Cunninghamia

CuNNINGHAMIA

A journal of plant ecology

Lake Cargelligo 1890

Royal Botanic Gardens Sydney

National Herbarium of New South Wales

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COVER

Man and landscape — Sunday afternoon. Lake Cargelligo

Human influences — houses, horse paddocks, selective clearing of eucalypts ( Eucalyptus
species) and cypress pines (Callitris glaucophylla), and ploughed lands — are already evident at
Lake Cargelligo by 1890. Yet to come are the levee banks and dams that will control the natural
water flow. For current picture, see Sivertsen and Metcalfe paper, pp. 103-128.

Photograph courtesy of E. Mclnnes.

CUNNINGH AMI A

A journal of plant ecology

Volume 4(1) • 1995

CONTENTS

Notes on the anthecology of Pterostylis curta (Orchidaceae) Peter Bernhardt 1

The floral ecology of Dianella caerulea var. assera (Phormiaceae) Peter Bernhardt 9

The phenologies of six native forbs (Aphanes australiana, Isoetopsis

grammifolia, Triptilodiscus pygmaeus, Hypericum gramitteum, Solenogyne

dominii and Vitladinia muelleri ) occurring in grazed grassy communities

on the Northern Tablelands of New South Wales Ruth M. Tremont 21

Post-fire regeneration and growth of Senecio garlandii (Asteraceae) —
a vulnerable plant of the South Western Slopes, NSW G.E. Burrows 35

Long-term revegetation of a denuded area in the Sydney region

David A. Morrison, Lesley McCluskey and Michael A. Houstone 45

Vegetation of Mungo National Park, western New South Wales

M.E. Westbrooke and J.D. Miller 63

Tire vegetation of Nombinnie and Round Hill Nature Reserves,

central-western NSW J-S. Cohn 81

Natural vegetation of the southern wheat-belt (Forbes and

Cargelligo 1:250 000 map sheets) Dominic Sivertsen and Lisa Metcalfe 103

Bryophytes in the vicinity of Wombeyan Caves, New South Wales

A.J. Downing, R.J. Oldfield and P.M. Selkirk 129

CUNNIN GH AMI A 4(1): 1-141 • JULY 1995

Scientific Editor
Doug Benson

General and Production Editor
Margaret Metz

Typesetting

Margaret Metz, Suzanne Wynn Jones, Lydia Alvarez

Editor of Publications
Gary Bridle

Other members of Editorial Committee
Barbara Briggs, John Benson, Ken Hill

ISSN 0727-9620

National Herbarium of New South Wales
Royal Botanic Gardens Sydney
Mrs Macquaries Road
Sydney, NSW, Australia 2000

Notes on the a nth ecology of Pterostylis curta

(Orchidaceae)

Peter Bernhardt

Bernhardt, Peter' (National Herbarium of New South Wales, Royal Botanic Cardens,
Sydney, Australia 2000) 1995. Notes on the anthecology of Pterostylis curta
(Orchidaceae). Cunninghamia 4(1): IS. Field observations suggest that P. curta
R.Br. is pollinated by male fungus gnats in the genus Mycomya (Diptera;
Mycetophilidae). The viscidium is deposited dorsally on the gnat's thorax. The
labellum is self-motile and irritable. Manipulations of P. curta under controlled
temperatures show that the majority of labella reset and regained irritability
(responsive to direct contact) two to three hours after they had been triggered
the first time. Flowers of cultivated plants fail to self-pollinate. These three
observations suggest that some populations of P. curta require cross¬
pollination by insect vectors.

Introduction

Pterostylis R.Br. (Orchidaceae) is a geophytic genus of about 120 species (Johns &
Molloy 1985; Clements 1989) endemic to Australasia, reaching its centre of diversity
through the wet temperate and coastal regions of south-eastern Australia, Tasmania
and New Zealand (Bernhardt 1995). As in the Australasian genus Caleana (sensu
Bernhardt 1994), Pterostylis species are usually characterised by 'spring trap' flowers
(Dressier 1981). In a spring trap flower the labellum petal is both irritable and self-
motile. Direct but slight pressure on the lamina causes the labellum to change position
spontaneously and rapidly so it collides with the winged column.

In Pterostylis species, labellum movement should trap the prospective pollinator
between the labellum lamina and the column wings and rostellum for 30-90 seconds
until the labellum hinge begins to reset spontaneously. As the labellum begins to
return to its original position the pollinator is released and can escape through a
sinus formed by the inflated hood (galea) and the fused lateral sepals (Jones 1981).

Despite similarities in the floral mechanisms of Caleana and Pterostylis, the two genera
have different flowering seasons and attract different pollinators. Caleana flowers
appear from mid-spring through early summer. They appear to be pseudocopulatory
systems pollinated exclusively by male sawflies (Cady 1965; Bates 1989).

In contrast, the floral phenology of Pterostylis species in south-eastern Australia
peaks in late winter through mid-spring (August to early October). The pollination
syndrome of Pterostylis has been open to several interpretations since the turn of this
century (see review by Jones 1981).

1 Present address: Department of Biology, St Louis University, St Louis, Missouri 63103, U.S.A.

2

Cunninghamia Vol. 4(1): 1995

Pterostylis appears to belong to a guild of terrestrial, winter-early spring-flowering
orchids ( Acianthus , Corybas, Rhizanthella ) that are pollinated exclusively by micro-
dipterans in the families Culicidae, Phoridae and Mycetophilidae (George & Cook
1981; Jones 1981; Dafni & Bernhardt 1990). Species pollinated by mycetophilids (fungus
gnats) tend to produce greenish to rusty to deep-iodine-coloured flowers that either
lack a discernible fragrance or smell like carrion or ripe fungi (Vogel 1973). Acianthus
flowers produce nectar, while nectarless Corybas species appear to mimic mushrooms
and appear to be pollinated by ovipositing females (Dafni and Bernhardt 1990).

Pterostylis flowers are also nectarless. The pigmentation of a few species may suggest
fungal or carrion mimesis (e.g. P. pedunculata R.Br.) but the majority of flowers in the
genus are green or boldly striped with green. Jones (1981) suggested that some
Pterostylis species are 'window flowers' and fungus gnats are attracted to the rays of
light shining through translucent, dorsal portions of the inflated hood. However, the
few gnats captured in the flowers have all been males, suggesting a pseudocopulatory
syndrome (Beardsell & Bernhardt 1982; Jones 1988; Dafni & Bernhardt 1990).

The actual role of fungus gnats as agents of cross-pollination of the geophytes
throughout the forests of the world remains uncertain. For example, although Asarum
has been treated as a classic example of a gnat-pollinated genus, most seedset in A.
hartwegii Wats, derives from mechnaical self-pollination (Mesler & Lu 1993). What¬
ever the mode of floral mimesis may be in Pterostylis, pollination appears to be
vector-mediated in most species studied. In fact, mechanical, self-pollination has
been recorded far less often in the tribe Pterostylideae (sensu Burns-Balogh & Funk
1986) than in any other tribe of terrestrial orchids in Australia (Dafni & Bernhardt
1990; Catling 1990).

Some degree of cross-pollination must occur in some species of Pterostylis since
some uncommon taxa have had to be reclassified as recurrent hybrids (Clements
1989). Mycetophilids have been implicated in the recurrent production of P. curta X
P. pedunculala where populations of the parent species are sympatric. However,
Bates and Weber (1983) did not find the orchid gnats carrying pollinaria and did not
identify the genera or gender of prospective pollinators.

Therefore, additional field and glasshouse observations on Pterostylis curta should
be useful since published accounts of the floral biology in the genus remain so
fragmentary. Pterostylis curta is one of the most widely distributed members of the
genus through eastern Australia and natural clones are very floriferous (Woolcock &
Woolcock 1984; Jones 1988). Therefore, brief observations on the floral biology of
this species should help clarify some aspects of pollination mechanisms within a
troublesome genus.

Materials and methods

Floral presentation, morphology and visitors

Flowering specimens for morphological studies were collected along Woola Track 2
of Royal National Park, New South Wales, from a population of about 30 flowering

Bernhardt, Pterostylis anthecology

3

shoots. The population of Pterostylis curta was found in wet, shady, sclerophyll
forest, co-blooming with Acianthus fornicatus R.Br., P. grandiflora R.Br., P. nutans
R.Br. and P. longifblia R.Br. Field observations were made between 7 July 1991 and 22
July 91. Dried vouchers and spirit collections of flowers were made by R. Coveny
and deposited at the Royal Botanic Gardens Sydney (NSW). Insect vouchers were
deposited at the CSIRO Division of Entomology in Canberra, ACT. A pollinarium
carried by an insect was checked against the pollinarium morphology of other
orchid genera flowering at the same time of year and from the columns of living
flowers.

Labellum manipulations

The living collection of P. curta (910182, 910654) at the Missouri Botanical Garden
consisted of a total of four pots, housed in Greenhouse B1 and maintained at day
temperatures of 19-22 C and night temperatures of 11-13 C. A total of 22 living
flowers were labeled and used to record the floral lifespan and response of labella
to direct contact between 27 January 1993 and 13 March 1993. Flowers were considered
open on the first day the bud shewed both expansion of the opening of the floral
sinus and labellum irritability. Flowers were recorded as dead when the lateral
petals dried or collapsed, obscuring the sinus, and the labellum failed to move when
provoked.

Sixty-three test manipulations were conducted over the flowering period of the
greenhouse collection from 10 am to 3 pm. A flower's labellum was tapped gently
with a probe to make it spring. If it did not spring after the third tap it was recorded
as non-responsive. Flowers in which the labellum had 'tripped' were monitored
hourly, and the time required for the labellum to reset was recorded. Once the
labellum had returned to its original position it was recorded as reset. Hourly at¬
tempts were then made to retrigger the mechanism by tapping the labellum three
times with the probe. Therefore, the labellum of any study flower could be triggered
more than once during each day of experimental manipulations.

Results and discussion

Floral presentation and gross morphology

Jones (1981) subdivided floral presentation of Pterostylis species into two groups. In
the first group, the fused lateral sepals are so relaxed or deflexed that the labellum
lamina is completely visible outside the galea. The labellum lamina is short-truncated
and highly sculptured with marginal hairs and papillae. This form of presentation
was not employed by P. curta.

Pterostylis curta employs the second mode of presentation. The lateral sepals are
erect-ascending and embrace the galea, narrowing the sinus dimensions. The labellum
lamina is much longer than wide, and less than half of the lamina protrudes through
the sinus, often contacting the median cleft formed by the fused lateral sepals. In P.
curta the apical half of the lamina appears to twist to the right of the viewer (Fig. 1).

4

Cunninghamia Vol. 4(1): 1995

Fig. 1. Front view of the flower
of Plerostylis curia. Cn = column;
Ds = dorsal sepal; LI = label-
lum lamina; Lp = lateral petal;
Ls = lateral petal.

Fig. 2 (above right). Labellum and column details of P. curia (galea removed and lateral sepals
spread). Abbreviations as in Fig. 1 including An = anther; CW = column wings; Hi = claw
hinge; Lc = Lamina claw; PA = penicillate appendage; St = style.

Fig. 3. Movement of the labellum lamina within the galea (Ga); Scale = 3 cm. Left = labellum
lamina not triggered. Right = labellum lamina triggered (note that it contacts the column
wings).

Bernhardt, Pterostylis anthecology

5

Fig. 4. Male Mycomya species carrying P. curia pollinarium (scale = 3 mm). P = pollinium; V =
viscidium attached to mesonotum of insect.

As in most Pterostylis species within the second type of presentation the labellum
lamina of P. curta is entire, longer than wide and its base bears a penicillate and
vasculated appendage that is elongated, curved and terminates in an angled, fringed,
brushlike crest of branched and webbed trichomes (Fig. 2). The lamina is connected
to the claw by a flexible hinge. The claw is fused to the base of the lateral sepals
(Figs. 2 & 3). When the spring mechanism is triggered the entire lamina is with¬
drawn completely into the inflated galea, contacting the expanded, hatchet-like wings
of the column (Fig. 3).

Collection and observations of floral visitors

On 7 July 1991 examination of a Pterostylis curta flower at the study site located a
dead gnat that had become attached to the outer surface of the galea. The anther in
the flower was empty of pollinia, but a Pterostylis pollinarium was deposited dorsally
on the mesonotum of the gnat's thorax (Fig. 4). The gnat had apparently died of
exposure, as the visicidium of the pollinarium had welded the insect to the outer
surface of the galea before it could fly away. Half an hour later a second gnat was
found alive and fluttering inside the floral chamber of a second P. curta. The lamina
of the labellum had not reset completely and one anther loculus lacked its pollinium.
The entire flower was placed inside a plastic bag. The gnat crawled out of the flower
via the sinus but the Pterostylis pollinia it had been carrying was knocked off against
the side of the bag. Examination of the specimen under a dissecting microscope
showed that the mesonotum had lost hairs and remaining hairs had been matted by
viscidial residue. Both insects were identified as males of Mycomya species
(Mycetophilidae). Both were less than 4 mm long.

6

Cunninghamia Vol. 4(1): 1995

The deposition of the pollinarium on the body of a gnat may be similar in different
Pterostylis species. Colour photographs of unidentified, male mycetophilids collected
in living flowers of P. nutans R.Br. (Jones 1981) and P. furcala R. Rogers (Bates &
Weber 1990) also show the pollinarium fixed dorsally to the mesonotum.

Although each anther in a Pterostylis curta flower contains four pollinia, only one
pollinium was attached to the body of the male gnat (Fig. 4). When dissecting
needles, pin tips and the tips of needle forceps were inserted into the sinus of a P.
curta flower and then withdrawn under the column, these instruments never with¬
drew more than one or two pollinia at a time. This observation concurred with the
colour photographs of Jones (1981) and Bates and Weber (1990). Van der Pijl and
Dodson (1966) were among the first to note that Pterostylis species were among the
few orchids to release their pollinia separately. They suggested this was an adaptive
feature since a tiny dipteran could not support the weight of four pollinaria in flight.

Floral lifespan and labellum sensitivity

Individual flowers of P. curta in the glasshouse collection survived and responded
to probes for an average of three weeks. One flower responded to probes for five
weeks. All flowers of cultivated plants wither without successful self-pollination.
Labellum sensitivity appeared to be greatest during the first week after anthesis,
when the labella of both wild and greenhouse plants proved so sensitive that the
spring mechanism was activated by merely tapping the flower's peduncle. No flower
of P. curta at Royal National Park was observed to reset its labellum within five
hours after triggering. Field observations of labelled flowers indicated that under
natural conditions, i.e. where daily temperatures fluctuated and were less than 19°C,
flowers of P. curta did not reset labella fully for an average of 9-24 hours after the
spring mechanism was triggered.

In contrast, experimental series showed that, under higher controlled temperatures,
P. curta flowers reset much more rapidly, with the majority of flowers fully reset
within two to three hours after the first triggering (Table 1). Restoration of labellum
irritability peaked between two to three hours after initial triggering. Fiowever, no
lamina was found to respond to the probe stimulus tmless it had reset and protruded
from the sepal cleft.

Over 40% of all labella that reset following experimental probing still failed to spring
upwards the second time the lamina was tapped (Table 1). The labellum mechanism
could be triggered a maximum of three times during two experimental series. Twenty-
nine out of 63 tests recorded that the labellum had been triggered twice over a five
hour period.

Experimental procedures suggested that the resting of the labellum often occurred
independently of the actual restoration of irritability. Table 1 shows that the process
of resetting the position of the lamina occurred more rapidly than the restoration of
the irritability response. Since the resetting process is gradual but slow, a pollinator
the size of a gnat would be able to escape from the floral chamber before the labellum
begins to protrude from the sinus. This appeared to be the case for the second gnat
collected.

Bernhardt, Pterostylis anthecology

7

Table 1. Response of labella to artificial manipulations over time

Time period

No response
or partial reset

Labellum activity

Reset but

not irritable

Reset and

irritable 1

1. End of first hour

59

28

10

2. End of second hour

23

29

41

3. End of third hour

6

4

29

4. End of fourth hour

1

3

10

5. End of fifth hour

2

0

0

1 Refers to a labellum that reset and the spring mechanism responded to pressure.

It is still not understood why these insects entered the floral chamber in the first
place and perched, one presumes, on the labellum lamina. As both were male, the
pseudocopulatory explanation seems most likely. Jones (1981) suggested that the
appendage at the base of the lamina functions as a counterweight to the tripping
mechanisms. I will present a second hypothesis. The appendage has a crested tip
resembling the stalked osmophores of other orchid taxa as depicted by Vogel (1990).
Perhaps it is a dummy female and plays some role in the visual and/or olfactory
deception of the male gnat.

Acknowledgements

Research was funded by a Research Fellowship supported by the Trust of the Royal
Botanic Gardens Sydney. I would like to thank Dr D. Colless of the CSIRO Division
of Entomology, Canberra, ACT for identification of the fungus gnats. R. Coveny of
the Royal Botanic Gardens Sydney is thanked for locating the original study site at
Royal National Park. Marilyn Le Doux of the horticultural section of the Missouri
Botanical Garden is thanked for growing and maintaining the pots of P. curia. Jaime
Plaza of the Royal Botanic Gardens Sydney is gratefully acknowledged for his
photographs of the gnat-bearing pollinia. I thank John Myers for providing the
illustrations.

References

Bates, R. (1989) Observations on the pollination of Calcana major R.Br. by male sawflies
(Plerogophorus sp.). The Or chadkn, September: 208-210.

Bates, R. & Weber, J.Z. (1983) A putative hybrid between Plcroslylis curia and P. pedunculata
(Orchidaceae) from South Australia. ]. Adelaide Bol. Gard. 6: 197-200.

Bates, R. & Weber, J.Z. (1990) Orchids of South Australia. (Government Printer: South Australia.)
Bernhardt, P. (1995) Biogeography and floral evolution in the Geoblasteae (Orchidaceae). In
Arroyo, M.T.K., Fox, M. & Zedler, P., Ecology and Biogeography of Mediterranean Ecosystems in
Chile, California and Australia; Ecological Studies 108, pp. 116-136 (Springer Verlag: New York).
Bernhardt, P. (1994) Caleana. In Harden (ed.), G.J., Flora ofNciv South Wales, Volume 4, pp. 194-
195. (New South Wales University Press: Kensington.)

8

Cunninghamia Vol. 4(1): 1995

Bums-Balogh, P. & Funk, V.A. (1986) A phylogenetic analysis of the Orchidaceae. Smithsonian
contributions to botany, No. 61. (Smithsonian Institutions Press: Washington D.C.).

Cady, L. (1965) Notes on the pollination of Caleana major R.Br. The Orchadian 2: 34-35.

Catling, P.M. (1990) Auto-pollination in the Orchidaceae. In Arditti, (ed.) Orchid biology: reviews
and perspectives, pp. 123-158 (Timber Press: Portland.)

Clements, M. A. 1989. Catalogue of Australian Orchidaceae. Australian Orchid Research. (Australian
Orchid Foundation: Essendon.)

Dafni, A. & Bernhardt, P. (1990) Pollination of terrestrial orchids of southern Australia and the
Mediterranean region: systematic, ecological and evolutionary implications. In Hccht, M.K.,
Wallace, B. & Macintyre, R.J. (eds.), Evolutionary Biology, pp. 193-252. (Plenum Publishing:
New York.)

George, A. & Cooke, J. (1981) Rhizanlhclla: the underground orchid of Western Australia. In
Lawler, L. & Kerr, R.D. (eds.) Proceedings if the orchid symposium: 13th International Botanical
Congress, 1981. (Orchid Society of New South Wales, Harbour Press: Sydney.)

Jones, D.L. (1981) The pollination of selected Australian orchids. In Lawler, L. & Kerr, R.D.
(eds.) Proceedings if the Orchid Symposium ; 13th International Botanical Congress, 1981. (Orchid
Society of New South Wales, Harbour Press, Sydney.)

Jones, D.L. (1988). Native orchids cf Australia. (Reed Books: Frenchs Forest.)

Johns, J. & Molloy, B. (1984) Native orchids ofNeio Zealand. (Reed: Wellington.)

Mesler, M.R. & Lu, K.L. (1993) Pollination biology of Asarum harlwegii (Aristolochiaceae): an
evaluation of Vogel's mushroom-fly hypothesis. Mardono 40: 117-125.

Van der Pijl, L. & Dodson, C.H. (1966) Orchid flowers: their pollination and evolution. (University
of Miami Press: Coral Gables, Florida.)

Vogel, S. (1973) Fungus gnat flowers and fungus mimesis. In Brantjes, N.B.M. & Linskens, H.F.
(eds.), Pollination and dispersal. (Nijmegan: Netherlands.)

Vogel, S. (1990) The role f scent glands in pollination. (Smithsonian Institutions Libraries, Amerind
Publishing Co.: New Delhi.)

Woolcock, C.E. & Woolcock, D.T. (1984) Australian terrestrial orchids. (Thomas Nelson
Publishers: Melbourne.)

Manuscript received 19 April 1994
Manuscript accepted 8 September 1994

9

The floral ecology of Dianella caerulea
var. assera (Phormiaceae)

Peter Bernhardt

Bernhardt, Peter ' (National Herbarium of New South Wales, Royal Botanic Cardens,
Sydney, Australia 2000) 1995. The floral ecology of Dianella caerulea var. assera
(Phormiaceae). Cunninghamia 4(1): 9-20. Two populations of Dianella caerulea
var. assera R. Henderson were observed over two years in eastern Australia.
Both populations flowered in spring, with inflorescences opening only 5% of
their flowers at the same time. Only 20% of all flowers on an inflorescence set
fruit, suggesting that they do not self-pollinate. Tire nodding, nectarless flowers
had elongated anthers, each opening via two terminal pores, and the anthers
formed a loose cone around the style. Flowers were buzz-pollinated by female
bees primarily in the families Anthoplioridae (Exoneura spp.) and Halictidae
(Lasioglossum, Nomia spp.). Bees less than 6 mm long ( Homaliclus holochorous and
Trigona spp.) removed pollen from anthers, but did not contact stigmas while
foraging. Examination of pollen loads indicated that most bees were polylectic
foragers that had visited at least one nectar-secreting taxon (e.g. Ceralopetalum
gummifera, Haloragis spp., papilionoid legumes, Myrtaceae) before foraging on
D. caerulea. However, bees were never observed grasping, probing or combing
the swollen, brightly coloured and papillate apices of the staminal filaments.
The absence of this behaviour indicated that these structures did not function as
nectaries or as a source of pseudopollen as proposed by earlier authorities.

Introduction

An examination of spring-flowering species in southern Australia suggests
convergent and/or parallel trends in floral presentation. A conspicuous proportion
of vernal herbs and shrubs produce flowers that nod on their scapes or pedicels and
have brightly coloured perianths, emphasising yellow or blue-purple pigmentation.
These perianth segments are often reflexed or are expanded so broadly that the
androecium is fully exposed (see Cochrane et al. 1980; Willis et al. 1975).

The androecium of such flowers often contrasts sharply in colour to the perianth
and consists of relatively few stamens (oligandrous) with porose-porate anthers
(Vogel 1978; Gack 1979; Buchmann 1983; Faegri 1986). These elongated/inflated
anthers are clustered to form a cone around the protruding style, or may form an
arched and elevated tuft above the stigma or stigmas (e.g. Hibbertia ; Bernhardt 1984,
1986). Dissection of these flowers shows an absence of nectaries, oileries or food
bodies, indicating that pollen is the only edible reward offered (Buchmann 1983;
Bernhardt 1984, 1986; Bernhardt & Bums-Balogh 1986).

Vogel (1978) reviewed this mode of floral presentation within many families of
flowering plants and termed it the Solanum -type flower. The Solanum -type appears

'Present address: Department of Biology, St Louis University, St Louis, Missouri 63103, U.S.A.

10

Cunninghamia Vol. 4(1): 1995

to be pandemic, as it has evolved independently within more than 65 angiosperm
families (Buchmann 1982; Barth 1985) that are not confined to Australia. However,
Vogel's initial descriptions of Solanum-type flowers included examples of many
genera that are indigenous or endemic to Australia; e.g. Arthropodium, Bulbine,
Calectasia, Dianella, Hibbertia, Solatium, Sowerbaea, Stypandra, Xyris, etc. Faegri (1986)
much expanded the list of genera of Solanum-type flowers in Australia by examining
specimens native to the south-west of the continent and suggested it was a particularly
common, floral form in the Mediterranean south-west. In fact, Solanum-type flowers
are so common in southern Australia that their mode of floral presentation appears
to be exploited by some mimetic orchids that are cross-pollinated via pseudanthery
(Bernhardt & Bums-Balogh 1986; Dafni & Bernhardt 1990).

In general, Solanum-type flowers are most likely to be buzz-pollinated. That is,
pollen is repeatedly 'shaken' out of the terminal pores through the stereotyped
vibration of flight muscles within the insect's thorax (Buchmann 1983). The major
pollen vectors are female bees and, to a much lesser extent, large syrphid flies in the
genus Volucella.

The study of buzz-pollination in Australia has been infrequent and inconsistent. A
review of Solanum-type forms in the flora of south-eastern Australia would suggest,
though, that it may be a particularly common mode of pollination in some petalloid
monocots with a broad lilioid base. Of the genera listed above, Dianella would
appear to make the most promising model of fieldwork. There are two reasons for
this tentative conclusion.

First, Dianella species are widely distributed throughout coastal Australia, often form¬
ing dense, easily located, clonal colonies (Wilson 1993). They are common roadside
perennials throughout the south-east (Bernhardt, personal observation). In fact, the
genus has a broad but disjunctive distribution throughout Australasia, Indo-Malay-
sia and the islands of the South Pacific, and is also found as far west as Africa,
Madagascar and the Mascarenes (Dahlgren et al. 1985). This phytogeography offers
potential for future studies comparing the adaptive radiation of pollination
mechanisms of allopatric species.

Second, pollination studies of Dianella species are required to clarify contradicting
interpretations of androecium morphology. In most Dianella species the distal
portion of each stamina! filament is swollen, densely papillate and often referred to
as a struma ( sensu Henderson 1987). This structure has been interpreted as an
androecial nectary (Daumann 1970; Dahlgren & Clifford 1982). In contrast, Vogel
(1978) and Faegri (1986) interpreted strumae as shifts towards deception. It was
assumed that the enlarged and gaudy struma made the smaller anther look larger
and more attractive to prospective foragers. Neither hypothesis involved direct
observation of pollinators on the flowers. Therefore, the following observations are
presented to help clarify earlier hypotheses concerning the functions of floral organs
in Dianella.

Bernhardt, Dianella floral ecology

11

Materials and methods

Study sites

Two discontinuous populations of Dianella caerulea var. assera (sensu Henderson 1987)
were observed weekly at sites in Royal National Park between November 1990 and
October-November 1991. Description of sites follows Specht et al. (1974) for major
plant communities at Royal National Park.

Site 1. Gray's Farm

Open riparian forest of wet sclerophyll grading to disturbed, dry sclerophyll. Dianella
caerulea population in discrete clumps along roadside or within disrupted and
successional sections colonised by mixed, shrubby Myrtaceae, Hibbertia scandens and
Pteridium esculentum.

Site 2. Lady Carrington Track

Tall closed forest grading from dense, wet sclerophyll ( Syncarpia glomulifera and
rainforest elements) to warm-temperate rainforest. Dianella caerulea forming spread¬
ing rhizomatous colonies on exposed banks and in light gaps.

Recording data on reproductive features

Flowering shoots were selected while walking the entire length of each site. Since
Dianella species are both rhizomatous and clonal, only every third flowering shoot
was used for measurements in order to expand the sample of potential genotypes.
Each inflorescence consists of an apical cluster of flowers (terminal florescence) and
one or more side branches (paracladia). One side branch was selected on each
inflorescence to represent the average number of flower buds or berries/branch.
However, infructescences containing one or more obviously galled ovaries were not
recorded for fruiting details. Vouchers have been deposited at the Missouri
Botanical Garden (MO).

Flowers required for morphological examinations were stored in plastic bags or
placed in vials containing 70% ethanol for long-term storage. Flowers were picked
only on days when the perianth had expanded, exposing the androecium.

To sample floral odour, fresh flowers were placed in clean, glass vials and sealed for
two hours. The vials were placed in a warm, sunny location, then reopened at the
end of the two hour period and smelled (Buchmann et al. 1978). To determine the
possible sites of scent glands (osmophores), fresh flowers of D. caerulea var. assera,
D. ensifolia (Royal Botanic Garden Living Collection no. 781020) and Dianella sp. aff.
longifolia (Royal Botanic Garden Living Collection no. 17047) were stained in a 1%
solution of Neutral Red in distilled water for two hours, then washed in distilled
water for 18 hours. The staminal filaments were checked for the presence of nectar
secretions by observing fresh flowers under a dissecting microscope and by probing
filament apices of flowers at field sites with microcapillary tubes.

12

Curninghamia Vol. 4(1): 1995

Analyses of foraging insects

Foraging behaviour of prospective pollinators was observed over the days of field¬
work. Insects were collected from 9 am until 1 pm, as foraging behaviour became
negligible by early afternoon. Insects were netted only if they were observed foraging
on open flowers. Foraging is defined here as the active removal of pollen from the
anthers, or the probing of floral organs with mouthparts. Insects were killed in jars
containing fumes of ethyl acetate. To determine the deposition of pollen, each insect
was observed under a dissecting microscope. To analyse pollen taxa carried by
insects, each insect was placed on a clean glass slide and 'bathed' in a couple of
drops of 100% ethanol. When the ethanol evaporated, the residue remaining on the
slide was mounted in two or three drops of Calberla's fluid (Ogden et al. 1974).
Identification of pollen was made under light microscopy. Flowever, since different
insects were killed in the same jar, contamination was possible. Therefore, a pollen
taxon was not recorded as present unless more than 25 individual monads could be
counted under each cover slip.

In contrast to the majority of lilioid monocots, the pollen of Phormiaceae are readily
distinguished from the vast majority of angiosperm pollens in Australia, as they are
both distinctly trichotomosulcate (Dahlgren & Clifford 1982; Dahlgren et al. 1985)
and the monads appear to have such a thin exine that they always stain a light pink
in the presence of Calberla's fluid (Bernhardt, personal observation). Although the
genus Stypandrci (Phormiaceae; sensu Dahlgren et al. 1985) is also distributed through¬
out eastern Australia, it was not found in either study site. Insects were washed, air-
dried, measured (from base of mouthparts to abdomen tip), pinned, and labelled to
cross-reference with their respective pollen slides. Insect vouchers were deposited in
the National Museum of Victoria, Abbotsford.

Results

Inflorescence structure and floral phenology

Dmnella caerulea var. assera has paniculate flowering shoots indicative of the genus.
Each scape terminates in an apical cluster of flowers. Below this terminal florescence,
the scape produces an average of seven alternative side branches or paracladia
(Table 1). Each paracladium contains a similar number of flower buds as are found
in the terminal florescence. Flowering began in late October and concluded by the
end of November. Fruiting was contiguous with flowering and a paracladium often
contained one or more ripe, blue berries, while flower buds continued to open on
the same branch. The average number of fruits produced by a single infructescence
deviated far more than any other reproductive feature recorded (Table 1). The
conversion rate of individual flowers on a single inflorescence into fruits was
approximately 20%.

The order in which individual flower buds opened within the same panicle was
either subacropetal or did not follow any stereotyped program of anthesis. However,
flowering within each paracladium was acropetal. The perianth of a flower opened

Bernhardt, Dianella floral ecology

13

Table 1. Flower and fruit production of the inflorescences of Dianella caerulea var.
assera

Reproductive structure

n 1

Mean

Range

SD

Number of branches/inflorescence

32

7.9

3-13

2.2

Number of flowers/branch 2

43

8.0

2-23

5.2

Number of open flowers/inflorescences

52

3.5

1-12

2.8

Number of fruits/branch

27

2.6

1-9

16.3

'n = The number of inflorescences sampled.

^Branch = either one paracladium or the terminal florescence on each inflorescence.

and withered within a 24 to 48 hour period. Over two seasons of observation no
paracladium was found to have more than one open flower at a time. Only 5% of all
flowers on an inflorescence were ever open at the same time and 44% of all branches
on the same inflorescence displayed one open flower on the same day (Table 1).

Floral presentation, attractants and rewards. Open flowers of D. caerulea nodded on
their pedicels (Fig. 1) or were held horizontally. Illustrations of flowers of Dianella
species often depict the perianth as bell-like or funnelform, with tepals obscuring
the androecium (e.g. see D. ensifolia and D. nigra in Dahlgren et al. 1985). This was
not observed in populations of D. caerulea var. assera. The tepals of fresh, first-day
flowers tended to be reflexive, exposing whole stamens to full view from the side
(Fig. 1). The anthers formed a loose cone around the style. The stigma protruded
from the centre of the anther cone. The style often curved or twisted below the tip
of the anther cones, but there was no evidence of enantiomorphy as has been
described in Cyatiella and some Solatium species (Bowers 1975; Dulberger & Omduff
1980). The anthers were extrorsive, each anther tip bearing two terminal pores (Fig.
1). There was no evidence of dimorphic pollen as in the enantiomorphic taxa
discussed above (Dulberger 1981).

The pigmentation of floral organs was distinct and contrasting. Tepals of both whorls
were blue with accentuated, dark-blue veins. The six stamens have blue filaments
terminating in swollen, papillose, golden-orange tips embracing the greenish, straw-
yellow anthers. The struma is about half the length of its anther, but each struma is
about equal the length of the geniculate filament (Fig. 1). The globular ovary was a
bright, polished green with a blue style and stigma.

When flowers were smelled on their inflorescences it was not possible to record a
discernible scent. Flowers sampled two hours after they were placed in vials had a
distinct but non-sweet odour reminiscent of baked pumpkin or squash.

In all three Dianella species sampled the strongest positive response to Neutral Red
occurred repeatedly and consistently on tire stigma, anther pores, pollen, inner
surfaces of the tepals and on all strumae. The papillae of each struma turned an
opaque, brick-red, while the geniculate filaments either showed no response ( Dianella
sp. aff. longifolia) or stained a translucent light pink (D. caerulea and D. ensifolia).

14

Cunninghamia Vol. 4(1): 1995

Fig. 1. The flower of Dianella caerulea var. ns sera (scale = 5 mm). Above, side presentation of
flower. Ad = androecium; It = inner tepal; Ot = outer tepal; St = protruding stigma. Below left,
side presentation of flower exposing the gynoecium, Ov = ovary; Sy = style. Lower right,
stamens; An = anther; F = geniculate filament; P = pore; Sa = struma (note papillae).

The papillate surface of the strumae of D. caerulea var. assera remained dry over
three seasons of sampling. No fluids were drawn into microcapillary tubes in the
three species sampled and their strumae never felt damp or sticky.

Pollination mechanism

Female bees were the only successful pollen foragers on flowers of D. caerulea
(Tables 1 and 2). Bees collected represented four out of the five families of Apoideae
distributed throughout Australia (sensu Armstrong 1979). Bees observed at both
sites rarely visited more than one open flower on each inflorescence, but regularly
visited more than one inflorescence during a pollen foraging bout.

The introduced honey bee. Apis tnellrfiera was observed to hover in front of the
flowers, but rarely clung to the floral organs. The single A. mellifera collected on

Bernhardt, Dianella floral ecology

15

Table 2. Pollen loads of bees collected on Dianella caerulea var. assera

Bee taxon

Bee length 1

Dianella

only

Pollen load

Dianella +
other species

Other species
(no Dianella)

Anthophoridae

Exoneura spp.

6.5

1

5

1

Apidae

Apis mellifera

14.0

0

0

1

Trigona spp.

4.5

4

5

0

Colletidae

Hylaeus sp.

Halictidae

8.0

0

1

0

Homalictus holochorus
Lasioglossum subgenera

5.0

0

1

0

Australictus sp.

9.0

0

1

0

Callalictus sp.

Chilalictus

9.0

1

2

L. convexum

7.0

1

1

0

Lasioglossum spp.

6.0

0

0

1

Nomia spp.

11.5

0

2

0

Totals (n = 28)

-

6

18

3

1 Mean length in mm

D. caerulea failed to carry the host plant's pollen (Table 1). No native bee was ever
observed to land or perch on the strumae, attempt to scrape the papillae with their
claws or probe them with their mouthparts.

Pollination was accomplished by bees at least 6 mm long or longer (Table 2) in the
genera Exoneura (Anthophoridae), Lasioglossum and Notnia (Halictidae). All bees
observed landed on the anthers and never on strumae or tepals. These insects
always foraged upside down while clinging directly to the anthers, as even a
horizontally held flower bent under the weight of the smallest foragers. Exoneura
and the larger halictid bees appeared to shake the anthers using thoracic vibration.
Pollen released from the anther pores was deposited ventrally on the bee's thorax.
The bee combed this pollen off her thorax, depositing the grains between scopal
hairs on the hind legs or into a patch of scopal hairs at the base of the abdomen.
During the process of pollen collection the stigma contacted the bee's thorax or the
base of the abdomen.

Although the Hylaeus species (Colletidae) carried Dianella pollen (Table 2), it was not
observed to shake the androecium or contact the stigma. Bees less than 6 mm long
regularly failed to contact the stigma while foraging for pollen. In particular, the
eusocial Trigona species (subgenus Tetragona) were so small that worker bees
regularly grasped the tip of only one anther on one flower at a time and scraped out

16

Cunringhamia Vol. 4(1): 1995

pollen by inserting a foreleg directly into the anther pores. No thoracic vibration
was ever observed in Trigona on Dianella anthers.

The majority of bees collected on D. caerulea carried the pollen of more than one
plant in flower in the study site (Table 2). All bees carrying mixed loads of pollen
carried pollen from at least one nectar-producing species within the study site
(Table 3; Figs. 2 and 3). The larger halictid bees ( Lasioglossum and Noinici species)
carried a maximum of four recognisable pollen taxa in their scopae with a mean of
more than two pollen taxa/insect (n = nine bees bearing pollen). Exotieura species
(Anthophoridae) carried a maximum of five pollen taxa with a mean of more than
three pollen taxa/insect (n = six bees bearing pollen).

Discussion

The conversion of flowers into fruit is so low in D. caerulea var. assera it seems most
likely that the rate of mechanical self-pollination (autogamy) is negligible in this
taxon. Since anthers do not release pollen unless struck or shaken, pollination must
be vector-mediated. The foraging pattern of insects combined with the flowering
pattern of the plant suggests that a pollinator is more likely to deliver pollen from
a second flowering shoot than from a second flower on the same inflorescence. In
this respect, the adaptive phenology and morphology of the pollination system of
D. caerulea var. assera overlaps broadly with some other buzz-pollinated taxa in the
genera Echeandia (Bernhardt & Montalvo 1979), Hibbertia (Bernhardt 1984, 1986),
Dodecatheon (Macior 1974) and Solarium sensu stricto (Macior 1974; Bowers 1976;
Buchmann 1983). In all of these species the number of open flowers on an inflores¬
cence at any time is always a fraction, compared to the original number of flower

Table 3. Pollen loads of bees carrying grains of Dianella caerulea mixed with the
pollen of at least one more species

Bee taxon Pollen taxa

Exoneura spp.
Homalictus holochorous
Hylaeus sp.

Lasiogtossum subgenera
Australictus
Callalictus
Chilalictus

CG+ DC- HC-

HS+ MM+ PL+

4 5 3
0 1 1
1 1 0

0 3 3
0 0 1
0 0 0

SG+ UE+ 1

1 0

0 0

0 0

Olio
0 2 2 0

0 110
0 2 0 1

L convexum
Nomia sp.

Trigona sp.

Totals (n = 18)

0 1 0

0 2 0

0 5 1

5 18 8

1 0 0

0 1 1

0 4 0

1 8 8

0 0
0 0
0 0

2 1

. ^ - Ceratopetalum gummifera ; DC = Dianella caerulea-, HC = Hibbertia scandens; HS = Haloragis spp ;
MM = Mixed, unidentified Myrtaceae (e.g. Angophora, Baeckea, Eucalyptus, Kunzea, Leptospermum
spp.) PL - papilionoid legumes; SG = Stylidium graminifolium-, UE = unidentified Epacridaceae (in
tetrads); + = secretes floral nectar; - = no floral nectar.

V/

Bernhardt, Dianella floral ecology

17

1

J

3

Fig. 2. Pollen grains from a section of the scopal load of a female Lasioglossum (sub¬
genus Callalictus) X 98. A = Dianella cacrulca var. assera ; B = Hibbertia scandens; C = Unidentified
Epacridaceae. Figure 3. Pollen grains from a section of the scopal load of a female Exoneura sp.

X 98. A = Dianella caerulea; B = Stylidium graminifolium; C = Ceratopelalum gummfera ; D =
papilionoid legume.

buds produced by the inflorescence. This mode of flowering is known as the steady
state syndrome (Gentry 1974).

The highly variable yet comparatively low rate of conversion of flowers into fruits
converged with Echeandia (Bernhardt & Montalco 1979), suggesting that D. cacrulca
was probably dependent on outbreeding (Richards 1986). The sharply contrasting
pigmentation of the D. caerulea flower is largely duplicated in Solatium and
Dodecatheon species. As in the majority of Solanum- type flowers, the perianth of
D. caerulea expanded to expose the andreocium. The staminal filaments were
relatively short compared to the length of the anthers, and such anthers were
clustered and positioned so that the bee could not extract pollen without contacting
the stigma.

Both long-tongue (Anthophoridae) and short-tongue (Halictidae) families of bees
pollinated D. caerulea, but this is also typical of Solanum- type flowers. When pollen
is the only edible reward, the length of the bee's glossa (proboscis) is inconsequential
and many Solanum- type flowers in the western hemisphere are also pollinated by
long-tongue Apoideae, especially bumblebees ( Bombus species) and anthophorids
(Macior 1974; Bowers 1975; Bernhardt & Montalvo 1979; Buchmann 1983).

Dianella caerulea received a greater diversity of foragers in the halictid genus,
Lasioglossum (four subgenera), than any nectarless, bee-pollinated species studied
previously in southern Australia (e.g. Bernhardt 1984,1986,1989, Bernhardt & Bums-
Balogh 1986). Lasioglossum species appear to be dominant foragers on many genera
with nectarless flowers in Australia (Bernhardt 1989). The failure of Apis mellifera to
remove pollen from D. caerulea has been recorded in other Solanum-tyipe flowers
(Buchmann 1983; Barth 1985).

18

Cunninghamia Vol. 4(1): 1995

Do the strumae of DicineUa species have a recognisable function? The strumae of the
three species examined are definitely not nectaries. This may not be indicative of all
taxa in this genus, but it should be noted that nectariferous secretions were not
found in living flowers of D. revoluta or D. longifblia var. longifblia examined by the
author from 1990-1992 (unpublished). Furthermore, no bee was ever observed
mistaking strumae for anthers by attempting to scrape off the papillose cells as if
they were pseudopollen or, as has been observed of some female bees, scraping the
calli or trichome brushes in some orchid flowers (Dafni & Bernhardt 1990) or the
hairy staminodes of some species within the Commelinaceae (Faden 1992). The
papillae on the strumae of D. caerulea did not appear to secrete volatiles attractive to
male bees as on the anther connectives of Cyphomandra endopogon var. endopogon
(Solanaceae) which is pollinated by neotropical euglossines (Grade 1993). How could
the strumae make the anthers of D. caerulea appear larger when the anthers of
D. caerulea var. assera are twice as long as the strumae, smooth, and a completely
different colour?

It should be noted that androecia bearing some form of ornamentation and/or distal
swelling are extremely common in the flowers of petalloid monocots that are buzz-
pollinated. In Xyris and Commelina, for example, fertile stamens alternate with
ornamented-brushy staminodes (Vogel 1978; Faden 1992). However, in Australia
some monocot genera with Solatium- type flowers have fertile stamens in which the
filament tips are enlarged and/or ornamented, including Arthropodium, Bulbitic, Caesia,
Dichopogon, Herpolirion, Tircoryne (Vogel 1978; Dahlgren et al. 1985; Bernhardt &
Bums-Balogh 1986, and descriptions by Willis 1978) and Stypandra (a sister genus of
Dianella) (Dahlgren at al. 1985). All but Herpolirion are currently placed within only
two families in the order Asparagales, suggesting a strong trend towards parallel
evolution (Dahlgren et al. 1985).

In the flowers of these five genera and Dianella the colour of the swollen filaments
or their ornaments often contrasts vividly with the anther colours. Since these flowers
tend to nod on their pedicels, ornamented filaments probably contribute to the
overall visual cue of the flower's profile or side view. Epidermal sculptures on each
filament could also help mesh stamens together, keeping the anther tuft tightly
clustered.

Strumae may also function as scent glands but further investigation is required to
test this hypothesis. The oily pollen coat of insect-pollinated flowers usually serves
as a matrix for pollen scents and such scents appear to attract some pollinators
(Buchmann 1983; Bernhardt 1984, 1986; Dobson et al. 1990). However, the pollen
grains of buzz-pollinated flowers are retained inside inflated chambers so pollen
odours are not exposed directly to the air until after the grains are removed by the
bees. Scents attracting female bees to the source of pollen in a Solanum- type flower
could be secreted by the filament apices.

Swollen, stalked and ornamented appendages are very common in the Asclepiadaceae,
Aristolochiaceae, Burmanniaceae and Orchidaceae and these structures have been
identified as osmophores (Vogel 1990). Therefore, the positive response to the

Bernhardt, Dianella floral ecology

19

Neutral Red test of the strumae of Dianella species suggests that they may serve as
both visual and olfactory cues to female bees searching actively for inverted and
dangling anthers.

Acknowledgements

Research was funded by a Fellowship provided by the Trust of the Royal Botanic
Gardens Sydney. I would like to thank John Myers for drawing Figure f. I would
also like to thank Ms K. Wilson (RBG Sydney) for her identification of Dianella
species and Dr K. Walker (Entomology Division, National Museum of Victoria) for
identifying bees. Particular thanks are expressed to Ms Natasha Baczocha, who
assisted in the collection of bees and helped record data and prepare specimens over
two seasons.

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Manuscript received 28 March 1994
Manuscript accepted 8 September 1994

21

The phenologies of six native forbs (Aphanes
australiana, Isoetopsis graminifolia,
Triptilodiscus pygmaeus, Hypericum
gramineum, Solenogyne dominii and
Vittadinia muelleri ) occurring in grazed grassy
communities on the Northern Tablelands of
New South Wales

R.M. Tremont

Tremonl, R.M. (Department of Botany, University of New England, Armidale, Neiv
South Wales, Australia 2351) 1995. The phenologies of six native forbs (Aphanes
australiana, Isoetopsis graminifolia, Triptilodiscus pygmaeus, Hypericum
gramineum, Solenogyne dominii and Vittadinia muelleri) occurring in grazed grassy
communities on the Northern Tablelands of New South Wales. Cunninghamia 4(1): 21-
34. Information on the phenologies of native forbs occurring in grassy vegetation
of the temperate Australian mainland is lacking. This has serious implications if
we are to manipulate natural grassy communities to favour the continued
existence of both common and uncommon native forbs, and the species richness
they provide. The occurrence and duration of major life cycle events for three
annual (Aphanes australiana, Isoetopsis graminifolia, Triptilodiscus pygmaeus) and
three perennial (Hypericum gramineum, Solenogyne dominii and Vittadinia muelleri )
forb species commonly found in grazed natural grasslands on the Northern
Tablelands of New South Wales are reported in the present study. Growth took
place in all seasons, across species, but reproduction was restricted to the spring-
summer period. Particular life cycle events occurred over specific intervals, which
varied between species. Such variation in the timing of key reproductive events
can be utilised to enhance or suppress the survival of particular populations and
so manipulate community composition. However, if native forbs and species-
rich natural grassy communities are to be conserved or enriched, systematic
data collection is required for many species. Comparative and functional group
approaches may be the most effective strategics for documenting and synthesising
the urgently-needed information on morphological and response characteristics
of numerous native herbaceous species and their grassy communities.

Introduction

The phenologies of many species of native forbs found in natural grassy communities
of the temperate Australian mainland are unknown. However, the major contribution
made by native forbs to the species richness of these communities (e.g. Patton 1936;
Stuwe & Parsons 1977; Walsh et al. 1986; Lunt 1990a; McIntyre et al. 1993; Prober &
Thiele 1993; Trdmont 1993, 1994), the depleted status of a number of previously
plentiful forb species and the probable under-representation of these plants in

22

Cunninghamia Vol. 4(1): 1995

Australian lists of rare and threatened plants (McIntyre 1992) suggest an urgent
need for systematic studies of their biology and ecology. Furthermore, particular
groups of forbs are often characterised by specific attributes, including phenological
characteristics. Studies of such attributes may facilitate the differentiation and character¬
isation of plant communities and provide for an understanding of processes affect¬
ing population and community dynamics, structure and composition (e.g. Friedel et
al. 1988; Leishman & Westoby 1992; Bell et al. 1993; McIntyre & Lavorel 1994; McIntyre
et al. 1995).

Considerable attention has been given to the biology of native grasses of temperate
communities as a result of their contribution to pastoral industries. The knowledge
so gained has led to the development of techniques for establishing some species
(e.g. McDougall 1989; Stafford 1991), as well as manipulating the compositions of
grass components of pastures and rangelands (e.g. Harradine & Whalley 1980; Lodge
& Whalley 1985; McDougall 1989). No such information is available for native forbs.
However, if we are to help their populations survive the expansion of 'synthetic
communities' (after Bridgewater 1990), this has to change. We must gain an under¬
standing of life-history attributes of, at least, the common forb species.

The life cycles of some threatened forbs have been well documented, and particular
aspects of life cycle events studied for a small collection of other notable species (see
Tremont & McIntyre 1994). However, published phenological information for common
native forbs of the temperate Australian mainland is generally confined to comments
on flowering times in relevant floras.

This paper describes the occurrence and duration of the main life cycle events of six
native forbs commonly found in grazed natural pastures on the Northern Table¬
lands of New South Wales. The information reported was collected in conjunction
with that for a wider study of herbaceous species and species groups occurring in
grazed and ungrazed grasslands on the Northern Tablelands (Tremont 1993, 1994).
The vegetation structure and the composition, diversity and life-history attributes of
the flora at the study site have been described by Tremont (1993, 1994).

Materials and methods

Site description

The 1.2 ha study site (2 x 0.6 ha plots) was located on the Northern Tablelands of
New South Wales, Australia, on the Chiswick CSIRO Pastoral Research Laboratory
property (30°37'50"S, 151 32'42"E; 1060 m asl) near Armidale.

Meteorological data for Chiswick have been recorded by George et al. (1977) for the
period 1949-1976 (Figure la). The site has a cool temperate climate, with mean
maximum summer temperatures reaching about 25° C and mean winter minima of
around -1 C. However, extreme maximum temperatures such as 38” C have been
recorded and overnight frosts are common during autumn, winter and spring, with
minima of -5 to -10 C occurring often (George et al. 1977). A mean annual precipitation

Tr^mont, Phenologies of native forbs

23

Monthly

precipitation

Maximum daily Minimum daily

temperature temperature

Fig. 1. Monthly precipitation and mean maximum and minimum daily temperatures for
Chiswick Pastoral Research Laboratory, Armidale, NSW: a, as reported by George et al. (1977)
for the period 1949-1976 (inclusive); b, as recorded during the present study from January 1992
to August 1993 (inclusive).

of 870 mm has been recorded at Chiswick, with approximately 60% falling during the
five months from October to February (George et al. 1977). For the duration of the
present study, recordings of maximum and minimum daily air temperatures and
daily precipitation were obtained from the Chiswick weather station (Figure lb).

Parent material at the study site consists of laterized basalt colluvium and sediments.
Soils are grey-brown podzolics which are mildly to strongly leached and highly
differentiated (King 1989). The site is gently undulating and has a convex mid-slope.
Aspect is north to north-north-westerly and drainage is generally good.

24

Cunninghamia Vol. 4(1): 1995

At the time of European settlement, the study site was probably part of a Eucalyptus
melliodora-E. blakelyi woodland community, with a graminaceous understorey
dominated by Poa sieberiana, Themeda australis and Sorghum leiocladum (Whalley et al.
1978; Lodge & Whalley 1989). Native herbaceous legumes, such as the warm-season
Desmodium varians, Glycine tabacina and Psoralea tenax, may have also been common
(Whalley et al. 1978). However, little is known about other forbs in the pre-European
grassy communities. These communities were replaced by a temperate tallgrass
grassland community (King 1989) following the introduction of domestic stock and
tree clearing in the mid-nineteenth century (Lodge & Whalley 1989). Until 1976, the
site was unfenced and supported unfertilised pasture grassland grazed intermittently
by sheep. From 1976, the 1.2 ha (2 x 0.6 ha plots) used for the present study were
grazed continuously by mature fine-woolled non-Peppin Merino wethers at a stocking
rate of 6.6 sheep per hectare. The natural pasture has remained unfertilised and
unseeded (King 1989, pers. comm.).

During the present study (April 1992-August 1993, inclusive) the grass matrix of the
grazed natural pasture generally consisted of small-statured grass species; bare
ground was readily observable; sheep dung, lichen and moss were common; and
there was relatively little plant litter. However, there were also areas which con¬
tained relatively more litter, less bare ground and sheep dung, and which were
dominated by grass tussocks to about 25 cm diameter. This heterogeneity within the
grassy vegetation was probably due to the effects of the camping behaviour of the
sheep (Tremont 1993). Heavily utilised camp areas were dominated by small-
statured grasses including the exotics Vulpia spp., Poa annua L. and Bromus brevis
Steud., as well as native Danthonia spp.. Forb species such as Paronychia brasiliana
DC., Oxahs spp. and Capsella bursa-pastoralis (L.) Medikus were also common.
Moderately utilised areas had a more diverse flora (of mixed origin), generally dom¬
inated by Bothriochloa macra (Steud.) S. T. Blake, Danthonia spp. and Vulpia spp., as
well as the forbs Hypochoeris radicata L., Triptilodiscus pygmaeus Turcz., Gnaphalium
spp., Trifolium campestre Schreber and T. cernuum Brot.. Areas which were least
utilised by the sheep were characterised by the native grasses Themeda australis (R.
Br.) Stapf and Poa labillardieri Steud./P. sieberiana Spreng. and native forbs such as
Hypericum gramineum Forster f., Haloragis heterophylla Brongn., Desmodium varians
(Labill.) Endl. and Leptorhynchos sejuamatus (Labill.) Less. (Tremont 1993).

Species studied

Six native forb species were selected for phenological studies. The species chosen
included three annuals — Aphanes australiana (Rothm.) Rothm. (Rosaceae), Isoetopsis
graminifoha Turcz. (Asteraceae) and Triptilodiscus pygmaeus Turcz. (Asteraceae); and
three perennials — Hypericum gramineum Forster f. (Clusiaceae), Solenogyne dominii
L. Adams (Asteraceae) and Vittadinia muelleri N. Burb. (Asteraceae). Aphanes australiana,
I. graminijvha and T. pygmaeus typically occurred in the moderately utilised areas of
the plots, while S. dominii was found in places between the heavily and moderately
utilised areas. Vittadinia muelleri and H. gramineum occurred in places used moderately
or least by the sheep. The three annuals were selected as they appeared to be the

Tr£mont, Phenologies of native forbs

25

most abundant non-leguminous native forbs which germinated on the study site
during autumn 1992. Among the perennials, S. dominii was chosen because it was
the most common native species with a rosette life form. Viltadinia muelleri and H.
gramineum were selected as they were two of the three most abundant of the taller
native forbs in little-utilised areas (see Tremont 1993). Voucher specimens of each
species have been deposited with the New England Herbarium (Botany Department,
University of New England, Armidale, NSW).

The life cycle continuum of the annual species was divided into the following phases:

• germination — from the time both cotyledons appeared until two true leaves
were present

• vegetative growth — increased leaf number or size, or plant height

• flower buds — flower buds present but unopened

• flowering

• fruiting — development of fruits and shedding of fruits or seeds

• senescing — yellowing and drying of the plant.

The life cycles of the perennial species were divided slightly differently:

• vegetative only, growing — leaf number or size, or plant height, increased but no
reproductive organs visible

• vegetative only, not growing — leaf number or size, or plant height, unchanged,
no reproductive organs visible

• flower buds — as for annuals

• flowering

• fruiting — as for annuals

• senescing — as for annuals.

Each phase of the life cycle for each species began or ended when at least one plant
was observed to be the first or last, respectively, to bear the relevant structures.

Observations on the annual species began around the time of germination (April-
May 1992). On 9 May 1992 ten individuals of each of A. australiana and I. graminifblia,
and 14 for T. pygtnaeus, were randomly selected from the populations present on the
study site. These plants were then marked using wooden kebab sticks, driven into
the ground approximately 2-4 cm from each plant, and were protected from grazing
by the placement of wire mesh exclosures (100 cm high x 55 cm x 153 cm). Records
of life cycle events (see above) from marked plants were supplemented with general
observations of non-marked plants from the same cohort. Between 9 May 1992 and
31 October 1992 observations were made at 6 to 31-day intervals, becoming more
frequent in late winter-early spring, as growth rates increased. From 31 October
1992 observations were made every 14 days until all plants had senesced, at the end
of January 1993.

26

Cunninghamia Vol. 4(1): 1995

For S. dominii (a perennial), 13 randomly chosen plants were marked (eight on 9
May 1992, five on 23 May 1992) in the same way as for the annuals. The ages of S.
dominii plants were unknown. Each had at least three and up to six leaves at the
time of marking but excavation of plants would have been necessary to determine
if the leaves were from seedlings or resprouting mature plants. Observations were
made at the same time as those for the annuals but the fortnightly records begun on
31 October 1992 were continued until 29 May 1993. Two further censuses were then
made, on 24 July 1993 and 28 August 1993.

Casual observations of the sprouting behaviour of established H. gramineum and V.
muelleri plants were made during May, June and July 1992. Then, on 25 August
1992, 16 mature plants for each species were marked using alloy tent pegs, one
driven into the ground about 4-5 cm from each plant. Observations of marked
plants were made on 19 September, 10 October and 31 October 1992. Then, from the
end of October, until the study concluded (28 August 1993), observations were as
for S. dominii.

On each observation day each plant was recorded as having grown or not grown —
on the basis of the number or size of leaves, or plant height; and the presence of
buds, flowers, seeds or fruits and some degree of senescence were determined. For
H. gramineum and V. muelleri the presence and height of newly sprouted leaves and
stems were also recorded during the autumn and winter of 1993, following senescence
of the previous season's foliage. These sproutings originated at, or within, 0.5 cm of
ground level and were hence designated 'basal sprouts'.

Results

Seasonal weather

Overall, mean maximum and minimum daily temperatures for all months of the
present study were similar to those reported by George et al. (1977) for Chiswick
(Figure 1). However, mean temperatures for January and February 1993 were two to
three degrees higher than those reported previously. The total precipitation recorded
for January 1992 to August 1993 (inclusive) was 1090 mm, approximately 77% of the
total mean precipitation reported by George et al. (1977) for the same sequence of
months. This occurred because the total monthly rainfall for each of January and
March 1992, January, February, March, April and May 1993 was no more than half
that recorded for each month, respectively, over 27 years by George et al. (1977)
(Figure 1).

TrGmont, Phenologies of native forbs

27

Plant responses

a) Annuals

Germination of Aphanes australiam, Isoetopsis graminifolia and Triptilodiscus pygmaeus
had begun by May 1992 (Figure 2). This coincided with declining maximum and
minimum daily temperatures during autumn and was probably aided by the higher
rainfall in April, compared with that of a relatively dry March (Figure 1). Vegetative
growth continued through winter until late August-early September 1992. At this
time maximum and especially minimum daily temperatures had started to rise (Figure
lb), and reproductive structures were observed for all species (Figure 2).

Flowering of A. australiam and /. graminifolia occurred from September until mid-
November 1992 (Figure 2), despite August, September and October rainfalls which
were 10 to 30 mm lower than average (Figure 1). Fruiting was then observed for
these species from mid/late-October until late-November/early-December, during
which time maximum and minimum daily temperatures continued to increase and
total rainfall was about 20 mm above average (Figures 1 & 2). Fruiting was of a
slightly longer duration for I. graminifolia (Figure 2). All A. australiam and I. graminifolia
plants had senesced by mid-to-late December 1992 (Figure 2), in the face of increasing
daily temperatures and despite average rainfall (Figures 1 & 2).

Triptilodiscus pygmaeus developed buds from early-September 1992 and flowering took
place from late-September 1992 until mid/late-January 1993 (Figure 2). Consequently,
flowering was slightly later and continued for almost twice the length of time com¬
pared with A. australiam and /. graminifolia. It also continued into the period of
highest daily temperatures. Fruits of T. pygmaeus were present from late-October/
early-November 1992 until late-January/early-February 1993 and all plants had
senesced by mid-February 1993 (Figure 2). Thus the life cycle of T. pygmaeus continued
for longer than that of A. australiam or 7. graminifolia - starting at a similar time in the
autumn but continuing well into mid-summer (Figure 2). The senescence of T. pygmaeus
occurred during the first two months of a period (January to May 1993) during
which rainfall was 20 to 50 mm below average for each of five months (Figures 1 & 2).

b) Perennials

Hypericum gramineum and Vittadinia muelleri had life cycles for which the various
phases occurred at comparable times (Figure 2). In contrast, Solenogyne dominii had
a notably restricted reproductive period and a relatively long time of senescence/
dormancy (Figure 2).

Hypericum gramineum and S. dominii showed growth of basal sprouts or new leaf
production, respectively, from at least mid-May 1992, while V. muelleri produced
basal sprouts from mid-June, despite this being a time of lowest daily temperatures
(Figures lb & 2). For H. gramineum, vegetative growth ceased between mid-June and
mid/late-September 1992 (when mean daily temperatures were at their lowest), but
basal sprouts again increased in length from the latter time, when temperatures
began to rise (Figures lb & 2). For V. muelleri, growth of basal sprouts ceased from

28

Cunninghamia Vol. 4(1): 1995

Vegetative only, growing /// Flowering

-Vegetative only, not growing C h i 1 Fruiting (fruits forming, shedding fruit/seed)

-O-O-O- Flower bud3 -Senescing

■ Vegetative growth i H 1 /■ Flowering -Senescing

Fig. 2. Occurrence and duration of life cycle phases for the three annual species: a, Aphtmes
auslraliarm; b, Isoetnpsis graminifalia; c, Triptilodiscus ppgtmeus; and the three perennials: d, Hypericum
gramincum ; e, Salenogync dominii; and f, Villadinia mudlcri at Chiswick Pastoral Research Laboratory,
Armidale, NSW.

Tr£mont, Phenologies of native forbs

29

late-July/early-August 1992 but also recommenced in mid-late September (Figure
2). New leaves were produced by S. dominii plants throughout the winter, from May
until late-September/early-October 1992. From then, until late-November/early
December 1992 no growth occurred for S. dominii but a small proportion (4.3%) of
plants produced flowers and fruits during December (early summer), a comparatively
warm, moist period (Figures lb & 2).

Vittadinia muelleri began to produce flower buds in late-October 1992, as mean
maximum daily temperatures increased, and flowers first opened in early-November
(Figures lb & 2). New buds continued to be produced until early March 1993 and
flowering finished in late-April/early-May 1993 (Figure 2). Flowering continued
despite spanning the hottest period of the year and a summer-autumn season that
was notably dry, especially during January, February, March and April 1993, when
monthly rainfalls were 30 to 50 mm below average (Figures 1 & 2). Fruits of
V. muelleri began forming in early-December 1992 and mature fruits were released
until the end of May/early-June 1993 (Figure 2). Signs of senescence began in January
1993 but it was not until the end of June 1993 that the growth for tire 1992-93 season,
for all 16 plants, had died (Figure 2). However, basal sprouts were first observed
(for at least one plant) in late-March 1993 (despite three consecutive months of
below-average rainfall) and by late-August 1993 (following some rain, but cool mean
daily temperatures) all but two plants had new growth (Figures 1 & 2). As these two
plants were seen to senesce during the hot, dry months of January and February
1993 and had not shown new growth by the end of the study, they were possibly
dead. Basal sprouts of V. muelleri plants grew at least slowly from the time they
appeared during autumn 1993 until the end of the study in late winter (28 August
1993).

Hypericum gramineum grew vegetatively from late-September until early-December

1992 and buds, then flowers, were observed in early and late-November 1992,
respectively (Figure 2), as mean daily temperatures and monthly rainfall increased
(Figure lb). New buds continued to be produced until late-February 1993, while
flowering continued until early/mid-March. This was despite the occurrence of
highest daily temperatures and below-average rainfall during this time (see above
and Figure 1). Fruits began to form in early-January 1993 (a time of highest
temperatures and decreasing rainfall) and seeds were released until mid/late-April

1993 (Figure 2). Signs of senescence were first observed concurrently with fruit
formation and continued so that all plants appeared to be 'dead' by late-April/early
May 1993 (Figure 2), as temperatures fell towards winter minima (Figure lb).
During mid-May 1993 one plant produced basal sprouts. By the end of May four
individuals had resprouted and at the late-July and late-August 1993 winter censuses
all but four plants had resprouted (Figure 2). As these four had appeared 'dead'
since the hot, dry period of late-January/early-February 1993, it is possible that
they, too, had completed their life cycles.

Following tire brief reproductive period of a small proportion of the S. dominii plants,
in December 1992 a protracted period of senescence and dormancy began. It continued
through the hot, dry summer and dry autumn, and for some plants extended at least

30

Cunninghamia Vol. 4(1): 1995

until the end of the study (Figure 2), despite a mild winter and some rain (Figure 1).
However, between late-May and late-July 1993, during a cool, relatively moist period,
over 50% (7/13) of marked plants produced new leaves (Figures 1 & 2), some
individuals reappearing following a period of absence. From late-December 1992/
early-January 1993 to late-May 1993 all marked S. dominii plants had decreasing
numbers of leaves and all but two plants were completely absent for at least one
census. Of those plants that became absent and had not resprouted by the end of the
study, one disappeared in early-December, one in early-January, one in early-February,
two in late-March and one in early-April. Of the plants that became dormant and
subsequently reappeared, small numbers disappeared gradually over several months
(January to March 1993) and resprouted after a dormant period of two to three
months. Solcnogyne dominii plants then showed leaf growth under the cool, moist
conditions of winter 1993. This growth was similar to that of May to September
1992, but began slightly later in 1993 — probably because substantial rains did not
fall until June (Figures 1 & 2).

Discussion

In the present study, Hypericum gmmineum, Vittadinia muelleri and Triptilodiscus
pygmaeus had flowering times which were up to two or three months longer than
those indicated in the relevant floras (Harden 1990, 1992; Beadle 1976,1980; Stanley
& Ross 1983, 1986). Hypericum gramirteum and V. muelleri continued to flower into
late-summer and autumn (particularly V. muelleri ) and T. pygmaeus flowered until
mid-summer. Although this was possibly due to the mild climate of the Northern
Tablelands, these extended flowerings were despite a dry mid-to-late summer and
autumn. A study over numerous growing seasons would be required to establish
whether the reproductive period of the annual T. pygmaeus might be longer under
more favourable conditions, or whether it is strongly determinate and hence
dependent on the time of germination and the initiation of reproductive events.

Hosking (1990, 1991) recorded the flowering times of plants found in Oxley Park,
Tamworth. Tamworth is located approximately 110 km south-west of Armidale and
although the altitude of Oxley Park is 200-600 m lower than that of Chiswick, and
despite the two sites being in separate botanical divisions of NSW, they have many
herbaceous species in common. Hosking (1990, 1991) recorded the presence of and
flowering times for all species of the present study, except Solenogyne dominii. In
general, the findings of Hosking concur with those of this study. However, flowering
times of H. gramineum and V. muelleri near Tamworth were less restricted, presumably
as the frost-free period is longer. Flowering periods for Aphanes australiana, Isoetopsis
graminifolia and T. pygmaeus were shorter near Tamworth than on the tablelands,
probably due to the longer and hotter summers typical of the north-western slopes.
However, A. australiana, I. graminifolia and T. pygmaeus are all small, inconspicuous
annuals which may be easily overlooked, perhaps resulting in artifically few records
of flowering times (Hosking 1990, 1991).

Tr&mont, Phenologies of native forbs

31

Flowering times for I. graminifolia and T. pygmaeus (Helipterum australe) in grazed
Danthonia caespitosa grasslands of southern NSW have been reported by Williams
(1961,1971). For 1. graminifolia, flowering occurred between late-August and mid-to-
late-October, while for H. australe it was from late-August to late-September, with
isolated flowering in October. Groves (1965) also recorded flowering times for these
two species, but from a Themeda grassland in southern Victoria. Groves (1965)
reported I. graminifolia as flowering in October and November and H. australe in
October.

The flowering times for 1. graminifolia and T. pygmaeus ( H. australe) in both southern
NSW and Victoria are little different from that reported in this study. It is likely that
changes in day length determine the season of flowering (Williams 1961, 1971) but
latitudinal, seasonal and yearly differences in temperature and rainfall between
northern NSW, southern NSW and southern Victoria are possibly responsible for
the within-season variation in flowering times of these species between studies.
Similarly, variations in flowering times are likely to occur at Chiswick given the
variability of seasonal weather from year to year.

The germination ecology of V. muelleri (and several other native forbs) has been
studied by Willis and Groves (1991), using seed collected in Canberra. These authors
found that V. muelleri germinated best under an alternating temperature regime of
25” C for 8 hours/15 C for 16 hours. However, germination rates greater than 80%
were also achieved under other temperature regimes. In addition, light, storage of
seed at high temperatures and cold stratification of seed promoted germination of
V. muelleri. There was little effect of an after-ripening treatment and the application
of gibberellic acid was inhibitory. These findings confirm that at least some of the
physical conditions occurring within grazed grassy communities on the Northern
Tablelands of NSW are suitable for the germination of V. muelleri. However, the
present study did not consider the germination of any of the perennial species
observed. Thus no comparison can be made for this aspect of the life cycle of
V. muelleri on the Northern Tablelands.

Flowering and germination are two key events in any life cycle, determining potential
seed production and plant establishment. Seed production, germination rates and
seedling survival can be enhanced or suppressed by the timely application of agents
such as burning, slashing or grazing, or by the application of herbicides or soil
disturbance. These agents can be used in grassy communities of temperate Australia
to minimise seed production and seedling (or sprout) survival, if applied with
sufficient intensity or frequency at times when reproductive growth or seedling
establishment are occurring. Conversely, the exclusion of destructive agents at these
critical times may enhance reproductive potential of plant populations, provided seasonal
conditions are those required by the target species (e.g. see Lodge & Whalley 1985).

A further consideration in the manipulation of native forb populations is the status
of the grassy matrix (Hitchmough et al. 1989). Where grass plants are large and
abundant and litter has accumulated, forb populations are frequently small in number
and communities are of limited species richness (e.g. Carr & Turner 1959; Stuwe &

32

Cunninghamia Vol. 4(1): 1995

Parsons 1977; Wimbush & Costin 1979; Tremont 1993, 1994). In these situations the
vigour and cover of grasses need to be reduced, using a strategy involving one or
more of the agents listed above which does not favour undesirable (e.g. exotic or
highly competitive) species. Such strategies may need to utilise agents which reduce
grass biomass without causing soil disturbance or providing significant nutrient or
water enrichment (McIntyre & Lavorel 1994a, 1994b; McIntyre et al. 1995). In some
communities, however, a potentially useful agent such as fire may also be unsuitable,
stimulating unwanted germination of exotics when they are present in the soil seed
bank (e.g. Lunt 1990b). Where the grass matrix can be reduced and the invasion of
unwanted species minimised, resources can be made available for the introduction
or expansion of native forb populations, the relative abundances of which can then
be manipulated, in turn, by the application of suitable agents at certain life cycle
phases of target species.

The phenological data obtained during the present study provides the type of
information upon which species manipulations and the conservation of endangered
species and remnant grassy communities should be based. However, similar
information for the dominant grasses and other forbs (desirable and undesirable) in
the community should be gathered before large-scale strategies or particular
manipulative agents are applied. The collection of this additional data might be
conducted utilising a comparative (e.g. Jurado & Westoby 1992; Leishman & Westoby
1992) or functional group (e.g. Friedel et al. 1988) approach, over a number of
seasons. In this way, information could be recorded for a variety of characteristics
and responses of many more species (using consistent definitions and methods),
and correlations among species characteristics and between these and environmental
factors determined. This information would then be available for the development
of strategies for manipulating the composition, structure and dynamics of native
forb populations and grassy communities. In this way it should be possible to
conserve many species of native forbs, as well as the grassy communities of which
they are an essential part.

Acknowledgements

I am grateful for the advice and encouragement given to me by Dr Sue McIntyre and
Associate Professor R.D.B. Whalley. Dr Keith Hutchinson, Dr Kathy King, and Mr
David Wilkinson of the Chiswick CSIRO Pastoral Research Laboratory, Armidale
provided me with a very valuable study site, as well as occasional assistance. I also
thank Dr Margaret Brock and Associate Professor R.D.B. Whalley for their
comments on the manuscript.

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Cunninghamia Vol. 4(1): 1995

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Manuscript received 27 May 1994.
Manuscript accepted 16 November 1994.

35

Post-fire regeneration and growth of Senecio
garlandii (Asteraceae) — a vulnerable plant of
the South Western Slopes, NSW

G.E. Burrows

Burrows, G.E. (Ron Poller Centre, Charles Sturt University - Riverina, PO Box 588,

Wagga Wagga, New South Wales, Australia, 2678) 1995. Post-fire regeneration and
growth if Senecio garlandii (Asteraceae) — a vulnerable plant of the South Western
Slopes, NSW. Cunninghamia 4(1): 35-44. Smecio garlandii F. Muell. ex Belcher
(Asteraceae) is a perennial subshrub that has been recorded from less than 10
sites, mostly on the South Western Slopes of NSW. In conservation terms S.
garlandii is currently classified as vulnerable. Its site of greatest abundance is The
Rock Nature Reserve (340 ha), 30 km south east of Wagga Wagga. In March 1991
the first major fire in 40 years burnt more than 90% of the reserve and less than
5% of the original Senecio population remained in leaf. Over the next 3 years
post-fire regeneration was assessed in a permanent quadrat (4x5 m) located in
an area of pre-fire Smecio abundance. Following above-average rainfall during
winter 1991, 453 Smecio seedlings were recorded in September 1991, ranging in
density from 4-45 seedlings/m 2 . After 4 months of below-average rainfall,
seedling numbers declined to 171 by February 1992. In comparison to this 62%
mortality (average of 2.23 deaths/day), the other 35 species of annuals and
herbaceous perennials present in the quadrat had either died or had died back
to a rootstock or similar organ at least two months previously. After February
1992 there was a low constant mortality (average 0.07 deaths/day) for the
remaining 22 months of the study. By their first summer S. garlandii seedlings
consisted of a single shoot 8-15 cm height. By the second summer this shoot
had senesced to be replaced by 1—5 shoots (mean — 2.2, average height 65 cm)
and by the third summer these shoots also senesced to be replaced by 1—12
shoots (mean = 3.9, average height 92 cm). No seedlings of S. garlandii
flowered in their first summer, while 44% of the surviving 143 seedlings
flowered in their second year and over 95% of the surviving 122 plants
flowered in their third year. A small number of plants survived the fire and
resprouted from rootstocks. This study indicates that the conservation status of
S. garlandii has not been harmed by the fire.

Introduction

Senecio garlandii F. Muell. ex Belcher (Asteraceae) is a perennial subshrub, usually up
to one metre in height. The stems and lower leaf surfaces are densely lanate, which
explains the common name of 'Woolly Ragwort'. The first known collection of S.
garlandii was made in 1890 by J. R. Garland who sent his material to Ferdinand von
Mueller. Mueller prepared a manuscript description of this material under the
specific epithet 'garlandii' but never published this species name. The name was
formally published almost 100 hundred years later (Belcher 1986).

36

Cunninghamia Vol. 4(1): 1995

Belcher (1986) describes the distribution of S. garlandii as 'Very local along the 147“ E.
meridian on the western slopes of the Dividing Range between West Wyalong and
Albury.' Belcher lists five localities for the herbarium specimens he examined: i) The
Rock Hill, ii) Tabletop Range, iii) a site '15 miles' ESE of The Rock, iv) Gidginbung
and v) 'near Albury'. In addition, S. garlandii has been recorded at Flowerpot Hill (4 km
S of The Rock), Ulandra Nature Reserve (7 km SE of Bethungra) and Benambra State
Forest (20 km W of HolbrookXpersonal observation). Scnecio garlandii is classified as a
3V (vulnerable) species (Endangered Flora Network for the Australian & New
Zealand Environment and Conservation Council 1993) as its range is greater than
100 km but it only occurs in small populations that are mostly restricted to highly
specific habitats.

At only 340 ha. The Rock Nature Reserve (lat. 35° 16' S, long. 147° 05' E) is a small
island of remnant native vegetation, surrounded by extensive agricultural lands.
The Rock Nature Reserve is an important area for the protection of S. garlandii as it
supports the largest known population of the species (personal observation) and is
one of the few formally protected areas within which the species grows. While S.
garlandii has a restricted geographical distribution, it also has a restricted distribution
within The Rock Nature Reserve. It occurs almost exclusively on the exposed upper
slopes and ridges of the reserve and thus occupies only a small percentage of a small
reserve. The same habitat requirements are evident at Tabletop and Ulandra Nature
Reserves and Benambra State Forest.

After less than 75 mm of rain during November 1990 to March 1991 (average 208
mm for this period) the first major fire (15-17 March 1991) in 40 years burnt more
than 90% of The Rock Nature Reserve (personal observation). Personal estimates
indicated that pre-fire there were several thousand S. garlandii plants in the reserve
but post-fire there were probably less than 100 plants in leaf and these were
confined to inaccessible rock ledges on the eastern cliff.

Given: i) the restricted distribution of S. garlandii, ii) the importance of The Rock
Nature Reserve to this species' formal protection and iii) the major reduction in
plant numbers in the reserve due to the March 1991 fire, it was considered useful to
study the post-fire regeneration and subsequent growth of S. garlandii. In addition
two other aspects of the biology of S. garlandii were investigated to help understand
seedling establishment and survival. Firstly, S. garlandii possesses large leaves of
mesophytic appearance while all other perennial species at The Rock Nature
Reserve that stay in leaf during summer have smaller xerophytic leaves. Thus leaf
anatomy was studied to better understand seedling survival during summer.
Secondly, a study of seed viability was conducted as prior tests indicated that a
period of dry heat was needed to overcome dormancy. A similar response has only
been described in a small number of native species (Bell et al. 1993).

Burrows, Senecio garlandii and fire

37

Materials and methods

An area 50 m to the east of the main cliff was selected for the establishment of a
permanent quadrat, 4 x 5 m. This area was chosen as it supported, excluding the
herbaceous stratum, an almost monospecific stand of S. garlandii prior to the fire and
thus was considered favourable for regeneration. The quadrat was 250 m above the
surrounding plains and was on the easterly facing scree slopes of a north-south
ridge. The quadrat had a slope of 30° and consisted of about 80% bare soil and 20% rock
and was divided into 20 1 x 1 m contiguous sub-quadrats. The site was well-drained
and was shaded from the early afternoon onwards by a 100 m high cliff to the west.
Rainfall and temperature data were obtained from the Bureau of Meteorology's
station at Forest Hill, Wagga Wagga, about 35 km NE of the study site.

The quadrat was assessed for a total of 28 months, usually at six-weekly intervals. At
each trip the following parameters were assessed: i) number of seedlings and rootstocks
of S. garlandii /m 2 , ii) average height and number of basal shoots of seedlings and root¬
stocks of S. garlandii, iii) reproductive stage of seedlings and rootstocks of S. garlandii
and iv) presence/absence and reproductive stage of species other than S. garlandii.

Mature seed of S. garlandii was collected from plants that recovered from rootstocks and
30 month old plants in late December 1993 and stored dry at ambient temperature.
Seed viability was tested (3 replicates of 50 seeds) at about one month intervals by
direct germination on filter paper supported on moistened vermiculite in petri dishes
subject to a 16 hr photoperiod (45 pmol/m 2 /sec) at 23 C and 8 hrs dark at 20 C. For
light microscopy leaves were fixed in glutaraldehyde, processed using standard
procedures for plastic embedding and transverse sectioned at 1—2 pm and stained
with toluidine blue (O'Brien & McCully 1981).

Results

Seed germination

The seeds were roughly cylindrical (about 2.5 mm length, 0.6 mm diameter),
averaged 0.29 mg in weight and had a thin seed coat. Immediately upon wetting the
acheneal hairs released several intertwined spiral bodies and within 24 hrs the seeds
were surrounded by a mucilaginous sheath. Seed tested within one week of collection
exhibited low (< 6%) germination. After 1.5, 2.5 and 3.5 months dry storage at ambient
temperatures average germination percentages of 69, 90 and 92%, respectively, were
recorded.

Leaf anatomy

In cross-section the leaves showed typical dorsiventral anatomy with a layer of palisade
mesophyll, a layer of spongy mesophyll and a layer of mesophyll intermediate
between the palisade and the spongy mesophyll in position and cell arrangement
(Fig. 1). A large proportion of the leaf was intercellular air space and little or no
sclerenchyma was present. Xerophytic modifications to this basically mesophytic

38

Cunnirghamia Vol. 4(1): 1995

structure included: i) the large diameter upper epidermal cells possessed a thick
(10-15 pm) outer cell wall, with a thin cuticle, ii) all stomata were restricted to the
lower leaf surface, and iii) the lower surface had numerous single-celled trichomes
that formed a dense mat about 200 pm thick (Fig. 1).

Field assessment

i) Species other than Senecio garlandii

The overstorey surrounding the quadrat consisted of Eucalyptus macrorhyncha, with
some £. polyanthemos, E. albens and Brachychilon populneus, but these species were
not recorded in the quadrat. A total of 35 species, excluding S. garlandii, were
recorded in the quadrat over the assessment period. In terms of origin 22 species
(63%) were naturalised and 13 (37%) were native species. In terms of life cycle and
growth form 26 (74%) were annual herbs and 9 (26%) were perennial herbs.

Fig. 1. Transverse section of a mature leaf of Scnecio garlandii. Note the thick outer epidermal
cell walls, the large adaxial epidermal cells, the palisade (pm) and spongy mesophyll (sm)
layers, the stoma (arrowed) and the abaxial trichome layer. Scale = 50 pm.

Burrows, Senecio garlandii and fire

39

ii) Survival of Senecio garlandii

While the fire killed many of the existing Senecio plants some survived by resprout¬
ing from a rootstock. Survivors could be identified by their greater shoot growth
compared with Senecio seedlings and often by the presence of the charred stumps of
the previous year's growth. By early September 1991 at least 2 rootstocks had not
resprouted in the quadrat, 2 rootstocks both had a single shoot 3 cm in height and
one rootstock had 7 shoots all about 8 cm high. Six weeks later one of the smaller
rootstocks had died, while of the two remaining, one had a shoot 28 cm high and the
other five shoots 50-75 cm high, all with flower primordia. This represents a rapid
elongation of 1-1.5 cm/day over the intervening 6 weeks for many of the rootstock
shoots. These two plants remained alive for the duration of the study.

iii) Senecio garlandii seedling establishment and mortality

In early September 1991, 5 months after the fire and with average or above average
rainfall in the preceding 3 months (Fig. 2), 453 S. garlandii seedlings were recorded
in the 20 nr quadrat (Fig. 3), ranging from 4-45 seedlings/nr, at an average of 22.7
seedlings/m 2 . The seedlings were no greater than 2 cm in height and most were 1
cm or less. Seedling numbers remained largely unchanged over the next 6 weeks
(Pig. 3 ). Several annual species, e.g. Carduus tenuijiorus , Dancns glochidiatus , Rarictana
debilis, Ranunculus sessiliflorus and Stellaria media, were more abundant and vigorous
than the Senecio seedlings and tended to smother the smaller individuals. By late
November 1991, a relatively small 7.3% reduction in seedling numbers had occurred
(Fig. 3), although rainfall had been well below average for October and November
(Fig. 2). Seedlings that had germinated in thin, loose ash on the top of boulders had
died and many of the smaller individuals appeared to be water-stressed. Well-
developed seedlings had 5—8 fully expanded leaves, were 10—15 cm high and did not
elongate further. All the annual species that had previously overgrown the smaller,
slower growing Senecio were dead and the perennial herbs died back to some form
of rootstock or bulb by mid-summer. At mid-January 1992 the preceding 6 weeks
had been relatively dry with only 31 mm of rainfall recorded. Combined with the
excellent drainage and warmer temperatures this resulted in the most rapid rate of
seedling mortality during the study (Fig. 3) with a 44% reduction in numbers, at an
average of 4 deaths/day. In late February 1992, a further 27% reduction in numbers
from the previous assessment period (average of 1.5 deaths/day) was recorded. The
second half of summer 1991/1992 was relatively wet (93.4 mm of rainfall) and cool
(January and February mean monthly maxima were about 2 degrees below
average). These conditions had allowed hundreds of Carduus tenuiflorus seedlings to
germinate in the quadrat, but a new cohort of Senecio seedlings did not germinate.
During the winter and spring of 1992 no new Senecio seedlings germinated, even in
the organic material and soil on top of the rocks where suitable germination condi¬
tions occurred without competition from existing plants. In spring 1992, as per the
previous year, the Senecio seedlings were partially smothered by annuals but given
their greater size and greater competitive ability the effects were not as pronounced.
After the high mortality rate recorded during summer 1991/1992 seedling mortality
was low during the remainder of the study (Fig. 3) even during the summer of

40

Cunninghamia Vol. 4(1): 1995

1992/1993 when there were 10 consecutive weeks where only 33.4 mm of rainfall
was recorded and there were 11 consecutive days with maxima greater than 35 C.

In spring 1991 there were about 450 Senecio seedlings in the quadrat, ranging in density
from 4-45/m 2 . In December 1993, 28 months later, there were 122 Senecio seedlings,
ranging in density from 1-14/m 2 . This represents an overall mortality of 73%, ranging
from a high of 89-94% in 3 sub-quadrats, to a low of 44% in one sub-quadrat.

iv) Growth form

In their first year of growth the Senecio seedlings developed a single upright shoot
but by early winter this shoot had usually senesced and axillary buds at its base
began to slowly elongate. Rapid elongation of the new basal shoots commenced in
mid-August 1992 and by late September most shoots had increased in average height
by 8 cm in the preceding 6 weeks. This elongation was greatest during October
(about 4.5 cm/week) and began to slow in December when plants reached their
average maximum height of 65 cm. Seedlings averaged 2.2 shoots in their second
year, and some plants had up to 5 equal-sized shoots. In early May 1993 the shoots
produced during the previous spring and summer began to senesce and, as in the
previous year, the shoot system was gradually replaced by new shoots which were
initiated in the basal leaf axils of the existing shoots. These shoots were often
initiated just below ground level and grew horizontally for a short distance before
becoming upright, thus giving a single individual the appearance of several plants
growing in close proximity. In December 1993 most plants were at full adult-size
(average plant height 92 cm), with an average of 3.9 shoots per plant (range 1-12).
These main shoots were unbranched for most of their length but near the apex
several axillary buds had elongated and initiated flowers to form a corymbose
inflorescence.

v) Flowering

In their first year no seedlings in the quadrat flowered or had formed flower
primordia, while the two rootstocks had finished flowering by late November but
fruits had not been released. In September 1992 many Senecio plants had initiated
flower primordia and by early November the primordia had developed into large
flower buds. In mid-December 1992, 44% of the 143 remaining Senecio plants were
flowering or had finished flowering and in late January 1993 flowering had finished.
However December 1992 was unusually moist (Fig. 2) and cool, and in January 1993
the lower axillary buds in some plants had rapidly elongated and initiated new
flower primordia. In mid-March 1993, after a dry finish to summer (Fig. 2), the
flower buds that had been initiated in mid-January had been aborted. In December
1993 more than 95% of the 122 plants surviving their third summer had flowered or
were flowering.

General observations throughout the reserve revealed that S. garlandii had: i) re¬
established monospecific thickets where they existed pre-fire, ii) increased plant
density where previously only scattered plants had been present, and iii) a limited
increase in range but was still restricted to the ridge areas.

Burrows, Senecio garlandii and fire

41

140

120

S 100

C=

o

I 80

E

= 60
45

« 40
20
0

Fig. 2. Monthly rainfall during the study period with long-term average (■ - ■) values. Values
are for Forest Hill, Wagga Wagga (35 km NE from site). Arrow indicates time of the fire.

500

0 I t ] <—i—t—t—(—r—i—i—i—> ' 1 *— 1 — 1 — H —♦— 1 1 1 H — t ~'~ t — H

D J 1992 D J 1993 D

Fig. 3. Number of Senecio garlandii seedlings in the permanent quadrat during the study period.

Discussion

The principal finding of this study is that Senecio garlandii, a vulnerable species
reduced to a few individuals after the 1991 fire at The Rock Nature Reserve, has
regenerated successfully from seed and, to a lesser extent, from rootstocks. It has
maintained its almost monospecific stands in its areas of pre-fire dominance, has
increased in density where previously only scattered individuals existed and has
expanded its distribution but is still principally restricted to the upper ridge areas.
Several Senecio species are known as fire ephemerals or 'fire weeds' (Gill 1993).
While S. garlandii shares with these species the ability to successfully regenerate
after fire it would not be considered a fire weed because: i) seeds do not need a heat
treatment to germinate, ii) individual plants appear to be relatively long lived through
their annual resprouting habit, i.e. they do not have the short life span of a fire

42

Cunninghamia Vol. 4(1): 1995

ephemeral, and iii) populations can persist in low fire frequency conditions, e.g.
plants on cliff ledges.

Lawrence (1985) investigated the reproductive biology of 32 mainly native species of
Senecio, with S. garlandii listed as Senccio species A (Belcher 1986). Lawrence noted,
as in the present study, that S. garlandii is a perennial, is early flowering, produces
lightweight seeds, the seeds produce a mucilaginous sheath upon wetting and that
these seeds can have high germination percentages. From observations on pollen-
ovule ratios and inflorescence morphology it was possible for Lawrence to deduce
that S. garlandii was self-incompatible. Lawrence noted that stable environments
favour outbreeding perennials but only 5 of the 15 self-incompatible perennials she
investigated were usually restricted to comparatively stable environments. Three of
the five, including S. garlandii, are found on rocky outcrops of drier inland areas.

The most common criterion for classifying a species response to fire is whether
persistence is by seed ('seeders') or by vegetative means ('sprouters') (Gill & Bradstock
1992). This study indicates that S. garlandii is principally a seeder although some
plants function as sprouters after a low-intensity fire. Gill & Bradstock (1992) list
three categories of seed regeneration: i) from viable canopy-stored seed, ii) from
soil-stored seed, and iii) from seed brought in, because no propagules remain on site
after fire. In S. garlandii the mature achenes are easily dislodged from the head's
receptacle with little force, therefore no seed-store exists on the plant. Many species
of the Asteraceae have small air-borne fruits and are capable of recolonising burnt
areas with seed blown in from unburnt areas (Purdie & Slatyer 1976). However,
because the fire eliminated almost the complete Senccio population, except for some
isolated individuals on cliff ledges, there were no seeds on unburnt plants to be
used for recolonisation of burnt areas. In addition, while the achenes of S. garlandii
have numerous slender pappus bristles they are not persistent (Belcher 1986), and
thus long-distance wind dispersal of the fruits would not be expected. Thus it is
most probable that the re-establishment of S. garlandii was from a seed-store in the
soil, as were the 7 composites described by Purdie & Slatyer (1976). Purdie (1977)
noted that seeds in litter are often destroyed in fires, while many seeds in the soil
survive. Purdie (1977) noted that germination of herbaceous species, including
Senecio qnadridentatus and Hypochoeris spp., was lower in burnt than unburnt areas.
She suggests that the seed may not be stored for long periods in the soil or are
trapped in the litter by their pappus and thus destroyed by fire.

Studies by Hobbs & Atkins (1991) and Purdie & Slatyer (1976) found, as did the
present study, that germination of perennial species occurred in the first year after
the fire, but not in subsequent years. Hobbs & Atkins (1991) also found that seedlings
of perennial species that survived their first summer generally continued to survive
or, conversely, mortality is greatest in the seedling phase (Fig. 3).

Bell et al. (1993) noted that obligate re-seeding species tend to grow vertically initially
then produce an 'umbrella shape', while resprouting species have more of an 'urn
shape'. Senecio garlandii combines these two strategies as initially it produces a
vertically growing shoot that only branches near the apex; however, after plants have
become established they branch from near the base and form a more spreading canopy.

Burrows, Senecio garlandii and fire

43

While S. garlandii operates as a resprouter in its annual growth cycle, the shoots
originate above or close to ground level and a specialised rootstock or similar organ
does not appear to be present. Thus fire-induced mortality of mature plants is to be
expected. The degree of water-stress experienced by shrubs at and following the
time of fire may be an important factor in determining the proportion of shrubs that
resprout (Hodgkinson & Griffin 1982). This suggests that a low fire intensity,
combined with more than the about 25 mm of rainfall received in the 2.5 months
after the March fire (Fig. 2), then more Senecio rootstocks may have resprouted.

Over 200 vascular plant species h ive been recorded at The Rock Nature Reserve
(Benson & Melrose 1993) but oniy about 50 species remain in leaf over summer.
Most (> 90%) of these species possess small leaves and/or pronounced xerophytic
modifications to their leaf anatomy. Thus it is remarkable that S. garlandii has the
largest leaves of any species at The Rock Nature Reserve (personal observation) and
possesses a mesophytic dorsiventral leaf anatomy that appears unsuited to the semi-
arid conditions. The thickening of the outer epidermal cell wall, the restriction of
stomata to the abaxial surface and the extremely dense abaxial trichome covering
are probably effective in controlling water loss, in both seedlings and adults. This
contributes to a relatively low mortality rate for a mesophytic species growing in
semi-arid conditions and allows the seedlings a competitive advantage as they are
able to continue vegetative and reproductive growth when the other species are
dead or dormant. The lack of sclerenchyma results in wilting of leaves during times
of pronounced water-stress.

After more than 70 mm of rainfall in early February 1992, combined with 13 consecutive
days with temperature maxima below the monthly mean, there was an extensive
germination of Carduus seedlings but no Senecio garlandii seedlings were observed.
All the thistle seedlings died of water-stress before flowering. This observation,
combined with the germination tests, suggests that the Senecio garlandii seeds may
possess some mechanism to prevent germination after periods of wet weather in
summer. A period of after-ripening, consisting of several months of dry heat has
been described for a small number of Australian species of the Asteraceae and
Poaceae (Mott & Groves 1981, Bell et al. 1993).

From a conservation viewpoint it is of concern that 22 weed species were present in
the quadrat. General observation and the findings of other studies (Purdie & Slatyer
1976, Hobbs & Atkins 1991) indicate that the abundance and diversity of weeds
should progressively be reduced as the S. garlandii re-establishes. Senecio garlandii is
able to reach reproductive maturity relatively quickly as shown by 45% of the
surviving seedlings flowering in their second summer and greater than 95% flowering
in their third summer. This indicates that this species would not be eliminated at
this site even if the fire frequency increased, although further study is required to
determine what length of time and conditions are required to establish an effective
seed-store in the soil. In summary, it appears that S. garlandii could tolerate a wide
variation in fire frequency and no specific fire management practices are needed to
maintain the population at The Rock Nature Reserve.

44

Cunninghamia Vol. 4(1): 1995

Acknowledgements

I thank Kim Ashton for assistance with field and laboratory work associated with
this project. I thank Kim Ashton and Brian Lord for their constructive comments on
draft versions of this manuscript. This project was funded by a NSW Government
Environmental Trust Grant.

References

Belcher, R.O. (1986) New or noteworthy taxa of Senecio (Asteraceae) in Australia, 1. Muelleria 6:
173-9.

Bell, D.T., Plummer, J.A. & Taylor, S.K. (1993) Seed germination ecology in southwestern West¬
ern Australia. Botanical Review 59: 24-73.

Benson, D.H. & Melrose, S.C. (1993) Floristic lists of New South Wales (IV). Cunninghamia 3:
167-213.

Endangered Flora Network for the Australian & New Zealand Environment and Conservation
Council (1993) Threatened Australian flora. June 1993. (Australian Nature Conservation Agen¬
cy: Canberra).

Gill, A.M. (1993) Interplay of Victoria's flora with fire. In Flora of Victoria. Vol. 2. (eds. D.B.

Foreman & N.G. Walsh) pp. 212-26. (Inkata Press: Melbourne).

Gill, A.M. & Bradstock, R.A. (1992) A national register for the fire responses of plant species.
Cunninghamia 2: 653-60.

Hobbs, R.J. & Atkins, L. (1991) Interactions between annuals and woody perennials in a West¬
ern Australian nature reserve. Journal of Vegetation Science 2: 643-54.

Hodgkinson, K.C. & Griffin, G.F. (1982) Adaptation of shrub species to fires in the arid zone. In
Evolution of the flora and fauna of arid Australia, (eds. W.R. Barker & P.J.M. Greenslade) pp.
145-52. (Peacock Publications: Adelaide).

Lawrence, M.E. (1985) Senecio L. (Asteraceae) in Australia: Reproductive biology of a genus
found primarily in unstable environments. Australian Journal of Botany 33: 197-208.

Mott, J.J. & Groves, R.H. (1981) Germination strategies. In Biology of Australian plants, (eds. J.S.

Pate & A.J. McComb) pp. 307-41. (University of Western Australia Press: Perth).

O'Brien, T.P. & McCully, M.E. (1981) The study of plant structure, principles and selected methods.
(Termarcarphi: Melbourne).

Purdie, R.W. (1977) Early stages of regeneration after burning in dry sclerophyll vegetation. II
Regeneration by seed germination. Australian Journal if Botany 25: 35-46.

Purdie, R.W. & Slatyer, R.O. (1976) Vegetation succession after fire in sclerophyll woodland
communities in south-eastern Australia. Australian Journal of Ecology 1: 223-36.

Manuscript received 28 September 1994
Manuscript accepted 20 April 1995

45

Long-term revegetation of a denuded area
in the Sydney region

David A. Morrison, Lesley McCluskey
and Michael A. Houstone

Morrison, David A., MdCluskey, Lesley and Houstone, Michael A. (Department if Emuronmaital
Biology & Horticulture, Uniz’ersily if Technology Sydney, I’O Box 123, Broadway,
New South Wales, Australia 2007) 1995. Long-term revegetaliun if a denuded area in
the Sydney region. Cunninghamia 4(1): 45-62. A 3 ha area near Yanderra, New
South Wales, where the plant and soil cover had been completely removed in
1918 to expose the underlying sandstone rock surface was examined in 1989, 71
years after the initial disturbance (and had also been examined in 1923 and
1962). The area has remained more or less undisturbed since 1918, and the
revegetation has been allowed to proceed unhindered. In total, 108 species were
encountered in and around the area, 92 of them occurring in the denuded area
(18 of which were found only along the disturbed strip next to the adjacent
railway line) and 16 found only in the adjacent undisturbed native vegetation.
Twelve of these species are not native to the area, but only one of these occurs
there outside of the railway strip. There were no consistent patterns of plant
species composition within the denuded area, although many of the plants
occurred in dumps. The most significant environmental factor influencing the
distribution of the plant species within the denuded area was soil depth, with a
number of species having increased abundance in areas with deeper soil. There
was a clear distinction between the plant species composition of the denuded area
and the adjacent undisturbed area, with 17% of the native species encountered
not occurring in the denuded area and a further 16% showing a significantly
lower abundance in this area. The soil structure and fertility both showed
significant differences between the native area and the denuded area. There has
been a large change in the floristic composition of the denuded area through the
71 years of revegetation, although the rate of change has apparently decreased in
recent years. However, the floristic composition of the denuded area does not
appear to be becoming more similar to the adjacent undisturbed area.

Introduction

Primary succession is usually defined as the replacement through time of one group
of species by another on substrates with no previous history of biota (Miles 1979).
The best-known examples include newly-exposed debris around active volcanoes
and retreating glaciers, although examples from rock faces, fellfield, sand-dunes and
saltmarsh are also known (Miles & Walton 1993). The temporal trends in floristic
composition observed during primary successions are usually thought of as being
quite different from the temporal trends in plant dynamics of vegetated areas (secondary
successions and fluctuations), and they are likely to be a response to quite different
environmental factors. The factors that are generally considered to be important in

46

Cunninghamia Vol. 4(1): 1995

primary successional dynamics include nitrogen deficiency, substrate instability, and
lack of an indigenous seed source (Miles & Walton 1993).

Australia is almost completely unglaciated and is tectonically relatively stable, and
so the opportunities for studying primary succession are relatively limited. However,
human disturbance often results in the exposure of virgin surfaces, which can act as
substrates for colonisation. This paper reports the results of a study of a 3 ha area
near Yanderra, N.S.W., which had its plant and soil cover completely removed in
1918 to expose the underlying rock surface. This area has remained more or less
undisturbed since that time, and the revegetation has been allowed to proceed
unhindered. Our study was conducted in August and September of 1989, 71 years
after the initial disturbance.

Earlier stages of the revegetation process on the denuded area have previously been
reported, including studies in 1923 by Cambage (1923) and 1962 by Hannon &
Evans (1963), but there appear to have been no recent detailed studies. Our study
seeks to answer five general questions: 1. What is the pattern of plant species composition
on the denuded area? 2. Does this pattern relate to any environmental factors?
3. What is the pattern of plant species composition between the denuded area and
the adjacent undisturbed area? 4. Does this pattern relate to any environmental
factors? and 5. What has been the temporal pattern of plant species composition
since the area was denuded?

Geographic setting

Yanderra (34°19'S, 150°34'E), approximately 110 km south-west of Sydney, is on the
dissected sandstone plateau of the Nepean Ramp between Bargo and Mittagong.
The surrounding vegetation is typical Sydney sandstone dry sclerophyll forest (Beadle
1981). The immediately surrounding area is relatively undisturbed, being mainly
public land surrounding the upper reaches of the Bargo River to the north-west and
the catchment of the Nepean Reservoir immediately to the south-east.

During the construction of the main southern railway line from Picton to Mittagong
in 1916-1918, areas adjacent to the line were excavated to supply construction fill.
The largest excavated area, immediately west of Yanderra, is 3.2 ha, forming the
segment of a circle of 350 m radius and having a chord of 500 m (Figure 1). The
railway line forms the circumference of this circle, and a fence (erected immediately
after the clearing) forms the chord running NE-SW, bordering an area of undisturbed
native vegetation. Approximately 1-1.5 m depth of soil was removed from the area,
leaving the exposed rock with a slope of about 2% from the adjacent undisturbed
area towards the railway line.

Most of the denuded area has remained relatively undisturbed since excavation. A
dirt vehicular access track runs around the circumference inside the railway line,
and the line is elevated above this track for nearly half the circumference (Figure 1).
The narrow area between the line and the track is extremely disturbed, and was
excluded from our study (as was the track), leaving a study area of about 460 m

Morrison, McCluskey & Houstone, Revegetation of a denuded area

47

along the fence and about 100 m from the excavation embankment at the widest
point (c. 2.5 ha; Figure 1). Small areas (c. 4% of the study area) near the junction of
the circumference and chord at each end were cleared in the early 1980s and used as
construction stockpiles, and these areas were also excluded from sampling (Figure 1).
There is no evidence of any major disturbance in the adjacent area of native forest.

The surface features and topography of the denuded area were described in detail
by Hannon & Evans (1963), and their description largely remains current. However,
the series of stone-covered ridges that they reported is less in evidence than it
apparently was. The plants present on the area 5 years after the excavation are listed
by Cambage (1923), and Hannon & Evans (1963) report those present 39 years later.
Various unpublished floristic lists have been produced since then, including one by
D. Benson and H. Fallding in 1979, and one by S. Krauss and D. Mackay in 1984.

Materials and methods

Plant data

The floristic composition was determined from fourteen 10 m x 10 m quadrats in the
denuded area and five similar quadrats in the adjacent vegetation (Figure 1). In the
denuded area, five of the quadrats were placed in a line parallel to the fence and
about 15 m from it , with about 100 m between the quadrats. Another line of five
quadrats was placed a further 15 m from the fence, three quadrats were placed
another 20 m from the second line, and one quadrat was placed a further 20 m from
this line. Within the native vegetation, the five quadrats were placed in a line parallel

to the fence and about 20 m from it.

The abundance of each vascular plant species was estimated for each sample using

density (Bonham 1989).

□

□

□

□

Native vegetation

□

Fig. 1. Map of the study area at Yanderra. 1 lie squar
used for the determination of floristic composition.

at Yanderra. The squares indicate the location of the 14 quadrats

48

Cunninghamia Vol. 4(1): 1995

All plants in the denuded area that were taller than 2 m were also mapped, and
their height was measured using an inclinometer. Within the adjacent native area,
five 20 m x 20 m quadrats were laid out centred on the nested quadrats, and the
number of plants of each tree species was counted in each quadrat. All species
nomenclature follows Harden (1990-1993).

Environmental data

A 100 cm 3 soil sample was taken from near the centre of each of the 19 quadrats, and
removed to the laboratory for physical and chemical analysis. The soil depth throughout
the denuded area was recorded by hammering a marked pole into the ground every
5 m along 46 transects running at right angles to the fence and 10 m apart (a total of
541 measurements).

In the laboratory, the oven-dried soil samples were analysed using the methods of
Grimshaw (1989) for: m-eq cation exchange capacity by the sodium acetate method;
% soil organic matter by loss on ignition at 650^; % coarse sand (particles 0.5-2 mm
diam.), % fine sand (0.1-0.5 mm diam.) and % silt and clay (<0.1 mm diam.) by the
sieving method.

Data analysis

Species-centred principal components analysis (PCA) of the floristic data (ter Braak
1988) was used to analyse the pattern of variation in plant species composition
among the quadrat samples. Two separate analyses were run, one using only the
data for the 14 quadrats from the denuded area, and one using all 19 quadrats.

The effects of the soil characteristics on the plant species composition were analysed
by redundancy analysis (RDA) (ter Braak 1988). This is a constrained ordination
technique based on principal components analysis that, in a joint analysis of the two
data sets (i.e. floristic and environmental), assesses the degree to which they show
co-variation (ter Braak & Prentice 1989). That is, it seeks patterns among the quadrats
that occur in both data sets, while ignoring patterns that are unique to either one of
the data sets alone; this is thus a direct gradient analysis technique. Once again, two
separate analyses were run, one using only the data for the 14 quadrats from the
denuded area, and one using all 19 quadrats.

We also undertook a PCA analysis of our floristic data in conjunction with the data
of Cambage (1923) and of Hannon & Evans (1963), using only the presence-absence
data for each species with extra weighting for the twelve most abundant species.
The data from the unpublished floristic lists was unsuitable for our analysis.

The average height and density for each of the tree species (those > 2 m high) were
calculated for 33 homogeneous sub-areas within the denuded area, varying in size
from 275 to 1,250 m 2 . These data were then correlated with the average soil depth
for these areas using Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients (Wilkinson
198/), significance being assessed at the p=0.05 level. The quadrat frequency data for
each species were also correlated with the average quadrat soil depth using Pearson
product-moment correlation coefficients.

Morrison, McCluskey & Houstone, Revegetation of a denuded area

49

The degree of spatial clustering of plants in the denuded area was investigated by
comparing the frequency distribution of the replicate samples for each species to a
normal distribution using Kolmogorov-Smimov one-sample tests (Wilkinson 1987),
significance being assessed at the p=0.001 level. The frequency data from the 14
quadrats were arcsin(x/7) transformed prior to analysis, because frequency data
expressed as proportions are likely to approximate a binomial distribution if the
plants are randomly distributed (Bonham 1989); and the tree density data for the 33
sub-areas were ln(x+l) transformed, since randomly-distributed density data are
likely to approximate a Poisson distribution (Bonham 1989).

The pattern of abundance of each species between the denuded area and the adjacent
native area was investigated using non-parametric Mann-Whitney U-tests of the
quadrat data (Wilkinson 1987), significance being assessed at the p=0.05 level. It
should, however, be remembered that about 4 out of these 82 results could have a
probability value of 0.05 or less by chance alone. The density of each of the tree
species in the denuded and adjacent areas were also compared using Mann-Whitney
U-tests, based on the 33 sub-areas in the denuded area and the 5 tree quadrats in the
adjacent area.

Results

In total, 108 species were encountered in this study (Appendix 1), 92 of diem occurring
in the denuded area (18 of which were found only along the disturbed strip next to
the railway line) and 16 found only in the adjacent native area. Twelve of these
species are not native to the area, but only one of them ( Cirsium vulgare) occurs there
outside of the railway strip.

The ordination of the quadrats from the denuded area shows no consistent spatial
pattern of floristic composition within this area (Figure 2a), although the western-most
quadrat of the line closest to the fence was distinctly different in plant species
composition from the other quadrats. This result implies that the majority of species
either did not show any particular spatial pattern or that they were not sufficiently
abundant for our sampling to detect any patterns that may have existed. The analyses
of spatial clustering indicate that at least 14 of the spedes are not randomly distributed
within the denuded area: AUocasuarina litloralis, Daviesia corymbosa, Entolasia stricta,
Eucalyptus agglotnerata, E. gummifera, E. sclerophylla, E. sieberi, Grcvillea buxifolia, Hakea
dactyloides, H. sericea, Kunzca ambigua, Patersonia glabrata, Pctrophile sessilis, and Plalysacc
liuearifolia. However, the ordination analysis suggests that most of these non-random
distributions are not correlated with each other.

A total of 765 plants was found to be taller than 2 m, although 121 (16%) of these
were on the steep embankment between the denuded area and the adjacent native
area (see Figure 1), and these were excluded from further analysis. Five of the
species represented were multi-stemmed shrub species with only a few plants taller
than 2 m, while six other species were single-stemmed trees/shrubs with low abundance
(Banksia ericijvlia, Banksia serrata, Exocarpos cupprcsstformis, Leptospemnim trinervium, Persoonia
levis, and Xylomelum pyriforme). The remaining seven species were more common

50

Curminghamia Vol. 4(1): 1995

(a) (b)

Fig. 2. Projection of the quadrats in the denuded area onto axes representing the first two
components of a, the principal components analysis of the floristic data and b, the redundancy
analysis of the floristic and soil variables data, (o) first, (0) second, (v) third and (A) fourth row
of quadrats from the fence line; (Coarse) % coarse sand, (Fine) % fine sand, (Silt/Clay) % silt
and clay, (LOI) % loss on ignition, (CEC) m-eq cation exchange capacity, (Depth) cm soil depth.

(Figure 3), with Eucalyptus agglomerata, E. siebcri and E. sclerophylla predominating. Of these
species, the plants of Allocasuarina littoralis had three distinct height classes (Figure 3a),
while those of Hakca dactyloides and H. sericea each had two height classes (Figure 3b);
these height classes may represent distinct age classes. Eucalyptus agglomerata, E. gummifera
and £. sieberi each had a small number of plants that were much taller then the
others (Figure 3c-d), which may also represent a different age class.

The redundancy analysis of the quadrats from the denuded area shows a strong
relationship between the pattern of floristic composition within the denuded area
and the measured soil variables (Figure 2b), with the two axes shown accounting for
69% of the total sum of squares of the first two axes of the equivalent unconstrained
ordination. In particular, soil depth is indicated as being an important characteristic,
and the floristically-different quadrat (see above) was in an area with much deeper
soil than were the other quadrats. About 16% of the denuded area was still without
soil, and a further 36% of the area had soil less than 5 cm deep. However, there were
many distinct pockets of deeper soil, particularly at the narrow ends of the segment
and adjacent to the excavation embankment (Figure 4), and nearly 2% of the area
had soil more than 40 cm deep (a maximum of 73 cm was recorded). For the tree
species, the plants of Eucalyptus sclerophylla and Hakca dactyloides were denser in
deeper soil, while the Eucalyptus siebcri and Hakca dactyloides plants were taller in
deeper soil (Table 1); conversely, the plants of Allocasuarina littoralis were denser in
shallower soil (Table 1). The more limited frequency data from the quadrats indicate
that the abundance of a further nine species was positively related to the depth of
the soil: Acacia tnyrtifolia, A. suaveolens, Anisopogon avenaceus, Aristida ramosa, Cassinia
quinqucfaria, Cheilanthes tenuifblia, Danthonia tenuior, Lepidospcnna laterale, and Mirbelia
rubiifolia.

Number of trees Number of trees

Morrison, McCluskey & Houstone, Revegetation of a denuded area

51

(a)

(b)

8 -

2 -

Allocasuarina littoralis

nn

2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4

Height mid-point (m)

(c)

Height mid-point (m)

(d)

30

25

o 20 -
® 15

<D

-O

E 10 -

3

z

5

0

^ Eucalyptus sieberl
M Eucalyptus gummlfera

i

P n r^rjrPn n

1.8 2.8 3.8 4.8 5.8 6.8 7.8 8.8 9.8 10.8 11.8
Height mid-point (m)

Fig. 3. Frequency of plant height classes for those species with more than ten plants >2.0 m tall
in the denuded area.

Fig. 4. Schematic representation of the spatial distribution of areas where the soil depth was
greater than or equal to 10 cm (shaded) in the denuded area.

52

Cunninghamia Vol. 4(1): 1995

The ordination comparison of the quadrats from the denuded area and the adjacent
native area shows a clear floristic distinction between the two data sets (Figure 5a).
This distinction corresponds to differences in abundance of 32 shrub, herb and
monocot species (39% of those in both data sets), with 25 species showing greater
abundance in the native area and 7 showing lower abundance (Table 2). The ordination
spacing of the quadrats from the native area is greater than for the quadrats from
the denuded area (Figure 5a), indicating that there was more spatial heterogeneity
in floristic composition in the native area. Furthermore, the species composition of
the tree storey was dramatically different between the two areas (Table 3), with a
significantly lower abundance of Eucalyptus gutnmtfera and £. sieberi in the denuded
area (total tree density in the denuded area being only 36% of that in the adjacent
native area).

The redundancy analysis of the quadrats from the denuded area and the adjacent
native area shows a strong relationship between the pattern of floristic composition
between the areas and the measured soil variables (Figure 5b), with the two axes
shown accounting for 63% of the total sum of squares of the first two axes of the
equivalent unconstrained ordination. All of the soil characteristics are indicated as
being important in the distinction between the quadrats from the two areas, with the
denuded area having sandier soil with less organic matter and lower cation exchange
capacity than the adjacent area. However, the soil characteristics do not account for
the spatial heterogeneity in floristic composition of the quadrats within the native area.

The ordination comparison of the historical data shows a clear change in floristic
composition of the denuded area through time (Figure 6). The average annual rate
of change in species composition was apparently more than twice as great during
the first 5 years of revegetation as it was during the next 39 years, which was in turn
more than twice that during the the subsequent 27 years. Most of the change in
composition has not made the denuded area floristically any more similar to the
adjacent undisturbed area, and the slight increase in similarity that has occurred has
mainly been during the most recent years.

Table 1. Correlation of soil depth with plant height and density for each of the tree
species

Species

Correlation coefficient

Height

Density

Allocasuarina littoralis

0.33

-0.41 *

Hakea dactyloides

0.62 *

0.40 *

Hakea sericea

-0.37

0.08

Eucalyptus agglomerata

-0.05

0.12

Eucalyptus gummifera

-0.05

-0.02

Eucalyptus sclerophylla

0.01

0.55 *

Eucalyptus sieberi

0.48 *

0.03

* significant at p<0.05

Morrison, McCluskey & Houstone, Revegetation of a denuded area

53

Table 2. Average importance scores for species showing significant differences in
abundance between the native and denuded areas, as determined by Mann-Whitney
U-tests

Species

Native

Denuded

area

area

[Number of quadrats

5

14 ]

More abundant in native area

Thysanotus tuberosus

6.4

0.1

Eragrostis brownii

6.2

1.9

Bossiaea obcordata

6.0

0.0

Cyathochaeta diandra

6.0

0.4

Isopogon anemonifoiius

5.6

0.4

Hovea linearis

5.4

0.0

Lambertia formosa

4.4

0.1

Leptospermum trinervium

4.2

0.8

Gompholobium huegelii

3.8

0.0

Pimelea linifolia

3.8

1.4

Cassytha glabella

3.2

0.0

Boronia ledifolia

3.2

0.0

Lepyrodia scariosa

3.2

0.1

Phyllanthus hirtellus

2.8

0.0

Hakea dactyloides

2.8

0.3

Phyllota phylicoldes

2.8

0.6

Dianella caerulea

2.6

0.4

Gompholobium grandiflorum

2.6

0.6

ICallitriche stagnalis

2.4

0.0

Dillwynia retorta

2.4

0.9

Xylomelum pyriforme

2.2

0.0

Lomatia silaifolia

1.8

0.0

Eriostemon australasius

1.8

0.0

Tetratheca thymifolia

1.8

0.0

Goodenia bellidifolia

1.6

0.0

More abundant in denuded area

Kunzea ambigua

0.0

4.7

Daviesia corymbosa

1.2

4.3

Grevillea buxifolia

1.8

4.2

Entolasia stricta

1.6

4.0

Grevillea mucronulata

1.6

2.7

Leptomeria acida

0.0

2.2

Acacia terminalis

0.2

2.1

54

Cunninghamia Vol. 4(1): 1995

Table 3. Mean (± s.e.) eucalypt densities and percentage contribution to tree species
composition

Species

Density (stems / hectare)

Composition (percent)

Native

Denuded

Native

Denuded

area

area

area

area

Eucalyptus agglomerata

115(10)

111(19)

20

44

Eucalyptus gummifera

235(55)

25(12) *

40

10

Eucalyptus sclerophylla

50 (8)

7(11)

9

19

Eucalyptus sieberi

180(20)

67(12) *

31

27

* significant at p<0.05 as determined by Mann-Whitney U-test

Discussion

Our study detected no consistent patterns of plant spedes composition on the denuded
area, although many of the plants are not randomly distributed within this area, the
plants occurring in clumps. The floristic composition of the area is thus, in general,
relatively uniform. A number of the tree species show distinct height classes, which
may be interpretable as age classes. If this is so, then there have been a number of
episodes of successful colonisation of the denuded area. However, for at least some
species (e.g. Hnkea dactyloides and Eucalyptus siebcri ) plant height is related to soil
depth, and height classes may not accurately reflect plant age for these species.

Almost all of the exotic species in the disturbed area are confined to the narrow strip
along the edge of the railway line, where many of them are quite common. The

(a) (b)

Fig. 5. Projection of the quadrats in the denuded and adjacent native areas onto axes representing
the first two components of a, the principal components analysis of the floristic data and b, the
redundancy analysis of the floristic and soil variables data, (o) first, (0) second, (v) third and
(A) fourth row of quadrats from the fence line in the denuded area; (•) quadrats in the native
area; (Coarse) % coarse sand, (Fine) % fine sand, (Silt/Clay) % silt and clay, (LOl) % loss on
ignition, (CEC) m-eq cation exchange capacity.

Morrison, McCluskey & Houstone, Revegetation of a denuded area

55

Fig. 6. Projection of the samples onto axes representing the first two components of the principal
components analysis of the floristic composition, immediately after the area was denuded in
1918 (0 years), and from the studies of Cambage (5 years later), Hannon & Evans (44 years later)
and this study (71 years later) in the denuded area, plus that of this study in the adjacent native
area. The arrows indicate the presumed direction of change in species composition through time.

vehicular track thus forms a line of demarcation, dividing the excavated area into
two distinct zones. The almost complete absence of exotics over most of the denuded
area implies that this form of human disturbance is not amenable to the rapid
establishment of non-native species (at least for sandstone bedrock), whereas at
least 80 native species have successfully colonised the area. It is presumably the
relatively thin and nutrient-poor nature of the soil that provides a suitable medium
for the native species but not for the exotics (Hannon & Evans 1963).

The most significant environmental factor influencing the plant species within the
denuded area is soil depth, with a number of species having increased abundance
in areas with deeper soil. These species include trees, shrubs, herbs and grasses,
their common denominator presumably being a lower drought tolerance (with a
deeper root system?) than the other species. The only detected exception to this
pattern was Allocasuarina liltoralis, which was more abundant on the areas of shal¬
low soil. This may indicate that this species is an early coloniser of the denuded area
that competes less successfully with those species that are later colonisers. It may also
be important that A. liltoralis has nitrogen-fixing root nodules, thus surviving in
areas of lower soil fertility.

Assuming that the adjacent native area has been the major seed source for those
plants that have colonised the denuded area (passing trains are the only other likely
source), then this must be the most relevant floristic comparison. There is a clear
distinction between the plant species composition of the denuded area and the
adjacent area, with 17% of the native species encountered not occurring in the denuded
area and a further 16% showing a significantly lower abundance in this area. Once
again, these species include trees, shrubs, herbs and grasses. The spatial heterogeneity
of floristic composition was also much greater in the adjacent area than it was in the

56

Cunninghamia Vol. 4(1): 1995

denuded area, presumably because of the greater species richness. Only seven native
shrub and grass species had a greater abundance on the denuded area than in the
adjacent area. The distinct differences in eucalypt species composition between the
two areas and tire much lower tree density in the denuded area may both be related
to an inability to develop lignotubers in some of the species; and it may be instructive
to test the possibility that E. agglomerata may not require a lignotuber for survival in
the absence of fire.

The soil structure and fertility both showed significant differences between the native
area and the denuded area, as presumably also did the soil depth (which could not
be easily measured in the native area). It is therefore possible to hypothesise that it
is these changes in the substrate that are the major determining factor as to which
species have successfully colonised the denuded area. However, this hypothesis
remains to be experimentally tested.

The most appropriate sampling technique for assessing the impact of human disturbance
on the abundance of biological populations is a spatially and temporally replicated
Before-After-Control-Impact design (Underwood 1991, 1992). This design was not
possible in our study, because no samples were taken in the area before excavation
in 1918 (allowing an assessment of the natural vegetation of the area), nor were
detailed samples taken through time in the adjacent native area (to assess any temporal
changes that may have occurred there as well). This certainly limits the possibilities
for studying the primary successional sequence on the denuded area.

However, the limited analysis that we have undertaken indicates that there has been
a large change in the floristic composition of the denuded area through time, that
the rate of change has decreased in recent years, and that the change has not really
made the denuded area floristically any more similar to the adjacent undisturbed
area except possibly in recent decades. So, in spite of the relative success of the
native plants in colonising tire bare area, the revegetation to date can best be characterised
as reclamation rather than restoration (using the terminology of Allen 1988). However,
natural vegetation is rarely allowed to establish unaided after human disturbance, and
this area provides an excellent opportunity for the continued study of natural rehabilitation.

Acknowledgements

Thanks to Louisa Murray for all her assistance with the field work; David Mackay
for helpful advice; Rod Buckney, Ken Hill, David Keith and Peter Myerscough for
help with the plant identifications; and John Pickard for commenting on the manuscript.

References

Allen, E.B. (ed.) (1988) The reconstruction if disturbed arid ecosystems: An ecological approach. (Westview
Press: Boulder NY).

Beadle, N.C.VV. (1981) The vegetation if Australia. (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge).
Bonham, C.D. (1989) Measurements for terrestrial vegetation. (J. Wiley & Sons: New York).
Cambage, R.H. (1923) Plant invasion of a denuded area. ]ournal & Proceedings of the Royal Society
if New South Wales 57: 334-336.

Morrison, McCluskey & Houstone, Revegetation of a denuded area

57

Grimshaw, H.M. (1989) Analysis of soils. In: Chemical analysis of ecological materials, 2nd edition
(ed. S.E. Allen) pp. 7-45 (Blackwell Scientific Publications: Oxford).

Hannon, N.J. and Evans, O.D. (1963) The regeneration of plant cover on a denuded sandstone
area. Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales 88: 47-53.

Harden, G.J. (ed.) (1990-1993) Flora ifNeiu South Wales. (University of N.S.W. Press: Kensington).

Miles, J. (1979) Vegetation dynamics. (Chapman and Hall: London).

Miles, J. & Walton, D.W.H. (eds) (1993) Primary succession on land. (Blackwell Scientific Publications:
Oxford).

Morrison, D.A., Le Brocque, A.F. & Clarke, P.J. (1995) An assessment of some improved
techniques for estimating the abundance (frequency) of sedentary organisms. Vegclatio (in
press).

Outhrcd, R.K. (1984) Semi-quantitative sampling in vegetation survey. In Survey methods for
nature conservation (eds K. Myers, C.R. Margulcs & 1. Musto) pp. 87-100. (C.S.I.R.O.: Canberra).

ter Braak, C.J.F. (1988) CANOCO — an extension of DECORANA to analyse species-
environment relationships. Vegelatio 75: 159-160.

ter Braak, C.J.F., & Prentice, I.C. (1989) A theory of gradient analysis. Advances in Ecological
Research 18: 272-317.

Underwood, A.J. (1991) Beyond BACI: experimental designs for detecting human environmental
impacts on temporal variations in natural populations. Australian Journal of Marine and
Freshwater Research 42: 569-587.

Underwood, A.J. (1992) Beyond BACI: the detection of environmental impacts on populations
in the real, but variable world. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 161:145-178.

Wilkinson, L. (1987) Systat: The system for statistics. (Systat Inc.: Evanston, II).

Manuscript received 28 September 1994.
Manuscript accepted 29 June 1995

58

Cunninghamia Vol. 4(1): 1995

Appendix 1

Plant species found in the denuded area and the adjacent native area

(Nomenclature follows Harden [1990-1993])

* = introduced species

x = species found in the denuded area

t = species found only in the adjacent native area

r = species found mainly in the disturbed area next to the railway line

Botanical Name

PTERIDOPHYTES

Adiantaceae

Cheilanthes tenuifolia
Lindsaeaceae

Lindsaea linearis
Schizaeaceae

Schizaea bifida

ANGIOSPERMS-MONOCOTYLEDONS

Anthericaceae

Thysanotus tuberosus
Tricoryne simplex

Cyperaceae

Cyathochaeta diandra
Lepidosperma laterale

Haemodoraceae

Haemodorum planifo/ium

Iridaceae

Patersonia glabrata
Patersonia sericea

Juncaceae

Juncus australis
Juncus subsecundus

Lomandraceae

Lomandra cylindrica
Lomandra micrantha
Lomandra obliqua

Orchidaceae

Caladenia carnea
Calochi/us robertsonii
Microtis unifolia
Thelymitra ixioides

Phormiaceae

Dianella caerulea

Cambage Hannon Morrison

(I 923 ) & Evans et al.

(1962) (1989)

x x

X X

x x

X X

X X

X X

X

X X

X X

X XX

X X

X

X X

X X

X X

X

X X

X

X

X

Morrison, McCluskey & Houstone, Revegetation of a denuded area

59

Botanical Name

Poaceae

Agrostis aemula
Andropogon virginicus *
Anisopogon avenaceus
Aristida ramosa
Danthonia tenuior
Deyeuxia decipiens
Dichelachne rara
Entolasia stricta
Eragrostis brownii
Imperata cylindrica
Panicum effusum
Paspalum dilatatum *

Themed a australis
Vulpia myuros *

Restionaceae

Lepyrodia scariosa
Xanthorrhoeaceae

Xanthorrhoea resinifera

ANGIOSPERMS-DICOTYLEDONS

Apiaceae

Platysace ericoides
Platysace linearifolia
Xanthosia pilosa
Asteraceae

Cassinia aureonitens
Cassinia quinquefaria
Cirsium vulgare *

Conyza albida *

Facelis retusa *

Gnaphalium coarctatum *
Helichrysum collinum
Hypochaeris radicata *

Olearia microphylla
Olearia sp.aff. ramulosa
Olearia viscidula
Ozothamnus diosmifolius
Pseudo-gnaphalium luteo-album
Senecio minimus
Vittadinia cuneata *

Callitrichaceae

Callitriche stagnalis
Campanulaceae

Wahlenbergia gracilis

Cam bag e

Hannon

Morrison

(1923)

& Evans

et al.

(1962)

(1989)

X

X

r

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

r

X

X

X

X

X

r

r

X

r

r

X

X

t

t

X

X

X

X

X

X

I

X

X

X

X

r

X

X

X

r

X

X

r

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

r

X

t

X

60

Cunninghamia Vol. 4(1): 1995

Appendix 1 (cont.)

Botanical Name

Cambage

Flannon

Morrison

(1923)

& Evans

. et al.

(1962)

(1989)

Caryophyllaceae

Silene gallica *

r

Casuarinaceae

Allocasuarina littoralis

X

X

X

Dilleniaceae

Hibbertia serpyllifolia

X

Epacridaceae

Brachyloma daphnoides

Lissanthe sapida

X

t

t

Lissanthe strigosa

X

X

Monotoca scoparia

X

X

Euphorbiaceae

Phyllanthus hirtellus

Poranthera corymbosa

Poranthera ericifolia

X

t

t

t

t

Fabaceae subfam. Faboideae

Bossiaea heterophylla

Bossiaea obcordata

X

X

X

t

Daviesia corymbosa

X

X

X

Daviesia ulicifolia

t

t

Dillwynia floribunda

X

X

X

Dillwynia parvifolia

X

X

X

Dillwynia retorta

Gompholobium grandiflorum

X

X

X

X

Gompholobium huegelii

X

t

Hovea linearis

t

X

Mirbelia rubiifolia

X

X

X

Phyllota phylicoides

X

X

Pultenaea villosa

Sphaerolobium vimineum

X

X

X

Trifolium arvense *

X

Fabaceae subfam. Mimosoideae

Acacia linifolia

X

X

X

Acacia myrtifolia

X

X

X

Acacia suaveolens

X

X

X

Acacia terminalis

X

X

Acacia ulicifolia

X

X

X

Gentianaceae

Centaurium erythraea *

X

Morrison, McCluskey & Houstone,

Revegetation of a denuded

area

Botanical Name

Cambage

Hannon

Morrison

(1923)

& Evans

et al.

(1962)

(1989)

Goodeniaceae

Goodenia bellidifolia

X

X

Goodenia hederacea

X

X

X

Scaevola ramosissima

X

t

Lauraceae

Cassytha glabella

Cassytha pubescens

X

t

X

Myrtaceae

Eucalyptus agghmerata

X

X

X

Eucalyptus gummifera

X

X

Eucalyptus sclerophylla

X

X

X

Eucalyptus sieberi

X

X

X

Kunzea ambigua

X

X

Leptospermum trinervium

X

X

X

Leptospermum polygalifolia

X

r

Olacaceae

Olax stricta

t

Phytolaccaceae

Phytolacca octandra *

r

Pittosporaceae

Billardiera scandens

t

Plantaginaceae

Plantago lanceolata *

X

r

Polygalaceae

Comesperma defoliatum
Comesperma ericinum

X

X

X

X

Polygonaceae

Acetosella vulgaris *

X

X

r

Primulaceae

Anagallis arvensis *

X

r

Proteaceae

Banksia serrata

X

X

Banksia spinulosa

X

X

X

Conospermum longifolium

X

X

Grevillea mucronulata

X

X

Grevillea buxifolia

X

X

X

Hakea dactyloides

X

X

Hakea sericea

X

X

61

62

Cunninghamia Vol. 4(1): 1995

Appendix 1 (cont.)

Botanical Name

Isopogon anemonifolius
Isopogon anethifolius
Lambertia formosa
Lomatia silaifolia
Persoonia lanceolata
Persoonia laurina
Persoonia levis
Persoonia linearis
Petrophile pedunculata
Petrophile sessilis
Xylomelum pyriforme
Rubiaceae

Pomax umbellata
Rutaceae

Boronia ledifolia
Eriostemon australasius
Santalaceae

Choretrum pauciflorum
Exocarpos cupressiformis
Leptomeria acida
Scrophulariaceae

Verbascum virgatum *
Thymelaeaceae

Pimelea linifolia
Tremandraceae

Tetratheca thymifolia
Verbenaceae

Verbena bonariensis *
Violaceae

Hybanthus monopetalus

Cambage

(1923)

x

Hannon
& Evans
(1962)

x

x

X

X

X

t

X

t

X

X

t

X

t

t

t

X

X

t

t

100

Morrison
et al.
(1989)

x

x

t

x

X

X

X

X

X

X

t

t

X

X

r

x

t

r

92

Total no. of species in the denuded area

33

The vegetation of Mungo National Park,
Western New South Wales

63

M.E. Westbrooke and J.D. Miller

Wcstbrooke, M.E. and Miller, J.D. (University if Ballarat, BO Bax 663, Ballarat, Vicloria,
Australia, 3353) 7995. The vegetation if Mungo National Park, Western New South
Wales. Cunninghamia 4(1): 63-80. Die vegetation of Mungo National Park and
the adjacent Joulni Station (latitude 33'43S and longitude 143’02'E) in south¬
western New South Wales within the Balranald local government area was
assessed using intensive quadrat sampling and mapped using extensive ground
truthing, aerial photograph interpretation and Landsat Thematic Mapper
satellite image analysis. Two hundred and thirty five species of vascular plants
were recorded from 55 families including 62 (26%) exotic species. Twenty
vegetation communities were identified of which the most widespread were
Maircana spp. low opcn-shrubland, A triplex vesicaria subsp. vesicaria low open-
shrubland, Bromus rubens/Hordeunt marinum herbland, Eucalyptus spp. open-shrub-
land and Casuarina pauper woodland/opcn-woodland. One hundred and fifty
years of grazing by introduced herbivores has resulted in degradation of many
of these communities.

Introduction

Mungo National Park (latitude 33 43S and longitude 143“02'E) is located in far south
western New South Wales 100 km north east of Mildura. It is located within the
Balranald local government area. It was established in 1979, following significant
archaeological finds, to protect the geomorphological, cultural and biological features of
this portion of the Willandra Lakes system. Joulni Station immediately south of the
Park, includes part of Lake Mungo and was included in this study. Mungo N.P. and
Joulni Station together occupy approximately 47 000 ha incorporating most of Lake
Mungo and parts of Lakes Arumpo and Leaghur, as well as extensive areas of dunes
and sand plains to the east of the Lakes.

History of the area

Aboriginal occupation of Lake Mungo dates from least 40 000 years ago at which
time the lake contained fresh water from Willandra Creek (Bowler & Thorne 1976).
Since that time the climate has fluctuated and Aboriginal occupation probably
fluctuated as the lake levels rose and fell. From 1838 grazing was established in
south-western New South Wales, initially on the Murray and Darling Rivers, but
later, areas away from the rivers were also utilised. Gol Gol Station (203 000 ha)
which included Lake Mungo was established in the 1860s. The land was overstocked
and large quantities of perennial vegetation were cut for feed. The arrival of rabbits,
coupled with the onset of severe drought in the late 1890s, led to massive soil
erosion including the exposure of the Lake Mungo lunette. At its peak the Mungo

64

Cunninghamia Vol. 4(1): 1995

woolshed on Gol Gol Station was used to shear up to 50 000 sheep but in 1922 the
Station was broken up into a number of 16 000 ha 'soldier settlement' blocks including
Mungo, Zanci and Joulni. The three properties were owned by members of the
Barnes family until the purchase of Mungo by the NSW National Parks and Wildlife
Service in 1978 and the addition of the adjacent Zanci Station in 1984. The area
forms part of the 35 000 km : Willandra Lakes World Heritage area.

Climate

The climate is classified as cool semi-arid (Dick 1975), the area being within climatic
zone IB for New South Wales (Edwards, 1979): temperatures are high in summer
and mild in winter with average daily maximum of 32" C in February and 15 C in
July and average daily minimum of 16 C in February and 5 C in July; the mean
annual rainfall is approximately 250 mm; the seasonal distribution of rainfall is
fairly even but annual variation is high.

Geology and geomorphology

The study area lies within the Murray Basin geological province and consists of
Quaternary material, with little rock outcropping (Lawrie and Stanley 1980). The
area is dominated by parts of the Willandra Lakes System, relic features from the
Pleistocene when they were filled by the Willandra Creek flowing through to the
Murrumbidgee River (Magee undated). Three broad land systems are present (Walker
1991):

• the lake beds consisting of slightly saline calcareous clays and their associated
lunettes of deep loosely cemented white sands and clay formed by deposition of
particles from the lake bed

• dunefields consisting of low parallel ridges running east-west composed of red
earthy sands and sandy solonised brown soils overlying sandy clays

• calcareous sandplains of loam or sandy loam solonised brown soils often with
limestone nodules at the surface.

Previous studies

The most complete study of the vegetation of far western New South Wales is that
by Beadle (1945, 1948) who included Mungo and Joulni within the 'Kochin pyramidnta-
K. sedifolia', ‘Atriplcx vesicaria' and 'Casuarina-Helcrodendron' associations. Noy-Meir
(1971) carried out a quantitative analysis of the large area of mallee shrubland in
south-western New South Wales and north-western Victoria. More recently the
National Herbarium of NSW, Sydney, has undertaken mapping of the vegetation of
the area at 1: 250 000 scale: reports on Ana Branch-Mildura sheet (Fox 1991) to the
west, Balranald-Swan Hill sheet (Scott 1992) to the south of the study area and the Hay
Plain sheet (Porteners 1993) to the east of the study area have been published. A study

Westbrooke & Miller, Vegetation of Mungo National Park

65

of the vegetation of the Willandra Lakes World Heritage Area was undertaken for
the New South Wales Department of Planning and Environment (Rice 1987). Magee
(undated) includes notes on the vegetation in his resource survey of the Willandra
Lakes Region. A detailed survey and map of vegetation in Mallee Cliffs National
Park to the south west of Mungo has also been published (Morcom & Westbrooke 1990).
Mills (1984) undertook a preliminary vegetation survey of Mungo National Park but no
systematic survey of the vegetation of the Park has been undertaken.

Methods

Two hundred 0.09 ha. (30 m x 30 m) quadrats were sampled and all vascular plant
species occurring were recorded, together with a cover abundance value for each
species modified from Braun-Blanquet (1928). Quadrats were subjectively located
following the method of Gullan et al. (1979). This method ensured that all communities
were sampled and provided data on floristic variability within the communities.
Communities were in general sampled in proportion to the area they covered, however,
since many quadrats were located along transects wherever community type was
observed to change, those with a discontinuous distribution may tend to be
over-sampled. Sampling was undertaken from the 8th to 16th September 1992.

The vegetation was classified using the computer based PATN (Belbin 1993)
statistical package. The method used was an hierarchical, polythetic agglomerative
classification using the Bray-Curtis (Belbin 1993) measure of association in conjunction
with the Unweighted Pair Group Mean Arithmetic (UPGMA) fusion strategy. The
resultant dendrogram displaying the relationships between quadrats, was assessed
and subjectively and cut at the 17 group level. Each quadrat grouping on the
dendrogram corresponded to a vegetation community and was deemed to
adequately represent the vegetation communities recorded intuitively in the
field. A further three restricted and/or interesting communities recorded
during the field work but not evident from the numeric classification were added
to the final classification to provide 20 vegetation communities. All vascular plant
species recorded, from sampled quadrats and from opportunistic collection, were
identified and a species list compiled (Appendix 2). For each quadrat the mean
species richness and number of exotic species as a proportion of the total number of
species was calculated (Table 1).

During a survey in September 1992 ground truthing was undertaken by driven
(240km) and walked (210 km) transects. Information from these transects was used
in conjunction with study of black and white aerial photographs and Landsat Thematic
Mapper satellite image data (Scene 96-83 acquired on 13 April 1990) to produce a
vegetation map at 1:50 000, subsequently reduced to 1:100 000 scale for publication.
The vegetation communities mapped were defined by floristic and structural
characteristics (Specht 1970).

All processing and manipulation of the digital satellite data was conducted using
microBRIAN ver. 3.1 (MPA 1992). A supervised classification of the image, based on
training sets derived from the vegetation classification, was undertaken. Due to

66

Cunninghamia Vol. 4(1): 1995

wide variation in the density and composition of the understorey species across the
quadrats it was not possible to distinguish between many of the communities with
any confidence. It was however possible to distinguish between the overstorey dominants.
As a result, the 20 communities from the vegetation classification were reduced to
six vegetation types (e.g. Tall Shrubland - Mallee spp.) for the mapping phase. The
minor vegetation types of very restricted occurrence, e.g. Acacia ancura, A. loderi,
were unable to be mapped at this scale. Difficulty was experienced with the classification
of the Callitris woodland due to the sparseness of the the community and the background
of herbland. This community was later added to the image. The classified image was
then transferred to the Environmental Resources Mapping System Geographic Information
System database for final production at a 30 m cell size, which co-incided with the
minimum area on the map.

Results

The vegetation of the study area consists predominantly of Casuarina pauper open-
woodland, Eucalyptus gracilis/ E. dumosa/ E. socialis open scrub, and Chenopod open-
shrublands but 20 distinct communities were recognised (Table 1). While several of
the communities are of limited distribution they add significantly to the conservation
values of the area. The approximate area occupied by each community, the sampling
intensity, mean species richness and mean % weediness of these communities are
given in Table 1.

Vegetation communities are described below, grouped according to structural
attributes. The distribution of vegetation types is shown on the vegetation map of
Mungo National Park and Joulni Station provided inside the back cover.

223 vascular plant species from 55 families were recorded from the Park including
50 (22%) exotics. The seven species of mistletoe recorded in this study and the hosts
on which they occurred are given in Table 2. An additional 12 species were recorded
as artificial plantings. Though not naturalised these may be of historic or cultural
significance.

The following species have not been previously recorded from South Far Western
Plains Botanical subdivision (Jacobs and Pickard 1981; Jacobs and Lapinpuro 1986;
Harden 1990,1991; Morcom and Westbrooke 1990; Scott 1992): Dianella revoluta var.
revoluta, Pterostylis biseta, Brachycome perpusilla var. tenella, Harmsiodoxa brevipes var.
brevipes and Lysiana linearifblia.

Fieldwork was conducted in cool weather over two weeks following good rains. Mean
percentage occurrence of exotic species ranged from 127c in the Eucalyptus open-
shrubland with Triodia understorey (2b) to 47%. in the herblands (Table 1). The highest
levels of occurrence of exotic species were in communities subject to the greatest grazing
pressure, i.e. the Nitraria billardierei open-shrubland found close to tanks, the herblands
also associated with tanks and the Callitris glaucophylla open-woodland on the dunes
which had been exposed to high grazing pressure from rabbits. A high negative corre¬
lation between occurrence of exotic species and distance from water in studies at Mallee
Cliffs National Park and Nanya Station was found by Westbrooke (1990)

Westbrooke & Miller, Vegetation of Mungo National Park

67

Table 1. Community, percentage of area, sampling intensity, species richness (species
per quadrat) and weediness (percentage of exotics) of the plant communities of
Mungo National Park and Joulni Station

Community

Area

No. of

Mean

Exotics

(%)

quadrats

species

(%)

la Eucalyptus largiflorens, Black Box open-woodland

<1

2

per

quadrat

23

33

lb Casuarina pauper, Belah woodland/open-woodland

8

55

19

26

1c Callitris glaucophylla, Cypress-pine open-woodland

1

21

14

44

2a Eucalyptus spp. open-shrubland with shrub understorey

18

22

18

2b Eucalyptus spp. open-shrubland with Triodia understorey

22

18

12

2

3a Acacia aneura, Mulga open-woodland

<1

1

27

26

3b Acacia melvillei, Yarran tall open-shrubland

1

8

18

33

3c Acacia loderi, Nealie tall open-shrubland

<1

2

23

27

3d Acacia ligulata, Sandhill Wattle low open-shrubland

1

2

11

38

4a Dodonaea viscosa subsp. angustissima, Hopbush shrubland

1

5

26

26

4b Maireana pyramidata/M. sedifolia, Bluebush low open-

24

29

15

33

shrubland

4c Atriplex vesicaria subsp. vesicaria, Bladder Saltbush low

20

18

13

31

open-shrubland

4d Atriplex nummularia, Old-man Saltbush low open-shrubland

<1

4

17

31

4e Nitraria billardierei, Dillon Bush low open-shrubland

4

29

23

39

4f Chenopodium nitrariaceum, Nitre Goosefoot low open-

<1

2

7

46

shrubland

4g Muehlenbeckia florentula, Lignum low open-shrubland

<1

1

10

33

4b Lycium australe, Austral Boxthorn low open-shrubland

<1

1

32

28

5a Eragrostis australasica, Canegrass tussock grassland

<1

3

13

20

5b Bromus rubens, Red Brome/Hordeum marinum, Sea

17

13

17

47

Barley-grass herbland

5c Atriplex lindleyi, Annual Saltbush herbland

1

3

8

12

Table 2. Species of mistletoe and their
Mistletoe

Amyema linophyllum subsp. orientate
Amyema miquelii

Amyema miraculosum subsp. boormanii
Amyema preissii
Amyema quandong
Lysiana exocarpi

Lysiana linearifolia

hosts

Hosts

Casuarina pauper
Eucalyptus gracilis
Alectryon oleifolius
Casuarina pauper
Acacia melvillei

Alectryon oleifolius, Casuarina pauper,
Geijera parvifbra, Myoporum ptatycarpum,
Pittosporum phylliraeoides
Casuarina pauper

68

Cunninghamia Vol. 4(1): 1995

Description of plant communities

1. Woodlands

la. Eucalyptus largiflorens open-
woodland

Two small patches of Eucalyptus largiflorens open-
woodland (10 metres tall) occur on heavy soil in
the south western corner of Joulni Station
adjacent to Box Tank. The understorey consists
largely of exotic herbs and grasses including those
widespread throughout the study area and others
associated with moister fertile soils such as
Marrubium vulgare, Chenopodium murale and
Sonchus oleraceus.

lb. Casuarina pauper woodland/open-
woodland

Casuarina pauper growing to 10-12 metres tall,
occurs as a dominant species throughout the
National Park on the brown loamy sands of
interdune areas (Fig. 1). It is frequently associated
with Alectryon oleifolius subsp. canescens and/or

Myoporum platycarpum and Geijera parviflora.

Most commonly associated understorey shrubs are
Enchylaena tomentosa, Chenopodium
curvispicatum, Maireana pyramidata and
Sclerolaena patenticuspis. Frequently occurring
native herbs include Tetragonia tetragonoides,
Zygophyllum ammophilum, Pycnosorus
pleiocephalus and Omphalolappula concava. The
widespread occurrence of exotic herbs including
Brassica tournefortii, Hordeum marinum, Medicago
minima and M. polymorpha reflects the long
pastoral history of the area (Fig. 2).

The following five sub-communities can be
recognised, although these may relate to past land-
use rather than edaphic factors:

• Casuarina pauper/Alectryon oleifolius with a
diverse, shrubby understorey

• Casuarina pauper occurring as dense mono-
specific stands

• Alectryon oleifolius occurring as dense groves

• Myoporum platycarpum open-woodland

IHKia

Fig. 1. Casuarina pauper, Belah, woodland/open-woodland with a diverse shrubby understorey
near the western border of Mungo National Park.

Westbrooke & Miller, Vegetation of Mungo National Park

69

Fig. 2. Much of the Casuarina pauper, Belah, woodland/open-woodland of Mungo National
Park and Joulni Station has a sparse understorey.

• Myoporum platycarpum/Geijera parviflora
woodland resulting from past removal of
Casuarina pauper from the community by
ringbarking (Western Lands Files).

1c. Callitris glaucophylla open-woodland

Callitris glaucophylla (10 metres tall) occurs as the
dominant tree on sandy ridges to the east of Lake
Mungo. The community carries an open
understorey of herbs and grasses including the
native species Actinobole uliginosum, Ca/andrinia
eremaea, Calotis hispidula, Crassula colorata var.
acuminata, Rhodanthe moschata, Tetragonia
tetragonoides and Zygophyllum ammophilum with
a very high occurrence of exotic weeds including
Brassica tournefortii, Bromus rubens, Erodium
cicutarium, Hypochaeris glabra, Medicago potymorpha
and Sisymbrium irio.

2. Eucalypt shrublands (mallee)

2a. Eucalyptus gracilis/ E. dumosa/ E.
socialis open-shrubland

Eucalyptus open-shrubland dominated by E.
gracilis, E. dumosa, and E. socialis (8m tall) occurs on

interdune plains of sandy-loam solonised soils.
Eucalyptus leptophylla and £. oleosa occur less
frequently. Associated understorey shrubs include
Atriplex stipitata, Dodonaea viscosa subsp.
angustissima, Eremophila glabra, Maireana
pentatropis and Enchylaena tomentosa.

Native ground layer species include Brachycome
lineariloba, Calandrinia eremaea, Omphalolappula
concava, Ptilotus seminudus, Sclerolaena diacantha,
S. patenticuspis, Tetragonia tetragonoides and
Zygophyllum ammophilum.

There are few exotic species in this community.

2b. Eucalyptus open-shrubland with
Triodia understorey

On low dune ridges where shallow sands overlie
sandy clays a Eucalyptus open-shrubland
community characterised by the presence of Triodia
scariosa subsp. scariosa as the dominant
component of the understorey occurs (Fig. 3).

Most frequent eucalypt dominants are Eucalyptus
sociaTis, E. gracilis, £ oleosa, £. costata and £ dumosa.
Eucalyptus leptophylla is an occasional associate.

70

Cunninghamia Vol. 4(1): 1995

Commonly associated shrubs include Dodonaea
viscosa subsp. angustissima. Maireana pentatropis,
Eremophila glabra, and Grevillea huegelii. Of
interest is the occurrence of Exocarpos sparteus
reported as infrequent in south west New South
Wales (Cunningham et al., 1981). Native herbs
include Calandrinia eremaea, Waitzia acuminata and
Lomandra leucocephala. This is the least weedy of
the communities of the study area.

3. Acacia shrublands

3a. Acacia aneura open-woodland

In the west of the Park is a patch of Acacia aneura
open-woodland growing to 12 metres high. It is
surrounded by Casuarina pauper woodland. The
understorey is dominated by native and exotic herbs
and grasses.

3b. Acacia melvillei tall open-shrubland

This community tends to occur on heavier soils
and thus most sites are close to tanks and have
been subjected to heavy grazing pressure. The
understorey is dominated by exotic herbs and
grasses, in particular Hordeum marinum, Erodium

cicutarium, Medicago polymorpha, Bromus rubens
and Brassica tournefortii along with the native
Tetragonia tetragonoides.

3c. Acacia loderi tall open-shrubland

There are two small areas of Acacia loderi open-
shrubland to 6 m, both on Joulni. The understorey
is dominated by native and exotic herbs and grasses.

3d. Acacia ligulata low open-shrubland

Areas of Acacia ligulata low open-shrubland occur
to 4 m on the Lake Mungo lunette. The understorey
consists largely of native and exotic herbs. It is
likely that this community has declined with erosion
of the lunette.

4. Low open-shrublands

4a. Dodonaea viscosa subsp. angustissima

shrubland

In a number of sites, Dodonaea viscosa subsp.
angustissima forms dense stands to approximately
two metres. This species is also found as a common
understorey component of the Eucalyptus open-
shrublands.

Fig. 3. Eucalyptus open-shrubland with Triodia understorey, an extensive community east of Lake
Mungo, occupies 22% of the study area.

Westbrooke & Miller, Vegetation of Mungo National Park

71

Fig. 4. Maireana pyramidata/M. sedifolia low open-shrubland is the most widespread community
of Mungo National Parkand Joulni Station, occupying 24% of the area.

4b. Maireana pyramidata/M. sedifolia low
open-shrubland

Low open-shrubland dominated by Maireana
pyramidata is the most extensive community of
the lake beds (Fig. 4). It is frequently associated in
various proportions with M. sedifolia. Maireana
georgei is also frequently associated. A large
number of herbs occur in the ground layer but the
most frequent are the exotics Hordeum marinum,
Bromus rubens and Medicago polymorpha and the
native Tetragonia tetragonoides.

4c. Atriplex vesicaria low open-shrubland

An open shrub community dominated by Atriplex
vesicaria subsp. vesicaria is extensive in the lake
bed. Frequently associated species include
Dissocarpus paradoxus, Tetragonia tetragonoides
and Bulbine bulbosa.

4d. Atriplex nummularia low open-
shrubland

An open shrub community dominated by Atriplex
nummularia occurs in localised sites in Lake Mungo.
A number of commonly associated species are
those associated with moist soils. These include
Atriplex hobcarpa, Chenopodium nitrariaceum,
Osteocarpum acropterum var. deminuta and
Bulbine bulbosa. The exotic grass Hordeum
marinum was recorded from all quadrats.

4e. Nitraria billardierei low open-
shrubland

Low open shrubland dominated by Nitraria
billardierei occurs in the lake beds particularly
around tanks and also on parts of the lunette.
Associated shrubs include Atriplex holocarpa, A.
lindleyi, Chenopodium curvispicatum, C.
nitrariaceum, Enchylaena tomentosa and Maireana
pyramidata. There is a high percentage weediness
with Bromus rubens, Hordeum marinum, Medicago
polymorpha. Sisymbrium irio and Sonchus spp.
present in most quadrats.

4f. Chenopodium nitrariaceum low open-
shrubland

Open shrubland to 2 m tall dominated by
Chenopodium nitrariaceum occurs in similar
situations to the Nitraria community. The ground
layer consists largely of exotic herbs including
Hordeum marinum and Brassica tournefortii along
with native herbs such as Omphalolapula concava
and Harmsiodoxa blennodioides.

4g. Muehlenbeckia florentula low open-
shrubland

A low shrubland dominated by Muehlenbeckia
florentula occurs in low lying sites in the Mungo
lake bed associated with Atriplex vesicaria subsp.
vesicaria.

72

Cunninghamia Vol. 4(1): 1995

4h. Lycium australe low open-shrubland

Small areas dominated by Lycium australe occur
on both Mungo National Park and Joulni.

5. Grasslands/Herblands

5a. Eragrostis australasica tussock
grassland

Small patches of Eragrostis australasica grassland
occur in wetter areas of the lake bed generally in
the vicinity of the Atriplex nummularia
community 4d.

5b. Bromus rubens/Hordeum marinum
herbland

Extensive herbland/open-herbland growing to 0.8
metres tall dominated by the exotic grasses Bromus
rubens and Hordeum marinum with the exotic

herbs Brassica tournefortii, Erodium cicutarium,
Medicago minima, Salvia verbenaca and
Sisymbrium irio and the native herbs Tetragonia
tetragonoides, Pycnosorus pleiocephalus, Erodium
crin'rtum and Omphalolappula concava.

The relative dominance of species varies
dramatically with seasonal conditions, with the
extent and seasonal distribution of rainfall being
critical in determining relative species abundance.

5c. Atriplex lindleyi annual chenopod
herbland

On scald areas of the lake beds an annual herbland
has developed. This is dominated by Atriplex lindleyi
but other chenopod species including Dissocarpus
paradoxus, Osteocarpum acropterum vat.
deminuta, Sclerolaena divaricata, Mareana ciliata and
the exotic Hordeum marinum are associated.

Discussion

The distribution and species composition of vegetation communities within Mungo
National Park is largely determined by variation in topography, landform position
and soil type. Eucalyptus open-shrubland with a Triodia scariosa understorey is associated
with sandy soils on the low dunes. Eucalyptus open-shrubland with a shrub understorey
occurs on the sandy loam, solonised brown soils of the calcareous sand plains.
Casuaritta woodland/low woodland occurs on calcareous plains of loamy solonised
brown soils and chenopod shrublands on the calcareous clays of the lake beds. A
number of other factors, notably fire and past grazing history, have also played a role
in determining the present distribution and floristic composition of the communities present.

Eucalyptus open-shrubland communities are highly flammable and most of those in
the Park and Joulni were burnt in the extensive wildfires of 1974/75 (Pickard 1987).
Fire leads to an increase in certain species such as Halgania cyanea, Exocarpos sparteus,
and Haloragis odontocarpa, but these species decline as Triodia hummocks redevelop
(Noble and Mulham 1980). The Park is at the stage of post-fire succession where
fire-promoted species are declining.

The pastoral history of the area is reflected in the high percentage weediness (mean
18%) and low native species richness (mean 18 spp.) of much of the Eucalyptus open-
shrubland (community 2a) and the presence of extensive herblands dominated by
exotic grasses and herbs particularly in the vicinity of earth tanks. Mitchell (1991)
noted that introduced weed species colonised many of the scald areas left as a result
of high grazing pressure prior to the 1950s. The earth tanks and their associated
channels support areas that remain wetter or receive greater run-off than would be
the case in an unmodified environment. This factor, together with the disturbance

Westbrooke & Miller, Vegetation of Mungo National Park

73

Fig. 5. Whilst only occupying a small proportion of Mungo National Park Callilris glaucophylla,
Cypress-pine, open woodland is a prominent feature of the dunes to the west of Lake Mungo
but is severely degraded with the understorey consisting largely of exotic species.

caused by clearing and grazing, has contributed to the relative high number of weed
species in the herblands. Westbrooke (1990) noted the high correlation between
weediness and grazing pressure in the vicinity of earth tanks. It appears likely that
the herblands originally carried other communities, i.e. chenopod shrublands or
arid woodlands. Rabbits, goats and high kangaroo populations, partially sustained
by permanent water in tanks, maintain grazing pressure on the herblands, possibly
limiting recovery of the original communities. Dense stands of unpalatable Nitraria
billardierei found around tanks are another effect of past grazing pressure (Cunningham et
al. 1981, Scott 1992). Bracken and Gorman (1987) recommended the gradual closing of the
majority of the tanks on Mungo National Park. This measure is strongly supported.

The Dodomea viscosa subsp. angustissima shrublands (4a) are likely to result from
past land-use, particularly the clearing of Eucalyptus open-shrubland and subse¬
quent replacement by unpalatable species such as Dodonaea. Noble (1984) and Har¬
rington et al. (1984) report an increase of Dodonaea spp. in response to grazing and
the genus is also reported as an early coloniser following the clearing of mallee
(Beadle 1948, Onans & Parsons 1980)

Callitris glaucophylla open-woodland has few native species (mean 7) and a high
level of exotic species in the understorey (Fig. 5). Scott (1992), discussing the
Balranald area immediately south of Mungo notes evidence for this community being
more extensive in the past. Craven (unpubl.) has suggested that the decline of this
community is related to a number of factors including harvesting, grazing pressure

74

Cunninghamia Vol. 4(1): 1995

Fig. 6. Acacia melvillei, Yarran, tall open-shrubland is in a severely degraded condition with no
recruitment. The conservation status of this community should be viewed with concern.

and changes in pasture composition from native grasses and forbs to exotic annual
grasses and weeds.

Acacia melvillei tall open-shrubland is severely degraded (Fig. 6). Surviving shrub
dominants are senescent, there is no regeneration and the conservation status of this
community should be viewed with considerable concern. Scott (1992) and Batty and
Parsons (1992) have raised concerns regarding this community elsewhere in the
region and Mungo National Park is the only conservation reserve in which it is
represented. It is important that steps are taken to protect and ensure rehabilitation of
this community.

Whilst the vegetation of Joulni Station has been modified through its long pastoral
history there would be a number of benefits from its addition to Mungo National
Park. Most important is the complete protection of Lake Mungo and its associated
geomorphological and archaeological features. Additionally the inclusion of a number
of areas of Acacia melvillei shrubland, noted earlier as a community under threat,
two patches of Acacia loderi and two patches of Eucalyptus largiflorcns woodland
which, whilst not significant in their own right, would add to the diversity of the
Park. In the west of Joulni are some of the best examples of Eucalyptus open shrub-
land with Triodia understorey and associated with this a number of species not
recorded within Mungo. These include Convolvulus erubcsccns, Dianella revolula var. revoluta,
Eremophila oppositifblia subsp. rubra, Jasmmum linearc, Lepidium leptopdalum, Olearia sub-
spicata and Ptilotus spathulatus.

Westbrooke & Miller, Vegetation of Mungo National Park

75

Acknowledgements

This work was carried out under Licence A393 of the NSW National Parks and
Wildlife Service.

We acknowledge the assistance of staff of the Lower Darling District NSW National
Parks and Wildlife Service, particularly George Townsend, for assistance through¬
out this project. Also to Denham Barnes for allowing access to Joulni. Special thanks
are due to Toni Ward for technical assistance with fieldwork and to final year
Biological Resource Management students of the University of Ballarat for assist¬
ance with data collection.

References

Batty, A.L. & Parsons, RF. (1992) Regeneration of Acacia mdvillei in part of semi-arid south-eastern
Australia. Proceedings if the Royal Society of Victoria. 104: 89-97.

Beadle, N.C.W. (1945) Vegetation map of western Nero South Wales (Soil Conservation Service:
Sydney).

Beadle, N.C.W. (1948) The vegetation and pastures if western New South Wales with special reference
to soil erosion (Government Printer: Sydney).

Belbin, L. (1993) PATN Manuals (CSIRO Wildlife and Ecology: Lyneham, ACT).

Boomsa, C.D. & Lewis, N.B. (1980) Native forest and woodland if South Australia (Woods and
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Bowler, |.M. & Thome, A.G. (1976) Human remains from Lake Mungo: discovery and excavation
of Lake Mungo III. In R.L. Kirk and A.G.Thomc (eds.) The origins if the Australians (Australian
Institute of Aboriginal Studies: Canberra).

Bracken, J. & Gorman, J. (1987) Management if ground tanks at Mungo National Park: management
options and their consequences. Unpublished report (South Australian College of Advanced Education:
Salisbury).

Braun-Blanquet, ]. (1928) Pflanzensoziologie, (Springer: Berlin).

Craven, P. (unpubl.) South west native pine: degenerate or regenerate. Unpublished discussion
paper (Department of Conservation and Land Management, Buronga).

Cunningham, G.M., Mulham, W.E., Milthorpe, P.L. & Leigh, J.H. (1981) Plants of western New
South Wales (NSW Government Printer: Sydney).

Dick, R.S. (1975) A map of the climates of Australia. Queensland Geographical Journal, 3rd series,
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Fox, M.D. (1991) The natural vegetation of the Ana Branch-Mildura 1:250 000 map sheet (New
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Gullan, P.K., Parkes, D.M., Morton, A.G. & Bartley, M.J. (1979) Sites of botanical significance in
the Upper Yarra region. Env. Studies Series. No 346 (Ministry for Conservation: Melbourne).

Harden, G.J. (ed.) (1990-93) Flora if New South Wales, Vols. 1-1 (New South Wales University
Press: Sydney).

Harrington, G.M., Mills, D.M.D., Pressland, A.J. & Hodgkinson, K.C. (1984) Semi-arid woodlands. In
Management if Australia's rangelands. G.M.Harrington, A.D.Wilson & M.D.Young (eds.)
(CSIRO: Melbourne)

Jacobs, S.W.L. & Pickard, J. (1981) Plants if New South Wales, (Royal Botanic Gardens: Sydney).

Jacobs, S.W.L. & Lapinpuro, L. (1986) Alterations to the census of New South Wales plants.
Tel open, 2(6) 705-714.

Lawrie, J.W. & Stanley, (1980) Representative land systems of the mallee lands in the Western
Division of NSW. In R.R. Storrier & M.E. Stannard (eds.) Aeolian landscapes in the semi-arid
zone if south eastern Australia, (Australian Society of Soil Science — Riverina Branch: Wagga
Wagga).

Magee, J. (undated) The Willandra lakes region, southwestern New South Wales resource survey.
(NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service: Sydney).

Mills, R.P. (1984) The vegetation if Mungo National Park. Report to the NSW National Parks and
Wildlife Service, Buronga.

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MPA (1992) microBRIAN Image Analysis System, (MPA Communications Pty Ltd: Croydon,
Victoria).

Mitchell, P.B. (1991) Historical perspectives on some vegetation and soil changes in semi-arid
NSW. Vegetation 91:169-182.

Morcom, L. & Westbrooke, M. (1990) The vegetation of Mallee Cliffs National Park, Cunninghamia,
2(2), 147-165.

Noble, J.C. (1984) Mallee. In Management of Australia's rangelands. G.M.Harrington, A.D.Wilson
and M.D.Young (eds.) (CSIRO: Melbourne)

Noble, J.C. and Mulham, W.E. (1980) Natural vegetation of aeolian landscapes in semi-arid
south eastern Australia. In Aeolian landscapes in the semi-arid zone of south eastern Australia.
R.R. Storrier & M.E. Stannard (eds.) (Australian Society of Soil Science: Riverina Branch,
Wagga VVagga).

Noy-Meir, I. (1971) Multivariate analysis of the semi-arid vegetation in south-western Australia:
nodal ordination by component analysis. Proceedings of the Ecological Society if Australia, 6,

Onans, J. & Parsons, R.F. (1980) Regeneration of native plants on abandoned mallee farmland
in south east Australia. Aust. Journ. Bol. 28: 479-93.

I ickard, J. (1987) Mallee management strategy (Western Lands Commission: Sydney).

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Bendigo 1:250 00 maps. Cunninghamia 3(1), 1-122

Rice, B (1987) Aspects if the vegetation of the Willandra Lakes World Heritage region. Report to the
NSW Department of Planning: Sydney.

Scott, J.A. (1992) Tile natural vegetation of the Balranald-Swan Hill area, Cunninghamia 2(4),
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New South Wales Technical Report, No. 25.,

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Manuscript received 29 October 1993
Manuscript accepted 5 July 1995

Westbrooke & Miller, Vegetation of Mungo National Park

77

Appendix 1

List of vascular plant species recorded from Mungo National Park and Joulni Station
September 1992.

Taxonomy according to Harden (1990-1993).

* Denotes exotic species

# Denotes cultural plantings

[ ] Denotes name in Harden that has since changed.

Gymnosperms

CUPRESSACEAE

Callitris glaucophylla
Callitris verrucosa

Ferns and fern allies

ADIANTACEAE

Cheilanthes austrotenuifolia

Monocotyledons

AGAVACEAE

#*Agave sp.

CYPERACEAE

Schoenus subaphyllus

LILIACEAE

‘Asphodelus fistulosus
Bulbine bulbosa
Dianella revoluta var. revoluta
‘Myrsiphyllum asparagoides
Thysanotus baueri

ORCHIDACEAE

Pterostylis biseta

POACEAE

#*Arundo sp.

*Bromus rubens
*Bromus tectorum
*Hordeum marinum
Eragrostis australasica
*Rostraria pumila
*Schismus barbatus
Stipa spp.

Triodia scariosa subsp. scariosa
*Vulpia bromoides
*Vulpia muralis
*Vulpia myuros

LOMANDRACEAE

Lomandra leucocephala

Dicotyledons

AIZOACEAE

Disphyma crassifolium subsp. clavellatum
*Mesembryanthemum crystallinum
*Psilocaulon tenue
Tetragonia tetragonoides

AMARANTHACEAE

Ptilotus seminudus
Ptilotus spathulatus

ANACARDIACEAE

#*Schinus areira

APIACEAE

Daucus glochidiatus
Trachymene cyanopetala

ASCLEPIADACEAE

Marsdenia australis

ASTERACEAE

Actinobole uliginosum
*Arctotheca calendula
Brachycome ciliaris var. ciliaris
Brachycome lineariloba
Brachycome perpusilla var. tenella
Calotis hispidula
*Centaurea melitensis
Chthonocephalus pseudevax
Gnephosis tenuissima
*Hypochaeris glabra
*Hypochaeris radicata
Isoetopsis graminifolia
Millotia macrocarpa
Millotia perpusilla
Minuria cunninghamii
Minuria leptophylla
Myriocephalus stuartii
Olearia muelleri
Olearia pimeleoides
Olearia subspicata
*Onopordum acaulon

78

Cunninghamia Vol. 4(1): 1995

Podolepis capillaris
Pycnosorus pleiocephalus
Rhodanthe corymbiflora
Rhodanthe moschata
Senecio glossanthus
Senecio lautus

‘Sonchus asper subsp. glaucescens
*Sonchus oleraceus
Vittadinia cuneata var. hirsuta
Waitzia acuminata

BORAGINACEAE

‘Echium plantagineum
Halgania cyanea
Omphalolappula concava
Plagiobothrys plurisepaleus
BRASSICACEAE

Alyssum linifolium
Arabidella nasturtium
‘Brassica tournefortii
‘Capsella bursa-pastoris
‘Carrichtera annua
Geococcus pusillus
Harmsiodoxa blennodioides
Harmsiodoxa brevipes var. brevipes
Lepidium fasciculatum
Lepidium leptopetalum
Lepidium papillosum
Pachymitus cardaminoides
Phlegmatospermum eremaeum
‘Sisymbrium erysimoides
‘Sisymbrium irio
‘Sisymbrium orientale
Stenopetalum lineare
Stenopetalum sphaerocarpum
CACTACEAE

#*Opuntia sp.

#*Cylindropuntia imbricata

CAMPANULACEAE

Wahlenbergia gracilenta
CARYOPHYLLACEAE

‘Herniaria cinerea [H. hirsuta]
Scleranthus minusculus
‘Silene apetala
‘Spergularia diandra
‘Spergularia rubra
‘Stellaria media

CASUARINACEAE

Casuarina pauper

CHENOPODIACEAE

Atriplex holocarpa
Atriplex lindleyi
Atriplex nummularia
Atriplex spongiosa
Atriplex stipitata

Atriplex vesicaria subsp. vesicaria

‘Chenopodium album

Chenopodium curvispicatum

Chenopodium desertorum subsp. rectum

‘Chenopodium murale

Chenopodium nitrariaceum

Dissocarpus paradoxus

Einadia nutans subsp. nutans

Enchylaena tomentosa

Maireana appressa

Maireana brevifolia

Maireana georgei

Maireana pentatropis

Maireana pyramidata

Maireana sderolaenoides

Maireana sedifolia

Maireana trichoptera

Maireana turbinata

Malacocera tricornis

Osteocarpum acropterum var. deminuta
Salsola kali var. kali
Sderoblitum atriplicinum
Sderolaena brachyptera
Sderolaena diacantha
Sderolaena divaricata
Sderolaena lanicuspis
Sderolaena muricata var. muricata
Sderolaena obliquicuspis
Sderolaena parviflora
Sderolaena patenticuspis
Sderostegia tenuis
CONVOLVULACEAE

Convolvulus erubescens
CRASSULACEAE

Crassula colorata var. acuminata
#*Crassula arborescens
CUCURBITACEAE

‘Cucumis myriocarpus
FABACEAE - FABOIDEAE
Bossiaea walked
‘Medicago laciniata
‘Medicago minima
‘Medicago polymorpha
Templetonia egena

Westbrooke & Miller, Vegetation of Mungo National Park

79

FABACEAE - CAESALPINOIDEAE
[CAESALPINACEAE]

Senna artemisioides subsp. filifolia
Senna artemisioides subsp. petiolaris
Senna artemisioides nothosubsp. coriacea
FABACEAE - MIMOSOIDEAE [MIMOSACEAE]
Acacia aneura
Acacia colletioides
Acacia iigulata
Acacia loderi
Acacia melvillei
Acacia montana
Acacia rigens
#Acacia stenophylla
Acacia wilhelmiana

FUMARIACEAE

‘Fumaria muralis

GERANIACEAE

*Erodium cicutarium
Erodium crinitum

GOODEN IACEAE

Goodenia fascicularis
Goodenia pinnatifida
Goodenia pusilliflora

HALORAGACEAE

Haloragis odontocarpa forma odontocarpa

LAMIACEAE

‘Marrubium vulgare
*Salvia verbenaca
Teucrium racemosum
Westringia rigida

LAURACEAE

Cassytha melantha

LORANTHACEAE

Amyema linophylum subsp. orientale
Amyema miquelii

Amyema miraculosum subsp. boormanii
Amyema preissii
Amyema quandong
Lysiana exocarpi subsp. exocarpi
Lysiana linearifolia

MALVACEAE

*Malva parviflora
Sida corrugata

MYOPORACEAE

Eremophila glabra

Eremophila longifolia

Eremophila oppositifolia subsp. rubra

Eremophila sturtii
Myoporum platycarpum
#Myoporum acuminatum

MYRTACEAE

#Eucalyptus cladocalyx
Eucalyptus dumosa
Eucalyptus gracilis
Eucalyptus largiflorens
Eucalyptus leptophylla
Eucalyptus oleosa
Eucalyptus socialis
#Melaleuca armillaris

NITRARIACEAE

Nitraria billardierei

OLEACEAE

Jasminum lineare

OXALIDACEAE

Oxalis perennans
*Oxalis pes-caprae

PITTOSPORACEAE

Pittosporum phylliraeoides

PLANTAGINACEAE

Plantago cunninghamii

POLYGONACEAE

*Acetosa vesicaria
*Emex australis
Muehlenbeckia florulenta
*Rumex crisp us
Rumex tenax

PORTULACACEAE

Calandrinia calyptrata
Calandrinia eremaea

PROTEACEAE

Grevillea huegelii
Hakea leucoptera
Hakea tephrosperma

RHAMNACEAE

Cryptandra propinqua

RUTACEAE

Geijera parviflora

SANTALACEAE

Exocarpos aphyllus
Exocarpos sparteus

SAPINDACEAE

Alectryon oleifolius subsp. canescens

Dodonaea bursariifolia

Dodonaea viscosa subsp. angustissima

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Cunninghamia Vol. 4(1): 1995

SCROPHULARIACEAE

Limosella australis
Stemodia florulenta
SOLANACEAE

Lycium australe
*Lycium ferocissimum
*Nicotiana glauca
Nicotiana velutina
Solanum coactiliferum
*Solanum nigrum
STERCULIACEAE

#*Brachychiton populneus subsp. trilobus

TAMARICACEAE

#*Tamarix aphylla

THYMELAEACEAE

Pimelea microcephala subsp. microcephala
Pimelea simplex subsp. continua
Pimelea trichostachya

URTICACEAE

Parietaria debilis
*Urtica urens
ZYGOPHYLLACEAE

Zygophyllum ammophilum
Zygophyllum angustifolium
Zygophyllum apiculatum
Zygophyllum aurantiacum
Zygophyllum crenatum
Zygophyllum eremaeum
Zygophyllum iodocarpum

The vegetation of Nombinnie and
Round Hill Nature Reserves,
central-western New South Wales

81

J.S. Cohn

Colin, ].S. (NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service, PO Box 1967, Hurstville, NSW,
Australia, 2220) 1995. Tlw vegetation of Nombinnie and Round Hill Nature Reserves,
central-western New South Wales. Cunninghamia 4(1): 81-101. A vegetation survey
and a map (1:100 000 scale) of Nombinnie and Round Hill Nature Reserves
(33°46'S, 45°48'E) in central-western New South Wales, are presented. Ground
survey sites were selected from aerial photos, geological, and land system maps.
Floristic data were processed using multivariate analysis (PATN). Nineteen
communities were mapped (7 malice, 12 non-mallee), with a total of 227 taxa
(218 native, 9 introduced) recorded. A number of communities are considered to
be inadequately conserved and two taxa (Acacia curranii and Lomandra patens)
are of nationally rare and threatened status.

Introduction

Nombinnie and Round Hill Nature Reserves (NR), together with adjoining Yathong
NR, form the largest continuous stretch of mallee communites managed by the
National Parks and Wildlife Service (NPWS) in New South Wales. Mallee
communities are dominated by multi-stemmed species of Eucalyptus (Walker &
Hopkins 1984). Mallee communities also occur in Victoria and South Australia. Much
of the mallee occurring on public land in north-west Victoria has been surveyed and
mapped at 1:100 000 scale by Cheal & Parkes (1989). Mallee in South Australia has
been surveyed by Sparrow (1989a, b ). A number of studies have mapped mallee
communities in the south-west of NSW (Morcom & Westbrooke 1990, Fox 1991,
Scott 1992).

Nombinnie and Round Hill NRs have been included in a number of previous
vegetation surveys and mapping exercises; for example, the vegetation maps of
western NSW at a scale of 1 inch:16 miles (Beadle 1948) and Australia at a scale of
1:1 000 000 (Beadle 1981), land system maps at 1:250 000 scale (Soil Conservation
Service of NSW 1984, 1986), surveyed sites within the Nombinnie NR during its
acquisition (Brickhill et al. undated). None of these surveys, however, provides
consistent information on the communities at a scale suitable for conservation
management.

The aims of this vegetation survey were to:

e record data for vascular plant species and environmental attributes for a
representative sample of the Nombinnie and Round Hill NRs

• define and map plant communities at 1:100 000 scale, compatible with Victorian
and South Australian surveys

82

Cunninghamia Vol. 4(1): 1995

produce a map of plant communities readily usable by field managers
relate plant community distributions to environmental attributes
assess the conservation status of plant communities and rare plant taxa.

Study area

The study area is located in the south-western plains of NSW, 33°46'S, 145°48'E,
about 200 km south of Cobar (Figure 1). It comprises Nombinnie NR (70 000 ha) and
Round Hill NR (13 630 ha). Another 57 000 ha of the old Nombinnie and Lysmoyle
properties are managed by NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service but are subject
to mineral exploration (Wells 1989); a block of this area was not surveyed. A small
portion of leasehold land outside and adjacent to Nombinnie NR was also included
in the survey.

Fig 1 . Locality map of Nombinnie and Round Hill Nature Reserves.

Cohn, Vegetation of Nombinnie and Round Hill

83

The study area lies between the 350-450 mm annual rainfall isohyets. Temperatures
range from a mean monthly maximum of 33.2° C in January to a mean minimum of
4.5° C in July (Lawrie & Stanley 1980).

Land systems and geology

Land systems display characteristic and recurring patterns of topography, soils and
vegetation (Christian & Stewart 1953). Approximately 80% of the study area is
dominated by plains land systems, which include Lachlan Downs (Ld), Nombinnie
(Nb),Wylona (Wy), Karwarn (Kn), Lysmoyle (Ls, Figure 2). The relief may be as
high as 7 m, but is more commonly up to 4 m. Mallee vegetation predominates.
Calcareous red earths and solonised brown soils are commonly found on plains,
with sandy earths on dunes (Soil Conservation Service 1984, 1986).

Land systems Yackerboon (Yb), Kopyje (Kp) and Penshurst (Ph), included in the
landtype rolling downs and lowlands, constitute about 15% of the study area. Relief
is up to 20 m. These are typified by non-mallee communities, with red earths and

Fig 2. Land systems of the study area (Soil Conservation Service 1984, 1986).

84

Cunninghamia Vol. 4(1): 1995

lithosols on higher crests and deep sandy soils on lower slopes (Soil Conservation
Service 1984, 1986).

Land systems making up the remaining 5% of the study area are included in the
following landtypes: floodplains; dunefields; hills and footslopes; and ranges. The
floodplains land systems have relief to 1 m and are covered by Quaternary alluvium.
Land system Kiacatoo (Kc) has grey cracking and brown clays and land system
I angee (Pa) has deep calcareous red earths with hardpan at depth. The vegetation
consists of non-mallee species (Soil Conservation Service 1984, 1986).

Dunefields to 10 m relief are aligned in an east-west direction and are characterised
by Quaternary deposits of red and brown clayey sand, loam and lateritic soils and
irregular deposits of aeolian sand; land systems include Bindi (Bi) and Glenlea (Gz).
These are dominated by mallee vegetation (Soil Conservation Service 1984, 1986).

The hills and footslopes have relief to 150 m. Sandy lithosols on the upper slopes
usually grade into red earths downslope. The vegetation is characteristically mallee
(Soil Conservation Service 1984, 1986). The geology of land systems Boppy (Bx),
Mineshaft (Mi) and Belford (Bl) is sedimentary, whilst that of land system Shepherds
Hill (Sh) is volcanic (Geological Survey of New South Wales 1967, 1968).

The ranges have relief to 200 m, and are covered with sandy lithosols which become
deeper down-slope. Vegetation in land system Booroondarra (Bz) is mallee and in
land system Wynwood (Ww) non-mallee (Soil Conservation Service 1984,1986). The
geology of Bz is sedimentary and Ww is derived from volcanic material (Geological
Survey of NSW 1967, 1968).

Methods

Field survey

The field survey was undertaken from May 1991 to March 1992. At selected sampling
sites information on floristics, structure and environmental factors was collected.
All vascular plant species were recorded and assigned a cover abundance value
based on the Braun-Blanquet scale (Westhoff et al. 1978). Height and percentage
projected foliage cover were estimated for each stratum (Specht 1970,1981; Muir
1977). The description of environmental factors at each site included slope, aspect,
soil texture, elevation and physiography (McDonald et al. 1984). The size of the
quadrat at each site was 30 m x 30 m (900 m 2 ). Since trees occurred in lower
densities in the non-mallee and hill/range mallee communities compared with plains
mallee communities, information on the tree stratum within these two broad
categories was also collected in an extra 1600 m 2 , nested outside the 30 m x 30 m
quadrat (mallee eucalypts are included here as trees).

A total of 184 sites were sampled (Figure 1). One hundred and twenty of these were
in the non-mallee and hill/range mallee areas. Sites were positioned to sample
homogeneous patterns on aerial photographs which were further stratified by
geological and land system information (1:50 000 and 1:60 000 scale black/white

Cohn, Vegetation of Nombinnie and Round Hill

85

aerial photos; Commonwealth Mapping Authority, 1977, 1987; Geological Survey of
NSW, 1967, 1968; Soil Conservation Service 1984, 1986). The number of quadrats
allocated to a homogeneous pattern was proportional to the area it covered (Table
1). A pattern < 0.4 km 2 was considered too small to survey. The remaining 64 sites
were positioned in plains mallee vegetation and its six coincident land systems
(Ld,Nb,Wy,Ls,Gz,Bi; Soil Conservation Service 1984, 1986). Homogeneous patterns
from aerial photos were identified and further stratified by land system information.
Topographic, structural and floristic homogeneity of much of the plains mallee,
however, made allocation of sites by aerial photographic interpretation (API) too
difficult. The number of quadrats were allocated to each homogeneous pattern in
proportion to the area covered (Table 1). Although plains mallee vegetation covered
most of the study area, the lower number of quadrats compared with the non-mallee
and hill/range mallee represents the former's greater homogeneity identified from
aerial photos and land system information.

The position of a quadrat within a given homogeneous pattern in the non-mallee
and hill/range mallee was decided in the field. Quadrats were placed away from
the edges of patterns and in an area where the vegetation appeared floristically and
structurally representative of that pattern. The same technique for quadrat
positioning was used for plains mallee, which showed structural/floristic differences
or topographic relief on the aerial photos. For the remainder of the plains mallee,
however, quadrats were positioned to sample a broad range of floristic and structural
differences in the understorey.

In a few cases, extra informal surveys were undertaken during the ground truthing
phase. These consisted of pacing out quadrats and noting floristic and structural
information of the tree and shrub layers.

Ground truthing

Extensive ground truthing of patterns delineated on aerial photos was carried out
mostly within the non-mallee and hill/range mallee areas, since the structurally
homogeneous nature of most of the plains mallee areas made extensive ground
truthing unneccessary.

Data analysis

A numerical classification of the vegetation sites was derived using the Pattern
Analysis Package (PATN, Belbin, 1990). The analysis was restricted to perennial
native species as defined by Cunningham et al. 1981 (see back of map).

Mallee (plains) and non-mallee (including hill/range mallee) sites were analysed
separately, due to the different quadrat sizes employed to sample trees in each
group. Floristic composition was analysed using PATN (Belbin 1990). The cover
abundance information for the non-mallee was adjusted to include the extra quadrat:
a tree species occurring in the 1600 nr quadrat and not in the 900 m 2 quadrat was
assigned a cover abundance value of 1. As a consequence, cover abundance values
for all species recorded in the 900 m : quadrat increased by 1, i.e. 1 became 2, and so
on. From this point onwards the mallee and non-mallee data were treated the same.

86

Cunninghamia Vol. 4(1): 1995

Table 1. Proportion of area for each landtype and land system (see text for codes)
showing allocation of sampling quadrats for land systems, geology and topographic
position

Landtype and

Area

Proportion of

Geology

Topographic

Numbi

land system

(% of total

land system

position

quadi

study area)

in landtype

Floodplains

< 5

2

Kc

0.5

Qcp

plain

1

Pa

0.5

Qd

plain

1

Plains

C. 80

116

Ld

<0.1

Qd

slope

1

Qrt/Smv

1

Qrd

dune

1

swale

1

Nb

0.6

Qd

plain

61

Qrd

dune

1

swale

1

Qcp

depression

1

Wy

<0.1

Qd

plain

1

Kn

0.1

Qd

plain

11

Qcp

plain

0

Ls

0.2

Qd

plain

36

Dune fields

< 5

3

Bi

0.7

Qrd

swale

1

crest

1

Gz

0.3

Qd

slope

1

Rolling downs

c. 15

48

and lowlands

.

Kp

0.2

Qrt/Suc

crest

1

slope

1

plain

4

Ph

0.8

Qrt/Smv

plain

2

slope

4

depression

1

Qrt/Suc

plain

13

depression

9

slope

1

Qrt

plain

5

slope

3

Qd & Qrs

slope

1

plain

1

Yb

<0.1

Qrd/Smv

plain

1

Qrt/Scu

1

Hills/footslopes

< 5

6

Bx

0.25

Sub

east slope

1

Sh

0.25

Qrt/Scu

footslope

1

Scu

east slope

1

Mi

0.15

Sub

knoll

0

BI

0.35

Qd

plain

2

Due

slope

1

Range

< 5

9

Bz

0.3

Due

crest

1

Qrt/Duc

plain

1

Qrt/Duc

north slope

1

Ww

0.7

Smv

crest

1

east slope

1

south slope

2

west slope

1

north slope

1

184

Total

Cohn, Vegetation of Nombinnie and Round Hill

87

To weight abundant and uncommon species evenly, cover abundances were
standardised between 0 and 1. The Bray Curtis measure was used to compare each
site to all others in terms of floristic composition (Bray & Curtis 1957). The UPGMA
clustering algorithm was then applied to derive a hierarchical classification of the
sites (dendrogram).

The homogeneity algorithm of Bedward et al. (1992; Figures 3a,b) was used in
conjunction with the dendrogram, physical information (topography, geology, soil
texture), structural information and the aerial photographic mapping base to
determine the final plant communities to be mapped.

Formation of mapped communities from groups

Groups resulting from the analyses were mapped as communities only if the mapping
base (aerial photos) allowed their delineation. A group identified within a group
was mapped separately if it was structurally different or located in different
physiographic circumstances with recognisably different floristics.

The homogeneity algorithm (Bedward et. al 1992) showed the plains-mallee to be
relatively floristically continuous (Figure 3a). The structural and floristic homogeneity
of the plains-mallee on the aerial photographic mapping base restricted the final
mapped communities to only those recognisable on this base: Shrub Mallee (PI);
Shrub Mallee with Spinifex (P2); Shrub Mallee with Mallee Pine (P3); and Tree
Mallee (P4). A two-way table describing the relationships between taxa and
communities is shown on the back of the map.

The analysis identified fifteen floristically discrete groups of non-mallee and hill/
range mallee (Figure 3b). These original 15 groups are shown in a two-way table on
the back of the map. Some of these groups were modified for the purposes of
mapping: the first group has been subdivided into three communities, since Dla
and D4 are floristically different and occurring in different physiographic
circumstances to that of Dl; two groups which have been identified as separate have
been combined, since they both constitute grassland (F9); one group has been
subdivided into two communities (FI, F2), since they are structurally different;
community F5 encompasses 3 groups which could not be differentiated on the aerial
photographic mapping base; another group has been called two communities since
the overstorey species are different (HI, Rl); and community P8 describes two groups
which are indistinguishable on the mapping base.

Results

Four plains mallee communities and fifteen non-mallee and hill/range mallee
communities were mapped. A description of the mapped vegetation communities is
given below. Communities are grouped by the landtypes in which they mostly
occur and each community is given an alpha-numeric code for quick referral: Alluvial
plains (Fl-2); Plains (Pl-9); Rolling downs and lowlands (Dl-4); Hills (HI); Ranges
(Rl-2). Geological information is taken from Geological Survey of NSW (1967, 1968)
and land system information is taken from Soil Conservation Service (1984, 1986).

HOMOG

88

Cunninghamia Vol. 4(1): 1995

Descriptions of mapped communities

Alluvial Plains (FI-2)

FI. Black Rolypoly Shrubland

Dominant species: Sclerolaena muricata.
Structure: Low open shrubland.

Site numbers: 88.

Land system: Alluvial plain (Kc).

Geology: Floodplains of red and black clayey silt
sand and gravel (Qrs).

Soil texture: Heavy clay.

Trees: Eucalyptus largiflorens.

Shrubs: Sclerolaena muricata.

Herbs and grasses: Leptorhynchos panaetioides,
Vittadinia pterochaeta, Teucrium racemosum,
Helipterum floribundum.

Comments: Occurs in only one small area on the
southern boundary of Nombinnie NR. The
northern half of the community is dominated by
ephemeral grasses, which were unidentifiable at
the time of the survey.

F2. Black Box Woodland
Dominant species: Eucalyptus largiflorens.
Structure: Low open woodland.

Site numbers: 91.

Land systems: Alluvial plain (Kc).

Geology: Playas, claypans and lakes of black and
grey silty clay and silt (Qcp).

Soil texture: Heavy clay.

Trees: Eucalyptus largiflorens.

Shrubs: Solanum esuriale, Sclerolaena muricata,
Pittosporum phylliraeoides.

Herbs and grasses: Atriplex spinebractea.
Comments: Occurs over one small area adjacent
to the Black Rolypoly Shrubland. All Eucalyptus
largiflorens in this community were apparently
ringbarked during 1880-1900 and as a result are
now multi-stemmed (J. Brickhill, pers. comm.).

Plains (PI-9)

PI. Shrub Mallee

Dominant species: Eucalyptus socialis, E.
dumosa.

Structure: Very open shrub mallee (< 8 m tall).
Site numbers: 23, 13, 100, 105, 156, 158, 73,
98.

Land system: Plains (Nb,Ls).

Fig. 3. Homogeneity curves for site classification based on standardised Bray Curtis co-efficient,
a. Plains mallee data. b. Hill mallee and non-mallee data.

Cohn, Vegetation of Nombinnie and Round Hill

89

Geology: Flat to gently undulating plains of red
and brown clayey sand loam and lateritic soils
(Qd).

Soil texture: Sandy clay-clayey sand.

Trees: Eucalyptus socialis, E. dumosa.

Shrubs: Eremophila glabra.

Herbs and grasses: O/earia pimelioides.

Comments: This community, with

characteristically little in the understorey, is
found:

• on the western slopes of ranges where the
soil is sandy

• where the mallee has apparently been cleared
and is regenerating

• where there have been fires in quick
succession on medium-textured soils (see
discussion).

P2. Shrub Mallee with Spinifex
Dominant species: Eucalyptus socialis, E.
dumosa, Triodia irritans.

Structure: Very open to open shrub mallee (< 8
m tall).

Site numbers: 26, 48, 52, 99, 101-119, 121—
152, 154, 155, 213.

Land system: Plains (Nb, Ls, Wy).

Geology: Flat to gently undulating plains of red
and brown clayey sand loam and lateritic soils
(Qd).

Soil texture: Light medium clay-loamy sand.
Trees: Eucalyptus socialis, E. dumosa, E. gracilis,
E. leptophylla.

Shrubs: 4cac/a tindaleae, A. rigens, A. brachybotrya,
A. colletioides, A. havilandiorum, Melaleuca uncinata,
Eremophila glabra, Bossiaea walked, Dodonaea
viscosa subsp. cuneata. Senna artemisioides, Beyeria
opaca, Templetonia aculeata.

Herbs and grasses: Dianella revoluta, Halgania
cyanea, Lomandra effusa, Sclerolaena diacantha,
Olearia pimelioides, Triodia irritans.

Comments: Compared with the other mallee
communities identified in this survey, the
understorey in this community has greater floristic
diversity and cover. The composition and density
of the over and understorey species vary with
subtle changes in the topography and soils (see
results).

P3. Shrub Mallee with Mallee Pine
Dominant species: Eucalyptus socialis,
Callitris preissii subsp. verrucosa.

Structure: Very open shrub mallee (< 8 m
tall).

Site numbers: 42.

Land system: Plains (Nb.Ls).

Geology: Flat to gently undulating plains of red
and brown clayey sand loam and lateritic soils
(Qd).

Soil texture: Sandy clay loam.

Trees: Callitris preissii subsp. verrucosa. Eucalyptus
socialis, E. leptophylla.

Shrubs: Acacia brachybotrya.

Herbs and grasses: Helichrysum apiculatum.
Comments: Callitris preissii subsp. verrucosa
provides a very dense understorey of
approximately 30% cover. The shade and the
absence of fire may both contribute to the very
low cover and diversity of shrubs, grasses and
herbs.

P4. Tree Mallee

Dominant species: Eucalyptus socialis, E.
dumosa.

Structure: Very open tree mallee (> 8 m tall).
Site numbers: 75.

Land system: Plains (Nb.Ls).

Geology: Flat to gently undulating plains of red
and brown clayey sand loam and lateritic soils
(Qd).

Soil texture: Silty clay.

Trees: Eucalyptus socialis, E. dumosa.

Herbs and grasses: Einadia nutans subsp. nutans.
Comments: Characteristically very low species
richness and cover in the understorey. It appears
to have been unburnt for many years (see
discussion).

P5. Belah and Wilga Woodland

Dominant species: Casuarina cristata,
Geijera parviflora, Apophyllum anomalum,
Alectryron oleifolius subsp. canescens.

Structure: Open woodland.

Site numbers: 38, 79, 94, 208, 85, 30, 86, 57,
56, 87, 19, 12, 37, 211, 205.

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Cunninghamia Vol. 4(1): 1995

Land system: Plains (Kn,Ls), Rolling downs/
lowlands (Ph).

Geology: Playas, claypans and lakes of black and
grey silty clay and silt (Qcp). Residual and collvial
deposits (Qrt). Flat to gently undulating plains of
red and brown clayey sand loam and lateritic soils
(Qd).

Soil texture: Clay loam-medium clay.

Trees: Casuarina cristata, Geijera parviflora.
Alectryron oleifolius subsp. canescens and
Apophyllum anomalum often occur in the
overstorey. Occasionally, especially in
ecotones Eucalyptus populnea subsp. bimbil and
E. intertexta also occur in the overstorey.
Shrubs: The shrub and herb/grass layers are
usually very sparsely distributed and species
poor. Common species include Eremophila
mitchellii, E. sturtii.

Herbs and grasses: Sclerolaena diacantha,
Cheilanthes sieberi, Olearia pimelioides.

Comments: Found on the heavier-textured soils,
often in playas and claypans.

P6. Gum Coolibah Woodland

Dominant species: Eucalyptus intertexta,
Dodonaea viscosa subsp. cuneata, Eremophila
desertorum, E. sturtii.

Strucure: Open woodland.

Site numbers: 31, 35, 77, 32, 78, 83, 63.

Land system: Plains (Kn,Ls), Range (Ww).

Geology: Residual and colluvial deposits overlying
Mt Hope Volcanics (Qrt/Smv). Flat to gently
undulating plains of red and brown clayey sand
loam and lateritic soils (Qd); Playas of grey silty
clay (Qcp).

Soil texture: Silty clay-day loam.

Trees: Eucalyptus intertexta and occasionally
Callitris glaucophylla.

Shrubs: The understorey varies from a sparse to
a more dense shrub cover of Dodonaea viscosa
subsp. cuneata, Eremophila desertorum,
E.remophila sturtii, Bertya cunninghamii, Senna
artemisioides, Callitris glaucophylla, Helichrysum
tuckeri. At one site the rare Acacia curranii occurs
rather densely.

Herbs and grasses: Cheilanthes sieberi, Einadia
nutans, and Harmsiodoxa brevipes var. major.

Comments: Often occurs on the heavier-textured
soils adjacent to mallee communities.

P7. Bimble Box Woodland

Dominant species: Eucalyptus populnea subsp.
bimbil, Eremophila sturtii, Digitaria spp., Stipa spp..
Structure: Open woodland.

Site numbers: 60. 76, 89, 90, 97, 98A, 200.
Land system: Plains (Ls) and rolling downs and
lowlands (Ph); Floodplains (Pa).

Geology: Flat to gently undulating plains of
red and brown clayey sand loam and
lateritic soils (Qd); Residual and colluvial
deposits (Qrt).

Soil texture: Sandy clay-sandy clay loam.
Trees: Eucalyptus populnea subsp. bimbil and
occasionally Callitris glaucophylla.

Shrubs: Scattered to dense Eremophila sturtii.
Herbs and grasses: Digitaria sp., and Stipa
sp., with scattered Einadia nutans subsp.
nutans.

Comments: Usually located in run on areas with
heavier-textured soils and varies from having a
dense understorey of Eremophila sturtii to an
understorey dominated by grasses.

P8. Pine Woodland

Dominant species: Callitris glaucophylla,
Abutilon otocarpum, Cheilanthes sieberi.

Structure: Open woodland/woodland.

Site numbers: 72. 209, 95, 2, 29, 14, 6, 11B,
20C, 11C, 24A, 28, 24B, 27, 25, 24C, 71, 92, 81,
82, 84, 58.

Land system: Plains (Ls,Kn), Rolling downs/
lowlands (Ph).

Geology: Flat to gently undulating plains of red
and brown clayey sand loam and lateritic soils
(Qd). Residual and colluvial deposits (Qrt); Cobar
Group largely obscured by Qrt (Qrt/Suc(?)).

Soil texture: Sandy clay to sandy clay loam.
Trees: Whilst Callitris glaucophylla is the dominant
overstorey species, Eucalyptus populnea subsp.
bimbil, E. intertexta and Geijera parviflora may
also occur.

Herbs and grasses: The understorey is comprised
mostly of herbs and grasses. Common herbs,
north of the railway line, are Abutilon otocarpum,

Cohn, Vegetation of Nombinnie and Round Hill

91

Sida corrugata, Chenopodium desertorum,
Sderolaena diacantha, Cheilanthes sieberi, and
Sida cunninghamii. The understorey south of
railway line is mostly of ephemeral grasses, which
were unidentifiable at the time of the survey, as
were those in the north.

P9. Grassland

Dominant species: Aristida spp..

Structure: Grassland.

Site numbers: 40, 41,80, 201, 202, 19, 12, 47,
22, 71.

Land system: Plains (Ls, Kn) and Rolling downs/
lowlands (Ph).

Geology: Flat to gently undulating plains of red
and brown clayey sand loam and lateritic soils
(Qd); Residual and colluvial deposits (Qrt); Cobar
Group largely obscured by Qrt (Qrt/Suc?).

Soils: light clay-sandy clay loam.

Trees: Scattered Geijera parviflora, Casuarina
cristata, Eucalyptus dumosa, E. socialis, E.
intertexta, E. populnea subsp. bimbil, Apophyllum
anomalum, Alectryron oleifolius, Hakea
tephrosperma, Callitris glaucophylla.

Shrubs: Scattered Prostanthera leichhardtii,
Eremophila longifolia, Acacia homalophylla,
Eremophila mitchellii, Dodonaea viscosa
spp. angustissima, Atriplex stipitata.

Herbs and grasses: Scattered Einadia
nutans spp. nutans, Helipterum pygmaeum,
Cuphonotus hurnistratus, Aristida spp.,
Cheilanthes sieberi spp. sieberi, Heliotropium
europaeum, Echium plantagineum, Erodium
crinitum, Oxalis corniculatum, Medicago spp.,
Sderolaena diacantha, Maireana spp..

Comments: Highly variable in its species
composition, probably because it has usually
resulted from clearing, and has therefore partially
adopted the character of its previous community
and/or has taken on species from surrounding
communities. Many of the grasses were
unidentifiable at the time of the survey.

Rolling Downs and Lowlands (D1-4)

D1. Pine and Bimble Box Woodland

Dominant species: Callitris glaucophylla,
Eucalyptus populnea subsp. bimbil. Senna
artemisioides, Chenopodium desertorum,
Sderolaena diacantha.

Structure: Open woodland.

Site numbers: 20D, 64, 96, 7, 20F, 93, 3, 4,
20G, 44. 20C.

Land systems: Plains (Ls), Rolling downs/lowlands
(Ph).

Geology: Flat to gently undulating plains of red
and brown clayey sand loam and lateritic soils
(Qd); Residual and colluvial deposits (Qrt); Mt Hope
Volcanics largely obscured by Qrt (Qrt/Smv); Cobar
Group largely obscured by Qrt (Qrt/Suc(?)).

Soil texture: Sandy day-silty loam.

Trees: On the slopes of ranges/hills and
undulating plains Callitris glaucophylla tends
to occur on the higher ground, whilst
Eucalyptus populnea subsp. bimbil is found along
creek lines. Eucalyptus intertexta may also occur
in the overstorey on the higher ground.

Shrubs: The understorey has very scattered
shrubs: Dodonaea viscosa subsp.

angustissima, Eremophila sturtii, E. glabra, E.
longifolia, E. mitchellii. Senna artemisioides.
Herbs and grasses: Chenopodium desertorum,
Einadia nutans subsp. nutans, Sderolaena
diacantha, Sida corrugata.

Comments: Much of this community appears to
have been cleared, leaving scattered trees only.

Dla. Bimble Box Woodland

Dominant species: Eucalyptus populnea subsp.
bimbil, Eremophila sturtii, Chenopodium
desertorum, Sderolaena diacantha.

Structure: Open woodland.

Site numbers: 17, 10, 21C, 33, 21D, 45, 34A,
34B, 36, 61.

Land system: Rolling downs and lowlands (Ph).
Geology: Flat to gently undulating plains of red
and brown clayey sand loam and lateritic soils
(Qd); Residual and colluvial deposits (Qrt); Mt Hope
Volcanics largely obscured by Qrt (Qrt/Smv).

Soil texture: Medium clay-sandy clay loam.
Trees: Eucalyptus populnea subsp. bimbil and
Callitris glaucophylla. Eucalyptus intertexta may
become the dominant overstorey species over
small areas especially those closer to the mallee.

Shrubs: Eremophila longifolia, E.glabra,
E.mitchellii, E. sturtii, Dodonaea viscosa subsp.
angustissima, Acacia colletoides, A.homalophylla,
Acacia deanei, Senna artemisioides, Dodonaea

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viscosa subsp. spatulata, D. viscosa subsp. cuneata,
Eremophila desertii, and Pittosporum
phylliraeoides.

Herbs and grasses: Digitaria sp., and Stipa sp.,
with scattered Einadia nutans subsp. nutans.
Comments: Occurs in low lying areas on heavier-
textured soils.

D2. Gum Coolibah and Pine Woodland

Dominant species: Eucalyptus intertexta, Callitris
glaucophylla, Eremophila mitchelli, E. glabra,
Sderolaena diacantha.

Structure: Open woodland.

Site numbers:1, 55, 65, 59, 54, 15, 18, 66, 69,
203, 46. 206, 50, 51, 67, 207, 215, 74, 216,
212 .

Land systems: Plains (Ls.Ph.Kp); Hills and
footslopes (Bl); Ranges (Bz).

Geology: Flat to gently undulating plains of
red and brown clayey sand loam and lateritic soils
(Qd); Residual and colluvial deposits (Qrt); Cobar
Group largely obscured by Qrt (Qrt/Suc);
Cocoparra sediments largely obscured by Qrt (Qrt/
Due); Mt Hope Volcanics largely obscured by Qrt
(Qrt/Smv); Floodplains of clayey silt, sand and
gravel (Qrs); Cobar Group largely obsured by Qrt
(Qrt/Suc).

Soil texture: Light clay to sandy clay loam.
Trees: Eucalyptus intertexta, Callitris glaucophylla,
E. populnea subsp. bimbil, Casuarina cristata,
Geijera parviflora, Atectryon oleifolius.

Shrubs: The understorey may have very scattered
shrubs to a more dense cover of Bertya
cunninghamii, Dodonaea viscosa subsp. cuneata,
Eremophila glabra, E. longifolia, E. mitchellii,
Hakea tephrosperma, Senna artemisioides, Olearia
pimelioides.

Herbs and grasses: Chenopodium desertorum,
Sderolaena diacantha, Enchylaena tomentosa.

D3. Emubush Shrubland

Dominant species: Eremophila longifolia.
Structure: Tall open shrubland.

Site numbers: 62.

Land system: Rolling downs/lowlands (Ph).
Geology: Residual and colluvial deposits (Qrt).
Soil texture: Sandy clay.

Shrubs: Eremophila longifolia is common and
present as a tall shrub (>2m). Other shrub species
are Dodonaea viscosa subsp. angustissima,
Eremophila glabra, E. sturtii, Callitris glaucophylla,
Solanum coactiliferum.

Herbs and grasses: Maireana humillima, Ptilotus
obovatus, Sderolaena diacantha, Sida cunninghamii,
Thyridolepsis mitchelliana.

Comments: This community may have been burnt
in 1985 and the large cover of Eremophila
longifolia is a response to that (see discussion).
The density of this community made boundary
checking too difficult.

D4. Green Mallee Shrubland

Dominant species: Eucalyptus viridis, Dodonaea
lobulata.

Structure: Open woodland/low open shrubland.
Site numbers: 217 and informal survey.

Land system: Rolling downs/lowlands.

Geology: Quartz-feldspar, porphyry, rhyolite, tuff
and interbedded sediments (Smv); Residual and
colluvial deposits (Qrt).

Soil texture: Loam.

Trees: Eucalyptus viridis. Eucalyptus intertexta,
E.populnea, Callitris glaucophylla, Brachychiton
populneus subsp. trilobus and Geijera parviflora may
also occur, especially on the slopes of the knolls.

Shrubs: Acacia aneura, A. decora, Dodonaea
lobulata, Senna artemisioides, Eremophila
serrulata, E. longifolia, E. mitchellii. Acacia curranii
is sparsely distributed on the side of one knoll.
Herbs and grasses: Sderolaena convexuta,
Maireana humillima, Atriplex stipitata.
Comments: Restricted to small rocky knolls in
the northern half of Nombinnie NR, occurring as
an open shrubland on the knoll tops and
becoming an open woodland on the sides.

Hills (HI)

HI. Dwyer's Mallee Shrubland
Dominant species: Eucalyptus dwyeri, Acacia
doratoxylon.

Structure: Very open shrub mallee.

Site numbers: 68, 49.

Land system: Hills and footslopes (Sh,Mi,Bx).
Geology: Rhyolite, rhyolite breccia, quartz

Cohn, Vegetation of Nombinnie and Round Hill

93

feldspar porphyry, chert and tuff (Scu);
Conglomerate, sandstone, orthoquartzite
and siltstone (Sub).

Soil texture: Clayey sand.

Trees: This community can be quite variable and
there may be an influence of aspect, The tops of
these hills are characteristically dominated by
Eucalyptus dwyeri and Acacia doratoxylon. On the
slopes other species may include Brachychiton
populneus subsp. trilobus, Oeijera parviflora.
Eucalyptus intertexta, Eucalyptus viridis, E.
morrisii, Pittosporum phylliraeoides.

Shrubs: The slopes may be similar to the top or
dominated by dense short Callitris glaucophylla.
Other species include Dodonaea lobulata, Acacia
aneura, A. decora, Prostanthera nivea, P.
striatiflora, Indigofera australis, Eremophila
serrulata, E. longifolia, Helichrysum bractea,
Pimelea microcephala, Helichrysum viscosum,
Platysace lanceolata, Solanum ferocissimum var.
ferocissimum.

Herbs and grasses: Lomandra patens, Diuris
maculata, Cheilanthes sieberi, Pandorea
pandorana.

Ranges (R1-2)

R1. Grey Mallee Shrubland

Dominant species: Eucalyptus morrisii.
Structure: Very open shrub mallee.

Site numbers: 214.

Land systems: Range (Bz).

Geology: Cocoparra sediments, largely obscured
by Qrt (Qrt/Duc).

Soil texture: Clayey sand.

Trees: Eucalyptus morrisii on the top, E. dwyeri
on the slope and E. viridis on the footslopes. Other
species include Callitris glaucophylla, Brachychiton

populneus subsp. trilobus. Eucalyptus populnea
subsp. bimbil, Oeijera parviflora.

Shrubs: On the range footslopes species incude
Eremophila serrulata, Acacia aneura, A.
doratoxylon, Dodonaea viscosa subsp.
angustissima and Pandorea pandorana.

Herbs and grasses: Wahlenbergia stricta, Stipa
nodosa, Goodenia glabra, Lomandra patens,
Cheilanthes sieberi, Amphipogon caricinis var.
caricinis, Indigofera australis, Sida filiformis,
Brunonia australis, Parsonsia eucalyptophylla,
Thyridolepis mitchelliana.

R2. Pine and Wattle Woodland

Dominant species: Callitris glaucophylla, Acacia
decora.

Structure: Low open woodland to open
woodland.

Site numbers: 5, 9B, 9C, 43, 9A, 8.

Land systems: Ranges (Ww), Rolling downs/
lowlands (Ph).

Geology: Quartz-feldspar, porphyry, rhyolite, tuff
and interbedded sediments (Smv); Mt Hope
Volcanics largely obscured by Qrt (Qrt/Smv).

Soil texture: Sandy clay loam.

Trees: Callitris glaucophylla, and occasionally
Eucalyptus intertexta.

Shrubs: The shrub understorey is dominated by
dense low/tall Callitris glaucophylla shrubs on the
slopes with some Acacia decora. The tops of the
ranges are more open.

Herbs and grasses: Common species include
Glycine canescens, Sida cunninghamii, Cheilanthes
sieberi and C. lasiophylla. The rare Lomandra
patens also occurs.

Trends in species and community distribution
Plains mallee

Although much of the plains mallee proved to be floristically continuous, as evidenced
by the relatively consistent slope of the homogeneity curve (Figure 3a), there were
trends in the occurrence of some species, which were identified by the multivariate
analysis and are discussed below (see two-way table on back of map).

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Cunninghamia Vol. 4(1): 1995

In the sandier soils (loamy sand-sandy clay loam), which were found on dune crests
and slopes. Eucalyptus leptophylla occurred in the overstorey with E. socialis and
occasionally CaUitris preissii subsp. verrucosa. The understorey consisted of a sparse
cover of Acacia brachybotrya, and a dense cover of Triodia irritans. In the medium-
and heavier-textured soils (light medium clay-loamy sand). Eucalyptus socialis occurred
with E. dumosa and £. gracilis. The shrub understorey was usually more dense than
on sandier soils and was more likely to have Melaleuca uncinata present as well as
Acacia species. In general, Triodia irritans contributed less to ground cover than on
the sandier soils.

Non-mallee and hill/range mallee

Communities varied in their degree of floristic discretion (see two-way table on back
of map). Those dominated by Casuarina cristata/Ceijera parviflora (Belah and Wilga
Woodland, P5), Eucalyptus largiflorens (Blackbox Woodland, F2), E. dwyeri/Acacia
doratoxylon (Dwyer's Mallee Shrubland, HI) and E. morrisii (Grey Mallee Shrubland,
Rl), which are relatively restricted in their distribution, each had a relatively discrete
suite of associated species. Other communities dominated by more widespread trees
such as CaUitris glaucophylla, Eucalyptus populnea subsp. birnbil and E. intertexta were
more likely to share common groups of equally widespread understorey species,
although there were some exceptions. Eucalyptus intertexta dominated communities
were more likely to have the following taxa in their understorey Dodonaea viscosa
subsp. cuncata, Eremophila deserlii, E. mitchellii, Sida cunninghamii, Maireana humillmm
and Bertya cunninghamii. Eucalyptus populnea subsp. bimbil dominated communities
commonly had Dodonaea viscosa subsp. angustissima, Acacia colletioides, Goodenia glabra,
Eremophila sturtii, Acacia deanii, Einadia nutans subsp. nutans and Abutilon otocarpum
in the understorey. Callitris glaucophylla dominated communities were commonly
found with Cheilanthes sieberi and Sida corrugata in the understorey. The more
widespread understorey taxa include Eremophila longifblia, E. glabra, Hakea tephrosperma,
Senna artemisioides, Chenopodium desertorum subsp. desertorum, and Sclerolaena diacantha.

The occurrence of some communities may be partly explained by topography and
soil texture. Communities dominated by Sclerolaena muricata (Black Rolypoly
Shrubland, FI) and Eucalyptus largiflorens (Black Box Woodland, F2) were found on
heavy clay soils on floodplains. Casuarina cristata/Geijera parviflora (Belah and Wilga
Woodland, P5) and Eucalyptus populnea subsp. bimbil (Bimble Box Woodlands, P7,
Dla) communities occurred in soils of high clay content usually in closed or open
depressions. Communities dominated by Eucalyptus dwyeri/Acacia doratoxylon
(Dwyer's Mallee Shrubland, HI) and Eucalyptus morrisii (Grey Mallee Shrubland,
RI) were restricted to rocky hills in sandy soils, similar to the CaUitris glaucophylla/
Acacia decora community (Pine and Wattle Woodland, R2). The occurrences of CaUitris
glaucophylla/Eucalyptus populnea subsp. bimbil (Pine and Bimble Box Woodland, Dl),
CaUitris glaucophylla (Pine Woodland, P8) and Eucalyptus intertexta (Gum Coolibah/
Pine Woodlands, P6, D2) communities were more difficult to explain. In general
they were found on plains and on hills in drier situations. Eucalyptus intertexta

Cohn, Vegetation of Nombinnie and Round Hill

95

woodland (P6) was more likely to be found near and surrounded by plains mallee
communities than other communities.

Limitations of the study

Mapping the communities identified by the multivariate analysis was limited by the
amount of recognisable detail on the aerial photos. This was particularly so for the
plains mallee vegetation where structural and topographic homogeneity made
mapping of floristically different vegetation patterns difficult. Aerial photos could
not be used to map differences in the lower strata.

Discussion

Comparison with other relevant surveys

Within the plains mallee, changes in the topography and the soil texture were often
very subtle in Nombinnie and Round Hill NRs. Most of the mallee occurred on
plains, where the gentle undulations (<4 m) were kilometres apart. Parsons & Rowan
(1968) have shown that the distribution of some mallee Eucalyptus species, in north¬
western Victoria was related to subtle soil differences. Within Nombinnie and Round
Hill NRs Eucalyptus durnosa and £. gracilis were widespread, but absent from the
sandiest soils on dune crests, to which £. leptophylla was usually restricted. Eucalyptus
socialis occurred on a large range of soil types.

Other areas of mallee in NSW have a more clearly defined dune and swale pattern.
Morcom & Westbrooke (1989) were able to separately map the communities which
dominated the dunes and the swales in Mallee Cliffs NP. Similarly in parts of
Yathong NR there are east-west dunes which support mallee communities, whilst
the adjacent swales are characterised by Eucalyptus intcrlexla open woodlands (pers.
obs). Some surveys of mallee have found the soil to be sufficiently high in clay
content in the swales to support Casuarina cristata/Aleclryron olcifblius communities
(Morcom & Westbrooke 1990, Fox 1991, Scott 1992, Parker et al. unpub.).

Norris and Thomas (1991) in their survey of vegetation on rocky outcrops adjacent
and south of Nombinnie and Round Hill NRs, found that the occurrence of tree
species did not appear to be influenced by the rock type. However, results from the
present study were mixed. Whilst the Eucalyptus dwyeri/Acacia doratoxylon community
(HI) was found on hills derived from both volcanic and sedimentary origins, Callitris
glaucophylla/Acacia decora community (R2) was restricted to volcanically-derived hills.

Fire

Fire recording for Nombinnie and Round Hill NRs began in 1957 (Brickhill, undated).
The most recent extensive fire in January 1985, burnt much of the study area (Brickhill,
undated). Because fire history was not one of the factors used in the allocation of
sites, its effect on community floristics and structure was noted only at a very coarse
level.

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Cunninghamia Vol. 4(1): 1995

Both mallee and non-mallee communities are prone to fires in summer if plentiful
rain has promoted the growth of ephemerals, especially grasses, during the spring
(Noble 1984). Fires can bum large areas very quickly if the conditions are favourable.

Community P4 ( Eucalyptus socialistE. dumosa ) consists of 'bull mallees', trees (8 m
tall), with a few large stems protruding from the Iignotuber. This community was
found in silty clay on flat land with a very sparse understorey, mainly of herbs.
Noble (1982) has found that 'bull mallee' grows in the more open swales where fires
are infrequent, only occurring when there is sufficient ephemeral fuel (e.g. Stipa
variabihs). Cheal and Parkes (1989) describe a similar structured community called
big mallee occurring in Victoria. They attribute the structure of their 'big mallee' to
the long-term absence of fire, greater soil fertility and favourable moisture status.
Similarly, the existence of tall, dense stands of Callitris preissii subsp. verrucosa
(community Pa) in sandy soils on dune crests indicate the absence of fire, since it is
a fire-sensitive species (Bradstock 1989). Bradstock (1989) predicts that in the long¬
term if there is an absence of fire for a hundred years, C. preissii subsp. verrucosa may
overtop mallee Eucalyptus species and eventually dominate the community.

Widely-spaced whipstick mallee eucalypts (community PI) may result from frequent
fires in Autumn (Noble 1984). Only mallee communities on medium-textured soils,
capable of a relatively high water-holding capacity and able to support dense swards
of spear grass ( Stipa scabra) at the appropriate time, are capable of this high fire
frequency (Noble 1984).

Eretnophila longifblia in Emubush Shrubland (D3) may have resprouted from a fire
during 1985 when the adjacent mallee burnt (Water Resources Colour Aerial Photos
1990; Brickhill undated). The dominance of E. longifblia (5 m tall) may relate to its
ability to respiout from the roots and stems both below and above the ground after
fire (Hodgkinson & Griffin 1982). Other plants occurring in this community at
lower densities, e.g. Dodonaea viscosa subsp. angustissima. Senna arteniisioides and
Callitris glaucophylla are more fire-sensitive (Hodgkinson & Griffin 1982, Harrington
et al. 1984).

Clearing, grazing and exotic plants

Although much of the mallee appears relatively undisturbed, some woodland areas
have been modified since the advent of grazing by cattle and sheep. Woodlands,
especially those dominated by Callitris glaucophylla have been thinned or cleared of
trees for grazing (pers. obs). Grazing has also prevented regeneration of C. glaucophylla
seedlings (Harrington et al. 1984). On the other hand, selective grazing can also lead
to a higher density of some shrub species, for example. Acacia aneura, Senna
arteniisioides, Dodonaea viscosa, Erenwphila mitchellii and £. sturtii (Harrington et al.
1984).

The presence of rabbits ( Oryctolagus cuniculus) and to a lesser extent goats ( Capra
hircus) was noted more often in the non-mallee communities than the mallee. Obvious
damage ranged from the ring-barking and severe pruning of some shrubs ( Eremophila
spp., Acacia spp.) by rabbits and goats, to browse lines on trees, especially Geijera

Cohn, Vegetation of Nombinnie and Round Hill

97

parvifiora by goats. The regeneration of a number of tree and shrub species in semi-
arid eastern Australia has been inhibited by the introduction of herbivores (Parsons
1989). Species known to have problems regenerating elsewhere and which occur in
Nombinnie and Round Hill NRs, include Alectryron oleifolius, Casuarim cristata,
Callitris preissii subsp. verrucosa, Myoporuni platycarpum, Acacia oswaldii, Hakea
tephrosperma and H. leucoptera (Parsons 1989).

Exotic plant taxa were uncommon in terms of both richness and cover in the study
area at the time of the survey (9 exotic taxa/227 total taxa; see back of map). These
exotics are ephemeral, so they may be more common at other times (e.g. after
rainfall and after fire). Fox (1989) found that both the number of species and the
particular combination represented in both mallee and non-mallee communities were
a function of seasonal rainfall. Bradstock (pers. comm) suggests that species richness of
ephemerals is greater sooner rather than later after fire, assuming there is adequate rain.

Conservation of communities

Nombinnie, Round Hill and Yathong NRs and Mallee Cliffs NP conserve large areas
of the Eucalyptus socialis/E. dumosafE. gracilis alliance (Benson 1988), and it is therefore
considered adequately conserved in NSW (Groves & Parsons 1989). On the other
hand. Eucalyptus morrisii (Rl) and E. viridis (D4) communities are considered
inadequately conserved in NSW (Groves & Parsons 1989) and it is unlikely that the
small areas in Nombinnie and Round Hill reserves will greatly change this status.
Little is known of the conservation status of Eucalyptus leptophylla, since its occurrence
is sporadic (Groves & Parsons 1989); they are scattered throughout Nombinnie and
Round Hill NRs on the sandier soils, and have been recorded in Mallee Cliffs NP
(Morcom & Westbrook 1989).

Benson (1988) considers communities dominated by Eucalyptus populnea (P7, Dl,
Dla) and E. inlerlcxta (P6) as poorly conserved in NSW. The relatively widespread
occurrence of these communities in Nombinnie, Round Hill and Yathong NRs (Parker
et al. undated), increases their conservation status.

Although Casuarim cristata communities occur throughout the Western Division
(Benson 1988), the associated subdominant species change. Casuarim cristata/Alcctryon
oleifolius communities occur further west (Fox 1991) and are reserved in Mallee Cliffs
NP (Morcom & Westbrook 1990), whilst Casuarim cristata occurs more commonly
with Geijera parvifiora (P5) further east in the Nombinnie/Round Hill area. This
latter community is also found in Yathong NR (Parker et al. undated).

Eucalyptus largiflorens communities (F2) are widespead on alluvial country in southern
Australia (Fox 1991). They are found in a number of reserves throughout their range
in NSW (Kinchega NP, a small area within Mallee Cliffs, Willandra NP, Macquarie
Marshes NR, Narran NR,Goonawarra NR, Kajuligah and Morrisons Lake NR;
Brickhill pers. comm.).

Conservation of rare plants

During this survey two rare and threatened plants Acacia curranii (3V) and Lomandra
patens (3RCa), (Briggs & Leigh 1988) were recorded within Nombinnie NR and on
adjacent leasehold land (Table 2).

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Cunninghamia Vol. 4(1): 1995

Table 2. Rare or restricted plants recorded in the study area

Family

Species

Ratings

A*

B**

Fabaceae

Acacia curranii

3V

3A

Acacia calamifolia

_

4B

Santalaceae

Choretrum glomeratum

_

3B

Xanthorrhoeaceae

Lomandra patens

3RCa

3A

A*= Ratings according to Briggs & Leigh 1988.

3. range over 100 km, but restricted to highly specific habitats; V: vulnerable species, at risk over a
20-30-year period, R. rare species, not currently considered endangered or vulnerable; Ca: species
known to be adequately reserved in a NP or other proclaimed reserve.

B**= Ratings according to Pressey et al. 1990,

3. restricted distribution in the western division (NSW) and also occurring interstate; A: small range
and/or few records interstate; B: wide range and/or many populations interstate.

4. disjunct occurrences in the western division; B: main population or a significant part of main
population in NSW.

Acacia curranii was found in three localities: two of these on leasehold land (c. 2500
plants over approximately 5 ha) and one within Nombinnie NR (with < 10 plants).
All other populations of A. curranii are outside the reserve system (Pickard 1993).
Acacia curranii is found on the northern sides of rocky hills in a low open woodland
with a scattered overstorey of Eucalyptus intertexta, E. populnea subsp. bimbil and
Callitris glaucophylla. At one site, Acacia curranii plants (4 m tall) appear to have been
killed by fire in 1985, since the resulting post-fire regeneration is approximately 1 m
tall (J. Brickhill, pers. comm.). At this site there was also evidence of goat damage to
the stems of Acacia curranii (J. Brickhill, pers. comm.).

Lomandra patens was found on rocky hills at two sites within Nombinnie NR. It
occurred in open woodland with an overstorey of Callitris glaucophylla or very open
shrub mallee dominated by Eucalyptus nwrrisii. Lomandra patens is reserved in
Mootwingee NP, Yathong NR, Cocoparra NP, and now Nombinnie NR, and is
considered well reserved by Benson (1988).

The occurrence of Acacia curranii and Lomandra patens in a small number of locations
in Nombinnie NR and adjacent leasehold land are unlikely to influence the current
distribution and conservation rating for each.

Brickhill et al. (undated) found Swainsona laxa during their survey of Nombinnie NR
in 1985, but it was not reported during the present survey. Swainsona laxa has a
rating of 3VCa (Briggs and Leigh 1988). It is well conserved in Victoria, but is
considered vulnerable in NSW due to current fire and grazing regimes (Benson
1988).

Pressey et al. (1990) consider Acacia calamifblia and Choretrum glomeratum to have
restricted distributions (Table 2). The occurrence of these species at one site each
within Nombinnie NR is unlikely to change this restricted status.

Cohn, Vegetation of Nombinnie and Round Hill

99

Acknowledgements

The Murray-Darling Basin Commission provided the funds for the project. Many
people, both within and outside NPWS, assisted with the fieldwork and without
them this project could not have been completed: P. Bowen, R. Bradstock, G. Brewer,
S. Cohn, G. Divine, A. Fiore, V. Logan, S. Hastings, M. Hood, R. McDonell, K.
Maling, S. Nash, P. Odins, J. Porter, M. Robinson, J. Smart, R. Thomas, M. Tozer, and
R. Wheeler. T. James and S. Jacobs of the National Herbarium of NSW, Sydney, were
of immense help in identifying specimens. Thanks to S. Hastings, who also spent
time identifying specimens and transferring data to the computer. M. Bedward spent
many painstaking sessions showing me the workings of PATN. My thanks to J.
Smith who digitised the information and provided a carefully thought-out map. M.
Bedward, J. Brickhill, D. Keith and D. Sivertsen read the draft manuscript and
provided many valuable comments.

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to soil erosion (NSW Govt Printer: Sydney).

Beadle, N.W.C. (1981) The vegetation if Australia (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge).

Bedward, M., Keith D.A. & Pressey R.L. (1992) Homogeneity analysis: assessing the utility of
classifications and maps of natural resources. Australian Journal of Ecology 17:133-139.

Belbin, L. (1990) PATN-pattern analysis package (CSIRO Division of Wildlife and Ecology:
Australia).

Benson, J. (1988) Conservation of flora in Western NSW. National Parks Journal 32(3): 16-22.

Bradstock, R.A. (1989) Dynamics of the perennial understorey. In Noble, J.C. & Bradstock, R.A.
(eds.) Mediterranean landscapes in Australia: malice ecosystems and their management (CSIRO
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Bray, J.R. & Curtis, J.T (1957) An ordination of the upland forest communities in southern
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Brickhill, J. (undated) NSW NJ’WSfire history map (1957-recent) (unpub.).

Brickhill, J., Benson, J. & King, S. (undated) Plant survey for Nombinnie proposal (unpub.).

Briggs, J.D. & Leigh, J.H. (1988) Rare or threatened Australian plants. Special Publication 14
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Cheal, D.C. & Parkcs, D.M. (1989) Mallee vegetation in Victoria. In Noble, J.C. & Bradstock,
R.A. (eds.) mediterranean landscapes in Australia: mallee ecosystems and their management (CSIRO
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Christian, C.S. & Stewart, G.A. (1953) General report on survey of Katherine-Darwin Region,
1946. Land research series no. 1 (CSIRO: Melbourne).

Cunningham, G.M., Mulham, W.E., Milthorpe, P.L. & Leigh, J.H. (1981). Plants if western New
South Wales (NSW Govt Printer: Sydney).

Fox, M.D. (1991) The natural vegetation of the Ana Branch-Mildura 1:250 000 map sheet (New
South Wales). Cunninghamia 2(3): 443-493.

Fox, M.D. (1989) Composition and richness of New South Wales mallee. In Noble, J.C., Joss, P.J.
& Jones, G.K. (eds.) The mallee lands: a conservation perspective (CSIRO: Melbourne).

Geological Survey of New South Wales (1967) 1:250 000 Geological Series Sheet SI 55-6:
Cargelligo 2nd ed. (Department of Mines: Sydney).

Geological Survey of New South Wales (1968) 1:250 000 Geological Series Sheet SI 55-2: Nymagee
1st ed. (Department of Mines: Sydney).

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Groves, R.H. & Parsons, R.F. (1989) Conservation of vegetation. In Noble, J.C. & Bradstock, R.A.
(eds.) Mediterranean landscapes in Australia: mallee ecosystems and their management (CSIRO
Australia: Melbourne).

Harden, G.J. (ed.) (1990-1991) Flora of New South Wales. Vols 1-2 (New South Wales University
Press: Kensington).

Harrington, G.N., Mills, D.M.D., Pressland, A.J. & Hodgkinson, K.C. (1984) Semi-arid woodlands.
In G.N. Harrington, A.D. Wilson & M.D. Young (eds.) Management of Australia's rangelands
(CSIRO: Australia).

Hodgkinson, K.C. & Griffin G.F. (1982) Adaptation of shrub species to fires. In W.R. Barker &
P.J.M Greenslade (eds.) Evolution of the flora and fauna of arid Australia (Peacock Publications:
Adelaide).

Jacobs S.W.L. & Pickard, J. (1981) Plants of New South Wales: a census of the cycads, conifers and
angiosperms (Royal Botanic Gardens: Sydney).

Lawrie, J.S. & Stanley, R.J. (1980) Representative land systems of mallee lands in the western
division of NSW. In Storrier, R.R. & Stannard, M.E. (eds.) Aeolian landscapes in semi-arid
zones of south-eastern Australia (CSIRO: Melbourne).

McDonald, R.C., Isbell, R.F., Speight, J.G., Walker, J. & Hopkins M.S. (1984) Australian soil and
land survey field handbook (Inkata Press: Melbourne).

Morcom, L. & Wcstbrooke, M. (1990) The vegetation of Mallee Cliffs National Park. Cunninghamia
2(2): 147-161.

Muir, B.G. (1977) Biological survey of the Western Australian wheatbelt. Pt 2: Vegetation and
habitat of Bendering Reserve. Records if the Western Australian Museum Supplement No. 3
(Western Australian Museum: Perth).

Noble, J.C. (1984) Mallee. In Harrington, G.N., Wilson, A.D. Young, M.D. (eds.) Management if
Australia's rangelands (CSIRO Division of Wildlife and Rangelands Research: Melbourne).

Noble, J.C. (1982) The significance of fire in the biology and evolutionary ecology of mallee
Eucalyptus populations. In W.R. Barker & P.J.M Greenslade (eds.) Evolution of the flora and
fauna of arid Australia (Peacock Publications: Adelaide).

Norris, E.H. & Thomas, J. (1991) Vegetation on rocky outcrops and ranges in central and south¬
western New South Wales. Cunninghamia 2(3): 411-443.

Parker, B.S., Thackway, R.M. & Menzies, W.J. (undated) An introduction to Yathong Nature
Reserve, New South Wales (unpub.).

Parsons, R.F. (1989) Plant conservation problems at species level in mallee lands. In Noble, J.C.,
Joss, P.J. & Jones, G.K. (eds.) The mallee lands, a conservation perspective (CSIRO Australia:
Adelaide).

Parsons, R.F. & Rowan, J.N. (1968) Edaphic range of some malice eucalypts on south-eastern
Australia. Australian journal if Botany 16: 109-116.

Pickard, J. (1993) Acacia curranii: conservation research statement & recovery plan (ANPWS:
Canberra).

Pressey, R.L., Cohn, J.S. & Porter, J.L. (1990) Vascular plants with restricted distribution in the
western division of New South Wales. Proceedings of the Linnean Society if New South Wales
112(4): 213-227.

Scott, J.A. (1992) The natural vegetation of the Balranald-Swan Hill area. Cunninghamia 2(4):
597-652.

Soil Conservation Service (1984) 1:250 000 Land Systems Series Sheet SI 55-2: Nymagee (Soil
Conservation Service of New South Wales).

Soil Conservation Service (1986) 1:250 000 Land Systems Series Sheet SI 55-6: Cargelligo (Soil
Conservation Service of New South Wales).

Sparrow, A. (1989a) Mallee vegetation in South Australia. In Noble, J.C. & Bradstock, R.A.
(eds.) Mediterranean landscapes in Australia: mallee ecosystems and their management (CSIRO
Australia: Melbourne).

Sparrow, A. (1989b) Floristic patterns in South Australian mallee vegetation and some
implications for conservation. In Noble, J.C., Joss, P.J. & Jones, G.K. (eds.) The mallee lands:
a conservation perspective (CSIRO Australia: Melbourne).

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Specht, R.L. (1970) Vegetation. In Leeper, G.W.(ed.) The Australian environment. Fourth ed.
(Melbourne University Press: Melbourne).

Specht R.L. (1981) Foliage projective cover and standing biomass. In Gillison, A.N. & Anderson,
D.J. (eds.) Vegetation classification in Australia (Australian National University Press: Canberra).
Walker, J. & Hopkins, M.S. (1984) Vegetation. In McDonald, R.C., Isbell, R.F., Speight, J.G.,
Walker, J. & Hopkins, M.S. (eds.) Australian soil ami land survey field handbook (Inkata Press:
Melbourne).

Wells, G. (1989) Nombinnie: home for rare plants and animals. National Parks Journal 33(3): 24-25.
Westhoff, V. & van dcr Maarel, E. (1978) The Braun-Blanquet approach. In Whittaker, R.H. (ed.)
Classification of plant communities (Dr W. Junk b.v.: The Hague).

Manuscript received 22 October 1993
Manuscript accepted 25 July 1995

Natural vegetation of the southern
wheat-belt (Forbes and Cargelligo
1:250 000 map sheets)

103

Dominic Sivertsen and Lisa Metcalfe

Sivertscn, Dominic and Metcalfe, Lisa (NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service, PO
Box 1967, Hurstville, NSW, Australia, 2220) 1995. Natural vegetation of the southern
wheat-belt (Forbes and Cargelligo 1:250 000 map sheets). Cunninghamia 4(1): 103-128.
Remnant, native, woody vegetation of the southern wheat-belt on the Forbes
and Cargelligo 1:250 000 map sheets is mapped and described. The study area is
defined by the Lachlan River and latitude 33°S in the north, longitude 145°30'E
in the west, latitude 34°S in the south and by a line which separates the western
slopes and the western plains in the cast; the study area thus excludes areas of
the western slopes and the Western Division of New South Wales. The study
area includes the towns of West Wyalong, Condobolin, Lake Cargelligo and
Hillston; it also includes all or part of the Bland, Carrathool, Forbes, Lachlan,
Parkes and Weddin Local Government Areas. Vegetation delineation, prelimi¬
nary classification and sampling stratification are based largely on stereoscopic
air photo interpretation. Pattern analysis, using data from 290 formal sites, is
used to test and refine the above classification and map unit definition is based
on the results. Twenty different remnant vegetation map units are described and
mapped. Native woody vegetation is dominated by various eucalypt wood¬
lands, the composition of which reflects position in the landscape and soils;
Eucalyptus camaldulensis and E. largiflorcns dominate on the floodplains, E. populnea
subsp. bimbil, E. microcarpa, E. conica and E. inlertexla dominate on heavier
peneplain soils; E. socialis, E. gracilis, E. dumosa and E. oleosa dominate on lighter
peneplain soils. Hill and footslopes remnants are dominated by E. dwyeri and E.
sidcroxylon. White Cypress Pine ( Callilris glaucophylla) occurs throughout the area.

Of the 582 vascular plant taxa recorded, a high proportion (117 taxa) are exotic
and only three are listed as nationally rare or threatened. The amount of native
woody vegetation remaining (16% of the area), together with remnant size,
threat of clearing, heavy grazing regimes, shape and condition demonstrate
serious implications for biodiversity conservation and land management in the
area.

Introduction

This is the first in a series of papers, with accompanying maps, delineating and
describing the remaining native vegetation in the New South Wales wheat-belt
study area (Figure 1). This paper deals specifically with the remnant vegetation of
those parts of the Forbes and Cargelligo 1:250 000 map sheets occurring in the study

area.

104

Cunninghamia Vol. 4(1): 1995

/

•' Sydney 34 “ s '

Fig. 1. The entire wheat-belt study area. The combined Forbes and Cargelligo 1: 250 000 map
sheet area is indicated by the darker stippling.

The Forbes and Cargelligo areas comprise the southern-most part of New South
Wales wheat-belt study area. This area has undergone far-reaching changes since
European settlement due mainly to its importance for agriculture (Goldney & Bowie
1990). These changes have included removal of up to 95% of the original native
vegetation for cropping and pasture improvement (Murray-Darling Basin Ministerial
Council 1987), and widespread removal of native shrub and grass species by domestic
and feral grazing animals (Adamson & Fox 1982; Benson 1991).

Land management agencies such as the NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service
(NPWS), and community-based land management groups such as Landcare and
Catchment Management Committees have a pressing need for information relating
to remnant native vegetation. This is particularly true for land-types which have
been favoured for agricultural and pastoral development such as the western plains.
Native vegetation in the southern wheat-belt has not been well documented and
mapped to date (Murray-Darling Basin Ministerial Council 1987). Mapping has
either been very broad scale (e.g. Beeston et al. 1980) or of limited extent (Norris &
Thomas 1991). Mapping exercises have been mostly based on qualitative assess¬
ments. Quantitative data is scarce.

The aims of this project are to map the remnant native vegetation of the study area
at a scale of 1:250 000 and to describe those remnants in terms of their floristic
assemblages and abiotic environments. Vegetation communities sens, strict, are
therefore not the mapping units, although the primary breakdown of remnant types

Sivertsen & Metcalfe, Forbes & Cargelligo maps

105

will be on floristics. This study is part of a longer-term project to map and describe,
quantitatively, the remnant native vegetation of the entire New South Wales wheat-
belt.

Limitations of scale

A mapping scale of 1:250 000 was chosen because it allows for a reasonable amount
of detail and a rapid coverage of the area. A 1:100 000 scale series of maps covering
the same area would take decades to complete, and a large percentage of the
vegetation may well have been cleared by that time. However, this scale does
present a number of limitations, which are detailed below.

It is important when reading any map to be aware of its scale and hence the level
of accuracy that can be expected from it. For example, if a feature on a 1:25 000
scale map is misplaced by one millimetre this will translate to a 25 m displacement
on the ground. The same displacement on a 1:100 000 map will be 100 m on the
ground. The current maps are published at a scale of 1:250 000. At this scale every
millimetre of displacement will translate into a 250 m displacement on the ground.
Errors of this magnitude can be expected from the mapping and publishing processes
alone. For example, some displacements of up to one millimetre may occur in
transferring boundaries from air photographs to maps; and paper stretch during
printing may create errors of this magnitude.

Another important aspect of scale which should be borne in mind is the limitation
on the effective size of remnants that can be displayed. As the map scale decreases
(as the area of land represented by each cm 2 of map increases) it becomes more
difficult to map fine detail or small-scale patchiness. For example, whilst it may be
quite feasible to map small patches, perhaps consisting of only a few trees of white
cypress pine in a mallee community at 1:25 000 scale, it is not practically possible to
do so at a scale of 1:250 000. Such patches would be too small to represent on the
finished map.

Finally it should be noted that all thematic mapping is somewhat subjective,
particularly with respect to placement of boundaries. Boundary lines of remnants
should be regarded as falling within interzones and not as depicting immutable
lines of change. The possible exception to this is the line between cleared and
uncleared land.

Users of these maps are therefore exhorted to bear these limitations in mind. Remnant
types are not homogeneous and often include small patches of other vegetation
types which are not included in the description and which may appear quite large
on the ground. Similarly, hoping to encounter a boundary on the ground exactly
where you calculated it to be from the map may be an unrealistic expectation.

106

Cunninghamia Vol. 4(1): 1995

Study area

The study is confined to the western plains and isolated ranges on the Forbes and
Cargelligo 1:250 000 scale map sheets. The area is bounded by the Lachlan River and
latitude 33° to the north, longitude 145°30'E to the west, latitude 34°S to the south
and by a line which separates the western slopes and the western plains in the east;
an area of 2,400,650 ha (Figure 1). The study area includes the towns of West Wyalong,
Condobolin, Lake Cargelligo and Hillston; it also includes all or part of the Bland,
Carrathool, Forbes, Lachlan, Parkes and Weddin Local Government Areas.

Whilst these boundaries intentionally exclude the western slopes of the Great
Divide and parts of the Western Division of New South Wales that occur on these
maps, this is no reflection on the relative importance of these areas, but a way of
confining the study to a manageable area with similar ecology and land-use
practices throughout. This study will concentrate on the plains, as opposed to the
hills, since it is the plains which have undergone the greatest change since European
settlement (Murray-Darling Basin Commission 1987) and are most likely to be the
subject of conflicting land-use proposals in the future.

Geology

Geologically the study area is complex. Most of the area is mapped as Unconsolidated
Cainozoic deposits (fluvial and/or aeolian sand, silt and clay), but many other
formations are scattered throughout (Pogson 1967; Bowman 1977). In the far west
Dune deposits (clayey sands) and Playa formations (silt and silty clay) appear
sporadically throughout the Quaternary deposits. Further east, from about Lake
Ballyrogan (Lake Brewster), the study area contains a number of prominent, generally
north-south aligned ranges of hills, the geologies of which are diverse. For example,
the Lachlan Range is mapped as comprising three different Devonian sedimentary
formations overlaying two Silurian sedimentary formations.

Other prominent ranges in the study area are;

• the Ural Range (Silurian volcanics & sediments and Tertiary basalt)

• the Tabbita, Melbergen, Naradhan and Cocoparra Ranges complex
(Devonian sediments with some Tertiary basalt)

• the Goobothery Range (Ordovician metamorphics & sediments)

• the Narriah Hills (Devonian sediments & volcanics and Ordovician
metamorphics & sediments)

• Mt Tilga and the surrounding hills (Ordovician and Devonian sediments)

• the Wyrra Hills (Silurian sediments)

• the Jemalong, Cordadgery and Gunning Ranges (Devonian sediments)

• the Currawong and Wheoga Hills (Devonian volcanics and sediments).

Sivertsen & Metcalfe, Forbes & Cargelligo maps

107

There are a number of other formations which do not form prominent ranges and
are commonly obscured by Cainozoic material. These are most commonly Silurian
and Ordovician sediments or Silurian granites.

Topography

Topographically, the study area is also complex. It is a peneplain which dips gently
from 250 m elevation in the east to 120 m in the west. This peneplain also changes
character from west to east. In the west it is flat to gently undulating and becomes
progressively more undulating to rolling in the east. This general trend is locally
disrupted by tire ranges of hills already discussed, which may exceed 550 m elevation.
Many of these ranges rise prominently and steeply from the surrounding plain. For
example, the Lachlan Range rises to 362 m from the plain over a distance of only one
kilometre.

There are also a number of floodplain zones, most of which are associated with the
Lachlan River, although narrow bands of floodplain are recognisable along most
tributary streams. The Lachlan floodplain varies in width from about 10 km to
about 2 km.

Climate

Average annual rainfall ranges from 526 mm at Forbes to 365 mm at Hillston; a fall
of 180 mm/year from east to west over a distance of 260 km (Table 1). Rainfall is
distributed more or less evenly throughout the year but is erratic (Bureau of
Meteorology 1992). Temperatures vary little across the study area; the hottest month
is January with average daily maxima between 33.4° C (Lake Cargelligo) and 32° C
(Forbes); the coldest month is July with average daily minima between 2.4° C (Forbes)
and 3.7° C (Hillston).

Table 1. Summary of meteorological data for selected weather stations in the study
area

Highest

Lowest

Highest

Lowest

Average

maximum

minimum

mean

mean

annual

mean daily

mean daily

monthly

monthly

rainfall

temperature

temperature

rainfall

rainfall

mm

°C

°C

mm

mm

Forbes

32.0 (Jan)

2.4 (July)

49 (Jan)

40 (Feb)

526

Condobolin

32.8 (Jan)

3.6 (July)

43(Jan&Oct)

30 (Sept)

443

Wyalong

32.2 (Jan)

2.6 (July)

46 (Oct)

35 (Nov)

485

Lake Cargelligo

33.4 (Jan)

2.8 (July)

40 (Oct)

31 (Sept)

427

Hillston

32.9 (Jan)

3.7 (July)

35 (Oct)

26 (Feb)

365

108

Cunninghamia Vol. 4(1): 1995

Methods

Definition of remnant vegetation

For this project remnant native vegetation was defined as comprising at least 5%
native tree or shrub crown cover; where crown cover was <5% the area in question
was visited in the field before it was mapped as native vegetation. Treeless remnants
were only mapped when observed in the field because native low shrub, herb and
grass communities are often difficult to distinguish from exotic pastures, weed
infestations and even cropped land on high level aerial photography and satellite
imagery.

Since the maps accompanying this report are 1:250 000 scale, it is important to note
that mapping of small scale patchiness and very small remnants is not practically
possible at this scale. Remnants of less than 10 ha are not mapped.

Sampling

Severed possible sampling methods were considered. These included site stratification
based on environmental gradients (Gillison 1984; Austin & Heyligers 1989), simple
grid survey and random sampling. However, because of the difficulty in applying
any of these methods due to the fragmented nature of the vegetation, limited access
(sample sites were restricted to public land) and the difficulty in applying a gradient
approach on the plains, interpreted high-level aerial photography was chosen.
Restriction on access to private land, a government policy of the day, makes
quantitative comparisons between remnants on public and private land impossible.
This may present a limitation for some users.

Stereoscopic examination of air photos (air photo interpretation or API) allows
recognition of vegetation/landform/soil patterns. Such patterns have been used to
stratify sampling in vegetation and land resource surveys in Australia as early as
1946 (Christian & Stewart 1953) and are still currently used (e.g. Benson 1992).
Using photopattem as a means of observing the effects of environmental gradients
is convenient, particularly in a case such as this, where those gradients are not
immediately apparent.

High level aerial photography, ca 1:85 000 scale (Commonwealth, 1980 for Cargelligo
and 1989 for Forbes), covering the whole of the study area, was examined
stereoscopically. Vegetation remnants were delineated and classified into
'phototypes' based on photopattem and position in the landscape. Upon completion
of the API the photos were re-examined and possible field site localities were
allocated so that all delineated phototypes were sampled, with replication, over the
whole of their geographical range where possible. Replication varied according to
the size and area of each phototype. For example, the strictly riparian remnant type
(Rl) was described at a total of 23 sites, whilst the less extensive 'floodplain mosaic
(R2) was sampled only seven times. This sampling of phototypes was applied to
both plains and hills, thus all possible combinations of aspect, altitude and geology
have not been investigated for the hills. In addition to stratification based on

Sivertsen & Metcalfe, Forbes & Cargelligo maps

109

photopattem, sites were located taking into account access and location on public
land, predominantly state forest, nature reserve, road reserve and travelling stock
reserve.

Each site consisted of a measured 20 x 20 m (400 square metre) quadrat except where
the nature of the remnant made this shape inappropriate, e.g. narrow riparian
communities. In such cases the length and breadth of the quadrat were altered so
that a constant area was sampled. Each site was described in terms of morphological
terrain type, landform pattern, soil surface texture and colour, site drainage (run¬
off), site disturbance (soil erosion and exotic grazers), vegetation structure, floristic
composition and species abundance. Vegetation structure was described in the
following terms: heights of till strata, crown cover of the upper strata (Walker &
Hopkins 1984), an estimate of total ground cover for the lowest stratum, and a cover
abundance rating for each species present (Braun-Blanquet 1932). Observations of
soil erosion and the effects of exotic grazers were non-quantitative, evidence of
sheet, rill and gully erosion was noted (McDonald et al. 1984); grazing by exotic
species was inferred from faecal remains, trampling and warrens.

Descriptions of geology, landform, soil and vegetation structure follow the terminology
of McDonald et al. (1984). Botanical classification and nomenclature generally follow
Jacobs and Pickard (1981) and Harden (1990, 1991-93); any exceptions to this are
noted. Primary data were collected in all cases except for cover/abundance ratings
of individual plant species which are pre-classified according to the Braun-Blanquet
(1932) 1-7 scale.

A total of 290 formal sites were described. These were supplemented by numerous
field notations made during the survey. Field work was carried out from October
1991 to February 1992. The study area had been subject to several years of drought
before the survey. During the survey, however, the drought was broken by local
heavy rains, notably in the east.

Data analysis

Recognition and description of vegetation patterns is integral to this project.
Vegetation patterns were first classified intuitively on the basis of API. They were
subsequently classified using multivariate analysis, using the PATN software
package (Belbin 1988, 1991).

Cluster analysis with a hierarchical classification was used since the main aim was
reduction of data to manageable groups and description of the data in terms of
those groups (Faith, 1991). The Kulczynski coefficient and flexible UPGMA were
used to calculate similarity and to generate the hierarchical classifications respectively
(Belbin 1988).

Ephemeral and annual species were eliminated from the analysis because of the
'noise' introduced by sites on the eastern side of the study area. Here, drought¬
breaking rains produced rapid germination and maturation amongst the ephemerals
and annuals. Exotic herbaceous species were also eliminated from the pattern

110

Cunninghamia Vol. 4(1): 1995

analysis. These species, by virtue of their tendency to grow in a wide range of
environments and native communities, also introduce considerable 'noise' into the
analysis. All woody species (trees and shrubs) and perennial herbaceous species
were included in the analysis. In all, approximately 290 taxa were eliminated from
the final analysis.

Groups were defined from the resulting PATN dendrogram by considering as well
as species composition, abiotic factors such as soil type, soil surface texture, landform,
run-off, slope, geology and altitude. The site groupings so developed were then
compared with the original API classification. A final classification was devised
which equated site groupings with the map units; API boundaries were then
amended as necessary.

Results

Some 84 families, 281 genera and 582 taxa (species and subspecies) of plants were
recorded from the 290 formal sites. Of these 465 taxa were native, 117 exotic and
three ( Lotmndra patens, Phebalium obcordalum and Stipa eremophila) are listed as
nationally rare or threatened Australian plants [ROTAP] (Briggs & Leigh 1988). The
families represented by most species were: Poaceae, 100 species; Asteraceae, 82
species; and Fabaceae and Chenopodaceae each with 32 species. The families
Myrtaceae and Mimosaceae, which contain most of the canopy and small tree taxa,
had 25 and 23 species respectively. The greatest species diversity is evident among
families and genera containing mainly herbaceous species. The importance of the
herbaceous components of the vegetation is seen in the full map unit descriptions
(Table 2). Genera comprising seven or more species records, and the characteristic
life forms of those genera, are shown in Table 3. A list of species recorded and their
occurrence by map unit appears on the back of the published maps.

The results of the pattern analysis are expressed as a dendrogram revealing 15 major
PATN groups (Figure 2). The initial API recognised 30 phototypes including seven
floodplain and wetlands phototypes, 14 hills and footslopes phototypes, and nine
plains phototypes. Whilst the disparity in the number of units in these two classifi¬
cations may appear great, there are in fact many close parallels.

Five Riparian/Floodplain and two Wetland API phototypes were initially recog¬
nised based on canopy type, crown separation, position in the landscape and land-
forms. Of the 59 sites in these phototypes, 26 or 44% belonged to one PATN group
(characterised by Eucalyptus camaldulensis ); 25 or 42% fell into a second distinct
PATN group (£. largiflorens); the remaining sites fell into other PATN groups be¬
cause of codominance of another species or because of infrequently occurring spe¬
cies achieving dominance. Based on the analysis, therefore, two riparian map units,
characterised by £. camaldulensis and £. largiflorens respectively, were recognised.
Based on the API a third map unit was recognised which contained elements of
these two, together with open grassy areas forming a mosaic, the elements of which
could not be mapped separately at a scale of 1:250 000. Three additional floodplain
units have been described based on photopattem and contain the sites which did

Sivertsen <S Metcalfe, Forbes & Cargelligo maps

111

not fit into the two main riparian groups. Therefore, the combination of pattern
analysis and API has allowed identification of six riparian/floodplain map units.

In the initial API, ten hills and four footslopes phototypes were recognised based
mainly on crown densities and mapped geologies. However, PATN analysis
revealed few real differences between most of these phototypes. Based on the analysis,
two main groups (mallee and non-mallee vegetation) could be recognised. Amongst
the non-mallee vegetation some differences were evident between sites occurring on
sedimentary or metamorphic geologies, and those occurring on volcanic geologies.
These two groups have therefore been differentiated in the mapping. Amongst the
volcanic geologies it was not possible to describe any sites on basalts. However, API
and informal observations revealed that areas of basalt tended to be substantially
cleared and that, where remnants of native vegetation occurred, they were similar to
those described on the sedimentary geologies. The final result is that four Hills map
units have been recognised. The four footslopes API types were later reduced to
three based on density of woody vegetation cover and floristic composition.

By a similar process of comparison and combination between API and PATN clas¬
sifications, the nine original phototypes occurring on the Peneplain were
reduced to seven map units.

Remnant types containing species with narrow geographical distributions, for
example riparian, wetland and hill species, fell into discrete PATN groups. On the
other hand, remnant types of the plains and footslopes containing species with
broader geographical distributions tended to have sites dispersed among numerous
PATN groups (Figure 2). On the peneplain, API allowed two distinct types of box
community to be distinguished; an Open Woodland (P3) that shows evidence of
having been partially cleared and heavily grazed, and a Woodland or Open Forest
(P4) displaying less evidence of clearing and grazing. The difference between these
two map units was not immediately apparent from the pattern analysis, although
close examination of the site data reveals substantial floristic differences. Conversely,
two Callitris glaucophylla dominated remnant types were recognised in the initial
API which showed no substantial difference either in the pattern analysis or in
terms of crown cover. In this instance, therefore, the two initial categories were
combined.

PATN analysis and API comparison has resulted in the formulation of 20 map units,
the full descriptions of which appear in Table 2.

The four broad geomorphic zones adopted as the primary breakdown for the map
units display distinct combinations of environmental factors which are reflected in
the floristic composition of the map units (Tables 4, 5, & 6). The Riparian and
Floodplain zone is characterised by channels, backplains and floodplains; grey cracking
clay soils; very low slopes; and very slow to nil run-off (Table 4).

The Peneplain units fall into three main categories (Table 5). PI, P2, and P5 (mallee
units) are characterised by sandy soils; low slopes; very slow to slow run-off; and
flat to gently undulating terrain. P3, P4 and P6 are characterised by loamy red earth
soils; low slopes; slow run-off; and generally flat terrain. P7 occupies an interzone

112

Cunninghamia Vol. 4(1): 1995

between the Floodplain and Peneplain units. Landforms tend to be flat, although
occupying a higher position in the landscape than surrounding 'R' units. Soils are
dark red-brown clayey earths.

The Footslopes zone is characterised by lower slopes and flats; loamy red and red-
brown earth soils; slopes of up to 3°; and slow to rapid run-off. The Hills zone
comprises upper slopes and crests; shallow (frequently skeletal) brown earth soils;
moderate to steep slopes; and rapid to very rapid run-off (Table 6).

Table 2. Map unit descriptions

The following map unit descriptions summarise the landforms, soils, vegetation structures and species
occurring in each unit. These remnants are not homogeneous with respect to all of these factors, hence,
the descriptions deal with the most common and characteristic features. Variations are discussed in the
'comments' section. Each map unit is described in the following terms:

Name: Map unit code (characteristic vegetation community).

Sites: The number of formal sites described in the mapping unit.

Landforms: Most frequently occurring morphological terrain types.

Solis: Main soil types encountered. This typing of soils is based on field observations (as previously
described) and, where available, mapped information; they should not be interpreted as resulting from
formal profile descriptions.

Structure: Main vegetation structural types, following Walker and Hopkins (1984).

Species: Dominant and most frequently occurring species in each stratum are listed. For convenience the
strata are labelled 'Trees’, 'Low Trees', 'Tall Shrubs', ’Shrubs’, 'Herbs' and 'Grasses'. Where one or more
of these strata do not commonly occur they are omitted.

Comments: This section is devoted to general descriptions of the unit and descriptions of the range of
variation expected.

Note: Exotic species are indicated in the species lists on the back of the maps.

RIPARIAN AND FLOODPLAIN REMNANTS

Name: R1. (River Red Gum Forests)

Sites: 23.

Landforms: Banks, channels and backplains.
Soils: Grey cracking clay and polygenetic alluvial
soils.

Structure: Tall Open Forest.

Species: Trees Eucalyptus camaldulensis; Low
Trees Acacia stenophylla, Acacia saligna\ Shrubs
Muehlenbeckia florulenta; Herbs Pratia concolor,
Rumex brownii, Echium plantagineum, Sonchus
oleraceus, Onopordum acanthium subsp. acantbium,
Oxalis comiculata, Centipeda cunninghamii; Grasses
Cynodon dactylon, Paspalidium jubiflorum, Lolium
rigidum.

Comments: This remnant type is characteristic of
streamline and river margins. The dominant
community most commonly comprises two strata;
the canopy and a herbaceous understorey, usually
dominated by exotics. The shrub stratum is patchy
in occurrence and is frequently absent.

Name: R2. (Floodplain Mosaic)

Sites: 7.

Landforms: Backplains, floodplains and banks.
Soils: Grey cracking soils.

Structure: Tall Open Forests and Closed
Grassland.

Species: Trees Eucalyptus largiflorens, Eucalyptus
camaldulensis; Low Trees Acacia salicina and

Sivertsen & Metcalfe, Forbes & Cargelligo maps

113

Acacia stenophylla; Shrubs Muehlenbeckia
florulenta; Herbs Carex inversa, Centipeda
cunninghamii, Marrubium vulgare, Echium
plantagineum; Grasses Lolium rigidum, Hordeum
leporinum, Pbalaris paradoxa, Agrostis avenacea.

Comments: This remnant type comprises a
mosaic of R1, R3 and Grasslands where the
individual elements are too small to map
separately. It is mainly associated with backplain
and floodplain areas of the Lachlan and other
major rivers and characteristically contains a
network of minor stream channels.

Name: R3. (Black Box Woodlands)

Sites: 23.

Landforms: Floodplains, closed depressions and
very gentle rises.

Soils: Mainly grey cracking clays with some red
earths and brown clays.

Structure: Mid-High Open Forests, Mid-High
Woodlands and Mid-High Open Woodlands.

Species: Trees Eucalyptus largiflorens, Eucalyptus
camaldulensis, Eucalyptus populnea subsp. bimbif,
Low Trees Acacia salicina, Acacia pendula; Shrubs
Muehlenbeckia florulenta', Herbs Einadia nutans,
Sclerolaena muricata, Rhodanthe corymbiflora,
Oxalis corniculata; Grasses Danthonia setacea,
Lolium rigidum, Hordeum leporinum, Phalaris
paradoxa.

Comments: Associated with broad floodplain
areas and isolated closed depressions which often
pond water for several days following rain.
Eucalyptus camaldulensis tends to replace E.
largiflorens in about the eastern third of the study
area. Minor areas of E. populnea subsp. bimbil
and Casuarina cristata, forming a mosaic pattern,
occur on higher ground within this unit in the
west. Typical Black Box ( Eucalyptus largiflorens)
communities in this area contain either a scattered
Lignum ( Muehlenbeckia florulenta) shrub layer or
the shrub layer is absent. The ground cover may
vary considerably from site to site and tends to
be less dominated by exotics than is the case
with river frontage remnants (R1 & R2).

Name: R4. (Lignum Shrublands)

Sites: 1.

Landforms: Flats and Closed Depressions.

Soils: Brown clay.

Structure: Tall Shrublands.

Species: Shrubs Muehlenbeckia florulenta;
Grasses Stipa aristiglumis, Enteropogon acicularis,
Phyla nodiflora, Lolium perenne.

Comments: Remnant type of limited extent;
associated with the Lachlan River and Lakes.

Name: R5. (Myall Woodlands)

Sites: 1.

Landforms: Gilgaied flats.

Soils: Grey clay.

Structure: Mid-High Woodland to Mid-High Open
Forest.

Species: Trees Acacia pendula; Shrubs Amyema
quandong, Einadia nutans; Herbs Ixiolaena
tomentosa, Marsilea hirsuta, Grasses Danthonia
setacea, Lolium rigidum.

Comments: This remnant type is difficult to
distinguish from grassed land on the 1: 85,000
aerial photography used in this project and hence,
may be more common than indicated on the map.
However, whilst it is possible to see scattered
Myall ( Acacia pendula) throughout the area, very
few sizeable remnants were observed. The
mistletoe Amyema quandong is a characteristic
stem parasite of Myall.

Name: R6. (Yellow Box/River Red Gum
Forests)

Sites: 4.

Landforms: Flats, floodplains.

Soils: Brown earthy soils and clays.

Structure: Tall Open Forest to Tall Woodland.

Species: Trees Eucalyptus melliodora. Eucalyptus
camaldulensis; Low Trees Acacia stenophylla;
Shrubs Muehlenbeckia florulenta; Herbs
Onopordium acanthium subsp. acanthium;
Grasses Lolium perenne, Lolium rigidum, Avena
ludoviciana.

Comments: This remnant is characterised by the
presence of Yellow Box (Eucalyptus melliodora),
usually in combination with River Red Gum

114

Cunninghamia Vol. 4(1): 1995

(.Eucalyptus camaldulensis), and has many features
in common with remnant type R1. However, it is
does not occur on banks and tends to be confined
to low-lying areas on the floodplains. The shrub
layer tends to be both patchy and sparse and the
ground cover is dominated by exotic species.

UNDULATING PENEPLAINS REMNANTS
Name: PI. (Mallee Woodlands)

Sites: 11.

Landforms: Flats and very gentle rises.

Soils: Sandy red earths.

Structure: Low to Mid-High Mallee Woodlands.
Species: Trees Eucalyptus socialis, Eucalyptus
gracilis, Eucalyptus dumosa, Callitris glaucophylla;
Shrubs Melaleuca uncinata, Olearia pimeleoides,
Eremophila glabra. Acacia spp„ Halgania cyanea;
Herbs Chrysocephalum apiculatum, Hyalospermum
semisterile, Stackhousia viminea, Lomandra effusa,
Dianella revoluta, Daucus glochidiatus ; Grasses
Triodia scariosa subsp. scariosa, Stipa
elegantissima.

Comments: This remnant type is characterised
by Mallee Woodlands on red sands. These
communities support diverse and variable shrub
and herbaceous understoreys. Small areas of
Callitris open woodlands occur on hard-setting
red earth soils within the mallee.

Name: P2. (Open Mallee Woodlands)
Sites: 8.

Landforms: Flats and gentle rises.

Soils: Sandy red earths.

Structure: Low Mallee Woodlands and Mid-High
Woodlands.

Species: Trees Callitris glaucophylla, Casuarina
cristata; Low Trees Eucalyptus socialis, Eucalyptus
dumosa, Eucalyptus oleosa, Eucalyptus leptophylla;
Shrubs Olearia pimeleoides, Geijera parviflora,
Acacia spp., Hakea tephrosperma, Pittosporum
phylliraeoides: Herbs Chrysocephalum apiculatum,
Dianella revoluta, Vittadinia pterochaeta, Daucus
glochidiatus, Echium plantagineum, Hyalosperma
semisterile, Hypochaeris radicata; Grasses Bromus
rubens, Stipa scabra var. scabra, Vulpia myuros,
Stipa elegantissima.

Comments: In this remnant type the vegetation
communities are structurally diverse. The Mallee

communities are frequently more open than in
PI as a result of past clearing and grazing, and
are interspersed patches of White Cypress Pine
(Callitris glaucophylla) and Belah ( Casuarina cristata)
dominated communities.

Where the shrub and grass layers have been
removed and disturbed by grazing, exotic species
dominate the understorey.

Name: P3. (Open Box Wood-lands)

Sites: 27.

Landforms: Flats and gentle slopes <2 degrees.
Soils: Loamy red earths, minor sandy red earths
and brown earths.

Structure: Mid-high Open Woodland, Tall Open
Woodlands, Tall Woodlands and Tall Grassland

Species: Trees Callitris glaucophylla, E. populnea
subsp. bimbil, Eucalyptus intertexta, Eucalyptus
microcarpa, AHocasuarina luehmannii ; Low Trees
Geijera parviflora, Acacia oswaldii; Tall Shrubs
Dodonaea viscosa, Eremophila mitchellii; Shrubs
Maireana enchylaenoides, Einadia nutans', Herbs
Sida corrugata, Echium plantagineum; Grasses
Danthonia setacea, Enteropogon acicularis, Stipa
scabra var. scabra, Vulpia myuros, Elymus scaber
var. scaber, Lolium rigidum.

Comments: A generally open pattern with
scattered denser areas on the aerial photographs.
Site descriptions suggest previous clearing and
moderate to heavy grazing patterns.

Name: P4. (Box Woodlands)

Sites: 52.

Landforms: Flats, very gentle slopes and minor
drainage lines.

Soils: Loamy red earth soils, minor occurrences
of sandy and clayey red and brown earths.
Structure: Tall Woodland to Tall Open Woodland
and Mid-High Woodland.

Species: Trees Eucalyptus populnea subsp. bimbil,
Callitris glaucophylla, Eucalyptus microcarpa,
Eucalyptus conica, Eucalyptus intertexta, and
AHocasuarina luehmannii', Tall Shrubs Dodonaea
viscosa, Pittosporum phylliraeoides, Acacia deanei,
Senna artemisioides and Santalum acuminatum'
Shrubs Einadia nutans, Maireana enchylaenoides;
Herbs Calotis cuneifolia, Dichondra repens, Sida
corrugata, Vittadinia dissecta, Oxalis chnoodes;

Sivertsen & Metcalfe, Forbes & Cargelligo maps

115

Grasses Danthonia setacea, Stipa scabra var.
scabra, Lolium rigidum, Enteropogon acicularis,
Vulpia myuros, Elymus scaber var. scaber.
Comments: Very similar to P3 in composition
but differing in having a consistently denser and
more even canopy. Possibly not thinned as P3
has been. Varying dominance of the main eucalypt
species; frequently with Callitris glaucophylla co¬
dominant.

Name: P5. (Mallee/White Cypress Pine
intergrade)

Sites: 5.

Landforms: Flats.

Soils: Sandy and loamy red earths.

Structure: Mid-FHigh Mallee Woodland or Tall
Woodland to Mid-High Woodland.

Species: Trees Callitris glaucophylla; Low Trees
Eucalyptus socialis, Eucalyptus dumosa; Tall Shrubs
Eremophila glabra, Pittosporum phylliraeoides,
Melaleuca uncinata; Shrubs Maireana
enchylaenoides; Herbs Dianella revoluta,
Hyalosperma semisterile, Hypochaeris radicata;
Grasses Danthonia setacea, Triodia scariosa subsp.
scariosa, Vulpia myuros.

Comments: Intergrade remnant between White
Cypress Pine and Mallee remnants with cypress
pine and mallee in discrete communities forming
a mosaic, the individual units of which are too
small to map separately.

Name: P6. (White Cypress Pine
Woodlands)

Sites: 48.

Landforms: Flats and gentle rises.

Soils: Loamy red earth soils.

Structure: Tall Open Woodland, minor Mid-High
Open Woodland and Tall Woodland.

Species: Trees Callitris glaucophylla, (minor
Eucalyptus populnea subsp. bimbil, Eucalyptus
microcarpa, Eucalyptus intertexta, Brachychiton
populneus and Allocasuarina luehmannii); Tall
Shrubs Acacia deanei, Dodonaea viscosa, Oeijera
pan/iflora, Senna artemisioides Shrubs Einadia
nutans, Maireana enchylaenoides; Herbs Cheilanthes
austrotenuifolia, Calotis cuneifolia, Oxalis
chnoodes, Sida corrugate, Hypochaeris radicata,
Stackhousia viminea, Bracteantha bracteata;

Grasses Stipa scabra var. scabra, Vulpia myuros,
Danthonia setacea, Elymus scaber var. scaber,
Pentaschistis airoides.

Comments: White Cypress Pine woodlands and
forests dominate but contain elements of other
plains communities. Eucalypts may be locally
dominant or co-dominant and thus this type
overlaps with P4. This remnant type often
comprises a dense stratum of regrowth pine with
Eucalypts as isolated emergents.

Name: P7. (Bull Oak/Belah Woodlands)

Sites: 10.

Landforms: Flats, shallow depressions and minor
drainage lines.

Soils: Gilgaied clays and red earths.

Structure: Tall Woodlands (minor Tall Open
Woodland and Mid-high Open Woodland).

Species: Trees Allocasuarina luehmannii, Callitris
glaucophylla, Casuarina cristata, Acacia
homalophylla; Low Trees Myoporum montanum.
Acacia deanei; Shrubs Einadia nutans, Enchylaena
tomentosa; Herbs Sida corrugata, Vittadinia
dissecta; Grasses Danthonia setacea, Lolium
rigidum, Vulpia myuros, Stipa wakoolica,
Enteropogon acicularis, Elymus scaber Mar. scaber.
Comments: Confined to the eastern third of the
study area, this remnant occupies a zone of
transition between the floodplain and peneplain
remnants.

FOOTSLOPE REMNANTS
Name: FI. (Grasslands)

Sites: Nil

Landforms: Slopes, low crests and flats.

Soils: Lithosols and colluvial soils.

Structure: Tall Grassland, (minor Mid-High Open
Woodland).

Species: Trees Callitris glaucophylla, E. populnea
subsp. bimbil; Grasses Stipa scabra var. scabra,
Danthonia setacea.

Comments: No access was available for formal
sites in this remnant type. However, it appears
from the API to be mainly cleared and consists of
grasslands with clumps of trees remaining; it is
otherwise similar to F2.

116

Cunninghamia Vol. 4(1): 1995

Name: F2. (Open Pine and Box Wood¬
lands)

Sites: 18.

Landforms: Footslopes and flats.

Soils: Colluvial red earths.

Structure: Tall Open Woodland, Tall Woodland
and Mid-High Open Woodland.

Species: Trees Callitris glaucophylla, Eucalyptus
populnea subsp. bimbil, Eucalyptus intertexta,
Eucalyptus dwyeri, Eucalyptus sideroxylon,
Brachychiton populneus; Low Trees Acacia
doratoxylon, Acacia deanei, Myoporum
montanum, Pittosporum phylliraeoides,
Leptospermum divaricatum; Shrubs Chenopodium
desertorum, Dodonaea viscosa, Cassinia laevis
Maireana enchylaenoides, Einadia nutans ; Herbs
Calotis cuneifolia, Hypochaeris radicata, Sida
corrugata, Cheilanthes austrotenuifolia; Grasses
Vulpia myuros, Danthonia setacea, Stipa scabra
var. scabra, Bromus rubens.

Comments: White Cypress Pine dominates over
most of this remnant type. It displays elements of
both hill and plains remnants as is to be expected
with an interzone.

Name: F3. (Pine and Box Wood-lands)
Sites: 8 .

Landforms: Footslopes and flats.

Soils: Red and brown earths.

Structure: Tall Woodland.

Species: Trees Callitris glaucophylla. Eucalyptus
microcarpa, Eucalyptus populnea subsp. bimbil;
Tall Shrubs Acacia deanei, Hakea tephrosperma,
Eremophila mitchellii; Shrubs Senna artemisioides,
Einadia nutans; Herbs Oxalis chnoodes, Cheilanthes
austrotenuifolia, Sida corrugata; Grasses Danthonia
setacea, Stipa scabra var. scabra, Vulpia myuros,
Pentaschistis airoides.

Comments: A denser version of F2 with White
Cypress Pine dominating overall, although any of
the main tree species may be locally dominant.

HILL AND RIDGE REMNANTS
Sedimentary and metamorphic geologies

Name: HI. (Dwyers Red Gum and Pine
Woodlands)

Landforms: Upper and mid slopes, crests and
ridges.

Soils: Lithosols and shallow brown earths.
Structure: Mid-High Woodland, Mid-high Open
Woodland, (minor Tall Open Woodland and Low
Open Woodland).

Species: Trees Callitris glaucophylla, Eucalyptus
dwyeri, Callitris endlicheri, Eucalyptus sideroxylon,
Brachychiton populneus, Acacia doratoxylon,
Allocasuarina verticillata; Tall Shrubs
Leptospermum divaricatum, Cassinia laevis,
Dodonaea viscosa, Calytrix tetragona; Shrubs
Grevillea floribunda, Hibbertia obtusifolia,
Melichrus urceolatus, Platysace lanceolata; Herbs
Gonocarpus elatus, Cheilanthes austrotenuifolia,
Wahlenbergia queenslandica; Grasses Vulpia
myuros, Danthonia setacea, Pentaschistis airoides,
Stipa scabra var. scabra.

Comments: Three main associations are
represented: E. dwyeri/Callitris glaucophylla, E.
dwyeri/Callitris endlicheri and Callitris glaucophylla/
E. sideroxylon.

In some areas Acacia doratoxylon or Allocasuarina
verticillata may form the canopy layer but usually
form a dense understorey where they occur.

Name: H2. (Green Mallee Woodlands)

Sites: 9.

Landforms: Low crests, gentle hillslopes and flats.
Soils: Lithosols and shallow brown earths.
Structure: Mid-High Mallee Woodland
(structurally diverse, varying from Low to Tall
formations).

Species: Trees Eucalyptus viridis. Eucalyptus
sideroxylon, Callitris endlicheri, Eucalyptus dumosa.
Eucalyptus gracilis, Eucalyptus polybractea.
Eucalyptus dwyeri; Low Trees Melaleuca uncinata.
Acacia doratoxylon, Acacia cultriformis, Santalum
acuminatum; Tall Shrubs Cassinia laevis, Olearia
floribunda, Pultenaea largiflorens, Cassinia uncata,
Dodonaea viscosa; Shrubs Melichrus urceolatus,
Platysace lanceolata; Herbs Dianella revoluta,
Cassytha melantha, Helichrysum viscosum,
Helichrysum obcordatum, Calotis cuneifolia;
Grasses Danthonia setacea, Vulpia myuros, Stipa
scabra var. scabra.

Comments: Mallee on hills, often associated with
E. dwyeri and Cypress Pine.

Sites: 30.

Sivertsen & Metcalfe, Forbes & Cargelligo maps

117

VOLCANIC GEOLOGIES

Name: H3 (Pine and Poplar Box Open

Woodlands)

Sites: 6.

Landforms: Hillslopes, ridges and crests on
granites and volcanics.

Soils: Lithosols and shallow brown earths.
Structure: Mid-High Open Woodland.

Species: Trees Callitris glaucophylla, Eucalyptus
populnea subsp. bimbil, Eucalyptus dwyeri,
Brachychiton populneus', Low Trees Acacia
doratoxylon, Allocasuarina verticlilata; Shrubs
Prostanthera nivea, Greviilea floribunda, Hibbertia
riparia] Herbs Cheilanthes austrotenuifolia,
Hypochaeris radicata, Oxalis chnoodes; Grasses
Stipa scabra var. scabra, Pentaschistis airoides,
Danthonia setacea, Vulpia myuros.

Comments: Similar in many instances to HI but
differing in that E. populnea subsp. bimbil or E.
intertexta may dominate or be co-dominant with

White Cypress Pine in the canopy. This may reflect
the fact that these geologies often display gentler
slopes and lower hills than the steeply dipping
sedimentaries.

Name: H4 (Cypress Pine Woodlands)
Sites: Nil.

Landforms: Low crests and hillslopes on basalts.
Soils: Basalt-derived clays.

Structure: Mid-High Open Woodland and
Grasslands.

Species: Trees Callitris glaucophylla. Eucalyptus
dwyeri ; Grasses Stipa scabra var. scabra,
Danthonia setacea.

Comments: There are very few basalt hills in the
study area and most of these have been cleared.
What vegetation remains appears similar to that
of HI on the aerial photographs. There was no
access to this remnant for formal sites.

Table 3. Genera with the highest species diversity in the study area

T=tree, S=shrub, G=grass, H=herb, P=stem parasite.

enus Name

No. of species

Growth form/s

Acacia

23

S,T

Eucalyptus

18

T

Stipa

17

G

Danthonia

10

G

Goodenia

10

H

Dodonaea

10

S

Lomandra

9

H

Juncus

9

H

Wahlenbergia

8

H

Chenopodium

8

H.S

Sida

8

H,S

Paspalidium

7

G

Rumex

7

H

Amyema

7

P

118

Cunninghamia Vol. 4(1): 1995

Discussion

Native vegetation in the study area has undergone many changes since European
settlement in the mid-1800s. The most obvious change has been clearing, although
grazing by domestic stock and feral grazers has also had profound effects on the
vegetation (Adamson & Fox 1982). Other processes of change include the introduction
of exotic species (see Tables 4, 5 & 6); active management of state forests and private
woodlots to encourage the growth of some species (e.g. Callitris glaucophylla) at the
expense of others (for example, eucalypt box species, see remnant type P6); alterations
to pre-settlement fire regimes; pollution and damming of waterways; aerial application
of pesticides and fertilisers; and isolation of remnant vegetation in time and space;
these are the main 'threatening processes' operating in the wheat-belt. Discussion of
the full effects of these threatening processes are not within the scope of this paper
and are not well understood in all cases (see Saunders et al. 1991 and Bradstock et
al. (in prep.) for an introduction to the subject). There seems little doubt that these
processes have led to declines in native species diversity and an increase in the
likelihood of extinctions in the medium and long term (Adamson & Fox 1982; Ben¬
son 1991; Hobbs 1987; Saunders et al. 1991). None of the sites visited during this
survey could be described as completely undisturbed. The results clearly demonstrate
high levels of grazing (by domestic and feral grazers), widespread soil erosion and
partial clearing within the remnant native vegetation.

Clearing is the most readily observable threatening process in the study area. It is
not an historical practice that has now ceased, but is continuing in much of the
agricultural lands of New South Wales. Between 1974 and 1989, in the area covered
by the Condobolin 1:100 000 map sheet (Figure 3), 57 400 ha of the native vegetation
were cleared; an average of 3 800 ha per year and a reduction of 61% of the remaining
native vegetation over 15 years (Sivertsen 1993). Virtually all this clearing was con¬
fined to the plains and the lower footslopes.

Clearing affects all communities described in this paper, with the possible exception
of those occurring on steep hillslopes. Most affected are the Riparian communities
and Box woodlands which occupy the prime agricultural lands. Box species have
also been selectively logged from state forests to encourage White Cypress Pine
regrowth.

An important aspect of remnant vegetation management must be an understanding
of extent and condition of those remnants. For example, 34 400 ha of River Red Gum
(Rl) are mapped (Table 7), making it the third most extensive remnant type but, as
the map indicates, most of the River Red Gum occurs as narrow bands along the
major river corridors and often only as a single line of trees on either side of the
channel. This is not the potential extent of the River Red Gum community. In many
instances this species will occur as a narrow band adjacent to the channel, but not as
a single row of trees with well spaced crowns as is the case currently. Towyal and
Cadow State Forests (Lachlan River) and Gunning Gap State Forest on Goobang
Creek demonstrate River Red Gum's potential to spread at least a kilometre from
the channel under favourable conditions. The narrow corridors which remain are

Sivertsen & Metcalfe, Forbes & Cargelligo maps 119

0.89 1.32 1.74 2.17

I I I I

Eucalyptus socialis, E. dumosa; -

PI P2; 16 sites

E. intertexta, E. sideroxylon; P4 H4; —-

6 sites

E. viridis; H4; 7 sites-

E. melliodora, E. conica; R6 P3 P4 (P7 R3); 25 sites -

Casuarina cristata; P2 P7; 7 sites -
£ dwyeri, Callitris glaucophylla; H1H2; 20 sites

Callitris endlicheri, E. sideroxylon; HI F2; -

14 sites

Callitris glaucophylla; P6 (P3 P4 P5
F2 F3 HI); 48 sites

Allocasuarina luehmannii; P7 (P3
P6 FI F3 HI); 9 sites

E. intertexta; P4 P6 (P3); 17 sites

£ microcarpa; P4 P6 (P3); 32 sites

£ populnea; P3 P4; 23 sites

£ populnea, Callitris glaucophylla;

P6 P4 (P3 F2); 21 sites

£ largiflorens ; R3 (R2); 14 sites --— J

£ camaldulensis; R1 (R2 R3); 31 sites-

_ _i_i-1—L-L

0.89 1.32 1.74 2.17

Fig. 2. Dendrogram showing the major group boundaries from the southern wheat-belt survey.
The species shown are the major tree species only. Alphanumeric codes show the remnant
types associated with each group. Brackets indicate minor occurrences in groups. The vertical
scale of the dendrogram is proportional to the number of sites in each group.

120

Cunninghamia Vol. 4(1): 1995

also frequently isolated from other remnant vegetation (again as indicated by the
maps) and, therefore, present many management difficulties. They have very high
boundary length to area ratios and are therefore more prone to weed infestations
and the adverse effects of altered light, water and wind regimes. Loss of this vege¬
tation type comprises a substantial loss of habitat for native plants and for both
vertebrate and invertebrate native fauna and indicates the possibility of increased
soil erosion, degraded water quality and loss of natural flood mitigation. The ripar¬
ian community is no longer there to filter pollutants and suspended solids from
local runoff and to reduce and baffle over-bank flow rates. Mallee (PI & P2), Box
Woodland (P3 & P4) and Dwyers Red Gum/Pine Woodlands (HI) remnants are
also frequently long and narrow, thus presenting similar management problems.

Tables 4, 5, 6 and 8 give some indication of remnant condition. High proportions of
sites display evidence of grazing (83%), feral animal damage (60%) and partial clear¬
ing (70%) (Table 8). The Riparian/Floodplain remnants have characteristically high
levels of site disturbance and exotic species and tend to be dominated by exotics in
the herb layer. About 40% of plant species recorded for the Riparian/Floodplain
remnants are exotics (Table 4), among the Box and Cypress Pine remnants of the
Peneplain and Footslopes this figure falls to an average of 22% (Table 5). The Mallee
and Hills remnants have the lowest exotic components, an average of 13% and 14%
respectively. Thinned and unthinned remnants were recognised during API. P2 is a
more open form of mallee than PI; and P3 is a generally more open Box Woodland
than P4. In both cases the more open remnant type shows evidence of higher levels
of grazing and feral animal damage and support a higher proportion of exotic plant
species.

Very little native vegetation remains in the Forbes and Cargelligo study area. A total
of 16% (376 800 ha) of the area remained under native vegetation at the time of
survey. Of the total study area less than 10%, 230 800 ha, remained on the plains, a
figure in close agreement with the Murray-Darling Basin Ministerial Council (1987); a
further 145 700 ha supports native vegetation on the steep and rocky hills, which are
unlikely to be subjected to further major habit disruption in the foreseeable future.

The results of this study demonstrate that there is a very small, dwindling and
degraded native vegetation resource to be conserved in the Forbes and Cargelligo
area, particularly on the plains. However, the results also show how important these
remnants are in the conservation of native biodiversity remaining in the agricultural
lands of New South Wales.

This study recorded 465 taxa of native plants, including three which are classified as
rare or threatened nationally (Briggs & Leigh 1988). Sampling was limited to public
lands and by drought conditions. Many other species, particularly ephemerals and
those with restricted distributions, can be expected to occur in the area as indicated
by the work of Fox (1990). A total of 12 ROTAP species are known from the study
area (Briggs & Leigh 1988). Many other species are likely to be rare or threatened, at
least in the regional context; 41% of the plant species recorded during this study
occurred only once or twice (Sivertsen 1993). Whilst this alone cannot confer rare or
threatened status, it does indicate that more detailed investigations of the status of

Sivertsen & Metcalfe, Forbes & Cargelligo maps

121

Table 4. Summary of physical and species count data for riparian and floodplain
remnants

Landforms: B=

:Bank, Ch=Channel,

BP=Backplain,

CD=Closed Depression,

F=Flat;

Soils:

AS=Alluvial Soil, GCC=Grey Cracking Clay, BC=Brown Clay, BE

=Brown Earths; Runoff:

0=Nil, VS=Very Slow, S=Slow.

R1

R2

R3

R4

R5

R6

Main landforms

B, Ch, BP

B, F

F, BP

F, CD

F

F

Main soil types

AS, GCC

GCC

GCC

BC

GCC

BE

Slopes (degrees)

0

0

0

0

0

0

Altitude range (m.a.s.)

130-250

120-185

100-230

207

190

200-240

Site runoff

0-S

VS

0-S

VS

VS

VS-S

Total species

183

91

185

20

28

65

Exotic species

67

38

59

11

7

28

% exotic species

37

42

32

55

25

43

Table 5. Summary of physical and species count data for Peneplain remnants

Landforms: S=

slope, F=

=Flat; Soils: sRE=sandy Red Earth, IRE=

loamy Red Earth, IRBE=loamy

Red-Brown Earth; Runoff: 0=Nil, VS=Very Slow,

S=Slow.

PI

P2 P3

P4

P5

P6

P7

Main landforms

F

F F

F

F

F, S

F

Main soil types

sRE

sRE IRE

IRE

sRE

IRE

IRBE

Slopes (degrees)

0-2

0-1 0-1

0-1

0

0-2

0

Altitude range (m)

120-200 100-155 110-270

170-185

140-260

190-325

215-235

Site runoff

S

S VS-S

S

S

S

S

Total species

93

70 173

249

64

218

105

Exotic species

8

12 39

53

16

40

20

% exotic species

9

17 22

21

25

18

19

Table 6. Summary of physical and species count data for footslope and hills remnants

Landforms: LS=

=Lower Slope, MS=Mid-Slope,

UP=Upper Slope, C=Crest,

S=Slope

(unspecified), F=

=Flat; Soils: RE=Red Earth, RBE=Red-Brown Earth,

BE=Brown Earth; sBE=

Sandy Brown Earth; Runoff: S=Slow, R=Rapid, VR-Very Rapid.

F2 F3

HI

H2

H4

Main landforms

LS LS, F

MS-C

US, c

F, S, C

Main soil types

RBE RE, BE

BE

BE

sBE

Slopes (degrees)

0-3 0-3

2-6

2-19

1-4

Altitude range (m)

180-330 180-335

210-380

280-320

275-310

Site runoff

S-R S-R

R-VR

R-VR

S-R

Total species

130 87

164

79

81

Exotic species

23 24

23

13

9

% exotic species

18 28

14

16

11

122

Cunninghamia Vol. 4(1): 1995

those populations is warranted. The conservation of all native plant and animal species
in the region hinges on the management and protection of vegetation remnants.

The current criteria which define rare or threatened plant species are now well
established (Briggs & Leigh, 1988) although refinement of techniques for classification
continues (Chalson & Keith, 1995). There is a well recognised procedure for
classification and listing of rare or threatened plant species. However, the same
cannot be said for plant communities. There is difficulty in achieving an accepted
definition of 'community' amongst ecologists; the debate over what constitutes a
plant community and even whether or not such concepts have any ecological meaning
has spanned many years (e.g. Beadle, 1948 to Austin, 1991). If, however, we can
agree that there exist assemblages of species which form recognisable entities, called
communities in the absence of a better term (e.g. Poplar Box woodlands, Brigalow,
Belah, River Red Gum forests), we can then recognise and define levels of threat
facing these communities.

The dominant species in many communities are trees or shrubs which tend to be
long-lived by human standards. Hence, changes may occur over a long period of
time and so go relatively unnoticed or be accepted as natural. The historical record
is very poor in providing information on past crown and stem densities, recruitment
rates, tree age and tree size. As a result there is no adequate standard against which
to judge modem conditions (Walker et al. 1993). However, introduced grazers,
notably sheep, rabbits and goats are capable of preventing effective recruitment
amongst long-lived species by grazing seedlings very efficiently (Robertson et al.
1987). Considering the long-term effects of clearing, reduced or zero recruitment
amongst canopy species and the already well established changes in the shrub and
herb layers (sensu Adamson & Fox 1982, Hobbs 1987, and Saunders et al. 1991) it
seems likely that most of the communities in the study area face a very uncertain
long-term future and could be legitimately regarded as 'threatened'. Grazing affects
all communities. Little recruitment was observed in the riparian (Eucalyptus
camaldulensis, E. largiflorens, Acacia pendula), and Box communities. However, there
is an urgent need for more flora and fauna population and community based
research and for development of appropriate landscape management procedures.

Conservation

Acknowledging the need for more research should not be a recipe for inaction.
Conservation planning is imperative if we, as a society, hope to maintain the
systems and processes which support our native plants and animals, and which
allow the continued functioning of our agricultural and pastoral industries.

The degree of reliance of agricultural and pastoral systems on fully functional
natural ecosystems is clearly demonstrated by Davidson and Davidson (1992). The
role of native predators, parasites and diseases in routinely controlling populations
of agricultural pests is clearly established in this work, as is the role of native fauna,
particularly invertebrate fauna, in nutrient cycling and in maintaining healthy soil
environments. Davidson and Davidson argue that the continued functioning of

Sivertsen & Metcalfe, Forbes & Cargelligo maps

123

rural systems relies ultimately on the maintenance and conservation of remnant
native vegetation in the rural landscape. It is not only species and communities
which are in need of conservation. It is the natural processes that sustain them.

The largest remnants are in state forests (Crown land) and the steep ranges of hills
(Crown and private land) whilst smaller remnants occur on various Crown tenures

Fig. 3. The Condobolin 1:100 000 map sheet area. The native woody vegetation present in 1974
is represented by Cl H- In 1989 only the H area remained.

124

Cunninghamia Vol. 4(1): 1995

Area of each map unit shown on Forbes/Cargelligo map :

Map unit code

Remnant area (ha)

%of study area

R1

34 400

1.4

R2

16 400

0.7

R3

24 200

1.0

R4

1 400

0.1

R5

200

<0.1

R6

2,100

0.1

PI

15 300

0.6

P2

24 700

1.0

P3

39 200

1.7

P4

24 800

1.0

P5

4 400

0.2

P6

33 000

1.4

P7

14 800

0.6

FI

3 600

0.2

F2

21 100

0.9

F3

9 700

0.4

HI

79 400

3.3

H2

20 600

0.9

H3

600

<0.1

H4

10 700

0.5

Total

380 600

16.0

Summary of site disturbance data

ype of disturbance

No. of sites affected

Percentage o

Soil erosion

151

52

Logging/clearing

203

70

Feral animal damage

175

60

Grazing (exotics)

241

83

such as road reserves and travelling stock reserves. (State forests are marked on the
maps and road reserve remnants can be inferred from road positions). Most land in
the study area is held in freehold title and many individual remnants are on private
land. The inference to be drawn from this is that private land-holders, the local
community and the government all share responsibility for the future of remnant
native vegetation and associated fauna in the Forbes and Cargelligo study area.

Existing State legislation provides the legal framework for biodiversity conservation
either by addressing the issue directly (National Parks and Wildlife Act, 1974;
Endangered Fauna [Interim Protection] Act, 1989; Environmental Planning and
Assessment Act, 1979; Forestry Act, 1916), or by containing mechanisms whereby
biodiversity conservation can be approached indirectly (Soil Conservation Act, 1938;
Crown Lands Act, 1989; Pastures Protection Act, 1934). This subject is dealt with
more fully by Farrier (1989), who discusses the scope and applications of each

Sivertsen & Metcalfe, Forbes & Cargelligo maps

125

relevant piece of legislation. However, effective biodiverstiy conservation need not
be constrained by a legislative framework.

Two complementary strands of conservation effort are applicable in this area:
reservation, and off-park conservation. These are discussed separately so that the issues
involved in each remain clear, but remain two aspects of a single conservation effort.

Reservation

Most remnants in the study area are small and often made up of narrow corridors.
The majority of remnants are not suited to reservation although a number of the
larger ones may be. The largest remnants on the plains are state forests, some of
which are undergoing assessment for their economic viability. Should any state
forest be identified for disposal, there would be a strong case for it to be considered
for inclusion in the National Parks and Wildlife Service reserve system. These areas
already form important core areas for broader, human community-based conservation
initiatives. They are important refugia in their own right. They can provide seed for
local tree plantings. They are important sources for recolonisation by beneficial
native fauna and are repositories of genetic diversity. The long-term survival of
these areas, and their regeneration to something approaching their original and
more biological diverse state, is most assured under the statutory protection such as
that offered by the National Parks and Wildlife Act, 1979.

Some existing nature reserves in the study area, for example, Gubatta (162 ha),
Loughlan (385 ha); and Pulletop (145 ha), may be too small for the long-term survival
of many of the species they contain. Any opportunity to expand these reserves
would be of considerable long-term ecological advantage.

Given the cost of land acquisition and management, decisions relating to the choice
of areas for expansion of the reserve network must be taken carefully. The map and
information bases produced by this study will make it possible to apply systematic
reserve selection techniques ( sensu Pressey & Nicholls 1989; Bedward et al. 1992) to
aid in the decision-making process. These techniques are equally applicable to off-
park biodiversity conservation planning. Analysis of this type is yet to be undertaken
for the study area and will be the subject of future papers.

Off-park conservation

Most additional conservation efforts in the New South Wales wheat-belt are likely
to be undertaken outside the formal reserve network primarily due to the cost and
lack of suitable land for reservation. Local resistance to formal reserves is often
very strong and is also a reason for trying a less formal approach. Off-park
conservation can be of two main types:

• that initiated by Local or State government authorities (Protected Lands Mapping
under the Soil Conservation Act; State Environmental Planning Policies under
the Environmental Planning and Assessment Act; and Local Environmental Plans)

• community-based consultation (Landcare, Greening Australia, Australian
Association of Bush Regenerators and Trees on Farms) through mechanisms such

126

Cunninghamia Vol. 4(1): 1995

as Conservation Agreements (National Parks and Wildlife Act), covenants on
title (Conveyancing Act, 1919) and Farm Plans. These are important aspects of
off-park conservation which can be explored on a case-by-case basis.

In off-park conservation, the unit of action is likely to be an individual paddock or
farm, the scale at which most people operate. However, it is increasingly evident
that the processes which determine the long-term viability of our conservation ef¬
forts operate at landscape or regional levels (Friedel & James in prep.; Noss 1990).
These processes, such as movement of nutrients and pollutants, runoff, ground-
water movement and nutrient cycling are usually only partly within a single land¬
holder's sphere of influence. In order to be successful in the long term it is essential
for off-park conservation to be planned at the regional level and implemented locally.
For example, no amount of farm planning wall solve a salinity problem if the source of
that salinity is not addressed. Similarly, on-farm conservation may not save individual
species if primary habitat sources are destroyed elsewhere in the landscape.

Effective Landcare and Total Catchment Management groups are already functioning
in the area and issues such as water quality, soil conservation, private forestry and
drought relief lands are already on their agendas. These very important agenda
items dovetail neatly with nature conservation and can complement more formal
conservation practices.

Although degraded, the ecological infrastructure exists for effective bush regeneration.
This affords the opportunity to re-establish riparian and dryland corridors and other
important repositories of native biodiversity using material of local provenance.

A large number of animal species are already extinct in this part of New South
Wales and there is a trend towards substantial additional extinctions in the near
future (Goldney & Bowie 1986; Dickman 1994). This trend, observable in the New
South Wales wheat-belt, is a common trend throughout the world. As early as 1948
Fairfield Osborn maintained that: 'The tide of Earth's population is rising, the reser¬
voir of Earth's living resources is falling...' (Osbom 1948). Expansion of the human
population and sphere of influence and the attendant loss of habitat has grave
implications for species extinctions. Modem extinction rates, calculated on a per
species basis, may be as high as those which existed in the 'great extinction events'
of the Paleozoic and Mesozoic (Wilson 1989). This means a rate of extinction not
seen on Earth for 65 million years, and all due to the activities of one species —
Homo sapiens. Wilson (1989) also points out one very important difference between
the ancient and modern extinction events. In the past these events have tended to
affect mainly faunal species, and usually particular taxonomic groups (echinoderms,
cephalopods and reptiles), whilst the modem event is universal in its application.
Plants, invertebrates and vertebrates are all affected. 'The ultimate result of this is
impossible to predict, but it is not something, I think, with which humanity will
want to gamble' (Wilson 1989). If May (in press) is correct and 'something like half
of all terrestrial species are likely to become extinct over the next 50 years' then we have
precious little time to reverse some frightening trends in our agricultural heartlands.

Sivertsen & Metcalfe, Forbes & Cargelligo maps

127

Acknowledgements

We are indebted to a great many people for helping to bring this project to comple¬
tion. We wish to thank the Australian Nature Conservation Agency for funding the
project under Save The Bush. Elizabeth Ashby ably assisted in all aspects of planning,
field work and mapping; counter identification staff and various specialist botanists
from the Royal Botanic Gardens have, as usual, provided unstinting and valuable
expert taxonomic opinion; and numerous, enthusiastic volunteers made the field
work easier and more entertaining. We also wish to thank David Keith, Elizabeth
Ashby, Janet Cohn and Andrew Denham for providing valuable comments on earlier
drafts of this paper.

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Bryophytes in the vicinity of Wombeyan Caves,

New South Wales

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marble and associated calcareous soils are similar to those which occur on
limestone and associated soils at sites previously investigated in south-eastern
Australia. Species that grow in abundance on calcareous substrates at Wombeyan
are either not common or not present on the granites and sandstones in the
vicinity of Wombeyan Caves. Tire bryoflora is dominated by acrocarpous mosses
and thallose liverworts. Many of the species glowing on calcareous substrates at
Wombeyan are more usually associated with calcareous soils of arid and semi-
arid areas of Australia. Consistent with findings at other calcareous sites, a
number of introduced and cosmopolitan species occur on marble-derived soils
in heavily grazed, open grassy areas.

Introduction

Although the distribution of bryophytes on limestones in south-eastern Australia
has been well documented (Brotherus & Watts 1912, Downing 1992, Downing et al.
1991, Downing & Selkirk 1993), there are no published records of bryophyte
distribution on marble or soils derived from marble.

The Wombeyan Caves (34°19'S, 149°58'E, 600-650 metres above sea level) are located
125 km south-west of Sydney at the boundary between the Central Tablelands and
the Central Coast botanical divisions of New South Wales on the eastern side of the
Great Dividing Range. The caves occur in rounded hills in the valleys of Wombeyan
and Mares Forest Creeks, tributaries of the Wollondilly River. The karst landscape at
Wombeyan forms low hills and knolls in places incised by steeply-sided gorges.
Unlike most of the popular tourist cave systems in south-eastern Australia, which
are formed from limestone, the caves at Wombeyan are formed from marble.
Wombeyan also differs from other eastern Australian limestone cave systems in
having an underlying basement of impervious rock (Jennings et al. 1982).

The grey/white marble at Wombeyan is considered to be Late Silurian limestone
that has been almost completely marmorised by surrounding Middle Devonian
intrusive rocks such as granite, quartz porphyry, dacite tuff, hypersthene porphyry
and a small outcrop of gabbro, which form the adjoining higher and steeper ridges
and V-shaped valleys (Lishmund et al. 1986). With the exception of gabbro, all are
igneous rocks that contain much quartz (Jennings et al. 1982). Came & Jones (1919)
analysed samples of marble from Wombeyan as being between 91.82% and 98.62%
calcium carbonate.

130

Cunninghamia Vol. 4(1): 1995

At Wombeyan, the soil that occurs in the marble outcrops is unusual, consisting of
grains of very coarse calcite sand and fine calcite gravel, together with dark-brown
humus. In other, less rocky areas, marble weathers to produce red, calcareous, silty
clay soils (Jennings et al. 1982). In contrast, igneous rocks in the vicinity of the caves
weather to produce acidic, nutrient-deficient sandy soils (Clements 1982).

An early visitor to Wombeyan, Dr James Cox (1862) observed a sharp line of
demarcation between the granite and marble country and the sudden change
occurring in both vegetation and topography. From the top of the marble cliffs he
considered it easy to map with accuracy the extent of the 'limestone' by the differing
forms of vegetation. Cambage (1906) noted the sparse flora on the 'limestone' in the
vicinity of the Caves compared with that on the granite and quartz porphyry nearby
and commented on the similarity between the vegetation on the decomposed granite
sands to the west of Wombeyan and the sandstone formations of the Blue Mountains.
Similarly, Phipps (1950), in his survey of the geology of the Taralga-Wombeyan
Caves district, commented that, despite their low-nutrient status, soils derived from
granite, sandstone, conglomerate and shale in the vicinity of the Caves gave rise to
heavier vegetation than did the 'limestone'.

More recently, Clements (1982) carried out a detailed study of the vegetation in the
vicinity of the caves. On soils derived from igneous rocks, Eucalyptus globoidca and
Eucalyptus sicbcn dominate a forest community which has an understorey of shrubby
vegetation that includes numerous species of Epacridaceae. In contrast, grassland is
a significant feature of calcareous soils and is common on exposed, north-facing
slopes. Woodland communities occur on sheltered, south-facing slopes and valleys
(Clements 1982). Brachychiton populneus and Ficus rubiginosa both grow on marble
outcrops. Acacia chalkeri grows in grassland on exposed marble ridges and occurs
only at Wombeyan Caves (Harden 1991). Numerous exotic tree and shrub species
have been planted in the valley of Wombeyan Creek and weeds such as Conium
maculatum, Cotoneaster glaucophylla, Finns radiata, Prunus pcrsica, Pyracantha rogersiana,
Rosa rubiginosa and Verbascum thapsus thrive on the calcareous soils.

Wombeyan has warm to hot summers and cool to cold winters with severe frosts
and occasional light snowfalls. Rainfall figures for three surrounding weather stations,
Moss Vale (672 m a.s.l., 990 mm per annum), Taralga (882 m a.s.I., 808 mm per
annum) and Goulbum (702 m a.s.l., 679 mm per annum) (Bureau of Meteorology
1985) indicate that rainfall is relatively evenly distributed throughout the year.
Wombeyan lies in the rainshadow of both the high plateau to the east and the ranges to
the west, so its mean annual rainfall is likely to be less them the 808 mm recorded for
Taralga (17km south-west) (Halbert & Michie 1982).

Methods

During four visits to Wombeyan Caves in 1992 and 1993, bryophytes were collected
from marble, granite and sandstone and their associated soils. Epiphytic bryophytes
were also collected at each site. Reference was made to collections of 5. Claxton.
Voucher specimens of all species collected will be deposited at the National

Downing, Oldfield & Selkirk, Bryophytes at Wombeyan Caves

131

Herbarium of New South Wales. All collections were returned to the laboratory for
identification. Nomenclature and authorities follow Streimann and Cumow (1989)
for mosses; Scott and Bradshaw (1986) for liverworts and homworts, and Harden
(1990,1991,1992) for vascular plants (see Appendix 1). As a result of severe drought
throughout 1992 and 1993, some annual and/or ephemeral species of bryophytes
may not have been present when collections were made.

Results and discussion

Many more species of mosses and liverworts were collected from marble substrates
than were collected from granite and/or sandstone (Table 1). Fifty-eight species of
bryophytes, including 48 moss species and 9 liverwort species, were collected in the
vicinity of the Caves. Of these, 39 moss and 8 liverwort species (81% of species
present) were collected from marble; and 11 moss species (20%) (no liverworts) were
collected from granite and sandstone.

Mosses were abundant on calcareous soils, not only on moist soil and rocks in
shaded, sheltered areas, but also on hot, dry, exposed, sparse open grassland on the
top of rounded knolls. The moss flora on marble and its derived soils was dominated
by acrocarpous ('upright') mosses from two families: Pottiaceae with 18 species and
Bryaceae with 8 species. Few pleurocarpous ('creeping') mosses (6 species) were
collected from marble.

The moss flora on both granite and sandstone substrates was also dominated by
acrocarpous mosses. The majority were from the Bartramiaceae, Dicranaceae,
Ditrichaceae and Polytrichaceae families and were found exclusively on siliceous
substrates.

Liverworts were collected from moist soil in sheltered and shaded habitats in soil-
filled rock crevices, seepage areas and damp creek banks in gorges. One species,
Riccia limbata, was collected from dry soil on an exposed marble knoll. The liverwort
flora on marble was dominated by thallose liverworts from the Marchantiales,
Rcboulia hcmisphaerica, Targionia lorbeeriana, Lunularia cruciata and R. limbata. . Three
leafy liverworts, Frullania squarrosula, Lophocolea bidetitata and Porella crawfordii, were
collected from marble. Eight moss and two liverwort species were collected from
the bark of shrubs or trees.

A number of cosmopolitan ( Bryum argenteum ) and introduced species (Aloina aloides
var. ambigua and Trichostomum brachydontium ) were conspicuous components of the
microbiotic crust at Wombeyan and were probably introduced through the practice
of allowing sheep to graze on the marble outcrops (Cambage 1906, Clements 1982).
The presence of introduced and cosmopolitan species has been observed elsewhere
on limestones, where damage to soil and pastures by grazing animals appears to be
reflected in the bryoflora in much the same way that introduced weeds (vascular plants)
invade disturbed urban bushland (Downing 1992, 1993; Downing & Selkirk 1993).

The development of karst appears to play a significant part in the presence of so
many arid zone bryophytes on marble at Wombeyan and on eastern Australian

132

Cunninghamia Vol. 4(1): 1995

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136

Cunninghamia Vol. 4(1): 1995

limestones. The lack of surface water in karst landscapes can be extreme, even when
annual rainfall exceeds 2000 mm and thus biological productivity is usually much
lower on calcareous than non-calcareous rocks (Jennings 1985). Arid zone mosses
and liverworts are able to survive in this extremely dry microenvironment and to
cope with high light levels and extremely high soil surface temperatures (Amman
1928).

Our observations on the bryophyte flora on Wombeyan marble are consistent with
findings from other limestone sites in Australia where we have found that bryophytes
are more abundant, both in percent groundcover and in species number on calcareous
substrates, than they are on non-calcareous substrates, such as sandstones, shales
and siltstones (Downing 1992, Downing 1993, Downing & Selkirk 1993). Acrocarpous
mosses dominate the limestone moss flora, with two families, Pottiaceae and Bryaceae,
being most abundant in terms of number of species. Several species are considered
to be indicator species, Gigaspermum repens, Fissidcns vittatus and either Bryum
pachytheca on drier soils or Bryum dichotomum in wetter situations (Downing 1993).
All four species occur at Wombeyan.

The presence of open grasslands on exposed ridge tops and slopes with northerly
aspects rather than Eucalyptus woodlands and forests that occur on nearby non-
calcareous substrates may be an indication of the aridity of the karst geomorphology.
Botanists and geologists have commented on the sparse vegetation on marble
compared with that on other rock substrates at Wombeyan (Cambage 1906, Clements
1982, Cox 1862, Phipps 1950). The absence of eucalypts from the marble may benefit
arid zone bryophyte species, by reducing the amount of smothering leaf litter,
reducing bushfire hazards and by ensuring high light levels necessary to compensate
for specialised morphology which protects photosynthetic structures.

In previous studies, the ratio of acrocarpous to pleurocarpous moss species on
limestones and calcareous soils has been found to increase with decreased rainfall
(Downing 1993). At Wombeyan, the ratio on marble substrates is 33:6, consistent
with the trend established at other sites in New South Wales (Table 2).

Thallose liverworts from the Marchantiales, in particular from the Aytoniaceae,
Marchantiaceae, Ricciaceae and Targioniaceae, and from the family Codoniaceae
(Metzgeriales), dominate the marble liverwort flora at Wombeyan. Again, this is
consistent with results from limestone sites in south-eastern Australia (Table 1).

In Australia there are very few bryophytes that are exclusively calciphiles or
exclusively calcifuges. Some species such as Aloina aloides var. ambigua, Encalypta
vulgaris, Gymnostomum aeruginosum, Pseudoleskeopsis imbricata and Targionia lorbeeriana
are commonly accepted as calciphiles. Most species that do occur on calcareous
substrates can be regarded as opportunists and grow on both calcareous and non-
calcareous substrates (Downing 1993), although many appear to favour substrates
with a greater percentage of calcium carbonate than others. Only 9 moss and 2
liverwort species collected from marble substrates at Wombeyan are considered to
be exclusive calciphiles (Downing 1993) (Table 1).

Downing, Oldfield & Selkirk, Bryophytes at Wombeyan Caves

137

Table 2. Mean annual rainfall and number of acrocarpous and pleurocarpous moss
species that occur on marble at Wombeyan Caves, on limestone at Jenolan, Wee
Jasper, Googong and Attunga, and on the calcareous soils of Mungo National Park

Jenolan

Wee Jasper

Wombeyan Googong

Attunga

Mungo

33°47’S

35°07'S

34°19'S

35°31‘S

30°56'S

33°45'S

150°05'E

148°40'E

149°58‘E

149°16'E

150°50'E

142°59'E

Mean annual rainfall (mm) 968

916

650-800

633

595

246

Acrocarpous species

37

35

33

24

19

22

Pleurocarpous species

10

7

6

1

1

0

At Wombeyan, six species from the four families Bartramiaceae, Dicranaceae,
Ditrichaceae and Polytrichaceae appear to be exclusive calcifuges and were only
collected from granite and/or sandstone. The calcifuge species collected at
Wombeyan, Breutelia affinis, Campylopus introflexus, Dicnemolotna pallidum, Dicranoloma
billardcrii, Ditrichum difficile and Polytrichum juniperinum, all commonly occur on the
sandstones and shales of the nearby Blue Mountains plateau. In contrast, the majority
of species that grow on marble substrates at Wombeyan and on other eastern
Australian limestone sites are not present or not common on shales and sandstones.
These species have more in common with bryophyte assemblages that can be found
on calcareous soils, which are extensive throughout semi-arid and arid areas of
southern Australia. Many species collected at Wombeyan are present on calcareous
earths and clays of Mungo National Park (33°45'S, 142°59'E, 91 m a.s.l) in far south¬
western New South Wales (Downing & Selkirk 1993) and on the calcareous soils of
the Nullarbor Plains (Stonebumer et al. 1993) (Table 1).

In semi-arid and arid areas mosses and liverworts can be important as components
of microbiotic soil crusts that may also include lichens, fungi, algae and cyanobacteria.
At Wombeyan, microbiotic soil crusts can be found in the open grassland that occurs
over the Victoria Arch and on the top of the rounded hillslopes adjacent to the Arch.
The crusts are similar to those crusts at Mungo, both in appearance and in the
bryophyte species present. Species abundant in, and common to, both locations
include Bryum argcnteum, Bryurn pachytheca, Didymodon torquatus, Gigaspermum repens
and Riccia limbata. Cyanobacteria and lichens are also abundant as components of
the crusts at Wombeyan. In dry conditions, the crusts form low, rough, dark (reddish
brown/brown/black) turfs 1-3 mm high. However, light rain or mist is sufficient to
change the appearance to green as leaves and thalli unroll exposing photosynthetic
tissue.

Mosses and liverworts that occur in arid and semi-arid areas of Australia and on
calcareous soils and rocks, such as the Wombeyan Caves marble, in relatively high
rainfall areas of eastern Australia, have many characteristics which enhance survival
in an exposed, dry environment. In most cases, these characteristics serve to enhance

138

Cunninghamia Vol. 4(1): 1995

moisture retention, reduce water loss or protect photosynthetic tissue from high
light levels. Possibly their greatest survival characteristic is the ability to reproduce
from a few cells. Thus, mere stem or leaf fragments can grow rapidly after a rainfall
event.

Some characteristics of species of Pottiaceae (the dominant moss family on marble at
Wombeyan [18 species] and at Mungo National Park) that enhance survival include:
dark pigmentation of leaves and stems; leaves twisted around the stem when dry;
costa ('nerve'), thickened and glossy on abaxial surface of the leaf; costa exposed
(and reflecting light) when the leaf is twisted around the stem; simple or complex
papillae on leaf cells, leaf margins incurved or recurved and leaves with long hair
points that enhance the uptake of moisture; leaves with photosynthetic papillae or
lamellae on adaxial surfaces protected by overlapping hyaline tissue or by incurved
leaf margins.

Species of Bryaceae possess some of these same characteristics, such as incurved or
recurved leaf margins and long hair points. However, many species (Bryum
pachytheca, Bryum dichotomum ) produce gemmae (vegetative reproductive structures)
in terminal or axillary clusters and/or rhizoidal gemmae ('tubers') on underground
stems ( Bryum lorquescens, Bryum radiculosum). Gemmae appear "to play a significant
role in survival of these species in dry environments and are not unique to this
family. Tortula pagorum (Pottiaceae) produces gemmae in the stem apex and Tortula
papillosa (Pottiaceae) produces gemmae on the adaxial surface of its upper leaves.
Both commonly grow on calcareous rocks and as epiphytes in limestone areas. At
Wombeyan, T. papillosa was recorded both on marble and as an epiphyte.

The upper leaves of both Bryum argenteum and Gigaspermum repens are hyaline and
provide a protective layer for green, photosynthetic lower leaves. Gigaspermum
repens also has well developed underground stems that appear to play an important
role in surviving both extreme drought and fire (Downing 1993).

Thallose liverworts, such as Riccia limbata, Targionia lorbeeriana and Reboulia
hemisphaerica, have dark, glossy scales on the lower surface of the thallus. As
conditions become increasingly dry, the edges of the thallus roll inwards, thus the
glossy scales form an effective barrier that reduces evaporation of moisture and
protects photosynthetic tissue on the upper surface of the thallus. Riccia limbata is
an extremely common liverwort throughout Australia's arid areas and, although
not confined to calcareous substrates, appears to thrive on them.

Many annual or ephemeral bryophytes avoid arid environments and grow only
after rainfall events. Species such as the mosses Entosthodon muehlenbergii (Funaria
glabra), Funaria hygromelrica, and the liverworts Riccia crystallina and Riccia cavernosa,
have been recorded from eastern Australian limestone sites and commonly occur at
Mungo National Park. They were not found at Wombeyan during this study, but
may well occur there in other than the drought conditions experienced during the
period in which collections were made.

Downing, Oldfield & Selkirk, Bryophytes at Wombeyan Caves

139

Conclusion

Bryophyte assemblages on marble substrates at Wombeyan are similar to those
found on limestone substrates in south-eastern Australia. Acrocarpous mosses, in
particular Pottiaceae and Bryaceae, dominate the moss flora and thallose liverworts
(Marchantiales) dominate the liverwort flora. Certain species, considered to be key
elements of limestone bryoflora, Didymodon torquatus, Gigaspermum repens, Bryum
pachytheca, B. dichotomum and Fissidcns vittatus, were present on marble at Wombeyan.

Many of the species that occurred on marble at Wombeyan are species often associated
with arid and semi-arid areas of Australia and have morphological characteristics
that enhance their survival in dry environments. The development of karst landscapes
is considered to be an important element in creating an arid microclimate on both
limestone and marble in south-eastern Australia.

Certain introduced and cosmopolitan bryophyte species appear to be common in
areas of grassland on marble at Wombeyan that are frequently grazed by sheep.

Acknowledgements

This is publication Number 189 of the Research Unit for Biodiversity and Bioresources
of the School of Biological Sciences at Macquarie University.

We thank Ernst Holland, Karst Manager of the Jenolan Caves Trust and Michael
Chalker, manager at Wombeyan Caves, for their support of this project.

References

Amman, J. (1928) Maleriaux pmir la Flurc Cryplogamiquc Suisse. Volume VI, Fascicule 2 (Zurich).
Rrnt h m , s . V.F. & Watts. W.W. (1912) The mosses of the Yarrangobilly Caves district, New

Downing, A.]. (1992) Distribution of bryophytes on limestones in eastern Australia. The

140

Cunninghamia Vol. 4(1): 1995

Halbert, E.J. & Michie, N.A. (1982) Climate above and below ground pp. 137-154, in Dyson,
H.J., Ellis, R. & James, J.M. (eds.) Wombeyan Caves. Sydney Speleological Society Occasional
Paper No. 8.

Harden, G.J. (1990, 1991, 1992) Flora cfNew South Wales. Volumes 1-3 (NSW University Press:
Kensington).

Jennings, J.N. (1985) Karst geomorphology (Basil Blackwell Ltd.: Oxford, New York).

Jennings, J.N., James, J.M. & Montgomery, N.R. (1982) The development of the landscape, pp.
45-64, in Dyson, H.J., Ellis, R. & James, J. M. (eds.) Womb cyan Caves. Sydney Speleological
Society Occasional Paper No. 8.

Lishmund, S.R., Dawood, A.D. & Langley, W.V. (1986) The limestone deposits ifNezv South Wales.
(Geological Survey of New South Wales, New South Wales Department of Mineral
Resources).

Phipps, C.V.G. (1950) A contribution to the geology of the Taralga-Wombeyan Caves District.

Unpublished B.Sc.Hons. Thesis (Sydney University).

Scott, G.A.M. & Bradshaw, J.A. (1986) Australian liverworts (Hepaticae): Annotated list of
binomials and checklist of published species with bibliography. Brunonia 8: 1-171.
Stonebumer, A., Wyatt, R., Catchcside, D.G. & Stone, I.G. (1993) Census of the mosses of
Western Australia. The Bryologist 96: 86-101.

Streimann, H. & Cumow, J. (1989) Catalogue of mosses if Australia and its external territories
(Australian Government Publishing Service: Canberra).

Manuscript received 5 April 1995
Manuscript accepted 25 July 1995

Downing, Oldfield & Selkirk, Bryophytes at Wombeyan Caves

141

Appendix 1. Authorities for bryophytes and vascular plants

Bryophytes

Aloina abides (Schultz) Kindb.

var. ambigua (B.S.G.) Craig
Barbula catycina Schwaegr.

Barbula crinita Schultz
Barbula hornschuchiana Schultz
Barbula unguiculata Hedw.

Breutelia affinis (Hook.) Mitt.

Bryum argenteum Hedw.

Bryum billarderi Schwaegr.
var. billarderi

Bryum campybthecium Tayl.

Bryum dichotomum Hedw.

Bryum pachytheca C. Muell.

Bryum radiculosum Brid.

Bryum torquescens Bruch ex De Not.
Camptochaete arbuscula (Sm.) Rchdt.
Campylopus introflexus (Hedw.) Brid.
Chamberlainia salebrosa (Web. & Mohr) H. Rob.
Desmatodon convolutus (Brid.) Grout
Dicnemoloma pallidum (Hook.) Wijk & Marg.
Dicranoloma billarderii (Brid. ex anon.) Par.
Didymodon torquatus (Tayl.) Catches.

Ditrichum difficile (Dub.) Fleisch.

Encalypta vulgaris Hedw.

Entosthodon muehlenbergii (Turn.) Fife
(Funaria glabra)

Fabronia australis Hook.

Fissidens leptocladus C. Muell. ex Rodw.
Fissidens taylorii C. Muell.

Fissidens vittatus Hook. f. & Wils.

Fossombronia Raddi sp.

Frullania probosciphora Tayl.

Frullania squarrosula (Hook. f. & Tayl.) Tayl.

ex Gottsche et a I.

Funaria hygrometrica Hedw.

Gigaspermum repens (Hook.) Lindb.

Grimmia laevigata (Brid.) Brid.

Grimmia pulvinata (Hedw.) Sm.

Gymnostomum aeruginosum Sm.
Flypopterygium rotulatum (Hedw.) Brid.
Leptobryum pyriforme (Hedw.) Wils.

Lophocolea bidentata (L.) Dumort.

Lunularia cruciata (L.) Dumort.

Orthotrichum assimile C. Muell.

Orthotrichum cupulatum Hoffm. ex Brid. var.
cupulatum

Polytrichum juniperinum Hedw.

Porella crawfordii Stephani

Pseudoleskeopsis imbricata (Hook. f. & Wils.) Ther.
Racopilum cuspidigerum (Schwaegr.) Aongstr. var.
cuspidigerum

Reboulia hemisphaerica (L.) Raddi
Riccia crystalline L.

Riccia cavernosa Hoffm.

Riccia limbata Bischoff in Gottsche, Lindb. & Nees
Targionia lorbeeriana K. Muell.

Thuidium sparsum (Hook. f. & Wils.) Reichdt.
Tortella cirrhata Broth.

Tortula antarctica (Hpe.) Wils.

Tortula muralis Hedw.

Tortula pagorum (Milde) De Not.

Tortula papillosa Wils.

Tortula ruralis (Hedw.) G.M.S.

Trichostomum brachydontium Bruch.

Triquetrella papillata (Hook. f. & Wils.) Broth.
Weissia controversa Hedw.

Weissia controversa Hedw. var. gymnostoma (Dix.)
Sainsb.

Vascular plants

Acacia chalked Maiden

Brachychiton poputneus (Schott & Endl.) R. Br.
Conium maculatum L.

Cotoneaster glaucophylla Franchet
Eucalyptus globoidea Blakely
Eucalyptus sieberi L.A.S. Johnson
Ficus rubiginosa Desf. ex Vent.

Pinus radiata D. Don
Prunus persica (L.) Batsch
Pyracantha rogersiana Bean
Rosa rubiginosa L.

Verbascum thapsus L.

't * ,

.

*

Vegetation of Mungo National Park and Joulni Station

Detailed descriptions of plant communities are given in Cunninghamia 4(1) 1995 published by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Sydney.

■

lb: Casuarina pauper

□

4e: Nitraria billardieri

Woodland/Open-woodland

Low open-shrubland

E

1c: Callitris glaucophylla

■

5b: Bromus rubens/Hordeum murinum

Open-woodland

Herbland

■

| 2a: Eucalyptus spp.

2b: Open-shrubland

□

Dunes and bare areas

_

Roads

■

4b: Maireana pyramidata/M. sedifolia

Low open-shrubland

—

Property boundaries

4c: Atriplex vesicaria
Low open-shrubland

M.E. Westbrooke and J.D. Miller, University of Ballarat, Australia 1995.

Scale 1:100 000
1 2 3 4 5

Kilometres

i

s

ii mu mu iiimu im

26 27

Community

Dominant species

Structure

Habitat

Black Rolypoly
Shrubland (FI)

S clerolaena muricata

Low open shubland

Small area on floodplain of
the Lachlan River on heavy clay.

Black Box
Woodland
(F2)

Eucalyptus largiflorens

Low open woodland

Small area on claypans
(adjacent to above) on heavy
clay.

Shrub Mallee
(PI)

Eucalyptus socialis
Eucalyptus dumosa

Very open shrub
mallee

Flat to gently undulating plains
on medium textured soils where
mallee has been cleared or there
have been fires in quick
succession or on sandy soil on
the western footslopes of ranges.

Shrub Mallee
with Spinfex
(P2)

Eucalyptus socialis
Eucalyptus dumosa

Triodia irritans

Very open to open
shrub mallee

Flat to gently undulating plains
of red and brown clayey sand
loam and lateritic soils.

Shrub Mallee
with Mallee Pine
(P3)

Eucalyptus socialis
Eucalyptus dumosa

Callitris preissii
subsp. verrucosa

Very open shrub
mallee

In small pockets of above habitat
where fire has been excluded for
some time.

Tree Mallee
(P4)

Eucalyptus socialis
Eucalyptus dumosa

Very open tree
mallee

Over larger areas of above
mallee habitat.

Belah and Wilga

Woodland

(P5)

Casuarina cristata

Geijera parviflora
Apophyllum anomalum
Alectryron oleifolius
subsp. canescens

Open woodland

On claypans or flat to gently
undulating plains on medium
to heavier textured soils.

Gum Coolibah

Woodland

(P6)

Eucalyptus intertexta
Dodonaea viscosa
subsp. c uneata

Eremophila desertorum
Eremophila sturtii

Open woodland

Flat to gently undulating plains,
adjacent to plains mallee on
medium to heavier textured
soils.

Bimble Box

Woodland

(P7)

Eucalyptus populnea
subsp. bimbil

Eremophila sturtii

Digitaria spp., Sf/)>_

Open woodland

Run-on areas on flat to gently
undulating plains on the heavier
textured soils

Pine Woodland
(P8)

Callitris glaucophylla
Abutilon otocarpum
Cheilanthes sieberi

Woodland to
open woodland

Flat to gently undulating
plains on a variety of soil
textures.

Grassland (P9)

Aristida spp.

Grassland

Pine and Bimble
Box Woodland
(D1)

Callitris glaucophylla
Eucalyptus populnea

Senna artemisioides
Chenopodium desertorum
subsp. microphyllum
Sclerolaena diacantha

Open woodland

Plains and rolling downs/
lowlands on a variety of soil
types and textures.

Bimble Box

Woodland

(Dla)

Eucalyptus populnea
subsp. bimbil

Eremophila sturtii
Chenopodium desertorum
subsp. microphyllum
Sclerolaena diacantha

Open woodland

Run-on areas of rolling downs
and lowlands on medium to
heavier textured soils.

Gum Coolibah &
Pine Woodland
(D2)

Callitris glaucophylla
Eremophila mitchellii
Eremophila glabra
Sclerolaena diacantha

Open woodland

On a range of soils and habitats,
often adjacent to plains mallee.

Emubush

Shrubland

(D3)

Eremophila longifolia

Tall open shrubland

Few areas around Mount
Nombinnie on sandy clay,
possibly resulting from a fire in
1985.

Green Mallee
Shrubland (D4)

Eucalyptus viridis
Dodonaea lobulata

Open to low open
woodland

Rocky knolls within rolling
downs and lowlands.

Dwyer’s Mallee
Shrubland (HI)

Eucalyptus dwyeri

Acacia doratoxylon

Very open shrub
mallee

Crests of ranges derived from
sediments.

Grey Mallee
Shrubland (R1)

Eucalyptus morrisii

Very open shrub
mallee

Upper slopes of ranges of
volcanic origin.

Pine and Wattle
Woodland (R2)

Callitris glaucophylla

Acacia decora

Low open to open
woodland

Crests and upper slopes of
ranges of volcanic origin.

Not Surveyed (see Methods)

Tickmarks : Australian Map Grid at
1000 m intervals.

Grid lines : Australian Map Grid at
10 000 m intervals

Tracks
Railway
Main roads

Bimble Box Woodland (Dla)

VEGETATION OF
NOMBINNIE AND ROUND
HILL NATURE RESERVES,
CENTRAL WESTERN N.S.W.

J. S. COHN

Produced by J. S. Cohn
NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service
to accompany

CUNNINGHAMIA VOLUME 4 NUMBER 1,1995.
Royal Botanic Gardens Sydney

FLORA OF NOMBINNIE AND ROUND HILL NATURE RESERVES

To accompany: Vegetation of Nombinnie and Round Hill Nature Reserves, central western New South Wales by Janet Cohn,
( 1995 ). The nomenclature follows Jacobs and Pickard ( 1981 ), and Harden ( 1990 , 1991 ).

Codings:

* introduced taxa (not included in analysis);

(E) ephemerals or annuals (Cunningham etal. 1981 ; not included in analysis);

(B) taxa from Brickhill et al. (undated) not collected in this survey.

PTERIDOPHYTES

SINOPTERIDACEAE
Cheilanthes austrotenuifolia (B)

C. distans
C. lasiophylla
C. sieberi subsp. sieberi

OPHIOGLOSSACEAE
Ophioglossum polyphyllum (E)

GYMNOSPERMS

CUPRESSACEAE
Callitris endlicheri (B)

C. glaucophylla

C. preissii subsp. verrucosa

ANGIOSPERMS

ACANTHACEAE
Rostellularia pogonanthera

AMARANTHACEAE
Altemanthera sp. A
Ptilotus atriplicifoli
P. exaltatus var. exaltatus
P. obovatus
P. spathulatus

APIACEAE

Daucus glochidiatus (B)

Platysace lanceolata

APOCYNACEAE
Parsonsia eucalyptophylla

ASCLEPIADACEAE
Leichhardtia australis
Rhyncharrhena linearis
Sarcostemma australe

ASTERACEAE

Brachycome ciliaris var. ciliads (B)

B. multifida
Calotis cuneifolia
Cassinia laevis
Gnaphalium luteo-album (E)
Helichrysum apiculatum

H. apiculatum / semipapposum
H. bracteatum
H. semipapposum
H. tucked
H. viscosum
Helipterum diffusum (E)

H. flonbundum (E)

H. jessenii (B)

H. pygmaeum (E)

Leptorhynchos panaetioides
Minuna leptophylla
Olearia decurrens
0. muelleri
0 . pimeleoides
O. ramulosa
O. rudis
O. subspicata
O. aff. teretifolia
Senecio glossanthus (B)

S. lautus subsp. dissectifolius (E)

S. platylepis (B)

S. quadddentatus (E)

* Sonchus oleraceus (E)

Vittadinia cuneata

V. dissecta var. hirta (E)

V. pterochaeta

V. tdloba (B)

BIGNONIACEAE
Pandorea pandorana

BORAGINACEAE

* Echium plantagineum (E)
Halgania cyanea

* Heliotmpium europaeum (E)

BRASSICACEAE
Cuphonotus humistratus (E)
Harmsiodoxa blennodioides (B)

H. brevipes var. major (E)

Lepidium papillosum (E)

L. pseudohyssopifolium (E)

BRUNONIACEAE
Bmnonia australis

CAMPANULACEAE
Wahlenbergia communis

W. gracilis (E)

W. luteola

W. stdcta subsp. altemanthera

CAPPARACEAE
Apophyllum anomalum

CASUARINACEAE
Casuadna cdstata

CHENOPODIACEAE
Atdplex semibaccata
A. spinibractea
A. stipitata

Chenopodium cdstatum (B)

C. desertorum subsp. desertorum
C. desedorum subsp. microphyllum
Einadia nutans subsp. linifolia

E. nutans subsp. nutans
Enchylaena tomentosa
Maireana aphylla

M. enchylaenoides
M. excavata (B)

M. humillima
Salsola kali (E)

Sclemlaena birchii
S. convexula

S. diacantha
S. mudcata

CONVOLVULACEAE
Convolvulus embescens

FABACEAE
Acacia aneura
A. brachybotrya
A. burkittii

A. buxifolia subsp. buxifolia

A. calamifolia

A. colletioides

A. curranii

A. deanei

A. decora

A. doratoxylon

A. hakeoides

A. havilandiomm

A. homalophylla

A. montana

A. murrayana

A. oswaldii

A. dgens

A. tindaleae

A. tbneura

A. tdptera

A. wilhelmiana
Bossiaea walked
Daviesia arenada
Eutaxia microphylla
Glycine canescens
Indigofera australis

* Medicago laciniata (E)

* M. polymorpha (E)

Senna ademisioides
nothosubsp. ademisioides

S. ademisioides subsp. filifolia
S. ademisioides subsp. petiolads

S. ademisioides subsp. zygophylla
Swainsona laxa (B)

Templetonia aculeata

T. egena (B)

GERANIACEAE
Erodium cdnitum (E)

GOODENIACEAE
Goodenia cycloptera
G. glabra
G. pusilliflora (E)

G. willisiana
Scaevola humilis
Velleia paradoxa (B)

HALORAGACEAE
Gonocarpus elatus (B)

Haloragis odontocarpa (B)

LAMIACEAE
Ajuga australis
Prostanthera leichhardtii
P. micmphylla (B)

P. nivea
P. serpyllifolia
P. stbatiflora
Teucdum racemosum
Westdngia dgida

LAURACEAE
Cassytha melantha

LILIACEAE
Bulbine bulbosa (B)

B. semibarbata (B)

Dianella revoluta
Thysanotus patersonii (B)

LORANTHACEAE
Amyema miquelii (B)

A. quandang (B)

MALVACEAE
Abutilon cryptopetalum (B)

A. fraseb
A. otocaqium
A. oxycarpum (B)

Hibiscus studii (B)

* Pavonia hastata
Sida corrugata

S. cunninghamii
S. filiformis

MYOPORACEAE
Eremophila bignoniiflora
E. desedi
E. glabra
E. longifolia
E. mitchellii
E. serrulata
E. studii

Myoporum montanum
M. platycarpum

MYRTACEAE
Eucalyptus dumosa
E. d'wyed
E. gracilis
E. intedexta
E. largiflorens
E. leptophylla
E. mordsii

E. populnea subsp. bimbil
E. socialis
Melaleuca uncinata
Micromydus sessilis
M. stdata

OLEACEAE
Jasminum lineare

ORCHIDACEAE
Caladenia camea (E)

Diuris maculata (E)

Pterostylis mutica (E)

P. nana (E)

OXALIDACEAE
Oxalis comiculata

PITTOSPORACEAE
Billardiera versicolor
Pittosporum phylliraeoides

POACEAE

Amphipogon cadcinus (E)

Adstida behdana (E)

A. calycina (B)

A. contoda (E)

A. jedchoensis (E)

A. ramosa var. scaberula (E)
Danthonia caespitosa (E)

D. linkii var. fulva (E)

Elymus scabms (E)

Eragmstis lacunada (E)

E. setifolia (E)

Monachather paradoxa (E)
Paspalidium constdctum (E)

P. jubiflorum (E)

* Pentaschistis airoides (E)

Stipa adstiglumis (B)

S. dmmmondii (B)

S. nitida (E)

S. nodosa (E)

S. platychaeta (E)

S. scabra (E)

S. tucked (B)

Themeda australis (E)

Thyddolepis mitchelliana (E)

Tdodia irdtans

* Vulpia bromoides (E)

POLYGALACEAE
Comesperma integerdmum

PORTULACACEAE
Calanddnia eremaea (B)

PROTEACEAE
Grevillea anethifolia

G. huegelii
Hakea leucoptera

H. tephrosperma

RANUNCULACEAE

Clematis microphylla var. microphylla

RHAMNACEAE
Cryptandra leucophracta
Spyddium edocephalum

RUTACEAE
Edostemon difformis
subsp. difformis
E. brevifolius (B)

E. myoporoides subsp. acutus
Geijera parviflora
Phebalium obcordatum (B)

SANTALACEAE
Choretrum glomeratum
Exocarpos aphyllus

SAPINDACEAE
Alectryon oleifolius
subsp. canescens
A. oleifolius subsp. elongatus
Dodonaea boroniifolia
D. lobulata
D. pedunculads

D. viscosa subsp. angustissima
D. viscosa subsp. cuneata
D. viscosa subsp. spatulata

SOLANACEAE
Anthocercis albicans
Nicotiana goodspeedii (B)

N. suaveolens (B)

Solanum coactiliferum
S. ellipticum
S. esudale
S. ferocissimum

* S. nigmm (E)

STACKHOUSIACEAE
Stackhousia monogyna

STERCULIACEAE
Brachychiton populneus
subsp. trilobus

THYMELACEAE
Pimelea curviflora
P. microcephala
P. tdchostachya (E)

VERBENACEAE
Clerodendmm tomentosum

VIOLACEAE
Hybanthus flodbundus
subsp. flodbundus

XANTHORRHOEACEA
Lomandra effusa
L. glauca
L leucocephala

L. leucocephala subsp. leucocephala
L. leucocephala subsp. robusta
L. patens

ZYGOPHYLLACEAE
Zygophyllum eremaeum
Z. glaucum (E)

Two way table of native, perennial (Cunningham etal. 1981), plains mallee taxa against site numbers, showing cover abundances (Westhoff
etal, 1978). Nomenclature follows Jacobs & Pickard (1981) and Harden (1990,1991). Refer to Results for abreviations of plant community names.
Read site numbers vertically; the last letter refers to the topography of the site i.e. F Flat to undulating, S Swale, D Dune crest, R Range.

Plant Community

Site Number

Taxon

Acacia bracybotrya
Eucalyptus leptophylla
Grevillea anethifolia
Cryptandra leucophracta
Lomandra glauca

Prostanthera serpyllifolia subsp. microphylla

Helichrysum apiculatum

Acacia hakeoides

Minuria leptophylla

Bertya cunninghamii

Eremophila longifolia

Grevillea huegelii

Callitris preisii subsp. verrucosa

Eutaxia microphylla

Stackhousia monogyna

Acacia wilhelmiana

Micromyrtus sessilis

Eucalyptus intertexta

Westringia rigida

Acacia colletoides

Dodonaea viscosa subsp. cuneata

Senna artemisioides

Sclerolaena diacantha

Solanum coactiliferum

Acacia havilandiorum

Bossiaea walked

Acacia rigens

Halgania cyanea

Acacia tindaleae

Dianella revoluta

Lomandra effusa

Melaleuca uncinata

Eremophila glabra

Olearia pimelioides

Eucalyptus dumosa

Eucalyptus socialis

Eucalytus socialis/ E. dumosa

Tdodia irritans

Eucalyptus gracilis

Eucalyptus gracilis/ E. leptophylla

Acacia burkittii

Hakea leucoptera

Olearia ramulosa

Acacia triptera

Beyeria opaca

Bracycome multifida

Helichrysum apiculatum/ semipapposum

Dodonaea pedunculads

Callitris glaucophylla

Eriostemon difformis subsp. difformis

Spyridium eriocephalum

Helichrysum viscosum

Acacia buxifolia subsp. buxifolia

Myoporum platycarpum

Apophyllum anomalum

Eremophila mitchellii

Acacia deanei

Goodenia willisiana

Goodenia glabra

Ptilotus exaltatus var. exaltatus

Brachychiton populneus subsp. trilobus

Dodonaea viscosa subsp. angustissima

Ajuga australis

Eremophila sturtii

Choretrum glomeratum

Hakea tephrosperma

Myoporum montanum

Rhyncharrhena linearis

Alectryron oleifolius

Einadia nutans

Maireana enchylaenoides

Chenopodium desertorum

Pittosporum phylliraeoides

Eucalyptus populnea subsp. bimbil

Dodonaea lobulata

Geijera parviflora

Helichrysum semipapposum

Olearia subspicata

Olearia rudis

Anthocercis albicans

Olearia muelleri

Ptilotus obovatus

Clematis microphylla var. micropylla

Micromyrtus striata

Eremophila deserti

Templetonia aculeata

Acacia montana

Platysace lanceolata

Acacia murrayana

Dodonaea boroniifolia

Billardiera versicolor

Cassytha melantha

Comesperma integerrimum

Lomandra leucocephala subsp. leucocephala

Sida cunninghamii

Lomandra leucocephala subsp. robusta
Olearia aff. teretifolia
Schoenus subaphyllus
Cassinia laevis

Hybanthus flodbundus subsp. flodbundus
Daviesia arenaria
Helichrysum tucked
Zygophyllum eremaeum

P2

Pi

P2

P PI
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-1--.

-2.

.22.

.1.

Two way table of native, perennial (Cunningham etal. 1981), non mallee and hill/range mallee taxa against site numbers showing cover abundances (Westhoff ef a/., 1978). Nomenclature follows
Jacobs & Pickard (1981) and Harden (1990,1991). Refer to Results for abreviations of plant community names. Read site numbers vertically; last letter refers to the topoqraphv of the site i e F Flat to undulatinn
C Creek, S Swale, D Dune crest, H Hill, R Range. a ’

Plant Community

Site Number

D1, Dla & D4

D3

D2

P6

P7

P9 FI
F2

P5

HI

R1

R2

P8

CfOTHMMMMMMMMMMMMMt'tHMMMMM HHMMM
020000022020033002000020 00000
506901101314644361900004 24016
3D46770FC3D50AB6173384G4 27162
FFRFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFCHFFH FFFFF
-2--

-45-

---2--

---2--

---22-

---232

- 222 --

-2-

-3-

-2-23323-333--

3-4-4-333-4.3-- 2..

3244444334323-2--2-- 3-32-

333444444443.32--4--3 433234-4434-

--23333-4332--3 432222 -2 3.

-32S3255--24543236-1 -- 1 -- 5-22---

--3-3-23.3 - -22 .

-2-323222.22-

22243223-5-

3 - -2-2223-

322.2323-

3233 --22 --2--

32-42-32-2-

223..

--2-

-23-

233---.

22334--
23332--
-32-

-3-34

-23

-22-
2-

-22

-2

22543

.5-24342222-2.2-

42233131-2---2-233254455

-2--.23-322-535

- -4-3 - --2-3-3332-4

- 2-22

.. 3 -.

--2-3

-23-

-244-

---2-

---4-

32-

-3-3-

-43

--4

-2--

-42-

-3-2-

--1-1-2--32-

-1.2-

---1--
--1-2-

Taxon

Abutilon fraseri
Pandorea pandorana
Pimelea curviflora
Sclerlaena birchii
Acacia decora
Cheilanthes lasiophylla
Glycine canescens
Acacia havilandiorum
Eremophila bignoniiflora
Convolvulus erubescens
Euphorbia drummondii
Solanum ferocissimum
Altemanthera sp. .A
Abutilon otocarpum
Sida corrugata
Chenopodium desertorum
Sclerolaena diacantha
Einadia nutans subsp. nutans
Eucalyptus populnea subsp. bimbil
Maireana enchylaenoides
Acacia colletoides

Dodonaea viscosa subsp. angustissima
Goodenia glabra
Eremophila glabra
Senna artemisioides
Eremophila longifolia
Eremophila deserti
Eremophila sturtii
Callitris glaucophylla
Cheilanthes sieberi
Sida cunninghamii
Acacia burkitti
Acacia deanei
Eucalyptus gracilis
Calotis cuneifolia

Acacia curranii -----

Phyllanthus fuernrohrii ..

Wahlenbergia luteola ----3 -

Dodonaea viscosa subsp. spatulata ---- 2 - 242 — 2 --- 2 - 3 -

Solanum coactiliferum
Maireana humillima
Ptilotus spathulatus
Olearia ramulosa
Ptilotus obovatus
Zygophyllum eremaeum
Acacia hakeoides
Senecio quadddentatus
Wahlen bergia communis
Einadia nutans subsp. linifolia
Olearia muelleri
Stackhousia monogyna
Acacia trineura
Sclerolaena convexula
Atriplex semibaccata
Atdplex stipitata
Eremophila mitchellii
Olearia pimelioides
Alectryron oleifolius
Apopophyllum anomalum
Casuarina cdstata
Geijera parviflora

Brachychiton populneus subsp. trilobus
Jasminum lineare
Pittosporum hylliraeoides
Cheilanthes distans
Enchylaena tomentosa
Pimelea micocephala
Parsonsia eucalyptophylla
Solanum ellipticum
Goodenia cycloptera
Hakea leucoptera
Scaevola humilis
Helichrysum semipapposum
Pavonia hastata
Eucalyptus socialis
Lomandra effusa
Melaleuca uncinata
Micromyrtus striata
Acacia homalophylla
Helichrysum tucked
Dianella revoluta
Bertya cunninghamii
Dodonaea viscosa subsp. cuneata
Eucalyptus intertexta
Hakea tephrosperma
Olearia decurrens
Acacia oswaldii
Exocarpos aphyllus
Leichhardtia australis
Eucalyptus dumosa
Prosanthera leichhardtii
Eriostemon myoporoides subsp. acutus
Ptilotus atriplicifolius
Halgania cyanea
Vittadinia cuneata
Helichrysum apiculatum
Acacia aneura
Dodonaea lobulata
Eremophila serrulata
Eucalyptus socialis/ E. dumosa
Prostanthera striatiflora
Cassytha melantha
Rostellularia pogonanthera
Atriplex spinibractea
Eucalyptus largiflorens
Solanum esuriale
Maireana aphylla
Sarcostemma australe
Myoporum platycarpum
Acacia doratoxylon
Helichrysum bracteatum
Helichrysum viscosum
Eucalyptus dwyeri
Prostanthera nivea
Leptorhynchos panaetioides
Teucrium racemosum
Vittadinia pterochaeta
Sclerolaena muricata
Brunonia australis
Eucalyptus morrissii
Sida filiformis
Wahlenbergia stricta
subsp. altemanthera
Indigofera australis
Lomandra patens

CKMUMMMCHHHKKMKHHCCHH HHHHHHM HHHHH H H HH
000000002020002220202 0000000 00092 0 0 00
565511660405560017171 3373786 89980 4 4 89
559458693660175754662 1572833 907A0 0 1 81
FFFHFFFHFFFFFFFFFHRFF FFFFFFR FFFFF F F FF

CHHH H HHHHHMHMHHMM CKC
0202 0 000200000000 002
7131 8 379083855811 641
0071 0 894850676792 894
HFFF F FFFFFFFFFFFF HHR

HHHMMMMMMMM

02000000000

70902109949

2952945BC3A

FFFFFRHHRHH

..--2

.2--4

-3

-2

.243333

-433-4

.2--33

MMMMMMMMMM HHHHHHHHM
0121202002 020000200
0101424224 307988085
6BCCA8B75C 941212248
FFFFFFFFFF FFFFFFFFF

-33233--2 -3-- -

-3453--33 4--- -

-2-3--2 --23-3-23-

-2352 -55122

--22-3. -

--2--

2 -2

-2--

■342-

■22--

2233322333

-2223-2

-2-2-

-23.-

-22---2-

-4.......

2- 3322-2-22233 223- --3.-.-2--

33333333-22.22-3-4 -- - -- 2---

3- 22452.33--.-. 2---

- 2 -2- 33322---- - --

-2- 45-5---344 - - -- -- 3 -

323-3-23252322-3233-2 - 1-2.- 43--

-23.3-. -4-.4---

-3-2... ---3 ..

.4.-.

-2-3-

--2-

-34-

-334

4--

443

55555556565 -523331521 222222223

--3434-3342 33333233-3 -

-332-3- -. ..

-32-

-22-

-2- 32-..3-323

. 334 3223-223--22324

--3--2-23.233

.. 2 - 2 - 2 -

...2-

.1.25.

.-3-1-3122-521--

. -2 - 2 - 2 .-

--2.-.

..2-4-33-

---2 --3.

4.-3 - —12-32-

.22.

- - -- 12 - 222 - 22 -

- - 22 --332332--

-322 2 55552532-1--
2221 - 33525522-5--

-11-

-2-3-

-333-

-322-

--22-

--2--

-43-

22-

.-... 32-2-2-23---

-2-.2... 3434-43-2.--3 —-

1--2-.51-.2--1 --2-- 52232532234312-31---

-!-2-3.3--2- 221-2-2-33---

.-...-332-2.

-21-

-32-

-2-

-22-

34332--
-332551
-5 -

1--

21-

-2-2-

-22-

-32

-21-

2-2-

2222 -
22-- -
2--- -
--22 -

- 5

-2-

-2-

-2-

-33-

-5-

-3-

-3-

34-

-3-

4-

4-

3-

42

CYPERACEAE
Schoenus subaphyllus
Scirpus marginatus (B)

PLANTAGINACEAE
Plantago turdfera (B)

EUPHORBIACEAE
Bertya cunninghamii
Beyeria opaca
Chamaesyce drummondii
Phyllanthus fuernrohrii

Mi&o'obeb 57

Kalingaj

T Gunebani

ROUND HI

Itficrowavu tower c

MELLELEA (
£*^.273

SHEPHERDS HILL

^ Crowie

a ROTO
135

TURE RESERVE

■.i acatOD.

MALLE E A(
168/

WARRAWAY

MOUNTAIN

273

Channel

I acHLAN.

Pace course

»UNT BOOR/THUMBLE -163

Brotherony*

Euabalong

GOOBO,

mgorral

Wistator

Gravel pit

\RDRY

Wallanoi

YADDRA A
186

A NEWHA YEN
. 182 T\ r/i

irmac

Euabalfcm^

WHOEY MOUNTAIN ^
248

gy&ERIBENDERY
f/ 169

North Wooyeo

MOUNT i<l

\graceM

Wyuna
■ Park

\ Lake Cargellii

> MURRIN BRIDGE -

\aboriginal LAN*

Advene

Che Pinet
Ilobob • J

Wallaroi

Carim

ilenburnj

Wooyeo

hobg Farm
Ben Lomoni

'Loxleyi

A SAL A MAG UNDIA
218

Pine Land-s-'

I MBONi,

A CAIN
195

’riggervali

Balevolan

Volro<

Wilga Runi_

Waterhole'

-Nunjerous

Numerous tanks

iew

longround

Douglas ■ Glenmore

BM162>

Curreb<

Koyuna

Ck imjl

Nandi

CXRGELLlbb&l

Greenview

•restoi

arm

IM146
RBI ABBA

Wongalea

■BiUoboi

: errowie

teroui

Eurella

Medina

Wilga Park *
.Currawong View

[urgooney

Delvavvool

Inverheli

r BM185

El ms wood

Albion Park

Qys(,fiacecouNb

^-4i*Tullib$eal

-&M141

Avonga!

Avondale

Lomond

ivonmon

Millview

iltview.

Merriboqie'

imoti

lencairn

Wyoming

Alam)

rernool

snwooc

Sunshine

Brewer/Hall

Mactotftc

Rosemontj

Kanangr^

Cbow n Camp

WongSbep.

>nnie Doone

Wingrove

Romaj

Ballyrags/)

Wando 1

Quarti
QUART POT HIM

Glenval

,Wonga

Slenalvt

Windai 1

'Merry Lands

(OUNT 7'.
MOBkfy'-\

, Cranleigh

Channel

Dalton

ingajra-

'onne

1EGARG0

Danbury

3^onda.lL.

Weja'

Banoolj

Tralee*

'thera

. WorapJfny.

tawarray

L0(|JGHNAN

NATURE

RESERVE

reenleigh

Mallet

'Downs

Mont ose

Trevallas

Morrisvale

Pmert

Heaton

foma

Wattle Forest

•Wintc

Welkin

f STATE
I FOREST

laradhan

iRockdale

Mallee Plaint

Clrmathen

lloaraing

Hillview

Pynvue

(Winnunga

Pleasant Viet

Ionia

Castalia

rmerous \\ tanks

Glencoe
NPine View*/
X ^Cemetery*

Brooklyn Grove

'ELKIN S^TATE FORES'

loomfield

ONGOUi.

WOLL

B66

.Gleneen

Stirling’

Blairgowrie

Fun vet

XADHAN

^AphiAN

Macsfield

Milroy

Hilbertie

"oungareen

I oon

loom

MOU)

M/OMBO',

iilbertoo

Mulyan^

Wamganui

Hazeldell,

Ellendale

mglandi

Redbank

Caroon.

iowrii

Carawatha

.urrajongt"

ivente

Carilla

tetreat

1 ALONGA
234

Wood Park

ivalon

Greenhills

Brigadoon

Merri Tgree^

Lochbuie,
Journeys End

.maroo'

Yarranholm

>urnieV,

Ht\eyHuey
Svyamp |‘

nj AyrorCJ

lemmell
• Pineleit

* 239.

Oasis*
~-£rejrk^

lillville

Brooklyn

ine Grove

^arinya

ascot,

Palomar

PiJeview'

Nargoon

Bejmore

LERRlWACjiA

FOREST

[olmlands

CONAPAIRA EA
STATE FORjST

)mwai

Faroona

STA'JJP*

estate!

iFOREST

Numerous

Malo^H Pa:

Mintie

ERIGOLb

•pringfield,

Numerous

Mamari

lurrageen

wrum

Runnyi

CONAPAIRA EA$T
ISTATE FOREST

Yoolarai

arriah

[The /Ranch

Glenrot

.. Brunker Hill
Ravenahaw*

Nyrang*

Strathjield
. . BM216

Allaw!

A EUR,
27Z

.Yaccabri

.Wattle

?&< )ADFORl

Cowalla'

BM27I

[view.

MBtetfo

coming

*NNAN

,Heatherbrae

. Belltreehjr
Fairview y

Sylvanham

Mallowdene

himerous

Stackpooh

.Mountain

Eurabonny.

i yhe r

BALD
HILL S

larriah

Bpurnbank

.rove

iew

■Elvaston)

• Ftrdson Par!

KOLfclLBERTOO

CONRO ;

lenlee

WahW,,

CONAP/f RA
ST/fTE I

[pringval

Klambie*

Mnyol^

, Yarrandah

OE NNYj
~ STATE I
FOREST

;Yarran Vah

iotf course

Qv ondong®Park

Cooinoo.

)/ r" /

HillsiW /

j

o

Lyj Marram*

Ya :

j^Ruin / t 1 /

i / \ ■ / |/

i r x/ *

•

l0t~uy iL yv^ m __

Remnant Type

Vegetation: Characteristic Species**

Landforms and Soils

R3

Riparian and Floodplain Remnants

River Red Gum
Forests

Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Acacia stenophylla, A. saligna.

Banks, channels and backplains; grey
cracking clay and polygenetic alluvial soils

Floodplain Mosaic

Eucalyptus largiflorens, E. camaldulensis, Acacia salicina,

Muehlenbeckia Jlorulenta,

Backplains, floodplains and banks; grey
cracking soils.

Black Box Woodlands

Eucalyptus largiflorens, E. camaldulensis, E. populnea subsp.
bimbil, Acacia salicina, Acacia pendula,

Muehlenbeckia florulenta.

Floodplains, closed depressions and very
gentle rises; grey cracking clays with some
red earths and brown clays.

R4

Lignum Shrublands

Muehlenbeckia florulenta, Stipa aristiglumis.

Flats and closed depression; brown clay.

R5

Myall Woodlands

Acacia pendula, Amyema quandang, Danthonia setacea.

Gilgaied flats; grey clay.

| Yellow Box / River Red
Gum Forests

Eucalyptus melliodora, E. camaldulensis.

Flats and floodplains; brown earthy soils
and clays.

Undulating Peneplain Remnants

PI

Mallee Woodlands

Eucalyptus socialis, E. gracilis, E. dumosa, Callitris
glaucophylla, Melaleuca uncinata, Stipa aristiglumis, Triodia
scariosa subsp. scariosa.

Flats and very gentle rises; sandy red earths

P2

P7

F3

Open Mallee
Woodlands

Eucalyptus socialis, E. dumosa, E. oleosa, E. leptophylla,

Callitris glaucophylla, Casuarina cristata s.lat.,
Chrysocephalum apiculatum.

Flats and gentle rises; sandy red earths.

Open Box Woodlands

Callitris glaucophylla, Eucalyptus populnea subsp. bimbil,
E. intertexta, E. microcarpa, Allocasuarina luehmannii.

Flats and gentle slopes; loamy red earths
minor sandy red and brown earths.

Box Woodlands

Eucalyptus populnea subsp. bimbil, E. microcarpa,

E. conica, E. intertexta, Callitris glaucophylla, Allocasuarina
luehmannii.

Flats, very gentle slopes and minor drainage
lines; loamy red earths, minor sandy and
clayey red and brown earths.

Mallee / White
Cypress Pine
Intergrade

Callitris glaucophylla, Eucalyptus socialis, E. dumosa,
Eremophila glabra, Melaleuca uncinata, Eremophila glabra,
Triodia scariosa subsp. scariosa.

Flats; sandy and loamy red earths.

White Cypress Pine
Woodlands

Callitris glaucophylla, Eucalyptus populnea subsp. bimbil, E.
microcarpa, Acacia deanei subsp. paucijuga, Dodonaea viscosa
subsp. angustissima.

Flats and gentle rises; loamy red earths.

Bull Oak / Belah
Woodlands

Allocasuarina luehmannii, Callitris glaucophylla, Casuarina
cristata s. lat., Acacia homalophylla, Myoporum montanum.

Flats, minor drainage lines and shallow
depressions; gilgaied clays and red earths.

Footslope Remnants

Grasslands

Stipa scabra subsp. scabra, Danthonia setacea.

Slopes, low crests and flats; lithosols and
colluvial soils.

Open Pine and Box
Woodlands

Callitris glaucophylla, Eucalyptus populnea subsp. bimbil E
intertexta, E. dwyeri, Acacia doratoxylon, Brachychiton
populneus.

Footslopes and flats; colluvial red earths.

Pine and Box
Woodlands

Callitris glaucophylla, Eucalyptus microcarpa,

E. populnea subsp. bimbil, Acacia deanei subsp. deanei, Senna
artemisioides.

Footslopes and flats; red and brown earths.

Hill and Ridge Remnants

Dwyer’s Red Gum and
Pine Woodlands

Callitris glaucophylla, Eucalyptus dwyeri, E. sideroxylon,
Callitris endlicheri, Brachychiton populneus, Acacia doratoxylon
Allocasuarina verticil lata.

Upper and mid-slopes, crests and ridges;
lithosols and shallow brown earths.

Green Mallee
Woodlands

Eucalyptus viridis, E. sideroxylon, E. dumosa, E. gracilis, E.
polybractea, E. dwyeri, Callitris endlicheri, Melaleuca uncinata,
Acacia doratoxylon.

Low crests, gentle hillslopes and flats;
lithosols and shallow brown earths.

Pine and Poplar Box
Open Woodlands

Callitris glaucophylla, Eucalyptus populnea subsp. bimbil, E.
dwyeri, Acacia doratoxylon, Casuarina verticillata.

Hillslopes, ridges and crests; lithosols and
shallow brown earths.

Cypress Pine
Woodlands

Callitris glaucophylla, Eucalyptus dwyeri, Stipa scabra subsp.
scabra, Danthonia setacea.

Low crests and hillslopes on basalt; basalt
derived clays.

*The alpha / numeric codes refer to remnant vegetation
descriptions in Table 2 of the accompanying report.

** Complete species lists for each map units can be found on
the reverse side of this map.

NATURAL VEGETATION

of the

SOUTHERN WHEAT-BELT
CARGELLIGO
1:250 000 Map

Dominic Sivertsen and Lisa Metcalfe

NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service to accompany

This map is © NSW National Parks and Wildlife
Service, compiled from uncontrolled aerial
photography 1980 except for the stable base
information which is © Commonwealth. AUSLIG,
Australia’s National mapping agency. It has been
reproduced with permission of Australian
Surveying and Land Information Group, Department
of Administrative Services, Canberra, ACT.

SCALE 1:250 000

kilometres 0

20

=2=±:

50 kilometres

HEIGHTS IN METRES. CONTOUR INTERVAL 50 METRES

Horizontal Datum: Australian Geodetic Datum 1966
Vertical Datum: Australian Height Datum 1971
Transverse Mercator Projection: Australian Map Grid

Roads Maintained tor Public Use classified according to their

intended function as part of the national road system Sealed Unsealed

Divided road. — —

Principal road; National route marker . ..®-

Secondary road; Distance in kilometres. J6 1 -

Minor road; Road bridge. . .w

Other Roads (Use may be restricted)

Road.,.

Vehicle track.

Multiple track railway; Station; Railway bridge

Single track railway; Railway tunnel.

Light railway or tramway.

Aerodrome; Landing ground .

Power line; Fence.

Mine: Quarry or open cut mine.

© ©

Building/s; Homestead in sparsely settled area

Drive-in theatre; Yard.

Trig station; Spot height .

Cliff; Contour with value; Depression contour...

Sandridges; Sand.

Forest or scrub;Scatteied vegetation; Mangrove
Pine plantation: Orchard, plantation or vineyard .
Perennial lake; Perennial watercourse

Intermittent lake: Intermittent watercourse.

Mainly dry lake; Mainly dry watercourse.

Swamp; Land subject to inundation.

Bore or well; Spring; Tank or small dam.

Breakwater or pier: Lighthouse. Exposed wreck .

Saline coastal flat: Rock, bare or awash.

Foreshore flat; Reef.

Bathymetric contour with depth in metres.

1" of longitude = 26 metres

CUNNINGHAMIA VOLUME 4 NUMBER 1, 1995.
Royal Botanic Gardens Sydney

FAMILY / Species

ACANTHACEAE
Brunoniella australis

Rostellularia adscendens var. pogonathera

AIZOACEAE
Tetragonia tetragonoides
Glinus lotoides

AMARANTHACEAE
Alternanthera denticulata
Alternanthera nana
*Amaranthus hybridus
Ptilotus atripllcifoliiis var. atrlplicifolius
Ptilotus erubescens
Ptilotus indivisus
Ptilotus macrocephalus
Ptilotus obovatus var. obovatus
Ptilotus semilanatus
Ptilotus spathulatus

AMARYLLIDACEAE
Calostenima purpureum
Crinum jlaccidum

ANTHERJCACEAE
Arthropodium minus
Dichopogon Jimbriatus
Dichopogon strictus
Thysanotus baueri
Thysanotus tuberosus
Tricoryne elatior

APIACEAE
Daucus glochidiatus
Eryngium rostratum
Hydrocotyle laxijlora
Platysace lanceolata
Trachymene cyanopetala
Trachymene ornata

APOCYNACEAE
Parsonsia eucalyptophylla

ASCLEPIADACEAE
*Gomphocarpusfruticosus
Marsdenia australis
Rhyncharrhena linearis

ASPHODELACEAE
*Asphodelus fistulosus
Bulbine bulbosa
Bui bine semibarbata

ASPLENIACEAE
Pleurosorus subglandulosus

ASTERACEAE
Actinobole uliginosum
*Arctotheca calendula
Brachycome ciliaris
Brachycome lineariloba
Brachycome melanocarpa
Brachycome trachycarpa
Bracteantha bracteatu
Bracteantha viscosa
*Calendula arvensis
Calocephalus sonderi
Calotis anthemoides
Calotis cuneifolia
Calotis hispidula
Calotis lappulacea
Calotis scabiosifolia
Calotis scapigera
*Carduus tenuijlorus
*Carthamus lanatus
Cassinia aculeata
Cassinia adunca
Cassinia laevis
Cassinia uncata
*Centaurea calcitrapa
*Centaurea melitensis
Centipeda cunninghamii
Centipeda thespidioides
*Chondrilla juncea
Chrysocephalum apiculatum
Chrysocephalum semipapposum
*Cichorium intybus
*Cirsium vutgare
*Conyza bonariensis
Eclipta platyglossa
Euchiton sphaericus

*Hedypnois rhagodioloides subsp. cretica

Helichrysum rutidolepis

Helichrysum semifertile

Hyalosperma glutinosum subsp. glutinosum

Hyalosperma semisterile

*Hypochaeris radicata

Ixiolaena brevicompta

Ixiolaena leptolepis

Ixiolaena tomentosa

Kippistia suaedifolia

*Lactuca saligna

*Lactuca serriola

*Leontodon taraxacoides subsp. taraxacoides

Microseris lanceolata

Millotia myosotidifolia

Minuria denticulata

Minuria integerrima

Minuria leptophylla

Olearia Jlori bunda

Olearia pimeleoides

Olearia ramulosa

Olearia tenuifolia

*Onopordum acanthium subsp. acanthium

Ozothamnus obcordatus subsp. obcordatus

Ozothamnus tuckeri

*Picris hieracioides

Podolepis arachnoidea

*Podospermum resedifolium

Pterocaulon redolens

Pycnosorus chrysanthus

Pycnosorus globosus

*Reichardia tingitanu

Rhodanthe corymbijlora

Rhodanthe diffusa subsp. diffusa

Rhodanthe Jloribunda

Rhodanthe polygalifolia

Senecio quadridentatus

Solenogyne bellioides

*Sonchus oleraceus

*Taraxacum officinale

Triptilodicus pygmaeus

Vittadinia cuneata var. cuneata

Vittadinia cuneata var. hirsuta

Vittadinia dissecta var. hirta

Vittadinia gracilis

Vittadinia pterochaeta

*Xanthium occidentale

*Xanthium spinosum

BIGNONIACEAE
Pandorea pandorana

BORAGINACEAE
*Burglossoides arvensis
Cynoglossum australe
*Echium plantagineum
Halgania cyanea
Heliotropium asperrimum
Heliotropium europaeum
*Heliotropium supinum

BRASSICACEAE
Harmsiodoxa brevipes var. major
*Lepidium africanum
*Lepidium bonariense
Lepidi um pseudohyssopifol i um
*Rapistrum rugosum
*Sinapis an'ensis
*Sisymbrium altissimum
*Sisymbrium erysimoides
Sisymbrium irio
*Sisymbrium orientale
Stenopetalum lineare

CACTACEAE
*Opuntia stricta

CAMPANULACEAE
Pratia concolor
Wahlenbergia communis
Wahlenbergia Jluminalis
Wahlenbergia gracilis
Wahlenbergia luteola
Wahlenbergia planijloru subsp. planiflora
Wahlenbergia queenslandica
Wahlenbergia stricta subsp. alterna

CAPPARACEAE
Apophyllum unomalum

CARYOPHYLLACEAE
* Arena ria serpyllifolia
*Petrorhagia nanteuilii
*Silene gallica var. quinquevulnera
*Spergularia diandra
*Spergularia rubra
Stellaria angustifolia
*Stellaria media

CASUARINACEAE

Common Name

Blue Trumpet
Pink Tongues

New Zealand Spinach

R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 PI P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 F2 F3 HI H2 H4

P6 HI

R3

P3 P4

Lesser Joyweed

Rl R2 R3

P3

P4

P6

Hairy Joyweed

R2

P3

P4

P6

Slim Amaranth

Rl

Crimson Foxtail

P6

Hairy Tails

Tangled Silver Tails

P2

Green Pussy Tails

PI

P4

P5 P6

Silver Tails

P2 P3

P5

Lamb Tails

P3

P4

P6

Pussy Tails

P4

P6

P6 P7 F2

Garland Lily
Darling Lily

R3

Small Vanilla Lily

Rl

P4

P6 P7

F2

Nodding Chocolate Lily

P4

P6

Chocolate Lily

P4

P6

P3

P6

F2

Common Fringe Lily

Rl

P3

P4

P6

Yellow Autumn Lily

P4

P6

F2

Native Carrot

PI P2 P3

P4

P5 P6

F2

H2

F2 F3 HI

Blue Devil
Stinking Pennywort

Purple Parsnip
Sponge-fruit

Gargaloo

Narrow-leaved Cotton Bush
Doubah

HI

F2

P5 P6 F2 F3 HI

P3

Onion Weed
Bulbine Lily
Leek Lily

Flannel Cudweed
Cape Weed
Variable Daisy
Hard-headed Daisy
Black-seeded Daisy
Smooth Daisy
Golden Everlasting
Sticky Everlasting
Field Marigold
Pale Beauty-heads
Cut-leaved Bun-daisy
Purple Burr-daisy
Bogan Flea
Yellow Burr-daisy
Rough Bun-daisy
Tufted Burr-daisy
Winged Slender Thistle
Saffron Thistle
Dolly Bush

Cough Bush
Sticky Cassinia
Star Thistle
Maltese Cockspur
Common Sneezeweed
Desert Sneezeweed
Skeleton Weed
Common Everlasting
Clustered Everlasting
Chicory
Spear Thistle
Flax leaf Fleabane

Cretan Weed
Pale Everlasting
Dainty Everlasting

Catsear

Woolly Ixiolaena

Willow-leaved Lettuce
Prickly Lettuce
Lesser Hawkbit

Broad-leaved Millotia

R2 R3
R3

P2

P4

P4

P6

P6

HI H2

PI P2 P3 P4
P3 P4
PI P4

PI

Rl

PI

P3

P4

P6

P7

F2

F3

HI

H2

H4

Rl

PI

P3

P4

P5

P6

F2

F3

HI

H4

Rl

113

R6

P4

P6

Rl

R2

R3

PI

P2

P3

P4

P6

P7

F2

F3

HI

H2

H4

P4

P6

Rl

R3

P4

Rl

R2

R3

P4

H4

Rl

R2

PI

P2

P4

P6

P4

H4

P4

P6

P7

F2

HI

H4

PI

P4

HI

H4

Rl

R3

P3

P6

F3

111

Rl

R3

PI

P2

P3

P4

P6

F2

F3

HI

Rl

R2

R3

P4

R3

Rl

P4

P6

P7

F3

Rl

R2

R3 R4

R6

PI

P2

P3

P4

P5

P6

P7

F3

III

H2

PI

P3

P4

P6

P7

F2

HI

H4

Rl

P4

P6

R2 R3
R1 R3

R3

R1 R2 R3

R3

R3

R3

R3

R3

R1 R2 R3
R1

R2

P3

P4

P6

H2

PI

P2

P3

P4

P6

P7

F3

H4

PI

P2

P3

P5

P6

F2

F3

PI

P2

P3

P4

P5

P6

P7

F2

F3

HI

H2

H4

P3

P4

P4

P6

P7

P2

P3

P4

P6

P7

F2

F3

HI

H4

Scotch Thistle

Hawkweed Picris
Clustered Copper-wire Daisy

False Sowthistle
Small White Sunray
Ascending Sunray

Brilliant Sunray
Cotton Fircweed

Common Sowthistle
Dandelion

Fuzzweed

Fuzzweed

Rough Fuzzweed
Noogoora Bun
Bathurst Bun

R1 R2 R3

R6

R6

P4

P4

P3 P4

P2 P3 P4 P5

H2

H2

HI

P4

P4 P5 P6
P4 P6

F2

F2

R2

R3

R3

R3

P2 P3 P4
P3 P4

P2 P3

P3 P4

R1 R3

R1 R2 R3

R6

R6

P4 P6

P4 HI

P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 F2 F3 HI

P2

P4

P4

P4

F3

Rl

R3

PI

P2

P3

P4

P4

P5

P6

P7

F2

Rl

R3

R6 PI

P2

P3

P4

P5

P6

P7

F2

Wonga Wonga Vine

Sheepweed

Paterson’s Curse
Rough Halgania
Rough Heliotrope
Common Heliotrope
Prostrate Heliotrope

R1 R2 R3
R1 R2

R3

R1

R1 R2 R3 R4

R1

R1

P4

P2 P3 P4
P3

H2

P6 P7 F2 F3 HI H2
P5 P7

P6

R3

P4

Rl

R2

R3

R6

P3

P4

P4

Peppercress

Rl

R2

R3

R6

P3

P4

Turnip Weed

Rl

R2

R3

Charlock

Tall Mustard

Rl

R3

Smooth Mustard

Rl

R2

R3

PI

P3

P4

London Rocket

Rl

R2

R3

R6

PI

P2

P4

Indian Hedge Mustard
Narrow Thread-petal

R3

P2

P3

P7 F3

F2
F2

Spiny Pest-pear

Tufted Bluebell
River Bluebell

Tall Bluebell

Thyme-leaved Sandwort
Proliferous Pink
French Catchfly
Lesser Sandspurry
Sandspuny
Swamp Starwort
Common Chickweed

R1

R3

R1 R2 R3
R1

R3

R1

R1

P3 P4

P3 P4

P4 P5 P6 F3

P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 F2 HI

P4 P6

HI H2

PI P3

P3 P4

P7 F2

R3

R2 R3
R3

P6

P4

P5 P6

P3

P4

P6

F2

P3

P4

P7 F2

Allocasuarina luehmannii

Bulloak

P3

P4

P6

P7

F2

Allocasuarina verticillata

Casuarina cristuta

Drooping Sheoak

Belah

R3

PI P2 P3

P4

P6

P7

F2

HI H2

Casuarina cunninghamiana subsp. cunninghamiana River Sheoak

FAMILY/Species

CHENOPODIACEAE
A triplex leptocarpa
Atriplex semibaccata
A triplex spinibractea
Atriplex s tipi tat a
Chenopodium cristatum
Chenopodium desertorum subsp. desertorum
Chenopodium desertorum subsp. microphyllum
Chenopodium melanocarpum
*Chenopodium murale
Chenopodium nitrariaceum
Chenopodium pumilio
Einadia hastata
Einadia nutans subsp. nutans
Enchylaenu tomentosa
Maireana aphylla
Maireana decalvans
Maireana enchylaenoides
Maireana humillima
Maireana micmphylla
Neobassia proceriflora
Rhagodia spinescens
Rhagodia ulicina
Salsola kali var. kali
Sclerolaena bicornis var. horrida
Scletvlaena birchii
Sclerolaena divaricata
Sclerolaena muricata var. villosa
Sclerolaena purvijlora
Scleivlaena stelligera
Sclerolaena tetracuspis
Threlkeldia inchoata

COLCH1CACEAE
Wurmbea dioica

CONVOLVULACEAE
*Convolvulus arvensis
Convolvulus erubescens
Dichondra repens

Evolvulus alsinoides var. decumbens

CRASSULACEAE
Crassula colorata

CUCURBITACEAE
*Cucumis myriocarpus

CUPRESSACEAE
Callitris endlicheri
Callitris glaucophylla

CYPERACEAE
Care .r appressa
Carex bichenoviana
Carex inversa
*Cyperus eragrostis
Cy penis exallatus
Cyperus gy'mnocaulos
Eleocharis pollens
Eleocharis plana
Eleocharis pus ilia
Eleocharis sphacelata
Lepidosperma laterale

DILLENIACEAF
Hibbertia obtusifolia
Hibbertia riparia

ELATINACEAE
Bergia trimeru

EPACR1DACEAE
Astmlomu humifusum
Melichrus urceolatus

EUPHORBIA CEAE
Bertya cunninghamii
Beyeria opaca
Beyeria viscosa
Chamaesyce drummondii
Phyllanthus J'uernrohrii
Phyllanthus hirtellus

FABACEAE: CAESALPINIOIDEAE
Senna artemisioides subsp .plifolia
Senna artemisioides subsp. zygopylla

FABACEAE: FABOIDEAE
Aotus mollis
Bossiaea walkeri
Daviesia genistifolia
Daviesia ulicifolia
Dillwynia sericea

Common Name

Slendcr-fruit Saltbush
Creeping Saltbush

Mallee Saltbush
Crested Goosefoot
Desert Goosefoot
Desert Goosefoot
Black Crumbweed
Nettle-leaf Goosefoot
Nitre Goosefoot
Small Crumbweed
Berry Saltbush
Climbing Saltbush
Ruby Saltbush
Cotton Bush
Black Cotton Bush
Winglass Fissure-weed

Eastern Cotton Bush
Soda Bush
Thorny Saltbush

Buckbush
Goathead Bun
Galvanised Bun
Tangled Copperburr
Black Rolypoly
Mallee Copperbun
Star Copperbun
Brigalow Burr
Tall Bonelruit

Early Nancy

Bindweed

Australian Bindweed
Kidney Weed
Climbing Bindweed

Dense Stonecrop
Paddy Melon

Black Cypress Pine
White Cypress Pine

Tall Sedge

Knob Sedge
Umbrella Sedge
Giant Sedge
Spiny Sedge
Pale Spike-rush
Ribbed Spike-rush
Small Spike-rush
Tall Spike-rush
Variable Sword-sedge

Hoary Guinea-flower
Erect Guinea-flower

Small Water-fire

Native Cranberry
Urn Heath

Gooma Bush
Smooth Wallaby-bush
Sticky Wallaby-bush
Caustic Weed
Sand Spurge

R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 PI P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 F2 F3 HI H2 H4

R3

R2 R3

R3

R3

P3 P4 P6 P7 F2

P4

P3 P4
P3

P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 F2
P2 P3

R2

R2

R2

Rl

R2

P4

P6

HI

H2

Rl

R2

R3

R4

R5

R6

PI

P2

P3

P4

P5

P6

P7

F2

F3

HI

H4

R2

R3

R5

P3

P4

P6

P7

F3

H4

R5

R6

P3

P4

P6

F2

H2

R3

R3

PI

P3

P4

P5

P6

P7

F2

F3

HI

H2

P3

P4

P6

P7

F3

Rl

R3

P3

P4

P6

P7

F2

F3

R2

R3

R5

P3

P4

P5

P6

P7

H4

R3

P3

P4

P7

R3

PI

P3

P4

P6

P7

F2

H4

R3

P3

P4

P6

R3

Rl

R2

R3

R4

R5

R6

P2

P3

P4

P7

P2

R6

R2 R3
R3

R1

R1

R3

R3

R3

P3 P4
P3 P4
P3 P4

P3 P4

Rl

P4

Rl

PI

P2 P3 P4

Rl

R6

Rl

Rl

R2 R3

R6

P4

Rl

Rl

Rl

R3

Rl

R3

Rl

P6 P7 F2 F3 HI H2 H4
H2

P6 P7

F2 HI H4

P7

111

HI H2 H4

F2

PI

PI

P3 P4

P6

R1 R2 R3

HI

HI

HI H2

HI

HI

Silver Cassia
Silver Cassia

Cactus Pea
Broom Bitter Pea
Gorse Bitter Pea
Showy Panot Pea
Mallee Bush Pea

PI P2 P4

PI P3 P4

F2 F3
P6 P7 F2

R3

P2

Glycine canescens

Silky Glycine

P4

P6

P7

F2

F3

Glycine clandestina

Twining Glycine

Rl

P4

P6

F2

Glycine lari folia

Rl

R3

R6

P4

P6

F3

Glycine tabacina

Variable Glycine

P3

P4

P6

P7

F3

Glycine tomentella

Rusty Glycine

P4

Glycvrrhiza acanthocarpa

Native Liquorice

Rl

Hardenbergia violacea

False Sarsaparilla

Indigofera australis

Hill Indigo

Indigofera colutea

Rusty Indigo

Rl

Indigofera psarnmophila

F2

*Medicaga laciniata

Cut-leaved Medic

Rl

R2 R3

P3

P4

P5 P6

F3

*Medicago minima

Woolly Burr Medic

R6

P4

P6

F3

*Medicago polymorpha

Burr Medic

Rl

R2 R3

R6

P3

P4

P5 P6

P7

F2

F3

*Medicago praecox

Small-leaved Burr Medic

Rl

*Medieago truncatula

Barrel Medic

R3

R6

P4

Psoralea tenax

Emu-foot

Rl

R3

Pultenaea cinerascens
Pultenaea largijlorens
Pultenaea microphylla
Templetania aculeata

Spreading Bush Pea
Spiny Mallee Pea

P7

*Trifolium angustifolium

Narrow-leaved Clover

Rl

R3

R6

P3

P4

P6

P6

*Trifolium arvense

Haresfoot Clover

Rl

R2 R3 R4

P3

P4

P6

P6 F2 F3 HI

*Trifolium campestre

Hop Clover

Rl

R3

R6

P4

P6

P7

*Trifolium glomeratum

Clustered Clover

Rl

R2 R3

P3

P4

P6

F2

* Trifolium subterraneum

Subterranean Clover

R3

R6

* Trifolium fomentosum

Woolly Clover

Rl

R3

P6

HI

F2

HI

F2

F3

HI

F2

F3

III

H2

F2

F3

HI

H2

FABACEAE: MIMOSOIDEAE
Acacia brachybotrya
Acacia burkittii
Acacia calamifolia
Acacia cultri/ormis
Acacia deanei subsp. deanei
Acacia deanei subsp. paueijuga
Acacia decora
Acacia difformis
Acacia doratoxylon
Acacia hakeoides
Acacia havilundiorum
A cacia horn a lop hy l la
Acacia lineata
Acacia microcarpa
Acacia oswaldii
Acacia pendula
Acacia pravifolia
Acacia rigens
Acacia salicina
* Acacia saligna
Acacia spectabilis
Acacia stenophylla

FUMARIACEAE
*Fumaria bastardii

GENTIANACEAE
Centaurium spicatum
*Centaurium tenuiflorum

GERANIACEAE

*Erodium botn’s

Erodium crinitum

*Erodium malacoides

Geranium solanderi var. solanderi

Pelargonium inodorum

GOODEN I ACE AE
Brunonia australis
Dampiera lanceolata
Gooden ia cyclop ter a
Goodenia fascicularis
Goodenia glabra
Goodenia glauca

Goodenia hederacea var. hederacea
Goodenia heteromera
Goodenia ovata
Goodenia pinnatijida
Goodenia sp. mallee
Scacvola aemula

HALORAGACEAE
Gonocarpus elatus
Haloragis aspera
Haloragis glauca
Haloragis heterophylla
Myriophyllum verrucosum

I RID ACE AE

*Romulea rosea var. australis

JUNCACEAE
Junctis aridicola
Juncus australis
*Juncus bufonius
Juncus flavidus
Juncus homalocaulis
Juncus radula
Juncus remotiflorus
Juncus subsecundus

LAM I ACE AE

Ajuga australis

*Marrubium vulgare

Mentha diemenica

Mentha satureioides

Prostanthera aspalathoides

Prostanthera serpyllifolia var. microphylla

Pivstanthera nivea

* Prunella vulgaris

* Salvia verbenaca
Teucrium racemosum
Westringia cheelii

Grey Mulga
Sandhill Wattle

PI

PI

P3

Wallowa

P2

P4

F2

Knifed-lcavcd Wattle

H4

Green Wattle

P3

P4

P6

P7

F2

F3

HI

Green Wattle

P2

P3

P4

P6

P7

Western Golden Wattle

P4

F2

F3

HI

Drooping Wattle

P3

P5

H4

Currawang

PI

P3

P4

P6

P7

F2

HI

H2 H4

Hakea Wattle

P3

P4

P6

F2

Haviland’s Wattle

PI

P3

P4

P6

F2

Yarran

PI

P4

P7

Streaked Wattle

PI

P2

H4

Manna Wattle

P6

HI

Miljee

PI

P3

P4

P6

P7

H4

Weeping Myall

R3 R5

P3

P7

Coil-pod Wattle
Needle Wattle
Cooba

Golden Wreath Wattle
Mudgee Wattle
River Cooba

Bastard Fumitory
Spike Centuary

Long Storkbill
Blue Crowfoot

Native Geranium

Blue Pincushion
Grooved Dampiera
Serrated Goodenia
Silky Goodenia
Smooth Goodenia
Pale Goodenia
Forest Goodenia
Spreading Goodenia

Scrambled Eggs
Mallee Goodenia
Common Fan-flower

Hill Raspwort
Rough Raspwort
Grey Raspwort
Variable Raspwort
Common Water-milfoil

Onion Grass

Tussock Rush

Toad Rush

Jointed-leafRush
Hoary Rush

Finger Rush

Austral Bugle
Horehound
Slender Mint
Creeping Mint
Scarlet Mint-bush
Smalled-leavcd Mint-bush
Snowy Mint-bush
Self-heal
Wild Sage
Grey Germanda
Mallee Rosemary

R2

R1 R2 R3

R1

R6

R3

R1

R1

P6

P6

P6

P3 P4 P5 P6
P6

P6

HI

F3 HI H4

HI

HI

R1

R1

R1 R3
R1 R2 R3
R1
R1

R3

R6

PI

P4

P5

P6

P7

F2

F3

HI

R3

P3

P6

R3

P4

P5

P6

P7

F3

R3

R6

PI

P4

P6

III

P4

P6

F3

HI

PI

P3

P4

P6

P7

F2

F3

HI

PI

P2

P4

P6

F3

HI

P4

P6

P4

P6

F2

F3

HI

H2 H4

R6

R6

R2

R3

R3

R2

R3

R5 R6

R3

R6

R2

R3

R6

R1

R1

Rl

R1 R2 R3
R3

Rl R3

P3 P4

P6 P7 F2

P7

P4

P3 P4

P4 P6 P7

R6 P3 P4 P5 P6 F2

P6

F3

PI

PI

H2

Rl

P4

P3 P4

FAMILY / Species

Common Name

Rl

R2

R3

LAURACEAE

Cassytha melantha

Mallee Strangle-vine

LOGANIACEAE

Logania albijlora

Narrow-leaf Logania

Mitrasactne paradoxa

Wiry Mitrewort

LORANTHACEAE

Amyema linophyllum subsp. orientale

Slender-leaf Mistletoe

Amyetna miquelii

Box Mistletoe

Rl

R2

R3

Amyema miraculosum subsp. boormanii

Fleshy Mistletoe

Amyema quandang var. bancroftii

Grey Mistletoe

R3

Amyema quandang var. quandang

Grey Mistletoe

LYTHRACEAE

Lythrum hyssopifoUa

Hyssop Loosestrife

R3

MALVACEAE

Abu til on otocarpum

Desert Chinese Lantern

Hibiscus trionum

Bladder Ketmia

Rl

*Malvastnm americanum

Malvastrum

Rl

*Modiola carolitiiana

Rl

Sida conugata

Corrugated Sida

Rl

R2

R3

Sida cunninghamii

Ridge Sida

Rl

R3

Sida ftbulifera

Pin Sida

Rl

Sida intneata

Twiggy Sida

R3

Sida petrophila

Rock Sida

*Sida rhomhifolia

Paddy’s Luerne

R3

Sida sp. C

R2

R3

Sida trichopoda

High Sida

Rl

R3

PI P2 P3

P4

P5 P6 P7 F2

F3 HI

H2 H4

FAMILY / Species

POLYGONACEAE

PI

P4

P5

HI

H4

*Emex australis
Muehlenbeckia florulenta
Persicaria decipiens

HI

Persicaria hydropiper

F2

Persicaria orientalis
Persicaria prostrata
*Polygonum arenaslrum

P3

P7

*Polygonum avietdare

P3

P4

P6

H4

* Polygonum patulum

H4

Polygonum plebeium

P3

P7

Rumex bidens

Rumex brownii

*Rumex conglomeratus
* Rumex crispus
Rumex crystallinus
Rumex stenoglottis
Rumex tenax
F2

PORTULACACEAE
Anacampseros australiana

P4

Calandrinia eremaea

R6

P3

P4

P5 P6

P7

F2

F3

HI H2

PI

P3

P4

P6

P7

F2

F3

H2

PRIMULACEAE

R5

P3

P4

F3

*Anagallis arvensis

P4

PROTEACEAE

R6

Gtwillea Jloribunda

R5

P6

Gtvvillea rosmarinifolia

Hakea tephrosperma

Common Name

Rl

R2

R3

R4

R5 R6

Three Cornered Jacks
Lignum

Rl

R2

R3

R4

R6

Slender Knotweed

Water Pepper

Rl

R2

Princes Feathers

Rl

Creeping Knotweed
Wireweed

Rl

R2

R3

Wireweed

Rl

R3

R6

Tree Hogweed

Small Knotweed

Rl

R3

R6

Mud Dock

Rl

R2

R3

R6

Clustered Dock

Rl

Curled Dock

Shiny Dock

Rl

R2

R3

Shiny Dock

R3

R3

Scarlet Pimpernel R6

Rusty Spider Flower

P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 F2 F3 HI H2 H4

P3

P4

P4

P3 P4 P6 P7 F3 HI

P4 P6

H2

PI P2 F3 HI

P3 P6 F3

HI H2
PI

PI P2 P4 P6 F2 F3 HI H2

MARSILEACEAE
Marsilea drummondii
Marsilea hirsuta

Common Nardoo
Short-fruit Nardoo

Rl R2 R3 R4 R6
R2 R3 R5

P3

P4

RANUNCULACEAE

Clematis microphylla var. microphyllx

*Ranunculus muricatus

Small-leaved Clematis

Sharp Buttercup Rl

PI P2 P3

P5

MYOPORACEAF.

Eremopli 'la bignoniijlora

Eurah

P4

P6

Eremop/vla debilis

Winter Apple

R2 R3

R5

P3

P4

P6

P7

Eretnophila deserti

Turkeybush

PI

P3

P7

Eremophila glabra

Tar Bush

PI

P2

P5 P6

Eretnophila longifolia

Berrigan

P3

P4

Eretnophila mitchffllii

Budda

PI

P3

P7

Eremoph 'la polyclada

Flowering Lignum

R2 R3

Myoporum tnontanum

Western Boobialla

PI

P3

P4

P6

P7

F3

MYRTACEAE
Calytrix tetragona
Eucalyptus albens
Eucalyptus blakelyi
Eucalyptus camaldulensis
Eucalyptus con tea

Eucalyptus largijlorens
Eucalyptus leptophylla
Eucalyptus melliodora

Common Fringe Myrtle
White Box
Blakely’s Red Gum
River Red Gum
Fuzzy Box

HI

F3 HI

Rl R2 R3

R6

R6

P4

P4

P7

P6 P7

Eucalyptus dumosa

Congoo Mallee

PI P2 P3 P5 P6

H4

Eucalyptus dwyeri

Dwyer's Malice Gum

Rl

P6 F2

HI H2 H4

Eucalyptus gracilis

Yorell

PI

H4

Eucalyptus intertexta

Red Box

PI P3 P4 P6 P7 F2

HI H2

Black Box

Narrow-leaved Red Mallee
Yellow Box

Rl R2 R3

Rl R3

PI P2

P2 P3 P4

Eucalyptus microcarpa

Grey Box

Rl

R6

P3

P4

P6

P7

F3 HI

H2 H4

Eucalyptus oleosa

Glossy-leaved Red Mallee

PI

P2

Eucalyptus polybractea

Blue Mallee

H4

Eucalyptus populnea subsp. bimbil

Poplar Box

R3

P3

P4

P5

P6

; F2

F3

H2

Eucalyptus sideroxylon

Mugga Ironbark

PI

P4

P6

F2

HI

H4

Eucalyptus socialis

Red Mallee

PI

P2

P3

P5

Eucalyptus viridis

Green Mallee

F2

H4

Leptospe mum divaricatum

F2

HI

H4

Leptospennum palygalifolium subsp. transmontanum
Melaleuca lanceolata

Moonah

HI

H4

Melaleuca uncinata

Broombush

PI

P2

P5

H4

Micromyrtus ciliata

Micromyrtus sessilis

Fringed Heath-myrtle

PI

P2

HI

NYCTAG1NACEAE
Boerhaviu dominii

Tarvine

P6 P7

OLEACEAE
Jasminuir lineare

Desert Jasmine

F2

ONAGRACEAE

Ludwigia peploides subsp. montevidensis
*Oenothera stricta

Water Primrose
Evening Primrose

ORCHIDACEAE
Caladenia patersonii
Pterostylis biset a

Spider Orchid

P2

P5

OXALIDACEAF.
Oxalis chnoodes

Rl R2 R3 R4 R5 R6

P3 P4

P6 P7 F2 F3 HI H2

PAPAVERACEAE

*Argemone ochroleuca subsp. ochroleuca

Mexican Poppy

R3

PHORMlACEAE
Dianella 'ongijolia var. lortgifolia
Dianella revblUta var. revoluta
Stypandra glauca

PITTOSPORACEAE
Pittospor.tm phylliraeoides

Spreading Flax-lily
Nodding Blue-lily

Weeping Pittosporum

Rl R2 R3

R3

PI P3 P4

PI P2 P3 P4 P5

P6 P7
P6

F2

F2 F3

P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 F2

PLANTAG1NACEAE
Plantago cunninghamii
Plantago turrifera

POACEAE

Rl

R3

R3

P4 P6 P7

P4

Agrostis ovenacea

Rl

R2

R3

R6

P4

P6

HI

Amphipogon caricinus var. caricinus

Long Grey-beard Grass

F2

111

Aristida kehriana

Bunched Wiregrass

R3

P3

P4

P5

P6

111

H2

Aristida jerichoensis var. subspinulufera

Jerico Wiregrass

P4

F2

III

H2

Aristida ramosa

Rl

P4

Aristida vagans

Thrccawn Speargrass

P3

Astrebla clymoides

Hoop Mitchell Grass

P4

Astrebla lappacea

Curly Mitchell Grass

Rl

R5

*Avena lu loviciana

Ludo Wild Oats

Rl

R2

R3

R4

R6

P3

P4

P5

P6

P7

F2

F3

HI

H2

*Avena saliva

Oats

Rl

P3

P4

Bothriochloa decipiens

Red Grass

P3

*Briza minor

Shivery Grass

HI

Bromus arenarius

Sand Brome

R3

*Bromus tartharticus

Prarie Grass

Rl

R2

R3

R6

P3

P4

H2

* Bromus diandrus

Great Brome

Rl

R2

R3

R5

P2 P3

P4

III

* Bromus molliformis

Soft Brome

Rl

R2

R3

R4 R5

R6

P3

P4

P5

P6

P7

F2

F3

III

H2

* Bromus rubens

Red Brome

Rl

R2

R3

PI P2 P3

P4

P5

P6

P7

F2

F3

HI

H2

Chloris divaricata var. divaricata

Slender Chloris

R2

Chloris truncata

Windmill Grass

R2

R3

P3

P6

Cymhopogon refractus

Barbed Wire Grass

HI

Cynodon dactylon

Couch

Rl

R2

*Cynodon incompletm

Rl

Danthonia auriculata

Lobed Wallaby Grass

F2

HI

H2

Danthonia caespitosa

Ringed Wallaby Grass

R3

PI P2

P4

P6

P7

F2

H2

ianthonia duttoniana
ianthonia eriantha
>anthoniu linkii va t.fulva
ianthoniu linkii var. linkii
hnthonia monticolu
)anthoniu richardsonii
lanthonia setacea
lichelacl ne micrantha
■chinopogon ovatus
?hrharta calycina
Shrharta longijlora
Elymus si.aber var. scaber
'nteropoypn acicularis
Eragrostis fa leaf a
Eragrostis lacunaria
Eragmsti . leptostacliya
Eragrostii parvi/lom
Eragrostis setifolia
Eragrosth sororia
Eriochloa procera
Eriochloa pseudoacrotricha
Eulalia avrea
Hainardiu cylindrica
lomopho'is prvluta
Hordeum leporinum
Lamarckia aurea
.eptochloa digitata
Lolium perenne
Lolium rigidum
Jonachather paradoxa
3 anicum ejfusttm

^anicum queenslandicum var. queenslandicum
?anicum subxerophilum
^aspalidium albovillosum
3 aspalidium aversum
^aspalidium constrictum
3 aspalidium distans
3 aspalidium globoideum

R6

P3 P4
P4

F3 HI
HI

P4 P5 P6
P4

H4

H4

Small-flowered Wallaby Grass
Shorthair Plume Grass
Forest Hedgehog Grass
Perennial Veldtgrass
Annual Veldtgrass
Common Wheatgrass

Sickle Lovegrass
Purple Lovegrass
Paddock Lovegrass
Weeping Lovegrass
Neverfail

Spring Grass
Early Spring Grass
Silky Brown Top
Common Barbgrass

Barley Grass
Golden Top
Umbrella Canegrass
Perennial Ryegrass
Wimmera Ryegrass
Bandicoot Grass

Yadbila Grass
Gilgai Grass

Rl R2 R3
R2

R3

R3

Rl

R3

R6 PI

Rl R2 R3 R4 R5 R6
Rl

R3

R3

R3

R2 R3

Rl

Rl R2 R3 R4 R5

R3

Rl R3

Rl R3 R4 R6

Rl R2 R3 R5 R6

P3

P4

P5

P6

F3

HI

H2

P6

P3

P4

P5

P6

P7

F2

F3

HI

H2

P4

P6

P4

P3

P4

P5

P6

P7

F2

F3

HI

H2

P3

P4

P5

P6

P7‘

F2

F3

HI

H2

P4

P7

P3 P4

F2 F3

P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 F2 F3

P3 P4
P4

P3 P4 P6

P4

H2

Knottybutt Grass
Shotgrass

Rl

Rl

Rl

Rl

R3

R3

Paspalidium gracile

Slender Panic

R3

P6

HI

Paspalidium jubiflorum

Warrego Grass

Rl

R2

R3

P3

HI

*Paspalutr. dilatatum

Paspalum

Rl

R2

*Pentaschistis airoides

False Hairgrass

Rl

PI P2 P3

P4

P6

P7 F2 F3 HI

Perotis ram

Comet Grass

Rl

R3

P3

*Phalaris minor

Lesser Canary Grass

R3

*Phalaris paradaxa

Paradoxa Grass

Rl

R2

R3

R5 R6 P3

P5

P6

F3

Poa fordenna

R2

R3

Pua labilLirdieri

Tussock Grass

R3

P4

P6

HI

Poa sieberiana var. sieberiana

P4

*Rostraria cristata

Annual Cat’s Tail

P3

P6

F2 HI

straria pumila

trobolus mitchellii

iu acrociliata

ia aristiglumis

ia bigeniculata

i a blackii

ia densijlora

ia elegantissima

ia eretnophila

ia ntewtoris

ia nitida

ia nodosa

ia platychaeta

ia ramosissima

ia scabra subsp. scabra

ia stuposa

7 a trickophylla

7 a tuckeri

•ia verticillata

7 a wakoolica

mdolepis mitchelliana

idia scuriosa subsp. scariosa

iticum aestivum

lpia bromoides

Rough Tail
Rat’s Tail Couch

Plains Grass

Feather Speargrass

H2

R3

P4

P4

P3

P6 P7

P6

P6

F2

P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7
P5
P5

P6

Flat-awn Speargrass

Stout Bamboo Grass

R6

P3

P4

P6

III

Speargrass

Rl

R3

PI

P2

P3

P4

P5

P6

P7

F2

F3

111

H2

H4

R3

PI

P3

P4

P5

P6

P7

F3

HI

P3

P4

P6

F2

F3

HI

H4

P3

Rl

R5

P3

P4

P6

P7

F2

III

H2

Mulga Mitchell Grass

R3

P2

P3

P4

P6

F2

HI

H2

Porcupine Grass

Wheat

Rl

PI

P2

P5

Squirrel Tail Fescue

Rl

R2

R3 R4

P3

P4

P6

F2

F3

HI

H2

H4

P4

P5

P7

Rat’s Tail Fescue

Rl

R2

R3

PI

P2

P3

P4

P5

P6

P7

F2

F3

HI

H2

H4

RHAMNACEAE
Ventilago viminalis

Supple Jack

F3

ROSACEAE
*Rosa rubiginosa

RUBIACEAE
Asperula cunninghamii
Canthium odoratum
*Galium aparine
*Galium divaricatum

RUTACEAE

Eriostemon difformis subsp. difformis
Eriostemon myoporoides subsp. acutus
Geijera parviflora

Phebalium glandulosum subsp. glanlulosum

Phebalium obcordatum

Philotheca salsolifolia

Philotheca sp. A

Zieria aspalathoides

SANTALACEAE
Exocarpos cupressiformis
Suntulum acuminatum
Santalum lanceolatum

Sweet Briar

Twining Woodruff
Shiny-leaved Canthium
Goosegrass
Slender Bedstraw

Small-leaf Wax flower
Long-leaf Wax flower
Wilga

Desert Phebalium
Club-leaf Phebalium

Native Cherry
Sweet Quandong
Northern Sandalwood

R3 R4

R3

R6

R6

P6 P7

P3 P4 P6

P4

P6

HI

P4 P5

P6

F2

HI

P4

F2

HI

HI

P4

HI

H4

H4

H4

SAPINDACEAE

Alectryon oleifolius subsp. elongatus
Atalaya hemiglauca
Dodonaea horoniifolia
Dodonaea hetemmorpha
Dodonaea peduncularis
Dodonaea viscosa subsp. angustissima
Dodonaea viscosa subsp. cuneata
Dodonaea viscosa subsp. mucronata
Dodonaea viscosa subsp. spatulata

SCROPHULARIACEAE
*Kickxia elatine subsp. crinita
Mint ulus gracilis

Orobanche cernua var. australiana
Veronica plebeia

SINOPTERIDACEAE
Cheilantltes austrvtenuifolia
Cheilanthes distans
Cheilanthes lasiophylla

Western Rosewood
White wood
Fern IcafHopbuoL

Narrow-leaf Hopbush
Narrow-leaf Hopbush
Narrow-leaf Hopbush
Narrow-leaf Hopbush

Twining Toadflax
Slender Monkey-flower
Australian Broomrape
Trailing Speedwell

Rock Fern
Bristle Cloak Fern
Woolly Cloak Fern

R5

R2

R3

P2 P3 P4
P4

PI

PI

PI

P3

P4

P6

F3

HI

P4

P6

P7 F2

HI

H4

P4

F2

P3

P4

P6

F2

HI

P3 P4
P3

P6

P6

HI

P6 P7 F2 F3 HI H2 H4
HI
HI

SOLANACEAE
*Lycium ferocissimum
Nicotiana simulans
Solatium cinereum
*Solatium elaeagnifolium
Solatium esuriale
Solanum ferocissim um
*Solatium nigrum
Solatium tetrathecum

African Boxthom

Narrawa Burr
Silver-leaved Nightshade
Quena

Black-berry Nightshade

P3 P4

P6 P7

Rl

R3

P6

Rl

R2

R3 R4

P3 P4

P6

P6

Rl

R2

R3

P6

F2

F2

STACKHOUSIACEAE
Stackhousia monogyna
Srackhousia viminea

STERCULIACEAE

Brachychiton populneus subsp. trilobus

Brachychiton populneus subsp. populneus

THYMELAEACEAE
Pimelea Jlava subsp. dichotoma
Pimelea micrantha
Pimelea mierocephala
Pimelea neo-anglica
Pimelea stricta

Creamy Candles
Slender Stackhousia

Kurrajong

Kurrajong

Shrubby Rice-flower
Gaunt Rice-flower

Rl

Rl

P4

P3

P4 P5

P6

P7 F2

F3

HI

P3

P4

P6

F2

F3

HI

H2

P3

P4

P6

F2

F3

HI

H2

PI

PI P2
P2

TYPHACEAE
Typha domingensis

URTICACEAE
Parietaria debilis

Narrow-leaved Cumbungi

F2

VERBENACEAF
*Phyla nodiflora

* Verbena bonariensis
Verbena officinalis

* Verbena supitta

Carpet Weed

Rl

R2

R3 R4

P4

Purple Top

R3

R6

Common Verbena

Rl

R2

R3

R5

P4

Trailing Verbena

Rl

R3

R6

VIOLACEAE
Hyhanthus monopetalus

XANTI10RRH0EACEAE

Lomandra confertifolia subsp. rubiginosa

Lomandra effusa

Lomandra ftliformis subsp. coriacea
Lomandra glauca

Lomandra leucocephala subsp. lettcocephala
Lomandra longifolia
Lomandra multijlora subsp. multijlora
Lomandra patens

ZYGOPHYLLACEAE
*Tribulus terrestris
Zygophyllum glaucum

Slender Violet-bush

Scented Mat-rush
Wattle Mat-rush
Pale Mat-rush

Woolly Mat-rush Rl

Spiny-headed Mat-rush Rl

Many-flowered Mat-rush

Cat-head

Pale Twinleaf R3

F2 HI H2

PI

PI

P4 P5

P6

HI

PI

P6

P4

P6

F3

P4

P6

P4

P6

F2 HI

P3 P4

P3 P4

P2 P7

H2

Species list for the Forbes/Cargelligo Study Area.

Species are listed alphabetically by family then genus. The alphanu¬
meric codes are the remnant types, as mapped, in which the species
was recorded. Asterisks (*) denote exotic species.

STATE

H6w6ftraiF

V radio
telescope

'Bardeen^

Byong

arrabundie

[garnie

/ Beargarr

A 1 WEST/
L : ORE&fs

nurberous tanks

bT»WCLI

is^tionJ

Cooks

Myalls

numerous tanks ant

WEST d
^NATl

^ Goobang

Avalcn

nume rous ta nks and
small da/rfa

iardir)©

agricultural

research

station

tuhbishl

MtytlNT CM,

I //course

GUNNINGBLAfvlTL
NATIONAL I
FDREST^^
Atl^nd a I e-XP® ■ -7

dchlan

INANTA&i
F O UN TAIN

Maudra

Tlmaroa

quarry

£naeai/our.

.QUWV*

quarry

cemetery

iterleyi

quarry

llTdFfr

X'WOLABktR.

\MQUNJA/N

Monorni

:Yarrabam

Ootha

Gurrrtfhgbland

u^Zqwetery

merous 'channels

trotting track

CarlaclT

/' / Brolgan

WARDSl

'fterewomhi
lagoon ^

recourse

imnrnrp

irrawi

■umbwiy

area

iabanrioi.

STATE FORES

quarry

■420 P“
Murine Able

numerous tanks

numerous tanks and small daml

vm.

Biimber)

re^royl

Ullfidulla

Beraman&-

InpkBnYrdg era

KJL&9Thm.

■

CaisheJ

Weir

'arregal.

lama

ingrove

Tien Hall
Place

Ichborne

nut lefuus tanks-fi'/id si

MOtjNT

BOULTON.

aroo

nurr^us channels

Wheatlands

WA TRE]

iaTionu

r outer

■

• 7juarm

m0On Kcoqnambro

Glenlot!

Khumbir

Yarragoi

numerous

jans

Sogandillon

"Epirholme

llgindrie Pai

Ham says
agoon

indillon

i }LOf0S
OUNTAIN

>ug Bridge

marries

gilgai Kookaburra!

Ellerslie

Ce e'orest

, Back
Yamma

Lachlan Dale

Carlowrie

Loch Maree

rdmona

levees

B/d-£yfMO$eHilL

Gooleroni

The Ranch,

Laurel Hills

wnetervi j

cemeferyi

numerous cl i

ikewa

Laurieston

ly on a Bellview

, } T l '-sTtfuarry

slATUBE

iesepV)

Ederney Hill

quarry

:

tower

ibu/vijrJfVLok

marry

10W NT A! I

Ascot

\erous tanks and

numerous channels

Manru?,

Corine lla

[offport

Ascot Vale

Merryland:

The

Yashpooli

quarry l

nerous channels

headers

Lagoon

numerous tanks and

[quarhes

infield Park

’augar,

NcRANCJ

NAtlONA

Round Swamp

Bareenong

7 moun\

Measanj ^

erouSj

Euhng

Warerhole

irawlin

•Dungarvan

EUGLO SOUTH
NATIONAL FORES

quatry

RosevaleV^X

:ooinooi

Alaw;

Trajeftr

Belleforest

track

Grawlin Park

marry

quarries

GRA WLIN

PLAIN

BARWlUfiYlLLS

cemetery o

^pquarry

lgnc^bu/4^

quarry

racecourse

rf Weelongj

\ Glenvi

inami.

-quarry^
-HILL *

MULYANDRY
STATE FOREST

Gareiria]

GeradarT

Allambie

The Wilges

^mboyne

IlStfSSfr -\ *

numerous

YNE MOUNT A, N

poetry

tgrove

.RRAWANDOOL

STATE

FOREST

iistonl

U vtting

Heyfield

Thornton

LCorringle
\ fdisuseo)

fafeking

Lakevit

Pinnacle

Reefs

Kentucky

quarry

] ^quarry
iH/LL SIXTY

Meldrith

humorous

mines

UNGARIE
ATE FOREST

numerous tanks ami small dams

iwongai

CORRWGLE
STATE FOREST

Hillview

Yarralea

fyVARRUt

tSowalJrx

Warrangl#^-

Iron baiks

Winfl'ora

FORE!

'inna

quarry

lelrosj

quarry

Ta r ooma

racecourse

PullabQl

.^lAUDRy

Nstat-6.

disused

Glenrc

CLEAR RIDGI
&TE FOREST

rums

numerous ranks mid small dams

STATE'
f FOREST

Iriftway c

7 j quarry-.

WnfrUd^ttY

llloura

'B! RANG A)

WYRR$

.STATE FOREST

tisuseW

■MONJAL\H!Ll

■lucyhtTl

illAWATpA
STAIE FOREST,

BARBlflGAL
STATE

'REST,

laragabal

,Westfiel<

quarry

racint

, trotting
V tracks

Yarrendale

rubbish dp t
golf course/'

^Corner Cat!
\ Camp

ruins

FOREST-

qu mies

BACKCREEK^
STATB FOREST

iwood

ruins

■fif EN FELL

ininjary

JINGBRANCKE
STATtf FORE?

BlWI M^VLEE'
W^fife-ROREST,

K/ llys Qfeek^'

ngong...

N ^erendebba

tiack

mei\s^

J l

Wyaloi

Centra

y quarries

fATIOI'

numerous tanksfana small dams

/jj^liams Crossing

quarry

[wEDdlW

Bellevue

NATI'

Creek Richrfndn^j. \

f rubbish

numerous- {a iks and small dams

v 1

TT

1

r ^

’/

/>?,

■

i-i

1 cU/

In/

/L 1

\

un

act

Pattern* Remnant Type

Vegetation: Characteristic Species**

Landforms and Soils

Riparian and Floodplain Remnants

River Red Gum
Forests

Eucalyptus cammdulensis, Acacia stenophylla, A. saligna.

Banks, channels and backplains; grey
cracking clay and polygenetic alluvial soils.

Floodplain Mosaic

Eucalyptus largijlorens, E. camalchdensis, Acacia salicina,
Muehlenbeckia florulenta.

Backplains, floodplains and banks; grey
cracking soils.

Black Box Woodlands

Eucalyptus largijlorens, E. camaldulensis, E. populnea subsp.
bimbil, Acacia salicina, Acacia pendula,

Muehlenbeckia florulenta.

Floodplains, closed depressions and very
gentle rises; grey cracking clays with some
red earths and brown clays.

R4

Lignum Shrublands

Muehlenbeckia florulenta, Stipa aristiglumis.

Flats and closed depression; brown clay.

Myall Woodlands

Acacia pendula, Amyema quandang, Danthonia setacea.

Gilgaied flats; grey clay.

Yellow Box / River Red
Gum Forests

Eucalyptus melliodora, E. camaldulensis.

Flats and floodplains; brown earthy soils
and clays.

Undulating Peneplain Remnants

PI

Mallee Woodlands

Eucalyptus socialis. E. gracilis, E. dumosa, Callitris
glaucophylla, Melaleuca uncinata, Stipa aristiglumis, Triodia
scariosa subsp. scariosa.

Flats and very gentle rises; sandy red earths.

P2

P7

Open Mallee
Woodlands

Eucalyptus socialis, E. dumosa, E. oleosa, E. leptophylla,
Callitris glaucophylla, Casuarina cristata s.lat.,
Chrysocephalum apiculatum.

Flats and gentle rises; sandy red earths.

Open Box Woodlands

Callitris glaucophylla, Eucalyptus populnea subsp. bimbil,
E. intertexta, E. niicrocarpa, Allocasuarina luehmannii.

Flats and gentle slopes; loamy red earths
minor sandy red and brown earths.

Box Woodlands

Eucalyptus populnea subsp. bimbil, E. microcarpa,

E. conica, E. intertexta, Callitris glaucophylla, Allocasuarina
luehmannii.

Flats, very gentle slopes and minor drainage
lines; loamy red earths, minor sandy and
clayey red and brown earths.

Mallee / White
Cypress Pine
Intergrade

Callitris glaucophylla, Eucalyptus socialis, E. dumosa,
Eremophila glabra, Melaleuca uncinata, Eremophila glabra,
Triodia scariosa subsp. scariosa.

Flats; sandy and loamy red earths.

White Cypress Pine
Woodlands

Callitris glaucophylla, Eucalyptus populnea subsp. bimbil, E.
microcarpa. Acacia deanei subsp. paueijuga, Dodonaea viscosa
subsp. angustissima.

Flats and gentle rises; loamy red earths.

Bull Oak / Belah
Woodlands

Allocasuarina luehmannii, Callitris glaucophylla, Casuarina
cristata s. lat., Acacia homalophylla, Myoporum montanum.

Flats, minor drainage lines and shallow
depressions; gilgaied clays and red earths.

F3

Footslope Remnants

Grasslands

Stipa scabra subsp. scabra, Danthonia setacea.

Slopes, low crests and flats; lithosols and
colluvial soils.

Open Pine and Box
Woodlands

Callitris glaucophylla. Eucalyptus populnea subsp. bimbil, E
intertexta, E. dwyeri, Acacia doratoxylon, Brachychiton
populneus.

Footslopes and flats; colluvial red earths.

Pine and Box
Woodlands

Callitris glaucophylla, Eucalyptus microcarpa,

E. populnea subsp. bimbil, Acacia deanei subsp. deanei, Senna
artemisioides.

Footslopes and flats; red and brown earths.

Hill and Ridge Remnants

Dwyer’s Red Gum and
Pine Woodlands

Callitris glaucophylla. Eucalyptus dwyeri, E. sideroxylon,
Callitris endlicheri, Brachychiton populneus, Acacia doratoxylon,
A llocasuarina verticil lata.

Upper and mid-slopes, crests and ridges;
lithosols and shallow brown earths.

Green Mallee
Woodlands

Eucalyptus viridis, E. sideroxylon, E. dumosa, E. gracilis, E.
polybractea, E. dwyeri, Callitris endlicheri, Melaleuca uncinata,
Acacia doratoxylon.

Low crests, gentle hillslopes and flats;
lithosols and shallow brown earths.

Pine and Poplar Box
Open Woodlands

Callitris glaucophylla, Eucalyptus populnea subsp. bimbil, E.
dwyeri, Acacia doratoxylon, Casuarina verticillata.

Hillslopes, ridges and crests; lithosols and
shallow brown earths.

Cypress Pine
Woodlands

Callitris glaucophylla, Eucalyptus dwyeri, Stipa scabra subsp.
scabra, Danthonia setacea.

Low crests and hillslopes on basalt; basalt
derived clays.

*The alpha / numeric codes refer to remnant vegetation
descriptions in Table 2 of the accompanying report.

** Complete species lists for each remnant type can be found
on the reverse side of this map.

NATURAL VEGETATION

of the

SOUTHERN WHEAT-BELT
FORBES
1:250 000 Map

Dominic Sivertsen and Lisa Metcalfe

NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service to accompany

This map is © NSW National Parks and Wildlife
Service, compiled from uncontrolled aerial
photography 1989 except for the stable base
information which is © Commonwealth, AUSLIG,
Australia’s National mapping agency. It has been
reproduced with permission of Australian
Surveying and Land Information Group. Department
of Administrative Services, Canberra, ACT.

S

SCALE 1:250 000

5_

5_10_

5 Nautical Miles

10 Statute Miles
15 Kilometres

POPULATED PLACES

Built-up area; Homestead; Located object. .

Town/Settlement: Large; Small; Yard. O o o

ROADS

Sealed two or more lanes; Sealed one lane.

Unsealed two or more lanes; Unsealed one lane.

Vehicle track; Foot track or trail.

HYDROGRAPHY

Lake: Perennial; Intermittent; Mainly dry ..

Marsh or swamp; River or creek; Mangrove.

Subject to inundation; Ledge; Reef or rocks

Nipa; Intertidal flat; Shoal.

Saline coastal flat; Wreck exposed.

Rock bare or awash; Depth curve.

RAILWAYS

Multiple track with station; Single track ..

BOUNDARIES

International; Other administrative.

Interterritorial state, territory or province..

CUNNINGHAMIA VOLUME 4 NUMBER 1, 1995.
Royal Botanic Gardens Sydney

FAMILY / Species

ACANTHACEAE
Brunoniella australis

Rostellularia adscendens var. pogonathera

AIZOACEAE
Tetragonia tetragonoides
Glinus lotoides

AMARANTHACEAE

AMARYLLIDACEAE
Calostemma purpureum
Crinum flaccidum

ANTHERJCACEAE

ASPLENIACEAE
Pleurosorus subglandulosus

ASTERACEAE
Actinobole uliginosum
'Arctotheca calendula
Brachycome ciliaris
Brachycome lineariloba
Brachycome melanocarpa
Brachycome trachycarpa
Bracteantha bracteata
Bracteantha viscosa
'Calendula arvensis
Calocephaltis sonderi
Calotis anthemoides
Calotis cunelfolia
Calotis hispidula
Calotis lappulacea
Calotis scabiosifolia
Calotis scapigera
*Carduus tenuiflorus
'Carthamus lanatus
Cassinia aculeata
Cassinia adunca
Cassinia laevis
Cassinia uncata
'Centaurea calcitrapa
*Centaurea melitensis
Centipeda cun n Ingham ii
Centipeda thespidioides
'Chondrilla juncea
Chrysocephalum apiculatum
Chrysocephalum semipapposum
*Cichorium intybus
*Cirsium vulgare
*Conyza bonariensis
Eclipta platyg/ossa
Euchiton sphaericus

*Hedypnois rhagodioloides subsp. cretica

Helichrysum rutidolepis

Helichrysum semifertile

Hyalosperma glutinosum subsp. glutinosum

Hyalospenna semisterile

*Hypochaeris radicata

Ixiolaena brevicompta

Ixiolaena leptolepis

Ixiolaena tomentosa

Kippistia suaedi folia

*Lactuca saligna

*Lactuca serriola

*Leontodon taraxacoides subsp. taraxacoides

Microseris lanceolata

Millotia myosolidifolia

Minuria denticulata

Minuria integerrima

Minuria leptophylla

Olearia Jloribunda

Olearia pimeleoides

Olearia ramulosa

Olearia tenuifolia

'Onopordum acanthium subsp. acanthium
Ozothamnus obcordatus subsp. obcordatus
Ozothamnus tuckeri

* Pier is hieracioides
Podolepis arachnoidea
*Podospermum resedifolium
Pterocaulon redolens
Pycnosorus chrysanthus
Pycnosorus globasus

* Re ichardia tingitana
Rhodanthe corymbijlora
Rhodanthe diffusa subsp. diffusa
Rhodan the jloribunda
Rhodanthe polygalifolia
Senecio quadrideniutus
Solenogyne bellioides
*Sonchus oleraceus

'Taraxacum officinale
Triptilodicus pygmaeus
Vittadinia cuneata var. cuneata
Vittadinia cuneata var. hirsuta
Vittadinia dissecta var. hirta
Vittadinia gracilis
Vittadinia pterochaeta
'Xanthium occidentale
'Xanthium spinosum

BIGNONIAC'EAE
Pandorea pandorana

BORAGINACEAE
*Burglossoides arvensis
Cynoglosstim australe
*Echium plantagineum
Halgania cyanea
Heliotropium asperrimum
Heliotropium europaeum

* Heliotropium supinum

BRASSICACEAE
Harmsiodoxu brex’ipes var. major
*Lepidium africanum
'Lepidium bonariense
Lepidium pseudohyssopifolium
*Rapistrum rugosum
*Sinapis arvensis
'Sisymbrium altlssimum
'Sisymbrium erysimoides
Sisymbrium irio
'Sisymbrium orientate
Stenopetalum lineare

CACTACEAE
*Opuntia stricta

CAMPANULACEAE
Pratia concolor
Wahlenbergia communis
Wahlenbergia /luminalis
Wahlenbergia gracilis
Wahlenbergia luteola
Wahlenbergia planijlora subsp. planiflora
Wahlenbergia queenslandica

Common Name

Blue Trumpet
Pink Tongues

New Zealand Spinach

R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 PI P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 F2 F3 HI H2 H4

P6 HI

R3

P3 P4

P3

Altemanthera denticulata

Lesser Joy weed

Rl R2 R3

P3

P4

P6

Alternanthera nano

Hairy Joy weed

R2

P3

P4

P6

*Amaranthus hvbridus

Slim Amaranth

Rl

Ptilotus atriplicifolius var. atriplicifolius

Crimson Foxtail

P6

Ptilotus erubescens

Hairy Tails

Ptilotus indivisus

Tangled Silver Tails

P2

Ptilotus macrocephalus

Green Pussy Tails

PI

P4 P5

P6

Ptilotus obovaius var. obovatus

Silver Tails

P2 P3

P5

Ptilotus semilanatus

Lamb Tails

P3

P4

P6

Ptilotus spathulatus

Pussy Tails

P4

P6

P6 P7 F2

Garland Lily
Darling Lily

Arthropodium minus

Small Vanilla Lily

Rl

P4

P6 P7

F2

Dichopogon fimbria tus

Nodding Chocolate Lily

P4

P6

Dichopogon strictus

Chocolate Lily

P4

P6

Thysanotus baueri

P3

P6

F2

Thysanotus tuberosus

Common Fringe Lily

Rl

P3

P4

P6

Tricoryne elatior

Yellow Autumn Lily

P4

P6

F2

APIACEAE

Daucus glochidiatus

Native Carrot

PI P2 P3

P4 P5

P6

F2

Eryngium rostratum

Blue Devil

Rl

Hydrocotyle laxiflora

Platysace lanceolata

Stinking Pennywort

P6

Trachvmene cyanopetala

Purple Parsnip

Trachymene ornata

Sponge-fruit

F2

APOCYNACEAE

Parsonsia eucalyptophylla

Gargaloo

P5

P6

F2

ASCLEPIADACEAE

'Gomphocarpusfruticosus

Narrow-leaved Cotton Bush

P6

Marsdenia australis

Doubah

PI

Rhyncharrhena linearis

P3

ASPHODELACEAE
*Asphodelus fistulosus

Onion Weed

Rl

Bulbine bulbosa

Bulbine Lily

R2 R3

P2

P4

P6

F2

Bulbine semibarbata

Leek Lily

R3

P4

P6

H2

HI H4

H2

HI H2

Flannel Cudweed
Cape Weed
Variable Daisy
Hard-headed Daisy
Black-seeded Daisy
Smooth Daisy
Golden Everlasting
Sticky Everlasting
Field Marigold
Pale Beauty-heads
Cut-leaved Burr-daisy
Purple Burr-daisy
Bogan Flea
Yellow Burr-daisy
Rough Burr-daisy
Tufted Burr-daisy
Winged Slender Thistle
Saffron Thistle
..Dolly Bush

Cough Bush
Sticky Cassinia
Star Thistle
Maltese Cockspur
Common Sneezewecd
Desert Sneezewecd
Skeleton Weed
Common Everlasting
Clustered Everlasting
Chicory
Spear Thistle
FlaxleafFleabanc

Cretan Weed
Pale Everlasting
Dainty Everlasting

Catsear

Woolly Ixiolaena

Willow-leaved Lettuce
Prickly Lettuce
Lesser Hawkbit

Broad-leaved Millotia

Scotch Thistle

Hawkweed Picris
Clustered Copper-wire Daisy

False Sowthistle
Small White Sunray
Ascending Sunray

Brilliant Sunray
Cotton Fircwced

Common Sowthistle
Dandelion

Fuzzweed
Fuzz weed

Rough Fuzzweed
Noogoora Burr
Bathurst Burr

Wonga Wonga Vine

Sheepweed

Paterson’s Curse
Rough Halgania
Rough Heliotrope
Common Heliotrope
Prostrate Heliotrope

Peppercress
Turnip Weed
Charlock
Tall Mustard
Smooth Mustard
London Rocket
Indian Hedge Mustard
Narrow Thread-petal

Spiny Pcst-pear

Tufted Bluebell
River Bluebell

R1

R3

R1
R1
R1
R1

R1

R1 R2
R1 R2

R1

P2 P3 P4
P3 P4
P4

FAMILY / Species

CHENOPODIACEAE
A triplex leptocarpa
A triplex semibaccata
A triplex spinibractea
A triplex s tipi tat a
Chenopodhim cristatum
Chenopodium desertorum subsp. desertorum
Chenopodium desertorum subsp. microphyllum
Chenopodium melanocarpum
'Chenopodium murale
Chenopodium nitrariaceum
Chenopodium pumilio
Einadia hastata
Einadia nutans subsp. nutans
Enchylaena tomentosa
Maireana aphylla
Maireana decalvans
Maireana enchylaenoides
Maireana humillima
Maireana microphylla
Neobassia proceriflora
Rhagodia spinescens
Rhagodia ulicina
Salsola kali var. kali
Sclerolaena bicornis var. horrida
Sclerolaena hirchii
Sclerolaena divaricata
Sclerolaena muricata var. villosa
Sclerolaena parviflora
Sclerolaena stelligera
Sclerolaena tetracuspis
Threlketdia inchoata

COLCHICACEAE
Wurmbea dioica

CONVOLVULACEAE
* Convolvulus arvensis
Convolvulus erubescens
Dichondra repens

Evolvulus alsinoides var. decumbens

CRASSULACEAE
Crassula colorata

CUCURBITACEAE
*Cucumis myriocarpus

CUPRESSACEAE
Callitris endlicheri
Callitris glaucophylla

CYPERACEAE
Carex appressa
Carex bichenoviana
Carex inversa
'Cyperus eragrostis
Cyperus exaltatus
Cyperus gymnocaulos
Eleocharis pollens
Eleocharis plana
Eleocharis pusilla
Eleocharis sphacelata

Common Name

Slender-fruit Saltbush
Creeping Saltbush

Malice Saltbush
Crested Goosefoot
Desert Goosefoot
Desert Goosefoot
Black Crumbweed
Nettle-leaf Goosefoot
Nitre Goosefoot
Small Crumbweed
Berry Saltbush
Climbing Saltbush
Ruby Saltbush
Cotton Bush
Black Colton Bush
Winglass Fissure-weed

Eastern Cotton Bush
Soda Bush
Thorny Saltbush

Buckbush
Goathead Bun-
Galvanised Bun-
Tangled Copperburr
Black Rolypoly
Mallec Copperburr
Star Copperburr
Brigalow Burr
Tall Bonefruit

Early Nancy

Bindweed

Australian Bindweed
Kidney Weed
Climbing Bindweed

Dense Stonecrop

R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 PI P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 F2 F3 HI H2 H4

R1 R3

R1 R2 R3

R3

R3

R2

R2

R2

P3 P4 P6 P7 F2

P4

P3 P4
P3

P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 F2 F3
P2 P3 F3

P3

Rl

R2

P4

P6

HI

H2

Rl

R2

R3

R4

R5

R6

PI

P2

P3

P4

P5

P6

VI

F2

F3

HI

H4

R2

R3

R5

P3

P4

P6

VI

F3

H4

R5

R6

P3

P4

P6

F2

H2

R3

R3

PI

P3

P4

P5

P6

VI

F2

F3

HI

H2

P3

P4

P6

VI

F3

Rl

R3

P3

P4

P6

VI

F2

F3

R2

R3

R5

P3

P4

P5

P6

VI

H4

R3

P3

P4

VI

R3

PI

P3

P4

P6

VI

F2

H4

R3

P3

P4

P6

R3

Rl

R2

R3

R4

R5

R6

P2

P3

P4

VI

R6

R2 R3
R3

R1

R1

P3

P3

P3

P6

P6

F3

P7 F2 F3

H2 H4
H2

R3

P3 P4 P6 P7

Paddy Melon

Black Cypress Pine
White Cypress Pine

Tall Sedge

Knob Sedge
Umbrella Sedge
Giant Sedge
Spiny Sedge
Pale Spike-rush
Ribbed Spike-rush
Small Spike-rush
Tall Spike-nish

Rl

P4

Rl

PI

P2 P3 P4 P5

P6 VI

Rl

R6

Rl

Rl

R2 R3

R6

P4

V7

Rl

Rl

Rl

R3

Rl

R3

Rl

R1

R1

R1

R2 R3
R1 R3

R3

R1 R2 R3

PI

P3

P4

P6

P7

F2

F3

111

H2

H4

Lepidosperma laterale

Variable Sword-sedge

HI

PI

P3

P4

P5

P6

F2

F3

111

H4

PA

DILI PNHCEAF

R3

Hibbertia ohtusifolia

Hoary Guinea-flower

HI

R6

P4

Hibbertia riparia

Erect Guinea-flower

HI

R3

PI

P2

P3

P4

P6

V7

F2

F3

HI

H2

H4

ELATINACEAE

P4

P6

Betgia trimera

Small Water-fire

Rl

R3

P4

**

R3

P4

H4

EPACRIDACEAE

P4

P6

Astroloma humifusum

Native Cranberry'

HI

PI

P2

P4

Melichnts urceolatus

Um Heath

P6

F2

HI

H4

EUPHORBIA CEAE

P4

P6

V7

F2

III

H4

Berty’a cunninghamii

Gooma Bush

PI

P3

P4

P6

HI

PI

P4

HI

H4

Beyeria opaca

Smooth Wallaby-bush

PI

R3

P3

P6

F3

HI

Beyeria viscosa

Sticky Wallaby-bush

HI

R3

PI

P2

P3

P4

P6

F2

F3

HI

Chamaesyce drummondii

Caustic Weed

Rl R2 R3

P4

P6 P7

HI

R3

P4

Phvllanthus fuernrohrii

Sand Spurge

HI

R3

P4

P6

V7

F3

Phvllanthus hirtellus

HI

R3 R4

R6 PI

P2

P3

P4

P5

P6

V7

F3

HI

H2

FABACEAE: CAESALPINIOIDEAE

PI

P3

P4

P6

V7

F2

HI

H4

Senna artemisioides subsp. ftlifolla

Silver Cassia

PI

P2

P4

F2

F3

Senna artemisioides subsp. zygopylla

Silver Cassia

PI

P3

P4

P6 P7

F2

P4

P6

P6

P4

H2

R1

R1

R3

R3

R3

R3

R3

PI

PI

PI

R1 R2 R3 R4
R1

R2

R6

R1 R2 R3

P3

P4

P6

P7

P3

P5

P6

F2

P3

P4

P5

P6

P7

F2

P3

P4

P4

P6

P7

P3

P4

P6

P7

F2

P4

P4

P3

P4

P6

P3

P4

P5

F2

P4

F2

P4

P5

P6

F2

P4

P6

P7

P6

P4

P6

F2

F3

H4

HI

H2

H2

R3

R3

R3

R1 R3
R1 R2 R3 R4

R1

R3

R3

R3

R1 R2 R3
R1 R2

R6

R6

R6

PI

R6 PI

P2 P3 P4
P3 P4

P2 P3

P3 P4
P4
P4

P7

P6 P7

F2

P2

P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 F2 F3 HI
HI

P4

P4

P4

F3

Rl

R2

R3 R4

R6

P2

P3

P4

PI

P3

Rl

Rl

R3

R3

P4

Rl

R2

R3

R6

P3

P4

P4

Rl

R2

R3

R6

P3

P4

Rl

R2

R3

R3

Rl

Rl

R2

R3

PI

P3

P4

Rl

R2

R3

R6

PI

P2

P4

R3

P2

P3

P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 VI F2 F3

P4

P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 VI F2

P4

H2

P6 P7 F2 F3 HI H2
P5 P7

P6

P6 P7

P7 F3

F2
F2

R1

R3

R1 R2 R3
R1

R3

R1

P3 P4

P3 P4

P4 P5 P6

P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 F2

HI

F3

P4 P6

Wahlenbergia stricta subsp. alterna

Tall Bluebell

Rl

CAPPARACEAE

Apophyllum anomalum

Warrior Bush

CARYOPHYLLACEAE

'Arenaria serpyllifolia

Thyme-leaved Sandwort

'Petrorhagia nanteuilii

Proliferous Pink

Rl

'Silene gallica var. quinquevulnera

French Catch fly

'Spergularia diandra

Lesser Sandspurry

R3

'Spergularia rubra

Sandspurry

R2 R3

Stellaria angustifolia

Swamp Starwort

R3

'Stellaria media

Common Chickweed

Rl

CASUARINACEAF,

A Uoeasttarina luehmannii

Bulioak

Allocasuarina verticil lata

Drooping Sheoak

Casuarina cristata

Belah

R3

Casuarina cunninghumiuna subsp. cunninghamiana

River Sheoak

Rl

PI P3

P3 P4

VI F2

FABAC'EAE: FABOIDEAE
A of US mollis
Bossiaea walkcri
Daviesia genistifolia
Daviesia ulicifolia
Dillwynia sericea
Eutaxia microphylla
Glycine canescens
Glycine clandestina
Glycine latifolia
Glycine tabacina
Glycine tomentella
Gl yet rrhiza acanthocarpa
Hardenbergia violacea
Indigofera australis
Indigofera colutea
Indigofera psammophila
*Medicago laciniata
'Medicago minima
'Medicago polymorpha
*Medicago praecox
*Medicago truncatula
Psoralea tenax
Pultenaea cinerascens
Pultenaea largifforens
Pultenaea microphylla
Templetonia aculeata
*Trifolium angustifolium
*Trifolium an'ense
'Trifolium campestre
'Trifolium glomeratum
'Trifolium subterraneum
'Trifolium tomentosum

FABACEAE: M1MOSOIDEAE

Acacia brachybotrya

Acacia burkittii

Acacia calamijblia

Acacia cultriformis

Acacia deanei subsp. deanei

Acacia deanei subsp. paueijuga

Acacia decora

Acacia dijformis

Acacia doratoxylon

Acacia hakeoides

Acacia havilandiorum

Acacia homalophylla

Acacia lineata

Acacia microcar pa

Acacia Oswald ii

Acacia pendula

Acacia pravifolia

Acacia rigens

Acacia salicina

*Acacia saligna

Acacia spectabilis

Acacia stenophylla

FUMARIACEAE
* Fumaria bastardii

GENTIANACEAE
Centaurium spicatum
* Centaurium tenuijlorum

GERANIACEAE
* Erodium hottys
Erodium crinitum
'Erodium malacoides
Geranium solanderi var. solanderi
Pelargonium inodorum

GOODENIACEAE
Brunonia australis
Dampiera lanceolata
Goodenia cycloptera
GoodeniaJ'ascicularis
Goodenia glabra
Goodenia glauca

Goodenia hederacea var. hederacea
Goodenia heteromera
Goodenia ovata
Goodenia pinnatifida
Goodenia sp. mallee
Scaevola aemula

HALORAGACEAE
Gonocarpus elatus
Haloragis aspera
Haloragis glauca
Haloragis heterophylla
Myriophyll um verrucosum

1R1DACEAE

Cactus Pea
Broom Bitter Pea
Gorse Bitter Pea
Showy Parrot Pea
Mallee Bush Pea
Silky Glycine
Twining Glycine

Variable Glycine
Rusty Glycine
Native Liquorice
False Sarsaparilla
Hill Indigo
Rusty Indigo

Cut-leaved Medic
Woolly Burr Medic
Burr Medic

Small-leaved Burr Medic
Barrel Medic
Emu-foot

Spreading Bush Pea
Spiny Mallec Pea
Narrow-leaved Clover
Harcsfoot Clover
Hop Clover
Clustered Clover
Subterranean Clover
Woolly Clover

Grey Mulga
Sandhill Wattle
Wallowa

Knifed-leaved Wattle
Green Wattle
Green Wattle
Western Golden Wattle
Drooping Wattle
Currawang
Hakea Wattle
Havilands Wattle
Yarran

Streaked Wattle
Manna Wattle
Miljee

Weeping Myall
Coil-pod Wattle
Needle Wattle
Cooba

Golden Wreath Wattle
Mudgee Wattle
River Cooba

Bastard Fumitory
Spike Centuary

Long Storkbill
Blue Crowfoot

Native Geranium

Blue Pincushion
Grooved Dampiera
Serrated Goodenia
Silky Goodenia
Smooth Goodenia
Pale Goodenia
Forest Goodenia
Spreading Goodenia

Scrambled Eggs
Mallee Goodenia
Common Fan-flower

Hill Raspwort
Rough Raspwort
Grey Raspwort
Variable Raspwort
Common Water-milfoil

F2

H4

P2

P4

P6

P7

F2

F3

HI

Rl

P4

P6

F2

Rl

R3

R6

P4

P6

F3

P3

P4

P6

P7

F3

HI

P4

Rl

HI

HI

Rl

F2

Rl

R2

R3

P3

P4

P5

P6

F3

R6

P4

P6

F3

Rl

R2

R3

R6

P3

P4

P5

P6

P7

F2

F3

Rl

R3

R6

P4

Rl

R3

Rl

R3

R6

P3

P4

P6

Rl

R2

R3 R4

P3

P4

P6

Rl

R3

R6

P4

P6

Rl

R2

R3

P3

P4

P6

R3

R6

Rl

R3

P6

HI

F2

HI

F2

F3

III

F2

F3

HI

H2

F2

F3

HI

H2

PI

PI

P3

P2

R3

R2

R1 R2 R3

PI

PI

PI

PI P2
PI

PI P2

P4

F2

H4

P3

P4

P6

P7

F2

F3

HI

P3

P4

P6

P7

P4

F2

F3

HI

P3

P5

H4

P3

P4

P6

P7

F2

HI

H2 H4

P3

P4

P6

F2

P3

P4

P6

F2

P4

P6

P7

HI

H4

P3

P4

P6

P7

H4

P3

P7

R1

R3

R1

R1

R6

P6

P6

P6

P3 P4 P5 P6
P6

F3 HI H4

HI

R1

R1

R1 R3
R1 R2 R3
R1
R1

R3

R6

PI

P4

P5

P6

P7

F2

F3

HI

R3

P3

P6

R3

P4

P5

P6

P7

F3

R3

R6

PI

P4

P6

III

P4

P6

F3

HI

PI

P3

P4

P6

P7

F2

F3

HI

PI

P2

P4

P6

F3

HI

P4

P6

P4

P6

F2

F3

HI

R6

R6

R6

P6

* Romulea rosea var. australis

Onion Grass

P3

P6 P7 F2

P4 P5

P6

HI

H2

P3

P4

P6

F2

JUNCACEAE

Juncus aridicola

Tussock Rush

Rl R2 R3

P3

P4

P7

F2

HI

H2

Juncus australis

R3

P3

P4

P6

P7

F2

P3

P4

P6

P7

F2

'Juncus bufonius
Juncus ffavidus
Juncus homalocaulis
Juncus radula
Juncus remotiflorus
Juncus suhsecundus

LAMIACEAE

Ajuga australis

' Marrubium vulgare

Mentha diemenica

Mentha satureioides

Prostanthcra aspalathoides

Prostanthera serpyllifolia var. microphylla

Prostanthera nivea

* Prunella vulgaris

' Salvia verbenaca

Teucrium racemosum

Westringia cheelii

Toad Rush

Jointed-leaf Rush
Hoary Rush

Finger Rush

Austral Bugle

Horchound

Slender Mint

Creeping Mint

Scarlet Mint-bush

Smalled-leaved Mint-bush

Snowy Mint-bush

Self-heal

Wild Sage

Grey Gcrmanda

Malice Rosemary

R1

R1

R!

P3

P4

R2

R3

R5 R6

P4

R3

R6

P3

P4

R2

R3

R6

P4

PI

R2

R3

R6

P3

P4

F3

P6 VI

F2

R1

R3

R3

R3

PI

PI

P4

P3 P4

P2

FAMILY/Species

LAURACEAE
Gassytha melon tha

LOGAN1ACEAE
Logania albiffora
Mitrasacme paradoxa

LORANTHACEAE

Amyema linophyllum subsp. orientate

A my etna ntiquelii

Amyema miraculosum subsp. boormanii
Amyema quandang var. bancroftii
Amyema quandang var. quandang

LYTHRACEAE
Ly thrum hyssopifuliu

MALVACEAE
Abutilon olocarpum
Hibiscus trionum
*Malvastrum americanum
*Modiole caivliniana
Sida cor mgata
Sid a cunninghamii
Sida fibulifera
Sida intricata
Sida petrophila
*Sida rhvmbifolia
Sida sp. C
Sida trichopoda

MARS1LEACEAE
Mars ilea drummondii
Marsileo hirsuta

MYOPORACEAE

Common Name
Mallee Strangle-vine

Narrow-leaf Logania
Wiry Mitrcwort

Slender-lcaf Mistletoe
Box Mistletoe
Fleshy Mistletoe
Grey Mistletoe
Grey Mistletoe

Hyssop Loosestrife

Desert Chinese Lantern
Bladder Kctmia
Malvastrum

Corrugated Sida
Ridge Sida
Pin Sida
Twiggy Sida
Rock Sida
Paddy’s Luerne

R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 PI P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 F2 F3 HI H2 H4

PI P4 P5 HI H4

HI

F2

R1 R2 R3

R3 R5

R3

P3

P3 P4

P3

P6

H4

H4

F2

R1

R1

R1

R1

R1

R1

P4

R3

R6

P3

P4 P5

P6

P7

F2

F3

R3

PI

P3

P4

P6

P7

F2

F3

R5

P4

F3

R3

P3

P4

R3

R6

H2

H2

High Sida

Common Nardoo
Short-fruit Nardoo

R2 R3
R3

R1 R2 R3 R4
R2 R3

R6

R5

P3

FAMILY/Species

POLY GONACF. AE
*Emex australis
Much ten beckia florulen ta
Persicaria decipiens
Persic aria hvdropiper
Persicaria orientalis
Persicaria pivstrata
*Polygonum aivnastrum
'Polygonum aviculare
*Polygonum patulum
Polygonum plebeium
Rumex bidens
Rumex brownii
*Rumex conglomeratus
*Rumex crispus
Rumex ctystaUinus
Rumex stenoglottis
Rumex tenax

PORTULACAC’EAE
A nacampseros australiana
Calandrinia eremaea

PRIMULACEAE
*Anagallis arwnsis

PROTEACEAE
Grevitlea jloribunda
Grevillea rosmarinifolia
Hakea tephrosperma

RANUNCULACEAE
Clematis microphylla var. microphylla
*Ranunculus muricatus

RHAMNACEAE

Common Name

Rl

R2

R3

R4

R5 R6 PI

P2 P3

P4

Three Cornered Jacks
Lignum

Rl

R2

R3

R4

R6

P3

P4

Slender Knotweed

Water Pepper

Rl

R2

Princes Feathers

Rl

Creeping Knotweed
Wireweed

Rl

R2

R3

P4

Wireweed

Rl

R3

R6

Tree Hogweed

Small Knotweed

Rl

R3

R6

Mud Dock

Rl

R2

R3

R6

P3

P4

Clustered Dock

Rl

Curled Dock

Shiny Dock

Rl

R2

R3

P4

Shiny Dock

R3

F3 HI

P4 P6

R3

Scarlet Pimpernel
Rusty Spider Flower

Small-leaved Clematis
Sharp Buttercup

R6

PI P2

PI

PI P2

PI P2 P3

P4

F3 HI

F3

HI H2
F2 F3 HI H2

HI

R1

Eremophila bignoniiflnra

Eurah

P4

P6

F2

Ventilugo viminalis

Supple Jack

Eremophila debilis

Winter Apple

R2 R3

R5

P3

P4

P6

P7

F3

Eremophila deserti

Turkeybush

PI

P3

P7

ROSACEAE

Eremophila glabra

Tar Bush

PI

P2

P5

P6

'Rosa rubiginosa

Sweet Briar

Eremophila longifolia

Berrigan

P3

P4

Eremophila mitchellii

Budda

PI

P3

P7

F3

RUBIACEAE

Eremophila polyclada

Flowering Lignum

R2 R3

Asperula cunninghamii

Twining Woodruff

Myoporum montanurn

Western Boobialla

PI

P3

P4

P6

P7

F2

H4 Canthium odoratum

Shiny-leaved Canthium

*Galium aparine

Goosegrass

MYRTACEAE

'Galium divarieatum

Slender Bedstraw

Calytrix tetragona

Common Fringe Myrtle

PI

F2 HI

R6

P6 VI

P3 P4 P6

P4

Eucalyptus albens
Eucalyptus blakelyi
Eucalyptus camaldulensis
Eucalyptus conica
Eucalyptus dumosa
Eucalyptus dwyeri
Eucalyptus gracilis
Eucalyptus inter text a
Eucalyptus largijhrens
Eucalyptus leptophylla
Eucalyptus melliodora
Eucalyptus microcarpa
Eucalyptus oleosa
Eucalyptus polvbractea
Eucalyptus populnea subsp. bimbil
Eucalyptus sidetvxylon
Eucalyptus socialis
Eucalyptus viridis
teproKpt i mum dhzricatum

Leptospirmum polygalifolium subsp. transmontanum

Melaleuca lanceolata

Melaleuca uncinata

Micromyrtus ciliata

Micnunyrtus sessilis

NYCTAGINACEAE

Boerhavia dominii

OLEACEAE
Jasminum lineare

ONAGRACEAE

Ludwigiapeploides subsp. montevidensis
*Oenothi ra stricta

ORCHIDACEAE
Caladenia patersonii
Pterostylis biseta

OXALIDACEAE
Oxalis cimoodes

PAPAVERACEAE

*Argentone ochroleuca subsp. ochroleuca

PHORM1ACEAE
Dianella longifolia var. longifolia
Diattella revoluta var. revoluta

White Box
Blakely’s Red Gum
River Red Gum
Fuzzy Box
Congoo Mallee
Dwyer’s Mallee Gum
Yore 11
Red Box
Black Box

Narrow-leaved Red Mallee
Yellow Box
Grey Box

Glossy-leaved Red Mallee

Blue Mallee

Poplar Box

Mugga Ironbark

Red Mallec

Green Mallee

Moonah

Broombush

Fringed Heath-myrtle

F3 HI

R1 R2 R3

R1

R1 R2 R3

R1 R3

R1

R6

R6

PI

PI

P4

P4

P3 P4

R6

R6

PI P2

P2 P3 P4
P3 P4

VI

P6 VI
P5 P6

P6 F2

P6 VI F2

P6 VI F2
P6 P7

H4

HI

H2

H4

H4

HI

H2

HI

H2

H4

PI P2

P3 P4 P5 P6

PI

PI P2 P3

PI P2
P2
PI

P5

F2 F3
F2

F2

F2

H4

H4

H4

H4

P6 VI

F3

Desert Jasmine

Water Primrose
Evening Primrose

Spider Orchid

Mexican Poppy

Spreading Flax-lily

R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6

R3

HI

P2 P5 F2 HI

P3 P4 P6 P7 F2 F3 HI H2

R1 R2 R3

PI P3 P4

PI P2 P3 P4 P5

P6

P6

P7 F2

F2 F3

H4

RUTACEAE

Eriostemon dijformis subsp. dijformis
Eriostemon myoporoides subsp. acutus
Geijera parviflora

Phebalium glandulosum subsp. glandulosum

Phebalium obcordatum

Philotheca salsolifolia

Pltilotheca sp. A

Zieria aspalathoides

SANTALACEAE
Exocarpos cupressiformis
Santalum acuminatum
Santalum lanceolatum

SAPINDACEAE

Alectryon olei/blius subsp. elongatus
Atalaya hemiglauca
Dodonaea boroniifolia
Dodonaea Iteteromorpha
Dodonaea peduncularis
Dodonaea viscosa subsp. angustissima
Dodonaea viscosa subsp. cuneata
Dodonaea viscosa subsp. mucronata
Dodonaea viscosa subsp. spatulata

SCROP1IULAR1ACEAE
*Kickxia elatine subsp. crinita
Mimulus gracilis

Orobanche cernua var. australiana
Veronica plebeia

SINOPTERIDACEAE
Cheilanthes austrotenuifolia
Cheilanthes distans
Cheilanthes lasiophylla

SOLANACEAE
*Lyci um Jemcissi m um
Nicotiana sirnulans
Solanum cinereum
*Solanum elaeagnifolium
Solanum esuriale
Solanum Jerocissimum
*Solanum nigrum
Solanum tetrathecum

STACKHOUSIACEAE

Small-leaf Waxflower
Long-leaf Waxflower
Wilga

Desert Phebalium
Club-leafPhebalium

Native Cherry
Sweet Quandong
Northern Sandalwood

Western Rosewood
Whitewood
Fern-leaf Hopbush

Narrow-leaf Hopbush
Narrow-leaf Hopbush
Narrow-leaf Hopbush
Narrow-leaf Hopbush

Twining Toadflax
Slender Monkey-flower
Australian Broomrapc
Trailing Speedwell

Rock Fern
Bristle Cloak Fern
Woolly Cloak Fern

African Boxthorn

Narrawa Burr
Silver-leaved Nightshade
Quena

Black-berry Nightshade

R3

P6

HI

P4 P5

P6

F2

HI

P4

F2

HI

HI

P4

HI

R5

P4

P7

P2

P3

P4

P4

111

PI

P2

PI

P2

P3

P4

P6

F3

111

PI

P4

P6

P7

F2

HI

P4

F2

P3

P4

P6

F2

HI

H4

H4

H4

R6

P6

P6

H4

R3

P3 P4
P3

P3 P4

P6 VI F2 F3 HI H2 H4
HI

P6 VI

Rl

R3

P6

Rl

R2

R3 R4

P3 P4

P6

P6

Rl

R2

R3

P6

F2

F2

HI

P6

Stypantlra glauca

Nodding Blue-lily

HI H2

Stackhousia monogyna

Creamy Candles

P4

Stackhousia viminea

Slender Stackhousia

PI P2 P3

P4 P5

P6

P7 F2

F3

PITTOSPORACEAE

Pittospomm phyllirueoides

Weeping Pittosporum

R3

P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 F2

H4

STERCULIACEAE

Brachychiton populneus subsp. trilobus

Kurrajong

Rl

P3

P4

P6

F2

F3

PLANTAGINACEAE

Brachychiton populneus subsp. populneus

Kurrajong

Rl

P3

P4

P6

F2

F3

H2

H2

Plantagn cunninghamii
Plantagc turrifera

POACEAE

R3

R3

P4 P6 P7

P4

Agwslis avenacea

Rl

R2

R3

R6

P4

P6

III

Amphipogon caricinus var. caricinus

Long Grey-beard Grass

F2

111

Aristida behriana

Bunched Wiregrass

R3

P3

P4

P5

P6

III

H2

Aristida jerichoensis var. subspinulufera

Jerico Wiregrass

P4

F2

111

H2

Aristida tOfnosa

Rl

P4

Aristida lagans

Threcawn Speargrass

P3

Astrebla elymoides

Hoop Mitchell Grass

P4

Astrebla lappacca

Curly Mitchell Grass

Rl

R5

*A vena Ittdoviciana

Ludo Wild Oats

Rl

R2

R3 R4

R6

P3

P4

P5

P6

P7i

F2

F3

HI

H2

* A vena scitiva

Oats

Rl

P3

P4

Bothriochloa decipiens

Red Grass

P3

'Briza minor

Shivery Grass

HI

Bromus orenarius

Sand Brome

R3

*Bnnnus Garth articus

Praric Grass

Rl

R2

R3

R6

P3

P4

H2

*Bromus Jiandrus

Great Brome

Rl

R2

R3

R5

P2

P3

P4

III

*Bromus molljbrmis

Soft Brome

Rl

R2

R3 R4

R5

R6

P3

P4

P5

P6

P7

F2

F3

III

H2

*Bivmus rubens

Red Brome

Rl

R2

R3

P

1 P2

P3

P4

P5

P6

P7

F2

F3

111

H2

Chloris diva neat a var. divaricata

Slender Chloris

R2

Chloris tnweata

Windmill Grass

R2

R3

P3

P6

Cymbopogon ref met us

Barbed Wire Grass

HI

Cynodon dactylon

Couch

Rl

R2

'Cynodon incompletus

Rl

Danthonia auriculata

Lobcd Wallaby Grass

F2

HI

H2

Danthonia caespitosa

Ringed Wallaby Grass

R3

P

1 P2

P4

P6

P7

F2

H2

H4

H4

Danthona duttoniuna
Danthonia eriantha
Danthonia linkii var. fulva
Danthon a linkii var linkii
Danthoma monticola
Danthonia richardsonii
Danthonia setacea
Dichelachne micrantha
Echinopogon ovatus
*Ehrharta calycina
*Ehrharta longiflora
Elynutsi caber var. scaber
Lnteropcgon acicularis
Eragrostis falcata
Eragivstis lacunariu
Eragrostis leptostachya
Eragrostis parviflora
Eragrostis setifolia
Eragrostis sororia
Eriochtoa pracera
Eriochloit pseudoacrotricha
Eulalia ourea
*Hainardta cylindriea
Homopholis prvluta
'Hordeunt lepohnum
*iamarckia aurea
Leptochha digitata
'Lolium perenne
'Loliurn rigidum
Monachather paradoxa
Panieum effusion

Panieum queenslandicum var. queenslandicum

Panieum subxerophilum

Paspalidium albaviltosum

Paspulidtum axersum

Paspalidium constriction

Paspuliditini distans

Paspalidutm g/oboidcum

R3

R6

P3 P4
P4

P4 P5 P6
P4

H4

H4

Small-flowered Wallaby Grass
Shorthair Plume Grass
Forest 1 ledgehog Grass
Perennial Veldtgrass
Annual Veldtgrass
Common Whcatgrass

Sickle Lovegrass
Purple Lovegrass
Paddock Lovegrass
Weeping Lovegrass
Ncverfail

Spring Grass
Early Spring Grass
Silky Brown Top
Common Barbgrass

Barley Grass
Golden Top
Umbrella Canegrass
Perennial Ryegrass
Wimmera Ryegrass
Bandicoot Grass

Yadbila Grass
Gilgai Grass

Knottybutt Grass
Shotgrass

R5 R6 PI

R1 R2 R3
R2

R3

R3

R1 R3 R6 PI

R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6
R1

R1

R1

R1

R1

R3

R3

R3

R2 R3

R1

R1 R2 R3 R4 R5

R3

R1 R3

R1 R3 R4 R6

R1 R2 R3 R5 R6

P3

P4

P5

P6

F3

HI

H2

P6

P3

P4

P5

P6

P7

F2

F3

HI

H2

P4

P6

P4

P3

P4

P5

P6

P7

F2

F3

III

H2

P3

P4

P5

P6

P7

F2

F3

III

112

P4

P7

THYMELAEACEAE
Pimelea Jlava subsp. dichotoma
Pimelea micrantha
Pjmelea microcephala
Pimelea neo-anglica
Pimelea stricta

TYPHACEAE
Typha domingensis

URTICACEAE
Parietaria debills

VERBENACEAE
*Phyla nodiffora
'Verbena bonariensis
Verbena officinalis
* Verbena supina

VIOLACEAE
Hyhanthus monopetalus

XANTI1QRRHOEACEAE

Lomandra confertifolia subsp. rubiginosa

Lomandra effusa

Lomandra filiform is subsp. coriacea
Lomandra glauca

Lomandra leucocephala subsp. leucocephala
Lomandra longifolia
Lomandra multi/lora subsp. multiffora
Lomandra patens

ZYGOPHYLLACEAE
'Tribalus terrestris
Zygophyllum glaitcum

Shrubby Rice-flower
Gaunt Rice-flower

Narrow-leaved Cumbungi

Carpet Weed
Purple Top
Common Verbena
Trailing Verbena

Slender Violet-bush

Scented Mat-rush
Wattle Mat-rush
Pale Mat-rush
Woolly Mat-rush
Spiny-hcaded Mat-rush
Many-flowered Mat-rush

Cat-head
Pale Twinleaf

PI

PI P2
P2

R2

Rl

R2

R3 R4
R3

R6

P4

Rl

R2

R3

R5

P4

Rl

R3

R6

HI H2

R1

Rl

PI

PI

P4 P5

P6

HI

PI

P6

P4

P6

F3

P4

P6

P4

P6

F2 HI

P3

P4

P3

P4

P4

P3 P4 P5 P6 VI F2 F3

P3 P4
P4

P3 P4 P6

P4

Species list for the Forbes/Cargelligo Study Area.

Species are listed alphabetically by family then genus. The alphanu¬
meric codes are the remnant types, as mapped, in which the species
was recorded. Asterisks (*) denote exotic species.

Paspalidium gracile

Slender Panic

R3

P6

HI

Paspalidium jubiflomm

Warrego Grass

Rl

R2

R3

P3

HI

*Paspalum dilatation

Paspalum

Rl

R2

*Pentaschistis aitvides

False Hairgrass

Rl

PI P2 P3

P4

P6 P7

F2 F3 HI

Perotis mru

Comet Grass

Rl

R3

P3

'Phalaris minor

Lesser Canary Grass

R3

*Phalaris paradoxa

Paradoxa Grass

Rl

R2

R3

R5 R6 P3

P5

P6

F3

Poa fordi’ana

R2

R3

Poa labillardien

Tussock Grass

R3

P4

P6

HI

Poa sieberiana var. sieberiana
'Rostrana cristata

Annual Cat’s Tail

P3

P4

P6

F2 HI

* Rost ran j pumila
Sporobolus mitchellii
Stipa actodliata
Stipa aris tight mis
Stipa bigeniculata
Stipa blackii
Stipa densijlora
Stipa elegantisxima
Stipa eremophila
Stipa mentions
Stipa nitida

Rough Tail
Rat’s Tail Couch

Plains Grass

Feather Spcargrass

H2

R6

Rl

P4

P4 P6 VI

P3

P6

P4 P6

P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7

P5

F2

HI

Stipa nodosa

P6

Stipa p!at)'chaeta

Flat-awn Speargrass

P3

Stipa ramosissima

Stout Bamboo Grass

R6

P4

P6

III

Stipa scabra subsp. scabra

Speargrass

Rl

R3

PI

P2

P3

P4

P5

P6

P7

F2

F3

111

H2

H4

Stipa stuposa

R3

P3

P5

P6

P7

III

Stipa trichophylla

PI

P4

F3

Stipa tuckeri

P3

P4

P6

F2

F3

HI

H4

Stipa verticillala

P3

Stipa wakoolica

Rl

R5

P3

P4

P6

P7

F2

111

H2

Thyridolepis mitchelliana

Mulga Mitchell Grass

R3

P2

P3

P4

P6

F2

HI

H2

Triodia scariosa subsp. scariosa

Porcupine Grass

PI

P2

P5

'Triticum aestivum

Wheat

Rl

'Vulpia bromoides

Squirrel Tail Fescue

Rl

R2 R3 R4

P3

P4

P6

F2

F3

HI

H2

H4

'Vulpia mural is

P4

P5

P7

'Vulpia myuros

Rat’s Tail Fescue

Rl

R2 R3

PI

P2

P3

P4

P5

P6

P7

F2

F3

HI

H2

H4

CUNNINGHAMIA

A journal of plant ecology

Volume 4(1): 1-141 1995

Notes on the anthecology of Pterostylis curta (Orchidaceae)

Peter Bernhardt 1

The floral ecology of Dianella caerulea var. assera (Phormiaceae)

Peter Bernhardt 9

The phenologies of six native forbs ( Aphanes australiana, Isoetopsis
graminifolia, Triptilodiscus pygmaeus, Hypericum gramineiim ,

Solenogync dominii and Vittadinia muelleri ) occurring in grazed grassy
communities on the Northern Tablelands of New South Wales

Ruth M. Tremont 21

Post-fire regeneration and growth of Senecio garlandii (Asteraceae)

— a vulnerable plant of the South Western Slopes, NSW

G.E. Burrows 35

Long-term revegetation of a denuded area in the Sydney region

David A. Morrison, Lesley McCluskey and Michael A. Houstone 45

Vegetation of Mungo National Park, western New South Wales

M.E. Westbrooke and J.D. Miller 63

The vegetation of Nombinnie and Round Hill Nature Reserves,
central-western New South Wales J.S. Cohn 81

Natural vegetation of the southern wheat-belt (Forbes and Cargelligo
1: 250 000 map sheets) Dominic Sivertsen and Lisa Metcalfe 103

Bryophytes in the vicinity of Wombeyan Caves, New South Wales

t ■ A.J. Downing, R.J. Oldfield and P.M. Selkirk 129

ISSN 0727-9620