee a certain amount of uniform quality regularly. And it is in this
way that farmer owning, or only caring to keep a small number of cows,
may secure the largest advantage through co-operation in the establish-
ment of a creamery.
Now, let us look at some of the ways in which’ the quality of farm
dairy butter may be easily improved. In the first place the dairy work,
and particularly the butter-making, must be a distinct department of the
farm work. It must be done at the proper time, regularly and system-
atically, and it must be done in a place devoted to it and to nothing else.
This need not be a separate building, or even a very large room, but it
should be carefully fitted with ventilation and drainage and should be
so arranged as to be easily and completely washed out and then quickly
and thoroughly dried. It should be large enough to hold the churn and
butter-worker and the cream while ripening, for with the use of the sep-
arator the milk itself, as we shall see presently, need never go to the
dairy room. It should not be necessary to say that scrupulous cleanli-
ness is the all-important condition of good butter-making, and we will
merely pass it over with the hint that cleanliness is a relative term and
may not be nearly so clean as they think. One thing I may perhaps
call attention to, and that is the use of steam, not only in removing dirt,
but in killing the germs of all those fermentations and putrefactions that
cause so much trouble to the butter-maker. Scalding with hot water,
particularly as it is usually done, can in no sense take the place of live
steam in this respect.
Attention to a few general principles in regard to the temperatures at
which the various steps in the process are carried on will have a great
effect on the resulting product, especially so far as the texture of the
butter is concerned. These, in brief, are to effect all necessary changes
gradually, to hold the temperature in the intervals as uniform as possi-
ble, and churn at as low a temperature as will bring the butter in a rea-
sonable time.
By far the greatest factor in improving the quality of farm dairy but-
ter and in lessening the cost of production is the introduction of the
centrifugal separator, which has effected quite as great a revolution in
butter-making as the introduction of improved machinery has in grain
raising. It is the most efficient method known for removing creams from
milk. With the greatest care in a deep-setting system at least three-
340 CATTLE.
tenths of one per cent. of fat is left in the skimmed milk, and in a shal-
low setting system the loss is still greater. With the separator the loss
is not to exceed one-tenth of one per cent. of fat, a saving of two-tenths
of one per cent., or two pounds of fat in each one thousand pounds of
milk. Ina dairy of twenty cows giving twenty-five pounds of milk each
a day, this saving would amount to a pound of fat aday, or three hun-
dred pounds in ten months. At twenty cents per pound this would
amount to $60.00, nearly fifty per cent. of the cost of the separator.
The separator is the most cleanly method of removing the cream.
The cream is removed at once from the milk, and the bulk of material
that is necessary to hold and guard against destructive fermentations is
reduced at least seven-eighths. ‘The milk is thoroughly aerated during
the process of separation. There is removed from the milk a certain
amount of albuminous matter that would otherwise remain largely in the
cream, and which easily undergoes putrefactive fermentation. While
the separator may be run by hand, it is found in most cases quite as eco-
riomical to use steam power, and the same boiler furnishes steam for
cleaning purposes that would not otherwise be available, and the neces-
sity for which has already been indicated.
It leaves the skim milk in by far the best condition for feeding.
It furnishes cream containing a much higher percentage of fat. This
renders it possible to churn at a lower temperature, at the same time to
more completely remove the fat from the buttermilk.
HOW TO TAKE CARE OF MILK.
This subject is one of the most important factors that enters into the
dairy life of the average farmer. It is nearly his whole stock in trade;
and his success to-day depends upon hoy skillfully he can manipulate
his dairy to increase the flow of milk, while he curtails the cost of pro-
duction. And as it is the most salable preduct the dairy farmer pro-
duces, it is of real interest to him that the milk be kept in proper con-
dition until its delivery.
The care of milk should begin before it is secreted, for unless started
right hidden rocks will be encountered along the dairy pathway that will
make the farmer’s ledger show up a trial balance on the debtor’s side.
First of all, he should have the environments of the stable suitable to
the wants of the dear old cow, that has been the mainstay through all
CATTLE. 341
the past. It should be well lighted, well ventilated and with a goodly
supply of fresh air, free from stable taint, with an excess of litter for
bedding, and with nutritious food, the farmer is on the road to success.
But to have all the conditions mentioned progress will be slow, unless
the injunction which the Good Book records, ‘‘Man shall live by the
sweat of his brow,’’ is transformed from the common idea of physical
labor to the divine creation—thought; and when we by mental exertion,
succeed in starting the sweat upon our brows then it is that we progress
and our minds are receptive and improvement begins along the dairy
highway which leads us into the avenue of the care of milk.
The farmer should be regular about his hours of milking and feeding,
be kind and gentle to his stock, and create an affection for them so that
when he commences to milk, his peace of mind will not be harassed by
a kick in the short ribs and the loss of a pail of milk and several cuss
words. When the affection is complete all is harmony. The udder and
bag should be neatly cleaned and the milking done with dry hands. As
fast as milk is secured it should be carried out of the stable into the pure
air or into a room set apart for milk. It should then be carefully strained
through several thicknesses to remove at once all dust and filth that have
accidently reached the pail, and then should be aerated either by stir-
ring thoroughly or over any of the new styles of aerators now in use, to
set free from the milk the gases, foreign odors and animal heat which it
contains, and to gradually lower the temperature to a point where de-
composition will be arrested and where the changes will be slow; this
point is ually reached when the temperature is 55° F. If the night’s
milk is to be held over until morning for delivery, the cans of milk
should be submerged in spring or ice water to the depth of two inches
above the cream line or top of the milk in the can. A very erroneous
idea seems to prevail that if the can is one-half submerged in water, it
will be all right; but such is false, for cream and butter fat of all the
component parts of milk is the first to sour and should receive the best
care. ‘The cream that forms on the can during the night above the out-
side water level will be exposed to the air on top and sides and its tem-
perature will be nearly the same as the surrounding air, and were the
night warm enough the cream would be sour and the milk sweet.
Therefore keep the cream or cream line below the water level on the
outside of the can where the changing conditions are normal. Then,
when ready for delivery, it should be placed on spring wagons and _pro-
perly covered to exclude the heat and cold, and delivered in such a con-
342 CATTLE.
dition that its temperature has remained the same during its transit.
If these suggestions are followed out the milk shipper, factory and
creamery man will have a product that will manufacture up evenly or
endure a long journey.
Too much can not be said about cleanliness in the care of milk. It is
the only rule that will aid in the keeping of milk, and all pails and uten-
sils used around milk should be first rinsed in cold water, then washed
and thoroughly scalded by water or steam and left in proper condition
exposed to air and sunlight.
Again, too often the milking and its care is intrusted to incompetent
and uninterested parties and the milk is subjected to a sink-or-swim
treatment, which is equal tocaring for itself under all conditions, and
when it is delivered to be manufactured or shipped it is on the fast road
to decomposition, which is the fruitful source of many complaints of
poor milk, butter, and cheese. Yet this is the worst evil a creamery
man has to contend with and his only weapons of defense are a vigilant
eye anda trained nose. And yet with most careful scrutiny, milk will
sometimes pass scrutiny and to all outward appearance be right, and
when the crucial test is applied of holding it from forty-eight to fifty-
six hours, the taints have grown until the milk is off flavor and
rejected.
THE AERATION OF MILK.
The process of quickly driving out from milk the animal odors and
gases, and reducing it in temperature to that point where decomposition
is arrested and where the changes will be slow, is called aeration, and
the apparatus used for the purpose is called an aerator. Milk thus pre-
pared will keep from forty-eight to fifty-six hours even in the warmest
weather if kept at a temperature no higher than 55” F.
The following description of an aerator aud the method of use will
give an idea of the general method of aerating the milk. The machines
may vary but the principle is the same.
“It consists of sixteen thin copper tubes two inches in diameter,
tinned on the outside, sixteen feet long, arranged one tube above the
other, and the ends connected in such a manner that spring or ice water
connected to the bottom tube will flow its entire length, come back
through the next higher and so on until the top tube is reached, where
CATTLE. 343
it is conducted to the drain or back to the ice pool to be re-chilled and
sent on its circuit route by the use of arotary pump. The milk is fed
into a V shaped conductor running the entire length of the aerator, in
the bottom of which are fine holes that feed the milk upon the tubes,
where it spreads out into a thin layer and runs around each tube and
drops to the next below until it falls over the last tube, from which it is
gathered into small streams where it can be bottled readily by placing
bottles in position or the milk can flow into the pan under the aerator
and be drawn into cans or vats. You will note that the coldest water is
in the bottom tube and the warmest at the top, so when the warm milk
flows on it comes in contact with water about 60° F., and as it passes
down it will leave the last tube at 40° F., if ice water is used, thus in-
suring you a sweet milk, free from foreign odors in the main. Fresh
milk will not only contain the animal heat, but such odors as are impart-
ed to it through injudicions feeding, unsavory foods, contamination
from the stable odor and fine bulk manure that will wend its way
through the finest cloth or woven wire into the cans, where it settles
and when retailed in the cities the customers will remark, that the
‘‘Farmers are feeding buckwheat bran and it comes through whole.”’
All the above mentioned odors, except the last, are in the form of gases
which will readily pass off the milk if aerated while warm. If new milk
is allowed to set in a can ina pool or in the atmosphere for a length of
time the creain will rise and form a close seal over the milk below, and as
these gases try to escape the seal they cool and liquify and immediately
unite with the milk globules, and no amount of agitation or aeration
will free that milk of odor after such treatment. During the hot weather
as the milk of the different dairies flow over the aerator there will be a
wide difference in the odors the machine gives off, and a most decidedly
cheesy odor would be thrown off the night’s milk that has been poorly
staid with the night before and whose temperature has been allowed to
remain above 60° F. all night. Such milk would sour before twenty-
four hours old in ice water, and if aerated and iced would last forty-eight
hours. If the farmer sells milk he should find means of aeration;
whether sold to the creamery men, or shipped to market, or retailed
from the farmer’s wagons.
One shipper of aerated milk says that ‘during the past year, with its
intense heat, I did not have a can of sour milk returned from New York,
and in former years my annual loss in that line would buy an aerator
each year.’”’ E. L. HAYNES.
344 CATTLE.
SILOS AND ENSILAGE.
This subject has been much discussed of late, and the stock-raiser has
come to recognize that silos have come to stay, and that if properly
built and filled, they will supply a good fodder at a less cost than the
plan now commonly adopted. F. A. Converse, a successful farmer of
Woodville, N. Y., has so ably covered the subject that we are pleased to
be able to give in his own words the results of his experiments. He
thus tersely covers the whole subject as to cost and advantages :
“T was an unwilling convert, because in years past I had seen silos
built costing a large amount of money, and filled with a product I would
not feed a decent cow. ‘The ensilage resembled a poor quality of sauer-
kraut more than it did a wholesome food. Such ensilage put up from
immature corn made bad results, and it was condemned, and rightly too.
But conditions have changed, and men have come now to know that
ensilage is not only a good food, but it is the cheapest food we can pro-
vide for our stock, and, properly cut up, no food is more wholesome,
and the farmers of the future will be compelled to use the silo to meet
the competition into which he will be forced in the effort to produce
milk, butter, or beef at a small cost.
In going over the States, I find that the dairymen who are using the
silo are able to produce more milk and do it cheaper than cuey could
before the silo was built. This is the universal testimony. Some may
ask why so many silos are abandoned. As a matter of fact there are
not many silos abandoned, unless the corn crop for some cause failed;
or by the whim or prejudice of certain creamery owners or condensed
milk manufacturers, where poor, sour ensilage was used in the past, and
as a natural consequence, to protect themselves they had to stop using
the ensilage, owing to its poor quality; but where ensilage is properly
put up and made from mature corn, the silos have not been aban-
doned.
As an evidence of the quality and flavor of milk or butter made from
ensilage, it is only necessary to state that those who are getting the best
for their dairy products, are feeding ensilage.
Why is ensilage better suited to cheapen milk production than any
other food? Because it provides us with a succulent food in winter,
without which no milch cow can do her best; it can be raised so much
cheaper than any of the root crops; and the food-producing power of an
acre can be doubled and thribbled over any other crop. The dairyman
CATTLE. 345
pursuing the old line of feeding must have about two acres pasture, from
two to three acres to raise fodder enough to put a cow through the win-
ter, besides the grain she must have, while with corn, one-half acre will
supply all she will eat during the six winter months, and then, too, there
is no better way to utilize a corn crop than to put it into the silo, for there
it is in its most perfect condition for food. There is not only the succu-
lence, but the development of the woody fiber in the stalk is stopped at
just the stage of growth when it is most valuable in milk produc-
tion.
Another feature of this question is that the chemical action that takes
place in the silo is an aid to digestion, enabling the animal to eat more
than she otherwise could digest and assimilate, thus making more milk
from a given amount of food than can be made from any other product
fed. Ensilage is the only food that will enable a dairy to produce milk
as cheap during the six winter months as during the six summer
months. The dairyman in the future will be compelled to adopt ensil-
age, and the man who has his cows drop their calves in March and April
and dries them all in November will be a back number. There is posi-
tively no excuse for such practice, allowing the cows to do business only
during the summer, and then tending a lot of dirty, lazy cows all winter
with no income from them. If merchants should shut up their stores
and go out of business for five months in the year, and just keep the
store warm and swept out, but not sell anything until spring comes, we
would call them fools, but that is just what a great many dairymen are
doing, and then wondering why their profits are not larger.
Look at this ensilage question in any way, one is forced to accept it
as the cheapest food known for stock. The silo system has passed its
experimental stage, and in these days no man needs to put up a silo
excepting he is to solve the problem whether or not it is cheap food;
whether or not it is a wholesome food; whether or not it will pay a
farmer, whose bank account is limited, to put one up. All of these
points have been decided many times over by dairymen in every dairy
State in the Union. ‘This ensilage question is not a craze or a fad. It
is an accepted practice that has come to stay. The idea is not new.
Silos were constructed in Egypt over twenty centuries ago, and the prac-
tice has come down to us with many improvements, until to-day we are
forced to accept its utility and its advantages.
The dairy cow on the June pasture is at her best, and to keep her at
her best these June conditions, both as to food and climate, must be ap-
346 CATTLE. +
proximated, and the only successful approximation to June food is the
ensilage. Ensilage is a cheaper product than grass, and any animal that
will eat grass will eat ensilage and thrive on it.
The question is often asked, what sized silo should be built for a cer-
tain number of cows? A general rule can be laid down which will
answer with unerring certainty this question. Allow one cubic foot
space inside the silo as a ration for one cow per day. A cubic foot will
weigh about forty pounds, which will be an average ration for a one
thousand pound cow. So, taking into consideration the number of cows
and the time the animals are to be fed, one can readily find out the size
of the silo to build, but bear in mind a silo filled full will settle from one-
fifth to one-fourth, and so make calculations accordingly. So for ten
cows to be fed six months it would would want a silo 12x12 and 20 feet
high, filled 16 feet, and for twenty cows we would need one 12x15, and
25 feet high, filled 20 feet. For thirty cows a silo 12x21, and 28 feet
high, filled 22 feet is needed, and for forty cows it would be necessary
to build one 12x28, and fill 22 feet. Ina silo of this length it would be
better to put a partition through the middle of it. These dimensions
are best adapted to the construction of a silo inside the barn in the bay.
The bottom of a silo should be grouted like the bottom of a cistern
covered with small stones put in mortar, two parts sand and one pait
cement. ‘This will make it air-tight and keep out the rats.
If the barn has an under-pinning of mason work, have the inside of
the wall flush with the inside edge of the silo; furrow out with two-inch
plank from the posts of the barn to within one inch of the edge of the
wall; nail these planks together at the corners, and have the first one at
the bottom, the next a foot higher, and the rest four to six inches apart
to the top of the silo. ‘These girders are put closer together at the bot-
tom, on account of the strain being greater at the bottom than at the
top. Nail the boards to the edges of these planks. Use rough hemlock
inch boards for the siding. Put on two courses, use building paper be-
tween the courses, and pay particular attention to break joints. This
will make a better and cheaper silo than matched and planed boards,
because, unless Georgia pine is used, the matched lumber will pull out
of the matching from the shrinking and swelling of the boards.
I have used a silo made like this for six years and it works admirably,
and I can suggest only one improvement, and that is to cut the corners
off, and this could be done very nicely by putting in a piece of plank,
cutting off three feet of the square corner, and then boarding right
CATTLE. 347
around, getting the practical benefits of a round silo. The cost of build-
ing a silo inside the barn will cost about fifty cents per ton for the
amount of ensilage, or the silo for twenty cows would hold about one
hundred twenty tons and cost about $60.00, exclusive of work. Build
the silo yourself at odd times, and do not expend a cent for carpenter’s
work. Any man who knows enough to run a saw, a hammer and a
level can build a silo like these described.
If there is not room to build a silo in the barn, the cost of construct-
ing on the same plan will be three or four times as great. Seek to have
the silo inside the barn, if possible, as it is cheaper, handier, and all
things considered, far the best plan. The feeding-door should be con-
veniently located and run to the top of the silo, so the ensilage can be
fed from the top. Instead of doors use boards that can be removed as
fast as the mass of ensilage settles, so that all lifting is avoided in
pitching out.
Never put anything in for ensilage but corn, because you can raise
three times more in food value than any other crop. Land that will
produce a ton of hay per acre will raise ten tons of corn, and land that
will raise one and one-half tons of hay will raise fifteen tons of corn per
acre. ‘Two and one-half tons of ensilage is worth as much as a ton of
hay, so to make the producing powers of an acre equal to the corn for
ensilage, we would have to raise six tons per acre. My practice of rais-
ing corn is this: I follow a three-year rotation, clover, corn, and grain,
seeding with eight quarts of clover, two of timothy, mowing the clover
twice, then putting it to corn the following spring. During the winter
I put the manure on this clover sod as fast as it is made, about fifteen
loads per acre. It is plowed in the spring about six inches deep, then
rolled and fitted with a spring-tooth harrow thoroughly and marked
both ways just three feet. I find it makes very little difference whether the
corn is in hills or drills, if the same amount of seed is used, except in the
cultivation, it often being desirable to cultivate both ways. What is
wanted is the largest, earliest variety which will mature in your locality.
Never, under any circumstances, put on more than ten quarts of seed to
the acre, because we must remember corn is a sun plant, and to properly
mature, it cannot be planted thick. Many put in a piece of fodder corn
and plant it a bushel or two of seed per acre. I actually met one man
this winter in southern New York who said he wanted four bushels to
the acre for good, sowed corn. I would rather have a windmill than a
crop like that, because I could get the wind and water into the animal
348 CATTLE.
much cheaper than by feeding it such corn. It is about ninety per cent.
water, aud we can’t afford to raise water when it is so plenty. No,
never, whether for ensilage, fodder corn or field corn, put in more than
ten quarts per acre. After the corn is planted, put on about three hun-
dred pounds of commercial fertilizer made after a general formula, con-
taining the fertilizing ingredients in the proportion needed for the corn
plant, which is approximately one part of phosporic acid, two parts
nitrogen and three parts potash. Put the commercial fertilizer on
broadcast rather than dropping it in the hill. I believe that the most
critical time in the plant’s life is just at the germination period, and
when the little rootlets are sent out there is a great deal more plant-food
then than is needed, and as the roots grow and extend further out into
the soil there is not enough to continue the rapid growth that has started
at first, as the roots all feed from the ends and spread out all through
the ground. Dropping fertilizer on a hill of corn and expecting the
plant to be benefited is a little like a boy expecting to get his dinner
while sitting on his dinner pail. As soon as the fertilizer is applied, put
on a smoothing harrow and go over the piece. Do this before the corn
comes up. After the corn is up, go over it again with a smoothing har-
row the opposite way from the first time over. Every five or six days
go over the corn until the corn is six inches high; then use a weeder,
which will accomplish the same result until the corn is fifteen inches
high. This method of cultivating is very important, as it kills the
weeds just as they are starting and hoes the field better than it could be
done by hand.
The time has gone by when you can afford to hoe any cultivated crops
by hand. With horses and efficient machinery so cheap the hand-hoe
must be relegated to the rear. This surface cultivation not only kills
the weeds when it can be done the easiest, but no treatment of the land
will conserve the moisture in the soil as will this shallow cultivation.
The surface soil acts as a mulch. During a dought there are fields
which have become so hard and baked that one could run a hand into
the cracks on the crust that has formed, while in the garden the soil
was moist and in goodshape. What was the difference? One had the
same amount of rain as the other. The garden was stirred frequently
by repeated hoeing, while the field was not touched during the drought,
so the lesson taught is to stir the soil often in all cultivated fields. An
experiment conducted at the Cornell station shows that an acre of land
with surface cultivation evaporates two tons less moisture every twenty-
CATTLE. 349
fours hours than an acre uncultivated and unstirred. As time goes on
and our forests grow less, this retention of moisture in the soil must be
carefully looked after.
As soon as the weeder is stopped begin with the cultivator. Usesome
kind so that the depth can be governed. Never put the cultivator down
over two or three inches, and two is preferable to three. If necessary
to go deep, do it while the corn is very small, for deep cultivation in-
jures the roots, and oftentimes one might better be in the house reading
the paper than cultivating corn and tearing off the feeding roots, check-
ing its growth perhaps to the extent that frost will catch it in the fall.
If any of you attended the Columbian Exposition and visited the exhibit
made by the department of experiment stations from Washington, you
were doubtless surprised to see a corn plant with the roots washed out so
that one could see the relative amount of root growth as compared with
the stalk. Major Alvord, who was in charge, told me that it had been
determined by careful experiment that there was more superficial area
on the roots of a corn plant than there was on the stalk, and he further
said in an ordinarily porous soil with the corn hills three feet and three
inches apart, there was not a single cubic inch of earth to the depth of
four feet that was not permeated with the fibrous roots. ‘This will give
us some idea of the harm done by putting our cultivator down six inches
deep, thinking that we are doing a grand job. Cultivate as often as
necessary. Using a two-horse wheel cultivator, taking two rows at
a time.
Never cut the corn until it has begun to glaze. Here is where so
many have made the fatal mistake of putting up the corn before it was
ripe. There is a large increase in all the nutrients between the time of
tasseling and the ripening of the corn. An experiment at Cornell
showed that the feeding value of corn between corn in the milk and ma-
ture corn was $14.00 for green corn, and $48.00 for the mature corn.
In regard to cutting and filling the silo we must be governed some-
what by circumstances. Some farmers dont want a gang of men to rush
it through in two or three days; others want todo this way. So far as
the keeping of ensilage is concerned, it does not matter whether it is
done in one day or in one month, if it is filled continuosly until full. I
knew of a man who filled his silo alone; going out and cutting a load,
drawing it to the barn, putting the team in tread and cutting the load
into the silo. He was six weeks doing it and had good ensilage.
Pack the corn into the silo, keep the surface level and thoroughly
350 CATTLE.
tramp, especially around the sides and in the corners, if they are square,
More loss will occur in corners and around the sides than in other por-
tions of the silo.
When full, cover the ensilage with cut straw or chaff to the extent of
two feet, cover with boards or rails, and leave until ready to feed.
Certain precautions in feeding are necessary. Everybody realizes
that June conditions are best for milk production, and with the silo we
approximate the June feed, green, succulent and laxative, so we must
have the June climate, or in other words, don’t feed your cows ensilage
unless your stable is warm.
Another thing we must take into consideration, and that is, corn
grown as I have indicated will have too many ears to make a good ra-
tion for a milch cow. ‘The nutritious ratio is about one to twelve, so
my practice is to go through the field and pick off about thirty or forty
bushels per acre before cutting, throwing them in heaps upon the
ground to feed the pigs and horses during the winter. Even then we
find it necessary to feed grain with ensilage, and I use bran, malt
sprouts, and cotton-seed meal. The grain is fed dry twice a day, on the
ensilage. On taking the ensilage from the silo it should always be fed
from the top, and not from the end. Go over the whole surface
at least once in forty-eight hours, or else the mass will begin to
mold.
These are essentials I have found necessary to the profitable use of
ensilage as a stock food, and while we are learning something all the
time about it and its use, nevertheless, any man can follow these prin-
ciples, and he will make no mistake. I am often asked if I would ad-
vise a poor man, struggling with a debt, to put a silo. I want to say I
most emphatically would. It will be a good investment, and as far as
the rich farmer is concerned, he perhaps does not need one as much, but
it will prove a blessing to any dairyman.”’
Blood Letting in Cattle. Tie a cord firmly about the lower por-
tion of the neck, and the jugular vein (63 on Circulatory system in mani-
kin of Cow) will become distended with blood and swell out so as to be
easily found and tapped. When sufficient blood has been drawn, loosen
the cord.
SHEEP HUSBANDRY.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE VARIOUS BREEDS.
Care, Breeding, and Management.
DESCRIPTION OF THEIR VARIOUS DISEASES AND HOW
TO CURE THEM.
HEEP were raised in the earliest times simply for their pelt, and
without regard to their wool. They were the earliest domesticated
of any of the wild animals, and this domestication, together with
the breeder, has very much changed the character of the animal.
At the present time there are no wild sheep known. There are a few that
are called wild sheep, but they resemble the goat more than they do the
sheep.
Sacred writers considered the shepherd’s occupation a favored one,
and God’s chosen people had all of their richest attire made of the pro-
duct of the sheep. On holidays the Jewish maidens were attired in
woolen garments made from the finest, softest wool. To the faithful
shepherds, as they were watching their flocks, came the glad tidings of
peace on earth, good wiil to men.
The small farmer as well as the large one, is interested in the raising
of sheep. When properly understood and managed they are as great a
source of profit as any of the domestic animals. While they are very
tender and require special care, there is no other animal that will better
repay the care and kinduess in treatment.
The diseases and ailments peculiar to sheep are easily cured when
understood. ‘The measures and remedies to be adopted are within the
reach of every farmer.
352 SHEEP HUSBANDRY.
Sheep have attained great perfection during the last few years, and a
single sheep has sold as high as $10,000 for breeding purposes. At the
present time mutton is in considerable demand as an article of food, and
while neither the wool, pelt, nor flesh bring exhorbitant prices, yet
there is the fact that every part of the sheep is salable, and sheep rais-
ing is as profitable as any other of the various industries of the farm.
The perfection to which the sheep has grown as a wool producer, is
shown by the fact that while the nuinber of sheep in the United States
has within the past quarter of acentury doubled, the quantity of wool pro-
duced has quadrupled.
Wool. By consulting statistics we will readily understand why the
production of wool has been the one purpose which our sheep breeders
have had in view. Beginning with the year 1825 we find wool selling
at seventy cents per pound, and the average price for twenty-five years
from that time was over fifty-four cents per pound. Beginning again
with 1850, we find wool selling at an average for the next quarter of a
century of over fifty-five cents per pound, and during that time, from
July, 1864, until the following spring it sold for one dollar per pound.
No wonder breeders were stimulated to produce wool; no wonder they
seemed to forget the carcass; and I believe that never in the history of
breeding was greater advance made than was made by the breeders of
this time who produced the American Merino sheep, which as a wool
producer has no successful rival. Beginning again with the year 1875
we find for the next twelve years fine wool sold at an average of only
forty-one cents per pound, and from that time to the present the market
has drifted downward until now wool has become so low that sheep-
raisers are paying more attention to the production of flesh.
Mutton. The most reliable market reports, as well as the experi-
ence of our best authorities, prove conclusively the following facts :
1. For the past few years mutton has sold at a higher average price
per pound than either beef or pork.
2. A given amount or value of food will produce more pounds of mut-
ton than of beef or pork.
3. The relative increase in the consumption of mutton is greater than
in any other kind of meat.
Then in selecting sheep for the farm, remember the demand for a
better class of mutton, and secure the best blood attainable for this
purpose.
SHEEP HUSBANDRY. 353
Selection of the Breed. ‘‘But what breed is it best to select ?
In order to obtain the highest degree of success in any line of business
it is necessary to have a clearly-defined idea as to what is to be accom-
plished. One should know what kind of sheep the best markets demand
and what kind is capable of producing the greatest profit. One of the
greatest dangers that will attend the selection of a breed is this : it will
be the desire to secure a kind of combination sheep, one at the same time
that shall be a typical mutton sheep and a first-class wool-producer. No
such a breed of sheep exists in the world at the present time.
The (so-called) mutton Merinos are a strong class of sheep and are
good wool-producers, but when their carcass is hung upin market by the
side of a Shropshire or Southdown they make a poor show. Why?
because the Merino has been bred for generations with the one idea of
wool-production. Better feeding will make a better fleece, but a better
carcass never. ‘The only way to make mutton sheep from a Merino
flock is to cross them with rams of the pure mutton breeds and thus
breed it away from its present characteristics. It will be far wiser to
cross one of the mutton breeds which have been brought to their present
high standing by skillful breeding, than to undertake to transform a
flock of wool-producers into mutton sheep, an effort that can only re-
sult in complete failure.
Much has been said and written in regard to the merits of dark-faced
breeds, and it is true that in our best markets a dark-faced lamb will
readily sell for a half-dollar more than one of the same weight with a
white face. Of course there is no merit in a dark face of itself, but sheep
with dark faces and legs have been found to possess qualities of carcass
which are superior to those found in white-faced sheep. The dark face
is simply a trade-mark, which indicates the quality of the goods which
accompany it. And right here is the danger. That is, that farmers
will pay too great attention to the trade-mark and too little to the qual-
ity of the carcass and thus debase the trade-mark until it shall stand for
naught.’’—F. D. Warp.
Advantages of Sheep-raising. ‘‘It is a fact, well known by
every observing man, that, asa rule, dairy sections are less exhausted
and the people more prosperous than grain-growing sections, and the
keeping of cows, if properly done, is not only profitable, but actually
makes the farm grow better. But not all parts of our State are dairy
sections. Although by the extended use of the silo many sections not
now keeping cows might do so to advantage, still, there are conditions
354 SHEEP HUSBANDRY.
essential to dairying that do not exist in all parts, so all can not be
dairymen.
To those farmers who can not be dairymen, winter sheep-feeding
affords a profitable solution to the problem. It even has advantages over
dairying, in that the farmer need not have the stock upon vis farm more
than from four to six months in a year. He may crowd his farm for all
it is worth during summer in growing the needed food, and when winter
sets in fill his barn with sheep and turn this food into the three ‘‘M’s,”’
mutton, money and manure, and do this with a good profit. Of course,
there may be an occasional year when the feeder will but little more
than ‘‘get out whole’’ after paying for all the food eaten, but there will
be other years when he will double his money. So long as one is not a
‘fortune teller,’’ who can foretell futurity, it will be dangerous bobbing
in and out. One may ‘‘miss as well as hit,’’ but he who will go into the
business to ‘‘stick’’ will find it an average safe business and at the end
of five years will find an average satisfactory profit.
In addition, the farm will rapidly grow richer. There is a further
reason. One can hire men by the year for almost the same money as
for eight months, so that really about all the winter labor will cost will
be the board of the men, and more than this, by so hirfng we can keep
our best men and select the best ones that have worked during the sum-
mer for our neighbors, and any man who is kept by the year will be
more efficient and valuable than would the same man only hired for the
summer months. He comes to feel an interest in the farm and business,
and such men are much more desirable.
Kind of Sheep to Winter. But not all sheep can be fed with
equal certainty of success. If a fold of mature sheep be put in, no mat-
ter how judiciously fed, nothing can be added to them but fat. The
fact is well established, that while an animal is young and growing the
character of the food will determine whether the gain be lean meat or
fat, but once the same animal becomes full grown and mature, feed what
you may, the weight added will be fat and fat only. ‘The sizeof muscle
may be increased, but it will be by the crowding of particles of fat be-
tween the tissues.
Another fact must not be lost. Young animals eat, digest and assim-
ilate more food in proportion to live weight than older ones, and our
profit will depend upon the gain, and the gain comes from food eaten
above what is needed to maintain the animal. The kind of sheep to be
_fed most profitably must be young and thrifty, and should be of some
SHEEP HUSBANDRY. 355
of the mutton or meat-growing breeds, or largely ‘tinctured with that
blood. For the reason that cross bred animals are, as a rule, more
hardy, quick-growing and early-maturing than any pure breed, it is well
to choose cross-bred lambs. Hampshire blood on the one side, prefera-
bly that of the sire, (although any of the Down breeds do well), is to
be preferred. But from the fact that American Merino ewes are so much
more numerous and withal so hardy, cross-bred lambs from Merino
ewes and some Down sire, Hampshire, Shropshire or Southdown in the
order named, are most easily obtained and as good as any.
Many feeders make the mistake of putting in lambs too old and heavy.
Such lambs are so near mature that they will not make somany pounds
gain. Inour markets they cost more per pound, and when spring comes
they will not sell for enough more per pound to make up for the larger
cost when purchased in the fall. If good thrifty lambs of about fifty-
five or sixty pounds can be bought about October first, they can be so
fed as to get out May first at one hundred and ten to one hundred and
twenty pounds without fleece, and bring top prices.
Quartering and Feeding. The old way of feeding sheep on
timothy hay and corn, and letting them run all over the farm will not
do in these days of close competition, and with the people asking for
lean, juicy, tender meat. Too get best prices, mutton must be such as
is wanted by the best customers, and the day when full-grown wethers,
so loaded with fat that they could hardly stand up, were paraded through
the streets to attract trade to the shop of the owner has gone into obliv-
ion, never to return. A lamb now weighing forty pounds, lean and
toothsome, will sell for more money than one of those three hundred
pound fat-covered wethers.
It takes food to maintain animal heat, and for all the food which goes
to that use the feeders get no return. It also uses up food to enable the
sheep to run all over the farm and take that great amount of ‘‘exercise,”’
and ‘‘exercise’’ never makes muscle or lean meat; it only hardens it.
“Exercise,’? while not adding to the most valuable part of the carcass,
really makes that which we have less valuable.
What is wanted then is to put the lambs in a good, roomy, well-ven-
tilated, warm and dry quarters. Keep them with just as little exercise
as is consistent with health, and then feed them all the food of the right
kind they can assimilate. If the sheep feeder wishes to study economy
in the construction of his folds, he may build more than one story high.
So long as they are sufficiently roomy and well ventilated, and the floors
356 SHEEP HUSBANDRY.
are tight, the sheep fed on the upper floor will always do the best. And
itisa fact that ina third-story fold the sheep on the top floor will
make more gain in the same time than either of the others.
As has been hinted, it is lean meat and that which is tender and juicy,
that is most desirable to have grown on our lambs. It being an admit-
ted fact that the nitrogenous foods tend to the production of lean meat,
the lambs should be largely fed on those. Among the best, in fact at
the head for dry forage stands clover hay; early cut, well-cured clover
hay is the best of all forage. Bean pods or pea vines are both good and
much better than the best timothy hay, but timothy hay, as usually cut
and cured, is among the least desirable of all foods. Early-cut, well-
cured corn fodder is not bad forage, and bright, barn housed straw will
be greedily eaten for one feed per day. For grain, sheep have a great
hankering after variety. Constant change is very agreeable to them; in
fact after they have been fed on a food for several days, however good,
they will ravenously eat what would seem much less palatable. But for
a stanby, wheat bran, oil meal, corn, gluten meal, oats, peas, and beans
are all good, but they should be so mixed or changed from one to an-
ther as to stimulate the eating and digesting of as much as possible.
Whatever may be fed as forage or grain, no sheep must be expected
to do its best or to remain healthy for more than ninety days high feed-
ing, without plenty of succulence in their food. Nothing is better for
this purpose than good corn silage, having a large amount of grain and
well advanced toward ripening when put into the silo. All kinds of
roots are good for sheep, and will fill the bill for succulence, but the
preference would be ruta-bagas, mangels, and flat or English turnips in -
the order named, so far as nutrition is concerned, but counting the ex-
pense of production in connection, the list would be reversed, although
it is hard to keep the flat turnips in good eating condition after Febru-
ary first.
But fattening sheep will certainly do better and make more gain when
they can be fed both silage and roots each day. They will thrive with
only one but will make more gain when having a feed in the forenoon
of one and in the afternoon of the other. Thesucculent not only adds
whatever of nutritive value it may have, but helps the sheep digest and
assimilate more of the dry food. Besides the succulent food surely
makes the meat of the sheep more juicy and tender.
One other thing must not be overlooked in the sheep folds. The
sheep must have plenty of water and that which is fresh and clean. No
SHEEP HUSBANDRY, 357
animal is more cleanly, nor is there any other that will so quickly refuse
to drink water the least dirty or stale. In every pen there should be a
separate trough which should always be kept so clean that the shepherd
would drink from it, and at least once each day it should be emptied, so
as to be sure of having fresh water.
Pens should not be crowded, but they should have at least one cubic
foot of air space to each pound of live weight of animal, and it is better
not to have over twenty or twenty-five in a pen, and these should be so
assorted as to be nearly of the same weight and vigor.
Toa man who will give them the proper care, there is no more pleas-
ant or profitable business than winter sheep-feeding, or one that will
keep his farm is such a fruitful condition.
Value of Different Kinds of Food. Experiments have been
carried on at the Agricultural Experiment Station in Wisconsin, to find
the results to be obtained as to cost and value of the different kinds of
food. An equal number of sheep were weighed and placed in different
sheds. ‘The various flocks were fed on different kinds of food, which
were carefully weighed. ‘The results seem to prove that oat-straw is a
valuable fodder, and that sheep can be maintained at four-fifths of a cent
per day, when the following prices prevail: oat straw 15 cents per hun-
dred, sugar beets ro cents per hundred, bran at 60 cents per hundred.
To find the cost of keeping sheep it is only necessary to figure the value
of the produce at the place where you are located. In figuring out the
the result, the cost of preparing the crop for market and taking it there
should be deducted from the price for which it is sold.
‘The amounts of food fed to four sheep for eight weeks, equalling the
amount fed to thirty-two sheep for one week, or two hundred and
twenty-four sheep for one day, were two hundred sixty-two pounds
oat straw, seven hundred four pounds of sugar beets, fifty-six pounds
of oats, and fifty-six pounds of bran.
The result of their experiments were as follows :
1. Dry fodders and cut corn fodder gave good results, as the ewes so
fed were maintained cheaply, kept in the best of health, their fleeces
were in the best condition, and after lambing they gave an abundant
supply of milk.
2. Oat straw as a fodder for sheep was shown to have a greater feed-
ing value than is commonly credited to it. Combined with a small quan-
tity of grain and succulent food it offers the best return for carrying
breeding ewes over the winter at the least expense. Ewes were kept in
358 SHEEP HUSBANDRY.
good condition on a ration consisting largely of oat straw at less than
one cent a day. The amounts of food left by the sheep were very simi-
lar to that left by the cord-fodder; as the ewes left twenty per cent. of
the corn-fodder and twenty-two per cent. of the oat straw. While it is
not proper to recommend an exclusive oat straw and grain ration, (be-
cause this is the result of only one experiment) upon this trial alone, yet
it proves that oat straw may be used with profit, at least when fed with
other fodders.
3. While timothy hay is a good dry fodder for sheep, vet, looking for
the best results and closest economy, it would be best to give the prefer-
ence to oat straw and corn-fodder, where these fodders are available at a
comparative price not exceeding that of hay.
4. Corn silage is valuable for breeding ewes, surpassing the other suc-
culent fodders used in this experiment in cheapness, by keeping the
sheep in good thriving condition, and leading to a good flow of
milk.
5. Clover silage, if properly preserved, is a good sheep food. The
sheep, after getting used to it, eat it with avidity, and do well on it.
Against it is the cost of making and the difficulty in preserving it.
6. Sugar beets are liked by sheep, but they cannot be said to equal
either of the other succulent fodders experimented with. They are apt
to induce scouring if fed in quantities of over four pounds, daily to
each ewe.
A GROUP OF ALGERIANS,
SHEEP HUSBANDRY. 359
DESCRIPTION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE
VARIOUS BREEDS OF SHEEP.
Our Illustrations. We have been unusually fortunate in having
the extensive collection of cuts belonging to that valuable farmers’ pa-
per, ‘The Country Gentleman,”’ placed at our disposal. ‘Through its
kindness we are able to give illustrations of the various breeds that have
been made from photographs of the living animals, nearly all of them
prize-winners. Such illustrations are much more valuable than those
drawn by the artist's fancy, making typical sheep of the various breeds
according to his ideal. So many cuts of this nature have been placed
before the public that the average stock-raiser is at a disadvantage when
comparing his animals with those of the artist’s fancy.
Southdown. In the south of England there is a range of low hills
known as the ‘‘Downs,’’ which have a dry soil, covered with short,
sweet, rich, dense grass. These hills, or ‘‘Downs,’’ extend from rich
cultivated soil in the north, gradually descending southward to the sea.
Here the Sussex, or Southdowns were bred, and at the time the breed-
ers took them in hand were not very desirable. ‘They were small, had
thin necks, were narrow in the fore-quarters, low behind, high in front,
razor-backed, and very flat ribbed. Their only point of superiority was
the sweetness and excellent flavor of their flesh, which was undoubtedly
the result of the excellent character of their pasture. But fifty years of
weeding and constant selection of the best for breeding purposes, im-
proved them till they became the first of the short-wool breeds.
At the present time the Southdowns hold the position of being the
best mutton sheep in the world. At one year of age they dress from
seventy to eighty pounds of the very choicest ‘“‘lamb’’ in the market.
Their fleece, while not heavy, will weigh five or six pounds, and it is in
great demand for soft flannels.
They make excellent mothers and prolific breeders. These sheep, as
now bred) are without horns, and have dark brown or black faces and
legs. The body is round and deep, and of medium size, the back broad
and level, the thigh full and massive, and the fore-quarters are wide and
deep, with a broad breast.
It is a good feeder, and the lambs are active and hardy. The South-
downs will adapt themselves to any climate and style of farming where
they can have good pasture.
360 SHEEP HUSBANDRY.
The Southdown ram has no equal as a cross with Merino ewes, as
the lambs are held in high esteem by the butchers because they
are always plump and tender, and have that much sought-for mark,
“‘black face.’’
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A TYPICAL ENGLISH SOUTHDOWN.
Re-engraved from the London Live Stock Journal, this portrait of a
prize-winning two-shear Southdown ram called ‘‘Son of Enterprise,’’
bred by H. L. C. Brassey, Preston Hall, Aylesford, Kent.
‘‘An animal of great substance, he has excellent breed chararacter,
his head, scrag, and shoulders being of the best, with loin, back, and
girth all in proportion, while he has a good fleece.”’
French Merino. About the time of the American Revolution
there were selected about a quarter of a thousand sheep from the finest
flocks in Spain and these sheep were placed on a public farm near Paris
in France, where the effort of improving upon the breed was undertaken.
These sheep, selected from all parts of Spain, while possessing marked
superiority, must have had marked differences in them. ‘These
differences, by years of very careful breeding, became merged into a
breed of sheep much superior to its ancestors, and became known as
SHEEP HUSBANDRY. 36
the French Merino. The improvement was so successfully carried on
that this breed about 1825 became the largest pure Merinos in the world.
One feature was their great folds of skin in the neck and a loose skin
over the body.
The French Merino was brought to this country in the ‘‘Forties,’’ and
a single ram would produce twenty to twenty-four ponnds of unwashed
wool, while a single ewe would produce fifteen to eighteen pounds.
The first of this class of sheep were taken to Hartford, Connecticut,
from which place they soon spread through the northern states. But
they showed tenderness and fell rapidly into disfavor. They do not
seem to be fitted for our severe winters and our rough farming, and re-
quire more care than most American farmers care to give a flock. The
best seemed to thrive and proved profitable, but the inferior ones were
good for nothing. ‘Thus they have nearly disappeared from our conti-
nent, although since the French exposition there has again come an in-
terest in these sheep. While not desirable as a full ‘‘bred,’’ yet as a
cross with some of our American Merinos they are of value, and even for
the pure breed there is a place in our agriculture which it will hold and
keep, in spite of its past adversities. It probably will not be in the
north where the winters are rigid, but in the belt of our milder climate.
The Cheviot. Crossing the boundary line that separates England
from Scotland are the Cheviot hills. Here has been bred for ages a
variety of sheep which has received the name of its pasture land. They
are a very hardy sheep, which originally were small and light-boned. It
is a very useful breed, and when fed upon sweet, dry fodder, produces
so choice a mutton that it is much sought after by the epicure.
The head is without horns, and like the legs, is white. Its face is
strong featured and massive, but shows gentleness, with a lively eye.
The body is long, and set upon clean, trim legs. Like all breeds that
have had the hills and mountains for their home, the fore-quarters are
light, but they have heavy hind-quarters and a full saddle. They area
quiet and docile breed, and while as a mountain breed they stand on the
top round, they are also a good lowland variety.
The Cheviots are good mothers, and the lambs are hardy, spending
their whole life on their native hills without shelter, except from very
severe storms. ‘They fatten easily on turnips, without grain, and when
three years old will dress eighty pounds. They shear on an average
five pounds of fine wool, if fed upon a good pasture. It is their wool
which has given the name to the famous Cheviot cloths.
362 SHEEP HUSBANDRY.
A FINE SCOTCH CHEVIOT RAM.
In view of the recent development of the Cheviot interest in this coun-
try we give a copy of a cut taken from the Edinburgh North British
Agriculturist. This portrait is considered by them ‘‘a rare good sheep
of this breed,’’? combining all the best points of ‘‘The Gentleman’s
Strain.’’ His name is ‘The Percy’’ and he was bred and is owned by
John Elliot, Hindhope, Jedburgh, Scotland.
SHEEP HUSBANDRY. 363
. A DISTINGUISHED MERINO RAM.
This ram Perfection is the property of W. B. Sanger. On August
17th, as a two-tooth he cut eighteen pounds of wool. Last year the av-
erage fleece of the flock, breeding extra, and double was fourteen
pounds and one ounce.
The sire of perfection was Superb III. This noble sheep was pur-
chased at the disposal of Hay & Markham’s Vermont flock.
The great feature of Superb III is the evenness with which he is cov-
ered from nose to toes with a dense and bright fleece of good character
and stenle, and this is transmitted to his progeny.
The American Merino. ‘This breed is a descendant of the Span-
ish Merino, and is less than a century old. It has at the present time
come to be the foremost sheep of this class in the world. J. R. Graham
an »xtensive sheep raiser on Murray River, Australia, in a report to the
government, gave testimony as follows: ‘‘Of all imported sheep, those
of our first cousins, the Americans are the best. The best rams import-
ed into Melbourne of late years were Americans.’’
In 1809 sheep were selling for a dollar per head, but it soon became
known that by importation we had gotten the very best sheep in the
world. This knowledge started a fever speculation, which together
with the war of 1812 caused wool to advance in price to $2.50 per pound,
364 SHEEP HUSBANDRY.
And the sheep that in 1809 sold for one dollar, in 1814 were valued at
one thousand. But the war ended, the fever subsided, and the interest
in breeding American merinos ceased for a time.
The American Merino is found at the present time in great perfection
in numerous flocks, and possesses many distinguishing characteristics.
Harry Stewart in ‘The Shepherd’s Manual’’ describes them as follows:
The Carcass. ‘‘The carcass should be plump, medium sized, round,
deep, not long in proportion to roundness, the head and neck short and
thick; the back should be straight and broad, the breast and buttock
full; the legs short, well apart, and strong, with heavy forearm and fuli
twist. This compact figure indicates a hardy constitution, ease of keep-
ing, and good feeding properties.
Skin. The skin should be a deep rich rose color, thin, mellow, loose,
and elastic on the body. This indicates a healthy, well conditioned ani-
mal. <A pale or tawny skin, indicates impurity of blood, or at least
weakness of constitution, and is therefore objectionable.
Folds and Wrinkles. These are permissible to a certain extent.
The fashion in this regard has doubtless passed beyond the bounds of
wisdom, and excessive wrinkling or folding of the skin is unsightly and
useless, if not worse. In shearing, it causes a waste of time, and gives
no adequate return in wool. A deep, soft, plaited dewlap on both ewes
and rams, and some slight wrinkles on the neck of the ram, satisfied the
early breeders in this respect. While heavy neck-folds on the ram, and
short ones back of the elbow and on the rump, are tolerated by breeders
at the present time, yet it is simply fashion, and adds nothing to the
value of the animal, but on the contrary is dearly paid for in the in-
creased cost of shearing. An exception to this may be taken in respect
to rams to be used in improving the poor, smooth-skinned native race
common on the western plains, in which case a heavy-yolked and much
wrinkled ram may be found desirable.
The Fleece. A sheep bred exclusively, or chiefly, for wool, must
necessarily be valued in proportion to the value of the fleece. ‘Ine wool
of a pure bred Merino of any value, should stand at right angles to the
skin, presenting a dense, smooth, even surface on the exterior, opeuing
nowhere but in those natural cracks or divisions which separate the fleece
into masses. These masses should not be small in size, or they indicate
excessive fineness of fleece; a quarter of an inch is the limit in this re-
spect; nor too large, lest the wool be coarse and harsh. ‘The length
should be such as, combined with thickness of staple, will give the
SHEEP HUSBANDRY, 365
greatest weight of fleece. Medium wool is generally in greater demand
than fine wool, and it is more profitably produced. ‘Two to three inches
is probably the most desirable length of fleece for profit. A change,
however, is taking place in this respect, since the practice of combing
Merino wool has become general, and three iuches and over is a fre-
quently desired length of fiber. It is not desirable to have the {ace cov-
ered with wool long enough to fold up in the fleece. If the eyes are
covered with such wool, the sheep is either blinded, or the wool must be
kept clipped close. The ears should be small, with a coat of soft mossy
hair about half way to the roots, and for the remainder, covered with
wool. A naked ear is very objectionable. Evenness in quality in every
part of the sheep is very desirable. Hair growing up through the wool
on the thighs, the neck-folds, or scattered through the fleece here and
there, is not to be allowed. The wool should be sound, that is, of even
strength from end to end of the fiber. It should be highly elastic and
wrinkled, curved or wavy. The number of these curls, or waves, to the
inch, is not so much a test of excellence as their regularity and beanty
of curvature. A folding back of the fiber upon itself is not so desirable
as a gentler curve.
Pliancy and Softness. The pliancy and softness to the feeling
in handling is an excellent test of quality. so much prized by manufac-
turers, that practiced buyers will sometimes form an accurate judgment
of a fleece by handling it in the dark with gloved hands.”’
Shropshire Sheep. This sheep is undoubtedly the result of across
between the Cotswold and the ‘‘Morfe’’ sheep. ‘The latter were a sheep
that were common in England in the latter part of the last century. The
Shropshire vary somewhat, having in some sections the character of a
short-wool, while in others it has the character of a medium-wool
sheep
The original sheep was horned, and had a black face, was hardy and
not subject to disease, and produced about forty-five pounds of mutton
to the carcass, and only about two pounds of wool.
After a century’s breeding, they are now found without horns; thick
necks; small, fine head, with a dark face; a good, round body; straight
back; broad, deep breast; and clean, dark legs.
They are very hardy, thrive well on a moderate amount of food, are
easily and quickly fattened, and at two years will produce eighty to one
hundred pounds of mutton. The wool has increased, and weighs
seven pounds per fleece. The ewes are good mothers and very prolific.
366 SHEEP HUSBANDRY.
They are avery satisfactory farmer’s sheep, especially where they
have to depend upon pasturage for food. It has a close, well-set fleece,
and a hardy constitution, which being combined, help # carry the ani-
mal through severe storms and exposure.
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PALSY
SWEEPSTAKES SHEARING SHROPSHIRE, RAM AT ROYAL SHOW, ENGLAND
Black-Faced Scotch. On the Grampian Hills where Norval’s
“father fed his flock,’’ a breed now known as the Black-faced Scotch
have held undisputed possession for centuries. As civilization improved
the Black-faced improved with it. As indicated by the name the face is
black and they have a thick muzzle. They have bright, quick eyes,
square and compact bodies, broad saddles, and fair quarters. They are
very hardy and able to withstand a great amount of exposure. They
herd together and will in severe snow storms become completely eovered
with snow, in someway digging under the drifts and forming for them-
selves a dug-out under “the snow. It is said they have been found thus
buried under the drifts after twenty days of confinement and the flock
all living. In Scotland after a severe storm of this kind, the shepherds
start out to find their flocks which invariably bury themselves in the
SHEEP HUSBANDRY. 369
snow. ‘They dig in the snow and subsist on the herbage that is left on
their heather-covered pasturage.
‘The ewes are excellent mothers, and the lambs are hardy. The flesh
of the carcasses which average about sixty-five pounds is of a peculiarly
fine flavor. ‘This sheep would thrive and do well in our exposed moun-
tain districts, but it is not likely they would thrive in confined situations
or in a mild soft climate.
Oxford-Downs. This variety, known as one of the ‘‘long-wooled’’
sheep, is comparatively a new cross-breed, which has come to be favora-
bly looked upon. It has appeared in America and is to be found on the
farms of several of our most enterprising sheep-fanciers. It is a cross
between a Hampshire-down ewe and a Cotswold ram. The first cross
was made in 1830, but was not recognized as a separate class till 1862.
The wool is finer and firmer than the Cotswold, and is from
five to six inches long. On ordinary feeding, such as is usually given
on a mixed farm, it will as a yearling produce a carcass from sixty to
seventy-five pounds, and shear a fleece of seven pounds. By extra care
and feeding it will produce much heavier carcasses. Ata fat cattle show
in London there were exhibited Oxford-downs under two years of age
that weighed three hundred pounds each. Rams have sheared nineteen
pounds for their first fleece.
They have a curly fleece, which is thickly set on a small body. The
head is similar to the Cotswold, having a tuft on the forehead, but
the face and legs it inherits from the Hampshire-downs, being dark
in color.
They are found very profitable feeders, and on wet soils have with-
stood the winters without being affected with ‘‘giddiness’’ or ‘‘water on
the brain,’’ that invariably attacked the Cotswolds and Southdowns.
Hampshire-Downs. This breed of sheep is rapidly rising in
favor. The residents of the southern states previous to 1860 imported
many of this breed of sheep, and they soon became more popular than
the Southdowns. But the demands of the residents of the south for food
aid the raids of the northern and southern armies, caused the
Hampsbire-Downs to disapper from that section. It isa larger animai
than the Southdown, and is valuable where a more sizable animal than
the Southdown, is desired. It originated seventy-five years ago by a
cross between the native sheep on Hampshire ‘‘Downs’’ and a pure
Southdown. In this cross the horns of the native disappeared, and his
368 SHEEP HUSBANDRY.
white face was supplanted by the black face of the Southdown. The
legs of the native became shorter and the quality of flesh superior. But
the native Roman nose, and the massiveness of head, and large size of
the animal remained in the new breed of sheep.
The lambs of this breed at one year weigh from seventy-five to one
hundred pounds. The fleece weighs five to seven pounds, the wool being
longer and coarser than the Southdowns.
The flesh is well flavored and juicy, and the lean meat is not over
burdened with fat; causing it to be much sought after by epicures.
IMPORTED HAMPSHIRE-DOWN RAM, ‘‘THE BARON.’’
The Dorsets. This breed is sometimes called ‘‘dog-proof,’’ because
both the rams and ewes are horned and are considered able to defend
themselves from an attack by these annoying animals.
It is a native of the south of England, where it has been bred for
SHEEP HUSBANDRY. 369
years and remained intact. It has many characteristics that are consid-
ered valuable. It breeds at an early season and weans its lambs while
they are young, and are ready to be served soon after, thus producing
two crops of lambs in a year. Many of them produce twins, a Mr. Pit-
field, of Bridport, Dorset, England, raised five hundred fifty-five lambs
in one season from four hundred ewes.
They have long, white, broad faces, with a tuft of wool on the fore-
head; the nose and lips are black; the shoulders broad; the brisket
straight back, and deep; and the loins are broad and deep. They have
medium length legs, light in bone.
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AN ENGLISH DORSET HORN YEARLING RAM.
The Dorsets are a quiet, docile, hardy breed, and will adapt them-
selves readily to varying conditions. They get their growth early, and
when fed on turnips alone, at two years will weigh one hundred twenty-
five. ‘The fleece is not heavy, but yields about six pounds of soft, clean,
white wool. The lambs produce the ‘‘lamb’s wool’’ of which babies’
underclothing is often made.
370 SHEEP HUSBANDRY.
The Dorsets, when crossed with the Southdown, do not produce so
many twins, but the lambs will shear about two pounds of very soft,
valuable wool. These lambs, when full-grown, are larger than their
Dorset mothers, and are a larger and thriftier sheep, with a heavier and
finer fleece.
They have been imported into this country, and are beginning to
attract attention. ‘ af
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A LINCOLN RAM.
The Lincoln. ‘This is one of the ‘‘long-wool’’ sheep which orig-
inated in the rich low-lands of England. These lands, however, were
so productive of high-priced, marketable crops, that the sheep have been
driven from their native soil to the uplands. All the other of the well-
known ‘‘long-wool’’ varieties have been almost entirely driven out from
this low, rich, alluvial soil, leaving the Lincoln almost undisputed pos-
session.
This breed is the heaviest bodied sheep in existence. Full-grown
sheep of this variety have dressed nearly one hundred pounds per quar-
ter. Itis not an unusual thing for yearlings to dress one hundred
pounds and shear a dozen pounds of wool. This breed will be called a
long-wooled sheep, because the wool, when full grown, often measures
nine inches in length. There is a record of twenty-six pounds and six
SHEEP HUSBANDRY. 371
ounces having been cut from a fourteen months old lamb of this
variety.
The Lincoln requires great care and skillful management. The soil
must be rich and produce sweet herbage in abundance. It is not at
present the sheep for the general farmer in America, and if it has a
place in this country it is apparently only in the hands of a skillful
breeder.
A fine flock of these sheep has been imported into America and
their adaptability to our climate is being tested.
AE
A TYPICAL SUFFOLK RAM.
Uy
The Leicester. Originally this breed was a large, heavy, coarse
animal, with poorly flavored flesh. It had flat sides on a thin carcass,
which was large boned. They were poor feeders, light weight, and the
had long, coarse wool, of poor quality. ;
But by a systematic breeding the sheep has changed its character and
to-day is found without horns and a white face and legs. Its head is
fine and small and has no wool on the poll. It has a deep neck and
broad shoulders, a broad, straight, flat back, a large, bright eye, and a
deep body. Its legs are clean and the bones are small.
The flesh is sweet, but has too much outside fat to be desirable. Its
fleece is fine, white, silky, and glossy, and of medium length, weighing
six to eight pounds.
372 SHEEP IIUSBANDRY.
The Leicester as now bred is not a hardy sheep, and requires good
care, extra good shelter, and special attention to keep it in a thriving
condition. It can not be called a farmer’s sheep, and unless improved,
will not become valuable to the American farmer, only as a cross to
refine the wool of the Cotswold, by a judicious cross.
a ‘ : =a a. ee Ss
——SS= ——— =
SSS
PRIZE WINNING BORDER LEICESTER EWE.
The Cotswold. ‘‘This breed has become so common in America,
and has been bred so extensively without fresh importations of new blood
that it may well be adopted as a native sheep. Many excellent flocks
are now self-sustaining, and under their American nativity lose nothing
of their original excellenee.
They were originally very coarse animals, with thick heavy fleece,
SHEEP HUSBANDRY. 373
well adapted to their home upon the bleak exposed Cotswold hills. So
valuable and staple a breed could uot long remain without improvement.
Naturally, the sweet nutritious herbage of the limestone covering these
hills, favored this improvement, and as the pastures became enclosed,
and agriculture improved in character, the flocks improved with it.
The modern Cotswold is still capable of enduring hardship and expos-
ure, and is at home on all sorts of soils. It produces a large carcass of
excellent mutton, and a heavy fleece of valuable combing wool, adapted
by its peculiar character for a class of goods of wide consumption, it be-
ing in demand for various manufactures from the small matters such as
worsted dress braids, up to various kinds of cloth for men’s and women's
garments. Moreover the breed matures at an early age. It is not un-
usual to find sheep of one hundred twenty pounds and over, at a
year old. A full-grown sheep exhibited at a Christmas cattle market
in England, dressed three hundred forty-four pounds, or eighty-six
pounds per quarter. The weight of the fleece should average eight
pounds for a flock of all kinds. and some of our naturalized flocks sur-
pass this weight of fleece. The description of a well-bred Cotswold is
as follows: the face and legs are white, but sometimes dashes of gray
or brown derived from the original stock, may be found on both face
and forelegs. The head is strong and massive with sometimes a Roman
nose, without horns, and having a thick forelock of wool upon the fore-
head. The neck and forequarters are not so square and heavy, nor the
brisket so prominent, as in the best Leicesters; but the hind quarters are
square, full, and the ribs well sprung, giving a round body; the flanks
are deep; the legs are clean, and of moderate length.’’—SHEPHERD’S
MANUAL.
Cross-Bred Sheep. At the present time there seems to be more
money in cross-bred sheep than in full ‘‘bred.’’ The wool producing
sheep are of slow growth and are slow in maturing. The ‘‘mutton’’
sheep are great eaters aud require the most careful treatment. They
have been so highly bred that they have weak constitutions, and are not
as good breeders as the farmer would like. By a judicious cross there is
still retained the quick growth, early maturity, and the good quality of
the mutton. The sheep are more hardy, more easily kept, and produce
more pounds of marketable mutton at a less cost than the pure ‘‘bloods.”’
The most conspicuous crosses are the Cotswold—Merino; the South-
down—Merino; the Leicester—Merino; the Cotswold—Leicester; and
the Cotswold—Southdown.
374 SHEEP HUSBANDRY.
HOW TO TELL THE AGE OF SHEEP AND OTHER
USEFUL FACTS.
Teeth as an Indication of Age. The sheep has eight incisors
or cutting teeth, which are all found upon the lower jaw. The remain-
der of the teeth, twenty-four in number, are divided among the upper
and lower jaws equally. While there isa general rule as to dentition in
sheep, yet there are few breeds that mature early, and what would be
correct in judging the ages of one class of sheep, would not be accurate
in another. The following are the accepted periods of dentition, and
may be found useful in determining the age of a sheep:
At one month there are eight temporary front teeth or INCISORS, aud
three temporary MOLARS on each side of each jaw.
At three months there will be added a permanent MOLAR to the three
temporary ones.
At nine months there will appear the second permanent MOLAR.
At twelve months the first pair of permanent INCISORS appear. ‘This
is often delayed till about the age of fourteen months.
At eighteen months the third permanent MOLAR appears.
At twenty-one months there will be four permanent INCISORS.
At twenty-seven months the temporary MOLARS drop out and permia-
neut ones begin to show.
At thirty months there are six permanent INCISORS.
At forty months all the eight permanent INCISORS have appeared.
Relative Weight of Carcass. The result of experiments in
which sheep were weighed before slaughtering, and the carcass weighed
after, showed the value of dressed meat less the caul fat to be a little
over one-half the live weight.
Ticks on Lambs and Sheep. Ticks often appear on lambs and
sheep late in the spring, and are annoying to the animal and injurious
to their constitution. The best remedy for this pest is to dip both the
sheep and lambs into water into which coarse tobacco has been steeped,
in the proportion of four pounds of tobacco to twenty gallons of water.
When thoroughly steeped add one pound of flowers of sulphur. The
liquid should be kept warm while dipping the animals, by adding fresh
hot liquid. A temperature of 120° F. is necessary to kill the tick. The
liquid that drips from the sheep should be caught and reheated and
used again.
SHEEP HUSBANDRY. 375
DISEASES COMMON TO SHEEP, THEIR CAUSES,
PREVENTION, AND TREATMENT.
Constipation or Costiveness. This is more of a symptom of an
approaching disease, than a disease in itself. It occurs occasionally
upon flocks going from pasture to dry food. In such cases feed the
animals a little linseed-cake meal or some succulent root. If stubborn,
give one ounce of linseed oil, and inject warm soap and water.
When the costiveness is so severe or of so long standing as to cause
the animal to stretch itself and stand with its feet spreading apart, rais-
ing its head and curving its back, give once a day one tea-spoonful of
Flowers of Sulphur, mixed with a small quantity of molasses, which
should be put on the animal’s tongue to be swallowed.
Diarrhea or Scours. The opposite of costiveness. This is likely
to occur upon turning sheep to pasture in the spring, or when fed rich
succulent green food. This is not dangerous in itself, but may, by re-
ducing the strength of the animal, cause complications. A regular sup-
ply of salt, careful regulation of food, and the avoiding of sudden
changes will usually prevent this symptom of disease. Give two table-
spoonfuls of the following twice a day, and if a lamb, about one-half the
quantity, eccording to age:
4 drams Pulverized Ginger,
8 drams Catechu,
2 ounces Prepared Chalk,
1 dram Opium,
Mix with one pint peppermint water, and always shake the bottle
before using.
The diarrhea may be caused by irritating substances in the intestines,
and is shown by there being a slimy matter in the passages from the
bowels. In this case the treatment should be to remove the irritating
matter and therefore a physic should be given, as follows:
1 dram Ginger,
1 ounce Epsom Salts,
or,
1 dram Ginger,
2 ounces Linseed Oil.
Give the above in gruel. Follow the treatment by a careful nursing
and feeding.
376 SHEEP HUSBANDRY.
Diarrhea or ‘““White Scours.’’ In the nursing lamb diarrhea
takes the form of a liquid discharge of a white color. The milk passes
through the body without digestion, and to this condition is given the
name ‘‘White Scours.’’ This sometimes is caused by the milk of the
mother being changed by feeding upou some succulent food. In such
cases change the food of the ewe to a more solid and nutritious food. If
it comes from a disordered condition of the digestive organs of the lamb,
give the following physic :
5 drops Essence of Ginger,
1 tea-spoonful Linseed Oil.
As soon as it has operated, give two tea-spoonfuls of the following
twice a day:
1 ounce Prepared Chalk,
$ dram Opium,
2 drams Powdered Ginger,
4 drams Powdered Catechn.
Mix in one pint of peppermint water. Always shake well before
administering.
Dysentery. Many people are not able to distinguish the difference
between diarrhea and dysentery, yet they are two different conditions
and require different treatment. They are often induced by the same
conditions but the discharge from the bowels is of a different c!:aracter.
In dysentery there is more or less fever according to the severity of the
case. The dung mixed with mucus and blood shows that the lining
of the bowels is inflamed. The discharge is frequent, lumpy and scanty
and has a fetid smell. The voiding of the discharge is attended with
pain, causing the sheep to arch its back and moan. The wool often
loosens from the pelt after the disease has been running a short time.
The treatment for this disease is to first remove the contents of the
bowels, together with some anodyne to ease the pain. The following
may be given mixed in oat-meal or linseed gruel:
2 grains Powdered Opium,
2 ounces Linseed Oil.
Give oat-meal gruel as a nourishment quite frequently during the day,
and then follow for several days with daily doses of the following:
2 grains Powdered Opium,
1 dram Ginger.
If the bowels do not become regular or are constipated give one ounce
of oil every other day.
SHEEP HUSBANDRY, 377
This disease is Induced by dry indigestible food; impure water; a lack
of water; neglected diarrhea: and feeding in a pasture in warm weather;
that has been occupied by sheep that have had this disease, the sheep
taking the poison from the grass that has been contaminated by their
discharges.
Inflammation of the Bowels. This is not a common disease in
this country, but occurs occasionally as the result of continued indiges-
tion or bad feeding and bad water in warm weather. ‘The disease makes
its first appearance by weeping and redness of the eyes, and a tired and
pained expression to the face. There is a loss of appetite and no rumi-
nation (chewing of the cud). There is weakness and staggering, swell-
ing of the flanks, high fever and difficult breathing.
To prevent its spread, if it once makes its appearance, change the pas-
ture to high grounds and supply plenty of pure water. It is not conta-
gious and only spreads when conditions favor the disease. When the
sheep are put back in their old pasture, as a preventive give them salt
which has had one ounce each of the sulphate of iron, powdered gentian
and powdered ginger mixed with every six pounds.
To cure, give an ounce of Linseed or Castor Oil, or Epsom salts, and
follow after it has operated with one dram doses of the Sulphite of Soda,
twice a day. The food should be glutinous and semi-liquid, such as oat-
‘ meal or linseed gruel. Unless the animal is very valuable, it is a ques-
tion whether it will pay to attempt a cure in a serious case, as the
recovery is slow, and the debility caused by the disease is of itself
often fatal.
Hoven. This is a disease common to ruminants and as the sheep is
one of this class, it, like the others, is subject to the disease. It arises
from the forming of gases by the food that is in the first stomach or ru-
men. ‘This gascollects in such large quantities that the rumen (paunch)
is so distended that it presses forward against the diaphragm and inter-
feres with the action of both the heart and lungs. It shows it-
self outwardly by a distention of the left side of the abdomen, by which
the skin is tightly drawn until it seems in danger of bursting.
Treatment. An alkaline that will absorb the gas is the best treat-
ment. ‘The best alkaline fluid that can be given is as follows:
1 tea-spoonful Aqua Ammonia, (Hartshorn Water),
$ pint Water.
This should be given as a drench. A rubber tube of the proper size
should be kept on hand to be used as a probang. This could be forced
378 SHEEP HUSBANDRY.
down and the gas could escape through the opening, and the alkaline
fluid could also be administered through it. If necessary an opening
may be made through the rumen with a small bladed knife if a trochar
and canula are not at hand. If a knife is used a goose-quill should be
inserted into the opening made, to allow the gas to escape. The alka-
line fluid could also be injected through the quill in the rumen by use of
acommon syringe. The opening should be made at the place where the
greatest swelling is apparent.
After the gas has somewhat subsided give with a horn, the following:
1 pint Water,
1 dram Powdered Ginger,
2 ounces Epsom Salts.
If the gas still continues givea dram of chloride of lime.
Cold or Catarrh. ‘This disease is caused by exposure to damp-
ness, sudden changes in temperature, or too warm a shed or pen. If
your flock is very carefully housed and then exposed by open doors, or
letting out into the yard, you may look for catarrh.
Protect your sheep from chilling rain-storms in winter, give them
plenty of ventilation, but no draft of cold air. Partly open sheds are to
be preferred to closed ones with open windows and doors for ventilation.
Chasing by dogs, or overdriving, thus overheating the animal, is a cer-
tain cause for colds.
The disease is an inflammation of the mucous membrane, lining the
throat, windpipe, and nostrils, and the sinuses of the head. It is the
same asa ‘‘cold’’? in man. ‘There isa mucus discharge from the nose,
caused by congestion of the membrane, and irritation and coughing.
Treatment. Give something to stimulate action, as a half tea-
spoonful of ground ginger. A small quantity of pine pitch or tar rubbed
on the nose, so that the sheep will lick it off, is beneficial. Usually
there is a fever and the nose is dry and hot, when it is best to give
1 dram Ground Ginger,
1 dram Saltpeter,
3 ounce Epso.u Salts.
Mix with molasses and give as a soft mixture. The dose may be
mixed with thin gruel and administered by means of a small drench-
ing horn.
Be sure and give good nursing and feed on slightly warm mucilaginous
drinks, as linseed or oat-meal gruel.
SHEEP HUSBANDRY. 379
Bronchitis. This a catarrh or cold that has settled on the air pas-
sages in the lungs or bronchial tubes. This inflammation will rapidly
spread so as to affect the lungs. The cough is more prominent than in
a ‘‘cold in the head”’ or ‘“‘throat.’’ The pulse and breathing are quick-
er and there is a fever and poor appetite.
Treat same as for Cold or Catarrh, but continue longer and change
the dose to the following if the first does not seem to cause improve-
ment.
1 ounce Linseed Oil,
1 ounce Powdered Gentian,
1 dram Saltpeter.
Mix and give one dose a day for three days, reducing the last day the
amount of saltpeter to one-half dram. Keep animal dry and quiet, with
plenty of fresh air and pure water.
Inflammation of the Lungs. This is pneumonia and is quite
common. Often the sheep is too far gone with pneumonia before the
owner is aware that his sheep is sick. This disease to be cured requires
immediate and proper treatment or it will prove fatal.
Symptoms. There is a difficult and painful cough; a discharge of a
thick yellow mucus from the nostrils; a high fever attended with great
thirst; a hard, quick pulse; labored breathing and painful heaving of the
flanks; together with a loss of appetite.
Treatment. This is of no avail unless commenced immediately.
Bleed from the jugular vein, till animal staggers and give immediately
two ounces of Epsom salts. If this does not operate as a good physic,
in three hours give one-half a dose. Unlike the horse, the sheep seems
to do better with a good purging. Give rectum injections of oat-meal
or linseed gruel every two hours. Administer twice a day in gruel of
some kind.
20 grains Tartar Hmetic,
20 grains Powdered Digitalis,
1 dram Nitrate of Potash.
When the animal improves and moves about, give every four hours in
gruel, half dram of powdered Gentian. This disease in sheep as well
as in man is the result of carelessness, and by proper care and attention
can be avoided.
Influenza. This disease is due to causes which seem to exist at
times over extended portions of the country, and is liable to affect a
large number of animals at a time. It is not contagious, but breaks out
380 SHEEP HUSBANDRY.
and spreads under conditions that are favorable to its propagation.
It is an inflammation of the mucous membrane lining the nasal and
bronchial passages, which is accompanied with fever and prostration.
The whole system seems disturbed. There is redness of the eyes; run-
ning at the nose; indigestion, causing loss of appetite; a cough; and
great weakness. It is generally prevalent after a few days of cold, damp
weather, and is most severe along river bottoms, where fogs and mists
abound. During such weather carefully house and shelter the flocks,
and feed them some salt in which sulphur has been mixed in the pro-
portion of one pound of the flowers of sulphur to a peck of salt.
If the disease is mild, give the following purgative :
4 ounce Epsom Salts,
1 dram Ginger.
Mix in molasses and give by putting a small quantity at a time on the
back of the tongue with a wooden spatula.
If the animals are seriously affected, give every six hours,
1 ounce Solution of Acetate of Ammonia,
8 drops Tincture of Aconite.
At the third dose give only five drops of aconite, at the fourth only
three, and then give the aconite of ammonia alone. When convalescent,
feed on bran and linseed mashes, boiled Indian-corn mush, with a little
powdered ginger or gentian mixed in each mess.
Congestion of the Liver. This is caused by excessive feeding of
stimulating food and no exercise, in which case the liver is liable to be-
come gorged with blood. This excessive fullness of blood causes con-
gestion. It is caused by disordered digestion and involves the liver.
The symptoms are constipation, yellow tinge to the eyes, and dullness.
If the yellow tinge in the eye appears, do not delay treatment or it may
run into inflammation of the liver.
Give an active physic every morning until the yellow tinge in the eye
has disappeared, and there is an improvement in the appetite. The fol-
lowing purge may be mixed with molasses and given:
3 grains Calomel,
1 ounce Epsom Salts.
Always supply the sheep with a warm drink soon after giving the
medicine.
Inflammation of the Liver. By neglect, congestion of the liver
may turn to inflammation. When this happens the system becomes
fevered; the nose and mouth hot and dry; the breath fetid; the ears
SHEEP HUSBANDRY. 381
cold; the eyes pale and glassy; the pulse is irregular; breathing is slow,
and the expirations short and sudden; the dung is dry, hard, black, and
glazed with a greasy yellowish-green mucus; the urine is highly colored,
scanty, hot, and smells disagreeably. Pressure on the right side, near
the short ribs, produces pain, and the animal moans.
The treatment consists of purgatives and injections. For a purgative
the following may be given twice a day in infusion of linseed or gum
Arabic, or in molasses, well mixed together and placed on the tongue:
2 drams Sulphate of Potash,
5 grains Calomel,
1 grain Powdered Opium.
Injections of warm water and castile soap may be given until the
bowels act freely.
When improvement occurs, and the appetite returns, great care in
feeding should be observed, and only the most easily digested food
should be given. Pulped sugar beet, scalded clover-hay, chaff, lin-
seed-meal, boiled meat, or sifted corn-meal, may be given with
linseed tea for drink, or water acidulated with a few drops of aromatic
sulphuric acid.
Poisoned by Sheep Laurel. The narrow-leaved Kalmia, (Kal-
mia angustifolia) is commonly called sheep laurel, because at certain
seasons of the year the sheep seems tempted to eat of the plant, which
often proves fatal to them. When poisoned by this plant they are lazy,
disinclined to move, froth at the mouth and nose, have a slower pulse
than usual, blood-shot eyes and a staggering gait. Laurel poisoning is
usually fatal within ten or twelve nours, and therefore immediate atten-
tion is necessary. Give at least two ounces of Epsom salts in a pint of
warm water, and give a pint of warm water every hour thereafter for
three or four hours. Use rectum injections of warm soap suds or oil,
which will help the poisonous matter to pass out of the bowels. Sheep
should not be allowed during the spring or winter to pasture where a
laurel grows. Beside the common sheep laurel, they will also feed on
the large leaved laurel, (Kalmia latifolia).
Injurious Effects of Plaster and Lime. It is very injurious
to sheep to turn them upon a pasture that has been freshly sown with
phosphate, bone-dust, plaster or lime, until there has been sufficient rain
to thoroughly wash these from the grasses.
Inflammation of the Bladder. This is the most frequent of the
diseases of the urinary organs. It is induced by eating too often and
382 SHEEP HUSBANDRY.
too much corn meal, or drinking very hard water. The eating of St.
john’s-wort, rag-weed, and lobelia is often the cause of the disease.
It is an inflammation of the inner coat of the bladder, which usually
spreads to the muscle around the neck of the bladder, causing it to close
and prevent the passage of the urine. The bladder being thus filled
causes the animal to be uneasy, lift its hind feet and stamp with them,
spread them out, and strain itself in endeavoring to pass urine. As the
animal strains in its efforts to void the urine, it will moan in pain.
Bleed the animal from the neck, and give the following :
2 drams Laudanum,
2 ounces Linseed Oil.
If it is a small sized sheep or lamb, reduce the dose accordingly. If
the animal does not improve in forty-eight hours, bleed again and give
a half dose of the above and continue giving one dose a day until the
animal has improved.
Feed for some time on light mucilaginous foods, as oat-meal or linseed
gruel.
Inflammation of the Brain. This is caused by continued high
feeding or some condition of the digestive apparatus which causes a
“rush of blood’’ to the brain. It seldom appears only as a secondary
condition which has at first produced what is commonly called Staggers.
The animal is apparently temporarily blind, staggering about and run-
ning against walls and fences. The eyes are inflamed and swollen. By
giving a purgative of Epsom Salts, and mucilaginous diet, the animal
usually returns toits normal condition. If not and it runs into inflam-
mation of the brain, the symptoms are much more exaggerated. The
animal dashing here and there as if mad, and finally falls down and dies
in convulsions. ‘The remedies are not very successful, but copious bleed-
ing and purging with Epsom salts may relieve the animal and effect a
cure.
Water on the Brain. This a disease for which there is no cure,
and if a sheep is attacked it is best to dispose of it. If in a lamb, it is
not worth trying to raise. This disease is hereditary and if found in
any great numbers in a flock of lambs, the ram should be changed. If
it arises from the mothers, fatten them for the butcher.
Staggers. See Inflammation of the Brain.
Diseases of the Feet. The foot of the sheep is subject to many
disorders. ‘The formation of the foot is unlike that of the horse, because
there are no layers of horn between the outside crust and the tender tis-
SHEEP HUSBANDRY. 383
sues inside. Its growth is not like that of the horse, which grows from
the coronet downward, but grows from all parts of the inner tissues.
The outside crust is worn off to an edge by contact with the ground, and
if the sole and crust are worn equally, it shows the foot to be in a
healthy condition. But if the growth is unequal it shows that disease is
present.
Contagious Foot-Rot. This disease is very contagious, and un-
less preventive measures are taken to stop its spreading, will often infect
the whole flock. In this disease there is an inflammation which seéms
to affect the whole hoof. Blisters form between the toes and upon the
heels. These blisters in a few days ulcerate and discharge a fetid mat-
ter. ‘This disease is usually confined to the fore-feet, the animal show-
ing how painful the disease is by going about upon its knees. If noth-
ing is done to stop the disease, in a short time the hoofs are all des-
troyed, and the animal is left with only wounded stumps.
Commence treatment, if possible, before ulceration sets in, because
after this has commenced it takes a long time to cure the animal. As
soon as a case of lameness appears, examine for its cause. It may be a
case of common Foot-rot or Gravel, (which see, for a description of its
symptoms) or a case of Contagious Foot-rot. Ifthe latter, remove all
loose, raw, diseased horn, by cutting itaway. Should the outside horn
be long at the toes, that too should be cut away, and if any pus is found
between the horn and the underlying tissues, the horn should be cut
away until it is exposed. At least twice a week clean the feet by wash-
ing them in water in which carbolic soap has been dissolved, and after
the thorough washing swab them thoroughly with the following
mixture.
1 ounce Arsenic,
6 ounces Acetic Acid,
3 pound Oxide of Copper,
1 pint Molasses.
If more convenient, or if an ointment is preferred, use the fol-
lowing :
1 pint Linseed Oil,
1 pound Powdered Sulphate of Copper,
3 pound Verdigris,
1 quart Pine Tar.
This is to be preferred in wet weather, as it will not wash off like the
solution by travelling in the wet grass. This disease is seldom seen on
dry pastures, except it is brought there by some flock that was affected,
384 SHEEP HUSBANDRY.
therefore to cure, keep the sheep in dry pastures. It is said that some-
times this disease is contracted by sheep being put into the same pasture
where sheep were grazing even the year previous.
Common Foot-rot or Gravel. This is not contagious, and is
due to the excessive wear of the horny part of the hoof, caused by walk-
ing upon hard gravel or stony land, or by this crust of the hoof growing
too long in soft, moist pastures. In either case, gravel or some other
foreign matter gets between the crust and the underlying tissues, and
causes inflammation.
Remove the gravel or other foreign matter carefully, by means of a
sharp knife, or a knitting needle or awl. Then clease the foot and put
on the following antiseptic wash:
1 ounce Chloride of Zinc,
1 quart Water.
Blue vitriol may be used in the place of the chloride of zinc, if more
convenient. If the case proves very bad and ulcerates, the wash used
for contagious foot-rot should be applied.
The Sheep Gad-fly. This is a very annoying animal and causes
that disgusting condition, ‘‘Grub in the Head.’”? The gad-flies during
July and August disturb the sheep by trying to deposit their eggs upon
the sheep’s nose. Where the fly is in great numbers the sheep will
crowd together, stop feeding, and hold their noses to the ground, stamp
the feet in their efforts to evade this pest. The fly has a body about
one-half inch long, over which is spread two wings which will, when
extended, measure one inch across. The egg, is deposited on the
sheep’s nose, and as soon as hatched the grub crawls up the nostril
and remains in the sinuses of the head, living on the secretions of the
mucous membrane till the next spring, when it is ready to crawl down
and out, to form a chrysalis which in time will hatch a new gad-fly to
deposit its eggs on the nose of the innocent annimal. In entering the
nostrils and on leaving them the grub causes a great annoyance to the
sheep. The remedy is to prevent the fly from laying its egg on the
nostril, or destroying the egg if deposited. This is successfully accom-
plished by smearing the nose of the sheep every day or so during the
months of July and August with pine-tar diluted with oil, lard, or fresh
butter. This can be easily done by a brush as they pass out from a
yard through a long narrow passage only wide enough for one to pass
through at a time. When the grub gets ready to dislodge in the early
SHEEP HUSBANDRY. 385
spring, an injection of good strong tobacco smoke will cause it to quickly
crawl out from its lodging place.
The Sheep Louse. The red sheep-louse, (trichodectes ovis) has
a pale yellow body marked with dark bands, but a head of red color.
This animal lives on the inner, upper parts of the fore and hind legs. It
irritates and annoys the sheep very much, and the sheep will force its
head through between the boards of a fence, so that it can rub the irri-
tated part, and they will often be found impinged and strangled or with
the legs broken in their attempts to again become free. Sheep that have
been dipped in tobacco and sulphur water to be cleared of ticks, are
usually free from this pest. An easy remedy is to rub the parts affected
with the following:
2 ounces Flowers of Sulphur,
1 pound Adeps, (Lard),
2 drops Creosote. .
One pint linseed, olive, or sweet oil may be substituted for the
lard.
Scab Insect. This is an external parasite which digs down into
the skin and finds for itself a lodging place within its tissues. The pres-
ence of the insect causes an irritation of the skin, which in its efforts to
dislodge the parasite secretes a serous-like fluid, which on drying on the
surface forms a scab, hence the name ‘‘scab-insect.’’ The female insect
is larger than the male, and one male suffices for many females and
lives longer. The eggs of the scab-insect are very numerous, and it
takes only three days to hatch, so one female insect can produce over a
million in ninety days. This wonderful increase explains why the dis-
ease spreads so rapidly through a flock, and the need of instant remedies
to drive out and effective preventives to keep it from spreading.
Symptoms. There is at first great uneasiness, and as the disease
progresses the sheep will be seen rubbing or scratching themselves, or
sticking their noses in the wool, biting and nibbling. The skin will be
at first white in color and a little swollen, which is indicated by being
thicker than the rest of the skin, and moist or covered with a yellow
serum. Later the serum forms into a scab and the wool falls off. Ifa
lock of this wool is examined by laying it upon a piece of white cloth,
the mites can be seen as they crawl upon it. If the insects are allowed
to increase in number the scabby spots will increase in size and number,
and great patches of the wool will fall off, leaving bare spots on which
thick brown or yellow scales are seen, and the sheep will be found rub
386 SHEEP HUSBANDRY.
bing these bare places against trees and fences till they become great
sores.
Treatment. Many preparations have been tried and found effect-
ive, but many are objectionable on account of their poisonous properties.
The tobacco and sulphur wash recommended for sheep tick is a reliable
remedy. ‘The water should be applied at a temperature of 120° F. and
the sheep kept in the liquid until the wool is penetrated down to the
skin. This softens the scab, and as they are removed (which should be
done with care) the raw surfaces should be thoroughly wet with the
mixture. Do not let the sheep out on the pasture till the water has
ceased dripping, because the tobacco and sulphur might sicken the ani-
mals that ate the grass which it had fouled. Repeat the operation after
ten days to kill any newly-hatched insects. With care the animals can
be thoroughly rid of this parasite, and they can be kept free from them
as well as the sheep-tick and sheep-louse by dipping twice a year.
Castration. ‘‘This necessary operation should be performed as early
as possible, as there is less danger of evil effects following it than when
the lamb is older. The lining membrane of the scrotum is a continua-
tion of that of the abdomen, and when inflammation follows the opera-
tion, it is readily communicated to the abdomen, and peritonitis or in-
flammation of the membrane lining the cavity and enveloping the bowels
results, and this is generally fatal. A lamb a week old may be deprived
of the whole scrotum and testacles, by one stroke of a pair of shears,
without any danger or the loss of more than a few drops of blood. But
when the lamb has become some months old, the organ has become fully
developed as to nerves and vessels, and a more careful operation must
be performed. An excellent method is for the operator to sit upon a
long bench, with one of the lamb’s hind legs beneath each of his thighs,
the head and fore legs being held by an assistant. Taking the scrotum
in the left hand, he presses the testacles towards the lower end, making
the skin tight and smooth. He then makes a free incision with a sharp
knife at the bottom of the scrotum beneath each testacle; the membranes
which surround them are cut through, the cords and vessels which are
attached to them are scraped, not cut asunder, and the operation is com-
pleted. To castrate a mature ram, an incision is made at the bottom of
each compartment of the scrotum, each testacle being removed sepa-
rately, the cords and vessels being always scraped asunder. The main
point to secure is, to have the wound at the bottom of the scrotum, soas
to allow the pus, which will form within it, to escape. If this pus is re-
SHEEP HUSBANDRY. 387
tained in the wound, it becomes absorbed, inflammation is communicated
to the adjacent parts, and a fatal termination is likely toensue. To pre
vent this, a small lock of wool is sometimes left in the wound, by which
it is kept open and the danger averted.’’—STEWART.
Docking. ‘‘This operation should be performed on all the lambs
when a week or two old. It is then but slighly painful. The best
method is to take the lamb between the knees, and hold its rump closely
against a block of wood. ‘Then drawing the skin of the tail towards the
rump; a boy gives the chisel a smart rap with a light mallet, and the tail
is severed at one stroke with a smooth cut which leaves the bone ina
good condition to heal quickly. A pinch of powdered copperas may be
placed on the stump of the tail to staunch any bleeeding, and to keep
off flies.’’—STEWART.
How to Feed a Lamb. A twin lamb, or one deprived of its
dam, that may need to be reared by hand, may easily be fed upon cow’s
milk, A fresh cow’s milk is the best fitted for this purpose. Ewe’s
milk is richer in solid mater than that of the cow, and the addition of a
teaspoonful of white refined sugar to the pint of cow’s milk will make it
more palatable to the lamb. At first not more than a quarter of a
pint of milk should be given at once. The milk should be freshly
drawn from the cow, and warmed up to 100° F. beforeit is fed. A con-
venient method of feeding milk to a lamb is to use a small tin can with
a long spout, such as is used for oil. An air-hole is punched in the cov-
er or cork and a piece of sponge covered with a cloth is tied upon the
end of the sponge. ‘The flow is then made easy and equal and the lamb
sucks in an easy manner. A very short time is sufficient to familiar-
ize the lamb with this kind of foster mother.
The Association of Dogs with Sheep. Itis a common prac-
tice among many farmers who have a large herd of sheep, to keep a dog
to assist in driving and caring for his flock. ‘There is a breed of dogs
which is very useful for this purpose, and if it was not for the fact that
dogs are infested with tape-worms they certainly would be a very desir-
able animal to have on the farm.
Dogs, beside the annual slaughter of very many valuable sheep, cause
death by transmitting to sheep a form of tape-worm. ‘The eggs of the
tape-worms are discharged in the dung of the dog upon fields and pas-
tures and are swallowed by the sheep with the green pasture, and the
worm is developed in the body of the sheep, either in the lungs, the ab-
domen, or the brain, causing a disease which prevents the sheep from
388 SHEEP HUSBANDRY.
thriving and often causes death. The larva of this tape-worm is a small
watery bladder, or sac, which contains the undeveloped worm. ‘There
are two general varieties of these worms, one the intestinal tape-worm,
which is very rare, and the bladder worms, of which there are three
kinds. Of these bladder worms one variety, the diving bladder-worm,
inhabits the abdomen; another variety, the many-headed bladder-worm
finds a home in the liver; while the third inhabits the brain, and are
called the brain bladder-worm.
Diving Bladder-Worm. ‘These worms are found free in the abdo-
men; enclosed in the adipose tissue (fat); and attached to the liver and
intestines. They vary in size froma hickory-nut to ahen’s egg. They
sometimes are found as large as a goose’segg. These bladders when fed
to a dog, produce the mature teenia marginata (tape worm) about three
feet in length in about three months. ‘Then the sheep or lambs eating
the eggs of this worm produce the hydatids or bladder-worms. If they
are taken into the body in large quantities the animal will soon die.
Many Headed Bladder Worms. This parasite finds a home in
the lungs and liver of the sheep and other ruminants and also is found
in man. Itis a most dangerous parasite, because if it is taken into
the human stomach it may produce ‘‘bladders’’ in the brain. They grow
by a budding process and rapidly increase. It is most commonly found
in the brain. When the head of a sheep containing the bladder-worms
is eaten by a dog the larvee is changed into tape worms. ‘This worm or
its eggs pass out of the body of the dog upon the grass of the pasture
and the eggs are swallowed by the sheep. These eggs are hatched in
the stomach and go to all parts of the body, perishing everywhere but
in the brain, which is its usual habitation. They chiefly affect lambs, old
sheep seeming to be rarely inconvenienced by this parasite. One in-
fested dog will produce thousands of eggs. ‘To prevent the disease, do
not let the heads of sheep be devoured by dogs or hogs. Burn the
heads of the sheep that have died from the malady.
The presence of this parasite produces what is commonly known as
giddiness or turnside in which the sheep turns its head to the right or
left and walks around in a circle in the direction in which the head is
turned until it falls giddy and exhausted.
The location of the worm may be determined by a ‘‘soft spot’’ on the
skull. The worm causes absorption of the substance and the soft tissues
may be easily felt by pressure of the finger. "The treatment consists in
inserting a curved awl through the skull and piercing the bladder. The
SHEEP HUSBANDRY. 389
water then escapes and is absorbed, leaving the worm to perish.
Hair-Worms in the Intestines. A species of ‘‘hair-worm’’
called from its peculiar formation TRICOCEPHALUS, is not uncommon in
sheep. It infests the stomach and intestines, causing obstinate diarrhea,
and rapid wasting of flesh. These worms burrow their heads into the
membrane lining the organs, which submits to no treatment while they
remain. A cough is often present along with the diarrhea. Other
species of worms, of habits identical with these, and producing the same
injurious effects, also infest the sheep, but more particularly lambs and
yearlings. Salt in doses of half an ounce, given on alternate days with
one dram doses of sulphate of iron, the salt being given on one day and the
iron the next, is a very sure remedy for this class of parasites, and the
disease which results from their presence. To counteract the debilitating
effect of these parasites, the food should be of the most nutritive and
digestible character, and linseed in some shape should not be omitted.
Tape-worms, or Teenia Plicata. The sheep themselves are
sometimes infested with mature tape-worms. This is easily explained
by the possibility of the sheep swallowing along with their pasture
some of the eggs which may have been voided by any of the numerous
bearers of these worms, both domesticated and wild.
Generally the symptoms developed by the presence of tape-worms are
voracity of appetite, alternating with a refusal of food; loss of condition,
desire to swallow earth, stones, sand, or ashes; the passage of soft dung,
mixed with mucus, which becomes attached to the vent and tail, causing
a very filthy condition; and the evidence of internal pain. The sheep
finally dies greatly emaciated. ‘There is no means of prevention, as the
eggs may be dropped by rabbits, squirrels, skunks, and other wild ani-
mals which frequent the fields. The treatment most effective is to ad-
minister turpentine as follows:
2 ounces Linseed Oil.
3 to 1 ounce Spirits of Turpentine.
This should be repeated twice a week for two weeks. If this is not
effective, three ounces of the Powdered root of Male Fern may be given.
The dose to be repeated in one week. In six hours after this is admin-
istered, a purgative of linseed-oil should be given. The food should be
of the best kind until the lost condition is restored.
‘Tape-worms in any of their forms of life, affect only young sheep and
lambs. When sheep attain the age of two years they are safe from
them, and it is very rare indeed that one older than this becomes in-
fested with them.
390 SHEEP HUSBANDRY.
Lambs and Their Diseases. ‘‘ The diseases to which lambs are
subject are but few, and those are mainly the result of carelessness in
their management. The lamb, which appears so delicate and tender an
animal, is really hardy, and resists much ill treatment, else with so little
consideration as they usually receive, the race would soon become almost
extinct. Damp and cold are especially to be guarded against in the
spring, and filthy yards at all seasons. With clean pens and dry, clean
bedding, they will resist the severe dry colds of a northern January, and
thrive and grow while snowstorms rage, if only well sheltered. Sun-
shine has a remarkable effect upon lambs, and the warmth of the sun
will often revive and strengthen a weak lamb that appears past relief.
Extremes of damp and impure air in close pens, and bad drinking water,
will produce diarrhea and paralysis, and these are the chiefly fatal dis-
orders to which they are subject. Constipation is produced by want of
proper laxative food, and permitting them to feed on dry, withered herb.
age that has lost its nutritive qualities beneath the storms of a winter.
If, notwithstanding all possible care, some weakly lambs are found to
require treatment, the simple purgative (a teaspoonful of castor or raw
linseed oil) will be found effective, after two or three doses, in removing
the troublesome matter from their intestines, and restoring the bowels to
healthful action. If in‘any case, a stimulant seems to be needed, as
when great weakness and prostration are present, the safest is a tea-
spoonful of gin, given in a little warm water with sugar. A still more
gentle stimulant and anodyne, but one very effective in prolonged diar-
rhea, is prepared by adding to a pint of peppermint water, one ounce of
prepared chalk, a teaspoonful each of tincture of opium and tincture of
rhubarb ; it is worthy of the name given to it by shepherds, viz. : ‘‘ lambs’
cordial,’’ and at the lambing season no shepherd should be without a
supply of it. The dose is a teaspoonful for a lamb of a few days old,
up to a tablespoonful for one of a month. Exposure to cold rains
should be guarded against, and if by inadvertence a lamb is found chilled
and rigid from such exposure, it may generally be restored by means of
a bath of warm water and a teaspoonful of warm sweetened gin and
water. After the bath the lamb should be gently dried, wrapped in a
warm flannel, and placed near a fire or in a wooden box in a gently
heated oven of a common stove. Where the flock is large, and the
kitchen is not within reach, the shepherd should have the conveniences
of a shed and an old cooking-stove in which he can keep a fire sufficient
to heat the water bath, and provide a warm bed in the oven for any
SHEEP HUSBANDRY. 391i
lamb that may need such attention; if the flock numbers several hun-
dred head in all, there will seldom be a day in our changeable spring
seasons when there will not be one or more patients to be treated.’’—
ALLEN.
Constipation in Lambs. This occurs quite frequently with
lambs, and when constipation is present, the dung is scanty and passed
at long intervals in glazed hard lumps. The lamb shows pain during
passage by arching its back and a peculiar but expressive action. To
relieve every six hours inject into the rectum warm water which has
been mixed with a half-ounce of linseed-oil. Two or three injections
are usually all that will be necessary. Feed the lamb on linseed gruel,
sweetened with molasses.
Spasmodic Colic in Lambs. This is shown by severe pains,
occurring spasmodically. ‘The lamb falls and struggles, or remains with
its eyes fixed. This generally accompanies constipation and always in-
digestion. To relieve the spasms give the following mixture with a
spoon: one dram tincture of Rhubarb; one dram carbonate of soda; two
ounces of warm water sweetened with molasses. After the spasms are
relieved, give half an ounce of linseed-oil.
Weaning Lambs. Do not remove the lambs from their dams
abruptly. It is injurious to both. It forces the lambs to load their
stomachs with food which they are not strong enough to digest, thereby
causing them to stop growing by a stinting of food and a nervous irrita-
tion consequent upon their sudden deprivation. The dams in full flow
of milk being deprived of relief, are liable to have the udder engorged
which is followed by congestion. This shock is very injurious and
consequently produces inflammatory disorders of the blood or garget. To
avoid these ill effects of a sudden change, remove the lambs to another
pasture, quite a distance away, giving them as companions the dry ewes
and wethers of the flock. A new pasture will cause them to forget their
dams and they being so far distant that they do not hear their bleating,
will remain quiet. At night turn them into the fold with the ewes
whose full udders they will soon relieve. Place the ewes on a short
pasture and deprive them gradually of any extra food hitherto given them
and in a couple of weeks their supply of milk gradually decreases, and
the lambs may be weaned with perfect safety to themselves and
the ewes.
‘‘After having been weaned, the lambs should have the first choice of
pasture and the best and tenderest cuttings of the fodder crops. Many
392 SHEEP HUSBANDRY.
farmers have found it advantageous in every way to turn newly weaned
lambs into a field of corn in the month of August. The corn is too far
grown to be injured, the suckers only will be nibbled by the lambs, and
the weeds which grow up after the corn is laid by, will be eaten closely.
‘The lambs also have the benefit of a cool shade, and where such a field
can be conveniently applied to this purpose, there are several reasons
why it might well be done.
The condition of the ewes must not be neglected at this time. The
chief danger is in regard to those that are heavy milkers. Such sheep
should be closely watched, and the milk drawn by hand from those
whose udders are not emptied by the lambs. The first approach to hard-
ness or heat in the udder should be remedied by an immediate dose of
an ounce of epsom salts dissolved in water, and mixed witha tea-spoonful
of ground ginger. The next two days twenty grains of saltpetre should
be given each morning and evening, to increase the action of the kid-
neys. ‘These remedies will generally relieve the udder, and will tend to
greatly reduce the secretion of milk. If hay is given in place of grass,
and the ewe confined in a cool darkened pen, the drying up of the milk
will be hastened.”’
Vermicular Bronchitis. This disease is caused by a white thread-
fikeworm, the Strong ylus filaria, commonly called the lung worm or ‘‘lung
strangle.’’ The symptoms are those of bronchitis with the exception
that the whole herd is affected, and mucus is coughed up and the above
described worms either singly or in bundle are found. A husky cough
is followed by a dry, staring coat, difficult breathing and advancing
emaciation, with diarrhea. This disease when appearing in lambs is
called ‘‘ Hoose.’’
Treatment. Feed liberally on roots, oats, beans, and linseed cake,
to which may be added a mixture of equal parts of gentian, ginger, and
sulphate of iron in the proportion of a scant 1% ounce to each lamb three
months old and over, every other day. Free access to salt and abundant
dry feed is indicated. For the worms a teaspoonful of salt and oil of
turpentine in milk should be given every other day before eating.
SWINE.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE VARIOUS BREEDS.
Their Diseases and How to Cure Them.
ROOTING, AND ITS PREVENTION, SOWS EATING THEIR
PIGS, CURING AND PRESERVING, SWINE BREED-
ING AND FEEDING.
HE importance and value of the swine to the people of the United
States is shown by the statistics of the last census. Here by care-
fully prepared tables the income is shown to be equal to that de-
rived from the sale of cattle. There are few people who are aware
that nearly one-half of the swine in the world are reared and fattened in
this country.
Nearly every farmer keeps a few swine, to which he feeds much to
the by-products, which would otherwise go to waste. Others produce
for the market, and it is of importance to them to get as much profit out
of the few or many as possible. This can only be done by a thorough
understanding of the peculiar characteristics of the various breeds and
the advantages to be derived from each variety. Then studying the
conditions about which you will be compelled to surround your animals,
you can determine the value to you of the various breeds. It is cer-
tainly a well established fact, that a breed exactly suited to the wants of
farmers in one locality might not be suited to the needs of those in other
portions of the country who make pork for a different purpose and under
widely different circumstances and for different markets. And further
the man who raises only one or two pigs for his own consumption, and
keeps them the whole of their lives in a small pen, wants a different
breed from the man who has large hog pazsures.
394 SWINE.
The Berkshires. From 1820 to 1833 this breed was largely im-
ported into the United States and sold at exorbitant prices. But the
careless neglectful system of farming then so common, caused the breed
to lose the good qualities given them by the English, who at that
time gave them careful management as regards both their breeding and
feeding. The breed so deteriorated that the farmers became prejudiced
and for years afterwards would hardly accept a Berkshire as a gift.
But at the close of the Civil war new importation of the finest speci-
mens of English bred Berkshires that could be found, were made. The
character of farming having changed from back-woods to more modern,
and the good qualities of the Berkshires becoming known, they have
become as popular to-day as they were despised sixty years ago.
Their good qualities may be stated as follows:
Great vitality, which renders them less liable to disease than many
other breeds.
They have great muscular power and are very active.
They have good digestive and assimilating power. They therefore
return a large amount of fat and flesh for the quantity of food eaten.
‘The sows are careful mothers, good sucklers and are very prolific.
The pigs at birth are strong and active and therefore are not liable to
mishaps.
They are easily fattened at any age for market, yet can be fed to any
reasonable weight.
There flesh is of a very fine quality.
They are uniform in color, markings, and quality.
The male when used as a cross transmits the good qualities of the
breed to its progeny.
Characteristics. The ‘‘Swine Breeders’’ Convention at New York
gave the following as a good description of the characteristics and
markings of the Berkshires: Color black, with white on feet, face, tip
of tail, and an occasional splash of white on the arm; while a small spot
of white on some other part of the body does not argue an impurity of
blood, yet it is to be discouraged to the end that uniformity of color may
be attained by breeders; white upon one ear, or a bronze or copper spot
on some part of the body argues no impurity, but rather a reappearance
of original colors. Markings of white other than those named above are
suspicions, and a pig so marked should be rejected.
Face short, fine, and well dished, broad between the eyes; ears generally
almost erect, but sometimes inclining forward with advancing age, small,
SWINE. 395
thin, soft, and showing veins; jowl full; neck short and thick; shoulder
short from neck, to middling deep from back down; back broad
and straight, or a very little arched; ribs—long ribs, well sprung, giving
rutundity of body; short ribs of good length, giving breadth and level-
ness of loins; hips good length from point of hip to rump; hams thick,
round, and deep, holding their thickness well back and down to the
hocks; tail fine and small, set on high up; legs short and fine, but
straight and very strong, with hoofs erect, legs set wide apart; size
medium; length medium, extremes are to be avoided; bone fine and
compact; offal very light; hair fine and compact; skin pliable.
The Bershires are hardy, prolific, and excellent nurses; their meat is
of superior quality, with fat and lean well mixed.
Size. There have been improved Berkshires, both in England and
America, whose dead weight, dressed, occasionally exceeded eight
hundred pounds; but the general weight, full grown, is from three
hundred to six hundred pounds, according as the smaller or larger pigs
are selected from the litters for fattening, and as they are subsequently
fed and attended. The smaller sizes mature several months the quickest,
and are preferred in the markets for fresh pork; and for curing also, for
those who are particularly nice in the choice of their meat, find their
meat more tender and delicate than the larger animals.
Quality of Meat. The meat of the improved Berkshire, like that
of the unimproved, abounds in a much greater proportion of sweet, ten-
der, juicy lean, well marbled with very fine streaks of fat, than other
breeds of swine; but the former is far more delicate now, than the latter
ever was. This renders the whole carcass the most suitable of all for
smoking. ‘The hams and shoulders almost entirely lean, a thin rim of
fat covering only the outside.
Maturity. The improved Berkshire can be fattened at any age.
Barrows mature in twelve to eighteen months, according as selected
from the litters, whether the largest or smallest, and as subsequently fed
and treated. It takes boars and sows reserved for breeding about six
months longer to get their fullest size and weight, as they are not
pushed by high feed so rapidly as those destined for more immediate
slaughter.
The Suffolks. F. D. Coburn, in ‘‘Swine Husbandry,’’ has the fol-
lowing to say regarding this breed:
“The Suffolks are not raised pure, or used as a cross in the principal
pork producing States so extensively as several other breeds. nor are
they so well known to a majority of farmers, who have a belief, 11 not
396 SWINE.
positive knowledge, that they are rather delicate, and difficult to raise.
The objections to them are, that they are not large enough, not satis-
factory as breeders and nurses, and that their skins are too tender, aud
thinly haired, to withstand the exposure to which the average farmer’s
hogs are subjected.
As to size, the best strains of Suffolks are large enough for those who
prefer to raise hogs of medium weights, while for quietness and easy
keeping qualities, no breed of swine can excel them, and to those who
like pets, we would recommend a cleanly-kept Suffolk pig in preference
toany ‘‘poodle,’’ or other diminutive canine we ever saw. ‘The sows
FIRST PRIZE ENGLISH MIDDLE-WHITE Sow.
are not so prolific, so regular as breeders, nor usually so good sucklers
as others that mature less early, and not so predisposed to excessive fat-
ness while young.
Experience with the Suffolks has convinced many that wind, sun, and
mud, make sad work for their tender, papery skins, and we have seen
them, when reasonably well kept, become chapped and cracked all over,
and the smaller pigs so mangy and sore as to present the appearance of
a solid scab. Of course, all Suffolks are not so affected, and we think
that in many localities, they are no more liable to suffer in this way than
any other white breed. The climate of some Western and Southern
States is unmistakably severe on white hogs, not well haired, and when
SWINE. 397
such are constantly exposed to biting frosts, drying winds, and scorch-
ing sun, the results will, in most cases, be anything but satisfactory, and
the balance will be found on the wrong side of the ledger.
As now bred, we can not look upon them as a reasonably profitable
hog for general use, but Suffolk boars can be used to good advantage on
many farms where white hogs are preferred, and more refinement is
desired.”’
Further Description. Mr. Wentworth, in a communication to the
‘“Prarie Farmer,’’ says.
“I read, with great interest, the report of the committee at the late
yi
PRIZE ENGLISH MIDDLE-WHITE PIGS.
Swine Breeder’ Association upon the characteristics of the Suffolk hogs.
I have had them exclusively for the past eighteen years, and my sales
will average one hundred every year for the past ten years, and I think
I have haa all the importations represented in my herd.
There is a liability in all Suffolks to have round bluish spots upon their
skins, although covered with white bristles, and these spots seem to in-
crease with age. My present boar was selected for me by Mr. Harrison,
Secretary of the New York State Agricultural Society. When he ar-
rived, aged about six months, he was spotless, and so continued until
about two years of age, and then bluish spots of the size of an old-
tashioned silver dollar commenced growing upon him. Now, at four
years of age, he has about twenty of them, although the bristles cov-
398 SWINE
ering them are white. Of course, these spots are exceptions, not one in
ten having them, and very few inside of one year old; yet there is a
tendency to them and no hog should be rejected as a pure Suffolk on
their account. ‘These spots are easily detected from black spots.
At one of the State Fairs at Chicago, one of my boars not only took
the first premium as the best Suffolk, but the sweepstake prize as the
best boar or any age or breed upon the ground. He had several of
these spots upon him at that time, although having none until he was a
year old. I notice these bluish spots occasionally upon hogs at the stock
yards, which have, in all respects, characteristics of the Suffolks.
A correspondent of yours, whilst finding fault with the size of the
Suffolk, thinks they are the best for crossing upon other hogs. I know
this to be the invariable opinion of men who want a breed of hogs of their
own, independent of everybody else. Wherever they start, whatever
may be their groundwork, before they get through making their new
breed of hogs they invariably incorporate somewhere a cross of the
Suffolk.
Your paper says that four hundred is the profitable size of the hog.
The Suffolks can easily be made to weigh this amount, by feeding them
lightly until their legs have acquired sufficient strength to support their
weight of carcass. The inferior weight attributed so often to Suffolks
arises entirely from overfeeding them when young.’’
Characteristics. The characteristics and markings are as fol-
lows : ‘‘Head small, very short; cheeks prominent and full; face dished;
snout small and very short; jowl fine; ears short, small, thin, upright,
soft, and silky; neck very short and thick, the head appearing almost as
if set on front of shoulders; no arching of crest; chest wide and deep—
elbows standing out; brisket wide but not deep; shoulders thick, rather
upright, rounding outwards from top to elbow; crops wide and full;
sides and flanks, long ribs, well arched out from back, good length be-
tween; shoulders and hams, flanks well filled out, and coming well
down at ham; back broad, level, and straight from crest to tail, no fall-
ing off or down at tail; hams wide and full, well rounded out, twist very
wide and full all the way down; legs small and very short, standing
wide apart, in sows just keeping belly from the ground; bone fine ; feet
small, hoofs rather spreading; tail small, long, and tapering; skin thin,
of a pinkish shade, free from color; hair fine and silky, not too thick;
color of hair pale yellowish white, perfectly free from any spots or other
color; size small and medium.”
*
SWINE. 399
Essex. Coburn on swine has the following to say regarding this
breed: ‘“The Essex breed of swine is comparatively unknown among the
farmers of the Mississippi Valley, and we have no knowledge of their
being raised in any considerable numbers for pork. Still in some local-
ities, they are bred in a limited way (more, perhaps in Kentucky, than
elsewhere) and we have never encountered a person who has once tried
them, who did not place a high estimate on their value as a small breed,
and especially on the boars to use for crossing on sows of larger breeds.
They seem to be essentially the same as Suffolks, except in their
black color, and less liability to skin diseases, which would in a
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PRIZE ESSEX BOAR.
majority of cases make them the favorites over their white com-
petitors.
We think that there is small probability of the Essex swine, as now
bred, ever becoming the prevailing breed, from the fact that they are
a smaller class of hogs than most farmers care to raise, or packers to
buy and handle, and we deem it improbable that the next fifty or hun-
dred years will witness the raising of smaller swine, generally, than the
Berkshires, and it is more than likely that in the future, the happy
medium will be an animal in size between the best modelled small-
boned Berkshire and the coarser Poland-Chinas of the present time.’'
me
406 SWINE.
Characteristics. The Essex is a black hog, originating in the
south of England. ‘They are of small to medium in size, and are exten-
sively used in England to cross on the large, coarse swine, to improve
their fattening qualities.
The best specimens may be known as follows: Color black; face short
and dishing; ears small, soft, and stand erect while young, but coming
down somewhat as they get age; carcass long, broad, straight, and deep;
ham heavy and well let down; bone fine; carcass, when fat, composed
mostly of lard; hair, ordinarily rather thin. ‘The fattening qualities be-
ing very superior.
As breeders and nurses, they are very fair, though not equal to the
Berkshires. In fact, all thorough-bred animals, as they become refined,
or ‘‘high bred,’’ lessen their fecund propensities to a greater or less ex-
tent; but ordinarily, with good management, no serious difficulty need
be experienced on this point with well bred Essex. It is essential, how-
ever, that the brood sows be matured, and not permitted to become too
fat, which latter is often apt to be the case, with good feed and man-
agement.
Good pasture, with plenty of water, will keep them in excellent con-
dition for breeding, throughout the whole grazing season. In fact, they
often come out of a good clover field in the fall, ‘‘killing fat,’’ without
having had any other feed. They are good graziers, and have the ad-
vantage over some of the more tender-skinned white hogs, of being able
to withstand, (at any age, however young, ) the hottest sun of July or
August, without having their backs or skin in the least affected, and
they are never known to scald or mange.
The young pigs of the Essex are usually more delicate than those of
the coarser breeds, and will appear quite inferior to the latter, at the
same age, up to eight or ten weeks, when they will begin to shoot ahead,
and ‘‘show their breeding.’’ ‘This is not alwavs the case, but often is,
and is attributed to the mothers not being such good mikers as some
other kinds. It seems to be their nature to run to fat rather than
milk.
Poland China. The history of this well-known breed was pre-
sented at the National Swine Breeders’ Convention, and the following
was adopted as authentic:
‘In the early history of swine-breeding in the Miami Valley, in Ohio,
it is clear, from the best written authorities available, and from oral tes-
timony, that there were two breeds, which to a great extent had been
SWINE. 401
profitably crossed with the common bristled breed of the country. These
were the Russia and Byfield breeds. The Bedford breed is also named
in connection with the other two. ‘To what extent it was used, can not
now be readily determined.
In 1816, we have positive proof from an unquestioned source, that the
Shakers of Union Village, situated in Warren county, Ohio, and being
four miles from Monroe, in Butler county, purchased at Philadelphia
one boar and three sows of what was at the time believed to be pure
China. ‘They were represented to be either imported or the immediate
descendants of imported stock. They were called ‘Big China hogs.’
These animals were the first China hogs ever brought into south-
POLAND-CHINA.
western Ohio. Subsequently other China hogs were introduced and
extensively used.
The Shakers and other judicious breeders in Warren and Butler coun-
ties, continued to use the breeds at command, and produced by repeated
crosses a hog of exceeding fine qualities, for that period, which was gen-
erally known as the ‘Warren County Hog.’ These hogs continually in-
creasing in good qualities, were bred in both counties, and the very best
specimens were carefully and interchangeably used so as to make the
best crosses.
Such was the progress that had been made in forming the groundwork
402 SWINE,
of a good specimen of a hog. This condition of the breed continued
until about the year 1835 or 1836, when Mr. Munson Beach, of Warren
county, first introduced the Berkshire, which was obtained from C. N.
Bement, of the state of New York; other lots of Berkshires continued
to flow into the Miami Valley until about 1841.
The Berkshire blood was liberally introduced into the stock existing
in, not only southwestern Ohio, but in Kentucky also. Crossing with
seen Te
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A PRIZE LITTER. "
the Berkshires was almost exclusively done until about 1838 or 1839,
when Mr. Wm. Neff, of Cincinnati, imported some choice specimens of
the Irish Grazier. This breed soon grew into high favor, and as a con-
sequence, was liberally used in making crosses with the best specimens
of the crosses previously made. This intermingling of blood, this cross-
ing of breeds continued for some time. In a few years, however, the
use of the purer blooded Berkshire was entirely discontinued, and there
SWINE. 493
were no further importations made of the Irish Grazier. The breeders
of swine in the Miami Valley settled down to the conviction that the
basis of a good breed of hogs had been established, and’ that in the fu-
ture judicious and discriminating breeders could use, and if necessary
modify, the material furnished, so as to meet the highest demands of
public. For more‘than thirty years no new blood has been introduced
into our breed, and no effort made to obtain a new supply of the blood
of either breed previously used.
While this is true, our breeders have not been indifferent to the fur-
ther improvement of our breed. Stimulated by their success, they have
perseveringly aimed to improve what they have been so successful in
forming. The best points or qualities have been preserved, and, where
practicable, have been made even more excellent. All defective points
or undesirable qualities have been corrected or improved by the care,
skill, and judgment of our experienced breeders.
Thus, we have a breed thoroughly established, or fixed characteristics,
of fine style, and unquestioned good qualities, which can be relied upon
for the production of a progeny of like qualities and character.
Characteristics. The best specimens have good length, short legs,
broad, straight backs, deep sides, flanking well down on the leg, very
broad, full square hams and shoulders, drooping ears, short heads, wide
between the eyes, of spotted or dark color; are hardy, vigorous, and
vrolific, and when fat are perfect models all over, pre-eminently combin-
ing the excellences of both large and small breeds.”’
Victorias. The family of pigs known as Victorias originated with
Col. Frank D. Curtis, Kirby Homestead, Charlton, Saratoga county,
New Vork. They were made by crossing the Byfield hogs with the
native, in which there was a strain of the Grazier. Subsequently crosses
were made with the Yorkshire and Suffolk; the result being a purely
white hog, of medium size. The name hasno significance, unless it is
intended as a compliment to the English Queen. The pigs if pure bred,
should have a direct descent from a sow called Queen Victoria, which
may be said to be the mother of the family. She was pronounced by
good judges, to be almost perfect, and was the winner of a number of
first prizes. Breeders in the Eastern states have long felt the want of a
medium-sized white hog, with all the good points of the English breeds,
without their objectionable features; a breed which would mature early,
and be covered with a good coat of hair to protect it from the cold in
winter and heat in suimmer. Col. Curtis began breeding nearly twenty
404 SWINE.
years ago to try and meet this want. At the fair of the New York State
Agricultural Society which was held at Elmira, he exhibited a sow,
Princess Alice, and six pigs, which was the first time the Victorias have
been presented at a State fair for competition with other swine. The
first prize was awarded to the pigs, and the second to the sow.
Characteristics. The color is white, with a good coat of fine soft
hair; the head thin, fine, and closely set on the shoulders; the face
slightly dishing; the snout short; the ears erect, small, and very light or
thin; the shoulders bulging and deep; legs short and fine; the back
broad, straight, and level, and the body long; the hams round and swell-
ing, and high at the base of the tail, with plaits or folds between the
thighs; the tail fine, and free from wrinkles or rolls; feathers or rosettes
on the back are common; the skin is thin, soft, and elastic; the flesh
fine-grained and firm, with sinall bone and thick side-pork. The pigs
easily keep in condition, and can be made ready for slaughter at
any age.
Durocs. There is another family of heavy hogs called Duroc, which
are bred in Saratoga county, New York, which are finer in the bone
and carcass than the Reds. They have been bred, with their crosses,
in that region of thecountry, for about twenty years. They are very
hardy, and grow to a large size.
Characteristics. The true Duroc or Jersey Red should be long,
quite deep-bodied, not round, but broad on the back, and holding the
width well out to the hips and hams. The head should be small, com-
pared with the body, with the cheek broad and full, with considerable
breadth between the eyes. The neck should be short and thick, and the
face slightly curved, with the nose rather longer than in the English
breeds; the ears rather large and lopped over the eyes and not erect.
Bone not fine, nor yet coarse, but medium. The legs medium in size
and length, but set well under the body and well apart, and not cut up
high in the flank or above the knee. The hams should be broad and
full well down to the hock. There should be a good coat of hair of
medium fineness, inclining to bristles at the top of the shoulders; the tail
being hairy and not small; the hair usually straight, but in some cases a
little wavy. The color should be red, varying from dark, glossy, cherry
red, and even brownish hair, to light yellowish red, with occasionally a
small fleck of black on the belly and legs. The darker shades of red are
preferred by most breeders, and this type of color is the most desirable.
In disposition they are remarkably mild and gentle. When full grown
SWINE. 405
they should dress four hundred to five hundred pounds, and pigs at nine
months old should dress from two hundred fifty to three hundred
pounds.
Cheshire, or Jefferson County Swine. These hogs originated
in Jefferson county, New York, and it is claimed by some of the breeders
that they started from a pair of pigs bought of Mr. Woodford, of Albany,
New York, which were called Cheshires. However that may be, there
is no such distinct breed of hogs known as Cheshires, in England, and
there is no record of any hogs of this name having been imported into
this country.
Pride of Oxford. paccmipiiie: Somann 202
ENGLISH SMALL WHITE PRIZE PIGS, USUALLY CALLED THE SMALL
YORKSHIRES.
Yorkshires have been imported into Jefferson county from time to
time, and the so-called Cheshires have been improved by crossing
with their best hogs bought in Canada. Mr. A. C. Clark, of Henderson,
was, for a number of years, a prominent breeder of these pigs, and when-
ever he found a pig better than those he owned, he purchased it and
crossed it upon his own stock. In this way this family of hogs have
been produced, and they are known and bred in mauy portions of the
United States.
406 SWINE.
‘Vhey are pure white, with a very thin skin of pink color, with little
hair; are not uniform in this respect, as pigs in the same litter differ
widely in the amount of hair; the snout is often long, but very slender
and fine; the jowls are plump and the ears erect, the shoulders are wide,
and the hams full; the flesh of these hogs is fine-grained, and they are
commended on account of the extra amount of mess pork in proportion
to offal; the tails of the pigs frequently drop off when young.
Jersey Reds. The positive origin of this family of swine is un-
known. They have been bred in portions of the state of New Jersey,
for upwards of fifty years, and with many farmers are considered to be a
valuable variety. They are of large size and capable of making a heavy
growth, five hundred and six hundred pounds weight being common.
THE “LARGE WHITE’’ BREED SOW, HOLYWELL QUEEN.
Mr. David Pettit, of Salem county, N. J., has known of these hogs for
thirty years, and Mr. D. M. Brown, of Windsor, for nearly fifty years.
They are now extensively bred in the middle and southern portions of
New Jersey. In some neighborhoods they are bred quite uniform, being
of a dark-red color, while in other sections they are more sandy, and
often patched with white. They are probably descendents from the old
importations of Berkshires, as there is no record of the Tamworth, the
red hogs of England, ever having been brought into this country; nor is
this likely, as the Tamworth were not considered a valuable breed, and'
SWINE. 407
were confined to a limited breeding. ‘The Reds resemble the old Berk-
shires in many respects, but are now much coarser than the improved
swine of the breed.
Characteristics. A good specimen of Jersey Red should be red in
color, with a snout of moderate length, large lop-ears, small head in
proportion to the size and length of the body; they should be long in the
body, standing high and rangy on thin legs, bone coarse; heavy tail and
brush; hair coarse, including the bristleson the back. They are valuable
on account of their size and strong constitution and capacity for growth.
They are not subject to mange.
Chester Whites. ‘‘The Chester County White hog is a native of
Chester county, Pennsylvania, where the breed originated. ‘The first
impulse to the improvement of swine in this country was induced by the
introduction of a pair of very fine white pigs, brought from Bedfordshire,
England, by Captain James Jeffries, of this county, and put upon his
farm on the Brandywine Creek, near Westchester, the county seat in the
year 1818. Some of our most enterprising farmers, seeing these finely-
bred pigs, were induced to commence an improvement of their swine by
a cross of these, their progeny, and others of the best hogs of the county,
and by continuing a careful selection and judicious crossing for many
years, have produced the Chester White of to-day, a most desirable, well-
formed, good-sized, easily fattened, and perhaps the best bacon hog for
the general farmer in this or any other country.’’—Thomas Wood, in
Swine Husbandry.
Characteristics. Head short, broad between the eyes; ears thin,
projecting forward and lap at the point; neck short and thick; jowl
large; body lengthy and deep, broad on back; hams full and deep; legs
short, and well set under for bearing the weight; coating thinnish white,
straight, and if a littly wavy not objectionable; small tail, aud no
bristles.
Yorkshires. ‘‘Their color and characteristics have been traced, in
a greater or less degree, into every popular breed of swine which has
been made up or attempted to be established as thorough-bred, either in
the United States or England; indeed, into every breed, save the Essex,
or Neapolitan, imported by Lord Western. ‘These are the only pure
bred black hogs either in this country or the old. It may safely be said
of these white hogs, that they are the only pure and distinct breed of
hogs or pigs, save the black, that are now bred on this continent. All
breeds in this country of mixed colors are what their color indicates—
408 SWINE
mixed or cross bred, hence not pure and distinct breeds. That this
is correct, is fully established by the history of each popular breed, as
given by the breeders themselves, as well as by Youatt, Harris, and
others, who have given detailed accounts of how each valuable breed has
been formed. Nearly or quite all of these breeds are indebted for many
of their valuable qualities to their crosses with the Yorkskire and other
white English and China hogs. And among the breeds so indebted are
the Chester White, the Berkshire, and the Magie, or Poland-China. All
these breeds seem to have borrowed some of their good qualities from
these original white hogs, and all are made up from crosses of the white
and black hog; hence the character of the English or white hog crops
out occasionally in almost every breed known in this country or Eng-
land. Accordingly, it may be said that they are the purest breed of
hogs, and the best in this country or England from which to make
crosses in forming a new or reliable breed.
The English white hogs, like other breeds, vary much in size, from
the large hog to the China pig, so that the breeder can change the size
of his stock, or the coat it wears from a heavy coat of hair to the
short and smooth, to suit his fancy or the condition of the climate in
which he lives. All white hogs are noted for possessing quiet dis-
positions.
The Cumberland, a middle-bred Yorkshire, have, we think, attained
nearer perfection than any other breed known to us. The are not gen-
erally distributed throughout the west, but when through-bred speci-
mens have been introduced, they are held in great esteem, as well for
an animal for exhibition purposes, as for family use. They are special
favorites with packers, who buy their stock on foot, for the reason that
they yield larger proportionate net weights than any other hogs which
grow large enough for their use. They are small in bone, but large in
flesh, of the very best quality, evenly and proportionally spread over the
whole frame.’’
CURING AND PRESERVING.
‘*To cure meat of any kind, it is desirable to have it from animals that,
before slaughter, were in a considerable degree matured, or had attained
their natural growth. After dressing, as before intimated, the first
requisite is temperature so low the eggs cannot hatch, the Jatter being
not often practicable.
SWINE. 409
The season of the year, in which meats may becured on the farm with
the best success, is from December 15th to February 15th, the interval
between these dates affording two indispensable conditions, viz: cool
weather and immunity from insects and pests.
Pork is cut to suit the demands of the different markets in which it is
sold, and the various uses for which it is intended, but the aim should,
in all cases, be to have it in such form as to pack snugly, and we re-
peat, never pack down until thoroughly cooled throughout.
Where it is intended to use brine, the meat may be packed in layers;
salt, at the rate of eight pounds to each hundred pounds of pork, is to be
sprinkled evenly over.and around each layer, until the cask is full; then
clean rain or other pure water, is poured in, until all the interstices are
filled and the meat thoroughly covered. None of the meat should, at
any time, be allowed to remain above the brine, and in open casks, or
tubs, some attention will be necessary to keep weights so arranged as to
hold it under.
Many persons prefer to prepare the brine by adding to the salt some
sugar, or molasses, and saltpeter, dissolving these in the water, and
pouring the pickle over the packed meat. A very good recipe is as fol-
lows: for one hundred pounds of pork take four ounces saltpeter, three
pints common molasses, or two pounds brown sugar, and seven pounds
clean salt; when thoroughly dissolved, pour over the meat, which it
will cover if properly packed. Many boil the pickle before using it, as
the impurities from the salt, sugar, etc., will rise, and can be skimmed
off; when this is done, the brine should be thoroughly cool, before add-
ing it to the meat.
Hams and shoulders, to keep well afterwards should be in pickle from
one to two months; the length of time depending on their thickness.
For curing them without brine, a favorite recipe is: twelve pounds fine
salt, two quarts molasses, one-half pound powdered saltpeter; when
these are well mixed, they will have about the consistency and appear-
ance of damp brown sugar, and will be sufficient for one hundred and
fifty pounds of meat. Rub hams and shoulders thoroughly with the
mixture, and lay singly on a platform in a cool, dry place. At the end
of the first, and of the second week, rub them again as at first, and then
expose to continuous smoke for ten days.
A simpler way, in which any portion, or all, of the hog’s carcass can
be cured, is to put a layer of, say, half an inch of salt on a platform,
floor, or the bottom of a large box, or cask, then a layer of meat, on this
410 SWINK.
a liberal sprinkling of salt, and so on, until all is packed and the top
well covered with salt.
Such portions as are not to be smoked, should be stored in brine be-
fore insects appear, and the smoked meat may, like the hams of com-
merce, be covered securely with canvass, and whitewashed, or packed
well in bran, dry ashes, oats, or shelled corn. For considerable quanti-
ties, packing in tight barrels is a good plan, and for family use, a swing-
ing shelf, with sides and ends covered with wire cloth, inside of which
the pieces are hung, is convenient, and is also secure against rats and
mice, as well as insects.’’—Coburn in Swine Husbandry.
SOWS EATING THEIR PIGS.
It is well known that sows not unfrequently attack and destroy their
young; or, if prevented in this will not let down their milk, so that the
young pigs necessarily die for want of nourishment. When this con-
dition of things is not caused by a diseased condition of the uterus, it is
said that the sow can be brought to terms by pouring a mixture of ten
to twenty drops of spirits of camphor, with one to three drops of tinc-
ture of opium, into the ear. The sow will immediately lie down on the
side to which the application was made, and remain quiet in this posi-
tion for several hours, without interfering with her pigs; and on recov-
ery from her stupor, will have lost her irritability in regard to them.
The experiment has been tried in Germany hundreds of times, accord-
ing to one of the agricultural journals, without any injurious effects. It
is also said that the eating of pigs by the parent sow can be readily pre-
vented by rubbing thei all over with brandy, and making the same ap-
plication about the nose of the sow herself, or saturate a small woolen
cloth with kerosene and carefully moisten the hair of the pigs with it,
but be cautious to not get much of it on their tender skins. Usually
the kerosene dressing will spoil the sow’s relish for raw pig.
DISEASES AND HOW TO CURE THEM.
Mange. Mange, itch, or scab, in the lower animals is a skin dis-
ease of a purely local nature, due to an insect which induces irritation,
ulceration, suppuration, and incrustation on the surface of the body
generally. It is a contagious disease, never originating spontaneously,
SWINE. 4ll
and requiring for its development the passage of the parasites or their
eggs from diseased to healthy animals. In men, this disease is termed
“the itch,’’ and in the lower animals it is usually alluded to as ‘‘mange”’
and in sheep it is well known as a fearfully destructive disease, under
the name of ‘‘scab.’’
The mange of the pig is due to the presence of a burrowing sarcoptes.
Sarcoptes suis is much like the human sarcoptes and the horse sarcop-
tes. Itch and mange are known to be essentially skin diseases, curable
alone by topical remedies; and the medicines used are valuable almost
in proportion to the rapidity with which they destroy the life of the
parasites which give rise to the irritation and other morbid appearances.
In treating the mange we should first cover the body with soft soap,
and wash it off some time afterwards with warm water, and have
the animal well brushed; or a wash may be used, consisting of one part
caustic potash to fifty parts of water; or one part of creosote to forty
parts of oil, well mixed; or sulphuret of potassium in water, in the pro-
portion of one to ten parts; or a decoction of tobacco, in the ratio of one
to twenty-five; or lastly, concentrated vinegar. One or two days after
the thorough application of either one of these preparations, wash the
body well with soap and water or potash lye. When scabies is treated,
it is essential to purify all objects with which animals can come in con-
tact. Thus, all rubbing-places and sties should have a covering of lime,
or chloride of lime. The sties should be cleaned out entirely, or the
pigs removed for a few months to a new pen.
Recipe For Mange Ointment. Melt half a pound of common
turpentine with a pound anda half of Lard. Stir well therein a pound
of flowers of sulphur, and when cool, rub down upon a marble slab, two
ounces of strong mercurial ointment with these.
Pigs Losing Their Tails. Pigs occasionally have their tails
frozen, which causes them to drop off, or may result from an hereditary
tendency toa disease of the skin which attacks the young pig at that
particular point, the circulation is interfered wit: and the member per-
ishes and drops off.
If the disease appears, apply carbolic soap to the affected part, or wash
tlean, and apply glycerine, sweet oil, or a little fresh lard.
The most effectual preventive is to keep pigs clean, dry. and abun-
dantly nourished.
Inflammation of the Brain, or ‘Blind Staggers. ‘his dis-
ease frequently attacks swine. esnecially when changed to rich, abun-
412 SWINE.
dant food, or exposed to stormy, changeable weather. At first the ani-
mal appears dull, stupid, and disinclined to move. ‘The eyes become red
and inflamed, the bowels constipated, the pulse hard and quick. In a
short time, if not relieved, the animal runs wildly about, usually ina
circle, seems blind, will run against objects, the breathing becomes rapid
and laborious.
When a hog is attacked, dash bucketsful of cold water over the body,
and throw into the rectum a purgative injection, composed of six ounces
of sulphate of soda and one or two tea-spoonsfuls of spirits of turpen-
tine in ten ounces of water. Setons saturated with the turpentine may
be inserted under the skin behind the ears; or the back of the neck may
be blistered by actively rubbing in the following mixture: Spirits of
turpentine and liquid ammonia, one ounce of each; powdered cantharides,
two drams. When it occurs in summer, or hot weather, its severity can
be greatly modified by providing shelter in a shed, where they can be in
the shade during the heat of the day; but at the same time a free circu-
lation of air should be secured. Water, too, should be constantly within
the reach of the animals, and, if possible, a pool of it provided in which
they can lie at will.
Diarrhea. Many of our swine breeders in the West sustain consid-
erable loss annually by their pigs dying from the effects of what is com-
monly called scours, caused by the bad quality of the sow’s milk. The
disease is more apt to make its appearance when the sow has been fed
upon dry corn or musty food. It generally attacks them within one or
two days after their birth, and seldom after eight or ten days: Tio cure
give the sow as much sulphur of the third decimal trituration as will
stand on a nickel five-cent piece, once a day. It may be given ina little
sweet milk, or upon a small piece of bread, and should be given one hour
before feeding. The medicine can be procured of any Homeepathic
physician. Common sulphur will cure, but the above is preferable.
Constipation. If swine void hard, dry dung in compact, ball-like
masses, it denotes fever, therefore change to more loosening, cooling
diet. Any kind of soft, easily digested food is good; bran mashes pre-
pared with hot water, or flax-seed tea.
In obstinate cases, an ounce of Epsom salts may be given, in an injec-
tion of warm soap suds.
Lice. The following remedy will clean off lice by a couple of appli-
cations. Put about one gill of kerosene in an old dish, and with a paint
brush or old woolen rag rub the oil up and down the back of the animal,
SWINE. 413
and behind the fore-leg, and on the flank. Be particular about the last
two places, for it is where the lice deposit their eggs, which, if not de-
stroyed will hatch out in five days. If it be a black hog, these eggs
can be plainly seen, being about the size of a timothy seed, and laying
elose to the skin fast to the hair. No one need fear to use the oil freely,
as it will not injure the hog in the least.
HOG CHOLERA AND SWINE PLAGUE.
Nearly all diseases of swine are called ‘‘ Hog Cholera’’ by people not
familiar with them. Yet there is a destructive plague to which the term
hog cholera may be appropriately applied, and another disease which is
almost as common and as destructive which is properly termed swine
plague.
These two diseases are both contagious and of bacterial origin. They
resemble each other so very closely in their external symptons that it
requires an examination of the internal organs to determine between
them, and often then only microscopic study will reveal the difference.
These diseases must be fought by measures which will destroy the
bacteria, and prevent other animals fromm coming in contact with the
germs. The sick animals must be treated by remedies that will reduce
the fever, stop the increase of the germs of disease, and assist the dis-
eased organs in resuming their normal functions.
While it is important to know that the animal has one of these two
diseases, yet it is not important to know which, as the agents used to
destroy the germs of the one will destroy the other. In the most acute
and severe cases the animals die very suddenly, either before sickness
has been observed or after illness of only a few hours. In the greater
number of cases the progress of the malady is slower. There is first
seen signs of fever, shivering, unwillingness to move, more or less loss
of appetite, temperature may reach 106° or 107°, the animals are stupid
and dull, and like to hide in the litter and remain covered by it. The
bowels may be normal or constipated at the beginning, but later there
is a liquid and fetid diarrhcea. The eyes at first watery, but soon have
the lids gummed together. The breathing is more rapid than usual and
may be labored in the later stages. The animals may cough when
driven from their beds. The skin is often congested and red over the
abdomen, inner surface of the limbs, under surface of the neck, and on
the ears. The color varies from a pinkish red to dark red or purple.
414 SWINE.
An eruption is sometimes seen, which leaves crusts or scabs over the
skin. There is a rapid loss of flesh, the animal grows weak, stands with
arched back and the abdomen drawn up, and walks with a tottering,
uncertain gait. There is less and less inclination or ability to move, and
the weakness and exhaustion increase until death results. The disease
runs from one day to three weeks.
The symptons of swine plague in many cases are not noticeably differ-
ent from those of hog cholera. Frequently the lungs are extensively
imflamed in swine plague, and the breathing is more oppressed and
jabored, and the cough more frequent and painful.
The best remedy which has been tried is the following:
1 pound Wood Charcoal,
1 pound Sulphur,
2 pounds Sodium Chloride,
2 pounds Sodium Bicarbonate,
2 pounds Sodium Hyposulphite,
1 pound Sodium Sulphate,
1 pound Antimony Sulphide (Black Antimony).
The dose is a large tablespoonful for each 200 pounds weight of hogs
to be treated, given only once a day. When hogs are affected with these
diseases they should have at least once a day soft feed, made by mixing
bran and middlings with hot water, and then stirring into this the proper
quantity of the medicine. Hogs are fond of this mixture, and when
they once taste of food with which it has heen mixed they will eat it
though nothing else would tempt them.
Animals that are very sick and that will not come to the feed should
be drenched with the medicine shaken up with water. Do not turn the
hog on its back to drench it, but pull the cheek away from the teeth so
as to form a pouch, into which the medicine may be slowly poured, It
will flow from the cheek into the mouth, and when the hog finds out
what it is, it will stop squealing and swallow.
This medicine may also be used as a preventive of these diseases, and
for this purpose should be put in the feed of the whole herd. In cases
where it has been given a fair trial, it has apparently cured most of the
animals which were sick and has stopped the progress of the disease in
the herds. It is an excellent appetizer, and when given to unthrifty
hogs it increases the appetite, causes them to take on flesh, and assume
a thrifty appearance.
SWINE. 415
SWINE BREEDING AND FEEDING.
“Tt isa true saying ‘that farm stock will be just what its owner makes
it.’ It is true of swine to a greater extent perhaps than any other ani-
malonthe farm. They can exist under adverse conditions and live
with less care than any other stock, except, perhaps, the hen. On the
other hand they will more readily respond to good care and feed than
any animal we raise on the farm. ‘They can eat anything from dish
water to grass and grow upon it, if given something else to fill up the
ration.
Therefore, by this quality mentioned, he becomes a very valuable
animal to the farmer and farm. ‘There has been but little attention paid
by the average farmer to the breeding of swine, and less care given to
the selection of breeding stock, than any other branch of live stock.
Sometimes an enterprising farmer would break away from the custom of
keeping runts for breeding stock and buy a thoroughbred male and use
it on ordinary sows; but, also, the male from this cross was used by him
and his neighbors instead of buying another thoroughbred and using it
ots the females of the first cross. But many did not even go as far as
this; but were content to keep on breeding the same old razor back, with
long legs, narrow chests, thin hams and an ugly disposition—pigs that
looked large but weighed light. Now in the breeding of all animals we
must have some end in view, so too with the swine. As I am speaking
of the breeding of swine for profit, we have first to consider what the
market affords. In most markets the demand seems to be for a pig that
will weigh when dressed from one hundred to one hundred twenty-five
pounds with as much lean meat as we can get. With some packers a
one hundred fifty pound pig is more desirable. But heavy hogs seem to
be slow sale, and the time when tons of lard would be sold as pork for a
big price has passed away. Therefore, in the selection of breeding stock,
we should try to get what will weigh from one hundred to one hundred
twenty-five pounds, dressed, in the shortest time with the least amount
of food. ‘This is not an easy matter, but by a careful and judicious se-
lection governed by an unprejudiced study and trial of the different
breeds will enable one to come very close to getting the pig which will
accomplish this. There are several other things in the breeding of swine
that should not be neglected. As a pilot in steering his boat to the har-
bor must avoid all breakers, shallows and reefs, so too must the swine
breeder, in his effort to get the pig he wants, see that he discards the
416 SWINE.
pig with no constitution or one that is unprolific. How many breeders
in the effort to shorten the snout of their swine have ruined their strength
and vigor? Many more in their haste to broaden the back have very
materially shortened the heart girth, and in their effort to make their
legs small have made them weak and crooked. Poland-China breeders
of the west have a nice-looking, growthy pig; but, as a breeder of them
in central New York told me, his litters were from four to seven,
and small litters is the complaint of the west. There is also among them
a tendency to weak legs. Berkshires have been bred for fineness of
bone until they became too small, although in the last few years there
has been a great improvement in them. The Chester-Whites have been
bred for size until they are made up of masses of fat, to which the
butchers object. The Cheshires are a prolific and active breed, but are
rather too restless and, also, quite narrow on the back. The Duroc-
Jerseys are not as smoothly made as the Berkshire or Poland China, hut
in prolificness and quickness of growth will exceed either of them. Either
of these, that is the Duroc-Jersey, Berkshires or Poland-Chinas, I would
recommend to the farmer to use on ordinary sows, choosing the one
which will suit his fancy best. In choosing a male from these breeds
select one that has a snout of medium length, a slight dished face, good
size heart girth (be careful that there is not much depression back
of the shoulders), good length and breadth of back, a good wide space
between the front legs with a deep body and good square hams; also
lave the flank well down and a set of short, stout and straight legs.
The skin should not be thick and wrinkly, but thin and smooth with
soft bristles not too thickly set. This kind of a pig can be found better
at some reliable breeders, as he and others before him, have been work-
ing for years to get this type of a pig, and are, therefore, better prepared
to furnish the desired article. But by all means use a thoroughbred
sire and on his offspring use another one, thereby raising the quality of
your breeding stock. Be sure to start right in this direction so that your
feed and care in the future will produce the best results.
Having selected your breeding stock, the next thing is the keeping of
them. There has been a mistaken idea that breeding swine to do well
must be fed only enough to keep them just alive. Now, we know all
other breeding stock should be kept in good condition, and swine form
no exception. When mated, both the sire andthe dam should be in the
pink of condition to produce strong and healthy pigs, and during the
period of gestation the dam should be well fed on a variety of foods so
SWINE. 417
that she may store up food to feed the coming generation. Then, if she
is allowed a chance to exercise and good, dry quarters to nest in, barring
accidents, she will bring forth a good litter of strong pigs. As the time
of farrowing draws near she should be separated from others and given
a litter of short rye or wheat straw. Let her be kept as quiet as possible,
and if she has been rightly handled she will be gentle and allow any at-
tention.that is necessary., Give her sparingly of food for a few days and
increase her ration as you think the demands of her sucklers require.
Have the trough long enough so that the pigs can learn to eat. When
the pigs are four or five weeks old have, if possible, a pen where they
alone have access, and then give them what feed they wiil eat. At two
months of age wean them, and if the sow is kept for breeding, let her
again mate, which she will do within a week. Now, when the pigs are
weaned is the time to be careful. They should be fed at least five times
a day on a well-balanced ration, and not much at once, or their stomachs
wil] become distended and indigestion (which will stunt them) will be
apt to follow. They should have a nice pasture or orchard to run in, as
grass and apples will keep them growing and healthy.
A hog’s stomach being very nearly like a man’s; in fact, an old maid
once said to her class in physiology ‘the internal organs of a hog are the
nearest like a human being of any dumb brute, unlessit bea man.’ That
is the reason they do not agree any better, perhaps. For a single food,
give skimmed milk; next, wheat middlings. The best pigs can be raised
by feeding on wheat bran, corn meal, oil meal and skimmed milk, with
arunin pasture and orchard. But the most profit comes to him who
feeds the by-products of the farm in connection with a grain ration.
Small potatoes, windfall apples, even pumpkins will help put flesh on the
pigs. Do not feed much whole grain to a pig, as his teeth soon get sore
and it passes the stomach without being digested. But give him just
enough to clean his teeth after his soft feed. Never throw his feed in
the dirt, for although a hog needs fresh dirt, yet let them take it sepa-
rate. Be careful not to overfeed, as it will derange the stomach and the
pig becomes restless, rooting and eating stones, and there will be a loss
of feed as well as a loss of gain in the weight of the pig. Always make
it a rule to have the pig look for more without squealing for it. This
only can be done by watching them eat occasionally. To feed a pig all
he will eat at any great length of time is always attended with a loss.
The ocean steamer to cross the Atlantic a day quicker than the usual
time will consume twice the amount of coal besides the extra wear on
418 SWINE.
her machinery caused by the high rate of speed. So it is with the high-
fed pig, besides the loss of feed there is the extra amount of fat, which is
undesirable.
Remember, no butcher wants a pig over one hundred fifty pounds, but
would rather have them at one hundred pounds. It also costs less to
make a pig of that size than one heavier. Experiments show that one
hundred pounds of growth can be made, on a pig weighing fifty pounds
to start with, by feeding two hundred seventy-three pounds of feed,
while it requires four hundred seventy-nine pounds of the same kind of
food to make a like gain on a pig that weighs one hundred fifty pounds,
and it requires five hundred seventy-one pounds of food to make a one
hundred pounds gain on a two hundred fifty pound pig, showing that it
costs double to make a pound of pork on a two hundred fifty pound pig
that it does on a fifty pound one. So the man who feeds heavy pigs
produces what the market does not want at a greater cost than he who
feeds light ones.
Now, a few words as to the care of swine. Swine are natives of a
tropical climate, and are, therefore, sensitive to cold and dampness.
Then give them dry, warm quarters with not too much litter. Do not,
for the sake of your pocket, allow them to shiver and squeal all through
the storms and cold of winter. And last, but not least, do not kick and
club them when you wish to drive them, or when driven by hunger they
seek to satisfy their wants in forbidden places. But with kindness he
will go where you wish him to, and with proper feed and fence will stay
where you put him. No domestic animal will respond to kind treatment
and good feed quicker than the pig, and no animal will make a pound of
flesh with as small a cost as a pig. ‘There is no branch of farming
which has brought as much clean profit as pork making; to him who has
kept his pigs in clover doubly so. ‘That is, the man who has studied
intelligently to supply the wants of his swine.”’
LLEWELLYN LENT.
POULTRY DEPARTMENT.
How to Make Poultry Keeping Profitable.
A CONCISE DESCRIPTION OF THE VARIOUS BREEDS
WITH THEIR SPECIAL ADVANTAGES AND
DISADVANTAGES.
OULTRY is raised to a greater or less extent on every farm, and
whether they are kept for special profit or only for family use,
they should be cared for and thoroughly managed, as well as
other departments of the farm, so that whether few or many, a
profit may result from the investment of time and money.
The farmer has the advantage of plenty of room for his poultry, food
for them at first cost, and in return, by grafting this upon his other
work without any great extra expense, receives, if he does not care to
sell in the market, plenty of eggs for family use, choice young poultry
for his table, and a compost to enrich his soil.
If the poultry is raised for profit the farmer has the means of getting
his produce to market at once, and can contract with hotels and private
families, who want only good ‘‘fresh-laid eggs.’’ But this business, like
every other kind, to be really successful, requires thought, attention,
care, and intelligence, and when these are exercised under proper condi-
tions, there is sure to be ‘‘money in it.”
Nature’s laws are to be respected if success istofollow. Fowls, when
wild, live entirely in the open air, having perfect freedom, and the
farmer with his land may approach this condition as far as it is necessary.
POULTRY DEPARTMENT.
420
“STMOA NVISQIVANV
POULTRY DEPARTMENT. 421
Description. We here givea short description of the various breeds,
together with their characteristics, so that it will be easy to decide which
one will be the most suitable for the place where they are to be kept.
Andalusians. This is sometimes called the Blue Spanish and is one
of the leading varieties of the Spanish group. This group has been de-
scribed as follows:
“A close, compact, smallish-sized body, placed upon legs of a good
length ; the neck rather long, with a fine head; a large, upright-single
comb ; in the hen also large, but falling over one side; and the cocks
have large sickle-shaped tails.’’ Of course the color of plumage, legs, &c.,
are different in the several varieties, but the general appearance is as
here described.
In Andalusians the plumage is slate-colored, but on the cock’s neck
and back it is dark purple or nearly black. The birds are of a good
size, are prolific layers of large white eggs, are precocious as chickens,
very hardy, bear confinement well, are fair table birds when young, can
be kept on all fairly dry soils and are non-sitters. In selecting birds at-
tention should be paid to size, to erectness of carriage; and any white on
the face, which ought to be red, should be avoided, as this indicates a cross
with the black Spanish.’’
Brahmas. ‘This breed is one of the most prominent breeds of fowls.
It is chiefly valuable for its great size and hardiness, and for laying well
in winter. The eggs, which are buff in color, are often small, but are
rich in quality.
‘They are not a first-class table fowl, so far as quality of flesh is con-
cerned, having more of the flesh laid on the legs than on the breast; but
when young they are desirable, especeially when size is considered.
For a family fowl they are unequalled, and a large Brahina chicken is
a dinner for a fair sized family.
There are two varieties of Brahmas, the dark and the light, which are
alike, save in color. The bird is of pleasing shape, well-proportioned
and handsome. It has deep, massive body, neat head, small pea-comb,
and heavily-feathered legs. ‘They are good sitters and mothers, though
clumsy when old; are very quiet in habits; moderate layers; and can be
kept on any soil. ‘They are so large and the wings so weak they can
be kept in bounds with an ordinary fence.
Cochin. ‘This was once the most popular breed of all. Cochins
somewhat resemble the Brahmas in shape and appearance, but have more
feathers and are rather rounder. As winter layers they are fairly good,
422 POULTRY DEPARTMENT.
AN RS
COCHIN, ENGLISH TYPE,
POULTRY DEPARTMENT. 423
but in the spring they want to eternally sit, so few eggs are the result.
Of all fowls the Cochins are the greatest sitters, and when a Cochin
wants to sit, sit she will, even on stones or small blocks of wood, if she
has no eggs. They are clumsy and often break the eggs and kill the
young chicks.
The flesh is coarse and the bones are large, hence they make poor
table fowls.
There are four colors, buff, black, white, and partridge, all of which
look good on exhibition, in fact are handsome, and they are the fowl
where appearance, and not utility is looked for.
As a commercial fowl the Cochin is very undesirable.
a
Wy
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BZ
LACED WYANDOTTES.
Wyandottes. This is a variety of American origin, and one which
has won such great favor that it has become one of the most popular, if
not the most popular fowl of the present time. It carries the Sebright
lacing, and this makes it a very handsome bird, when it approaches any-
thing like perfection. The Silver Laced Wyandottes were the first of
this deservedly popular variety, but the Golds and the Whites have
since made their appearance. The Golds are very rich in color and are
very pleasing birds. It is a large breed, with the Asiatic shape, having
no feathers on the legs, and a rose comb. Itcombines most of the good
qualities, being a good table fowl, a prolific layer, a good sitter and
POULTRY DEPARTMENT.
424
‘“dNVO HSIIONS G10
POULTRY DEPARTMENT, 425
mother. The average farmer can make no mistake in introducing this
admirable bird for general use.
Leghorns. ‘This bird has a peculiar history. It is a sub-variety of
the Spanish type of fowls, ard being principally bred in Northern Italy,
it is all over the continental part of Europe called the Italian fowl. It
was brought from Italy to the United States, and then taken again
across the water to be introduced into England.
This is a breed of utility, and not a breed of fancy points. Originally
there were only two varieties, the white and the brown, but to these
have been added the black, the cuckoo, the darkwing, and the buff.
The Leghorns have a good-sized, single, deeply-cut comb, with saw-
tooth edges, which extends down well over the back of the head, and in
the hen falls over on one side, in a single fold; the wattles are long and
hanging; has white ear-lobes, yellow bill, red face, clean yellow legs,
and in the cock a sweeping tail.
The body is small, but close and compact, and their general appear-
ance is pleasing.
BROWN LEGHORNS, the subject of our illustration, have mark-
ings much like the brown-red game.
In the cock the hackles are golden bay, striped with biack; the back
is of general red color, each feather having a brighter bay stripe; the
breast is a rich black; their dark red wings are of good size and striped
across with bars of bay and a greenish-black; their long sickles are green
and black; and their legs are yellow.
In the hen the hackles are yellow, striped with brown; the back is
brown with slight pencilings; the breast is a light salmon-brown; the
remainder of the female bird does not vary much in appearance from the
male.
The other varieties are named from their general color or peculiarities,
and are easily identified. The blacks are self-color, the cuckoos are
black and white mixed, the darkwings are very similiar to game, and
the buffs have yellow feathers.
Leghorns are good layers, and their eggs are fair size, the White Leg-
horus laying the largest eggs and the greatest number.
They are a hardy fowl, bear confinement well, will thrive on any soil,
but are not first-class as a table-bird. They are small eaters, and when
at liberty will hunt diligently for food. As a producer of eggs for mar-
ket it is one of the best breeds that can be kept.
426 POULTRY DEPARTMENT.
BROWN LEGHORNS.
POULTRY DEPARTMENT. 427
Game. This is without doubt the oldest of the pure English breeds,
and for generations has been bred with great care and skill. In former
years game fowls were bred for cock-fighting, and courage and endur-
ance were the points most considered. But with a higher standard of
taste, and the laws against this cruel pastime, cock-fighting is done away
with, except such as is carried on secretly. Unfortunately, the fighting
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INDIAN GAME.
qualities remain, and for this reason it is difficult to keep pure bred
games. But for crossing purposes they are the very best, because all
kinds of games are fair layers, splendid sitters, attentive mothers, have
finer eating flesh than any other domestic fowl, are easy to rear, and can
be kept on any soil when at liberty. If the crossing is judiciously done
these characteristics can be largely retained, and the fighting qualities
lessened.
428 POULTRY DEPARTMENT,
Minorcas. ‘This is a fowl of Spanish origin, which has been care-
fully bred in the south-western part of England. A few years ago their
WHITE MINORCAS.
great laying qualities attracted the attention of the outside world, and
they have become very popular. They are hardy, easily adapt them-
selves to all soils and conditions, (whether confined or free to run), pro-
duce large eggs in abundance, and get their full growth young. They
are one of the most desirable breeds, being great egg producers and non-
sitters. ‘They surely merit their position as the first among the laying
ureeds of poultry.
‘The Minorcas are called by many ‘‘Red-faced Spanish,’’ because in
shape and appearance they much resemble the Black Spanish. It is pos-
sible that the two breeds were once the same, both having red faces, but
that the Spanish having
been bred to produce
the white face, lost
much of the good qual-
ities and strength of the
Minorcas,
In shape they resem-
ble the Leghorns, but
have a larger comb, red
face, white ear-lobes,
and cleanlegs. We give
: : illustrations of the two
RLACK MINORCAS. kinds, the black and the
POULTRY DEPARTMENT. 429
white, but the white are very scarce and not so desirable as the black
for general purposes. ‘The black isa fine all-around bird. ‘Their met-
alic black plumage makes them a ‘‘bird of beauty.”
They are among the best as layers, and can be kept on any soil, are
good fowls to hunt for their food, and small eaters.
Black Spanish. This breed is a small eater, a great layer of large
eggs, bears confinement well, and formerly merited all that could be said
in its favor. It was at one time the most popular of all breeds, but that
was before it was ruined by the breeders. ‘The fanciers have bred points,
the main one being the white face, until the original bird has lost its
strength and become a tender bird.
Though bred in this way, it is still a
good producer of eggs, but the chick-
eus are tender and hard to rear, slow in
feathering, and the moulting of the
full-sized bird seems to be attended
with difficult. and it is not a first-class
table bird.
There are a few strains which not
having been bred for exhibition, retain
their old qualities. In these the White
face is not prominent, but they are
difficult to get. If crossed with tha
Black M‘norcas strength will be secured
and without injury to the laying qualities.
The Black Spanish must be kept warm and in a dry soil. Thechick-
ens need special care, and the adult fowl during the moulting season
reqttires special treatment. They have bright black plumage, white
face, sweeping tail, and Llack legs. ‘The comb is single, laying over in
the hen, but erect in the cock.
Hamburghs. ‘The Hamburghs have the record of being the bes(
laying breed in existence. It is not an unusual thing for the hens ta
produce two hundred eggs a year. But as the eggs are small and the
fowls do not bear confinement, they are of little use to the general
farmer.
They are now generally regarded as the fanciers’ fowl, because of
their great beauty. The cock has a neat head, beautiful plumage, close
compact shape, sweeping tail, pure ear-lobes, and a handsome, well-
shaped rose comb. ‘he hen is rich in color, sprightly in carriage, and
WHITE FACED BLACK SPANISH.
430 POULTRY DEPARTMENT.
neat and saucy. ‘There are five varieties, the black, the gold penciled,
the silver penciled, the gold spangled, and the silver spangled. Of these
the most useful are the blacks, being the largest and laying the largest
eggs.
If this breed is crossed with some other that will increase the size of
the eggs, the result will be profitable, provided they are given plenty of
room. If confined it needs a very high fence to restrain them, but on a
farm where they can run they will do well. A few fowls can of course
be kept in a confined position, but where there are sixty or more they
need room. Under these conditions the Hamburghs are hardy, easy to
raise, and non-sitters, and where the number of eggs is of more import-
ance than the size, they make a very useful fowl.
White Plymouth Rocks. This useful bird, which originated in
old Massachusetts, is very popular wherever it goes. ‘There are three
varieties; the barred, white and black. Their bodies are large, the fall-
grown bird often
weighing from ten to
twelve pounds; their
legs are yellow and
strong; are fair lay-
ers of smalleggs, rich
in flavor; their flesh
is tender and sweet,
and they have a good
supply on the breast.
They are very hardy,
and can be kept on
any soil, and bear be-
ing shut in very well.
They are fair sitters and good mothers. ‘They are great favorites and
compete with the popular Leghorns for first place, as a general utility
fowl.
WHITE PLYMOUTH ROCKS.
Dominique. The Dominiques have not become a fowl of general
favor. It has many good qualities and would, if it could be procured
pure bred, well pay any one who would raise them. They are of Ameri-
can origin, and look some like the Cuckoo Dorkin, but the Dominiques
have arosecomb ‘They are a hardy fowl; will thrive on any ordinary
soi]; and are good table birds; capital layers; good sitters and mothers,
They have the much sought for yellow legs.
POULTRY DEPARTMENT’. 431
Tanshans. ‘This breed of fowls resembles the Black Cochin, and
there is much contention regarding its origin. It was introduced into
this country from England. It is an improvement on the Cochin in
everything but beauty, since the Langshan is a splendid layer, a fine
table bird, not a determined sitter, and a most valuable fowl for general
purposes, and the cochin is the opposite of all these.
LANGSHANS.
The Langshan is a large bird, which has long, slightly feathered legs.
It has a single comb standing upright; plumage of a beautiful metalic
lustre; very hardy; easily reared; bears confinement; very faithful moth-
er; anda fair sitter. It is a very valuable bird, and its beautiful bright
plumage makes it very attractive.
Dorkings. This is one of the oldest and best preserved of all Eng-
lish pure-bred fowls. ‘They are a great table fowl but not great layers.
The hens when full grown weigh eight pounds, and the cocks from ten
to twelve. Their bones are small and there is great quantities cf flesk
on their deep breasts.
‘The birds are tender and while enduring any amount of cold, they can
not endure dampness.
432 POULTRY DEPARTMENT.
Classification of the Characteristics of the Various Breeds.
We herewith classify for convenience the various breeds under their
general characteristics. In selecting a variety for profit, all the circum-
stances should be considered. "The amount of confinement, the soil,
and the care that can be given, are elements that must not be overlooked
in selecting the fowls. ‘Then determine whether there is wanted a table
fowl, or egg producers or a general-utility breed. A careful study of
the conditions and a judicious selection of the stock will be rewarded
by profitable results, provided the flock is properly cared for and
managed.
GOOD LAYERS, TABLE FOWLS, AND SITTERS.
Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes, and Langshans.
GOOD MOTHERS AND SITTERS.
Dorkings, Games, Dominiques, Plymouth Rocks, Langshans, and
Wyandottes.
NON-SITTING BREEDS.
Hamburghs, Minorcas, Leghorns, Andalusians, Houdans, and
Spanish.
TABLE FOWLS.
Dorkings, Houdans, Langshans, Plymouth Rocks and Wyandottes.
ON CLAY SOIL.
Avorr Dorkings, Spanish, and Polish.
CHoosE Minorcas, Leghorns, Houdans, Langshans, Game, Andale:
sians, or Wyandottes.
FOR VERY CLOSE CONFINEMENT.
Minorcas, Leghorns, Houdans, Plymouth Rocks or Wyandottes.
THE DISEASES OF POULTRY.
Causes. Naturally birds have but few diseases, but there is no
doubt but that these few have been greatly fostered and increased by the
system of keeping fowls which is now in vogue. The over-feeding upon
rich or unsuitable foods, the over-crowding and confinement, and the
keeping upon the same ground year after year, the in-breeding for
points, the exposure by sending to shows, have a tendency to make
birds subject to various diseases to which they formerly were strangers.
ft is much better to prevent diseases than to try to cure them after
attacking the fowl.
POULTRY DEPARTMENT. 433
As a preventive of the spread of diseases, where there is a fair sized
flock, it is best to destroy the sick bird immediately, ‘provided there is
any indication of a contagious disease.
It is somewhat difficult to recognize diseases of chickens, as the bodies
are covered with feathers, and there are so few ways in which the dis-
eases can be determined. Still there are symptoms to be found accom-
panying all diseases that may by a little careful examination be discov-
ered, and from these it is possible to determine what is the matter with
the fowl.
Never let a fowl that shows any signs of illness remain for a minute
with the flock. Put the diseased fowl in a separate place, where chlo-
ride of lime has been sprinkled. It is well in case of contagious disease
breaking out in a flock of birds, to well disinfect the grounds and
house.
If a fowl is seen moping or refusing its food, remove at once. If the
illness proves to be a contagious disease, the remainder of the flock may
be kept free, and if it is not, certainly no harm has been done.
Crop-bound. Occasionally a fowlis unable to pass the food from the
crop into the gizzard, and the crop becomes so filled with food that it
hangs like a bag in front of the bird. Although the crop is full, the
bird will if not relieved die of starvation, because no food will pass into
the stomach, so long as the obstruction continues.
Try and soften up the food by pouring some warm milk and water
down the throat, and kneading the crop with the hands. If taken in
time this usually effects a cure. If it does not, make an incision into
the crop, through the skin, and remove the contents with a very small
spoon, being careful to remove every particle. Then wash out the crop
with warm water, and sew up the incision, first the inside skin, then
the outside, with silk or horse hair. Feed the fowl on soft food without
water, for a few days and the cure is effected.
Gapes. A very common disease of chickens is known as gapes, on
account of the constant gaping of the mouth. This is caused by a small
worm which gets into the throat, and if not removed by the chicken
sneezing or by the hand, the chicken soon dies of suffocation.
It is difficult to determine the cause of these worms and where they
come from, but it is sufficient for us to know they are there and must be
removed. They may sometimes be prevented by applying to the heads
of newly-hatched chicks murcurial ointment, but in other cases all efforts
to get rid of them are in vain.
434 POULTRY DEPARTMENT.
Fumigating with carbolic acid is without doubt the most effectual
cure, and where many are affected with it, it is worth considerable trou-
ble to save their lives. Another and most common method is to remove
the worms by using a small quill feather dipped in turpentine. This is
passed into the throat, where it is twisted around and suddenly jerked
out, thus removing the worm. :
Some place the chicks in a box or barrel and dust them with fine lime
and ashes, which gets into the throats of the chickens, causing them to
sneeze and throw out the worms.
In fumigating with carbolic acid or dusting, care should be taken not
to carry it so far as to suffocate the young birds.
Apoplexy. Birds in fine condition are often found lying on the
ground in a helpless condition, unable to move or stand. This is apo-
plexy, and is caused by overfeeding, by which is meant not only too
much food, but also too rich food, especially the latter. Indian corn
is a very rich food, and it has been found to be the cause of
this disease in many instances. If there is a death in the flock from
apoplexy, take it as a warning that the remainder of the flock are sub-
ject to the same disease, and if you would save them reduce the food in
quantity and quality. ‘The helpless bird may be saved by bleeding on
the under side of the wing and by feeding on light food for some time.
Feather Eating. This disgusting habit is seldom found among
birds that are free to roam, and even in confinement it is principally
found in the Asiatic varieties and Houdans. When the habit is once
formed it is very difficult to cure, and it is best to remove any bird found
with the habit, and if not valuable, kill it; at the same time try to re-
move any cause that may exist.
Idleness is the great cause, so give the fowls a chance to run, and
some fresh soil, in which has been mixed bone meal. Put a small quan-
tity of salt in their food and give plenty of water. The following trans-
lation from a French Poultry Journal indicates the measures that are
most successful toward breaking up this bad habit :
‘The cause appears to us, to be attributed to the general discomfort
felt by all classes of poultry during the cold weather, and especially the
east winds. ‘The poor things, huddled together in a sheltered corner,
dare not come out in the open unless at feeding time, and then. they
never scratch about nor look for insects, grass, or those little nothings
which constitute the essential part of their food, and which is found in
every run well attended to. Under these circumstances the want of ani-
POULTRY DEPARTMENT. 435
mal food has made itself felt, and the opportunity and temptation being
within their reach, they have pulled at one another’s feathers, which
they eat with evident satisfaction. ‘Tie only immediate remedy is to
set them at liberty, but as this cannot be done in every case, one has to
be satisfied with the means at his disposal. Let them have, several
times a day, green-meat. Mix with the soft food, some meat cut up
into small pieces. Avoid tainted meat. Renew the sand in the runs,
and especially put dry sand under the sheds where the fowls generally
dust themselves. Care must be taken with a hen, although not picked
herself, but always pursuing the others, to isolate her. One single bird
is sufficient to set a bad example. In small runs it is the cock which is
generally picked first. Is it from excess of affection, or is it spite and
revenge? Itis dificult tosay. At all events, he seldom resentsit, and
and allows himself to be plucked without resistance. In this case the
best way to protect him, is to rub him over with a sponge dipped in
parafine. In repeating this operation two or three times, at an in-
terval of some days, the hens will entirely cease to strip their lord
and master.’’
Cholera. This disease is epidemic in its attacks, and is seldom seen
in any other country. It attacks isolated flocks and yards having poor
drainage or care, and often nearly depletes them. It is undoubtedly
malarial in character; and is very rapid in its action and termination.
The poison of the malaria affects the liver, poisons the blood, and causes
violent diarrhea. The fowl having this disease appears droopy, weak,
in high fever, has rough and draggled plumage, and is very thirsty. Its
droppings are of a greenish color. The following pill is highly recom-
mended :
60 grains Blue Mass. 25 grains Camphor.
80 grains Cayenne Pepper. 48 grains Rhubarb,
6 drops Laudanum.
Mix and make into twenty pills, giving one every four hours till they
act freely, and when they have acted follow with a tea-spoonful castor
oil and ten drops laudanum to each fowl.
Diarrhea. This complaint must not be confounded with ‘‘cholera,”’
and it can be readily distinguished by a difference in the color of the
droppings and the attendant symptoms, which are very marked in a
case of cholera. A simple diarrhea can usually be checked by the use
of bonemeal as a food. Boiled rice mixed with pounded chalk will often
stop it, and if possible to check it by either of these remedies, it is best
435 POULTRY DEPARTMENT.
to do so. When these remedies are not sufficient to check the disease,
give chlorodyne in water as prescribed on the bottle.
Roup. ‘This is a very contagious and fatal disease, and when it once
gets into a flock is very difficult to get rid of. Especial care is necessary
to see that it is not communicated from one fowl to another, and as long
as there is a case of roup about the place wash all dishes every day with
carbolic acid water, and the houses should be lime-washed once a week.
The affected bird, of course, will be separated from the flock, and as soon
as it is positively known that roup is the disease, killed off at once, and
very deeply buried.
The bird seems to have a cold, but roup is known by the offensive
breath, swollen face and eyes, and a discharge from the nostrils.
If this attacks a very valuable fowl and it is desirable to try and cure,
the following remedies may be successful. Wash the face, nostrils and
mouth with chlorinated soda to kill the mucus which gathers there.
Give sulphur or charcoal to cure the scrofula symptoms, and copaiba
capsules for the cold.
Common Cold, or Catarrh. This disease in poultry produces
the same symptonis that it does in man, namely: a running at the nose,
and a slight swelling of the eyes. It arises from exposure, and if not
attended to, may result seriously. To cure the cold the bird should be
kept in a warm place and have doses of copaiba capsules, and be given
nutritious food.
Bronchitis. Common colds sometimes settle on the bronchial tubes
instead of in the head, and the fowls are seen constantly coughing with-
out any other signs of a cold. ‘These symptoms are caused by bronchi-
tis. Generally all that is necessary to cure is to remove the bird at once
toa warm, moist atmosphere. A warm day should be chosen to re-
turn the fowl to its former house. If the cold lingers, give one grain of
calomel and one grain of tartar emetic each morning till an improve-
ment is seen.
Disorders of the Egg Organs. Bad feeding sometimes is the
cause of the delicate mechanism by means of which the egg is formed
and voided getting so disordered that it can not perform the functions of
nature. ‘These organs may be disordered by lack of a sufficient supply
of shell-forming material, which results in soft-shelled eggs. Birds that
are free to run generally find enough of the shell-forming material, so
that they are rarely troubled with this difficulty. Occasionally a hen
becomes egg-bound. When this happens inject into the oviduct a little
POULTRY DEPARTMENT. 437
castor or olive oil. Handle the bird carefully, as rough treatment may
easily break the egg. Such a circumstance is usually followed by a fatal
result.
Cramp. Chickens are sometimes seen with their toes curled in, and
later are found walking on their knuckles. This is cramp, caused by
being upon a clay or damp soil. Tocure, place the chicken upon a per-
fectly dry floor, and feed on corn-meal with warm milk. Bathe the
feet in warm water, rub dry and paint with turpentine.
Consumption. This is often an hereditary disease, and when so
it can not be cured, but there is a form caused by damp, dark, badly
ventilated houses. The bird gradually wastes away, there is a contin-
ual mucus discharge from the mouth, and a cough, and the poor bird
soon dies, leaving simply a mass of bones and feathers. If the disease
is acquired it may be cured if taken in time. The best treatment is
good housing, wholesome and abundant diet, and capsules of cod-liver
oil with quinine. Do not breed from any bird that has had the con-
sumption, even though apparently cured.
Diphtheria. This disease seldom makes its appearance in ordinary
poultry yards, being chiefly confined to exhibitions, and the ordinary
keeper need not fear the disease except when buying birds.
Its indications are, severe cold with high fever, and in the throat
white spots are seen filling the glottis. Any bird so affected should be
immediately killed, as it is very contagious, and when once it gets into
a flock it is seldom driven out without the sacrifice of all the birds.
Bumble-Foot. This disease is largely confined to the Dorkings and
Houdans. It is caused by a wart-like substance appearing in the ball
of the foot, which, if allowed to grow, will cause the bird to become so
lame it can not walk. The cause is high perches and constant walking
on stone or cement floors. The wart-like substance should be cut out
with asharp knife, and the part touched with nitrate of silver. after
which the fowl should be kept on a floor thickly covered with cut straw.
If very much inflamed do the foot up in cloths, which should be kept
wet with cold water.
438 POULTRY DEPARTMENT.
POULTRY KEEPING FOR FARMERS.
The following paper was read at the Farmer’s Institute at South
Easton, New York. Itis from the pen of O. B. Wilbur, one of the most
practical farmers in the country. We give it because of its great value
and practical suggestions:
‘“The question, ‘Is it profitable for a farmer to engage in the raising
of poultry?’ can only be answered by considering many of the condi-
tions under which the farmer is compelled to work, the help which could
be depended upon from the other members of the family, the convenience
to a ready market, the adaptability of himself or some member of the
family to the werk of disposing of the surplus product and many of the
circumstances which enter into the life of every industrious and hard
working farmer’s family.
The most essential thing contributing to the success of any business
is a liking of the person for that business. You can as well expect a
person who dislikes the care of horses or cattle to become a successful
stock raiser as look for a man who cares little for the fowls to succeed in
the poultry business. A love for the work is necessary in this as in any
other business. If a person has this satisfaction in caring for his poul-
try, there will be no other part of the farm work which will give him
more thorough enjoyment than this. ,
The next most important question is, ‘Will it pay?’ ‘There is no
doubt some of us present who would enjoy hitching up a high-spirited,
mettlesome horse, one which has known nothing of the pressure of a
hame collar upon his shoulders, or the fatigue of a hard day's work be-
fore the plow, take our little family into the carriage and drive into the
village on a pleasant summer afternoon to do our shopping and show our
valuable roadster. I haven’t the slightest doubt but what this would be
exceedingly gratifying to many of us, but I hardly think it would pay
the average farmer to keep a horse which is too high-spirited or valuable
to do the ordinary routine of farm work.
In the same way, it might be suited to our tastes to care for and ex-
hibit at the numerous shows, valuable thoroughbred poultry, but this
question, ‘ Will it pay?’ is the one which interests the most of us in the
greatest degree.
To the question, ‘ Will it pay the average farmer to keep poultry in
sonnection with the almost infinite variety of work which is found upon
ail general farms,’ I answer most emphatically, yes. If the work of
POULTRY DEPARTMENT. 439
caring for poultry is as well done as other work, I think there is hardly
any other kind of work on the farm which will prove so remunerative.
But we can not keep hens and neglect them and expect to realize much
profit from them. ‘With proper care a flock of hens on almost any farm
might be made to pay clear of all expenses from one dollar to two dol-
lars per head, and even more than that in many cases. I had much
rather have invested fifty or one hundred dollars in good laying hens
than an equal amount in sheep, hogs or cows.
If a man should tell me his fifty dollar cow had turned over to him a
clear profit of two hundred dollars in a single season, I should be inclined
to question his veracity, but should he or a dozen others say that from
their flock of fifty-cent hens they had in the same length of time cleared
above all expenses two dollars per head, I should not question them for
a moment, but would say, well done; I am glad you have found the
secret of success in poultry raising.
In the brief time which can be given to this paper, I can only outline
a few of the requirements necessary to the successful prosecution of this
part of the farm work.
The first thing is a suitable place in which to keep your fowls. One
need not necessarily go to the expense of erecting a costly building for a
hen-house, although were I to keep only twenty-five or fifty hens, I
should prefer to build a good substantial building separate from all
others, for a poultry-house, for the reason that so few farm buildings
would have a room which could be fitted up suitably forthe purpose. In
locating a building a dry spot should be selected, if possible sloping to
the south, then you can have your yards south of the house, thus being
protected from the cold north winds of winter, and in the spring the
warm, sunny days will quickly melt the snow so the fowls can sooner
get to the ground and scratch to their heart’s content.
The plans for building a hen-house are as numerous as the number of
people building them, but whatever the details of the plans are, it is
necessary to keep in mind that the house must be made comfortable and
warm, being free from cracks through which the wind can penetrate,
causing an indefinite number of diseases among your feathered tribe. Of
the two extremes, little ventilation or large cracks and holes in the wall,
I should by all odds choose the former. JI tried one winter to keep my
house thoroughly ventilated by opening trap doors in the ceiling up into
the loft, but I found my fowls were constantly being attacked with
sneezing and colds in the head. Since then I have kept the trap door-
440 POULTRY DEPARTMENT.
closed, even in the heat of summer, preferring to ventilate from below
the fowl’s resting place, and they have continued free from disease.
In building a hen-house, there is a tendency among amateurs to get
too many windows. Anything like an even temperature can not be
maintained when a large part of one side of the house is glass, unless by
means of shutters, curtains, or something of that kind. In the daytime
when the sun shines, you will have summer weather inside, but at night
the rapid radiation through the glass causes the temperature to rapidly
fall toa low point, thus exposing the fowls to great extremes in tem-
perature.
Do not crowd too many fowls into a limited space. The usual rule is
to allow ten square feet of floor area for each hen, and I have no doubt
but what more money. can be made per hen if they are given this amount
than if confined to closer quarters. I have, however, considered this
question from another standpoint, which is this. Many of us can keep
more hens in summer than our house will accommodate in winter, were
we to allow the usual ten square feet of space to each hen, so unless we
feel like enlarging the house, we must keep less in summer than we wish
to, or put more in the house in the winter than the rule will allow.
Now, I look at it in this way, that it is the total profit at the end of
the year which we realize that we are looking after, soif Ican make but
two dollars per hen by wintering one hundred, it is better than three
dollars per head for fifty. Ithus prefer to lessen slightly the profit in
winter that they may be increased in summer when the hens can run at
large and pick up a considerable part of their living.
Hens, to do their best, must have the most liberal hand to feed them,
and their bill of fare should be almost as varied as that of human bipeds.
Perhaps the plan which I attempt to follow in my own case may prove
of some interest to you. Every other morning the first thing I do after
U get up is to put a pail of small potatoes in the oven to bake, and by the
time we have our chores done and breakfast eaten they are ready to take
out and mash. I bake them for the simple reason that at this time in
the morning the oven is usually unoccupied, whereas the top of the
stove is being used in getting breakfast, so have no chance to boil them
without making a separate fire. After they are mashed I add some
water or skimmed milk, a small handful of salt, and every two or three
mornings a tea-spoonful of Condition Powders, tincture of iron, pow-
dered charcoal or half tea-spoonful of cayenne pepper. Experience
teaches me just how much water to put in, so that when the meal
POULTRY DEPARTMENT. 44t
is added, the whole will form a crumbly mass, being neither sloppy nor
containing dry meal.
The mornings when I do not bake potatoes as a basis for mash, I have
soaked over night in boiling water a quantity of clover heads and leaves,
which have fallen off the clover hay as it is pitched out of the mow to
feed. I have a clover cutter, but as this plan is handier than cutting
the whole hay, I have adopted it. The meal of which the mash is made
is composed of two parts of corn and oats ground together, two parts
wheat bran, two parts wheat middlings, and one part of either buck-
wheat middlings or rye shorts and some chopped boiled meat, and
frequently to this is added a handful of either oil meal or cotton-
seed meal.
At noon their food consists either of oats or buckwheat scattered in
the wheat chaff which covers the floor about four or five inches in depth.
At night they are given about all the corn or wheat they will eat. This
is also scattered in the chaff, if they have time to scratch it out before
they go on the roost, if not, I put it in the trough. I say, about all they
will eat, for when they stuff themselves completely full at night their
appetite in the morning is not so good as I would wish, and as the morn-
ing feed is cheaper than the evening meal, I endeavor to have them have
the best appetites, when I can fill them up on good egg-food for the
least money. I endeavor to have a constant supply of pure water before
them, also a supply of coarse ground bone, ground oyster or clamshells,
and—by the way—I much prefer clamshells, for they act partially
as grit, besides supplying the lime necessary for the egg-shell and
coarse ground charcoal, together with plenty of grit of some kind.
Heads of cabbage are hung up in convenient places for them to pick at
during the day, and specked apples, beets, etc., are frequently given.
I suppose a more varied diet might be given to them, but this
seems to agree very well with the constitution of my flock, so I have
adopted it.
The question is often asked, what is the most profitable breed to keep.
To this question I always answer, it all depends upon the fancy
of the person keeping them, and the purpose for which they are
kept. Ifa person seems to fancy Cochins, or Brahmas, or Langshans,
or any of the large breeds, and wants to raise poultry for market, the
variety which suits his fancy is the one for him, for he will do better
with the breed which pleases him, and there is no very great difference
in the value of the different varieties, if meat is what they are looking
442 POULTRY DEPARTMENT.
after. In the same way, if you fancy the Spanish, the Hamburg,
the Andalusians, the Minorcas, or the Leghorns, and keep fowls for
the number of eggs which they will produce, I say, choose the variety
which best suits you.
So, if your object is to produce the greatest number of eggs for the
least money, you don’t want any of the larger breeds; or if your object
is the production of meat, you do not want any of the Mediterranean
breeds. I think, however, most farmers are better adapted to a union
of the two objects, and desire a fowl which will lay a good quantity
of eggs, and at the same time have a good sized carcass when a chicken
is desired for the table, so would recommend some of the varieties
of Plymouth Rocks or Wyandottes, or some other of the medium-
sized fowls.
I will close by saying that no farmer should expect to be successful in
poultry-raising, unless he takes and carefully reads some of the numer-
ous papers devoted exclusively to the raising and care cf poultry. An
enterprising farmer can not afford to be without an agricultural paper,
and in no part of farm work should there be more deviation from the old
style of farming than in the care of poultry.. So I consider it necessary
for a live, energetic farmer, to take at least one good wide-awake poultry
journal.”’
BRONZE TURKEY,
THE POTATO.
Fungi and Bacteria Affecting the Potato.
1
LATE BLIGHT OR DOWNY MILDEW, EARLY BLIGHT OR
LEAF SPOT DISEASE, BACTERIAL BLIGHT, THE
POTATO SCAB, ETC.
HE diseases of the cultivated plants caused by fungi inflict upon
agriculture an enormous loss. Scientific investigation has been
carried on by the governments in various parts of the world, and
the recent experiments in spraying with arsenites for the destruc
tion of insects, and the copper solution or Bordeaux mixture for the
treatment of fungous diseases, proves that a large proportion of this en-
ormous loss might be saved by their applications.
This chapter is devoted to the fungous enemies of the potato. The
enemies of our fruit plants and trees are described under ‘‘FRUIT
CULTURE.”’
Late Blight or Downy Mildew. This disease is caused by a
fungi, (phytophora infestans) which generally appears rather late in
in the season. Its attacks are usually sudden and fatal, the plants that
are affected often being entirely destroyed in a few days.
The tubers are usually affected; rotting and giving off during the
process a foul odor. This disease spreads very rapidly during warm,
moist weather, and at such times it is very destructive.
The first indication of its presence is the appearance of brownish spots
upon the leaves in the shape of a downy mildew. These spots grad-
nally enlarge and finally the whole leaf turns dark brown or blackish.
444 ' THE POTATO.
Soon the remainder of the leaves become affected and the whole plant
eventually wilts and dies.
At the first appearance if the plants are sprayed several times with
Bordeaux mixture its ravages will be prevented.
A large number of the potato maladies of this country have until re-
cently been attributed to this fungus. Late investigations show that
there are other diseases that attack the potato, for which the Late Blight
has been held responsible. There is however one consoling fact whether
we are able to differentiate between this and other troubles or not, and
that is, that the remedy for this disease is likewise effective in those for
which it may be mistaken.
Early Blight or Leaf-Spot Disease. This disease which ap-
pears early in the summer is caused by the fungi called the macrospor-
ium solani. It shows itself in the shape of small, brown brittle spots
which are scattered over the leaf. Ifa careful study is made of the leaf
it will be found that their upper surfaces are somewhat roughened by
darker spots which are raised above the dead tissue which assumes a
gray color. ‘These spots are at first small but they slowly increase in
size and finally run together and form large brown patches between
which is found the leaf becoming yellowish or sickly green in color.
The plant finally withers and dies before the tubers are half grown.
This fungus is difficult to study in the potato field, because the spores
are produced on only a portion of the affected plants. It winters over
in the spore stage on the dead vines. Potato vines should always be
burned, and if the disease has appeared one year give several early appli-
cations of Bordeaux mixture. Do not plant potatoes on the same field
the next season.
Bacterial Blight. There is a potato disease due to bacteria.
Since it developes in the tissues that are attacked by the fungus just
described it is probable that the two have been confounded. ‘There
seems to be this difference however, the bacterial blight developes in all
parts of the plant, and generally starts from the seed planted which rots
in the ground. This disease is most troublesome in warm climates and
is shown by the early death of the plants, they oftentimes suddenly
wilting and the young potatoes decay.
Treatment of Diseases of the Potatoes. Experiments show
that these diseases may be prevented by spraying with the Bordeaux
mixture. Vines thus sprayed remain in a healthy condition long after
THE POTATO. 445
untreated vines are dead, thereby developing larger potatoes and con-
sequently a greater yield.
At the experimental station in Rhode Island two rows in the center of
a. field were not treated with the Bordeaux mixture and the leaves
blighted and dried up soon after August ist., leaving only the bare,
dead stems, while the plants in the rows that were treated remained
with their leaves green and healthy. When the potatoes were dug in
the fall the untreated rows yielded marketable tubers at the rate of
thirty-three barrels per acre, while the others averaged ninety-seven
barrels per acre.
The first application of Bordeaux mixture should be made when the
vines are one-third grown or earlier if the disease appears. If it is
washed off by rain repeat after two weeks. If the Colorado beetle is
present add half a pound of London purple or Paris green to each forty
gallons of Bordeaux mixture.
Potato Scab. Nearly every farmer is more or less familiar with
the disease of potatoes called ‘‘scab.’’ It is scientifically named Oospora
scabies. Farmers have noticed that this disease is most prevalent in
fields that have been heavily fertilized by barnyard manure. ‘his is
supposed to be caused by the stock being fed with potatoes that have
been affected by the scab. ‘The spores of this disease do not seem to
lose their fertility during digestion and passes out into the compost to
be spread over the field and attack the developing tubes. It can often
be seen on partially developed scabby potatoes in the shape of fine white
threads running over the surface. Repeated experiments show that if
scabby potatoes are planted, scabby potatoes will be dug in the fall.
Treatment. Dr. Roland Thatcher after many years of study and
experiment describes the preventive measures as follows :
1. The seed must be freed from scabs.
2. Land that has produced scabby potatoes must not be planted with
potatoes in less than three years.
3. Land planted with potatoes must not be fertilized with manure from
stock that have been fed scabby potatoes or beets.
4. Scabby potatoes should not be fed stock raw, but should always be
thoroughly cooked, even if the Jand on which the manure is to be placed
is not to be immediately planted with potatoes.
5. Any other fertilizer is to be preferred to barnyard manure, even if
free from droppings of animals fed on diseased potatoes.
6. If the potatoes show evidence of ‘‘scab’’ dig as soon as mature, be-
446 THE POTATO.
cause if left in the ground the diseased spots spread and deepen.
7. The disease may be prevented by placing the seed (cut if desired)
in coarse sacks like coffee-sacks through which liquid will readily pass
and soak for an hour or two in the following: to two ounces of finely
pulverized corrosive sublimate (murcuric bichloride) add three gallons
of hot water and allow to stand over night or until it is dissolved. To
this add twelve gallons of water and stir thoroughly for five or six
hours. ‘The potatoes after being in the liquid for the required time
should be dried before being planted.
Caution. Plant all potatoes treated. This solution is a deadly
poison, but at this strength is not dangerous unless taken into the
stomach. ‘The poison being corrosive should only be placed in wooden
vessels. NEVER USE METALLIC VESSELS.
Bordeaux Mixture. This fungicide originated in France. For
directions how to muke see page 540.
How to Prepare Carbonate of Copper. Dissolve in a barrel
twenty-five pounds of copper sulphate in hot water. In another barrel
dissolve thirty pounds of sal soda in hot water. Allow both solutions to
cool, then slowly pour the solution of sal soda into the copper sulphate
solution, stirring the same. Fill the barrel with water, and allow the
precipitate of copper carbonate to settle. Upon the following day
siphon off the clear liquid. ‘This operation washes the carbonate free of
most of the sodium sulphate which contaminates it. Make a filter of
stout muslin, by tacking the same to a square wooden frame, which will
just fit over the top of the second barrel, letting the muslin hang down
loosely so as to forma sack; through this filter the precipitate, so as to
drain off the excess of water, and as the filter fills remove the precipi-
tate, and allow it to dry in the open air, when it is ready for use.
Carbonate of copper is commonly used in the form of an ammoniacal
solution, made by dissolving four ounces of carbonate of copper in two
quarts of ammonia, and then adding to a barrel of water. The carbon-
ate will dissolve more readily if mixed with water enough to form a
paste before it is added to the ammonia. Itis a simple fungicide, easy
to make and apply, and as it is a clear solution there is no trouble with
it clogging nozzles.
STANDARD RECEIPTS.
“THOROUGH INFORMATION IN PLAIN LANGUAGE,
RELIABLE AND SCIENTIFIC.
Practical and Valuable Remedies.
COMPREHENSIVE, THOROUGH, AND EASILY UNDERSTOOD.
®
e
Good Samaritan Liniment or Pain Killer. This is one of
the best liniments made. It affords relief in bruises, sprains, burns,
rheumatism, neuralgia, and headache.
2 quarts 95 per cent. Alcohol, 1 ounce Spirits of Turpentine,
1 ounce Balsam of Fir, 1 ounce Chloroform,
1 ounce Oil Sassafras, 1 ounce Oil Hemlock,
1 ounce Tincture Catechu, 1 ounce Tincture Guaiacum,
2 ounces Oil Origanum 3 ounce Gaim Camphur,
3 ounce Oil Wintergreen.
Dissolve the gum camphor and oils in the alcohol, before adding the
other ingredients.
Rheumatic Liniment. This can not be surpassed for human ail-
ments, such as, rheumatism, sprains, bruises, lameness, etc.
1 ounce Oil of Spike, 1 ounce Gum Camphor,
1 ounce Oil of Wormwood, 1 ounce Oil of Hemlock
2 ounces Sweet Oil, 1 ounce Oil of Origanum,
1 ounce Spirit of Ammonia, 1 pint Alcohol.
Mix well together and keep well corked. By adding one ounce
spirits of turpentine it makes an unequalled horse liniment.
448 STANDARD RECEIPTS.
Arnica Liniment. ‘This is a valuable liniment for wounds, stiff
joints, rheumatism and sprains.
1 pint Sweet Oil,
2 table-spoonfuls Tincture of Arnica.
The leaves may be used instead of the tincture, by putting them in
the oil and heating over a slow fire. Then strain.
Chilblain Liniment. This will allay the itching burning sensa-
tion and by proper care effect a cure.
1 ounce of Liquor of Subacetate of Lead,
2 ounces of Spirits of Camphor.
Mix thoroughly and apply at least four times a day.
Chloroform Liniment. This is one of the best applications for
neuralgic and rheumatic pains.
1 ounce of Chloroform, 1 ounce Spirits Camphor,
1 ounce Ether, 1 ounce Tincture of Opium,
4 ounce Tincture of Cayenne Pepper.
Bathe frequently, or until pain becomes subdued.
Camphor Liniment. As an application it isa very powerful out-
ward stimulant. It is most valuable in chronic rheumatism and other
painful affections. It is especially valuable as an outside application in
sore throat or diseased bowels.
1 quart Olive Oil.
4 ounces Gum Camphor.
Mix and put the bottle in hot water. Keep in hot water till the camphor
is thoroughly dissolved. Its full strength and benefit is best obtained,
if the parts treated are covered with oil-silk after the liniment is applied.
Spirits of Camphor. A quantity of this remedy should always
be on hand, ready to be used as an external application for sprains,
local pains and stitches.
1 quart of Alcohol,
4 ounces of Camphor Gum.
The gum will readily dissolve in the alcohol. It should be applied by
rubbing the painful part with the hand. Cover the part after rubbing
with flannel, wet with the camphor. i
Camphor may be beaten for some time in a mortar and not be reduced
to a powder, but if a few drops of the spirits of wine be added it may de
easily be made fine. Adding water to camphor dissolved in alcohol
turns it white.
STANDARD RECEIPTS. 449
OINTMENTS.
Camphor Ointment. This is an ointment which will be of bene-
fit to ripen (bring to a head) tumors.
2 ounces Adeps (Lard),
1 ounce Powdered Gum Camphor.
Mix thoroughly. This is to be applied by putting on cloths and
placing over the sore.
Pile Ointment. This when faithfully used will relieve the itching
burning sensation so common to this annoying disease. Keep the bow-
els loose and regular, and be careful of the diet.
2 ounces Adeps (Lard),
1 ounce White Wax,
3 scruples Powdered Opium,
6 scruples Flour of Sulphur.
Melt together the lard and wax, stirring constantly till cold, then
add the other ingredients.
Wonder Ointment. This ointment should be in the cupboard of
every family, to use in case of burns, scalds, cuts and sores. It is heal-
ing and soothing. Gather your roots while you can, and prepare a few
boxes.
1 ponnd Root ot Yellow Dock,
1 pound Root of Dandelion,
$ pound Root of Plantain.
Put to steep in water and extract the juices. Press out the juices
after steeping. Strain carefully and simmer the liquid till half its
original bulk. Add some oil and fresh butter and again simmer till all
the water is gone. Then box and keep ready for use.
Iodoform Ointment. This remedy is largely used to heal sores
caused by syphilis.
1 dram of Iodoform.
_ 15 drams of Adeps (Lard).
Add sufficient alcohol to make into an ointment. ‘This has been used
with success in many very severe cases.
Tar Ointment. This is a popular remedy among the Southern
people,,who use it for scalds and burns.
6 ounces Tar,
8 ounces Mutton Tallow.
Melt together and stir till cold. It is an excellent remedy for scald-
450 STANDARD RECEIPTS.
head and ringworm. For scald head, first wash the head well then ap.
ply the ointment.
Carbolic Ointment. ‘This salve should be used, when there is the
least danger of ‘‘proud flesh.’’ It is what is known as the antiseptic
treatment. ‘That is the treatment that will destroy the germs of the air,
that often are absorbed into wounds and prevent their healing.
1 fluid dram Carbolic Acid,
4 ounces Adeps (Lard),
Melt lard at a gentle heat, add the carbolic acid and stir till cold.
Cucumber Ointment. A soothing ointment good for allaying the
feverish condition of the skin, or chapped hands or lips.
6 fluid ounces Oil Sweet Almonds, 2 ounces Spermaceti,
4 ounce White Wax, 1 fluid ounce Glycerine,
4 pounds Green Cucumbers.
Chop the cucumbers into small pieces, and mash them in a stone jar,
let them lie in their own liquor over night, then press and strain. Melt
the spermaceti and wax together and add the almond oil. Set the pan
in which the melting ingredients are, into a larger pan of boiling water.
When melted, add to it the strained cucumber liquid, stirring all the
time so as to have them thoroughly mix. Set on cellar bottom or in an
ice-box till cold, then stir with wooden spoon, when the watery portion
of the cucumber will separate from the ointment; pour off this watery
portion and then mix the glycerine with the ointment without heating
by thoroughly working with a spoon or the hands. Put into jars and
cover with a few drops of rose water. Keep in a cool place.
PLASTERS AND BLISTERS.
Plasters. These are extensively used for holding together the edges
of cuts or wounds. They are also according to their composition used
to relieve pain, reduce swellings or soothe inflamed surfaces. Sub-
stances which, when applied to the skin produce a redness and increase
of heat, are often the main part of what is commonly called a
plaster.
Blisters. A substance applied to the surface of the body to cause a
secondary morbid action, with the view of relieving one already exist-
ing, is called a blister.
STANDARD RECEIPTS. 451
Adhesive Plaster. This is the well known adhesive plaster, so
much used for drawing together the edges of a cut or wound and hold-
ing them in position, till healed. It is also used to protect from the air
and further injury portions of the body when the skin has been ac-
cidentally removed. It is slightly stimulating and it is supposed to aid
in the healing process.
1} pounds Litharge,
1 quart Olive Oil,
1 gill Water.
Mix with an iron spoon, in a well polished copper kettle the litharge
and water, then add the oil and boil, stirring all the time until the plas-
ter is sufficiently hard when cold. This process requires considerable
time. Take:
5 ounces of Above Mixture,
1 ounce Resin.
Mix by a moderate heat, and spread thinly upon muslin, or linen. A
thin paper moistened with olive oil, and then wiped dry, may be laid
over the surface and the plaster rolled up, put in an air-tight tin tube
and be ready in emergencies.
Court Plaster. This plaster is merely a kind of varnished silk.
By following the directions here given, a very superior article is the re-
sult. It will not crack nor break, which makes it far superior to much
that is on the market.
pound of Isinglass
pint Proof-Spirits of Wine,
ounce Balsam of Peru,
Silk on which to apply.
Dissolve the isinglass in as small a quantity of warm water as possible.
Let it simmer on the back of the stove till the water is well out, then
supply its place by the spirits of wine which will combine with the
isinglass. Strain through a piece of muslin, and have it reduced in
quantity till like a jelly. Tack the silk tightly on frames, and with a
camel’s hair brush apply three coats of the prepared isinglass, which has
been made liquid by gently heating. Do not put on the second coat,
till the first is dry. After the isinglass coats are dry, give the surface
two or three coats of the balsam of Peru.
he
A Corn Cure. Cut a piece of paper the size of a one-cent piece,
and in the centre of this cut a hole the size of the corn. Put this over
a piece of adhesive plaster cut to the same size, and warm the plaster
452 STANDARD RECEIPTS.
shown by the hole. To this small portion add a little nitrate of silver.
Remove paper and apply tothe corn. A couple of applications seldom
fail to cure.
Strengthening Plaster. This an excellent plaster to relax the
muscles and for weak joints caused by sprains and bruises.
6 ounces of First Part of Adhesive Plaster,
1 ounce of White Resin,
4 ounce each Yellow Wax and Olive Oil,
1 ounce Red Oxide of Iron.
Rub the oxide well into the oil, melt the other parts and add. Mix
well together. Spread the plaster on leather, cut into narrow strips
and wind around the sprained joint.
Mustard Plaster. This will furnish an ever ready mustard plaster
which is far superior to the untidy, annoying wet. plaster so often used.
4 pound Pulverized Black Mustard Seed,
6 ounces Mucilage of Gum Arabic.
Cover paper or smooth cloth with the mucilage and dust over the sur-
face the powdered black mustard seed. The strength will depend up-
on the amount dusted on the surface. When dry put away in air-tight
fruit-jar. When wanted plasters of anv size can be cut from the
roll,
Spanish Fly Blister. This is a strong and active blister, which
will act quickly and powerfully.
6 ounces Burgundy Pitch, 2 ounces Beeswax,
9 ounces Venice Turpentine, 6 ounces Cantharides,
$ ounce Powdered Mustard, 3 ounce Powdered Black Pepper.
Mix over heat but it must be less than boiling water.
POULTICES.
Poultices. These are generally made of substances that will take
up and hold large quantities of water, and retain a soft condition.
Their power to cure depends upon the heat retained by the poultice and
the liquids with which they are mixed. Milk will not evaporate as
quickly as water. Glycerine added to a poultice will aid in keeping it
soft. A layer of mosquito netting between the poultice and the skin
will keep the mass together so that there will be no trouble in chang-
ing the poultices when fresh ones are needed. Poultices should be kept
STANDARD RECEIPTS. 453
warm and moist by covering the outside with oil-silk, a sheet of gutta-
percha or India-rubber cloth. A square cut from some old gossamer,
will be the best that can usually be obtained.
Slippery Elm Poultice. This poultice will remove inflammation
sooner than any other. It is used to allay pain and hasten suppuration.
It is extremely valuable in boils and ulcers.
1 pound Slippery Elm Bark,
3 ounce Tincture of Myrrh.
Stir in hot or warm milk or water, enough of the slippery elm bark to
make a poultice of the required size, stir thoroughly and add its propor-
tion of the tincture. Apply warm and keep it moist by covering.
Flaxseed Poultice. This poultice is of much value because it will
not crack when it becomes dry.
2 ounces Powdered Flaxseed,
1 gill Hot Milk or Water.
Prepare by slowly sprinkling the flaxseed into the liquid, all the time
thoroughly stirring with a spoon.
Charcoal Poultice. This poultice should always be used with ul-
cers or with any sore that has a tendency to mortification. ‘The char-
coal is an antiseptic which has great purifying properties, as well as the
power to destroy the offensive smell coming from putrid sores.
1 pound Powdered Flaxseed,
3} pound Powdered Charcoal.
Add hot water or milk to make it the proper consistency. Add some
glycerine to keep it soft. The following may be used if preferred:
4 ounces Dry Bread,
1 pint Boiling Water,
2 ounces Powdered Flaxseed,
1 ounce Powdered Charcoal.
Soak the bread in water till soft, add the flaxseed and three-fourths
of the charcoal. Before applying, sprinkle the remainder of the char-
coal over the surface of the poultice.
Soap Poultice. This is an old fashioned remedy having much vir-
tue. It is of greatest value in scalds and burns.
2 ounces of Scraped White Soap,
$ pint Boiling Water.
Dissolve the soap thoroughly in the water and use the liquid for mix-
ing with sufficient bread or flaxseed to make a poultice.
454 STANDARD RECEIPTS.
HOW TO PRODUCE SWEATING.
Perspiration. Colds may be ‘‘broken up,’’ by a good ‘‘sweat’’
that would otherwise terminate in a long run of fever. Common reme-
dies are usually at hand; and it is only necessary to know how to use
them. ‘lake a sweat as soon as a cold is noticed.
Boneset Tea. A valuableremedy that can be always at hand.
Gather the boneset while in blossom or procure at the drug-store.
2 ounces Boneset,
1 quart Boiling Water.
Boil for half hour. ‘Take four table-spoonfuls as hot as possible every
thirty minutes. This will produce a profuse perspiration,
Sweating Tea. This will produce sweating in many of the most
obstinate cases.
2 ounces Pleurisy Root,
3 Pints Water.
Simmer for half hour. Take a tea-spoonful as often as the stomach
will bear it.
Sweating Drops. Take a tea-spoonful of peppersauce upon sugar
before going to bed. Cover up warm, and a good sweat will be the re-
sult.
EMETICS.
Common Emetic. An emetic that can be obtained at a moments
notice is sometimes essential. This may be obtained at almost any
home, and is a reliable emetic.
2 tea-spoonfuls Common Salt,
2 tea-spoonfuls Mustard.
1 glass Warm Water.
Drink all the stomach will take.
Emetic Syrup. This is a valuable emetic, and a family having
children should never be without a bottle of this syrup.
1 ounce Simple Syrup,
1 ounce Wine of Ipecacuanha,
2 ounces Water.
Mix and take from one-half to one ounce every quarter hour till
vomiting takes place. For a child give twenty drops or more according
to age
STANDARD RECEIPTS. 455
WORM REMEDIES.
Symptoms. The symptoms denoting worms are quite common to
the various species. The surest is to find them in the passages of the
bowels. The other symptoms are: starting during sleep; grinding of
the teeth; itching of the nose; and indigestion with a variable appetite.
Stomach Worms. ‘To expel these from young children use the
following faithfully and success will follow:
2 ounces Fluid Extract Pink-root,
16 grains Santonine.
Mix and give a child two years old one tea-spoonful night and morn-
ing, until it physics.
Pin Worm Remedy. The thread or seat worm may be washed
away by an injection of quassia which has been soaked for twenty-four
hours in water enough to cover. This should be followed by doses of
the stomach worm remedy. It is well to take a tonic after the expulsion
of worms.
COUGH REMEDIES.
Cough Mixture. A large number of cough remedies contain some
form of opium, as laudanum or paregoric, which while having the de-
sired effect upon a cough has a tendency to constipate the bowels,
which has to be overcome by a cathartic. The following is a val-
uable remedy which does not constipate.
4 ounces Iceland Moss, A table-spoonfuls Pearl Barley,
2 ounces Tincture of Lobelia, 4 ounces Poppy Capsules,
2 pint Molasses, 4 quarts Water,
3 pound Sugar Candy.
Mix all together excepting the candy, and boil down to three quarts,
then dissolve in it the candy. Dose, one table-spoonful when the cough
is troublesome.
Cough Mixture No. 2. This is a valuable remedy for coughs and
hoarseness.
2 ounces Horehound, 1 ounce Comfrey Root.
2 ounces Boneset, 1 ounce Spikenard,
2 ounces Lobelia Herb, 1 ounce St. John’s Wort,
1 ounce Poppy Capsules, 3 pound Loaf Sugar,
4 quarts Water.
Mix all together excepting the sugar and let stand in warm place for
456 STANDARD RECEIPTS.
three hours, then add sugar and boil down to asyrup. A table-spoon-
ful is a dose.
Valley’s Mixture for a Cough. This remedy while being a
valuable remedy has the feature of being pleasant to take. Children
will not refuse the medicine.
1 tea-cupful Flaxsed,
14 ounces Powdered Licorice Root,
¢ pound Chopped Raisins,
2 quarts Water.
Put the licorice root and raisins into the water and boil till the
strength is extracted, then add the flaxseed which has been soaked over
night. Let all boil for an hour, watching and stirring to prevent it
from burning. Boil in a rice-kettle if it can be obtained. Strain and
add lemon juice and granulated sugar to taste. Take a tablespoonful
whenever cough is troublesome, and the same quantity warm just before
retiring.
Hive Syrup. This old and well known remedy has been changed
some in the composition, substituting sugar for honey. When made of
honey it fermented almost invariably. Made after the following receipt
it will keep without spoiling. Largely used in croup.
1 ounce Squills,
1 ounce Seneca Snake-Root,
1 pint Water,
Boil down to one-half and strain. Add one-half pound of sugar and
twelve grains tartrate of antimony. Dissolve the sugar by agitation
without heat. Dose, as an expectorant for adults twenty to thirty
drops. For children five drops as an expectorant. As an emetic which
may be repeated every fifteen or twenty minutes till vomiting is the re-
sult, give ten drops to a tea-spoonful.
Hive Syrup, No. 2. This can be prepared by purchasing the
compound syrup of squills, instead of making the same as in the first
receipt.
6 ounces Compound Fluid Extract quills,
48 grains Tartar Emetic,
40 fluid ounces Simple Syrup.
1 fluid-ounce Hot Water.
Dissolve the tartar emetic in the water, and with the other ingredi-
ents.
STANDARD RECEIPTS. 457
Murphy Cough Syrup. This combination is specially useful for
asthma, hoarseness, aud coughs.
ounce Slippery Elm Bark,
ounce Elecampane,
ounces White Root,
ounce Snake Root,
ounce Horehound,
quart Water,
1 pint Holland Gin.
1 ounce Blood-root,
1 ounce Colt’s Foot,
2 ounces Spikenard Root
% ounce Comtrey Root,
3 ounce Poplar Bark,
1 gill Molasses,
Mike eR De
Mix all together excepting the gin, and let simmer for one hour.
When cool strain and add the gin. Dose, one table-spoonful every hour,
or three tablespoonfuls three times a day.
Blood Root Syrup. This is one of the standard remedies and is of
great value in bronchial troubles, coughs, and difficult breathing.
5 ounces Bruised Blood Root,
3 ounces Sugar,
3 pints Water.
Simmer gently till it thickens, then add one table-spoonful of paregor-
ic. Dose is one table-spoonful occasionally, for a child one tea-spoonful
or less according to age.
To Cure a Cold. Often a cold is accompanied with an annoying
cough. The following remedy is very soothing and healing.
3 pounds Pine Needles,
4 pound Loaf Sugar.
Steep the needles in water and boil down. Add the loaf sugar and
boil till it thickens. Drink of it while warm, during the day and before
going to bed.
MEDICATED SYRUP.
Simple Syrup. The solutions of sugar in water more or less strong
according to the use for which it is intended are known as syrups If
care be taken in the manufacture and only the best of sugar and pure
water be used the danger of fomentation (working) is largely avoided.
There is one proportion which is considered stancard among druggists
and is known by them as simple syrup. Often times the manufacturer
of medicines requires weaker syrups, and the dishonest druggist uses
them instead of the standard.
458 STANDARD RECEIPTS.
Two pounds of the best quality of loaf sugar toa pint of water. This
should be boiled in copper until if a little be placed between
the forefinger and thumb, on opening them it will be drawn into a
small thread. A little of the white of an egg well beaten, put in before
set on the fire; and placing it so it will simmer not bubble nor boil, will
clarify the syrup by rising to the top. As soon as the scum appears,
take off the scum, and let it simmer, taking off the scum until the syrup
becomes clear, and the scum as white as milk. To prevent granulation
add half dram of acetic acid to each pint of syrup.
Rhubarb Syrup. Rhubarb is well known as a gentle physic, but
it is bitter and unpleasant to the taste. Prepared as a medicated syrup
it loses its unpleasant taste.
3 ounces Fluid Extract Rhubarb,
1 pint Simple Syrup.
Mix, and shake the botttle a few times during the day. Then filter
next day and it is ready for use.
Rhubarb and Senna Syrup. Rhubarb and senna in combination
operate quicker as a physic than rhubarb alone.
2 ounces Rhubarb Root,
2 cunces Senna Leaves,
3 ounce Cardamon Seeds,
1 quart Dilute Alcohol.
Put the senna leaves, cardamon seeds, and the rhubarb root (bruised)
with the alcohol into a well covered fruit can, and let stand at least two
weeks in a moderately warm place, shaking it at least twice a day.
Then simmer to one-half the quantity, strain and add half pint of simple
syrup.
Sarsaparilla Syrup. This is the basis of the sarsaparillas sold
on the markets as patent medicines. Sarsaparilla is not considered at
the present time by the medical fraternity as possessing much virtue,
but it is largely used as a medium in which to take other medicines.
14 pounds Sarsaparilla, 3 ounces Guaiacum Wood,
2 ounces Licorice Root, 2 ounces Pale Rose Senna,
3 pints Diluted Alcohol.
Mix and allow tc stand in closed vessel forty-eight hours. Filter
through a very slow filter, that will not allow the liquid to pass through
faster than a drop at a time. Add dilute alcohol occasionally till the re-
sult is about ten pints. Evaporate over steam or water to five pints.
Add and thoroughly mix five drops each, oils of sarsafras and anise and
STANDARD RECEIPTS. 459
three drops oil of gaultheria, which have been thoroughly rubbed with
a small portion of the solution.
Chamomile Syrup. This preparation is as clear as the syrup and
has the advantage of being quickly prepared.
4 ounces Fluid Extract Chamomile,
12 ounces Simple Syrup.
Dose is from two to four drams, or two to four tea-spoonfuls,
MEDICINAL ESSENCES.
Peppermint. This an old and reliable remedy. Much that is sold
at drug and grocery stores is far from being up to the standard
strength.
1 ounce Oil of Peppermint,
4 ounce Peppermint Herb,
1 pint Spirits of Wine.
Let stand for a week or more till the peppermint herb colors it to a
pale tint of green. This coloring process is not necessary, nor is it
necessary to use any of the herbin the above, but many people prefer to
have the essence of this pale green color.
This is a strong essence, the usual strength being one ounce of the oil
to a quart of the spirits. A dose of the strong would be about ten to
twenty drops.
Wintergreen. Often used in the place of peppermint. Ordinary
strength is as follows:
1 ounce Oil of Wintergreen,
1 quart Spirits of Wine.
Dose, from twenty to sixty drops.
Jamaica Ginger. This is an inexpensive and easily prepared
‘incture of ginger.
4 pound Jamaica Ginger,
3 pints Spirits of Wine.
Bruise the Jamica ginger and let stand two weeks. Then press and
strain. Dose, one tea-spoonful.
Essence of Beef. A very valuable remedy for nourishment, when
a person is not able to digest more solid food.
1 pound Lean Beef,
4 pint Water.
Chop the beef yery fine and put in a quart bottle, then add the water.
460 STANDARD RECEIPTS.
Put the bottle into a kettle of cold water, and put over the fire. Let it
boil violently for half an hour. Then pour off the liquid and boil the
remaining meat in one pint of water for the same time. Strain both
liquids and mix. Flavor with salt and pepper and put while boiling
hot into air tight bottles or cans. Keep in a cool place.
Bitter Essence. This is a well known tonic and stomatic. It is
usually taken combined with mixtures.
1 ounce Gentian Root, 4 ounce Bitter Orange Peel,
+ ounce Wormwood, + ounce Blessed Thistle,
12 ounces Alcohol.
Mix and let stand for two weeks, shaking occasionally. Strain and
it is ready for use. Dose from one-half to two tea-spoonfuls.
Tincture of Camphor. The tincture of camphor of the stores is
not as strong as the spirits of camphor previously described. The tinct-
ure of camphor of the stores is about
9 drams Gum Camphor,
1 quart Alcohol.
The spirits of camphor can be reduced and made of the strength of
this solution by adding spirits of wine.
To Color Essences. Asa matter of appearance the tinctures are
often times colored. The best method is to steep a portion of the herb
of which the tincture is made in a little water for several hours. The
essence of cinnamon is often colored with the tincture of red sandal
wood.
HOW TO MEASURE MEDICINE.
Measures and Equivalents. For the sake of convenience, in the
absence of proper instruments, we often make use of means of
measurements, which are not precice nor uniform, yet are sufficiently
accurate for ordinary purposes. There are a few common household
implements which correspond to a certain extent with the regular
standard measures.
1 Tea-spoon holds about 60 drops.
1 Tea-spoon holds about 1 fluid dram.
1 Dessert-spoon holds about 2 fluid drams.
1 Table-spoon holds about 4 fluid drams.
1 Thimble holds about 34 of a fluid dram.
STANDARD RECEIPTS. 461
1 Wine-glass holds about 2 fluid ounces.
1 Tea-cup holds about 4 fluid ounces.
1 Coffee-cup holds about 8 fluid ounces.
t Tumbler holds adout 8 fluid ounces.
1 Pinch of leaves weighs about 1 dram.
1 Handful of leaves weighs about ro drams.
Doses at Different Ages. The doses of medicines at different
ages vary. Children and aged people should receive less than the or-
dinary dose. Opiates should be given in less quanties than other med-
icine, because they seem to take greater effect on the young. The fol-
lowing table will give the dose as usually administered.
Under six mouths one-sixteenth of a full dose.
Under one year one-thirteenth of a full dose:
Under two years one-seventh of a full dose.
Under three years one-fifth of a full dose.
Under four years one-fourth of a full dose.
Under seven years one-third of a full dose.
Under ten years five-elevenths of a full dose.
Under fifteen years one-half of a full dose.
Under twenty years two-thirds of a full dose.
TO PREVENT CONTAGION AND BLOOD POISONING.
Antiseptics. In cases of wounds it is often the case to find that
poisonous germs existing in the air are absorbed, and the wound does
not heal properly because of the germs producing putrefaction in the
injured tissue. Blood-poisoning may follow the absorption of these mi-
croscopic organisms. Certain agents have the power of destroying
these poisonous germs, and are known as antiseptics.
Deadly Poisons. Some of the most valuable antiseptics are among
the deadliest poisons, even in very small quantities. They should nev-
er be used except under the direction of a physician. People who are
wounded should insist on antiseptics being used. If the attending
physician refuses or neglects his duty in this respect, choose another.
Among the antiseptics corrosive sublimate is the best known. It occurs
in the form of small, white granules, and is very poisonous. It is used
by dissolving three grains in a pint of hot water. A small quantity of
glycerine placed upon the corrosive-sublimate, before adding the hot
water will hasten the solution. This solution is used in washing and
462 STANDARD RECEIPTS.
cleaning the wound. Carbolic acid, salicylic acid, blue vitriol, iodoform,
sugar, and alum are all among the antiseptics.
Disinfectants are agents which have the power of destroying or
neutralizing infectious matter which is the product arising from those
suffering from a contagious disease, as small pox, measles, scarlet fever,
and a variety of other somrces, as sewers, cess-pools, decaying matter,
etc. Disinfectants are used in solid forms or in solution to destroy the
infectious germs contained in the clothing and cesspools, and often found
in the apartments of the sick.
Fumigation is disinfection by means of a gas instead of by the use
of solids or solutions. This is very valuable in disinfecting air, and ar-
ticles which would be destroyed by wetting.
Precautions Against Contagious Diseases. While disinfec-
tions destroy the germs left behind by a disease, yet it is well to observe
all precautions posssible to prevent contagion. Should a pupil be taken
ill of a contagious disease in a school-room or in a family, the room
should be fumigated before those who have not been exposed to the
contagion should be allowed to enter. The patient should be removed
to the top of the house or to a distant part of the dwelling. Before do-
ing this remove from the room to be occupied by the patient everything
not needed for the comfort of the sick. No one should be allowed to
enter the room except the one caring for the patient, and that person
should communicate with the family as little as possible. All clothing
and bed linen should be disinfected before removing from the room.
Even the dishes should receive proper attention. The attendant should
be careful never to eat or drink anything that has been standing in the
room. As the patient recovers, several warm sponge baths should be
given, with an antiseptic solution consisting of three grains of corrosive
sublimate to a quart of water, before leaving the room. Clothing that
has not been kept in the room should be placed upon the patient im-
mediately preceding departure.
Dead bodies should be wrapped in linen saturated in a solution of cor-
rosive-sublimate of fifteen grains to a pint of water, or a solution of six
tea-spoonfuls of carbolic acid toa pint of water. The corrosive-sublimate
has not a disagreeable odor, while carbolic acid is more or less unpleas-
ant.
A Few Disinfectants. In the sick room fresh air and cleanliness
are always at hand. Besides these we have
BRIMSTONE (Roll Sulphur) for fumigation.
STANDARD RECEIPTS. 463
COPPERAS (Sulphate of Iron), one and one half pounds to a gallon
of water is used in cesspools and sewers.
COMMON SALT AND SULPHATE OF ZINC (White Vitriol),
four ounces of each to a gallon of water to disinfect clothing and bed
linen.
CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE, (Bichloride of Mercury), sixteen
grains to a quart of water, is used to receive discharges from the body,
when the patient has cholera, typhoid fever, etc. The quantity used
should equal the amount of discharge. This is very poisonous, and
must be used with greatest caution.
CHLORIDE OF LIME. This isa very valuable disinfectant, but it
will discolor clothing that has coloring matter in them that will be at-
tacked by the free chlorine given out from the compound. Clothing is
best disinfected by common salt and sulphate of zinc. Use chloride of
lime, one pound to three gallons of water, to sprinkle on floors and
wash out sinks that are offensive. Dry chloride placed in rat-holes from
which come offensive odors, will soon purify the atmosphere. It should
be used in urinals, night commodes, water-closets, privy-vaults, butcher
stalls, slaughter-houses, fish-markets, pig-pens, and stables, especially
if the latter are near the house. Use it freely whenever a contagious
disease or an epidemic of any nature is in the neighborhood.
How to Use Disinfectants. All clothing, towels, and bed-linen
before removing from the room, should be placed in a tub of boiling salt
and zinc solution. All discharges should be received in vessels which
contain either the corrosive-sublimate or the copperas solution.
Prevention of Diphtheria.” Every person in contact with:a per-
son afflicted with diphtheria should use disinfectant gargles as a prevent-
ive. A physician should prepare the gargle and give directions for its
use.
Prevention of Typhoid Fever. This disease is largely trans-
mitted through the passages from the bowels. Some one of the disin-
fectants should be used in the commode, allowing the stule to pass di-
rectly into the liquid prepared as suggested. Corrosive-sublimate, (Di-
chloride of mercury), is the most efficient. Sulphate of zinc, (white
vitriol), is also very valuable. If proper care be taken in this regard
there is very little danger of typhoid fever being transmitted to another
person.
Scarlet Fever and Measles. These diseases, while disinfection
does not prevent their being contagious, seem to be modified by the
464 STANDARD RECEIPTS.
proper use of disinfectants. Often those attacked by the disease, where
disinfectants have been properly used, have it in a much modified form.
Typhus Fever and Small Pox. Do not for a moment neglect
the use of disinfectants, and use them freely. Do not burn rags nor
clothing that have been on the patients, but drop them in some strong
disinfectant fluid.
How to Fumigate. Every opening, such as doors, windows,
ventilators, and chimneys should be tightly closed. All blankets, bed-
ding, and other articles which cannot be treated to the zinc solution
should be hung on lines in the room. All colored articles should be
thoroughly dry, because if moist the fumes will destroy some of rhe col-
ors. Mattresses and upholstered furniture should be taken apart. The
hair or other filling should be treated to the zinc solution, while the
other parts should be exposed.
Take a wash tub or barrel and place in it bricks on which to set an
iron kettle. Pour water in the tub or barrel until it nearly covers the
bricks. Place in the iron kettle, which sets on the bricks, roll sulphur
and set it on fire by means of hot coals, or with the aid of a little alco-
hol poured over it and then ignited. About three pounds of sulphur,
should be used to every thousand cubic feet. Keep the room closed at
least twenty-four hours, after which thoroughly air.
Cesspool Disinfection. To every five hundred pounds of the es-
timated contents use one pound of corrosive sublimate in solution.
Sprinkle chloride of lime daily over the contents during epidemics and
at least every two weeks at other times.
To Disinfect Sinks and Drains. These often become very
offensive and are always a source of danger, breeding diphtheria and
malarial fevers, unless properly disinfected. Copperas dissolved in
water, one-fourth of a pouud to a gallon, and poured intoa sink and
water drain occasionally will keep them pure and wholesome. One-
half pound of chloride of lime to a gallon of water will have the same
effect
Where large quantities are used to disinfect vaults or stables, a home
made preparation as follows will be very efficient: dissolve one bushel
of salt in a barrel of water, and with this salt water slack a barrel of
lime. This should make the lime wet enough to form a thin paste. If
not add more water.
To Disinfect a Cellar. A damp musty floor may be sweetened
by sprinkling upon the floor pulverized copperas or chloride of lime.
STANDARD RECEIPTS. 465
Cellars that have contained potatoes, carrots, turnips, cabbage or other
vegetables during the winter should be thoroughly disinfected early ev-
ery spring by sprinkling the floors, walls, and bins that held the
vegetables, with water that contained one-half pound of chloride of lime
to the gallon.
Deodorizers are agents which destroy or neutralize the offensive
odors arising from decaying matter or in the sick room. ‘They may or
may not have the power of destroying contagious matter, their use be-
ing to mask unpleasant odors. ‘Those that have disinfectant properties
as well as deodorizing, are carbolic acid, chloride of lime and chloride of
zinc. ‘The simple deodorizers are burning cotton, paper, or coffee. A
portion of chloride of lime placed on a plate on the mantel is a very
good constant deodorizer.
How to use Deodorizers. Chloride of zinc, an ounce to a quart
of water, sprayed about the room occasionally is an effectual means of
destroying offensive odors.
Chloride of Lime used as above suggested.
Use the disinfectanls as suggested for the discharges from the body
Burn paper; cotron, or coffee. and let the smoke pass in the room.
Chlorine. This is a very powerful disinfectant. It is a green gas
and attacks chemically nearly all contagious matter. It is used in the
form of gas which is generated and allowed to pass into the rooms. If
this is generated in cellars where vegetables and other articles mold it
will destroy the fungus. It is very penetrating and has bleaching prop-
erties. Articles that would be injured by this gas should be removed
and disinfected by other means.
Fragant Odor. A pleasant odor may be imparted to a sick cham-
ber by a small quantity of the oil of sandal wood upon a hot shovel or
on the top of a hot stove.
ACCIDENTS AND EMERGENCIES.
What to Do. If an artery is cut red blood spurts. Bandage it
above the wound. If a vein is cut, dark blood flows. Bandage it above
and below the wound.
If choked get upon all fours and cough. A sharp blow between the
shoulders may help in expelling whatever is in the throat or cesphagus.
For slight burns, dip the part into cold water; if the skin is destroyed
cover with linseed oil, Common baking soda is a good remedy for
burns.
466 STANDARD RECEIPTS.
Send for a physician in case of a serious accident, but do what is here
directed till he comes.
Clothing Catching Fire. If you see a person whose clothing is
on fire, throw him to the ground and roll him over and over. Throw
a coat, rug, carpet, or any banket at hand over him. The object of this
is to prevent the flames being swallowed.
Scalds and Burns. ‘These are common accidents, and an under-
standing of what to do may save a life and much suffering.
The first, best, and often the only remedies necessary are sheets of
fine wadding or cotton and flour or chalk. The object is to exclude the
ir, because if the air is excluded, and care is taken not to expose
the tender part till a new skin is formed, nature generally effects a cure.
Incase of a scald or burn cover immediately the part with a sheet of
wadding or cotton, taking care not to break any blister that may have
formed, or even waiting to cut away burnt clothing that may adhere to
the surface. Cover immediately to keep out the air. A coating of
oil over the cotton is a great help in keeping out the air. A light
bandage to firmly hold the cotton in place should then be used. When
their is no cotton at hand, cover the wound with flour.
IF THE SKIN IS BADLY INJURED and the cotton can not be
readily obtained, cover some linen with fresh butter or lard and lay the
same over the part, and give the patient if much exhausted, a little
brandy. If not much injured, yet very painful, dip cotton in lime and
linseed oil and apply. If nothing else is handy scraped raw potato may
be used, or put on common molasses and dust the surface over with
flour.
Cuts and Wounds. Clean-cut-wounds, whether deep or only
superficial, which are likely to easily heal, should be washed with an
antiseptic lotion, and then evenly and smoothly closed by bringing both
edges together and securing them in that position by adhesive plaster.
Cut the adhesive plaster into thin strips and fasten on one side of the
cut, then bringing the parts of the wound together, edge to edge fasten
the loose end. Ordinary cuts are easily dressed in this way, but if the
cut be large and the edges difficult to hold together some assistance
from a second person may be necessary.
Bruises or “Black and Blue Spots.’’ Put on hot water cloths
or if there is much pain, a hot poultice, renewing the same every two
hours.
Dirt in the Eye. Dirt in the eye generally adheres to the upper
STANDARD RECEIPTS. 467
or lower lid. As the lower lid is the more easily examined it is well to
see if the dirt is adhering to this part. ‘This is done by standing in
front of the person, and pressing the finger upon the flesh of the cheek-
bone and drawing down the skin. Then if the dirt is in sight it can be
removed by the moist corner of a handkerchief. If the dirt is not on
the lower lid, place a match or knitting kneedle over the upper lid, and
by pressing downward, and at the same time raising the upper lid it will
be turned inside out. This will expose to view the offending particle
which may be removed as before. The eye should then be bathed in cold
water and the light excluded. If the inflammation is severe, put on
cold tea leaves or scraped potato or bathe in salt and water.
Fainting and Fits. Fainting is caused by a lack of blood to the
brain, which has been caused by the stoppage of the heart or the blood
going to some other part of the body. Place the person who has fainted
on the back with head low; loosen the clothing about the neck and chest;
sprinkle cold water in the face; and apply smelling salts to the nostrils.
Do not raise the head higher than the body, uuless the face is red, or
dark colored, which is an indication that it is not an ordinary fainting
fit, and should be treated differently. In cases of this kind raise the
person on a seat and put cold water on the head immediately.
PAINT AND VARNISHES.
When to Paint. Paints put on late in the fall or early in the
spring, when the weather is cold and there is no dust or bothersome in-
sects will last longer than if applied at any other time. The cold weath-
er seems to delay drying and the paint hardens on the surface, often
forming a surface that a knife blade will hardly penetrate.
Glossy or Dead Surface. Paint mixed with turpentine will give
a dead surface, while one mixed with oil produces a gloss. When
paints contain both oil and turpentine the paint loses its gloss in pro-
portion as the oil is lessened and the turpentine increased. Paints
should never be put upon a damp surface; let the boards thoroughly dry
after rain or showers before painting. Never put on the second coat of
paint till the first is thoroughly dry. Use a little more dryer when the
weather is cold than when it is warm. Keep the paint thoroughly
stirred so as to have it of a uniform thickness.
To Kill Knots Before Painting. Shellac varnish is most com-
monly used. If the paint is of a deep color shade, red lead may be mixed
468 STANDARD RECEIPTS.
with it to advantage. On the side of buildings where the sun strikes
very directly in the afternoon, cover the knot with oil and glue-size, and
apply the thinnest tinfoil that can be found. Silver leaf is better, less
liable to come off and is not very expensive. It is the heat from the
sun and stove that draws the pitch out of the knot through the paint.
Sticky Painted Surfaces. Often after painting it is found that
the surface is sticky. The back of a chair may stick to a coat or dress,
or the paint on the door stick to the hand on opening or closing. This
can be overcome by giving the surface a coat of Japan and turpentine,
which should be well rubbed in.
How to Mix Paints. ‘The first named color is to be used in the
largest quantity. ‘The others according to the shade required.
Buff is made by mixing White, Yellow Ochre, and Red.
Cream is made dy mixing White and Yellow Ochre.
Fawn is made by mixing White, Yellow, and Red.
Flesh is made by mixing White, Yellow Ochre, and Vermilion.
Gray is made by mixing White and Black.
Gold is made by mixing White, Stone Ochre, and Red.
Lemon is made by mixing White and Chrome Yellow.
Peach is made by mixing White and Vermilion.
Pink is made by mixing White, Vermilion, and Lake.
Rose is made by mixing White and Madder Lake.
Chestnut is made by mixing Red, Black, and Yellow.
Maroon is made by mixing Red, Black, and Medium Yellow.
Claret is made by mixing Red, Umber, and Black.
Copper is made by mixing Red, Yellow, and Black.
Violet is made by mixing Red, Blue, and White.
Dark Brown is made by mixing Red, Black, and Blue.
Orange is made by mixing Yellow and Red.
Olive is made by mixing Yellow, Blue, Black, and White.
Grass-Green is made by mixing Lemon Yellow and Bronze Green.
Snuff is made by mixing Yellow and Vandyke Brown.
Turkey-Red is made by mixing Vermilion and Black.
Cracks of the Floor. Use putty to fill the cracks of the floor,
before painting; apply with an old knife, and smooth neatly. If the
floor has never been painted before give it oue coat before applying the
putty.
Stain for Floors. If it is desirable to stain a floor that has been
previously oiled, it is easily done by first washing the floor with strong
STANDARD RECEIPTS. 469
copperas-water, and when dry, rubbing it carefully with linseed-oil,
giving it two coats. It can be kept bright by wiping it with a damp
cloth.
Walnut Stain. Black-walnut stain may be made at home if the
black-walnut bark can be procured. Slowly boil an ounce of the bark
in a pint of water for an hour, and then add a lump of alum the size of
a hickory nut to set the color.
Varnishing Old Furniture. Twocommon mistakes frequently
made in varnishing are in preparing the article for varnishing and in us-
ing too much varnish. The furniture or woodwork should first be
washed with soap and warm water to remove all dust and grease,
and then wiped perfectly dry. Turpentine can be used to thin the var-
nish as the work proceeds. Woods finished in oil that look dull or
cloudy can be freshened by rubbing them with a flannel cloth on which
a little of the following mixture has been poured: equal parts of turpen-
tine and linseed oil, put in a bottle and shaken until thoroughly mixed.
The success of the work depends upon using a small quantity of the
mixture, and plenty of friction.
To Not Injure the Gloss. ‘Thie is at times an important matter,
and has been a problem with those who have had much of it to do.
The Palace car companies direct that the highly polished surfaces of the
interior of their cars, be cleaned with a mixture of powdered soap and
tripoli, in proportions of about three parts of soap to seven of tripoli, ap-
plied with a wet sponge. The slight solvent action of the soap does not
injure the varnished surface, but it removes the dirt, and the grit of the
tripoli, which must be very fine, cuts off such matter as the soap fails to
remove.
How to Polish Furniture. Once the polish mixture is obtained
the chief thing is the rubbing. Any lack of this will be sure to result
in disappointment and failure. Skill is less requisite than perseverance.
Wax Polish. ‘he ingredients for this simple polish can be found
in nearly every household. It isa good polish and will keep well and
be always ready for use.
2 ounces Beeswax,
$ ounce White Soap,
1 pint Boiling Water,
Apply by rubbing a little with a cloth on a small space at a time, rub
with a second cloth and polish with a third.
470 STANDARD RECEIPTS.
To Soften Varnish. Apply ammonia freely, using a sponge fast-
ened to a handle, and as soon as the varnish softens it may be scraped
away with a knife or a piece of glass. An application of strong spirits
of camphor will remove almost any varnish or polish from furniture,
but care must be taken to allow plenty of time for the spirits of camphor
to evaporate before repolishing or varnishing, as the camphor will in-
jure the riew coat.
Resin Polish. The base of this polish is resin, and after the
liquids are evaporated there is left a thin covering of very fine resin,
which is very hard and glossy.
2 ounces Resin, 4 ounces Ether,
12 ounces Alcohol, 2 ounces Balsam Fir,
8 ounces Boiled Linseed Oil.
Keep this polish well protected from the air, as it will soon evaporate
and leave only oil and resin behind.
Simple Polish. A simple and reliable polish that is used to re-
move finger marks.
1 pint Olive Oil,
2 pints Vinegar.
Shake well before using and apply with a woolen cloth, after which
rub vigorously with a dry cloth of the same material, or use a chamois
instead.
Common Furniture Polish. Where the varnish of furniture
has become old and much tarnished use this polish.
4 ounces Shellac, 1 pint Spirits Turpentine,
2 pints Alcohol, 4 ounces Ether,
3 pints Linseed Oil, 4 ounces Ammonia.
Mix thoroughly the shellac and alcohol, and then add the other in-
gredients. Shake well when using and apply with a sponge.
Oil Polish. When there are cracks in the varnish, this polish will
fili them and make the surface appear new.
2 pints Linseed Oil, 2 ounces Butter of Ammonia,
4 pint Alcohol. % pint Spirits Turpentine,
$ pint Vinegar.
Shake well before using and apply with a woolen rubber, that is a
woolen cloth over a smooth piece of hard wood.
Finishing Polish. Take one-half pint spirits of wine, two drams
shellac and two drams gum benzoin. Put these ingredients into a bottle
STANDARD RECEIPTS. 471
and keep it in a warm place until the gum is all dissolved, stirring it fre-
quently. When cold, add two tea-spoonfuls of the best clear white
poppy oil. Shake all well tcgether and the polish is then ready for use.
Keep well stirred while using.
This preparation is useful for finishing after any of the foregoing re-
ceipts; as it adds to the lustre and durability of the polish, and removes
any defects left by the latter. It gives the surface a most brilliant ap-
pearance. It is used the same as the polishes; but in order to remove
dull places the pressure in rubbiug must be increased.
Olive oil and water, mixed in the palm of the hand, is said to be the
best means of polishing pianos and organs. Mix and rub on vigor:
ously with the hand.
French Polish. A method largely used in France for imparting
to furniture a brilliant and lasting polish is described as follows: a solu-
tion is made by beating gum acacia and the whites of two eggs ina
mortar until they thoroughly mix, then a half pint each of raw linseed
oil and best vinegar are added, together with eight ounces methylated
spirits of wine, one ounce hydrochloric acid, and two ounccs muriate of
antimony.
To use the French polish properly, only a very small quantity must
be nsed at a time; and it must be applied with a rubber made witha
ball of cotton wool covered over with a soft cotton cloth or linen rag.
The ball is dipped into the polish, then covered over with the rag, and
this dipped into a drop of linseed oil to prevent it sticking to the wood.
Use the rubber gently, polishing from a centre in a circular motion.
Finish with a drop of spirits of wine on a clean rubber, which will ex-
tract the oil. If there is any difficulty in getting polish to ‘‘take,’’
rub the wood over first with a rag moistened with a little linseed or
olive oil.
Re-Varnishing Furniture. When furniture requires re-varnish-
ing, it should first be well washed with strong soda water, which will
remove every particle of grease. Then wash with soft water into which
a little vinegar, (oxalic acid is better) has been put. Try to neutralize
the soda.
Wipe dry and coat with a good quality hard-drying varnish. When
dry, rub off with a bunch of curled hair, to remove the gloss, and flow
ona full coat of cabinet fiinishing varnish.
To Ebonize Pine. The wood isimmersed for forty-eight hours
in a hot, saturated solution of alum, and then brushed over several
472 STANDARD RECEIPTS.
times with a logwood decoction, prepared as follows: boil one part log-
wood with ten parts of water, filter through linen and evaporate at a
gentle heat until the volume is reduced to one-half. To every quart of
this add from ten to fifteen drops of a saturated solution of indigo, com-
pletely neutral. After applying this dye to the wood, rub it with
asaturated and filtered solution of verdigrisin hot, concentrated acetic
acid, and repeat the operation until a black of the desired intensity is
obtained. It must always be retnembered when handling chemicals that
great care must be taken to protect the hands.
WHITEWASH AND KALSOMINE.
Out-Door Whitewash. For the covering of out-buildings or fen
ces that have commenced to grow rough from age, the action of the
weather, or that need a cheap durable covering, this out-door white
wash is without an equal. ‘The zinc and salt hardens the wash and
prevents it from cracking.
1 bushel Lime,
4 pounds Sulphate of Zinc,
2 pounds Common Salt.
Slack the lime by pouring boiling water over it ina closed barrel.
Put water enough on to cover the lime about a foot deep. Stir continu-
ally until it is thoroughly slacked. A cream color may be made of this
wash by adding six to eight pounds of yellow ochre. ‘This can be read-
ily applied with a whitewash brush.
United States Lighthouse Whitewash. The keepers of light-
houses in the United States were directed by the department of the
government having them in charge, to keep the stone and woodwork
covered with this whitewash, using it as hot as it was possible.
1 bushel Unslacked Lime,
6 pounds Ground Rive,
1 pound Spanish Whiting,
2 pounds White Glue.
Slack the lime in boiling water then strain and add one-half bushel of
fine salt, which has been dissolved in warm water. Put the ground rice
in boiling water and boil to a thin paste. Dissolve the glue and the
whiting in warm water. Mix and let stand for a week, Stir thorough-
ly and heat sufficient quantity to use. Put on with large painter’s or
whitewash brush. This will last almost as long as lead and oil.
STANDARD RECEIPTS. 473
Gloss Whitewash. This preparation applied in the manner in-
dicated, will give a fine, smooth, glossy surface.
Mix with thin starch paste, a quantity of the oxide of zine and ap-
ply with a whitewash brush to the sides and ceiling. Then apply a
second coat in which the chloride of zinc has been mixed with the
paste.
Kalsomine. Whitewash is composed of the milk of lime, but this
after several coatings would form a thick crust on the walls, which
would scale off, so various articles were tried till zinc white mixed with
water and glue were found to be the most satisfactory. This combina-
tion is named Kalsomine, and has the advantage over common white-
wash of being easily colored. One pound of Kalsomine when mixed
according to the following will cover about eighty square feet of side
wall or ceiling two coats.
For ceilings, use:
34 pound White Glue,
8 pounds Zinc White.
For side walls to prevent rubbing off, use
4 pound White Glue,
8 pounds Zince White.
Soak the glue over night in water and liquefy over the fire next day.
Then add more water and the zinc white. If too much glue is added
it will be difficult to put on evenly, and it will be more liable to crack
and fall off in scales.
Various coloring matter may be mixed with the Kalsomine to give al-
most any shade desired.
Brick Colored Wash For Walls. Brick fonndations, sidewalls,
or chimneys that it seems best to keep the color of the original brick,
should have this preparation applied.
2 ounces Cheap Glue,
1 gallon Water,
$ pound Venetian Rod,
1 pound Spanish Brown.
Dissolve the glue in water and then add about one-half pound of alum.
Heat and add the Venetian red and the Spanish brown. If too light in
color add more red and brown.
Fence Wash. Slack the lime in boiling water and to each three
gallons of the ordinary whitewash add one pound fine salt and one pint
molasses. ‘Two coats are sufficient.
474 STANDARD RECEIPTS.
TO REMOVE STAINS AND GREASE SPOTS.
Ink Stains. There are two kinds of ink stains, aniline and gall-
nut. Many inks made now are aniline, so it is always best to treat all
ink stains first with diluted tartaric acid, increasing its strength until
the spot begins to disappear. Should this acid, however, have no effect
then treat for ink made from nut-galls. The cloth containing the spot
is spread out tightly over a bright, hot, tin plate and rubbed with a hot
solution of oxalic acid, using a piece of iron to rub with, such as an iron
key. It often happens that in silk goods nothing can be done to remove
the stain.
Ink Stains on Table Linen. The best way to take ink out of
table linen is to soak the spots in sour milk. Put the cloth in the fresh
milk and set it where it will turn sour. The process of souring seems
to assist in drawing out the stains. Rub the spots after they have been
soaking twenty-four hours in the milk, (provided it has curdled in that |
time), just as you would wash any spot in water. They will finally be-
come very faint and may now be washed out in water, and the first time
they are put through the weekly washlng the probability is that all
traces of the ink stains will have disappeared.
Grass Stains. These are very readily removed by moistening with
Stannous chloride and rinsing well in water.
Fruit Stains. Fruit stains in white goods must be bleached out
with Javelle water, (see directions how to make), and well rinsed in
clear water. Do not try soap except as a last resort, as it sometimes
has the effect of setting the color and rendering the stain difficult to re-
move. For colored silks use warm water, Castile soap suds, and ammo-
nia. This applies in general to all vegetable stains, including red wine
and to red ink stains.
An old fashioned way of removing fruit stains is to pour boiling water
upon them. ‘This is best done by spreading the section of cloth contain-
ing the spot out firmly over a bowl or pan and pouring boiling water
upon it from the spout of a tea-kettle.
Fruit stains are easily removed fron table-linen by wetting the spots
with spirits of camphor befere being washed. If camphor is not at hand
whisky will answer.
Acid Stains. Excepting those from nitric acid which are perma-
nent, acid stains can be neutralized by the action of an alkali, strong
ammonia usually being the most effective. If the stain is fresh and of
STANDARD RECEIPTS. 475
a red color, it will sometimes disappear by moistening it with water and
holding over the mouth of a bottle of ammonia so that the fumes may
come in contact with it. In general, however, the acid stain should be
neutralized by the direct application, drop by drop, of strong ammonia,
meanwhile watching carefully the colors of the fabric, so that they may
not be injured.
Coffee Stains. Coffee stains may usually be removed by moisten-
ing the spots and holding them over the fumes of a small piece of sul-
phur placed in an iron vessel. Sulphur being an acid, the stained parts
must at once be carefully washed with water containing a little soda or
ammonia to save the fibre from injury. Ifa spot is quite small, it
may be moistened and held over the fumes of a few sulphur matches.
The vapor from burning sulphur will often remove stains that nothing
else will affect. But the fabric must be immediately and thoroughly
rinsed in every instance.
To Remove Paint. Paint and varnish may be removed by using
turpentine, gasolene or benzine. On silk, ether gives the best results.
Old spots on woolen goods should be covered with olive oil and allowed
to remain for several hours; then treat with chloroform. This applies
also to all resinous stains.
Kalsomine Stains. Kalsomine yields at once to water and acetic
acid, though like all stains, even these simple blemishes may be fixed in
cloth, if unduly experimented with.
Iron Rust. This is removed by holding the spot over a bowl of
water to which a little ammonia has been added, and applying with a
glass rod, or a small piece of wood, eighteen per cent, muriatic acid.
‘The instant the stain disappears immerse the spot in the water thereby
preventing the acid from affecting the texture of the cloth. Before
using muriatic acid, it is best to test it om one corner of the ‘fabric.
Should you find that it changes the colors, then treat as for ink stains
described above.
Mildew. Generally speaking mildew is not affected by chemicals,
though it sometimes yields to their action. It may best be treated with
a stiff paste made by boiling down Castile soap shavings, spreading a
thick layer of this upon the stain and scattering over it some powdered
potash. .Moisten slightly with water and bleach out on the grass.
Javelle Water or Bleaching Compound. Javelle water for
bleaching white goods is prepared as follows: place one pound of chlor-
ide of lime in an earthen jar having a tight cover and add four and a
476 : STANDARD RECEIPTS.
half pints of water. Dissolve in a separate vessei twenty ounce of or-
dinary washing soda and pour into the first solution. When cold add
two more pints of water, making eleven pints in all. Strain through
muslin and allow it to settle and pour off the resulting clear liquid.
Candle Grease. Parafine or tallow is best removed with chloro-
form, though every housekeeper knows the old trick of ironing over a
piece of blotting paper.
Grease and Oil. Grease and oil spots in wash goods may be re-
moved with soap, ammonia, and water. For silks try first absorption,
which is done by sprinkling the spot heavily with chalk or magnesia,
placing a piece of blotting paper on both sides and ironing with a warm
iron. Many a man who thinks he knows the best way to eradicate this
most common of all stains finds that within a few weeks after treatment
the garment has an unsightly ring where the spot was. ‘This is due to
the fact that when the stain was rubbed and the grease loosened, it,
lacking an absorbent, spread itself into the surrounding fabric.
This is the right way to remove a greasespot. ‘Take benzine, turpen-
tine, gasolene, or best of all, ether, and moisten a large ring around the
grease spot, gradually working towards the center; when this is reached
immediately saturate two pieces of blotting paper with the spirit, place
one beneath and the other above and press with a weight. By this
means the grease will be absorbed as soon as dissolved. Care must be
taken in the use of ether, gasolene, or benzine, not to bring it near a
flame, as the vapors of all three are highly inflammable.
HARNESS AND LEATHER.
To Preserve Harness. First remove the dirt with a moist sponge.
Do not-use too much water, nor any soap. No harness gets so muddy
that a moist sponge will not remove the dust, if cleaned while the mud
is moist. Now give the leather a good coat of lampblack and castor or
neat’s-foot oil. Then with a good warm soap-suds sponge the harness
thorougly removing all the dirt. When the harness becomes dry, rub it
over with a mixture of oil and tallow, equal parts, with which has been
mixed Jampblack or Prussian blue to give it color. Do not use more of
this last compound of oil and tallow than is actually necessary, and rub
it in thoroughly.
Leather Blacking. Take one ounce of copperas and one and one-
half pints of water, and thoroughly mix. This is used by harness mak-
STANDARD RECEIPTS. 477
ers and shoemakers for blacking the edges of newly cut leather, or
staining places that have become red or ‘‘foxy.’’
Water-proof Blacking. A blacking that will not injure the leath-
er is most desirable. There is no ingredient in this blacking that is in
any way destructive to the fibre.
15 pounds Beeswax, 3 ounces Linseed Oil,
14 ounces Prussian Blue, 6 ounces Ivory Black,
1 ounce Copal Varnish, 6 ounces Soft Soap,
1 pint Oil of Turpentine.
Mix well together by gentle heating and keep the paste in old tin
fruit cans.
Uncolored Leather. Russet lines, shoes, and uncolored leather
may be nicely cleaned and made to look almost as good as new, by ap-
plying with a sponge a very weak solution of oxalic acid dissolved in
water.
Old Harness Made Like New. Harness after long exposure
to the air loses its luster and turus brown, and requires a new coat of
blacking. This will not enter the grain, while there is any grease on
the surface, and it must be removed by a careful washing in potash
water. After drying apply a coating of the LEATHER BLACKING.
Then apply a coating of oil to the surface to fasten the color and make
the harness pliable.
BOOTS AND SHOES.
To Make Water-Proof. Melt together equal quantities of bees-
wax and mutton suet. While warm rub over the shoe or boot, soles as
well as top.
To Soften. Leather that has hardened by water may be made soft
and pliable by an application of kerosene oil. Neat’s-foot oil, well rub-
bed in, is the best and most lasting for restoring softness and pliancy to
leather, that has become hard.
Brilliant Liquid Blacking. A liquid blacking is easily applied
and while not so often used on men’s shoes, it is always the article ap-
plied to ladies’ and children’s shoes.
1 pound Ivory Black,
1 pint Molasses,
2 ounces Sweet Oil,
1 pint of each, Beer and Vinegar.
Rub together the first three, till the oil seems to have disappeared,
then add the beer and vinegar.
478 STANDARD RECEIPTS.
Oil Paste Blacking. This is made of the same ingredients as the
foregoing, only the quantity of beer and vinegar is reduced so that the
result is a paste instead of a liquid.
CLEANING AND POLISHING.
To Clean Copper or Brass. The next time you think you have
done with a lemon just dip it in salt and rub your copper kettle with it.
You will be surprised to find what a brilliant surface you will obtain if
you rub the article instantly with a dry soft cloth. You can polish all
brass work by the same means, every stain disappearing as if by magic.
If the brass is on furniture in the shape of knobs or ornaments use
either powdered whiting or scraped rotten stone, mix with sweet oil
and rub on with chamois skin.
Cleaning Brass. 1. Rub the surface of the metal with rotten stone
and sweet oil, then rub off with a piece of cotton flannel and polish with
soft leather.
2. A solution of oxalic acid rubbed over tarnished brass soon re-
moves the tarnish, rendering the metal bright. Theacid must be wash-
ed off with water, and the brass rubbed with whitning and soft
leather.
3. A mixture of muriatic acid and alum dissolved in water, imparts a
golden color to brass articles that are steeped in it for a few seconds.
4. Put together two ounces sulphuric acid, an ounce and a half nitric
acid, one dram saltpetre and two ounces rain water. Let stand for a few
hours, and apply by passing the article in and out quickly, and then
washing off thoroughly with clean rain water. Old discolored brass
chains treated in this way will look equally as well as when new.
Silver, Keeping Bright and Clean. ‘To clean silver never use
a particle of soap on your silver-ware, as it dulls the lustre, giving the
article more the appearance of pewter than silver. When it wants clean-
ing rub it with a piece of soft leather and the following mixtures:
3 pound prepared Chalk or Whiting,
z ounce Gum Camphor.
1 ounce each of Aqua Ammonia and Alcohol.
3 ounces Benzine.
Mix well together, and apply with a soft sponge, and allow it to dry
before polishing.
To Keep Bright. For the preservation of the lustre of articles of
silver or plated ware, when not needed for actual use for a considerable
STANDARD RECEIPTS. 479
time, a coating of collodion (to be had at the drug stores), may be em-
ployed to great advantage. The articles are to be heated, and the col-
iodion then carefully applied by means of a brush, so as to cover the sur-
face thoroughly and uniformly. It is used most conveniently when di-
luted with alcohol, as for photographic purposes. Articles thus pre-
pared exhibit no trace whatever of their covering, and have stood for
more than a year in shop windows and in dwellings, retaining their white »
lustre and color, while other pieces not thus prepared became seriously
tarnished.
To Clean Silver. One of the largest britannia firms in New Eng-
land recommends the following to clean silver.
4 pound Sal-soda,
8 quarts Water.
When at a boiling heat dip the pieces of silver, and immediately wash
in soap suds, and wipe dry with a piece of cotton flannel.
Silver Polish. There is no better silver polish than the old fash-
ioned Spanish Whiting, when moistened and applied with a soft flan-
nel and a silver brush. When dry, rub with a chamois and dry whit-
ing.
To Keep the Stove Bright. Mix the stove blacking with vin-
egar to the consistency of cream, add pinch of sugar, put on with a
brush, and polish with old newspapers. It will give a beautiful and
lasting polish.
To Clean Marble. To clean marble, take two parts of common
soda, one part of pumice stone, and one part of finely powdered chalk;
sift it through a fine sieve and mix with water; then rub it well over
the marble, and the stains will be removed; finally, rub the marble over
with salt and water.
To Clean Willow Ware. To clean willow furniture which is
not varnished, use salt and water. Apply it with a stiff brush, scrub
well and dry thoroughly.
To Whiten Ivory. Rub with finely powdered pumice-stone and
water, and expose to the sun while still moist, placing over ita glass
shade to prevent cracking. Repeat the treatment until the proper hue
is produced. Keeping a piano open on fine days so the sun’s rays will
fall directly on the keys, will keep the latter from turning yellow.
To Clean Steel. Mix emery powder with linseed oil and form a
paste; rub it on with a piece of flannel. Do not let it remain on but
at once rub off with emery powder till the steel is bright. Polish with
480 STANDARD RECEIPTS.
a leather. If rusty, clean first with fine sand paper, and then apply the
emery as instructed.
To Clean Glass. First wash well with a soft sponge, using clear
water and squeezing the sponge as dry as possible. Then dip the damp
sponge in whiting and rub over the surface of the glass. When dry
rub clean with a soft cloth.
PASTE, GLUE, AND MUCILAGE.
Paste, That Will Keep. Dissolve a teaspoonful of alum in a
quart of warm water. When cold, stir in as much flour as will give it
the consistency of thick cream, being particular to beat up all the lumps;
stir in as much powdered resin as will stand on a dime, and throw in
half-a-dozen cloves to give a pleasant odor. Have on the fire a teacup-
ful of boiling water; pour the flour mixture into it, stirring well all the
time. In a very few minutes it will be of the consistency of mush. Pour
it into jars and when wanted for use it can be readily thinned with
water.
Liquid Glue. First soak in cold water all the glue you wish to
make at one time, using only glass, earthen, or porcelain dishes; then by
gentle heat dissolve the glue in the same water, and pour ina little nitric
acid, sufficient to give the glue a sour taste, like vinegar, or one ounce
to each pound of glue.
Water-Proof Glue. One ounce of gum sandarac and one ounce of
mastic are to be dissolved together in a pint of alcohol, to which one
ounce of white turpentine is to be added. At thesame time avery thick
glue is to be kept ready, mixed with a little isinglass. The solution of
the resins in alcohol is to be heated to boiling in a glue pot, and the glue
added gradually with constant stirring, so as to tender the whole mass
homogeneous. After the solution is strained through a cloth, it is ready
for use, and is to be applied hot. It dries quickly and becomes very
hard, and surfaces of wood united by it do not separate when immersed
in water.
Glue as Mucilage. ‘Take of isinglass and parchment size, each
one ounce, sugar candy and gum tragacanth, each two drams; add to
them one ounce water, and boil the whole together till the solution ap-
pears (when cold) of the consistency of glue; then pour it into any form
you please. If this glue be wet with the tongue. and rubbed on the
edges of paper, silk or leather that are to be cemented, they will, being
STANDARD RECEIPTS. 481
laid together, pressed slightly, and suffered to dry, be as firmly united as
other parts of the substance.
Elastic Glue. If glue or gelatine is incorporated with about one-
quarter of its weight of glycerine, it loses its brittleness, and becomes
useful for many purposes for which it is otherwise unfit, such as dressing
leather, giving elasticity to parchment or enameled paper, and for book-
binding.
Mucilage. 1. Put three ounces of gum arabic in an earthenware
vessel containing half a pint of cold water. If the liquid is occasionally
stirred, the gum in twenty-four hours will be dissolved and the mixture
ready for use. Cloves will keep it from moulding.
2. Fine clean glue, one pound; gum arabic, ten ounces; water, one
quart; melt by heat in a glue kettle or water-bath; when entirely melted,
add slowly ten ounces strong nitric acid, and set off to cool. Then bot-
tle, adding a couple of cloves to each bottle.
WAGON TIRES AND FENCE POSTS.
Wagon Tires Kept From Loosening. If this plan is careful-
ly followed, tires on wagons will not get loose and require resetting.
Use a tin-pan long and narrow, and deep and fill with oil, setting it on an
oil stove. Let the oil come to a boiling heat, and then placing the stove
and pan near a post or studding, hang the wheel on a peg put in the
post or studding, so that the felloe of the wheel will run in the oil.
Thoroughly soak each felloe an hour. The timber should be dry, as
green timber will not take oil. Care should be taken that the oil is not
made hotter than a boiling heat or the timber will be burned. Timber
filled with oil is not susceptible of injury by water, and is rendered
much more durable by this process.
Fence Posts. Any sort of timber, when employed for fence-posts
will be more than twice as durable if allowed to become well seasoned
before being set in the ground: The durability of seasoned posts may
be promoted, so as to make them last for an age, by the application of a
heavy coat of coal-tar to the portion buried in the earth, anda few in-
ches above the surface of the tar. The ground-end may be put in hot
tar and let boil for fifteen minutes. When cool, cover with coal-tar
thickened with ground slate or ground brick. The boiling causes the
pores to absorb tar. The coating prevents the action of moisture. But
such a treatment of green posts would do but very little good and per-
haps mischief. The better way is to season the post well before setting
482 STANDARD RECEIPTS.
it, and when the post-hole is filled to within ten inches of the surface of
the ground, to apply a heavy coat of tar and fill up with earth. As
fence-posts always decay near the surface of the ground, it is only nec-
essary to protect the post a few inches above the surface, and about a
foot below it. The timber begins to decay, usually on the surface of
the posts. Therefore, if the surface can be protected by some antisep-
tic material, posts will last a lifetime.
ANNOYING INSECTS.
Exterminating Insects. By scattering chloride of lime on a
plank in a stable, biting flies are driven away. Sprinkling beds of veg-
etables with a weak solution of this salt effectually preserves them from
caterpillars, slugs, etc. It has the same effect when sprinkled on fruit-
trees and shrubbery. Mixed in a paste with fatty matter, and applied
in a narrow band around the trees, it prevents insects from creep-
ing up.
Another plan is to carry all the toads you can find to your gardens.
They will devour immense number of bugs. A toad will swallow the
largest specimen of the tomato worm, though sometimes he will have a
hard time of it.
Hens, wasps, and spiders are all devourers of your enemies. A com-
mon duck will go up and down rows of tomato and potato vines, and
pick off the large worms usually found on such vines, as fast it can see
them; and they willsee a half dozen when a man could not see one.
Young turkeys will do the same service, though they are not so easily
controlled and guided.
All fallen fruit is to be picked up once or twice a day, and boiled, and
then given to your cattle to be devoured. By doing this it will pay ten
times over, and the result of it will be that the next year you will not
have insects.
To Exterminate Bed Bugs. ‘There are various remedies for
getting rid of these annoying insects. The following are the most re-
liable.
1. Put a few drops of oil of cinnamon into naptha and annoint the
openings and cracks. Do not take near fire or burning lamp.
2. Two ounces red arsenic, one-quarter pound of white soap, one-half
ounce of camphor dissolved in a teaspoonful of alcohol, made into a
paste of the consistency of cream. Use to annoint the bedstead.
STANDARD RECEIPTS, 483
To Destroy the Striped Bug. ‘The striped bug on cucumbers
and melons may be destroyed as follows:
1. By a strong solution of hen-house manure—sav one peck of the
manure to one and a half gallons of water; let it stand twenty-four honrs
and sprinkle the plants freely with it after sunset.
2. By sifting charcoal dust over the plants; if repeated three or four
times the plants will be entirely freed from the annoyance.
3. Plant a few kernels of buckwheat in each hill of cucumbers or mel-
ons, and striped bugs will not trouble the vines.
Roach Exterminator. Borax is one of the best roach extermin-
ators. ‘There is something either in the odor or touch of borax which
is certain death to them. Purchase it pulverized and sprinkle around
the infested places.
Red Ants. Sprinkle oil of pennyroyal on the pantry shelves and
the ants will disappear.
Flies on Horses. As a preventive of horses being teased by flies,
take two or three small handfuls of walnut leaves, upon which pour two
or three quarts of cold water; let it infuse for one night, and pour the
whole next morning intoa kettle, and let it boil for fifteen minutes.
When it becomes cold it will be fit for use. No more is required than
to moisten a sponge, and, before the horse goes out of the stable, let
those parts which are most irritable be smeared over with the liquor—
namely, between and upon the ears, the neck, the flanks, etc. Not
only the lady or gentleman who rides out for pleasure will derive pleas-
ure from the walnut leaves thus prepared, but the coachman, the wag-
oner, and all others who use horses during the summer.
To Keep out Mosquitoes. 1. Oil of pennyroyal scattered about
in small quantities. This is best sprayed about the room with a per-
fume atomizer.
2. Take of gum camphor a piece about one-third the size of an egg,
and evaporate it by placing it in a tin vessel, and holding it over a lamp
or candle, taking care that it does not ignite. The fumes will soon fill
the room and expel the mosquitoes.
3. Carbolic acid has recently been successfully used for the extermin-
ation of mosquitoes and flies. A small piece of cloth saturated with the
acid, was hung in the room, and in two hours the flies had entirely
disappeared. In the evening the acid was tried in the kitchen where
the mosquitoes were very troublesome, and there it met with the same
success.
484 STANDARD RECEIPTS.
To Prevent Mosquito Biting. 1. Dilute a little of the oil of
thyme with sweet oil, and dip pieces of paper in it. Hang in your room
or rub a little on the hands and face when going to bed.
2. Petroleum is a good mosquito bar, if used in this way; a little coal
oil is dropped on some raw cotton, the excess of it squeezed out, and the
cotton then rubbed over the face and hands. The little pests will not
cone near. ‘The remedy seems nearly as bad as the disease; to those
who do not mind the smell of kerosene it will be found to be very
useful.
To Cure Mosquito Bites. 1. Apply sweet spirits of nitre to mos-
quito bites and it will draw out all the soreness and itching, if the skin
is not broken by scratching it.
2. Apply at once a few drops of aqua ammonia, or an infusion of to-
bacco, either of which will allay the itching and soreness almost imme-
diately.
3. Carbolic acid has also been tried, and with good success, but it
should be diluted, to prevent producing a blister.
Bee and Wasp Stings. 1. These stings though very painful are -
not dangerous to a healthy person, unless in the mouth, throat, or eye-
lid. The sting of a bee being barbed at the end, it is always left in the
wound, and should when possible, be carefully removed. That of a
wasp is pointed only, so that they can sting more than once, which a
bee cannot do. If, after the sting of the bee is extracted, the wound be
sucked, very little inflammation will follow; and if spirits of ammonia
be then applied, a prompt healing will result.
2. Common whiting, moistened with water, and applied immediately,
and in a few minutes washed off, will prevent pain and swelling from
following the sting of a bee or wasp.
3. The slice of a common onion rubbed on the sting of a wasp, or, if
in the throat, chewed slowly and the piece swallowed, will result in a
certain cure.
The Bites of Bees, Wasps, Hornets, scorpions, etc., may be
instantly relieved by the immediate and free application of spirits of
hartshorn as a wash to the part bitten. ‘The part may afterwards be
covered with a little sweet oil.
Harvest Bug. The best remedy is benzine, which immediately
kills the ifisect. A drop of tincture of iodine has the same effect.
Many sufferers prevent the attacks by sprinkling a little benzine over the
stockings before walking.
STANDARD RECEIPTS. 485
To Destroy Cockroaches. 1. Strew the roots of black hellebore
at night, in the places infested by these vermin, and they will be found
in the morning dead or dying. Black hellebore grows in marshy ground.
where it may easily be gathered, or it may be purchased at any drug
store.
2. Take pulverized borax, four ounces; flour, one ounce; mix inti-
mately and distribute the mixture in cupboards which are frequented by
the roaches, or blow it by means of a bellows, into the holes or cracks
that are infested by them.
3. Take carbolic acid and powdered camphor in equal parts; put them
in a bottle; they will become fluid. With a painter’s brush of the size
called a sash-tool, put the mixture on the cracks or places where the
roaches hide; they will come out at once. Then kill.
Fleas on Dogs and Cats. Fleas are usually brought into the
family circles by pet dogs and cats. The oil of pennyroyal will drive
these insects off; but a cheaper method, where the herb flourishes, is to
throw your cats and dogs into a strong tea made by steeping the penny-
royal in water. When the herb cannot be got, the oil can be procured.
In this case, saturate strings with it and tie them round the necks of
dogs and cats. ‘These applications should be repeated every twelve or
fifteen days.
To Kill Caterpillars. Boil together equal quantities of rue,
wormwood, and tobacco, in common water. The liquid should be very
strong. Sprinkle it on the leaves and young branches every morning
and evening during the time tle fruit is ripening.
To Kill Crickets. A little ginger and water placed in a dish be
fore the fire will attract the crickets, and on partaking of the liquor they
will die. ‘The best mode of destroying the insects in their nest is to put
snuff into the chinks of the grate.
Moths in Clothing and Furs. Either one of the following
methods will keep out the moths provided the clothes are put away
without any eggs being on them. Put in boxes and PASTE PAPER ALL
AROUND THE COVER, making it impossible for them to get in.
. Sprinkle allspice berrics among the clothes.
2. Sprinkle the clothes with the seeds of the musk plant.
3. Procure shavings of camphor-wood, and enclose in bags.
4. Procure shavings of cedar-wood, and enclose in muslin bags,
which should be distributed among the clothes.
5. An ounce of gum camphor and one of the powdered shell of red
486 STANDARD RECEIPTS.
pepper are macerated in eight ounces of strong alcohol for several days,
then strained. With this tincture the furs or clothes are sprinkled over
and rolled up in sheets.
6. Carefully shake and brush woolens in the spring, so as to be cer-
tain that no eggs are in them; then sew them up in cotton or linen
wrappers, putting a piece of camphor gum, tied up ina bit cf muslin,
into each bundle, or into the chests and closets where the articles are to
lie. No moth will approach while the smell of camphor continues.
When the gum is evaporated it must be renewed. Enclose them in a
moth-proof box with camphor. Furs or woolens put away in spring
time, before moth eggs are laid, into boxes, trunks, or closets even,
where moths cannot enter, will be safe from the ravages of mothworms,
provided none were in them that were laid late in the autumn, for they
are not of spontaneous production.
Flies, Their Habits and Kinds. Flies are scavengers and eat
not only the sweet things and fresh blood, but also things unclean, espe-
cially decaying animal substances. With their proboscis, sucking up the
juices which by evaporation would contaminate the air, they are very
useful indeed, in the houses of slovenly housekeepers.
The blue-bottle, or blow-fly, deposits its eggs on animal substances,
which are recognized as fly-blows. Ina warm temperature they hatch
in three or four hours after they are laid, and then are called larve or
maggots. The maggots from three flies will consume a dead horse al-
most as quickly asa lion. So voracious are they that they increase in
weight about two hundred times in twenty-four hours.
The flesh-fly, a little longer than the blow-fly, drops living maggots
on dead fish, the maggots being hatched within the fly.
The cheese-fly is very small; of a shining black color, with transparent
wings and yellow hind legs. It deposits about two hundred or two
hundred and fifty eggs into the cracks in cheese, which are developed in-
to skippers.
The maggots of some species of flies spin cocoons; with others, the
skin simply hardens and incases the pupa, or chrysalis. At length the
fully developed fly makes its escape by forcing off with its head the
chrysalis case.
The different-sized flies, are different varieties, and not young and old,
as some suppose; for flies never grow to any very perceptible extent. A
large pooportion of the swarms of flies hatched during the warm weather
of summer are destroyed by the frosts of winter. Only a few that are so
STANDARD RECEIPTS. 487
fortunate as to find shelter and warm places escape; and in similar situa-
tions, some of them pass the winter in chrysalis state, and only hatch
out when warm weather returns. ‘The house-fly is a domestic insect,
and is said never to be found except in the vicinity of man’s present or
recent home.
To Destroy Flies. House flies are present just in proportion to
the dirt and uncleanliness there is in a house. ‘The cleaner the house
and surroundings, the fewer flies there will be. Try any of the reme-
dies here suggested and be rewarded by a decrease of these annoying
pests.
1. They may be effectually destroyed by putting half a spoonful of
black pepper in powder on a teaspoonful of brown sugar, and one tea-
spoonful of cream; mix them well together and place them in a room
where the flies are troublesome, and they will soon disappear.
2. Laurel oil, freely used, the smell of which, although a little strong,
is not very offensive, drives away flies; and they dare not come near the
walls or the wainscots which have been rubbed with it.
3. Flies usually propagate in stables and they can be kept away so as
to prevent annoyance to the animals or further propagation by scatter-
ing about in the stables, sawdust which is saturated with dilute carbolic
acid (one part acid to one hundred parts water). A similar application
to the kitchen floor will keep them away.
Sticky Fly Paper. Melt resin in any vessel over the fire, and
while soft add to it enough sweet oil to make it as thick as molasses.
Spread upon writing paper with a brush and it will not dry ina long
time and is so sticky as to hold fast the legs of any insect attracted to it,
or accidentally coming in contact. It may be placed about the house,
the pantry or elsewhere, and will soon attract and hold fast ants and other
insects. It is also used on table legs, the edges of shelves and other
places to prevent the ascent of ants. Strips of this paper fastened close-
ly about the trunks of trees, plants, etc., the varnish side out, prevents
the ascent of insects. It possesses the great advantage over the ordinary
fly papers in that it is not poisonous.
4. Put about a quart of water sweetened with molasses in a tin wash
basin or smooth glazed china bowls. Set it at evening in a place fre
quented by the bugs. Around the basin put an old piece of carpet that
the bugs may have easy access tothe top. They will go down in the
water, and can not get out.
5. Mix upa quantity of fresh burned plaster of paris (gypsum, such
as is used for making molds and ornaments), with wheat flour and a
488 STANDARD RECEIPTS.
little sugar, and distribute on shallow plates and box boards, and place
in the corners of the kitchen and pantry, where they frequent. In the
darkness they will feast themselves on it. After three or four nights
renewal of the preparation, no cockroaches will be found on the
premises.
Moths in Carpets. Wring a coarse towel out of clear water,
spread it smoothly on the carpet, iron it dry with a good hot iron, re-
peating the operation on all parts of the carpet suspected of being in-
fested with moths. No need to press hard, and neither the pile nor
color of the carpet will be injured, and the moths will be destroyed by
the heat and steam.
RATS AND MICE.
To Kill or Drive Away Rats. 1. Mix some fine plaster of
Paris with an equal quantity of flour; put the mixture in the place
infested by the vermin, and a vessel full of water beside it. The rats
will devour the mixture and then drink; whereupon the plaster, brought
in contact with the water, will become solid, and like a stone in their
stomachs, and will cause their death. This method is evidently
highly preferable to the use of arsenic, which is always attended with
danger.
2. Mix up the following and put on bread or cheese :
3 ounces Sugar.
1 pound Flour,
8 ounces Sulphur.
8 ounces Phosphorus.
3. When a house is infested by rats which refuse to nibble at toasted
cheese, and the usual baits, a few drops of the highly scented oil of rho-
dium, poured on the bottom of a cage top, will always attract before
morning. Where a trap baited with all manner of edibles had failed to
attract a single rat, the oil of rhodium caused it to be completely crowded
night after night.
4. Mix powdered nux vomica with oatmeal, and lay it in their haunts,
observing proper caution to prevent accidents.
5. (PHOSPHORUS PASTE.) Take of phosphorus one part, liquify
it in twenty parts of luke-warm water, pour the whole into a mortar, and
add immediately twenty parts of rye meal ; when cold, mix twenty parts
of butter melted, and fifteen parts of sugar. If the phosphorus is in a
finely-divided state, the ingredients may be all mixed at once, without
STANDARD RECEIPTS. 489
melting them. ‘This mixture will retain its efficacy for many years, for
the phosphorus is preserved by the butter and only becomes oxydized
on the surface. Rats and mice eat this mixture with avidity, after
which they swell out and soon die.
6. Cover the floor near their holes, with a thin layer of moist caustic
potash. When the rats walk on this it makes their feet sore. These
they lick with their tongues, which makes their mouths sore, and the
result is that they not only shun this locality, but appear to tell all the
neighboring rats abont it, and eventually the house is entirely abandoned
by them, notwithstanding that the neighborhood may be teeming with
them.
7. Corks, cut as thin as wafers, roasted or stewed in grease, and
placed in their tracks ; or dried sponge in small pieces, fried or dipped
in honey, with a little oil of rhodium, or bird-lime, laid in their haunts,
will stick to their fur and cause their departure. If a liverat be caught,
and well rubbed over with tar, and oil, and afterward let escape in the
holes of others, they will disappear.
8. Cover a common barrel with stiff, stout papers, tying the edge
around the barrel; place a board so that the rats may have an easy
access to the top; sprinkle cheese parings or other ‘‘feed’’ for the rats
on the paper for several days, until they begin to believe they have a
right to the food. Then place a cover balanced near the centre and the
rat will fall into the barrel. Have water in the bottom which covers a
stone all but place enough for one rat. ‘Then the second rat gets in the
barrel, there will be a fight for a place on the stone, and this noise will
call other rats to the barrel. Each time a rat gets on the head it will
add one rat to the number inside.
Mice. ‘These are disposed of in about the same manner as rats.
Gather spearmint, peppermint, or any other kind of mint, and scatter it
about their holes, and they will forsake the premises.
PRESERVING AND SALTING MEAT.
To Cure Hams. For each twelve pounds of ham use the following:
2 pounds Common Salt,
2 ounces Saltpetre,
4 pound Bay Salt,
2 pound Brown Sugar.
Reduce the solids to the finest powder. Rub the hams well with it.
490 STANDARD RECEIPTS.
Then place them in a deep pan, and add a wine-glassful of good vinegar.
Turn the hams every day; for the first three or four days rub them well
with the brine; after that time it will suffice to ladle it over the meat
with a wooden or iron spoon. They should remain three weeks in the
pickle. When taken from it wipe them well, put them in bags of brown
paper and then smoke them with wood smoke for three weeks. Most
grocers, dealers in hams, and others, who are particular with their meat,
usually take the precaution to case each one, after it is smoked, in can-
vass, for the purpose of defending it from the attacks of the little fly,
(dermestes lardarius), which by laying its eggs in it, soon fills it with its
maggots. ‘This troublesome and expensive process may be altogether
superseded by the use of pyroligneous acid. With a painter’s brush,
dipped in the liquid, one man, in the course of a day, may effectually
secure two hundred hams from all danger. Care should be taken to in-
sinuate the liquid into all the cracks, etc., of the under surface. This
method is especially adapted to the preservation of hams in hot climates.
2. Make the following pickle and let the meat lay in it six weeks:
23} pounds Sugar,
7 pounds Coarse Salt,
2 ounces Saltpetre,
4 gallons Water.
Boil together and put to cool. The above is sufficient for one hundred
pounds of meat.
3. Toa cask holding, say from twenty-five to thirty hams, after pack-
ing them closely and sprinking them slightly with salt, let them lie thus
for three days; then make a brine sufficient to cover them, by putting
salt in clear water, making it strong enough to bear up a sound egg or
potato. Then addone-half pound of saltpetre, and a gallon of molasses;
let them lie in brine for five weeks. Then take them up and let them
drain; then while damp, rub the flesh side and the end of the leg with
finely pulverized black, red, or cayenne pepper; let it be as fine as dust,
and dust every part of the flesh side, then hang them up and smoke.
You may leave them hanging in the smoke house or other cool place
where the rats cannot reach them as they are perfectly safe from all
insects.
To Keep Smoked Hams. Make sacks of coarse cotton cloth,
large enough to hold one ham, and fill with chopped hay all around
about two inches thick. The hay prevents the grease from coming in
contact with the cloth and keeps all insects from the meat. Hang in
STANDARD RECEIPTS. 491
the smokehouse, or other dry, cool, place, and they will keep a long
time.
To Pickle Mutton Hams for Drying. First take weak brine
and put the hams into it for two days, then pour off and apply the fol-
lowing, and then let it remain on from two to three weeks according to
size: for each one hunared pounds, take salt six pounds; saltpetre, one
ounce; saleratus, two ounces; molasses, one pint; water, six gallons; will
cover these if closely packed.
Corned Beef. 1. Cut up the beef, and weigh and bulk it up, sprink-
ling a little salt over it, and let it lay ten or twelve hours, then pack it
down in the barrel. To one hundred pounds of beef take one quart of
salt, three and one half pints of molasses, one table-spoonful of saltpetre.
Put all this into sufficient water to cover the beef; boil the pickle, and
skim off all the scum, and when cold pour it over the beef, and weigh it
down. Keep the beef covered with the pickle.
2. Rub each piece of beef very lightly with salt; let them lie singly on
a tray or board for twenty-four hours, then wipe them very dry. Pack
them closely in a tub, taking care that it is perfectly sweet and clean.
Have the pickle ready, made thus: boil four gallons of soft water with
ten pounds of coarse salt, four ounces of saltpetre, and two pounds of
coarse brown sugar; let it boil fifteen minutes, and skim it while boiling
very clean. When perfectly cold pour it on the beef, laying a weight
on the top to keep the meat under the pickle. This quantity is sufficient
for one hundred pounds of beef if closely packed.
Dried Beef. The good qualities of dried beef as an article of food
for the family are not fully appreciated. In point of excellence it is one
of the nicest articles, when properly prepared, that we have in our store-
room. It is also one of the most economical articles of food; quite a
small gantity of dried beef, shaved very fine, and cooked with a nice
gravy, will serve for meat for a family at a very small expense. It
is so convenient to have; always ready; always acceptable. To people
who live convenient to market, it is not of so much importance; but to
those, who live at a distance from towns, dried beef is one of the neces-
sary articles in our bill of fare.
There are several methods of cooking it. Some prefer it cooked with
a gravy of water, seasoned with butter, thickened with flour, and per-
haps eggs broken in while cooking. Others cook it with crumbs of
sausage, frying the sausage first, then adding the beef with water, and
thickening with flour. It is also very good cooked with a little sweet
492 STANDARD RECEIPTS.
milk and sweet cream, the gravy being thickened with flour; allow it to
boil once; that is all the cooking it requires. A dish of dried beef,
properly cooked, served with toast, baked potatoes, and boiled eggs, is
a very nice provision for breakfast or a dinner prepared in haste. When
too salt, it can be remedied by soaking, after cutting and before, and
adding a little white sugar while cooking, to restore the sweetness lost
by soaking. Sugar cured beef is much nicer than that cured with salt
alone.
To Cure Bacon. ‘The reputation of the Hampshire bacon is owing
entirely to the care with which it is cured. The hogs, which are fatted
on peas and barley meal, are kept fasting for twenty-four hours at least
before they are killed; they are used as gently as possible in the act of
killing, which is done by inserting a long-pointed knife into the main
artery which comes from the heart. The hair is burned off with lighted
straw, and the dirty surface of the skin scraped off. The carcass is
hung up after the entrails have been removed, and the next day, when
the meat has become quite cold, it is cut up into flitches. The spare-
ribs are taken out, and the bloody veins carefully removed; the whole is
then covered with salt, with a small quantity of saltpetre mixed with it.
Sometimes a little brown sugar is added, which gives a pleasant sweet-
ness to the bacon. ‘The flitches are laid on a low wooden table, which
has a small raised border at the lower end. ‘The table slantsa little, so
as to let the brine run off into a vessel placed under it, by a small open-
ing in the border at the lower end.
The flitches are turned up and salted every day; those which were up-
permost are put under, and in three weeks they are ready to be hung up
to dry. Smoking the bacon is no longer as comuion as it used to be, as
simply drying in the salt is found sufficient to make it keep. Those
who from early association like the flavor given by the smoke of wood,
burn sawdust and shavings in a smothered fire for some time under the
flitches.
When they are quite dry they are placed on a board rack for the use
of the family, or are packed with chaff into chests till they are sold.
To Keep Butter Sweet. To every twenty pounds of butter take
three pounds salt, one pound loaf sugar, one-quarter pound pulverized
saltpetre; mix and put a layer of butter about eight inches thick; then
sprinkle on a light covering alternately, until your cask is full.
Pack in air-tight casks. Butter packed in this way will keep sweet
for two or three years.
STANDARD RECEIPTS. 493
FRUIT AND VEGETABLES KEPT OVER WINTER.
To Keep Grapes. 1. They must not be tooripe. Take off the im-
perfect grapes from the bunches. On the bottom of a keg put a layer
of bran that has been well dried in an oven, or in the sun. Onthe bran
put a layer of grapes, with bran between the bunches so that they may
not bein contact. Proceed in the same way with alternate layers of
grapes and bran, till the keg is full; then close the keg so that no air
can enter.
2. In a box first lay a paper, then a layer of grapes, selecting the best
bunches and removing all imperfect grapes, then another paper, then
more grapes, and so until the box is full; then cover all with several
folds of paper or cloth. Nail on the lid, and set in a cool room where it
will not freeze. Use small boxes, so as not to disturb more than enough
to use in a week or so. Give each bunch plenty of room so they will
not crowd, and don’t use newspapers. Some seal the stem with sealing
wax and wrap each bunch by itself, but it is not necessary to go to that
trouble. The grapes should be looked to several times during the win-
ter. Should any mould or decay, they should be removed and the good
ones again repacked.
3. Cut a piece out of a ripe pumpkin or gourd, making an aperture
large enough to admit the hand. Clean out the interior of seeds and
place the ripe grapes inside, and replace the cover and press it in firmly.
Keep the pumpkins in a cool place—and the grapes will be found to
retain their freshness for a long time. A very careful selection must be
made of the pumpkin, but the common field pumpkin, however, is well
adapted for the purpose in question.
To Keep Cabbage. Sink a barrel in the ground to within an inch
or two of the top, cut off the heads and fill the barrel full, put on a board
to keep out water, and that is all the covering that is needed.
To Keep Apples. 1. Select the best of fruit, and carefully wrap
each specimen separately in paper so that the air cannot pass through,
and the time of keeping in a sound and eatable condition can be greatly
prolonged. After covering each apple with paper, select a light wooden
box and cover it on the inside, or outside, with paper either before or
after putting in the fruit, as the case may be. Those persons who are
desirous of preserving a small quantity of apples will be amply repaid for
their trouble by trying the above experiment. The fruit should not be
494 STANDARD RECEIPTS.
disturbed after packing until the box is opened at the time the fruit is to
be eaten.
2. Sprinkle a layer of dry sawdust at the bottom of a box, and then
place a layer of apples init, so that they will not touch each other. Upon
these place a little layer of sawdust, and so on until the box is filled.
The boxes, after being packed in this way, are to be placed on the wall
in the cellar, up from the ground, where they will keep, perfectly retain-
ing their freshness and flavor until brought out.
3. Apples for keeping should be laid out on a dry floor for three
weeks. They then may be packed away in layezs, with dry straw be-
tween them. Each apple should be rubbed with a dry cloth as it is put
away. ‘They should be kept in a cool place, but should be sufficiently
covered with straw to protect them from frost. They should be picked
ona dry day. They also keep if packed in dry sand.
4. An excellent method for preserving apples through the winter is
to put them in barrels or boxes, surrounding each apple with some dry
mould or gypsum (plaster of Paris)—not the calcined used for casts,
models, etc.,—and keep in a dry, cool outhouse.
To Keep Celery. This may be kept in good condition during the
winter in a cool, dry cellar, by having it set out in earth. When a
small quantity only is wanted, take a box and stand the celery up in it,
placing a little earth about the roots. The farmers who raise quantities
of it cften keep it in their old hot-beds, standing up, and protecting it
from frost. There is no vegetable more relished than this, and every
person who has a garden should raise enough for his own use, if no
more.
To Keep Potatoes from Sprouting. To keep potatoes intended
for the use of the table from sprouting until new potatoes grow, take
boiling water, pour into a tub, turn in as many potatoes as the water
will entirely cover, then pour off all the water, handle the potatoes care-
fully, laying up in a dry place on boards, only one layer deep, and see
if you do not have good potatoes the year round, without hard strings
and watery ends caused by growing.
Pears Kept Fresh. After they have been allowed to lay on the
shelves in the fruit-room, and sweat, they should be wiped dry, and
packed in boxes with dry sawdust enough to exclude the air from them.
If they were packed in dry sand, they would keep equally as well and
perhaps better; but the objection is that it is difficult to clean them from
sand, and they eat gritty when so kept.
STANDARD RECEIPTS. 495
TO PRESERVE OR PICKLE EGGS.
To Keep Eggs Without Spoiling. For each twelve quarts of
water put in one pint of fresh slaked lime, and one pint of common salt,
mix well, fill a barrel about half full of this fluid, then with a dish, let
the fresh eggs down into this, and they will settle right side up with
care every time, and they will keep any reasonable length of time with-
out any further care than to keep them .covered with the fluid. Eggs
may be laid down in this way any time after June.
2. Dip them into a solution of gun-cotton, (collodion), so as to ex-
clude the air from the pores of the shells, or the collodion may be applied
with a brush.
3. Keep them at the temperature of 4o° F. or less in a refrigerator.
Specimens have been exhibited, which were fourteen months old, and
still perfectly fresh and sweet.
4. Pack the eggs in a cask with the smaller end downward, and fill
the cask with melted tallow. This method is practiced very extensively
in Russia and in other parts of Europe, and is generally successful.
5. Apoly with a brush a solution of gum arabic to the shells, or im-
merse the eggs therein; let them dry, and afterwards pack them in dry
charcoal dust. This prevents their being affected by any alterations of
temperature.
6. Eggs may be preserved by keeping them buried in salt, or dipping
them during two or three minutes in boiling water. The white of the
eggs then forms a kind of membrane, which envelops the interior, and
defends it from the air.
7. Take of quick-lime one pound; salt, one pound; saltpetre, three
ounces; water, one gallon. It is necessary that the solution be boiled
ten or fifteen minutes, and when cold put in the eggs, small end down-
ward, using a vessel lined with lead, and placing in a cold but dry
cellar.
8. Get a good sweet wooden box, put about an inch of salt on the
bottom; take sweet grease of any kind, lard or dr:ppings, rub the eggs
all over with it and put them, the little end down, in the salt; then
spread a layer of salt and then add more eggs.
9. Dissolve gum shellac in alcohol, when the mixture may be applied
with a common paint brush. When dry, pack in bran, points down-
ward. Eggs so preserved will keep a long tite. When about to be
used, the varnish may be washed off.
496 STANDARD RECEIPTS.
10, A Parisian paper recommends the following method for the pre-
servation of eggs: dissolve four ounces of beeswax in eight ounces of
warm olive oil; in this put the tip of the finger and annoint the egg all
around. ‘The oil will immediately be absorbed, and the shell and pores
filled up by the wax. If kept in a cool place the eggs after two years,
will be as good as if fresh laid.
11. An old sea captain says: ‘“The week before going tosea, ona four
months’ voyage, I gathered in sixty dozens of eggs for cabin sea-stores,
taking special pains to prove every egg of the lot a good one; besides, I
bought them of my farmer friends, and know they were all fresh. Then
I fixed them for keeping, by taking five or six dozens at a time in a bas-
ket, and dipping them about five seconds in the cook’s ‘‘copper’’ of
boiling water. After scalding, I passed the eggs through a bath, made
by dissolving about five pounds of the cheapest brown sugar in a gallon
of water, and laid them out on the galley floor to dry. ‘There I had my
sixty dozens of eggs sugar-coated. I packed them in charcoal dust in-
stead of salt; I tried salt ten years, and I don’t believe it preserves eggs
aimite. The steward had strict orders to report every bad egg he should
find. During the voyage he brought three, not absolutely spoiled, but
a little old. All the others, or what was left of them, were as fresh
when we came in as they were when I packed them away.”’
SOAP AND SOAP MAKING.
How to Make Soap. Animal fat, such as tallow, is the sub-
stance most at hand of all fatty matter for soap-making, although
vegetable oils, such as castor, sunflower, olive and other oils, and also
resin, are used in soap making occasionally, but tallow being more eas-
ily obtainable, and generally at a lower cost than any of the oils above
enumerated, is most extensively employed in the manufacture of domes-
tic soap.
For this purpose the grease after being freed of skin, by boiling
straining, and remelting, is heated to the temperature of boiling water,
and mixed on the fire with a hot solution of either soda, potash, or Both,
in water called the lye; the whole is gradually transferred into an itor
pot, larger by at least one third than the whole mixture, about one
quart of the melted fat being first ladled into it, then as much or more
of the hot lye, the mixture constantly stirred on the fire till a sort of
creamy matter is formed, the ladling kept on alternately till all the fat
STANDARD RECEIPTS. 497
and lye are mixed together; the stirring to be kept up till the mixture
boils, some ten or fifteen minutes, according to the strength of the lye
employed.
Then transfer from the boiler into a form, a tight box, in which
muslin has been placed overhanging the box, so that the soap may be
afterward more easily drawn out of it for the purpose of drying, or it
may be poured in acommon wash-tub, previously soaked in water to
prevent adhesion to the tub, and there allowed to harden fora few
days, from which it is put upon a table, to dry and be cut in bars for
use, by means of a wire.
To Preserve Soap Grease. Boil all the scraps, rinds, and bones
in a weak lye, and the purer grease in clear water. Let the mixture
cool, take off the cake of grease, and strain it. It is well to do this oc-
casionally, as you save it; for when kept a long time, impure grease
becomes offensive. You must be careful to dry off all the water before
laying it away in your grease tub, if you wish it to keep sweet.
To Purify Soap Grease. If the grease is very foul in smell, it
should be put in a boiler with water, on the fire (about three times as
much water as of the grease), and adda tea-spoonfu: of permanganate
of potash to each ten pounds of grease, stirring well, and after the mix-
ture has cooled a little it is strained through a cloth, and allowed to rest,
when the cake of fat is taken out and put in a cool place, or in the pot
in which it is to be remelted for trausformation into soap. The purpose
of the permanganate of potash is to remove the rank odor of the grease,
which otherwise would be found in the soap.
Soft Soap. 1. Take one gallon of soft soap, to which add one gill
of common salt, and boil an hour. When cold, separate the lye from
the crude. Add to the crude two pounds of sal-soda, and boil in two
gallons soft water till dissolved. If you wish it better, slice two pounds
of common bar soap, and dissolve in the above. If the soft soap makes
more than three pounds of crude, add in proportion to the sal-soda and
water.
2. For one barrel take potash, eight pounds; melted and clarified fat,
eight pounds. Crack the potash in small lumps, and put it into a large
iron pot of three or four gallons capacity, with hot boiling water to
nearly fill it. Heat the fat in another iron pot quite hot. Put three or
four gallons of hot water in the barrel, previously cleaned and ready for
use, and ladle in it alternately the hot fat and hot lye; stir the whole
briskly for a while before more lye and fat are ladled in, and gradually
498 STANDARD RECEIPTS.
add enough hot water to fill the barrel; stir again the whole, after each
ladle of hot water, till the whole becomes a creamy mass, uniform in its
appearance. Allow it to rest for three months in a temperate place or
cellar.
3. Dissolve a quarter of a pound of lime in a gallon of cold water, then
take off the clear; dissolve a half pound of sal-soda in a quart of water,
and mix it with the clear lime-water; one pound of brown soap dissolved
in a gallon of water, and then to be added to the clear liquor formed
with the sal-soda and lime-water, and this forms the soap. This soft
soap is excellent for boiling white linens. It removes all grease that is
in them, because it contains an excess of caustic lye. About one quart
of it is sufficient for boiling clothes in a ten gallon copper. A quantity
of this may be made up for constant use.
To Make Good Lye. Use hickory-wood ashes when possible,
but those from beech, maple, or any kind of hard wood, except oak,
will answer well. A hogshead, set upon an inclined platform, will
make a good leach. Firstin the bottom of the leach pile some wood
crosswise of each other, making it a foot high, over this put a piece of
of old carpet or straw, put on a few inches of ashes, thena peck of lime,
fill with ashes, moistened and tamp down well, making it firmest in the
centre. Put on warm water. If the lye is not strong enough to float a
potato or egg, put back on the ashes again and let run through till it
will do so.
Mrs. Gordon’s Soft Soap. Shave two and one-half pounds of
good white soap and melt in two gallons of soft water, add one and one-
fourth pounds of sal-soda and one-quarter pound powdered borax; when
all is melted pour in keg or barrel with ten or twelve gallons warm
water; stir in thoroughly two table-spoonfuls strong ammonia; two of al-
cohol; and one of turpentine; stir occasionally till cold. This soap is
ready for use as soon as mixed. ‘The borax, soda, turpentine or am-
monia may be increased if desired.
Hand-Made Sal-Soda Soap. It sometimes happens that caustic
soda is not within reach, and yet sal-soda is to be had. ‘To transform
this material into a suitable lye for soap-making is an easy process; dis-
solve sal-soda, say three pounds, in two gallons of warm water; slack in
a firkin three pounds of good lime; add to it the soda solution; stir the
whole thoroughly with a stick, and add two gallons of boiling water;
stir again, and let it settle.
To make soap pour off the clear liquor into a clean iron boiler and
STANDARD RECEIPTS, 499
place on the fire, and stir into it six pounds of clarified grease, and two
ounces of powdered borax. Let it boil slowly till it gets thick and ropy
(about ten minutes boiling), and pour it intoa tub or tight box, as stated
above. Soap thus made 1s an excellent hard soap for family use; after
drying a month or so in a dry-room, and cut into bars, it is fit for use.
One Cent a Pound Soap. Soap for family use can be made very
cheap and of excellent quality with little trouble by the use of a common
article sold in all drug stores. This is lye put up in aconcentrated form
in small iron boxes holding one pound. These boxes cost about twenty
cents, and will make twenty pounds of soap.
The plan of proceeding is merely to take a box of this substance, knock
off the lid, and throw it into a gallon of boiling water. After standing
ten hours the lye will be clear, and must be thrown into a wash-boiler
with another gallon of boiling water; when the contents of the vessel
boils, add slowly four pounds of any grease and stir well. When well
mixed, the boiler should simmer slowly for four or six hours, and half
an hour before taking off, another gallon of hot water may be added,
together with half a tea-cupful of salt. The latter is not necessary, how-
ever, and if too much is used, the soap is curdled or made short so that
it breaks and wastes. When the soap is thought to be done, plunge a
case knife in; if the mass drops clear and ropy and chills quickly, it is
soap and will be firm and hard whencold. Haveready atub well wet on
the bottom and sides; pour the soap in and let it set; in a few hours it
‘will be hard enough to cut out and be as white as snow.
This process makes twenty-five pounds of soap; or, by the aid of
grease, four pounds; lye, one pound; twenty-four pounds of water; (less
four pounds driven off in boiling), are converted into excellent soap.
Since the grease is saved from the family waste, the soap has only cost
what the lye has come to, and as the loss by drying is only twenty per
cent., twenty pounds of soap can be made for twenty cents.
Country Soft or Hard Soap. In most parts of the country it is
cheaper and much more convenient to make soap from the lye of leached
ashes than from a boughten ‘‘‘concentrated lye.’’ Leach the ashes as
suggested, then filla kettle two-thirds full of lye that will float a potato
or egg. Put in the fat ina melted condition, a little at a time, and stir
well. When the soap gets to the right consistency (which is found
by testing) let the fire out and the soap cool. If hard soap is required
add salt while hot by handfuls until of proper hardness.
2. A farmers wife give the following method of making soap: ‘‘Start
500 STANDARD RECEIPTS.
the lye to boiling and then while boiling, if the lye is not strong enough
to eat the feather of a quill, boil it down until it is. When it will just
eat the feather, let the kettle be a little more than one-third full of lye,
and put in grease, skins of the hogs, bacon rinds, meat-fryings, and the
like, until the kettle is about two-thirds full. The kettle must not be
full, for with the least bit too much fire, over the soap goes. It is bet-
ter to put in a little less than the necessary amount of grease. Lye and
grease combine in certain proportions; but pass the limit no amount of
boiling will take up an excess of grease. It will remain on top hot or
cold, and it will be very troublesome; whereas a little too much lye will
sink to the bottom when the soap comes. If the proportions are good,
a little fire only is required to keep it boiling, and in a few hours it is
done. Then take a bucket of weak lye and let it boil up with the soap
once. This will not disturb the already made soap, but will wash the
dirt out that was in the grease, and with it settle to the bottom. When
the soap is cold it can be cut out in cakes.’’ A small quantity of salt
will help harden.
Fluid Soap. Sweet oil seven parts; caustic potash, one part; rose
water, sufficient quantity to reduce it to a proper state. Rub the oil,
alkali and a few spoonfuls of the water together in a hot mortar until
united, then add the remainder of the water as required.
Wash-Boiler Soap. ‘Take one pound of sal-soda, one pound of
yellow bar soap, and five quarts of water. Cut the soap in thin slices,
and boil together two hours; strain, and it will be fit for use. Put the
clothes to soak the night before you wash, and to every pail of water in
which you boil them, add a pound of soap. They will need no rubbing;
merely rinse them out, and they will be perfectly clean and white.
White Hard Soap. To fifteen pounds of lard, or suet, made boil-
ing hot, add slowly six gallons of hot lye, or solution of potash, that
will bear up an egg high enough to leave a piece big as a shilling, bare.
Take out a little and cool it. If no grease comes to the top it is done.
If any grease appears, add lye, and _ boil till no grease rises. Add three
quarts of fine salt, and boil up again. If this does not harden well on
cooling, add more salt. If it is to be perfumed, melt it next day, add
the perfume and run it in moulds, or cut in cakes.
Hard Soap. 1. Take six pounds of sal-soda, six pounds grease.
and three pounds lime. ‘Thoroughly mix the soda and lime in four gal-
lons of water, pour off from the sediment, put in the grease and boil
¢wenty minutes; pour off and before entirely cold cut in bars.
STANDARD RECEIPTS. 501
2. Glauber salts has been used to harden soap, which made from in-
ferior fats, would otherwise be too soft. ‘This substance (inelted on a
shovel or otherwise, ) added to the soap in the proportion of one pound
of the salt to twenty pounds or the soap, is said to remedy the defect,
and to make a hard and sound soap out of what would otherwise be too
soft for economical use.
3. HARD SOAP WITH LARD. Sal-soda and lard, of each six
pounds; stone lime three pounds; soft water, four gallons; dissolve the
lime and soda in the water, by boiling, stirring, settling and pouring
off; then return to the kettle (brass or copper) and add the lard and boil
until it becomes soap; then pour into a dish or moulds, and when cold,
cut it into bars and let it dry.
4. HARD SOAP FROM SOFT. Take seven pounds good soft
soap; four pounds sal-soda; two ounces borax; one ounce hartshorn;
one-half pound resin, to be dissolved in twenty-two quarts of water,
and boiled about twenty minutes.
Whale Oil Soap. For the destruction of insects: render common
tye castic, by boiling it at full strength on quick-lime; then take the lye
and boil it with as much whale oil foot as it will change to soap; pour
off into moulds, and, when cold, it is tolerably hard. Whale oil foot
is the sediment produced in refining whale oil.
How to Test Soap. The value of boiled sodps of course depends
greatly on the quality of the materials used. This accounts for the dif-
ference in price and quality. The purest materials, such as clean tallow
or pure oils, thoroughly saponified, yield the most valuable soaps, cost-
ing more per pound, but they are cheaper in the end. A good soap isa
perfectly neutral compound, and will in no case injure the most delicate
fabrics. ‘The simplest method of testing soap is by tasting. If it is
sharp and biting on the tongue, there is an <xcess of alkali; but if it
leaves no unpleasant sensation on the tongue, there is not the least dan-
ger that it will rot or otherwise injure clothes in washing.
Resin Soap. About fifteen per cent. of resin can be mixed with
tallow without injuring the color and firmness of the soap. A larger
proportion deteriorates the quality aud produces an inferior soap. Some
soap-makers melt the resin and tallow together before mixing; better
make a separate soap of each, then mix and boil them together thor-
oughly for half an hour, and strain through a sieve before filling the
frames. Use only the lightest colored resin, if you would have light
solored soap.
502 STANDARD RECEIPTS.
HOW TO USE CEMENT.
Quality of Sand. The sand should be clean, sharp and coarse.
When the sand is mixed with loam the mortar will set comparatively
slow, and the work will be comparatively weak. Fine sand, and espe-
cially water-worn sand, delays the setting of cement, and deteriorates
strength. Damp sand should not be mixed with dry cement, but the
cement and sand should be mixed thoroughly and uniformly together,
when both are dry, and no water should be applied until immediately
before the mortar is wanted for use.
Proportion of Sand. The larger the proportion of cement the
stronger the work. One part of good cement to two parts of sand is
allowable for ordinary work; but for cisterns, cellars, and work requir-
ing special care, half and half is the better proportion. For floors, the
cement should be increased toward the surface.
Water in Concrete. Use no more water in cement than abso-
lutely necessary. Cement requires but a very small quantity of water
in crystalizing. Merely dampening the material gives the best results.
Any water in excess necessarily evaporates and leaves the hardened ce-
ment comparatively weak and porous.
Concrete in Water. Whenever concrete is used under water, care
must be taken that the water is still. So say all English and American
authorities. In laying cellar floors, or constructing cisterns or similar
work, care must always be taken to avoid pressure of exterior water.
Cement will not crystalize when disturbed by the force of currents, or
pressure of water, but will resist currents and pressure after hardening
only. In still water good cement will harden quicker than in air; and
when kept in water will be stronger than when kept in air. Cements
which harden especially quick in air are usually slow or worthless in
water. ,
Delay in Use. Do not permit the mortar to exhaust its setting
properties by delaying its use when ready. Inferior cements only will
remain standing in the mortar beds any length of time without serious
injury.
How to Put Down Concrete. When strong work is wanted,
for cellar floors and all similar work, the concrete should be dampened
and tamped down to place, with the back of a spade, or better, with the
end of a plank or rammer, then finished up with a trowel, thus leveling
and compacting the work. Only persons ignorant of the business will
STANDARD RECEIPTS. 503
lay a floor or walk with soft cement mortar. All artiflcial stone is
made in a similar way to that described, and, when set, is strong and
hard.
Stone and Brick Work. In buildings constructed of stone and
brick, the best protection from dampness and decay, and also from the
danger of cyclones, is a mortar of cement and coarse sand. The extra
cost is inconsiderable and the increased value of the structure very
great. Chimneys made in this manner never blow down, and cellars
whose foundations are thus laid are always free from atmospheric mois-
ture. Cement may also be mixed with lime mortar for plastering and
other purposes to great advantage.
Effect of Frost and Cold. Ata temperature less than 60° F.,
all good cement sets slowly, though surely, but if allowed to freeze its
value is seriously impaired. In cold weather or cold water do not fear
to wait for your concrete to crystalize.
Damage From Moisture. Good cement in bags or barrels is not
injured by age, if carefully preserved from moisture. Lumps in bags or
barrels of cement are caused by exposure to moisture. They prove the
good quality of the cement. The Portland cement made at Warners,
New York, is the strongest and best in the world.
CIDER, VINEGAR, AND WINES.
Cider, How to Make and Keep. Always choose perfectly ripe
and sound hand-picked fruit. Apples that have lain any time on the
ground contract an earthy taste, which will always be found in the
cider.
After sweating, and before being ground, wipe them dry, and if any
are found bruised or rotten, put them in a heap by themselves for an in-
ferior cider to make vinegar.
Always tise hair cloths, instead of straw, to place between the layers
of pomice. ‘The straw, when heated, gives a disagreeable taste to the
cider.
As the cider runs from the press let it pass through a hair sieve into a
large open vessel, that will hold as much juice as can be expressed in a
day. Ina day and sometimes less the pomice will rise to the top, and
in a short time grow very thick; when little white bubbles break through
it, draw off the liquor by a spigot, placed about three inches from the
bottom, so that the settlings may be left quietly behind.
The cider must be drawn off into very clean, sweet casks, and closely
504 STANDARD RECEIPTS.
watched. The moment the white bubbles before mentioned are per-
ceived rising at the bung-hole, rack it again. When the fermentation is
completely at an end, fill up the cask with cider, in all respects like that
already contained in it, and bung it up tight; previous to which a tum-
bler of sweet oil may be poured into the bung-hole.
After cider is allowed to ferment until it has acquired the desired fla-
yor, it should then be put into clean barrels prepared as follows: dip
some strips of rags into melted sulphur, light and hang in the bung-
hole and lay the bung loosely on the end of the rag. This is to allow
the sulphur vapor to well fill the barrel. ‘ie up a half pint of mustard
seed in a coarse muslin rag and put into the barrel, then put your cider
in. Now add a handful of isinglass which ‘‘fines’’ the cider, but does
not keep it sweet.
The above is the old fashioned way and will keep cider in the same
condition as when put into the barrel, if kept in a cool place, for a year.
The sulphur vapor checks the fermentation, and the sulphur in the mus-
tard seed keeps it checked. Professional cider dealers are now using
the bi-sulphite of lime instead of the mustard seed and sulphur vapor.
The bi-sulphite of lime is what is sometimes sold as a ‘‘preserving pow-
der.’’ It is only another form of using the sulphur.
Another method is to add sugar, one and a half pounds of sugar to a
gallon of cider and let it ferment. This makes a fermented, clear
good cider, but sweet. It lasts sweet about six months if kept in a cool
situation.
If it is intended to bottle cider, it should first be examined, to see
whether it is clear and sparkling. If not it should be clarified. The
night before it is intended to be put in bottles, the bung should be taken
out of the cask, and left so until the next day when it may be bottled,
but not corked down until the day after, because if this is done at once,
many of the bottles would break. The best corks and .champagne
bottles should be used. The bottled stock should be stored in a cool
cellar, where the quality will be greatly improved by age.
To Can Cider. Cider, if taken when first made, brought to boiling
heat and canned, precisely as fruit is canned, will keep from year to
year without any change of taste. Canned up in this way in the fall, it
may be kept a half dozen years or longer, as good as when first made.
It is better that the cider be settled and poured off from the dregs, and
when brought to boiling heat the scum that gathers on the surface
taken off; but the only precaution necessary to preservation of the cider
STANDARD RECEIPTS. 505
is the sealing of it up air-tight when boiling hot. The juice of other
fruit can be preserved in the same way. ‘To all tastes not already cor-
rupted by strong drink, these unfermented juices are very delicious.
The juice of the grape is better than wine a century old, and more
healthy.
To Keep Cider Sweet. 1 To one barrel of cider add one pound
of mustard seed, two pounds of raisins, and one quarter pound of sticks,
(bark) of cinnamon.
2. When fermentation commences in one barrel, draw off the liquor
into another one; straining it through a flannel cloth. Put into the
cider three-quarters of an ounce of oil of sassafrass, and the same of the
oil of wintergreen; shake up well with a pint of alcohol.
3. Much of the excellence of cider depends upon the temperature
at which the fermentation is conducted, and is a point greatly overlooked
by manufacturers of this liquor. As soon as pressed from the fruit, it
should be strained into sulphured casks and placed in a cool situation
where the temperature does not exceed 50° F. If left in the heating
sun much of the sugar is converted into vinegar by the absorption of at-
. mospheric oxygen, and thus the liquor becomes acid and rough. On
the contrary, if the fermentation takes place in a cool situation the fla-
vor and sweetness is retained.
Cider Wine. Let new cider from sour apples ferment from one to
three weeks, according to the weather. When it has worked fairly well
add to each gallon, one pound of white crushed sugar, and let the whole
ferment until it possesses precisely the taste which it is desired should
be permanent. In this condition pour out a quart of the cider and add
for each gallon one-half ounce of SULPHITE OF LIME, not sulphate. Stir
the powder and cider until well mixed, and return the emulsion to the
fermenting liquid. Shake briskly and thoroughly for a few moments,
and then let the cider settle. Fermentation will cease at once. When
after a few days, the cider has become clear, draw off carefully, to avoid
the sediment, and bottle. If loosely corked, which is better, it will be-
come a sparkling cider wine, and may be kept indefinitely long.
Cherry Wine. 1. To make five pints of this wine, take fifteen
pounds of cherries and two pounds of currants; bruise them together;
mix with them two-thirds of the pits, and put the whole of the cherries,
currants, and pits into a jug, with a quarter of a pound of sugar to every
pint of juice. The jug must be quite full; cover the jug with vine-
leaves, and putin a cool place, and let it stand until it has done work-
506 STANDARD RECEIPTS.
ing, which takes three weeks; then cork and in two months time it
may be bottled.
2. Gather the cherries when quite ripe. Pull them from their stems
and press them through a hair sieve. To every gallon of the liquor add
two pounds of sugar, stir all together, and put it into a vessel that will
just hold it. When it has done working cork it very close for three
months, and then bottle it for use.
Grape Wine. Take two quarts of grape juice, two quarts of water,
four pounds of sugar. Extract the juice of the grape in any simple way;
if only a few quarts are desired do it with a strainer and a pair of
squeezers; if a larger quantity is desired, put the grapes into a cheese
press, made particularly clean, putting on sufficient strength to extract
the juice of a full hoop of grapes, being careful that none but pertect
grapes are used, perfectly ripe and free from blemish. After the first
pressing puta little water with the pulp and press a second time, using
the juice of thesecond pressing with the water to be mixed with the
clear grape juice. If only afew quarts are made place the wine as soon
as mixed into bottles, filling them even full and allow to stand in a
warm place until it ferments, which will take about thirty-six hours;
then remove the skum, cool and put into a dark, cool place. Ifa few
gallons are desired place in a keg or stone jug; but whatever is used
must be even full. After thorough working has taken place and the
scum removed, bottle and cork tight.
Currant Wine. The currants should be fully ripe when picked;
put them into a large tub, in which they should remain a day or two;
then crush with the hands, unless you have a small patent wine press,
but they should not be pressed too much, or the stems will be bruised,
and impart a disagreeable taste to the juice. If the hands are used, put
the crushed fruit, after the juice has been poured off, in a cloth or sack
and press out the remaining juice. Put the juice back into the tub after
cleansing it, where it should remain about three days, until the first
stages of fermentation are over, and removing once or twice a day the
scum arising to the top. Then put the juice in a vessel—a demijohn,
keg, or barrel—of a size to suit the quantity made, and to each quart of
juice add three pounds of the best yellow sugar, and soft water sufficient
to make a gallon.
Thus, ten quarts of juice and thirty pounds of sugar will give you ten
gallons of wine, and so on in proportion. ‘Those who do not like sweet
wine can reduce the quantity of sugar totwo and a half, or who wish it
STANDARD RECEIPTS. 507
very sweet, raise to three and a half pounds per gallon.
The vessel must be full, and the bung or stopper left off until ferment-
ation ceases, which will be in twelve or fifteen days. Meanwhile, the
cask must be filled up daily with currant juice left over, as fermentation
throws out the impure matter. When fermentation ceases, rack the
wine off carefully, either from the spiggot or by a syphon, and keep
running all the time. Cleanse the cask thoroughly with boiling water,
then return the wine, bung up tightly, and let it stand four or five
months, when it will be fit to drink, and can be bottled if desired.
All the vessels, casks, etc., should be perfectly sweet, and the whole
operation should be done with an eye to cleanliness. In such event,
every drop of brandy or other spirituous liquors added will detract from
the flavor of the wine, and will not, in the least degree, increase its
keeping qualities. Currant wine made in this way will keep for an age.
Ginger Pop. 1. Crushed white sugar, twenty-eight pounds; water,
thirty gallons; yeast, one pint; powdered ginger, one pound; essence of
lemon, one-half ounce; essence of cloves, one-quarter ounce. On the
ginger pour half a gallon of boiling water and let it stand twenty min-
utes. Dissolve the sugar in two gallons of water, pour both into a
barrel half filled with cold water, then add the essence and the yeast;
let it stand for half an hour, then fill up with cold water. Let it fer-
ment over night, then bottle.
2. One and a half ounces of the best ground Jamaica ginger, one
ounce of cream of tartar, one pound of sugar, and two sliced lemons;
to which add four quarts of boiling water; and one-half pint of yeast;
Jet it work for twenty-four hours; strain and bottle it. In a week or
two it will be ready for use.
3. Water, five anda half gallons; bruised ginger root, one quarter
pound; tartaric acid, one-half ounce; white sugar, two and one-half
pounds; whites of three eggs, well beaten; lemon oil, one tea-spoonful;
yeast, one gill. Boil the root for half an hour in a gallon of water; strain
and put the oil in while hot; mix. Let stand over night, and in the
morning skim and bottle.
Vinegar. Good cider vinegar is made by placing the cider in a keg,
barrel, or hogshead in a warm dry place, leaving the bung out till it has
acquired the required taste. Vinegar will lose after once reaching its
greatest strength if left to the open air, and therefore as soon as the
cider has changed to vinegar of the required strength, the bung should
be placed in the keg or barrel.
508 STANDARD RECEIPTS.
MISCELLANEOUS.
Sweaty Feet. <A very good cure for the offensive odor of sweaty
feet can be made by mixing one-half dram of salicylic acid, one ounce of
oxide of zinc, and one ounce of lycopodium. Dust your feet with it
several times a day.
Hair Falling Out. A good wash for the hair, to prevent it from
falling out, is made by mixing one tea-spoonful of salt, thirty grains of
quinine and a pint of common whiskey or bay rum. Rub the hair thor-
oughly every night.
Healing Cream. This is a good cream, made expressly for rough
and dry skins.
1 ounce Epermaceti,
1 ounce White Wax,
1 ounce Olive Oil,
1 table-spoonful Honey.
Melt the ingredients and beat them to a cream.
Chapped Hands. The nicest preparation for chapped hands is
composed of quince seed and whisky. There is no rule as to propor-
tion. Put the seeds in a bottle and pour in enough whisky to cover
them. As this thickens add more whisky until it is of the right con-
sistency. This healing preparation is far superior to glycerine, as it
dries off quickly and leaves a most agreeable odor.
1 part Glycerine,
4 parts Pond’s Extract of Witch Hazel,
4 parts Water.
Put ina bottle and shake well; it is ready for use immediately. It is
well to shake thoroughly each time of using.
Earache. Ground black pepper placed in a piece of cotton wool
and put in the ear (so that no pepper can touch the ear) will often cure
severe earache.
Tooth-Wash. A good antiseptic tooth-wash may be made of the
following:
1 dram Glycerine of Borax,
1 pint Water.
Brush the teeth after each meal and just before retiring at night.
Tooth Powder. Mix thoroughly equal parts of pulverized borax
and orris root, and a little precipitated chalk; a drop or so of rose oil
will perfume the powder.
STANDARD RECEIPTS. 509
To Remove Tan. A_ wash for removing tan, and which also
makes the skin look fresh is composed as follows:
3 ounces Rosewater,
1 table-spoonful Tincture of Benzoin.
Apply to the face after exposure and before washing.
Black-Heads. These are caused by inactivity of the skin. In ad-
dition to the following, thoughly rub the face with a coarse towel three
times a day.
2 drams Lac Sulphur,
1 dram Spirits of Camphor,
$ ounce Glycerine,
4 ounces Rose Water,
First expel the black-heads with a watch key or small tube, then
bathe your face with hot water at bed-time, dry thoughly and apply the
lotion, leaving it on all night.
To Mend Rubber. Dissolve some small pieces of PURE RUBBER,
(not valcanized) in warm spirits of turpentine, till as thick as syrup.
This forms the liquid cement or liquid rubber which is to hold on the
patch. Cut the patch the required size, then with sharp sand paper
thoroughly rub both the patch and the boot or shoe. Smear both with
the liquid rubber four or five times, each time letting it dry. Then once
more cover each with the liquid rubber, and immediately put the patch
in place, press downward and see that the edges are well fastened.
When dry the article is as waterproof as ever.
To Keep Chimneys From Cracking. Put the chimneys intoa
kettle of cold water or oil and gradually heat till it boils, then let it
gradually cool. The chimneys thus treated will not break from the
effects of the heat.
Weeds in Garden Walks. Put one ounce of pure carbolic
acid in eight gallons of water, and apply this solution with a sprinkling
pot to the garden or yard walks. This is an effectual method of pre-
venting the growth of weeds. Do not apply any stronger than here in-
dicated as carbolic acid is a virulent poison, and it might destroy plants
outside the walk. In this weak state it will only destroy the smaller
plants and the insects around the walk.
Black Boards. To make black boards equal to those coated by the
patent slating, follow these directions.
Take enough shellac varnish to cover the required surface, and add
lamp black to color, and a small quantity of the flour of emery to give
510 STANDARD RECEIPTS.
the surface a fine ‘‘tooth’’ to take hold of the chalk. If adding the
lamp-black and emery makes it too thick, thin with alcohol. Do not
let this stand in an open can as it will soon evaporate. This is good for
slating the inside covers of children’s school books, making them equal
to slates. ‘The surface can be written on with a slate-pencil and erased
the same as from an ordinary slate.
Chimney on Fire. Those who burn wood find that the sides of
their chimneys are often covered with soot. ‘This is almost pure carbon
and when ignited it forms a very fierce fire. The chimney often takes
fire during very dry times and endangers the building.
To extinguish the fire, close all the doors and windows and throw a
a few handfuls of salt in the stove or fire-place. Salt in burning gives
off a gas, charged with chlorine, in which no fire can burn. Remember
the salt must be put on a fire, to generate this gas; therefore do not put
out your fire in the stove or grate, instead of putting it out, put on the
salt and open the draughts.
Marking Sheep. Lampblack mixed with strong vinegar will
make a paint for marking sheep that will not injure the wool and will
last a year.
To Keep the Ice-Box Sweet. Keep a small dish of charcoal on
one of the upper shelves of the refrigerator, as it is an excellent absorb-
ent of odors. It should be changed every few days.
To Keep Sweet Potatoes. The chief requisite in keeping dur-
ing the winter, sweet potatoes, is to place them where they will be per-
fectly dry and not come in contact with each other. To accomplish
this pack in chaff, placing the tubers in barrels or boxes. Place these
boxes in the attic over the kitchen. There they will remain dry. If
chaff is not handy they can be packed in dry sand, or, if neither sand
nor chaff is available, wrap each potato in two or three thicknesses of
newspaper and place in barrels or boxes perfectly free from moisture.
Treated thus they will keep perfectly until spring. If no atttic is to be
had, any dry well-ventilated room that does not freeze will answer.
China Cement. To mend broken china or glass-ware, soak two
drams of cut isinglass in two ounces of water for twenty-four hours; boil
down to one ounce, add one ounce of spirit of wine and strain through
linen. Mix this while hot, with a solntion of one dram mastic in one
ounce of alcohol, and mix thoroughly with half a dram of powdered
glum ammonia.
STANDARD RECEIPTS. 511
Length of Nails. This table is very convenient in estimating the
amount of nails required to do a certain piece of work, and the size
required.
A 3-penny nail is 1 inch long and there are 550 in a pound.
A 4-penny nail is 11% inches long and there are 350 in a pound.
A 5-penny nail is 134 inches long and there are 230 in a pound.
A 6-penny nail is 2 inches long and there are 165 in a pound.
A 7-penny nail is 214 inches long and there are 140 in a pound.
An 8-penny nail is 2% inches long and there are 110 in a pound.
A 1o-penny nail is 234 inches long and there are 96 in a pound.
A 12-penny nail is 3 inches long and there are 55 in a pound.
A 20-penny nail is 34% inches long and there are 35 in a pound.
There are 16 spikes in a pound, 4 inches long.
There are 12 spikes in a pound, 4% inches long.
There are 10 spikes in a pound, 5 inches long.
There are 7 spikes in a pound, 6 inches long.
If a board fence is four boards high and there are six nails in each
board, it will take take twenty-four nails for each panel. If 1o-penny
nails are used a pound of nails will build four panels of fence, &c., &c.
To Clean Rusty Plows. Take a quart of water and pour slow-
ly into it half a pint ofsulphuricacid. (The mixture will become quite
warm from chemical action, and this is the reason why the acid should
be poured slowly into the water, rather than the water into the acid).
Wash the mould-board (or any other iron that is rusty) with this weak
acid, and let it remain on the iron until it dries. Then wash once more.
Give time for the acid to dissolve the rust. Then wash with water, and
where the worst rusty spots are, apply some more acid, and rub those
spots with a brick. The acid and the scouring will remove most of the
rust. ‘Then wash the mould-board thoroughly with water to remove the
acid, and rub it dry. Brush it over with petroleum or other oil, or lard
and resin as just recommended, if it is not to be immediately used.
When you go to plowing, take a bottle of the acid water to the field and
apply it frequently to any spot of rust that may remain. The acid and
the scouring of the earth will soon make it bright and clean.
How to Loosen Nuts. When nuts and screws have become fast
from rust, pour on them a little kerosene, and wait a few minutes un
til it becomes soaked with the liquid. When this is done they can be
easily started and the bolt saved.
S12 STANDARD RECEIPTS.
Concrete Door-Steps. Make a box at the door where the steps
are wanted just the size and shape of the required steps. Then mix up
coarse gravel or Portland cement and make a mortar or concrete, mix-
ing in cobble-stones, and fill the boxes or molds. After a time remove
the moulds, and place boards on the steps for people to walk over till the
concrete has thoroughly hardened. If rightly made, these cement steps
willremain hard and perfect, and neither the frost nor weather will injure
them. They should be made in the spring of the year, so that they can
have the summer and fall to harden in.
To Mix Mortar. Take four parts coarse and three parts fine sand,
with one part of quick-lime, mix well, using but little water. This makes
mortar which soon becomes as hard as adamant; resisting all atmospheric
action as durably as the material it unites; and with the addition of a
portion of manganese, it will harden under water.
To Keep Cellars from Freezing. A good plan to keep out the
frost is to take either old newspapers or coarse brown paper, and with a
strong size, paste them four or five thicknesses thoroughly to the stone
walls of the cellar and to the bare timbers overhead, leaving an air space
between them and the floor. It will not be necessary to press the paper
down into all the depressions of the wall; every air space is an additional
defense against the cold. If this plan is adopted and carefully executed
the cellar will be frost-proof, even if it is left unbanked.
Iron and Steel Kept from Rusting. A coating of three parts
lard and one part resin, applied to tools of iron or steel, will effectually
prevent rust.
To Preserve Shingles. Take a potash kettle, or large tub, and
put into it one barrel of lye of wood ashes, five pounds of white vitrol,
five pounds of alum, and as much salt as will dissolve in the mixture.
Make the liquor quite warm, and put as many shingles in it as can be
wet at once. Stir them up witha fork, and, when well soaked, take
them out and put in more, renewing the liquor as necessary. ‘Then lay
the shingles in the usual manner. After they are laid, take the liquor
that was left, put lime enough in it to make whitewash, and, if any col-
oring is desirable, add ochre, Spanish brown, lamp-black, etc., and ap-
ply to the roof with a Lrash or an old broom. ‘This mey be renew-
ed from time to time. Salt and lye are preservatives of wood. It is
well known that leach tubs, troughs, and other articles used in the man-
ufacture of potash, never rot. They become saturated with the alkali,
turn yellowish inside, and remain impervious to the weather,
STANDARD RECEIPTS. 513
Shingles Made Fire-Proof. A wash composed of lime, salt, and
fine sand or wood ashes, put on in the ordinary way of whitewashing,
renders the roof much more secure against taking fire from falling cin-
ders, in case of fire in the vicinity. It pays the expense a hundred fold
in its preserving influence against the effects of the weather. The older
and more weather-beaten the shingles, the more benefit derived. Such
shingles generally become more or less warped, rough and cracked; the
application of the wash, by wetting the upper surface, restores them at
once to their original or first form, thereby closing up the space between
the shingles, and the lime and sand, by filling up the cracks and pores
in the shingle itself, prevents its warping.
Keeping the Moth from Furs. Darkness is all that is neces-
sary. The ‘‘miller,’’ the eggs from which moths are hatched, only
moves in the light; the moths themselves work in darkness. Hang the
furs in a very dark closet and keep ths doors shut; keep it always dark,
and you can have no trouble. But, as closet doors are sometimes left
open, the better way is to enclose the articles in a paper, put this in a
pillow-case, or wrap around a cloth, and hang it upin a dark closet.
Camphor may be placed in the bag as a preventive. Do not take out the
furs in June or July to give them an “‘airing,’’ for then comes the
enemy, and it may be that, in fifteen minutes after exposure, it has de-
posited a hundred eggs. If you consider an airing indispensable, give
the furs a good switching, and put them quickly back.
Remedy for Chafing. Among the annoyances to which fleshy per-
sons are subject in hot weather, especially if they walk much, is chafing
in those parts where the flesh rubs together or folds. Nothing is better,
as a remedy and also as a preventive, than a soltition of alum in water.
It should be applied with a soft rag at night, before retiring. A piece of
alum as large as a hazel nut, dissolved in half a pint of water is sufficient.
It will quickly heal and harden the tender skin.
In-Growing Toe-Nails. This most painful of the diseases of the
nails is caused by the improper manner of cutting the nail (generally of
the great toe), and then wearing a narrow, badly-made shoe. The
nail being too long, and rather wide at the corners, is often trimmed
around the corner, which gives temporary relief. But it then begins to
grow wider in the side where it was cut off; and, as the shoe presses the
flesh against the corner, the nail cuts more and more into the raw flesh,
which becomes excessively tender aud irritable. If this state continues
long, the toe becomes more and more painful and ulcerated, and ‘‘proud
514 STANDARD RECEIPTS.
flesh’’ sprouts up from the sorest points. Walking greatly increases the
suffering, till positive rest is absolutely necessary.
Begin the effort at cure by simple application to the tender part of a
small quantity of perchloride of iren. It is found in drug stores in a fluid
form, though sometimes in powder. ‘There is immediately a moderate
sensation of pain, constriction, or burning. In a few minutes the tender
surface is felt to be dried up, tanned, or mummified, and it ceases to be
painful, The patient, who before could not put his foot to the floor,
now finds that he can walk upon it without pain. By permitting the
hardened, wood like flesh to remain for two or three weeks, it can be
easily removed by soaking the foot in warm water. A new and healthy
structure is found, firm and solid, below. If thereafter the nails be no
more cut around the corners or sides, but always curved in across the
front end, they will in future grow only straight forwards; and by wear-
ing a shoe of reasonably good size and shape, all further trouble will be
avoided.
Another method is with a knife, or a piece of glass, scrape the centre
of the nail until it becomes almost as thin as the thinnest paper; then
cut the nail in the form of a crescent, the convex side being inward.
This will compel the sides of the nail to grow outward in the natural
way.
To Stop Leaks Around Chimneys. These may be stopped by
applying a paste made of tar and dry, sifted road dust. The paste
should be lapped over the shingles to form a collar, so as to carry off the
water that flows down the side of the chimney.
To Keep Out Strong Sunlight. If there isa window ina stable,
outhouse, or kitchen, so situated that the sun’s rays in passing into the
building is annoying, the glass can be made to keep out the direct rays,
as well as if the sash was filled with ground glass, as follows: pound
gum tragacanth to a powder, and put it, for twenty-four hours to dis-
solve in white of eggs, well beaten. Lay a coat of this on your glass
and let dry.
Fireproof Wash for Roofs. Slack lime in a barrel which should
be kept covered, and when slacked and thoroughly cold pass through a
fine sieve. To every six quarts of this lime add one quart of rock salt
and one gallon of water. After this boil andskim clean. To every five
gallons of this add, by slow degrees, three-quarters or a pound of potash
and four quarts of fine sand. Coloring matter may be added if desired.
Apyly with a paint or whitewash brush. The wash looks as good as
STANDARD RECEIPTS. 515
paint and is almost as durable as slate. It will stop small leaks in a
roof, prevent the moss from growing over it, and render it incombus-
tible from sparks which might fall upon it. When applied to brick
work, it renders the brick waterproof; it lasts as long as paint, and the
expense is a mere trifle.
Moss on Roofs. Moss should never be allowed to gather on the
roofs of buildings. Shingles will rot fast enough from the moisture
held by themselves without aid from that retained by the moss. ‘To re-
move, sprinkle some fine lime upon the shingles just before a rain, and
the moss will be taken offalmost clean. Repeat the lime if necessary
just before the next shower.
Awnings and Tents Made Mildew Proof. As mildew is a
plant living at expense of other matter, its prevention requires some-
thing destructive to vegetable life, and a kind of varnish to close the
pores of the texture of the linen awning, to protect it against the chem-
ical influences of the atmosphere and the penetration of the fine root fil-
aments of the fungus which has great vitality. Different varnishes will
answer the purpose. It is best first to moisten the linen with a solution
of arseniate of potash, which has the special property of preventing or-
ganicchanges. After drying, put on a benzine varnish. Carbolic acid
has the same effect, when the cloth is steeped in it; but it may discolor
the canvas, and it may be washed out by repeated rains.
To Soften Putty. To remove old putty from broken windows, dip
a brush or swab in nitric and muriatic acid equal parts, or caustic soda
(concentrated lye) and paint over the dry putty that is fastened to the
sash or glass and in an hour the putty will have become so soft as to be
easily removable.
To Kill Thistles. Cut the thistles to the ground and cover the
fresh cuts with salt. Old brine from the pork, beef, or fish barrel may
be used if desired.
Offensive Breath. Scarcely anything is more disagreeable or dis-
gusting than a stinking breath. Various means have been proposed to
remove this annoyance, depending principally upon the administration
of aromatics, which by their odor might smother it for a time; but these
require continual repetition and are liable to interfere with the organs
of digestion. ‘The real cause of a stinking breath is either a diseased
stomach or carious teeth; when the former is the case, aperients should
be administered; and if these do not succeed, an emetic may be given,
followed by a dose of salts, or castor cil occasionally. When rotten
516 STANDARD RECEIPTS.
teeth are the cause, they should be removed; or if this be impossible,
they should be kept clean. Dirty teeth often cause the breath to smell.
The use of tooth powder should be a daily habit.
From six to ten drops of the concentrated solution of chloride of soda,
in a wine glassful of spring water, taken before breakfast each morning,
will instantly sweeten the breath by disinfecting the stomach. If nec-
essary this may be repeated in the middle of the day. In some cases
the odor arising from decayed teeth is combined with that of the stom-
ach. If the month is well rinsed with a teaspoonful of the solution of
the chloride in a tumbler of water, the bad odor of the teeth will often-
times be removed.
Honing a Razor. Let the hone beseldom and but sparingly used,
and never, unless by frequent and repeated stropping the edge of the
razor, is entirely destroyed; use the best oil and be careful to preserve
the hone clean and free from dust. Previous to the operation of shav-
ing, it will be found of service, particularly to those who have a strong
beard and a tender skin, to wash the face well with soap and water, and
the more time is spent in lathering and moistening the beard, the easier
will the process of shaving become. Dip the razor in hot water before
applying it to the face; use the razor nearly flat, always taking care to
give it a cutting instead of a scraping direction. Strop the razor imme-
diately after using it, for the purpose of effectually removing any mois-
ture that may remain upon the edge, and be careful not to employ a
common strop, as the composition with which they are covered is inva-
riably of a very inferior quality, and injurious to arazor. The strop
should always be of the best manufacture, and when the composition is
worn off, it will be found particularly useful to rub it over, lightly, with
a little clean tallow, and then put upon it the top part of the snuff of a
candle, which being a fine powder, will admirably supply the place of the
best composition ever used for the purpose.
Washing Stable Blankets. This preparation will be found as
useful in the family washing as in cleansing stable clothing. ‘There is
nothing that will injure the clothing if directions are followed. This
may take the place of the popular Javelle water. Take a quarter of a
pound of soap, a quarter of a pound of soda, and a quarter of a pound of
lime. Cut up the soap, and dissolve it in one quart of boiling water;
pour one quart of boiling water over the soda, and three quarts of boil-
ing water upon the quick-lime. The lime must be quick and fresh; if it
is good, it will bubble up on pouring the hot water upon it. Each must
STANDARD RECEIPTS. ol7
be prepared in separate vessels. The lime must settle so as to leave the
water on the top perfectly clear; then strain it carefully (not disturbing
the settlings) into the wash-boiler with the soda and soap; then add six
gallons of soap water. They must be put in soak over night, after rub-
bing soap upon the dirtiest parts of them. After having the above in
readiness, wring out the clothes which have been put in soak, put them
on to boil, and let each lot boil half an hour; the same water will answer
for the whole washing. After boiling each lot half an hour, drain them
from the boiling water, put them in atub, and pour upon them two or
three pailfuls of clear, hot water; after this they will want but very little
rubbing; then rinse through two waters.
New Washing Soda. It has been found that the hyposulphite of
soda, which is now manufactured very cheaply, for the use of photo-
graphers, is much better than the common washing soda to wash delicate
objects. It attacks neither the skin of the hands nor the objects to be
washed, as does the common soda; and at the same time it is an effective
bleaching agent, and takes out many spots better than any other sub-
stance.
Tender Feet. Wear woolen socks or stockings, and change them
frequently. Bathe both your feet and lower limbs in a solution of com-
mon salt, a pound of salt to a gallon of water. When spring water is
used, add a table-spoonful of carbonate of soda to every pint of water.
Use boots or shoes with soft leather uppers, and soles not too thin.
Blistered Feet. To cure blistered feet from long walking, rub the
feet, on going to bed, with alcohol mixed with tallow.
Frost-Bitten Feet. To relieve the intense itching of frost-bitten
feet, dissolve a lump of alum in a little water, and bathe the part with it,
warming it before the fire. One or two applications are sure to give
relief.
Cold Feet at Bed-Time. Draw off the stocking, just before un-
dressing, and rub the ankles and feet with the hand as hard as can be
borne for five or ten minutes. This will diffuse a pleasurable glow, and
those who do so will never have to complain of cold feet in bed. Fre-
quent washing and rubbing them thoroughly dry with a linen cloth or
flannel, is useful for the same purpose.
Ink Indicator. Fill one two-ounce bottle with a saturated solution
of oxalic acid, (as much as the water will dissolve) and another with a
saturated solution of chloride of lime; label each, then with a little glass
rod or wood tooth-pick with smooth end, apply a little of the acid toa
518 STANDARD RECEIPTS.
blot or ink mark, gently rubbing till the ink is solved; blot the paper;
then apply in the same way with a separate rod a little of the chloride of
lime solution; then a little more of the acid; blot; repeat if necessary.
Golden Healer. Melt eight ounces yellow beeswax with one pound
lard, over hot water, and then stir in one ounce camphor gum, till it is
dissolved, cool till the hand can be borne on pan, and then thoroughly
stir in one ounce oil organum, and one ounce laudanum, till all is free
from lumps. Keep in covered tin boxes. ‘This makes a very soothing
application for wounds and burns.
To Prepare and Pickle Tripe. First turn the ‘‘ponch’’ inside
out, then sew it up tight, so that no lime can get into it. Have a tub
of lime-water as thick as good thick white-wash; let it remain in this
from ten to twenty minutes, or until the dark outside skin will come off;
then put it into clean water, changing three or four times to weaken the
lime, so that the hands will not be injured by it; then with a dull knife
scrape off all of the dull surface, and continue to soak and scrape several
times, which will remove all offensive substances and smell. After this,
let it soak twenty or thirty minutes in two or three hot waters, scraping
over each time; then pickle in salt and water twelve hours, and it is
ready for cooking; boil from three to four hours, cut in strips to suit,
and put it into nice vinegar with the various spices, as desired; renew
the vinegar at the expiration of one week, and when thoroughly pickled
it is ready for use.
Grinding Tools. More than one-half of the wear and tear, and
breakage ana bother of dull tools comes from a lack of proper knowledge
and practice in grinding. All fine steel is composed of individual fibres
laid lengthwise in the bar, held firmly together by cohesion; and in
almost all farm implements of the cutting kind the steel portion which
forms the edge, if from a section of a bar, is laid in welded to the bar
lengthwise, so that it is the side of the bundle of fibres hammered and
ground down that forms the edge. Hence, by holding on the grind-
stone all edge-tools, as axes, drawing-knives, knives of reapers, scythes,
knives of straw-cutters, etc., in such a manner that the action of the
stone is at right angles with the plane of the edge, or, in plainer
words, hold the edge of the tools square across the stone, and the
sides will be ground so as to present the ends instead of the side as a
cutting edge. By grinding in this manner a finer, smoother edge is set,
the tool is ground in less time, holds on edge much longer, and is lesg
liable to nick out or break.
STANDARD RECEIPTS. 519
Prepared Fire Kindler. Take one quart tar, three pounds resin;
melt them; when cool add one gill spirits of turpentine, and mix as much
sawdust, with a little charcoal, as can be worked in; spread out while
hot on a board; when cold break up in small lumps about the size of
hickory nuts. They willignite with a match and burn with a strong
blaze long enough to start the dry wood used as kindlings.
To Make Canvass Water-Proof. It is convenient to have a
large canvass to throw over a load of furniture or other material that
rain would spoil. To make such a canvass Waier-proof is very easily
done. Use:
4 pounds White Lead.
1 pint Turpentine.
3 ounce White Vitriol.
4 ounce Sugar of Lead.
Thin with boiled linseed oil and apply with a paint brush to the can-
vass or linen.
To Clean Sheepskin Wagon-Rugs. Make a very strong
lather, by boiling soap in a little water, mix this with a sufficient quan-
tity of moderately warm water, to wash the mat or rug in, and rub
boiled soap on those portions of it which require additional cleansing.
When the mat has been well washed in this water prepare another
in the same way, in which a second washing must take place, followed
by a third, which ought to be sufficient to cleanse it thoroughly. Rinse it
well in cold water until all the soap is removed, and then put it i1 water
in which a little blue has been mixed, sufficient to keep the wool of a
good white, and prevent its inclining to yellow. After this it should be
thoroughly wrung, shaken, and hung out in the open air with the skin
part towards the sun, but not while it is scorching hot, otherwise the
skin will become hard. It must also be shaken often while drying, for
if not it will be quite stiff and crackly. It should be frequently turned,
being hung up first by one end and then by the other, until it has dried
thoroughly.
To Prepare Sheepskins for Mats. Make a strong lather with
hot water, and let it stand till cold; wash the fresh skin in it, carefully
squeezing out all the dirt from the wool; wash it in cold water till all
the soap is taken out. Dissolve a pound of each of salt and alum in two
gallons of hot water, and put the skin into a tub sufficient to cover it;
let it soak for twelve hours, and hang it over a pole to drain. When
well drained, stretch it carefully on a board to dry, and stretch several
times while drying. Before it is quite dry, sprinkle on the flesh side one
520 STANDARD RECEIPTS .
ounce each of finely prlverized alum and saltpetre, rubbing it in well.
Try if the wool ke firm on the skin; if not, let it remain a day or two,
then rub again with alum; fold the flesh sides together and hang in the
shade for two or three days, turning them over each day till quite dry.
Scrape the flesh side with a blunt knife, and rub it with pumice or rotten
stone.
Bleaching Straw Hats. ‘To bleach a white straw hat which has
been yellowed by the sun, procure a deep box, air-tight if possible;
place at the bottom a stone, on the latter lay a flat piece of red hot iron,
or a pan of charcoal, and on this scatter powdered brimstone; hang the
hat inside, close the lid, and let it remain all night.
To Dry Roots. They should be thoroughly washed to get rid of
the dirt, and also some of the mucous substance that would otherwise
render them moldy; the larger should then be cut, split, or peeled, but
most aromatic roots must not be peeled as the odor is in the bark; then
spread on sieves or hurdles and dry in a heat of about 120° F., either
on the top of an oven, ina stove, or a steam closet, taking care to shake
them occasionally to change the surface exposed to the air. Thick and
juicy roots, as rhubarb, briony, peony, water-lily, ete., cut in slices,
string upona thread and hang in a heat of about 90° toa 100° F.
Squills are scaled, threaded, and dried in an ordinary warming oven on
the back of astove. Rhubarbs should be washed to separate the mucous
principle which would otherwise render it black and soft when pow-
dered. Potatoes are cut in slices and dried.
To Dry Parsley. Cut a large basketful of the best looking curled
parsley, pick out all faded or dirty leaves, and dry the remainder care-
fully before a clear fire. At first the leaves will become quite limp, and
they must be turned before the fire to expose all parts equally to the
heat, until the leaves are dry and brittle, without losing their green col-
or, if they are allowed to get brown they are spoiled. When dry, rub
them to powder between the hands; sift the powder through a coarse
sieve, and bottle for use; it will retain both the color and flavor of green
parsley. A large basket of fresh leaves will hardly yield a pint of pow-
der. Never dry it in the sun, or it will lose much of its flavor.
To Remove Stumps. 1. In the fall of the year bore an inch hole
eighteen inches deep into the the centre of the stump and put in an ounce
of saltpetre, filing up with water, and plug the hole up. In the spring
take out the plug, put ina half gill of kerosene and set fire toit. It
will burn the stump out to its farthest roots.
STANDARD RECEIPTS. 521
2, In the fall with an inch auger bore a hole in the centre of the
stump ten inches deep, and put into it haif a pound of oil of vitriol,
and cork the hole up very tight. In the spring the whole stump and
the roots will be found so rotten they can be easily removed.
The above methods are useful to remove stumps where they are in
lawns, or near sidewalks, or in other situations where it is not conven-
ient to pull out with a stump-puller or to dig out.
Squeaking Boots and Shoes. ‘his is caused by the rubbing to-
gether of two dry pieces of leather or stitches moving through the leath-
er. To prevent squeaking some shoemakers put a fine hair felt be-
tween the layers of leather in the soles. If you havea pair of ‘‘ready-
made’’ shoes and the squeak commences it can be stopped by thorough-
ly saturating the sole and the seams with neat’s-foot or boiled lin-
seed oil.
How to Cool a Sick Room. The simplest way to cool a room
is to wet a cloth of any size, the larger the better, and suspend it in the
place you want cooled. Let the room be well ventilated, and the tem-
perature will sink from ro° to 12° F. in an hour. This is the plan
adopted by many eastern nations.
2. A large cake of ice in a tub ina corner of a room, left uncovered
so that it can melt, will also reduce the temperature. Ice in changing
to water absorbs a large quantity of heat. A small handful of salt
sprinkled over the ice will hurry the process of melting, thus more
quickly absorbing the heat from the air.
Cheap Home-Made Ice Box. ‘Take two dry-goods boxes, one
of which is enough smaller than the other to leave a space of about three
inches all around when it is placed inside. Fill the space between the
two with sawdust packed closely, and cover with heavy lid made to fit
neatly inside the larger box. Insert a small pipe in the bottom of the
inside box to carry off the water from the melting ice. For family use
this has proved quite as serviceable and as economical in the use of ice
as more costly ‘‘patent refrigerators.”’
Use of Grindstones. The outside face of every grindstone on
which edge-tools are ground should run as true as the dressed surface of
a millstone, as it is impracticable to grind a tool correctly on astone that
revolves with an uneven motion. If the face of a stone varies half an
inch in each revolution, the most expeditious way to put it in order is
to loosen the wedges with which it is keyed to the journal and re-hang
it. Then secure the bearings so that they cannot be easily lifted out of
522 STANDARD RECEIPTS.
the boxes, and turn the face off true and smooth. Let a firm rest be
fixed close to the face before attempting to turn the stone true. The
rest must be solid with the surface close to the stone, so that when the
turning instrument comes in contact with the stone, it will remove a
thin chip without springing away from thestone. Stone-turners always
employ for a turning-tool the end of a bar of very soft iron, drawn out
‘to a point, and tuined up at the end for gouging. A piece of soft iron
is far more effective than steel.
Tar the centre of grindstones, in order to compel those who grind
upon them, to grind on the edges, forming a raised centre, which gives
a better opportunity to put a good edge on a tool than a level surface
does. ‘The ring of tar should be quite narrow, and all who grind will
be compelled to use the edges of the ston, as they cannot grind where
the tar is. This remedy should be tried where farm hands will not heed
your orders to wear the stone off the edges.
Cellar Floors Made Water-Proof. When cellar floors are not
subjected to a great outside pressure of water, a good cement will form
a tight cellar bottom and sides; but when the whole soil is full of water,
and the cellar is like a } asin in it, the pressure of the water upward will
surely find crevices through which it will ooze. The cure for this state
of things is to get drainage, if possible, and if this cannot be had, and
repeated patching will not stop the leaks, in a very dry time take up the
top of the floor, and after covering the whole witha layer of gravel, pour
into it melted asphaltum, which should be rolled and pounded down
while warm, and one or two more layers applied, topping with sand. If
the gravel can be hot also, it will make a much better floor; but if it
cannct be, some coal tar may be mingled with the asphaltum, and the
gree coated slightly with it before the hot asphaltum is applied.
Ashes for Cellar Floors. When it is not thought desirable to
go to the expense of cement, an excellent substitute is secured by taking
coal-ashes and mixing it with water to the ordinary thickness of mortar.
It does not matter how many lumps or stones there are. Put it on
about four inches thick; let it lay twenty-four hours, and then stamp it
with a heavy block of wood three or four times a day until it is perfectly
hard. It will not crack nor scale off,
Basement Floors. In the preparation for laying the floor, the
ground underneath is dug out, so as to leave what is termed an “air
space’’ between it and the joists. The airing of the under side of the
floor is procured at the expense of the comfort of the upper surface, and
STANDARD RECEIPTS. 523
consequently of that of the house itself; for the inch flooring is but slight
defense against the cold, which must necessarily find its way beneath.
A far better mode of flooring basements, cottages, dairies, etc., is to
spread ou the ground a bed of air-slacked lime, on which the joists
should rest and be sunk, say an inch or two deep, so as to leave no
chance for the air to enter, and at the same time effectually keep out all
vermin, as they will not attempt to burrow in lime. This is one of the
cheapest ways of securing comfort and durability. Ten bushels of lime
is ample for a square of ten feet, (one hundred square feet), and there
are very few localities in which lime is not cheap and plenty. Such an
underlaying of lime will prove a most desirable preservative of basement
floors, and render a dwelling sanitary, warm and sound.
Carbonic Gas in Wells. It is well known that many accidents
occur to persons going down into wells to clean them, owing to the gas
(carbonic dioxide) in such places. To remove the gas, before going
down into the well a quantity of burned but unslacked lime should be
sprinkled down. This, when it comes in contact with the water, sets
free a great quantity of heat in the water and lime, which rushes up-
ward, carrying all the deleterious gas with it; after which, the descent
may be made with perfect safety. The lime also absorbs the gas in the
well. Always lower a light before descending, if it goes out there is
still danger of suffocation.
Another simple method is to let an umbrella down and rapidly haul it
up a number of times in succession. The effect is to remove the gas in
a few minutes from a well so foul as to instantly put out a candle previ-
ous to the use of the umbrella.
Castor Oil. The fact that castor oil is as useful in the trades as in
medicine, is not as commonly known as should be. A few of the uses
are here given, as it is very useful on the farm, in the barn, carriage-
house and dwelling.
It will soften and renew old leather better than any other oil known.
When boots and shoes are greased with it, the oil will not at all inter-
fere with the polishing afterwards, as is the case with lard. olive, or any
other kind of oil. Leather belts for transmitting motion in machinery
will usually last from three to five years, according to the wear and tear
they are exposed to; when greased with castor oil they will last ten
years or more, as they always remain flexible and do not crack. Besides
this advantage, castor oil prevents slipping, so that a belt three inches
wide, impregnated with it, will be equal to a belt four and a half inches
524 STANDARD RECEIPTS.
wide without castor oil. It is necessary, however, to wait twenty-four
hours till the oil has disappeared from the surface and penetrated the
leather, otherwise the freshly greased surface will cause slipping. An-
other advantage of castor oil is that rats and other vermin detest any-
thing impregnated with it, and will not touch it. It is the best lubri-
cator in use for wagon wheels.
To Grease Wagons. A well made wheel will endure common
wear from ten to twenty-five years, if care is taken to use the right kind
and proper amount of grease; but if this matter is not attended to, they
will be used up in five or six years. Lard should never be used on a
wagon, for it will penetrate the hub, and work its way out around’ the
tenons of the spokes, and spoil the wheel. Tallow is the best lubricator
for wooden axle-trees, and castor oil for iron. Just grease enough
should be applied to the spindle of a wagon to give it a light coat; this
is better than more, for the surplus will work out at the ends, and be
forced by the shoulder-bands and nut-washers into the hub around the
outside of the boxes. To oil an axle-tree, first wipe the spindle clean
with a cloth wet with spirits of turpentine, and then apply a few DRops
of castor oil near the shoulders and end. One tea-spoonful is sufficient
to oil the four wheels of a carriage.
To Mend Large Holes in Tinware. Take a vial two-thirds
full of muriatic acid, put into it all the chippings-of sheet zinc it will dis-
solve, then put in a crum of sal-ammoniac, and fill up with water. Wet
the place to be mended with this liquid, put a piece of zinc over the hole,
and apply a spirit lamp or candle below it, which melts the solder on the
tin, and causes it to adhere.
Varnish for Tools. Take tallow, three ounces; resin, one ounce,
and melt together. Strain while hot to get rid of specks which are in
the resin; apply with a brush a thin coat to your tools and it will keep
off rust for any length of time.
Dead Black Stove-Pipe Varnish. Asphaltum, one pound;
lamp-black, one-quarter pound; resin, one-half pound; spirits of turpen-
tine, one quart. Dissolve the asphaltum and resin in the turpentine;
then rub up the lamp-black with linseed-oil, only sufficient to form a
paste, and mix with the others. Apply with a brush. ‘This is also
excellent for coal-hods.
How to Make Sauerkraut. Let the barrel to be used be thor-
oughly scalded out; the cutter, the tub and the stamper also well scalded.
Take off all the outer leaves and halve the cabbages, remove the heart
STANDARD RECEIPTS. 525
and proceed with the cutting. Lay some clean leaves at the bottom of
the barrel, sprinkle with a handful of salt, fill in half a bushel of cut
cabbage, stamp gently until the juice makes its appearance, then add
another handful of salt, and so on until the barrel is full. Cover over
with cabbage leaves, place on top a clean board fitting the space pretty
well, and on top of that a stone weighing twelve or fifteen pounds.
Stand away in a cool place, and when hard freezing comes on remove to
the cellar. It will be ready for use in from four to six weeks.
Elderberry Ink. Place in an earthen vessel some bruised elder-
berries and keep in a warm place for three days, then press and filter.
The filtered juice is of such an intense dark color that it takes two hun-
dred parts of water to reduce it to the shade of dark red wine. Add to
ten quarts of this filtered juice one ounce of sulphate of iron, and the
same quantity of crude pyroligneous acid. The ink when first used has
a violet color, but when dry is indigo-blue black.
Black Ink. ‘Take one-half pound of the dry extract of logwood,
and dissolve in one gallon of water. To this add one-quarter ounce of
the bi-chromate of potash. The result is a beautiful blue-black ink.
This ink should not be allowed to freeze, as freezing will ruin the color.
If it flows too freely add a little sugar.
Ink Powder. 1. Sulphate of copper, one dram; gum Arabic, one-
quarter ounce; copperas, one ounce; nutgalls and extract of logwood,
four ounces each; all to be pulverized and evenly mixed.
2. Sulphate of iron, two ounces; galls, five ounces; gum Arabic, one
ounce. Reduce to a powder and divide into one ounce papers, each of
which will make one-half pint of ink.
3. Aleppo galls, three pounds; copperas (dry but not calcined,) one
pound; gum Arabic, six ounces; white sugar, two ounces; all in pow-
der; mix. One pint of boiling water poured on two ounces makes a
pint of ink.
Japan, or Glossy Ink. In six quarts of water boil four ounces of
logwood in chips cut very thin. Boil for nearly an hour, adding from
time to time a little boiling water to compensate for waste by evapora-
tion. Strain the liquor while hot; allow it to cool, and make up the
quantity equal to five quarts by the addition of cold water. To this add
one pound of blue galls coarsely bruised, or one-quarter pound of the
best galls in sorts, four ounces of sulphate of iron calcined to whiteness,
one-half ounce of acetate of copper, previously mixed with a little of the
liquid till it forms a smooth paste, three ounces of coarse sugar, and six
526 STANDARD RECEIPTS.
ounces of gum Arabic. Add these ingredients one after another, having
the previous ingredient thoroughly dissolved before adding the next.
The composition produces the ink usually called Japan ink, from the
high gloss which it exhibits when written with.
Blackberry Cordial. To one gallon of blackberry juice add four
pounds of white sugar; boil and skim off, then add one ounce of cloves,
one ounce of cinnamon, ten grated nutmegs, and boil down till quite
rich; then let it cool and settle, afterward drain off, and add one pint of
good brandy or whisky.
Ginger Cordial. Pick one pound of large white currants from
their stalks, lay them in a basin, and strew over them the rind of an
orange and a lemon cut very thin, or half a teaspoonful of essence of
lemon, and one ounce and a half of the best ground ginger and a quart
of good whisky. Let all lie for twenty-four hours. If it tastes strong
of the ginger, then strain it; if not, let it lie for twelve hours longer.
To every quart of strained juice add one pound of loaf sugar pounded;
when the sugar is quite dissolved and the cordial appears clear, bottle
it. This cordial is also good made with raspberries instead of currants.
Strawberry, or Raspberry Cordial. Sugar down the berries
over night, using more sugar than you would for the table, about half
as much again. In the morning lay them in a hair sieve over a basin;
let then remain until evening, so as to thoroughly drain; then put the
juice in a thick flannel bag; let it drain all night, being careful not to
squeeze it, as that takes out the brightness and clearness. All this
should be done in a cool cellar, or it will be apt to sour. Add brandy in
proportion of one-third the quantity of juice, and as much more sugar as
the taste demands. Bottle it tightly. It will keep six or eight years,
and is better at last than at first.
How to Test the Richness of Milk. Procure any long glass
cologne bottle or long phial. Take a narrow strip of paper, just the
length from the neck to the bottom of the phial, and mark it off with
one hundred lines at equal distances; or, if more convenient, and to ob-
tain greater exactness, into fifty lines, and count each as two, and paste
it upon the phial, so as to divide its length into a hundred equal parts.
Fill it to the highest mark with milk fresh from the cow, and allow it to
stand in a perpendicular position for twenty-four hours. The number
of spaces occupied by cream will give you its exact percentage in the
milk, without any guess work.
If you wish to carry the experiment further, and ascertain the per
STANDARD RECEIPTS. 527
centage of butter, set the milk in a large dish, and collect say one hun-
dred or two hundred ounces of cream; make your butter in the cream
and ascertain the number of ounces of butter you have made.
Thus if two hundred ounces of milk produces ten ounces of cream,
and ten ounces of cream produces four ounces of butter, it is evident that
two hundred ounces of milk will produce four ounces of butter.
Good Milk. Milk isa fluid of white, yellowish-white, or bluish-
white color, consisting largely of water, and holding in solution or sus-
pension butter, sugar of milk, caseine, and certain salts. These sub-
stances are found in all unadulterated milk in constant proportions, ex-
cept in cases of milk of diseased cows. ‘The sum of the solids, however,
varies with the feed, stock and condition of the animal; it should never
fall below twelve per cent., ranging generally between twelve and fifteen
per cent., the rest being water. The composition may be assumed as
follows :
Butter 3.60 to 4.8 per cent.
Caseine 3.80 to 4.2 per cent.
Sugar of milk 4.2 to 4.5 per cent.
Salts 0.6 to o.8 per cent.
Total solids 12.2 14.3
There are cases where the solids will rise as high as sixteen and sev-
enteen per cent.; the butter as high as nine per cent.; but such milk is
never found in the market, being consumed altogether by the owners of
the animals. On the other hand, there may be found milk, as in fresh
milch cows, where the solids will go down to ten per cent., the butter to
three per cent.; these are the extreme limits, below which examine for
adulteration.
Milk, To Tell When Adulterated. The cheapest and easiest
method of adulterating milk is by adding water, and we may readily
ascertain the exact extent of adulteration by the following plan. If a
glass tube, divided into one hundred parts, be filled with milk and left
standing for twenty-four hours, the cream will rise to the upper part of
the tube, and occupy from eleven to thirteen divisions, if the milk is
genuine.
Dandruff. 1. Dandruff may be caused by wearing close and heavy
hats and caps, by the application of oils or dyes to the hair, by confining
the hair too closely to the head, by excessive brain-labor, by uncleanliness,
or by all these causes combined. To effect a cure, wear the hair short,
528 STANDARD RECEIPTS.
let the head-covering be as light and well-ventilated as possible, avoid
all applications of grease or dyes, exercise the brain less and the body
more, and wash the head thoroughly two or three times a day in cold
water, and follow each washing by a vigorous rubbing with thé balls of
the fingers. The better the general health is and the stronger the
digestion, the less tendency there will be to this disease, as well as to all
others.
2. Take carbolic acid, one-half dram; oil of bergamont one dram;
glycerine, two ounces; mix; rub thoroughly into the root of the hair,
and apply bay rum freely afterwards; one application will cleanse the
hair and scalp as clean as they can be desired. Its use once a week will
keep the hair soft and glossy, and will prevent dandruff from forming,
besides keeping the scalp healthy and cool.
3. Take a thimbleful of powdered refined borax, let it dissolve in a
teacupful of water, first brush the head well, then wet a brush and apply
it to the head. Do this every day for a week, and twice a week for a
few times, and you will effectually remove the dandruff.
To Kill Horse and Sheep Sorrel. This field pest may be erad-
icated by the judicious application of either lime or ashes. The souring
principle of sorrel is oxalic acid; if this be removed from the soil, sorrel
can not grow. Lime or potash unites with the oxalic acid, forming oxa-
lite of lime or potash. ‘These substances are sometimes called sweeten-
ers of the soil, from their ability to remove acids from it. Sorrel will
never grow on lime soil.
Proud Flesh. 1. Toremove proud flesh put a little alum on the
stove and let it melt and boil. As soon as it thoroughly dries, pulverize
and put the powder on the part affected.
2. Pulverize loaf-sugar and apply the same as the ‘‘burnt’’ alum.
Insects in the Ear. Let the person lay his head upon a table,
the side upwards that has the ear in which is the insect; at the same
time let some friend carefully drop into the ear a little sweet oil, or oil
of almonds. A drop or two will be sufficient. This will instantly des-
troy the insect and remove the pain. Then syringe with warm water.
To Extract Splinters. Thorns and splinters finding their way
under the skin frequently give very severe pain, and unless removed the
annoyance may be very great, as inflammation will in all probability set
in, which is the process nature adopts for getting rid of the cause of
irritation. If the splinter or thorn can not be immediately removed (for
which purpose a needle will be found in most cases a sufficient surgical
STANDARD RECEIPTS. 529
instrument, ) linen dipped in hot-water should be bound round the place,
or the part bathed in hot water. If inflammation sets in and produces
an ulcer, hot water should be applied, and afterwards a flaxseed
poultice.
To Make Your Umbrella Last. Most persons, when they
come in from the rain, stand their umbrellas with the handle upward.
They should put it downward; because when the handle is upward the
water runs down inside to the place where the ribs are joined to the han-
dle, and can not get out, but stays rotting the cloth and rusting the
metal until slowly dried away. The wire securing the ribs soon rusts
and breaks. If placed the other end up, the water readily runs off, and
the umbrella dries almost immediately.
Don’t Turn Down the Lamp. Many people who use kerosene
oil are in the habit of burning night-lamps, and turning them down as
thev would gas, not knowing how much mischief they thus do. When
the light of the kerosene lamp is turned down low, the combustion is
not perfect, and the atmosphere of the room becomes filled by gas pro-
duced by partial combustion, and also little particles of smoke and soot
thrown off, which are taken into the lungs of the occupants. Air thus
poisoned is deadly in its effects, and it is injurious to breathe it. Its
consequences are the mysterious headaches, sore throats and lungs,
dizziness and nausea.
To Split Wood. In splitting wood that has been sawed into
pieces it is much easier to split by slabs than to try and split them
through the centre. This means to split off pieces at a time, but a lit-
tle from the edge. Wood splits more readily in the direction up from
the roots of the tree, than when the blow of the ax is downward. In
other words, to split a chunk place it upside down, (contrary to the di-
rection in which it grew) before striking at it.
Mildew in Wheat. Dissolve three ounces and two drams of
sulphate of copper, or blue vitriol, in four gallons of cold water, for
every three bushels that is to be prepared. Into another vessel capable
of containing from fifty to seventy gallons, throw from three to four
bushels of wheat, into which the prepared liquid is poured, until it rises
five or six inches above the grain. Stir it thoroughly and carefully re-
move all that swims on the surface. After it has remained half an hour
in the preparation, throw the wheat into a basket that will allow the
water to escape, but not the grain. It ought then to be immediately
washed in rain, or pure water, to prevent any risk of its injuring the
530 STANDARD RECEIPTS.
germ, and afterwards the seed ought to be dried before it is put in the
ground. It may be preserved in this shape for months.
Lime Deposits in Boilers. Put into the cistern or tank, from
which the boiler is fed, a sufficient amount of oak tan-bark, in the piece,
to color the water rather dark; run four weeks and renew. This plan
is much used, in the lime-stone sections of Ohio, giving general satis-
faction.
Sprained Ankle. Wash the ankle frequently with cold salt and
water, which is far better than warm vinegar or decoctions of herbs.
Keep the foot as cold as possible to prevent inflammation, and sit with
it elevated on a cushion. Live on very low diet, and take every day
some cooling medicine.
To Make Drying Oil. A good drying linseed oil, prepared with-
out the usual process of boiling. Mix with old linseed oil, the older you
can get it the better, two per cent. of its weight of maganese borate, and
heat this mixture on a water-bath, or, if you have to work with large
quantities, with a steam-bath to 100° F., or at most 110° F.; you thus
obtain a very excellent, light-colored, rapidly-drying oil; by keeping the
mixture stirred, the drying property of the oil is greatly promoted. The
rapidity of the drying of the oil after it has been mixed with paint, does
not simply depend upon the drying property of the oil, but, in a very
great measure, upon the state of the atmosphere—viz., whether dry or
moist, hot or cold; the direct action of sunlight, and the state of the sur-
faces on which the paint is put. Really genuine boiled linseed oil, if
well prepared, leaves nothing to be desired as regards rapidity of drying,
but it is retarded by various substances which are added in practice,
among which, especially, oil of turpentine is injurious.
Kerosene as Paint. This can be used to great advantage on a
farm as a preserver of wood. It is not properly a paint. No coloring
matter shonld ever be mixed with it. Ordinary linseed oil paint pre-
serves wood by forming a coat that excludes the atmosphere from the
pores. Kerosene penetrates the wood and excludes the air by filling up
the pores.
Old barns from which the paint is worn will be much improved by a
liberal coat of petroleum. It can be put on with a whitewash brush.
The point is to get on as much as the wood will absorb. It is better to
go over the work rapidly and then the next day go over it again. For
shingle roofs, new or old, nothing is better than kerosene. In making
a new roof dip the shingles by the bunch in petroleum until saturated.
PRUIT CULTURE,
Directions for Budding and Grafting.
DESCRIPTION AND HABITS OF THE INSECTS INJURIOUS
TO FRUIT AND HOW TO DESTROY THEM.
RUITS of all kinds are now raised for pleasure and profit, upon
the large areas of land as well as in the small garden. ‘There is
nothing that better rewards the patient, careful, industrious, per-
son, for the time and labor spent than in caring for a large or
small quantity of fruit bearing plants or trees.
A knowledge of how to bud or graft is often desirable. If a neighbor
or friend has some very choice variety of fruit and you take a fancy that
you want to add that variety to your stock, through his kindness of giv-
ing you a few buds or grafts, you can change a tree bearing an unde-
sirable variety to a more desirable one, and it will bear fruit in much
less time than would a young tree procured of a nurseryman.
It is only necessary to be handy with tools and careful and
painstaking to be able to succeed at ordinary budding and grafting.
A little practice and study will enable even the man of moderate intelli-
gence to make a success of this work, thereby saving many dollars as
well as improving the fruit upon his farm or garden.
Then while he is walking about his garden or farm, he may see
numerous bugs, flies, caterpillars, and various winged insects. If he
were acquainted with their habits, he would know whether or not they
were enemies to his fruit, garden, or orchard. Through the kindness
of the Department of Agriculture we have been enabled to give illustra-
tions of many of the common enemies, and the best remedies for de-
stroying them.
532 FRUIT CULTURE.
Budding. ‘This consists of separating a bud with its
root, and a small portion of the bark and wood and in-
serting it under the bark of another. The selection must
be made from the growth of the season in which the bud-
ding is done. In Maryland and Virginia or in the same
lattitude budding may be done in June, and the buds will
make considerable growth, but as the north is approach-
ed the season for budding advances from the tenth of July
to the fifteenth of September. Those varieties that mature
their fruit early should be budded earlier than late varie-
ties. The season for bedding extends over a period of
about eight months. Buds can not be kept in good con-
dition much over ten days, and even to keep them that
length of time it is necessary to strip the shoots (on which
are the buds) of their leaves and wrap the shoots in a damp
cloth or moss as soon as cut, and then keeping them in a
cool cellar among damp sawdust.
The buds are found in the axils of the leaves, that is
where the leaves are fastened to the stems, and to make
budding a success there must in all cases be these condi-
tions:
1. The buds must be perfectly developed.
2. The bark of the plant to be budded must be easily
separated from its wood.
The bud is cut from the shoots by commencing to cut
the bark about one-half inch above the bud to be removed,
and cutting
just deep
enough to
take a little
with the bud,
the reception
FRUIT AND
WOOD BUDS.
of the wood
so as to care:
fully preserve the root of the
bud, for if the root is de-
stroyed, the bud is useless.
The manner of cutting
and preparing the stock for
of the bud is
fully shown in the illustra-
THE INSERTION OF THE BUD. tions on this page.
FRUIT CULTURE. 533
Select a smooth place on the stock to be budded, that is free from
branches, and make two cuts, one across the branch, and the other
commencing in the centre of the cross-cut, and running down the
branch, forming a T. Carefully raise the bark on the upper corners of
the cut running up and down the branch as shown in the illustration.
For this do not use the cutting edge of the knife, but the smooth ivory
handle of the pruning knife which is prepared for that purpose. Cut
this bud square off at the top so as to fit the ‘‘cross-cut’’? and put in
the bud as represented. Basswood fibres, or strips of corn-husks should
be used to tie up the loose bark, leaving the bud and _leaf-stalk
uncovered.
Grafting. This the most common way of producing a new variety
of fruit upon a full or well grown tree. The
method most commonly used is to saw off a limb,
split it through the centre, and at the outside
edgeso place a wedge shaped scion, containing
buds, that the inside edges of the bark will be in
communication with each other. The inside
edges of the bark must at some point meet, and
to insure a juncture the scions are oftentimes
slanted out a little, thereby insuring union at one
point at least. Care must be taken not to have
the wedged shaped scion pinched too hard by the
limb into which it has been placed.
A wedge if necessary should be
placed in the centre. Cover the
cleft with grafting wax and all is
ready for growth of new stock. On
GRAFTING WITH very small limbs it is often desirable
TWO SCIONS. to place only one scion, which may
be done as represented in the drawing, and binding it
with narrow bands of corn husks or wax. (A good graft-
ing wax is made of four ounces of resin, two ounces of
beeswax, and two ounces of beef tallow).
The grafts may be cut any time in the mild weather of
winter, and kept in moist sand in a cool place till needed.
It is not well to attempt to graft a whole tree at once,
asthe pruning would be too severe. Only graft about Bi
one-third of the branches each year. ONE SCION.
534 FRUIT CULTURE.
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO PLANTS.
The Codling Moth. This annoying insect is found in nearly all
parts of the United States and Can-
ada. ‘The moths appear on the wing
about the time that apple trees are in
blossom, when the female moth de.
posits her tiny yellow eggs on the
calyx or eye of the blossom, just as
the young apple is forming. It takes
only a week for it to hatch, and im-
mediately the little worm, beginning
at the end opposite the stem, eats
through the apple to the core.
There are two methods for reduc-
ing the numbers of these worms.
One is to keep a drove of hogs in the
orchard. ‘They will eat the fruit as
soon as dropped, and the worm is
THE CODLING MOTH.
a. Burrowings.
b. Point of entrance.
f. Moth with wings closed. destroyed. Another and more effect-
g. Moth with wings extended. ive remedy is to place cloths about
his Heal pt wort, ten inches wide around the trunks of
Han, Sree elias aes Rp ly. the trees, about six inches above the
ground. These cloths should be examined every few days and the
larvae (worms) destroyed by pressure or dipping the cloths in hot water.
Fasten the cloths about the trunk so that the upper edge is very tight
around the tree and the lower edge hanging somewhat loose. This will
give the worm a place to crawl under and form into a chrysalis.
Rose Beetle. This insect is commonly known as the rose-bug,
but has of late years developed
an appetite for other plants be-
sides the rose. It is very inju-
rious to the grape-vine, the apple,
the plum, the peach, and the
cherry. As they are naturally
sluggish, they can be gathered
early in the morning, when ap-
ROSE BUG. pearing in large numbers, by
FRUIT CULTURE. 535
placing sheets on the ground and shaking the vine or tree. They
must be put in boiling water, or placed in a keg and kerosene
poured over them, the keg covered so they can not get out, and
then set on fire. These pests make their appearance about the sec-
ond week in June, the usual time for the blossoming of the rose.
The Tent Caterpillar. This insect needs no description, since
it is so familiar to every one who ever has
owned an orchard, or even a single tree.
The perfect insect is a night-flying moth,
or miller, and while they are specially
fond of the black cherry, they will
feed upon the apple, plum, and various
forest trees. They usually appear during
April or May, according to the tempera-
< peti. ture, and are APPLE TREE MOTH.
7, conspicuous on account of their nest. The
eggs may be found in great clusters on the
twigs during the winter and early spring,
and should be cut off and burned. The
nest should be destroyed early in the morn-
APPLE TREE ing or late at evening, while the worms are
CATERPILLAR. nearly all in. As the remaining worms
which are not destroyed or out on a foraging tour, will repair the
nest, repeated removals are necessary. Do not permit a fragment of
a nest to remain.
Woolly Louse of the Apple. This insect attacks the trunk and
limbs of the apple tree and covers itself with
a cotton-like covering. The best way to get rid
of these insects is to wash the trunk and limbs
with soft soap which has been reduced till as
thick as paint by the addition of sal-soda water.
Another remedy is to mix in each two gallons of
water necessary, two pounds of fresh lime and one-
quarter pound of sulphur. After the lice are
destroyed cut away all suckers that are growing
at the base of the tree, and also remove the earth
and clean thoroughly the trunk of the tree below
the surface; then put fresh earth about the roots, WOoLLy Lice.
RH WAN
536 FRUIT CULTURE.
Flat Headed Apple Tree Borer. This beetle is of a greenish-
black color, with brassy lines above, and shines
like burnished copper below. It is about one
inch in length, but the worm (larvae) which does
all the damage, is much smaller. The grub,
which has a very broad, flat head, also attacks
the pear, plum, and peach, as well as the apple.
As a preventive use the soft-soap treatment rec-
ommeded for the ‘‘Woolly Louse.’’ As it is
often found on the larger limbs, the soft-soap
should not be confined to the trunk, but should
FLAT HEADED BORER, ¢Xtend to the larger limbs.
5: Lares br tityede Round Headed Apple Tree Borer. The
lis; «. Portion of body; mature insect is nearly one inch long, and has two
d. Perfect insect. stripes runing lengthwise of its body, separating
three of a cinnamon-brown color. The insect flies only at night, hence
is seldom seen. It makes its appearance in May, and lays its eggs in
June, nearly at the foot of the tree, and the young worms soon bore into
ark.
Ne
To remove and destroy
this pest of the orchards;
just before vegctation
starts in the spring level
the ground, and pack it
firmly around the root of
the tree, in a circle of
aa about two feet in diame-
Larva. Chrysalis. Beetle. ter, according to the size
ROUND HEADED APPLE TREE BORER. of the tree. Take un-
leached ashes and cir-slacked lime in equal parts, well mixed, and apply
to the circle thus made, covering the ground all over two or three inches
in depth. ‘Then take strong soap suds, or, what is better, a solution of
half a pound of sal-soda to one gallon of water, mixed with soft-soap,
and paint the entire trunk and base of the limbs thoroughly with this
mixture. Repeat this operation in the fall of the year, just before freez-
ing weather, covering the ground with the mixture of ashes and lime,
and washing the trunk and the base of the branches with the solution as
above. If the borers have already made an entrance into the tree,
the only way to get rid of them is to dig them out by the use of a fine,
FRUIT CULTURE. 537
annealed wire, avoiding as much as possible the cutting away of the
bark in the necessary preparation for entering the holes.
The American Procris. This destructive insect feeds on vines
in great flocks. When very
young the little caterpillars eat
only of the tissues of the leaf, as
shown in the illustration, but as
they grow older and_ gain
strength they devour all of the
leaf excepting the stems. They
acquire their full growth about
the first of August. They can
be destroyed by sprinkling the
leaves with London Purple dilu-
ted in water, or Paris-green
mixed with plaster. White hele-
bore mixed with water, a table-
spoonful to two gallons is also
effective.
THE AMERICAN PROCRIS.
Grape Vine Culture. In some parts of the country this is one of
ONY?
LEAF ATTACKED BY THE GRAPE-
VINE FLEA-BEETLE.
a. Larvae on leaf; b, Larva enlarged;
c- Beetle,
the most destructive of the ene-
mies of the grape vine. Both
the beetle and the larve are
great eaters of the grape leaf.
The eggs are usually laid on
the wild grape, and the perfect
insect, the beetle, is the only
one found in the vineyard.
To destroy these beetles it is
only necessary to spread under
the vines strips of muslin wet
with kerosene. Shake the vines
and the beetles, falling upon
the cloth wet with kerosene,
will die instantly. Keep the
cloths well saturated with the
oil. It seems to be the odor
from this simple remedy that
kills these beetles,
538 FRUIT CULTURE.
Grape-Vine Bark Louse. ‘There is often found on the branches
of the grape vine during the month of June, brown scales ES
under one end of which there is seen a cotton like sub-
stance protruding, which grows in size for a couple of
weeks until this cotton-like substance is some five times
the size of the scale. ‘These scales are usually found in
great abundance and will shortly let out innumerable
hosts of lice. ‘These scales should be removed by scrap-
ing them off with a knife before the young lice have a
chance to hatch and escape.
Plum Curculio. To annihilate curculio, make a
very strong solution of gas-tar and water, so that after
standing a couple of days it will be dark-colored, and as
pungent as creosote. On the first appearance of the
curculio, with a small hand-forcing pump (which every
gardener ought to have) give the trees an effectual
drenching, and repeat it every three days for two weeks. GRAPE VINE
As a preventive measure, destroy all the fruit as it falls, BARK LOUSE.
and this can best be done by allowing your fowls free range from the
orchard.
Canker Worm. The canker worm, also called the measuring
worm, is about one inch in length when full grown, and varies
in color from light green to a light brown. It attacks the
leaves of the apple and other trees, of which it is a great
eater. The worms usually hatch about the time the young
leaves are coming out from the bud. ‘The female insect has
to crawl up the tree to lay her eggs, as she is without wings,
and she can be prevented from going up the tree by putting a
cloth covered with tar around the tree, near its base, in the
very early spring. It is best to put them on in October, and
keep them on till the leaves are full grown in the spring.
Peach Borer. The best method used to destroy this pest
is to bank up to the height of from eight to ten inches, add-
ing a little each successive spring. This will prevent the
depredations of the peach borer. Another is the use of
scalding water. Early each spring scrape around the trees
with a large knife on the morning of ‘‘washing day.’”’ When CANKER
the washing is done, take buckets full of boiling suds intothe worm.
orchard, and dash the trees just where the trunks join the ground. In
FRUIT CULTURE. 539
this way many thousands of these little worms are scalded to death.
Currant Worms. ‘There are two varieties of the currant worm, one
of them native and the other im-
ported. Both worms originally
were found almost entirely upon
the gooseberry, but now attack the
currant and gooseberry alike. Our
cut shows the larvae at work.
There is an effectual remedy for
these worms in the powder of
white helebore. This powder is
of a light greenish-yellow, and
should be mixed with water in the
proportion of an ounce to a pailful
of water, and sprinkled freely on
IMPORTED CURRANT WORM the vines. Oue application by
AT WORK. means of the ordinary sprinkling
pot greatly diminishes them in 54 4
number, and the second will
almost complete the job. The
perfect insect in both the native
and imported varieties are saw-
flies. _ Wood ashes have been
applied to the bushes when the . IMPORTED CURRANT WORM.
dew was on, but while it destroys the worm, it also injures the leaves
and the growing fruit.
Cabbaee Worm. ‘This is in many parts of the country a great pest
to the cabbage grower. ‘The butterflies
mB resemble the common yellow butterfly
? very much and appears about the last
of May or the beginning of June. The
butterfly deposits its eggs on the under
side of the cabbage leaves three or four
ina place. The eggs are about one-
sixteenth of an inch in length, larger at
one end than at the other, and yellow-
CABBAGE BUTTERFLY.
ish incolor. In about ten days after the eggs are laid; there appears
greenish worms which are great feeders.
The butterflies are lazy and can be easily trapped with a hand net.
540 FRUIT CULTURE.
Every one caught reduces the y,
number of eggs. Chickens and 7 ( Wy
turkeys if allowed to remain in gay g@eee oy Y
the cabbage lot will devour many ;
of the wornis.
These worms soon form into
chrysalids to emerge as butterflies CABBAGE WORM.
to lay eggs for a second crop of a. Larva; b. Chrysalis.
worms. ‘This second crop can be avoided by putting boards, setting
them on edge, between the rows, and the worms will attach themselves
to the boards and turn into chrysalids. These can then be gathered and
destroyed. ,
THE LATEST INSECT DESTROYERS.
Bordeaux Mixture. ‘This is the celebrated mixture which is com-
ing into general use among fruit growers :
6 pounds Copper Sulphate.
4 pounds Quicklime.
40-50 gallons Water.
Dissolve the copper sulphate by putting it in a bag of coarse cloth and
hanging this in a vessel holding at least four gallons, so that it is just
covered by the water. Use an earthen or WOODEN VESSEL. Slack the
lime in an equal amount of water. Then mix the two and add enough
water to make forty gallons. It is then ready for immediate use but will
keep indefinitely. If the mixture is to be used on peach foliage it is ad-
visable to add an extra pound of lime to the above formula. When ap-
plied to such plants as carnations or cabbages it will adhere better if
about a pound of hard soap be dissolved in hot water and added to the
mixture. For rots, moulds, mildews, and all fungus diseases.
Ammoniacal Copper Carbonate. This is used for the same
purpose as the Bordeaux mixture.
*1 ounce Copper Carbonate.
Ammonia Carbonate enough to dissolve the copper.
9 gallons Water.
The copper suiphate is best dissolved in large bottles, where it will
keep indefinitely, and it should be diluted with water as required.
London Purple. This is used in the same proportion as Paris
green, but as it is more caustic it should be applied with two or three
*See page 446 — How to make Copper Carbonate.
FRUIT CULTURE. 541
times its weight of lime, or with the Bordeaux mixture. ‘The composi-
tion of London purple is exceedingly variable, and unless good reasons
exist for supposing that it contains as much arsenic as Paris green, use
the latter poison. Do not use the London purple on peach or plum trees
unless considerable lime is added. For insects which chew.
Copper Sulphate Solution. This is specially useful for fungus
diseases.
1 pound Copper Sulphate.
15 gallons Water.
Dissolve the copper sulphate in the water, when it is ready for use.
‘THIS SHOULD NEVER BE APPLIED TO FOLIAGE, bUT) MUST BE USED BE-
FORE THE BUDS BREAK. For peaches and nectarines use twenty-five
gallons of water.
Paris Green. This is principally used for insects which chew.
1 pound Paris Green,
200-300 gallons Water.
If this mixture is to be used upon peach trees, one pound of quick-lime
should be added. PARIS GREEN AND BORDEAUX MIXTURE CAN BE AP-
PLIED WITH PERFECT SAFETY. The action of neither is weakened, and
the Paris green loses all caustic properties.
White Hellebore. This poison is not so energetic as the arsenites
and may be used a short time before the sprayed portions mature. For
insects which chew.
1 ounce Fresh White Hellebore.
3 gallons Water.
Apply when thoroughly mixed.
Kerosene Emulsion. Kerosene and water are very hard to mix.
This mixture should be churned frequently while using.
34 pound Hard Soap,
1 gallon Boiling Water,
2 gallons Kerosene.
Dissolve the soap in the water, add the kerosene, and churn with a
pump for five or ten minutes. Dilute ten to twenty-five times before ap-
plying. Use strong emulsion for all scale insects. For insects which
suck, as plant lice, measly bugs, red spider, thrips, bark-lice, or scale.
Cabbage worms, currant worms and all insects which have soft bodies,
can also be successfully treated.
Cucumber Beetle. This beetle may usually be prevented by
dusting the plants with plaster of Paris and Paris-green.
542 FRUIT CULTURE.
Directions for Spraying Cultivated Plants.
APPLICATIONS.
PLANT. FIRST. SECOND.
APPLE. When buds are} *Just before blossom
(Scab, codlin moth, bud
moth).
BEAN.
(Anthracnose).
CABBAGE.
(Worms, aphis).
swelling, copper sul-
phate solution.
*When third leaf
expands, Bordeaux.
opens, Bordeaux. For
bud moth, Arsenites
when leaf buds open.
*Ten days later, Bor-
deaux.
*When worms. or
aphis are first seen,
Kerosene emulsion.
CARNATION.
(Rust and other fungus
diseases, red spider).
*When rust is first
noticed, Bordeaux,
Kerosene emulsion,
when red spider is first
CHERRY.
(Rot, aphis, slug).
As buds are break-
ing, Bordeaux; when
aphis appears, kerosene
emulsion.
CURRANT.
(Mildew, worms).
*At first sign of
worms, arsenites.
GOOSEBERRY.
(Mildew, worms).
*When
pand, Bordeaux.
worms as above.
leaves ex-
For
*Seven to ten days
later, if not heading re-
new emulsion.
*For rust repeat first
in ten to fourteen days.
For red spider repeat.
When fruit has set,
Bordeaux. For slugs
dust leaves with air-
slack’d lime Hellebore.
*Ten days later,
hellebore. If leaves
mildew, Bordeaux.
*Ten to fourteen
days later, Bordeaux.
For worms as above.
GRAPE.
(Fungus diseases, Flea
Beetle.)
In spring when buds
swell, copper sulphate
solution. Paris-green
for flea beetle.
*When leaves are
one inch in diameter
Bordeaux. Paris-green
for larvee of flea beetle.
FRUIT C
ULTURE.
543
Directions for Spraying Cultivated Plants.
THIRD.
APPLICATIONS.
FOURTH.
FIFTH.
SIXTH.
*When __ bloss-
oms have fallen,
Bordeaux and ar-
senites.
*Hight to twelve
ites.
days later, Bor-|days later,
deaux and arsen-|deaux.
Ten to fourteen
Bor-
Ten to fourteen
days later, Bor-
deaux
Fourteen days
later, Bordeaux.
*Seven to ten
day later, if head-
ing, hot water.
Repeat 2d. us-
ing am. carbonate
copper if in bloom
Ten to fourteen
if rot appears,
Bordeaux.
If worms per-
sist, Hellebore.
*Ten days later
am. copper carbon
ate. Hellebore.
Fourteen days
later, Bordeaux.
Repeat third in
ten to fourteen
days if necessary.
(When plants
are small use ar-
senites for worms.
Repeat second
as before if nec-
essary.
Ten to fourteen
days later, Am-
monical copper
carbonate.
*Ten to four-
teen days later,
repeat third.
*When flowers
open, Bordeaux.
Paris-green.
*Ten to four-
teen days later,
Bordeaux.
Ten to fourteen
days later, if any
disease appears,
Bordeaux.
Twelve days
ammonical copper
carbonate. Make
later applications.
544
FRUIT CULTURE.
Directions for Spraying Cultivated Plants.
PLANT.
APPLICATIONS.
FIRST.
SECOND.
NURSERY STOCK.
(Fungus Diseases).
*When first leaves
appear, Bordeaux.
*Ten to fourteen
days, repeat first.
PEACH, NECTAR-
INE, APRICOT.
(Rot, Mildew).
PHAR.
(Leaf blight, scab, psylla
codlin moth.
*Before buds swell,
copper sulphate solu-
tion.
Before flowers open,
Bordeaux.
As buds are swelling
copper sulphate solu-
tion.
PLUM.
(Fungus
culio.
diseases, cur-
*During first warm
days of early spring,
Bordeaux for black
knot. When leaves
are off in the fall. Ker-
osene emulsion for
plum scale.
*Just before blos-
soms open, Bordeaux.
Kerosene emulsion
when leaves open for
psylla.
*When buds are
swelling, Bordeaux
for black knot and oth-
er fungus disease,
Mid-winter, kerosene
emulsion for plum scale
POTATO.
(Scab, blight, beetles.
*Soak seed for scab
in corrosive sublimate
(2 oz. to 16 gals. water)
for 90 minutes.
*When beetles first
appear, arsenites.
QUINCE.
(Leaf and fruit spot).
When blossom buds
appear, Bordeaux.
When fruit has set,
Bordeaux and arsen-
ites,
RASPBERRY, DEW-|
BERRY, BLACK-
BERRY.
(Anthracnose, rust).
Before buds break,
copper sulphate solu-
tion. Cut out badly
diseased canes.
During summer, if
rust appears on leaves,
Bordeaux.
FRUIT CULTURE.
545
Directions for Spraying Cultivated Plants.
THIRD.
FOURTH.
APPLICATIONS.
FIFTH.
SIXTH.
Ten to fourteen
days, repeat first.
*When fruit
has set, Bordeaux
‘Ten to fourteen
days repeat first.
Ten to fourteen
days, repeat first.
Ten to fourteen
days, repeat first.
*When fruit
nearly grown, am
cop’r carbonate.
*Five to ten
days later repeat
fourth.
Five to ten days
later repeat fourth
if necessary.
* After blossoms
have fallen, Bor-
deaux and Ar-
senites. Kerosene
emulsion if nec-
essary. ”
*Kight to twelve
days later, repeat
third.
Ten to fourteen
days later Bor-
deaux. Kerosene
emulsion applied
forcibly for psylla
‘Ten to fourteen
days later, repeat
if necessary.
*When blossoms
have fallen, Bor-
deaux. Begin to
jar trees for cur-
culio. Before buds
kerosene
emulsion for plum
start,
scale.
*ro days later,
Bordeaux. Jar
trees for curculio
every two to
four days.
*When vines
are two-thirds
grown, Bordeaux
and arsenites.
Ten to fifteen
days later, repeat
third.
*Ten to twenty
days later, Bor-
deaux for black
knot. Jar trees
for curculio.
q
*Ten to twenty
days later, Bor-
deaux for black
knot. Later ap-
plications to pre-
vent leaf spot and
fruit rot, am. cop-
per carbonate.
Ten to fifteen
days later Bor-
deaux if mneces-
sary.
Ten to twenty
days later, Bor-
deaux.
*Ten to twenty
days later, Bor-
deaux.
days later, Bor-
deaux,
Repeat second
if necessary.
*(Orange rust
is best treated by
destroying the
affected plants.
*’Ten to twenty
546 FRUIT CULTURE.
How and When to Spray. Farmers and fruit growers are in
need of short and concise directions for applying sprays to cultivated
plants. Although much has been written on the subject of spraying,
the information is so scattered that unless the farmers had hours to spend
to find the desired knowledge, it could not be obtained. In the prepara-
tion of this table, there has been gathered most important points regard-
ing sprays, and these have been arranged in such a manner that the
grower can see at a glance what to apply and when to make the applica-
tions. The more important insect and fungus enemies are also men-
tioned, so that a fairly clear understanding of the work can be obtained
by examining the foregoing table. When making the applications advised,
other enemies than those inentioned-are also kept under control. ‘The
directions given have been carefully compiled from the latest results ob-
tained by leading horticulturists and entomologists, and they may be fol-
lowed with safety.
Nortr.—In this it will be seen that some applications are preceeded by
a **, and these are the ones which are MOST IMPORTANT. ‘The number
of applications given in each case has particular reference to localities in
which fungus and insect enemies are most abundant. If your crops are
not troubled when some applications are advised, it is unnecessary to
make any.
Aphis, the Hop-yard Pest. ‘The best preventive is the destruc-
tion of its eggs on plum trees and of all wild plum trees in hop districts.
The best remedies for attack are found in kerosene emulsion or fish-oil
soaps.
The Currant Aphis. The best way to destroy the plant-lice that
cluster on the tips of currant or gooseberry stems is by dipping the
stems in, or spraying them with, pyrethrum or tobacco water. This will
kill most of them. All may be destroyed by a strong kerosene emul-
sion as also its eggs in the autumn or winter if they are deposited on the
stems. Undiluted kerosene may perhaps be used with safety.
Hop Louse. The best known remedies, are spraying the vines on
the first appearance of the insect with the kerosene and soap emulsion, or
the quassia and soap wash. By the proper use of the above means, seri-
ous losses may be averted.
‘Yellow Wooly Bear. This is a caterpillar attacking many garden
plants, and is known in the winged state as ‘‘the white miller.’ They
should be picked from the plants and crushed.
BOVINE TUBERCULOSIS.
To attack tuberculosis as it exists at present is undoubtedly a most
difficult problem, and the conditions which tend to repress or to aug-
ment its further dissemination are very complex. No single measure,
however sweeping, is likely to be successful. A number of details will
have to receive careful attention, and in the end the success will
depend largely upon the intelligent watchfulness constantly exercised
in various directions by the stock owner. ‘The wide dissemination and
the localized intensity of this disease, especially in herds devoted to
breeding purposes, will require, above all, concerted action in attempts
for its reppression.
Though a strictly bacterial disease and introduced into the body only
by the tubercle bacillus, which is always derived from some pre-exist-
ing case of disease, tuberculosis differs, nevertheless, from most ani-
mal diseases in very important particulars. Its unknown beginnings in
the body and its insidious march after it has once gained a foothold are
responsible for the existence of a large number of tuberculosis animals
in all stages of the disease. In the earlier stages, while the disease is
still restricted to a single focus, the animal is to all outward appear-
ances in perfect health. It is only after the infection has invaded
several cavities of the body or produced mechanical obstructions that
it becomes manifest. Hence it is difficult for the ordinary stock
owner to diagnose and recognize the disease.
The tuberculin test is used by veterinarians but it requires the
ability of an expert to determine the result. Hence the stockman
should never rely on his own ability.
The stock owner should carefully and promptly remove from his herd
and have examined by competent authority:
(x) All animals which show emaciation, with coughing, and aay
suspicious discharges from the nose.
548 BOVINE TUBERCULOSIS.
(2) Those animals with enlarged, prominent glands about the head
(in front of the ears, under and behind the lower jaw), or enlarged
glands in front of the shoulder, in the flank, and behind the udder, and
all animals having swellings on any part of the body which discharge a
yellowish matter and refuse to heal.
(3) Animals with suspected tuberculosis of uterus and udder.
Disinfection and other preventive measures.— Preventive measures of a
general character must still be kept in view for some time after removal
of animals affected. These measures partly suffer shipwreck from the
fact that it is difficult without tuberculin to recognize even advanced
disease during life. Still much can be done to reduce the amount of
infection by following out certain general and specific suggestions
which the renewed study of the disease has either originated or else
placed on a more substantial basis.
Perhaps the most important preliminary suggestion to be made is,
that the owner of cattle should endeavor to familiarize himself as much
as possible with the general nature of tuberculosis, its cause, the ways
in which the virus may leave the body of the sick and enter that of the
well, and, lastly, the ways in which it spreads within the body. He
should make himself acquainted with the peculiar appearance of tuber-
culosis growths in the body, and open every animal that dies, so that
he may know to what extent his animals are dying of this malady.
Wherever possible the services of the skilled veterinarian should be
made use of. Sanitary precautions should begin with the removal of
diseased and suspected animals. ‘This is the most essential require-
ment, for diseased animals are the only breeding places of the specific
virus,
After the removal of these, attention should be paid first of all to the
stables. Here, during the long confinement of the winter months,
when ventilation is all but suppressed, we may look for the source of
most of the inhalation diseases so common in tuberculous cattle.
Even when only a few cases of tuberculosis have been found, the
stables should be disinfected by removal of all dirt and the subsequent
application of disinfectants. Since tubercle bacilli are more resistant
than most other disease germs, the strength of the disinfecting solu-
tion must not be less than as given. The following substances may be
used:
(2) Corrosive sublimate (mercuric chloride), 1 ounce in about 8 gal-
lons of water (one-tenth of 1 per cent), The water should be kept in
BOVINE TUBERCULOSIS. 549
wooden tubs or barrels and the sublimate added to it. The whole must
be allowed to stand twenty-four hours, so as to give the sublimate an
Opportunity to become entirely dissolved. Since this solution is
poisonous, it should be kept well covered and guarded. It may be
applied with a broom or mop and used freely in all parts of the stable.
Since it loses its virtue in proportion to the amount of dirt present, all
manure and other dirt should be first removed and the stables well
cleaned before applying the disinfectant. After it has been applied,
the stable should be kept vacant as long as possible. Before animals
are allowed to return, it is best to flush those parts which the animals
may reach with their tongues, to remove any remaining poison.
(4) Chloride of lime, 5 ounces to a gallon of water (4 per cent). This
should be applied in the same way.
(c) The following disinfectant is very serviceable. It is not so
dangerous as mercuric chloride, but is quite corrosive, and care should
be taken to protect the eyes and hands from accidental splashing:
Crude carboli¢: acids. cawisiuis ciate y bees sees Pea Weare eee + gallon.
Crude sulphuriciacida ssi. d<nuceodeoane see ee aowshawewensedad + gallon.
These two substances should be mixed in tubs or glass vessels. The
sulphuric acid is very slowly added to the carbolic acid. During the
mixing a large amount of heat is developed. The disinfecting power
of the mixture is heightened if the amount of heat is kept down by
placing the tub or glass demijohn containing the carbolic acid in cold
water while the sulphuric acid is being added. The resulting mixture
is added to water in the ratio of 1 to 20. One gallon of mixed acids
will furnish twenty gallons of a strongly disinfectant solution having a
slightly milky appearance.
(d) Whitewash is not of itself of sufficient strength to destroy tuber-
cle bacilli, but by imprisoning and incrusting them on the walls of
stables they are made harmless by prolonged drying. Whitewashing
should be preceded by thorough cleaning.
The removal of virus from the stables should, furthermore, be pro-
moted by the regular removal of manure and by abundant ventilation.
Good air has the effect of diluting infected air, and thereby reducing
the chance of inhaling dried, floating tubercle bacilli, or at least of
reducing the number inhaled. It likewise improves the vigor of the
confined animals, arid hence increases the resistance to infection.
550 BOVINE TUBERCULOSIS.
Cattle should not be placed so that their heads are close together;
each animal should have plenty of room and occupy the same place in
the stable at all times. These precautions will prevent the nasal, lung,
or vaginal discharges from one animal striking the head or soiling the
feed of another. It is true that it is impossible to prevent animals
licking each other outside of the stable, but it should be remembered
that prevention must begin with the removal of all cases which are
suspected of discharging tubercle bacilli. Stadles should, furthermore,
be carefully protected from the expectorations of human beings affected with
(consumption) tuberculosis of the lungs.
In endeavoring to comprehend the peculiar nature of this disease
bear in mind that the virus, 7. ¢., the tubercle bacilli, do not live and
multiply in the blood. They are simply carried in the blood, in
advanced cases, from organ to organ, and speedily fixed in the tissues,
where they produce fresh crops of tubercles. In the earlier stages,
when single glands only are the seat of the disease, the blood is free
from infection. This accounts for the immunity of the milk in these
stages. If there were any method of distinguishing these cases the
danger incident to the milk supply could be easily removed. In prac-
tice, however, no such distinction can be definitely made; hence the
suspicion which rests on all milk which comes from infected herds,
Tuberculosis thus differs from other infectious diseases not so much
in its nature as in the degree of its activity. It isa disease long drawn
out, presenting stages, covering months and years, the duration of
which in other more rapid diseases is measured by days.
THE CONTAGIOUSNESS OF THE DISEASE.
This is linked to the tubercle. bacillus, for without it tuberculosis
cannot develop. Hence our knowledge of the transmission of the dis-
ease is derived largely from what we know of the life history of the
tubercle bacillus within and without the animal body. Tubercle bacilli
may pass from diseased animals in the following ways:
(1) In discharges coughed up, in the case of advanced disease of the
lungs. When the glands of the throat are diseased, they may, after a
time, break down and discharge into the throat. Other glands about
the head and neck may discharge directly outward.
(2) In discharges from bowels, in advanced stages.
(3) In discharges from vagina, in case of tuberculosis of the uterus.
(4) In milk, when the udder is tuberculous or the disease generalized.
BOVINE TUBERCULOSIS. 551
(5) Tubercle bacilli may pass from the mother to the foetus in case of
tuberculosis of the uterus or advanced generalized disease
Tubercle bacilli may be taken up by cattle in several different ways:
(1) Fully nine-tenths of all diseased animals examined have been
infected by inhaling the tubercle bacilli, dried and suspended in the air.
(2) Fully one-half of all diseased animals examined have been infected
by taking tubercle bacilli into the body with the food. This implies
that both food and air infection are recognizable in the same animal in
many cases.
(3) Animals are infected, though rarely, during copulation. In such
cases the disease starts in the uterus and its lymph glands, or in the
sexual organs and corresponding lymph glands of the bull.
(4) Perhaps from one to two per cent of all calves of advanced cases
are born infected. Among the 200 cases of tuberculosis, including all
ages, which have been examined by the writer, there are about two per
cent in which the diesase is best explained as having been directly
transmitted from the mother during or before birth.
We may define the dangers of infection somewhat more definitely by
the statement that in any herd, even in those extensively infected, only
a small percentage of the diseased animals, namely, those which are in
an advanced stage, or such as have the disease localized from the very
beginning in the udder, or the uterus, or the lungs, are actively shed-
ding tubercle bacilli. It is these that are doing most, if not all, of the
damage by scattering broadcast the virus.
Disease of the udder is particularly dangerous, because the milk at
first appears normal for some weeks, and therefore would be used with
impunity. Moreover, the tubercle bacilli in the diseased gland tissue
are usually numerous.
The condition of the milk in different stages of the disease is a ques-
tion of great importance and demands careful consideration. The
stock owner, in the absence of proper dairy or other official inspection,
is under serious moral responsibilities to remove from his herd those
animals in which there is even a suspicion of udder tuberculosis. Any
udder which is found to increase slowly in size without any indication
-f inflammatory processes, recognizable by the presence of heat, pain,
znd redness, and which becomes very firm without showing at first any
alteration in the appearance of the milk, should be regarded as
infected, the cow promptly segregated, and the entire milk rejected
until a diagnosis can be made by a veterinarian,
GRAIN SMUTS.
To the ordinary observer nothing could seem more unlike a
definitely organized plant than the black, dusty mass filling the kernels
of wheat or replacing an entire head of oats. Yet, as a matter of fact,
the black dust is composed of thousands of germs of a minute parasitic
plant. These germs, or spores, which have the same function as the
seeds of higher plants, are blown about by the wind and lodge on the
healthy kernels of the grain. When the kernel sprouts the spores
adhering to it germinate and send a slender thread into the young
plant. The slender threads of the parasite follow the growth of the
plant, but their presence can scarcely be detected until the head begins
to develop. The flower or grain is then filled by a mass of the threads,
which absorb the nourishment intended for the grain and are soon con-
verted into a mass of spores, again ready to fly about and infect next
year’s seed.
There are two classes of smuts which attack our common cereals,
viz., the stinking smuts, which destroy only the kernel, and which have
a pronounced disagreeable odor, and the loose smuts, which destroy
not only the kernel but also more or less of the chaff, and which are
more dusty and loose. The stinking smuts occur on wheat only, while
the loose smuts are found on wheat, oats and barley. As the different
smuts have to be treated differently, it is of advantage to the agricul-
turist to be able to recognize them readily. Wheat, for instance, is
attacked by three species — two stinking smuts and one loose smut.
STINKING SMUTS OF WHEAT.
The two species are very similar and can usually be distinguished
only by the aid of a microscope. The smutted kernels (usually all in
the head are affected) are slightly larger and more irregular in shape
than healthy grains, and are easily broken open, disclosing a dark-
brown powder, which possesses a disagreeable penetrating odor.
GRAIN SMUTS. 553
Even a small per cent of smutted kernels will give a whole bin of wheat
this characteristic odor. ‘The stinking smuts are thus easily recognized
if present in any considerable quantity in the thrashed grain. This is
not true of any other grain smuts, however.
LOOSE SMUT OF WHEAT.
This is very different from the stinking smuts. It has no fetid odor;
attacks both kernels and chaff; ripens when the healthy wheat is just
flowering; and is composed of a loose, dusty mass of spores. These
spores are usually entirely blown away by harvest time, leaving oniy
the naked stalk where the head should be. k
Loose smut is known to occur in many parts of the United States.
though fortunately it is rare or entirely absent in many localities. It
does not usually destroy so large a proportion of the crop as do the
stinking smuts; still, it often causes a loss of ten per cent or more of
the crop, and has even been reported as destroying over fifty per cent
of a crop in Michigan.
Wheat growers should be on their guard against this enemy, and try
to secure seed wheat from fields known by careful eryamination at
flowering time to be free from loose smut. It can, however, be com-
batted by treating enough wheat to furnish seed for the following year,
and this should be done when any considerable per cent of the crop is
affected.
LOOSE SMUT OF OATS.
This smut is very similar in general appearance to the loose smut of
wheat, and like that species it ripens when the grain is in flower, and is
blown about by the wind. At harvest time the head is often entirely
bare. There is, however, a form of this smut which destroys only the
kernel and leaves the outer chaff unaffected. This is very hard to
recognize, since the smutted heads look almost exactly like those of
healthy plants, and can be detected only by cutting open the husks,
when a mass of smut will be found in place of the kernel. Sometimes
more than two-thirds of the smut is of this hidden form. This is likely
to cause the grower to greatly underestimate the amount of smut.
By means of two newly discovered treatments of the seed, viz, with
potassium sulphide, and with hot water, oat smut can be completely
prevented at very little expense. Fortunately, both the common and
hidden forms of smut can be eradicated with equal ease. It is certain
554 GRAIN SMUTS.
that oat growers could save many millions of dollars annually above
all expenses by treating their seed oats.
SMUTS OF BARLEY, RYE AND CORN.
Barley is attacked by two loose smuts, both very similar to the loose
smut of oats. In the covered barley smut the spores are often retained
till harvest by a thin membrane, inclosing the smutted kernel and
chaff. The naked barley smut, on the other hand, is like the ordinary
form of oat smut, and is usually all blown away long before harvest.
Both kinds of barley smuts can be completely prevented by the treat-
ment recommended further on.
Rye smut attacks the leaves and stems of this cereal, and sometimes
weakens the plants considerably. Jensen thinks it can be prevented
by treating five minutes with hot water at 127 degrees F.
Corn smut is of widespread occurrence, but rarely causes more than
a fraction of one percent loss. No method of prevention is as yet
known.
PRACTICAL DIRECTIONS FOR TREATING SEED
FOR SMUT.
POTASSIUM SULPHIDE TREATMENT FOR OAT SMUT.
The potassium sulphide should be of the fused form known as “‘ liver
of sulphur.’’ It can be obtained of any druggist for from twenty-five
to fifty cents per pound, depending on the quantity purchased. It
should be kept in a tight glass vessel, protected from the air, until
ready for use. Dissolve one and one-half pounds in twenty-five
gallons of water in a wooden vessel; a tight barrel is very good for
the purpose. The lumps of potassium sulphide dissolve in a few min.
utes, making the liquid a clear yellowish-brown color. After thor-
oughly stirring, put in about three bushels of oats and agitate well to
insure wetting every grain. The solution must completely cover the
grain and be several inches above it, as the grain soaks up some of the
liquid. Leave the oats in this solution twenty-four hours, stirring
several times during the day to be sure every kernel is wetted. Then
spread out to dry. In treating large quantities of seed, a hogshead or
a wooden tank might be used. The solution should not be used more
than three times. In no case should any metal be allowed to come in
contact with the liquid. This treatment is thoroughly effective for
oat smut, and is worthy of trial for stinking smut of wheat.
GRAIN SMUTS. 555
THE HOT-WATER TREATMENT FOR STINKING SMUT OF WHEAT AND
OAT SMUT.
Provide two large vessels, preferably holding at least twenty gallons.
Two wash kettles, soap kettles, wash boilers, tubs, or even barrels,
will do. One of the vessels should contain warm water, say at 110
degrees to 120 degrees F., and the other scalding water, at 132 degrees
to 133 degrees F. The first is for the purpose of warming the seed
preparatory to dipping it into the second. Unless this precaution is
taken it will be difficult to keep the water in the second vessel at the
proper temperature. A pail of cold water should be at hand, and it is
also necessary to have a kettle filled with boiling water from which to
add from time to time to keep the temperature right. Where kettles
are used a very small fire should be kept under the kettle of scalding
water. The seed which is to be treated must be placed, half a bushel
or more at a time, in a closed vessel that will allow free entrance and
exit of water on all sides. For this purpose there can be used a bushel
basket made of heavy wire, inside of which is spread wire netting, say
twelve meshes to the inch; or an iron frame can be made at a trifling
cost, over which the wire netting can be stretched. This will allow
the water to pass freely and yet prevent the passage of the seed.
A sack made of loosely woven material, as gunny sack, can be used
instead of the wire basket. A perforated tin vessel is in some respects
preferable to any of the above. In treating stinking smut of wheat,
the grain should first be thrown into a vessel filled with cold water;
then, after stirring well, skim off the smutted grains that float on top
and put the grain into the basket or other vessel for treatment with
hot water. This skimming is entirely unnecessary with other grains,
and even with wheat when affected only by the loose smut. Now dip
the basket of seed in the first vessel, containing water at rro degrees
to 120 degrees F.; after a moment lift it, and when the water has for
the most part escaped, plunge it into the water again, repeating the
operation several times. The object of the lifting and plunging, to
which should be added also a rotary motion, is to bring every grain in
contact with the hot water. Less than a minute is required for this
preparatory treatment, after which plunge the basket of seed into the
second vesse!, containing water at 132 degrees to 133 degrees F. If
the thermometer indicates that the temperature of the water is falling,
pour in hot water from the kettle of boiling water until the right
degree is attained. Ifthe temperature should rise higher than 133
556 GRAIN SMUTS.
degrees, add a little cold water. In all cases the water should be well
stirred whenever any of a different temperature is added. The basket
of seed should very shortly after its immersion be lifted and drained,
and then plunged and agitated in the manner described above. This
operation should be repeated six or eight times during the immersion,
which should be continued ten minutes. In this way every portion of
the seed will be subjected to the action of the scalding water. In
practice it will be found best to have a man or boy devote his whole
time to keeping the temperature at the right point, adding a little hot
water if it falls below 132 degrees and a little cold water if it gets
above 133 degrees F. Another man should handle the grain and
immerse and drain the portion being treated as directed above. After
removing the grain from the scalding water, spread on a clean floor or
piece of canvas to dry. The layer of grain should not be over three
inches thick. If it cannot be spread out at once, dip in cold water
and set to one side until it can be attended to. It dries better if
spread while still hot. Another portion of grain can then be treated,
and so on until all the seed has been disinfected. Directions for dry-
ing the seed will be given further on.
The important precautions to be taken are as follows: (1) Maintain
the proper temperature of the water (132 degrees or 133 degrees F.),
in no case allow it to rise higher than 135 degrees or fall below 130
degrees; (2) see that the volume of scalding water is much greater (at
least six or eight times) than that of the seed treated at any one time;
(3) never fill the basket or sack containing the seed entirely full, Lut
always leave room for the grain to move about freely; (4) leave the
seed in the second vessel of water ten minutes.
COPPER-SULPHATE TREATMENT FOR STINKING SMUT OF WHEAT.
This consists in immersing the seed wheat twelve hours in a solution
made by dissolving one pound of commercial copper sulphate in twenty-
four gallons of water, and then putting the seed for five or ten minutes
into limewater made by slaking one pound of good lime in ten gallons
of water. The treatment is cheap, easily applied, and very effective.
DRYING THE TREATED SEED.
All of the seed treatments leave the seed wet and necessitate drying
before planting. The grain should be spread in a layer two or three
inches deep, and should be shoveled over twice or three times a day.
MANURES.
Manures.— It becomes a matter of the highest consequence to the
farmer to understand, not only what substances may be useful as
manures, but also how to apply them in the best manner to his crops.
so far as they may be made profitable.
HOME-MADE GUANO OF UNEQUALLED EXCELLENCE.— Save all your
fowl manure from sun and rain. To prepare it for use, spread a layer
of dry swamp muck (the blacker it is the better) on your barn floor,
and dump on it the whole of your fowl manure; beat it into a fine
powder with the back of your spade; this done, add hard wood ashes
and plaster, (Gypsum) so that the compound shall be composed of the
following proportions: Dried muck, three bushels; fowl manure, two
bushels; ashes, one bushel; plaster, one and one-half bushels; mix
thoroughly, and spare no labor; for in this matter the elbow grease
expended will be well paid for. A little before planting moisten the
heap with water, or, better still, with urine, cover well over with old mats
and let it lie till wanted for use. Apply it to beans, corn, or potatoes
at the rate of a handful to a hill, and mix with the soil before drop-
ping the seed. This will be found the best substitute for guano ever’
invented, and may be depended on for bringing great crops of turnips,
corn, potatoes, etc.
To DISSOLVE LARGE BONES FOR MANURE WITHOUT ExpENSE.— Tak >
any old flour-barrel, and put into the bottom a layer of hardwooc
ashes; put a layer of bones on the top of the ashes, filling the space
between the bones with them; then add bones and ashes alternately,
finishing off with a thick layer of ashes. When your barrel is filled.
pour on water (urine is better), just sufficient to keep them wet, but do
not on any account suffer it to leach one drop; for that would be like
leaching your dungheap. In the course of time they will heat, anc
eventually soften down so that you can crumble them with your finger
When sufficiently softened, dump them out of the barrel on a heap o:
dry loam, and pulverize and crumble them up till they are completely
558 MANURES.
amalgamated into one homogeneous mass with the loam, so that it
can be easily handled and distributed whenever required. You may
rely on it, this manure will leave its mark, and show good results
wherever it is used.
How ro DouBLE THE USUAL QUANTITY OF MANURE ON A FarM.—
Provide a good supply of black swamp mould or loam from the
woods within easy reach of your stable, and place a layer of this, one
foot thick, under each horse, with litter, as usual, on the top of the
loam or mould. Remove the droppings of the animal every day, but
let the loam remain for two weeks; then remove it, mixing it with
other manure, and replace with fresh mould. By this simple means
any farmer can double, not only the quantity, but also the quality, of
his manure, and never feel himself one penny the poorer by the trouble
or expense incurred, while the fertilizing value of the ingredients
absorbed and saved by the loam can scarcely be ¢stimated.
Twenty DoLiars’ WorTH OF MANURE FOR ALMOST NOTHING.— If
you have any dead anmial, say, for instance, the body of a horse, do
not suffer it to pollute the atmosphere by drawing it away to the
woods, or any other out cf the way place, but remove it a short dis-
tance only from your premises, and put down four or five loads of
muck or sods, place the carcass thereon, sprinkle it over with quick-
lime, and cover over immediately with sods or mould sufficient to
make, with what had been previously added, twenty good wagon loads,
and you will have within twelve months a pile of manure worth $20 for
any crop you choose to put it upon. Use a proportionate quantity of
mould for smaller animals, but never less than twenty good wagon
loads for a horse; and, if any dogs manifest too great a regard for the
enclosed carcass, shoot them on the spot.
ASHES FROM SOIL BY SPONTANEOUS ComBuSsTION.— Make your mound
twenty-one feet long by ten and one-half feet wide. To fire use
seventy-two bushels of lime. First a layer of dry sods or parings on
which a quantity of lime is spread, mixing sods with it, then a cover-
ing of eight inches of sods, on which the other half of the lime is
spread, and covered a foot thick, the height of the mound being about
a yard. In twenty-four hours it will take fire. The lime should be
fresh from the kiln. It is better to suffer it to ignite itself than to
effect it by the operation of water. When the fire is fairly kindled,
fresh sods must be applied, but get a good body of ashes in the first
MANURES. 559
place. I think it may be fairly supposed that the lime adds full its
worth to the quality of the ashes, and when limestone can be got I
would advise the burning a small quantity in the mounds, which would
be an improvement to the ashes, and would help to keep the fire
burning.
SUBSTITUTE FOR BARN MANURE.— Dissolve a bushel of salt in water
enough to slack five or six bushels of lime. The best rule for prepar-
ing the compost heap is, one bushel of this lime to one load of swamp
muck intimately mixed, though three bushels to five loads makes a
very good manure. In laying up the heap let the layers of muck and
lime be thin, so that decomposition may be more rapid and complete.
When lime cannot be got, use unleached ashes, three or four bushels
to a cord of muck. Ina month or six weeks overhaul and work over
the heap, when it will be ready for use. Sprinkle the salt water on the
lime as the heap. goes up.
Ashes may be pronounced the best of the saline manures. They are
also among the most economical; as, from our free use of fuel, they are
largely produced by almost every household. Good husbandry dic-
tates that not a pound of ashes should be wasted, but all should be
saved and applied to the land; and, where they can be procured at a
reasonable price, they should be purchased for manure. Leached
ashes, though less valuable, contain all the elements of the unleached,
having been deprived only of a part of their potash and soda. They
may be drilled into the soil with roots and grain, sown broadcast on
meadows or pastures, or mixed with the muck heap. They improve all
soils not already saturated with the principles which they contain.
The quantity of ashes that should be applied to the acre must depend
on the soil and crops cultivated. Potatoes, turnips and all roots —
clover, lucern, peas, beans and the grasses, are great exhausters of the
salts, and they are consequently much benefited by ashes. They are
used with decided advantage for the above crops in connection with
bone dust; and for clover, peas and roots, their effects are much
enhanced when mixed with gypsum. Light soils should have a
smaller, and rich lands or clays, a heavier, dressing. From twelve to
fifteen bushels per acre for the former, and thirty for the latter, is not
too much; or, if they are leached, the quantity may be increased one-
half, as they act with less energy. Repeated dressings of ashes, like
those of lime and gypsum, without a corresponding addition of vege-
table or barnyard manures, will eventually exhaust tillage lands.
560 MANURES.
O_p Lime PLasTER, FROM WALLS OF BUILDINGS, ETC.— For mead-
ows, and for most other crops, especially on clays and loams, this is
worth twice its weight in hay; as it will produce a large growth of
grass for years in succession, without other manure. But the farmer
cannot too carefully remember that with this, as with all other saline
manures, but a part of the ingredients only is thus supplied to vege-
tables; and, without the addition of the others, the soil will sooner or
later become exhausted.
Savinc BarN-yarD Manure.— The bulk, solubility and peculiar
tendency to fermentation of barnyard manure, renders it a matter of
no little study so to arrange it as to preserve all its good qualities and
apply it undiminished to the soil. A part of the droppings of the cattle
are necessarily left in the pastures, or about the stacks where they are
fed; though it is better, for various reasons, that they should never
receive their food from the stack. The manure thus left in the fields
should be beaten up and scattered with light, long-handled mallets,
immediately after the grass starts in the spring, and again before the
rains in the autumn. With these exceptions, and the slight waste
which may occur in driving cattle to and from the pasture, all the
manure should be dropped either in the stables or inthe yards. These
should be so arranged that cattle may pass from one directly into the
other; and the yard should, if possible, be furnished with wells, cis-
terns, or running water. There is twice the value of manure wasted
annually on some farms in sending the cattle abroad to water, that
would be required to provide it for them in the yard for fifty years.
The premises where the manure is dropped should be kept as dry as
possible; and the eaves should project several feet beyond the side of
the building so as to protect the manure thrown out of the stables
from the wash of rains. The barns and all the sheds should have
eave-troughs to carry off the water, which, if saved in a sufficiently
capacious cistern, would furnish a supply for the cattle. The form of
the yard ought to be dishing toward the center, and, if on sandy or
gravelly soil, it should be puddled or covered with clay to prevent the
feaking and escape of the liquid manure. The floors of the stables
may be so made as to permit the urine to fall on a properly prepared
bed of turf under them, where it would be retained till removed; or it
should be led off by troughs into the yard or to a muck heap.
Vav.ure or Liguip Manures.— The urine voided from a single cow
is considered in Flanders, where agricultural practice has reached a
MANURES. 561
high state of advancement, to be worth $10 per year. It furnishes
nine hundred pounds of solid matter, and, at the price of $50 per ton,
for which guano is frequently sold, the urine of a cow for one year is
worth $20. And yet economical farmers will waste urine and buy
guano! ‘The urine of a cow for a year will manure one and a quarter
acres of land, and is more valuable than its dung, in the ratio by on
of seven to six; and in real value as two to one.
SoLtip ANIMAL Manures.— Of these horse dung is the richest ana
the easiest to decompose. If in heaps, fermentation will sometimes
commence in twenty-four hours; and even in midwinter, if a large pile
be accumulated, it will proceed with great rapidity; and, if not
arrested, a few weeks, under favorable circumstances, are sufficient to
reduce it to a small part of its original weight and value.
The manure of sheep is rich and very active, and, next to that of
the horse, is the most subject to heat and decomposition. The
manure of cattle and swine, being of a colder nature, may be thrown
in with that of the horse and sheep in alternate layers. If fresh
manure be intermixed with straw and other absorbents (vegetables,
peat, turf, etc.), and constantly added, the recent coating will combine
with any volatile matters which fermentation develops in the lower
part of the mass. Frequent turning of the manures is a practice
attended with no benefit, but with certainty of the escape of much of
its valuable properties.
MaANURING WITH GREEN Crops.— This system has within a few
years been extensively adopted in some of the older settled portions of
the United States. The comparative cheapness of land and its pro-
ducts, the high price of labor, and the consequent expense of making
artificial manures, renders this at present the most economical plan
which can be pursued. The object of this practice is, primarily, fer-
tilization; and connected with it, is the clearing of the ground from
noxious weeds, as in fallows, by plowing in the vegetation before the
seed is ripened; and finally to loosen the soil and place it in the mel-
lowest condition for the crops which are to succeed. Its results have
been entirely successful, when steadily pursued with a due considera-
tion of the objects sought, and the means by which they are to be
accomplished. T.ands in many of our eastern States, which have been
worn out by improvident cultivation, and unsalable, have, by this
means, while renumerating their proprietors for the outlay of labor
and expense by their returning crops, been doubled in value.
562 BOOK-KEEPING.
PRACTICAL DIRECTIONS FOR BOOK-KEEPING BY
FARMERS.
Nearly every person keeps a memorandum of contracts madeand the
payments of money, but how many cultivators of the soil keep an
account with each crop, to see if it is raised at a profit, or results ina
loss.
The question of whether a crop has resulted in a profit can be easily
figured, provided the entries are made when transpiring, and not left to
become a question of memory.
Let us take for example acrop of corn. First determine the number
of acres planted, and, at the estimated value of the farm, charge up as
an expense against the corn crop the interest on the value of the land.
Reckon the interest at the legal rate in the State where located.
Next, keep account of the number of days spent in putting the land
in order, and place that on the debit side against your crop. Then
charge the seed used, the fertilizers, the time spent in cultivating, the
time occupied in gathering the crop, preparing for market, and deliver-
ing it. Then charge up an equitable amount of the taxes, and general
wear on the tools and general decrease in value of the farmer’s appa-
ratus, and general expenses such as fencing, etc., etc. This will make
up the sum total to be charged against the crop.
On the credit side should be placed the amount received from the
proceeds of the sale of the product. Also credit the crop with what-
ever fodder, or other product left and used on the farm, as a fertilizer,
or as fodder for cattle or other stock. If there has been a crop of
pumpkins, squashes, or turnips raised among the corn, do not fail to
give the land due credit for all that it produces.
In computing the value of the work done by the farm teams, it would
be hardly fair to charge what the cartman might get for a single day’s
work, but by getting at the cost of keeping a team for a year, the
natural depreciation in their value, together with a moderate charge
for caring for the team and the cost of keeping shod and other expenses,
and dividing this sum by the average number of days the team will
‘ work each year, the cost of a day’s work by the team will be quite well
established.
No special form of book is needed for such an account, and the
method is simple. The farmer, stockman or fruit-raiser will be well
repaid for his trouble and then feel he knowe =hich one af bis many
crops yields him the heet. nrafs,
LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
Legal Facts of Importance to All
Citizens of the United States.
AW has been defined as principles of right and justice governing
the actions of men, and defining their different rights in relation
to each other. The object of the law is to give every person the
full enjoyment of these rights; thus protecting the weak and ix-
nocent from the unjust acts of dishonest people.
Law is divided into two classes, viz: that which has been established
by long common practice, or usage and that which is specially passed
by legislatures and is found upon the statute books. The former is
called the Common or Unwritten Law, and is founded in justice and
reason. ‘The last or Statute Law is passed by our legislators and is
called Written Law.
The value of a thorough understanding of the principles of law of
general application is of great importance to every one who has business
of any kind to transact. Those who possess this knowledge have a
shield to protect them from the cunning and trickery of the world.
It is far better to be protected by knowledge from the tricks of the
dishonest than to try to remedy an act, in which a dishonest person has
taken advantage. Skelton says: ‘‘Whoever goes to law goesinto a glass
house, where he understands little or nothing of what he is doing; where
he sees a small matter blown up, like a glass ball, into fifty times the
size of its real contents, and through which if he can perceive any other
564 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
objects, he perceives them all discolored and distorted.”’
The going to law is well illustrated by the story of two men who went
to court about the ownership of acow. The lawyers had the milk dur-
ing the time of litigation, although the two men had to provide it ample
provision, and at the end the court took the cow to pay the judge for the
time he had lost in considering to whom the cow belonged.
Not every man can be a lawyer, yet every man can know enough law
to do business in such a manner as to protect his interests. Let every
contract be worded so that two meanings cannot be taken, have it prop-
erly signed in the presence of a witness who signs his name as witness,
and there can be but little trouble.
It is useless to pay a lawyer or Justice to draw up an ordinary contract
or bill of sale.
CONTRACTS.
What is a Contract? An agreement between two or more par-
ties to do or not to do some specified thing is called a contract. It may
be verbal, (by word of mouth) or written.
This subject isa limitless one, for scarcely a day passes without one
making a contract. ‘The simplest agreement one with another is a con-
tract, and limitless as they arein number, and varied in their require-
ments; they are all governed by very general rules.
Contract Not Valid. An agreement to do a thing contrary to
law, or a thing forbidden by law, can not beenforced. As for example;
the law in the state of New Vork, directs every teacher in the public
schools to attend an ‘‘Institute’’ once a year, and compels the disrict to
pay for the time so spent. Any agreement contrary to the above law
can not be enforced.
Things Necessary. There are certain things necessary, without
which there can be no contract. First there must be parties to the con-
tract, and they must be legally qualified; second, there must be a rea-
sonable consideration; third, there must be the thing to be done or not to
be done, (subject matter); fourth, there must be the consent of all par-
ties to the agreement; fifth there must be a time when the contract is
to be completed. Thus every contract must have five essentials, PAR-
TIES, CONSIDERATION, SUBJECT MATTER, MUTUAL CONSENT, and
TIME.
Parties. Those who make a contract must be considered competent
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 565
to do so, in the eyes of the law. The law says that the parties must be
of legal age and sound mind. In most states the law regards all persons
as infants who are under twenty-one years of age, though in a few states
females are made of age at eighteen. A contract made with a drunken
person, a minor, or an idiot is not binding upon him, except for food,
clothing, or a place to dwell in. Other conditions of incompetency are
insanity and coverture.
A contract made with a minor, while not binding upon him, is bind-
ing upon the other party, provided the minor chooses to enforce the
agreement.
Everyone should be extremely careful in making contracts with peo-
ple who are deemed incompetent by the law, for what might be ordi-
narily considered a necessity, may by reason of the circumstances of
such person be declared by the court as not a ‘‘necessity.’’
The reason for considering infants incompetent to make a binding
contract, is, that they are considered unable, on account of lack of ex-
perience, to guard against fraud and a1tful designing.
Infants are liable, just the same as adults, for fraud, assault, or any
criminal act. While the law protects the infant from deceit and fraud,
it will not, however, allow him to do unlawful acts.
A contract made under compulsion induced by threats of personal
violence or injury, is illegal, but the fact of the threat being made
must be proved.
A contract made by two or more persons with intent of injuring oth-
ers, is illegal.
A contract in which there are misrepresentations or concealments of
a material fact is illegal.
If a person signs a contract through fraud or misrepresentations, being
led to believe that the contract means what it does not, or that the
property purchased is different from what it really is, that contract is
illegal. The burden of proof isin this case always on the person de-
ceived. It requires good and abundant proof, because a written agree-
ment goes farther in law than a single oath against it.
An agreement with a thief not to prosecute, provided goods are re-
turned, is illegal.
Incompetency. ‘‘Persons of unsound mind and memory cannot
make a binding contract, beeause they cannot give clear and intelligent
consent to its terms. A noted writer has said: ‘Want of reason must,
of course, invalidate a contract, the very essence of which is consent.’
566 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
Insanity and idiocy are not the same. An insane person is one whose
mind is diseased or deranged; an idiot is one who has no mind; and with
the above the law claswifies the man, who by druukenness, renders him-
self incapable of discharging the ordinary duties of life.
By coverture, is meant marriage; the rule of the common law is that
a married woman cannot, during her marriage, make a binding contract;
but this has changed in nearly every State, giving to her either entire
or modified control over her own property.
Consideration. ‘This is the price or promise, or the cause which
moves the parties to enter into a contract. It may be EXPRESSED or
IMPLIED. A consideration that is distinctly stated in the contract,
whether oral or written, is said to be expressed. In all sealed instru-
ments and salable paper, the consideration is implied; as in promissory
notes and drafts, the words, ‘value received,’ imply, but do not state
the consideration.
Consideration is commonly called VALUABLE, GOOD, SUFFICIENT, LE-
GAL, INSUFFICIENT, etc.
‘The money value of a consideration does not determine whether it is
SUFFICIENT, or not; a very slight consideration will support a contract
if it is what the law recognizes as valuable.
A VALUABLE consideration may be illustrated by the ‘payment of
money, the delivery of property, the performance of work, making a
promise for a promise, etc.’
A Goop consideration is one founded upon affection, relationship,
friendship, or gratitude. This will support a contract that has been
performed, and then only between the parties themselves, but will not
answer for an executory contract; that is, one to be performed in the
future.
An insufficient consideration may be defined as one that is gratuitous,
illegal, immoral, or impossible. ‘There are exceptions to this gratui-
tous consideration; for instance, in case of labor performed for a party
with his knowledge but not his expressed consent. Story and Town-
send both give this illustration: ‘If you work for me, I knowing what
you are doing, and do not interfere or prevent you, it raises an
implied promise, on my part, to pay what your service are reasonably
worth, even though you may have commenced work without my
order’.”’
Subject Matter. The subject matter of a contract is the thing to
be done, or omitted by one or both parties. There are certain contracts
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 567
however, which the law will not enforce. That is, if the thing to be
done is illegal, against the law, immoral, that is, contrary to good mor-
als, (injurious to, or interfering with the public welfare), in general re-
straint of trade, such as an agreement not to oonduct a certain lawful
businsss anywhere, either for a a limited or unlimited time, in general
restraint of marriage, such as a condition that a child may not marry
any person living in the same State or following some particular profes-
sion or trade, if the subject matter operates as a fraud on third persons,
obstructs public justice, that is, suppresses evidence, bribes witnesses or
officers, or if already compelled by law, because an agreement to do
what is already required of one will not increase the obligation, or if it
has in it in any way, the element of fraud, we cannot expect the law to
enforce the contract.
Mutual Assent. This is defined to be a meeting of minds. There
can be no binding contract without the assent of both parties; and they
must assent at the same time and to the same thing. Mutual assent
consists of an offer by one party and its acceptance by the other; when
the offer is verbal, and the time allowed for acceptance is not mentioned
it must be accepted immediately to make a contract. But in case the
offer and acceptance are written and pass through the mails, the con-
tract is complete when the acceptance is mailed; provided the person ac-
cepting has received no notice of the withdrawal of the offer before mail-
ing his letter. When the offer calls for an answer by return mail, any
acceptance later than by return mail will not be binding on the party
making the offer.
Time. When the time in which a contract is to be performed is not
expressed, the execution of the contract must be within a reasonable
time; and this is to be determined by the thing to be done.
Construction of Contracts. In the construction of contracts no
particular form of words is necessary, but the intention of the parties
should be clearly and definitely stated.
Ignorance of Law. This is no reason for an omission or breach
of contract; every one is supposed to know the law.
Simple Contracts are Expressed, Implied, Verbal, Written, Joint,
and Several.
Verbal Contract. A contract made by mere words spoken by the
parties is called a verbal contract.
Written Contract. A contract in which the agreement is in writ-
ing is called a written contract. It is no stronger than a verbal one
568 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
when the law allows it to be verbal, but the method of proof is different;
the written contract generally proves itself.
Expressed Contract. An expressed contract is either verbal or
in writing, in which the terms of the agreement are openly, fully and
clearly stated.
Implied Contract. A contract in which the law presumes what
must have been the agreement intended by the parties, is called an im-
plied contract.
Joint Contract. A contract in which the parties are jointly (that
is together), bound to perform the contract or agreement, is called a
joint contract.
Several Contract. A contract in which two or more persons prom-
ise, each for himself, that he will do the whole thing promised, is called
a several contract.
.Contracts in Writing. While there are certain contracts that are
not required to be in writing, yet it is safest and best te put them in
black and white, because it may prevent frequent misunderstandings.
Trouble more often comes from misunderstandings of verbal contracts
than because the parties to the contract are dishonest. Often the party
who wishes to deceive has a considerable bargaining before the agreement
is concluded, and when the final agreement is made only a few words
are exchanged, and these before an ‘‘accidental’’ witness. The previ-
ous remarks and guarantees given without witness are not in evidence
in case of dispute. ‘The facts sworn to by the ‘‘accidental’’ witness that
no conversation like that which had been previously stated took place at
the closing of bargain, and the case will be decided on the evidence of
the ‘‘accidental’’ witness supported by the evidence of his ‘‘friend.”’
Contracts that Must be Written. Contracts for the conveyance
of real estate; contracts for the lease of land for more than one year;
contracts made upon consideration of marriage; contracts to answer for
the debt, default, or wrongful act of another; contracts that are not to
be performed within one year; and contracts for the sale of personal
property of a specified value (usually fifty dollars); unless the sale is by
auction, or the buyer pays part of the purchase-price, or the seller de-
livers part of the goods.
Guarantee. The seller of goods is not liable for the quality of the
goods sold, unless he has represented or concealed something fraudu-
lently, or has warranted them good and sound.
The rule is: ‘‘If there is no expressed warranty by the seller, nor
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 569
fraud on his part, and if the article is equally open for inspection of both
parties, the buyer who examines the article for himself must abide by
all losses arising from its not being what he wanted or expected.”’
When goods are found to be unsound, or are not such as were ordered,
the purchaser should return them, as soon as the fact is discovered, to
the seller, or give him notice to take them back; otherwise it will be
presumed the quality is satisfactory.
Sale of Stolen Articles. When the buyer purchases goods, he
receives his title in them from the seller; but if the goods prove to have
been stolen, the true owner can reclaim them at any time. They might
have been bought in good faith, in the regular order of business, and
for a valuable consideration; but if the one from whom the buyer
derives his title had none, it transpires that the buyer will have
no title.
Sale of Personal Property. A sale is a contract by which the
ownership is transferred from one person to another for a consideration
in meney paid or to be paid. To make it a sale there must be money
paid or agreed to be paid in exchange for the goods. An exchange of
goods for goods is ‘‘barter’’ or a ‘‘trade.’’
The party who purchases the property is called the purchaser, or
vendee; the one who sells is called the seller or vendor.
The growing or expected products may be bought and sold, viz: the
grain or grass expected to grow upon a field; the fruit that may grow in
an orchard; or the future increase in cattle or other stock.
Delivery. It is not usually necessary that the goods be actually
delivered. When the terms of the contract are agreed to and accepted
the sale is complete. The title of the property then lays in the buyer,
and he is entitled to it upon payment. The buyer can not take the
goods till he pays for them. Here comes a nice distinction between the
right of property, and the right of possession.
If the goods are sold to a person who ‘‘fails’’ or becomes insolvent be-
fore they are delivered, the seller may not deliver them. Even if
shipped, they may be stopped in transit, by notice to the carrier not to
deliver the goods.
Bill of Sale. As a protection against the goods purchased and
named in a bill of sale, being seized for debts or judgments, it is best to
record the same in the official records of the town or county as the law
of the state requires.
KNow ALL MEN BY THESE PRESENTS, that in consideration of Three
§70 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
Hundred Twenty-seven Dollars ($327.), the receipt of which is
hereby acknowledged, I, John S. Peaslee, do hereby sell, transfer, grant,
and deliver unto Ross Hamilton, to have and to hold, all my right, title
and interest in the following goods and chattels, viz:
One bay horse, one set single harness, one Portland cutter, one light
open buggy, one whip, and one blanket.
T’o have and to hold all of said goods goods and chattels forever. And
the said John S. Peaslee hereby certifies that he is the lawful owner of
said goods and chattels; that they are free from all incumbrances; that
he has good right to sell the same, as aforesaid; and that he will war-
rant and defend the same against the lawful claims and demands of all
persons whomsoever.
IN WITNESS WHEREOF, the said grantor has hereunto set his hand this
12th day of February, 1896.
WITNESSES : JOHN S. PEASLEE.
Samuel Brousseau.
William I. Gardenier.
Contract for Letting Farm on Shares. Copy, making such
such variations as the case requires.
This agreement, entered into this 12th day of February, 1896, by and
between Abram IL. Schermerhorn, of the town of Stuyvesant, Columbia
County, State of New York, party of the first part, and James Johnson,
of Coeymans, Albany County, State of New York, party of the second
part.
It is hereby agreed that James Johnson, party of the second part, will
on or before the first day of April of this year, take possession of the
farm of Abram L,. Schermerhorn and commence the duties of caring for
and cultivating said farm, and will continue the same for the term of
one year from said date, April 1st, 1896.
It is agreed that the said party of the second part shall cultivate said
land in a scientific, workmanlike manner, putting in the crops at the
usual accepted time for so doing, so as to get the best of results obtain-
able.
It is agreed that each shall furnish one-half of the seed used upon the
farm during the year; that said party of the second part shall furnish all
the labor, tools, and horses necessary to properly and timely prepare the
ground for the crops, properly place them in the ground, timely cut,
harvest, protect by placing in the buildings on said farm when harvested,
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 57t
properly thresh, clean or otherwise prepare all crops, as the case demands,
for market; to deliver the same to the nearest market at the usual time
for marketing, unless otherwise hereafter agreed.
Each party to have one-half of the receipts from the sale of the pro-
duce raised during the year.
Each party is to furnish one-half of the cows, sheep, swine, and poul-
try, but the party of the second part is to perform all the labor neces-
sary to properly care for the same, as well as the milking and making of
the butter. Each party to have one-half of the proceeds arising from
the sale of these animals or their productions.
It is further agreed that the party of the second part shall leave the
same amount of wheat or rye sown upon the premises at the expiration
of this lease, as are upon the farm the rst day of April, 1896, namely:
forty acres.
The party of the second part agrees to keep all the gates, fences, and
buildings in good repair, said party of the first part furnishing the neces-
sary material for so doing; and further agrees to prevent, as far as pos-
sible, any injury by person, horses, cattle, or animals of any kind, to
the hedges, trees, or fences.
IN WITNESS WHEREOF, we have hereunto signed our names this 12th
dap of February, 1896.
ABRAM L. SCHERMERHORN. | [Seal.]
JAMES JOHNSON. [Seal.]
Contract for Hiring Help. The following form will prevent all
misunderstandings as to wages, or duties. Make two copies exacily
alike and let each take one:
Know ALL MEN BY THESE PRESENTS:—That Edward lL. Brock-
way hereby agrees to enter the services of John Gray Kittle, for the
term of eight months, beginning April rst, 1896, as a general farm
laborer, and hereby agrees to do any work he may be called upon to do
in connection therewith, in the town of Schodack, Rensselaer County,
State of New York.
In consideration of the above mentioned services, being faithfully and
well performed, the said John Gray Kittle agrees to pay the said Edward
I,. Brockway twenty dollars a month and board.
It is further agreed that should Edward L. Brockway leave the serv-
ices of the said John Gray Kittle before the annual summer harvest is
completed, without consent of said John Gray Kittle, or having just rea-
572 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
sons for so doing, then said Edward L. Brockway is to receive fifteen
dollars a month and board for the time while in the service of John
Gray Kittle, in place of the twenty dollars and board, as agreed.
IN WITNESS WHEREOF, the said parties have hereto set their hands
this 12th day of February, 1896.
EDWARD LL. BROCKWAY.
JOHN G. KITTLE.
Contract for Sale of Farm or House and Lot. Agreement
entered into this 12th day of February, 1896, between John S. Baker,
of the town of Stuyvesant, Columbia County, State of New York, party
of the first part, and John R. Steele, of the town of Schodack, Renssel-
aer County, State of New York, party of the second part, witnesseth:
That John S. Baker, party of the first part, for a consideration here-
inafter mentioned, shall sell and convey to John R. Steele, party of the
second part, all that part and parcel of land situated partly in the town
of Stuyvesant, Columbia County, State of New York, and partly in the
town of Schodack, Rensselaer County, State aforesaid, and described as
follows:
(Here describe the land to be conveyed according to last deed, or
other boundaries).
It is agreed that said party of the first part shall execute and deliver
to the said party of the second part a warranty deed, containing the
usual warrantee that the place is free and clear of all encumbrances other
than noted in said deed.
That said party of the second part, upon delivery of said deed duly
and legally executed, shall pay to said party of the first part the sum of
Twenty-five Thousand dollars, ($25,000).
It is further agreed that if any default is made in this agreement, or
any part thereof, the party making such default shall pay to the other
party to this contract the sum of five hundred dollars ($500.) It being
agreed that said amount shall constitute the damage to the party not
defaulting, in place of any or all other damages that may appear.
IN WITNESS WHEREOF, we have hereunto set our hands and affixed
our seals this 12th day of February, 1896.
JOHN S. BAKER. [L. s.]
JOHN R. STEELE. [.. s.]
WITNESS :
William D. Griffin.
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 573
Receipts. Itis always best to take a receipt for moneys paid or
goods delivered, and while a receipt is not always evidence of payment,
yet it throws the burden of proof upon the one who tries to deny its
truth.
Receipt for Money Paid on Account.
$50.00. ALBANY, N. Y., Feb. 12, 1896.
Received of George W. Witbeck, Fifty Dollars ($50), on account.
GARDNER MOREY.
Receipt in Full.
$300.00. ALBANY, N. Y., Feb. 12, 1896.
Received of Charles Hart, Three Hundred Dollars, in full for all
demands to date.
HENRY MURPHY.
Law Concerning Notes.
1. A signature written with a lead pencil is valid.
2. A note lost or destroyed can be collected upon sufficient proof.
3. If no time of payment is mentioned in a note, the note is payable
on demand.
A note is not transferrable if the words
not appear on the face.
‘
‘or order’’ or ‘‘or bearer’’ do
HOW TO DO BANKING BUSINESS.
Deposit Your Money. It is unsafe to keep money about the per-
son or house, on account of the liability of losing it from the pocket. The
house might take fire and destroy the money before it could be removed;
or the money may be stolen by thieves or robbers. It is therefore best
to deposit it in some safe bank that is near by. The money can then be
drawn out by checks made payable to the order of the person to whom
the money is to be paid, and as that person has to put his name on the
back of the check, it is good evidence that the money has been received.
Pay Bills by Checks. It isa good practice to pay all bills by
checks because :
1. The amount paid is always specified in the check.
2. The party receiving the check can not claim that the money has
not. been paid.
3. The check coming back through the bank, endorsed, is evidence
574 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
that the money has been received by the person to whose order the
check was drawn. ,
It is always best to deposit put your money in the bank and check
against it. This will show the amount of money handled during the
year, and often times be a check upon expenditures.
Never make a check payable to bearer, for in that case it is not neces-
sary for the party receiving it to put his name on the back, and if lost,
it can be collected by any one into whose hands it falls.
A check is a.very handy way of sending money in letters. If made
payable to the order of the person to whom the money is sent, it can not
be collected by any one else, even though stolen from the letter.
If dealing witha firm, with which you have no acquaintance, it is
often well to have the cashier of the bank certify the check, before it is
sent. This is done by the cashier writing across the face the word ‘‘cer-
tified’’ and signing his name as ‘‘cashier’’ of the bank.
How to Endorse Checks. Endorsing checks is done by writing
your name on the back. This is properly done by signing the name
across the top about one and one-half inches from the end. This is the
left end as the check lays with its face toward you.
Promissory Note. Occasionally it is necessary or convenient to
ask for time for the payment of a bill, and there is given a Promissory
Note, (promise to pay at some specified time). It is generally written
in the following form:
$100. ALBANY, N. Y., Feb. 12, 1896.
Three months after date I promise to pay to Peter J. Murphy, or
order One Hundred Dollars, at the Albany Commercial Bank, for value
received.
THOMAS A. BURNS.
NATURALIZATION PAPERS.
Declaration of Intention. An alien must make a declaration
under oath, of intention of becoming a citizen of the United States, be-
fore a circuit or district court of the United States, or a court of record
of any of the States.
This Declaration of Intention may be taken at any time, even as soon
as landed, but the time of residence in the country before becoming a
citizen must be five years. Before taking the oath of allegiance whick
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 575
will make him a citizen, the Declaration must have been made two years
before.
Oath of Allegiance. This can be taken after five years residence
in the United States, provided the-Declaration of Intention has been
taken at least two years before.
Exceptions. The following exceptions lessen the time of residence
to become a citizen, and also changes the manner of becoming a citizen.
1. A alien who has served in the United States army and been honor-
ably discharged, may become a citizen without declaration of intention,
provided he has resided in the United States one year.
2. An alien whocame to the United States under eighteen years of age
can become a citizen after being here five years by only taking one oath,
and that is the oath of allegiance.
3. Aliens who become citizens make all their children citizens, who
are under the age of twenty-one at the time of their becoming citizens,
provided they are dwelling in the United States at the time of their par-
ents’ naturalization. All over twenty-one and those living in a foreign
country, must take the general course of naturalization.
NotTE—lIt is not generally known that women are obliged to take the
same steps to become citizens as men. ‘They are, however, made
citizens upon the naturalization of their husbands, or upon marrying a
citizen.
PRINCIPAL AND AGENT.
Definition. ‘‘An agent is one who acts for, in the name, and by the
authority of another, who is called the principal.
Theory. The theory of the law is that whatever business a man
may do for himself, he may employ another to do for him; and what-
ever is done for him by his authority, is to be held the same as though
he did it himself.
Extent. When we consider the fact, that every clerk, laborer, or
employee, is the agent of the one who employs him, we see how impos-
sible it would be to conduct business without the medium of agency.
There are in the employ of the New York Central and Hudson River
Railroads some fifteen thousand persons; each one of whom is an agent
of the company.
How long could Vanderbilt run his great railroad if himself compelled
576 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
to drive the engine or handle the brake? Thus we see how each busi-
ness and every enterprise needs its controlling, its guiding mind, which
works through others.
How Established. Anagency may be established by a person
permitting another to hold himself out to the world as his agent, by a
verbal agreement or by written contract; as little form is necessary to
employ an agent, as to hire a common day laborer. But when the agent
is to have authority to execute a sealed instrument, as for the convey-
ance of real estate, his authority must be given under seal. An agency
is also often implied from the course of business; as for instance, a son
who sells goods in his father’s store, or receives payment of bills due
him with his knowledge and without objection, is the agent of the
father, and may bind him in subsequent transactions of the same nature.
Principal. The princrpar is the person for whom the business is
to be transacted. Generally every person of legal age and competent to
contract, may act as principal. The principal and not the AGENT is
bound by the agent’s acts, so long as the agent does not EXCEED the
authority given him.
Liability of Principal to Third Parties. When an agent acts
within the limits of his authority, the principal is liable to third persons,
the same as though he transacted the business himself. If the agent
violates the instructions given by the principal, the person with whom
he is dealing being ignorant of the fact, or if the agent makes a fraudu-
lent representation, the principal will be held liable. The principle of
the law is that ‘‘when one or two innocent persons must suffer, the one
should sustain the loss who has put it in the power of the wrong-doer to
commit the wrong,’’ but in cases of special agency the agent could not
bind his principal to exceed his special authority.
If an agent is pursuing the business of his agency, and by his negli-
gence or unskillfulness injures another, the principal and not the agent
is liable; for instance, suppose you are riding on an express train from
Albany to New York, you are rushing along with speed that rivals the
wind; a careless engineer has his engine standing upon the track of your
train, when it ought to have been somewhere else; you go crashing into
it, there is a wreck, and you are pulled from the debris only to find your-
self a cripple for life. What do you do? Bring action for damages
against the engineer, who is the agent of the railroad company, or do
you say to the company itself, I have been injured through the careless-
ness of your agent, and to you I look for damages.
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 577
Should the act of the agent be willful, the agent, and not the princi-
pal, is liable; to illustrate, I am passing along the street in my carriage
and your servant willfully drives against me, the servant alone is liable.
But had the act been one of carelessness you, the principal, would
be liable.
The Principal is Liable to the Agent for damages sustained
by the agent, without his own default, in following the directions of
his principal.
Duties of Agent to Principal. The first duty of every agent is
to obey instructions. In cases of extreme necessity the agent may be
excused for disobedience of orders; neither is he bound to obey when
told to do an illegal or immoral act.
An agent must transact all business in the name of his principal, or he
will be personally liable.
Au agent must not mix his property with that of the principal, so as
to make it impossible to distinguish one from the other.
Commission Merchants. A commission merchant is one who
sells goods for another, receiving as compensation, a certain percentage
on the sales, called commission. ‘The commission merchant very seldom
discloses the name of his principal. He has actual possession of the
goods to be sold; and is bound to take good and proper care of them,
such as he would take of his own property of a similar nature.
In the sale of goods the commission merchant should observe the in-
structions of the person sending the goods to be sold; but when he
receives no instructions, must use his utmost skill and knowledge, and
sell for the best prices.
It is a common practice for commission merchants to advance money
upon goods consigned to them. In such cases they have a lien upon
them for all cash advanced, and for expenses and commissions. ‘‘A
lien on personal property is a right to hold it against the owner;’’ that
is, the owner can not take away his goods until he has paid the charges
against them. The commission merchant may sell the goods in his pos-
session in order to satisfy his claim, but must pay over the surplus to the
owner.”’
Note.—1. Aseller of goods who accepts, at the time of sale, the note of
a third party, not endorsed by the buyer, in payment, can not in case
the note is not paid, hold the buyer responsible for the value of the goods.
2, An agreement by the holder of a note to give the principal debtor
time for payment, does not discharge the surety.
SPECIAL LAWS.
BY
Hon. F. R. GILBERT.
LAWS RELATING TO RIGHTS AND OBLIGATIONS ARISING FROM OWNER
SHIP, CONTROL AND CUSTODY OF DOMESTIC AND OTHER ANIMALS,
AND OTHER LAWS OF SPECIAL INTEREST TO LAND AND ANIMAL
OWNERS.
MAN may have an absolute property in domestic animals,
which is not lost by accident or the interference of others.
As to wild animals, they belong to anyone, so long as they
remain in their wild state, but when captured and brought
ander the control of the capturer, so that they cannot escape, they
become the property of the one who captured them.
The most obvious distinction which the law regards is that between
such animals as are generally seen tame and seldom, if ‘ever, found
wandering at large, and such as are usually found wild, and at liberty,
Deer in a private park; doves in a dove house; and fish in a private
pond or tank, are property while they continue in actual possession.
If a deer or any other wild animal which is reclaimed has a collar or
other mark put upon it, and goes and returns at its pleasure, the
owner’s property still continues. (Amory v. Flynn, ro Johns. 102.)
The true point of inquiry in such cases is whether the reclaimed
animal has lost all intention or disposition to return, and if it has, it
may then be said to have regained its natural liberty.
A qualified property may also exist with relation to wild animals by
reason of their inability to remove from the land where they are, as in
the case of young birds which are hatched in nests in a man’s trees,
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 579
“A qualified property in wild animals may be obtained by a person
so confining them that they cannot escape and regain their natural
liberty.’’ (2 Blackstone’s Commentaries, 391.)
Property in this class of animals is acquired only by possession.
Mere pursuit is not sufficient to constitute such possession, though the
animal be kept in sight, the pursuer must, by wounding or securing the
animal, or otherwise, have deprived it of its natural liberty, and
brought it within his control.
Thus, where N. wounded a deer and followed the track until night
and resumed the pursuit in the morning, but the deer, after running,
six miles with N.’s dog in chase, was killed by B. /e/d, that it had
not been deprived of its natural liberty so as to give N. any property
In it.
So, wild fowl which have been tamed, are subjects of property, not-
withstanding they are temporarily astray, if they have not regained
their natural liberty as wild.
So, bees are regarded as animals fer@ nature, but when hived and
reclaimed, a qualified property may be acquired in them. But merely
marking the tree in which bees are found does not reclaim the bees,
nor vest any property in the finder. Wild bees on a tree belong to the
owner of the soil, who may license another to take them, and bees
escaping from a hive and swarming on the land of another do not
belong to the owner of the soil on which they have swarmed, but to
him who had the former possession; but he cannot enter upon the land
of another to take them, without subjecting himself to an action of
trespass unless he has the owner’s permission to do so.
In the case of domestic animals and reclaimed wild animals the
owner has the right to use any of the remedies which the law provides
for the recovery of personal property illegally taken or detained from
the owner. So, the owner of such an animal has a right of action for
damages if one should, either intentionally or negligently, injure,
maim or kill such an animal.
Not only the owner, but one who is in possession of an animal under
an arrangement that renders him accountable for it, or for injury to it,
may sue to recover for any loss or injury done the property while it is
in his possession. In such a case the person in possession is treated
as the owner, and is entitled to all the rights of an owner.
So the owner may recover for accidental or intentional injuries, as
where a dog, followed by his master, was pursuing a fox, and was acci-
580 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
dentally shot by another party who claimed to have shot at the fox,
but accidentally killed the dog, the owner was entitled to damages.
(Wright v. Clark, 50 Vermont, 130.)
Where a hog trespassed on the premises of a neighbor of the owner
and injured his crops, and was pursued by the neighbor and his dog
and killed, the owner of the hog was held to be entitled to damages for
such killing. (Thompson v. State, 67 Ala. 106.)
Where animals when trespassing are killed in a wanton, malicious
and deliberate way, exemplary damages may be recovered.
Injuries inflicted upon animals by negligence entitles the owner to an
action for damages against the one who inflicts the injury, as, where
the owner of a quantity of hay spills some white lead paint upon it, and
tried to separate the damaged part, and thought he had succeeded,
when he sold the undamaged part without giving notice of the fact to
the purchaser whose cows died in consequence of eating thereof.
(French v. Vining, 102 Mass. 132.)
Nor has a party the right to entice by food, voice or other means,
any domestic or reclaimed animal away from the possession of the
owner and bring it under his control. For such conduct the owner has
an action for the value of the animal so obtained, and the party com-
mitting the wrong may be prosecuted criminally for larceny.
In many of the States the registered cattle brand is prima facie
proof of ownership, and, therefore, any wrongful marking or branding
of cattle with intent to defraud isa conversion of the cattle, and indict-
able. But the intent to defraud must be shown, and it is not sufficient
that the owner does not consent.
The offense of altering a brand on cattle may be committed by
merely clipping the hair of the original brand. Putting a brand on an
animal additional to the one already on it is an alteration of the brand
first put on, although the latter brand may not interfere with or change
the form of the first one, and the owner will be entitled to an action.
An unlawful branding of a colt, the owner of which is unknown, is
indictable.
For cases of changing brands or false marking, see DeGarca v. Gal-
vin, 55 Texas, 53; Allen v. State, 42 Texas, s17; Fossett v. State, 11
Texas, App. 40; and Morgan y. State, 13 Fla. 671.
Hiring a horse to travel a certain distance, and driving the horse a
greater distance, or to another place than the one agreed upon is such
a conversion of the horse that an action will lie by the owner.
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 581
Where a horse is driven a greater distance than that for which it was
hired, the owner may ratify the wrongful act by accepting compensa-
tion for the extra distance traveled.
In relation to injuries of persons or property by domestic animals,
the following propositions are sustained by the courts of most of the
States:
The owners of domestic animals are generally not liable for the
injuries they may do to property or persons of others, so long as they
are rightfully in the place where it is alleged that the injury or mischief
was done, unless it be shown that the particular animal doing the injury
was vicious and was accustomed to do, or had an inclination to do the
mischief complained of, and that these facts were known to the owner
of the animal before the injury occurred. It is not absolutely necessary
to prove actual or positive knowledge on the part of the owner in or-
der to establish liability, but if the owner has seen or heard facts relating
to the viciousness of the animal which would ordinarily satisfy a man
of prudence and caution, that the animal was liable to do mischief of
the character complained of, it would place him under. obligation to
secure the animal in such a manner as to prevent the injury, and he
would be liable if he did not so secure it.
The rule is different with reference to vicious, wild animals which
have been tamed, such as lions, tigers, and the like, for he who keeps
them is liable without notice on the ground that such animals are
fierce and dangerous by nature.
The owner or keeper of animals viciously disposed or of mischievous
habits, of which the owner had previous actual or implied notice, is
bound at his peril to keep them at all times, and in all cases, properly
secured, and is responsible to anyone who, without fault on his part, is
injured by them. (105 Mass. 71; 106 Mass. 381; 65 N. Y. 54.)
At common law the rule is that every man is bound to keep his ani-
mals within his inclosure at his peril, and that he is liable in damages if
he fails to do so, and they escape to the property of others and do
injury, whether such property be fenced or not; unless the trespass is
committed upon property through defects in fences, which the owner
of such property is bound to maintain.
Every unauthorized entry by animals upon the land of another isa
trespass, whether the land be enclosed or not.
If domestic animals are wrongfully in the place where they do mis-
chief, the owner is liable, though he had no notice that they were accus-
582 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
tomed to do so before. As where oxen break the plaintiff’s close and
kill his cow, the owner of the oxen will be liable to damages, without
proof that he knew they were accustomed to gore.
Adjoining owners and occupants of lands are each required to main-
tain their portion of the division fence, and where injuries are occa-
sioned by domestic animals escaping through defects in that portion of
the fence that the complaining party was under obligation to maintain,
he cannot recover for such injury. Indeed, he may be liable for
injuries which may have resulted to the animals thus escaping, if shown
to be the proximate result of his negligence.
Where there is no division fence, each owner or occupant must keep
his animals upon his own side of the line. Where there is a division
fence and it is divided, each adjoining owner must see to it that his
part of the fence is suitably maintained. Where there is no division of
the line fence, and either party refuses to make a division, then the
law in the various States provides a summary method for a compulsory
division of the fence, and when thus divided, the parties may be com-
pelled to build and maintain it.
THE KEEPING OF DOGS.
Perhaps there is no species of domestic animals in relation to which
controversies more frequently arise than in relation to dogs. The fol-
lowing propositions may be regarded as settled by the courts:
An owner of lands may drive off trespassing animals with dogs, and
will not be liable unless they are vicious and unnecessarily bite and
lacerate the animals. (Smith v. Waldorf, 13 Hun, 127.)
One keeping a vicious dog with knowledge of its propensities, is
responsible for injuries done by it. Negligence, in the ordinary sense,
is not an element of the cause of action. Nor is contributory negli-
gence a defense. To constitute a defense it must be established that
the injured person brought the injury on himself. (Lynch v. McNally,
73 N.Y. 347.)
A person who keeps upon his premises ferocious dogs, and is aware
of their dangerous and vicious propensities, is liable for injuries to a
stranger, not an intentional trespasser, even though they had never
before bitten anyone. (Rider v. White, 65 N. Y. 54.)
A servant may maintain an action against the master for injuries
received from his employer’s dogs, though informed of the dog’s vicious
disposition, where it had been the custom to tell the servant when the
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 583
dog was loose, for the servant assumes, on entering such employment,
only the risk consequent upon keeping such a dog which is fastened,
except when the servant is otherwise notified. He does not take the
risk of being bitten when the dog is negligently left unfastened.
(Muller v. McKesson, 73 N. Y. 195.)
The doctrine of the non-liability of the master to the servant for
injuries of a co-servant, cannot be invoked to shield the owner of a
ferocious animal for liabilities for injuries to the servant occasioned by
negligence of a fellow-servant in not properly fastening the animal, or
of not giving notice of the animal being loose. (Id.)
The owner of a ferocious animal is not relieved from liability for
injuries inflicted by it through slight negligence or want of ordinary
care on the part of the person injured. To constitute such a defense
acts must be proved, with notice of the character of the animal, estab-
lishing that the person injured voluntarily brought the injury on him-
self. (Id.)
Ordinary familiarities with a dog running alone by one without
knowledge of its disposition is not negligence which will relieve the
owner from responsibility. (Lynch v. McNally, 73 N. Y. 347.)
The owner of a dog known by him to be ferocious is liable, unless
the person injured voluntarily incurred the danger with a full knowl-
edge of its probable consequences. (Fanning v. Hagadorn, 9 Weekly
Digest, 36.) :
The owner of a vicious dog which is kept properly chained and under
restraint is not liable for injuries sustained by a person voluntarily
coming within its reach for the purpose of becoming familiar with it by
feeding. (Werner v. Winterbottam, 17 St. Reporter, 751.)
The fact that a dog was kept chained upon defendants’ premises for
their protection, charges the owner with knowledge of its character,
so that he is liable without proof that the animal had actually bitten
any person, before it committed the injury complained of. (Brice v.
Bauer, 108 N. Y. 428.)
The risk of harboring a dog which has habits calculated to frighten
horses lies upon the person who controls him, and and he is liable for
mischief caused thereby. (Putnam v. Wigg, 37 St. Reporter, 304.)
Where plaintiff went upon defendant’s premises to cut grass, given
to him by defendant’s manager for the cutting, and was bitten by
defendant’s dog, held that he was entitled to recover for the injury.
(Hubert v. Bedell, 50 St. Reporter, 251.)
584 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
Where a person keeps a dog for the purpose of guarding his prop-
erty, which is usualiy kept chained and muzzled, an inference of knowl-
edge of the propensity of the dog to bite and attack mankind, and of
negligence in allowing him to be at large, is proper. (Hahnke v. Fred-
erick, 140 N. Y. 224.)
At common law, the dog is considered a tame, harmless and docile
animal, and its owner not responsible for any vicious or mischievous
act he may do, unless he had a previous knowledge of mischievous or
vicious propensities of the dog.
By statute in New York, taxes are imposed on dogs in every county,
except New York, as follows:
‘* Upon every bitch owned or harbored by any one or more persons,
three dollars; for every additional bitch harbored by the same persons
or family, five dollars; upon every dog, other than a bitch, owned or
harbored by one or more persons, or any family, fifty cents; and upon
every additional dog owned or harbored by the same person or persons,
or family, two dollars.”’
The owners are required to deliver a description of the dogs to the
assessor, and for refusal are subject to a forfeit of five dollars.
The collector of each town is required to pay over the taxes collected
on dogs to the supervisor of the town, and the moneys so collected and
paid over shall constitute a town fund for paying damages arising in
said town by dogs killing sheep.
If any person whose dog is duly assessed shall refuse or neglect to
pay the tax assessed for five days after demand thereof, it is lawful for
any person to kill the dog so taxed.
Under the same statute it is provided, if any dog shall kill or wound
any sheep or lamb, the owner or possessor is liable for the value of
such sheep or lamb to the owner thereof, without proving notice to the
owner or possessor of such dog or knowledge by him, that his dog was
mischievous or disposed to kill sheep.
When such injury occurs, the owner of the sheep may apply to any
two fence viewers of the town, or assessors of the city, or of the ward
of the city, who may examine the facts relating to such injury, and if
satisfied that the injury was caused by dogs, they shall certify the
extent of the injury and the amount of damages sustained, and the
amount specified in such certificate shall be paid out of the fund above
mentioned.
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 585
With reference to the acts of other vicious animals, the following
propositions may be regarded as settled by the courts:
One letting a vicious horse to hire is bound to inform the hirer of its
vices.
In the absence of proof that the animal alleged to be vicious had
done mischief similar to that complained of, or was by habit or nature
of an ungovernable temper, or that the defendants had knowledge or
notice that the animal was unruly, or had done similar acts, the owner
is not liable, unless the vicious act occurred while the anmial was tres-
passing. (Moynehan v. Wheeler, 117 N. Y. 285.)
In an action for personal injuries to plaintiff, caused by his being
attacked by defendant’s bull which was trespassing on plaintiff's land,
the trial judge declined to charge that, if the animal was trespassing
on the land of the plaintiff, and while there trespassing did damage to
him, then, whether he was a vicious animal, or known to be so to the
defendant or not, the plaintiff is entitled to recover for the injury.
Held, that such refusal was error. (Malone v. Knowlton, 39 St.
Reporter, gor.)
A vicious domestic animal, if permitted to run at large, is a nuisance,
and a person who knowingly keeps or harbors it, and thus affords it a
place of refuge and protection, is liable for the maintenance of a
nuisance, and for the damages directly resulting from it. (Quilty v.
Battie, 135 N. Y. 201.)
This liability extends to the case of a married woman who permits
her husband to harbor a vicious dog upon the premises owned by her,
and octupied by her family, she having knowledge of its vicious pro-
pensities. (Id.)
So, the owner of a vicious horse held liable to a servant employed to
drive it, without notice of its vice, who is injured by a kick from the
horse. (Helmke v. Stetler, 69 Hun, 107.)
INCREASE OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
Of all tame and domestic animals, the brood belongs to the owner
of the dam or mother. (Stewart v. Wallace, 33 Missouri, 154; Han-
zen v. Millet, 55 Me. 184; Hazelbacker v. Goodfell, 64 Ill. 238.)
Put where a dam or mother is hired out for a limited time, the
increase belongs to the hirer, who, by hiring, becomes the temporary
owner of the animal. (Putnam v. Wyley, 8 Jobns. 432; Concklin v.
Havens, 12 Johns. 314.)
586 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
But a father who loans cows to a married daughter and retains the
title in himself, so as to prevent the cows from being sold by an intem-
perate husband, or his creditors, owns the increase. (Orser v. Storms,
g Cowen, 687.)
So, a mortgagee, under a mortgage upon live stock, is entitled to the
increase of the stock, and a purchaser of the increase takes it subject
to the mortgage. (Grundy v. Biteler,6 Il. App. 510; Kellogg v.
Lovely, 46 Mich. 131; Thorpe v. Coles, 55 Iowa, 408.)
A colt foaled while its dam is held under a bailment or executory
contract of purchase, by the terms of which the title is to remain in the
bailor or vendor until the agreed price is paid, is also subject to the
terms of the contract. (Elmore v. Fitzpatrick, 56 Alabama, 400.)
CRUELTY TO ANIMALS.
In various States statutes have been enacted for the prevention of
cruelty to animals. These statutes are so far similar that a general
statement of their provisions is sufficient.
If any persons shall overdrive, overload, torture, torment, deprive of
necessary sustenance, or unnecessarily or cruelly beat, or needlessly
mutilate or kill, or cause or procure to be overdrawn, overloaded, tor-
tured, tormented, or deprived of necessary sustenance, or by unmerci-
fully or cruelly beating, or needlessly mutilated or killed, as aforesaid,
any domestic animal, every such offender shall, for every such offense,
be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, (State v. Gould, 26 W. Va. 258.)
Abandonment of a disabled animal; carrying animals in a cruel man-
ner; transporting animals for more than twenty-four consecutive hours
without unloading for rest; failing to water and feed them during ten
consecutive hours; poisoning or attempting to poison animals; throw-
ing substances injurious to animals, as glass and nails, willfully and
maliciously, in a public place, setting on foot fights between birds and
animals, and keeping a place where animals are fought, are generally
made misdemeanors. Also slaughtering with unnecessary cruelty.
By the Penal Code of the State of New York, it is made a misde-
meanor to overdrive any animal; failing to provide proper sustenance;
abandonment of a disabled animal; failure to provide food and drink to
impounded animals; selling or offering to sell or exposing for sale dis-
abled animals; carrying animals in a cruel manner; wantonly poison-
ing an animal; throwing substances injurious to animals in public
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 587
places; keeping milk cows in unhealthy places, and feeding them with
food producing unwholesome milk; running horses on highways, etc.
A person has no right to kill trespassing animals. He must resort
to his legal remedy of impounding them, or bringing an action for
damages, and it is unlawful to entice a neighbor’s animals into danger
by setting traps baited with strong scented meat, or resorting to any
other contrivance by which they might be injured or destroyed.
DISEASED CATTLE.
It is not unlawful for the owner of cattle affected with a contagious
disease to keep them on his own premises, and he will not be liable if
the disease is communicated to other cattle on adjoining lots, if he,
while knowing of the diseased condition of the cattle, is not negligent
in the manner of keeping them. And it has been held, even if he
keeps them on a portion of his property not enclosed where other
cattle also have a right to come, he will not be guilty of, negligence if
he gives the owners of such other cattle notice of the diseased condi-
tion of his cattle. (Walker v. Herron, 22 Texas, 55.)
This rule does not hold good in Illinois. (Mount v. Hunter, 58 Ill.
246; Herrick v. Gray, 83 Ill. 85.)
In case of trespass by diseased cattle, in consequence of which the
disease is communicated to others, the owner will be liable if he is
unaware of the diseased state of his cattle. (Barnum v. VanDusen,
16 Conn. 200.)
Where defendant allowed diseased sheep to escape through a defect
in his part of the fence, and to communicate the disease to plaintiff’s
sheep, he will be liable, and the fact that the disease had been pre-
viously communicated to his sheep by one of plaintiff’s sheep, will not
avail him. (Herrick v. Gray, 83 Ill. 85, supra.)
The owner of animals affected with a contagious disease has no
right to bring them in contact with other animals, as to water them at
a public tank used by sound animals of other owners, or to bring a
glandered horse upon a farm of another who has a sound horse there.
If by any such means the disease should be communicated, he will be
liable in damages. (Mills v. N. Y. etc. R. Co., 2 Rob. 326; Hite v.
Blandford, 45 Ill. 9.)
The sale of diseased animals, where the vendor knows of the pres-
ence of the disease, and fails to communicate his knowledge to the
purchaser, the vendor is liable for all damages resulting from the
588 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
spread of the disease among the purchaser’s cattle. It must be shown,
however, that the damage was the direct result from the diseased
cattle and not from some remote cause.
The owners of strayed horses and cattle are liable in damages for
injuries done by them, if they are at large by reason of the owner's
negligence.
The owner of animals is bound to bring to the notice of those deal-
ing with his animals, as bailees for hire, farriers, agisters, keepers of
boarding stables, etc., any vicious trick or habit the animals may have,
as biting and kicking of horses; horning of cattle; biting of dogs; else
he will be liable for any injury inflicted upon such persons in conse-
quence of such vicious habits.
But this does not extend to injuries inflicted in consequence of habits
which are not dangerous fer se, as when a horse is in the habit of pull-
ing back on the halter when restless.
In letting a horse the owner impliedly undertakes that the animal
shall be capable of performing the journey for which he is let, and if
without fault of the hirer, the horse becomes disabled by lameness or
sickness, any expense the hirer may incur thereby is a valid claim
against the owner.
One who loans horses is not responsible to a third party for damages
done by reckless driving, or through negligence of a hirer or borrower,
otherwise than when he entrusts his wagon and horse to an obviously
incompetent person.
One who hires a horse is bound to only ordinary care in using it, and
if he uses such care he will not be liable if the horse, during such
reasonable use, is lamed or injured. But if he hires a horse for a
definite period, and uses it after the time has expired, he will be liable
for any injury it may receive during such extra use, and the same prin-
ciple will apply if he drives it beyond the distance agreed upon. The
horse must be used for the purpose it was hired, and for no other.
Where one hires a horse and receives special instructions from the
owner about its use, he must comply with the instructions, or he will
be liable for loss occasioned by disregarding them.
A bailee of animals for hire is bound to exercise that degree of care
and prudence that a prudent man would exercise over his own property,
Animals may be destroyed where it is found necessary to protect ¢
person and in some instances where it is necessary for the preservation
of property (Aldrich v. Wright, 53 New Ham. 398.)
~-" LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 589
Where several animals belonging to several owners unite in doing
mischief, the owners cannot be legally joined in a single action for the
mischief, because each owner is liable for the acts of his own animal,
and not for injuries caused by the animals of others. (Van Steenburgh
v. Tobias, 17 Wendell, 562.)
Chief Justice Swift, in the case of Russell v. Thompson, 2 Conn.
206, states the rule to be: ‘‘ Where two dogs belonging to different
owners made a raid upon a flock of sheep, the owners are responsible
Yor the mischief done by their dogs, but no man is liable for the mis-
chief done by the dog of another, unless he had some agency in caus-
ing the dog to do it. When the dogs of several persons do mischief,
each person is only liable for the mischief done by his own dog, and it
would be repugnant to the plainest principles of justice to say that
dogs of different owners, by joining in doing mischief, could make the
owners jointly liable. This would be giving them a power of agency
which no animal was ever supposed to possess.”’
Under the statutes of some of the States, the several owners of dogs
which unite in doing injury are jointly liable for the injury done.
In Pennsylvania each owner is answerable for the whole damage done
in which his dog is jointly engaged. (Kerr v. O’Connor, 63 Pa. St. 341.)
In New York the owner is responsible for the injury done by his own
dog. (See Auchmuty v. Ham, 1 Denio, 485.) So, where cows belong-
ing to several owners are found in a garden of an individual, commit-
ting a trespass, each owner is liable for the damage done by his own
cow, and forno more. (Partenheimer v. Van Orden, 20 Barb. 479.)
And in the absence of all proof as to the amount of damage done by
each cow, the law will infer that the cattle did equal damage. (Id.)
WARRANTY OF THE SOUNDNESS OF ANIMALS.
What constitutes soundness.
Local custom and usage, as well as circumstances of each case,
determine the meaning of the word sound, when it is applied to the
sale and warranty of horses, sheep and cattle.
The general rule implies the absence of any disease in the animal at
the time which actually decreases its value or its natural usefulness.
There is a great difference, however, among judges as to what consti-
tutes a breach of warranty of soundness, whether the disease must be
temporary or permanent in its nature.
590 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
Some of our States follow the English rule, which seems logical and
reasonable, and that is: Any infirmity which renders an animal unfit
in any degree for present use, is unsoundness. In the case of Elton v.
Brogden, 4 Camp. 281, it was proved that the horse was lame at the
time of the sale, but the defendant undertook to prove that the lame-
ness was of a temporary nature, and that the animal had become
sound. The presiding justice said: ‘‘I have always held, and hold
now, that a warranty of soundness is broken if the animal at the time
of sale had any infirmity upon him which rendered him less fit for pres-
ent service. It is not necessary that the disorder should be permanent
or incurable. While a horse has a cough he is unsound, whether that
proves temporary or mortal. The horse in question having been lame
at the time of sale, when he was warranted sound, his condition subse-
quently is no defense to the action.”
This doctrine has long been followed in Massachusetts and some of
the other States. In Brown v. Bigelow, 10 Allen, 242, it was held that
the bill of sale of one horse, sound and kind, is a guaranty of sound-
ness, upon which the person who sold the horse is liable if the horse
prove to be permanently lame, although the purchaser knew he was
lame before he purchased the animal, and the seller then refuses to
give a warranty. The chief justice said: ‘‘ The doctrine that the
warranty of soundness does not include or cover obvious defects, rests
on the reasonable presumption that the parties could not have intended
the warranty to apply to the defect rendering the horse unsound, which
was seen and known to both parties at the time of the sale, but here
the appearance of the horse did not disclose actual unsoundness, the
unsoundness was not apparent. Jameness may or may not make a
horse unsound. If it was only accidental and temporary, it would not
bea breach of warranty, or if it was permanent, arising from causes which
were beyond the reach of immediate remedies, it would be clearly a case
of unsoundness. The reasonable inference is that the warranty was
intended to guard against the liability of loss, in the event that the
lameness proved permanent and serious.’’ In N. H., Judge Woods, in
Roberts v. Jenkins, 21 N. H. 116, said: ‘‘If the horse be afflicted
with an infirmity which renders him less fit for immediate use than he
otherwise would be, less able to perform the proper and ordinary labor
of the horse, it would seem but reasonable that it should be regarded
as an unsoundness, if the party selling the horse warranted its sound-
ness, he should be held responsible. Such an infirmity may well be
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 591
supposed to be the occasion of damages to the purchaser. The in
tention and understanding of the parties to the warranty was, in such
as well as in other contracts, as to their construction, is in the use
of the horse that its value principally consists. It may well be pre-
sumed then that when a horse is purchased that he is purshased for
service, and it is with reference to his ability and fitness for service that
the guarantee for soundness would be required, and given. We can see
no reason for supposing that the future fitness or usefulness of the
horse would be likely to be more an object of solicitude on the part of
the purchaser than its present fitness, and when we consider the subject
matter of such a guarantee we can see no reason to suppose that in
such cases the purchaser would not require a general warranty of sound-
ness. That at the time of the sale the animal is laboring under no dis-
ease or injury which at that time or afterwards does or will diminish
his natural or ordinary usefulness or fitness for service.
h
WHAT CONSTITUTES A WARRANTY.
It is not necessary that any particular form of words should be used
to create a warranty. The word “‘ warrant’’ may not be used at all,
nor the word soundness. Thus: The seller of the horse who says he
is all right in every respect, or similar words, indicates and expresses a
warranty. A statement at time of sale of the horse that the animal is
of specified age, is a warranty that he is no older. But any statement
that he is sound and right or sound and perfect will include a war-
ranty. ‘The statement that a horse is well broken might or might not
include a warranty of gentleness, and the statement that a horse is
sound every way, perfectly gentle, would not be a guaranty that the
horse is well broken or suitable to plow or do any other particular work.
The warranty should not be construed beyond its reasonable signifi-
cation, thus: A bill of sale of one gray horse, five years old, which I
warrant sound and kind, is a warranty of soundness and kindness only,
and the first expression is a matter of description. Generally the mere
affirmation that the horse is sound when exposed to sale and the pur-
chaser’s inspection, is not a warranty unless it is so intended by the
parties, and care should be taken to have the matter properly under-
stood; thus, in reply to the question as to the soundness of the horse,
the reply is, I think the horse is sound, it does not mean a guarantee,
nor the statement that the horse’s eye is as good as any horse’s eye in
592 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
the world. The statement by the seller of a horse, ‘‘ that it is sound
to the best of my knowledge,’’ is not a warranty; nor bill of sale in
which a horse is described, ‘‘ as considered sound,’’ but the statement
that the horse is not lame, accompanied by the statement of the
owner, that, ‘‘I would not be afraid to warrant him, was held to be
enough to establish a warranty. (Quintard v. Newton, 5 Robertson,
N. Y. 72.) If the horse is purchased for a particular purpose, and the
seller knows of that particular purpose, and declares that the horse is
all right, such a statement would amount to a warranty.
Any affirmation of an existing fact distinctly and positively made in
negotiations for trade is deemed a warranty. (Sweet v. Bradley, 24
Barb. 549.)
Any representation of the thing sold, as a direct and express affirma-
tion by the vendor of its quality and condition, may amount to a war-
ranty. (Chapman v. Murch, 19 Johns. 290.)
But to constitute a warranty, it is essential that the affirmation at
the time of sale should be intended for the party as a warranty, other-
wise it is only a matter of opinion. (Sweet v. Colgate, 20 Johns. 196,
but see Hawkins v. Pemberton, 51 N. Y. 198.)
A statement merely descriptive of the quality of the article does na
amount toa warranty. (Greenthal v. Schneider, 52 How. Pr. 133.)
DEFECTS COVERED BY GENERAL WARRANTY.
In Vermont a farmer purchased a number of sheep, and the seller
warranted the sheep sound and free from footrot; on the next day
when the farmer went to pay for them, he discovered they were un-
sound, and the seller repeated his statements. It was held that the
two interviews constituted one trade and one warranty. Judge Wilson,
in deciding the case said: ‘‘ It seems to me now well settled, that the
rule of law which exempts a seller from liability upon a general war-
ranty of soundness, where the defect is plainly visible and obvious to
the senses, is not a question as to the apparent defect but power to
understand the true nature and extent of which requires the aid
of skill and judgment, nor is the rule applicable to the case where
the seller has resorted to any means of representation in respect to the
property intended or naturally calculated to throw the purchaser off
his guard and induce him to omit such thorough examination of the
condition of the property as he might, and very likely would have
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 593
made, if he had relied solely upon his own judgment in making the
purchase. But the warranty may be so worded as to protect the pur-
chaser against all consequences growing out of even an obvious defect.
Thus: A farmer may bargain for a horse known to him to be afflicted
in some way, but the seller agrees to deliver the horse at the end of ten
days, free from blemish. It was held in that case that the warranty
included the defect above mentioned. (Liddard v. Kain, 2 Bing. 183.)
A general warranty of soundness does not extend to visible defects.
This rule, however, does not extend to a visible defect, which could
not be discerned by the ordinary observer, and where skill is required
in its detection. (Birdseye v. Frost, 34 Barb. 367.)
Nor does a general warranty cover defects of which the purchaser
had notice at the time of the agreement of purchase or acceptance of
the property. (Hinton v. Wilson, 22 Weekly Digest, go.)
A vendor of personal property is not liable for latent defects known
to him, but unknown to the purchaser, unless he has used some artifice
to deceive the purchaser in regard to such defects, or has warranted
the article. (McDonald v. Christie, 42 Barb. 36.)
Where an article is warranted as fit for certain purposes, the seller is
liable for the injury sustained by the vendee in consequence of its
unfitness. (Milburn v. Belloni, 39 N. Y. 53.)
But a warranty of the fitness of an article for a specific purpose will
not be implied from a knowledge on the part of the vender that it is
intended for such purpose. (Bartlett v. Hoppock, 34 N. Y. 118.)
On the sale of an article known to be intended for food, there is an
implied warranty that it is sound, wholesome and fit to be used as an
article of food. (Burch v. Spencer, 15 Hun, 504.)
In every sale of a personal chattel, there is an implied warranty of
title. (Carman v. Trude, 25 How. Pr. 440.)
A sound price does not imply a warranty of soundness. (Hotchkiss
vy. Gage, 26 Barb. 141.)
And this implied warranty of title extends to prior liens and incum-
brances. (Dresser v. Ainsworth, 9 Barb. 619.)
This implied warranty of title does not extend to a case where the
chattel is not in the possession of the vendor at the time of the sale,
(Scranton v. Clark, 39 N. Y. 220.) —
On the transfer of every negotiable security there is an implied war-
ranty that it is genuine, and not tainted with usury. (Herrick v.
Whitney, 15 Johns. 240; Meridan Nat. Bank v. Galludet, 120 N. Y. 298.)
504 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
DEFECTS WHICH CONSTITUTE UNSOUNDNESS
OF HORSES.
Glanders, corns, bone-spavins, blindness or any organic defect, back-
ing when a confirmed habit, biting when dangerous, crib-biting, affect-
ing the health, have been held by various courts to constitute
unsoundness. Bad fermation which does not produce disease or lame-
ness at the time of the sale is not usually considered unsoundness.
WATER RIGHTS.
Every owner of land upona natural stream of water has aright to use
the water for any reasonable purpose, if it does not interfere with
similar rights that are vested in the owners of land above, below or
beside him. He may take water to supply his dwelling or water his
land, or for the use of his cattle, may use it for manufacturing pur-
poses, such as running water wheels or supplying steam boilers, so
long as the amount taken does not injuriously affect the volume, but it
is the mere privilege that goes with the land and not the water itself.
If the stream is very small and does not supply water more than
enough to answer the natural wants of the different owners living on
the stream, no one of them can use the water for free irrigation or
manufacturing, thereby depriving the other owners of its use. But for
domestic purposes or for watering stock, he would be justified in con-
suming all the water. Chief Justice Shaw states the general doctrine
as follows: ‘‘ Every person through whose land a flowage of water
courses, such person has a right to the benefit of it, as it passes
through his land, to all useful purposes to which it may be applied, and
no proprietor of land on the same water-course has a right to prevent
it from flowing through his premises, or obstructing it in passing them,
or to curb or destroy it.”
DIVERSION OF WATER.
Every person who owns land situated upon a stream has the follow-
ing rights: First, to the natural flow of the stream; second, that the
stream should continue to run in the natural channel; third, that it
should flow upon his land in its usual quantity and its natural place;
fourth, that it should flow off his land upon the land of his neighbor in
its accustomed place and at its usual level. These rights he has and
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 595
Cannot be deprived of them, so the owner of property should not make
a change in the natural flow of the stream that would materially injure
any other owner situated upon it, or interfere with the stream flowing
as it is its wont to flow, or he will be responsible for the damage it
will occasion. Of course these rights are subject to the privilege of
each owner to make reasonable use of the water while it is passing
through his land. A diversion of the stream may be made by the
owner of the land if it is returned toits natural channel before it leaves
his premises.
DIveRsION OF WaTER BENEATH THE SuRFACE.—If the owner of
land, without any intention of injuring his neighbor, and while making
use of his land for any lawful purpose, cuts off hidden currents, though
he destroys altogether the use of water which has no visible course,
but has been accustomed to flow into the land of his neighbor, an
action cannot be maintained against him for the diversion or stoppage
of such water. He may, therefore, drain the land, dig a well, open
and work a mine, although by so doing he may cut off the supply of
water of the springs and wells in his vicinity. But where the course
of a stream is well known, and it leaves the surface at some point and
flows for adistance beneath the surface, then emerges again, the owner
of the land lower down upon the stream has the same right as he would
have if the stream remained entirely above ground.
MILL PRIVILEGES.
A person who has a natural stream of water flowing through his
land, has a right to use the water for mills, providing he does not cut
off the water from those living lower down the stream, and he is not
liable for an action for using and obstructing the water for his mill; for
which it appears that the dam is of the size that is adapted to the
capacity of the stream and quantity of water usually flowing therein,
and that his mode of using the water is not unusual or unreasonable,
and is in accordance with the general custom of the country in the
case of dams upon similar streams. In many of the States laws have
been passed encouraging the erection of mills by authorizing the owners
and occupants, through condemnation proceedings, to take land of other
persons by paying such damages as may be legally assessed.
596 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
CORRUPTION OF WATER.
Every owner of land through which a stream of water flows has a
right to the use of the water in its natural state, and is liable if he
renders the water unwholesome, or unfit for purposes for which it is
used, unless he has acquired by grant, or otherwise, an adverse right
against the lower or adjoining owner.
Erecting cess-pool or depositing manure, or obnoxious substance
near the stream would be such a wrong.
An action for damages is not the only remedy for the unlawful pol-
lution of a stream. The party thus wrongfully interfering may be
restrained by an order of any court having jurisdiction.
EASEMENT OF DRIP.
When a land owner places a house on the line of his lot, and eaves
project upon his neighbor’s land, as to throw the water from the roof
thereon, it is an encroachment upon the neighbor’s lot to the extent at
least of the projection. One adjoining owner cannot legally subject the
lands of the other adjoining owner to the drip from eaves of his building.
LAND BOUNDED ON NAVIGABLE AND UNNAVI-
GABLE WATERS.
The owners of land bounded on navigable rivers where the tide ebbs
and flows has a title to high-water mark. The land lying between high
and low-water mark belongs to the State as trustee of the public, but
in many of the States the deeds read to low-water mark. This point
is settled by the law in the various States, and is not common to ali,
but as to streams not navigable which run by the side ot a man’s farm,
the owner has title to the center of the stream. If the same person be
owner of the land on both sides of the stream, he owns the whole stream
to the extent of the length of his land upon it. But if by freshets the
stream suddenly changes, the owner over whose lands the new channel is
made, is entitled to the old boundary line as it existed before the freshet.
SURFACE WATER AND DRAINAGE.
The water which flows upon the surface of the land, not gathered in
ponds or streams of running water, is usually designated ‘‘ surface
water.’ It is somewhat difficult to distinguish between surface water,
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 597
as such, and running water, and perhaps the best way to distinguish it
is to ascertain what a running stream is. Where there is a channel or
canal which is made by a general contour of the surrounding land from
which the water is collected into one channel, it may be natural or
artificial, it flows, however, in a definite channel having a bed and sides,
and usually discharges itself into some other stream. The water need
not flow continuously therein, as there are many large rivers which are
sometimes dry, but they have a well-defined channel. The owner of
the land has a right to the surface water which runs in no definite
channel, and he may prevent its flow into a neighboring stream, thus:
If there are two fields adjoining each other, one lower than the other,
the owner of the upper field has a right to the water that flows on his
land; he need not let it flow off from the same on the land below.
The owner of the lower field, however, has no right to erect an embank-
ment to stop the water from the upper field flowing upon it, nor has the
owner of the upper field a right to divert the flow of water from its
natural channel and cause it to make a new channel on the lower
ground, nor can he collect into one large stream waters usually flowing
off into his neighbor’s fields by several streams, and thus increase the
rush upon the lower field. The law has always recognized a distinction
between the right of the owner to control the surface water which falls
or collects on his lands and his right to control water of a natural
water course; the owner of the land is admitted to have an absolute
property in the surface water before it leaves his land and becomes a
part of a definite water course and he may appropriate it to his own
use or get rid of it in any way possible, provided he does not collect it
and interfere with its flow as to injure adjoining owners.
EMPLOYER AND LABORER.
There is a difference in some respects between a person employed to
work upon a farm or as a domestic servant and a person employed to
work in afactory. The laws of the country have regulated the number
of hours per day for many kinds of labor, but between the former
laborer and the farmer the hours of labor rest wholly upon contract,
express Or implied. The laborer is bound to render the services and
the farmer to pay the price agreed upon or the value thereof, if no
arrangement is made as to the price. It is essential that the parties
have the legal capacity to make a contract, otherwise the contract
598 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
could not be enforced, thus: if a boy under age hires for a specified
time at a fixed price, he is not bound by his contract, but may abandon
it at any time, although he cannot recover on his contract, yet he can
recover what his services are actually worth, and that without any
deduction for damages for his breach of contract. If there is no fixed
period of employment agreed upon, the employer has the right to dis-
charge a laborer, and the laborer has the right to leave at any time.
If there is no special agreement as to the price, the employer must
pay a reasonable value for the services, depending on the current rate of
wages for similar services at the same time and place.
CONTRACTS FOR MoRE THAN A YEAR.—Contracts for services which
cannot be performed within a year, must, by the statute of frauds, be in
writing, in order to be legally binding. In Broadwell v. Getman,
2 Denio, N. Y. 87, it was held that where it was agreed orally in the
month of January to clear a piece of woodland and fence a part, one
portion in one year from the ensuing spring, when the party who
cleared the land was to put in the crop, which, with the wood and
timber he was to have for his compensation. It was held that the con-
tract was within the statute of frauds, and void, being an oral contract
which was not to be wholly performed within the year.
If an oral contract is made to employ a laborer for a year, and the
contract cannot be completed within the year, it is binding. But if the:
performance of such contract is to commence at some future day, it
cannot be enforced, yet it seems that an oral contract in which a laborer
was hired for the year, to begin the next day, is valid.
ENTICING A LABORER Away FROM His EMPLOYER.—W hen a person
is employed to labor on the farm or do any other work and the person
entices, hires or persuades the laborer to leave the services during the
time of employment, the person who employs the help has the right of
action for recovery of damages against the person who so enticed the
laborer away, and for all inconvenience and losses thereby suffered by
the employer. But attempting to entice a laborer away, unless damage
is sustained, is not actionable; nor can an action be sustained for
inducing a laborer to leave his employer’s service at the end of the
time for which he was hired, even though the laborer had no intention
of leaving.
ABANDONING SERVICE WITHOUT CausE.—When a laborer is hired
for a definite time, and before that time has expired he leaves without
cause, or the consent of the employer, the laborer cannot recover any
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 599
part of his wages, because the contract is entire and performance is a
condition precedent to a right of recovery. If a man agrees to work
a year for another for a specified price per month, and by the terms
of the agreement he is to be paid each month's wages at the end of
each month, he may sue for and recover his wages at the end of the
month.
ABANDONING SERVICE FOR Cause.—While a laborer has the right to
abandon service for cause, if the cause is sufficient to render the con-
tract voidable, he can collect his pay, yet he should not leave for trivial
causes.
If the employer is to furnish board and lodging to the laborer asa
part of his contract, and he is not furnished with sufficient or whole-
some food or suitable or comfortable lodgings, and the employer treats
him improperly by assaulting him, the laborer is justified in leaving.
If he is compelled to work on Sunday, other than to do the necessary
farm work, such as care of live animals, or the domestic servant in the
house to prepare the meals, and properly care for the milk, or any act
of the employer that is contrary to good morals, preventing reasonable
comfort, safety and health, or that would injure the reputation of the
laborer, would justify the employed to abandon the service. Harsh
language to the laborer and a difficulty with a co-laborer would not
justify the laborer in leaving. It is a question for the jury to decide
whether the laborer had a reasonable excuse for leaving the service,
and the burden of proof lays upon the laborer, who must establish the
fact. There are a great many instances in which the laborer is justi-
fied in leaving the employer, but they could not all be enumerated
here. In every case where there is a good cause the laborer may leave
and compel the farmer to pay for the time that he has actually worked.
FARMER LIABLE ON LABORER’S CONTRACT.—Any contract made by
the laborer in the course of his employment, about the farmer’s busi-
ness, is binding upon the farmer, provided it is within the scope of the
authority conferred or implied from the employer’s conduct. Thus: a
house-maid is engaged to work about the house, she is in the habit of
purchasing the family’s supplies, and she buvs such supplies in the
name of the farmer, the farmer is compelled to pay for them, and if the
laborer had no order to buy, or was in so buying defrauding her prin-
cipal, and obtaining goods for herself, provided this was or had been
the custom about the employer’s place. But if a man is employed in
farm work, and is not connected with the household work and has
600 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
never been permitted by the farmer to make any purchases, he could
not bind the farmer by going to the store and buying goods simply
because he was a laborer and pretending to have authority, or if he
only had the authority and has purchased goods at a certain place, the
employer will be bound by his acts, unless he notifies the parties from
whom he had formerly purchased that he will be no longer responsible,
yet the laborer who so purchased without the consent or directions of
his employer is criminally liable.
LIABILITY OF EMPLOYER FOR INJURY COMMITTED BY His EMPLOYEE.—
Where the employee is working within the scope of his employment,
even though the farmer does not authorize or even know a laborer’s
act, he will be held responsible for any injury accruing through the
negligence, fraud, deceit, or even willful misconduct of the laborer.
DISCHARGING FOR CausE.—Before the employer can discharge his la-
borer, there must be a sufficient cause to discharge the employer from
liability: for future wages, or justify the dismissal; there must be on the
part of the laborer either willful disobedience of the lawful orders, or im-
moral conduct or habitual negligence. To illustrate —an instance of the
first: If where a farmer ordered the laborer to go with his team a long
distance just as dinner was ready and he refused to go until after he had
had his dinner. But in most cases where the misconduct is slight and is
the first offense there is a strong tendency to excuse the laborer. Still,
willful disobedience of the lawful command, as well as insulting lan-
guage used by the laborer is usually considered good ground for dis-
charge. If the laborer is immoral or habitually drunk or embezzles or
commits fraudulent acts towards his employer, his dismissal would be
justifiable. Unwarranted absence or neglect in discharging his duties,
thereby causing injury or loss to his employer, would justify the same
course, even though the laborer did not intend to cause damage.
DisMIssING LaBorERs.—In this country it has been repeatedly held
that the employer must pay whatever the services were reasonably
worth up to the time of discharge.
LIABILITY OF THE LABORER TO THE FARMER FOR MisconpucT.—If
the laborer by negligence, carelessness or misconduct in doing the work,
or executing orders, causes loss to the employer, he must reimburse
the employer, or if a third person has recovered damages from the
employer because of the acts of the employee, he must also pay for
property willfully broken or damaged.
TERMINATION OF SERVICES.—The service that is dissolved at the
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 601
expiration of the term for which the person is hired, either by mutual
consent, by the death of either party, or by the employed being unable
to perform his duty on account of sickness or some permanent dis-
ability, the farmer must pay for the services rendered up to the time of
the termination of the services, and in case of death, personal represen-
tatives of the laborer are entitled to recover from the employer what
the services were reasonably worth.
BOUNDARIES AND FENCES.
Under the laws of all the States, every conveyance of land must be
in writing, and this conveyance should accurately describe the land
intended to be conveyed, so that its boundaries from the deed may be
correctly determined, and so clear and comprehensive that the parcel
conveyed may be distinguished and separated from all other land. If
the description is hopelessly uncertain, the conveyance will be void and
no title will pass. The boundaries are usually determined by monu-
ments, courses, distances and quantity of land conveyed. The monu-
ments will control courses and distances, and courses and distances
will control the quantity of land. This, however, is not the invariable
rule; natural monuments, naturally permanent, are the most reliable,
such as trees, streams, ponds, and lakes, beaches and shores, and also
walls, fences, streets and highways are regarded as reliable monuments.
Frequently an adjoining lot or farm is referred to as a monument in
the description of the land conveyed, and monuments consisting of
stakes and stones, when placed, will control courses and distances.
The general rule is where land is described as bounded by a stream
which is non-navigable the center of the stream is the line, and when
described and bounded on the bank or shore of the stream, then the
bank or shore is the boundary. If the stream is navigable, in which
the tide ebbs and flows, the boundary is high-water mark on the shore.
In those States in which there are large navigable rivers in which the
tide does not ebb and flow, the boundary line is held to be low water
mark; in either case the upland proprietor has a right as appurtenant
to his land to erect wharves and piers extending to low-water mark, or
into the channel of the stream, subject to the supervision of the gov-
ernment for the benefit of the public, and as an appurtenance to said
lands, the owner has the right to a passageway to and from the main
channel of the river. Lands bounded by arms of the sea run only to
602 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
high-water mark. Where land is bounded by a highway or street,
where the State or municipality does not own the bed of the road and
the description in the deed is ‘‘ bounded on,” ‘‘running along,”’
‘“‘ bounded by the highway,’’ and the like, the boundary line is the center
of the highway. If the land is described as bounded by the side of the
street, or if there are other words in the description indicating an
intent to exclude the soil of the street, then the near edge of the road-
way will be the boundary. Ifa highway is referred toas the boundary,
the actual line, as the road is laid out, will be taken as the true line of
the street.
Where the boundary lines are made certain, they control the distance,
directions and contents of the piece of land, unless there are discrepan-
cies in the deed so great as to show fraud on one part or the other, or
mistake. Parol evidence cannot be given to contradict a deed.
At the close of the description it is usual to add ‘‘ be the same more
or less,’’ which is intended to protect the grantor in case the land con-
veyed should be less than the quantity specified, but this will be no
protection where fraud or mistake can be shown with reference to the
quantity of land intended to be conveyed.
In the State of New York it is provided by statute that where two or
more persons have land adjoining, each of them shall make and main-
tain an equal proportion of the division fence between them. In ail
cases where such adjoining land shall be cleared or improved, or where
each of the said adjoining lands shall border upon any of the navigable
lakes, streams or rivers within this State, it is made the duty of the
owners thereof to maintain the division fence down to the line of the
low-water mark in such lakes, streams and rivers. And whenever such
adjoining lands, one-half or more of which is improved, shall be bounded
by or upon either bank of a stream of water, not navigable, the fence-
viewers of the town in which the same are situated, shall direct, when
required to do so by a party interested, upon which bank of such
stream, and where upon such bank, the div:sion fence shall be located,
and the portion thereof to be kept and maintained by each of such
adjoining owners.
If any person who is liable to contribute to the erection or repara-
tion of a division fence shall neglect or refuse to make and maintain his
proportion of such fence, or shall permit the same to be out of repair,
he will be liable to pay to the party injured all damages caused thereby,
and it is declared that he shall not be allowed to have and maintain any
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 603
action for damages resulting to his own lands, crops, fruit trees and
shrubbery thereon, caused by the cattle of the adjoining owners pass-
ing over or through such defective fence.
The law authorizes the electors of a town to declare by resolution
what shall be regarded as a lawful division fence. It is also provided
by the statutes of the State of New York that railroad corporations
and lessees of railroad corporations shall maintain fences on the sides
of the road of the height and strength of the division fences as
required by law, with openings and gates or bars therein, at the farm
crossings of such railroad for the use of the proprietors of the lands
adjoining such railroad, and shall also construct, where the same has
not already been done, and shall hereafter maintain cattle guards at all
crossings suitable and sufficient to prevent horses, cattle, sheep, and
hogs, from getting on to such railroad. So long as such fences are not
made or are not in good repair, the corporation or the lessees, or the
persons in the possession of the road, shall be liable for all damages
done by their agents or engines or cars to any domestic animal escaping
thereon because of such failure. When made and in good repair, they
shall not be liable for any such damages unless negligently or willfully
done.
A sufficient post and wire fence of requisite height shall be deemed
a lawful fence within the provisions of this section, but barbed wire
shall not be used in its construction.
Every adjoining land owner who, or whose grantor has received
compensation for fencing the land of land taken for a railroad, and has
agreed to build and maintain a lawful fence along such line, shall build
and maintain such fence. (Sec. 32, Chap. 565, Laws of 1890.)
OVERHANGING TREES.
A person owning a tree growing near a boundary line, though the
roots extend into the land of an adjoining owner and derive nourish-
ment therefrom, is the property of the owner of the land upon which
the trunk stands, and such owner is entitled to the fruit produced upon
the branches overhanging the adjoining lands. If force should be used
by the adjoining owner to prevent the owner of the tree from reaching
over and picking the fruit from the overhanging branches, he would have
aright of action against the party so interfering with him. Hoffman
y. Armstrong, 48 N. Y. 201, is a case where a lady whose father owned
604 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
some fruit trees stood upon the division fence and undertook to pick
some cherries from the limb of a tree which hung over a neighbor’s
land. The neighbor forbade her taking the cherries, but she con-
tinued picking them and he attempted to prevent her by force, and did
her a personal injury, for which she recovered a judgment of $1,000.
If it falls from the overhanging tree on to a neighbor’s land, it still
belongs to the owner of the tree, though he might be liable for trespass
in going upon a neighbor’s land to gather it. In such action the
recovery cannot include anything more than the actual injury to the
premises upon which the owner of the fruit entered without permission.
Branches overhanging the boundary line may be cut off up to the
line, but belong to the party who owns the tree, and the person cutting
them off, if he use them, will be obliged to pay such owner for them.
A tree standing upon a boundary line, so that part of its trunk is
upon each side of the line, belongs to the adjoining owners in common,
neither is at liberty to cut the tree without the consent of the other,
nor to cut away a part which extends into his land if by so doing he
injures the common property. (Dubois v. Beaver, 25 N. Y. 123.) The
ownership of land includes everything beneath and above the surface,
with the right to the enjoyment in such a manner as he may see fit so
long as such use does not interfere with a similar right which belongs
to his neighbor of enjoyment of his lands. An adjoining owner has
not the right to maintain upon his lands a nuisance which would pre-
vent an adjoining owner from the enjoyment of rights which belong
to him. ;
One owner may be restrained from keeping swarms of bees so near
the division line as to interfere with and prevent the proper use and
enjoyment of the lands of the adjoining owner.
A person may plant shade trees upon his own lands, cover them with
a thick forest if he desire, and the owner of adjoining lands, though he
may have a house near the boundary line, has no right of action against
the owner of the trees if the house of the adjoining owner is made
damp and unhealthy thereby.
TREES Porsonous TO ANIMALS.— The owner of a farm is liable for
damage caused by a tree that is poisonous to animals, where the
branches hang over the division line and poison cattle or sheep upon
the adjoining land; but if cattle break through the fence, which belongs
to the owner of the cattle to build and maintain, and escapes to poison-
ous trees which are distant from the boundary line, and are injured
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 605
thereby, the owner of the land is not liable because the cattle are
wrongfully upon the premises.
In New York it is provided by statute, Chap. 501, Laws of 1892,
that it shall be unlawful for any person knowing or willfully to keep
any plum, cherry or other trees infected with the contagious disease
or fungus known as the ‘‘ Black Knot.’’ And every tree so infected is
declared to be a public nuisance and may be destroyed by order of the
commissioner appointed under the act, and whenever any person own-
ing or in possession of any such trees shall neglect or refuse to comply
with the order of the commissioner directing him to destroy the same
within the time specified in the notice, he may be deemed guilty of a
misdemeanor and punished by a fine not exceeding twenty-five dollars,
or by imprisonment in the county jail not exceeding ten days, or both,
in the discretion of the court, and any justice of the peace in a town
or city in which said offense shall be committed shall have jurisdiction
thereof.
THe Law in REGARD TO ManureE.—As between grantor and grantee,
lessor and lessee of farm lands, manure made upon the premises from the
produce raised thereon goes with the land asa part of the realty, and is
not personal property. This is upon the theory that it is necessary that it
should so remain in order to maintain the productiveness of the soil.
Judge Eastman, in Plummer v. Plummer, 30 N. H. 558, states the law
in that State as follows: ‘‘It must be regarded as settled in this
State, that between the grantor and the grantee, all manure made in
the ordinary course of carrying on the farm, and which is upon the
place at the time of sale and conveyance, would pass to the purchaser,
unless there be a reservation in the deed; and that it makes no differ-
ence whether it is in the field, in the yard, or in heaps around the
house, or under cover, it belongs to the land and passes with it like
fallen timber and trees, and loose stones lying upon the surface of the
earth, and like the wooden fences erected upon the land and the
material of such fences when placed upon the ground for use or
accidentally fallen down.’’ This is the law in the State of New York.
In New Jersey, it was held in Ruckman v. Outwater, 4 Dutch. 581, to
be personal property and not to pass with the real estate.
The rule is different where manure is made in a livery stable, village
lot, or in any manner not connected with agriculture, or made from
products not produced upon a farm, nor made in connection with its
cultivation or occupancy as a farm. In such case the manure belongs
606 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
to the person producing it, and he has a right to dispose of it as he
pleases, the same as any other personal property.
Escapep CATTLE Upon ADJOINING PREMISES WHEN DRIVEN ALONG
THE Hicghway.—While the owner is driving cattle along the highway
and they escape to the adjacent lands, and the owner of the cattle pursues
them and drives them off as soon as possible, such an entry upon. the
premises is but an involuntary trespass for which the owner of the
cattle should not be liable. (Rightmire v. Shepard, 36 N. Y. St.
Reporter, 768; The Tonawanda R. R. Co. v. Munger, 5 Denio, 255;
z Waterman on Trespass, sec. 872.
BARBED-WIRE FENCE.
The statutes of the State of New York provide, Chap. 755, Laws of
1894, that ‘‘ Barbed wire cannot be used in the construction of any
division fence constructed or built aftcr September 1st, 1895, unless
the person, association or corporation desiring to use such material,
shall first obtain the written consent of the owner of the adjoining
property that it may be used.”’
Any person, association or corporation who shall construct or build
a division fence contrary to the provisions of this act, or who shall
maintain such fence after so constructing or building the same, shall
forfeit and pay to such adjoining owner or other person occupying such
adjoining property treble damages for all injuries occasioned to him
thereby.
In the case of Rowland v. Baird, 18 Abb. N. C. 256, it was held that
a barbed-wire fence erected upon or near the division line is calculated
to cause serious injury and damage to the animals of the adjoining
owner, and is a nuisance rendering the owner liable for such injury.
In the case of Rooney v. Aldrich, 44 Hun, 320, It was held: The
owner of a farm is liable for injury to animals upon an adjoining farm
by reason of his agent’s negligence in the construction of a wire fence,
which he, according to agreement, was bound to maintain. ‘‘ A person
is not liable in damages for building a high fence on his own land which
darkens his neighbor’s windows, and this without regard to his motive.”
(Pickard v. Collins, 23 Barb. 444.)
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 607
Legal Facts of Importance to All
Citizens of the Dominion of Canada.
CONTRACTS.
What is a Contract ? An agreement enforceable at law between two
or more parties to do or not to do some specified thing is called a con-
tract. It may be verbal (by word of mouth) or written.
This subject is a limitless one, for scarcely a day passes without one
making a contract. The simplest agreement one with another is a con-
tract ; and limitless as they are in number, and varied in their require-
ments, they are all governed by very general rules.
Contract Not Valid. An agreement to doa thing contrary to law,
or a thing forbidden by law, cannot be enforced. As for example: the
law in the Province of Ontario regulates the quantity of intoxicating
liquor a dealer may sell at any one time, and the hours during which it
may be sold. Any agreement contrary to the above law cannot be
enforced.
Things Necessary. There are certain things necessary without which
there can beno contract. First, there must be parties to the contract, and
they must be legally qualified ; second, there must be a reasonable con-
sideration ; third, there must be the thing to be done or not to be done,
(subject matter) ; fourth, there must be the consent of all parties to the
agreement ; fifth, there must be a time when the contract is to be com-
pleted. Thus every contract must have five essentials, PARTIES, CON-
SIDERATION, SUBJECT MATTER, MUTUAL CONSENT, and TIME.
Parties. Those who make a contract must be considered competent
to do so in the eyes of the law. The law says that the parties must be
of legal age and of sound mind. In Ontario the law regards all persons
as infants who are under twenty-one years of age, though in some
countries females are made of age at eighteen. A contract made with
608 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
a drunken person is not binding upon him unless he ratifies it when
sober.
A contract made with a minor or an idiot is not binding upon him
except for necessaries. Another condition of incompetency is insanity.
A contract made with a minor, while not binding upon him, is binding
upon the other party, provided the minor chooses to enforce the agree-
ment by action for damages.
Every one should be extremely careful in making contracts with people
who are deemed incompetent by the law, for what might be ordinarily
considered a necessity, may by reason of the circumstances of such per-
son be declared by the court as not a ‘‘ necessity.’
The reason for considering infants incompetent to make a binding con-
tract is that they are considered unable, on account of lack of experience,
to guard against fraud and artful designing.
Infants are liable, just the same as adults, for fraud, assault, or any
criminal act. While the law protects the infant from deceit and fraud, it
will not, however, allow him to do unlawful acts.
A contract made under compulsion induced by threats of personal vio-
lence or injury is invalid, but the fact of the threat being made must be
proved.
A contract made by two or more persons with intent to injure others is
illegal.
A contract in which there are misrepresentations or concealments of a
material fact is invalid.
If a person signs a contract through fraud or misrepresentation, being
led to believe that the contract means what it does not, or that the prop-
erty purchased is different from what it really is, that contract is illegal.
The burden of proof is in this case always on the person deceived. It
requires good and abundant proof, because a written agreement goes far-
ther in law than a single oath against it.
An agreement with a thief not to prosecute, provided goods are re-
turned, is illegal.
Incompetency. ‘‘ Persons of unsound mind and memory cannot make
a binding contract, because they cannot give clear and intelligent consent
to its terms.’’ A noted writer has said: ‘‘ Want of reason must, of
course, invalidate a contract, the very essence of which is consent.’
Insanity and idiocy are not the same. An insane person is one
whose mind is diseased or deranged ; an idiot is one who has no mind;
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 609
and with the above the law classifies the man who by drunkenness
renders himself incapable of discharging the ordinary duties of life.
By coverture is meant marriage ; the rule of the common law is that a
married woman cannot, during her marriage, make a binding contract,
but this has been changed in Ontario, giving her almost absolute control
over her own property.
Consideration. This is the price or promise, or the cause, which
moves the parties to enter into a contract. It may be EXPRESSED or IM-
PLIED. A consideration that is distinctly stated in the contract, whether
oral or written, is said to be expressed. In all sealed instruments and
salable paper, the consideration is implied ; as in promissory notes or
drafts, the words ‘‘ value received’’ imply, but do not state, the consider-
ation.
Consideration is commonly called VALUABLE, GOOD, SUFFICIENT,
LEGAL, INSUFFICIENT, etc.
The money value of a consideration does not determine whether it is
SUFFICIENT or not ; a very slight consideration will support a contract
if it is what the law recognizes as valuable.
A valuable consideration may be illustrated by the payment of money,
the delivery of property, the performance of work, making a promise for
a promise, etc.
A good consideration is one founded upon affection, relationship,
friendship, or gratitude. This does not constitute a sufficient cause or
consideration for the fulfillment by the coercion of law of an undertaking
or promise not under seal. ‘‘Good consideration’’ is almost on an
equality with ‘‘no consideration.”’
An insufficient consideration may be defined as one that is gratuitous,
illegal, immoral, or impossible. There are exceptions to this gratuitous
consideration ; for instance, in case of labor performed for a party with
his knowledge, but not his expressed consent. Anson in his work,
“The Law of Contracts,’ says: If A allows X to work for him under
such circumstances that no reasonable man would suppose that X meant
to do the work for nothing, A will be liable to pay for it. As intimated
above, contracts under seal or formal contracts depend upon their form
for their validity. Where form is present, courts of law ask for no
further evidence as to intention.
Subject Matter. The subject matter ofa contract is the thing to be
done or omitted by one or both parties. There are certain contracts,
610 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
however, which the law will not enforce. That is, if the thing to be done
is illegal, against the law, immoral, that is, contrary to good morals (in-
jurious to, or interfering with, the public welfare), in general restraint of
trade, such as an agreement not to conduct a certain lawful business any-
where, either for a limited or unlimited time, in general restraint of mar-
riage, such as a condition that a child may not marry any person living
in the same Province or following some particular profession or trade, if
the subject matter operates as a fraud on third persons, obstructs public
justice, that is, suppresses evidence, bribes witnesses or officers, or if
already compelled by law, because an agreement to do what is already
required of one will not increase the obligation, or if it has in it in any way,
the element of fraud, we cannot expect the law to enforce the contract.
Mutual Assent. This is defined to be a meeting of minds. There
can be no binding contract without the assent of both parties ; and they
must assent at the same time and to the same thing. Mutual assent con-
sists of an offer by one party and its acceptance by the other ; when the
offer is verbal, and the time allowed for acceptance is not mentioned, it
must be accepted within a reasonable time to make a contract. But in
case the offer and acceptance are written and passed through the mails,
the contract is complete when the acceptance is mailed, providing the
person accepting has received no notice of the withdrawal of the offer
before mailing his letter. When the offer calls for an answer by return
mail, any acceptance later than by return mail will not be binding on the
party making the offer.
Time. When the time in which a contract is to be performed is not
expressed, the execution of the contract must be within a reasonable
time, and this is to be determined by the thing to be done.
Construction of Contracts. Inthe construction of contracts no par-
ticular form of words is necessary, but the intention of the parties
should be clearly and definitely stated.
Ignorance of Law. This is no reason for an omission or breach of
contract ; every one is supposed to know the law.
Simple Contracts are Expressed, Implied, Verbal, Written, Joint, and
Several.
Verbal Contract. A contract made by mere words spoken by the
parties is called a verbal contract.
Written Contract. A contract in which the agreement is in writing
is called a written contract. It is no stronger than a verbal one when the
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 611
law allows it to be verbal, but the method of proof is different ; the
written contract generally proves itself.
Expressed Contract. An expressed contract is either verbal or in
writing, in which the terms of the agreement are openly, fully, and clearly
stated.
Implied Contract. A contract in which the law presumes what must
have been the agreement intended by the parties is called an implied
contract.
Joint Contract. A contract in which the parties are jointly (that is
together) bound to perform the contract or agreement is called a joint
contract.
Several Contract. A contract in which two or more persons promise,
each for himself, that he will do the whole thing promised, is called asev-
eral contract.
Contracts in Writing. While there are certain contracts that are
not required to be in writing, yet it is safest and best to put them in black
and white, because it may prevent frequent misunderstandings. Trouble
more often comes from misunderstandings of verbal contracts than
because the parties to the contract are dishonest. Often the party
who wishes to deceive has a considerable bargaining before the agree-
ment is concluded, and when the final agreement is made, only a few words
are exchanged, and these before an ‘‘accidental’’ witness. The pre-
vious remarks and guarantees given without witness are not in evidence
in case of dispute. The facts sworn to by the ‘‘ accidental ’’ witness that
no conversation like that which had previously been stated took place at
the closing of bargain, and the case will be decided on the evidence of
the ‘‘ accidental ’’’ witness supported by the evidence of his ‘‘ friend.”’
Contracts that Must be Written. Contracts for the conveyance of
real estate ; contracts for the lease of land for more than three years, or
for less than two thirds of the full rent ; contracts made upon the con-
sideration of marriage ; contracts to answer for the debt, default, or
wrongful act of another ; contracts that are not to be performed within
one year, and contracts for the sale of personal property of a specified
value (usually $40.00), unless the sale is by auction, or the buyer pays
part of the purchase price, or the seller delivers part of the goods.
Guarantee. The seller of goods is not liable for the quality of the
goods sold, unless he has represented or concealed something fraudv-
lently, or has warranted them good and sound.
612 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
The rule is: ‘‘If there is no expressed warranty by the seller, nor fraud
on his part, and if the article is equally open for inspection of both parties,
the buyer who examines the article for himself must abide by all losses
arising from its not being what he wanted or expected.”’
When goods are found to be unsound, or are not such as were ordered,
the purchaser should return them, as soon as the fact is discovered, to
the seller, or give him notice to take them back ; otherwise it will be
presumed the quality is satisfactory.
Sale of Stolen Articles. When the buyer purchases goods he re-
ceives his title in them from the seller ; but if the goods prove to have
been stolen, the true owner can reclaim them at any time. They might
have been bought in good faith, in the regular order of business and for
a valuable consideration, but if the one from whom the buyer derives
his title had none, it transpires that the buyer will have no title.
Sale of Personal Property. A sale is a contract by which the own-
ership is transferred from one person to another for a consideration in
money paid or to be paid. To make it a sale there must be money paid
or agreed to be paid in exchange for the goods. An exchange of goods
for goods is ‘‘ barter’’ or a “‘ trade.”’
The party who purchases the property is called the purchaser or ven-
dee ; the one who sells it is called the seller or vendor.
The growing or expected products may be bought and sold, viz.: the
grain or grass expected to grow upon a field; the fruit that may grow
in an orchard ; or the future increase in cattle or other stock.
Delivery. It is not usually necessary that the goods be actually
delivered. When the terms of the contract are agreed to and accepted,
the sale is complete. The title of the property then les in the buyer,
and he is entitled to it upon payment. The buyer cannot take the goods
until he pays for them. Here comes a nice distinction between the right
of property and the right of possession.
If the goods are sold to a party who ‘‘fails’’ or becomes insolvent be-
fore they are delivered, the seller may not deliver them. Even if shipped
they may be stopped in transit, by notice to the carrier not to deliver the
goods.
Bill of Sale. As a protection against the goods purchased and named
in a bill of sale being seized for debts or judgments, it is necessary to
record the same in the office of the Clerk of the County Court in the
County in which the goods are.
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 613
THis INDENTURE made the Sixteenth day of February in the year of
our Lord eighteen hundred and ninety-nine, between John Jones, of the
town of Woodstock in the County of Oxford in the Province of Ontario,
merchant, vendor of the first part, and James Brown of the City of To-
ronto, County of York, and Province of Ontario, gentleman, vendee of
the second part.
AND WHEREAS the said party is possessed of the stock of dry goods
and groceries and store and office fixtures hereinafter set forth, and hath
contracted and agreed with the said party of the second part for the abso-
lute sale to him of the same for the sum of five hundred dollars.
Now Tuts INDENTURE WITNESSETH that in pursuance of the said
agreement, and in consideration of the sum of five hundred dollars of
lawful money of Canada, paid by the said party of the second part at or
before the sealing and delivery of these presents (the receipt whereof is
hereby acknowledged), he, the said party of the first part, hath bargained,
sold, assigned, transferred, and set over and by these presents doth bar-
gain, sell, assign, transfer and set over, unto the said party of the second
part, his executors, administrators, and assigns, ALL THOSE the said dry
goods and groceries and store and office fixtures as per inventory here-
unto attached and marked ‘‘ A.”’
AND all the right, title, interest, property, claim, and demand whatso-
ever both in law and equity, or otherwise howsoever of him the said party
of the first part, of, in, to, and out of the same and every part thereof.
To Have AND To Ho tp the said hereinbefore assigned dry goods, gro-
ceries, and store and office fixtures and every of them and every part
thereof with the appurtenances and all the right, title, and interest of the
said party of the first part thereto and therein as aforesaid unto and to the
use of the said party of the second part, his administrators, executors,
and assigns, to and for his sole and only use forever.
Anp the said party of the first part doth hereby for himself, his heirs,
executors, and administrators, covenant, promise, and agree with the said
party of the second part, his executors, administrators, in the manner fol-
lowing, that is to say:
Tuar he, the said party of the first part, is now rightfully and absolutely
possessed of and entitled to the said hereby assigned dry goods, gro-
ceries and store and office fixtures and every part thereof, and that the
said party of the first part now hath in his good right to assign the same
unto the said party of the second part, his executors, administrators, and
614 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
assigns, in manner aforesaid, and according to the true intent and mean-
ing of these presents ; and that the said party of the second part, his
executors, administrators, and assigns, shall and may from time to time
and at all times hereafter peaceably and quietly have, hold, possess, and
enjoy the said hereby assigned goods and fixtures and every of them,
and every part thereto, to and for his own use and benefit, without any
manner of hindrance, interruption, molestation, claim, or demand whatso-
ever, from or by him the said party of the first part or any person or per-
sons whomsoever, and that free and clear and freely and absolutely released
and discharged or otherwise at the cost of the said party of the first part
effectually indemnified from and against all former and other bargains,
sales, gifts, grants, titles, charges, and incumbrances whatsoever.
Anpv Moreover that he, the said party of the first part and all persons
rightfully claiming or to claim any estate, right, title, or interest of, in,
or to the said hereby assigned goods and fixtures, and every of them,
and every part thereof, shall and will from time to time and that all times
hereafter upon every reasonable request of the said party of the second
part, his executors, administrators, or assigns, but at the cost and charge
of the said party of the second part, make, do, and execute, or cause or
procure to be made, done, and executed all such further acts, deeds, and
assurances for the more effectual assigning and assuring the said hereby
assigned goods and fixtures unto the said party of the second part, as
executors, administrators, and assigns in manner aforesaid, and according
to the true intent and meaning of these presents, as by the said party of
the second part, his executors, administrators, or assigns or his counsel
shall be reasonably advised or required.
IN WITNESS WHEREOF, the said parties to these presents have here-
unto set their hands and seals the day and year first above written.
Signed, sealed, and delivered in
the presence of
CHARLES SUMMERS.
JOHN JONES. [Seal. ]
JAMES BROWN. | [Seal.]
Affidavit of Bona Fides to Accompany Bill of Sale.
County of York.
To Wir: I, James Brown of the city of Toronto in the County of
York, the vendee in the foregoing Bill of Sale named, make oath and say :
THAT the sale therein made is bona fide and for good consideration,
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 615
viz.: five hundred dollars ($560.00), and not for the purpose of holding
or enabling this deponent to hold the goods mentioned therein against
the creditors of the said bargainor.
Sworn before me at Toronto in the
County of York this sixteenth day of
February A. D. eighteen hundred and
ninety-nine.
FRANK SMITH,
A commissioner for taxing affidavits in the H. C. J
JAMES BROWN.
Affidavit of Witness Proving the Execution of the Bill of Sale.
County of York.
To Wit: I, Charles Summers of the city of Toronto in the County
of York, clerk, make oath and say :
THAT I was personally present, and did see the within bill of sale duly
signed, sealed, and executed by John Jones and James Brown, the parties
thereto, and that I, this deponent, am a subscribing witness to the same,
and that the name Charles Summers, set and subscribed as a witness to
the execution thereto, is of the proper handwriting of me, this deponent,
and that the same was executed at the city of Toronto aforesaid.
Sworn before me this sixteenth day of ) CHARLES SUMMERS
February, eighteen hundred and ninety-nine. i ;
JAMES BROWN,
A commissioner for taking affi-
davits in the H. C. J.
RECEIPTS.
It is always best to take a receipt for moneys paid or goods delivered,
and while a receipt is not always evidence of payment, yet it throws the
burden of proof upon the one who tries to deny its truth.
Receipt for Money Paid on Account,
$50.00. ToRONTO, ONT., Feb. 16, 1899.
Received of George W. Witbeck, Fifty Dollars ($50.00) on account.
GARDNER MOREY.
616 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
Receipt in Full.
$300. 00. TORONTO, ONT., Feb. 16, 1899.
Received of Charles Hart, Three Hundred Dollars, in full, for all
demands to date.
HENRY MURPHY.
Law Concerning Notes.
1. A signature written with a lead pencil is valid.
2. A note lost or destroyed can be collected upon sufficient proof.
3. If no time of payment is mentioned in a note, the note is payable
on demand.
4. A note is not transferable if the words ‘‘ or order’’ or ‘‘ or bearer’?
do not appear on the face, or unless it is payable ‘‘to the order of’’ the
payee.
HOW TO DO BANKING BUSINESS.
Deposit Your Money. It is unsafe to keep money about the person
or house, on account of the liability of losing it from the pocket. The
house might take fire and destroy the money before it could be removed
or the money may be stolen by thieves or robbers. It is therefore best
to deposit it in some safe bank that is near by. The money can then be
drawn out by cheques made payable to the order of the person to whom
the money is to be paid, and, as that person has to put his name on the
back of the cheque, it is good evidence that the money has been re-
ceived.
Pay Bills by Cheques. It is a good practice to pay bills by cheques
because : —
1. The amount paid is always specified in the cheque.
2. The party receiving the cheque cannot claim that the money has
not been paid.
3. The cheque coming back through the bank, indorsed, is evidence
that the money has been received by the person to whose order the
cheque was drawn.
It is always best to deposit your money in the bank and cheque against
it. This will show the amount of money handled during the year, and
oftentimes be a check upon expenditures.
Never make a cheque payable to bearer, for in that case it is not neces-
sary for the party receiving it to put his name on the back, and if lost it
can be collected by anyone into whose hands it falls.
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 617
A cheque is a very convenient way of sending money in letters. If
made payable to the order of the person to whom the money is sent, it
cannot be collected by anyone else, even though stolen from the letter.
If dealing with a firm with which you have no acquaintance, it is often
well to have the cashier of the bank certify the cheque before it is sent.
This is done by the cashier writing across the face the word ‘‘ accepted ”’
and signing his name as cashier of the bank.
How to Indorse Cheques. Indorsing cheques is done by writing
your name on the back. This is properly done by signing the name
across the top about one and one-half inches from the end. This is the
left end as the cheque lies with its face toward you.
Promissory Note. Occasionally it is necessary or convenient to ask
for time for the payment of a bill, and there is given a Promissory Note
(promise to pay at some specified time). It is generally written in the
following form :—
$100. Toronto, Ont., Feb. 16, 1899.
Three months after date Ipromise to pay to Peter J. Murphy, or
order, One Hundred Dollars, at the Canadian Bank of Commerce, for
value received.
THOMAS A. BURNS.
NATURALIZATION PAPERS.
Declaration of Intention. An alien must make a declaration under
oath, of intention of becoming a citizen of Canada, before a Judge of the
Court of Record in Canada, a Justice of the Peace, a Police Magistrate or
a Notary Public, or a Commissioner for taking affidavits.
This Declaration of Intention may be taken at any time after three
years’ residence in Canada. The person before whom the oath is taken
issues to the alien a certificate, and this certificate is presented in Ontario,
to the Court of General Sessions of the Peace of the county within the
jurisdiction of which the alien resides or to the Court of Assize or Nisi
Prius during its sittings in such county. If during the sittings of such
court, the facts mentioned in such certificate are not controverted or any
other valid objection made to the naturalization of the alien, the court, on
the last day of such sittings, shall direct that such certificate be filed of
record in the court.
The alien to whom a certificate of naturalization has been granted is
618 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
entitled to all the rights and privileges, and subject to all the obligations,
of a natural born British subject.
Exception. There is this distinction, however ; an alien who has ob-
tained a certificate of naturalization in Canada, but who has by the law
of a foreign state not ceased to be a subject of that state, is not deemed a
British subject when he is in that foreign state.
A married woman shall, within Canada, be deemed to be a subject of
the state of which her husband is for the time being a subject.
If she becomes an alien through marriage, she is deemed a statutory
alien, and may obtain at any time during widowhood, a certificate of
re-admission to British nationality.
Every child of a father or mother who has received a naturalization
certificate is a British subject.
PRINCIPAL AND AGENT.
Definition. An agent is one who acts for, in the name, and by the
authority of another, who is called the principal.
Theory. The theory of the law is whatever business a man may do
for himself, he may employ another to do for him, and whatever is done
for him by his authority, is to be held as though he did it himself.
Extent. When we consider the fact that every clerk, laborer, or
employee is the agent of the one who employs him, we see how im-
possible it would be to conduct business without the medium of agency.
There are in the employ of the C. P. Railway some thousands of persons,
each one of whom is an agent (to a greater or less extent) of the
company.
How long could one man run this great railroad if he himself were com-
pelled to drive the engine or handle the brake? Thus we see how every
business and every enterprise needs its controlling, its guiding mind,
which works through others.
How Established. An agency may be established by a person per-
mitting another to hold himself out to the world as his agent, by a verbal
agreement or written contract ; as little form is necessary to employ an
agent, as to hire a common day laborer. But when the agent is to have
authority to execute a sealed instrument, as for the conveyance of real estate,
his authority must be given under seal. An agency is also often implied
from the course of business ; as, for instance, a son who sells goods in his
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 619
father’s store, or receives payment of bills due him with his knowledge
and without objection, is the agent of the father, and may bind him in
subsequent transactions of the same nature if no notice is given to the
contrary.
Principal. The principal is the person for whom the business is to be
transacted. Generally every person of legal age and competent to con-
tract may act as principal. The principal and not the AGRNT is bound
by the agent’s acts, so long as the agent does not EXCEED the authority
given him.
Liability of Principal to Third Parties. When an Agent acts within
the limit of his authority, the principal is liable to third persons, to the
same extent as though he transacted the business himself. If the agent
violates the instructions given by the principal, the person with whom he
is dealing being ignorant of the fact and his act being apparently within
the limit of his authority, or if the agent makes a fraudulent representa-
tion, the principal will be held liable. The principle of the law is that
‘“when one of two innocent persons must suffer, the one should sustain
the loss, who has put it in the power of the wrongdoer to commit the
wrong,’’ but in cases of special agency the agent could not bind his prin-
cipal to exceed his special authority.
If an agent is pursuing the business of his agency, and by his negli-
gence or unskillfulness injures another, the principal is liable ; for
instance, suppose you are riding on an express train from Toronto to
Montreal, you are rushing along with speed that rivals the wind, a care-
less engineer has his engine standing upon the track of your train, when
it ought to have been somewhere clsc, you go crashing into it, there is a
wreck, and you are pulled from the débris only to find yourself a cripple
for life. What do you do? Bring an action for damages against the
engineer, who is the agent cf the railroad company, or do you say to the
company itself, I have been injured through the carelessness of your
agent, and to you I look for damages ?
Should the act of the agent be willful and not in the conduct of the
principal’s business the agent and not the principal is liable ; to illustrate,
I am passing along the strect in my carriage and your servant willfully
drives against me, the servant alone is liable. But had the act been
one of carelessness, you, the principal, would be liable.
The Principal is Liable to the Agent for damages sustained by the
agent without his own default, in following the directions of his principal.
620 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
Duties of Agent to Principal. The first duty of every agent is to
obey instructions. In cases of extreme necessity the agent may be ex-
cused for disobedience of orders ; neither is he bound to obey when told
to do an illegal or immoral act.
An agent must transact all business in the name of his principal or he
will be personally liable.
An agent*must not mix his property with that of his principal, so as to
make it impossible to distinguish one from the other.
Commission Merchants. A commission merchant is one who sells
goods for another, receiving as compensation a certain percentage of the
sales, called commission. The commission merchant very seldom dis-
closes the name of his principal. He has actual possession of the goods
to be sold, and is bound to take good and proper care of them, such as
he would take of his own property of a similar nature.
In the sale of goods the commission merchant should observe the in-
structions of the person sending the goods to be sold, but, when he
receives no instructions, must use his utmost skill and knowledge, and
sell for the best prices.
It is a common practice for commission merchants to advance money
upon goods consigned to them. In such cases they have a lien upon
them for all cash advanced, and for expenses and commissions. ‘‘ A lien
on personal property is a right to hold it against the owner ;’’ that is
the owner cannot take away his goods until he has paid the charges
against them. The commission merchant may sell the goods in his pos-
session in order to satisfy his claim, but must pay over the surplus to the
owner
Notr.—1. A seller of goods who accepts, at the time of sale, the
note of a third party, not indorsed by the buyer, in payment, cannot, in
case thé note is not paid, hold the buyer responsible for the value of the
goods.
2. An agreement by the holder of the note to give the principal
debtor time for payment, without the consent of the surety, discharges
the surety.
SPECIAL LAWS
BY
T. A. HUNT, B. A.,
Ex-President Osgoode Legal and Literary Society.
LAWS RELATING TO RIGHTS AND OBLIGATIONS ARISING FROM OWN-
ERSHIP, CONTROL AND CUSTODY OF DOMESTIC AND OTHER ANI-
MALS, AND OTHER LAWS OF SPECIAL INTEREST TO LAND AND
ANIMAL OWNERS.
MAN may have an absolute property in domestic animals, which
is not lost by accident or the interference of others.
As to wild animals, they belong to anyone, so long as they
remain in their wild state, but when captured and brought under the con-
trol of the captor, so that they cannot escape, they become the property
of the one who captured them.
The most obvious distinction which the law regards is that between
such animals as are generally seen tame and seldom, if ever, found wan-
dering at large, and such as are usually found wild, and at liberty. Deer
in a private park, doves in a dove house, and fish in a private pond or
tank are property while they continue in actual possession. If a deer or
any other wild animal which is reclaimed, has a collar or other mark
upon it, and goes and returns at its pleasure, the owner’s property still
continues. (Amory v. Flynn, ro Johns. 102.)
The true point of inquiry in such cases is whether the reclaimed animal
has lost all intention or disposition to return, and if it has, it may then be
said to have regained its natural liberty.
A qualified property may also exist with relation to wild animals by
reason of their inability to remove from the land where they are, as in the
case of young birds which are hatched in nests in a man’s trees.
‘A qualified property in wild animals may be obtained by a,person so
confining them that they cannot escape and regain their ‘natural liberty.”
(2 Blackstone’s Commentaries, 391. )
Property in this class of animals is acquired only by possession. Mere
622 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
pursuit is not sufficient to constitute such possession, though the animal
be kept in sight, the pursuer must, by wounding or securing the animal,
or otherwise, have deprived it of its natural liberty, and brought it within
his control.
Thus where N wounded a deer and followed the track until night and
resumed the pursuit in the morning, but the deer, after running six miles
with N’s dog in chase, was killed by B. Held, that it had not been de-
prived of its natural liberty, so as to give N any property in it.
So, wild fowl which have been tamed, are subjects of property, not-
withstanding they are temporarily astray, if they have not regained
their natural liberty as wild.
So, bees are regarded as animals fere nature, but, when hived and
reclaimed, a qualified property may be acquired in them. Bees living
in a state of freedom shall be the property of the person discovering
them, whether he is or is not the proprietor of the land on which they
have established themselves. If aswarm of bees leave a hive an owner
can retake possession of them, even if they settle on the land of another,
but he must first notify the owner of the land where they have settled,
and compensate him for damages. If the owner of a swarm does not
follow them, any other person may, and such person may take posses-
sion of them unless the owner of the land objects. (R.S. O. 1897,
Cap. 117.)
In case of domestic animals and reclaimed wild animals the owner has
the right to use any of the remedies which the law provides for the re-
covery of personal property illegally taken or detained from the owner.
So, the owner of such an animal has a right of action for damages if one
should, either intentionally or negligently, injure, maim, or kill such an
animal.
Not only the owner, but one who is in possession of an animal under
an arrangement that renders him accountable for it, or for injury to it,
may sue to recover for any loss or injury done the property while it is
in his possession. In such a case the person in possession is treated as
the owner, and is entitled to all the rights of an owner.
So, the owner may recover for accidental or intentional injuries, as
where a dog, followed by his master, was pursuing a fox, and was acci-
dentally shot by another party who claimed to have shot at the fox. but
accidentally killed the dog, the owner was entitled to damages.
Where a horse trespassed on the premises of a neighbor of the owner
LEGAL DEPARTMENT, 623
and injured his crops, and was pursued by the neighbor and his dog, and
injured, the owner of the horse was held to be entitled to damages for
such injuring. (Bigelow on Torts, 6th Ed. 230. )
Where animals when trespassing are killed in a wanton, malicious, and
deliberate way, exemplary damages may be recovered.
Injuries inflicted upon animals by negligence entitles the owner to an
action for damages against the one causing the injury, as where the
owner of a horse allowed it to stray (through negligence in not repairing
a gate) into a neighbor's field and it kicked the neighbor's horse, the
owner of the injured horse was held entitled to damages. In another
case a man planted on his own ground, a yew tree, which in time grew
and spread its branches over the plaintiff's ground. A horse ate it, and
was poisoned. The owner of the tree was held liable for the loss.
Nor has a party the right to entice by food, voice, or other means any
domestic or reclaimed animal away from the possession of the owner and
bring it under his control. For such conduct the owner has an action
for the value of the animal so obtained, and the party committing the
wrong may be prosecuted criminally for larceny.
In the Northwest Territories the registered cattle brand is prima_facte
proof of ownership, and, therefore, any wrongful marking or branding
of cattle with intent to defraud is a conversion of the cattle, and indict-
able. Any person branding the stock of another without his consent
shall pay three times the value of the animal.
It is the duty of every person who sells stock to another party to
brand such a stock witha vent brand, which vent brand shall not, in any
case, be placed in such a position as to obliterate or efface the original
brand, and where any such vent brand shall have been printed as above, it
shall be prima_facie evidence of sale or transfer. Every person recording
a brand shall also at the same time record and register his vent brand.
The owner of any recorded brand may, by writing, transfer the same to
any person who may record the transfer, and the transferee shall have there-
after all the rights of the person wiio first recorded it.
Hiring a horse to travel a certain distance, and driving the horse a
greater distance, or to another place than the one agreed upon, is such a
conversion of the horse that an action will le by the owner.
Where a horse is driven a gyeater distance than that for which it was
hired, the owner may ratify the wrongful act by accepting compensation
for the extra distance traveled.
624 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
In relation to injuries of persons or property by domestic animals, the
following propositions are sustained by the courts of Ontario :—
The owners of domestic animals are generally not liable for the inju-
ries they may do to property or persons of others, so long as they are
rightfully in the place where it is alleged that the injury or mischief was
done, unless it be shown that the particular animal doing the injury was
vicious and was accustomed to do, or had an inclination to do, the mis-
chief complained of, and that these facts were known to the owner
- of the animal before the injury occurred. It is not absolutely necessary to
prove actual or positive knowledge on the part of the owner in order to
establish liability, but if the owner has seen or heard facts relating to the
viciousness of the animal which would ordinarily satisfy a man of pru-
dence and caution, that the animal was liable to do mischief of the char-
acter complained of, it would place him under obligation to secure the
animal in such a manner as to prevent the injury, and he would be lia-
ble if he did not so secure it.
The rule is different with reference to vicious wild animals which
have been tamed, such as lions, tigers, and the like, for he who keeps
them is liable without notice, on the ground that such animals are fierce
and dangerous by nature.
The owner or keeper of animals viciously disposed or of mischievous
habits, of which the owner had previous actual or implied notice, is bound
at his peril to keep them at all times, and in all cases, properly secured,
and is responsible to any one who, without fault on his part, is injured
by them.
At common law the rule is that every man is bound to keep his ani-
mals within his inclosure at his peril, and that he is liable in damages if
he fails to do so, and they escape to the property of others and do in-
jury, whether such property be fenced or not ; unless the trespass is com-
mitted upon property through defects in fences which the owner of such
property is bound to maintain.
Every unauthorized entry by animals upon the land of another is a
trespass, whether the land be inclosed or not.
If domestic animals are wrongfully in the place where they do mischief,
the owner is liable, though he had no notice that they were accustomed
to do so before. As where oxen break, the plaintiff's close and kill his
cow, the owner of the oxen will be liable to damages, without proof that
he knew they were accustomed to gore.
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 625
Adjoining owners and occupants of lands are each required to main-
tain their portion of the division fence, and where injuries are occasioned
by domestic animals escaping through defects in that portion of the fence
that the complaining party was under obligation to maintain, he cannot
recover for such injury. Indeed, he may be liable for injuries which may
have resulted to the animals thus escaping, if shown to be the proximate
result of his negligence.
Where there is no division fence, each owner or occupant must keep
his animals upon his own side of the line. Where there is a division
fence, and it is divided, each adjoining owner must see to it that his part
of the fence is suitably maintained. Where there is no division of the
line fence, and either party refuses to make a division, then the law of
Ontario provides a summary method for a compulsory division of the
fence, and, when thus divided, the parties may be compelled to build and
maintain it.
THE KEEPING OF DOGS
Perhaps there is no species of domestic animals in relation to which
controversies more frequently arise than in relation to dogs. The fol-
lowing propositions may be regarded as settled by the courts : —
An owner of lands may drive off trespassing animals with dogs, and
will not be liable unless they are vicious and unnecessarily bite and lacer-
ate animals.
One keeping a vicious dog with knowledge of its propensities is re-
sponsible for injuries done by it. Negligence, in the ordinary sense, is
not an element of the cause of action. Nor is contributory negligence a
defense. To constitute a defense it must be established that the injured
person brought the injury on himself.
A person who keeps upon his premises ferocious dogs, and is aware of
their dangerous and vicious propensities, is liable for injuries to a
licensee even though they had never before bitten anyone. And a tres-
passer is not without rights. (Stiles v. Cardiff, 33 L. J. 310, 4 Bing.
628. )
A servant may maintain an action against the master for injuries re-
ceived from his employer’s dogs, though informed of the dog’s vicious
disposition, where it had been the custom to tell the servant when the
dog was loose, for the servant assumes, on entering such employment,
only the risk consequent upon keeping such a dog, which is fastened except
626 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
when the servant is otherwise notified. He does not take the risk of being
bitten when the dog is negligently left unfastened. (Mansfield v. Bad-
deley, 34 L. T. 696.)
The doctrine of the non-liability of the master to the servant for i inju-
ries of a co-servant cannot be invoked to shield the owner of a ferocious
animal from liabilities for injuries to the servant occasioned by negligence
of a fellow servant in not properly fastening the animal, or of not giving
notice of the animal being loose.
The owner of a ferocious animal is not relieved from liability for in-
juries inflicted by it through slight negligence or want of ordinary care
on the part of the person injured. To constitute such a defense acts
must be proved, with notice of the character of the animal, establishing
that the person injured voluntarily brought the injury on himself. (Cur-
tis v. Mills, 5 C. & P. 489.)
No action lies for an injury arising from the defendant letting loose a
dog in his premises for their protection at night. (Brock v. Copeland,
1 Esp. 203. )
The owner of a dog known by him to be ferocious, is liable, unless the
person injured voluntarily incurred the danger with a full knowledge of
its consequences. (Sarch v. Blackburn, M. and M. 505.)
The owner of a vicious dog which is kept properly chained and under
restraint is not liable for injuries sustained by a person voluntarily com-
ing within its reach for the purpose of becoming familiar with it by
feeding.
Merely showing that the dog was of a savage disposition and usually
tied up, and that the owner promised to make pecuniary satisfaction to
the plaintiff, is not sufficient proof of the owner’s knowledge of the vicious
disposition of the dog to make him liable. (Beck v. Dyson, 4 Camp.
198. )
If the owner of a dog appoints a servant to keep it, proof of the serv-
ant’s knowledge of the dog’s ferocity is sufficient proof of the knowl-
edge of the master to make him liable. (Baldwin v. Casella, L. R. 7 Ex.
325- )
A man can only keep a fierce watch dog for protection of his grounds
and house at his peril, and an innocent person coming there, bitten by
such a dog, may recover. (Stiles v. Cardiff, 33 L. J. 310.)
It is not necessary to show an actual previous bite to enable a plaintiff
to recover. It is enough that the dog, to the owner’s knowledge, has
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 627
evinced a savage disposition and straining at his chain. (Worth v. Gill-
ing, L. R. 2C. P. 1.)
At common law, the dog is considered a tame, harmless, and docile
animal, and its owner not responsible for any vicious or mischievous act
he may do, unless he had a previous knowledge of mischievous or vicious
propensities of the dog.
_ By statute in Ontario, municipalities have power to pass by-laws as
follows :—
1. For restraining and regulating the running at large of dogs, and
for seizing and impounding dogs running at large contrary to the by-law,
and for selling the dogs so impounded or any of them at such time or
times and in such manner as may be directed in that behalf,
2. For killing dogs running at large contrary to the by-laws.
3. For imposing a tax on the owners, possessors, or harborers of dogs.
It is also provided that in every municipality in Ontario an annual tax
may be levied upon the owner, possessor, or harborer of each dog. Spe-
cial provision, however, is made for an owner of a kennel of pure bred
dogs which are registered in the Canada Kennel Register. A ten dollar
($10.00) tax is all that shall be levied.
The owner, possessor, or harborer of any dog shall, when required by
the assessor, furnish a statement in writing of the number of dogs owned
or kept by him. Ii he neglects or refuses to do so, or gives a false state-
ment, he shall be liable to incur a penalty of fave dollars.
The money received as taxes on dogs, by the municipality, consti-
tutes a fund for satisfying any damages arising in any year from
dogs killing sheep or lambs within the municipality ; the residue forms
part of the general assets of the municipality.
It is further enacted that any person may kill :—
1. Any dog which he sees pursuing, worrying, or wounding any
sheep or lamb.
2. Any dog without lawful permission in any inclosed field on any
farm, which the owner or occupant finds giving tongue, or terrifying any
sheep or lamb on such farm.
3. And (with certain restrictions) any dog which any person finds
straying between sunset and sunrise on any farm whereon any sheep or
lambs are kept.
With reference to acts of other vicious animals, the following proposi-
tions may be regarded as settled by the courts :—
628 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
One letting a vicious horse to hire is bound to inform the hirer of its
vices,
In the absence of proof that the animal alleged to be vicious had done
mischief similar to that complained of, or was by habit or nature of an
ungovernable temper, or that the defendants had knowledge or notice
that the animal was unruly, or had done similar acts, the owner is not
liable, unless the vicious act occurred while the animal was trespassing.
The defendants’ horse having injured the plaintiff's mare by biting
and kicking her through the fence separating the plaintiff's land from
the defendants’. Held that there was a trespass by the act of the de-
fendants’ horse for which the defendants were lable, apart from any
question of negligence on their part. (Ellis v. Loftus Iron Co., 44 L. J.
C. P. 24.)
And if a horse, through the neglect of the owner in not keeping the
fence properly repaired, strays out and injures a horse on an adjoining
farm, the owner is liable. (Lee v. Riley, 18 C. B. N. S. 722.)
But where a horse straying on a highway, without apparent reason,
kicked a child, it was held, independently of any question of negligence
on the owner’s part, that in the absence of any proof of knowledge of a
vicious disposition, the latter was not liable. (Cox v. Burbidge, 13 C.
B. N. S. 430. )
The liability for injuries occasioned by a vicious animal extends to the
case of a married woman who permits her husband to harbor such an
animal upon the premises owned and occupied by her, she having knowl-
edge that it was being kept there. (Shaw v. McCreary, 19 O. R. 39.)
The owner of a vicious horse is not held liable to a servant employed
to drive it with notice of its vice who is injured by a kick from the horse.
(Yamouth v. Frame, 19 Q. B. D. 647.)
INCREASE OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
Of all tame and domestic animals, the brood belongs to the owner
of the dam or mother. (Broom’s Commentaries on the laws of England.
Vol. 2, p. 587. Lewis’ Edition of Blackstone, 391. )
An interesting case is given in the New Brunswick law reports which
decides that a mortgagee under a mortgage upon live stock is entitled
to the increase of stock, and a purchaser of the increase takes it sub-
ject to the mortgage.
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 629
The facts of the case were as follows : —
The plaintifis were the grantees, and one H the grantor in a bill
of sale which specified certain property conveyed, and contained the fol-
lowing clause: ‘And all property owned or to be owned by me, and
including all renewal stock or stock to be purchased by me.’? H—
subsequently acquired possession of a horse and colt. The colt was
the progeny of a mare conveyed by the bill ofsale. The horse was bought
in for H at a sale had at his direction to satisfy a lien which he
claimed for keep. H made a formal delivery of the horse and colt
to the plaintifis, stating that he delivered them to be held on the terms of
the bill of sale, but H always retained the actual possession. The
defendant (the sheriff) seized and sold the horse and colt under the
execution against H and the plaintiff claiming that the property
was not his brought action to recover same.
Held that the colt, being the progeny of a mare conveyed by the bill
of sale, passed to the plaintiffs. (Nicholson v. Temple, 4 New Bruns-
wick, R. 248.)
CRUELTY TO ANIMALS.
By the Municipal Act (R. S. O. 1897, c. 223, 8. 540) it was enacted
that municipalities shall have power to pass by-laws for the prevention of
cruelty to animals as follows : —
For preventing cruelty to animals, and for preventing the destruction
of birds, the by-laws for these purposes not being inconsistent with any
statute in that behalf.
By Chapter 172, Revised Statutes of Canada, it is enacted that every
one who wantonly, cruelly, or unnecessarily beats, pounds, illtreats,
abuses, overdrives or tortures any cattle, poultry, dog, domestic animal
or bird,—or who while driving any cattle or other animal is, by negli-
gence or ill usage in the driving thereof, the means whereby any mischief,
damage, or injury is done by any such cattle or other animal — or who
in any manner encourages, aids, or assists at the fighting or baiting of
any bull, bear, badger, dog, cock, or other kind of animal whether of
domestic or any other nature, shall, on summary conviction before two
Justices of the Peace, be liable to a penalty not exceeding fifty dollars, or
to imprisonment for any term not exceeding three months with or with-
out hard labor or to both. .
Anyone building, making, maintaining, or keeping a cock pit on
630 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
premises occupied or belonging to him, shall, on a similar conviction, be
liable to the same penalty.
Railway companies are forbidden to carry cattle, etc., for a longer pe-
riod than twenty-eight consecutive hours without unloading them for
rest, food, and water for five consecutive hours unless prevented by storm
or other unavoidable cause,
The foregoing does not apply, however, when cattle are carried in
any car or vessel in which they have proper space and opportunity for
rest and proper food and water.
The Canadian Criminal Code also makes the maliciously poisoning,
maiming, etc., of animals, a criminal offense.
DISEASED ANIMALS.
By chapter 273, Revised Statutes of Ontario, it is enacted : —
Where it appears to any person that any horse or other animal is
diseased, such person may notify any Justice having jurisdiction in the
municipality, and the Justice, if in his opinion there is reasonable cause
therefor, shall forthwith by writing, under his hand direct a competent
veterinarian to inspect the animal alleged to be diseased. The vet-
erinarian on receiving such instruction, shall, with all practicable speed,
make an inspection and report his opinion in writing to the Justice.
_Where it appears to a veterinarian that any horse or other animal is
diseased, he shall forthwith notify the owner or other person in charge of
the animal, and shall also give notice to the Justice having jurisdiction as
aforesaid.
After the owner or other person in charge has received notice from a
veterinarian that an animal is diseased, it shall be unlawful to turn out,
drive, or lead, or to cause such animal to be turned out, driven, or led
through any place where it may be brought into contact with or to be
in any danger of transmitting disease to other animals, until it has been
determined by the court of summary jurisdiction as hereafter provided,
that the animal to which the notice relates is free from disease.
The Justice, upon receiving the report of a veterinarian that an animal
is diseased, may at once issue his order to a constable, directing him to
seize and detain such animal, and cause the same to be kept in some
place where it will.not be brought in contact with or be in danger of
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 631
transmitting the disease to other animals, until the case has been deter-
mined by the courts.
The Justice, on receiving from any veterinarian a notice that an animal
is, or appears to be, diseased, shall forthwith issue a summons directed
to the owner, or other person in charge of the animal, requiring him to
appear before a court of summary jurisdiction, at a time and place to be
specified in such summons, te show cause why the said animal should not
be destroyed.
In case it appears to the court of summary jurisdiction, by the evidence
of one or more competent veterinarians, that the animal is diseased, the
court shall make an order for the killing and burying or burning of such
animal within twenty-four hours, and, in default thereof, may impose a
fine not exceeding one hundred dollars, and a further sum of fifty dollars
for every twelve hours thereafter until the same is killed or burned, and
all the penalties so imposed shall be applied to the use of the municipality.
The council of any municipality may indemnify the owner of any
animal killed or destroyed under the provisions of this act for the loss
sustained by such owner.
Every person having in his possession or under his charge an animal
which is, or appears to be, diseased, respecting which no notice has been
given as aforesaid, shall, as far as practicable, keep such animal separate
from other animals not so diseased, and shall, with all practicable speed,
give notice to a veterinarian of the existence, or supposed existence, of
the disease. Upon receipt of such notice, the veterinarian shall proceed
as in the other cases.
No owner or other person in charge thereof shall turn out, lead, or
drive any horse or other animal, knowing such horse to have been kept
in the same stable with any diseased animal, or otherwise expose to con-
tagion or infection, in, upon, or through, any place without a license
from a veterinarian first had and obtained, or without other order from
the court in that behalf.
Any person obstructing a veterinarian or constable acting in execution
of this act, may be seized and detained until he can be taken before a
Justice, to be dealt with according to law. Any person violating any of
the provisions of this act, respecting which no express penalty is pro-
vided, shall, on conviction, be liable to a penalty not exceeding one
hundred dollars.
The Dominion Parliament has also passed an act known as ‘‘ The
632 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
Animal Contagious Disease Act.’’ The provisions of this act apply, of
course, to the whole Dominion. It enacts as follows :—
Every cattle or farm stock owner, and every breeder of or dealer in
cattle or other animals in Canada, shall, on perceiving the appearance of
infection or contagious diseases among the cattle or other animals owned
by him, or under his special care, give immediate notice to the Minister
of Agriculture at Ottawa of the facts discovered by him as aforesaid.
Every person who neglects to comply with the provisions of the pre-
ceding section shall forfeit his claim to compensation for any cattle or other
animals slaughtered in accordance with the provisions of this act, and
every person maliciously or fraudulently concealing the existence of
infectious or contagious diseases among cattle or other animals shall
incur a penalty not exceeding two hundred dollars.
Every person who turns out, keeps, or grazes, any animal, knowing
such animal to be infected with or laboring under any infectious or con-
tagious diseases, or to have been exposed to infection or contagion in or
upon any forest, wood, moor, beach, marsh, common, open field, waste
land, roadside, or other undivided or uninclosed land, shall, for every
such offense, incur a penalty not exceeding two hundred dollars.
Every person who brings.or attempts to bring into any market,
fair, or other place any animal known by him to be infected with any
infectious or contagious disease shall incur a penalty not exceeding two
hundred dollars.
Every person who sells, disposes, or passes off or offers or attempts
to sell any animal known by him to be diseased as aforesaid, or the meat,
skin, hide, horns, hoofs, or other parts of such an animal, shall incura
penalty not exceeding two hundred dollars, whether such person selling
or offering for sale as aforesaid is the owner or not.
Every person throwing or suffering to be thrown into any river,
stream, canal, navigable or other water, or in the sea, within ten miles
of the shore, the carcass of an animal which has died with disease or
which has been slaughtered as diseased, shall for every such offense incur
a penalty not exceeding two hundred dollars.
The Governor in Council may from time to time cause such animals
as aforesaid to be slaughtered in accordance with the provisions of this
act, the value of the animal to be determined by the Minister of Agri-
culture or by some person appointed by him. Compensation may be
withheld in whole or in part whenever, in the opinion of the Minister of
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 633
Agriculture, the owner or person in charge of the diseased animal has
been guilty of an offense against this act. The Governor in Council may
from time to time prohibit the importation of horses, cattle, or other ani-
mals, or of flesh, hides, hoofs, horns, or of hay, straw, fodder, or other
articles from any place or places for such period as he deems to be neces-
sary for the purpose of preventing the introduction of any infectious
or contagious diseases among animals in Canada.
Every company and every person carrying, for hire, animals to or in
Canada shall thoroughly cleanse and disinfect in such manner as the Gov-
ernor in Council may direct, all steamships, steamers, vessels, boats,
pens, carriages, trucks, and vehicles used by such company or persons
for the carrying of animals, and the Governor in Council may cause such
steamer to be detained in such place as to him seems meet until it is so
cleansed and disinfected.
Provision is also made for subjecting animals to quarantine, the sepa-
ration of diseased animals, the purification of infected places, the prohibit-
ing or regulating the holding of markets, fairs, exhibitions, or sales of ani-
mals, the declaring a market, yard, steamship, etc., to be infected, the
slaughtering of the animals as provided by the act, and for the requiring
of proof that the horse or other animals being imported have not been
brought from any place or locality where any contagious or infectious
disease is existing.
WARRANTY OF THE SOUNDNESS OF ANIMALS.
WHAT CONSTITUTES SOUNDNESS.
Local custom and usage, as well as circumstances of each case, deter-
mine the meaning of the word sound, when it is applied to the sale and
warranty of horses, sheep, and cattle.
The general rule implies the absence of any disease in the animal at
the time which actually decreases its value or its natural usefulness.
There was a great difference, formerly, among judges, as to what consti-
tuted a breach of warranty of soundness, whether the disease must be
temporary or permanent in its nature.
The law in Ontario follows the English rule, which seems logical and
reasonable, and that is :—
Any infirmity which renders an animal unfit in any degree for present
use, is unsoundness. In the case of Elton v. Brogden, 4 Camp. 281, it
634 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
was proved that the horse was lame at the time of sale, but the defend-
ant undertook to prove that the lameness was of a temporary nature,
and that the animal had become sound. The presiding justice said : ‘‘I
have always held, and hold now, that a warranty of soundness is broken
if the animal, at the time of sale, had any infirmity upon him which ren-
dered him unfit for present service. It is not necessary that the dis-
order should be permanent or incurable. While a horse has a cough he
is unsound, whether that proves temporary or mortal. The horse in
question having been lame at the time of sale, when he was warranted
sound, his condition subsequently is no defense to the action.”’
This doctrine has long been followed in Ontario and some of the other
provinces. Oliphant in his work on horses says: ‘‘ We may define a
horse to be sound when he is free from hereditary disease, and in the
possession of his natural and constitutional health, and has as much bod-
ily perfection as is consistent with his natural formation.”’
The rule as to unsoundness is, that if, at the time of sale, the horse
has any disease which actually does diminish the natural usefulness of
the animal so as to make him less capable of work of any description,
or which in its ordinary progress will diminish the natural usefulness
of the animal, or if the horse has, either from disease or from accident,
undergone any alteration of structure that either actually does at the
time or in its ordinary effects will diminish the natural usefulness of the
horse, such a horse is unsound. This rule applies to cases of disease and
accident which from their nature are only temporary, it not being nec-
essary that the disorder should be permanent and incurable.
The horse suffering from acute disease such as fever, inflammation, etc.,
would be beyond dispute unsound during the time he is affected by
them.
A vice is a bad habit, and a bad habit to constitute a vice must either
be shown in the temper of the horse so as to make him dangerous or
diminish his natural usefulness, or it must be a habit decidedly injurious
to his health. (Scholfield v. Robb, 2 M. & R. 210.)
Whether a certain thing renders a horse unsound depends on circum-
stances. For instance: ifa horse had a slight pimple on the skin, it
would not amount to an unsoundness, but even if such a thing as a pimple
were on some part of the body where it might have the effect of impair-
ing its natural usefulness, as, for instance, on the part which would pre-
vent the putting a saddle or bridle on the animal it would be different.
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 635
The question of vice or soundness is purely a jury question, and in
judging of it the jury must consider whether a horse warranted sound was
at the time of delivery unfit for immediate use to an ordinary person.
Lameness, temporary or permanent, constitutes unsoundness. The
law in regard to temporary disease is laid down in the following case :
On the trial of an action on the warranty of a horse, where evidence was
very contradictory, but a witness of the defendant’s admitted that he had
bandaged one of the fore legs of the horse, but not the other, because
the one was weaker than the other. Lord Ellenborough used practically
the same words as in the case of Elton v. Brogden cited above. ‘‘To
constitute unsoundness, it is not essential that the infirmity should be
of a permanent nature.’’ In a previous case it was said to have been
held that a warranty that a horse is sound is not false because a horse
labors under a temporary injury from an accident at the time the defend-
ant warranted it sound. But the warranty there appears to have been a
qualified one, because, when bargaining, the plaintiff observed that the
mare went rather lame on one leg. The defendant replied that it had
been occasioned by her taking up a nail at the farrier’s and, except as to
that lameness, she was perfectly sound.
WHAT CONSTITUTES A WARRANTY.
It is not necessary that any particular form of words should be used to
create a warranty. The word ‘‘warrant’’ may not be used at all, nor
the word ‘‘soundness.’’ Thus: The seller of the horse who says he is
all right in every respect, or similar words, indicates and expresses a war-
ranty. A statement at the time of sale of the horse that the animal
is of specified age is a warranty that he is no older, but any statement
that he is sound and right, or sound and perfect, will include a warranty.
The statement that a horse is well broken might or might not include a
warranty of gentleness, and the statement that the horse is sound every
way, perfectly gentle, would not be a guaranty that the horse is well
broken or suitable to plow or do any other particular work. The war-
ranty should not be construed beyond its reasonable signification, thus :
A bill of sale of one gray horse five years old, which I warrant sound and
kind, is a warranty of soundness and kindness only, and the first expres-
sion is a matter of description. It is much better, both for the buyer and
seller, that the latter states whether he prefers to warrant or not ; because,
636 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
when nothing has been said on that point, a considerable degree of doubt
must frequently rest upon the case, and then it is only by interpreting
the expressions used at the time of sale that even an opinion can be
formed as to whether a warranty were ever intended. The general
rule is that whatever the vendor represents at the time of sale is a war-
ranty. Words, however, of expectation and estimate only do not amount
to a warranty.
The statement by the seller of a horse that ‘‘I never warrant, but he is
sound as far as I know,”’ is a qualified warranty, and an action for breach
of warranty. may be maintained upon it by the purchaser, if it can be
proved that the seller knew of the unsoundness. (Wood v. Smith, 4 c.
and p. 45.) Ifa person at the time of sale says: ‘‘ You may depend
upon it, the horse is perfectly quiet and free from vice,’’ it is a warranty.
If the horse is purchased for a particular purpose, and the seller knows
of that particular purpose, and declares that the horse is all right, such
a statement would amount to a warranty.
Representations antecedent to the contract as an inducement to buy
are not warranties unless included in the contract.
All affirmations made to a buyer as a ground of reliance are warranties.
(Stewart v. Jamieson, 1 M. 525. )
There was at one time a general opinion that a ‘‘sound price’’ given
for a horse was tantamount to a warranty of soundness, but Lord Mans-
field considered the doctrine to be so loose and unsatisfactory that he
rejected it and laid down the following rule: ‘‘ There must either be an
expressed warranty of soundness or fraud in the seller to maintain an
action.’’ (Parkinson v. Lee, 2 East 322. )
DEFECTS COVERED BY GENERAL WARRANTY.
A general warranty is an unconditional undertaking that a horse or
any other article really is what the warrantor professes it to be.
A general warranty of soundness, however, does not cover patent
defects — 7. ¢., defects which are so obvious that the buyer cannot help
observing them, but a buyer who knows of the defect cannot sue the
seller on the warranty. On the other hand, a buyer who relies on the
warranty, and omits to make a minute examination, is protected against
defects, which, though not apparent, may have been detected. In other
words : the patent defects which the warranty does not cover, and to
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 637
which the doctrine of caveat emptor (let the buyer beware) applies, must
be so manifest and palpable as to be necessarily within the knowledge of
the purchaser, and also such defects as at the time of sale either are or will
produce unsoundness. Whether a defect is patent or not is a question
for the consideration of the jury. Thus: in the case of a horse which
was warranted sound, and was shortsighted from a peculiarity of the
cornea that induces the habit of shying. Lord Campbell observed that
this was not a defect which the purchaser was bound to have observed.
Again where an action was brought on the purchase of a race horse, war-
ranted ‘‘sound in wind and limb at this time,’’ two defects, viz., crib-
biting and a splint, were both discussed before purchase. The horse
broke down, and on the case being tried the buyer obtained a verdict.
Tindal, C. J., in granting a new trial, said: ‘‘In this case no fraud or
deceit can be attributed to the defendant as the horse's defect was mani-
fest, the splint not only being apparent, but made the subject of discus-
sion before the bargain was made * * * and the learned judge left
it to the jury to say whether the horse was fit for ordinary purposes. His
direction would have been less subject to misapprehension if he had left
it to them, in the terms of the warranty, to say whether the horse was at
the time of the bargain sound in wind and limb, saving those manifest
and visible defects which were known to the parties.’’ (Margetson v.
Wright, 7 Bing. 603. )
Although the loss of an eye is a breach of warranty of soundness
which has been laid down, that, ‘‘ Where one buys a horse upon war-
ranting him to have both his eyes, and he have but one eye, he is remedi-
less, for it is a thing which lies in his own cognizance, and such a war-
ranty or affirmation is not material nor to be regarded.’’ But this seems
to assume that the eye has entirely disappeared, or has been so obviously
damaged that it must lie in the cognizance of the buyer, and nothing is
said with regard to loss of sight where there is little apparent injury to
the eye, for a horse may appear to the majority of people perfect in his
eyes, and yet have lost sight of one or both.
If a person purchases a horse, knowing it to be blind, he cannot sue the
seller on a general warranty of soundness, although he warranted the ani-
mal to be sound in every respect. (Margetson v. Wright, 5 M. & P.
610. )
Where a buyer suspects some defect and wishes to examine and try
the horse for it, but the seller objects and says, ‘‘I will warrant him,”’
638 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
he is liable for the defect. For where an action on the case was brought
when a horse warranted sound had turned out ‘‘shoulder-tied’’ it was
contended that an action would not lie because the defect was visible.
But Sir Henry Montague, C. J., said: ‘ This was the ground, that the
plaintiff wished to have ridden the horse,’’ but the defendant said, ‘‘I
will warrant him sound,’’ and Noy, J., said, ‘‘ That is the distinction,
where the defect is visible.’’ (Dorrington v. Edwards, 2 Rol. 188.)
In the United States a general warranty was held to extend to patent
defects, where access to the horse was prevented by the seller by
means of a trick, the buyer being unaware of the defect. This is un-
doubtedly correct, as the maxim, caveat empior, would not apply to such
acase. (Margetson v. Wright, 5 M. & P. 610.)
But to warrant a thing that may be perceived by sight is not good.
(Bailey v. Merrell, 3 Bulst. 95. )
DEFECTS WHICH CONSTITUTE UNSOUNDNESS OF HORSES.
Glanders, corns, bone-spavins, blindness, or any organic defect, back-
ing when a confirmed habit, biting when dangerous, crib-biting, affecting
the health, have been held by various courts to constitute unsoundness.
Bad formation which does not produce disease or lameness at the time of
sale is not usually considered unsoundness.
WATER RIGHTS.
Every owner of land upon a natural stream of water has a right to use
the water for any reasonable purpose, if it does not interfere with similar
rights that are vested in the owners of the land above, below, or beside
him. He may take water to supply his dwelling or water his land, or
for the use of his cattle, may use it for manufacturing purposes, such as
running water wheels or supplying steam boilers, so long as the amount
taken does not injuriously affect the volume, but it is the mere privilege
that goes with the land and not of the water itself. If the stream is very
small and does not supply water more than enough to answer the natural
wants of the different owners living on the stream, no one of them can
use the water for free irrigation or manufacturing, thereby depriving the
other owners of its use. But for domestic purposes or watering the
stock he would be justified in consuming all the water. Chief Justice
Shaw states the general doctrine as follows: ‘‘ Every person through
whose land a flowage of water courses, such person has a right to the
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 639
benefit of it, as it passes through his land, to all useful purposes to which
it may be applied, and no proprietor of land on the same water-course has a
right to prevent it from flowing through his premises, or obstructing it in
passing them, or to curb or destroy it.”’
DIVERSION OF WATER.
Every person who owns land situated upon a stream has the following
rights: First, to the natural flow of the stream; second, that the stream
should continue to run in its natural channel; third, that it should flow
upon his land in its usual quantity, and in its natural place; fourth, that
it should flow off his land upon the land of his neighbor in its accustomed
place, and at its usual level. These rights he has, and cannot be
deprived of them, so the owner of property should not make a change in
the flow of the stream that would materially injure any other owner
situated upon it, or interfere with the stream flowing as it is its wont to
flow, or he will be responsible for the damage it will occasion. Of
course these rights are subject to the privilege of each owner to make
reasonable use of the water while it is passing through his land. A
diversion of the stream may be made by the owner of the land if it is
returned to its natural channel before it leaves his premises.
Diversion of Water Beneath the Surface. If the owner of land
without any intention of injuring his neighbor, and while making use of
his land for any lawful purpose, cuts off hidden currents, though he de-
stroys altogether the use of water which has no visible course, but has
been accustomed to flow into the land of his neighbor, an action cannot
be maintained against him for the diversion or stoppage of such water.
He may, therefore, drain the land, dig a well, open and work a mine, al-
though by so doing he may cut off the supply of water of the springs and
wells in his vicinity. But where the course of a stream is well known,
and it leaves the surface at some point and flows for a distance beneath
the surface, then emerges again, the owner of the land lower down upon
the stream has the same right as he would have if the stream remained en-
tirely above the ground.
MILL PRIVILEGES.
A person who has a natural stream of water flowing through his land,
has a right to use the water for mills, provided he does not cut off the
water from those living down the stream, and he is not liable for an ac-
640 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
tion for using and obstructing the water for his mill ; for which it appears
that the dam is of the size that is adapted to the capacity of the stream
and quantity of water usually flowing therein, and that his mode of using
the water is not unusual or unreasonable, and is in accordance with the
general custom of the country in the case of dams upon similar streams.
In Ontario laws have been passed for the erection of mills by authorizing
the owners and occupants through summary proceedings, to take land
of other persons, by paying such damages as may be legally assessed.
POLLUTION OF WATER.
Every owner of land through which a stream of water flows has a
right to the use of the water in its natural state, and is liable if he renders
the water unwholesome, or unfit for purposes for which it is used, unless
he has acquired, by grant or otherwise, an adverse right against the lower
or adjoining owner.
Erecting cess-pool or depositing manure or obnoxious substance near
the stream would be such a wrong.
An action for damages is not the only remedy for the unlawful pollu-
tion ofa stream. The party thus wrongfully interfering may be restrained
by an order of any court having jurisdiction.
EASEMENT.
When a land owner places a house on the line of his lot, and eaves
project upon his neighbor’s land, as to throw the water from the roof
thereon, it is an encroachment upon the neighbor's lot to the extent, at
least, of the projection. One adjoining owner cannot legally subject
the lands of the other adjoining owner to the drip from the eaves of his
building.
LAND BOUNDED ON NAVIGABLE AND UNNAVIGABLE
WATERS.
By the common law of England, the proprietor of each bank of an
unnavigable stream is considered as, Arima _facée, the proprietor also of
half the land covered by the water. In the case of a navigable river, the
bed of it, so far at least as the tide of the sea flows, prima facie, belongs
to the crown,
The owner of the land abutting on a tidal navigable river has, jure
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 641
nature, a right of access toand from the stream wholly distinct from the
right of navigation, which he enjoys in common with the rest of the pub-
lic. There is no distinction in particular between riparian rights on the
banks of navigable, or tidal, and those of non-navigable rivers. In the
former case, however, there must be no interference with the public right
of navigation. (Lyon v. Fishmongers’ Co., 1 App. Cas. 662. )
SURFACE WATER AND DRAINAGE.
The water which flows upon the surface of the land, not gathered
in ponds or streams of running water, is usually designated ‘‘ surface
water.’’ It is somewhat difficult to distinguish between surface water, as
such, and running water, and perhaps the best way to distinguish it is to
ascertain what a running stream is. Where there is a channel or canal
which is made by a general contour of the surrounding land from which
the water is collected into one channel, it may be natural or artificial, it
flows, however, in a definite channel, having a bed and sides, and usually
discharges itself into some other stream. The water need not flow con-
tinuously therein, as there are many large rivers which are sometimes
dry, but they have a well-defined channel. The owner of the land has a
right to the surface water which runs in no definite channel, and he may
prevent its flow into a neighboring stream, thus: If there are two fields
adjoining each other, one lower than the other, the owner of the upper
field has a right to the water that flows on his land ; he need not let it
flow off from the same on the land below. The owner of the lower field
has the right to erect an embankment to stop the water from the upper
field from flowing upon it. But the owner of the upper field has not the
right to divert the flow of water from its natural channel and cause it to
make a new channel on the lower ground, nor can he collect into one
large stream waters usually flowing off into his neighbor’s fields by several
streams, and thus increasing the rush upon the lower field. The law has
always recognized a distinction between the right of the owner to control
the surface water which falls or collects on his lands, and his right to con-
trol water of a natural water course ; the owner of the land is admitted
to have an absolute property in the surface water before it leaves his land
and becomes a part of a definite water course, and he may appropriate it
to his own use or get rid of it in any way possible, provided he does not
collect it and cast it in a body upon the proprietor below him to his
injury. (Ostrom v. Sills, 24 A. R. 526.)
642 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
EMPLOYER AND LABORER.
There is a difference in some respects between a person employed to
work upon a farm, or as a domestic servant, and a person employed to
work inafactory. The laws of the country have regulated the number of
hours per day for many kinds of labor, but between the former laborer
and the farmer the hours of labor rest wholly upon contract, express or
implied. The laborer is bound to render the services and the farmer to
pay the price agreed upon, or the value thereof, if no arrangement is
made as to the price. It is essential that the parties have the legal
capacity to make a contract, otherwise the contract could not be enforced,
thus: If a boy under age hires for a specified time at a fixed price, he is
not bound by his contract, but may abandon it at any time, although he
cannot recover on his contract, yet he can recover what his services are
actually worth, and that without any deduction for damages for his breach
of contract. If there is no fixed period of employment agreed upon, the
period of notice or warning is to be governed by the wages or custom of
the trade, profession, or business. If there is no special agreement as to
price, the employer must pay a reasonable value for the services, depend-
ing on the current rate of wages for similar service at the same time and
place.
Contracts for More than a Year. Contracts for services which could
not be performed within a year, must, by the statute of frauds, be in
writing in order to belegally binding. In Britton v. Rossiter, 11 Q. B. D.,
it was held that a contract to serve for one year, the service to commence
on the second day after that on which the contract was made, was a con-
tract not to be performed within a year, and was within the fourth sec-
tion of the statute of frauds.
The agreement need not be in one writing ; it may be contained in
several documents which refer to each other, and which do not require
verbal evidence to show that they in fact refer to each other. (Cawthorne
v. Cordrey, 13 C. B. N. S. 406.)
If an oral contract is made to employ a laborer for a year, and the
contract may not be completed within the year, it is binding. But if the
performance of such contract is to commence at some future day it can-
not be enforced, yet it seems that an oral contract in which a laborer was
hired for a year, to begin the next day, is valid.
Enticing a Laborer Away from His Employer. When a person is
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 643
employed to labor on a farm or do any work, and the person entices,
hires, or persuades the laborer to leave the services during the time of
employment, the person who employs the help has the right of action for
recovery of damages against the person who enticed the laborer away,
and for all inconvenience and losses thereby suffered by the employer.
But attempting to entice a laborer away, unless damage is sustained, is
not actionable, nor can an action be sustained for inducing a laborer to
leave the employer’s services at the end of the time for which he was
hired, even though the laborer had no intention of leaving. .
Abandoning Service without Cause. When a laborer is hired for
a definite time, and before that time expires he leaves without cause, or
the consent of the employer, the laborer cannot recover any part of his
wages, because the contract is entire and performance is a condition prec-
edent toa right of recovery. Ifa man agrees to work a year for another
for a specified price per month, and by the terms of the agreement he is
to be paid each menth’s wages at the end of each month, he may sue for
and recover his wages at the end of the month. .
Abandoning Service for Cause. While the laborer has the right to
abandon service for cause, if the cause is sufficient to render the contract
voidable, he can collect his pay, yet he should not leave for trivial causes.
If the employer is to furnish board and lodging to the laborer asa part
of his contract, and he is not furnished with wholesome or sufficient food,
or suitable or comfortable lodgings, and the employer treats him improp-
erly by assaulting him, the laborer is justified in leaving. Being com-
pelled to work on Sunday, other than do the necessary farm work, such as
care of live animals, or the domestic servant in the house to prepare the
meals, and properly care for the milk, or any act of the employer that is
contrary to good morals, preventing reasonable comfort, safety, and
health, or that would injure the reputation of the laborer, would justify
the employed to abandon the service. Harsh language to the laborer,
and a difficulty with a co-laborer, would not justify the laborer in leaving.
It is a question for the jury to decide whether the laborer had a reason-
able excuse for leaving the service, and the burden of proof lies upon the
laborer, who must establish the fact. There are a great many instances
in which the laborer is justified in leaving the employer, but they could
not all be enumerated here. In every case where there is good cause the
laborer may leave and compel the farmer to pay for the time that he has
actually worked.
Farmer Liable on Laborer’s Contract. Any contract made by the
laborer in the course of his employment, about the farmer’s business, is
binding upon the farmer, provided it is within the scope of the authority
conferred or implied from the employer’s conduct. Thus: A house-
maid is engaged to work about the house, she is in the habit of purchas-
ing the family’s supplies, and she buys such supplies in the name of the
farmer, the farmer is compelled to pay for them, even if she has no order
644 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
to buy, and was in so buying defrauding her principal, and obtaining
goods for herself, provided this was or had been the custom about the
employer's place. But if a man is employed in farm work, and is not
connected with the household work, and never been permitted by the
farmer to make any purchases, he could not bind the farmer by going to
the store and buying goods simply because he was a laborer and pretend-
ing to have authority. If he has the authority and has purchased goods
at a certain place, the employer will be bound by his acts, unless he
notifies the parties from whom he had formerly purchased that he will be
no longer responsible. But the laborer who so purchased without the
consent or directions of his employer is criminally liable.
Liability of Employer for Injury Committed by his Employee.
Where the employee is working within the scope of his employment, even
though the farmer does not authorize, or even know, a laborer’s act, he
will be held responsible for any injury accruing through the negligence,
fraud, deceit, or even willful misconduct of the laborer.
Discharging for Cause. Before the employer can discharge his
laborer, there must be a sufficient cause to discharge the employer from
hability for future wages, or justify the dismissal ; there must be, on the
part of the laborer, either willful disobedience of the lawful orders, or
immoral conduct, or habitual negligence. To illustrate an instance of
the first: If, where the farmer ordered the laborer to go with his team
a long distance just as dinner was ready, and he refused to go until after
he had had his dinner. But in most cases, where the misconduct is
slight and is the first offense, there is a strong tendency to excuse the
laborer. Still, willful disobedience of the lawful command, as well as
insulting language used by the laborer, is generally considered good
ground for discharge. If the laborer is immoral, or habitually drunk, or
embezzles, or commits fraudulent acts toward his employer, his dismissal
would be justifiable. Unwarranted absence, or neglect in discharging his
duties, thereby causing loss or injury to his employer, would justify the
same course, even though the laborer did not intend to cause damage.
Dismissing Laborers. If the master should, without just cause, turn
a servant under a monthly contract away without notice, the latter would
be able to recover a month’s wages beyond the arrears.
Liability of the Laborer to the Farmer for Misconduct. If the
laborer by negligence, carelessness, or misconduct in doing the work, or
executing orders, causes loss to the employer, or if a third person has re-
covered damages from the employer because of the acts of the employee,
the employee will be liable to the farmer and he must also pay for prop-
erty willfully broken or damaged.
Termination of Services. If the service is dissolved at the expira-
tion of the term for which the person is hired, either by mutual consent,
by the death of either party, or by the employed being unable to per-
form his duty on aecount of some permanent disability, the farmer must
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 645
pay for the services rendered up to the time of the termination of the
services, and, in case of death, personal representatives of the laborer are
entitled to recover from the employer what the services were reasonably
worth,
BOUNDARIES AND FENCES,
Under the laws of Ontario, every conveyance of land must be in writ-
ing, and this conveyance should accurately describe the land intended to
be conveyed, so that its boundaries from the deed may be correctly de-
termined, and so clear and comprehensive that the parcel conveyed may
be distinguished and separated from all other land. UH the description is
hopelessly uncertain, the conveyance will be void, and no title will pass.
The boundaries are usually determined by monuments, courses, distance,
and quantity of land conveyed. The monuments will control courses
and distances, and courses and distances will control the quantity of land.
This, however, is not the invariable rule ; natural monuments, naturally
permanent, are the most reliable, such as trees, streams, ponds and
lakes, beaches and shores, and also walls, fences, streets, and highways
are regarded as reliable monuments. Frequently an adjoining farm is
referred to as a monument in the description of the land conveyed, and
monuments consisting of stakes and stones, when placed, will control
courses and distances.
The general rule is where land is described as bounded by a stream
which is non-navigable, the center of the stream is the line, and when
described and bounded on the bank or the shore of the stream, then the
bank or shore is the boundary. If the stream is navigable, in which the
tide ebbs and flows, the boundary is high-water mark on the shore. In
those places in which there are large navigable rivers in which the tide
does not ebb and flow, the boundary line is held to be low-water mark ;
in either case the upland proprietor has a right as appurtenant to his land
to erect wharves and piers extending to low-water mark, or into the
channel of the stream, subject to the supervision of the government for
the benefit of the public, and as an appurtenance to said lands, the owner
has a right toa passageway to and from the main channel of the river.
Lands bounded by arms of thesea run only to high-water mark. Where
land is bounded by a highway or street, where the crown or municipality
does not own the bed of the road and the description in the deed is
“bounded on,’”’ ‘running along,’’ ‘‘bounded by the highway,’’ and
the like, the boundary line is the center of the highway. If the land is
described as bounded by the side of the street, or if there are words in
the description indicating an intent to exclude the soil of the street,
then the near edge of the roadway will be the boundary. Ifa highway
is referred to as the boundary, the actual line, as the road is laid out, will
be taken as the true line of the street. In Ontario highways are vested
in the crown or municipality.
.
646 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
Where the boundary lines are made certain they control the distance,
directions, and contents of the piece of land, unless there are discrepancies
in the deed so great as to show fraud on one part or the other, or mistake.
Parol evidence cannot be given to contradict a deed.
At the close of the description it is usual to add, ‘‘ be the same more
or less,’’ which is intended to protect the grantor in case the land con-
veyed should be less than the quantity specified, but this will be no pro-
tection where fraud or mistake can be shown with reference to the
quantity of land intended to be conveyed.
In the Province of Ontario it.is provided by statute that where two or
more persons have land adjoining, each of them shall make and maintain
a just proportion of the fence which marks the boundary between them.
In case of dispute between owners respecting such proportion the follow-
ing proceedings shall be adopted: —
Either owner may notify the other owner or the occupant of the land
of the owner so to be notified that he will in not less than one week from
the service of such notice cause three fence viewers of the locality to
arbitrate in the premises. The owners so notified shall also notify the
fence viewers not less than one week before their services are required.
The notices in both cases shall be in writing, signed by the person
notifying, and shall specify the time and place of meeting for the arbi-
tration, and may be served by leaving the same at the place of abode of
such owner or occupant, with some grown up person residing thereon, or,
in case of the lands being untenanted, by leaving the notice with any
agent of such owner. An occupant who is not the owner so notified,
shall immediately notify the owner, and, if he neglects so to do, shall be
liable for all damage caused to the owner by such neglect. The owners
notified may within a week object to any or all of the fence viewers noti-
fied, and in case of disagreement the County judge shall name the fence
viewers who are to arbitrate.
The fence viewers shall examine the premises, and, if required by
either party, shall hear evidence, and may examine under oath the
parties and their witnesses, and shall make an award signed by any two
of them, which award shall specify the locality, quantity, description, and
the lowest price of the fence it orders to be made, and the time in which
the work shall be done, and shall state by which of the said parties the
cost of said proceedings shall be paid, or in what proportion the same
shall be paid. In making the award the fence viewers shall regard the
nature of the fences in use in the locality, the pecuniary circumstances of
the persons between whom they arbitrate, and generally the suitableness
of the fence ordered to the wants of each party. Where, from the forma-
tion of the ground by reason of streams or other cause, it is found im-
possible to locate the fence upon the line between the parties, it shall be
lawful for the fence viewers to locate the said fence either wholly or par-
tially on the land of either of the said parties where to them it seems to be
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 647
most convenient, but such location shall not in any way affect the title of
the land.
The award may be enforced by a person so desiring by serving a notice
upon the other to obey the award, and, if it be not obeyed within one
month, he may do the work which the award directs, and may recover
judgment in the Division Courts for its value and the costs.
Instead of issuing execution upon such judgment, however, he may
obtain a certificate from the clerk of the Division Court of the amount
due for debt and costs. Upon filing such certificate with the clerk
of the municipality, the amount so certified shall be placed on the col-
lector’s roll, and the same may be collected in the same manner as taxes.
OVERHANGING TREES.
A tree growing near a boundary line, though the roots extend into the
land of an adjoining owner and derive nourishment therefrom, is the prop-
erty of the owner of the land upon which the trunk stands, and such
owner is entitled to such fruit produced upon its branches overhanging
the adjoining lands. If force should be used by the adjoining owner to
prevent the owner of the tree from reaching over and picking the fruit
from the overhanging branches, he would have a right of action against
the party so interfering with him.
In the case of Millen v. Fawdry, Latch 119, the defendant entered the
plaintiff's land to get apples which the wind had shaken off the defend-
ant’s trees into the plaintiff's close. The latter brought an action for tres-
pass, but it was held that the defendant was not liable, but it appears that
it would have been otherwise if the defendant had shaken the trees
and had thereby caused the apples to have fallen into the plaintiffs
close.
Where branches of a tree growing upon the land of one owner over-
hang that of another, the owner of the land encroached upon may, with-
out notice to his neighbor, cut so much of the branches as overhang
his land, provided he can do so without going on his neighbor’s land.
It is a question whether the law would be the same in case of young
trees or shrubs which might be transplanted. The owner of a tree cannot
acquire the right for it to overhang his neighbor’s land either by prescrip-
tion or the Statute of Limitation. (Lemon v. Wedd, 1895 A. C. 1.)
Trees Poisonous to Animals. The owner of a farm is liable for
damage caused by a tree that is poisonous to animals, where the branches
hang over the division line and poison cattle or sheep upon the adjoining
land: but if cattle break through the fence which belongs to the owner of
the cattle to build and maintain, and escape to poisonous trees which
are distant from the boundary line, and are injured thereby, the owner
of the land is not liable, because the cattle are wrongfully upon the
premises.
648 LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
In Ontario it is provided by statute that if any tree is thrown down or
otherwise across a line or division fence, or in any way in or upon the
property adjoining that upon which such tree stood, thereby causing
damage to the crop upon such property or to such fence, it shall be the
duty of the proprietor or occupant of the premises on which such tree
theretofore stood to remove the same forthwith, and also forthwith to
repair the fence and otherwise to make good any damage caused by the
falling of such tree.
By the Ontario Tree Planting Act it is also enacted that: —
A person owning land adjacent to any highway, public street, lane,
alley, place, or square, in this Province, may plant trees on the portion
thereof contiguous to his land, but no tree shall be planted so that the
same is or may become a nuisance in the highway or other public
thoroughfare, and obstruct the fair and reasonable use of the same. Any
owner of a farm or lot may, with the consent of the owner or owners of
adjoining lands, plant trees on the boundaries of the adjoining lot. Every
tree so planted on such highway shall be deemed to be the property of
the owners of the land adjoining to such highway, and every such tree
planted on a boundary line as aforesaid shall be deemed to be the common
property of the owners of the adjoining farms or lots.
The Council of every municipality may pass by-laws to regulate the
planting of trees upon the public highways, to prohibit planting on such
highways, of any species of trees which they may deem unsuited for that
purpose ; to provide for the removal of trees which may be planted on
the public highway contrary to the provisions of any such by-law. And
to provide for the payment out of the municipal funds a bonus or pre-
mium not exceeding 25 cents for each Ash, Basswood, Beech, Birch,
Butternut, Cedar, Cherry, Chestnut, Elm, Hickory, Maple, Pine, Sassa-
fras, Spruce, Walnut, or Whitewood tree, planted under the provisions
of this act, within such municipality on any highway or on any boundary
line of farms aforesaid, or within six feet of such boundary.
A penalty not exceeding $25.00 is also imposed on any one tying any
animal to any tree planted as aforesaid.
The Law in Regard to Manure. As between lessor and lessee the
implied obligation on the part of the lessee to use the premises in a hus-
bandlike manner will be broken, if it be shown that manure has been car-
ried off the premises without any agreement to that effect having been
entered into. (Powley v. Walker, 5 T. R. 373.)
A lessee covenanted to use upon the demised premises all the straw
and manure which should be made thereupon, and it was held that the
lessor was entitled to recover for manure removed from the premises at
the expiry of the term, but not for the manure made thereafter, while
the lessee, a married woman, was overholding. (Elliott v. Elliott, 20
O. R. 134, and Shire v. Shire 22 C. P. 147.)
In New Brunswick it is not contrary to the course of good husbandry
LEGAL DEPARTMENT. 649
to remove manure from the farm, and, in the absence of any custom or
established agreement to the contrary, the outgoing tenant has a right
to the manure lying in heaps in the barnyard, and may take it away as
a personal chattel after the end of the term. (Foshay v. Barnes, 12
N. B. R. 450.)
A covenant not to remove produce, like hay, straw, and manure, from
the demised premises is one that, APART FROM CUSTOM, will not —at
least as respects hay and straw — be implied, as against the tenant. An
undertaking not to remove manure from a farm means manure produced
on the farm, and applies to all such manure, though the provender fed
to the animals comes from elsewhere. An undertaking not to remove
hay, straw, or other dry fodder of the growth of the premises is not
restricted to produce which can properly be spoken of as fodder, but
applies even to hay unfit as food for cattle.
A covenant not to sell or remove from a farm during the last year of
the term, any hay, straw, or fodder which should arise and grow thereon
prevents the tenant from removing during the last year, hay, etc., which
has arisen and grown at any time during the term, and not merely dur-
ing the last year.
BARBED WIRE FENCE.
By the Municipal Act R. S. O., 1897 c. 223, it is enacted, that: by-
laws may be passed by the Councils of the municipalities :—
For settling the height and description of lawful fences, and for regu-
lating and settling the height, description, and manner of maintaining,
keeping up, and laying down fences along highways or any part or parts
thereof.
For regulating the height, extent, and description of lawful division
fences. But until such by-laws are made ‘‘The Line Fences Act’’ (here-
tofore mentioned) shall continue applicable to the municipality.
For providing proper and sufficient protection against injury to per-
sons or animals by fences constructed wholly or in part of barbed wire or
any other material ; and in towns and cities for wholly prohibiting the
construction or erection along streets and public places, or fences made
wholly or in part of barbed wire or any other barbed material.
It will then be seen that a farmer’s right to construct barbed wire
fences depends upon the by-laws of the municipality in which he lives.
It seems that in this country the removal of a fence on a farm from one
place to another is not, in itself, as a matter of law, a breach of a covenant
to repair and keep fences in repair, and, whether it is so or not, would be
a question of fact under the circumstances of each case. When the lessor
accepted rent after such a removal, with knowledge of it : Held, a waiver
of the forfeiture, if any, and that he could not afterwards claim to reénter
for the continuance of the fence in its altered position as a breach of the
covenant. (Leighton v. Medley, 1 O. R. 207.)
GLOSSARY.
AB-LAC-TA-TION. A weaning cr cessation from suckling.
AB-DO-MEN. The part of the body below the diaphragm, which cor:-
tains the stomach, liver, and intestines.
AB-LU-TION. Washing or cleansing the external part of the body.
AB-NOR-MAL. That which is not natural nor regular. Contrary to
nature.
A-BOR-TION. The casting of young before the proper time. If the
young is cast at a time previous to full feetal development, yet is
capable of living, it is called a premature birth.
A-BRA-SION. A wearing away by contact or rubbing, as rubbing off
the surface of the skin, often producing galls.
AB-RUPT. Quick, sudden; an abrupt turn or twist in the intestines
may cause strangulation of the parts.
As-scess. A swelling and its cavity containing pusor matter. <A cav-
ity containing pus.
AB-SORB-ENT. In anatomy those glands and vessels which imbibe or
suck np liquids, as the lacteals. In medicine any substance that
absorbs either liquid or acid. As absorbent cotton, used to take up
and hold the liquid produced by blisters, and chalk and magnesia
used to absorb the acid in the stomach.
A-cHo-LI-A. A deficiency of bile.
A-crp. Sour, sharp, or biting to the taste. The last fermentation
before the putrid.
A-CID-U-LATE. To make slightly sour, as with lemons, vinegar, or any
other acid.
Ac-RIp. Verysharp, pungent, biting, irritating, as the strong acids.
A-CUTE. Severe, sharp. In diseases, those which run a course and
end; in contra-distinction to chronic.
Ac-TUAL Cau-TER-Y. The productioa ot an immediate effect, by sear-
ing or burning with a hot iron. In contra-distinction to the effect
of escharotic (blister) as a caustic application,
GLOSSARY. 651
AD-HE-SIVE. Sticky, tenacious. A plaster used to stick to the edges
of a wound and hold them in position is called an Adhesive
Plaster.
AD-I-POSE. Matter, membrane or tissue. Usually applied to the fatty
tissues of the body.
AD-JU-vANT. A substance added to a prescription to aid the operation
of the principal ingredient.
AL-BU-MEN. An essential constituent of animal bodies. ‘The white of
an egg is nearly all pure albumen.
AL-I-MEN-TA-RY Ca-NaL. The tube or passage through the body to
convey the food. It consists of the mouth, pharynx, esophagus,
stomach, (stomachs in ruminants) small and large intestines.
AL-KA-LI. A substance that neutralizes acids by uniting them. An
alkaline substance will turn red litmus to blue.
AL-TER-A-TIVE. A remedy that changes a morbid condition of the
functions into one of health. A medicine that restores healthy
functions without sensible evacuations of the bowels, or other sen-
sible secretions.
AL-VE-O-LAR Pro-cess. The part of the maxillary bones into which
the teeth are inserted.
Am-nr-or-1c Lig-urp. The fluid surrounding the the foetus in the
womb. ‘The amniotic sac is the sac containing the foetus.
AN-ES-THET-IC. That which produces insensibility to pain. Chloro-
roform, ether, opium, etc.
AN-Eu-RISM. A soft pulsating, hollow tumor, containing blood arising
from an enlargement or rupture of the walls of an artery. When
in the brain it causes paralysis.
AN-O-DYNE. Any medicine that eases pain, as a narcotic or opiate;
anything that soothes disturbed functions and feelings.
AntT-ac-Ip. A substance that neutralizes acids. In medicine a remedy
for ascidity of the stomach, often called an absorbent.
AN-THEL-MIN-TIC. A medicine used to destroy or expel worms from
the body.
AN-THRAX. A malignant pustule or carbuncle. It is also used to des-
ignate an infectious disease of sheep and cattle. It may be trans-
mitted to man by means of sores on his hands or body coming in
contact with the spores of the disease.
AN-TI-DOTE. A remedy to counteract the effect of poisons, or of any-
thing noxious taken into the stomach.
652 GLOSSARY.
An-tr-sep-Tic. Anything that counteracts or prevents putrefacation or
decay. ‘There are spores in the air that attack wounds and cause
rotting or putrefaction. Antiseptic surgery uses applications to
prevent these spores from living in the wounds.
AN-TI-SPAS-MOD-Ic. Medicines that relieve spasms, stich as cramps
and convulsions.
A-nus. ‘The posterior opening of the alimentary canal, through which
the excrements are expelled.
A-or-TA. ‘The great artery which carries the blood from the heart to
all parts of the body except the lungs; the main trunk of the arte-
rial system.
A-PE-RI-ENT. A medicine that gently moves or opens the bowels; sim-
ply a laxative.
Ar-o-mMaAtT-Ic. A plant, drug, or medicine characterized by a fragrant
smell, and usually by a warm pungent taste, as ginger, cinnamon
and spices.
AS-CAR-I-DES. A parasitic worm often occuring in the human intes-
tines also in the domestic animals.
As-c1-TES. Dropsy of the peritoneum. A collection of serous fluid in
the cavity of the abdomen.
As-pHyx-IA. Apparent death or suspended animation; the condition
which results from drowning or inhaling irrespirable or poisonous
gases. See Carbon-monoxide.
AS-SIM-I-LA-TION. The changing of nutriment into the fluid or solid
substance of the body, by the processes of digestion and absorption,
whether in plants or animals.
AS-TRIN-GENT. A medicine or other substance that produces contrac-
tion in the soft organic textures, and checks the discharges of
blood, mucus, etc.
AU-RI-CLES. The two chambers of the heart into which the blood is re-
ceived and transmitted to the ventricles, from which it is forced
through the arteries to the various parts of the body.
Aus-cuL-Ta-Tion. An examination by listening either directly by ap-
plying the ear to the parts of the body, as the chest or abdomen, or
with the stethoscope, in order to distinguish sounds recognized asa
sign of health or disease.
Bat-sam-ics. Medicines employed for healing purposes. Soft, sooth-
ing, mitigating remedies,
GLOSSARY. 653
BIL-IA-RY. Relating or belonging to bile. Biliary calculus, a gall-stone
or a concretion formed in the gall bladder or gall ducts.
BLIS-TER. A thin bladder on the skin, containing watery matter or
serum. It may be occasioned by a burn or other injury or by a
vesicatory. Also applied to the plaster of Spanish fly or other mat-
ter used to raise the blister.
Bovu-cir. A long, flexible instrument, that is introduced into the
urethra, esophagus, etc., to remove obstructions or keep the duct
open or to enlarge it.
BRIGHT’s Drs-Ease. An affection of the kidneys usually inflammatory
in character, and distinguished by the occurrence of albumen and
renal casts in the urine. Named after Dr. Bright of London who
first described it.
BrRon-cHI. The plural of bronchus. The bronchi consist of two pri-
mary subdivisions of the trachea or windpipe.
BRON-CHI-AL. Pertaining to the bronchi. Bronchial arteries, branches
of the descending aorta that accompany the bronchi in all their di-
visions. Bronchial cells, the air cells terminating the bronchi.
Bronchial tubes, usually applied to the secondary and other sub-
divisions of the bronchi.
Cat-cu-11. Any solid concretion found in any part of the body, but
most frequently found in some hollow organ that acts as a reservoir.
Calculi in the stomach, often found in miller’s horses, and biliary
calculi, found, in gall bladders and bile ducts, and urinary calculi,
found in the kidneys and bladder.
Can-nu-LA. A small tube of metal, wood, or India rubber used for var-
ious purposes, especially for withdrawing liquids and allowing gases
to escape. It is usually accompanied with a trocar, a sharp pointed
instrument which just fills the opening of the tube. After insertion
the trocar is withdrawn, which allows the liquid or gas to pass
through the hollow tube.
Cap-1L-LA-RyY. A minute thin walled vessel, which holds both arteries
and veins. In these minute vessels the blood gives off its oxygen
which unites with the carbon of the surrounding tissues forming
carbon-dioxide, thus producing heat. The blood thus being changed
from arterial to veinous (red to blue). Here is also deposited the
nourishment that unites with the various tissues causing them to be
renewed, and from these organs the blood receives the waste ma-
terial of tissues.
654. GLOSSARY.
Car-BON-D1-ox-IDE. ‘The result of the union of oxygen and carbon in
complete combustion. ‘Two parts of oxygen uniting with one part
of carbon. It is the gas which is found in wells and mines, and
is produced and given off by burning of kerosene and oil
lamps. It is also given off from the lungs while breathing. It
is colorless gas, slightly heevier than air, and will produce suffoca-
tion and death if the air contains a large percentage of the gas.
Large lamps and oil-stoves burning in a room, requirea large amount
of ventilation to keep the air pure.
Car-BON-Mo-Nox-IDE. ‘This is also a union of carbon and oxygen, but
is formed as a product of partial combustion, as when the dampers
of a coal stove are closed and not enough oxygen is supplied for
complete combustion. It is seen above the coal in a blue flame. It
will penetrate even iron, is poisonous and very dangerous. Avoid
closing the dampers in the stove pipes as this often causes it to pass
out into the room during the night, causing the sleeping persons to be-
come asphyxiated.
Ca-RI-ES. Ulceration of the bone. A process in which the bone is car-
ried away in pieces, in contra-distinction to Necrosis in which it
dies in masses.
CAR-MIN-A-TIVE. A medicine especially an aromatic which tends to
expel wind from the alimentary canal or to relieve colic, griping or
flatulence.
Ca-ROT-ID AR-TE-RIES. The two main arteries of the neck, by which
the blood is conveyed from the aorta to the head. They are divided
into the right and the left.
Cat-a-pLasm. A soft and moist substance applied externally to some
part of the body; a poultice.
Ca-TARRH. Any inflammatory affection of any mucous membranes, in
which there are congestion, swelling, and an alteration of the secre-
tions, as catarrh or cold in the head, catarrh of the stomach, catarrh
of the bladder, ete.
Ca-THAR-Tic. A medicine that promotes discharges from the bowels, a
purge; a purgative of moderate activity.
CATH-E-TER. The name of various instruments for passing into mucous
canals, especially applied to the tubular instrument to be introduced
into the bladder through the,urethra to draw off the urine.
Caus-ric. Any substance which, when applied to flesh of auimals will
burn, corrode, or destroy it by chemical action; an escharotic.
GLOSSARY. 655
Cau-TER-y. A burning or searing of morbid flesh, with a hot iron, or
by application of a caustic that will burn, corrode or destroy
the animal tissue. Also applied to the iron or agent used in
cauterizing.
CER-E-BRO-SPI-NAL. Pertaining to the central nervous system, con-
sisting of the brain and spinal cord.
CHOL-A-GoGuE. A medicine that promotes the discharge of bile from
the system.
Curon-ic. A disease that is of long continuauce or progresses slowly,
in distinction from an acute disease which speedily terminates.
Ci-ca-TRIx. The part that forms over a wound or break in continuity
and completes the process of healing. It subsequently contracts and
becomes white, forming a scar.
CLYS-TER. A liquid injected into the lower intestines; a rectum injec-
tion; an enema.
Co-Lton. The part of the large intestines which extends from the caecum
to the rectum.
CON-GES-TION. An overfullness of the capillary and other blood-vessels,
in any locality or organ.
CoN-STI-PA-TION. A state of the bowels in which the evacuations are
infrequent and difficult, or the intestines become clogged with waste,
matter.
CoR-RO-SIVE. Medically it is those substances which act either directly
by destroying the parts or indirectly by causing inflammation and
gangrene.
CouUN-TER-IR-RI-TA-TION. To cause irritation in one part to relieve
disease in another.
De-coc-Trons. An extract of the virtues of a body obtained by boiling
it in water.
DEG-LU-TI-TION. ‘The act or process of swallowing food; the power of
swallowing.
DEL-E-TE-RI-ouS. That which is hurtful, noxious, destructive, or per-
nicious. Liable to do injury.
DE-MUL-CEN’rSs. Substances usually of a mucilaginous or oily nature.
Supposed to be capable of soothing an inflamed membrane. Gum
Arabic, glycerine, and olive oil are demulcents.
D1-A-PHO-RET-Ics. "Those that increase the insensible perspiration.
They differ from Sudorifics as the latter increases the sensible per-
spiration or sweat.
656 GLOSSARY,
Dis-cu-Trent. Medicine that serves to disperse morbid matter. Any
remedy that serves to scatter a swelling or tumor or any coagulated
fluid of the blood.
Dis-In-FEC-TANT. An agent that chemically destroys infectious, con-
tagious or deleterious matter.
Di-u-ret-Ics. A medicine that increases the secretion of urine.
B-LEc-ru-ary. A medicine composed of powder or other ingredients
mixed with honey or syrups.
E-MA-CI-A-TED. ‘The state of being reduced to an excessively lean con-
dition. Wasted away in flesh.
Em-Bry-o. The young of an animal in the womb, or more specifically,
before its parts are developed and it becomes a foetus.
Em-MEN-A-GoGUE. <A medicine that that promotes or hastens the men-
strual discharge.
EN-TE-RI-TIS. A inflammation of the intestines.
Ep-1-GLot-ris. A lidlike cartilage that closes over the glottis while
food or drink is passing through the pharynx. It is open except
when pressed back or down in the act of swallowing. It is only
found in mammals.
Ep-I-THE-LI-UM. The superficial layer of cells lining the alimentary ca-
nal and all its appendages, all glands and ducts, blood vessels and
lymphatics. It is often used to include the epidermis and it is
sometimes restricted to the alimentary canal.
Ex-uc-TA-TION. The act of belching or gulping wind or gases from the
stomach.
Es-cHa-rot-Ic. A substance that produces a dry slough, crust or scab
which separates from the healthy part of the body, as that produced
by a burn or the application of caustics. .
Ex-AC-ER-BA-TION. <A periodical increase of violence in a disease, as in
remittent or continuous fever; an increased energy of disease and
painful action.
Ex-CRE-MENT. Matter separated and thrown off from the body; that
which is cast out of the animal body by any of the natural organs
which serve to carry off waste matter. Used with special reference
to alvine discharges; dung.
EX-PEC-TO-RANT. A medicine that tends to promote discharges of mu-
cus from the lungs or throat.
Ex-u-pDA-TION. The act of discharging through pores or incisions; as
moisture, sweat or other liquid matter.
GLOSSARY, 657
Hec-tic. Habitual; constitutional; having referenee to slow waste of
animal tissue as in consumption.
HEM-OR-RHAGE. Any discharge of blood from the blood vessels, caused
by their rupture.
HEM-oR-RHOIDS. Livid and painful swellings formed by the dilation of
the blood vessels around the margin of, or within, the anus, from
which blood or mucus is occasionally discharged; commonly called
piles.
Hz-pAtT-Ic. Relating to the liver; as hepatic artery; hepatic diseases.
In anatomy hepatic duct is any biliary duct, which carries or con-
tains bile, but especially used with reference to the duct that carries
the bile from the liver to the cystic and common bile ducts.
HER-BA-CEOUS. Of or pertaining to herbs; having the nature, textures
or characteristics of an herb.
HE-RED-I-TARY. Descended or capable of descending from an ancestor.
Transmitted or capable of being transmitted, as a constitutional
quality or condition from an ancestor to its progeny.
HeEr-niA. A protrusion, consisting of an organ or part which has
escaped from its natural cavity, and projects through some natural
or accidental opening to the cavity. Also called rupture.
HeEr-pPES. An eruption of the skin, taking various names according to
its form, or the part affected; especially, an eruption of vesicles in
small distinct clusters, accompanied with itching as seen in shingles
and ring-worm.
Hy-pRA-GoGuE. A medicine causing a watery discharge of the bowels.
Hyp-not-ic. Any agent that produces, or tends to produce, sleep; an
opiate; a soporific; a narcotic.
Hy-po-DER-MICc. Having reference to the application of remedies under
the skin, by means of injection.
LACH-Ry-MAL. Pertaining to, or secreting, tears, as, the lachrymal
glands. Pertaining to the lachrymal organs; as, lachrymal bone;
lachrymal duct.
Lac-Ta-Tion. A giving suck; the secretion and yielding of milk by the
mammary glands.
Fa-ces. The excrement that passes out of the body through the anus.
It is the waste matter of the food not taken up by absorption as it
passes along the alimentary canal, and other waste matter formed
during digestion.
FEB-RI-FUGE. A medicine serving to mitigate or remove fever.
658 GLOSSARY.
Fer-1p. Having an offensive smell; stinking.
Fa-rus. Also spelled Fetus. The young or embryo of an animal in
the womb or in the egg; often restricted to the latter stages in the
development. ‘The term embryo being applied to the earlier
stages.
Fun-cus. A low class of plants of which plant rust, mold, smut, and
mildew are examples. In medicine a spongy morbid growth, or
granulation in animals, as the proud flesh of wounds.
Gan-cii-on. A mass or knot of nervous matter, including nerve cells,
usually forming an enlargement in the course of a nerve. Also ap-
plied to a globular, hard, indolent tumor situated on a tendon.
GAN-GRENE. A term formerly used only with reference to mortifica-
tion of the soft tissues, which have not advanced so far as to pro-
duce complete loss of vitality; but now applied to mortification of
the soft parts in any stage.
GAs-TRI-TIS. Inflammation of the mucous membrane of the stomach,
sometimes extending to the muscular coats.
GES-TA-TION. The act of carrying young in the body from time of
conception to birth. It varies very widely in the different animals.
Gror-r1s. The opening from the pharynx (the back part of the
mouth) into the larynx or into the trachea. The opening is pro-
tected by a cartilage called the epiglotis which closes when food or
liquids pass over it on their way to the stomach.
GRAN-U-LA-TION. In anatomy, it refers to the small, red, grain-like
prominences which form on the raw surface of wounds or ulcers,
and are the efficient agents in the process of healing.
GUT-TER-AL. Of or pertaining to the throat; formed in the throat; re-
lating to or characteristic of a sound formed in the throat.
I-cuor. A thin, acrid, watery, serous discharge from an ulcer, sore,
wound, etc.
I1-E-umM. ‘The last and usually the longest division of the small intes-
tine; it commences at the end of the jejunum and ends at the
large intestine.
IN-A-NI-TION. ‘The condition of being empty; a want of fullness as in
vessels of the body; hence an exhaustion from want of food, either
from partial or compiete starvation; or from a disorder of the di-
gestive apparatus producing the same effect.
In-ci-sors. he teeth in front that are sharp and used in cutting and.
biting off the food.
GLOSSARY. 659
In-FEC-TION. This term is often used in a definite and limited sense of
the transmission of affections which are transmitted without direct
contact of individuals or immediate application or introduction of
the disease, in contradistinction to contagion which implies trans-
mission by direct contact.
IN-FLAM-MA-TION. A morbid condition of any part of the body consist-
ing in congestion of the blood vessels, with obstruction of the blood
current and the growth of morbid tissue. It is shown outwardly
by redness and swelling, attended with heat and pain.
In-GEs-TION. The act of taking into the alimentary canal. In med-
icine it refers to that condition in which the food is clogged or re-
mains without passing on in its natural course.
IN-oc-U-LA-TION. ‘The communicating of disease to an animal in health
by inserting contagious matter in the skin or flesh.
IN-TER-COS-TAL. Between the ribs; pertaining to, or produced by, the
parts between the ribs.
LAR-YNx. ‘The expanded upper end of the windpipe. It is connected
with the pharynx by an opening, the glottis, which in mammals is
protected by a lidlike epiglottis.
LAX-A-TIVE. Having the effect of loosening or opening the intestines,
and relieving from constipation; opposite of astringent. See
Cathartic.
Le-sion. A hurt; an injury. Any morbid change in the exercise of
functions or the texture of organs.
LEU-COR-RHc-A. A discharge of a whitish, yellowish, or greenish viscid
mucus, resulting from inflammation or irritation of the membrane
lining the genital organs of the female; the whites.
Lig-A-TURE. A thread or string for tying the blood vessels, particularly
the arteries to prevent hemorrhage.
LItH-on-TRIP-TIC. Having the quality or used for dissolving or destroy-
ing stone in the bladder or kidneys. A lithontriptic remedy or
agent, as distilled water.
Li-rHot-o-my. ‘The operation, art, or practice of cutting for stone in
the bladder.
Lum-pa-co. A rheumatism or rheumatic pain in the loins and the
“small of the back.’’
Lym-pHat-tc. Having reference to the absorbent vessels, which carry
tymph and discharge it into the veins; lymph duct; and lymphatic
duct.
666 GLOSSARY,
Ma-1ic-nant. ‘Tending to produce death; threatening a fatal issue.
Malignant pustule, a very contagious disease transmitted to man
from animals. It is marked by great exhaustion and is usully fatal.
Called also Carbon and Anthrax.
ME-DUL-LA OB-LON-GA-TA. The posterior part of the brain connected
with the spinal cord. It controls very largely respiration, circu-
lation, swallowing, and other functions, and is the most vital part
of the brain.
Me-TAs-TA-sis. The change in the location of a disease, as from one
part to another.
Mu-cus. A viscid fluid secreted by mucous membranes, which it serves
to moisten and protect. The Mucous membrane lines all the cavi-
ties which open externally; such as the mouth, nose, lungs, intes-
tines, urinary passages, etc.
Nar-cor-ics. Drugs which in medicinal doses, relieve pain and pro-
duce sleep; but which in poisonous doses, produce stupor, coma, or
convulsions, and when given in sufficient quantities produce death.
The best examples are opium, morphine, belladonna, and conium.
Nav-se-A. A sickness of the stomach accompanied with a desire to
vomit; squeamishness of the stomach.
NE-PHRIT-Ic. A medicine adapted to relieve or cure diseases of the
kidneys. Nephritis: an inflammation of the kidneys.
NEU-RAS-THE-NIA. A condition of nervous debility supposed to be de-
pendent upon impairment in the functions of the spinal cord.
Nor-mau. According to an established form, rule, or principle; con-
formed to a type, standard, or regular form; performing the proper
functions; not abnormal, but regular and natural.
Gi-pE-mA. A swelling from effusion of fluid in the cellular tissue be-
neath the skin or mucous membrane; dropsy of the subcutaneous
cellular tissue.
OL-FAC-TO-RY OR-GANS. The organs that are connected with the sense
of smell; as the olfactory; the olfactory cells.
O-mMEN-TUM. A free fold of the peritoneum, or the one serving to con-
nect viscera, support blood vessels, etc.
OPH-THAL-MI-A. An inflammation of the membrane or coats of the eve
or of the eyeball.
Or-THROP-Na:-A. A morbid condition in which the respiration can be
performed only in an erect posture; by extension in the use of the
word any difficulty, of breathing.
GLOSSARY. 66%
Os-si-Fy. To form into bone; to change froma soft animal substance
into bone, as by the deposition of lime salts.
O-vum. The transparent mass of cells formed of protoplasm from which
Cevelops a new individual like the parent; an egg, spore, germ, or
germ cell.
PaL-Pi-Ta-Tion. A rapid pulsation; a throbbing; especially an abnor-
mal, rapid beating of the heart, as when excited by violent exer-
tion, strong emotion, or disease.
PAN-A-CE-A. A remedy for all diseases; a universal remedy; a cure-all,
hence a relief or solace for affliction.
PA-PIL-LA. Any minute nipplelike projection; as the papilla of the
tongue.
PAR-A-CEN-TE-SIS. The perforation of a cavity of the body with a tro-
car, aspirator, or other suitable instrument, for the evacuation of
fluid, pus, or gas.
Pa-RAL-Y-SIS. Either complete or partial loss of voluntary motion with
or without loss of feeling.
Par-ox-ysM. ‘The fit, or attack, of a disease that occurs at intervals, or
has decided remissions or intermissions.
PEC-TO-RAL. Relating to, or good for, diseases of the chests or lungs.
PER-I-CAR-DI-uM. The double baglike fold of serous membrane which
incloses the heart. The inner layer that is closely adherent to the
heart is called the cardiac pericardium, the outside layer is called
ce parietal pericardium.
PER-I-NE-UM. ‘The region which is included within the outlet of the
pelvis, and is traversed by the urino-genital canal and the rectum.
PER-IL-0S-TE-UM. ‘The membrane of fibrous connective tissue which
closely invests all bones except at the articulating surfaces.
PER-I-TO-NE-uM. ‘The smooth serous membrane which lines the cavity
of the abdomen or the whole body cavity where there is no dia-
phragm, and turning back surrounds the viscera, forming a closed
or nearly closed sac. Inflammation of this membrane is called
peritonitis.
PHAG-E-DEN-Ic. Pertaining to, having reference to, a canine appetite.
Refers to a medicine used in the treatment of phagedena.
PHLEG-MAT-Ic. Used in reference to those animals or functions of ani-
mals that are not easily excited to action, or passion; cold; dull;
sluggish; heavy.
PHLO-GIs-TIc. Inflammation; belonging to inflammation and fever.
662 GLOSSARY.
PLE-THOR-Ic. Having a full body, characterized by an excess of blood ;
overfullness. The state of the system when the blood exceeds a
healthy standard in quantity.
PLEU-RA. ‘The smooth double serous membrane which closely covers
the lungs and the adjacant surfaces of the thorax.
PLEU-RI-Ssy. An inflammation of the pleura, usually accompanied with
fever, pain, difficult respiration, and cough, and with exudation into
the pleura cavity.
PNEU-MO-NI-A. Inflammation of the lung tissue, associated with ca-
tarrh and evidences of inflammation of bronchial membranes.
Pro-BANG. A slender elastic instrument for removing an obstruction
from the esophagus. A four foot piece of rubber hose greased makes
an excellent probang for cattle.
PRoG-No-sis. The act or art of foretelling the course and termination
of a disease.
Propu-y-Lac-Tic. A medicine which preserves or defends against dis-
ease; a preventive. Modern methods pay much more attention to
prophylactic, anesthetic, and disinfectant treatment than formerly,
thus often being able to prevent the spread of very contagious or
infectious diseases.
Pry-A-LISM. Salivation or an excessive flow of saliva.
PuL-MO-NA-RY. Of and pertaining to the lungs; affecting the lungs.
PuR-GA-TIVE. A medicine having the power or quality of separating or
carrying off impurities. A very active cathartic.
Pus. The yellowish white opaque creamy matter produced by the
process of suppuration. If absorbed into the system in quantities
it produces blood-poisoning. :
Rec-tum. The terminal part of the large intestine. So named because
it was supposed by the old anatomists to be straight.
RE-FRIG-ER-ANT. A medicine or an application for allying fever, or
the symptoms of fever.
RE-SOLV-ENT. That which has power to disburse inflammatory or oth-
er tumors; a discutient; anything that aids the absorption of effused
products.
RU-BE-FA-CIENTS. An external application which produces redness of
the skin. That which irritates but not blisters.
SAL-I-VA-RY GLANDS. The glands situated in front of the ears (par-
otid), and under the lower jaw bones (sub-maxillary), and under
the tongue (sub-lingual), which secrete the saliva. ‘They occur in
pairs, one of each kind on each side.
GLOSSARY. 663
SAN-A-TIVE. Having the power to heal; curative; healing; tending to
heal; sanatory.
Scrr-Ruus. A cancerous tumor which is hard, translucent, of a gray
or bluish color, and emits a creaking sound when incised.
Scro-tum. The bag or pouch which contains the testicles, the organs
in which the semen is generated.
SED-A-TIVE. A remedy which allays irritability and irritation; and irri-
tative activity or pain.
SE-Rous. Applied to membranes which line and surround centres of
the body which do not open directly with the surface.
SI-AL-O-GoGUE. A medicine that promotes the secretion of saliva by the
salivary glands.
SIN-A-PIsM. A plaster or poultice composed principally of powdered
mustard seed or containing the volatile oil of mustard seed. Itisa
powerful irritant.
SLouGH-InG. Thedead master separating from a foul sore; the dead
part separating from the living tissues in mortification.
SPE-ciF-Ic. A medicine that exerts a peculiar influence over any part
of the body; preventing or curing diseases by a peculiar adaptation
and not on general principles.
Sto-macuH-ic. A medicine that strengthens the stomach and increases
its action. Notice the difference between this word and stomatic.
Sto-matT-1Ic. A medicine for diseases of the mouth.
SrRAN-Gu-Ry. A painful discharge of urine, drop by drop, produced
by spasmodic muscular contraction.
Su-por-IF-Ic. A medicine that increases the action of the sweat glands,
thus producing sweating.
Sup-Pu-RA-TION. The act or process of generating pus.
Syn-co-pr. The state of fainting or swooning. Loss of consciousness
owing to a sudden arrest of the blood supply to the brain, the face
becoming pallid, the respiration feeble and the heart’s beat weak.
Tun-pon. A tough insensible cord, bundle or band of fibrous con-
nective tissue uniting a muscle with some other part; a sinew.
Trs-T1-cLES. The essential male gential glands which secrete the
semen.
Twr-an-us. A painful and usually fatal disease, resulting generally
from a wound, and having as its principal symptom persistent spasm
of the voluntary muscles. When the muscles of the lower jaw are
affected it is called Lockjaw.
664 GLOSSARY.
Trxct-urEe. A solution of medicinal sttbstances in alcohol, usually
more or less diluted; spirit containing medicinal substances in so-
lution. Alcoholic solutions of volatile substances are usually called
‘‘Spirits.’’
TRA-CHE-A. ‘The windpipe; the passage for the breath from the larynx
to the lungs.
TrRE-mor. A trembling; a shivering or shaking; a quivering or vibra-
tory motion; as the tremor of a person who is weak, infirm,
or old.
UL-ceR. A sore in any of the soft parts of the body, discharging pur-
ulent matter, found on the surface, especially one of the natural
surfaces of the body; a sore discharging pus.
Um-BiL-Ic-AL. The cord which connects the foetus with the placenta,
and contains the arteries and veins through which the blood circu-
lates to the young; the naval-string.
Urea. A very soluble crystalline substance extracted from the blood
by the kidneys and the chief constituent of the urine of mam-
mals.
U-RE-TER. The duct that conveys the urine from the kidney to the
bladder.
U-RE-THRA. The duct that conveys the urine from the bladder to the
surface.
U-rTER-uSs. ‘The organ of a female mammal in which the young are de-
veloped previous to birth; the womb.
Va-Gi-NA. The canal which leads from the uterus to external orifice of
the genital canal or to the cloaca.
VER-MI-FUGE. A medicine or substance that expels worms from animal
bodies; an anthelmintic.
VES-I-CA-TING. Raising little bladders or blisters upon the surface; in-
flaming and separating the cuticle; blistering.
VIR-U-LENT. That which is extremely poisonous or venomous; very
active in doing injury.
Vi-Rus. Contagious or poisonous matter, as of specific ulcers, the bite
of snakes, etc. The virus of diseases is now regarded as a micro-
scopic living vegetable organism which multiplies (within the body)
and, either by its own action or by the associated development of a
chemical poison, causes the disease.
Vis-ce-RA. Especially used with reference to the organs contained in
the abdomen, or below the diaphragm.
GLOSSARY. 665
VOL-A-TILE. Substances which affect the smell with pungent or fra-
grant odors, as musk, hartshorn and essential oils, are called vola-
tile substances, because they waste away on exposure to the atmos-
phere. Alcohol and ether are called volatile liquids because they
easily pass into the state of vapor.
VUL-NER-A-RY. That which is useful in healing wounds; adapted to
the cure of external injuries.
VuL-va. The external parts of the female genital organs; sometimes
used to designate the opening between the projecting parts of the
external organs.
ZyY-MOT-IC. Pertaining to a certain class of endemic, contagious, or
sporadic affections which are produced by some organism acting on
the system like a ferment.
APPENDIX.
ACTINOMYCOSIS.
Lumpy Jaw, Big Head, Wooden Tongue. This is a highly infec-
tious disease caused by the ray fungus called Actinomyces. It has
been most commonly found in this country in cattle. Cases have been
reported in men, dogs, and pigs. The most common seat is the lungs
and liver, but it may be found in any part. In cattle the external
evidence is found in the jaw and tongue, forming sarcoma-like tumors
or abscesses containing the ray fungus.
Symptoms. The first appearance is the formation of a tumor,
small and hard at first, gradually increasing until it reaches an enor-
mous size. ‘This may be soft and discharge, leaving an ugly, raw
surface. ‘hese tumors may involve the bone, destroying the alveoli
and loosening the teeth. These tumors should not be confounded
with those caused by injuries, which are common in this region.
Treatment. Isolation of all affected animals to prevent further
spread of the disease. Give Iodide of Potassium : two drams daily for
two weeks ; then one dram each day for one week, or until a marked
improvement is noticed. Remove any teeth that may be found loose.
Cut away any diseased bone and treat the wound with Tincture of
Iodine and Iodide of Potassium as a wash.
ANTHRAX.
Also known as Splenic Fever, Splenic Apoplexy, Gangrene of the
Spleen, Carbuncle Fever, Blood Striking, Choking Quinsy, and Bloody
Murrain. In France it is known as Charbon, and in Germany as Malz-
brand. ‘There are two forms, Anthrax and Symptomatic Anthrax.
Authrax is highly contagious. The germs of anthrax bear spores
which are very tenacious, resisting even boiling, and will live for
twenty years. It affects all warm blooded animals. Symptomatic
Anthrax germs have no spores and only affect sheep and cattle, par-
ticularly young cattle. Anthrax may be communicated to man by
handling hides and wool of affected animals. Earth worms have been
found to contain spores in localities where animals have been buried
which died of anthrax. Streams of water may carry the infection for
miles, and hay or grain cut near such a stream should not be used.
Symptoms. The symptoms vary according to the seat of the
disease and kind of animals affected. In the most acute form no
symptoms are exhibited. The animal dies suddenly as from apoplexy.
APPENDIX. 667
In the second type the disease begins with a high fever ; feeding and
rumination are suspended ; chills and muscular tremors appear; the
animals are dull and show great weakness ; in the course of the disease
the dullness gives way to unecsiness, champing of the jaws, spasms of
the limbs, kicking and pawing the ground ; breathing is difficult, nos-
trils dilated and mouth open; nose, mouth, and all visible mucous
membranes become bluish ; the animals may moan; discharges con-
tain red mucus or blood ; blood vessels may rupture; the animal lies
down and death closes the scene in two or three days.
Symptoms of Symptomatic Anthrax, or Black Leg, differ somewhat.
An animal which a short time before appeared strong and vigorous now
seems listless ; has a vague expression about the eyes ; the ears become
heavy and pendent ; the animal is tender about the loin, ribs, and flank ;
pulse irregular, from 80 to 100 per minute ; the animal may be lame in
one or more limbs ; tumors may form about the loin, brisket, head, and
neck ; they refuse to move and are unconscious to surrounding objects ;
staring eyes ; the tumors contain serosity extravasated blood ; they
speedily decompose ; gases are evolved which give rise to a crepitating
sound ; they die in a state of coma. Sheep assume the enteric form.
The first symptoms are a short step. ‘They will lie down or stand
apart from the flock ; head depressed ; back arched ; abdominal pains ;
the wool begins to fall out and has a dry appearance. If the disease
advances rapidly death is sure.
Treatment. Curative treatment is out of the question. Only
vaccination of healthy animals to check the spread of the disease.
Destroy all diseased animals and burn the carcasses. Burn all forage
and the sheds where healthy animals may come in contact. Vaccina-
tion should be directed by a skilled veterinary that all antiseptic pre-
cautions may be adhered to. ‘This consists in making a hypodermic
injection of Serum No. 1, repeat in five days with Serum No. 2.
Treatment of Symptomatic Authrax, or Black Leg, is followed up in
much the same way by serum especially prepared and injected hypo-
dermically, according to the age of the animals and circumstances.
One preparation is injected, which suffices in older animals but younger
ones should be injected with double vaccine ten days later.
VERMICULAR BRONCHITIS OF SHEEP.
A highly infectious disease caused by the strongylus filaria. This
parasite is from one to two and one half inches long. The female is
white and larger than the male, which is of a yellowish white color.
Its body is of a uniform size but tapered at both ends. The head is
short, stumpy, rather angular, but not tuberculated as in other strongy-
lus. ‘The anatomical situation of the parasites in the lungs of lambs and
sheep is not always the same. In lambs they are found not only in
the bronchial tubes but also in the lung substance, while in sheep they
are generally encysted in the parenchyma of the lungs, giving them
668 APPENDIN.
the appearance of being filled with small tubercular deposits. These
parasites are not always confined to the lungs. They are commonly
found in the intestines, giving evidence of similar post mortem appear-
ances as the lungs.
Symptoms. These will be according to the location of the parasite.
In the lungs the symptoms are those of bronchitis ; if they extend
to the intestines we shall find emaciation and dysentery. The stools
may contain the worms, and in fits of coughing the worms may also
be thrown off, especially in lambs when the parasite is contained in
the bronchi. ‘This disease does not always cause death, as seen by
the post mortem appearance of the lungs of sheep, which, in life,
appeared to be in perfect health. The parasite had long been in capsule
in the lung tissue, the tubercular mass having gone on to caseation.
Treatment. This must be preventive and curative. All the
healthy ones should be removed to high, dry pastures, care being taken
that no attendant go from diseased to healthy animals. The diseased
should be removed to a new dry field. The old pastures, if possible,
should be burned over to destroy any liability to the spread of the
disease. Curative treatment should consist in giving each animal,
according to size, one to two drams of Spirits of Turpentine, injected
into the lumen of the trachea, with hypodermic syringe, once a day
until improvement is noticed. If there are any bowel symptoms give
same dose of Turpentine with twice the quantity of oil by the mouth.
FOUL IN CATTLE.
This is an infectious disease affecting all animals having the cleft foot,
but is more commonly found in cattle. The disease is due to a germ.
Animals kept in low, damp, badly managed stables, or allowed to run
on low, damp ground are most liable to become affected, as such
grounds and conditions are favorable to the development of the germ,
which gains admission to the soft structures of the foot by means of a
wound caused by contact with rough surfaces, or the feet becoming
weakened by constant moisture so that they lose their resisting power.
When the germ gains admission into the foot it burrows deeper and
deeper, and the animal’s foot may slough off should the disease be
allowed to continue. Under favorable conditions, this disease after
gaining admission into the herd may go through the entire herd.
Symptoms. At first the animal shows sliglit pain in moving about.
Later the limbs will begin to swell, with increased temperature. Under
examination the foot will be found sensitive to the touch, and an abra-
sion of more or less extent will be found usually in the cleft of the
foot, or maybe at the junction of the hair at the heel. ‘This abrasion
in the early stage will have a watery appearance, with an offensive
odor, and later pus will be found in quantities.
APPENDIX. 669
_Treatment. The treatment is of two kinds, preventive and cura-
tive. Preventive treatment consists in changing the animals to dry,
clean quarters, exposing contaminated grounds and stables to sunlight ;
disinfect with Bichloride of Mercury solution, 1 to 500, cart away all
loose litter and excrement. Curative treatment consists in, first,
thoroughly cleansing the affected part, which is usually the cleft of
the foot. Curette away the diseased tissue. If the pus has burrowed
deep under the hofn this must be cut away with a knife, which’ should
be done only by a competent surgeon. After all the diseased structure
has been removed dress antiseptically with Creolin. If on the more
dense structure of the foot, it may be used undiluted, but on sensitive
parts dilute, one half ounce to a pint of water. They should be
dressed more or less frequently according to the severity of the case.
Should the animals suffer great pain they should be placed in slings,
subject to the dictation of a competent adviser. If Creolin is not con-
venient Lysol may be used instead, or Bichloride of Mercury, 1 to
1,000. Strong acids should not be used. Preparations of tar which
tend to make a coating are dangerous.
INDEX.
THE HORSE. Atropia, Sulphate of......... 110, 111, 112
Auscultation, Description of.......... 82
Abscesses, Acute and cold. .. ...... 126 | Autumn Mange.,..........00000 caee 236
Abscesses, Description of.......- ..+- 125 | Azoturia or Anazoturia.............. 119
Abscess in the Pharnyx .... ... ...- 54 | Bad Kicker, How to Cure... ........ 32
Acute Abscesses ...... cee cece eens 126 | Balky Horse. ..........2200006 we bane 30
Acute Glanders. .........0.0 ee esse 159 | Ball, How to give ......c00 wee eeeees 33
Acute Nephritis. ... .....0...2ee ee 123 | Ball, How to make..........00...085 34
Action of the Heart ............000-- 94 | Bandages, To apply ............-.. aa 128
Action of the Kidneys..............-+ 114 | Bars of the Upper Jaw, Bruised, ..... 52
Afraid to have head handled......... 103 | Bedding, Best Kinds of........... +. 24
Age of a Horse............0-. cc eeeee 255 | Beets as a food for Horses ........... 40
Air-cells, Location of... .......2.56- 74 | Bee, Wasp or Hornet Stings ...... .. 234
A Keeper of Animals. .............4- 23 | Biliary Calculi or Gall-stones. ....... 69
Albuminoids, Poisoned by..... ....-- 119 | Bladder, Location and description..... 114
Alimentary Canal.... 2... 22... eeee 49 | Blisters, How to apply............ 26, 162|
Alteratives, How often to give........ 43 | Blisters, Preventing scars... ....... 29
American Treatment ...........00..65 212 | Bloodly Flux or Dysentery........... 65
Anasthetic..........0.00008 sseeeeeee 41] Bloody or Coffee-colored Discharges... 65
Ankles, Cocked or knuckled.. . 177| Blood Spavin and Thoroughpins...... 202
Ankle, Knee, Fetlock and Foot....... 16] Bloody Urine or Hematuria ......... 122
Anthrax guiaiaecedovsdie wor Meese dn’s 142 | Blood-vessels, Function of. .......... 94
Anthelmintic ........0..5 seceseeees 41 | Blue Bottle Fly......... 2.22. aeiiaie 233
AVWCIPEPIODIG: acces sg ohne eccromn wea 41 | Bolting the Food .................. . 59
Antiseptics, or what used........... 26| Bone Spavin .......... 6 ce ee eee 198
Antiseptics, low to use them .. .... 27 | Bots eating through the Stomach..... 59
ANOdYNG vs .se ess ewaune pesdelds Ges 41 | Bots-larve of the Gad-fly ............ 58
Anodynes, Giving every hour.... ... 43 | Bowels, Apoplexy of large............ 66
ATACHUOM iw eiee co cate wisisie stenmonesiaacdie-s 102 | Bowel discharges liquid and offensive.. 65
Arsenic Poisoning............... we 57 | Bowels, Inflammation of......... 2... 66
Arteries, Diseases of......... Maen 98 | Box-stall, How constructed....... .. 24
Arteries, Description of.............. 94) Brain, Divisions of ...... 0.2... 000 102
Arteries, Inflammation of............ 98| Brain, Inflammation of .......... - .- 108
Ascariasis or Mange.... ............ 232 | Bran Mash, How to make........... ~ 25
Asthma, Broken Wind or Heaves..... $9] Bran, Value of as food...........2.25 39
YNDEX. 671
Bread Mash, How to make. .. ...... 25 (Clubfoot, Description of........... . 175
Broken Wind, Asthma or Heaves..... 89| Cocked Ankles or Knuckling ....... 177
Bronchitis, Chronic. ........... sees 83|Cofin Bone...) .. 1. wie ee eee 170
Bronchi described........... 0.0000. 74 | Coffee-colored or Tied iiedioasgeecs 65
Bronchial Tubes, Inflammation of .... 82| Coffin Joint 22... fe. kk cece eee “an
Bronchial Tubes, Description of...... 74| Cold in the Head or Catarrh ..-...... 75
Bronchitis...... ......0..0 cece eee 82| Cold Abscess ...... ..e..08 0s 5 126
Broncho-Pneumonia........ ......- 89 | Cold Water Bathing of the Leg ...... 25
Broncho-Pleuro-Pneumonia......... . 89] Cold Distemper, Abscess in.......... 125
Bruise of the Frog............. .. 00 184 | Colic, the Various Kinds........... 71
Bruises or Contused Wounds......... 128 | Colic, Sy ptoms and Treatment... .. 60
Burning for Lampas, Condemned. 52| Colic, Percentage affected anddie. ... 71
Culculi in the Stomach... ...... és 57 | Collar or Saddle Galls .......... 0... 129
Calk Wounds, How to treat.......... 179 | Color of Urine .. .....-.....06. 115-116
Canker of the Foot.........-...00.0 193 | Copperas as a Disinfectant ......... 27
Cannon Bone...........e.ee. eevece 179 | Corn as an Exclusive Food ...+-.... 40
Capillaries, Action and Situation.... 95 Corn may Produce Indigestion..... .. 40
Cardiac Enlargement....... 0... .06 gg | Corn on Cob ....... see .ee vee ee ee 40
Carrots, Excellent for sick horses..... 40| Corns, Causes and Prevention....... 186
Casting a Horse ... ......eseeeees . 9g| Coronet or Small Pastern........... 170
Catarrhal Fever or Distemper........ 138| Coronary Band... ...........0.00-e 172
Catarrh or Cold iu the Head......... 75 | Corrosive Sublimate, as an Antiseptic. 27
Cerebellum, Functions of............ 102 | Common Error of Feeding ........... 38
Cerebro-Spinal-Meningitis ........ -- 10x | Common Names for Medicines........ 48
Oerebrum, Functions of ..........+-+ 102 Coneadsian. Lee beeen eee ee eeeeees 208
Cerebitis, Brain structure inflammation 105 Congestion of the Tiings seeee cee eee 84
Cerebro-Spinal division...........+- 101 | Congestion of the Skin............... 231
Cervical Choke.....-......5+ secetes 4| Contused Wounds..... ....++++ + 128
Chaff as a Food for Horses......e+- 3g | Contused and Lacerated Wounds... . 129
Chafing by Harness....... «++ dee eae 129 Contracted Heels . tah ea cece mieties 130
Changes in Urine.......... Rink, nea 115 | Constipation or peseeness Cesena. tiie 63
Chemical Re-action of Urine....... . 116 Costiveness or Consinpanelt eee enna 63
Cliest, Disease Ofias ee. «48 Tae 79 Cough, Cause and Kinds of.......... 81
Cldson BE Hie Gulf Coastesancessere<s 934| Cracked Heels or Scratches ., ...... 228
Chicken Lice on Horses ......--++ eee 235 Crap of the Hind Leg... .....++ 107
Choking, How it is often caused .. .. 54 | Cranial Serves Wik. eve sip etn eeetneis « - 102
Ciirouie Catarrlis aves seacnieranes _ 76 | Crooked Foot... ... 6. cece cece eee 175
Cheonie Cougtince a4 cs-0s-00 os een GO Cares LE su POR acai hacardl a ah eoaiae Riau ienaus hae i
Chronic Cough Cured by Carrots..... 40 Cudding the Food .. 1... ...esee es a
Chrwnie Rarer ue aaseveiv aneaes @2 1b5 Cunting TeCth . ssipesas rysuiee aie oo 50
Chronic Glanders .....+++s+0+ee0+e 157 | Caring ® Bally Horses. «+: ~» sete eees 30
Chronic Inflammation of Kidneys .... 121] Death of Horses by Colic............ » Va
Circulatory Organs, Diseases of ....- 93 Decayed Teeth SE eae a rerrerny are 51
Circulatory System, (Plate IIT). Density of Urine ........ bette eee es 116
Cleansing Stall and Clothing...... got OD. Deodorizers, For sehal used....... 2. ai
Clothing, For Winter and Summer... 24| Dermis or True skin........-.. genes 227
672
Detecting the seat of Lameness....... 225
Diabetes Mellitus or Glycosuria.... .. 116
Diabetes Insipidus or Diuresis...... 118
Diaphragm, Where situated (Plate I).
Diarrhea, How to treat.........ee00 64
Diastole............ bs, Geaatenaiaere secs 94
Diaphrigm, Rupture of........... 91
Difference between Meningitis & Rabies 105
Digestion of twokinds....... 0 .....- 37
Digestive Apparatus (Plate I ).
Digestive Organs. .......... cee eee 49
Disinfectants, For what used......... 27
Disinfectants, List of.............60- 27
Diseases of the Teeth....... wc... eee 50
Distemper or Strangles........... . 138
Divisions of the Heart............0.- 94
Diuresis or Diabetes Insipidus........ 118
Doses according to Age........ ...-- 43
Doses and effects..........,c00eeee 44, 48
Dover's Rowden ciuuage coats. eee 124
Drugs aud Medicines ............64. 41
Drum-like sound when struck........ 62
Dra Mates occas easy sppiecanasst gales 102
Dysentery or Bloody-flux .. ........ 65
Bcbolics, How often to give.......... 43
Effectof Drags. ..is.sscssaepecuve 0 41
Hlectri¢: Block am: a.cncse.<soadiaie vas 112
Electuaries, How to give... ........ 32
Elephantiasis ...... ... .......- - 100
Encephalitis or Inflammation of Brain. 103
Endocarditis, Inflammation heartlining 96
Endocardium .......... .....0c00ece 95
Enlargement of the Heart ........ 98
Enteritis or Inflammation of Bowels... 66
Epizooty, Pink-eye or Influenza ..... 131
Ether and Laudanum for Colic....... 61
Examination of the Urine............ 116
Excessive Secretion of Urine....... .. 118
Exhaustion 6 sccenay sever easee aa 206
Exhaustion Caused by Heat ......... 106
Explanation of Effect of Drugs....... 42
Extensor Pedis ....... .........00. 171
External Evidences of Disease.... .. 163
External Medicines............... 44.-48
Extracting Teeth ....... Widapecane — 52
INDEX.
Farcy or Glanders .......... seese 151
Farcy Buds, Wrongly named......... 144
Faulty Formation........ 0. -..+eee 175
Favus or Honeycomb Ring Worm.... 237
Febrifuges, List of common.......... 43
Feed Oats after Hay. ...... ....05- 37
Feeding after Hard Work............ 38
Feeding and Care ......-.-..0e0.005 36
Fever, Description of...............- 146
Fetlock, Ankle, Knee, and Foot...... 169
Fetlock Joint. ..........00. cee eeee 171
Fetlock, Sprain of..........00. e006. 180
First Requisites.............-00eeee 24
Finishing Touches ....... 0-2-2000 251
TS HU Bisssre ss a eisie-k 5 Avan tales Seams 238
Flat Feet, Description of ...... . 175
Flaxseed or Linseed, Ground........ 40
Plea: or Puuléxes. c2sxeees Hovesees 234
Blesliatlys: cava uanidalac e242. aaducanas 233
Flexor Pedis Perforans...........-.. 171
Flexor Pedis Perforatus. ........... 171
Blies oasis cahcemieeine cea wmeianene 4a 233
Floating the Teeth... ........-- 0... 51
RIV SDILOW vase osc pscjusiandeeneleds.@ arene 233
Flux or Superpurgation .... ....... 65
Food Colic, How Caused............ 71
Food for a Sick Animal.............. 24
Foot, Knee, Fetlock, and Ankle....... 109
Foot Mange.............. idarauaraier Soe 235
Founder or Laminitis............... 205
Foundering the Horse by Water...... 36
Frog, Bruise of.............. ceeaee 184
Frog, Description of....... .......05 172
Fresh Water, Always within reach... 25
BTOSt Bites ius sccavnd arian tau ante’ date 179
Frothy Food Through the Nose...... . 53
Gad-fly, when it attacks the Horse.... 58
Gall Bladdeiesicsccias 24 a: Awa sunbramiene 68
Gall-stones or Biliary-calculi.... .... 69
Galls caused by Collar or Saddle...... 129
Galls and Bruises................00% 125
Gamgee’s funnel for injections .. .... 32
Ganglia or Nerve Centers ........ .. 101
Gastritis, Its symptoms ............4 57
Gastric Concretions, ..........ee00+- 57
INDEX.
Gastric Digestion.......... a oer 49
Gas in Stomach...........eee ee eee ee 56
General Advice................ 35
General Treatment, Brain inflaremnation 105
Giving Medicine...............0..00. 32
Glanders or Farcy...............2 05 151
Glossitis or Inflammation of Tongue... 53
Glycosuria or Diabetes Mellitus....... 116
Gorged Stomach... ......... 02.6 200 55
Grades of Cerebro-Spinal Meningitis.. 109
Grain, Best kind to feed............. 39
Grass, the natural food ............. 40
Greases: cess essestggey Goer ees fem 241
Gripes or Cramp Colic............... 60
Growing Stock to be fed on Grass.... 40
Grubs in the SKin................... 283
Guttural Pouches..................-- 70
Guillet, Its Diseases........... ...... 54
Gut-tie or Twisting of the Bowels..... 64
Hemoglobinuria or Azoturia. ....... 119
Hematuria or Bloody Urine.......... 122
Hairs, Description of.............56- 228
Hand-rubbing the Legs..........--+- 25
Head, Diseases of .........00 005 eens 75
Heart-beats represented in the Pulse.. 95
Heart, Description of ... .......+.+- 91
Heat Exhaustion or Sunstroke........ 106
Heart, Functional diseases of......... 97
Heart, Its position (Plate I).
Heart, Inflammatory diseases of...... 95
Heart, Organic diseases of.......+-+++ 97
Heaves or Broken Wind........--.-- 89
Hide-bound Horse.........-e++eeeee- 59
High Blowing not Roaring........--- 78
Hippuric Acid..... 1. eeeeeeeeeeees 115
Holding Horse to give Liquids. ...... 34
Holding Head one-side when Chewing. 51
Honeycomb Ring-worm... ..++..--+- 237
Hoof, Description of...++ .+++++++++> 172
Hoof, How to soften the Horn........- 26
Hornet, Bee, or Wasp Stings....+.-++ 234
Horny Sloughs or Sitfasts......+++++- 230
Horse lying flat om his side...... supe AOL
Hot Water Bath. Its temperature.... 27
How to give Medicine.......-.++++++5 32
Hydrophobia or Rabies... ..- ... 105, ee
Hypertrophy of the Heart.... .--.---
673
Icterus, Jaundice or the Yellows...... 68
Itch or Mange Insect .............4- . 235
Impaction of Large Intestines........ 62
Indigestion, How caused........ .... 59
Inflammation from Galls and Bruises.. 125
Inflammation of Lining of Mouth...... 53
Inflammation with Pustules.......... 144
Influenza, Pink-eye or Epizooty 13)
Ingestion of Food..............0.005- 207
Injections, by Gravity ...........006- 32
Injection, per Rectum... ........... 56
Injection, Quality ata time ......... 61
Inosite or Muscle Sugar....... ...... 117
Inosuria or Saccharine Diabetes ..... 116
Interfering ..... .. 176
Interfering taint: soutertatien) asteeted 204
Intercostal Rheumatism or Pleurodynia 91
Internal Medicines....... eda aeeeres 44, 48
Intestinal Worms........-...eeee-0 69
Intestinal Digestion.............5-.. 37
Intestines, Diseases of.... .......5-+ 60
Intussusception or Invagination ...... 64
Invagination or Intussusception... .. 64
Irregular Teeth........... Eee. ce oes 51
Jaundice, the Yellows or Icterus...... 68
Jigger or Chigoe...........2 02 eee 236
Joints.........06 BES auc ec aheemiers 170, 173
Kidneys, Inflammation of ....... 121, 123
Kidneys, Shape and location of....... 113
Killing by Kindness .. ...... wesesarendis 56
Kinds of Food .........6 cee ceeeceee 37
Knee, Fetlock, Ankle and Foot....... 169
Knuckling or Cocked Ankles..... ...
Lacerated and Contused Wounds.... 129
Laminitis or Founder..... toes weenie 200
Lameness, How to detect ........... 225
Lampas, How to cure..........+. veee 52
.| Large Intestines, Impaction of....... 62
Larynx, Description of.............. 74
Laryngitis, or Sore Throat........... 77
Lateral Cartilages .........0.eeeeeee 173
Lead Poisoning. ........eeeeeeeeeeee 57
Lice or Pediculi .........-..46. eoee. 234
Linseed as a Food... ...csceseeeee .. 40
Linseed Mash, How to Make........- 25
074
Liquids, How to give..........eeseee 34
Liver, Diseases of.......-...200+ ee 68
Liver, Inflammation of ....... ve 68
Lock-jaw or Tetanus... ........e08- 110
Loss of Oats Fed....... 2.0. cereeee 37
Lumbricoid, Large Worm of the Horse. 69
Lungs, Apoplexy 0f..........020e0ee 85
Lungs, Congestion Of.........65 sees 84
Lung Fever or Pneumonia....... oe. 85
Lungs, What they consist of ....... 74
Lymphatic Circulation.............. 93
Lymphatic System, Diseases of ...... 99
Mad Staggers or Meningitis.......... 104
Making a Horse Lie Down..........- 28
Mallendérsis<2s.oc0ce2%- « saupaele: geen es 165
Maltose, How turned to sugar........ 49
Management and Care..........+..-- 23
Mange or Ascariasis........- aauesinattes 232
Mash, Bran.... ....... aa ge payee: (25
Mashes, How to make and feed... 25
Matting of Mane and Tail.......-... 237
Meatsflys zi acoes se dardania sok 46% . 233
Medicine, According to Age....... .. 41
Medicines, Table of, with doses.... 44—48
Medulla Oblongata, Functions of.... 103
Meningitis, Spinal............. veeee 108
Meningitis or Mad Staggers.......... 104
Metastasis: 62. eeee sce esnrenis caw boos 207
Molars........ .. qaneies Sele gece wa 255
Mouth, Its diseases............ 0... 52
Mouth, Swelling of .........-... 6. 53
Muco-Enteritis or Apoplexy of Bowels. 66
Muscles, Outside Layer, (Plate IV).
Myocarditim .<2 cise sscceawg cates 95
Myocarditis, or Heart Inflammation.. 95
Nails used in Shoeing............... 250
Nasal Chambers... 1... 022s. e ee eee 63
Nasal Gleet or Chronic Catarrh.... .. 79
Navicular Bone ........... siNeieimans . 174
Navicular Disease....... Se era 217
Nephritis, Acute..............0. 00e 123
Nervous System, Diseases of ......... 101
Nettlerash, Surfeit or Urticaria....... 230
Never feed Wheat or Rye Chaff....... 38
Noise causing Convulsions.... ...... 104
INDEX.
Nose, Frothy food through..... sees 58
Nosttils: sacs s syncs saree seawe te ese 73
Oat Chaff with Cut Hay............. 39
Oats, New and kiln-dried indigestible 39
Occult Spavin..............0- --- 198
Oil or Sebaceous Glands. ...... .... 228
Old-writers Mad Staggers... ........ I01
Organic Constituents of Urine... .... 116
Our Domestic Animals.... ....... .- 23
Over-exertioD..........0eeeee $6). ace 206
Over-reaching........... Be re Mee SRE 179
Paralysis of the Throat....... raietentind 53
Parasites of the Skin ....... etbawerts 232
Parasitic Pityriasis........... srk ete 237
Parrot-mouth, a deformity.... ...... 52
Pastern Bones, Large and small ..... 170
Pastern Joint .....cccseeceeeeee wee 171
Pediculi or Lice............eeseeeeee 234
Red iS si :c05swsetidebee: Gaeenes Sade 214
Percussion, Description of application... 82
Pericarditis, Inflammation of Heart Sac 96
EritOOIISss x3, s.c2 4s acids Gidea ile xaos 67
Permanent Teeth......... aajetbie-preie ees 255
Perspiration, Use of...... wean is' ee. 118
Pharyngitis: soe. viies sear eeneaawew es 53
Pharyngeal Choking ........ bi arsiene ee 54
Pharynx, Location of ......... tae, TA
Pharynx, Inflammation of ........... 53
Phlebitis, Inflammation of the Veins.. 98
Piles or Hemorrhoidal Viins........- 99
Pimples or Papules........... seeewew 231
Pink-eye, Epizooty or Influenza... ... 131
Pin Worms....... Bitches Sebasn Peececaas 69
Plantar Cushion ..... Bsns age an vanes eee 172
Pleura, Membrane around the Lungs... 74
PIGUTISVivwstauaie Geiwnink vee: cae 86
Pleurodynia or Intercostal Rheumatism 91
| Pleuro-Pneumonia...... tii sia eis Oats 89
Pneumonia or Lung Fever .......... . 85
Points of the Horse (Plate V).
Poisoning by Arsenic................ 57
Poisoned by Lead ....... 0.0. cece ee 57
Polar Bearing cass utes endid seks. ins dae apo 2. 23
PON EVA caine tecaidewe ree wanna 238
Polyuria or Diabetes Insipidus ...... 118
INDEX.
675
Pons Varolii, Functions of........... 102|Sand-crack.......cceeeccvecsesseeee 215
Potatoes, Feeding them raw...... ..-. 40|Sarcoptes Ascariasis........ ........ 232
Poultices, Different kinds .. ........ 26]Sarcoptes Equi........ .eceeeeseess 232
Poultices, How to make..... seeeeee. 26] Sarifying for Lampas.... ........... 52
Poultices, How applied........ ssaee. 26] Scratches or Cracked Heels....... 163-228
Poultices, With irritants on surface... 26] Screw-worm Fly..........2.0008 ee 233
Poultry, Ascariasis on Horse....... . 235] Sebaceous Glands......... is tad Sige . 228
Poultry Lousiness of Horse.... ...... 235 | Sensitive Lamingz.... ......... eevee, WZ
Powdered Alum in Water............ 25] Sesamoid Bones...........--0eeeeere 170
Probang, and how to use t........... 55]Shock from Electricity.............. 112
Ptyalin, its effect on starch .......... 49) Shoe and Nails too Large............ 249
Ptyalism or Salivation...........+. os 63) Shoelng cd os cie as cccauees we ween 243
Pulex or Flea.... ..... ee or 234 | Shoeing for a Specific Purpose........ 253
Pulmonary Apoplexy...... seeeeeses. 85) Shoe of Proper Shape....... piesa ome 249
Pulse Beats per Minute ...... «seeee- 79]Shoe Properly Adjusted ... ........ 248
Pulse, How and where totake...... .. 79|Shoes to be Removed ... ........06. 24
Pulse, Peculiarities of............ ..- 80] Side bones, Where found............ 195
Pulse, Very fast, hard and wiry...... 67 | Stifle-joint Dislocation... ...... - ee. 107
Purifying Water..............ee0e ace DO BINUSES 5a xd ered calbieecaieianeele: 6% fo dsaseere ED
Purgatives causing Founder.......... 207 | Sitfasts or Horny Sloughs ...... sieee 230
Purgatives, Every forty-eight hours... 43) Size of Box-Stall...... 6 -dstiieee yeas 24
Pustules, Inflammation with ... ..... 144| Skin, Its Diseases and Remedies..... 227
Quantity of Water required ..... ... 36 pings Tok: Hise Bose TOAD eine a
Quittor..... wea else Bion Sa aewhies pag, | PRRRE EOF She Ta lestine es 2.1 es aie a Bs
Smooth and Glossy Coat.... ....... - 40
Rabies or Hydrophobia.........- 105—111 | Softening the Horn of the Foot....... 26
Rarey’s System of Throwing a Horse.. 28] Solid Lumps in Liquid Discharges.... 65
Rasping the Teeth..........++++++++- 51| Sore Throat or Laryngitis........... 77
Rectum Injection for Staggers....... 56] Sound, Detecting Disease by...... see BL
Rheumatism ...........5+ Segue ey ase 163 | Spasm of the Diaphragm or Thumps.. 91
‘Respiration, Kinds of....... iheswessisae 81] Spasm of the Thigh .....--.......45 107
Respiratory Organs....... ese Ska LR a 74 | Spasmodic or Cramp Colic..........4- 60
Respiratory Organs, Causes for Disease 74] Spavin, Cause and Treatmhent........ 198
Respirations per Minute...... senna 80| Spinal Cord, Description of........ .. 103
Roaring, Canses and Remedies..... .. 78] Spinal Ganglia......... Higetsauacces 102
Ringbone, Causes and Treatment..... 196 | Spinal Meningitis...............000 108
Ring-worm or Tinea Tonsurans...... 236 | Spinal Nerves.........0ee05 si Gate eees 102
Rubber Hose as a Probang ......---- 55] Spinal Nerves, Classification of....... 103
Rupture of Diaphragm ....... ceeeee OL Splint (See EY se aeWaw esas eueey's
Rupture of the Soma ewesnen 56 Sean ciihe Mele sa8
Saccharine Diabetes or Glycosuria... 116 Springhalt (See Stringhalt)
Saddle or Collar Galls... .......--+- 129 | Steaming, How it is done............
Saliva, Excessive amount of........- 53] Sem DO sw ofien to repeats... 43
Saliva, Its important duty ....-.. vo 49 Stings of Bees, Wasps, or Hornets.... 234
Salivation or Ptyalism......++.++-+- 53 | Stomach Digestion.............0.00-05 37
BSallenders .....-.ececereeeeeetseert 166
676 INDEX.
Stomach, Inflammation of lining...... 57
Stomach of Horse, Very small........ 38
Stomach, Rupture of. .........- eoveee 56
Stomach Staggers ..........-- pe taroiensuove 55
Stomach, Stimulant for walls of...... 56
Stomatitis, How caused.......... wana OB
Stones in the Stomach............... 57
Strangles, Abscess in...........+..-- 125
Strangles, Distemper or Catarrhal fever 138
Straw as a Food for Horses........... 38
Stringhalt....... are Ya sve speieieiigrs: “ere 203
Study the Symptoms........+...-.2-. 35
Suffocating by use of Slings.......... 28
Suffraginis or Large Pastern.......... 170
Sunstroke or Heat Exhaustion........ 106
Superpurgation or Flux........... eee 65
Surfeit, Nettlerash or Urticaria....... 230
Suspensory Ligament Rupture........ 185
Suspensory Ligamenv............ .- - 171
Swelling Back of the Upper Teeth... 52
SWECDY:.i'scosaaamnwemeGes ease eas 100
System of Circulation (Plate III).
Systole...... Wales, eee ¥ eee eae ws 94
Tape-worm........ Sumas eMac seeee 69
Teeth as an Indication of Age........ 255
Teeth, the process of cutting..... oeee 50
Temperature of Healthy Horse........ 80
Temperature of Stable............. .. 24
Temporary Teeth...........0.0005 oo. 256
Tendons......... Ye trash apne avaceews eee 171
Ten Pounds of Hay aDay............ 38
Tetanus or Lock-jaw.......e..e..+-. 110
Thick Wind ...-cee....scceeeeeeeee 78
Thigh, Spasm or Cramp............. 107
Thoracic Choke............ eseseecee 55
Throat, Paralysi® of........... ees 53
Thoroughpins and Blood Spavin... .. x2
Throwing a Horse.... ...... siscyeanei: 28
Thrush, Description of............... 182
Thumps or Spasm of the Diaphragm.. 91
Time Required for Physic to Operate... 63
Timothy Hay for Horses..... aie Sire oevs 38
Tinea Tonsurans or Ring-worm....... 236
Tongue, Inflammation of...... a eae 53
Tongue, Laceration or Abscess....... » 58
Tonics, How often to give .. ........ 43
Toothache, How determined..........
Trachea or Windpipe.........+......
True-skin or Dermis.......-.... eRe
Trying to Drink by the Hour.........
Tumors on the Gums........ i eisgerwieee
Turning Horses to Grass each Year...
Twisting of the Bowels or Gut-tie.....
Twitching for Giving Medicine. ......
Tympanitis of the Stomach...........
Urea, The composition of ...... wie
Uretha, Duct leading out of bladder..
Ureter, Tube from kidney to bladder. .
Urine, Examination of...............
Urine, Excessive secretion of ........
Urinary Organs, Diseases of..........
Urticaria, Nettlerash or surfeit.......
Varicose Veins or Varix...... Bred ses
Varix or Varicose Veins.............
Vegetable Parasites of the Horse.....
Veins, How different fvom Arteries...
Villa, Their functions....... bowie eee
Volvulus or Gut-tie.... ....eeeeeees
Warts) sisi cascnas Se 2 a alae
Wasp, Hornet, or Bee Stings .. .....
Watering after Feeding Condemned...
Watering Horses When Warm.......
Wet Sponges on Head... ... .....:.
Wheat and Rye as Food for Horses...
Whistling ...... ....... ta seees eae
Wind Colic or Bloat.......... Be eveteeie
Wind-galls, Symptoms and Treatment.
Winter Shoeing.......... FR Rene aslo
Worms, Description of ... ......... .
Worms, How to Expel............ eee
Worms, Intestinal........ Rh ovine avec
Wounds of the Chest...... eres ielatera chats
Wounds of the Skin...... a erase recente
CATTLE.
Abdomen, Dropsy OF ciesdisac eaireteie discs
Aberdeen-Angus Black Heifer.......
Aberdeen-Angus Bull, ‘‘ Lindolph’’.
Abortion, Causes of Contagions.......
Abortion, Can be Cured. .. .........
Actinomycosis..............0e.0c00. :
Aeration of Milk..... ees advises
51
74
113
American Herd Book..............0+
AMED TARE e232 ets a der sun sdea aoe
Ascites or Dropsy of Abdomen........
Ayrshires
Bloating, Tympanitis, or Hoven......
Blood Letting. . 2.0.0.0... 2... eee e caer
Bloody Urine................ccee eens
Bowels, Inflammation of.............
Bronchitis..... aa
Casting of the Withers..............
Calves, White scour of..............
Care of Milk.............. ae
Characteristics of Various Breeds.....
Chemicals in Dehorning......... sees
Chigres or Fleas......
ChOEIN Bis wie aac ae aenied asus
Climate Adapted to Short Horns..... .
Colic from Cold Water........... oes
Color of Short Horns...........0ee0e
Constipation ............ a ahekhere faye a
Contagious Abortion...... ieee ewes
Corn for Silos. sissies ee one .
Cud, Loss of
Danes Introducing Cattle
Dehorning Cattle..........
Devons
Devon Heifer ‘‘Jenny”’ ..
Devon ‘‘Prize Bull’... ... cece eee es
Diarrhea...........006 - sauiiewewes ss
Digestive Organs.......
Disease of Cattle......
Dropsy of Abdomen....... eet ee eens
Duration of Pregnancy.......eeeeeees
Dysentery....... ..-es- Biiereleeta ns ss
ey
Egyptians Worshipping... ........ .
English Agriculture and Cattle.......
English Herd Book.... ......-- esters
English Short Horn.........eeeeeeee
Ensilage and Silos.......... eee
Enteritis, or Bowel Inflammation......
Ergot in Hay... cc cee sees cece ee eees
Feeding Value of Mature Corn.......
Five Year Old Shorthorn............
Fleas or Chigres......... ihe ste a giaes aie
Flesh of Shorthorns... .......-.46 ‘is
INDEX.
Flies and Mosquitoes. ................
Foul in Cattle
Guernsey Cattle
Heaviest Beef Cattle.................
Hepatitis or Liver luflammation......
Herefords: sss syse2 eed ves seas oternis or
Hereford as a Dairy Cow......... sia ee
Hereford as a Working Ox...........
Herefords in America....... diswrene Saves
Hereford Prize Cow ‘‘ Royal’
Horn Distemper ...... sbaidewng ees
Holstein Cattle................ sioas cei
Hoven, Tympanitis or Bloating.......
How to Judge a Good Cow...........
Inflammation or Hemaglobinuria....
Indigestion from Cold Water.........
Indigestion of Third Stomach........
Inflammation of Bowels..
Jaundice or the Yellows.....seeeee->
Jersey Bull...... preiGiiiis sae syareiere ares
Jersey Cow. ....seacsoceees
Jersey Cattle........ aibiocdctuavsvoraceee ious
Judging a Good Cow...-....seeeeee.
Laryngitis or Sore Throat...
Liver, Congestion of...... eee ee eeee
Liver, Inflammation of............++
Loss of Cud....... efard ate
Lousiness
Mange or Itch... ...cceeeeecereeeees
Milk, Aeration of........ccecsceeeee
Milk, How to care for........
Milk Feverinwcscve cease sueiseaiiiee yon
ee ee eee
Mouth, Inflammation of Lining.......
Moor-ill or Bloody Urine.............
Moors of Spain.......... ese eeeeeeee
Mosquitoes and FlieS....ececeeseeeee
Neat Cattle
Parasites on Skin.
678
Paris Exposition.... .. 2... cs. eee
POriLONILIS 6.64 ccs haste amngte tae oes
Pharnygitis or Sore Throat....... ..
Pharyngeal Choke......5 eeereeeeee
Pleurisy .......46 ea ee eer eeereee rece
Pneumonia..........6- Len eeeeneees
Polled-Cattle of Aberdeen... ....-.
Pregnancy, Duration of... .......---
Prostration from Heat ..... oagisee als
Red Po Sgeicinae: wae vee wees caress
Red Water or Bloody Urine........+6-
Ring-worm ............e005 Sisfeies Swe
Separator in the Dairy......se.eese.
Short-horns..... .. .. os eececcceees
Short-horn Bull........... sa Gaerne,
Short-horns Described...,..ceeeseeee
Silos and Ensilage.......eereeeceeees
Skin Diseases .. .....scccecvececces
Smut on Corn ..........66- s-wiele: asses
Sore Throat or Pharyngitis ..........
Sore Throat or Laryngitis ...... 20746.
Stings, Venomous.... . .-y) cos coe
Stomatitis .. ......ee0. Svenedes oe haces
Suffolk ‘“Duns” .. . Se hah =, AG tichs
Sunstroke or Prostration from Heat
Third Stomach, Indigestion of ......
Ticks or Ixodes......... sce eee eee ee
Trocar and Canular. ..... arenes:
Tympanitis or Hoven...... siiahduedassaers
Venomous Stings. ......-. eee ee eee
Worms, Intestinal... .... eee wee Oe x
White Scour in Calves .......... ssh
Yellows or Liver Congestion ........
SHEEP.
Advantages of Sheep Raising.......
Age of Sheep, How to tell...... eKieiie
A Group of Algerians......... siecaisieacy
American Merino......... Seer an
Black Faced Scotch... .....0..-.05-
Bladder, Inflammation of............
Bowels, Inflammation of...... eee ae be
Brain, Water on... .... cece ee ee ees
Bronchitis...............08...379, 892, 624
INDEX.
282 | Castration ...... eee gieieed eh Galena’ target O00
315 | Characteristic of Breeds............. 351
299 | Cheviot.........0000. i203 seenecsicn BOL
801] Clover Silage........... Nees ees OOS
818] Cold or Catarrh......... cc cece ee eee 378
319 | Congestion of the Liver.............. 380
281 | Constipation in Lambs...........- -- 391
328 | Constipation or Costiveness. ........ 375
333| Corn Silage..... .....eee cee sees. 358
991 | Costiveness or Constipation...... geese OLD
321 | Cotswold Sheep .. ......ss.seereeee 372
333 | Cross bred Sheep..... -.... ss mearnates, OTS
337 | Diarrhea or Scours.........++.. 375—376
279 Diving Bladder-worm........... .--- 388.
974 | Docking .... ....-. feivesoiweres ven SET
275 Dog-proof Sheep ..........e.06 wees. 368
348 | Dogs, Associated with sheep ....-. 389
329 | Dorsets ...... whadu We Scwe ts arg O08
99g| Dry Fodder........06..e+ + eeces+- 857
299 Dysentery ...... LPRe Ces: Gmina OTS
317 | Buglish Dorset Horn Ram...... eeeee. 369
332| English Southdown... ... ceaneesses 360
299 | Feeding and Quartering .. ......... 355
291 | Feet, Diseases of... .....ecece0 sees 382
. 333) Foot-rot, Contagious...... MOORS aS 383
304] Foot-rot, Common..... Ria Navecoimpanscne .. 384
331] French Merino ......e.eeceeeeeenees 360
303 | Gad Fly of Sheep... ... ..ssseeeee. 384
302 | Gravel, or Common Foot-rot.......... 384
332| Grub in the Head............ Saieucieets BOF
311 | Hair Worms in Intestines............ 389
309 | Hampshire-Downs....... ices make BOT
319. | Hoven. .. ceececee cecceeeeeseeeess B77
How to Feed a Lamb .. ... ....2... 387
Inflammation of Bowels...... eis pc acters 377
363 | Influenza....... .. ese sees eee seesee OD
374| Kind of Sheep to Winter.... ........ 354
358 | Lambs and their Diseases............ 390
363 | Lamb, Raising by hand ........ eo SBT
366 | Laurel Poisoning... 1... .... eee eee eee 381
381 | Leicester “Prize Winning’ Ewe... . 372
377| Leicester Sheep .. ..seeeeseeeeeeees 371
382 | Lincoln Sheep .......... 2 eGo CNS WSS 370
Liver, Congestion of........... ybeeies 380
Liver, Inflammation of.............. 330
Louse of the Sheep .. .... wtewere ees O80
Lungs, Inflammation of ....... Ss 379
Many Headed Bladder-worm...... .. 388
Merino Rams siwccvssssag cueedee bas 363
MOMs ewe eeddonenene seins Sidwageion $2 352
Oxford-Downs......... 0.520485 Selo Mawes 367
Scab Insect: wae esas sss eee 385
Scotch Cheviot Ram ............06-- 362
Scours or Diarrhea ... 2. we eee eee 375
Selection of the Breed... cee. cece eee 353
Sheep Laurel Poisoning ...........-. 381
Sheep Raising, Advantage of ........ 353
Shropshire Sheep. .......00 .essee eee 365
SOGthdOw Ho. oc ccs eer niece B igracerS: sea lect 359
Spasmodie Colic.........+ a emtelacainonn se 391
Stageers. ceqwe vies vars Meeeaes vee Oe
Suffolk Ram ........ce ce cceeeeeeeee 371
Sugar BeetSsi sc cisesca's cid sedate 358
Tape Worms........... eiacedadedec doo
Ticks on Lambs and Sheep.........-. 374
Timothy Hay........ setesene cee. « 358
Weaning Lambs ....... sdemaevaaes SUL
Weight of Carcass ......eeee0 eeeees S04
White Scours...... Heth 's o'e's tiaisance: STG
Wool..........eeeee saevenine Faas 30
SWINE.
Berkshires. ..........c0+eeee soesees OOF
Blind Staggers.......... eelearedeecdiee AEE
Brain, Inflammation of.........++.-- 411
Breeding and Feeding.......e.+e+++- 415
Chester Whites. ........ sens venwace AQT
Cheshire......... a enibeieeiats = teisrarnets, ANS
Choleraascccc. casceetiens sas eeeees 413
Constipation .......-.e+e6 saxevaces 412
Curing and Preserving .....2+..-++- 408
Diarrhea... 6. secre ee sei Sas eeeyon 412)
Durocks ... cece eee e cece eee tee 404
Bssex Hogs .....-.-.-08- Maibee eases tee 399
Feeeding and Breeding...........-+- 415
Hog Cholera .....- sepals saseanaen alo
Itch or Mange .....-0.+eeeeee we +» 410
INDEX.
679
Jefferson County Swine... .. esrakider dear 405
Jersey ROGS cas iicescecaiay seoswn’ 406
Large White ‘‘Holywell Queen’’,.... 406
MiG aut ecu Gs cement ess 412
Mange or Itch ....050e....., Sie ele yee 410
Mange Oiutment.......... cc cece eee. 411
Middle-white Pigs... ........ Sires oH 397
Ointment for Mange .........e0e-ee. 411
Pigs Losing Their Tails, .........+.6. All
Pigs, Sows eating ... .. ec cece eee 410
PolandChina. 22 sisccsawatcnn ares sa 400
Preserving Pork and Ham... ....+.. 408
Prize Litter.......... sstorebveld areata eee te's 402
Small Yorkshires ......-.2eeeeeeee 405
Sows Eating Pigs........seeeeeeeeee+ 410
Staggers, Blind...... Sadek ee ion an SEL
Suffolk Pigs...... etaiaeiaahie ovia'e aus aves 395
Tails, Pigs Losing........ .. «--++. 411
Victorias ......... a htate- oa lereveseieiee “ate 403
Warren County Hog..........0+6.-- 401,
Yorkahire: : scjaeeroossewaere eee ase 407
POULTRY.
Andalusians... ..ccsceseeesecseeenee. 421
Apoplexy....... iuipieis se eatarsusesn Loe
Best Table-fowls.....sscsceccerseess 432
Black Minorcas..... so beet santmeoeens 428
Black Spanish ... .eseseeescssesees 429
Brahmas ......... Sidhe aisloasberes, steer 421
Bronchitis........ 3.8 Ni 49 Baeedo we etess 436
Brown Leghorns. ....secseeseesereee 425
Bumble-foot ...... dieiketsa dt tecnores 437
Cholera ...... RRR ee ree oy
Cochin-China .....s0. casveeeseesees 421
Cold or Catarrh......20 cescceereree 436
Consumption......sscecesceceeeeeees 437
Cramps. aatwireuw a's ae e'ees iidieesesase 4Ok
Crop bound... ..secseessecceeeeeees 433
Diarrhea........ a aha wcelererseawtiee tee 435
Diphtheria .......+6 cecceceseeeeees 437
Dominique.,..... devas seetiesseye 762400
Dorkings....sseeseeeseeeeceereces .. 431
Bgg Organs, Disorders of............ 436
INDEX.
680
Feather Eating.........0.-.0.e000+++ 434
SA a cd sara sar te earns dbo 5 leo slaps . 427
Gapes ere ahaaeiatelw Siw swher sees eens 433
Good Layers ...... ...-..05 eee 432
Good Mothers..........0-.45 ates ary aen
Hamburghs.......... sibie kg bee wae 429
Indian Game.........-..002 sees 427
Drangeliansys. .csc00 jsicteedea eee se 43%
De BHOMNS iosaisie as aku aehecre enue deg 425
Minoreas'..ciccicasiie sr gvcas gees exes 428
Non-sitting Breeds................ 432
Old English Game......... ...... 426
Poultry Keeping for Farmers....... 438
Red Faced Spanish ............... 428
Roup...... HONG ROS ess 'nks eerears 436
Sitting Breeds.................66- 432
White Faced Black Spanish....... 429
White Leghorn.............. send vee 425
White Minorcas.......< ea 85 28 N OES 428
White Plymouth Rocks............ 430
Wyandotte........... cece eee eee 423
POTATO.
Ammoniacal Copper.....0......00- 446
Bacterial Blight ..........-....... 444
Bordeaux Mixture..... nike Geae totais 446
Carbonate of Copper, to make...... 446
Colorado Beetle ............ aides es 444
Diseases of Potato........... eae x 443
Downy Mildew...... siete Baws owes 443
Barly Blighty.csecc6. c4 auaccunwwac wis 444
Fungi Affecting Potato............. 443
Fungous Enemies of Potato......... 443
Late Blight... cee. cca ygeeeea eee 443
Leaf-Spot Disease............ 0... . 444
London Purple.................0.. 445
Paris Green......... PAMaTAAMa alee 445
Potato Soadsaic vac eeevscaewarsieacne s 445
Prevention of Potato Disease....... 444
RECEIPTS.
Antiseptics ... ............ veceeeee 461
Apples, To keep... ... Seeavars eet 493
Bacon, To cure........ iiss koe Saag 492
Basement Floors.... ...... adv iasronauens 522
Bed-bugs, To get ril of ...... gh corel oe 482,
Beefs. Corned: ce « sciis.aceredinw o's ss wseiere 491
Beel, Dried.............. eageeas sa . 491
Bitter HSSen Ce) cc0.0 scssecaenesais eis Se gceece 460
Black-boards, To Make ........ weeee 509
Black heads ..............- Resse e e586 509
Blacking, Brilliant liquid ........... 477
Blacking, Waterproof .. ........... 477
Blacking, Oil-paste.... ..... mieases 478
Bleaching Compound...........-..0. 475
Blister, Spanish Fly....... .. sewage 452
Brick Colored Wash for Walls ...... 473
Butter, To keep sweet..........-. ioe 492
Cabbage, To keep.... 2.2.0... . eee 493
Camphor, Tincture of...........006 -. 460
Camphor Spirits....... widsigh ticle aide -a¥s 448
Carbonic Gas in Wells............ oe. 523
Castor Olicscey arises cleats ahaGhina 523
Celery TO Keep csi xcadcadsace ge es 494
Cellar Floor, To make waterproof..... 522
Cellars, To keep from freezing ....... 512
Cement, How to mix................ 502
Cement, How to use.......... sean 503
Cesspool Disinfection............. ... 464
Chafing, Remedy for.......... wives « O13
Chapped Hands....... .........4.- 508
Chimney on Fire .......... ..0 ee. 510
Chimneys, To prevent leaking... ... 514
China Cement..............0ecceeee 510
Cider, How to make and keep........ 503
Cider Wine... saaeec cx cee aerate ee 505
Clothing Catching Fire.............. 466
Cockroaches, To Destroy............. 485
Contagious Diseases... ....+ee0 2.00. 462
Cordial, Blackberry and Strawberry... 526
Cordial, Gingersccxseyecesse cea viens 526
Corn: Curex ss: ce ace eave <oeaueacien 451
Cough Mixtures ........... 455—456—457
Cracks of the Floor.... ..........005 468
Cuts and Wounds......... se50 Hewes 466
Dandrue cai cucesns meaner aysess 527
Dead Surface Paint,..... EET eee 467
Deodorizers ...........-..2. se ae terns 465
Fainting and Fits.
Feet, Blistered. .
Ingrowing Toe-nails......
Ink, Black..........6. tayuieilate paease
Ink, To make powder...........
Ink, Japan or glossy......eseeee cece
Insects in the Ear........... eile nsese
Insects, Various kinds to kill
Javelle Water...
Awnings and Tents, Mildew proof....
Diphtheria............
Dirt in the Eye
. 466
. 462
Doses According to Age....
Eggs, To keep from spoiling..........
Emetic, Common
Emetic, Syrup
Essence of Beef.
Co co
Feet, Frost bitten........... 0.05.
Feet, Tender........ . é
Feet, Cold at bed-time.............
Fence Posts, To preserve
Fragrant Odor in Sick Room ..... Ses
Glue, Liquid, and Paste............
Golden Healer........... Suisse
Grapes, To keep
Grease and Oil, To remove
Grindstones, Use of..........5 erolewieaase
Grinding Tools
Hair Falling Out......ceee.ccceeeeee
Hams, To cure....
Hams, To smoke.........
Harness, To preserve .....
Healing Cream...... Satine
Hive Syrup.......... sisisyec6ibis'aie bce Bie
Honing a Razor............. ee eseeee
Horse Sorrel, To kill
Ice- box, To keep sweet ...
Jamaica Ginger... cece cececesecece
seu sleesadesermeeeran 400
INDEX, 681
515
463
461
. 508
495
. 454
454
. 459
A467
517
517
517
517
. 481
473
A65
462
. 507
480
518
493
476
521
. 518
508
489
.» 490
. 476
508
456
516
528
510
514
525
525
525
528
485
475
459
Kerosene as Paint......cc.secceecess 530
Knots; To paint over...........200002 467
Leather, Blacking.... .............. 476
Leather, To make water-proof........ 477
Leather, To soften...... Seatepeeseny 400
Lengtn of Nails....eece..eceseeceees §11
Liniment, Arnica..........eeceeeee ee 448
Liniment, Camphor.......... coceee « 448
Liniment, Chloroform...........s0+++ 448
Liniment, Chilblain..... saaibeieae Ge 448
Liniment, Good Samaritan........... 447
Liniment, Rheumatic. ..... ssocinwewes AST
Lye, How tomake.........eeseeeee-+ 498
Marking Sheep............ Vageesers OLO
Measures and Equivalents...... woeeee 460
Mice, To kill or drive away. ......... 489
Mildew ......... Shaws 2 yeiwiseisrseeiy B19)
Milk, How to test .......sseecceeeees 526
Milk, Good......... slew ee seae woos 527
Milk, To tell when adulterated ....... 527
Mosquitoes, To keep out... ......4.+6 483
Mosquitoes, To prevent biting........ 484
Mosquito Bites, To cure.......... wee. 484
Moths in Carpets and Clothing... .485, 488
Mucilage .......... delevieevcaseumens 480
New Washing Soda.............0+66-. 517
Nuts, How to loosen....... sse.ee0-+ SIL
Offensive Breath.......c.ccevceceees DIS
Ointment, Camphor .............. oe. 449
Ointment, Carbolic...... aera sieratene .. 450
Ointment, Cucumber ............600- 449
Ointment, Pile........ Sapeis eed roauieegse AAD
Ointment, Tar............. wcileeraivigns's, A490
Ointment, Wonder....... ay sieimayeroiae 449
Old Furniture, To Renew........ wee. 469
Old Harness Made lire New........ . ATT
Paints, How to mix....... secceeeees 468
Paint, When to..........02 eeeeees 467
Pastes and Mucilage ...............- 480
Peppermint .......... oka lee? (orains marae AOD:
Pine, to Ebonize ... ...... pcltecetuae 40h
Plaster, Adhesive ........... ...... 451
Plaster, Court......... vee sauaeitees S51
Plaster, Strengthening ............. 452
Plaster, Mustard........... ........ 452
682 INDEX.
Poultice, Charcoal....... seeeeees ... 453 (Syrup, Chamomiles......cceeeeeesees 459
Poultice, Flaxseed and Slippery Elm.. 453] pan, To remove ....seeseoeseeeeeees 509
Poultice, Soap... 66. eeeeee eee e eens 453 | Tea, Boneset...... sae eebawmecseascaa 454
Polish, Brass and Copper......+.++-- 478 Tea, Sweating ...... ..+++ seveeceee 454
Polish, Silver......... Ae ee ee 478 | Tinware, To mend large holes ....... 524
Polish, Stove........2.eee0. « ceces-+ 479 | To Clean, Steel......caseeeceecceeses 479
Polish, Furniture......... scenes 470 | To Clean, Marble...... ciaurionseeaere 419
Polish, French.............- eiaiceests 471 | To Clean, Willow Ware.......0..e005 479
Polish’: Oleic siciseusts se eiaioaiaceviate ealaceisis 4701 To Cure a Cold...... she biouieeene ADT
Potatoes, To keep from sprouting..... 494) To Remove Paint.... seccesecceseees 475
Proud Flesh .......60.. eee cree + --» 528/ [> Whiten Ivory.......... sisgdiewe wale acAED,
Putty, To soften........ .-+00+ +++» 515| Tooth Powder and Wash......2..-+-+ 508
Rats, To kill or drive away ........ 488) Typhoid Fever........ Pedant veces 463
Had Ants, To get id Of ess) vay s dna B88 Varnish for Tools..... bcs Sha tive nei esa vecns 524
Roach Exterminator .........+..++++ 483 Varnish, To soften ..... Biotuave eee na aany lO
Roofs, Fireproof wash... ..... cecees 514 enecariacs aa anh aia ccseeucess BOT
Roofs, Moss On ... cee eeeeeeeeeeeeee 515 : :
Rubber, To Mend...... satoaicancteies 509 | Wagon Tires Kept Tight........... +» 481
Rusty Plows, to clean...... ise DLT Wagons, TG gr6aBes 6 s0 oa seee 524
Benin Bumuass, geet: 466 Weeds in Garden Walks............- 509
Bahia ie ask pd vee aad 463 Whitewash, Gloss........ sseneswecee 473
Shingles, To nieces EL gee * wa Ae Whitewash, Out door ....... siaawe ss 472
Shadgies, To make fiveproet : ; is 7 i. §13 a ees iaccappiaia 5 mania ian =
Sick Room, How to cool......esseeees 521 ce — Rice aos ee
Sinks and Drains.,...........-0e eee 464 Wine. Giape sta Hel ea aT CE 507
Soap Grease, To preserve and purify.. 497 KEN phan Caine Spied yy 0 ee
Seip Hibag- to habe ote wakes cessaaiee 496 Wintergreen ......... seagiecdveess, “AOD
Worms, Stomach......... hiersmuste tine 3 AOD
Soaps Solty. ecrvcaie wansaunaaysoa erence oes 497 Wie: Bie eonns 455
Soap, Various kinds of hard...... 497, 501 ; Pon phe Se
Sprained Ankle...............0. eee 530 FRUIT CULTURE.
Squeaking Boots and Shoes........... §21 E :
Sigidd Oil, saxeaaapemoneanakeoassys dd | SOD Ec oapbeenenedneee DER
Stains, Coffee... ccscscsssesceesowces 475 emilee oiane ions RBIONENG rca tata o
Stains; Peviticascavenacns sosiedaaies 474 Aupplo Bpiay Ines « sax 2we mate ten sak o2x B42
Stale, Mnbiciacss faaeeaaw Senses he A474 pple Tren BORE Fs > eetcwamnase et eee B38
Bilin, DIRE awicas sui swowonseeuradiis A eee a ae oe a
Stains, Walnut.......... eae . 469| Bean Blight... .seseeeeeeeeee eres 542
Sticky Fly-paper....... sideinedeeem ee 487| Blackberry Spraying .......+.. ... 544
Sticky Painted Surfaces ............. 468 | Bordeaux Mixture. ........... seeeee. 540
Stove-pipe Varnish..... BE ES deste PAN 524| Budding .......-..ee0ee sereerwsesss 532
Stumps, To reMove.......eeseeeeeees 520] Cabbage Worms.........0+6....539—542
Sweating Drops.......... sends otise 454 | Canker Worms......ecceccecsceeeees 038
Sweaty Feet ........cccccceseeeneees 508 | Copper Sulphate ......eseseeee esses SA
Syrup, Simple...... oe wnat seeeseess 457 | Currant Apisy .sicssecccaveecscessss 546
Syruy, Rhubarb .............. « seee 458) Currant Mildew....ccccccecesccceees 542
Syrup, Rhubarb and Senna .......... 458 | Currant Worms........ssee-eeeesee- 539
INDEX. 683
Cucumber Beetle..............00% .. 541] Driving Cattle along Highway...... 606
Gooseberry Enemies ...... Hat. eee 542 | Dogs Frightening Horses........... 583
Grape Enemies ............08 sanees 542 | Employer and Laborer.............. 597
Grape Vine Beetle.............00005 537 | Enticing a Laborer Away....... ... 598
Hop Louse ............. ghinmieees ... 546] How Service is Terminated.......... 600
poses Pest......4. teeter ee er ees 546 | Increase of Domestic Animals....... 585
Tow to Spray.. ssnbheniuen at ereee 546 Keeping of Doge......: era AL 599
Kerosene Emulsion ............. -+. 541) Killing Trespassing Animals..... 580-587
London Purple...............+5 -»+- 540|Tand Bounded by Streams.......... 596
Paris Green...... 6:6 aah aianada eyeseNere .... 041] Law in Regard to Manure.......... 605
Peach: Borers. s.sccessugehiasas vesas . 538 | Liability for Vicious Animals,...... 581
Plum Curculio...... senha ee seeeee. 598 Liability of Servant for Misconduct.. 600
y
Plum Diseases......... eta .... 544] Liable for Servants’ Contracts....... 599
Potato Scab...........0 000005. 445-544 | Liability for Injury ................ 600
Rose Beetle........cccceee vecececes 534{ Line Trees ...... pants a lactam ar asnvetniaas 604
Spraying, How and When.......... 546 Loaning Horses.............0eeeeee 588
Spraying, Table of.............. 542-545 | Mill Privileges...............000. .. 595
Sulphate of Copper .............06- 541 | Naturalization Papers.............- 574
Tent Caterpillar............. «eeeee- 080 | Overhbanging Trees ..............-. 603
When to Spray .......0005 ee 546 | Ownership in Lost Animals.......... 578
White Hellebore............. ....-. 541] Principal and Agent....... Sialgrrsigneytie 575
Yellow Wooley Bear....... weeee--. 046] Surface Water and Drainage...... .. 596
Trees Poisonous to Animals......... 604
LEGAL DEPARTMENT
g For United States. Unsoundness of Horses............- 594
Abandoning Service with Cause..... 599 Vicious Domestic Animals.......... 585
Abandoning Service without Cause.. 598 Warranty of Soundness..... soeeeeee 589
Barbed-wire Fence..........-.+- ... 506 Aer Rights Rosy eat CE eee art pea : 94
Rendilasies and Fences. ... 601 What Constitutes a Warranty....... 591
Ba ges eal ot, re .,| What Constitutes Soundness........ 589
Commission Merchants............. 577 What Constitutes Unsonndness...... 594
Contracts... ...ccee cece cee eeeceecces O04 Wrong Use of Hired Horse......... 580
Contract for over a Year........... 598
Corruption of Water .............+- 596
Cruelty to Animals............+...- 586 LEGAL, DEPARTMENT
For Canada.
d by W EY navies esis 592
te re as ene pais 00 [Abandoning Service with Cause....... 643
ti fae ees Peete 597 [Abandoning Service without Cause.... 643
Dismissing Laborers.........--+-+-- 600 Barbed-wire Fence.............+..++- 649
Diversion of Water...........-..+- 594 | Boundaries and Fences............... 645
Division Fences.......eeceeeeeeeees 603 |/Commission Merchants............... 620
684 INDEX.
CONTACTS. cx .cccaee rid edee eouyeEndiyis 607 | Surface Water and Drainage.......... 641
Contract for over a Year............. 642 | Trees Poisonous to Animals.......... 647
Hike gn taaiag besten ee oe Unsoundness of Horses............... 638
Pe A al anecl oat seeaigmaieenadaa a. Vicious Domestic Animals........ 625-628
Defects Covered by Warranty........ 636 :
; : : Warranty of Soundness.............. 633
Discharging for Cause..../.........-- 644 J
Diseased Cattle ssa iccsccscicrain card aoereasese 630 Hansa peas WW Pa Hae ia
Dismissing Laborers...............+. 644 sh onsulutes A GRIAONT feseaice te 5
Diversion: OF WAtehe sce asuenasccs 639 | What Constitutes Soundness.......... 633
ons What Constitutes Unsoundness....... 688
Division Fences.........0.0000 eee ees 645 ;
Wrong Use of Hired Horse........... 623
Employer and Laborer............... 642
Enticing a Laborer Away...........-- 642
How Service is Terminated........... 644 SPECIAL ARTICLES,
Increase of Domestic Animals......... 628 | Births and After-births in Cattle...... 294
Keeping of Dogs............-...0000: 625 | Bookkeeping for Farmers............. 562
Killing Trespassing Animals...... 625-628 | Bovine Tuberculosis................. 547
Land Bounded by Streams........... 640) Grain Smuts.................. oeccaned 552
law in Regard to Manure............ 648 | Glossary 2.2.2.0... cece eee ence ee eees 650
Liability for Vicious Animals Rees 625-628 | tow to Retain Calf-bed.............. 294
Liability of Servant for Misconduct... 644 M BBT
Liability for Injury..............0.066 acing cs a a a a ts eG
Liable for Servants’ Contracts........ g49| Nail. in. Foot..: ccsscccsesassacnckeoncs 226
Line Treesi scscasesaeareeaandagsecues 647 | Obstructed Teats.................000.. 294
Mill) Privileges. «+ sys serauseed oy eas saes 639 | Retained After-births................ 294
Naturalization Papers................ 617 | Shoe Boil, also Capped Hock, Capped
Overhanging Trees................005 647 Knee... . 2... cece e ee eee eee 226
Ownership in Lost Animals........... G21 | PWS sae ccecece-aid sjoahenisioonccoamarabioriann se 294
Principal and Agent.............. .-.. 618 | Quarter Crack........ 0... cece eee 215
The King-Richardson Company
Of Springfield, Massachusetts.
Established 1878. $200,000 Capital. Full Paid.
ve « BRANCHES: ~ ~
San Jose Chicago Indianapolis
Standard Publications.
ffundreds of Salesmen are employed by the above company Working by
the Year on Guaranteed Salary Contracts.
A Position with the King-Richardson Co. is desirable:
Because, All members of the firm began as salesmen themselves and handle
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OUR REPRESENTATIVES : :
Are selected by us from the very best class of young men—school teachers,
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If your standing at home is such that you can give us good references, write
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It may mean more to you than you now realize to apply to us for a position.
Address the office nearest you as stated above.
Yours for business,
The King-Richardson Company.
BRAHAM LINCOLN, the “rail-split-
A ter,’’ by a log cabin fire-place, learned >a
lees arithmetic and mastered surveying. 9
Later he conquered the study of law,
never having been graduated from school or
college.
Hiome Study
made
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Great
THE HOME
CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOL
of Springfield, Mass.
Furnishes the best books and all stationery free ot cost, and conducts Home
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Write for our free booklet, 4 ROMANCE IN REAL LIFE. Mention
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